Seen ee en etre nn gneareenenawenmre aan ngerveanar a pieunnp ln pb ibrg dmtAassonmanerguamathy womens Siaveverer wantin Diplyten ps cin Wane bene teow merece Ngee ts aencapenene oer e oe ee cane ane e Tet Ue OLS} tibeweamrn mee raverenaneaternrereieyoyege earenarenneare ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDIMION OF “THE INSTHUTION FOR Hh “YR aR ENDED “JUNE - 30 1946 (Publication 3871) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1947 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price $2.25 LET LER .OF ANS MOLT rae SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 12, 1946. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 380, 1946. I have the honor to be, Respectfully, A. Wernmore, Secretary. II PT els incie eR ORAOC ORR , (AN INST al agok IS na iy an OCT 14 1947 OF ree Ty CONTENTS Page ESA RINEP OER C LTRS 2. it 2 TUS EAL Ps kN hl ee Se tye ae aro Yay. iihevestablishmente sll: pos cfey sf tei pe Oe Bo ee aller a Bybee 1 Sibprboardof Negentst i022 2 pe saws Lt tern 5- See Be eee ae 2 Rinanees ee tee aed 2 Petey iP by PS Ae eee wt te ot 4 Gem pnsoninn Mencegrial st. poet yi el ae Ce ee a te. tent EB eh 4 asition ofthe Institutions after dL0OQ;years: 2.4. oeblle 1. eke boca 9 mroaposcatnew, bindings 22 fiae tea ae, 2 yo es § fect oe A ee 2 ianalwione DiclopicalwAres:.92 fol 2) Ai UE de et Ee Bee 13 mourbeentu Arthur lecture.<2-2e Jos Sle ee oe 2 eee a 13 Summary of the year’s activities of the branches of the Institution_______ 13 SE arebiec sch AthEIS iy = see Moe Rt Pe aes Se ECHO ne Fos 18 TOSS VRE yf = ee SR NSS oS A a ee 2 ey SS Si eye eed 19 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum____________ 21 2. Report on the National Gallery of Art__....._.._....______- 35 3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts____________ 53 A .AReport on the freer Gallery ‘of Arteeu 22202 2 ee ee 59 5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology _____________ 65 6. Report on the International Exchange Service_____________ 77 7. Report on the National Zoological Park_....__.___________ 85 8. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory _________________ 113 feReportionsthe librarysoi it |e pee ee ee ee 118 404 Freportien pablicationels @esete oo) os. elo ee LS 123 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents_____-_-_-_-- 129 GENERAL APPENDIX On the astronomical dating of the earth’s crust, by Harlow Shapley__.____ 139 Atomic power in the laboratory and in the stars, by Robert S. Richardson_ 151 Atomic energy as a human asset, by Arthur H. Compton_______---_-___ 161 The scientific importance of X-rays, by L. Henry Garland______-_____-_-_ aa Wasible-patterns of sound; by Ralph: K. Potter_...-....-..-..2--.--42.- 199 Fluorine in United States water supplies—Pilot project for the Atlas of Diseases’. by ‘Anastasia’ VanvBurkalow_......22:2.2--l--b22k-2-.2-25 207 The birth of Paricutin, by Jenaro Gonzalez R. and William F. Foshag-___ 223 The natural history of whalebone whales, by N. A. Mackintosh __-__-__-___ 235 Life history of the quetzal, by Alexander F. Skutch__________-__-___-_-- 265 The sun and the harvest of the sea, by Waldo L. Schmitt_._____---_---- 295 Anthropology and the melting pot, by T. D. Stewart___....__-_-------- 315 Archeology of the Philippine Islands, by Olov R. T. Janse__.__--------- 345 Palestinian pottery in Bible times, by J. L. Kelso and J. Palin Thorley_.__ 361 he mareh of medicine, by M. M. Wintrobe:.....-...-...-..2.---s=.- 373 mechinology and medicine. by Kurt's. Lions 2.2.2.2 l26 eee cen 401 National responsibility for research, by J. E. Graf.__..._..__---------- 411 Toward a new generation of scientists, by L. A. Hawkins_________-_---- 425 LIST OF PLATES Secretary's. -Report; Plates. 4, -2+--2+2242> 2s). The scientific importance of X-rays (Garland): Plates 1, 2-----_________ Visible patterns of sound (Potter): Plates 1—4----_---_____ 24 Fluorine in United States water supplies (Van Burkalow) : Plate 1______ The birth of Paricutin (Gonzalez and Foshag): Plates 1-10___________ The natural history of whalebone whales (Mackintosh): Plates 1, 2____ Life history of the quetzal (Skutch) : Plates 1-4______________________ The sun and the harvest of the sea (Schmitt) : Plates 1-10______________ Archeology of the Philippine Islands (Janse): Plates 1-15____________ Palestinian pottery in Bible times (Kelso and Thorley) : Plates 1-3______ IV THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1946 Presiding Officer ex oficio—Harry S. TruMAN, President of the United States. Chancellor.—[ Vacant]. Members of the Institution: Harry S. TRuMAN, President of the United States. Vice President of the United States. Frep M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States. JAMES F. Byrnes, Secretary of State. JOHN W. SNYDER, Secretary of the Treasury. Rosert P. PATrERsoN, Secretary of War. Tom C. CrarK, Attorney General. FRANK C. WALKER, Postmaster General. JAMES V. ForRESTAL, Secretary of the Navy. JuLius A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior. CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Secretary of Agriculture. Henry A. WALLACE, Secretary of Commerce. Lewis B. SCHWELLENBACH, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: FRED M. VINSON, Chief Justice of the United States. Vice President of the United States. ALBEN W. BARKLEY, Member of the Senate. WALLACE H. WHITE, Jr., Member of the Senate. WALTER F. GrorGr, Member of the Senate. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. EpWARD E.. Cox, Member of the House of Representatives. B. Carrort Reece, Member of the House of Representatives. FrEDeRIC A. DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. Harvey N. Davis, citizen of New Jersey. j ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Missouri. VANNEVAR BusH, citizen of Washington, D. C. FReDERIC C. WALCcoTT?, citizen of Connecticut. Ezecutive Committee.—FREvERIC A. DELANO, VANNEVAR BUSH, CLARENCE CANNON. Secretary— ALEXANDER WETMORE. Assistant Secretary—JoHN EH. Grar. Administrative assistant to the Secretary. Harry W. Dorsey. Treasurer.—NIcHOLAS W. DoRSEY. Chief, editorial division. WEBSTER P. TRUE. Administrative accountant—THomas F. Chark. Librarian.—Letwa F. CLarK. Personnel officer —B. T. CARWITHEN. Purchasing officer —ANTHONY W. WILDING. VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director.—ALEXANDER WETMORE. SCIENTIFIC STAFF DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY : Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, chief preparator. Division of Archeology: Neil M. Judd, curator; Waldo R. Wedel, associate curator; J. R. Caldwell, scientific aid; J. Townsend Russell, honorary assistant curator of Old World archeology. Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; J. C. Ewers, associate cura- tor; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator; Arthur P. Rice, collaborator. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. Dale Stewart, curator; M. T. Newman, associate curator. Collaborator in anthropology: George Grant MacCurdy. DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY : Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief taxidermist; Aime M. Awl, illustrator. Division of Mammals: Remington Kellogg, curator; D. H. Johnson, associate curator *; R. M. Gilmore, associate curator; H. Harold Shamel, scientific aid; A. Brazier Howell, collaborator; Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., associate. Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; H. G. Deignan, associate curator; Alexander Wetmore, custodian of alcoholic and skeleton collec- tions; Arthur C. Bent, collaborator. Division of Reptiles and Batrachians: Doris M. Cochran, associate curator. Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schultz, curator; R. R. Miller, associate curator. Division of Insects: L. O. Howard, honorary curator; Edward A. Chapin, curator; R. B. Blackwelder, associate curator; W. E. Hoffmann, associate curator; W. L. Jellison, collaborator. Section of Hymenoptera: S. A. Rohwer, custodian; W. M. Mann, assist- ant custodian; Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodian. Section of Myriapoda: O. F. Cook, custodian. Section of Diptera: Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian. Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection. Section of Lepidoptera: J. T. Barnes, collaborator. Section of Forest Tree Beetles: A. D. Hopkins, custodian. Division of Marine Invertebrates: Waldo L. Schmitt, curator; Mrs. Harriet Richardson Searle, collaborator; Max M. Ellis, collaborator; J. Percy Moore, collaborator; Joseph A. Cushman, collaborator in Foraminifera ; Mrs. M. S. Wilson, collaborator in copepod Crustacea. Division of Mollusks: Harald A. Rehder, associate curator; Joseph P. E. Morrison, assistant curator. Associate, Division of Mollusks: P. Bartsch. Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, collabo- rator. Division of Echinoderms: Austin H. Clark, curator. *Now on war duty. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY vil DEPARTMENT OF BroLtogy—Continued Division of Plants (National Herbarium): B. P. Killip, curator; Emery C. Leonard, assistant curator; Conrad V. Morton, assistant curator; Egbert H. Walker, assistant curator; John A. Stevenson, custodian of C. G. Lloyd mycological collection. Associate in Botany : W. R. Maxon. Section of Grasses: Agnes Chase, custodian. Section of Cryptogamic Collections: O. F. Cook, assistant curator. Section of Higher Algae; W. T. Swingle, custodian. Section of Lower Fungi: D. G. Fairchild, custodian. Section of Diatoms: Paul S. Conger, associate curator. Associates in Zoology: Theodore S. Palmer, William B. Marshall, A. G. Boving, W. K. Fisher, C. R. Shoemaker, E. A. Goldman. Associates in Botany: Henri Pittier, F. A. McClure. Collaborator in Zoology: Robert Sterling Clark. Collaborators in Biology: A. K. Fisher, David C. Graham. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY : R. 8. Bassler, head curator; Jessie G. Beach, aid. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. F. Foshag, curator; E. P. Hender- son, associate curator; B. O. Reberholt, scientific aid; Frank L. Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths. Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: Gustay A. Cooper, eurator; A. R. Loeblich, Jr., associate curator; J. Brookes Knight, research associate in Paleontology. Section of Invertebrate Paleontology: T. W. Stanton, custodian of Mesozoic collection; J. B. Reeside, Jr., custodian of Mesozoic collection ; Paul Bartsch, curator of Cenozoic collection. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; Norman H. Boss, chief preparator; A. C. Murray, scientific aid. Associates in Mineralogy: W. T. Schaller, 8S. H. Perry. Associate in Paleontology; T. W. Vaughan. Associate in Petrology: Whitman Cross. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES: Carl W. Mitman, head curator. Division of Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, curator. Section of Transportation and Civil Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Aeronautics: Paul E. Garber,* associate curator, F. C. Reed, acting associate curator. Section of Mechanical Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Electrical Engineering and Communications: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering: Carl W. Mitman, in charge. Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. Section of Tools: Frank A. Taylor, in charge. *Now on war duty. VIII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES—Continued Division of Crafts and Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, curator; Elizabeth W. Rosson, assistant curator. Section of Textiles: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. Section of Woods and Wood Technology: William N. Watkins, associate curator. Section of Chemical Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. Section of Agricultural Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge. Division of Medicine and Public Health: Charles Whitebread, associate eurator. Division of Graphic Arts: R. P. Tolman, curator. Section of Photography: A. J. Olmsted, associate curator. DIVISION oF History: T. T. Belote, curator; Charles Carey, associate curator; J. Russell Sirlouis, scientific aid; Catherine L. Manning, assistant curator (philately ). ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Ohief of correspondence and documents.—H. S. BRYANT. Assistant chief of correspondence and documents.—L, E. COMMERFORD. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—l. lL. OLIVER. Assistant superintendent of buildings and labor.—CHARLES C, SINCLAIR. Fiditor.—PavuL H. OEHSER. Accountant and auditor.—T. F. CLarK. Photographer.—G. I. HIGHTOWER. Property officer —A. W. WILDING. Assistant librarian.—HLIsaBETH H. GAZIN. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: FRED M. VINsSoN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. JAMES EF’. Byrnes, Secretary of State. JOHN W. SNypDER, Secretary of the Treasury. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. PAUL MELLON. FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. DUNCAN PHILLIPS. SAMUEL H. Kress. CHESTER DALE. President.—SAMUEL H. KRESs. Vice President FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. Secretary-Treasurer.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS, Director.—Davip E. FINrey. Administrator.—H. A. McBripr. General Counsel.——HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Chief Curator.—JoHN WALKER. Assistant Director.—MAcciIL. JAMES. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Acting Director.—RUuEL P. ToLMan. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY IX FREER GALLERY OF ART Director.—A. G. WENLEY. Assistant Director.—Grack DUNHAM GUEST. Associate in research.—J,. A. POPE. Associate in Near Eastern art —RIcHARD ETTINGHAUSEN. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Chief.—MATTHEW W. STIRLING. Assistant Chief.—FrANK H. H. Roperts, Jr. Senior ethnologists.—H. B. Cottins, Jr., Joan P. HArrinetron, W. N. FENTON. Senior anthropologists.—H. G. BARNETT, G. R. WILLEY. Collaborator.—JOHN R. SWANTON. Editor.—M. HELEN PALMER. Librarian.—MiriamM B. KetcHumM. Tllustrator.—Epwin G. CASSEDY. INSTITUTE oF SocrAL ANTHROPOLOGY.—JULIAN H. SrewakRp, Director. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Acting Chief —Harry W. Dorsey. Acting Chief Clerk.—D. G. WILLIAMS, NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. Assistant Director.—ERNEST P. WALKER. Head Keeper.—F rank O. Lowe. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—LoyauL B. ALDRICH. DivISION of ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH : Loyal B. Aldrich, in charge; William H. Hoover, senior astrophysicist; Charles G. Abbot, research associate. DivIsION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Earl 8. Johnston, assistant director ; Leland B. Clark, engineer (precision instruments) ; Robert L. Weintraub, as- sociate biochemist ; Leonard Price, junior physicist (biophysics). es AONE attig ek hin ‘ i ’ anid) ba nal 4 be é eat me 9 POLE WEUROAT Pep kaels ha gti ‘ore Lie sabes Re a 2 ae ck 2E— TDA ‘ . Moran gai, inane st able’ i weeny Mitigate asta ap, ae ats 5 Pete : eet he 139 PORE oy eibwaetasion i: eee ° 4 oth a, =! ¥ Pied 7 a ae AW a, Saath oh BH at “5 Sughs proxys iad ; ‘ os f BN Tate pee RNA | es ae | Bs mete saRRROR mer ee ‘ ; a . Osea). Dees oa Shik wi hregaitndee (a aN AE: mane ‘eotharrecaeer 7A, LATO So! ene rt is bP taray . ‘al ‘ tah, “ Tverd eee £ iad 7 Sova Pt Sou) ws iad ‘ i “ + elegant be (apnea eB AaEE a Larson feu ah a chet age f Cat al Liman i a £48 bts ae ied, 7¥, Ped pat ene vs . aN ops , ne CE OF A eas Bligh AP SDH waent a oi ¥s ot ; QSAR CPM OPE ig ) f tk. . ACT te 1 OLR Reta Gh. uy ; i od al Oe ae é 1 BAA 1 a: ihe AER GOR TAVOPVAK - oe | Taye u“ wageieyi ea ete ht SRF peanatt—Any Pil) aoe mi) ana Dhan SOE | ale se abiansnks EAD ERERIIOATRD dn ss a haasy aantar ‘soa | ae un, ao Biouge HoTaNeod Aodd A B carado ; ; Ressiancttqozian Tine ie | “protaadiby stan b Wosemiok A brat PaMKAeND WA Mor TATA G9 =p ‘ | et G06, OYE oh Hadost : (eliesiuraieat iolabows). taduiges. atiniO: am silat a telolayity retartt eolrd irenenool ; Sehiat . ‘ Bef smo ittiW rare) mt a opie ne bunk ; aL ie s NT ARN, F Tals Wil ‘ Prec h hg t ‘ , in ¥ 7 Aco, — \ 0 é at “wh hae SL) yar is H ao = o i * It Aa he ORS be pew oe ee Dts i ) ’ r REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ALEXANDER WETMORE FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1946 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith my report show- ing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government bureaus under its administrative charge during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946. The first 19 pages contain a summary account of the affairs of the Institution. Appendixes 1 to 10 give more detailed reports of the operations of the National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Inter- national Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Smithsonian library, and of the publications issued under the direction of the Institution. On page 129 is the financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents. I regret to have to record here the death on April 22, 1946, of the Chancellor of the Institution, Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone. Chief Justice Stone was elected Chancellor by the Board of Regents on January 16, 1942, to succeed the former Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, and from the day of his appointment took a keen interest in the Institution’s affairs. He had planned an active part in the Smith- sonian Centennial celebration starting on August 10, 1946, and as Chancellor he took several steps to insure the effective functioning of the Institution in the years to come. His successor should be elected at the next meeting of the board. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to 1 \ 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establish- ment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS During the year the following changes occurred in the personnel of the Board of Regents: The lamented death of Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone, on April 22, 1946, created a vacancy in the office of Chancellor of the Board of Regents. November 23, 1945. A vacancy in the class of citizen regents, caused by the death of Dr. Roland S. Morris, of Pennsylvania, has not yet been filled. May 2, 1946. Dr. Vannevar Bush, citizen regent, was reappointed by joint resolution of Congress to succeed himself for a statutory term of 6 years. June 24, 1946. The Honorable Fred M. Vinson, on his appointment as Chief Justice of the United States, became ex officio a member of the Board of Regents. The roll of regents at the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1946, was as follows: Fred M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States; members from the Senate—Alben W. Barkley, Wallace H. White, Jr., Walter F. George; members from the House of Representatives—Clarence Can- non, Edward E. Cox, B. Carroll Reece; citizen members, Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C., Harvey N. Davis, New Jersey, Arthur H. Compton, Missouri, Vannevar Bush, Washington, D. C., and Frederic C. Walcott, Connecticut. Proceedings.—The annual meeting of the Board of Regents was held on January 18, 1946, with the following members present: Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone, Chancellor; Senator Wallace H. White, Jr.; Representatives Edward E. Cox and B. Carroll Reece; citizen regents, Dr. Harvey N. Davis, Dr. Vannevar Bush, Frederic A. Delano, and Frederic C. Walcott; the Secretary, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, and the Assistant Secretary, John E. Graf. Dr. W. J. Robbins, chairman of the Committee on Future Policies, attended the opening of the meet- ing by invitation and later withdrew. In accordance with the resolution passed by the Board at the last annual meeting, the Chancellor appointed the following to serve on the Committee on Future Policies of the Smithsonian Institution: Dr. William J. Robbins (chairman), New York Botanical Garden; Dr. L. P. Eisenhart, American Philosophical Society; Dr. George Gaylord Simpson, American Museum of Natural History; Dr. Zay REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3 Jeffries, General Electric Co.; Dr. Walter S. Adams, Mount Wilson Observatory; Dr. F. R. Reichelderfer, United States Weather Bureau; and Dr. A. V. Kidder, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Dr. Rob- bins, chairman, stated that this-committee would do its best to present an acceptable program for the future of the Institution, and announced that the first meeting would be held on January 30, 1946, in the Smithsonian Building. The Secretary presented his annual report covering the activities of the parent institution and of its several branches, including the financial report of the executive committee, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1945, which was accepted by the Board. The usual resolu- tion authorizing the expenditure by the Secretary of the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1947, was adopted by the Board. The annual report of the Smithsonian Art Commission was pre- sented by the Secretary and accepted by the Board. The Commis- sion, at its meeting on December 4, 1945, accepted several works of art. A resolution was adopted to reelect the following members for 4-year terms: John Nicholas Brown, Mahonri M. Young, George Hewitt Myers, and Robert Woods Bliss. Vacancies on the Commission were caused by the death of Herbert Adams and the resignation of Edward W. Redfield. The names of John Taylor Arms and Eugene E. Speicher, recommended by the Commission, were approved by the Board to fill the above vacancies. Paul Manship was reelected chair- man, and Dr. Wetmore was reelected Secretary. Tentative plans were presented by the Secretary for the Centennial celebration to be held during August 1946. The matter of the Secretary’s salary and pension was referred to the executive committee with power to act. The Secretary reported that Mrs. Charleyne Whitney Gellatly, widow of John Gellatly, had brought proceedings before the Court of Claims through a bill in Congress, demanding restitution or pay- ment for certain objects in the Gellatly art collection. The Smith- sonian Institution is defended in this proceeding by the Depart- ment of Justice, through Grover Sherrod, and has, in addition, the valuable assistance of Huntington Cairns, General Counsel for the National Gallery of Art. Hearing on the case was set for February 12, 1946. By the terms of the will of Dr. AleS’ Hrdli¢ka, deceased member of the staff, a sum of money was bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institu- tion for the benefit of educational establishments in Dr. Hrdliéka’s native town of Humpolec, Bohemia. Acceptance of this trust fund was approved by the Board. A further bequest in the Hrdlitka will, es ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 to provide for the reprinting of his papers on physical anthropology, was declined as being impracticable because of the inadequacy of the funds provided. On December 20, 1938, Miss Annie-May Hegeman advised the In- stitution that, as a memorial to her father, Henry Kirke Porter, she had tendered to the Library of Congress Trust Fund Board convey- ance of the property owned by her at the corner of Sixteenth and I Streets NW., in Washington, as a gift, under agreement that when the property was sold, the Library of Congress Trust Fund Board should pay one-half of the net proceeds of such sale to the Smithsonian Institution, to be invested, and the income thereof to be applied to the general purposes of the Institution, the gift to be recorded as “The Henry Kirke Porter Memorial Fund.” The Secretary reported that the property had just been sold at a price of $600,000; under the terms of the gift the Institution will receive one-half of the net proceeds. At the last meeting the Board authorized the executive committee to have a survey made of the business methods and practices now in effect in the Institution to determine whether changes or improvements were required. The committee directed the Secretary on their behalf to enter into contract with the firm of Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co., who specialize in such work. This firm has rendered a comprehensive re- port covering organization and personnel, business methods, and ac- counting procedures, from which the Secretary gave the following quotation : “Our conclusions in summary are that the administrative organiza- tion is set up along simple and effective lines, the personnel is of high caliber, conscientious and efficient for the particular requirements of the Institution, the business methods on the whole are very good, and the accounting system is essentially sound in principle. We have sug- gestions to offer for some changes toward improvements which we be- lieve to be possible. These are given in the course of our comments in more detail upon the various topics falling within this area.” In a special statement, Dr. Wetmore outlined to the Board recent activities carried on by all branches of the Institution. FINANCES A statement on finances will be found in the report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, page 129. SMITHSONIAN CENTENNIAL The year 1946 marks the one-hundredth year since the founding of the Institution. Strictly speaking, this report covers only the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, but as the actual anniversary of the estab- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5 lishment of the Institution falls on August 10, only a little over a month after the beginning of the new fiscal year, it seems advisable in this report to anticipate to the extent of describing the Centennial observances. Smithsonian commemorative stamp—Among the outstanding honors that came to the Institution on its one-hundredth anniversary was the issuance by the Post Office Department of a special commemo- rative 3-cent postage stamp depicting the Smithsonian Building and containing the words “For the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The design was suggested by the Chancellor of the In- stitution, the late Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone. On the morning of August 10, 1946, in an impressive ceremony held in the auditorium of the National Museum, the first sheet of the Smithsonian stamps was presented to the Institution by Assistant Postmaster General Joseph J. Lawler on behalf of Postmaster General Robert E. Hanne- gan. The ceremony was broadcast by the National Broadcasting Co. through Station WRC, and music was furnished by the Navy Band Orchestra. Mr. Lawler concluded his remarks with these words: “Thus it will be shown that the philanthropy of one man (James Smithson), coupled with the interest of another (Chief Justice Harlan F¥. Stone), made possible this commemorative postage stamp and brought together today this distinguished gathering of men and women to pay honor to an Institution whose record of achievement in the 100 years of its existence is well known throughout the civilized world. My one regret is that the late Chief Justice Stone, who played so important a part in making today’s celebration a reality, is not present to enjoy the fruits of his labors for such a just and meritorious cause. Dr. Wetmore, it gives me great pleasure to present to you the first sheet of this Smithsonian Institution commemorative postage stamp.” In accepting the stamps on behalf of the Institution, I reviewed briefly the growth and expansion of the Smithsonian during the first 100 years of its existence, and concluded as follows: “Such, in brief outline, is the Institution that today receives the signal honor of a commemorative United States postage stamp. For 100 years it has fostered diligently James Smithson’s clear-sighted vision of the value to mankind of an institution devoted to the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. At this milestone on its journey into the unknown future, the Institution dedicates itself anew to the promotion of Smithson’s ideals. “Mr. Lawler, on behalf of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution and for myself, I thank you for the recognition of the Institution’s work expressed through this fine commemorative stamp, 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 and for this first sheet, which will have a place of honor in our phila- telic collections.” Centennial publications——To provide a permanent record of the Institution’s hundredth anniversary, as well as to call public atten- tion to the event, there was issued on August 10, 1946, the anniver- sary date, a book entitled “The First Hundred Years of the Smith- sonian Institution,” by Webster P. True, chief of the Institution’s editorial division. In it are reviewed briefly the origin and develop- ment of the Institution itself and of the several bureaus that have grown up around the parent organization, its extensive work in the fields of research, exploration, and publication, and its function in times of war. Special attention was given to typographic design and to the illustrations, with the result that many commendatory letters have come from recipients of the book. I also authorized the preparation of a complete list, with classified index, of all publications of the National Museum from 1875, the year in which the Museum began publication of a separate series, to 1946, the list to appear as a feature of the Centennial observance. The proj- ect. was turned over to the editorial division, and the difficult task of preparing the classified index was undertaken by Miss Gladys O. Visel, of that division. It is hoped to issue the list before the close of the calendar year 1946. Copies will be placed in libraries and universities throughout the world, and the availability of such an index will greatly increase the usefulness of the Museum’s publications to scientists and students. Smithsonian Institution Centennial issue of “Science.”—The journal “Science,” official organ of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, very generously devoted the entire issue of August 9, 1946, to the Smithsonian Centennial. The editor of Science, Dr. Willard L. Valentine, named as guest editor for the issue Paul H. Oehser, assistant chief of the Smithsonian’s editorial division. After an introductory statement by the Secretary outlining the developments and activities of the Institution, special articles by Smithsonian staff members review the various phases of its work, including astro- physics, anthropology, geology, biology, and engineering, as well as its publications, the International Exchange Service, its library, and the Smithsonian Deposit in the Library of Congress. Centennial convocation.—On October 28, 1946, a Smithsonian con- vocation was held to mark in a more formal manner the Institution’s one-hundredth anniversary. The event was timed to coincide with the fall meetings of the National Academy of Sciences and of the American Philosophical Society, the members of which, together with some 40 distinguished foreign scientists who attended their meetings, were the guests of the Institution for an evening affair in the Natural REPORT OF THE SECRETARY v4 History Building of the National Museum. There were felicitations by Dr. L. P. Eisenhart for the American Philosophical Society, and by Dr. F. B. Jewett for the National Academy of Sciences, with a response on behalf of the Institution by the Secretary, and an illus- trated lecture by Dr. M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, on the La Venta culture of southern Mexico, reviewing the scientific results of his 8 years of archeological work in that region in cooperation with the National Geographic Society. The addresses were followed by a reception to the National Academy and Ameri- can Philosophical Society members and some 1,000 other scientists, educators, and Government officials. Public notice of the Centennial—On August 10, 1946, the White House issued as a news release a statement by President Harry S. Truman, who is ex officio Presiding Officer of the Institution. The statement is here quoted in full: “On August 10, 1846, James K. Polk, eleventh President of the United States, put his signature on the act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian Institution. Today, August 10, 1946, we celebrate the one-hundredth anniversary of this venerable organization that is an American tradition. “As presiding officer of the Institution, it is fitting that I, as Presi- dent of the United States, should publicly take cognizance of this occasion. “When James Smithson, an English chemist and mineralogist, died in 1829, it was found that he had left his fortune to the United States to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. When Congress was notified of the unusual bequest, there arose a storm of debate, at times highly acrimonious, as to what to do with the gift. But finally, after some 8 years of discussion, sane counsel prevailed, the bequest was accepted, and the Smithsonian Institution was formally established under a broad definition of its proper functions. “The act of foundation provides that the Smithsonian establishment shall consist of the President, the Vice President, and the Chief Jus- tice of the United States, together with the heads of the Executive Departments. The managing body of the Institution is the Board of Regents, composed of the Vice President of the United States and the Chief Justice of the United States, ex officio, three Senators, three Representatives, and six eminent citizens. The executive officer di- rectly in charge of the Institution’s activities is the Secretary, chosen by the Board. There have been six eminent Secretaries: Joseph Henry, physicist ; Spencer Fullerton Baird, biologist ; Samuel Pierpont Lang- 725862472 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 ley, astronomer and pioneer in aeronautics; Charles Doolittle Walcott, geologist and paleontologist; Charles Greeley Abbot, astrophysicist ; and the present Secretary, Alexander Wetmore, biologist. “It is hardly necessary to state that this is the age of science—news- paper headlines remind us of this every day. Atomic power, jet pro- pulsion, television, transmutation of elements, metals from sea water, penicillin—all these and many more present-day marvels trace back invariably to basic scientific investigation. In view of the more spectacular nature of recent discoveries in physics, chemistry, and medicine, and their adaptability to prompt economic application, we are likely to lose sight of the equal importance to mankind of research in such other sciences as anthropology, biology, and geology—sciences with which the Smithsonian Institution has been particularly con- cerned. Here, too, the steady progress made during the past 100 years has likewise contributed greatly to man’s welfare, through a better knowledge and hence a fuller control of his environment, an under- standing without which our present high hopes and plans for a united and peaceful world would have an even more difficult road to travel. “For a full century the Smithsonian Institution has been a world center for the promotion of science, art, and other cultural activities. Congratulations are in order upon the Smithsonian’s record in the advancement of science and culture during a most important century in the history of mankind, but this should be not merely a time for counting laurels. Rather it should be a time for further considera- tion of the ideals of the founder, James Smithson, and a renewal of the Institution’s zeal in the increase of the sum total of man’s knowl- edge. The Smithsonian should continue to strive toward the end that man should not only know better his earthly abode, but should acquire the means of knowing himself better. Such studies are of vital significance in our present efforts to build a better world order, and to break the cycle of recurring wars of ever-increasing destruc- tiveness. “On this one-hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Smith- sonian Institution, may we accord all honor to the founder, James Smithson, for his lofty and far-seeing ideals. May the next 100 years bring even more glory to the name of the Institution and to that of its founder.” In addition to carrying the White House release, many leading newspapers and magazines printed special feature articles on the Smithsonian Centennial, and a number of radio commentators called attention to the event on their August 10 news programs. Special Centennial exhibit—With the aim of bringing the Institu- tion’s Centennial to the attention of the thousands of visitors who REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9 throng the Museum buildings every day, a special exhibit was opened on August 10 in the foyer of the Natural History Building. In sepa- rate alcoves were presented graphically by means of maps, photo- graphs, specimens, and publications the various phases of Smithsonian work during the past 100 years. The alcoves covered origin and his- tory, research, exploration, publications, art, and custodianship of the national collections. POSITION OF THE INSTITUTION AFTER 100 YEARS Before surveying the Institution’s present position, I will introduce the subject by quoting a part of my general statement printed in the August 9 issue of Science, which was devoted to the Smithsonian Centennial. “On August 10, 1846, the Smithsonian Institution came into being when James K. Polk, President of the United States, affixed his signa- ture to the act of its foundation. For 100 years the Smithsonian has carried forward Smithson’s ideal through scientific research in many fields, through world-wide exploration, through publications embody- ing the results of original investigation, and through other accepted methods of increasing and diffusing information. “At the middle of the last century, Washington, the capital of our Nation, was a small city of some 50,000 inhabitants. Great expanses of unoccupied land lay beyond the Appalachian Mountains, and the detailed exploration of the vast area beyond the Missouri River was under way. The American Philosophical Society met in Philadelphia, certain other societies with scientific interests had been organized, and small natural history museums existed in a few centers, such as Harvard College and Charleston. Science in any of its branches was at best an avocation in this New World, except to a few individuals, and those Americans who had opportunity or leisure for scientific studies looked almost wholly for guidance to the Old World, whence they or their immediate ancestors had come. Into such a setting came the new Smithsonian Institution, to support and encourage scientific and cultural knowledge and to give to American science a powerful and far-reaching stimulus. “Joseph Henry, first Secretary of the Smithsonian, set up a wise and far-seeing plan of organization, effective in the sound basic prin- ciples on which it rested, embodying close cooperation with other agencies and individuals, and looking to the cumulative advancement of knowledge. After Henry came Spencer Fullerton Baird, biologist, as second Secretary; then Samuel Pierpont Langley, astronomer and pioneer in aeronautical research ; Charles Doolittle Walcott, geologist and paleontologist; and Charles Greeley Abbot, astrophysicist—all 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 distinguished men of science. From its early activities, bureaus grew up around the parent Institution—first the United States National Museum, then the International Exchange Service, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro- physical Observatory. As the public value of these services became evident, their support was assumed in whole or in part by the Government, although they remained as bureaus of the Smithsonian Institution. “Tn addition to its scientific activities, the Smithsonian is charged in its act of foundation with responsibility for national art treasures. The art feature has culminated recently in the National Gallery of Art, given to the Nation by Andrew W. Mellon and augmented richly by other philanthropists. The Gallery is established as a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution, but is directed by a separate board of trustees. The earlier art interests of the Institution are included in the National Collection of Fine Arts and the Freer Gallery of Art. The latter, presented and endowed by Charles L. Freer, is devoted chiefly to the Oriental field, and through its highly valuable archeo- logical materials will figure more and more importantly in strictly scientific studies. “From one building, a small staff, and a single publication, the In- stitution has grown in a century until it now occupies five buildings on the Mall and numerous structures at the National Zoological Park, while it issues 14 series of publications, each devoted to a particular sphere.” As the Institution goes into the second century of its existence, its position is strong in some respects and weak in others. Its work in the increase and diffusion of knowledge over the past 100 years has established for it a national and international reputation among scholarly organizations, providing unquestioned entree into any field of cultural endeavor anywhere in the world. On the staffs of its scientific bureaus—namely, the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astrophysical Observatory— are highly trained specialists in several branches of science, many of them ranking among the leaders in their respective fields. In the National Museum, vast study collections in biology, geology, and anthropology offer unlimited opportunity for fertile investigations in those fields. The three bureaus of.the Institution devoted to art— the National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, and the Freer Gallery of Art—all comprise splendid art collections in their respective fields, together forming a growing aggregation that makes Washington one of the world’s art centers. On the other side of the picture, weaknesses exist in several direc- tions. The collections and essential staff of the Institution and its REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 11 various bureaus have long since outgrown the present housing facili- ties and physical equipment. Many of the Institution’s activities, both scientific and administrative, are undermanned, leading to some degree of failure to enter upon desirable new enterprises. Financial resources, public and private, should be increased to promote the Institution’s op- portunities for advancement of knowledge through research and pub- lication. The public exhibits in the National Museum, viewed by more than 2,000,000 visitors each year, require modernization, begun in 1940 but postponed because of the war. Resources available for printing and binding have not been sufficient to enable the Institution to keep pace with the manuscript output of the scientific staff or to keep abreast of the necessary binding in the Smithsonian library of 1,000,- 000 volumes. This condition has led to the creation of a large backlog of unpublished scientific manuscripts, and of unbound periodicals in the library. The first step toward improvement is the recognition of weaknesses. Having outlined important ones, I may take some satisfaction in stat- ing that plans are now shaping up to remedy them. A building pro- gram to relieve the present overcrowding is already outlined, and the outlook is bright that before many years more building space will be available to assure proper operation and normal expansion. Definite efforts have already been started to obtain funds to increase the per- sonnel where it is most needed, to make a beginning on modernization of exhibits, and to keep more nearly abreast of the manuscripts pro- duced by the scientific staff, so essential to the Institution’s responsibil- ities in the diffusion of knowledge. When the Smithsonian Institution was founded 100 years ago, it stood almost alone in America as an organization devoted solely to the promotion of science and of learning in general. During the first century of its existence, other large foundations have come into being— some of them with far larger resources—until today there are in America scores of research institutions and laboratories, some of them independent foundations, some attached to universities, and others forming essential parts of large industrial concerns. While many of these are restricted to specific lines of scientific work, the Smithsonian Institution has no limitation in scope of activity as long as its en- deavors operate to increase and diffuse knowledge. It can therefore enter into any new fields of investigation that are feasible with the funds and personnel at its command, but in order to make its work most effective in the increase of knowledge, the Institution must now plan carefully to avoid duplicating the efforts of other research organizations. At the close of its first century of operation and standing at the threshold of the second century, the Institution’s first concern will be i by 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 to continue to execute faithfully the trust reposed in the United States of America by James Smithson, its founder, more than 100 years ago. PROPOSED NEW BUILDINGS On October 3, 1945, H. R. 4276, the Public Buildings Act of 1945, was introduced in Congress and referred to the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds. The part that concerns the Institution reads as follows: “Sec. 202. The Federal Works Administrator is hereby authorized, under the provisions of the Public Buildings Act of May 25, 1926, as amended (40 U. S. C. 341-347), to acquire land where necessary and to construct for the Smithsonian Institution the following buildings and facilities: (a) A building on a suitable site in the Mall for a historical museum to include space for the exhibition of the historical collection of the Nation, including naval and military collections, memorabilia of noted Americans, philately, and numismatics, under a total limit of cost of $6,600,000. (6) A building for the engineering and industrial collections of the Nation, including aviation, under a total limit of cost of $9,150,000. (ce) Additional facilities at the National Zoological Park, includ- ing an aquarium, a lion house, an antelope house, a monkey house and monkey island, and barless pits and paddocks, under a total limit of cost of $2,645,000.” If this bill becomes a law and the funds authorized are appropri- ated, the very extensive and valuable national collections in the fields of history and engineering and industries could be properly housed and exhibited to the public. The exhibits in these fields, which are among the most interesting of all to visitors, are at present crowded together in one building erected 67 years ago and now entirely inade- quate for the purpose. To anticipate slightly the next fiscal year, the President approved on August 12, 1946, an act to establish a national air museum as a bureau of the Institution and to authorize the appropriation of cer- tain funds for the purpose. When funds are made available to carry out the purposes of this act, the present intolerably overcrowded con- dition of the national aeronautical collections will be alleviated. The vitally interesting historical aircraft, engines, and other aeronautical material now in the collections are housed in a steel structure built during World War I and later turned over to the Institution to ac- commodate temporarily the growing aircraft collection. This build- ing is now full to overflowing, leaving no space to exhibit material illustrating the tremendous recent advances in aeronautics. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 It is the earnest hope of the Institution that these proposed build- ings will become actualities in the near future to the end that the price- less national collections may be properly safeguarded and exhibited to the ever-increasing number of visitors from all parts of the country. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Under the President’s Reorganization Plan No. 3, the biological sta- tion on Barro Colorado Island, known as the Canal Zone Biological Area, was placed under the administration of the Smithsonian Insti- tution on July 16, 1946. This area in Gattn Lake was set aside by a 1940 act of Congress in order to preserve in its original state the fauna, flora, and other natural features for study by scientists, particularly those from North, Central, and South America. The Barro Colorado station has been maintained as a Federal agen- cy since 1940 by contractual arrangements with other Federal agen- cies and by fees subscribed by American scientific institutions. The income from this method of support has not, however, been suflicient to maintain the laboratories and other facilities in good condition, and the Institution’s first concern upon taking over this new respon- sibility will be to obtain funds for rehabilitation of the physical plant and the proper equipping of the laboratories and other buildings. The reorganization plan was not actually approved until shortly after the close of the fiscal year, so that further discussion of the proj- ect will be reserved for the next report. FOURTEENTH ARTHUR LECTURE Under the terms of the will of the late James Arthur, of New York, the Smithsonian Institution received in 1931 a fund, part of the in- come from which should be used for an annual lecture on some aspect of the science of the sun. The fourteenth Arthur lecture, entitled “The Sun and the Harvest of the Sea,” was given by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator of bi- ology of the National Museum, on March 5, 1946. This lecture, with illustrations, will be published in the Annual Report of the Smith- sonian Institution for 1946. SUMMARY OF THE YEAR’S ACTIVITIES OF THE BRANCHES OF THE INSTITUTION National Museum.—In this first year after the end of the war there were marked increases in the number of specimens accessioned and in the number of visitors, and field expeditions began again to go out from the Museum after having been held in abeyance during the war years. Outstanding among the year’s accessions were the following: In an- thropology, 6,765 artifacts from protohistoric Indian sites in Kansas 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 and adjoining States, 226 specimens from Ezion-geber in Trans- Jordan, and documented field collections from Melanesian villages of northeastern New Guinea; in biology, large numbers of specimens from the Pacific area, most of them resulting from activities of mili- tary and naval organizations or personnel, including birds and mam- . mals from the South Pacific and the Orient, fishes from the Marianas, 10,000 mosquitoes from various Pacific islands and Burma, and plants from the Admiralty, Aleutian, Caroline, and Solomon Islands, and other Pacific areas; in geology, specimens of four minerals not hitherto represented, sal-ammoniac crystals and other sublimates from the new Mexican volcano, Paricutin, and large collections of fossil inverte- brates from various localities in the United States; in engineering and industries, 3 electromechanical tabulating machines and several high- speed precision gages, 2 early commercial sewing machines of 1858 and 1874, and a specially designed exhibit illustrating the contribu- tions of the mineral kingdom to materia medica; in history, a Japanese parachute found in New Guinea, 37 models of United States, French, and British warships of World War II, and 4 dresses dating from 1814, 1855, 1861, and 1894 for the collection of American period costumes. Field work included insect studies in Colombia, a survey of the fish and game resources of Guatemala, a survey of the fauna of Bikini Atoll in connection with the atom-bomb tests, studies of the bird life of Panama and of Colombia, and fossil collecting in various parts of the United States. Visitors for the year totaled 2,115,593, an increase of nearly 400,000 over the previous year. The Museum published two Annual Reports, six Bulletins, and five Proceedings papers. National Gallery of Art.—Six new gallery rooms were completed and opened to the public on February 2, 1946, and a contract was entered into for the installation of additional air-conditioning equip- ment. The Gallery continued to receive many valuable gifts of paint- ings, sculpture, decorative prints and drawings, and one painting “Siegfried and the Rhine Maidens,” by Albert P. Ryder, was pur- chased with Gallery funds. Traveling exhibitions of water colors and drawings from the collection of the Index of American Design and prints from the Rosenwald Collection were shown at a number of art galleries and museums. The Gallery accepted for safekeeping 202 paintings from German museums; these have been placed in storage until conditions in Germany insuring their proper care have been reestablished. The staff prepared a number of books and catalogs on the Gallery collections, and contributed articles to outside art journals. The second edition of “Masterpieces of Painting from the National Gallery of Art” was placed on sale, and a third edition was being prepared. A new edition of the General Information booklet, for REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 free distribution to visitors, was issued, and the sale of postcards, _ color reproductions, and moderately priced catalogs was continued. The Sunday evening concerts in the East Garden Court, and the daily 10-minute talks on “The Picture of the Week,” were continued with undiminished popularity. The total number of visitors to the Gallery was 1,947,668. National Collection of Fine Arts——The twenty-third meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission was held on December 4, 1945, when four art works submitted during the year were accepted for the National Collection. Resolutions were adopted on the death of Herbert Adams, a member of the Commission, and John Taylor Arms was recommended to succeed him. To succeed Edward W. Redfield, who resigned during the year, the Commission recommended Eugene E. Speicher. Two miniatures were acquired through the Catherine Walden Myer fund, and two pieces of pottery through the Reverend Alfred Duane Pell fund. Eleven special exhibitions were held during the year, as follows: The Honorable William D. Pawley collection of 27 portraits of “Flying Tigers” by Raymond P. R. Neilson, N. A.; 28 sculptures by Genaro Amador Lira, of Nicaragua; 20 portraits of members of the Lafayette Escadrille, by John Elliott; the Eighth Metropolitan State Art Contest, comprising 412 paintings, sculp- ture, prints, and metalcraft; the forty-fourth annual exhibition of miniatures by the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters, con- sisting of 100 miniatures; 53 portraits by Alfred Jonniaux; A Cen- tury of the Greeting Card, courtesy of Brownie’s Blockprints, Inc.; 53 oil and water-color paintings by Charles P. Gruppe; 54 paintings of Siam by students of the School of Arts and Crafts, Bangkok; Biennial Exhibition of the League of American Pen Women, in- cluding 582 art objects; and the Scholastic Calendar Art Competi- tion, including 150 paintings. Freer Gallery of Art.—Additions to the collections included Chinese bronze, painting, and pottery, Bactrian and Chinese metal- work, a Korean gold ornament, and a Chinese manuscript. The work of the staff was devoted to the study of new accessions and of objects submitted for purchase; general research work within the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Persian, and Indian materials; the prepa- ration of material for publication and the revision of earlier work; docent service, and public lectures. Reports were made upon 1,612 objects and 408 reproductions of objects submitted for examination, and 132 Oriental language inscriptions were translated. The total number of visitors to the Gallery for the year was 97,822, and 1,625 persons visited the main office for various purposes. Members of the staff made several trips out of Washington on official business con- nected with the work of the Gallery. Miss Grace Dunham Guest, 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Assistant Director, retired June 30, after 26 years of service with the Gallery, and was given the honorary title of Freer Gallery of Art research associate. John A. Pope, associate in research, and William R. B. Acker, associate in languages, returned to the Gallery from absence on war duty. Bureau of American Ethnology.——The Smithsonian Institution- National Geographic Society archeological project in southern México was carried forward by Dr. M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, assisted by Dr. Philip Drucker of the Bureau staff. Twenty-four stone monuments were located, including altars, statues, and mono- lithic heads of Olmec and La Venta type. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., Assistant Chief of the Bureau, was designated director of the archeological surveys and excavations of Indian sites to be flooded by proposed dam construction in various river basins, to be conducted under Smithsonian administration in cooperation with the National Park Service, the Corps of Engineers, and the Bureau of Reclamation. A large part of his time during the year was devoted to this extensive project. Dr. John P. Harrington continued his study of Indian languages, producing a Kiowa grammar of 405 manuscript pages. Later in the year he pursued linguistic studies in New Mexico and California. Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., directed the closing operations of the ethnogeographic board for 6 months after its dissolution on December 31, 1945, and then resumed his research on Eskimo arche- ology. He attended several meetings of the board of governors of the Arctic Institute of North America in Montreal. Dr. William N. Fenton continued his study of the place names of the Cornplanter Senecas and collected material relative to the Condolence Council for installing chiefs in the Iroquois League. In connection with his Troquois studies, Dr. Fenton attended the First Conference on Iroquois Research at Allegany State Park, N. Y., October 26-28. Dr. Gordon Willey completed a 50,000-word manuscript on “Excavations in South- east Florida” and a 25,000-word article on South American ceramics for inclusion in the Handbook of South American Indians. He also assisted Dr. Roberts in preparing preliminary plans for the Federal Valley Authority archeological program. At. the end of the fiscal year he was engaged in archeological work in the Virti Valley in northern Peri. The Institute of Social Anthropology, an autonomous unit of the Bureau under the directorship of Dr. Julian H. Steward, continued its program of cultural and scientific cooperation with the other American republics by a transfer of funds from the Department of State. University courses and field researches were conducted in México, Pert, and Brasil in cooperation with cultural organizations of those countries, and several publications resulting from the field REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17 work were in press. Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the Bureau, submitted three papers on Indian music and a complete bibli- ography covering 50 years of study of American Indian music. ‘The Bureau issued one Annual Report, one Bulletin, two volumes of the Handbook of South American Indians, and one publication of the Institute of Social Anthropology. Lnternational Hachanges.—The International Exchange Service is the official agency of the United States for the exchange of govern- mental and scientific publications between this country and all other countries. During the war shipments to many countries were neces- sarily suspended; but during the past year most of these shipments have been resumed, and accumulated material being held at the Insti- tution was reduced from 3,512 boxes to 1,109. The number of pack- ages passing through the exchanges totaled 540,502, which included 3,117 boxes shipped from the Institution, an increase of 2,184 over the previous year; the total weight of the material handled was 472,299 pounds. ‘The average weight of the individual packages was nearly double that of the year before, indicating that institutions are sending out some of the material held up by the war. National Zoological Park.—During the war years, because of short- age of personnel, maintenance of buildings and grounds was neces- sarily neglected to some extent. Although the return to prewar main- tenance standards has been hampered by the difficulty of recruiting trained personnel, nevertheless the past year witnessed a perceptible improvement in general conditions throughout the establishment. The Park urgently needs new buildings to replace the remaining antiquated structures still being used to house animals, and prelimi- nary planning has been discussed with the Public Works Adminis- tration for construction of these buildings when conditions justify such work. ‘The number of visitors for the year showed a marked increase over the previous year, owing to the removal of the wartime ban on pleasure driving and to the general increase in civilian travel. The total number of visitors was 2,372,337, an increase over the fiscal year 1945 of 265,253. Although the number of rare or unusual ani- mals has naturally decreased somewhat under wartime conditions, the reduction is largely offset by an increase in number of the commoner kinds. Rarities gradually began to come in again during the year, and it is anticipated that normal growth in this respect will now be resumed. At the close of the year the population of the Zoo num- bered 2,553 individual creatures, representing 701 different species. Astrophysical Observatory.—Final tabulation was made of the solar-constant values for the calendar year 1945. A new vacuum bolometer, designed at the Observatory, will eliminate gradual loss 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 of sensitivity. Under the terms of a contract with the Office of the Quartermaster General, the Observatory is making a detailed study of sun and sky radiation at Camp Lee, Va., as part of the program to de- termine causes of tent-fabric deterioration. Eight copies of a special instrument based on the sensitive, quick-acting thermoelement devel- oped at the Observatory have been installed and put into operation at Camp Lee. A large volume of information is accumulating concern- ing the amount and kind of radiation, for each hour of each day, that falls on the tents being tested. Observations continued at the three field stations until February 1946, when the Tyrone, N. Mex., station was closed. The equipment will be installed temporarily at a sea-level location in Florida to study transmission of radiation through water vapor. Dr. Abbot published two papers dealing with his studies of the correlation between solar activity and weather changes. In the Division of Radiation and Organisms, experiments have been carried on in connection with improving the accuracy of apparatus used in determining the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by green plants in the process of photosynthesis. The study of plant growth under controlled artificial conditions of mineral nutrition, illumination, tem- perature, and humidity has been continued. Further improvement of technique is being studied. PUBLICATIONS The Institution’s several series of publications constitute its chief means of carrying on the “diffusion of knowledge,” which joins with the “increase of knowledge” to form the purpose of the Institution as stipulated by the founder, James Smithson. The Smithsonian pub- lication program started in 1848 with one series, the Smithsonian Con- tributions to Knowledge, and as the Institution’s research work ex- panded over the years, other series were established to contain the several phases of its investigations until today the Smithsonian im- print appears on 14 distinct series. At the end of its first full century of existence, the Institution has issued some 7,500 individual publica- tions, of which 12,000,000 copies have been distributed. As the great majority of these works are the result of original researches, a large volume of basic new knowledge has been made available to the world through Smithsonian publications. It has been stated on numerous occasions that few textbooks or encyclopedias exist that have not drawn to some extent on publications of the Smithsonian Institution. Among the outstanding papers issued during the year may be men- tioned “A Bibliography and Short Biographical Sketch of William Healey Dall,” by Paul Bartsch, Harald Rehder, and Beulah E. Shields; “Sunspot Changes and Weather Changes,” by H. H. Clayton; “An REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19 Annotated Checklist and Key to the Snakes of Mexico,” by Hobart M. Smith and Edward M. Taylor; “The Birds of Northern Thailand,” by H. G. Deignan; “The Indians of the Southeastern United States,” ‘by John R. Swanton; and volumes 1 and 2 of the Handbook of South American Indians, edited by Julian H. Steward. A total of 64 publications was issued during the year, and 129,750 copies of publications in all series were distributed. LIBRARY With the ending of the war early in the fiscal year, and the gradual improvement in shipping conditions, the transmission of material from European countries was resumed, and receipts increased in frequency and number, the total number of accessions recorded being 37,143. Also, the library was able to send abroad several thousand pieces from its stock of duplicates to assist in the rehabilitation of destroyed libraries. Among the 1,303 books purchased were a number of out- of-print works which are noteworthy not so much for their rarity as because they fill some special gaps in the collections. Outstanding among the gifts of books and pamphlets was the late Charles W. Gilmore’s private collection of 600 volumes and hundreds of reprints and separates on vertebrate paleontology which was presented to the library by Mrs. Gilmore. The total recorded volumes in the library at the end of the fiscal year was 928,353; of this number 5,279 were accessioned this year. Two hundred and sixty-two new exchanges were arranged; 6,259 specially requested publications were received ; 6,124 volumes and pamphlets were cataloged, 25,326 cards were added to catalogs and self lists, and 12,947 periodical parts were entered; loans totaled 10,225. There were 820 volumes sent to the bindery, and 1,010 volumes were repaired in the Museum. The most urgent of the library’s needs continues to be more and better-arranged shelf room. ‘There is also need of an increase in the library staff for cata- loging and for systematic work on the large collection of duplicates. Respectfully submitted. A. Wermorg, Secretary. ee ey) Bre vi] falP Ae ts ¢ 7 i; sae et Me | 8 “PE Rei ts } -- Isabella Brandt. Rubens | beterseaul le ee Landscape With the Shipwreck of Aeneas. Rubens. eter haul eee Madonna and Child Enthroned With Saints. Rubens, Peter Raule=-2) ees Perseus Frees Andromeda. Rubens; Peter*Paullee ss eee Saint Cecilia. Ruisdael, Jacob yan=== es Haarlem From the Dunes at Overveen. Sacchi Andrea?) 2 Alessandro del Borro. SalsSp tte a eee ee eee Episode From the Legend of Saint Fran- cis. Sassettak 22 ee hee whe A eine OF The Mass of Saint Francis. Schongauer, Martine! 222.2. The Nativity. Piombo, Sebastiano del (?)---------- A Nobleman in the Costume of a Knight of Saint James. Piombo, Sebastiano del_-_-~---__-____ Portrait of a Young Lady of Rome. Seghers} Hercules_2_- 82s See View of Rhenen. Sicnorellijucal= — 2 eee ee eee Portrait of an Elderly Man. Signorelli} mucas == ees eee Saint Catherine of Siena, the Magdalen, and Saint Jerome. Sienorelimdiucdi=—-- See 2 ee eee Saints Augustine, Anthony of Padua, Catherine of Alexandria. Squarcione, Francesco_____-_---___-- Madonna and Child. Steen, (Jamia = 2 ee es ee Baptismal Party, Stecne Janie- a2. se. ce ee The Garden of the Inn. Strozzi, berna ld Se Judith With the Head of Holofernes. Teraboreh? Gerard 2a ae The Concert. Ter Borch.. Gerard 2222 senses eee Fatherly Advice. Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista______---_- Martyrdom of Saint Agatha. Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista______-___- Rinaldo in Armida’s Enchanted Garden. Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista__________- Via Crucis. Mintoretto; J AcCOpO=— == a eee Doge Mocenigo. TintorettosJacopo2ss wwe set Portrait of a Man With a Long White Beard. Di tlanee ties cnt eee Bee ed A Daughter of Roberto Strozzi. 2D GH Ee See ee ee ee ree ee Portrait of a Young Man. IS tl en = ee ae ee ee Pe Self Portrait. A N10 (2) 6 | See ee OOD PR nS Titian’s Daughter, Lavinia. AWG) ¢ eee ee. ey Sees Ee | Venus With the Organ Player. Rura, Cosimosata2 ee 22s. J asceee ae! Saint Christopher. Pray COSMO =e et. te bee ee Saint Sebastian. Velazquez de Silva, Diego____________ Countess Olivares. Velde, Adriaen van de__-__________=- The Farm. Vermeer; Janus) 22252 4 ey es ee, The Pear] Necklace. Vermeer td ams. 26 oe Se ee The Taste of Wine. MerrocehiosAndrea: del22= see Madonna and Child. Verrocchio,Andreaide) 2 22 nee Madonna and Child. Master of the Virgo Inter Virgines___. Adoration of the Magi. Watteau; Antoine. 2) ieee The French Comedians. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 45 Artist Title Wis bCCAU AN LOIN@Z oe eee The Italian Comedians. WSbteau; -ANtOIn@le a. 2 See Outdoor Festival. Westphalian e. 1250-1270___..________ Altarpiece: The Trinity With Mary and Saint John. Weyden, Rogier van der________-___- Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Weyden, Rogier van der________-___- The Nativity. Weyden, Rogier van der____________- Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl. Weyden, Rogier van der________-___- The Magi. Weyden, Rogier van der________-___- The Saint John Altar. The Life of Saint John. Weyden, Rogier van der (School of). Joys and Sorrows of Mary. Weyden, Rogier van der________-___- Portrait of a Young Woman. VEO NT AC ee eee es ee er eee The Decision on the Redemption of Man. Waltzeolconra Ges 2) Tee Ga The Crucifixion. Daumier Honore. ! es mw iis fey sr Don Quixote. Manets hdouard2)] = 25 32a _ The Greenhouse. ACQUISITIONS PURCHASE OF PAINTING On February 11, 1946, the Board of Trustees approved the purchase of the painting, “Siegfried and the Rhine Maidens,” by Albert P. Ryder, with funds of the Gallery. GIFTS OF PAINTING AND SCULPTURE On October 10, 1945, the Board of Trustees accepted the painting, “Lady with a Harp—(Eliza Ridgely),” by Thomas Sully, from Mrs. Maude Monell Vetlesen. The Board of Trustees on December 7, 1945, accepted the portrait of Aaron Baldwin, by Francis Alexander, from Mrs. Earle E. Bessey, the paintings, “The Johnstone Group,” by Sir Henry Raeburn, “Soap Bubbles” and “The Magic Lantern,” by Charles-Amedee-Philippe van Loo, from Mrs. Florence S. Schuette, the portrait of Governor Charles Ridgely, by Thomas Sully, from Mr. and Mrs. John Ridgely of Hampton, and the paintings, “A Courtyard, Doge’s Palace, with the Procession of the Papal Legate,” “A Fete Day, Venice,” “The Square of St. Mark’s,” and “Venice, The Quay of the Piazzetta,” by Canaletto, from Mrs. Barbara Hutton. On Decem- ber 19, 1945, the Board of Trustees accepted the bronze portrait bust, Imaginary Portrait after a Late Roman Bust, by Lodovico Lombardi, from Mr. Stanley Mortimer. On May 10, 1946, the Board of Trustees accepted the portrait of Count Ludovico Vidmano, by Tiberio Tinelli, from Samuel L. Fuller, and on the same date the Board also accepted two bronzes and about half a dozen selected small paintings from George Matthew Adams. 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 GIFTS OF DECORATIVE ARTS On December 7, 1945, the Board of Trustees accepted two miniature paintings on porcelain, Louis de Bourbon, Prince de Conde (Le Grand Conde), and Henri Jules, Duc d’Albret (later Prince de Conde), by Jean Petitot, the Elder, from Lessing J. Rosenwald. GIFTS OF PRINTS AND DRAWINGS The Board of Trustees, on July 26, 1945, accepted a set of elephant folio of John James Audubon’s Birds of America, consisting of 435 unbound plates, a set of five volumes of text pertaining to those plates, and miscellaneous letters, clippings, and other papers relating to the plates, from Mrs. Walter B. James. On December 7, 1945, the Board accepted an engraving, “George Town and Federal City or City of Washington,” from Otis T. Bradley. On May 10, 1946, the Board accepted a lithograph, “In Memory of the Children of Europe Who Have To Die of Cold and Hunger This Xmas,” by Oscar Kokoschka, from Oscar Kokoschka, 17 lithographs from the United States Army Forces, Middle Pacific, a collection of prints, drawings, and etchings by Legros from George Matthew Adams, and a print “L’Heureuse Fecondite,” designed by Fragonard and engraved by Nicolas de Launay, from Edwin Wolf, II. LOAN OF WORKS OF ART TO THE GALLERY During the fiscal year 1946 the following works of art were received on loan: Particulars Artist From Clarence Y. Palitz, New York, N. Y.: The sNymphijof.the:Spring 2 ee Lueas Cranach the Elder. From William A. Coolidge, Washington, D. C.: View of San Giorgio and the Dogana from thesPiazza di San Marcos === eee Canaletto. be Ghaboureur eines 4 VO eee Vincent van Gogh. River View at St. Mammes_______-___-_- Alfred Sisley. Landseape on Isle of Wight-_-_-_-_-__ — Joseph Mallord William Turner. From Mrs. Arthur Iselin and William Jay Iselin, Katonah, N. Y.: Chief Justice Jonn Jay ee — Gilbert Stuart. Alexander Hamilton sss aa ee John Trumbull. From Mrs. Dwight Davis, Washington, D. C.: Captains Patrick Millers: 2.5 2322 — Sir Henry Raeburn. From the Army Institute of Pathology, Wash- ington, D. C.: 1D Pe Ohi eS Tin tOn =. 2 a eee Thomas Eakins. From Samuel H. Kress and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, N. Y.: 86 paintings and 12 pieces of sculpture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 47 Particulars Artist From Madame Charlotte Fuerstenberg, Jo- hannesburg, Africa: 12 French paintings. From James Hazen Hyde, New York, N. Y.: Large Brussels tapestry.___=-------- === Signed “A, Auwercx.” From Colonel Axel H. Oxholm, Washington, DIPCs; Martha Washington__-—_.---._ ____._._. Attributed to Ralph Earl. From Frederick Sturges, Jr., New York, N. ¥.: Newport Elarbor dso (se Sa Sy ee ee John §. Kensett. LOAN OF WORKS OF ART BY THE GALLERY During the fiscal year 1946 the Gallery loaned the following works of art for exhibition purposes: Particulars Artist To the George Walter Vincent Smith Art Gal- lery, Springfield, Mass. : The Lackawanna Valley__..___-___-~_~ George Inness. To the Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Il.: Both Members of This Club__------_---__ George Bellows. To the Century Association, New York, N. Y.: Portrait of Nathaniel Hawthorne__—_____ Emanuel Leutze. Both Members of This Club____-____—__- __ George Bellows. To the Tate Gallery, London, England: ipreezing. Upset ee — Winslow Horner. Georses Washing iono = =e eee Gilbert Stuart. Mrserricnard: Vatess) on = sen oa eee Gilbert Stuart. The Lackawanna Valley___-._.___________ George Inness. Siegfried and the Rhine Maidens______ __ Albert P. Ryder. Aeitiendiy:-Callet e252. SEF Jn fi welt! William Merritt Chase. Governor Charles Ridgely_-_-__-___--_- — Thomas Sully. To the White House, Washington, D. C.: Portrait of George Washington__________ Rembrandt Peale. To the U. 8S. Department of State, Blair Lee House, Washington, D. C.: 7 prints from the Rosenwald Collection. EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: Soldier art. Winning entries in the National Army Arts Contest, sponsored and financed by the Special Services Division, United States Army Service Forces, from July 4 to September 4, 1945. Currier and Ives prints. Lent by Harry T. Peters, from July 22 to November 25, 1945. New acquisitions in the Rosenwald Collection. A selection of prints from the new acquisitions in the Rosenwald Collection, from September 9 to November 4, 1945. 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Marine Corps battle art. Paintings and sketches made on Pacific battlefields, from Guadalcanal to Okinawa; sponsored and financed by the United States Marine Corps, marking the one hundred and seventieth anniversary of the founding of the Corps, from November 10 to December 16, 1945. Prints. Selections from the National Gallery’s collection of prints and draw- ings, from November 27, 1945, to March 6, 1946. Kress additions to the National Gallery of Art. Paintings and sculpture lent to the Kress Collection of the National Gallery of Art by Samuel H. Kress and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, opening February 2, 1946. Medicine in prints. A collection formed by Dr. Clements C. Fry of the Depart- ment of Health, Yale University, from February 10 to March 24, 1946. Hogarth and Rowlandson prints. From the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection, from February 17 to May 19, 1946. Facsimiles of Russian folk prints. From the Rosenwald Collection, from March 7 to May 18, 1946. Life of Christ as depicted in the etchings of Rembrandt. Prints from the Rosenwald Collection and an anonymous lender, from May 14, 1946, to continue approximately 2 months. Audubon prints, “Birds of America.” Elephant folio set by John James Audubon, from May 26, 1946, to continue approximately 2 months. Fine arts under fire. Photographs in 30 panels showing the work of the Monuments and Fine Arts Officers in Europe, from May 14 to June 2, 1946. I Remember That. Interiors of a generation ago, from a selection of water colors from the Index of American Design, from June 4 to June 16, 1946. Music in prints. Prints from the Rosenwald Collection, from June 18, 1946, to continue for an indefinite period. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Index of American Design. Exhibitions from this collection of water colors, drawings, etc., have been shown during the fiscal year 1946 at the following places: University of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H.; Elgin Art Academy Gallery, Elgin, Il.; Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Md.; University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Beauvoir National Cathedral Elementary School, Washington, D. C.; Kanawha County Public Library, Charleston, W. Va.; Society of Liberal Arts, Joslyn Memorial, Omaha, Nebr.; California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco, Calif.; the Newark Museum, Newark, N. J.; Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.; Ohio State Museum, Columbus, Ohio; American Federation of Arts, Washington, D. C. (for circulation) ; Antiquarium League of Rochester, N. Y.; American Embassy, Madrid, Spain; and George Washington University, Washington, D. C. Rosenwald prints. Special exhibitions of prints from the Rosen- wald Collection were circulated during the fiscal year 1946 to the fol- lowing places: Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pa.; Free Library of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.; Philadelphia Art Al- liance, Philadelphia, Pa.; American British Art Center, New York, N. Y.; Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.; Cayuga Museum of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 49 Art and History, Auburn, N. Y.; Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Mass.; and the Inter-American Office of the Nationa] Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., for circulation in South America. Five special exhibitions were held at Alverthorpe Gallery, Jenkin- town, Pa., for the Tyler School of Art. VARIOUS GALLERY ACTIVITIES During the period from July 1, 1945, through June 30, 1946, a total] of 52 Sunday evening concerts were given in the East Garden Court of the Gallery. The concerts were free to the public and were attended by over 50,000 persons. During March 1946, the Third American Music Festival was held and attracted national as well as local interest. Special suppers for service men and women were held every Sunday night, during the war years, in the staff dining room of the National Gallery of Art. Approximately 7,280 service men and women, many of them in the service of our allies, attended. These suppers, free to the guests, were made possible by generous contributions received from friends and the staff of the National Gallery of Art. Four additional prints of the 16-mm. sound version of the film, “National Gallery of Art,” were acquired, making a total of six prints now owned by the Gallery. Of these, one is now on indefinite loan at the American Embassy in Paris, and a second one was taken by Mr. Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, for showing abroad. Prints of the film were borrowed by 13 institutions and individuals for showing. A total of 186 color reproductions of works of art in the National Gallery have been assembled, labeled, and framed. These reproduc- tions, arranged in sets according to schools, were purchased by the General Federation of Women’s Clubs for circulation among its clubs in this country. A total of 3,235 copies of press releases, 177 special permits to copy paintings in the Gallery, and 86 special permits to photograph in the Gallery were issued. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN On July 1, 1945, a new section, staffed by a supervisor and two assist- ants, was organized to carry out all work connected with the Index of American Design. During the year, the 22,000 drawings were classi- fied and filed. Plans were formulated for lending Index drawings, and in this connection, working contacts have been established with many private individuals, art museums, historical societies, etc. About 20 exhibitions of selected drawings were assembled and circulated. A total of 160 original designs and 66 photographs were selected for 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 use in connection with publications, and 130 photographs were dis- tributed to artists, manufacturers, research students, etc. INTER-AMERICAN OFFICE During the year ended June 30, 1946, the Inter-American Office has continued to carry out the Latin American art program of the Depart- ment of State through the exchange of material and publications and the assembling of information on Inter-American art activities. Dur- ing this time six major photographic exhibitions and two exhibitions of original art were prepared for circulation in Latin America; ap- proximately 300 publications were widely distributed throughout the Latin American countries «nd a booklet listing Traveling Exhibitions of Latin American Art in the United States was compiled, published, and distributed in this country. CURATORIAL DEPARTMENT During the past year there were 789 new accessions, either gifts, loans, or deposits, including paintings, sculpture, prints, and the deco- rative arts. These accessions were registered and the great majority placed on exhibition. Three hundred and seventy works of art were brought to the Gallery for expert opinion, involving 208 consultations. The curatorial staff also made 103 written and 154 verbal replies to questions from the public requiring research, and 23 visits were made to collections of private individuals in connection with offers to the Gallery of gifts or loans. Five members of the staff delivered 21 public lectures on 11 topics. Work on the revision of the original preliminary catalog, published in 1941, has made considerable progress, and the first portion of the new sculpture catalog, covering Medieval and Renaissance marbles and terra cottas, was completed. At the same time, the cataloging and filing of photographs in the Richter Archive continued, and will be completed within the next year; this will make possible the cataloging and filing of new accessions of photographs without delay as soon as they are received. For the publications of the curatorial staff during the year, see under Publications in this report. Other important activities of the curatorial staff included the Tate Gallery Exhibition in London, England, which consisted of an ex- hibition of 220 American paintings, chosen from American museums and private collections for showing in London at the Tate Gallery in June and July. In addition to general organizing responsibilities, Mr. Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, was chairman of the com- mittee to select eighteenth- and nineteenth-century paintings. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 51 The curatorial staff continued its assistance to the American Com- mission for the Protection and Salvage of Artistic and Historic Monuments in War Areas (Justice Owen J. Roberts, Chairman) to the end of the Commission’s activity on June 30, 1946. Although the custodianship of the French Government collection of works of art was terminated February 1, 1945, a number of paint- ings continued to be housed and exhibited in the National Gallery of Art. At the end of the past fiscal year preparations were begun to remove all but six of those paintings for packing and shipment to France. RESTORATION AND REPAIR OF WORKS OF ART With the authorization of the Board and the approval of the Chief Curator, the necessary restoration and repair of works of art in the Gallery’s collection were made by Stephen S. Pichetto, Consultant Restorer to the Gallery. All work was completed in the restorer’s studio in the Gallery, with the exception of 39 paintings requiring attention before they could be shipped to Washington or on which work had already been begun in Mr. Pichetto’s New York studio. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM Approximately 15,000 persons attended the Gallery tours of the collection, and 13,030 attended the lectures in the auditorium by staff and visiting lecturers. The Picture of the Week, a 10-minute, twice- daily talk on a single painting, continued to be a most popular feature, attracting 25,029 persons during the year. Special tours, confer- ences, and appointments were arranged for 2,599 persons. LIBRARY A total of 802 books, 160 pamphlets, and 98 periodicals were pre- sented to the Gallery; 7 books were purchased by the Gallery; 135 photographs and 196 kodachrome slides were presented as gifts; 35 books, 43 pamphlets, and 443 bulletins were received on exchange from other institutions; and 26 subscriptions to periodicals were made; 3,589 books were borrowed and returned, of which number 3,504 were from the Library of Congress and the remaining 85 from art museum and university libraries. PHOTOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT During the year the photographic laboratory of the Gallery made 13,195 prints, 669 black-and-white slides, and 2,026 color slides, in addition to 821 negatives, and 178 X-rays, infrared photographs, 52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 ultraviolet photographs, kodachromes, and sets of color-separation negatives. OTHER GIFTS During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, gifts of books on art and related material were made to the Gallery by Paul Mellon, Mrs. W. C. Eustis, the Victoria and Albert Museum, Donald D. Shepard, the Dumbarton Oaks Library, the Exchange and Gift Division of the Library of Congress, the educational department of the Young Women’s Christian Association, Wells M. Sawyer, and Leander McCormick-Goodhart. Gifts of money during the fiscal year 1946 were received from Mrs. Florence Becker, David E. Finley, Macgill James, Paul Mellon, Duncan Phillips, Lessing J. Rosenwald, and The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit is being made of the private funds of the Gallery for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, by Price, Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be submitted to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted. Hountincton Cairns, Secretary. Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3 REPORT ON THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: APPROPRIATIONS For the administration of the National Collection of Fine Arts by the Smithsonian Institution, including compensation of necessary employees, purchase of books of reference and periodicals, traveling expenses, and other necessary incidental expenses, $14,550 was allotted, of which $5,018.19 was expended in connection with the care and maintenance of the Freer Gallery of Art, a unit of the National Col- lection of Fine Arts. The balance was spent for the care and upkeep of the National Collection of Fine Arts, nearly all of this sum being required for the payment of salaries, traveling expenses, purchase of books and periodicals, and HOCERSAEY disbursements for the care of the collection. THE SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION The twenty-third annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commis- sion was held on December 4, 1945. ‘The members assembled in Gallery 3 of the National Collection of Fine Arts, in the Natural History Building, at 10:30 a. m., where, as the advisory committee on the acceptance of works of art which had been submitted during the year, they accepted the following: Oil painting, The Woodland Way, by William Baxter Closson (1848-1926). Gift of the executors of Mrs. Closson’s estate. Oil painting, Portrait of George Catlin, by William Fisk, R. A. (1796-1872). Gift of Miss May C. Kinney, Ernest C. Kinney, and Bradford Wickes. Miniature, Miss Clementine Dalecour in Mourning, by A. Margaretta Archam- bault. Gift of the artist. Miniature, Woman Knitting, by Mary Ursula Whitlock (1860-1944). Gift of the executors of the artist’s estate. Accepted for the Smithsonian Institution. The members then adjourned to the offices of Dr. Wetmore, Secretary of the Institution, for the further proceedings, and the meeting was called to order by the chairman, Mr. Manship. The members present were: Paul Manship, chairman; Dr. Alexander Wetmore (ex officio) ; and Robert W. Bliss, John N. Brown, George 53 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 H. Edgell, David E. Finley, George H. Myers, Archibald G. Wenley, and Mahonri M. Young. Ruel P. Tolman, Curator of the Division of Graphic Arts in the United States National Museum and Acting Director of the National Collection of Fine Arts, also attended. The following resolutions on the death of Herbert Adams were submitted and adopted: Whereas, the Smithsonian Art Commission has learned of the death on May 21, 1945, of Mr. Herbert Adams, a member of the Commission since 1921; there- fore be it Resolved, That, the Commission desires here to record its sincere sorrow at the passing of Mr. Adams, an eminent sculptor, whose productions are an enduring monument to his genius. He was ever ready with helpful advice in formulating the policies of the Smithsonian Art Commission and the National Collection of Fine Arts. His helpful interest in the affairs of the Commission will be sadly missed. Resolved, That these resolutions be spread upon the records of the commission, and that the secretary be requested to inform the family of Mr. Adams of this action. The resignation of Edward W. Redfield was submitted and accepted with regret. A letter of appreciation for his long and faithful service was ordered sent to him. The commission recommended to the Board of Regents the name of John Taylor Arms to succeed Mr. Adams, and Eugene E. Speicher to succeed Mr. Redfield. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: Paul Man- ship, chairman; Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., vice chairman, and Dr. Alexander Wetmore, secretary. The commission recommended to the Board of Regents the reelection of John Nicholas Brown, Mahonri M. Young, George Hewitt Myers, and Robert Woods Bliss for the usual 4-year period. The following were elected members of the executive committee for the ensuing year: David E. Finley, chairman; Robert Woods Bliss, and Gilmore D. Clark. Paul Manship, as chairman of the Commis- sion, and Dr. Alexander Wetmore, as secretary of the Commission, are ex officio members of the executive committee. THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND Two miniatures, water color on ivory, were acquired from the fund established through the bequest of the late Catherine Walden Myer, as follows: 53. Charles Wm. McGinnes (1793- ), by Carl Weinedel (1795-1845) ; from Mrs. Robert L. Jones, Richland, Wash. 54. Samuel Douchy, by Nathaniel Rogers (1788-1844); from Mrs. Frederic Fairchild Sherman, Millington, N. J. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 55 THE REV. ALFRED DUANE PELL FUND The following two pieces of pottery were acquired from the fund established through the bequest of the late Rev. Alfred Duane Pell, as follows: One vase, Mountains of the Moon, designed and executed by Lea Halpern, of Holland ; from Miss Halpern. One stoneware bottle, designed and executed by Bernard Leach, of England; from the British Crafts Exhibition. LOANS ACCEPTED A marine painting by Lionel Walden (1861-1933), was lent by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on December 11, and withdrawn on De- cember 21, 1945. Three miniatures, water color on ivory, Dr. John Austin, of British Guiana, attributed to Alexander Robertson (1772-1841) ; Jonathan Amory (1802-1885) of Boston, by unknown artist, and Mrs. Jonathan Amory (1806/09-1875), (daughter of Dr. John Austin), by Mme. Busset, were lent by Miss E. M. Matthews of Chevy Chase, Md., on February 14, 1946. WITHDRAWALS BY OWNERS A marble bust of Mrs. William C. Preston, by Hiram Powers, lent by James Q. Davis in 1926, was withdrawn by the owner and sent to the University of South Carolina on July 3, 1945. Three portraits, by ‘Charles Willson Peale, of Mrs. Elliott, Mrs. John O’Donnell, and Mary O’Donnell, and one by Charles Peale Polk of George Washington, lent in 1917, were withdrawn by the owner, Miss Mary Eugenia Parke, on December 17, 1945. Two pastels, The Cliffs Aflame, and Patsy, and five oil paintings, Looking Far Out, Joyous Childhood, The Red Barn, Peonies, and Springtime, by William B. Closson, lent in 1940, were withdrawn by the executors of Mrs. Closson’s estate on February 21, 1946. A silver tankard, lent by Ensign Edward Shippen, United States Naval Reserve, in 1944, was withdrawn by the owner on April 5, 1946. DEPOSITS Three bronzes which had been in the art room of the Smithsonian Institution for many years, two entitled Augustus Caesar, and the other, Centaur, by unknown sculptors, were deposited by the Smith- sonian Institution. 725362—47- 5 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 LOANS TO OTHER MUSEUMS AND ORGANIZATIONS Two oil paintings, Portrait of Commodore Stephen Decatur, by Gilbert Stuart, and Portrait of Admiral William S. Sims, by Irving R. Wiles, were lent to the United States Naval Academy for an exhi- bition of naval personages and traditions, in connection with the ceremonies held in observing the centennial anniversary of the found- ing of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, on October 10, 1945, held at M. Knoedler & Co., New York City, September 24 through October 13, 1945. (Returned November 6, 1945.) Two miniatures, Mrs. Bertha E. Jaques, by Nelly McKenzie Tol- man, and Woman Knitting, by Mary Ursula Whitlock, were lent to the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters to be included in their annual exhibition in Philadelphia and Washington. (Returned December 3, 1945.) An oil painting, The Visit of the Mistress, by Winslow Homer, was lent to the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Va., to be in- cluded in their exhibition of Nineteenth Century Virginia Genre Painting, January 17 through February 18, 1946. (Returned Febru- ary 25, 1946.) The original design for the painting in the Capitol, Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way, by Emanuel Leutze, was lent to The Century Association for an exhibition held at their club, New York City, February 7 through March 3, 1946. (Returned March 7, 1946.) Four water colors by William H. Holmes, A Maryland Meadow, Watt’s Branch, Near Rockville, A Storm-Beaten Coast, The Unmodi- fied Rock Creek About 1910, and Coal Barge, Capri, 1880, were lent to The White House, January 25, 1946. Three oil paintings, Conway Hills, by Frederick Ballard Williams, The Meadow Brook, by Charles P. Gruppe, and Sea and Rain, by George H. Bogert, were lent to the Treasury Department, March 14, 1946, to be hung in the large conference room in the Treasury Building. Two pastel portraits of Gen. George Washington and Mrs. Martha Washington, by James Sharples, were lent, with the consent of the owners, Mrs. Robert E. Lee, Dr. George Bolling Lee, Mrs. Hanson E. Ely, Jr., and Mrs. William Hunter de Butts, to Knoedler Galleries, New York City, to be included in an exhibition sponsored by the Robert E. Lee Memorial Foundation called “Stratford Hall, the Lees of Virginia, and Their Contemporaries,” from April 30 to May 18, 1946. (Returned May 27, 1946.) LOANS RETURNED One oil painting, Portrait of Andrew Jackson, by R. E. W. Earle, lent to the Baltimore Museum of Art, was returned July 21, 1945. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 57 Two oil paintings, The Woodland Way, and Joyous Childhood, by William Baxter Closson, lent to the civilian medical division, War Department, were returned November 21, 1945. THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND No. 115. Wreck at Lobster Cove, by Andrew Winter, N. A. (1893- ), pur- chased in 1940 by the council of the National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger bequest, was assigned by the council to the Winchester Public Library, Winchester, Mass., December 7, 1945. The following two paintings were recalled for action on the part of the Smithsonian Art Commission, in accordance with the provision in the Ranger bequest. The Smithsonian Art Commission decided not to accept the paintings and they were returned to the museums to which they were originally assigned: No. 61. Woodland Nymph, by Douglas Volk, N. A. (1856-1935), assigned to the Atlanta Art Association and High Museum of Art, May 16, 1927. No. 67. A Long Island Garden, by Childe Hassam, N. A. (1859-1935), assigned to the Kansas City Art Institute, February 27, 1929. THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS REFERENCE LIBRARY A total of 414 publications (277 volumes and 137 pamphlets) were accessioned. This number includes 152 volumes and 36 pamphlets purchased, the priced auction catalogs of the Parke-Bernet Galleries accounting for 33 volumes and 30 pamphlets. The other accessions were publications received by exchange, gift, or transfer, with the exception of 72 volumes of periodicals which were returned from the bindery. This year’s additions brought the total library accessions to 10,134. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS July 3 through October 9, 1945.—An oil painting, John Barrymore as Hamlet, by John Slavin, of Richmond, Va., was shown in Gallery 2. October 8 through 28, 1945—The Hon. William D. Pawley col- lection of 27 portraits of “Flying Tigers,” by Raymond P. R. Neil- son, N. A., was sponsored by the Chinese Ambassador to the United States, Dr. Wei Tao-Ming. Catalog was privately printed. October 7 through 28, 1945.—Exhibition of sculptures by Genaro Amador Lira, of Nicaragua, consisting of 11 large pieces, 16 minia- ture figures carved in wood and ivory and 1 cast in silver, was spon- sored by the Pan American Union. A catalog was published by the Pan American Union. October 8 through 28, 1945.—Twenty portraits of members of the Lafayette Escadrille, and a few other Americans who fought in 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 World War I, by John Elliott (1858-1925), from our permanent collection. November 2 through 28, 1945—The Eighth Metropolitan State Art Contest, held under the auspices of the District of Columbia Chapter, American Artist’s Professional League, assisted by the Entre Nous Club. There were 412 exhibits, consisting of paintings, sculpture, prints, and metalcraft. December 9, 1945, through January 6, 1946.—The forty-fourth an- nual exhibition of miniatures by the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters, consisting of 100 miniatures. Reprint of catalog. January 8 through 27, 1946—Exhibition of 53 portraits by Alfred Jonniaux was held under the patronage of His Excellency, Baron Robert Silvercruys, Belgian Ambassador to the United States. A catalog was published by the artist. February 1 through 24, 1946—A Century of the Greeting Card (1846-1946), courtesy of Brownie’s Blockprints, Inc., of New York, creators of the Brownie Greeting Cards. There were 186 panels containing 949 cards. A catalog was privately published. March 1 through 31, 1946—Exhibition of 538 oil and water-color paintings, by Charles P. Gruppe (1860-1940). April through 28, 1946.—Exhibition of 54 paintings of Siam by students of the School of Arts and Crafts, Bangkok, held under the auspices of the Royal Siamese Legation. May 12 through 29, 1946.—Biennial Exhibition of National League of American Pen Women, including 582 art objects. June 7 through 16, 1946—Scholastic Calendar Art Competition, sponsored by the Washington Post, including 150 paintings. Respectfully submitted. R. P. Torman, Acting Director. Dr. A. WeTmorg, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 4 REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART Sir: Ihave the honor to submit the twenty-sixth annual report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 30, 1946. THE COLLECTIONS Additions to the collections by purchase were as follows: 46.2. 46.4. 46.5. 46.8. 46.10. 46.11. 46.3. BRONZE Chinese, Han dynasty (206 B. C.-A. D. 220). Gilt bronze cup with plum- colored lacquer overbody, handle in form of a bird’s head with jewel eyes and turquoise crest. 0.041 x 0.100 x 0.096. Chinese, Chou dynasty (1122-256 B. C.). Ceremonial vessel of the type ting, smooth bluish-green patina, occasional encrustrations of cuprite; two upright inverted U-shaped handles on rim, band of decoration-cast in relief around rim; three-character inscription inside. 0.156 x 0.151. Chinese, Shang dynasty (1766-1122 B. C.). Weapon (ax) of the type ch‘i; green to gray patina with patches of azurite and cuprite; hole with thickened rim through upper center of blade, decoration cast in relief on nei; nei and back of blade pierced for hafting; inscription of one character. 0.327 x 0.251; weight: 6-34 pounds. (Illustrated.) Chinese, Han dynasty (206 B. C.-A. D. 220). Gilt bronze garment hook in dragon form; back inlaid with 10 pieces of grayish-white to greenish jade; broad piece of jade at back incised with mask pattern. 0.199 x 0.021. Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Gilt bronze Buddhist image; standing figure of AvalokiteSvara in Yiinnanese style; gilding worn in places; figure of Amitibha in headdress; right hand in vitarka mudra, left hand in vara mudra. 0.494 x 0.114. Chinese, A. D. 6th-7th century. Toilet box with cover; smooth green patina, incised landscape and dragon design on box and cover ; quatrefoil and small loop on cover; three ball feet. 0.120 x 0.152. GOLD Korean, A. D. 8th-9th century. Headdress ornament, a standing Buddhist image in repoussé relief ; surrounded by jeweled glory; 7 of the 19 jewels missing; jewel in urna missing; right hand held before breast, left hand pendant holding mala. 0.093 x 0.055. 59 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 MANUSCRIPT 45.41. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 1868-1644). By Ch‘én Hsien-hsiang (A. D. 1428-1500), a poem of 14 characters in ink on paper; signature of two characters, one seal; part of paper missing at lower edge. 1.834 x 0.915. (Illustrated. ) METALWORK 45.33. Bactrian, 1st century B. C.-ist century A. D. Bowl (or boss) of thick silver alloy; 12 human figures, a bear, a horse, and an eagle cast in relief on outside, traces of gilding remain. 0.044x 0.191. (Illustrated.) 46.7. Chinese, Han dynasty (206 B. C.-A: D. 220). Iron mirror, much rusted with fragments of original silk container embedded in rust; gold sheet inlaid on back with cut-out figure designs and some repoussé linear designs. Diameter: 0.163. PAINTING 45.33. A recent addition to the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art. 45.37. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 1368-1644). By Sun Chih, dated in corre- spondence with A. D. 1579. Autumn landscape; ink and color on paper ; signature, date and two seals on painting; six seals and five inscriptions on mount. 0.282 x 1.209. 45.38. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). By Chou Hao (A. D. 1685- 1773). A landscape in ink on paper; label, signature, six inscriptions and six seals on painting, three inscriptions and nine seals on mount. 0.139 x 3.721. POTTERY 45.34. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Four-sided vase with animal- istic handles, high foot; white porcelain, transparent colorless glaze decorated with overglaze enamels; six-character mark of the Ch‘ien-lung period (1736-1796) in underglaze blue on base. 0.272 x 0.192 x 0,121. 45.85. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 1368-1644). Deep, thick-walled bowl; flat ring foot ; white porcelain, transparent glaze over underglaze blue decora- tion; six-character mark of the Hsiian-té period (1426-1435) in under- glaze blue inside bottom. 0.126 x 0.266 (diameter). 45.36. Chinese, Ming dynasty (A. D. 13868-1644). Large jar of heavily potted white porcelain, transparent glaze over underglaze blue decoration ; two shou characters included in design; six-character mark of the Chia-ching period (1522-1567) in underglaze blue on neck. 0.531 x 0.522 (diameter). 45.39- 45.40. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Pair of small bottles with six-lobed bodies and slender cylindrica] necks; fine white porcelain cov- ered with transparent glaze very faintly bluish in cast; decorated in underglaze blue and overglaze enamels; six-character mark of the Yung- chéng period (1723-1736) in underglaze-blue on bases. 45.39: 0.104 x 0.058; 45.40: 0.105 x 0.058. Secretary s Report, 1946.—Appendix 4 PLATE 1 45.41 A recent addition to the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art. Secretary's Report, 1946.—Appendix 4 PLATE 2 45.33 46.5 Recent additions to the collection of the Freer Gallery of Art. 46.1. 46.6. 46.9. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 61 Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Tall vase with cover; southern Kuan ware; fine gray clay, thinly potted, glossy bluish green-gray glaze, lightly crackled; decorated with figures in high relief: two tigers, two human figures on shoulder; cloud form with a character incised under the glaze on neck; bird finial and cloud forms on cover. 0.338 x 0.133, Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty (A. D. 1644-1912). Compound vase formed of a central vase around which five similar forms are attached with internal communication; fine white porcelain, very pale-green transparent glaze; decoration with slip in low relief under glaze; six-character mark of the Ch‘ien-lung period (1756-1796) in underglaze blue on base of central vase. 0.165 x 0.140. Chinese, Sung dynasty (A. D. 960-1279). Vase, Lung-ch‘tian celadon, bottle- shaped with tall cylindrical neck surrounded by flat horizontal flange ring; fine-grained light-gray porcelain, reddish brown at foot rim; thick, opaque gray-green celadon glaze filled with minute bubbles. 0.165 x 0.072. The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of new accessions, of objects submitted for purchase, and to general research work within the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Persian, and ¥ndian materials. The preparation of materials for publication and the revision of earlier work has continued. Reports, oral or written, were made upon 1,612 objects and 408 reproductions of objects sub- mitted for examination by their owners, and 132 oriental language inscriptions were translated. Docent service and public lectures given by staff members are listed below. REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTIONS A total of 35 objects were repaired or remounted, as follows: Chinese paintings remounted 25°02) 2 _ 3. ee 9 Korean paintings remounted £22 2" GO. Oy 2 ation pee IL 2 Japanese’ paintines: memownteds sre ee) seb Ss pa NE pes 2 Chinesespainting repaired s4 0 ss. Bh ne a eh 2 1 Chinese album covers repaired and remade_________-__-_______ 5 Arabic painting Lepainet sn. at Femara 1 Persianopaintings repaired)... 23 2 ee inoep Mate sk 2 Ghinesentextilesrepainediss 22 2 ae edd et Petes 2 Whinese lacquer Tepainedewss seek aa wieas thi a bee teste aes 1 Ghinese,jadesrepaireds: <2 == Bree iete ee ete gifs ied ea 2 Ghinese, bronze. repairediiascl we soln tole etl eworbyils «Joye 1 Chinese, pottery Irepaired 22 vita ose et evi ee Loreen aii ae 3 Chinese stone sculpture repaired_____--__-_____-____________ 1 Persian gpottery. repaired ..24 2. Lee eee at tl ey il Arabie manuscript, mounted. 2. 2a eign UT 1 Whistler. lithograph. repaired! l2o) f18 suelition sweetest! wad 1 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS Changes in exhibitions totaled 662, as follows: Chinese arts: Bamboo) Caryn ges 2 a ern ee ene ge ae a Bronze, 222 2205 ee eg OR ee ee ee 143 Bronze; and. coldest A a 4 Bronze-ang Hades. w Be eee ek ee ee 16 Golds 22d ie a ie ae ioe eee de aa ee ee ee ve Gold:and iron ee ee eo ee eal ee eee 4 DX e gee a = ee ie ee cee 2 ee 183 Mietnc a le ig sire vin 5 ae ag 2 hag Re ee 3 TP Sh i To ge ee ie heh ee a eee 2 an on) 63 PO Et Tay pe ee oe Se 2 Se ee 101 Silver and silver seit oma See ae Ret ei ee ee 28 Wood"? Scull Gurr ei Re eee ae a at aie A ee NS AAD ee 6 Japanese arts: Waa CQUET 9a Ba ee Toh ee Wai ee Ree o_o oe ae 11 Paitin ge ee eee ee ae Ne See A ee Oe 42 ) ECO) 5) Bo eee ae SS pA gh Ne a ane peed eS ee 36 Korean arts: Pottery se i EMA Oe Shs Ret IS EAL neh Cees’. MARIN PR 16 ATTENDANCE The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4: 30 every day except Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main entrance was 97,822. The weekday total was 65,311, and the Sunday total was 82,511. The average weekday attendance was 203, the aver- age Sunday attendance 626. The highest monthly attendance was in June, with 10,454 visitors; the lowest in December, with 3,874 visitors. There were 1,625 visitors to the main office during the year; the pur- poses of their visits were as follows: Hor .generaleinformation==] 2282s ee eee eee 1, 074 To. seen stafhiimtembersa eS s Soe eee et eee Sat sede Fea 174 To read_inithe library 222 Se ee ee ee ee 161 To make sketches and tracings from library books__--_------~ 6 To see building-and installations. 252s See eee Nee eee 21 To make photographs, sketches, ete., in court__-_____---__---_- 21 To examine, borrow, or purchase photographs and slides___--- 324 To submit objects for examinations22 2s ee ee 354 To see objects in storage: Washington MU aniescr ip ts ae ae BERS LIE ee 63 Far Eastern paintings and textiles_____________-_--_- 47 Near Eastern paintings and manuscripts__-___________ 23 Tibetan) Paintin ges Sek ae ik ee ee 2 Indian} paintings and manuseripts==— =e 19 AMERICAN. pain CNG Soe ee eee ee 42 Whistlenprints2 2 ie7 eet oleae ee 5 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 63 To see objects in storage—Continued. Oriental pottery, jade, bronze, lacquer, bamboo__--_-- 102 Gold treasure and Byzantine objects_--___-----_--___- 4 Atlesculpture Sas sess Set Sie Eee es 9 Syrian-and: other glassii 22 sees ae eee eee q — 323 DOCENT SERVICE, LECTURES, MEETINGS By request, 11 groups met in the exhibition galleries for instruction by staff members. Total attendance, 226. Mrs. Usilton, librarian, gave three talks on indexing before the editors and indexers of the Dewey Decimal Classification System at the Library of Congress, October 23, 26, 30, 1945. The Freer Gallery of Art auditorium was used for two meetings as follows: January 12, 1946__The East-West Institute for Librarians. Attendance_. 228 The Director of the Gallery opened the meeting with a brief address of welcome. May 18, 1946__The Art Technical Section of the American Association Of Museums a7 cAtten Gan Ces aa ae ee eee 150 Members of the staff traveled outside of Washington for profes- sional purposes as follows: November 18-16, 1945___ Mr. Wenley examined objects at various dealers in New York and attended an evening meeting of the trustees of the Textile Museum of Washington. December 18, 1945______ Miss Guest and Dr. Ettinghausen spent the day at the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore studying Near East- ern collections. February 1, 1946____---_ Miss Guest spent the day at the University Museum in Philadelphia studying Near Hastern manuscripts. March 13, 1946____.___- Mr. Wenley spent the day at Princeton University at- tending a meeting with Professor Rowley regarding Princeton University Bicentennial, April 1-3, 1947. April 17-18, 1946_______ Dr. Ettinghausen at Princeton University to see Prof. Ernst Herzfeld regarding gift of the Herzfeld Archive to the Smithsonian Institution for deposit in, and under the direction of, the Freer Gallery of Art. May 31—June 24, 1946___ Dr. Ettinghausen at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, to do editorial work on Ars Islamica. June 12-14, 1946________ Mrs. Usilton attended annual convention of Special Libraries Association in Boston. PERSONNEL Isabel I. Mayer was appointed assistant in research August 1. William R. B. Acker reported for duty December 8, as associate in languages, after serving with the Office of War Information since 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 December 31, 1942. E. Harriet Link reported for duty as clerk- stenographer (CAF-5), March 18, after completion of her duties as staff aid with the American Red Cross overseas. John A. Pope re- ported for duty April 22, as associate in research, after completion of his duties as captain, United States Marine Corps Reserve. Grace Dunham Guest, Assistant Director, retired June 30. In recognition of her 26 years of outstanding service, she has been given the honorary title of Freer Gallery of Art research associate. Respectfully submitted. A. G. Wentey, Director. Dr. A. Wermorg, Secretary, Snuthsonian Institution. APPENDIX 5 REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress of June 27, 1944, which pro- vides “* * * for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii and the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains, * * *” SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES Dr. M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, left Washington January 6, 1946, in order to continue work on the Smithsonian Institution- National Geographic Society archeological project in southern Mex- ico. From the latter part of January until the middle of April, arche- ological excavations were conducted at the site of San Lorenzo on the Rio Chiquito in southern Veracruz. This was the site discovered by Dr. Stirling the preceding year at the conclusion of the work in Chi- apas. During the season’s work just concluded a map of the site was completed, several of the mounds were cross-sectioned, and a number of stratigraphic trenches dug. During the course of the work 24 stone monuments were located, in- cluding 5 colossal heads of La Venta type, and 2 table-top altars. In addition, there were a number of miscellaneous monuments repre- senting jaguars and seated figures, both human and anthropomorphic. The collections made during the course of the work, after inspection in Mexico City, were shipped to Washington. During the period of this work, Dr. Stirling was assisted in the field by Dr. Philip Drucker. Dr. Stirling returned to Washington on May 9. During the fiscal year Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., Assistant Chief, read and corrected page proof for the article, “The New World Paleo-Indian,” which was printed in the general appendix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1944. He prepared an article, “Prehistoric Peoples of Colorado,” to be used as one chap- ter in a forthcoming history of Colorado which is being published by the State Historical Society of Colorado, and another article, “One Hundred Years of Smithsonian Anthropology,” to be published in 65 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Science. In addition he wrote two book reviews for anthropological journals, annotated six books for the United States Quarterly Book List, and worked on the final report on the investigations at the Lin- denmeier—Folsom site. On the basis of information obtained through correspondence with various members of the Virginia Archeological Society and from a review of the literature on Virginia, Dr. Roberts prepared a state- ment for the National Park Service, Region 1, on the archeological sites that would be inundated by the construction of dams and reser- voirs in the James River Basin, beginning at Richmond and continu- ing up the main stream and its larger tributaries to the foot of the mountains. He also carried on extensive correspondence in connec- tion with the agreement between the National Park Service and the Smithsonian Institution relative to archeological work in river basins where flood-control dams and irrigation projects will result in the flooding and loss of important archeological sites. This included preliminary plans for work in the Missouri Basin and suggestions and advice on the situation in the Etowah and Savannah River Val- leys in Georgia, the Warrior River in Alabama, the Neches, Trinity, and Brazos Rivers in Texas, the Arkansas River and its tributaries in Arkansas and Oklahoma, and the Sacramento, American, Kings, and Kern Rivers in California. This entailed the writing of many letters to local people in the various areas seeking information about the existence of sites and the checking of the literature for additional information. In October Dr. Roberts was designated as director in charge of the archeological surveys and excavations to be conducted under the administration of the Smithsonian Institution in coopera- tion with the National Park Service, the Corps of Engineers, and the Bureau of Reclamation. In this connection he assisted officials of the National Park Service in preparing estimates and justifications for supplemental funds for 1946 and the funds for 1947 archeological work in the Missouri Basin. Dr. Roberts also served as the general department representative on the Efficiency Rating Board of Review for the Smithsonian Institu- tion, taking part in three hearings. In relation to this he attended two Civil Service Commission Institutes of Efficiency Rating Boards of Review and six sessions of the Interagency Conference on Training Aids and on Orientation. On April 12 and 13, 1946, Dr. Roberts represented the Smithsonian Institution at the final convocation and other exercises of the sesqui- centennial celebration of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. During the year he also served on various committees for the Institution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 67 From July 1, 1945, to June 30, 1946, Dr. Roberts served as vice chairman of the division of anthropology and psychology of the National Research Council. During the absences of the Chief, Dr. Roberts was Acting Chief of the Bureau. Dr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the early part of the fiscal year in Washington, D. C., where he produced a Kiowa grammar of 405 manuscript pages and wrote 8 articles for scientific periodicals. During part of this period he was still engaged in work for the Bureau of Censorship. Dr. Harrington left Washington February 11, 1946, for Clovis, N. Mex. There he interviewed Mr. Scheurich, grandson of Governor Bent, New Mexico’s first Governor, and about 80 years of age. From Clovis, Dr. Harrington went directly to Gallup, N. Mex., where he con- tinued his studies of Navaho phonetics. From Gallup he went to Albuquerque, N. Mex., where he worked with Mr. Shupla, expert speaker of the Hano language, which is related to Tewa. From Al- buquerque he went to Santa Barbara, Calif., where he continued his Chumashan studies, and was engaged in this work at the close of the fiscal year. Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., ethnologist, resumed his research on Es- kimo archeology, which had been largely suspended during recent years because of his duties as Assistant Director, and later Director, of the Ethnogeographic Board. On December 31, 1945, the Board was formally dissolved, but on decision of the sponsoring agencies—the three research councils and the Smithsonian Institution—Dr. Collins continued operation of the office for an additional 6 months. The his- tory of the Ethnogeographic Board, written by Dr. Wendell C. Ben- nett, was prepared for publication, and a Board project for a survey of wartime Government documents was begun January 1, 1946, under the direction of Dr. Homer G. Barnett, assisted by Walter B. Green- wood. The report on this project has been prepared by Dr. Barnett and will be published, with bibliography, in the near future. Dr. Collins attended several meetings of the Board of Governors of the Arctic Institute of North America in Montreal, and contributed the section on anthropology for “A Program of Desirable Scientific Investigations in Arctic North America,” issued as Bulletin No. 1 of the Arctic Institute. Several book reviews were also prepared for the United States Quarterly Book List and other scientific journals. As a member of the Committee on International Cooperation in Anthropology of the National Research Council, Dr. Collins assembled from committee records and other sources information on the activi- ties of anthropological societies, universities, and museums in Scan- 68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 dinavia during the war. This was published in the American An- thropologist under the title “Anthropology During the War: Scan- dinavia.” During the month of July 1945, Dr. William N. Fenton was en- gaged in a study of place names and related activities of the Corn- planter Senecas. When completed, this series, on which M. H. Dear- dorff of Warren, Pa., and C. E. Congdon of Salamanca, N. Y., have collaborated, will comprise the Indian names of places throughout the valley of the Allegheny River. Another problem on which work was continued was the documenting and description of the Condo- lence Council for installing chiefs in the Iroquois League, the study of which the late J. N. B. Hewitt had commenced a generation ago. Having collected the sacred songs and ritual chants of this ceremony for the Library of Congress in the spring, Dr. Fenton returned to the Six Nations Reserve on October 29, 1945, in the Recording Lab- oratory sound truck for the purpose of making a documentary film. Dr. Fenton was invited to sit in on the rehearsals and attend the instal- lation of two Cayuga chiefs on November 20, 1945. The family of one of the candidates, Chief John Hardy Gibson, has served American ethnology for two generations, and with the help of Howard Skye and the cooperation of the chiefs, a complete transcript of the proceed- ings of the Condolence Council among the Canadian Iroquois was prepared and published for the first time since Horatio Hale’s ac- count in the last century. This material, written up on returning from the field, became the body of an illustrated lecture on “The Six Nations of Canada,” which Dr. Fenton was invited to deliver before the Royal Canadian Institute of Toronto, January 12, 1946. In the field, Ernest Dodge, of the Peabody Museum of Salem, collaborated in recording some rare Iroquois flute music from James White, Onon- daga of Six Nations. In addition, a complete performance of the Dark Dance Rite of the Little People was recorded with Eli Jacob, Cayuga of Sour Springs, as leading singer. Similar recordings were made of the Death Feast ritual in the spring, and from Howard Skye, an official of the ceremony, Dr. Fenton obtained a fairly complete account of the fall celebration. The same informant helped translate a Cayuga text of the Tutelo Migration Legend, collected by Hewitt. Returning by way of Allegany Reservation, near Salamanca, N. Y., material for a second album of Iroquois songs was collected from singers at Coldspring Longhouse. Christian hymns in Seneca were recorded near West Salamanca to extend coverage of hymn singing already collected in Mohawk and Oneida. Acknowledgment is due the Viking Fund of New York for support of this field work. An outstanding event in Iroquois studies was the organization and conduct of the First Conference on Iroquois Research, held October REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 69 96-28 at the Allegany State Park, N. Y. Discussions were devoted to ethnology, linguistics, and archeology with reference to the Lower Great Lakes area. The proceedings of the conference, written by Dr. Fenton, were distributed to the 20 persons in attendance and to others interested. Dr. Fenton attended a similar conference on the pre- history of eastern New York and New England, held February 22, 1946, at the New York State Museum, Albany. “Area Studies in American Universities” reclaimed D. Fenton’s attention, when the Commission on Implications of Armed Services Educational Programs, of the American Council on Education, re- quested him to prepare a report for publication on the Ethnogeo- graphic Board’s Survey of the Foreign Area and Language Train- ing Programs of the ASTP and the Civil Affairs Training Schools during 1943-44. The manuscript for the final report, totaling some 180 pages, was virtually completed at the close of the fiscal year. Completion of this report coincided with the end of the Ethnogeo- graphic Board and discharged a final obligation to that wartime activity. The following publications by Dr. Fenton appeared during the year: Place names and related activities of the Cornplanter Senecas (Pennsyl- vania Archaeologist) : III. Burnt-house at Cornplanter Grant, vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 88-96. IV. Cornplanter Peak to Warren, vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 108-118. V. The Path to Conewango, vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 42-56. (With J. N. B. Hewitt) Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois Condolence Council (Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 35, No. 10, October 15, 1945, pp. 301-315). An Iroquois Condolence Council for installing Cayuga chiefs in 1945 (Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 36, No. 4, April 15, 1946, pp. 110-127). Dr. Philip Drucker, anthropologist, resumed his duties at the Bu- reau of American Ethnology on December 17, 1945, after release to in- active duty by the Navy. He departed almost immediately for Mexico to assemble equipment, set up camp, and make preparations for exca- vating a site in southeastern Veracruz, San Lorenzo, that had been selected by Dr. M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, for this season’s work by the National Geographic Society-Smithsonian Institution cooperative expedition. On Dr. Stirling’s arrival, in the latter part of January, Dr. Drucker remained as his assistant. Intensive exca- vations were carried out in various mounds and other features of the site, and numerous stone monuments, including altars, statues, and tremendous monolithic heads of “Olmec” or “La Venta” type were found. While Dr. Stirling occupied himself with a study of the 70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 monuments, Dr. Drucker made tests to locate an occupational zone, and dug a deep stratigraphic trench to optain ceramic materials to define the culture horizon to which the monuments belong. The material from these investigations will be of inestimable value in tying in the monuments with those of Tres Zapotes and La Venta, and defining the ancient “Olmec” culture. Following the close of the expedition’s camp in mid-April, Dr. Drucker proceeded to the neighboring state of Chiapas to carry out reconnaissance planned to supplement that done by Dr. Stirling the previous year. He was able to locate a number of caves containing offerings or caches of pottery vessels from pre-Spanish times, and made collections which were shipped to Mexico City for ultimate shipment to Washington. In addition to the caves, a number of extensive village sites were discovered which contained not only remains of stone houses but also ball courts and great ceremonial structures of masonry. On May 21 Dr. Drucker proceeded to Mexico City where the San Lorenzo and Chiapas collections were inspected by officers of the Museo Nacional de Mexico, and where, through the courtesy of those officers, permission was obtained to ship the collections to Washington for study and for preparation of reports for publication. While the shipping permit was going through necessary channels, Dr. Drucker availed himself of the opportunity of studying ceramic and jade col- lections in the Museo Nacional, and to visit sites in the central highland where important discoveries have been made in recent years, such as Tula, in the state of Hidalgo, and Xochicalco, in Morelos. At the end of the fiscal year he was completing preparations to return to Washington, During the month of July 1945 Dr. Gordon Willey, anthropologist, was entirely oecupied in completing a 50,000-word manuscript en- titled “Excavations in Southeast Florida.” This paper will make available the results of the archeological field program carried out in south Florida in 1933-36 by the Bureau of American Ethnology in conjunction with the State of Florida. From August 1945 to February 1946 Dr. Willey was primarily engaged in editorial work on the final volumes of the Handbook of South American Indians. The fifth and last volume of this work was submitted to the editor of the Bureau at the end of February, with the exception of part 3, “The languages of South America,” which is being prepared by Dr. J. Alden Mason. During this period a 25,000-word article on South American ceramics was prepared for inclusion in the Handbook, and a 3,000-word article on the archeology of the Argentine pampas was prepared to be published as part of a Yale University symposium on Argentine archeology. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 71 During the early part of 1946 Dr. Willey also assisted Dr. Roberts in preparing preliminary plans for the Federal Valley Authority archeological program. In February a brief survey trip was made to Georgia on the pro- posed Allatoona River control project. From March until June Dr. Willey was engaged in conducting archeological field work in the Virt Valley in northern Peru, for a pro- posed study of prehistoric settlement patterns in the valley. At the close of the fiscal year Dr. Willey was still engaged in this field work. INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY The Institute of Social Anthropolgy was created in 1943 as an autonomous unit of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to carry out cooperative training in anthropological teaching and research with the other American republics. As the Director, Dr. Julian H. Steward, was instructed in the official order establishing the Institute to report to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; there is presented here his report to Secretary Wetmore. Washington office —The Institute of Social Anthropology, carrying out a program of cultural and scientific cooperation with the American republics under a grant of $77,351 transferred from the Department of State, continued under the directorship of Dr. Julian H. Steward. Miss Ethelwyn Carter served as secretary throughout the year. Mexico—In Mexico the Institute was represented by Dr. George M. Foster, Jr., anthropologist, in charge of the work; by Dr. Stanley S. Newman, linguist; and by Dr. Robert C. West, cultural geographer, who joined the staff in February 1946, when Dr. Donald Brand resigned to resume his teaching duties at the University of New Mexico. Since cooperation with the Escuela Nacional de Anthropologia began in June 1944, 15 university courses in anthropology, geography, and linguistics have been given, attended by more than 100 individual students. Total enrollment in all courses has exceeded 150. Because of the international nature of the Escuela, it has been possible to reach students from countries other than Mexico, including Haiti, Guate- mala, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Spain, France, Canada, and the United States. In both courses and field work, students have had an opportunity to learn American techniques, methodology, and, above all, ideals of scholarship. Basic field reasearch on the important Tarascan population of Michoacan has been conducted. Institute staff members have put 24 man-months, and the seven participating students 55 man-months, into this research. The field work of the Institute, in conjunction with previous studies, has resulted in the most complete body of cultural 725362—47—6 PD ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 data available on any comparable area in Latin America. One large . monograph on the Tarascan area has already been published, and three more will follow in 1947. Six student papers of from 100 to 200 manuscript pages are also being prepared for publication in Spanish by the Escuela. Peru.—Dr. F. Webster McBryde, cultural geographer, was assigned in September 1945 to take charge of the Institute work in Peru. Harry Tschopik, Jr., continued his work in Peru throughout the year. The accomplishments can be shown best by a résumé of the work since it began early in 1944. At this time, Peru had no institution devoted essentially to social science teaching and research, and its geographical society was requesting advice from the United States about its pro- posed reorganization. The cooperation of the Institute has helped the Ministry of Education of Peru to establish a well-financed national center of social science, the Instituto de Estudios Etnolégicos. The Instituto, dedicated to teaching, research, and publication, is a most important development, because for the first time Peru can obtain scientific information on her native peoples, who are the predominant element in her contemporary population. The staff of the Peruvian oflice of the Institute of Social Anthropology has given lectures at the Universities of Cuzco and Trujillo, and courses in geography and an- thropology are planned for the Instituto, thus enabling Peruvian stu- dents to obtain training in United States techniques of social science. Dr. McBryde has helped in the reorganization of the geographical society and has advised on changes in the geography curriculum in San Marcos University in Lima. The Institute staff has carried out extensive research among Peru- vian coastal and central highland communities. The latter project, done in cooperation with three Peruvian scientists, involved 36 man- months and included 30 different communities. The data will be published in both Spanish and English in several monographs, two of which already are in press. They not only represent significant con- tributions to knowledge on heretofore little-known groups, but also will be very useful to Peruvian authorities interested in such practical problems as that of obtaining laborers for the high Andean mines and that of colonizing sparsely populated areas of eastern Peru, a matter of prime importance to the agricultural experimental stations. At the request of the Peruvian-Bolivian educational commission, a survey will be made of the settlement patterns of the altiplano to provide a basis for the establishment of rural schools. The importance of these research results has been acknowledged and stressed by the Minister of Education in a speech before the Peruvian Congress. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 73 Brazil_—Cooperation with the Escola Livre de Sociologia e Politica began October 1, 1945, when Dr. Donald Pierson was assigned as rep- resentative of the Institute of Social Anthropology to Brazil. In February 1946, Dr. Kalervo Oberg was assigned as cultural anthro- pologist to cooperate with the Escola Livre. In effect, the Institute has taken over and expanded a program which was begun under Dr. Pierson in 1940 and which has helped make the Escola Livre one of the most important social science centers in South America. Seven courses in sociology and anthropology are now being given by the Institute staff. Students in the social science major have increased from 5 in 1945 to 24 in 1946. The first masters degrees in social science were given in February 1946. With the help of the Institute staff, it has been possible to increase the undergraduate curriculum from 3 to 4 years, a very distinct educational gain. Institute staff members have continued to guide the program of translating 200 articles and 13 books from English into Portuguese. This work, financed by outside funds, is of great importance as an aid to teaching. Field research to be started this year will meet the outstanding need of Brazilian students, namely, intensive training in field methods through their application. The research results will be published in English and Portuguese. Surveys in Matto Grosso and rural areas near Sao Paulo have already been carried out by Institute staff mem- bers and students. Publications.—Publication No. 2, “Cherin: A Sierra Tarascan Vil- lage,” by R. L. Beals, was issued during the year. Publication No. 3, “Moche, a Peruvian Coastal Community,” by John Gillin, and Pub- lication No. 4, “Cultural and Historical Geography of Southwest Guatemala,” by Felix Webster McBryde, were received in proof. Publication No. 5, “Highland Communities of Central Peru: A Re- gional Survey,” by Harry Tschopik, Jr., was sent to the printer. Publication No. 6, “Empire’s Children: Tzintzuntzan and its People,” by George M. Foster, Jr., was contracted for by a printer in Mexico. Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen, of the editorial staff of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, did the editorial work on these publications. Handbook of South American Indians—No grant from the De- partment of State for cooperation with the American republics was requested for the Handbook during the fiscal year 1946. The final prep- aration of the manuscript and clerical work pertaining to the Hand- book was undertaken by the Washington office of the Institute of Social Anthropology, with the assistance of Dr. Gordon Willey, of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 74. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Volume 1, The Marginal Tribes, and volume 2, The Andean Civili- zations, were issued in June 1946. In addition to the usual edition of 3,500 distributed by the Bureau of American Ethnology, the De- partment of State ordered 600 copies for distribution through its embassies in Latin American countries, and the Superintendent of Documents ordered 1,000 for sale. Volume 3, The Tropical Forest Tribes, and volume 4, The Circum-Caribbean Tribes, were received in galley proof. With the exception of the linguistic section, volume 5, The Comparative Anthropology of South American Indians, was completed and submitted to the editor of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the final editing. During the fiscal year, the Interdepartmental Committee on Scien- tific and Cultural Cooperation of the Department of State granted the Bureau of American Ethnology $15,000 toward the cost of pub- lishing the Handbook. SPECIAL RESEARCHES Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the Bureau, prepared for publication a paper entitled “Music of the Alabama Texas.” In this tribe, Miss Densmore found that only ordinary dance songs remain. She also submitted her complete bibliography covering 50 years of study of American Indian music and a paper entitled “Prelude to the Study of Indian Music in Minnesota.” Another long paper was completed on the subject “Distribution of Certain Peculiarities in Indian Songs.” ‘This paper is illustrated with a number of distribu- tion maps. EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS The editorial work of the Bureau continued during the year under the immediate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. There were issued one Annual Report and one Bulletin, listed below; also two volumes of a five-volume Bulletin, and one publication of the Institute of Social Anthropology. Sixty-second Annual Report, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1944-1945. 9 pp. Bulletin 137. The Indians of the Southeastern United States, by John R. Swanton. 943 pp., 108 pls., 5 figs., 13 maps. The following publications were in press at the close of the fiscal year: Bulletin 143. Handbook of South American Indians. Julian H. Steward, editor. Volume 3: The Tropical Forest Tribes. Volume 4: The Circum-Carib- bean Tribes. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 75 Institute of Social Anthropology Publ. No. 3. Moche, a Peruvian Coastal Community, by John Gillin. Institute of Social Anthropology Publ. No. 4. Cultural and historical geography of Southwest Guatemala, by Felix Webster McBryde. Institute of Social Anthropology Publ. No. 5. Highland Communities of Cen- tral Peru: A regional survey, by Harry Tschopik, Jr. Publications distributed totaled 12,730. As compared with the fiscal year 1944-45, this was an increase of 1,160. In addition to the regular Bureau work, the editorial staff conducted the editorial work on the publications of the Institute of Social Anthropology. LIBRARY There has been no change in the library staff during the fiscal year. Accessions during the year totaled 109. There has been a marked falling off in the number of gifts to the library, doubtless due to the disturbed condition of the publishing industry following the end of the war. Though there is a slight decrease in exchange material in the form of books which are entered on the accession book, there has been a very great increase in exchange material as a whole. Large shipments, covering the period since 1939 or 1940 to date, have been received from many of our exchanges in Europe and other parts of the world. Many of our sets have thus been brought up to date without inquiry on our part. The routine of accessioning and cataloging new material has been kept up to date. A small amount of work has been possible, also, on analytical entries for periodical material. It is hoped that this work will soon be brought up to date. ILLUSTRATIONS E. G. Cassedy, illustrator, spent most of his time from July 1945 through April 1946 on art work for the Old Apothecary Shop, a new exhibit in the National Museum. Other work of routine nature was done for the Handbook of South American Indians and for other branches of the Institution. ARCHIVES Miss Mae W. Tucker continued her work of operating and cata- loging the manuscript and photographic archives of the Bureau. In addition to furnishing material for routine requests for photographs and manuscripts, many qualified visitors were received and furnished with materials or working facilities. The Mohawk Dictionary, copied by Mrs. Erminnie Smith from records in Canada, was alphabetized and filed for more ready refer- 76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 ence. A number of the Ivoquoian vocabularies collected by Mrs. Smith and J. N. B. Hewitt and recorded in the Powell Outline volumes were copied on cards and filed for more convenient reference. The num- ber of these cards so far completed is approximately 7,500. Personal and place names numbering about 600 were copied from New York State historical documents and placed in the card catalog. The Nez Percé dictionary compiled by Miss S. L. McBeth was copied on cards from the original manuscript in the Bureau collection. These cards number about 2,000. Early in 1946 preparation was begun for a catalog of the unpub- lished manscript material in the Bureau archives, to be published for distribution. In order to insure as accurate a catalog as possible the material is being checked piece by piece and listed on memorandum sheets for the final typing. COLLECTIONS Collections transferred by the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Department of Anthropology, United States National Museum, during the fiscal year were as follows: Accession No. 171677. One elk-horn quirt from the Pawnee Indians. Collected about 1877 near Columbus, Nebr., by Hlon J. Lawton, M. D. MISCELLANEOUS During the course of the year information was furnished by mem- bers of the Bureau staff in reply to numerous inquiries concerning the American Indians of both continents, both past and present. Various specimens sent to the Bureau were identified and data on them fur- nished for their owners. Personnel.—Dr. Philip Drucker, anthropologist, returned to duty from military furlough on December 17,1945. Dr. Homer G. Barnett resigned December 31, 1945. Mrs. Catherine M. Phillips, clerk-stenog- rapher, transferred to the War Department May 21, 1945, and Mrs. Jessie S. Shaw was promoted to fill this vacancy effective June 3, 1946, by transfer from the division of ethnology, United States National Museum. Respectfully submitted. M. W. Srimuine, Chief. Dr. A. Wetmore, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 6 REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: From the appropriation general expenses, Smithsonian Institution, there was allocated at the beginning of the year $28,166 for the ex- penses of the Service. After conditions became favorable for the safe transmission to some of the countries where exchanges had been suspended during the war, the Institution requested and was granted a deficiency appropriation of $47,000. This increased the available appropriation to $75,166. As it was not possible to make shipments to all the previously suspended countries, the total expenditure amount- ed to only about $48,080.25. The number of packages received for transmission during the year was 540,502, an increase over the previous year of 153,744. The weight of these packages was 472,229 pounds, an increase of 261,189. The average weight of the individual package is almost double that of the previous year—an indication that the institutions are shipping some of the material held during the war. The material is classified as shown in the following table: Packages Weight Sent Received Sent Received from from abroad abroad abroad abroad E Pounds Pounds United States parliamentary documents sent abroad__--____]| 319,036 |_-__________ ADT Sbor eaee eeeees Publications received in return for parliamentary docu- NONE a oa ta en ee eS OE 25260" |eeceeanaes 6, 485 United States departmental documents sent abroad_______- YAR tN Pee ee 1p 9S5| 22a = eee Publications received in return for departmental documents_|_________- 4.0432 st8 a te 12, 411 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent COV pEVG LL tela ghee Ai in a Pn etch at. Eerie ype aeiodn 9a ett T2208; | seeee ee ae TSA ADO un ec eee Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States________|----_____- 204 Oa ne 65, 183 AWG NL = Eee phe 8 ce STE oe eee cee pee or eee eed 513, 695 26, 807 388, 220 84, 079 Grangditotalecem amen: 58s eee eS alo re We ee 540, 502 472, 299 The packages are forwarded partly by mail direct to the addressees and partly by freight to the exchange bureaus. The number of boxes ide 78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 shipped abroad was 3,117, an increase of 2,134. Of these boxes, 1,294 were for depositories of full sets of the United States Government documents. The number of packages distributed by mail was 69,833. Of the material accumulated at the Institution during the war, there remained at the beginning of the fiscal year 3,512 boxes. At the end of the fiscal year this figure had been reduced to 1,109. This reduction was effected through the resumption of exchanges with certain countries where exchange had been suspended during the war. These countires are indicated in the table below by an asterisk. The countries to which consignments are now regularly forwarded are: EASTERN HEMISPHERE : Africa. *Lebanon. Australia. *Netherlands. *Belgium. New Zealand. *Bulgaria. *Norway. *China. *Palestine. *Czechoslovakia. Portugal. *Denmark. *Spain. *Wrance. *Sweden. Great Britain. *Switzerland. *Greece. *Syria. India. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Ireland. WESTERN HEMISPHERE: All countries except the United States and her possessions. Shipments to other countires will be resumed at the earliest practi- cable date. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The number of sets of United States official publications received to be sent in return for the official publications sent by foreign govern- ments for deposit in the Library of Congress is 93 (56 full and 37 partial sets). The depositories for China and Italy have been changed as indicated in the list. DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINA: Direccién de Investigaciones, Archivo, Biblioteca y Legislacién Ex: tranjero, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SoutH WAtgEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Victor1A: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. Breiteium: Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles, Brazit: Instituto Nacional do Livro, Rio de Janeiro. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 79 CaNaApDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Maniropa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. QueBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. Cute: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. CHINA: Ministry of Education, National Library, Nanking, China. Prreine: National Library of Peiping. CotomsBiA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José. CusA: Ministerio de Estado, Canje Internacional, Habana. CzECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de ]’Assemblée Nationale, Prague. DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. Eeyet: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Reichstauschstelle im Reichsminsterium fiir Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung, Berlin, N. W. 7. Prussia: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7. GREAT BRITIAN: Enetanpd: British Museum, London. Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) Huncaky: Library, Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. Inp1A: Imperial Library, Calcutta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. Iraty: Ministero della Publica Istruxione, Rome. JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. LAtviA: Bibliothéque d’Etat, Riga. LEAGUE OF NATIONS: Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informacién para el Extranjero, Mexico, D. F. NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. NorTHERN IRELAND: H. M. Stationery Office, Belfast. Norway: Universitets-Bibliothek, Oslo. (Depository of the Government of Nor- way.) Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- teriores, Lima. PoLanp: Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PorTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Rumania: Academia Romana, Bucharest. Spain: Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Avenida Calvo Sotelo 20, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. TurKEYy: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education, Istanbul. Union or SourH ArFrrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Union or Soviet Soctarist Repusrics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow 115. UKRAINE: Ukrainian Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, Kiev. 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Urueuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. YuGostaviA: Ministére de l’Kducation, Belgrade. DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. Bo.iv1A: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. BRAZIL: Minas Gerars: Directoria Geral e Estatistica em Minas, Bello Horizonte. BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. CANADA: ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. BritisH CoLtumMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. NEw BRUNSWICK: Legislative Library, Fredericton. Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. PRINCE Epwarp IsLanpD: Legislative and Public Library, Charlottetown. SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. CryLon: Chief Seeretary’s Office, Record Department of the Library, Colombo. DoMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. Haiti: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. HONDURAS: Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. ICELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. INDIA: BenGAL: Library, Bengal Legislature, Assembly House, Calcutta. BIHAR AND ORISSA: Revenue Department, Patna. BompBay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart- ment, Bombay. BurMa: Secretary to the Government of Burma, Education Department, Rangoon. Pungas: Chief Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, Lahore. UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OupDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. TRAN: Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. Iraq: Public Library, Baghdad. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. LizeriA: Department of State, Monrovia. MALTA: Minister for the Treasury, Valleta. NEWEOUNDLAND: Department of Home Affairs, St. John’s. NricarAcua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asunci6n. SALVADOR: Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. VaTICAN City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 81 INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 68 copies of the Federal Register and 638 copies of the Congressional Record. The countries to which these journals are being forwarded are given in the following list: DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER ARGENTINA : Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires. Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.’ * CAmara de Diputados, Oficina de Informaci6n Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires. Boletin Oficial de la Reptiblica Argentina, Ministerio de Justica e Instruccién Publica, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New Sourn Wates: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia. BRAZIL: Biblioteca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Imprensa Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.’ * AmMAzonaAs: Archivo, Biblioteca e Imprensa Publica, Mandéos. Bauts: Governador do Estado da Bahia, Sio Salvador. Espirito SAnro: Presidencia do Estado do Espirito Santo, Victoria. Rio GRANDE po Sut: “A Federacio,” Porto Alegre. SERGIPE: Biblioteca Publica do Estado de Sergipe, Aracaju. SAo Paavo: Imprensa Oficial do Estado, Sio Paulo. British Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize. CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. CUBA: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca Publica Panamericana, Havana.’ * Eeyrr: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.” FRANCE: Bibliothéque du Senat, Paris. GREAT Briratn: Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. GrEece: Library, Greek Parliament, Athens.* GUATEMALA; Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. Harrt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Inp1a: Legislative Department, Simla. IraLy: International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.’ * IRELAND: Dail Eireann, Dublin. Mexico: Direccién General de Informacién, Secretaria de Gobernacién, Mexico, D. F. Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, Mexico, D. F. *Added during year. 1 Congressional Record only. 2 Federal Register only. 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 - Mexico—Continued. AGUASCALIENTES : Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. CHIAPAS: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez. CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. CoaHuILA: Periddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. CotimA: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. Durango: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango. GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato. GUERRERO: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo. JALISCO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. Lower CALIFORNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. Mexico: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MicuoAcAn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacin, Morelia. MorELos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. NayanriT: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. Nurvo LEGN: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. Oaxaca: Periodico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca. Pursia: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Secci6n de Archivo, Querétaro. San Luis Potosi: Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosi. SinaLoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan. SonorA: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. TApasco: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Sessi6n 8a, Ramo de Prensa, Villahermosa. TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. TLAXCALA;: Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala. VERACRUZ: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departmento de Gobernaci6n y Justicia, Jalapa. YucaTANn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatan, Mérida. NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. PERU: Camara de Diputados, Lima. PoLAND: Ministry of Justice, Warsaw.’ * SPAIN: Diputacion of Navarra, San Sebastian. SWITZERLAND: Biblioteque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.’ * UNION oF SOUTH AFRICA: Care oF Goop Horr: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. Urvucauay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca del Congreso, Caracas. FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES Austria, to which exchanges were formerly sent by way of Germany, has now established her own exchange bureau. Those countries listed below to which exchanges are not yet being sent are: Germany, Japan, Latvia, Rumania, and Yugoslavia. The bureaus whose address has *Added during year. 2 Federal Register only. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 83 changed during the year are marked by an asterisk. The bureaus or agencies listed are those to which consignments are forwarded by freight. To other countries not appearing on the list, packages are sent by mail. LIST OF AGENCIES Austria: Austrian National Library, Vienna. Brewcrum: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Belgique, Bruxelles. *CHINA: Bureau of International Exchange, National Central Library, Nanking. *CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliotheque de l’Assembleé Nationale, Prague 1-100. *DENMARK: Institut des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliotheque Royale, Copenhagen K. Ecyper: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Kasaingatan 24, Helsinki. *FWRANCE: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliotheque Nationale, 58 Rue de Richlieu, Paris. GrerMANY: Amerika-Institut, Universititstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Wheldon & Wesley, 721 North Circular Road, Willesden, London, N. W. 2. HuncGAary: Hungarian Libraries Board, Ferenciektere 5, Budapest, IV. Inp1A: Superintendent of Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. *JyaLy: Ufficio delgi Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Publica Istruxione, Rome. JAPAN: International Exchange Service, Imperial Library of Japan, Uyeno Park, Tokyo. Latvia: Service des Hchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque d’Etat de Lettonie, Riga. NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Library, The Hague. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de l’Uni- versité Royale, Oslo. PALESTINE: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. PoLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PortuGAL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre- tary’s Office, Brisbane. RUMANIA: Ministére de la Propagande Nationale, Service des Echanges Inter- nationaux, Bucharest. SoutH AUSTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revista para Biblote- cas Pfiblicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Avenida Calvo Sotelo 20, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 *SwITZERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Palais Fédérale, Berne. TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart. TuRKEY: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving, Istanbul. UNION oF SouTH AFrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. UNIon or Sovier SocraAtist REPUBLICS: International Book Exchange Depart- ment, Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, Moscow, 56. VictorIA: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. YucostaviA: Section des Echanges Internationaux, Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade. Frank E. Gass, correspondence clerk, who had been for several years Acting Chief Clerk of Exchanges, retired on June 30, after almost 60 years of service. Mr. Gass was appointed as messenger on August 1, 1886, and retired in March of 1941. When the manpower situation became acute in 1942 Mr. Gass returned to the Exchanges to serve dur- ing the war. D. G. Williams was appointed as Chief Clerk on February 25. Carl E. Hellyer, on January 11, was transferred from the guard force to the position of shipping clerk. Glenn P. Shephard, on March 4, was transferred from the Freer Gallery of Art to the Exchanges and detailed to the Government Document Room. Harold Peacock, after honorable discharge from the Signal Corps of the United States Army, was employed by the Institution on April 2, and detailed to the incoming mail room in charge of records and geographic distribution. Respectfully submitted. H. W. Dorsey, Acting Chief. Dr. A. WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 7 ANNUAL REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: The appropriation for the regular operations of the Zoo was $310,000. A supplemental appropriation of $65,670 for salary in- creases authorized by Congress was also made available, making a total of $375,670. Subject to minor changes in final bills, a total of $359,453 was expended for all purposes and an unexpended balance of $16,217 remains. ‘his balance was due to the difficulty in filling vacant positions and in obtaining materials. Reconversion to a peacetime set-up is proving to be a slow process involving much effort in selecting, training, and orienting new em- ployees. However, substantial progress has been made in recruiting personnel, although a number of vacancies still exist including some in skilled positions which could not be quickly filled. The additional manpower taken on was largely offset by reduction in working hours from 48 to 44 or 40 hours a week. As rapidly as possible, all units of the organization are being put on the 40-hour week. The problem of obtaining materials such as building supplies and others used in the maintenance of structures has continued to be very difficult. Indeed, some supplies have been more difficult to obtain than they were during the wartime. It has nevertheless been possible to improve some of the structures in the Park and to do some clean-up work that had been neglected during the war. Therefore, by the close of the fiscal year there was a perceptible improvement in the general conditions throughout the entire establishment. NEEDS OF THE ZOO A small addition to the personnel is needed to enable the Zoo to carry on the work in an efficient manner and permit employees to take the leave to which they are legally entitled. The Zoo has been under- manned throughout the entire period of its existence, and with the adoption of the 40-hour week, the situation has been particularly acute. Of no less importance is the need for new buildings to replace anti- quated, dilapidated structures that are still used to house animals. 85 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Preliminary planning has been taken up with the Public Works Ad- ministration for construction of these buildings when economic conditions justify. A great deal of general maintenance and improvement work must be done to restore the Park and structures to a presentable condition. With a moderate increase in personnel the improvements can be grad- ually effected as materials become available. VISITORS With the removal of the ban on pleasure driving and in line with the general increase in traveling, there has been a marked increase in number of visitors, particularly those from more distant States, as well as in traveling groups and school groups. ESTIMATED NUMBER OF VISITORS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1946 Surya oae ye ae ee 169;'600) Rebruary22 2 eee 129, 950 Agrust 1h 2 Get 52 201000. March 20: 4. ish eeenare oe 215, 900 Septeniber=Y Severs. Saat ee 247 0004 April 3-52) ee eee 381, 137 Octobers 225 = Ses ee 26450002 May= so aie ee 169, 700 aowembers = 22 sas ye) Fo TSE LOW) pune. oF a Soe ee ee 260, 900 Decembers=e as ae es 42, 850 —_—_— January (1946)_------_-__- 68, 500 Potalls rv ORE 2, 372, 337 The attendance for the fiscal year 1945 was given in the last annual report as 2,355,514, whereas it should have been 2,107,084. Therefore, the actual increase in attendance in 1946 is 265,253. NUMBER OF GROUPS FROM SCHOOLS Number | Number Number | Number of groups} in groups of groups | in groups Aap Sree see rrme mete ore ae 1 LA Ne wversey <2 - = eee = ee 21 1, 376 Connecticut ss ee aes 3 TAOS SINicwpay Onkee- a ees aS 8 Delawareeeee Shei ute ee 5 2107 North Caroling --2- os 15 700 District of Columbia_______-- 60 2719)’ Olnign: tiie eS el eS ee 21 551 Georgia ea ee ee 12 S19; PECs yivaniae= = eee 104 4, 024 LND VC aVe SK eR ONE ata aes Ts 1 3451) South Carolinas oo ssbss ese 19 599 Kentuckians SLRs eed Pe 4 173 || MeO MeSSeGe et oo at ene eee 6 236 Main essai aie Pane sed eT 4 24AGU Viireiniat= cel ks Pak ey 115 5, 795 IVa TVIAT Gee ae SU a eae 172 10,829 || West Virginia__.........----- 9 613 Massachusetts ss aera oe 8 488 | WMiiehigans sie We ais eee 3 84 otales 22 ee eee 592 30, 062 New Hampshire_._______..--- 1 52 About 2 p. m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted by the Zoo police and listed according to the State, Territory, or coun- try from which they came. This is, of course, not a census of cars coming to the Zoo but is valuable in showing the percentage of attend- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 87 ance by States of people in private automobiles. The tabulation for the fiscal year 1946 is as follows: Percent Percent Washineton Ds Oe eee ee USC oe ONTO ee eee ee a 1.6 D4 fez eng Crs 0 6 fae ages 9 Cha Dg Era 2652... North Carolinas Sse arty Waneiniay £ et ey hen ted es $0.40 New Jerseys 9 Mies 18 Sa Perse 1.3 Rennsyivania foc 6 ei die lee ok 3:9... Massachusetts <== = 25 1, 09 ING wie VOLK= er - 2 brent LSet 249% WIOTIORies eS ay ee a a 1. 05 The cars that made up the remaining 22.06 percent came from every one of the remaining States, as well as from the following Territories and countries: Alaska, Alberta, British Columbia, Canal Zone, Cuba, Mexico, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Peru, Philippine Islands, Prince Edward Island, Puerto Rico, and Quebec. It is well known that District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia cars bring to the Zoo many people from other parts of the United States and of the world, but no figures are available on which to base percentages. THE EXHIBITS The total number of individual animals and the different kinds of animals the Zoo has been able to maintain during the war has not de- clined as much as was anticipated, although the variety of rare, un- usual, or especially interesting animals has been reduced, the reduction being offset in part by more of the commoner creatures. At the be- ginning of the war, when it appeared that Washington might be bombed, the Zoo disposed of its venomous snakes. Later, when the danger of bombing was over, several lots of the interesting pit viper known as habu (7'rimeresurus flavoviridis) were kept for the Army Medical Corps which was using them in connection with some of their studies. As rapidly as possible under present conditions the Zoo is endeavor- ing to build up the collection to the prewar standard. Because of restrictions on transportation few live animals are being brought into this country, but it is anticipated that this condition will gradually improve. The Park’s collection of alligators, crocodiles, and caimans is out- standing in that it includes 11 different species which are listed later in this report. The birth of a baby Arabian oryx (Orya leucoryx) was highly gratifying, but unfortunately after a few days the little one died, although it seemed tc be in perfect condition and there was no clue as to the cause of its death. 725862477 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Other rarities such as the pigmy galago or “bush baby,” pottos, and burrowing pythons were received directly from West Africa, rare frogs were flown from South America and Panama, two pairs of quetzals were received from Costa Rica and several cocks-of-the-rock from South America. From the New York Zoological Society the Park received three very large Galapagos tortoises that had been col- lected while young many years ago and raised in Florida. Small and attractive cage birds, not imported during the war, are coming in again, and a considerable number of species have been added to the collection. ACQUISITION OF SPECIMENS Additions of specimens of the Zoo collection were by gifts, deposits, purchase, and births or hatchings. DEPOSITORS AND DONORS AND THEIR GIFTS Adams, Donald, Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. Alexander, W. F., Silver Spring, Md., 4 Pekin ducks. Allentuck, Lester, Washington, D. C., Philippine macaque. Aquarium, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., alligator. Ballou, George, Bethesda, Md., bassariscus, ribbon snake, 4 racers, 4 rattlesnakes Bandy, Billy, Wayne, Maine, 30 garter snakes. Beck, J. S8., Washington, D. C., snapping turtle. Bernstein, Eddie, Washington, D. C., white-throated capuchin.* Bessinger, J. M., Washington, D. C., 4 Cumberland terrapins. Bianco, Mrs. L. O., Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Botts, L. J., Washington, D. C., barred owl. Botts, Max, Hampton, Va., green guenon. Bowen, Felix, Bethesda, Md., capuchin.* Bozeivich, Lucal, Berwyn, Md., 2 goats. Breeding, Charles R., Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. Brill, W. J., Jr., Washington, D. C., Cooper’s hawk.* Brown, Col. F. Q., Bethesda, Md., brown-cheeked parrot. Buck, Congressman Ellsworth B., Washington, D. C., 45 frogs.* Busey, Bill, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Capley, J. B., Baltimore, Md., green guenon. Carmichael, Michel, Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. Carr, Commander B. L., Washington, D. C., snake-head fish. Carter, Dr. Hill, Washington, D. C., great horned owl.* Casbarian, James P., Washington, D. C., great horned owl. Caspar, J. A., Washington, D. C., green guenon. Chapman, Mr. and Mrs. Otto, Silver Spring, Md., whistling swan. Chick, W. J., Jr., and Fowler, J. A., National Park Service, Washington, D. C., hog-nosed snake. Cohen, Mrs. Roger, Chevy Chase, Md., 5 guinea pigs, 25 mice. Colburn, Norman C., Washington, D. C., 6 rabbits. Cooke, Lt. Jay, Baltimore, Md., 50 xenopus frogs.* *Deposits. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 89 Cookston, Maj. R. E., Lakewood, Ohio, yellow-headed parrot.* Cooper, Suzanne T., Washington, D. C., 2 barbs, 3 zebra fish, 2 South American catfish. Crenshaw, Joel, Arlington, Va., Pekin duck. Denis, Armand, Dania, Fla., green mamba, black mamba. District of Columbia Health Department, Washington, D. C., 3 rhesus monkeys.” District of Columbia Police, through Officer E. M. Brown, Washington, D. C., black-crowned night heron. Dunean, C. H., Greenbelt, Md., 2 Pekin ducks. Earnest, E. P., Washington, D. C., black widow spider. Erlanger, Arlene, Washington, D. C., palm tanager, gouldian finch. Ewart, Jack, Washington, D. C., red coatimundi.* Fairchild, Dr. Graham, Gorgas Memorial Library, Canal Zone, 3 frogs. Faller, Erwin H., Washington, D. C., corn snake. Ford, Robert W., Alexandria, Va., black vulture, Garret, J., Rappahannock Academy, Va., red fox. Gatti, Stephen, Washington, D. C., great horned owl. Gleason, Martin A., Washington, D. C., king snake. Gould, Louise, Washington, D. C., false chameleon. Graham, Mrs. W. W., Washington, D. C., 2 grass paroquets.* Haakinson, E. B., Washington, D. C., garter snake. Hall, Mrs. Frank, Washington, D. C., 2 Pekin ducks. Hall, Mary, Alexandria, Va., 2 red squirrels. Hamlet, John N., Washington, D. C., red salamander, 15 pine or fence lizards, 6 blue-tailed skinks, prairie faleon, black yulture, Alleghany wood rat, 3 whip-tailed lizards, scorpion. Hanby, Mrs. B. F., Arlington, Va., yellow-headed parrot. Harder, Mrs. Arthur, Washington, D. C., 2 ring-necked doves. Hayes, Mrs. M. M., Washington, D. C., sparrow hawk. Headley, Mrs. Wharton, Kinsale, Va., bald eagle. Helfrick, W. G., Washington, D. C., sparrow hawk. Hohlen, Mae, Washington, D. ©., sparrow hawk. Hottel, W. H., Tegucigalpa, Honduras, long-tailed spotted cat. Hugg, Mary, Washington, D. C., alligator. Humphrey, Don, Washington, D. C., barn owl. Huppman, Louis B., Baltimore, Md., scaup. Hust, Gye, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Ingham, Rex, Ruffin, N. C., scarlet king snake, coatimundi,* bare-eyed cockatoo.* Jones, Cullen, Cheverly, Md., red salamander. Jones, Henry J., Bethesda, Md., Jersey cow. Jones, William, Washington, D. C., raccoon. Katsuranus, Joseph, Washington, D. C., alligator. Kelley, James Ford, Jr., Silver Spring, Md., opossum. Kelley, W. J., Silver Spring, Md., opossum. Knudtsen, Einar B., Baltimore, Md., 2 water snakes, Lane, John G., Washington, D. C., skunk, LaVarre, William, Washington, D. C., 2 American crows. Lepphard, Charles, Washington, D. C., fence lizard. Link, Cornelius, Washington, D. C., chicken snake. Lond, Mrs. Wendell, Washington, D. C., 3 Pekin ducks. *Deposits. 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Lynch, Mrs. J. O., Bethesda, Md., Pekin duck. Major, Frederick G., Arlington, Va., 4 horned lizards. Mann, Mrs. C. R., Washington, D. C., tufted titmouse. Mannix, Mrs. Dan, Washington, D, C., red fox. Mannix, Lieut. D. P., Washington, D. C., bald eagle, rabbit. Mayer, Lieut. John, Washington, D. C., sparrow hawk. McCarthy, F., Washington, D. C., sparrow hawk. McLanahan, Duer, Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Medical Corps, U. S. Army, 31 habu vipers, 3 water snakes, akamatah. Meems Brothers and Ward, Long Island, New York, 2 Cape cobras. Meikle, Mrs. J. C., Washington, D. C., grass paroquet. Melvin Dairy, Washington, D. C., northern porcupine. Meredith, Florence, Arlington, Va., double yellow-headed parrot. Miles, Jay, Takoma Park, Md., white squirrel. Millard, C. C., Washington, D. C., 2 rabbits, Minker, H. L., Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Morgan, David, Bethesda, Md., red-shouldered hawk.* Needham, P. H., Washington, D. C., Pekin duck. Neri, Joseppe, Washington, D. C., golden pheasant. Netherland, Frank, Kenwood, Md., 2 Pekin ducks. Newill, Dr. D. S., Connellsville, Pa., hybrid jungle fowl, gray jungle fowl.* New York Zoological Society, through John TeeVan, 3 Galapagos tortoises.* Nida, Robert, Washington, D. C., sparrow hawk. O’Dwyer, Arthur, Washington, D. C., horned lizard. Old, W. E., Williamston, N. C., 5 DeKay’s snakes, 4 blue-tailed skinks, marbled salamander, 2 gray frogs, milliped, 10 ground skinks. Parker, Harry Lamont, Montevideo, Uruguay, 30 Stelzner’s frogs. Penney, Mrs., Colesville, Md., 2 raccoons. Phillips, C. E., Kensington, Md., Pekin duck. Poiley, S. M., National Institute of Health, Washington, D. C., 4 meadow mice. Preston, P. D., Silver Spring, Md., canary. Putziger, Bernard, Arlington, Va., 2 Pekin ducks. Pyle, George L., Arlington, Va., oppossum and 8 young. Rafferty, J. P., Arlington, Va., 2 alligators. Randall, H. W., Washington, D. C., Florida diamond-backed rattlesnake, cotton- mouthed moccasin, black snake, western bull snake, pilot black snake. Reamy, J. L., Washington, D. C., 2 rabbits. Redfield, David, Washington, D. C., chipmunk. Rehe, Mrs., Arlington, YVa., Pekin duck. Richards, Henry, Washington, D. C., white-throated capuchin.* Runnels, Ormond, Arlington, Va., blue jay. Santlemann, Mrs. W. F., Arlington, Va., 2 Pekin ducks. Schmid, Ed, Washington, D. C., 50 tiger salamanders. Schneider, Mildred, Washington, D. C., 3 rabbits. Scott, Mary, Arlington, Va., Pekin duck. Shaw, H. L., Baltimore, Md., Hamadryas baboon.* Shelby, Lizzie, Hillside, Md., bull snake, 3 hog-nosed snakes, 2 garter snakes, 2 water snakes, green racer. Smith, David A., Chevy Chase, Md., mallard duck. Smith, Douglas P., Bethesda, Md., rabbit. Smith, Mr. and Mrs. Leslie, Vienna, Va., 6 mallard ducks, 2 Pekin ducks, skunk. *Deposits. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 91 Smith, Spencer, Orange, Fla., 2 gray foxes. Stabler, Albert, Jr., Spencerville, Md., ground hog, red jungle fowl. Steele, Mrs. S. F., Chevy Chase, Md., 2 Pekin ducks. Stiller, Bertram, Washington, D. C., flying squirrel. Tate, R. D., Seat Pleasant, Md., red fox. TeeVan, John, Miami, Fla., 3 Galapagos tortoises.* Theadore, Mrs. John, Washington, D. C., rabbit. Thomas, Miss, Bradly, Va., Pekin duck. Thomas, Maj. W. B. S., U. S. Army, Mexican water snake, 3 worm snakes, 2 lizards, 9 akamatahs. Thompson’s Dairy, Washington, D. C., horned lizard. Trueblood, Winslow, Cohasset, Mass., wood turtle. Turner, Bill, Westwood, Prince Georges County, Md., duck hawk. Ulke, Dr. Titus, Washington, D. C., spade-footed toad. Vermillion, Mrs., Washington, D. C., skunk.* Wesley, Rhoda, Washington, D. C., red salamander, opossum. Westburg, Leroy, Washington, D. C., hog-nosed snake. White, Vivian, Washington, D. C., blue-fronted parrot. Woolf, D. O., Washington, D. C., 2 black widow spiders. Wyatt, Archie, Washington, D. C., guinea pig. BIRTHS AND HATCHINGS MAMMALS S8cientific name Common name Number AGNI OUL AG USHLCT OIG eaten eee ee AOQUdaRG SBE se Sa Le ae ee er a; PALO ES UN EUS mee ee Sa eo BSUS COT ean ae eel La 2 St DOS O CAUT AUS ae ee Nn a GT ea ee at 1 UPS OTUs OWS OT Oe a I oh a American) bison=.2<- 252252 5= = 2 Ty OSAUIUGLGU Sen eae es i Pe ACD A Ee ee 1 IO SRE CACTUS kB oh athe a ls Parks (Cat Cis sce ale rte 1 COMCUES DO CETUONALS ee Bactrian” camel. 22-2 = ee i Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus_____--_____ Green guenon_-—____-____- eer | CETUUSY CONG CONS tr a American’ elke 2523 55 = a 1 Chinchilla chinchitiase== 22 (OLY hf eee ae eee 8 Choeropsis liberiensis______..--.+----.--__ Pigmy hippopotamus ________- 1 Cynomys ludoevicianus ==.--=—==-- === Plains prairie dog -—-—. == 248% 15 DOM OROGMN OG Mes 22 Sos 2a) an Fallowdeer Ste aus. lye vrick 2 DOV Sd OG S= SS We OS tay ca ne Ee White fallow deer_________-__ 4 Dasyprocta punctata____- eet Spectacled agouti--____.______ HN ae | TOUS EAGT Sian. ene nent e ope ra yet cee oe Bengal itigerswsbes ns tee wk dae 6 Hippopotamus amphibius______-_----______ Hippopotamus® 22. setae a 1 Odocoileus airginianus= = eee Mirginia, deers 2 een ees 1 (OMAN LATICO Tf ere ES ee ie EY 5 Ty 2S Oe eee Arabianvony xe aa 25 ptt at 1 OUUSRO TLCS Rae ere eS fies Feo Wioolless ‘sheep s=2s) =) asses 2 Gviskeuropacus. 2212 sheate --adnvel Ses MOWH O12 eae eet cele if! SUCH SUC ee SS See ste MBI os hd Sika i deere=se 2. ln pen bl 1 SUNCenO8: CAfere a= = Pl. coal Best he Africansbuftal === =e ae 1 TRALALCtOs: MOnitimis Loe ek Sole TSS Polar Cate cates enw Saray aries 1 Thalarcios maritimus X Ursus middendorfii__ Hybrid bear_________-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-. 2 *Deposits. 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 BIRTHS AND HATCHINGS—continued BIRDS Scientific name Common name Number Anas platyrhynchos_ 22 ae ee Mallardi ducks! 2222) fF ees 15 Brantaicanadensis_ 2.220 kee aes Canada: goose 28240 fea oa 0 Larus novaehollandiae___.___--_-_-- Silveriigalles. Aol. cht aie 3° Taeniopygia castanotis_..-- = Aebra? finch’. hawt eat ew 11 Taeniopygia castanotiss_ 2212 ees eS Zebra finch (gray phase) —-____ 3 RA LUTTSOTMUS 2 a Fee Fae. eS Ring-necked dove_____________ 17 REPTILES EN DUCT LES CONC Se ee eee Rainbow, D0a=-——- =e 23 GelcK Or GECKO ES eee ee oe ee a eee Gecko see ee eee sir 7) AMPHIBIANS Pipa OMehi Cents es eS eee Surmmam togdi222 == asa 26 ANIMALS IN THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, JUNE 30, 1946 MAMMALS MARSUPIALIA Scientific name Common name Number Didelphiidae: Didelpnrisculrginiangse = ee Opposum)-===2— 2 eee 11 Phalangeridae: IPCCDULUS*OT COLCE) Seat ee ee ee ee Lesser flying phalanger____-_ 2 Petaurus norfotcensis—_ 2 Australian flying phalanger_. 2 Macropodidae: Dendnolagustinustusee ee New Guinea tree kangaroo___ 2 Tnylogale ug eniis 2 ee ee Dama—wallaby- eee 4 Phascolomyidae: Vonbatus ursints=== 2 eee Flinders Island wombat____-- 1 CARNIVORA Felidae: ACINONYD. fuU0Gtuss. es Se Cheetah... See 1 Pelisw chaise Beh tcl leh ee lS ee Jungleicats_ eee ih Felis, concolor 2 biviee Ria es es Pum ..224 potas eee 5 Felis concoior patagonica____________-__ Patagonian, pumas] ee 1 Felis concolor * Felis concolor patagon- Hybrid North American xX ECO, Stes Se ah hops NI HE aD ya cel South American puma_____~ 4 MeUsilCOk2 iene Or one Bee Wee Wion.2=-.2 22 eee 5 Jaguar. .=- = 4 Felis onca_--------------~-~----------- | Black, jaguar____ ee 2 Melis soarndaligiss. 2. + ei Sets Ocelot! cee ee. Se ee 2 : Indian Jeopard_—— 33s Pees ar Felis pardug—_—_—___-_____---__---_---_ Tee Indian leopard__----_- 2 Felis temmenchit=. sie Pelaeheees eee Golden: cat® 6 ss tins ee ene 2 CUS EEL Tt 3 ae le NE ae ee si Bengal. tigerai) eee 2 MeCUSMigrts:! LONGIDILS= 22 a ee Siberian tiger.—.—22.22 22 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 93 MAMMALS—continued CARNIVORA—continued Scientific name Common name Number Felidae—Continued ICUS LOTS USLIMULE Lea tee a Sumatran: tiger Ssees_ ees 3 EET ACID fi S ae ea eee Bay,...iynx Saas SS 2 TIDE COAT Ss Bob. cat... 2a, Se 1 Oncifensgcoroyt—— ee Geoffroy's.. cates Ss 4 Oncilia, pardinoides. = Ses — Lesser. tiger’cati2 22 Sie ye Viverridae: ATCLICLIS) (OINEUTONG eee _ BEE Le Bintunongesseneece= == ee 1 Oivettictiss civettasest 2 ease African. ciyet- 2 a es 1 MuUOnae . Sanguineusse aaaa wie Dwart. cive eee shave eee il NONGTNAGHOInOLetG 2S See West African palm civet___-__~_ 1 Paradocurus hermaphroditus__-_-_-----~ Small-toothed palm civet__--_- 2, Hyaenidae: Crocuta crocuta germinans____------~--~- East African spotted hyena_____ 1 Canidae: GMB UDO EE Saree Coyotes. 22S il Canis latrans X< familiaris__2-——--_-- == Coyote and dog hybrid_-_____- i Canis lupus miubilus 2 ee Piaing! wolf s.= =a see 2 Canis=niger rufus sa oe SU ® Seek TEXAS ered! \wWOltso ee a eee 2! Cuon javanicus sumatrensis______-_-----~- Sumatran wild dog_--------—- 1 DUSICYUONTCULDUCUS mae oe ee ee eee South! American! fox 1 Dusicyon (Cerdocyon) thous___-__------~- South American fox__-------~ 1 Nyctereutes procyonoides______-____----- RACCOON COPS ese = a an 2 OF OCG CINChCOUTGeNLEUS= == = Gran iOxe en en ee 5 AAA ANGE) TAH Gd fee ee a NERC Gh oh 0 eee eee 10 Procyonidae: DRT MTILKOD. REI F OTP wot i re eg ees Sa a ES Coatinand li TN GRIIGE. NYRI INT a ina erg era est Rede Cosel Gi) eee 1 NCES ECE TE CLS OTUG recreate a eS Nelson’s coatimundi____---___ 2 TERDII DED GLI DISS po EEN GI SATE ATION WKinkaj ou eee ic RACCOON ee ee ee eee 6 ET OCH OTE MILO CO Ng ee a es ree re ne re Blake Ta CCOON Ss eee 8 Raccoons (albino) === 1 Bassariscidae: SOUS SOUUSC ILS OSU S ee ee Ring-tail or cacomistle________ 1 Mustelidae: GTS OTN Se re a ee ee ee Cg KS{o) a beet pew ey tract, pieleeePim te tet ph al Gat CLG ANU ONC De = ee eee GnISOR ts 2 Se eS eee i eI TOMCONOUENSTS CNN U ae nae ee HloriGanotete 2 ees 1 Dutra (ilMcraonyz) cinerea__-_ = Small-clawed otter. === a 1 Martes (Lamprogale) flavigula henricii__ Asiatic marten__-__-___-_---_- 1 Metes=metes) leptoryuncnus——— === Chinese badger = == 1 MUCLILDONG COPE Sgt ee ee FREE CL eerie te cee ee nes 1 Mephitis mephitis nigra. BS oa eee ee es ee 1 Mustela eversmanni____________---_____ jE) oe) Roce Rau epee tes 1 Mustela frenata noveboracensis________._ WieaSe lees ae in 1 Tyra Uarverd, Varun sen Wihitertayras ees. 02s = eee 2 LEU O DUOOTL SCI LS sae ee ne Gray-headed tayra_--—--_---~- 1 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 MAMMALS—continued CARNIVORA—continued Scientific name Common name Number Ursidae: Huanctos: americanus. 224s Black bear sw sonews sine t ele 4 ELGECLOS SENtDeLOnus ere eee Himalayan bear 28) a ae 1 TECIONCLOS ANQIAYONUS = es See ee Malay or sun bear__-___~____- 1 MCIUT SUS AUT SINUNE ae ee Sloth bear == 20esTvore stinks 1 TRalanclos martini sss See Polar: bear22swoesthebe oie 3 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus midden- dor fis. os 2. oe eure ee ee Hybrid bear soutien Sos 4 Ot sis arctos. = Sein ee ee European brown bear____-_-~ 1 Ursus arctos meridionalis_—_—___________~ Caucasas brown bear__—----__- 1 UT 8US GY ASoae Bete shee A ee Alaskan Pensinsula bear_-_--~ 3 Ursus middendorfi Sets a ae eae Kodiakbbears:282% 2a any 3 UPsusastiensisi= us Seen Sitka brown bear Saale 3 PINNIPEDIA Otariidae: Zatlophus californianus 22s. Sea Home)... see 3° Phocidae: Phoca vituling richardtt2— 2-2 == - == == Pacific harbor seal___._____--- Be PRIMATES Lemuridae: Galago demidovit == east -galacoe. = =asneees pe! GOTTA ANUOTUG O Sa ae es ad Mongoose lemur____-_______~ 2 PEGOOICUCUS™ POLO ees ae ee ee POttO_ A ee 3 Callitrichidae: Caltiivie jacchise = ee White-tufted marmoset____~_~- nk ECONCOCCOUS TOSCO = ees ee ree ee Lion-headed or golden marmo- SOG ast S10 done he 1 Oedipomidas, geoffroyi- === Geoffroy’s marmoset__-----_- 1 Cebidae: AQTALS OER UOTT CEU Se ges eT Douroucouli or owl monkey__- 4 Ateles geoffroyt vellerosus_________--___ Spider monkey. 2 9 CODUS IG DCL rae re ete emg Gray capuchin=— == 5 CCGUSICODUCINUS oe ee a ee White-throated capuchin______ 3) ORR EN OHA LRET AA HS a Weeping capuchin____________ 2 EOgothria LAgOtrich@a=2 a. ee Woolly, monkey==—— = 1 Cercopithecidae: Cercocebus albigularis________-- ee ree ‘Blue monkey. ae 1 Cercocebus ateniintse= ee ee Black-erested mangabey —_----_ al Cercocebus torquatus atys—_—-— Sooty . mangabey, == _==- = =e 2 Cercocebus torquatus lunulatus______--- White-crowned mangabey_-_--~ 1 Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus____—- Vervet guenon=__-__ eee 2 Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus_._________ Green guenon_-)-- == 8 Cercopithecus cephus a= Moustached guenon____-----__ 2 Cercopithecus cit eee eee Diana monkey 2-3 eee 3 Ceropithecus diana roloway_———---—— pees eas Roloway monkey_-—_—_----~-~- 2 Cercopithecus neglectus—_—_ = De Brazza’s guenon_-_-______ 1 Ceropithecus nictitans petaurista______-_ Lesser white-nosed guenon___ 2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY MAMMALS—continued 95 PRIMATES—continued Scientific name Common name Number Cercopithecidae—Continued Cercopithecus sp 20. Ou eee West African guenon____--___ 1 Prythrocebus -pates.. 9 2 Peo Patas «monkey 2{s24s408. sunoes 1 Gymnopygaimaurus_—-_- - Moor monkeya— = ee 1 Macaca) 4rus mordags. 225225 22 Javan mracaque __-_-_________ 4 MaCciGonmnuUlatia =. 2 es ee Rhesus monkey={—-—-=-2-=—_— 8 Macaca nemestrina______--_-----------~- Pig-tailed monkey ___________ 9 Macaca philippinensis____-_---_--------- Philippine macaque ____--____ 5 Macacan silene seas a SUIS os Wanderoo monkey__--___-____ 2 MGCGGGs -8tNi CUE IOe SU ate EE eee Toque or bonnet monkey______ 1 IE COCHRSDECIOS@ ana as eee Red-faced macaque ___.__-___-~ 1 Mandnillussephine. ence. POE a Mandrills.225=_ etn Xone 1 IPUDLOMCONLOLUS eae en Soo Chacmase# +222 see aeeS 1 Hylobatidae: HALODGLES aC GUL iste ee ee ee eo Dee Sumatran gibbon=_=- 2a 1 Hylobates agilis < Hylobates lar pileatus_ Hybrid gibbon_-_____---_-__-- 1 Hylobates Rooloch 232 _ sss «epee Hoolockteibbon]=aa aa 1 Hylovatesmlar piledtisa 2 2 ee Black-capped gibbon____-_____ 1 Symphalangus syndactylus _------------- Siamang gibbon _____----_____ 1 Pongidae: Panttirojlodytes=2c2-. Sh) aan Chimpanzees.2 2 Bee ay es 2 Panstroglodytes. verwee Siew es nee West African chimpanzee_____ 2 PONG OP UDINGCUS seas ene ee Bornean orangutan <--_______- 1 Pongo pygmaeus abeliti_________-_-__-___~. Sumatran orangutan__________ 2 RODENTIA Sciuridae: Calloscumusufiniaysoniz.-=—-—-— = 2 Lesser white squirrel_________ 1 Citellus beecheyi douglasii______-_------- Douglas ground squirrel______ 4 Citellus tridecemlineatus__________---__- 13-lined ground squirrel_______ il Cynomys ludovicianus ____-------------- Plains prairie dog 40 PUIMASCULTUS A LCUCOSTUQIN = nn West African bush squirrel___ 3 GURCOMYSAUOLONS en a ee See lying 3squinrel ses 2 ee = ta Heliosciurus rufobrachium maculatus____ West African sun squirrel_____ 1 MOnMOLER MOND Satan ee ee Woodchuck or ground hog_-___ 5 IREVUONOI CO aan er eee Giant Indian squirrel_________ 1 Sciurus aberti______--- a iat Mh sh el tirana Abert’s squirrel_______________ 1 Sciurus niger neglectus_______---------_- Ox sg uinrels soe eee 1 STUHTUDSS SENET ES eee pa ee ee ers Eastern chipmunk____________ 2 Heteromyidae: Dapedoniys OF Ott Ordtkangaroo rat. — oa. ae 3 Cricetidae: Cricetomys gambianus_____--_----___--- Gambia pouched rat__________ 1 Mesocgicchis GQuratuses. oe Ss Golden hamster ~-___..--+_~__ 4 MACE OTSA ING QUSCCT oe oe eae ee ee ens Meddowsimouset]s6 es 2 Neotoma floridana attwateri______------ Round-tailed wood rat_-___-_~_ 2 Neotoma pennsylvanica ~_-_____---_----- Allegheny wood rat___________ 1 Onye ONY S DGS UIs ae eee ee PRICE HBG ee 2 Peromyscus crinitus auripectus___------- Golden-breasted mouse__----_- i 06 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 MAMMALS—continued. RODENTIA—continued Scientific name Common name Number Cricetidae—Continued Peromyscus leucopus.--4 2 White-footed or deer mouse___ 1 Sigmodon Nispidus2s2e es ee eae ee Cotton: Tat Shtee See eae 3 Muridae: Mats musculus. oe eee ewe Te White and other domestic mice. 13 Hystricidae: Acanthion brachyunum 2S 2 Malay porcupine) si-2s22 Ses 3 ALNCruUnus O[TiCanus =~ oe West African brush-tailed por- cupine. eae ee 3 Thecurus crassispinis sumatrae__-__--~- Thick-spined porcupine _______ 1 Myocastoridae: MijOCastor.COupus—- 2 eee Coypu =... -_ = 424n2- sate 7 Cuniculidae: Cuniculus paca virgatus_________-.__-__~- Central American paca_-..___ i Dasyproctidae : Dasyprocita prymnolopha._22— 2-2) 22 Acoutiincet Se i oie 2 Dasiyprocita punctatas eee es Speckled agouti-233) 4 Chinchillidae: Chinchilla (Chinchilla eee ee Chinchilla =2 ee eee =n § Caviidae: Cavia porcelluss = — sare sr ee ee Guinea. pig_____.. == == 3 Dolichotis patagona_____ 2 Patagonian cavy---=-=----—-= 1 LAGOMORPHA Leporidae: Oryctolagus cuniculus_—_—----~---=-===== Domestie= rabbits==— = 5 Sulvilagus \flomdanus. 2-22 ee Eastern cottontail rabbit-____- 1 ARTIODACTYLA Bovidae: Am MOtndgus lenUid=a== ee ee Aoudad. =... = eee 15 AN OU STELGUSON == Sa eee Mountain.32102. 1 Bt00s OOUTUS 22 =* a on ee 2 (Gaur) eee 3 k : American bison._.—---___. 13 Bison Vis0n enna eee bison. See 1 MS OSTA GACIUS Seen wi ee. a ees ae es Zepu = 3 22 eee 4 BOSE GAT US sa ea ee Domestic cow (Jersey) —---- mete | ES OS AU GAUT UGS ot ee ee Texas longhorn steer________- i BGSCOURUS eS Pe ee ee eae West Highland or Kyloe cattle. 3 TB OSHC CULTS a eters a ae eee ee British Park cattle 5 BUC alUsOUOCUS a = ee a eto Water. biital oes eee Bee tO. COD TOA eRINCUS 2 Se oe ee eee ores Homestic goat. — = 1 COD ORS TOUT CO eee rears Ibex 1 Cephalophus maxwellui_____-_______-__. Maxwell’s duiker_____-________ 1 Cephalophus DU CT ee REE la eee Black duikers— 2 aaa 1 Cephalophus nigrifrons._____ __- Black-fronted duiker__________ 2 Hemitragus jemlahicus_________________ Tey at 22 Si a 5 Orcotragus oneotraguenn= eee eee South African klipspringer___. 1 Onc 0CISO (OUNECLENS ane sae ere Ibean beisa oryx_-----__-___- 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY MAMMALS—continued ARTIODACTYLA—continued 97 Scientific name Common name Number Bovidae—Continued OnyRalCuCOry a - oo Arabian) Oryx a= eee 3 OURS oe OTC Beer ne Woolless or Barbadoes sheep-_. 1 OUISECULODOU CG sa a ae ee ee Moutlons= a a ae? 4 Poephagus grunniens=—-- = = Wakao Sone Soe Se ee 6 TASCUAOLS IE NOY ONT en ee eS Bharal or blue sheep_—_---___ 1 NOS. QR he ee eee Wild) bors es ee Ge SU TLCC TUS NCO eh ae a ee eee as Africans butial Qe = aaa ee ee 2 RAULOUOUUS OOTY Epa eae ee UD) Wan Wyatt 2 cP g ate a payed 3 Cervidae: PALE Sa 0 ta ee ea AKI Sid CO eee ea eee ele 5 CenvusiCangdensig= = ee ee Americanne lke sas seen 5 Cervusielanhuse TG SNES ne Red? deer 22 ae a eae 4 CERUUS UP UOT =a a eee ee eee Japaneses deere. =a sae 3 Cervus nippon manchuricus____-__--_---~ Dybowsky deers. 2 Mallow Geer ance seeks Bewaeeee 9 PUG MOUND aerate fans fallow deer___---_.-__- 11 Odocoileus-virgintanis=e. Sas = Virginia deers. 02> = ee saat 5 Giraffidae: Giraffe camelopardalig__-—— 2 es Nubian ciraite= se 4 GAO nC ULCUl Ut ee Reticulated giraffe__.__._._____- i Camelidae: COMES MUGCITIGNUS== == 8 ee Bactrianwcam elses eee as ae 3 COnvetis ar omedariuge = 2 ee ree Single-humped camel__________ alt POET: i a Se ee eee ee DOLE ok es a ee 2 EMA OLAMAGUGNICO= == oe ee Guan COBeees. S ae ea eae 1 HG ONG DO COS ra ad re ANE TOE 2) Ae eee ak area eeret oe es 2 WAGUPNO UI CUONG te eo eee SOE Eee Wied === eS eee 1 Tayassuidae: ICCOTEPONOGULATUS Be = ee ee ee Collared! peccary==2=*======" i Suidae: Es COUSSAIUCUUTUSSO = a ee ee IB ADILUSS Ae ee ee ebeh ey: Phacochoerus aethiopicus aeliani__.__-___ East African wart hog_-----_- 3 Hippopotamidae: Choeropsis: Wberiensiae 22-2 es Pigmy hippopotamus_____-____ 5 Hippopotamus amphibius______-_---___- Eippopotamus 2s 2 PERISSODACTYLA Equidae: Hquus burchellii antiquorum__-_._.._--- Chapman’sezebras 2 TOTTI TRA peng ae Grevy’s zebrai22_..—2 Bees a Bouus-grevyi= Crested tinamou or martineta. 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 99 BirpDs—continued PELECANIFORMES Scientific name Common name Number Pelecanidae: Pelecanus conspicillatus______-__-------- Australian pelican=<--=.22s2—— 2 Pelecanus erythrorhynchus__----------~-- Wihite, pelicanse= ess 5 Pelecanus occidentalis 222 u3*+__-__-_- Brown pelican) —=22"222s=422== 5 Pelecanus onocrotalus _-_--__-._--_-------- European pelican___---_--_--- 2 Phalacrocoracidae: Phalacrocoraz auritus albociliatus___-__- Farallon cormorant..__-__---~- 1 fregatidae: Pregatavaricltess bees tess Lesser’ frigate: bird==_ =+--2=== 1 CICONIIFORMES Ardeidae: ATdeG= NCTOdiGS eee eee PEs oe Great. blues heron#=2232=222-—2 2 Ardead- OCCIdENtGligat See asl ee eeees Great white heron______------_- al Boretta: thutlaaas ase ee ee eeeeees Snowy -eeret\ =] ee ae 5 UOTIA GH CLCTULCA = ao bt 2 Shee sees Little=bluesheron]=—==22--4_. il -Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_______---- Louisiana’ heron=——2 25-2222" * 2 Notophoyx novaehollandiae_____-_------- White-faced heron_----—----__ 1 Nyctanassa violacea cayennensis___-__--- South American ysellow- crowned night heron__---__-_ 1 Nycticorax nycticorar naevius__-__-.---- Black-crowned night heron__-_ 20 Cochleariidae: Cochlearius cochlearius.——__-_--_---=- Boat hbiioheronee ss. 2 ee sa - = 1 Ciconiidae: Dissound-episcopus 22222 Woolly-necked stork_------~-- 1 EGiS* CIN eT eUs Sate eek ws eS esse Malay-“stork = s=<2="e"=e2s "== 2 Leptoptilus crumeniferus -_---_---------- Maraboufs2<22 43S 1 Leptoptilus dubinelt Loon oN ese Indian-adjutante 2 1 Lento niiluse4 GUONICUS eens an ae hesser-adjutante 2 Ma/ClLETAC TOINCHICONG Bo 2 oe oo eee Woodmibiste. sce nas eae i Threskiornithidae: AU OLUOT OS Coe ee er ee one Roseate spoonbill__---_-_-_--- 4 Guanasa 22S ee Soe _ eee Wihitesibis =22====5.— seo aaa 8 Guarwcalea5S Gs word 222 Se Hybrid white and scarlet ibis-___ 1 GUGT ORT UOT Oe ee eee Searlebe ibis ens eae ee 1 Threskiornis aethiopica_________._--__--- SEG EYE | A ONS) es a 1 Threskiornis melanocephala___---------~- Black-headed ibis==-=====---== 4 Threskiornis spinicollis_________-------_ Straw-necked: 101s= 2 Phoenicopteridae: Phoenicopterus chilensig______-___------- Chilean” flamingo--=>—--——=-=— 1- Phoenicopterus-ruber.——— = Cuvantstamingo=— 3 ANSERIFORMES Anhimidae: ORUUN OCHO TOS Maeno stale ne Ee White-cheeked screamer_-_-_-—___ 1 HURT SSDS SE Ee Crested screamer]! 222. === {/ 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 BIRDs—continued ANSERIFORMES—Ccontinued Scientific name Common name Number Anatidae: AGDxS DONS 0 22S SAE HS mel Wood. duck] sas ease eG ANAS OVASILICNStS 2 SSS BS Ae ese Brazilian tealoe 22 ae my kD ANASHAOMESTICR =. Ee Ewa ee Pekin- duckies Anis 25 ANAS DLULYTNYNCHOS ee tees ieee eee Mallard). -diick2v2ihe sees 61 PAY SIIVUO TUT CS aw oe ae ore Black duck ---- 228s eserws 7 ANSE LOT; EONS pe ee ei et eS American white-fronted goose. 1 Anser cinereus domestica________--__--~ Toulouse: goose ______ = Saas z Anseranus, semipalmata 228 2 Australian pied goose_________ 2 BrantacanagdenstS== eee Canada gooses=- = aes 37 Branta canadensis occidentalis__-________ White-cheeked goose__-________ 26 Branta canadensis * Chen caerulescens... Hybrid Canada goose X blue P0086. = = eh ee 2 Branta Nutchinsit=— =22. see Hutchin’s: goose2=224 == ee 4 Branta hutchinstt minima__—--==—--—.___ Cackling) goose__=== 4235s 8 Catring SmosChata= 2s ta ee ee Muscovy duck 2 16 Cereopsis novaehoillandiae .____--_--__-~ Cape Barren goose___-------~ a Chen atlantica= = 3-5-5 ee Seed svertl Snow, j200S@2 2 = 5225) eee 2 Chen caerulescens: ee eee Blue. goose: = see 2 CGhenopis atiatae as ss ee Block iswan2- ee ae. | Chloephaga leucoptera______-_-_________- Magellan goose_____-__-_-_-__ 1 CUONODSISMCYGCNOLUCS2 = Domestic goose —__---------_ 2 Cyoniws, colum ianUsl = = ee ee Whistling, swan 3 Conus MeElanconipnus==—==- === Black-necked Swan _—__------ 1 Cygnus Clot Ss = ee eee Mute swan =. =-*- = 2s 3 DOUG CCUG a 2 Se eee Pintail,_.2 2 eo eee 8 DOR eS UUUCHUE G2 Chilean) pintail=2—- Saaee cee, | Dendrocygna, Gn0Cne@ a= 22 ee eee Black-billed tree duck __--~-~- 3 Dendrocygna autumnalis______-_-_—~------ Black-bellied tree duck __--__ 2 Dendnocygna viduaras ae ee es White-faced tree duck____--~~- 4 Dendronessa, galerieulata- == Mandariniduck2 ae MOneECOHOmenicangsa222) oe) ae Baldpatecesss.. 22 eee 1 ING TU OTTUTUES hoe as Spe ea Lesser’ Scaup2=-=..=— = e222 e if! VE CUAL GC OUUG Tigi ea lai Ring-necked . duek———_ == 3 NELLiON COTOlinense =a) ss ee Green-winged teal____-______ ty Lb NELHOMUOTINOSUMN 2 tak a a ee Baikal) \teale222 3 = sae 5 NATO COS [ea eae Sas a a eR ae Hybrididuck = eee aft INDI OCUS CNET COALS a at us ae ee Red-head’ duck 2 NGULOCE VAlisinenid — 2 eee Canvasback duck=2--= 1. Pilactexcanagica== =. = ee Hmperor /goose=— == =e 3 ‘Querquedulasdiscors =.= a ee Blue-winged. teal__—-—-_—.--_— 6 FALCONIFORMES Cathartidae: Cathantesaue > 22- eee Turkey vultures ae 2 COnagyps CU QUUSa> enn ee ee Black vulture. 2 2 Gymnogyps californianus___-----_------ California condor_——_-—---—--- 1 Valiur onypnius2 eo. ee eee ee Andean condor 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY BIRDS—continued FALCONIFORMES—continued 101 Scientific name Common name Number Accipitridae: Aiccipiter striatus velons. 29352) Sharp-shinned hawk___--_____ 2 Buteo ..bovedlisssee sant vet Red-tailed hawki2 2s soe_ 2ie 7 Buteo. linéatus eleganse as. Southern red-shouldered hawk. 1 Buteo lineatus_ lineatusas esee Red-shouldered hawk_-.-----__ 1 Buteo melanoleucus-_£_s2_.—--_____-___ South American buzzard eagle. 2 Burcouplatyplternuses oes eos Broad-winged hawk—__--_-__- 1 US ULCON MOCCILOCHTOUS 22 Pe ae Red-backed buzzard__-_______ 3 Gypohierar angolensis___-—~----_______- Fish-eating vulture___________ 1 Gynsinueppelline sans shew Ruppell’s) vultures 1 Haliaeetus leucocephalus_________--__-_-- Bald. eagletes uit hs _ serine ios q Haliastur Se Imperial: -pigeon: SUe2ei2*— 2s es) 1 Gallicolumba luzonica ~~~ ---_----.--~_- Bleeding-heart dove_—__-_-_---_ 2 GOUnD= CTAStA tas Base OS es Soke es Sclater’s crowned pigeon_---_~_ 1 Gourd —wictonia 22S. 2 Tate eS Victoria crowned pigeon__---_ 1 Geptotila- Cassini So Se See a Sees GCassin's- dove aa eae 1 WC RLOCH OG Wil CLG nee eee ene Scaled piceonss=ss2 === il Muscadivores paulina__-_- “ee eee Celebian imperial pigeon_-__-~-_ al Sireptopelia chinensis—o = Asiatic collared dove__-------- 2 Streptopelia chinensis ceylonensis____--_- Lace-necked or ash dove_--—-- 3 Streptopelia tranquebarica_____-_-_-----~ Blue-headed ring dove_----~ eer. yy Tor tur TiSOris'=—— = = == 2 a ees Ring-necked dove__-------___- 33 VCHTACLS CUTACULOUG Sn en South America mourning dove. 5 Zenaidura macroura__ 222. === Mourning dove={===--—{=_—+— 2 PSITTACIFORMES Psittacidae: FAVA DOVNIS UUGNCE en ee Peach-faced love bird__-__-__ 2 AGLDOTNIS DUllaria —2 2 Sa Red-faced love bird__-__.__—~ 2 AMUZONG CCSHUG——- toe. Se ee Blue-fronted parrot ______-___ 1 Amazond auropatliiata____----..----_- Yellow-naped parrot_________- 2 Amazona ochrocephala —_-__- 2382-22322 Yellow-headed parrot______-_-_ 2 ANOLON GMO OUT a ee ee ee Double yellow-headed parrot— 3 Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus____--------~ Hyacinthine macaw—-—-——----— 1 PACE CLE LAUT UD aoa er ne i eee Yellow and blue macaw__--_-~ il ATG Macao} —2_ === = eS Red, blue, and yellow macaw__-. 1 AT OLING WLC O DS a een ene Cuban- conurel=——— ase 1 ATGUNGa DETUNGe. ae Gray-headed conure__-_--_____ 1 Calyptorhynchus magnificus.__---------- Banksian cockatoo_-----__--~ fa CONGCODSIS) WiONGs ae a eee Lesser vasa parrot-_____---_- 1 Cyanopsitiacus spigi__-_=--=-=*-—____ Spies! Machw—s=asss2 ase ee a DALCOLDSIS: SANQUINCUS= = — a eee Bare-eyed cockatoo__-________ 2 Helectus pectoralis —-—-_-__.--_- Ayana E\clectusn patrote==———2= =e il Holophus rosevcapillus 2 Roseate cockatoo 22214322222 2 KORG. CLOG =e Set Beene ee White cockaito02s4sss-4s2522 2 Kakatoe ducrops=2cwae se eee Solomon Islands cockatoo__-___ 2 Kakatoe gilertiast. 2s sees Large sulphur-crested cocka- tO08 23 obese ok een 2 Kakatoe leadbeateri____---.------------. Leadbeater’s cockatoo_-—----- 1 KUKOtOE MOLUCCENSIS So ee Great red-crested cockatoo_-___ 1 KRakatoe sulphupeds wane pe Lesser sulphur-erested cocka- TOG2 oe ee Eine Tenner ae ones al Lorius, domiceliasiees Heese 2 oo Rajah, Tory stent setae 2 UGOTAUS CUTTS Se eee ee ee REG TOR ya in ee ee 1 725362—47——_8 103 104 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Brrps—continued PSITTACIFORMES—continued Scientific name Common name Number Psittacidae—Continued VOTIUS HKOTAUUS 222s Soke nse ee 8 ‘Red-sided™ lory22= = ees ay Melopsittacus undulatus_____-__---_----- Grass) paroquet === Ss 5 Myopsitta monachus_—--—_--—=---.______ Quaker yparoquet_— 2 ese 1 NONGOYUS NANAAY 22S eS ee ee dS Nanday paroquet_____--____-~ 1 Nestor notavilig 2 3 a eee eee Wea 22) Oe eee ee Sa al Pionites ranthomera___—_----~---------- Amazonian caique__________ vay 2 'Psitiacuianeupoinig2 eee Red-shouldered paroquet--____ 3 Psitlacula@umkrameni= =o ees ee Kramer’s paroquet_-_________ 2 Psittacula longicauda.2 22s a ee oe Long-tailed paroquet______-__ 1 CUCULIFORMES Cuculidae: . Budynamis scolopaceus______-__--------- Koel) here sce eee 1 STRIGIFORMES Tytonidae: Tyto-albe-pratincola. 22 Bath owl Ss ee 5 Strigidae: Bubo vinginianus..._ = a eee eee Great horned owl________.---__ 9 ietupa: hevune=. =e ee Malay: fish owl 1 NayCted. 24/Ct@d Be Oe PEN een Snowy :ow]-2 eee tl Otus-astoz2 Dene SVG) DODT Ne Screech: owl 2 eee 1 Strancariacinie eee Barred =0wle 223s s8_ See 6 TROGONIFORMES Trogonidae: Pharomachrus mocino___--------------- Quetzal a Ae ee 3 CORACIIFORMES Alcedinidae: DCEO mi Gig GS Paes -2"sL== 8 Macrochelys temminckii-_-_--__----------~- Alligator snapping turtle----- 1 Testudinidae: Chrysemys marginata___-_-------------- Western painted turtle_-_----- 5 Chrysemys. picta.....2l02 22 UL 2k neue Painted: turtles... 22s fe 3 Clemmys guttatals See Weber Spotted: ‘turtle 222os2 01 as 6 Clemmuys iisculntan se be See Wood turtles--=- 22. Sees 6 Cyclemys amboinensis __-___------------- Kura -kura’ box turtle=ss22= 2 Geoclemys subtrijuga _.._---____-------. Siamese field turtle__-.._------ 1 Geoemyda. mannt 12-9222 SUL) 25.4.2. Costa Rican terrapin-----_--- 3 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 REPTILES—continued TESTUDINATA—Ccontinued Scientific name Common name Number Testudinidae—Continued Grautenys 0arv0urt ee Barbour’ssturtle===2 +=. 6 Kimibys eT 0802222520 OUR a eee African hingeback turtle--____ 3 Mataciemys centirata= 22 Diamond-back turtle_-_------- 24 Pseudemys concinna =~ -+-—- =~ =-=-2--=- Cooter. BENE aa 3 Pseudemys elegans2 4 eS Cumberland terrapin___------_- 6 Pseudemys-OTnata 222s. lees Lae Central American water turtle. 1 PSCURCINYS TUGOSO 2a oe. Se ee eee Cuban*terrapin2 Sse a | TETrRADeNesSPites ae ae ae) ee ee eee Mexican box turtle___._______ 2 TREY ONCE I CONOUUTUC eee eee ee Box: turtle 2222 eee 50 Terrapenesmaqote ae eens een. Wee ie Sere Morida box turtles 4 Testudongenti culate Sei eneeen South American land tortoise__ 2 EStULAG ECDRID DUN ea eee Duncan Island tortoise_______ fe TEStudo NGOCERSTR Se ES Seine Hood Island tortoise__--_---- 3 TCSTULOTCOTNACTS eee ee ae etn eee Smee ae Soft-shelled land tortoise___-_- i RESEUAORUACUNG he ae re a ee ees Albemarle Island tortoise______ 6 Trionychidae: AO OCR ICT OC mre nee eee ee eres 2 eee Soft-shelled turtle ___--__--____ 6 Amyda triunguis____-- EEN Ra eg LS te West African soft-shelled tur- tle. Jo eee 1 AMPHIBIA CAUDATA Salamandridae: Trihuisspyrnho (asters = - Ss ene Red salamanders-__-2224 2-222 3 PEXUULUS TOTOSUS=2 = ae Giant newts. eee 2 Triturus. vulganisvess Sef ent eT io Common salamander_____-~__- 1 Amphiumidae: Amp invan@ MCCS = ew eer are th Blind eel or congo snake_____ if Ambystomidae: Ambystoma maculatwm. 22s 22) Spotted salamander ________--~ 2 Ambystoma, trigninwm.—_ 42 AXOLOt ies e-eeb he Le 24 SALIENTIA Dendrobatidae: Atelonus stelenent = ieee ee eee Black /atelopuSs=8=5- 2=4ee8 30 ALELODUSHURTIUS CrUCIGCT === = Yellow atelopus-—=-—-- 22s 2 Dendrovates Wunatus- =e eae Arrow-poison frog_—______---__ 3 Bufonidae: SAE OF IVC TA COMUIULS oe en Common) toad==="=2> =saiee 12 BULOe CM PUSUS = Faas este Me 2 Sapo ‘de concha=s=s-2 ====—s= 8 Bf O Mars 2 eae ee ee Marine’ toad. —..-»*=i._ epee 5 Biufommellocepialus mares =. ee ee Cuban giant toad.“ Ser 3 Ceratophrydae: CejatopnryssoTnatda-2 2-3 ee Horned froguc+etaiese eee 2 Hylidae: ACES ON AUAUS een OS ys EES tle Cricket: frog 2222 See 5s 3 ELUM CTAG CU CT aa ae Tree frog a8 0. nen 6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 111 AMPHIBIA—continued SALIENTIA—continued Scientific name Common name Number Pipidae: Pind: GMenicang 22 We oe Fe Subinanistoad-—-- === 12 BNCTIOD WS MUU CUS ee ee ee ere ee African clawed frog_—______ BY} Ranidae: FELTED EC LCS OCUGTUE ne en ar ee ee ee Bullfrog ere eee ees 4 PUI CLUNULLEN 8 ae ee ee Green frogs ee Ses 3 POLO OCCIDILALIS tet te eee Sn West African bullfrog__--____ 1 EQOIUEE PU DUCTUS De eae weer ates Fees Eeensetr ees Beopard 1hogee ee eae eer ee 15 Rana syluanica === == WOOd *£r0p ee Se ees 4 FISHES AMnyOsemion 1OUStT Ges ss ee Ibyne-tailed fish’ 222 ase at IANS WCC eee ee Clown barb. 222) See 8 BES EL TEU IES MES ULATUCLUTR OTE AL Sar eer ea a Ce NI ey Ge 22 COLISSILST GUT CTS Saeed CEOS aU EL en) Suk Coldhsht sens! kee ware 35 CUNT USTOLICH Sao oS rae ee ee Snake heags: tire eee a C077) CORDS) SP eae eet ey ee A @aitifish te sesseveroteue nate ne 2 DONIOL Nalavanieus==—- == SRneDe A ERR Blue? Gani spent ona 1 PRONTON NCTA Oe 2 es eee Zebray? fish. ao oe 8 Gymnocorymbus. ternetzi_______.....--..—. Black tetas 2 ne 5 PLEMAGTONUNUWS SP ota a ee ee ee eee Tetra Buenos Aires__-________ 2 HU PNESSOLOTY CON: InnNest- 2 Neon tetra gn she sate By KOU DLODLETIULS ~O1CUTT RIS PEG IASS) | Gath S eee eee ee ee 2 BCUIStCSe- TEUCULAUUS == 8) Guppy tsa eee Ba ee 100 Lepidosinen: “paradora. =. 2— eee ees South American lungfish... 2 NTE UCL OIL Se oh BE ONE ee) Be Cuban wlimia===) 233 es 10 UG CTODOMUS SDs fe eS a ee Paradise fishes 14 MIPS ORCI: OE SE EE ee ee eee eee 6 MGIC ELS DEMO) Sa = eee ee VAT CEOTAV i ta Ol hiya eee reese 20 PLO LUPOCCUUULS Seine NITED BEE fon Reg im CONE ee Gab ahah Ake 20 Rintvypocciius smacniatwvs = eee Goldplaties 222 2a eat ert tees 12 PICCOSLOMALS CRD) 2 es 8 ee ee, Bee Armored. ca tish- a= 22 1 PETA SUC ULM TELL LO UE ae ae ee tN A et ed ie ee a See eons 2s 1 IPTOptOpLeiits) GNNeClensa 22 se African) lingiish===s 22-2 == al 3) ELCRODILYULM, SCOLGT Cra ee eee, Ange). Ais ees eee ee 1 Serrasalmus: “ternetet_ S20 - = - ee ee Piranha or cannibal fish_____ il PEIROHIG TUISLOM) UCC TI = earn oy er et Blue. couramizes= se are al Z ; Sword tail se a 2 al NAL OMMOTUES, CULCT re ace aoe ee re Fine eee ee 8 ARACHNIDS HAUG OUCCHUS) INL CLON Saas ee ee Black widow spider___.__._____ 1 EY CUTLASS en ee ‘Tar anit pee ea ee ee 2 Cenirunoidesrgraciiisus&. 22s ae Mexican brown scorpion______ 1 INSECTS BlQ0enay Spi Sa See SS Giant ‘cockroach 122 = ees 100 112 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 MOLLUSKS Sctentific name Common name Number ACKGHNGaChiting=— = eee Giant land sha eee 2 SUMMARY Animalsvon Nand. JULY 15 104 ee ee eae ee eee 2, 623 Accessions, during’ the yeat 2-25. ee 1, 108 Total number of animals in collection during the year______________ 8, 731 Removals for various reasons such as death, exchanges, return af animals ion GeDOSit, iet@ee: cae ee 1,178 In, collection ondune SO), 194 Gee a ee 2, 553 STATUS OF COLLECTION } Class Species eae Class Species Srl Mammals: 2-9-2022. 522-253 211 618: || Insects#s-22-et iss. eS 1 100 Birds eet eens 337 O54 PIMOluSks@ tes = ae ee 1 2 Reptiles! 2s. re se ee ae 98 423))|\i- Arachnids: 22:20 Ss22_ ae 3 4 Amphibians! s2s2ss2ss-aes-s= 23 177 ————— |—_———— Wishs22- 2's techies socceoaeee 27 295 T Otal-ssesseeee eee 701 2, 553 Respectfully submitted. W. M. Mann, Director. Dr. A. WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8 REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: The Astrophysical Observatory comprises two divisions: (1) The Division of Astrophysical Research which is devoted to a study of solar radiation, and (2) the Division of Radiation and Organisms which investigates the effects of radiation upon organisms. ‘The Ob- servatory is supported largely by Congressional appropriation, amounting in this fiscal year to $51,039, and in part by private funds, The equipment and housing of both divisions have remained nearly unchanged during the year. (1) DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH Work at Washington.—In addition to the usual routine of correct- ing, recomputing, and verifying the solar observations as received from the three field stations (Montezuma, Chile; Table Mountain, Calif.; and Tyrone, N. Mex.), a tabulation was made, after critical study, summarizing the solar record for the calendar year 1945. These values add another year to the great table of volume 6 of the Annals referred to in last year’s report. Progress has also been made in the continued search for possible improvements in solar-constant instru- mentation and methods. A new vacuum bolometer, designed by L. B. Clark, technologist of the Observatory, is in preparation. This new design will eliminate the gradual loss of sensitivity which we have noted in the past arising from certain impurities in the vacuum chamber. Reference was made in last year’s report to a contract, signed in June 1945, with the Office of the Quartermaster General, Army Service Forces, under the terms of which the Observatory is to make a detailed study of sun and sky radiation at Camp Lee, Va., as part of extensive tests in progress there to determine the causes for the deterioration of tents and tent fabrics. It is known that radiation from the sun and sky falling upon exposed fabrics over extended periods is a factor which hastens deterioration in the fabrics. Practically nothing is known, however, of the amount of radiation required, nor of the part 113 114. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 of the spectrum most active, in the degradation. The development of suitable instruments and methods for this radiation study at Camp Lee, the installation of the equipment, and the organization of the observing program occupied the time of most of the staff for several months. The type of instrument adopted is a special form of the sen- sitive, quick-acting thermoelement which Mr. Clark has developed and used in many lines of research. Hight copies of this instrument, all automatically recording, were prepared under Mr. Clark’s direc- tion, and are now in successful operation at Camp Lee. Special glass filters, hemispherical in shape, are used to restrict the instrument to the measurement of radiation in known parts of the spectrum. De- scription of these instruments is given in a report soon to be issued. Dr. Abbot has continued his researches correlating solar activity with weather changes, and has published two articles on the subject during the year. Publication of Dr. Arctowski’s studies of terrestrial and solar at- mospheric circulation has been delayed. Dr. Arctowski has uncovered certain interesting phases of the subject which he feels require further study. Work in the field—Notwithstanding the continued handicap of manpower shortage, observations were made on every available day at all three field stations until February 1946. At that time the Tyrone station was closed because of the resignation of S. C. Warner as director. Since the sky conditions at Tyrone have been progressively less favorable during the past 4 years, probably owing to increased smoke and dust from mining operations in the general vicinity, the closing of this station is not too greatly regretted. At the end of the fiscal year arrangements were nearly completed to install the Tyrone equipment temporarily at a wet, sea-level location in Florida where valuable observations can be made concerning the transmission of radiation through water vapor and related problems. The program of observations of sun and sky radiation at Camp Lee, Va., begun in December 1945, is still in progress. The observations are made largely by personnel of the Quartermaster Board working under the direction of Mr. Hoover. ‘This has necessitated frequent trips by Mr. Hoover to Camp Lee to install, supervise, and inspect the work. From these Camp Lee measurements, a great volume of information is accumulating concerning the kind and amount of radiation, for each hour of each day, that falls upon the tents and exposed panels. These data will be summarized and published at intervals. The first report is expected to appear shortly. It is con- fidently hoped that these measurements will help to explain the causes of exposed fabric deterioration. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY "15 In August 1945 Dr. Abbot spent several weeks at Mount Wilson, Calif., testing his new radiometer and developing plans for improved apparatus for measuring the energy spectra of stars. (2) DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS (Report prepared by Dr. Harl 8S. Johnston, Assistant Director of the Division) Project 1. Photosynthesis—For the accurate determination of carbon dioxide absorbed by green plants in the process of photo- synthesis it is necessary to correct for the amount of carbon dioxide eliminated in respiration. Before many of the fundamental prob- lems arising in this study can be solved it is absolutely necessary to improve the accuracy of the apparatus designed for the measure- ments of minute changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide sur- rounding the plant. During the past year much time has been given to this work and many experiments carried out. Respiration experi- ments have been run with barley seedlings, and small animals such as the cockroach, cricket, and grasshopper. A most interesting and unexplained respiration rhythm has been discovered in the cockroach. However, this phenomenon as well as an apparent water-vapor effect cannot be fully explained until more work is completed on this delicate and highly sensitive apparatus. Project 2. Plant growth—tThe study of plant growth under con- trolled artificial conditions of mineral nutrition, illumination, tem- perature, and humidity has been continued. The experiments carried out on wave-length balance indicated a need for improvement in the technique used. Further work along this line is being pursued. Most of the work under this general project has centered around the problem of the role of the environment in the growth processes of cereal seedlings. The effects of radiation, which constitute the pri- mary problem, have been found to depend upon other environmental factors, such as temperature, water supply, humidity, and chemical composition of substrate so that it has become necessary to evaluate the importance of these. Some of the observations and tentative conclusions from these as yet incomplete experiments are listed: a. Development of seedling as a whole.—In the growth processes of grass seedlings a sharp distinction must be made between the rate of growth and the ultimate amount of growth. These two properties appear to be antagonistic in the sense that the slower the rate of development of a given organ, the longer does growth continue and the greater is the final size attained. The rate of water absorption appears to be a determining factor in controlling the growth processes; the effects of certain other environ- 116 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 mental factors can be interpreted as resulting from an influence upon the water uptake. b. Growth of coleoptile—A marked effect of temperature upon the growth inhibition of the oats coleoptile by light has been observed. Below 25° C. the inhibition is independent of temperature; between 25° and 30° the inhibition effect becomes smaller as the temperature increases; above 30° there is no inhibition and possibly a slight stimu- lation by light. These statements apply, of course, only to the specific conditions of intensity and wave length which have been studied. An improved thermostat is being constructed so that the experiments can be extended with greater precision. b c. Root.—A very interesting effect of light upon root growth has been noted. Roots which are caused, by mechanical restraint, to grow in a horizontal direction elongate at their normal rate in dark- ness, but are greatly inhibited by light. In addition to the interest in the mechanism by which this result might be caused, it is noted that red light is effective, indicating the presence of a pigment which absorbs these wave lengths. d. Cells.—Histological studies of the mesocotyl have been initiated in order to correlate the gross effects with the cellular development of this organ. e. Technique—In cultures of seedlings at high humidity and tem- perature a complication is introduced by the abundant development of molds. Considerable time has been devoted to devising techniques for inhibiting mold growth without influencing the development of the higher plants. As the result of tests with about 200 fungicidal chemicals a few have been found which appear promising. Steriliza- tion by ultraviolet irradiation also has been found effective. PERSON NEL On March 9, 1946, the Observatory lost by death Lyman A. Fillmen, instrument maker for the past 15 years. His place was filled on Apri! 8, 1946, by Darnel G. Talbert. A. G. Froiland, on military furlough since July 8, 1943, returned as astrophysical aid November 16, 1945. In February 1946 he was promoted to associate astrophysicist and transferred to Montezuma, Chile, where he assumed charge of the Montezuma station, replacing F. A. Greeley. Mr. Greeley returned to Washington in May, and at the close of the fiscal year was enjoying a well-earned vacation. He and Mrs. Greeley had for 3 years carried on the arduous work of the Chilean station unaided. In September 1945 A. F. Moore, director of the Tyrone station, ex- changed stations with S. C. Warner, director of the Table Mountain REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 117 station. In January 1946 Mr. Warner resigned to return to the teach- ing profession. PUBLICATIONS During the fiscal year the following publications on the work of the Observatory appeared: Axngot, C. G., Correlations of solar variation with Washington weather. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 13, July 1945. Apsor, C. G., 1945-1946 report on the 27.0074-day cycle in Washington precipi- tation. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 21, March 1946. Assor, C. G., Energy spectra of stars. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 104, No. 22, April 1946. AsboT, C. G., Hoover, W. H., and CuarK, L. B., A sensitive radiometer. Smithson- ian Mise. Coll., vol. 104, No. 14, August 1945. AvpricH, L. B., The solar constant and sunspot numbers. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 104, No. 12, July 1945. Respectfully submitted. L. B. Atpricu, Director. Dr. A. WreTMor®, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 9 REPORT ON THE LIBRARY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946: As the fiscal year 1945-1946 drew to a close, the library, as an organic part of the Smithsonian Institution, approached the hun- dredth anniversary of its founding on August 10, 1846, for service in “the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” To anyone to whom books are a perpetual source of exciting revela- tion of human experience and accomplishment, and of the working of men’s minds, a backward glance at the hundred years of the library’s history furnishes the outline for a richly colored picture of books in use in advancing the boundaries of knowledge. Section 8 of the Act of Organization provided for “the gradual formation of a library com- posed of valuable works pertaining to all departments of human knowledge,” and although this universality of aim was later modified, of necessity, the continuity of purpose in procuring “a complete collec- tion of the memoirs and transactions of learned societies throughout the world” has never been broken. The collection of this and similar important material, begun with the founding of the Institution and now forming part of the Smithsonian Deposit in the Library of Con- gress, has not been surpassed for size and completeness in the library world, while the working libraries built up at the Institution to serve immediately the Government bureaus it administers include many ex- ceptionally rich collections of material on special subjects. But even a hundred years ago, the acquisition of books alone was not the whole concern of the Institution in forming its hbrary. Secretary Henry was keenly interested in making it “a center of bibliographical knowledge” as well, and the first librarian, Charles C. Jewett, a man in advance of his time, was a pioneer in proposing and devising the schemes for cooperative cataloging which, as later developed, have done so much to facilitate both the scholarly and the popular use of libraries. He early recognized what the late Lord Rayleigh put so well when, many years later, in an address before the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, he said, “By a fiction as remarkable as any to be found in law, what has once been published * * * is usually spoken of as ‘known’ and it is often forgotten that 118 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 119 the rediscovery in the library may be a more difficult and uncertain process than the first discovery in the laboratory.” The importance of making this “rediscovery in the library” easy for serious students was never so urgently impressed upon librarians as during the late war, when libraries were overrun by research workers from the war agencies. Then as never before did both the excellencies and the deficiencies of library cataloging and of reference and biblio- graphical services come to light. Just how large a part books played in winning the war it is impossible to say, but many a tale could be told of the finding of a fact which, like the proverbial horseshoe nail in reverse, helped make victory possible. The Smithsonian library is gratified that it was so extensively used by the war agencies. It, in turn, received no small benefit from the experience gained in serving them, which is of especial value in making constructive plans for the improvement of its catalog and for the betterment of its service in general. VJ-day, coming as it did early in the fiscal year, made the year’s history one of conversion to the postwar activities of rehabilitation. Before the war was over, publications had already begun to come in from the liberated countries in Europe, and as the year advanced and shipping conditions improved, more and larger shipments of material that had accumulated abroad arrived. Through the International Exchange Service, 4,937 pieces were delivered to the library, in com- parison with 540 received the previous year. The accessions division recorded the receipt of 37,148 pieces alto- gether, an increase of more than 11,000 over the year before. In ac- cordance with routine procedure, all documents, dissertations, and other publications not immediately pertinent to the work of the In- stitution were sent directly to the Library of Congress and there were 9,162 of these, while the total number of volumes and parts cataloged or entered for the Smithsonian Deposit was 5,016. Among the 1,303 purchased books there were a number of out-of- print works which are noteworthy not so much for their rarity as be- cause they filled some special gap in the collections. A few of them were: The Game-birds and Water-fowl of South Africa, by Boyd R. Horsbrugh, 1912; Etching, an Outline of its Technical Processes and its History . . ., by Sylvester R. Koehler, 1885; Miniatures des Cing Siécles, 1920; A History of British Birds, by Francis O. Morris, 8 volumes, 1863-67; Icones Filicum Japoniae, by Masasuke Ogata, 7 volumes, 1928-36; A Voyage in the South Seas, in the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814, by Capt. David Porter, of the American Frigate, the H'ssea, 1823; Anders Zorn, Aquafortiste, by Axel L. Romdahl, 1923; Hand- buch der Entomologie, by Christoph W. M. Schréder, 3 volumes, 1925- 725362479 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 29; A Brief History of Old English Porcelain and its Manufac- tories . . ., by Louis M. E. Solon, 1903; Travels of the Jesuits, into Various Parts of the World: particularly China and the East- Indies ... Translated from the celebrated Lettres édifiantes & curieuses . . . To which is now prefixed, an Account of the Spanish Settlements, in America, with a general index to the whole work, by Mr. Lockman, 2d ed., 2 volumes, 1762; American Lace and Lace Makers, by Mrs. Emily Noyes Vanderpoel, edited by Elizabeth C. Bar- ney Buel, 1924; Arcana Entomologica, by John Obadiah Westwood, 1845; A Voyage Round the World, in the Years MDCCXL, I, I, III, IV, by George Anson, esq; now Lord Anson, Commander in Chief of a Squadron of His Majesty’s Ships, sent upon an Expedition to the South-Seas. Compiled from his Papers and Materials, by Richard Walter ... 5th ed., 1749. Gifts received were even more numerous than in the preceding year and numbered 4,103, exclusive of the Gilmore collection on vertebrate paleontology which arrived late in the year and has not yet been com- pletely counted. Mrs. Gilmore’s gift to the National Museum of the late Dr. Charles W. Gilmore’s private library on the subject of his special studies is an important one. Its 600 volumes and especially its hundreds of reprints and separates are invaluable to the work of the division of vertebrate paleontology where it will be housed as a part of the division’s sectional library. To the many other donors of useful books and papers the library is most grateful. Coming as they do from friends of the Institution all over the world they often supply needs in the collections that it would be otherwise difficult to fill. Toward the close of the fiscal year the Institution was so fortunate as to receive by transfer from the National Academy of Sciences about 850 parts of valuable old scientific serial publications needed for the completion of sets in the Astrophysical Observatory and the Museum libraries and to fill other lacunae in the collections. With the reestablishment of interrupted exchange relationships all over the world came also the opportunity to share in the rehabilitation of destroyed libraries. Several thousand pieces were withdrawn for this purpose from the library’s very large collection of duplicate serial parts, some 1,800 of them in response to specific requests from individual libraries for certain titles, but most of them to be used in combination with similar materials from other libraries collected and to be distributed by the American Book Center for War Devastated Libraries. It would be possible to do more of this very gratifying but time-consuming work, as well as other much-needed work with the duplicates, if the library staff were large enough so that a competent REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 121 member, with suitable assistance, could be put in full-time charge of the collections. The duplicates have never been fully organized nor thoroughly studied. They include much material that would be valu- able in arranging special exchanges with other libraries for compara- ble material. Since the termination of the WPA project under which an excellent beginning of their proper sorting and filing was made, it has not been possible to continue any systematic work on them, and the large annual additions that are made to the collections are almost wholly unarranged. The cataloging of purchased publications and of most of the other currently received material was well kept up, but there was little oppor- tunity to make additions to the union catalog of records of the older publications belonging to the bureau libraries, and none to make progress in reducing the huge “backlog” of incompletely or inaccurately cataloged books. The inadequacy and incompleteness of the catalogs in leading quickly to the information in the older material in the library was distressingly obvious during the war. The cataloging problem is a serious one, and the only satisfactory solution of it would seem to be to make it a special project organized and planned to be completed by a staff especially engaged to do it within a given period of time. Changes in the library’s personnel were the resignation of Mrs. Margaret L. O’Keef on November 2, 1945, and the appointment of Miss Lillian Treder to succeed her on June 17, 1946. The most urgent of the library’s needs continues to be more and better-arranged shelf room. The present overcrowding is extremely serious everywhere, and in the Natural History Building, current accessions can only be shelved by removing older publications and sending them to the inconveniently located and scattered bits of shelf space available in the attic stacks of the Arts and Industries Building. Both the books and the library service suffer badly from such an arrangement. ‘The questions of the hbrary’s housing throughout the Institution, and of its cataloging, taken together, have grown to consti- tute what amounts to a reorganizational problem. The opening year of the Institution’s second century would seem to be a most suitable time to look for its solution. 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 SUMMARIZED STATISTICS Accessions Total, recorde' Volumes valuimos June 30, 1946 Astrophysical Observatory (including Radiation and Organisms) ---.---_.----- 205 11, 920 iBuresmofAmerican) Ethnology = =- sa. saa a a re rere le 109 34, 314 MrearGallenyofeATtes bs mea 2. ee Se See ee eee ee ee 215 21, 697 National: Collection.of Hine :ATts 52 aes sen sen ee eee eee 414 10, 569 ING TATE IM DTS b ek eS 8 ee ee ee SS 2,772 236, 316 National ZoologicalsParks = os 22. oss ae eee eee eae 21 4,142 Smithsonian Deposit at the Library of Congress_-__-_._-----.----------------- 5 Pay f 577, 430 SS TaUA GELS OTR SAIN O LEN COS a a 285 31, 965 TO GaN sk eck ce ae ee ee mre re Re NS ren Sem 5, 278 928, 353 Neither incomplete volumes of periodicals nor separates and reprints from periodicals are included in these figures. Exchanges Newexchangesiarnan pede: se 2 ie oe oe ee ee eee 262 91 of these were assigned to the Smithsonian Deposit. Specially requested publications received_____------------------------- 6, 259 891 of these were obtained to fill gaps in the Smithsonian Deposit sets. Cataloging Volumes and pamphiets ‘cataloged 22222 ses 2 eee eee 6, 124 Gards\added to’catalogs and shelf lists#=0=) Saeed ae ee 25, 3826 Periodicals Periodical parts:entered] 41 2 en Ee ee eee 12, 947 Of these 3,399 were sent to the Smithsonian Deposit. Circulation loans: of booksand periodicals22~ 3 ss St iss ee eee 10, 223 This figure does not include the very considerable intramural circula- tion of books and periodicals assigned to sectional libraries for filing, of which no count is kept. Binding Volumes: Sentyto.the.bind ery2-= + eee 840 Volumes repaired in the Museum__.__- — = eee 1, 010 Respectfully submitted. Leiia F, Cuarg, Librarian. Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 10 REPORT ON PUBLICATIONS Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publica- tions of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government branches under its administrative charge during the year ended June 30, 1946. The Institution published during the year 16 papers in the Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents and pamphlet copies of 23 articles in the Report appendix, 1 Annual Report of the Secretary, 2 special publications, and a reprint of 1 special publication. The United States National Museum issued two Annual Reports, 6 Bulletins, and 5 Proceedings papers. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report, 1 Bulletin, 2 volumes of a five-volume Bulletin, and 1 publication of the Institute of Social Anthropology. The National Collection of Fine Arts issued one catalog. The Freer Gallery of Art issued one pamphlet. Of the publications there were distributed 129,750 copies, which included 148 volumes and separates of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 29,257 volumes and separates of Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections, 24,675 volumes and separates of Smithsonian Annual Reports, 18,990 War Background Studies, 2,356 Smithsonian special publications, 45 reports on the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 32,887 volumes and separates of National Museum publications, 12,730 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1,628 publications of the Institute of Social Anthropology, 10 catalogs of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 5 pamphlets of the Freer Gallery of Art, 16 Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 1,056 reports of the Ameri- can Historical Association, and 5,947 miscellaneous publications not printed by the Smithsonian Institution (mostly Survival Manuals). SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Sixteen papers in this series were issued, as follows: VOLUME 104 No. 11. The West Atlantic boring mollusks of the genus Martesia, by Paul Bartsch and Harald A. Rehder. 16 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 3804.) July 2, 1945. No. 12. The solar constant and sunspot numbers, by L. B. Aldrich. 5 pp., 1 fig. (Publ. 3806.) July 2, 1945. 123 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 No. 18. Correlations of solar variation with Washington weather, by C. G. Abbot. 10 pp., 5 figs. (Publ. 3807.) July 28, 1945. No. 14. A sensitive radiometer, by C. G. Abbot, W. H. Hoover, and L. B. Clark. 6 pp., 1 fig. (Publ. 8808.) Aug. 23, 1945. No. 15. A bibliography and short biographical sketch of William Healey Dall, by Paul Bartsch, Harald Rehder, and Beulah E. Shields. 96 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 3810.) January 30, 1946. : No. 16. An important new species of oyster from North Borneo suitable for introduction in the Philippines, by Paul Bartsch. 2 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 3812.) December 12, 1945. No. 17. New Westville, Preble County, Ohio, meteorite, by H. P. Henderson and S. H. Perry. 9 pp., 4 pls., 1 fig. (Publ. 3814.) January 30, 1946. No. 18. The skeletal anatomy of fleas (Siphonaptera), by R. BH. Snodgrass. 89 pp., 21 ols. (Publ. 3815.) April 1, 1946. No. 19. Sunspot changes and weather changes, by H. H. Clayton. 29 pp., 23 figs. (Publ. 3816.) March 6, 1946. No. 20. Schistosomophora in China, with descriptions of two new species and a note on their Philippine relative, by Paul Bartsch. 7 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 3841.) April 10, 1946. No. 21. 1945-1946 report on the 27.0074-day cycle in Washington precipitation, by C. G. Abbot. 2 pp. (Publ. 8842.) March 27, 1946. No. 22. Energy spectra of stars, by C. G. Abbot. 5 pp., 2 figs. (Publ. 3848.) April 10, 1946. VOLUME 106 No. 8. A list of fresh-water fishes from San José Island, Pearl Islands, Pan- ama, by Samuel F. Hildebrand. 3 pp. (Publ. 3847.) June 10, 1846. No. 4. Notes on the herpetology of the Pearl Islands, Panamd, by Doris M. Cochran. 8 pp. (Publ. 3848.) June 24, 1946. No. 11. Review of the New World species of Hippodamia Dejean (Coleop- tera: Coccinellidae), by Edward A. Chapin. 39 pp., 22 pls. (Publ. 3856.) June 14, 1946. No. 12. Deseriptions of two new leafbirds from Siam, by H. G. Deignan. 8 pp. (Publ. 8856.) June 24, 1946. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORT Report for 1944.—The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1944 was received from the Public Printer De- cember 12, 1945: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution show- ing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1944. ix+-503 pp., 40 pls., 69 figs. (Publ. 3776.) The general appendix contained the following papers (Publs. 8777- 3799) : Solar variation and weather, by Charles G. Abbot. Astronomy in a world at war, by A. Vibert Douglas. The structure of the universe, by Claude William Heaps. Industrial science looks ahead, by David Sarnoff. : The new microscopes, by R. KE. Seidel and M. Blizabeth Winter. Radio acoustic ranging (R. A.-R.), by Commander K. T. Adams. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 125 The David W. Taylor Model Basin, by Rear Admiral Herbert 8S. Howard. Research for aeronautics—its planning and application, by W. F. Farren. Human limits in flight, by Bryan H. C. Matthews. Trans-Arctie aviation, by Lt. Elmer Plischke. Our petroleum resources, by Wallace H. Pratt. Woods and trees: Philosophical implications of some facts of science, by Frederick H. Krecker. Biology and medicine, by Asa Crawford Chandler. The locust plague, by B. P. Uvarov. The codling moth, by B. A. Porter. Grassland and farmland as factors in the cyclical development of Kurasian history, by J. Russell Smith. Southern Arabia, a problem for the future, by Carleton S. Coon. The New World Paleo-Indian, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. Haster Island, by Alfred Métraux. Brain rhythms, by E. D. Adrian. The development of penicillin in medicine, by H. W. Florey and E. Chain. Recent advances in anesthesia, by John C. Krantz, Jr. Aspects of the epidemiology of tuberculosis, by Leland W. Parr. Report for 1945.—The Report of the Secretary, which included the financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, and which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was issued January 4, 1946. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1945. ix+116 pp.,2 pls. (Publ. 3813.) 1946. The Report volume for 1945, containing the general appendix, was in press at the close of the year. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS The Smithsonian Institution. 25 pp., 13 pls. (Publ. 3811.) January 14, 1946. National Aireraft Collection, by Paul Edward Garber. Sixth Kdition. 43 pp., illus. (Publ. 8840.) May 31, 1946. The following special publication was reprinted: Brief Guide to the Smithsonian Institution. Sixth Edition. 80 pp., illus. 1946. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The editorial work of the National Museum has continued during the year under the immediate direction of the editor, Paul H. Oehser. There were issued 2 Annual Reports, 5 Proceedings papers, and 6 Bulletins. REPORTS Report on the progress and condition of the United States National Museum for the year ended June 30, 1944. iii+100 pp. January 5, 1946. Report on the progress and condition of the United States National Museum for the year ended June 30, 1945. iii+-112 pp. June 28, 1946. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 PROCEEDINGS: VOLUME 96 No. 3195. Hyporhamphus patris, a new species of hemiramphid fish from Sinaloa, Mexico, with an analysis of the generic characters of Hyporhamphus and Hemiramphus, by Robert R. Miller. Pp. 185-193, fig. 9, pl. 11. July 27, 1945. No. 3196. Notes on recently mounted reptile fossil skeletons in the United States National Museum, by Charles W. Gilmore. Pp. 195-203, pls. 12-19. Feb- ruary 5, 1946. No. 3197. The onychophores of Panama and the Canal Zone, by Austin H. Clark and James Zetek. Pp. 205-213. February 21, 1946. No. 3198. Echiuroid worms of the North Pacific Ocean, by Walter Kenrick Fisher. Pp. 215-292, figs. 10-19, pls. 20-37. April 11, 1946. No. 8199. The osteology of the fossil turtle Testudo praeextans Lambe, with notes on other species of T'estudo from the Oligocene of Wyoming, by Charles W. Gilmore. Pp. 293-810, figs. 20-27, pls. 88-44. March 28, 1946. BULLETINS No. 185, part 4. Checklist of the coleopterous insects of Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and South America, compiled by Richard H. Blackwelder. Pp. 551-768. May 13, 1946. No. 186. The birds of northern Thailand, by H. G. Deignan. v-+616 pp., 4 maps, 9 pls. September 17, 1945. No. 187. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico, by Hobart M. Smith and Edward M. Taylor. iv+239 pp. October 5, 1945. No. 188. The fresh-water fishes of Siam, or Thailand, by Hugh M. Smith. xi+ 622 pp., 107 figs., 9 pls. November 13, 1945. No. 189. A descriptive catalog of the shore fishes of Peru, by Samuel F. Hilde- brand. xi-+530 pp., 95 figs. February 26, 1946. No. 190. ‘The North American clear-wing moths of the family Aegeriidae, by George P. Engelhardt. vi+221 pp., 82 pls. (16 in color). June 28, 1946. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the Bureau has continued under the immediate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. During the year the follow- ing publications were issued : Sixty-second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1944-1945. 9 pp. Bulletin 137. The Indians of the Southeastern United States, by John R. Swan- ton. 943 pp., 108 pls., 5 figs., 138 maps. Bulletin 148. Handbook of South American Indians. Julian H. Steward, editor. Volume 1: The Marginal tribes. 624 pp., 112 pls., 69 figs., 7 maps. Volume 2: The Andean civilizations. 1,035 pp., 192 pls., 100 figs., 11 maps. Institute of Social Anthropology Publ. No. 2. Cherfin: A Sierra Tarascan village, by Ralph L. Beals. 225 pp., 8 pls., 19 figs., 5 maps. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS The National Collection of Fine Arts issued one catalog, as follows: Catalog of American and European paintings in the Gellatly Collection. Third Edition. 20pp.,11 pls. 1945. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 127 FREER GALLERY OF ART The Freer Gallery of Art issued one pamphlet, as follows: The Freer Gallery of Art. Revised Edition. 12 pp., 6 pls., 2 figs. 1945. REPORT OF THH AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are trans- mitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution and are communicated by him to Congress, as provided by the act of incorporation of the Association. The following report vol- umes were issued this year: Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1944. Vol. 1, Pro- ceedings and Guide to the American Historical Review, 1895-1945; vol. 2, Calendar of the American Fur Company’s Papers. Part 1: 1831-1840; vol. 3, Calendar of the American Fur Company’s Papers. Part 2: 1841-1849. The following were in press at the close of the fiscal year: Annual Report for 1943, vol. 2 (Writings on American History) ; Annual Re- port for 1945, vol. 1 (Preceedings and list of members) ; vols. 2, 3, and 4 (Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794, Parts 1, 2, and 3). REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The manuscript of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to Congress, in accordance with law, November 7, 1945. ALLOTMENTS FOR PRINTING The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian Annual Reports to Congress and the various publications of the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administration of the Institution were virtually used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the coming year, ending June 30, 1947, totals $88,500, allotted as follows: Smiithsonaneinstitutions a2 ee ee es Ee $16, 000 Nationale Mise mmimes s2i.8 0 Jet aie 2s a ae er 43, 000 BureauvoteAmerican WihnOlogy se == eee ee 17, 480 National Collection of: Wine Arts*2-2 22 9 2 eee 500 international -Mxchanges==s 32202 2 2 een ee ee 200 National Zoological Parka swen2 20 eee 200 AStrophysicalaObservatory==s22=2 22 ee 500 American’) Historical Association. —— == 2 10, 620 pA ea ee as ce ee a 88, 500 Respectfully submitted. W. P. Tron, Chief, Editorial Division. Dr. A. Wermore, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. t tf . siey hI FLEA ea ’ ™ 7 my TAOS REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONTAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1946 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s, 6d.— $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freights, insurance, etc., together with payment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. Since the original bequest, the Institution has received gifts from various sources, the income from which may be used for the general work of the Institution. These, including the original bequest, plus savings, are listed below, together with the income for the present year. ENDOWMENT FUNDS (Income for unrestricted use of the Institution) Partly deposited in United States Treasury at 6 percent and partly invested in stocks, bonds, ete. Income Investment present year Parent fund (original Smithson bequest, plus accumulated savings) ___-______- $728, 878.29 | $43, 701. 53 Subsequent bequests, gifts, etc., partly deposited in the United States Treasury and partly invested in the Consolidated Fund; Aweryapeobert S..and Tydia, bequest fund. —=----_-_.-=-- 2.2 61, 770. 56 2, 155, 61 NG OWATIOHIE ARON GILG 2 ene ee Se eR ee ee es Se 315, 455. 63 10, $89. 98 Habel, Dr. 8., bequestiftindsc < Siena SSE er a Ee PL eg eae 500. 00 30. 00 Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline, bequest fonds seen ek anon 4, 079. 43 142. 08 Hamilton, James, bequest fund__-___-__-____-------__---- - Sane ADA SAL ART 2, 909. 47 164. 26 Henry, Caroline, bequest fund). 2-2. teeta ek eh ae ed 1, 226: 77 42.73 Hodgkins ThomasGs(peneral gin ce ee ee ene 146, 412. 95 8, 019. 25 Rhees, William Jones, bequest fund____.........__-___-_-- Rey shee 1, 069. 87 52.11 Sanford, George H., THAUeLESVaya EMIS TEs Coup oe tN et 2, 002. 96 97.45 Witherspoon. LnomasvAcsmemorialifund.o.------ 2022. o ee eee 130, 900. 34 4, 559. 12 Special fund, stock in reorganized closed banks____--_.___-_-.-._..--_-_-_-- 2, 280. 00 527. 69 NO Ge Seen ene een ee mC ene SES Neh sD a ey a cs Ph 658, 607. 98 26, 780. 18 G@iranid \te tal Os eee ete eee ee EN 1, 387, 486. 27 70, 481. 71 129 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts, the income of each being restricted to specific use. These, plus accretions to date, are listed below, together with income for the present year. Income, Investment present year Abbott, William L., fund for investigations in biology_._.._..__...._...___.--- $107, 456. 55 $3, 486. 59 Arthur, James, fund for investigations and study of the sun and lecture on SRINIG areas sc aS I Sire alee, SERNA ESS CHE ne SSIS UE BE hl ee 40, 566. 73 1, 412. 90 Bacon, Virginia Purdy, fund, for traveling scholarship to investigate fauna of countriesiother thanithe UnitedtStatessssc: seen en eee eee 50, 819. 13 1, 769. 97 Baird, Lucy H., fund for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird_____________- 24, 422. 02 850. 59 Barstow, Frederick D., fund, for purchase of animals for Zoological Park__-___. 1, 014.10 35. 32 Canfield Collection fund for increase and care of the Canfield collection of min- ; TANS eee TS NS MT BAN cars ater PL] eee PT) GEN, Wp, Nein eet 38, 795. 43 1, 351. 20 Casey, Thomas L., fund, for maintenance of the Casey collection, and promo- tion of researches relating to Coleoptera... 2s 9, 303. 64 324. 04 Chamberlain, Francis Lea, fund, for increase and promotion of Isaac Lea col- lection.of'gemsiand mollusks?) ene een etn ee een rene 28, 564, 24 994, 86 Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, fund, for preservation and exhibition of the photographic collection of Rudolph Eickemeyer, iis ig ed ee oe are ea oye 514, 58 17, 92 Hillyer, Virgil, fund, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer collection of lighting Objects See TaN eC Re ally oer tense De De gta Nem ee fl LESUN ey RSE eee 6, 666. 45 232.19 Hitchcock, Dr. Albert S., library fund, for care of Hitchcock Agrostological SC ibrarye lt SU eee SN AY ORES UREA. CRSA RR OS ete Be 1, 600. 54 55. 74 Hodgkins fund, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric air___._________________-___-- 100, 000. 00 6, 000. 00 Hrdliéka, Ale§ and Marie, fund, to further researches in nphypic anthropology and publication in connection therewith2 oe hfs Wis EARNS saa 18, 654. 65 649. 72 Hughes, Bruce, fund, to found Hughes/aicoye.= 2 ys ees - 19,415.74 676. 23 Long, Annette and Edith C., fund, for upkeep and preservation of Long col- lection of embroideries, laces, CtC ee Ae ee he ea eee eee 550. 78 19.18 Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, for purchase of first- class works of art for the use and benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts.....__.--__---------- 19, 227. 51 669. 67 National Collection of Fine Arts, Julia D. Strong bequest fund, for benefit of NattonalCollectloniof Rine’Arts:..-0. ss ee Gee ts ee 10, 141. 81 353. 21 Pell, Cornelia Livingston, fund, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pell collec- TiGrie ee TeE UR pak TS See nike. wept gle igi Os eat UR Sinaia ad 7, 518. 73 261. 87 Poore, Lucy T. and George W., fund, for general use of the Institution when principalvamonnts)to.b250 0002. =) oe ee ae eS ee 102, 126. 64 4, 228. 27 Rathbun, Richard, memorial fund, for use of division of U. 8S. National Mu- seum containing Crustacea So te et See Re GS Ned Eh are, SRR age ho eee 10, 788. 45 375. 73 Reid, Addison T., fund, for founding chair in biology in memory of Asher Tunis_ 30, 261. 17 1, 399. 12 Roebling Collection fund, for care, improvement and increase of Roebling col- lectioniofiminerals ee 2 ear See ee tee ee 122, 418. 63 4, 263. 71 Rollins, Miriam and William, fund, for investigations in physics and chemistry 95, 247.10 3, 319. 23 Smithsonian employees retirement POs 2k ee ee SE a 80, 371. 03 2, 789. 24 Springer, Frank, fund, for care, ete. of Springer collection and library_________- 18, 189. 94 633. 54 Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, research fund, for development of geo- logical and paleontological studies and publishing results thereof.....-------- 430, 925. 04 14, 746. 52 Younger, Helen Walcott, fund, held in trust__........_._._.___-_-_- 60, 125. 70 2, 513. 81 Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, fund, for endowment of aquaria_-_-_____- 962. 14 33. 51 Dotal sree ews cewdsasccacsnwseee ene ede be centcdoccsweteeobeuswevesensdoces 1, 426, 648. 47 53, 473. 88 The above funds amount to a total of $2,814,134.74 and are carried in the following investment accounts of the Institution: United States Treasury deposit account, drawing 6 percent in- behest 228 AT IS. be ete SD ee ee eT ae $1, 000, 000. 00 Consolidated investment fund (income in table below) ~_---_----~ 1, 551, 671. 40 Realestate: (morteages: (Cte eee ee ee es 203, 010. 79 Special funds, miscellaneous investments______________________ 51, 908. 70 Wninvestedscapital ee ae ear ee 7, 543. 85 MOb aoe Shan ne ce eens ate re ee eee 2, 814, 134. 74 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 131 CONSOLIDATED FUND This fund contains substantially all the investments of the In- stitution, with the exception of those of the Freer Gallery of Art; the deposit of $1,000,000 in the United States Treasury, with guar- anteed income of 6 percent; and investments in real estate and real- estate mortgages. This fund contains endowments for both un- restricted and specific use. A statement of principal and income of this fund for the last 10 years follows: Fiscal year | Principal Income res Fiscal year | Principal Income | P peed 1937.__._--.._| $738, 858. 54 | $33, 819. 43 AN BTA PL O42 ues $1, 270, 968. 45 | $46, 701. 98 3. 67 hOSRe eee 867, 528.50 | 34,679. 64 AEO0)||| plan eenenuees 1, 316, 533.49 | 50, 524. 22 3.83 1O30E See es 902, 801.27 | 30, 710. 53 SIA) | 1044 eee weal 1, 372, 516.41 | 50, 783. 79 3.69 1940__________] 1, 081, 249.25 | 38, 673. 29 SUA 7al| G45 Tea 1, 454, 957.73 | 50, 046. 67 3. 50 1941__________] 1,093, 301.51 | 41, 167.38 357641 |e 046s neu 1, 559, 215.25 | 57, 612.38 3. 69 CONSOLIDATED FUND Gain in investments over year 1945 Investments made from gifts and savings on income___-__---_---__ $82, 817. 37 Investments of gain from sales, ete., of securities____________-_____ 21, 440. 15 NN sn Sk ST ET a Ls Ste Es Bt 104, 257, 52 FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for the construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stock and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the operation of the Gallery. The above fund of Mr. Freer was almost entirely represented by 20,465 shares of stock in Parke, Davis & Co. As this stock advanced in value, much of it was sold and the proceeds reinvested so that the fund now amounts to $5,994,394.31 in a selected list of securities classi- fied later. The invested funds of the Freer bequest are under the following headings: Courhand ¢rounds fun G22 2422 Ss Shes ee ee $671, 519. 80 Court and grounds maintenance fund____________-_______ 168, 648. 43 COTM eEEW aa eete DUES Lata st a DO pe 683, 381. 72 Residuary levacy tundes =n 22 a ee 4, 470, 849. 36 LO tals = eee ee ee eee 5, 994, 394. 31 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Statement of principal and income for the last 10 years Fiscal year Principal Income ee LOR a ete WE ede een sey US edt eee AA ease a $4, 881, 986.96 | $280, 969. 53 5. 75 TPR oe eae Eater eu adiaene yi tulean ea ine iii Mies oie 4, 820,777.31 | 255, 651. 61 5.30 LORQ Ry ite be eh tines Laney ee bell een alee eer gee Oar geo 5, 075,976.76 | 212, 751. 78 4.19 TKO ir nia a ea ane meaner need es ater ALS Ooo, | 6, 112,953.46 | 242, 573. 92 3.96 LOM le eR erat peer eohece. Been ed ues! | Maca 6, 030, 586.91} 233, 079. 22 3. 86 TEV ee ir a Fe ligt bP Scie aha ts CRN Soe 5, 912,878.64 | 241, 557.77 4.08 1OAS ua ey Code TA ye ie eee CS ise ppl On) 5, 836,772.01 | 216, 125.07 3.70 rE a: Joc AN A NE aan Se OM sat eh ie SOIR oO 5, 881, 402.17 | 212, 395. 27 3.61 IQCGHNOC aa a ys ee ae el Sale oe ie ean 5, 864,061.73 | 212, 552. 69 3.62 TIVES SP i AN AP RM a Aa RL ig a De 5, 994, 394.31 | 220,818. 86 3. 68 FREER FUND Gain during present year from sale, call of securities, ete.________ $130, 332. 58 SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS Invested endowment for general purposes_____----___---------~- $1, 387, 486. 27 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer en- (BON ATC (E) 11 a a ae Sa ea aN ee ee 1, 426, 648. 47 Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment__ 2, 814, 1384. 74 Freer invested endowment for specific purposes___-__-___-----_ 5, 994, 394. 31 Total invested endowment for all purposes___-----_____ 8, 808, 529. 05 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U. S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as author- ized in the United States Revised Statutes, sec. 5591___________ $1, 000, 000. 00 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds» (8 different teroups) 22 = = eet $627, 612. 34 Stocks (51° different groups) —-=-—-2- == 975, 967. 76 Real estate and first-mortgage notes___________ 203, 010. 79 Uninvesteda capitalise 22se sess ens Sere ee 4, 543. 85 1, 814, 134. 74 Total investments other than Freer endowment_________ 2, 814, 134. 74 Investment of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : Bonds) (29 dillerent-sroups) 2s ae 2, 962, 710. 30 Stocks (53 different groups) —.-___---____-_-_ 2, 983, 576. 38 Real estate first-mortgage notes______________ 2, 500. 00 Uninyvyested! capital*20 tested wane cele: 45, 607. 63 5, 994, 394. 31 Total investments=22 25 ene VE AE 8, 808, 529. 05 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 133 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 19467 ashi balance’ on hondisune, 30519402 eee ee ee $760, 218. 09 Receipts: Cash income from various sources for general work OftmpbeminStituulomes = =.) a see $93, 441. 46 Cash gifts and contributions expendable for special scientific objects (not for investment) — 30, 627. 29 Cash income from endowments for specific use other than Freer endowment and from miscel- laneous secources (including refund of tempo- Maya NV AN GCS) =. a es oe + cw ee at 192, 425. 47 Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete. (horse nyestment;)) se ee eee 850, 519. 70 Total receipts other than Freer endowment___________ 667, 013. 92 Cash income from Freer endowment___-_____--_ $220, 818. 86 Cash capital from sale, call of securities, ete. (Gor investment) 22222 es he Se ee 1, 599, 813. CO Total receipts from Freer endowment—-___-__________ 1, 820, 631. 86 LOCO 00 ens eee en RS Ae ee eR Rs Te. 3, 247, 863. 87 Disbursements: From funds for general work of the Institution: Buildings—care, repairs, and alterations_____ $3, 108. 43 Rurnituresand ext ures= == saa eee 63. 75 Generaladministrations 222 22-2)" 2 es2 ee 27, 109. 04 OS VEU peree ee ee a he 2, 989. 55 Publications (comprising preparation, print- NID PRATT LTS EID UL OM) ye te eee wee 14, 995. 12 Researches and explorations________________ 21, 888. 11 : 70, 154. 00 From funds for specifie use other than Freer en- dowment: Investments made from gifts and from sav- HITS 2 OMeL COMES aestets aie nee ee 82, 817. 37 Other expenditures, consisting largely of re- search work, travel, increase and care of special collections, etc., from income of en- dowment funds, and from cash gifts for specifie use (including temporary ad- VEUIN COS) te ctee Reece ee ere ree Oe ee ce rea 132, 745. 71 Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call OISCCULICICS:. CL Caan as rae ae eee ete 347, 920. 79 Cost of handling securities, fee of investment counsel, and acerned interest on bonds RC HE NCR ass ee ee ea ie 3, 303. 45 566, 787. 32 From Freer endowment: Operating expenses of the Gallery, salaries, field, expensesietes Ly 68, 366. 75 Purchase of ant objects... 114, 070. 23 1 This statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative charge of the Institution. 134. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Disbursements—Continued From Freer endowment—Continued Reinvestment of cash capital from sale, call, of securities, cte= = $1, 595, 344. 67 Cost of handling securities, fee of invest- ment counsel, and accrued interest on bonds: purchased 2222S ene 25, 730. 45 $1, 803, 512. 10 Cash: balance: June’ SOs Ta oe eh oo ee ee Seem ia eer ees 807, 410. 45 Total 2S Fs a a eee ee aaa ie eer ete ae ee 3, 247, 863. 87 Included in the above receipts was cash received as royalties from sales of Smithsonian Scientific Series to the amount of $26,498.52. This was distributed as follows: Smithsonian Institution Endowment Fund__---_--_______-________ $11, 753. 71 Smithsonian Institution Emergency Fund__-__-------____-____---_ 2, 938. 42 Smithsonian Institution Unrestricted Fund, General____-______-____ 8, 815. 28 Salaries 225 00h OPO! Bie ee Oe a en See 3 Gy 2299S tt 26, 498. 52 Included in the foregoing are expenditures for researches in pure science, publications, explorations, care, increase, and study of collec- tions, etc., as follows: Hxpended from general funds of the Institution: Pier Cav til © ras eens a a $14, 995. 12 Researchesvand? explorations. == 00 bys eee 21, 888. 11 $36, 883. 23 Expenditures from funds devoted to specific purposes: Researches and explorations______________________ 40, 495. 84 Care, increase, and study of special collections_____- 5,586.81 er Ca tO Sigua eee oS a eee 4, 184. 80 50, 267. 45 eR co eal et sas a Se a le I hee a 87, 150. 68 The practice of depositing on time in local trust companies and banks such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been continued during the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to $739.72. The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts or bequests from the following: Audrey H. Madden, for ‘Northern Mexico Archeological Fund,” to further archeo- logical investigations in Mexico. National Academy of Sciences and Social Science Research Council, for ‘““Commit- tee for the Recovery of Archeological Remains.” Research Corporation, for printing “Smithsonian Elliptic Functions Tables,” by G. W. Spenceley. John A. Roebling, as a further contribution for research in radiation. All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the Institution on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues are deposited to the credit of the same account. In many instances deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later are withdrawn and deposited in the United States Treasury. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 135 The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Insti- tution. The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1946: SALGIeCS eal wexPCOSCSs sete ees 2 eee = Si 350, 00100 NeaionaleAoOlOmiGals PAT Keres 225 2 2 ee ee 375, 670. 00 In addition, funds were transferred from other Departments of the Government for expenditure under direction of the Smithsonian In- stitution : Cooperation with the American Republics (transfer from State De- “OREN OR EIT CT) | Ee aa ee ee eS $98, 488. 00 Working Fund, transferred from National Park Service, Interior Department, for archeological investigations in Missouri River TESS VS I ee ee gen pee Smee a Se 20, 000. 00 Working Fund, transferred from Navy Department, for Crossroads PRTC Nee ee a Se oS Se eee 12, 920. GU The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds is given below: SEPTEMBER 26, 1946. HWXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, BOARD OF REGENTS, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Sirs: Pursuant to agreement we have audited the accounts of the Smithsonian institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, and certify the balances of cash on hand, including petty cash fund, June 30, 1946, to be $809,310.45. We have verified the records of receipts and disbursements maintained by the Institution and the agreement of the book balances with the bank balances. We have examined all the securities in the custody of the Institution and in the custody of the banks and found them to agree with the book records. We have compared the stated income of such securities with the receipts of records and found them in agreement therewith. We have examined all vouchers covering disbursements for account of the Institution during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1946, together with the authority therefor, and have compared them with the Institution’s record of expenditures and found them to agree. We have examined and verified the accounts of the Institution with each trust fund. . We found the books of account and records well and accurately kept and the securities conveniently filed and securely cared for. All information requested by your auditors was promptly and courteously furnished. We certify the balance sheet, in our opinion, correctly presents the financial condition of the Institution as at June 30, 1946. WiLLtraAm L. YAEGER, Respec t fully Saperiod: Certified Public Accountant. Frepertc A. DELANO, VanNneEVAR Busy, Cuarence CANNON, Executive Committee. 725362—47——_10 A io Th nena: (aes f ‘ > pil ATR th MO THe end Lees, OF 358 4 Re i le al ee Ee at mectineyia Yo Efus penqod * nN ee leturst-oiaw abit (0 atl aninvedtirie SAY Yo siattsari tabs epee x0) a ALT bee. (oe ERLE V4 Se CRATE COE Be Pee Te # vids cutest éj tow . , egakes $s) Boh nano A, omy Me oor Fan anes rene i hn sacar ep raneied RSet aaa Us s =. is =. ere a nl See Mion head. sehbdiley ¥ | ra Me ee se Sees Oc. aot ound METS. HERVE voce tt ARNE DRGs ins Lie e otk ee ah She Gs ce SM ee sb esl nd pea ct odiik Blavinpaniaoedtirae od? Lo: debut ads > WS ae PH eM, ornate mice: TH: LAMENT aa pias ge a (OhGl «BS, ammpaatanG: <: ie Wes MOTH fot ce ee ; Fae se GRAOs DETTE MOD wae ies Ne Oe saat Pacers Aupistond Moya ae nidhnged3 {rae ad YG ‘Bigponss oii fetthas svad ow “Tatainowges wh ay iin Ro mes ad? ewe bas ObL OF sant bebas ‘igo, Ooh Sit ¥ FE, O04, 20 93, OLOE OF air fei wa satboloat ae vd ee 5 Ria page vee egicne 9 dae poonplint stunt ad diy psompied Aood sis, In joastan "at ee eee : at Dam nellsijanl sd? to hoses sdt nt eotituroas aif} th bontuasies Sad. bbees Yood etl diy esiga of aad) bay vob baw ealsenl. enh Thain. sintange aus unt beg witnges Gara! Bp argutrait hotnie ott borsqhios 8 Pitvisrigilt jasameingk af ped? higvet ‘ban } yah ‘ea Sieeatay ing’ vcepueriactiate REY” Sebel ssoabwowtt se mantene ra en Si woikiegud JO OB paw bokeh btu tachi inary Se ae, 2m tarry auohatags Suit. absiye sox, fooranetisters a yids bl si th tt No 5 WE aN a esis [ros eal EPL NGO Deni ley aivicosbana-denoasa % aM - bewitiee trad in fait iiveso ylerusben baw bein efauskaenies mga iia iar, Bie ORR gr enable oi ohh Les o Srey OF Boieul end Reena i ee yi Apes. sl) atone ghivgaaen, sjofsieo ci, : a BW. Rpeoncerew. OLOE Dt sau $p.0n nodaiivont ata Duey mae, pores tel bhuy hnibeseitice PE sperms Cb Sat ciao i, : mst f REIS TNT BEER, Se. ehis thes epi " vedibeiasaa tlie famed he aby, Ghteed Sevtoa, at ht nk sarah ® | the: ATS wee | ta ah beens) ar GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1946 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the GeneraL Appenprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1946. 138 ON THE ASTRONOMICAL DATING OF THE EARTH’S CRUST? By Harlow SHAPLEY Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. These notes on cosmogony are only minor contributions in an im- portant and expanding theme. Over the years a considerable num- ber of scientists are gradually developing a fairly complete and satis- fying cosmogony. When the hypotheses settle down into accepted laws, and the skimpy observations grow into “facts of the world,” my present contribution will avail little; but at this particular moment, it may show the trend of our thinking and planning. Until recently, the word cosmogony generally implied, astronomi- cally, the study of the origin of the earth and of the other planets;? scientific thoughts about the universe had of necessity been restricted closely to the planetary system, with an occasional vague adventure into the unexplored realm of stellar bodies. But as our knowledge of stars and nebulae increased, this vagueness diminished; and, with a fine disregard for our impotence, we have now tackled the origins of stars, star clusters, nebulae, galaxies, and space-time itself. Cos- mogony has appropriately expanded beyond the bounds of the solar system, and now includes the description and theory of the whole knowable material universe. As something of a digression, it ex- amines the riddles of the origin of planetary systems. But perhaps this appearance of implied condescension toward earthly affairs is inappropriate, for the more we look into the problems of the origin of the earth, the more we find that its genesis involves operations that are universal. The earth’s crust, it appears, has an age not at all insignificant compared with the duration of stellar processes; and the chemistry of the earth’s crust is a convenient and comprehensive sample of the chemistry of the universe. 1Paper No. 90, published under the auspices of the committee on research in experi- mental geology and geophysics and the division of geological sciences at Harvard University. Reprinted by permission from the American Journal of Science, vol. 243—A, Daly Volume, 1945. 2To many writers, cosmoiogy is a preferred synonym, notwithstanding its frequent dis- coloration with metaphysics ; and cosmography is a proper and modest substitute when sim- ple description of cosmic matters is concerned. 139 725362—47——11 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Eddington has pointed out that with our new knowledge of a new physics we might have predicted the existence of the stars from the general properties of matter, even if we had been hopelessly cloud- bound and had never seen them. The atomically small leads directly to the sidereally immense. Analogously, we could now propose half a dozen problems dealing directly with the local solar system, the solu- tion of which would go far toward settling the most basic problems of universal cosmogony. The preceding remarks are prefatory to the observation that an astronomer who is especially interested in the macrocosmos is in congenial company when he associates with a geologist who explores the origin of meteorites, the topography of the moon, and the atmos- phere of.planets, and writes on such subjects as “Our Mobile Earth” * and “The Strength and Structure of the Earth.” ¢ HOT GAS AND COLD SPACE A factor of high importance in general cosmogony, as well as in the contemplation of the surface rocks of the earth, is the greediness with which interstellar space sucks the life blood out of the stars. Or to put the same idea in prosaic and less anthropomorphic terms, the second law of thermodynamics, which records that heat flows in. the direction of lower temperature, is a most basic principle in sidereal evolution. The temperature of interstellar space is a little above absolute zero; the temperature of the stars, except in their relatively thin and cool atmospheric blankets, is in the tens of millions of degrees absolute. Hence the stars cool off violently. The violence is not perceptible to the average observer, unless he be equipped with long-range cosmic vision and competent theory. But the astonishing rate with which our own star pours its heat into the vacuum of interstellar space would scarcely permit time for the evolution of the observer and his ancestral line of living forms, if it were not for the existence of a mechanism for the subatomic replacement of the heat so profusely radiated. In a few scores of millions of years the heat of an average star would be disastrously diminished—disastrous for neighboring protoplasmic life—if the expenditure were not prolonged a thousandfold by the “carbon stove” mechanism, which burns stellar hydrogen fuel into helium ash while liberating energy, and by similar atomic trans- formations.® 3Daly, R. A., 1926. Scribner's, New York. *Daly, R. A., 1940. Prentice-Hall, New York. 5 Nontechnical accounts of these atomic transformations can be found in Gamow, The birth and death of the sun, The Viking Press, New York, 1940; and Russell, Sci. Amer., vol. 161, pp. 18-19, 1939. DATING THE EARTH’S CRUST—SHAPLEY 141 The temperature of interstellar or intergalactic space can be vari- ously defined. When measured by the equilibrium temperature of a small meteoritic particle at a distance of a light-year or more from the nearest luminous star, it is probably but 2 or 3 degrees above abso- lute zero. But if we should “measure” temperature in terms of atomic and molecular motion, we could say that a radiant gaseous nebula (even though of almost infinitesimal rarity) at the distance of a light- year from a blue star has a temperature of 10,000° or 20,000° absolute. The first definition is the one to choose in considering the leakage or radiation from the surface of the sun, a leakage of 4,000,000 tons of light per second. The sun’s output of light would be enormously greater if we should peel off suddenly the outer 1 percent of its body. The skinning of the sun would expose highly ionized gases with tem- peratures in the millions of degrees. We would have a kind of super- nova, but only momentarily on cosmic time scale; for promptly the ionized atoms would regain their shells of electrons, some molecules would form, the present heavily absorbing atmospheric layers would re-form, and with some serious convulsions and oscillations set up by the sudden exposure, the sun nova would speedily return toward the calm equilibrium it enjoyed before we ventured the reckless experiment. It is quite likely that great gaseous envelopes might be produced by a sun-to-nova flare-up, or in course of the subsequent convulsions; and in any case, the earth and neighboring planets would be promptly scorched clean of biology and their surface features melted away. Clearly the sun has not been a nova since the freezing of the earth’s surface into its present state. These comments on the coldness of space and on the sub-surface hotness of the sun are all immediately relevant to the problems of the origin of the earth’s rocky crust. If the planets were generated catastrophically from the sun, much of the material composing them must once have been this highly superheated material that les not Tar below the 6,000° surface layers through which our present sun- hight is filtered and cooled; we must use not the relatively cool outer portions alone, for the total mass of the sun’s atmosphere is small compared with the mass of a planet. The greediness with which interstellar space, even interplanetary space, absorbs radiation is significant in its bearing on the age of the earth’s crust. Both elementary consideration and mathematical cal- culations indicate that any earth-sized gaseous or liquid body, isolated in sidereal space, would freeze into solid matter (rocks) practically instantaneously—again in terms of cosmic time scales. It is this quick transition from the normal, hot, ionized, turbulent, gaseous state of stellar matter to the relatively cold, dead, crusted body of a small or medium-sized planet that is important in bringing to- 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 gether the cosmic-minded geologist and the astronomer. For it means that the rocky surface of the earth is essentially coeval with the plane- tary system. The measurement of the ages of the oldest rocks is therefore a measurement also of the total duration of the earth. The astronomer sees little support for the suggestion that all the planets may have not been born together. Planetary birth is probably such a catastrophic affair that if a second family were produced the violence would wreck all preexisting systems of planets and satellites. We owe the concept and analysis of the high-speed cooling of the original surface of a disruption-produced earth to Harold Jeffreys, whose attack on cosmogony has been from the standpoint of geo- physics. It is worth emphasizing again that the earth is a sidereal body of really great antiquity. We shall see later that there is good evidence for believing that the pre-Cambrian rocks of our countryside have existed, many of them unchanged, throughout most of the history of the Pleiades, the Milky Way, and the expanding universe. And it is additional good fortune that during the past thousand million years there has been left a fairly continuous record of living forms on this ancient crust; that continuity of organisms, and especially the char- acteristics of plant forms for two or three hundred million years, provides the astronomer with his best evidence on the stability of re- mote stars. Indeed, the fossil plants, in the sediments dated by radio- active processes, have inspired and practically forced our search for heat-generating atomic transformations within the stars.° These fossils prove the essential constancy of the intensity and quality of solar radiation throughout geological time. Many fertile and suc- cessful astronomical theories would probably still remain unformu- lated if, instead of the paleontological record of the earth’s surface, we had a dictum dating organisms, for instance, from only 4000 B. C. NOTE ON SEVERAL COSMOGONIC FAILURES The astronomers and geologists who have worked assiduously dur- ing the past half century on the theory of the origin of the earth have reason to be sincerely satisfied with themselves because they have produced so many hypotheses that do not work. By showing what is not so, not sufficient, not compatible with the growing body of verifi- able observations, they have cleared the field for more competent theoretical investigations and indicated in what direction profitable astronomical and mathematical researches may lie. A serious hindrance to the formulation of any planetary-system cosmogony that may be even temporarily successful is the abundance ® Shapley, H., The age of the earth, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, October 1918. DATING THE EARTH’S CRUST—-SHAPLEY 143 of our clues to the mystery. We know too much to permit any naive hypothesis to prosper. A successful theory must account reasonably well for the follow- ing 10 circumstances (the number could be much increased) : 1. The nine planets move in orbits that are nearly circular. 2. They carry with them 97 percent of the angular momentum of the whole system, and angular momentum cannot be lightly regarded in an evolutionary plan. 3. The planets are well spaced from each other, with the sizes and masses tapering off in both directions from Jupiter. 4. The rotation of the sun, and the orbital revolutions of the nine major planets and most of the satellites and asteroids, are in the same direction (counterclockwise as seen from Polaris), which is also the direction of the axial rotation of most of the planets, if not all. 5. Because of radiation pressure, dissolution, and dismemberment through other causes, the comets are short-lived, relative to the age of the earth’s crust; but their abundance and behavior enrolls them as a part of the solar family. 6. The mean density of the earth is 5.5, but of Saturn 0.7 (it would float in water !). 7. A great but faint comet of which the orbit is totally trans-Jovian varies unpredictably in brightness by large amounts. 8. Conspicuous constituents of the solar corona are very highly ionized atoms of iron, nickel, and calcium. 9. The sun’s present isolation in space makes collision or near en- counter with another star an improbability of high degree—say, one collision in a billion years, to be optimistic. (In very ancient time, as noted below, the chances for constructive disaster were probably much higher.) 10. The subsurface temperature and radiation pressure of the sun are exceedingly high; the sun is gaseous from surface to center and generates energy subatomically in such a manner that the present size has not appreciably changed in a billion years or more. It would take too much space to comment on the foregoing items, or to discuss various hypotheses that have succeeded in satisfactorily explaining or harmoniously using a few of them. The most serious obstacle to a successful hypothesis is the distribution of the angular momentum; the planets have so much, the sun so little. The near- circularity of the orbits, and the violently explosive nature of high- temperature gas when the pressure is released, are probably the two next most difficult properties to handle. We generally agree that no hypothesis of the origin of the earth is as yet satisfactory. In recording this attitude we have in mind the nebular hypothesis associated generally with the names of 144. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Laplace, Kant, and Swedenborg; the collision hypotheses of Buffon and, much later, of Bickerton; the tidal-disruption theories of Cham- berlin and Moulton, Jeans, and Jeffreys; the grazing-impact hypo- thesis of Jeffreys; the double-star plus collision suggestion of Russell as developed by Lyttleton; the vague nebular-filament hypothesis of Nolke, and various internal-explosion theories, such as that considered by Ross Gunn. There are variations on some of these hypotheses, and some of them have been repaired by ad hoc assumptions and subhypoth- eses. Eventually one of them may be patched up into scientific re- spectability. Among the modern critics have been Luyten, Hill, Jeff- reys, and, most usefully, Russell, who has critically examined both the data and the theories.’ At present the general feeling seems to be that the earth probably came from a star, and that it is therefore the daughter of catastrophe. The mass is not large enough to make the precrustal existence clear or simple, but it must have been brief. Doctor Jeffreys has recently written: I think that the most serious difficulty of all catastrophic theories, affecting both Jeans’s theory and mine, and also Lyttleton’s further modification, is that the newly formed planets would need to be able to control not only the velocities of thermal agitation but alse those of general expansion due to the sudden relief of pressure.® A RETREAT INTO CHAOS From the foregoing summary it is clear that our hope of tracing an orderly progress in the origin and career of the earth is still de- ferred. An elaborate examination of the dynamical history of the various planets may be helpful in the search for an acceptable theory ; and possibly the contributions from geologists and seismologists con- cerning the inner structure of the earth may be suggestive. There is work of useful sort to be done on asteroids, comets, and meteors; and a searching of the stars and interstellar spaces of the solar neighbor- hood for giant planets that act like stars, and subdwarf stars that simulate planets. With the recent discovery of a neighboring star (mass unknown) that is about a million times fainter than the sun,? - we may be led in the direction of thinking of Jupiter, which has a mass one-thousandth the solar mass, as an extinct subdwarf companion of the sun. That concept would turn our cosmogonical speculation more in the direction of the dynamics of double stars with unequal components than in the present direction of collisional and catas- trophic phenomena. 7 The solar system and its origin. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1935. ® Nature, vol. 153, p. 140, 1944. ® Van Biesbroeck, G., Harvard Announcement Card No. 678, January 26, 1944. DATING THE EARTH’S CRUST—SHAPLEY 145 Several years ago, despairing of our finding an acceptable orderly theory of the origin of the planets, I proposed an alternative that can- not be easily disproved.” It might be called the hypothesis of the chaotic origin of the solar system. It ties in earth-birth with the genesis of stars. We should remember that the hardest problems of cosmogony would not necessarily be disposed of even if we should get a satisfactory theory of the origin of the earth. For we would ask at once concerning the origin of the sun and of galaxies, and even- tually be driven back to the deeper puzzles of the origin of matter, origin of space, of time, and of origins. Planetary genesis is there- fore only a decoy, leading to universal processes. One working hypothesis of the origin of stars prescribes that they have come disruptively from an original all-encompassing mass (Lemaitre’s cosmic atom), perhaps through several shattering explo- sive stages. Other cosmogonies also require high concentrations of matter at some past time, perhaps at “the beginning of things.” On the chaos hypothesis we assume that whatever collisional or explosive event produced the sun also simultaneously produced a very large number of fragments. Much of the debris has subsequently been lost—diffused or driven off as gases, or as particles dynamically ejected. If, in this confusion, the great fragments that are now Jupi- ter and Saturn moved in the same direction around the gravitationally controlling primitive sun, and moved in practically the same plane, they together might in time set the tune for the surviving fragments (planets and asteroids). We must visualize a long cleaning-up proc- ess, in which bodies with highly elliptic orbits were rejected or cap- tured, and those with other-direction motions likewise subjected to dynamical elimination. The bodies with essentially circular orbits, rightly spaced and oriented, revolving in the correct direction, are the only natural survivors of the cleaning-up and regularization. There are, of course, difficulties even with this generous chaotic hypothesis—for instance, the present nonexistence of orbits of high inclination (except cometary). But its greatest weakness, of course, is that it represents a council of despair—it is the antithesis of “orderly procedure” at the time of the system’s origin. Nevertheless the hypoth- esis would certainly suffice to end our search, because in the primitive star-making violences, and in the confusion of bodies, motions, and explosive processes, almost any detail can be specified. The momen- tum puzzle could be bypassed, and the other difficulties resolved by appeal to forces of varied and irregular fragmentation. My suggestion” really amounts to saying that the planets and 10facts and fancy in cosmogony. Annual Sigma Xi address, Atlantic City, December 28, 1932. 11The Sigma Xi address was not published. Somewhat later H. N. Russell independently made a similar suggestion, and probably others have also, 146 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 satellites are as we find them and move as they do because they were born that way; and that may be the correct answer. We have some evidence that the stars may have been catastrophically born; and, if they were, how can we escape the likelihood that minor bodies also appeared at that time and came under the gravitational control of the nearby stars? Meteors, meteorites, comets, asteroids, and the small satellites are almost certainly the products of fragmentation. Why not date at least some of them, if not all, from the Crowded Days of Chaos, and not struggle to make them the regularized offspring of the orderly dynamical processes that are observed, at this late time, smoothly operating in our isolated solar system ? ON T. AND THE OVERCROWDING The isolation of the sun with respect to its neighboring stars is average for this part of the Milky Way. The stars in the Pleiades, on the other hand, are relatively much closer together, and in the center of a globular star cluster, like Messier 13 in Hercules, the separation of one star from another must be less than one-hundredth our distance of 4.3 light-years from Alpha Centauri, the nearest known neighbor. Nevertheless, in these densest clusters the stars are still well separated. We see in them no evidence of frequent collisions. Similarly, our galaxy of stars is pretty well isolated in metagalactic space. The Clouds of Magellan (much smaller galaxies than our own) are perhaps within the spherical star haze that surrounds our own galaxy; but the nearest great spirals (the Andromeda Nebula and Messier 33) are nearly a million light-years away. Nevertheless, the galaxies, large and small, in this part of the universe are perhaps 10 to 50 times as numerous per cubic megaparsec 7? as in most of the metagalaxy that is now under observation. The typical galaxies average a million or so light-years apart, and their random speeds of a few hundred miles a second are not sufficient to provide numerous collisions and encounters. The dominant motion of the galaxies, as far as we can ascertain it, is the spectroscopically measured radial motion. Five hundred ob- jects have been measured with the large reflecting telescopes. After V.M. Slipher’s pioneer work on the speeds of these external galaxies, Milton Humason of Mount Wilson has contributed most of the ob- served values. With this material on motion, Hubble has derived the well-known linear relation between the red shift and distance. If we interpret the red shift in the spectra of the galaxies as the result of recession, then the linear relation is between velocity and distance. For many good reasons such an interpretation of the red shift is gen- 122A megaparsec is 3,260,000 light-years. DATING THE EARTH’S CRUST—SHAPLEY 147 erally accepted by astronomers and physicists, although it is recog- nized that some as yet unknown factor may contribute to the spectral characteristics of these objects which are so distant that their radia- tions must spend from 1 million to 150 million years in intergalactic space. , It is well known that the expansion of the universe (recession of the external galaxies), which increases in speed with distance from the observer (wherever he is located), is consistent with the theory of relativity. The recessions are, in a sense, predicted. If and when we are able to extend our observations to more distant galaxies, it is quite probable that the relation between red shift and distance will deviate from linearity. For the present discussion we shall look toward the past rather than the future—toward an epoch of crowding rather than toward unending dispersion. The present observed expansion is such that at a distance of 1 million light-years a galaxy recedes at the rate of about 100 miles a second; at a distance of 5 million light-years, at a rate of about 500 milesasecond. One naturally asks if this expansion has been going on throughout the whole time that the earth’s crust has been in evolution. There is no reason to think that the situation has been otherwise. Let us therefore see where the galaxies were when the earth was young. We take the rate of expansion specified above (its uncertainty is small), and using the number of seconds in 2,000 million years, which we assume for calculational purposes to be the age of the crust, we calculate 2X 10° X 3.2 X 107 10? miles= approximately 10° light-years as the distance traveled, since the crust formed, by a galaxy that is now a million light-years distant. This would indicate that such a galaxy was, at the time of the origin of the earth, in the immediate vicinity of our galaxy. Since the velocity of recession is proportional to the distance, we would find the same result for galaxies now distant 10 million and 100 million light-years. Therefore, some 2,000 million years ago all of the untold myriads of galaxies, according to this argument, were here with us, perhaps overlapping our galaxy, or at least in its close neighborhood. The congestion would be astoundingly high. Recently I have estimated, from the available metagalactic census reports, that more than 20 million galaxies are within range of our telescopes; more than 500,000 are already on the Harvard photo- graphs. But even our greatest telescopes do not reach “all the way.” A fair surmise, based on Eddington’s version of a relativistic cos- mogony, would make the total number of galaxies in the universe greater than 10", the number of stars greater than 10”, and the mass of the universe about 10° grams. The corresponding number of 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 atoms, since the universe apparently is still largely composed of simple hydrogen, is of the order of 10”. We have measured the velocities of a good and representative sam- ple of galaxies; but we should not extrapolate back too confidently in our search for the zero point of time. Throughout the past the rate of expansion may not have been constant at the presently observed value. It may have been increasing with time. That assumption would Jengthen the interval between now and the zero time of the expansion. But, however we try to modify the situation, within reason, we come to the conclusion that a few thousand million years ago our galaxy was in a region characterized by an exceedingly high density of galaxies, stars, and matter. We should now point out some important, almost dramatic, coinci- dences. It is remarkable enough that the age of the observed expan- sion of the metagalaxy is of the same order as the age of the earth’s crust, measured by radioactivity, and therefore of the earth itself. But this interval of a few thousand million years also measures the somewhat preliminarily determined ages of the oldest meteorites so far ‘examined. It is also the interval through which star clusters like the Pleiades must have existed; they cannot be more than a few thousand million years old according to dynamical researches by Bok and others. And finally, this interval, according to the recent work of Chandra- sekhar, is consistent with the ages of wide binary stars. Although it has not been worked out quantitatively, there is a suggestion that in proving the existence of extended clouds of dust in our Milky Way, W. 8S. Adams at Mount Wilson has provided another indicator that our galaxy cannot have existed for very many thousands of millions of years. We come to the conclusion, important in cosmogony, that about half a dozen lines of evidence point to a time some 8,000 million years ago as an epoch when something momentous happened. One could call that moment “creation,” if he made his definitions carefully. He might simply call it the beginning of the epoch of the Expansion of the Universe, with its numerous consequent byproducts. Or he might more simply and safely call it To, and leave to the investigators of the future both the further testing of its reality and the speculations as to its meaning. It should promptly be put on record that all the astronomical evi- dence and speculation is not definitely on the side of this “short” time scale of a few thousand million years. To many of us that interval seems to cramp sidereal processes too severely. I have in mind the sequence of types of galaxies; some indications of the ages of the individual stars; the evolution of globular star clusters. It may be that these phenomena can be so interpreted that the short time scale is sufficient for everything we observe and reason about. But we DATING THE EARTH'S CRUST—SHAPLEY 149 could well be cautious and say only that the evidence of the moment is fairly strong in favor of the view that the planets, the meteorites, the galaxies, the double stars, possibly the clusters of galaxies, and certainly the expansion of the galaxies in the observable part of the metagalaxy, all date back to T). Now, a time interval of only 300 million years since T, certainly would not be long enough; and 30,000 million would be too much. The geometrical mean, 3X 10° years, is a convenient number to remember as our current approximation. It is not necessary, of course, to go along with Lemaitre’s exploratory suggestion and put all the matter of all the galaxies into one original cosmic atom, the explosion of which produced the phenomena that we now observe. But it is consistent with our various observations to accept the former existence of a very highly compressed material uni- verse, in which stellar collisions might be numerous, fragmentation a common occurrence, and where the prevailing general confusion of matter and motions would suit requirements for an initial chaotic phase in the development of the solar system. Certainly the time T, is a zero point of significance to students of galaxies, clusters, meteors, and the origin of the earth. If the cosmic violence at that time was sufficiently high-temperatured, it may be that the origin of the highly penetrating cosmic radiation should also be dated from T,. Some years ago De Sitter suggested that the stars themselves may antedate the expansion. And, of course, there might have been a long prestellar state of the universe before the shock of 3X 10° years ago started the currently existing processes. It may require active research throughout one or two geological periods in order to settle finally the questions we have raised. THE FUTURE OF THE METAGALAXY In the concluding section of this random discussion of certain points in cosmogony, we get completely disconnected from the earth and geology. The significant constituents of the metagalaxy in our existing cosmogonies are space-time, radiation, the unit galaxies, and interstellar dust and gas. We have been content, in the solar sys- tem and even throughout our own galaxy, with gravitation as a domi- nating force in the moving of stellar bodies. Radiation pressure is in general effective only for particles of a diameter comparable with the wave length of the radiation. It does not push stars or galaxies around. But of late years, as a byproduct of relativistic cosmogony, we have come to the concept of a new force—cosmic repulsion. It might be called negative gravitation. Its effect can be loosely de- scribed as the tendency of material bodies to scatter from each other when the mean density of matter in space sinks below a certain ex- ceedingly small value. It is the cosmic repulsion that is effective in the recession of the 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: galaxies and the expansion of the universe. The average density of matter throughout our planetary system and even throughout our galaxy is so high that the dispersive tendency is overcome by the great gravitational forces involved. Even in a cluster of galaxies— like the one in our vicinity which includes our galaxy, the Andromeda Nebula and its companions, the Magellanic Clouds, and half a dozen others—gravitation still controls the situation, and our cluster of galaxies is not dissolving under cosmic repulsion—at least not with marked rapidity. The cohesion that maintains our cluster apparently operates in a number of other close associations of galaxies which have come into our records. The mean density in them is high enough for gravitational control. But throughout metagalactic space in general the mean density is perhaps but one-hundredth of the value within the cluster of galaxies. The density is, in fact, about 10-* grams per cubic centimeter and too low for gravitation any longer to maintain the situation. The expansion that has set in under the repulsive force will still further lower the mean density, and it there- fore now appears that we (the metagalaxy) are doomed to infinite dissipation. At the same time, through the operation of the laws of thermo- dynamics, the heat of the stars is going out into the coldness of space. The universe is steadily approaching the heat-death—a coldness near absolute zero in an empty world. Such destinies define the future of the metagalaxy only if the processes are forever one-directional. Perhaps they are not. Even now we cannot say that the reverse building-up processes are not going on in some parts of the universe. We see less than 1 percent of it. There is, however, no substantial evidence or argument for the cyclic restoration of heat and density. And some cosmogonists are bold enough to abstain from wishful thinking. A further section of this paper could be written to review the situation with regard to interstellar dust and its possible role in the forming of stars and in the development of galaxies. Also we might present the preliminary hypotheses that deal with the evolu- tionary passage of galaxies along the continuous sequence of forms that, includes systems that are globular, oblate, spiral, and irregular; and discuss the nature and the formation of spiral arms. The genetics of star clusters is an allied study of basic significance. But all these galaxy-sized problems are so remote from those dealing with the crust of the earth and its genesis that we can scarcely justify their discussion in a collection of geological papers. We close this astro- nomical contribution with the statement that the planet earth has, after all, a most perplexing and exciting role in the story of cosmogony. ATOMIC POWER IN THE LABORATORY AND IN THE STARS? By Rogpert 8. RIcHARDSON Mount Wilson Observatory When on August 6, 1945, President Truman announced the destruc- tion of the Japanese army base at Hiroshima, he did so in words of singular interest to astronomers. “It isan atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the basic power of the Universe. The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East.” Several conversations heard shortly afterward indicated that many took the President’s words literally, and assumed that radiant energy from the sun had in some mysterious way been concentrated in bomb containers for use against the Nipponese. Presumably people have become so accustomed to startling technological developments during the last 3 years, that they are willing to believe practically anything. A few remarks clarifying the situation may be of timely interest. The most obvious feature about the stars is by far the hardest to explain—the fact that they shine! In other words, what is the “force from which the sun draws it power”? In their search for an answer, astronomers have eagerly seized upon each discovery in physics that might posibly help them with their own problems. Thus any sum- mary of the various answers given to this question becomes essentially an account of the growth in knowledge of the fine structure of matter. In this article it is proposed to examine these theories, not so much with respect to their intrinsic merit, but more for the gradual modi- fication they have undergone as the result of physical discovery. Doubtless men have always propounded theories to explain the source of the sun’s heat. The first rational theories were not advanced until about a century ago, soon after the principle of the conservation of energy was clearly recognized. Previously they had been little more than mere fanciful speculation. As for example, Sir William Herschel’s assumption that the photosphere arises from the decompo- 1 Reprinted by permission from Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, vol. 57, No. 338, October 1945. 151 152 $ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 sition of the solar atmosphere into clouds with the emission of light and heat; or worse still, the suggestion by Sir John Herschel that the vital energies of monstrous creatures—the willow leaves of Nasmyth— are the true source of luminosity! Two famous theories based upon the mechanical equivalence of heat originated about the middle of the nineteenth century. Although discarded long ago, they still are accorded respectful mention because they contain at least some basis of sound physical reasoning. The first theory of the meteoritic origin of the sun’s heat was an- nounced by J. Robert Mayer? in 1848. Mayer claimed to have been the first to enunciate the principle of the conservation of energy, but seems to have discussed it in such obscure terms that he never received clear title to the distinction. There is no question, however, that he anticipated Helmholtz by 2 years in this respect. Mayer pointed out that space is known to be filled with innumerable small bodies many of which must be drawn into the sun with a speed approaching the parabolic velocity of 380 miles per second. As they plunge into the sun, their energy of motion would be converted into heat. He calculated that a total mass equal to 144 of the earth’s mass striking the sun annually would be sufiicient to maintain its observed output of energy. At first glance this appears quite reasonable, and for a few years Mayer’s theory enjoyed considerable success. Closer examination, however, revealed that on this basis the earth should receive from meteoritic bombardment millions of times more heat than could possibly be admitted, so that the theory soon became of historical interest only. A theory ascribing the source of the sun’s heat to friction but in a wholly different way was first described by Helmholtz * in a popular lecture delivered on February 7, 1854. He showed that as the sun loses heat by radiation it must contract, and this contraction 1s equiva- lent to the fall of particles by various amounts depending upon their distance from the center of the sun. Making the most unfavorable assumptions, Helmholtz found that a shrinkage of 250 feet per year would be enough to supply the sun’s annual output of energy, an amount too small to be detected for 10,000 years. One of the necessary conditions which any theory of solar radia- tion must fulfill is that the temperature of the earth has not sensibly diminished in historical times. As evidence of this condition, Helm- holtz cited the cultivation of grapes and olives, plants extremely sen- sitive to temperature changes, over the same regions that prevailed in the days of Homer. Against this evidence it was argued that formerly the German knights had made their own wine and drunk it, but the 2 Republished in Philos. Mag., vol. 25, p. 241, 1863. § Philos. Mag., vol. 11, p. 489, 1856. ATOMIC POWER—RICHARDSON 153 quality of the grape had changed so much that this was no longer possible. To this Helmholtz replied that it was more likely that the throats of the drinkers had changed rather than the climate of their country. Astronomers became so convinced of the truth of the contraction theory that they arbitrarily told geologists that the maximum age of the earth was 25 million years, and to adjust their evolutionary scale accordingly. This the geologists flatly refused to do, as they had reasons for believing that the age of the earth was more than 100 million years. Toward the close of the century, the discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel and the isolation of radium by the Curies led to the uneasy suspicion that friction might not be the sole source of solar radia- tion. In 1899, T. C. Chamberlain,‘ a geologist, dared to challenge the contraction theory as well as boldly to predict, with startling insight, sources of subatomic energy. “What the internal constitution of the atoms be is yet open to question,” he wrote. “It is not improbable that they are complex organizations, and the seats of enormous energies. . . . Are we quite sure we have yet probed the bottom of the sources of energy and are able to measure even roughly its sum total?” With the reluctant abandonment of the contraction theory there followed a long interlude during which astronomers could give no definite answer to the question, “What is the force from which the sun draws its power?” They could watch radium release enough energy every hour to melt more than its own weight of ice, knowing that it could continue to do so for another 1,000 years. Application to the sun, however, was little more than a hopeful possibility. No radioactive substances had been identified in the solar atmosphere, and there was small prospect of detecting spectral lines of such heavy elements. Besides, nobody had the faintest idea whence radium derived its energy. Then in 1905, Einstein * published a paper of less than 500 words which changed the whole situation and has continued to exert an ever-increasing influence on modern physics. From con- siderations based upon the electrodynamics of moving bodies, he showed that if a body gives off energy, Z, in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by Z/V*, where V is the velocity of light.6 From this he concluded, “it is not impossible that with bodies whose energy- content is variable to a high degree (e. g., with radium salts) the theory may be put to a successful test.” There appeared to be two ways in which mass might be converted into energy. The more radical involved the total annihilation of matter. The case generally envisaged was a head-on collision between * Science, vols. 9 and 10, 1899. 5 Ann. Physik, vol. 18, p. 639, 1905. ° This is Hinstein’s original notation. 154 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: an electron and a proton in which both vanish, only to reappear as a radiation of fr equency 2 2.31028. There could be no doubt that such a process occurring within the deep interior of stars would certainly provide a potent source of energy. Chief drawback of the annihilation process was the total absence of observational evidence to support it. A less energetic but more likely reaction was the formation of heavier elements from hydrogen. If, as was then supposed, a helium nucleus consisted of four protons and two electrons, its atomic weight should be four times that of hydrogen, or 4X 1.008=4.032.7. On the contrary, accurate measurements made by Aston in 1920 with the mass spectro- graph revealed that the atomic weight of helium is 4.002. ‘Thus 0.030 mass units had presumably been fiber rated as energy in the atom-build- ing process. While the transmutation of hydrogen seemed fairly plausible and was capable of furnishing the minimum amount of energy that the cosmologists demanded for their various hypotheses, yet Eddington, summarizing the state of affairs in 1926, found the outlook anything but bright. Attempts to formulate a theory of stellar evolution based upon the transmutation of hydrogen were invariably strained. Every argument led to a deadlock. “Unfortunately, the facts as yet do not fall into satisfactory order,” he regretfully admitted, “and we are still groping for a clue.” § For another 10 years astronomers continued to grope for the essen- tial clue before it gradually became apparent. In 1919, Rutherford, by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles, had obtained oxygen of atomic weight 17—the first case of the artificial transmutation of the elements. A whole new field of research was opened, which atomic physicists immediately invaded with great exultation. Exciting dis- coveries and epoch-making developments followed with breath-taking speed : the positron, the neutron, artificial radioactivity, the cyclotron, together with the production of a host of strange particles by nuclear disintegration unknown a few years before. And since large quantities of energy were released in many of these disintegration oxperiment astronomers began to eye them with covetous eyes. By 1939 both our experimental and theoretical knowledge a progressed to such an extent that it was possible to decide which reactions might be responsible for the production of energy in stars similar tothesun.® First, all nuclear reactions that might conceivably contribute to generating energy in the sun were written down. Then T Now, the helium nucleus is believed composed of two protons of weight 2 1.00758 and two neutrons of weight 2X 1.00893, so that the weight of the separate parts should be 4.03302. The latest value for the weight of the helium nucleus is 4.00280, giving a differ- ence of 0.038022. 8 Internal Constitution of the Stars, p. 297. ®°H. A. Bethe, Phys. Rev., Vol. 55, p. 434, 1939. ATOMIC POWER—RICHARDSON 155 opposite each reaction was written the quantity of energy liberated, the rate at which the reaction would proceed at the temperature cal- culated for the center of the sun, 20 million degrees, and finally, the “mean life” or average time required for the reaction to take place. Inspection of the table revealed that only a very few reactions would provide energy at the rate emitted by the sun. At 20 million degrees some reactions would occur so rapidly that the sun would explode, while others were far too sluggish. In fact, it was pretty obvious that observations could be satisfied only by a particular series of reactions in which hydrogen combining with carbon and nitrogen is transformed into helium with the liberation of energy. The unique feature about the series is its cyclical character, neither carbon nor nitrogen being consumed but serving as true catalysts for the com- bination of four protons and two electrons into an alpha particle. Thus 85 years after the origin of the contraction theory, astronomers finally found in the carbon-nitrogen cycle a reasonably satisfactory answer to the question, “What is the force from which the sun draws its power?” It must not be supposed that astronomers now sit back complacently and regard the matter as closed. Although the carbon-nitrogen cycle accounts very well for the production of energy in stars like the sun, it has not been so successful when applied either to very luminous white stars or cool red giants. Thus Y Cygni, which is 32,000 times as bright as the sun, must be converting hydrogen into helium so fast that it can hardly have been shining at its present rate for more than 85 million years, and probably has only enough hydrogen left to con- tinue for another 170 million years. If the present age of the universe is 2,000 million years, then stars like Y Cygni are truly “brief candles” blazing for a few cosmic minutes only. At the other end of the sequence are stars like Capella which have a central temperature cal- culated to be about 6 million degrees, so low that the carbon-nitrogen cycle would fail to operate effectively. In order to explain the pro- duction of energy in the red giants we are forced to rely on proton reactions with deuterium, lithium, and beryllium, which occur at relatively low temperatures. But it is hard to see how these light elements were built up in the red giants in the first place. A question which naturally arises at this time is “Why was not subatomic energy used as a source of power in the 30’s?” It would seem that if nuclear reactions produce so much heat, and if physicists knew how to produce them, then why not harness them for industrial use immediately? For example, the energy liberated from the trans- formation of a single pound of lithium and hydrogen in the proper proportions would release as much heat as can be obtained from the combustion of 3,150 tons of coal. 725362—47——12 156 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: The answer is that these reactions can be produced in the laboratory only on an infinitesimal scale by the expenditure of far more energy than they release. The nuclear reactions observed before 1939 are fundamentally impractical as commercial sources of power because they are not self-propagating. ae r aN? Xe ] 5 : i nt ny yoy ae” A ~ ' " ‘ . pap nereeramny ™ , 4 4 | per seg poterewny et ve f ) “et ' \ 7 i ‘ i ; 7 1 t 1 /, } ad a) ‘ ) Ny : ‘ Ay ’ f a i i s i J "in ye y re rf i “ , \e ? I Ny \AOUIA — | AY RADARS MiG ATI We RT win te ag PERN DATA ON FLUORINE IN WATER SUPPLIES OF THE UNITED STATES ANALYSES &Y COUNTIES | Ee = [Ei eoreres statemene CI No known data COMMUNAL AND NON~COMM UNAL Copyright, 1988, by the American Geographical Society oF Wew Perk AMIAOUIT ob HT aaa fh - ry — ome : ‘ ~~ , ; ‘@ > bAMTC Ts oF : é a. J “ i - 7 “ is b. ’ q Ml | ‘ - / - a ; , ' ' oleae i oe m wi PAR PIM OE THE BIRTH OF PARICUTIN:? By JENARO GONZALEZ R. Comité Directivo para la Investigacion de los Recursos Minerales de Meaico, Instituto de Geologia and WILLIAM F’. FosHAG Curator of Mineralogy and Petrology, U. S. National Museum [With 10 plates] INTRODUCTION Many thousands of volcanoes, old and young, are scattered over the earth’s surface. Some that are very old have been reduced to traces by erosion, others are still perfectly preserved in their essential form, although cold and inactive. About 500 volcanoes are known to have been active within historical times, although the number of volcanoes in eruption at one time is never large. With very few exceptions the active volcanoes are old and well-established features, antedating the history of man by many years, some having their beginnings a million or more years ago. In all recorded history there have been but six instances reported of a new volcano being born, that is, originating at a spot with no evidence of previous volcanic outbursts. To these six, we can now add a seventh—Paricutin Volcano—that arose in a cornfield in Mexico on February 20, 1943. The only previously recorded instance in which the outbreak of a new volcano was actually observed is that of Chinyero, Tenerife, which opened up about 100 meters from a farmer and his son. In the case of Paricutin Volcano, four persons actually saw its beginning at very close hand, and their observations furnish the first adequate account of this rare phenomenon. Others visited the spot after the first outbreak, and scientists were soon on hand to submit it to detailed study. Since there are so many apocryphal accounts of what took place during the first moments of Paricutin Volcano, we will quote, as accurately as possible, the narration of events as 1 The two authors first saw the new voleano about 1 month after its birth. Thereafter they kept it under observation for a period of nearly 3 years. 223 224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 recounted to us by the actual eyewitnesses. It is remarkable that, in spite of the tremendous shock and overwhelming fear induced by this sudden apparition, there is so little apparent distortion in their observations. Michoacan is one of the southwestern States of Mexico, lying due west of Mexico City and touching the Pacific Ocean. It les in part on the Mexican Plateau, in part in the Tierra Caliente. It is also one of the most beautiful States of Mexico, and owes much of its attraction to its pine-clad volcanic hills, and its lakes formed by dams of ancient lava flows. Although the region contains numerous dead volcanoes, it has had but one active volcano in historic times—Jorullo, which began in 1759 in much the same manner as Paricutin Volcano, One of the most fertile portions of this region was the municipality of San Juan Parangaricutiro, which included, besides the seat of the Municipio, Parangaricutiro, the villages of Paricutin, Angahuan, Zirosto, Zacan, and others. The area consists of small, rich valleys, devoted to the cultivation of maize, between volcanic ridges and cones covered with forests of pine. As is usual in these regions of Michoa- ean, the tillable lands are privately owned, but the forest lands belong, in large part, to the villages, and being sources of lumber and turpen- tine, are an important asset to the community. The region is inhabited by Tarascan Indians, an indigenous popu- lation who have clung persistently to their own language and customs. They are an industrious, deeply religious, yet valiant people, with an innate knowledge of nature such as one finds in a people deeply attached to the soil. Three kilometers south of Parangaricutiro and two kilometers south- east of Parfcutin lay the valley of Rancho Tepacua. Its southern border is the lower slopes of Mount Tancitaro, 3,845 meters high, and the highest point in Michoacan. Its northern border is the ridge called Jaratiro. Between these two mountain areas passed the road from Uruapan to Paricutin. As is the custom in this region the owners of ~ the farms live in the villages, the farms themselves being occupied only temporarily at intervals. The workers travel each day with their oxen and tools from the village to the fields, or to the forest, returning in the evening to their homes. Between Jaratiro and the foot of Tancitaro, and about 114 miles from Paricutin Village, lay two rich parcels of land. One, Quitzocho, belonged to the town of Parangaricutiro; the other, Cuiyutziro, to the town of Paricutin. A stone fence separated these two parcels of land and formed the boundary between the two towns. A large rock, called the Piedra del Sol, was also a boundary marker and a landmark. Quitzocho was the property of Barbarino Gutiérrez; Cuiyutziro, that of Dionisio Pulido, PARICUTIN—-GONZALEZ AND FOSHAG 225 In the minds of many of the simple people of the region, the tragedy that overtook Parangaricutiro and Paricutin is related to events that had their beginnings many years before. When the Tarascans sep- arated to form diverse villages, the town of Parangaricutiro, which became the important center of the area and the town of greatest influence, bought lands from the other villages. Paricutin sold some in Rancho Tepacua, near the parcels of Cuiytitziro and Quitzocho, but the boundaries were never well defined and Parangaricutiro took more land than they had bought (said those of Paricutin). There resulted such a deep feeling of animosity that those of one village hardly dared pass on the lands of the other. This led to numerous altercations on the disputed lands, in one of which Nicolas Toral, of Paricutin, lost his life, almost at the very spot where the new volcano was to break forth. The ecclesiastical authorities of the Municipio, desirous that the dispute should cease and the two villages live in harmony, placed upon the Cerro del Horno, a huge rock high up on the slopes of Mount Tancitaro, a large wooden cross with plaque of silver, facing Rancho Tepacua. A solemn mass was held at its dedication, attended by a large assemblage of people from many miles around. And so some days passed in peace. But one day it was discovered that the cross had been chopped down and had disappeared. The council of pa- triarchs, or Teréptich, who gather periodically to deliberate matters of common interest and to augur the signs for the future, considered this event with dark forebodings and prognosticated a punishment without equal, a punishment that would cause their ruin and misery. BEFORE THE VOLCANO In the lands of Rancho Tepacua there existed for many years a small hole. Both Dionisio Pulido and his brother Dolores mentioned it as having existed all during their tenure of the land. Each year they cast dirt and debris into this cavity, but it showed no appreciable signs of becoming filled. Sra. Severiana Murilla, now an old lady, recalls how as a child, more than 50 years ago, she played about this small pit. She remembered it well for two reasons: first, because her father warned her to avoid the spot, saying that it was the entrance to an old Spanish mine (although no mining activity has been recorded in the area); and second, because one frequently heard subterranean noises, as if made by falling rocks, near the hole. Further, they amused themselves around the hole because it emitted a pleasant warmth. Early February is the season of Barbecho, the first plowing of the year, in preparation for the season’s sowing. At this time the vil- lagers are in their fields busily engaged in their various tasks. On February 5 the first premonition of the impending disaster was no- 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 ticed—the earth began to tremble. With each succeeding day the tremors increased, both in number and in violence. Subterranean noises, too, could be heard with increasing frequency and intensity; they seemed to be centered in the area of Cuiyutziro and Quitzocho. These seemingly unnatural] manifestations kept the inhabitants in con- stant turmoil and fear. The earth tremors became so frequent and so violent that it was feared the great church of Parangaricutiro, with its massive walls of masonry more than a meter thick, would collapse. As a precaution, the sacred image of the church, El Senor de los Milagros, famous throughout the region for its miraculous powers, was placed in the main plaza, near the village cross, and by a strange coincidence faced directly toward the spot where the volcano would appear. FEBRUARY 20, 1943 February 20 was clear and calm. Dionisio Pulido left his village of Paricutin to prepare his farm “Cuiyttziro” for the coming sowing. With him he took his oxen and his plow. He was accompanied by his wife Paula and his son, who would watch the sheep, and Demetrio Toral (who died a short time ago in Calzontzin) to help with the plowing. In the afternoon, after midday, I joined my wife and son, who were watching the sheep, and inquired if anything new had occurred, since for 2 weeks we had felt strong temblores in the region. Paula replied, yes, that she had heard noise and thunder underground. Scarcely had she finished speaking when I, myself, heard a noise, like thunder during a rainstorm, but I could not explain it, for the sky above was clear and the day was so peaceful, as it is in February. At 4 o’clock I left my wife to set fire to a pile of branches which Demetrio _ and I and another, whose name [I cannot remember, had gathered. I went to burn the branches when I noticed that at a cueva,’? which was situated on one of the knolls of my farm, a fissure had opened, and I noticed that this fissure, as I followed it with my eye, was long and passed from where I stood, through the hole, and continued in the direction of the Cerro de Canijuata, where Canijuata joins the Mesa of Cocojara. Here is something new and strange, thought I, and I searched the ground for marks to see whether or not it had opened in the night but could find none; and I saw that it was a kind of fissure that had only a depth of half a meter. I set about to ignite the branches again, when I felt a thunder, the trees trembled, and I turned to speak to Paula; and it was then I saw how, in the hole the ground swelled and raised itself—2 or 2144 meters high—and a kind of smoke or fine dust—gray, like ashes—began to rise up in a portion of the crack that I had not previously seen, near the resumidero. Im- mediately more smoke began to rise, with a hiss or whistle, loud and continuous, and there was a smell of sulfur. I then became greatly frightened and tried to help unyoke one of the ox teams. I hardly knew what to do, so stunned was I before this, not knowing what to think or what to do and not able to find my wife or my son or my animals. Finally my wits returned and I recalled the sacred Sefor de los Milagros, which was in the church in San Juan (Parangari- 2 Variously referred to by Pulido as a cueva (cave or grotto), resumidero (a hole or crevice, into which water disappears during the rainy season), or agujero (a hole). PARICUTIN—GONZALEZ AND FOSHAG 227 -— =e es ~~ w Nip ONE eae Spree -- Campo de|Prylido os Ficurse 1.—Paricutin Volcano at time of its outbreak, showing position of eye- witnesses. . Direction of plow furrow. . Dionisio Pulido. . Demetrio Toral. Vent of volcano. Depression along fissure. The original fissure. . Piedra del Sol. . Path taken by Aurora Cuara. . A secondary crack of fissure. . Road to Paricutin and Parangaricutiro. . Paula Rangel de Pulido. . Pine trees. ary YE Ne cutiro) and in a loud voice I cried: ‘Santo Sefior de los Milagros, you brought me into this world—now save me from the dangers in which I am about to die,” and I looked toward the fissure from whence rose the smoke, and my fear, for the first time, disappeared. I ran to see if I could save my family and my companions and my oxen, but I did not see them, and thought that they had taken the oxen to the spring for water. When I saw that there was no longer any water in the spring, for it was near the fissure, I thought the water was lost because of the fissure. Then, very frightened, I mounted my mare and galloped to Paricutin, where I found my wife and son and friends awaiting, fearing that I might be dead, and that they would never see me again. On the road to Paricutin I thought of my little animals, the yoke oxen, that were going to die in that flame and smoke but upon arriving at my house I was happy to see that they were there. At no time did Pulido notice any heat in the ground about the spot. 228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: Paula accompanied her husband to watch the sheep. From 8 o’clock in the morning and all during the day she could hear subterranean noises, as if made by a torrent of water dragging stones and logs, or of stones rolling down the mountainside. About 4 o’clock, after talking to my husband, I heard a kind of loud whistle, like the noise of water falling in live coals or hot embers. This noise was com- pletely distinct from the underground noise I had been hearing and the trees swayed strongly and continuously. I was about 100 meters from the place where these things took place, when I saw, issuing from a crevice that had formed, a little cloud of gray color and I smelled an odor, like sulfur, and I noticed that some pines about 30 meters from the orifice began to burn. I called to my husband. Then the ground rose in the form of a confused cake 2 or 244 meters high, above the open fissure and then disappeared, but I cannot say whether it blew out or fell back—I believe it swallowed itself. I was sure the earth was on fire and it would consume itself. I am sure that from the fissure arose a gray column of smoke, without force, depositing a fine gray dust. Very much frightened, Paula fled to Paricutin and there waited with great anxiety to see whether her husband would return. Toral arrived with the oxen. . Aurora de Cuara, wife of Gregorio Cuaro Sota, had been with her family at their farm at San Nicolas, some 20 kilometers from Paran- garicutiro. All during the day they felt very strong earth tremors and heard subterranean noises, Aurora and her children were return- ing afoot to Parangaricutiro along the road that leads directly past Cuiyitziro. At 4:30 p.m., they reached the foot of the Piedra del Sol, precisely at the time when the ground opened up. As I passed the Piedra del Sol, I felt very heavy earth shocks and saw the earth open up, like a fissure. From this fissure arose a smoke of very fine gray dust to about one-half the height of the nearby pine trees. Although terribly frightened Aurora clambered to the summit of the rock, in order that she might see what was happening. The fissure was about 50 meters distant. There was no “thunder” but she was able to see that not only smoke and gray dust, but also “sparks” rose from the fissure. She could see Pulido assist his helper unyoke the oxen but could not see Paula because a grove of pines obscured a full view of the farm, and she saw the two men flee in fright toward the village. At the Piedra del Sol, one could hear noises like a roar or like a stone falling down a deep well and striking the sides. Dolores Pulido, brother of Dionisio, was working in the forest on Cerro de Janinboro. He saw smoke arising from his brother’s land and went to see what had taken place. He reached the spot about 6 p. m. and saw, from a distance of 8 meters, smoke issuing from a vent in the ground. About this vent were low mounds of fine gray dust. He was unable to approach closer because of falling stones. He then took fright and fled. PARICUTIN—GONZALEZ AND FOSHAG 229 In Parangaricutiro, Luis Oritz Solorio was standing near his house, talking to his neighbor, the shoemaker. It was a quarter past 5 in the afternoon. Looking toward Quitzocho, he saw a thin column of smoke arising. He went to the plaza, where many people had gathered in front of the church, for news had come that the earth had opened up and smoke was issuing from a crack in the ground. The Cura, Jose Caballero, with the consent of the Presidente, Felipe Cuara Amezcua, decided to send a group of men to the spot to see what had taken place. Solorio offered to go, also Jesus Anguiano, Jests Martinez, Antonio Escalera, and Miguel Campoverde. Since the Cura believed this mission would be a dangerous one in which they might lose their lives, and to give them spirit, as well as valor, he gave them his benediction. FIGURE 2.—Paricutin Volcano at 6 p. m., February 20, 1943. (From a model made in the soil by Anguiano. Scale in meters.) . Small mounds of gray ash. . The fissure that opened. . The pit from which vapors issued. . The fracture that opened while Anguiano and Martinez watched the vent. . Anguiano and Martinez. . Other members of the Parangaricutiro party. oS OR ON They went by horse, riding rapidly, and very soon came to the spot, the first two to arrive being Jess Anguiano and Jestis Martinez. They found that the earth had opened, forming a kind of fissure, at the extreme southern end of which was a hole about half a meter across, from which issued smoke, and red-hot stones were thrown into the air a short distance. Anguiano, desirous to see what was taking place in the hole, approached the spot, when Solorio cried out to come back, the side was about to collapse. Scarcely had he leapt back, when the 230 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: wall fell in, widening the orifice to 2 meters across, and the column of smoke increased in size. According to Anguiano, the orifice was pear-shaped and from this cavity arose a fine gray dust like ashes and “sparks,” and stones were thrown out without much force to a height of 5 meters. A choking odor pervaded the spot. In the vent the sand was “boiling” like the bubbling sand in a rising spring, with a noise like a large jug of water, boiling vigorously, or boulders dragged along a stream bed by ariver in flood. About the vent small mounds of fine dust half a meter high had gathered. This fine ash was very hot but Anguiano collected some in his handkerchief as well as two of the hot stones. The ground shook violently, “jumping up and down, not with the swaying motion they had experienced in Parangaricutiro.” They decided then to return and report what they had seen, and they carried with them the ash and the two stones. The stones were delivered to the Cura, and being still hot, they were placed in a dish, and the Cura exorcised them, that the volcano might cease. The Cura and others then consulted a book on Vesuvius in the library of the church, and it was decided that what they had seen was a volcano, which greatly astonished the gathered people. Between 6 and 9 o’clock the volcano began to throw out large stones, and at 10 o’clock, one could see clearly, from Parangaricutiro, through the pine trees, incandescent rocks hurled out, but without any thun- derous noises. Between 11 o’clock and midnight the volcano began to roar, huge incandescent bombs were hurled into the air, and flashes of lightning appeared in the heavy ash column. On the morning of February 21, Pulido drove his oxen to the forest to graze and then went to his farm to see what had taken place. At 8 o’clock the voleano was about 10 meters high. It emitted smoke and hurled out hot rocks with great violence. With the outbreak of the volcano, the earth tremors ceased, much to the relief of the populace. The Cura and Presidente allayed their fears somewhat, but on the morning of the 21st a strong earthquake threw them into panic and they abandoned their homes, those from Paricutin fleeing to Parangaricutiro, those from Parangaricutiro to Angahuan or Uruapan, and those from Angahuan to the mountains. In Parangaricutiro, the village council met under urgent summons from the Presidente. The official account is given in the records of the municipality as follows: In the village of Parangaricutiro, seat of the municipality of the same name, state of Michoacan de Ocampo, at 10 o’clock on the 21st day of the month of February, 1943, gathered in the public hall of the municipal government, under urgent summons, the Regidores * Felipe Cuara Amezcua, municipal mayor, Felix Anducho, trustee, Rafael Ortiz Enriquez, Ambrosio Soto and Rutilio Sandoval, 8 Councilors. PARICUTIN—GONZALEZ AND FOSHAG 231 as well as Agustin Sanchez, chief of the Tenancia of Paricutin, of this municipio,‘ and Dionisio Pulido, resident of said place; the Regidor Felipe Cuara Amezcua, President, declared the session opened, stating that yesterday at about 18 o’clock, Messrs. Sanchez and Pulido presented themselves, telling, greatly excited, of the appearance of a strange conflagration that occurred at 17 o’clock yesterday in the valley called Cuiyfitziro, to the east of the village of Paricutin. They asked that they be taken immediately to the place of the happening, that one could see for one’s self the truth of their assertion; at the time Dionisio Pulido, owner of the above-mentioned property, gave the information that early on the day of the event, he left his village (Paricutin) to tend his sheep in com- pany with his wife Paula Rangel de Pulido and to visit his properties situated in the said valley; that in the afternoon, at an early hour, he left the place, asking his wife to watch the sheep until he returned; that about 16 o’clock he returned to the place and asked Demetrio Torres® who worked in the fields, to unyoke the oxen and take them to water; after which he returned to his wife suggesting that she return to the village, going then to examine the work done in the fields, arriving at the slope of the nearby hill to the east; that there, about 17 o'clock, he felt a strong tremor and din in the earth, to which he paid little attention, since seisms had been frequent for more than 8 days, but he continued hearing loud subterranean noises accompanying the tremors, and then, thoroughly frightened, he turned his gaze to the west, that is toward his village, observing with surprise that down there in the joyaita,® long tongues of fire arose, with a great deal of smoke and noises never heard before. A terrible panic seized him, and he fled toward Paricutin, where he arrived out of breath, immediately recounting to C. Agustin Sanchez, chief of the Tenancia, what had occurred. ‘That Senor Sanchez, convincing himself of the truth of what Pulido had told him, went with him to the municipal president of Paran- garicutiro, where, totally alarmed, they gave the facts to C. Felipe Cuara Amez- cua, who with the haste the case merited, went with the informants to the place where the phenomenon had appeared, and later they learned that it was a volcano. Returning to Parangaricutiro, the C. Presidente Municipal summoned the members of the council to attend the present Extraordinary Session and consider this matter, now that the fear has extended to all the nearby villages, soliciting, for this reason, ample powers from the Council to act; he gave as important in the case, that now the volcano grew with real fury and (with it) the panic of the inhabitants of the region who abandoned their homes and possessions. It was conceded at once to C. Felipe Cuara Amezcua, who im- mediately began action to solve the problem in the best manner, soliciting the help of General of Division don Manuel Avilo Camacho, Constitutional President of the Republic; of General of Division don L&zaro Cardenas, Secretary of National Defense; of General Félix Ireta Vivieros, Governor of the State; to the Departments of Agriculture and Government, Municipal authorities of Uruapan and to other official agencies, by means of telegraph and telephone. Upon the proposal of some residents of this place and of Paricutin, the correct name that the mentioned volcano should bear was discussed, and after ample deliberation, in which was taken into account the history, traditions, and desires of the people, it was unanimously denominated “Volcano de Paricutin.” Celadonio Gutierrez, a witness to the events from Parangaricutiro, wrote the following account for us: *A municipio includes the cabecera, or seat of government, and a number of villages, scattered through the area. 5 Demetrio Toral. *Small valley or depression. 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 The year 1943 began. When I visited a friend on a ranch called Titzicato, some few kilometers south of where the new volcano broke forth, he told me that some tremors had already begun in these places and they heard many noises in the center of the earth. Then these noises and the tremors began to be felt in San Juan (Parangaricutiro) the following month, the 5th of February, at midday, and every day until the 20th. During these 15 days of tremors, there were Some stronger than others; when we heard the subterranean noises we awaited the tremor. According to the noise the movement of the earth was strong or weak. They followed each other almost every minute. If they were delayed the noise or the tremor was stronger. The people could not feel secure or have confidence to remain in their houses to sleep. They knelt down frequently to pray to God that the earth would not sink, such was the movement during so many days of earthquakes. They brought forth the Image of the Santo Cristo Milagroso, of this village, in procession and the earthquakes ceased. I write this because I have seen it and not because it was told to me, The volcano broke out on Saturday, February 20, at about half past 4 in the afternoon. What a great surprise for my village and for the world! The earth was burned and there began to ascend a small simple column, that grew little by little, a vapor, strange gray in color, rising silently, with an inclination to- ward the southeast. A little later many people came from Parfcutin, which was nearest to the voleano. The Presidente Municipal, don Felipe Cuara A., prepared to move the people from the place, and had already asked, by means of telegraph, for trucks to transport all the people. But the people despaired and began to leave on foot, on horse or on burros, or however they were able. In the afternoon, when night began to fall, one could hear more noise. These we called “rezaques.”" Some tongues of flame began to appear, as of fire, that rose about §00 meters into the air, and others even higher that loosened a rain, as of artificial golden fire. At 8 or 9 at night, some flashes of lightning shot from the vent into the column of vapor. The column was now very dense and black, and extended toward the south. It covered the grand mountain of Tancitaro, for the first sands and ashes were in this direction and cast the first cold shadow of the volcano over this area. From this hour the warming rays of the sun, that warmed the mountains and the green fields, so beautiful, ceased, and the green leaves of the trees and smaller plants that nourished the cattle died from the ashes that now began to appear. How strange and rare to see the clouds form, the first clouds of the voleano! Only a short time before the sky was blue, for the dry season had already begun. So, then, we passed the first night, con- templating and admiring this new event. On the following day, Sunday the 21st, the dense vapors ceased. When the vapors diminished, the noise increased and at 2 in the afternoon they were very strong. With each blast white vapors accompanied by blue fumes arose; the vapors appeared as if one shook a white sheet in the air. After the first night, it threw up some tongues of fire, which were almost of pure sand. On the following night one noted that they were explosions of bombs and that the stones rose to a height 500 meters. They flew through the air to fall 300-400 meters from the vent. It is a great memory for me to have seen, during these first days, how the first stones fell on the plowed fields of Quitzocho, where I used to watch the cattle of my grandfather. At 3 o’clock on the morning of Monday, the 22d, there were earthquakes like we never had before. The earth shook for 7 or 8 minutes, with intervals of a few seconds. The people imagined that this was the ultimate agony of a great region. Who could check the great movement of an entire region? Only the * Grumbles (?). PARICUTIN—GONZALEZ AND FOSHAG 233 Omnipotent God, in his great power, with his divine omnipotence thought of us; it was He who saved us.® The first lava that the voleano gave forth, to the east of the little cone, flowed 8 meters per hour, according to the data of Sr. Geologist don Ezequiel Ordonez, who was sent by the Comision Impulsora y Coordinadora de Mexico to observe a this important novelty. This gentleman, 78 years of age, through his studies and experience, convinced us that there was no danger to our village, and counseled that the people return to their homes. Now this same gentleman showed us the first lava flow, moving like dough, from which fell incandescent rocks from one side or another, such rocks as we knew before, without knowing how they formed. We also saw the malpais, which we knew before, without an idea of its origin. Without doubt, this answers not only how the malpais formed, but also the tillable lands and the mountains that I knew. We saw the lava, as it covered the Cruza*® made by the yokes of oxen from Paricutin and which needed only 8 days for the sowing. Now one Sees an admirable flow of fire, covering the last traces of our footsteps and of the works of man that he made during the life that God permitted him. During the morning of the 21st the activity of Paricutin Volcano greatly increased in intensity, casting out great quantities of incan- descent material to build up its cone. By midday its height was variously estimated at 30 to 50 meters. The amount of ash, however, was relatively small and the eruptive column of less size and vigor than appeared some weeks later. The first lava began to flow within 2 days after the initial outburst, perhaps sometime during the day of the 21st. It issued as a viscous mass, spreading slowly over the fields of Cuiyitziro and Quitzocho. It moved slowly, about 5 meters per hour, forming a rugged sheet of torn and jumbled lava fragments. LATER GROWTH Paricutin Volcano continued to grow with startling rapidity. On February 26 it had reached a height of more than 160 meters, and its explosive activity had increased to an awesome thunderous bom- bardment, in which immense quantities of viscous lava were hurled continuously into the air; the noise of these tremendous explosions could be heard in many remote corners of Michoacan, and even in Guanajuato, 350 kilometers to the northeast. In late March the first lava ceased flowing and the eruptive activity changed to a heavy emission of ash, the eruptive column rising to a height of more than 20,000 feet. This ash covered the countryside for miles around, ruining the fields and destroying the forests. In time the lavas reached both Parangaricutiro and Parfcutin, en- gulfing and destroying them, and scattering their inhabitants to other ®*This earthquake had its epicenter in the sea, near Acapulco, and was not directly related to the volcano. ® The second plowing In preparation for the sowing. 234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 areas. Celadonio Gutierrez wrote on February 20, 1946, in his simple diary of the life of the volcano. Three years ago my village existed tranquilly, without any warning of the voleano as it exists today. Three years ago all parts of this region were beauti- ful, with fruit trees in the villages and in the fields, green pastures, beautiful lands that demonstrated the wealth of the region, with cattle and sheep, and droves of horses that grazed in the rich fields. Now there remains for me only a memory and a pride to have known it as it was 3 years ago. Parficutin Volcano has continued to grow up to the present time (1946), although most of the later growth was in width rather than height. The greatest height recorded in 1946 was 1,500 feet. SUMMARY After 2 weeks of local earth tremors and subterranean noises, which increased day by day in strength and frequency, on February 20, 1943, about 4 p. m., a small fissure about 25 meters long opened on the farm Cuiyiatziro, near Paricutin village. About 4:20 p. m., a sudden explosion opened a small vent about half a meter across at a spot near the west end of this fissure, and a small eruptive column of fine gray ash and small bombs arose from the orifice. ‘This orifice in- creased in size by the collapse of its walls, reaching 2 meters in dia- meter at 6 p. m., and the eruption increased in volume. Within the throat of the vent the ash bubbled like the sand in a spring, with a noise like a cauldron of water boiling vigorously. An odor of sulfur pervaded the vicinity of the vent. Small mounds of fine hot ash half a meter high began to collect about the orifice. Between 10 p. m. and midnight heavy eruptions began, with thunderous noises and the ejection of large incandescent bombs. During the night the cone grew slowly, reaching a height of 10 meters by 8 a.m. During the day of the 21st, activity greatly in- creased, and the cone grew very rapidly, reaching 30 meters by mid- day. Probably the first lava flow appeared during this day. Heavy activity, with thunderous noises, continued, with increased quantities of ejected bombs, and the cone rose to a height of over 160 meters on February 26. In late March the first lava flow ceased, and the eruptive activity changed to the heavy emission of ash, the eruptive column rising to more than 20,000 feet. Later flows spread over the area, eventually engulfing the village of Parfcutin and Parangari- cutiro. (3eyqsoq “a “MAM Aq ydess0j0yq) HLYIg “OYMUILNDIYVONVYVd AO S,ONVOTOA NILNDIYVWd MVS OHM ‘OYIZLNAIND AVdIDINOW SALN3GISSYd ‘VNOZAWY VYEYVND AdIISAH NOG ‘2 WHYVH 3AHL AO YANMO ‘OdCI1Nd OISINOIGC °*{ | ALW1d Seyso.y pue zajezuory—"gp6| ‘J4odayy UeluosyyWIG Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 2 1. FIRST PHOTOGRAPH OF PARICUTIN VOLCANO, FROM THE OUTSKIRTS OF PARANGARICUTIRO. FEBRUARY 20, 1943,5 P.M. Canijuata Hill on the right. 2. FIRST DAY. FEBRUARY 21, 1943. The cone is about 30 meters high. (Photograph by Dr. J. Trinidad Hernandez, from Three Lions.) Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 3 1. SECOND DAY. FEBRUARY 22, 1943. The great quantity of ejected bombs and the first lava flow are distinctly visible. (Photograph by Rufus Morrow, from Three Lions.) 2. THIRD DAY. FEBRUARY 23, 1943. The cone is now 160 meters high. (Photograph by Ing. Ramiro Robles Ramos, from Three Lions.) (‘zauopio jenbezgq “suzy Aq ydeis0j}04 4) (-deysog “a “M Aq ydeisojoyd) €P6l ‘LZ AMWNYNSAY “ASVAD LHSINW ONVOTOA “‘yy6GL AIMG “WAV NI Ga47NONg BHL LVHL AVYd OL SASNYM YIFHL NO HOYNHD ‘YS31LV1 SHLNOW Zl ‘OYILNODIYVONVYVd AO HOYNHD AHL “Z BAHL ONIHDVOUddY OYILNODIYVIONVYVd AO NAWOM '1 yioALV1d Seyso.y pue Z2jeZu0y—"Op6 | *‘qaoday uRruosyzIWig Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 5 1. SECOND MONTH. MARCH 23, 1943. Paricutin Volcano from near Paricutin Village. Front of the first lava flow in middle distance. (Photo- graph by W. F. Foshag.) 2. THIRD MONTH. APRIL 4, 1943. Paricutin Volcano from the northeast. Voleanic ash in the foreground; lava flow in the middle ground. (Photograph by Hugo Brehme.) (3eysoy ‘a “MM Aq ydeis0j0yd) yoo} 000‘{0Z IOAO JO JYSsloy B SoyoRoI ULIN[OD dATIdNA VY, “ISBo OY} WOIY (Beysoqg “gq “M Aq ydeasojoyd) “4seey{1oU oY} UOT OUBITOA UTYNOWe “€vV6l ‘6 ANNF “HLNOW H14lA “2 “EvV6l V2 AVN “HLNOW HLYNOS 1 9 3ALV1d Beyso 4 pue Za]eZU0r)—"Op6| ‘qaoday uRTUOsY zg Se a (S3eysog “A "A N0Ud) “MOY BART B AG JNO polaIRd SUTeq 9UOD JO BpIS YON {q ydeiso10yd) “109810 9} WOT] BAB] SNODSTA JO SI [dxe st “€v6l | LSNONY “HLNOW HLXIS “2 “evel | LSNONY “HLNOW HLXIS ‘1 “a (M Aq yd UAUIAL J, £L3aLv1d Beysoy pue Zajezuor)—O¢6 | ‘qaoday URTUOSY IWS Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 8 1. BEGINNING OF THE PARANGARICUTIRO LAVA FLOW, AT THE BASE OF THE CONE. JANUARY 8, 1944. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) Se es _ ee 2. PARANGARICUTIRO LAVA FLOW APPROACHING THE CHURCH OF PARANGARI- CUTROD JUEY in OA. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 9 ie Pa é a < - . m 1. FRONT OF THE ZAPICHO LAVA FLOW. MARCH 23, 1944. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) 2. INTERIOR OF CRATER, JANUARY 23, 1945. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Gonzalez and Foshag PLATE 1. LAVA- AND ASH-COVERED LANDSCAPE, NORTH AND WEST OF THE CONE. MARCH 3, 1944. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) 2. RAIN-CUT ARROYO IN ASH NEAR PARICUTIN VILLAGE. AUGUST 16, 1944. (Photograph by W. F. Foshag.) THE NATURAL HISTORY OF WHALEBONE WHALES? By N. A. MACKINTOSH “Discovery” Investigations, London [With 2 plates] I. INTRODUCTION The whalebone whales (which include all the large species except the sperm whale) generally resort to parts of the open ocean which are remote from human settlements and shipping routes, and they are visible at the surface for perhaps a twentieth of the time they spend submerged. They are thus not easily accessible for biological investi- gations, and their inmmense bulk, sometimes exceeding 100 tons, makes dissection almost impossible without the aid of machinery. The best means of access is provided by the whaling industry, and most research on whales has made direct or indirect use of the op- portunities it provides. In modern whaling factories the carcasses can be examined in large numbers, for they are hauled out of the water and quickly dismembered; much information is to be had from the statistics of catches; and the numbers caught are sufficient to make the marking of whales a profitable method of research. At the same time more independent observations are also needed, for the hunting of whales is affected by geographical and economic factors, weather conditions, the selection of certain species, etc., and the catches in con- sequence are not strictly representative of the stock. Thus separate observations from ships not engaged in whaling (and perhaps in the future from the air) constitute an important means of studying the distribution, numbers, and habits of whales. Modern whaling, with the harpoon gun and the steam catcher, has expanded greatly in the twentieth century. It has provided not only the facilities but also the stimulus for research, for hunting on a large scale calls for regulation based on a knowledge of the distribution and migrations of the species, the reproductive capacity of the stock, and the nature of the populations of whales in different regions. It is with these subjects that the present article is principally concerned ; 1 Reprinted by permission from Biological Reviews, vol. 21, No. 2, 1946. 235 725362—47——17 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 that is to say, with whales from the collective rather than the individual point of view. The different sources of information and methods of research on these aspects of the biology of whales can be conveniently indicated by the following brief classification of the relevant literature. From time to time men engaged in the whaling industry have written of the natural history of whales. In the literature based on the old-time industry it is often difficult to sift accurate observations from exaggerated statements and misconceptions, but Scoresby’s “An Account of the Arctic Regions” (1820) contains observations of real value, and further useful information from first-hand experience of whaling is given, among others, by Scammon (1874), Risting (1912) and Ingebrigsten (1929). Research has also been carried out by the coordination of data at second hand from various sources, and such work is often of greater scientific value than the statements of whalers which are sometimes difficult to check. An important example is Esricht and Reinhardt’s monograph on the Greenland right whale (1861) which is still one of the best sources of information on this species. Kellogg’s summary (1929) of all available information on the migrations of whales is of special value, and contains an exhaus- tive list of references. Some papers by Harmer, Hjort, and others may also be included in this category. Since the development of modern whaling, individual biologists have sometimes made visits to shore stations and examined a limited number of whales. Observations were made on sizes, external char- acters, food, breeding, etc., and papers were published in which the results of these observations were generally combined with informa- tion obtained locally from the whalers, and with data from other sources and previous publications. Guldberg (1886) appears to have been the first to study the breeding cycle from dated foetal lengths. Cocks, Collett, and Haldane published a number of papers which need not be referred to here in full, True (1904) gave an exhaustive ac- count of the characters of the principal species, and the later work of Allen, Andrews, Barrett-Hamilton, Burfield, Hamilton, Hinton, Hjort and Ruud, Lillie, and Olsen will be referred to below. Some important recent research is based on the published statistics of the catches of the whaling industry and additional unpublished data contained in the log books of whaling ships. Hyjort, Lie and Ruud (1932-38) and Bergersen, Lie, and Ruud (1939, 1941) analyzed the catches in the Antarctic from year to year, with special reference to distribution and the effect of whaling on the stock. Townsend (1935) drew up a series of charts based on the log books of the old American whaleships and showing the positions of capture of thou- sands of right, humpback, and sperm whales; and on a similar basis WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 237 Hansen (1936) charted the captures of the modern pelagic fleet in the Southern Ocean. Risting (1928) studied the lengths of whales and their foetuses in relation to their distribution and breeding, and D’Arcy Thompson (1918, 1919, 1928), Harmer (1928, 1931), Kemp and Bennett (1932), Ottestad (1938), and others have also published papers based on statistics of the industry. Direct observations on whales on a large scale and partly by new methods have been carried out by the Discovery Committee since 1925. These include principally the detailed examination of some thousands of whales at whaling stations and on factory ships, mainly for the investigation of breeding, growth, and age; the marking of whales at sea whereby direct evidence of their migrations and distribution is obtained; and a long-term program of oceanographic research car- ried out partly for the study of the whales’ environment in the South- ern Ocean. General accounts of the results of work at whaling sta- tions were given by Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) and Matthews (1937, 19388b), and some more specialized aspects are dealt with in various papers by Wheeler, Ommanney, and Laurie. A paper de- scribing the principal results of whale marking has been published by Rayner (1940), and a more general report concerned largely with distribution and the stocks of whales by myself (1942). Of the investigations which are not dependent on the whaling in- dustry, direct observations at sea have been used in some of the Discovery Reports, and other expeditions have resulted in papers on habits of whales, among which those of Racovitza (1903), Lillie (1915), and Bruce (1915) may be mentioned. Stranded whales and museum specimens are mainly of systematic and anatomical interest, but records of standings (e. g., Harmer, 1927; Fraser, 1934) throw some light on distribution. The principal modern methods of investigating the natural history of whales are (a) anatomical examination in whaling factories, (0) independent observations at sea, (¢c) the marking of whales, and (d) analysis of the statistics of the industry. Whale marking is perhaps the soundest method of investigating some of the problems which arise. The method is to fire a numbered dart which lodges in the blubber of the living whale, and a reward is offered for the return of the mark with appropriate particulars. Such marks have been recovered up to about 2,500 miles from the position of marking and up to 10 years from the time of marking. Some of the evidence obtained through the catches of whales (under (a) and (d) above) must be applied with caution to the populations in general, but it can often be checked by marking and independent observations. Whale mark- ing not only provides information on distribution and migrations. Recoveries of long-term marks can be used as a check on estimates of 238 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 the growth rate and ages of whales, and since there are now some 5,000 marked whales at large in the Southern Ocean, it is expected that new evidence in this connection will be obtained in the future. II. DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATIONS OF THE SEPARATE SPECIES The Mystacoceti, or whalebone whales, include the following species :? BALAENIDAE (right whales) : Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus. Greenland right whale. Hubalaena glacialis (Bonnaterre), H. japonica Lacépéde, HB. australis Des- moulins, ete. Black right whales. Neobalaena marginata Gray. Pigmy right whale. BALAENOPTERIDAE (rorquals, ete.) : ' Megaptera nodosa (Bonnaterre}) (=M. novaeangliae (Borowski) ). Hump- back whale. Balaenoptera (=Sibbaldus) musculus (Linnaeus). Blue whale. B. physalus (Linnaeus). Fin whale. B. borealis Lesson. Sei whale. B. brydei Olsen. Bryde’s whale. B. acutorostrata Lacépéde. Lesser rorqual or minke. RACHIANECTIDAE: Rachianectes glaucus Cope. Gray whale. These whales are primarily inhabitants of the colder regions, and although most of the species visit temperate and even tropical waters, the largest numbers are seen in comparatively high latitudes. All the species, so far as is known, undertake more or less extensive seasonal migrations (though some species travel considerably greater distances than others), and thus an account of their distribution must include an account of their migrations. In winter the majority move into relatively warm waters, and this is the season in which breeding for the most part takes place. In summer the main herds move into colder waters where planktonic crustaceans offer an abundant food supply. In those species, whose feeding habits have been adequately investigated, it is found that very little food is taken in the warm waters in winter, and the migrations are thus linked with an alter- nation of feeding and breeding which is a specially important aspect of the general biology of whales. Although a few whalebone whales (usually humpbacks) occasion- ally migrate as far as the Equator, there can be very little interchange of stock between the two hemispheres, and they may be regarded as separated by the equatorial regions into a northern and a southern population. The blue, fin, sei, lesser rorqual, and humpback whales of the Northern Hemisphere are regarded as the same species as their 2Dr. F. C. Fraser, of the British Museum (Natural History), has kindly advised me on the nomenclature. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 239 counterparts in the south. The black right whales of the north and south are generally referred to as distinct species, but it is doubtful whether there is good reason for this except insofar as their habitats are separated by a wider equatorial belt than that separating the other species. The Greenland right and gray whales are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, and the pigmy right is known only in the Southern Hemisphere. Bryde’s whale is said to inhabit both hemi- spheres. Modern whaling takes place mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, and for this reason more is known of the southern than of the northern whales. This applies particularly to their distribution. They are principally inhabitants of the open ocean, and hence the catches of pelagic factories are much more representative of the main stocks of whales than those of shore-based stations. In the north we have little to go on except the data from shore stations, though Townsend (1935) gives some information on the pelagic catches of old whaling ships, mainly in the North Pacific and Southern Oceans. The modern whaling fleet, on the other hand, ranges over most of the Southern Ocean, and here also the marking of whales undertaken by the Dis- covery Committee has provided direct evidence on distribution and migrations. In winter, however, there is little to rely on but the catches of temperate and tropical shore stations. (1) Balaena mysticetus The Greenland right whale, which grows to a length of about 60 feet, is most readily distinguished by the huge head, which is about a third of the total length. In the great enlargement of the mouth, the elongation of the whalebone plates and modifications of the skull, this species shows a higher degree of specialization than any other whalebone whale. It is also peculiar in having a very restricted range of distribution. No direct investigations on this species have been made in recent years, for although it was formerly abundant in the Arctic it had been hunted almost to extinction by the end of the nineteenth century. The principal authorities are Scoresby (1820) and Esricht and Reinhardt (1861), but earlier work has been sum- marized in more recent publications. Southwell (1898) gives useful information on its distribution and movements in the North Atlantic, and Townsend (1935) throws new light on its distribution in the North Pacific. Harmer (1928) describes the Greenland right whale as “more polar in its occurence than any other of the great whales.” It was found in large numbers around the coasts and bays of Spitz- bergen and Jan Mayen, in the Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and (prob- ably to a less extent) in Hudson Bay. Townsend’s chart shows that it was hunted in the North Pacific in summer mainly in the Sea of 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Okhotsk, the northern part of the Bering Sea, and in the Arctic Ocean north of the Bering Strait and along the northern coast of Alaska and Canada. According to Harmer it. appears never to go far from the edge of the northern ice, nor to undertake extensive migrations into warmer water during its breeding period. Esricht and Rein- hardt considered it to be a migratory animal insofar as it shows a very regular seasonal movement to the north or south as the ice advances or retreats, and Townsend points out that it may actually move farther south than the records of catches suggest, for the species was not hunted in winter (at least in the North Pacific). In the North Atlantic it may occasionally have penetrated as far south as Newfoundland, but it does not occur off the north of Norway or any part of the west European seaboard. It seems possible that this interesting species will slowly increase in numbers again. The International Whaling Statistics (1930, 1931) record that at Spitzbergen a specimen was taken in 1911, and that in the northeast Pacific 2 were taken in 1923 and 25 in 1924. Accord- ing to Clarke (1944) it is increasing in the Beaufort Sea (Canadian Arctic) and schools are occasionally reported. (2) Hubalaena glacialis, E. australis, ete. Fraser (1937) uses the term “black right whale” to include the North Atlantic right (2. glacialis or biscayensis), the southern right (#. australis, etc.) and the North Pacific right (2. japonica, etc.), and it will be convenient to use the same term here. Like the Greenland right, these whales grow to a length of not more than about 60 feet, but they are distinguished by a smaller head, and the whalebone is shorter though of a similar fine texture. They have been hunted from the earliest times, and although they have not been reduced to quite such a small remnant as the Greenland whale, they are now protected by international agreement and thus have not been available for research in recent years. Records of their distribu- tion, however, have been summarized in some recent publications, and the following notes are drawn principally from J. A. Allen (1908), G. M. Allen (1916), Collett (1909), Harmer (1928), Townsend (1935), and the International Whaling Statistics. The black right whales are primarily inhabitants of a comparatively restricted zone in temperate or cold temperate waters, but the latitudes and seasons in which they were caught show a movement toward the Poles in summer and toward the Equator in winter. The North At- lantic right was formerly taken in winter off the Basque coast, and in summer it appears in the records of northwest European stations as far north as the north of Norway. On the American side it is WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH QA1 recorded from New England (in winter) and Newfoundland. The North Pacific right was taken in summer mainly between 40° and 60° N. In winter it was occasionally taken farther south, but rarely south of 30° N. The old whaling grounds on which the southern right was hunted occupy a well-defined zone principally between 30° and 50° S., but again it was taken in small quantities in winter as far north as 20° §. (off the South African and west American coasts). On rare occasions this species, before it was protected, has been taken by the modern industry as far south as the South Shetland Islands (beyond 60° S.), but it is doubtful whether it was ever so plentiful in the Antarctic as in temperate regions, even before it was depleted by the old whalers. Thus the northern and southern black right whales are separated by a wide tropical belt, and do not normally penetrate into the coldest waters. It must be supposed that the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and southern right whales live in three isolated communities, though the possibility that occasional stragglers move from one to the other should not be finally excluded. (3) Neobalaena marginata There is little to be said here of the pigmy right whale, for although some stranded specimens have been examined and described, practi- cally nothing is known of its distribution. It has the long, fine whale- bone of all the right whales, but externally it differs from the others in its size (not much exceeding 20 feet) and in the possession of a dorsal fin. So far as is known this species is confined to the Southern Hemisphere, and is recorded only from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and South America (Péringuey, 1921; Oliver, 1922; Hale, 1931). (4) Megaptera nodosa It will be convenient to consider this species before any of the other Balaenopteridae because its migrations and distribution are better understood than those of any other whale, at least in the Southern Ocean. This is largely because it resorts to coastal waters in winter where direct observations can be made. The humpback does not ex- ceed about 50 feet in length, but its girth is relatively greater than in any of the species of Balaenoptera. It is readily distinguished by the stout body and long flippers. This is one of the more abundant species, and it has figured prominently in the catches of the whaling industry. Several authors (Risting, 1912; Collett, 1912; Lillie, 1915 ; Ingebrig- sten, 1929; Ommanney, 1933; and Dakin, 1934) state that the south- ern humpbacks migrate up the coasts of South Africa, Australia, and 242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 New Zealand in autumn, and return southward toward the Antarctic in spring, and Harmer (1931) and Matthews (1937) show that the monthly catches off Angola and Durban reach a peak first in July and then again in September or October, whereas at the French Congo there is a single peak about July and August. These facts accord with the statement that the humpbacks mostly pass the subtropical coasts in the earlier part of the season, and that after some of them have penetrated as far north as the Equator, they return past the sub- tropical coasts toward the end of the season. From the authors mentioned above, and from Kellogg (1929) and the International Sta- tistics, we find that humpbacks are hunted mainly in tropical latitudes on both sides of each of the southern continents in winter, and in the open ocean in the Antarctic in summer. Conclusive evidence that a long-range migration takes place is provided by whale marking, for a number of marks fired into humpbacks off the pack ice in high lati- tudes have been recovered by whalers off the northwest coast of Aus- tralia, and some also off Madagascar (see Rayner, 1940). It is prob- able that the majority of humpbacks undertake this migration annu- ally, but it does not follow that all of them penetrate far into the Tropics, and indeed some appear to remain in the Antarctic, for some rare examples have been taken in Antarctic waters at a time when whaling was continued on a small scale through the winter at South Georgia (Risting, 1928). The marking of whalebone whales in the south has shown that after they have migrated northward they usually return to the same part of the Antarctic in the following summer. This applies especially to humpbacks. Hjort, Lie, and Ruud have published data on the re- gional distribution of the Antarctic catches of the pelagic whaling fleet. An analysis of their figures (1938, 1939), together with the marking records of the Discovery Committee, shows (Mackintosh, 1942) that in summer in the Antarctic the humpbacks are segregated into clearly separate groups in positions which seem to correspond with the separate tropical coastal resorts in winter. Recoveries of whale marks demonstrate that an Antarctic group lying southwest of Australia in summer contains the same whales as appear off the west Australian coast in winter, and a connection has been estab- lished between a group south of South Africa and the humpbacks caught in winter off Madagascar. It thus seems highly probable that each of the Antarctic summer groups has its own migration route to the coastal waters of a continent lying approximately to the north of it (see fig. 1). It is to be supposed therefore that the southern stocks of humpbacks are divided into several communities which are for the WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 243 most part separated at both ends of their migration routes, and be- tween which there cannot be very much interchange. The information given by Harmer (1928), Townsend (1935), and the International Statistics shows that in the Northern Hemisphere humpbacks have been found from the Cape Verde Islands to Spitz- bergen, from the West Indies to Baflin Bay, from Mexico to the Bering Sea, and from the Mariana Islands (15°-20° N.) to Kamchatka. Again they were hunted in tropical waters in winter and in high lati- tudes in summer, and this and the evidence assembled by Kellogg leave little doubt that their migrations here are similar to those in the Southern Hemisphere. It is noteworthy, however, that in the north the oceans are relatively restricted in high latitudes, so that the Hast and West Atlantic stocks and the East and West Pacific stocks may mingle when they migrate poleward in summer. It may be, how- ever, that the populations of the North Atlantic and North Pacific form two entirely separate communities. (5) Balaenoptera musculus The blue whale is the largest of all species, reaching a maximum length of approximately 100 feet, and although not so numerous as the fin whale it is the most valuable to the modern whaling industry. The “blue whale equivalent,” which compares the average production of oil from different species, is taken as 1 blue=2 fin=214 hump- back=6 sei. The various species of Balaenoptera are very similar in form, and are difficult to distinguish from one another in the water except by the shape of the dorsal fin. Out of the water, however, they are readily distinguished by the pigmentation, the blue whale having a mottled bluish-gray skin with white flecks over part of the ventral surface. The blue whale is a widely distributed species. The same may be said of the fin whale, and since the distribution of the latter species is very similar to that of the blue, it will be referred to from time to time in this section. Blue and fin whales are more strictly oceanic species than humpbacks, for they are not concentrated in coastal waters at any time of year. In the Southern Hemisphere they occupy in summer a circumpolar zone in Antarctic waters (well shown in Han- sen’s Atlas, 1936) which, for at least a large part of the season, is continuous in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Australian sectors, and almost certainly continuous also in the Pacific sector. There is some tendency, however, to concentration in certain regions. Hjort, Lie, and Ruud (1932-38) have shown that the yearly distribution of the whaling fleet indicates a tendency for the blue and fin whales to be 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 grouped into four principal areas. These are indicated in figure 1, and numbered II-V. The tendency is confirmed by the independent marking records and other observations of the Discovery Committee’s ships. Sas TS oo EAN 1C¢ o£ ef DIRECTIONS OF MIGRATION é > DEMONSTRATED BY <> <-> <¢---> POSSIBLE It is in each of these areas that we find one of the concen- 30° o ~ Sttresescstaesusus uses wsususeatsusustsennnes usec enenesescaun es es en en eo em 1S3aM, Nvinyyisnv t CHILEay S pELLING BRCU 5 SHAY; = =H Ce eee 7 a (0) Sex a A eT OD tS OS BS Bd sO SSO a ns Ns a ASB Nn BNA WHALE MARKING INFERRED _ PROBABLE 150° W 180°E 150° Ficure 1.—Segregation of the stocks of humpbacks. Large roman numerals indicate Hjort, Lie & Ruud’s areas II-V. Short meridional lines show the approximate limits of humpback concentrations in the Antarctic (pecked when uncertain). Arrows indicate the directions of migration. (From Mackin- tosh, 1942.) trations of humpbacks (a species which is not taken in sufficient num- bers itself to determine the distribution of the factory ships), but whereas the humpbacks are separated into almost completely isolated -groups, the blue and fin whales are found in all longitudes, and the grouping is represented only by rather larger numbers. It appears, WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 245 however, that the grouping becomes more distinct toward the end of the summer. Rayner (1940) has shown also, through the recovery of whale marks, that there is some interchange of blue and fin whales between one group and another. In winter a few blue whales (mostly small and immature) are taken off the West African coast as far north as the Congo, in the Indian Ocean up to Madagascar and northwest Australia, and off the west coast of South America as far north as Peru and Ecuador, but it is evident that these shore stations do not tap the main stock, and it is no doubt for that reason that no blue whale marked in the Antarctic has been captured in the warm latitudes in winter. The assumption that they migrate into warmer waters in winter is based on analogy with other species such as the humpback; on the fact that they are not hunted in warm waters in summer or cold waters in winter; on changes in the local composition of the catches (see Harmer (1981), Mackintosh (1942) and others) ; on variations in fatness which sug- gest movements to and away from the rich feeding grounds in cold waters (Mackintosh and Wheeler, 1929); and on the incidence of parasites and scars which are believed to be contracted only in cold or in warm waters (Hjort, 1920; Bennett, 1920; Harmer, 1931; Hart, 1935; etc.). The evidence is all circumstantial, but taken as a whole it leaves little doubt that there is at least a general tendency to move toward the Equator in winter, and the Poles in summer. Tt is unlikely that the main stocks of blue and fin whales move in a body into tropical waters, for no large numbers of them are recorded as having been seen there. In summer the majority seem to be concen- trated in high latitudes in a comparatively restricted zone, but in win- ter it is possible that they are dispersed over an area more than 10 times as great, and extending from the ice edge perhaps to subtropical re- gions. If winter concentrations are formed they must presumably keep south of the principal shipping routes. In the Northern Hemisphere blue whales are recorded from Spitz- bergen to the Bay of Biscay, from west Greenland to New England, and from Alaska to south California and Japan and Korea (Harmer, 1928; G. M. Allen, 1916; Hjort and Ruud, 1929; etc.). The evidence for their migrations is similar to that in the south. Kellogg (1929) shows that a seasonal migration is confirmed by the statistics of catches, and the matter is further discussed by most authors who have visited northern stations or analyzed the statistics of catches (see above under Introduction). Little, however, is known of the detailed movements of the northern blue whales. Collett (1912) suggests that in the North Atlantic they spend the winter in the open ocean between the North American coast and the Azores, and move up into Arctic latitudes between Europe and Greenland in summer. 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 (6) Balaenoptera physalus The fin whale is second in size to the blue, the maximum length being about 85 feet, though specimens over 80 feet are rare. It is by far the most abundant of the large whales, and it is the species on which the modern whaling industry mainly depends. It is distinguished by the coloring which is a plain bluish gray on the back and flanks and white on the ventral surface. The coloring is asymmetrical, the dorsal pigment apparently invariably extending farther down on the left than on the right flank. The above description of the distribution of blue whales applies in almost every particular to fin whales, but some minor differences are as follows. In the catches of the tropical land stations fin whales are generally even scarcer than blue whales, and it seems likely that they do not normally penetrate so far into tropical waters in winter as the latter species. In summer they tend to keep a little farther than blue whales from the coldest water at the edge of the pack ice. It would appear, therefore, that the range of the fin whale migration is rather less than that of the blue whale, though we cannot be certain of this. In the Antarctic in summer they are found in all longitudes and they show a slight tendency (rather less definite than in blue whales) to concentrate in the areas distinguished by Hjort, Lie and Ruud. The evidence of migration is similar and perhaps a little firmer. There is one record of a fin whale caught off the African coast which had been marked in the Antarctic. Other marking records show that fin whales usually, but not always, return to the same part of the Antarctic after the winter migration. It seems that fin whales mostly arrive in Antarctic waters later in the summer than blue whales, for in the catches of the whaling fleet the proportion of fin whales is small in spring (October-December) but rises sharply about the end of December. (7) Balaenoptera borealis The sei whale is smaller than the fin, with a maximum length of about 60 feet. The pigmentation is not dissimilar, but the whitish area on the ventral surface is less extensive. The whalebone plates are short as in other rorquals, but resemble those of the right whales in the fine texture of the plates and bristles. This species inhabits warmer waters than blue and fin whales, and there seems little doubt that it undertakes seasonal migrations (Matthews, 1938b; Kellogg, 1929; Andrews, 1916; and others) , but be- yond this not very much is known for certain. It is scarce in the Ant- arctic except at South Georgia where the water is relatively warm. Here it sometimes appears in substantial numbers in late summer. Matthews points out that large catches of sei whales may sometimes \ WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 247 result from a scarcity of other species, but concludes that in fact its occurrence in the catches at South Georgia is representative of its actual occurrence in the sea, and that it arrives at a time when the sea temperature is at its highest. It is commonly taken off temperate and tropical African coasts in winter, where it is probably a little more numerous than blue and fin whales. It also figures in the catches off the west coast of South America and is known in Australasian waters. In the North Atlantic as in the south it seems to avoid the coldest water, for it does not appear to be recorded from Spitzbergen. It is commonly taken from the north of Norway to Spain, and off New- foundland and New England. D’Arcy Thompson’s charts of Scottish catches (1918, 1919) indicate that whereas blue and fin whales are mostly taken outside the 100-fathom line, sei whales are found both in the shallow water over the continental shelf and in the deep water beyond it. However, Harmer (1927) and Fraser (1934) show that there are comparatively few records of sei whales being stranded on the British coasts. In the North Pacific it is recorded from Alaska to Mexico and Japan. In some years exceptionally large catches of sei whales have been made in European waters. These may be partly due to scarcity of other whales, but they are probably examples of the irregular move- ments of this species. (8) Balaenoptera brydei Bryde’s whale is very similar to the sei whale. Olsen (1918) de- scribed certain external differences, not all of which were accepted by Andrews (1916). A further publication by Olsen (1926) refers to differences in the baleen, flipper, ventral grooves, etc., and Lonn- berg (1931) notes some distinctions in the skeleton. It seems prob- able that the two species are distinct, but the question should not perhaps be regarded as finally settled yet. All that can be said of the distribution of this whale is that it is frequently listed in the catches of South African stations and rarely elsewhere. It has been recorded from the West Indies, Lower Cali- fornia, and Norway, but Harmer (1928) considers that its identifica- tion, at least at the two latter localities, is open to doubt. ; (9) Balaenoptera acutorostrata Except for the pigmy right whale, the lesser rorqual, or minke, is the smallest of the whalebone whales, and seldom exceeds 30 feet in length. Apart from its size it is easily distinguished by a whitish band across the outer surface of the flipper. This is a widely distributed species but scarcely large enough to 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 be worth hunting, and little is really known of its distribution. In the North Atlantic it is found as far north as Spitzbergen, and as far south as Spain in the east, and the latitude of New York in the west. A similar whale occurs in the North Pacific (G. M. Allen, 1916). It appears to be a shore-frequenting species, for it is abundant off the coasts of Norway. In the Antarctic Lillie (1915) notes that it is frequently found south of 65° S. Here it is often seen close to land, but it is also seen in open leads in the pack, or near the ice edge, sometimes in large numbers and far from land. It appears that at least in the Southern Ocean it frequents colder water than any other species. There is little information about its seasonal movements, but according to Fraser (1937) its occurrence suggests that such move- ments do take place. (10) Rachianectes glaucus The maximum size of the gray whale probably approaches 50 feet. It has a number of features, such as the shape of the head and flippers, which are intermediate between the right whales and the rorquals. It inhabits coastal waters, at least in temperate and tropical latitudes, and living specimens have been recorded only in the North Pacific. Recently, however, skeletons of this species have been found in the Zuyder Zee (Deinse and Junge, 1937). This is another species which has been severely depleted by hunting, but although few investigations have been possible in recent years, its migrations are, by all accounts, more regular than those of any other species, and the migration route is apparently confined to a narrow coastal strip, at least on the west coast of North America. The prin- cipal accounts of its distribution and migrations are those of Scammon (1874), Andrews (1914), and Risting (1928). In summer the gray whales are said to congregate in the Arctic Ocean, Bering Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk, and some at least penetrate into loose pack ice. In winter they migrate southward, appearing off the coasts of Oregon and upper California in October and November, and later assembling for the breeding season in the lagoons of lower California. In spring they move northward again, and according to Kellogg, “by April the gray whales have passed Monterey on their northward run.” Similarly, they appear off Korea about the end of November on their way south. According to Andrews they reappear “traveling north, about the middle of March, and by the 15th of May they have all passed by.” Although these descriptions are based on a comparatively small body of data there is no reason to doubt that they are correct, for the limited distribution of this species makes it relatively easy to observe its movements. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 249 Ili. FOOD The food of whales is an important subject, since it has a close bearing on their distribution, and is of interest in relation to the gen- eral economy of the oceanic fauna. Some of the larger species of planktonic Crustacea, known collectively as “krill,” constitute the principal food of the whalebone whales, and it is well known that the baleen (or whalebone) plates, of which the inner edges are frayed out into soft bristles, form an efficient straining mechanism for taking adequate quantities of such organisms. It is well established that blue, fin, and humpback whales in the Antarctic feed heavily, and virtually exclusively, on the oceanic prawn, Huphausia superba (Mackintosh, 1942). This organism is confined to Antarctic waters (John, 1936) and often forms extensive shoals at or near the surface, mainly where the sea temperature is less than 2° C. £. superba holds a key position in the chain of nourish- ment of the Antarctic fauna, for it provides food not only for whales but also for certain fish, seals, and birds. The majority of whales taken in the summer whaling season in the Antarctic are found to have plenty of krill in their stomachs, but those taken in winter at stations in warmer waters in the Southern Hemisphere are found to have eaten little or no food. It is true that these winter catches are not properly representative of the main stock, but there is little doubt that the majority of whales have little to eat in winter, for at the beginning of the Antarctic whaling season the blubber is relatively thin (Mack- intosh and Wheeler, 1929), and as the summer advances they become fatter and the yield of oil steadily increases (Hjort, Lie and Ruud, 1938). It is generally assumed that the oil stored in the blubber, bones, and muscles acts as a reserve of nourishment for the winter (Hjort, 1933), and this may be supplemented by small quantities of Crustacea of various species, and occasionally fish. Sei, humpback, and right whales are known to feed sometimes in certain temperate coastal regions of the Southern Hemisphere, on shoals of the “lobster krill” which is the pelagic postlarval (or grimothea) stage of the anomuran, Munida gregaria (Matthews, 1932; Rayner, 1935), but this is at the best a minor source of nourishment. The staple summer diet of the southern right and sei whales when they are in sub-Antarctic or temperate waters is not known, but it seems that they also feed on Euphausia superba whenever they move so far south as the habitat of this species (Matthews, 1938a, b). There is much less certainty about the staple food of whales in the Northern Hemisphere. In order to determine the principal food of any species we need not only to identify the organisms found in its stomach from time to time, but also to know whether they are present in large quantities and in a majority of whales, and at what times of 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 year. The food of the northern whales has been referred to in many publications, but. not very many original observations are recorded, and those which give all the required information are scarce. Lillie (1910), Burfield (1912), and Hamilton (1914) examined the stomach contents of blue and fin whales taken in summer off the west of Ireland, and found they were feeding on the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica, “sometimes in immense quantities” (Hamilton), and one or two fin whales, but not blue whales, were feeding on herrings. Per- haps the fullest investigation was that made by Hjort and Ruud (1929) who found that whalebone whales taken off west Norway fed on (i) herrings, (11) If. norvegica, the “large krill,” (111) Thysanoessa inermis, the “small krill,” and (iv) copepods, mainly Calanus finmar- chicus. They came to the conclusion that in winter (January to March) the fin whales live on herrings and 7hysanoessa inermis and in summer exclusively on Meganyctiphanes norvegica. G. M. Allen (1916) found large quantities of Thysanoessa inermis in the stomachs of blue and fin whales taken off Newfoundland, but the time of year is not stated. Other authors have summarized information from various sources, and it seems that Meganyctiphanes norvegica forms at least a substantial part of the diet of blue and fin whales in summer, that at certain times they feed heavily also on Thysanoessa inermis, and that the winter diet of fin whales includes fish (herrings, capelin, etc.). Blue whales do not appear to eat fish, and it is not certain whether the majority of fin whales find an amount of food in winter which is comparable to that available in summer. The humpback, according to Hjort and Ruud, feeds like the fin on “krill” in summer and fish in winter. G. M. Allen (1916) believes that it feeds chiefly on Thysanoessa inermis and probably Meganycti- phanes norvegica and small fish. Hjort and Ruud show that the food of sei whales off the west coast of Norway consists of Calanus fin- marchicus. It is interesting that this whale with its finer baleen should eat a smaller planktonic organism, though in the Antarctic it takes the same large euphausiids as other rorquals, and Andrews found that off Japan it ate “H’uphausia” and sometimes sardines. In the North Pacific Zenkovic (1937) found blue whales feeding on Nematoscelis, and fin and humpback feeding partly on fish but also a variety of small Crustacea, some of which were bottom-water forms. Here it would be interesting to know the depth of water in which the whales were hunted. There is little reliable information on the food of right whales. G. M. Allen (1916) states that the North Atlantic right feeds on Thysanoessa inermis and Calanus finmarchicus, and the Greenland right is said to feed on Calanus and pteropods, but these statements certainly need checking. The stomachs of gray whales caught dur- ing their migrations are empty (Andrews, 1914), but in the Arctic in WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 251 summer Zenkovic (1937) found that they were feeding on bottom- living amphipods. It is not quite clear, however, whether these really form the staple food of the main stocks of this species. It is evident that the food of whales in the Northern Hemisphere requires further investigation. IV. BREEDING, GROWTH, AND AGB (1) THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS For the purposes of the present article it is not necessary to give a description of the reproductive organs (for this see Mackintosh and Wheeler, 1929; and Ommanney, 1932), but we have to consider certain changes which take place in the course of the sexual cycle, and especially the formation and persistence of the corpora lutea of the ovaries. From this point of view blue and fin whales are the best known, and the following particulars apply equally to both these species except where otherwise stated. The time of the breeding season has not been determined by direct observation, but evidence is provided by the sizes of foetuses and by the state of the reproductive organs. In the male a seasonal change in the condition of the testis has been observed. The formation of spermatozoa can be seen at all times of the year, but in the early winter there is a greatly increased proliferation of germ cells in the tubules. It is difficult to obtain adequate material from adult whales after the close of the Antarctic summer whaling season, but this period of activity probably lasts from about April to June or July in blue and fin whales in the Southern Hemisphere (Mackintosh and Wheeler, 1929). Although the size of the testis varies considerably in different individuals there is no evidence of an increase in size at the breeding season such as Meek (1918) found in the porpoise. In the female information is obtained principally from examination of the uterus to determine whether a foetus is present or absent, the size and sex of foetuses, the condition of the mammary glands, and the condition of the ovaries, especially of the corpora lutea. In whales the corpus luteum (formed by proliferation of tissue in the Graafian follicle after ovulation) is a conspicuous body which may measure 10 or more centimeters in diameter. At the end of the period of gestation, or presumably much sooner if impregnation has not taken place, it shrinks to a smaller, tougher body which persists certainly for many years and probably throughout the life of the whale (see Wheeler, 1930, and others). These old corpora lutea (strictly corpora albican- tia) are thus cumulative. The number to be found in one pair of ovaries varies from 1 to over 50, and, since they give an indication of the number of ovulations which have taken place, they give at least a clue to the age of the whale. 725362—47—18 252 © ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Whales become sexually mature at a length which normally varies within rather narrow limits. The average length for blue whales is about 74 feet in males and 77 feet in females. The corresponding lengths in other species, so far as they have been investigated, are esti- mated to be as follows: fin, 63 and 65 feet; humpback, about 39 and 41 feet; sei, about 44 and 4714 feet. This is a matter of considerable practical importance, since it allows an estimate to be made of the percentage of immature whales in statistics of catches which give only the species, sex, and length of each whale. (2) THE SEXUAL CYCLE Estimates of the time of pairing, the rate of linear growth of the foetus, and the length of the period of gestation, depend primarily on measurements of the lengths of foetuses at different times of year. Records of the largest foetuses and the smallest calves indicate that in blue and fin whales the length at birth is rather more than 20 feet. The average length of foetuses increases rapidly from spring to au- tumn, and extrapolation of the curve of growth indicates that pairing and calving for the most part take place in winter and that the period of gestation is about a year. The diversity in sizes of foetuses meas- ured at any one time of year shows that pairing and calving must both be spread over a period of several months. This, together with the ap- parent capacity of the ovaries to produce numerous Graafian follicles (Wheeler, 1930), suggests a prolonged polyoestrous breeding season. These conclusions have been reached by various authors. The work of earlier investigators is summarized by Hinton (1925), and Harmer (1920) ; and Risting (1928) obtained similar results from an analysis of large numbers of foetal measurements provided by various whaling companies. Risting calculated that in the Southern Hemisphere pair- ing mostly takes place in blue whales from June to August and in fin whales from June to September. From the increased activity of the testis, the evidence in the ovaries of ovulation about the same time or a little later, and the occurrence of very small foetuses, Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) inferred that the height of the pairing season in blue and fin whales is about June and July, and estimated that gesta- tion lasts about 10 months in blue whales and perhaps slightly longer in fin whales. Matthews (1937, 1938b) found that in humpbacks the season is probably a little later (August to October) and in sei whales about June to August. Right whales also are believed to pair in win- ter, and the period of gestation is probably not much different from that of the rorquals. According to Andrews (1914) and Risting (1928) the female gray whales arriving off California and Korea from the north in autumn mostly carry foetuses whose size suggests imminent birth. On the northward migration young have been seen WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 253 following their parents and small foetuses have been found. These authors conclude that birth and pairing take place on these southerly grounds in winter, that gestation lasts for about a year, and that im- pregnation takes place every 2 years. The breeding of this species, like its migrations, is believed to be more regular than in other species, but for confirmation of this it would be desirable to obtain a larger number of measurements of foetuses. The exact length of the period of gestation and the dates of maxi- mum breeding activity cannot be regarded as precisely established in any species. The important point is that in those species on which adequate observations have been made there is no doubt that breeding mostly takes place in the winter when the whales have moved into warmer waters. In summer the pregnant females move into the high latitudes where food is abundant, and return to warmer latitudes in the following winter to bring forth their calves. Normally one young is born at a time, and the female is not as a rule reimpregnated in the same year, for parturition is followed by a considerable period of lactation, and instances of whales which are simultaneously pregnant and lactating are rare. In the Antarctic catches of blue and fin whales the proportions of adult females which are pregnant, lactating, and resting alter during the summer months, but these proportions on the whole suggest that a female normally becomes pregnant every 2 years and that the interval may sometimes extend to 3 years (Wheeler, 1930; Laurie, 1937; Mackintosh, 1942). (3) GROWTH AND AGE In the rorquals the length at sexual maturity is, very roughly, three times the length at birth, and some estimates have been made of the time taken to grow to sexual maturity. Some direct evidence of rapid growth in fin whales is mentioned by Harmer (1920). Andrews and Risting believed that the gray whale reaches maturity a year after birth. This seems likely enough, since foetuses as long as 17 feet and pregnant females as short as 34 feet are recorded by Risting. The in- ference that they grow to maturity in a year is based on the occurrence of young whales of intermediate lengths, but it is not clear that the evidence is sufficient to be conclusive. Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) estimated, from dated measurements of small calves and the relative growth rate of the baleen, that blue and fin whales are generally weaned about 6-7 months after birth, blue whales having by then grown to over 50 feet, and fin whales to 35-40 feet. This, together with some indications of length groups in immature whales, suggested that these whales become adult at an age of about 2 years. The calcu- lation cannot be regarded as fully reliable, and Ruud’s evidence (see below) indicates that 3 years is the more usual period. The recovery 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 of a mark from a whale which Rayner estimated to be about 40-45 feet long at the time of marking, and which measured 68 feet 9 inches when it was killed 214 years later, suggests growth to maturity in 2 or 3 years. It is to be hoped that further evidence, perhaps from the marking of whales, will be forthcoming in the future. Up to a point, length is correlated with age, for growth continues after sexual maturity and ends when full physical maturity is reached. This is the point at which all the epiphyses of the vertebrae have become fused to the centra, a process which in whales takes place at a relatively early stage in the caudal region, and is finally completed among the anterior thoracics. That the accumulations of old corpora lutea are indicative of the age of an adult female is shown first by the fact that whales measur- ing not much more than the average length at sexual maturity always have comparatively few corpora lutea, while larger whales have various numbers up to 50 or more, and secondly by the fact that there is a close correlation (in blue and fin whales) between the number of corpora lutea and the attainment of physical maturity. Wheeler (1930) found that fin whales with less than 15 corpora lutea were nearly always physically immature, and those with more than 15 nearly always mature. The corresponding number in blue whales according to Laurie (1937) is 11. More recent data, not yet published, suggest, however, that this figure should be a little higher. Since whales appear to be polyoestrous there might be one or more ovula- tions in each breeding season, with consequent variations in the rate of accumulation of corpora lutea. The correlation, however, between physical maturity and numbers of corpora lutea suggests that there is in fact a fairly steady annual increment. The actual number of years represented (on the average) by a given number of corpora lutea is still, however, in doubt. From the frequencies of numbers of corpora lutea Wheeler inferred that fin whales become physically mature 4-6 years after sexual maturity, which implies about three corpora lutea per annum. Laurie, by a different method, estimated, however, that in blue whales the rate of increment is slightly more than one perannum. A fin whale which was killed 6 years after it had been marked had only eight corpora lutea (Mackintosh, 1942), and in this particular whale the rate cannot have been much more than one per annum. The majority of blue and fin whales taken m the Ant- arctic are physically immature, and even if only one corpus luteum is added each year, the majority are presumably less than, say, 20 years old. However, it is not yet finally proved that the rate of accumula- tion cannot be less than one each year, or that none of the oldest cor- pora lutea disappear in the oldest whales. The largest number found so far is 54 in a fin whale. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 255 Ruud (1940, 1945) describes an important new method of determin- ing the age of a whale from delicate measurements of the thickness of the baleen plates. From gum to tip the thickness decreases in a series of levels, or steps, and there seems little doubt that these repre- sent years of age. The levels are sometimes hard to distinguish, and difficulties arise through the wearing away of the plate at the tip. The method should be of much value for determining the ages of young whales, and gives good reason to believe that sexual maturity is generally reached 3 years after birth in fin whales in the Northern Hemisphere, but further investigations will be needed to test its re- lability as a check on the rate of accumulation of corpora lutea in adult whales. A final point to be mentioned in connection with the growth and age of whales is the relative growth rate of different parts of the body. From measurements of the external proportions of a large number of blue and fin whales Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) found that in both these species the rate of growth is faster in the anterior than in the posterior part of the body. For example, in female blue whales 13.5 m. in length the head on the average measured 15 percent of the total length, and the tail region 33 percent, but in those measur- ing 26.5 m. the corresponding figures were 21 and 28.5 percent. Mat- thews (1937) found a similar effect in the humpback and suggested that the relative increase in the size of the head is connected with the development of the feeding mechanism represented by the whale- bone and mouth. In the sei whale, however, he found a more even growth rate which he thought to be correlated with the smaller size of the species and the lower food requirement. According to Esricht and Reinhardt (1861) the head of the Greenland right whale is slightly less than a third of the total length at birth and slightly more than a third in the grown whale. D’Arcy Thompson (1919) found that in fin whales the longer whales had a proportionately larger girth. V. POPULATIONS AND THE EFFECT OF THE WHALING INDUSTRY Whales are more or less gregaricus animals, and although solitary members of any species are commonly seen they frequently swim in schools of two or more in which they keep within a few yards of one another. Sometimes a number of schools and individuals are found in a limited area, forming what may be loosely termed a herd of whales, but they are often widely dispersed, and it is perhaps best to apply the term “population” only to large groups.of whales, such as the fin whales found in Antarctic waters in summer, or one of the principal southern communities of humpbacks. Although no reliable estimate has yet been made of the actual num- bers of whales which make up the population in any region, informa- 256 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 tion has been acquired in recent years on the relative numbers of the species and sexes, the constitution of the Antarctic populations, and the nature of the changes brought about by the modern whaling in- dustry. The large whalebone whales are clearly more abundant in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. The oceanic area in which suitable conditions exist for the production of their food is far greater in the south than in the north, and whaling is carried out on an incomparably greater scale. No quantitative comparison has been made, but at least the rorquals of the south must presumably outnumber those of the north several times over. The sex ratio has been examined by Risting (1928), Matthews (1937, 1938b, and Mac- kintosh (1942), and although the sexes are nearly equal it seems cer- tain that at least in blue, fin, sei, and humpback whales there is a slight majority of males in the Southern, and probably also in the Northern Hemisphere. This is found not only in the statistics of catches, but also in the records of foetuses. Indications are sometimes found of a slight tendency toward temporary segregation of the sexes, or local variation in the sex ratio. For example, there is generally an excess of female humpbacks in the Antarctic catches in summer and of males in the tropical catches in winter. The main herds of fin whales which appear off South Georgia about midsummer seem at first to include a very high proportion of males, but the winter migration of gray whales into warmer latitudes is led by a majority of females. The catches of the whaling industry give no reliable indication of the relative numbers of the different species, for there is too much selection in this respect, but observations made by the Discovery Committee’s ships, though limited, are more reliable. A good measure of agreement was found in the ratio of species seen and identified with certainty during voyages of the Discovery IJ and the ratio of species marked or shot at by the William Scoresby. This suggested that in the Southern Ocean as a whole in summer the existing ratio of blue, fin, and humpback whales is of the order of 15, 75, and 10 respectively (Mackintosh, 1942). Hjort, Lie, and Ruud (1935, etc.) have shown that the ratio varies in different parts of the Antarctic, largely as a result of whaling, and although allowance is made for this the above estimate must be regarded as provisional. Of the other species right whales are rare and the sei and lesser rorqual are pre- sumably scarcer than the humpback. The lesser rorqual, however, is an inconspicuous whale and may be commoner than observations at sea would suggest. Little can be said of the Northern Hemisphere except that the fin whale predominates in the catches of the modern industry. There is no criterion, however, for comparing the relative numbers of rorquals and right whales before the latter were reduced by the old whaling industry. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 257 Certain changes are worth noting which take place in the compo- sition of the Antarctic population in the course of the Antarctic summer. As the season advances the proportion of blue whales falls while that of fin whales rises. There is a marked decline in the per- centage of pregnant females, which become progressively displaced or diluted by the arrival of resting and lactating females; and there is a slightly higher proportion of old and mature whales in the early than in the late summer catches, It is to be hoped that means will in time be found of making a rough census of the populations of whales, but the problem presents great difficulties. Hjort, Jahn, and Ottestad (1933) considered the possi- bility of estimating the stock by statistical methods which depend on the relations between the size of the stock and progressive changes in the number caught in a given area, but realized that such methcds must involve assumptions which are at present hardly justified. Whale marking might provide information, for the ratio of marked whales killed to marked whales at large should be related to the ratio of total whales killed to total whales at large, but this method also involves incalculable factors. The most direct method would be to count the whales seen in a given area, e. g., the strip of ocean viewed from a ship during a series of voyages; but whales are seen only in fleeting glimp- ses, and the number observed is so much affected by even slight varia- tions in atmospheric conditions that a reliable count seems impracti- cable. These are problems for the future, and it may be that a com- bination of these methods may eventually lead to a rough census when the relevant factors are better understood. The effect of the whaling industry on the stocks of whales is a large subject, and perhaps not quite within the scope of the present article, but it has influenced the trend of recent research, and something should be said of the location of the industry and of the depletion of certain species. Whaling in the Northern Hemisphere has been con- fined almost entirely to land stations, and these (of which few have been operating in recent years) are placed at points on the coast ac- cessible to deep oceanic regions, e. g., the west coast of Ireland, the Hebrides, the Californian coast, etc. Many of these localities have been referred to above in the section on distribution. In the Southern Hemisphere whaling was at first conducted from shore bases, mainly at South Georgia, the South Shetland Islands, and parts of the African coasts, but after about 1926 the Antarctic pelagic factories dominated all other whaling. In the years before the war they covered a belt outside the pack ice extending around two-thirds of the Southern Ocean from the South Shetland Islands in 60° W., eastward as far as the Ross Sea (see fig. 1), but did not penetrate to the Pacific sector (60°-180° W.). The International Statistics show that up 258 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 to 1908 more than 50 percent of the comparatively small number of whales then killed were from the Northern Hemisphere, but that in 1938 over 90 percent were from the south. The actual figures for that year were: Total, 54,835; Antarctic, 84 percent; Africa, 5.6 percent; North Atlantic and Arctic, 1.4 percent; Japan and North Pacific, 4.5 percent; other regions, 4.5 percent. The number of whales killed before the war was dangerously high, and there were signs of substantial depletion of the stocks of blue and humpback whales. The evidence for this in blue whales is to be found in the decline in the total catch per catcher’s day’s work, in the de- clining percentage of blue whales in the catches, in the reduction in their average sizes and ages, and in the increasing proportion of im- mature whales in the catches (see Hjort, Lie, and Ruud, 1932-1938 ; Bergersen, Lie, and Ruud, 1939, 1941; and Mackintosh, 1942). The stocks of humpbacks have probably suffered even more than those of blue whales. Since they are segregated into separate communities depletion is more localized, but the statistics show that it has been very severe in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. The fact that a higher percentage of marks is recovered from blue and humpback than from fin whales (Rayner, 1940) is further evidence that these are the two species most in need of protection. Fin whales still ap- peared to be plentiful before the war, but could not be expected to sup- port the industry for long on its prewar scale. The regulation of the industry is based on the International Agree- ment of 1937 and Protocols of 1938 and 1944. The principal pro- visions, which are founded on biological information, are limitation of the Antarctic whaling season, minimum sizes for certain species, geographical limits to the whaling “grounds,” the temporary protec- tion of humpbacks, and a temporary limit of the total catch to 16,000 blue-whale units. The last is the most important, but it is a new proposal and is subject to reconsideration. VI. FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS Although considerable progress has been made in recent years there is a large field for future research on the whalebone whales. The whaling industry must still offer the most direct means of access to whales, and more work on the same lines as before will be needed, but new or modified methods of research can be developed, and use could be made of some modern technical devices. Further investigations by biologists working in factory ships are undoubtedly necessary, and have in fact already begun. For prac- tical purposes the condition of the stock must be checked from year to year, and this is specially important at the present time when whaling is being resumed after an interval of some years. More precise in- WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 259 formation on breeding and growth is required, and the indications of age from the baleen plates require further attention. The present article is not concerned with anatomy and physiology, but a factory ship would offer scope for further progress in these fields. The breed- ing cycle of humpbacks could be studied to much advantage if a suffi- cient number of this species could be examined in winter at a tropical land station. Whale marking also needs to be continued. It provides data on distribution and migrations, on growth and age, ‘and on the propor- tions in which different species are removed from the stock by hunt- ing. Marking should if possible be extended to regions other than the Antarctic, such as the warmer southern latitudes in winter, if sufficient numbers of whales can be located. The statistics of catches also will continue to provide material which is instructive in itself and valu- able for correlation with other data. New technical devices will no doubt provide new methods of research. “Asdic” should be helpful in studying the habits of whales especially in regard to their under- water movements, and radar might be of much value in counting the number of whales in a measurable area. There are clearly great possibilities in the use of aircraft. The vast extent and severe weather conditions of the principal resorts of whalebone whales would involve difficulties, but aerial observations over sample areas in com- parable conditions might go far to assist in the much needed census of the populations. Aerial photographs also can be very informative. VII. SUMMARY (1) The whaling industry has provided both the facilities and the stimulus for modern research on the general biology of whales. The principal methods of investigation are (a) anatomical examination, (b) observations at sea, (c) the marking of whales, (d) analysis of the statistics of the whaling industry. (2) The whalebone whales are migratory animals, inhabiting high latitudes in summer where food , is plentiful, and moving into warmer waters in winter where there is little or no food, but where breeding takes place. The Greenland right whale does not move far from the Arctic regions and is not found in the Southern Hemisphere. The black right whales of the north and south do not migrate far and are separated by a wide tropical belt. The humpback migrates from the polar ice to the Equator, and frequents tropical coastal waters in the winter months. In the South- ern Hemisphere it is segregated into several communities which have separate migration routes, and between which there can be little inter- change. Blue and fin whales undertake less regular and extensive migrations. They are not segregated like the humpbacks, but show a slight tendency to concentrate in the same regions. Gray whales 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 inhabit the North Pacific and undertake regular migrations along the coasts of North America and in Japanese waters. There is less infor- mation on the distribution of the sei, lesser rorqual, pigmy right, and Bryde’s whale. (8) Certain planktonic Crustacea form the principal food of the whalebone whales. In the Antarctic they feed virtually exclusively on the shoals of Euphausia superba. In the northern seas the diet seems to be more varied. Meganyctiphanes norvegica is prob- ably the most important food organism in the North Atlantic, but further investigations are needed. Little food is taken in winter, though fish and small quantities of other Crustacea are sometimes eaten. (4) Examination of the reproductive organs and measure- ments of foetuses at different times of year show that breeding mainly takes place in winter and that the period of gestation is about a year. Normally one young is born at a time, and the usual interval between successive pregnancies is probably 2 years. This applies to blue and fin whales, but other species are probably similar. Blue and fin whales are believed to become sexually mature in about 2 or 3 years. The old corpora lutea of the ovaries persist and accumulate, and constitute the best indication so far found of the age of an adult whale. There is some evidence that the rate of increment is about 1 per year, but this again needs confirmation. The largest recorded number is 54. Indi- cations of periodic growth in the baleen plates constitute a new method of determining the ages of young whales. The rate of growth is faster in the anterior than in the posterior part of the body. (5) Whalebone whales are more plentiful in the Southern than in the Northern Hemi- sphere. The sexes are nearly equal. The existing ratio of blue, fin, and humpback whales is estimated to be of the order of 15, 75, and 10 respectively in the Southern Ocean, but no estimate has yet been made of the absolute numbers in the populations. Most whaling is carried out by the Antarctic pelagic factories, and little is done now in the Northern Hemisphere. The stocks of blue and humpback whales have been depleted by the modern industry, but fin whales have been less affected, and progress has been made in the international regulation of whaling. (6) In the future it will be necessary to continue research to some extent on the same lines as before, but new or modified methods could be developed, and aircraft and modern technical devices might be used with advantage. REFERENCES ALLEN, G. M. 1916. The whalebone whales of New England. Mem. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, No. 2, p. 105. ALLEN, J. A. 1908. The North Atlantic right whale and its near allies. Bull. Amer. Mus, Nat. Hist,, vol. 24, p. 277. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 261 ANDREWS, R. C. 1914. Monographs of the Pacific Cetacea. I. The Californian grey whale (Rachianectes glaucus). Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., n. s., vol. 1, pt. 5, p. 229. 1916. Monographs of the Pacific Cetacea. II. The sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis Lesson). Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., n. s., vol. 1, pt. 6, p. 288. BARRETT-HAMILTON, G. E. H. (See Hinton, M. A. C., 1925.) BENNETT, A. G. 1920. On the occurrence of diatoms on the skin of whales. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vol. 91, p. 352. BERGERSEN, B., Liz, J.. and Ruup, J. T. 1939. Pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, VIII. Hvalraéd. Skr., vol. 20, p. 1. 1941. Pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, IX. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 25, p. 1. Bruce, W. S. 1915. Some observations on Antarctic Cetacea. Rep. Sci. Res. Voy. 8. Y. Scotia, Scot. Nat. Ant. Exp., vol. 4, Zool., p. 491. BURFIELD, 8S. T. 1912. Report of the committee appointed to investigate the biological prob- lems incidental to the Belmullet whaling station. 82d Rep. Brit. Assoe., p. 145. CLARKE, C. D. H. 1944. Notes on the status and distribution of certain mammals and birds in the Mackenzie River and West Arctic area in 1942 and 1948. Can. Field Nat., vol. 58, pt. 8, p. 102. CorLLetTT, R. 1909. A few notes on the whale Balaena glacialis and its capture in recent years in the North Atlantic by Norwegian whalers. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 91. 1912. Norges Pattedyr, p. 548. Kristiania. DAKIN, W. J. 1934. Whalemen adventurers. Sydney, N. 8S. W. DEINSE, A. B. VAN, and JUNGE, C. C. A. 1937. Recent and older finds of the California grey whale in the Atlantic, vol. 2, p. 161. Temminckia, Leiden. EsRIcHT, D. F., and REINHARDT, J. 1861. On the Greenland right whale (Balaena mysticetus). Ray Soc. Publ. 1866, p. 1. FRASER, F. C. 1934. Report on Cetacea stranded on the British coasts from 1927 to 1932. British Museum (Natural History). 1987. (See Norman, J. R., and Fraser, F. C.) GULDBERG, G. A. 1886. Bidrag til Cetacernes Biologi. Om fortplantningen og draegtigheden hos de nordatlantiske bardehvaler. Forh. Vidensk Selsk. Krist., vol. 9,.p: 1. HALE, H. M. 1931. The pigmy right whale, Neobalaena marginata, in South Australian waters. Rec. South Austr. Mus., vol. 4, p. 314. HaAMInTon, J. E. 1914. Report of the committee appointed to investigate the biological problems incidental to the Belmullet whaling station. 84th Rep. Brit. Assoc., p. 125, 262 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 HANSEN, H. E. 1936. Atlas over Antarktis og Sydishavet. Utgitt av Hvalfangernes Assurenceforening i Anledning ay Foreninges 25-Ars Jubileum. Oslo (?). HARMER, S. F. 1920. Memorandum on the present position of the southern whaling industry. Rep. Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, Cmd. 657, p. 69. H. M. Stationery Office, London. 1927. Report on Cetacea stranded on the British coasts from 1918 to 1926. British Museum (Natural History). 1928. The history of whaling. Proc. Linn. Soe. London, 140th sess., p. 51. 1931. Southern whaling. Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 142d sess., p. 85. Hart, T. J. 1985. On the diatoms of the skin film of whales, and their possible bearing on problems of whale movements. Discovery Rep., vol. 10, p. 247. HINTON, M. A. C. 1925. Report on the papers left by the late Major Barrett-Hamilton, relating to the whales of South Georgia, p. 57. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. Hagort, J. ° 1920. Memorandum on the distribution of whales in the waters about the Antarectie continent. Rep. Interdepartmental Committee on Re- search and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, Cmd. 657, p. 95. H.M. Stationery Office, London. 1933. Whales and whaling. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 7, p. 7. Hauort, J., JAHN, G., and OTTESTAD, P. 1933. The optimum catch. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 7, p. 92. Hoort, J., Liz, J.. and Ruwp, J. T. 1932. Norwegian pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, I. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. ay 0) Ob be 1933a. Norwegian pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, II. Hvalraid. Skr., vol. (ap. 28: 1933b. Norwegian pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, III. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. Sy Danls 1934. Pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, IV. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 9, p. 1. 1985. Pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, V. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 12, p. 1. 1937. Pelagie whaling in the Antarctic, VI. Hvalraéd. Skr., vol. 14, p. 1. 1938. Pelagic whaling in the Antarctic, VII. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 18, p. 1. Hort, J., and Ruwup, J. T. 1929. Whaling and fishing in the North Atlantic. Rapp. Cons. Expl. Mer, vol. 56, p. 1. INGEBRIGSTEN, A. 1929. Whales caught in the North Atlantic and other seas. Rapp. Cons. Expl. Mer, vol. 56, p. 1. INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS. 1930-42. Det Norske Hvalrads Statistiske Publikasjoner, vols. 1-16. JOHN, D. D. 1986. The southern species of the genus Huphausia. Discovery Rep., vol. 14, p. 193. KELLoG@, R. 1929. What is known of the migrations of some of the whalebone whales. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1928, p. 467. WHALEBONE WHALES—MACKINTOSH 263 Kemp, S., and BENNETT, A. G. 1952. On the distribution and movements of whales on the South Georgia and South Shetland whaling grounds. Discovery Rep., vol. 6, p. 165. LaAvRIE, A. H. 1937. The age of female blue whales, and the effect of whaling on the stock. Discovery Rep., vol. 15, p. 223. LItiE, D. G. 1910. Observations on the anatomy and general biology of some members of the larger Cetacea. Proc. Zool. Soe. London, p. 769. 1915. Cetacea. Brit. Ant. (“Terra Nova”) Exp., 1910, Zool., vol. 1, No. 3, p. 85. LONNBERG, E. 1931. The skeleton of Balaenoptera brydei O. Olsen. Ark. Zool. (Stockholm), vol. 23, Hte. 1, p. 1. MAcKINTOSH, N. A. 1942. The southern stocks of whalebone whales. Discovery Rep., vol. 22, p. 197. MACKINTOSH, N. A., and WHEELER, J. F. G. 1929. Southern blue and fin whales. Discovery Rep., vol. 1, p. 257. MATTHEWS, L. H. 1932. Lobster krill, anomuran Crustacea that are the food of whales. Discovery Rep., vol. 5, p. 467. 1937. The humpback whale, Megaptera nodosa. Discovery Rep., vol. 17, p. 7. 1938a. Notes on the southern right whale, Hubalaena australis. Discovery Rep., vol. 17, p. 169. 1938b. The sei whale, Balaenoptera borealis. Discovery Rep., vol. 17, p. 183. MEEK, A. 1918. The reproductive organs of Cetacea. Journ. Anat., London, vol. 52, p. 186. NorMAN, J. R., and FRAsrEr, F. C. 1987. Giant fishes, whales, and dolphins. London. OLIvER, W. R. B. 1922. A review of the Cetacea of the New Zealand seas. Proc. Zool. Soe. London, p. 557. OLSEN, @. 1913. On the external characters and biology of Bryde’s whale (Balaen- optera brydet), a new rorqual from the coast of South Africa. Proe. Zool. Soe. London, p. 1073. 1926. Brydes Hval. Norsk. Hvalfangsttid., vol. 6, p. 82. OMMANNEY, F. D. 1932. The urino-genital system of the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). Discovery Rep., vol. 5, p. 363. 1983. Whaling in the Dominion of New Zealand. Discovery Rep., vol. 7, p. 239. OTTESTAD, P. 1938. A preliminary report on variations in the size distribution of southern blue and fin whales. Hvalr4d. Skr., vol. 18, p. 49. P£RINGUEY, L. 1921. A note on the whales frequenting South African waters. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa, vol. 9, p. 73. Racovitza, EB. G. 1903. Cétacés. Res. Voy. du S. Y. Belgica, 1897-9, p. 1. 264 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 Rayner, G. W. 1935. The Falkland species of the genus Munida. Discovery Rep., vol. 10, p. 209. 1940. Whale marking: progress and results to December, 1939. Discovery Rep., vol. 19, p. 245. Ristine, S. 1912. Knolhvalen. Norsk Fisk Tidskr., vol. 31, p. 437. 1928. Whales and whale foetuses. Statistics of catch and measurement collected from the Norwegian Whalers’ Association. Rapp. Cons. Expl. Mer, vol. 50, p. 1. Rouvp, J. T. 1940. The surface structure of the baleen plates as a possible clue to age in whales. Hvalrad. Skr., vol. 23, p. 1. 1945. Further studies on the structure of the baleen plates and their appli- cation to age determination. Hvalraéd. Skr., vol. 29, p. 1. Scammon, C. M. 1874. The marine mammals of the northwestern coast of North America. San Francisco and New York. ScoRESBY, W. 1820. An account of the Arctic regions. Edinburgh. SouTHWELL, T. 1898. The migration of the right whale (Balaena mysticetus). Nat. Sci. vol. 12, No. 76, p. 397. THOMPSON, D’A. W. 1918. On whales landed at the Scottish whaling stations, especially during the years 1908-1914. Scot. Nat., p. 221. 1919. On whales landed at the Scottish whaling stations, especially during the years 1908-1914. Scot. Nat., p. 1. 1928. On whales landed at the Scottish whaling stations, during the years 1908-1914 and 1920-1927. Fish. Scot. Sci. Invest., vol. 3, p. 1. TOWNSEND, C. H. 1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records of American whaleships. Zoologica, vol. 19, p. 1. TRUE, F. W. 1904. The whalebone whales of the western North Atlantic compared with those occurring in European waters, with some observations on the species of the North Pacific. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl., vol. 33, p. 1. WHEELER, J. F. G. 1930. The age of fin whales at physical maturity with a note on multiple ovulations. Discovery Rep., vol. 2, p. 403. ZENKOvIC, B. A. 1937. The food of the Far-Eastern whales. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. U. R. S. S., vol. 16, p. 231. Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Mackintosh PLATE 4 1. SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALE. The body is lying on its back and about half the baleen plates project outside the lip of the lower jaw. Marks on the lip and flank are caused by birds pecking the carcass. (Photograph by Discovery Committee.) 2. BLUE WHALE. A specimen measuring 90 feet, on the flensing platform of an Antarctic whaling station. ‘The lower jaw is slightly displaced. (Photograph by Discovery Committee.) Smithsonian Report, 1945—Mackintosh PLATE 2 1. FIN WHALE. Ventral view of a fin whale. Cuts have been made in the blubber in preparation for removal. (Photograph by Discovery Committee.) 2. HUMPBACK WHALE. Ventral view. The long flipper and tail fluke are visible. (Photograph by Discovery Committee.) LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL! By ALEXANDER F. SKUTCH [With 4 plates] The New World, for all its wealth of feathered life, boasts no family of birds at once so large and so ornate as either the pheasants or the birds of paradise of the Old World. The trogons are perhaps the most gorgeous avian family that the Western Hemisphere possesses, although they are a group shared with the eastern world. Trogons display glittering metallic plummage in far larger expanses than any hummingbird, and the colors of the males are usually brilliant and contrasting. Most, however, are devoid of ornamental plumes. An exception is the quetzal, which in this superb family is easily first in splendor. It is certainly one of the half dozen or so most beautiful birds in the Americas, and even in this select group may deserve highest rank. Not only is the quetzal a magnificent bird, but it is also one of the most widely known. Save possibly the scarlet macaw, this was the first Central American bird of whose existence I became aware. Like many another boy, I collected postage stamps; and an ornate Guate- malan issue, with its quetzal in red and green, was considered a collector’s prize. But it gave no just idea of the true splendor of the bird. Later, when I came to travel in Guatemala, I found its image very much in evidence, in the medallion displayed on the walls of most of the public edifices and in the center of the blue and white banner. I even carried quetzales in my pocket and disbursed them at sundry hotels and shops; for Guatemala has named her monetary unit for her national bird, as many of the neighboring republics have named theirs for famous men. The second city of the land bears the name of this bird—Quezaltenango, the place of quetzals—but today one searches in vain for these trogons on the wind-swept plains and through the low oak woods in the vicinity of this metropolis of the West. In selecting the quetzal as their national emblem, the Guatemalans made a more than usually felicitous choice, a creature at once native 1 Reprinted by permission from The Condor, vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 213-235, September— October 1944. 265 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 of the land itself, ornate as a design, and refreshingly different from the belligerent birds, beasts, and mythological fire-breathers that adorn the coats of arms of so many other nations. And the quetzal, no less than the soaring eagle and the rampant lion, has its appropriate legend to illustrate its nobility of spirit and reflect that of the people it rep- resents. Every Guatemalan will proudly tell you that the quetzal will die of a broken heart if deprived of freedom. I have heard of Hon- duran and Costa Rican quetzals that survived considerable periods of captivity; but I sincerely hope that none hatched on Guatemalan soil will ever be guilty of conduct so unworthy of the national tra- ditions. It always makes us sad when an ugly experiment bears wit- ness against a beautiful legend. The quetzal is something more than the living representative of a beautiful country of the present era; its human associations stretch back into antiquity. Possibly no other feathered being of this hemi- sphere, the bald eagle and the turkey not excepted, has a longer history, as the philologist rather than the naturalist would use the term. This history is largely unwritten; and it is to be hoped that before long one who is at once an archeologist and an ornithologist will make good the deficiency. Still, Salvin and Godman, in the “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” have given us some glimpse of its antique importance. The long, waving green plumes of the male quetzal’s train were coveted objects of adornment of the Indian chieftains, as one may plainly see on many a modern restoration of ancient scenes. ‘Their use was limited by law to royalty and the nobility. The male quetzals were captured alive—it is stated with corn, as bait, which I rather doubt—and after being despoiled of their proudest ornaments, released that they might grow them afresh and continue to propagate their kind. Thus the brown aborigine, later so despised and crushed into the dust, proved himself more far-sighted than the white invaders who overcame him. The bird was described by some of the early historians of the Conquest; but it soon grew so rare in all the more accessible portions of the Spanish Kingdom of Guatemala that its very existence came to be doubted in Europe, some ornithologists even classing it among the birds of fable. In the nine- teenth century, it was rediscovered by Europeans; and soon its skins began to flow across the Atlantic for museums and the cabinets of collectors. This nefarious trade reached such proportions that the quetzals might well have been exterminated had not so many of them dwelt in wild mountainous regions which even today are most difficult of access and scarcely explored. Most of these trade-skins originated in the Alta Vera Paz in Guatemala. One other legend about the quetzal seems worth repeating here, espe- cially as it had much to do with fomenting my own desire to study the LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 267 bird in life. As often as they tell the traveler that the quetzal invari- ably dies in captivity, the Guatemalans volunteer the information that its nest cavity in a decaying trunk is provided with two opposite door- ways, so that the male when he comes to take his turn on the eggs may enter from one side, perform his spell of incubation, then depart by the other, all without being obliged to turn around to the detriment of his gorgeous train. Few Guatemalans have actually seen the quetzal’s nest, for the birds survive only in the wildest, least inhabited regions of the Republic. Osbert Salvin (Ibis, 1861: 66) tells of a nest in what was taken to be an old woodpecker hole. It had a single doorway, and he believed that the female alone incubated. The foregoing is, briefly, what I had been able to learn about the quetzal up to the early half of the year 1937. I had already given attention to the habits of Central American birds during seven nesting seasons, and I had learned something about the breeding habits of one more kind of trogon during each of these years. But of the quetzal I had enjoyed only fleeting glimpses on two or three occasions, in the highlands of Guatemala and Costa Rica. To complete my studies of this family, I needed observations upon its most famous and most resplendent member. I wanted to decide for myself between the conflicting accounts of its nesting ; but everything I knew about trogons inclined me to believe that, in whatever kind of nest, the male shared in incubation. I was fortunate enough to rent an unexpectedly comfortable cottage in a wild region still largely covered with forest, in which quetzals were abundant. The adequacy of the dwelling was important, for even sheltered as I was, it was at times difficult enough to withstand the depressing effects of the cold rainstorms that continued scarcely broken for weeks on end, with hardly a gleam of sunshine. The point Where I studied the quetzals was at an altitude of 5,500 feet, about 2 miles below the hamlet of Vara Blanca, on the northern side of the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, along the old trail leading from Heredia across the continental divide down through the forests to the Rio Sarapiqui, an aflluent of the San Juan. My period of residence there extended from July 1937 to August 1938, with less than 2 months of absence between November and January. If I did not learn more about the ways of the quetzal, it was not because of any lack of these birds in the neighborhood, but rather because a wealth of birds of other kinds offered too many temptations to divagate. THE ENVIRONMENT The quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) ranges through the mountains from the Mexican state of Chiapas to western Panama. In this thou- sand-mile stretch of territory—Central America in the proper geo- 725362—47——15 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 graphic sense—there are two areas of highlands, separated by the belt of lowland that crosses the isthmus along the Rio San Juan and Lake Nicaragua. As with so many other birds of corresponding range, the quetzal shows geographic variation on the two sides of the gap. The northern form (P. m. mocinno) is distinguished by the greater length of its upper tail coverts; it ranges from Chiapas to northern Nicaragua. The southern race (P. m. costaricensis) dwells in the mountain complex of Costa Rica and western Panama. Other members of the genus are South American. The quetzal is an inhabitant of forests of the Subtropical Zone. In Costa Rica, it is most abundant between 5,000 and 9,000 feet above sea level. Occasionally it is found as low as 4,000 feet; I have a record of a single bird at this altitude, but doubt if it often ranges lower. Where forests of huge oak trees extend up to nearly 10,000 feet in the Costa Rican mountains, it is not impossible that the quetzal accom- panies them, although definite records appear to be lacking. In Guate- mala, farther from the Equator, the northern winter makes itself felt and the Temperate Zone replaces the Subtropical at a lower alti- tude. Here the quetzal does not, at least at the present time, appear to extend upward beyond 7,000 feet. The dense human population of the central highlands may well have been responsible for the bird’s dis- appearance from the few possibly suitable forests that remain above this altitude. With one exception, all the other Central American members of the trogon family dwell at altitudes lower than the quetzal, although a few, as the Jalapa collared trogon (Z'rogon collars puella, and Z'rogon aurantiiventris, which seems to be a mere color phase of this species) overlap its range from below. The Mexican trogon (7. mexicanus) is characteristic of the Temperate Zone in Guatemala and extends higher than the quetzal. The forests in which the quetzal dwells are composed of crowded lofty trees, those that form the canopy ranging from 100 to 150 feet and even more in height. Oaks of a number of kinds occur throughout the quetzal’s altitudinal range, but they are more abundant toward its upper limit, where with huge boles and spreading crowns they domi- nate the woodland. Alders (Alnus acwminata) are abundant in many places, becoming nearly as tall, although not so massive, as the oaks. But more important for the quetzals are the numerous members of the laurel family (Lauraceae), including the wild relatives of the avocado (Persea spp.) and species of Vectandra and Ocotea—variously called ira and guizarré in Costa Rica, tepeaguacate in Guatemala—whose fruits are an important food of our birds. These forests are watered by abundant rainfall, and at all seasons they are bathed in cloud-mist much of the time. The constant moisture favors the development of an epiphytic vegetation of whose proportions one can hardly form a LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 269 conception when he knows only the forests of the North Temperate Zone, or even those of the lowland Tropics. Each larger tree upholds a mass of vegetation which must be estimated, not in pounds or in hundredweight, but in tons. In the dense covering of mosses are rooted ferns, herbs, shrubs, and even trees of fair size. Especially noteworthy are the orchids of myriad kinds, the cavendishias and related ericaceous shrubs, with their glossy leaves and heads of pink and white blossoms. The undergrowth is often dense, with tangles of slender-stemmed bamboos, ferns in bewilding variety, and shrubs and herbs, including many elegant members of the acanthus family and the Gesneriaceae. Subtropical forest of this type appears essential to the existence of the quetzal. While the bird will often venture beyond the forest to forage and nest in adjacent clearings, it is not known to occur in districts from which the heavy woodland has been shorn. The almost total destruction of the original forest over the central plateau of Costa Rica and nearly all of the altos or central highlands of Guate- mala is responsible for the disappearance of the quetzal from these regions, no less than the unremitting persecution of commercial plume collectors and less expert trophy hunters. But happily for the bird and those who admire it, there still exist, in the northern parts of the departments of Alta Vera Paz and El Quiché in Guatemala, but above all in Honduras and southern Costa Rica, great areas of subtropical forest on mountains so rugged and difficult of access that they must long defy the devastating invasions of man. Recent well-organized attempts at road making through some of these mountains serve merely to emphasize the difficulties of conquering them. As I write, I look over the broad, forest-mantled flanks of the Talamancan Cordillera and like to think that for many centuries they will remain the inviolate home of the quetzal, the Costa Rican bellbird, the black-faced solitaire, the Costa Rican chlorophonia, and all the birds that dwell with them in the subtropical mountains. Doubtless quetzals must continue to owe their existence more to the inaccessibility of their haunts than to human laws, which, as that decreed a dozen years or so ago in Guate- mala for their protection, are usually not made until the creature they would save becomes rare almost to the vanishing point. APPEARANCE OF THE QUETZAL Although a formal account of the plumage of the quetzal may be found in Ridgway’s “Birds of North and Middle America” and other standard works of descriptive ornithology, I shall give here, with only slight verbal changes, a word picture that I wrote in my journal on April 28, 1938, when I had the living birds daily before me: “The male is a supremely lovely bird; the most beautiful, all things con- 270 #ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 sidered, that I have ever seen. He owes his beauty to the intensity and arresting contrast of his coloration, the resplendent sheen and glitter of his plumage, the elegance of his ornamentation, the sym- metry of his form, and the noble dignity of his carriage. His whole head and upper plumage, foreneck and chest are an intense and glitter- ing green. His lower breast, belly and under tail coverts are of the richest crimson. The green of the chest meets the red of the breast in a line which is convex downward. The head is ornamented by up- standing bristly feathers which form a narrow, sharply ridged crest extending from the forehead to the hindhead. The bill is bright yellow, and rather smaller than that of other trogons, even those of inferior size. The glittering eye is black, and set directly among the green feathers of the face, without the white or bluish or golden orbital ring that so many trogons possess. “The wing-quills are largely concealed by the long, loose-barbed, golden-green, plume-like feathers of the coverts, whose separated ex- tremities, passing beyond the wings on to the sides of the bird, stand out beautifully against the crimson that shows between them. The ends of the black remiges are left uncovered by the covert-plumes and contrast with the green rump, upon the sides of which, when folded, they repose. The dark, central feathers of the tail are entirely con- cealed by the greatly elongated upper tail coverts, which are golden- green with blue or violet iridescence, and have loose, soft barbs. The two median and longest of these covert feathers are longer than the entire body of the bird, and extend far beyond the tip of the tail, which is of normal length. Loose and slender, they cross each other above the end of the tail, and thence diverging gradually, form a long, gracefully curving train which hangs below the bird while he perches upright on a branch and ripple gaily behind him as he flies. The cuter tail feathers are pure white and contrast with the crimson belly when the bird is beheld from in front, or as he flies overhead. To complete the splendor of his attire, reflections of blue and violet play over the glittering metallic plumage of back and head, when viewed in a favorable light. “The female quetzal is far less beautiful than her mate. She is the one female trogon I know whose upper plumage is green like the male’s, instead of brown or slate-colored. Her head is dark smoky gray, sometimes slightly tinged with green, and bears no trace of the male’s crest. Her bill and large eyes are black. Her back and rump are green, but less intensely so than those of the male; and the upper coverts of her wings and tail are green and elongated like his, but in less degree. The tips of the wing coverts scarcely extend beyond the margin of the folded wing, and the longest tail coverts at most but slightly exceed the length of the tail. Her chest is green; but LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH © O71 the breast and much of the belly are dark gray and only the lower belly and under tail coverts are red, of a shade paler than these parts of the male. The outer tail feathers, instead of being pure white, are narrowly barred with black.” HABITS AND VOICE While perching, the quetzal, like other trogons, assumes a very up- right posture, its tail directed downward or even inclined slightly forward under the perch. If alarmed, agitated, or suspicious, both sexes have the habit, widespread among trogons, of rapidly spreading the tail feathers fanwise and closing them again, sending forth flashes of white from the outer rectrices, which to one viewing the bird from the rear are usually concealed by the dark central feathers and the coverts. In quitting his perch, the male commonly drops off back- ward, instead of flying straight forward in the usual manner. Thereby he avoids dragging his train over the branch each time he takes wing, which would in the course of months fray it greatly through friction against the rough bark. My notes are not explicit as to whether the female, lacking the train, takes off in the same fashion; but my impression is that she does not. The flight of the quetzal is undulatory, but less strongly so than that of some of the smaller trogons. Its method of plucking small fruits from a tree is the same as that of the other members of the family. Starting from a resting position, it darts up to a cluster of berries, seizes one in its bill, and detaches it by throwing its weight against it as it drops away, all without alighting. Such fruit-catch- ing is spectacular with all trogons; and with the magnificently at- tired male quetzal it is indeed a striking display. The cottage at Vara Blanca steod on the cleared back of a narrow ridge, with forest on either slope a short way down. From the porch I sometimes watched a pair of quetzals foraging in the crown of a great iva rosa (Ocotea pentagona) that grew in the pasture on the slope to the west, its upper boughs on a level with my eyes. The birds would emerge from the forest, snatch a few of the big, green fruits in their usual dashing way, then dart down into the wooded ravine whence they had come. From my arrival at Vara Blanca in July until the last days of February, I had attributed only a single kind of call to the quetzal. This was a loud, startled-sounding wac-wac, wac-wac that they often voiced in flight. The call bears a certain resemblance to the notes of alarm of the smaller trogons, most of which have a startled, cackling character, but are less powerful than the corresponding utterance of the quetzal. But in late February, as the mating season approached, I began to hear notes of a very distinct kind. During March, the 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 quetzals called much; and it became clear to me that they had a rather varied vocabulary, including sounds of rare beauty. They were most vocal in calm, cloud-veiled dawns, and late on misty afternoons; in bright weather they called less, and on windy days rarely broke silence. Their notes reminded me somewhat of the utterances of the clearer-voiced of the small trogons, as the Mexican, Jalapa, gartered (Trogon violaceus), and graceful (Trogon rufus tenellus), yet were quite distinct from any of these. The quetzal’s voice, at its best, is softer and at the same time deeper, fuller and more powerful than that of any other trogon I know. The notes are not distinctly separated, but are slurred and run into each other, producing a flow of mellow harmony. Even as the quetzal surpasses his kindred trogons in splendor of plumage, so he excels them in mellowness of voice. The female, on rare occasions, was heard to utter a clear-voiced call resembling that of the male, but in far weaker, more subdued tones. At times, especially at the outset of the season of nesting, the quetzals voiced notes of a whining, complaining character, which ap- peared to be mating calls. I could not then make sure whether both sexes used this sound or only one, nor which it was; but I sometimes heard it when they were together at the edge of the forest. Later, when they were incubating, both male and female would deliver nasal or whining notes of a rather similar character as each came to relieve the other on the nest. In May I became aware of an utterance very distinct from all these, a high, soprano, sliding whooo, not especially loud—a surprising performance which, when first heard, I was in- clined to attribute to a mammal rather than a bird. The flight display of the male quetzal is accompanied by an utter- ance all its own that is-obviously a modification of the flight note already described. From time to time, in March, April, May, June, and July, the male rises on wing well above the treetops, circles around in the air, then descends again into the shelter of the foliage. His flight on these sallies is strong, swift, and direct, often with little of the usual undulatory motion; but if he goes very high, it may at the end become pronouncedly wavy and jerky, suggesting that he has about reached the limit of his endurance. As he soars up into the air, he shouts loudly a phrase which at various times I set down as wace- wac, wac-wac, wac-wac, but as often very-good, very-good, very-good. On a number of occasions, I saw the male, when relieved of his long turn on the eggs by the arrival of his mate, set forth directly from the doorway of the nest on one of these flights, calling loudly as he went. Such aerial sallies are not rare among birds of open fields and low thickets, as the skylark and the bobolink, or, to take closer neighbors of the quetzal, Baird’s yellowthroat (Geothlypis semiflava), the streaked saltator (Saltator albicollis) and Lawrence’s elaenia (Elaenia chiri- LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 273 quensis) ; but they are decidedly uncommon among denizens of heavy forest. I know no other trogon, nor any bird of the tropical rain- forest at whatever altitude, which indulges in such exercises. The gliding flights of the guans (Penelope purpurascens and Chamaepetes unicolor) , in the midst of which they produce drumming sounds with their wings, are of quite distinct character. One afternoon in early March, I watched in a narrow clearing in the forest, in the midst of which stood a tall decaying trunk, where a pair of quetzals were interested in a possible nest site. As the sun sank low, I heard mingled mellow calls and whines float out of the bordering woodland. Presently the male rushed out into the clearing, flying in a wild, dashing, irregular fashion, his long, loose, green wing-covert and tail-covert plumes vibrating madly, shouting wac-wac-wac-wac way-ho way-ho. This appeared to be a distinct kind of flight display, accom- panied by a somewhat altered call. I have heard tell of flocks of quetzals in the Costa Rican highlands, but have never seen such an aggregation. When I arrived at Vara Blanca in early July, the quetzals were probably still nesting, although IT found no nests until the following year. I saw a number, chiefly single individuals, during that month; but in August and early Sep- tember I met none, and I began to suspect they had migrated from the region. But in the second fortnight of September I encountered two. Yet from August to the following February they were very little in evidence; and the few that I saw were mostly silent and alone. It was not until late February or early March that quetzals appeared to become abundant in the vicinity. It is not impossible that there had been an influx of individuals into the locality, but I suspect that their apparent increase in number resulted from their greater activity, and above all, the more frequent use of their voices. The quetzal, for all his glitter- ing splendor, is not easy to detect as he perches quietly among lofty boughs smothered in air plants. By the first week of March the birds seemed quite generally to have paired. Once I saw four flying through the shady pasture together, but these appeared to be rivals rather than members of a flock. Pos- sibly the quetzals at times gather in numbers about a tree that offers an abundance of fruit; and in the mating season, several rival males may call from the same part of the forest, as with other trogons. Nevertheless I doubt if they form true flocks, which appear not to exist among the American members of the family. THE NEST AND EGGS The quetzal nests in a hole in a decaying trunk, upright or slightly leaning. This may be situated within the forest, or in an adjoining clearing, sometimes as much as a hundred yards from the woodland 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 border. The six nests I found in 1938 ranged from 14 to an estimated 60 feet in height above the ground. Insize and form the cavity closely resembles that of the larger woodpeckers, as the Guatemalan ivory- bill (Scapaneus guatemalensis) or the pileated woodpecker (Ceophloeus lineatus). The single entrance at the top is irregularly circular, about 4 to 414 inches in diameter. One hole which appeared to be freshly carved—the man who showed it to me said he had seen the birds at work—extended to the depth of only 414 inches below the lower edge of the doorway. This contained eggs, although they had been broken before I saw the nest. A second nest, which was very old and weathered when the quetzals began to use it, extended 11 inches below the sill of the doorway and was 6 inches in width. Although the other nests were inaccessible, I believe that most of them had a depth well in excess of the 414 inches of the shallow one I measured; this opinion is based on the positions of the birds when incubating or feeding nestlings within them. | In form, the quetzal’s cavity is quite distinct from that of the other trogons’ nests I have seen (Skutch, Auk, vol. 59, pp. 341-863, 1942). Some trogons lay their eggs in cavities they carve in termites’ or wasps’ nests, others in decaying wood. But of the other trogons that dig into wood, the Mexican, Jalapa, and graceful trogons are content with shallow niches that leave much of the incubating bird exposed to outer view. Baird’s trogon (Trogon strigilatus bairdi) carves deep into the trunk, forming a completely enclosed chamber entered through an obliquely ascending tube. The trunk in which the quetzal nests is sometimes in the last stages of decay. One nest cavity was situated at a height of 30 feet in the top of a massive but very rotten stub standing in a pasture. Since I had not at the time of finding this seen any lower nest, I made a determined effort to glimpse its contents, standing on the next-to- highest rung of a tall ladder and holding a mirror at the doorway, still above my head, while the interior was illuminated by an electric bulb. While I was engaged in this foolhardy venture, a visiting naturalist looked on and prophesied disaster. I could see nothing, yet dared not step upon the topmost rung and depend for support upon the trunk alone. But later, after the nestlings had flown, we put a rope about this trunk, cut some of the supporting prop roots, and pulled it over; for I wished to examine and measure the cavity. Upon striking the ground, the upper portion fell into a formless heap of rotten wood. It was not even possible to distinguish the point where the chamber had been! We had a similar experience with a trunk containing an empty 18-foot-high nest, which we pushed over in the forest for exami- nation. After it struck the ground, there was nothing left to examine. Not infrequently, a woodpecker hole will remain perfectly intact and LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 275 sound after falling from twice or thrice the height of these quetzals’ nests. The lowest nest chamber, to which I devoted so much attention in July and August, was covered in front only by the bark of the decaying stump, a large sheet of which seemed on the point of falling away and exposing the eggs. I thought it prudent to hold it in place by encircling the trunk with cord. I did not in any instance see quetzals actually carve their nest cham- ber. The three nests in which first broods were raised seemed old and weathered when I found them. But the shallow cavity already men- tioned gave every appearance of having been freshly carved in decay- ing wood still considerably sounder than that which collapsed into a heap when it fell. This nest was shown to me by Don Moises Larra, in front of whose cabin it stood. He told me that he had seen the male and female quetzals taking turns at carving it out. This, of course, is the way in which most if not all kinds of trogons make their nests. Early in March, a pair was interested in a tall, branchless, decaying trunk that stood in a pasture near the edge of the forest. While 1 watched, the female clung upright in front of an old, long-abandoned woodpecker hole near the top of the stub. She spread her tail and braced it against the trunk, revealing the white outer feathers nar- rowly barred with black. Clinging so, she bit at the decaying wood about the rim of the doorway, tearing off fairly large flakes of the soft substance and letting them drop to the ground. She continued this occupation for a minute or less, and while she was so engaged I heard soft, full notes, but could not make sure whether they arose from her or from the male who perched nearby. Upon dropping away from the tree, she rejoined her waiting mate and both returned to the forest. Finally, this pair nested in an old hole in the top of another dead trunk not far off. At Vara Blanca I found no breeding woodpecker whose hole could accommodate, without alterations, a bird as large as the quetzal. The hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus), acorn woodpecker (Balanos- phyra formicivora), green woodpecker (Piculus rubiginosus) and oleaginous woodpecker (Veniliornis oleaginus) were the only resident species—all considerably smaller than the quetzal. Likewise, the prong-billed barbet (Dicrorhynchus frantzii), whose nest cavity closely resembles a woodpecker hole, is not nearly so large as the quetzal. Before a quetzal could nest in a hole carved by any of these five species, it would have to enlarge it, especially the doorway. I be- lieve that this is what the pair I watched had started to do, but there- after something was found that could be made to serve with less effort. Whenever an old hole of their own remains from a former year, still sound enough to contain their eggs and even if in a precarious state of decay, these trogons appear to use it again. When still available, the 276 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 cavity that served for the first brood is made to do duty for the second after the bottom is cleaned out. When they can find nothing ready made, the quetzals appear to carve their cavity from the beginning, in soft, decaying wood, in the manner of other trogons. At lower eleva- tions, where their range overlaps that of the ivory-billed or pileated woodpeckers, the quetzals may find cavities of adequate size all ready for them; but over most of their range, they can needy, avoid a certain amount bE hole carving. The quetzal’s eggs rest upon the loose fragments of wood in the bot- tom of the cavity, for no soft lining is taken in. I saw only two sets, one in May and the other in June. The eggs in the May nest had been broken before I was taken to see them. Feathers scattered about pointed to the work of some predatory animal. ‘There had been at least two eggs, light blue in color. The one still whole enough to be measured was 38.9X30.2 mm. The June nest also contained two light blue eggs, which I did not deem it prudent to remove from their ~ deep, rather dilapidated cavity. In a high, inaccessible nest to which I devoted considerable attention, at least two fledglings were reared. INCUBATION On April 6, 1938, I wrote in my journal: “Two mornings past, I saw a female quetzal, then a male (of the pair, I believe, that had earlier begun to enlarge the entrance of the old woodpecker hole in a neighboring trunk) cling upright in front of a large, round hole at the very top of a tall, massive and much decayed trunk which stands at the edge of the forest at the lower end of the pasture. The hole is to all appearances an old one, the wood about its rim much weathered; and I have passed beneath the trunk so often that I think I should have seen the quetzals at work had they made it recently. Each, after clinging a few seconds there, flew back into the forest. “Yesterday morning, when I passed by, I saw the male sitting in the cavity. He sat facing outward, with his head and shoulders project- ing through the aperture. His tail was at the back of the cavity, but one of the long feathers of the train was bent double and projected through the entrance, above the bird’s left shoulder. Where, then, is the Guatemalan story of the nesting cavity with two entrances, so that the male quetzal’s tail can project through the rear one? Or the Costa Rican version that the bird sits in the nest head inside and tail dangling from the single doorway ? “When the quetzal noticed me beneath him, he flew forth from the hole. I did not deem it prudent to return later in the day. This morning, at 6 o’clock, I saw the female enter the hole; but at 10 o’clock it was unoccupied. Apparently the birds have not yet begun to incubate.” LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 277 On April 8, the male quetzal was in the nest at 7:40 in the morn- ing, but he flew out and rose above the treetops as [approached. That same afternoon, at 2: 20, for the first time I found him actually cover- ing the eggs. I aproached very quietly so that he did not hear me and look out. All that I could see of him was the ends of the two long feathers of his train. These, bent forward and pressed against the upper edge of the doorway, projected the better part of a foot into the open. Had the trunk been covered with epiphytes, as it would have been if it had not been too rotten and crumbly on the outside to afford them a root-hold, the projecting feathers might have been mistaken for the green fronds of a fern. On subsequent visits to this and two other nests I found a little later, I learned that I could always detect from a distance the presence of the male quetzal in the nest by the projecting ends of these two long central tail coverts. They extended from 6 inches to a foot into the outer air and waved gracefully in the light April breezes. Although all the remainder of the bird was quite concealed in the bottom of the deep cavity, and I could not actually see the position in which he covered the eggs, the visible portions of these plumes indicated that he sat facing forward, with his tail held upright against the rear wall. This is actually the posture assumed in incubation by the Mexican, Jalapa, and graceful trogons, which are readily seen as they sit in their shallow cavities. But the male quetzal’s long train continued up- ward, then bent outward, and pressed against the upper side of the doorway which held the flexed ends in an almost horizontal position. It was early evident that both sexes took substantial shares in the incubation of the eggs. In order to learn in more detail how they divided the day between them, I devoted about 58 hours to watching the nests during incubation. Records covering all hours of the day were made while my first pair incubated both their first and second sets of eggs and while my second pair were hatching out their second brood. I usually made continuous vigils of from 5 to 7 hours, begin- ning in the middle of the day, watching until nightfall, and when the weather was not too adverse, resuming the vigil at the following dawn and continuing to the middle of the day. In addition to these long records, a number of briefer observations were made in order to time the morning and evening nest-relief. Although the first nest was high, I watched it from concealment. But the pair at the second, low nest gradually grew so accustomed to my presence that they showed no concern when I sat quietly beneath a tree in view of them. While feeding their nestlings they finally became so tame that I was able to photograph them at the nest, at close range, without using any form of concealment. The records for all three nestings showed substantial similarity in the division of the day between the male and female. There was a 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 basic pattern of incubation; but this was subject to considerable varia- tion from nest to nest, and on different days at the same nest. The fundamental pattern was this: the female incubated every night and during the middle of the day; the male took a long turn on the eggs in both the morning and afternoon. Each sex was responsible for the nest twice during the cycle of 24 hours. But their periods of respon- sibility might be interrupted by brief absences, during which the eggs were left unattended. There is no reason to suppose that the female did not sleep continuously in the nest through the night; for the quet- zal, like other trogons, appears to be strictly diurnal in its activity. The variations in the daily program we shall now consider. The male quetzal began his morning session at times ranging from 5:52 to 7:27 a. m.; but he inclined toward the former hour as the eggs neared the point of hatching. If he appeared early, the female might continue her long night session until he arrived to replace her. But usually she flew out still earlier, from 5:35 to 6:00, and if her mate did not appear fairly promptly, she returned in from 5 to 14 minutes to await him on the eggs. The male’s period in charge of the eggs during the morning was of variable duration; the shortest that I timed lasted 2 hours and 13 minutes and was continuous; the longest was for 4 hours and 30 minutes, broken by one spontaneous absence of 2 minutes, and another of 21 minutes when he was frightened from the nest by a passerby. One male took charge of a nest for 3 hours and 15 minutes, with three short recesses totaling 38 minutes. The female’s midday period began at times varying from 8:21 to after 11:10 a.m. Since I usually watched from midday to night- fall and from dawn to midday, I timed in full only two periods. One began at 9: 35 a.m. and lasted until 1: 14 p. m., 3 hours and 39 minutes, broken by a single recess of 7 minutes, from 11:03 to 11:10 a. m. The second, at the same nest, began at 8:21 a. m. and continued until 12:49 p.m., 4 hours and 28 minutes, interrupted only by a brief absence of 11 minutes, from 12: 23 to 12:34. The male’s afternoon session began at times varying from 12:53 to 4:36 p.m. Four sessions that I timed lasted 52 minutes, 1 hour and 9 minutes, 2 hours, and 8 hours and 8 minutes. All were uninter- rupted. Hach of the two males is to be credited with one long and one short session. On a wet, mist-shrouded afternoon soon after her eggs were laid, the female at nest 1 resumed charge at 2: 14 p.m. and remained in sole charge until the following morning, with brief recesses from 4:18 to 4:27, and from 5:48 to5:58 p.m. But this was unusual. Asa rule, the male sat until about 5:30 p. m., then left the eggs uncovered until the female returned for the night, from 5 to 41 minutes later. The female at nest 1 arrived consistently earlier than her neighbor at LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 279 nest 2. Her two evening returns which I witnessed took place at 5:30 and 5:53. The other female entered at 6:09, 6:01 and 6:07, when the daylight was growing faint. The noon-to-noon record of the first nest shows that the male in- cubated a total of 7 hours; that of the second nest credits him with 6 hours and 7 minutes, out of approximately 13 hours of total daily activity. Compared with other, smaller trogons, the quetzal sits for brief periods. The fundamental pattern of incubation among trogons is the same as for pigeons; there are only two shifts in each 24-hour cycle, the male sitting through the middle of the day, the female from the middle or late afternoon until the early half of the following morning. This is exemplified by my records of the black-headed (Trogon m. mellanocephalus), graceful, Jalapa, and Baird’s trogons. Because I usually begin or end my observations at midday, I have not often watched through the complete session of a male trogon of the smaller kinds. But once a male Baird’s trogon sat for exactly 6 hours, without once showing his head in the doorway of his well-en- closed nest; he and his mate kept the eggs continuously covered. So did a pair of little graceful trogons in Panama, the noon-to-noon record pointing to uninterrupted incubation by the male for about 8 hours. The male black-headed trogon, sitting in his termitary, takes sessions of corresponding length; but he and his mate do not always wait for each other before going off to hunt food. In contrast to the female quetzal’s impatience to depart from the nest in the early morning, I have known a female Mexican trogon to extend her night session through the entire morning and until 1:10 in the afternoon, never once leaving for food. A female Jalapa tro- gon sat continuously from 4:51 p. m. until 11:27 next morning, re- fusing her mate’s offer to relieve her at the unusually early hour of 7 a.m. Why the quetzal should incubate so much less assiduously than its smaller cousins is not clear. Most trogons nest in lower and warmer regions. The Mexican trogons dwelt at a far greater altitude; but all were not so patient in incubation as the female to which we have referred. With other families, as with the trogons, size has little to do with the length of a bird’s sessions on the eggs. Upon arriving to replace the mate on the nest, both male and female quetzal would often, but by no means always, utter whining or nasal notes while perching nearby. At the same time they flash their white outer tail feathers with a momentary fanning of the rectrices, then twitch the tail upward—a typical trogon gesture. Sometimes the partner in the nest would come forth upon hearing the summons, but again it might disregard them. Its response doubtless depended upon how eager it was to leave. If the bird in the nest did not come forth, 2830 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: the one arriving might fly up in front of the doorway, but always veered aside and went to a perch when it saw that the hole was occupied. This move usually caused the other to quit the eggs. At times, the new arrival would fly up to the doorway in this fashion with no previous announcement of its presence. Each of the males, but especially that of the second pair, was sometimes guilty of calling his mate from the eggs, then flying off with her as she departed, leaving the nest unattended until either he or she returned to take charge of them. The female more rarely did the same thing. Thus there was no set ceremony of nest relief. Less closely synchronized than mated birds of many other kinds, one of the pair might come before the mate was ready to go; or one would go before the other was ready to come. Yet in spite of inconsistencies, they managed to get through their three-shift day without leaving the eggs exposed for many minutes. After incubation had well begun, the nest was rarely left unattended for more than half an hour at a stretch, although once both members of the pair at nest 1 were absent for 67 minutes, and on another occasion for 51 minutes. For many kinds of trogons, the entry into the nest is a very pro- tracted procedure. They cling before the doorway, peering cautiously from side to side, often for several minutes, before slipping inside. If they espy something that excites their suspicion, they dart away to return a little later and go through the lengthy performance again. The quetzals entered in a less hesitant fashion, often hardly delaying in front of the doorway, or at most making only a brief survey from this position. Upon quitting the nest, the male, as already recorded, would some- times rise into the air in a flight display, shouting as he went. I saw one of the males do this six times, the other thrice. These spectacular flights were made at any hour of the day; one of the males left the nest in this manner when his mate relieved him at sunset. Even when frightened from the nest by a passing man, the reckless bird might soar up and make himself conspicuous to all the neighborhood. Or at times he would give loud calls as he flew off, without rising above the trees. While I watched them, the quetzals were not often called upon to drive intruders from the vicinity of their nests. On April 10, not long after they began to incubate, male and female of my first pair joined in giving chase to a trespassing female of their kind. Later, I saw this male pursue a blue-throated toucanet (Aulacorhynchus caeruleo- gularis), which would have enjoyed eating their eggs, and twice a tityra (Tityra semifasciata), which seemed to be prospecting for a nest cavity in the same trunk. Another pair of quetzals was worried by a pair of sulphur-bellied flycatchers (Myiodynastes luteiventris) LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 281 building a nest near their own. Once while the male quetzal was brooding the nestlings, a strange female flew to the doorway, with no food visible in her bill. One of the flycatchers gave chase to her, and the quetzal, emerging from the nest, also darted at her, but without touching her. She flew directly away and I saw her no more. Only at the second nest of my second pair of quetzals could I actually see the eggs and determine the period of incubation. The nest was in a low, rotting stub in a shady pasture beside a little-used pathway. I feared betraying its position to passers-by and through an excess of caution did not set up a ladder and look in with a mirror until I was sure that incubation had begun. At this late nest the birds began to incubate on June 24, or possibly even on the 23d, and the nest- lings hatched on July 11, giving an incubation period of 17 or 18 days. This agrees rather closely with the periods available for other trogons: 18 or 19 for the Mexican trogon, 19 for the black-headed trogon, 18 for the graceful trogon. CARE AND DEVELOPMENT OF NESTLINGS Like other newly hatched trogon nestlings, those of the quetzal bore no vestige of down upon their pink skin. Their eyes were tightly closed. Each bore a prominent white egg tooth near the tip of the upper mandible, which was slightly shorter than the lower. Their heels were studded with the short, papillate protuberances typical of nestlings that grow up in a nursery with an uncarpeted floor. When I first saw the two newly hatched nestlings, only a few fragments of the blue egg shells remained on the bottom of the nest. During their first few days of life, the young quetzals were brooded much of the time. They were nourished almost if not quite ex- clusively with small insects; it was not until later that fruits became an important element in their diet. The parents at first kept the nest perfectly clean, removing all the droppings, which apparently they swallowed, for I saw none carried away in their bills. On the nestlings’ fourth morning, I heard their mother scraping and scratch- ing in the nest, doubtless to clean it out. This attention to sanitation was eventually to be relaxed. Still, quetzals are considerably in ad- vance of their relatives in this respect, for the Mexican trogons, grace- ful trogons, and Jalapa trogons that I studied did not even remove the empty egg shells and the bottom of their nests soon became foul. When the nestling quetzals were 2 days old, the sheaths of both their contour and flight feathers began to push through their pink ‘skin. At 4 days, there was slight change, save that the nestlings were considerably larger and their feather sheaths somewhat longer. When they were 5 days old, their eyelids began to separate. At 8 days, they could open their eyes, but most of the time rested with the 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 eyelids closed. On the seventh day after hatching the contour feathers of the body were breaking from the ends of their sheaths, but not those of the head. The young were 10 days old before the flight plumes of the wings and tail began to push out from the tips of the sheaths, a day after the wing coverts had reached the same stage. The bill and feet were now becoming blackish. At this stage of development, the young quetzals always rested side by side on the bottom of their nest with their heads supported against the side wall and their bills pointing almost straight upward. They did not appear to be comfortable unless their heads were in this position, for even when removed from the nest and placed where they could find no chin-support, they held them turned abruptly up- ward in this fashion. From time to time, when they appeared to be hungry, they stretched up their necks and at the same time opened their mouths and sharply closed them again, making a snap. Evi- dently, like young motmots and woodpeckers, they took food from their parents in this harsh, abrupt fashion, instead of holding their mouths passively open for the morsel to be placed in it in the manner of passerine birds. Up to their tenth day, the young quetzals were nourished almost entirely with animal food—indeed, I had not yet seen the parents bring them a fruit. On their eighth morning I was present when their mother came with a golden beetle (Pluszotis aurigans) about an inch in length. These coleopterans are certainly the most splendid I have ever seen; they are among beetles what the quetzal is among birds. When the nestling quetzals were 11 days old, buffy spots began to appear on their wing coverts. When they attained the age of 2 weeks, their bodies were well clothed with feathers so long as they kept their wings folded. But the feathers of their heads had only the day before begun to escape the horny sheaths. The contrast between the well- clothed body and naked head was striking, and gave the little quetzals a somewhat vulturine aspect. On their fourteenth day they were photographed for the first time. From this age onward, fruits, especially those of the laurel family, became an increasingly important constituent in the diet of the nest- lings, and the large regurgitated seeds began to accumulate beneath them in the nest where the parents could not easily reach them for removal. Still, they had kept the nest sanitary for almost as long as young black-headed and Mexican trogons remain in their uncleaned nurseries. When the young quetzals were 16 days old, their mother began to behave in a most unaccountable fashion. She ceased to brood them during the night, although they seemed scarcely old enough to be left LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 283 uncovered in that inclement weather, and by day she fed them less and less. In nearly 5 hours on their seventeenth day she came only thrice with food. On two of these occasions, she waited dully in the pord (Erythrina) tree in front of the nest, holding the morsel in her bill, until her mate arrived with food, and only then, as though stimu- lated by his example, did she go to the nest to deliver what she had brought. Even the preceding day, she had delayed nearly an hour, holding a green fruit until the arrival of the male caused her to take it into the nest. After this, I did not again see her in the vicinity. To the male quetzal, then, fell the whole duty of attending the two nestlings during their last 5 or 6 days in the low hole. With his plumage showing unmistakable signs of his strenuous activities and the long feathers of his train broken off short, he was indeed an Apollo in the service of King Admetus. He no longer brooded; but the young birds’ cloak of feathers made this unnecessary now. Nor did he clean out the nest. As a result the growing accumulation of big, regur- gitated seeds and other waste matter slowly raised the level of the floor and the little quetzals stood each day higher in the nursery, nearer the doorway, where it was easier for them to reach up for their food. From the first, the male quetzal had been a constant provider of food at this nest. Still, he did not feed very often; infrequent feed- ings are the rule among trogons. On the nestlings’ seventeenth morning, he fed the two seven times during 434 hours. Sometimes he would bring one article of food in his bill, pass this to a nestling, then return to a convenient perch and regurgitate a fruit, which in turn was taken to the nest. The preceding day, for the first time, I had seen the parents pass food to the nestlings through the doorway without themselves going in. Now they regularly (the mother until she ceased to feed) delivered the meals while they clung in front of the entrance (see pl. 3) and did not pass through it unless the nest- lings were very sluggish about taking nourishment. When hungry, the young jumped or climbed to the doorway, where from in front I could glimpse them momentarily at the instant when_they were fed. Their higher floor, as well as their increased size and strength, made this feat possible. The little birds now uttered low, soft whistles as they awaited their meals. On the nineteenth day I again watched this nest for 3 hours. From 6 to 9 o’clock the male made only seven separate visits to the vicinity of the nest. But on three occasions he rested in a neighboring tree after he had delivered the article he brought in his bill, there regurgitated a fruit, then went to the nest to deliver this, making 10 feedings in all. This was not many, but he brought each time such substantial portions, always big fruits and frequently lizards, that the young appetites were soon satisfied. Already at half-past seven 725362—47——20 984 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 the nestlings were sluggish in taking what their father offered them. When hungry, they would appear in the doorway and snatch the food in a trice; but when satiated they remained in the bottom of the chamber, making a low sizzling noise as nourishment was presented to them. Then the male would enter and coax them to swallow what he had brought. But even when he went inside, he was not always successful in delivering the morsel. He would emerge, fly to a neigh- boring tree, and rest there, patiently holding the object in his bill : for many minutes, while the digestive juices of his nestlings acted upon earlier contributions. After a while he would go again to the nest with the same article of food, and at length when the nestlings’ hunger had reasserted itself, he would succeed in giving it to one of them. Perhaps it will be of interest to record here the food of the two 19- day-old quetzals. From 6 to 9 o’clock on the morning of July 30, 1938, the male brought them the following in sequence: a big green fruit brought in his bill, and another in his throat; a small lizard; a small lizard; a big green fruit in the bill and another in the throat; an unrecognized object, which the nestlings were very sluggish in tak- ing; a lizard; and a larva. After delivering the last item, he regurgi- tated a fruit, which he offered repeatedly over a period of 20 minutes before a nestling found room for it. Altogether, the diet of the young quetzals, which reflected that of their parents, was surprisingly varied. The edible objects I saw taken into this and other nests included; insects of numerous kinds, often green and of fair size, the most easily recognized of which were the golden beetle (Plusiotis aurigans) and even more numerous greenish- gold beetles of somewhat larger size (P. bowcardi) [for the identifi- cation of these beetles I am indebted to C. H. Lankester]; green larvae; small green and yellow frogs; small lizards; small land snails, the regurgitated shells of which were found in the bottom of the nest; the hard, big-seeded, green-skinned fruits of the tra rosa (Ocotea pentagona) and other lauraceous trees. These last are struc- turally similar to the avocado but of course are very much smaller. They became increasingly prominent in the diet as the nestlings grew older. Other trogons I have studied brought few or no fruits to their nestlings; this was true even of the Baird’s trogon whose off- spring lingered in the nest longer than these two quetzals. Yet the adults of most species include at least some fruit in their diet. The feeding of the young quetzals by their father alone during their last days in the nest is not without parallel in my experience with trogons. Last year, a male Baird’s trogon seemed to be in sole charge of the nestlings from the time they were a few days old. One perished early; but the second lived to fly from the nest, practically LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 285 reared by its father. In this instance, I saw no evidence of gradually waning interest on the part of the mother; it seemed that she met some accident. THE JUVENAL PLUMAGHD The course of feathering of the nestling quetzals and their partial change in color during their final week in the nest was most interesting. When we last glimpsed them, they were 2 weeks old and fairly well clothed, except for their heads, so long as they kept their wings folded ; this they did habitually at this age. Their upper plumage was then generally of a dull blackish color, relieved only by the buffy spots on the wing coverts which had become evident a few days earlier. But from the age of 2 weeks onward, green became increasingly evident in their plumage. This change in coloration was accomplished by the overlaying of the dull early plumage by brighter feathers of subsequent development. The feathers of the anterior part of the dorsal tract lagged far behind those of the posterior portion of the same tract. Long after the latter had broken from their sheaths and spread over the surround- ing bare skin, the anterior feathers of this tract remained tightly enclosed. Only when the young quetzals were 16 days of age did the tips of these feathers of tardy development begin to peep forth from the ends of their sheaths. They were golden green in striking contrast to the plumage that surrounded them. At the age of 18 days, green- tipped feathers were becoming evident among the scapulars, long after the blackish feathers in the same region had expanded. Green tips then began to push forth from the sheaths on the sides of the neck. A little later, the two green central tail coverts first became evident. Only on the nestlings’ twenty-third day did I notice that green feather- tips were emerging from the lateral sheaths of the posterior half of the middorsal tract, a full 2 weeks after the neighboring, centrally located, blackish feathers had begun to expand. Green feathers were also just beginning to appear on the foreneck. Whereas the blackish contour feathers of early development were loose and fluffy, the green-tipped feathers of tardy appearance had firmer, more cohesive webs. The new feathers on the center of the back were a beautiful golden green; but their concealed basal portions were blackish, like the whole length of the early down feathers. . Thus, at the time of their departure from the nest, the young quetzals wore a motley garb, blackish, brown, buff, and green, but with the last- named color giving promise soon to overshadow all the others. The crown was dark brown, the hind part of the head brown of a lighter shade. There were dull green feathers on the lores and around the eyes. The sides of the neck and upper back were golden green. The 286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 lower back and rump were dull black, but with green feathers coming in. The two central tail coverts were green, with black tips and brown subterminal spots; the remaining upper tail coverts were dull black, with a brown subterminal spot on the next to the middle pair. The tail feathers were still very short, but so far as visible the six central rectrices were dull black, whereas the outer three on each side had white vanes and black shafts. The wing plumes likewise were dull black, with buffy outer margins on all but the outermost, these becom- ing gradually more prominent on the inner secondaries. The wing coverts were black, variously margined with buff, except on the lesser coverts and the greater coverts of the primaries. Turning to the under parts, the chin and throat were tawny buff, with some green feathers just sprouting in on the foreneck. The breast was buff with scattered green-tipped feathers, the flanks paler buff, and the center of the abdomen nearly white. The bill was black, the irides brown, and the feet plumbeous. These two fledglings, of unknown sex, appeared very much the same as others I saw ata greater distance. Although they resembled neither parent, they were most like the female, from which they differed most conspicuously in the far smaller amount of visible green, the lighter color of the chest and upper abdomen, the absence of red on the belly and under tail coverts, and in many other less conspicuous particulars. It is instructive to compare the rate of feathering of the quetzal with that of other trogons. Baird’s trogon offers the most illuminat- ing comparison, since it has an approximately equal period of nest life. The feathering of the young quetzals began on their seventh day and by their fourteenth they were well covered. But at the age of 12 days, the nestling Baird’s trogon of the lowlands is still in pin- feathers. A day later, these begin to ravel off at the ends, exposing the true plumage. By its sixteenth day, the nestling is well clothed. Thus it is covered with feathers only a day or two later than the quetzal; but the shedding of the horny sheaths begins far later and is a much more rapid process. The same earlier escape of the feathers from their sheaths is evident in the Mexican trogon of the highlands as compared with the black-headed trogon of the lowlands. The con- tour feathers of the Mexican trogon begin to expand at the age of a week and the little birds are well feathered when 12 days old. When 2 weeks old, young black-headed trogons bristle like porcupines with their long, unbroken pinfeathers; then a marvelously rapid trans- formation occurs and 2 days later they are well clothed and ready to fly from the nest. A similar acceleration of feathering in a cooler climate is revealed by the comparison of the highland blue-throated motmot (Aspatha gularis) with the turquoise-browed motmot (Zumomota superciliaris) LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 287 of the lowlands. During the month it remains in the burrow, the nestling blue-throated motmot changes its color even more completely than the quetzal. At the age of 10 days, the little motmot, hatched naked, is already practically covered with loose, fluffy down, dark gray on the upper parts and tawny on the sides and flanks. When it it is 4 weeks old, its gray and tawny feathers are all covered over and concealed by green ones that develop more tardily. On quitting the nest, the young motmot closely resembles its parents, which are not to be distinguished from each other. The exact details of this change of coloration are slightly different in the motmot and the quetzal; but the general process of overlaying the dull feathers of precocious de- velopment with bright ones that expand later is the same in both. The turquoise-browed motmot of the hot regions undergoes no such altera- tion. The feathers do not begin to expand until about the twelfth day, and the nestlings in developing plumage at once display all the deli- cate beauty of the adults. I am familiar with no other bird, quite naked at birth, that changes the coloration of its plumage in this way during the period it remains in the nest. But it seems possible that in other tropical species which begin to acquire the adult colors soon after quitting the nest a similar process may occur. Since coloration in itself can be of no importance to the safety of a motmot in its nursery at the end of a long, dark tunnel, and is prob- ably of slight account with a quetzal in a deep cavity in a trunk, one wonders why the nestlings do not array themselves in their brightest hues at the very outset. It seems important to these highland nest- lings that they early acquire a downy vesture to protect them from the cold in their covered nurseries; but at the same time they guard their feathers of firmer texture from wear, keeping them enclosed within the horny sheaths until the date approaches when they will be needed; for upon quitting the nest, both the quetzal and the blue- throated motmot enter a rainy world. The contour feathers of firm texture, which are not needed until later, are those which bear the green color. The change of coloration while in the nest appears to be incidental, and not in itself of consequence, save as an indicator of other alterations. DEPARTURE OF THE NESTLINGS On the morning of August 1, when the young quetzals were 3 weeks old, I for the first time saw one of them stand on the sill of the door- way ; it looked out for a few minutes after the father had given it food. Two days later, I removed one of the young from its nursery and placed it on a mossy log beside me while I wrote a description of its plumage. At first it made no attempt to fly. (Neither of the nest- lings had tried to use its wing on past occasions when taken from the 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 nest.) But after standing quietly beside me for a time, it suddenly took to the air and flew about 25 feet in a horizontal course, coming to rest upon another fallen log. The father, who had been watching us from the poro tree in front of the nest, began to follow as soon as it began to move and darted down to alight close beside it on the log. After a minute here, he moved to a low perch a little beyond. Then I approached to recover the nestling, which made no effort to escape me. After completing the description of its plumage, I took up the young quetzal to return it to the nest. I found the other in the door- way, looking out. As I mounted the ladder toward it, the bird flew forth and down the slope in front of the nest. On this its first flight it covered about 150 feet in a slightly descending course, and came to rest about 25 feet above the ground in a small yos tree. It flew well but slowly. The father, who meanwhile had returned to the poro tree in front of the nest, darted after the fledgling and followed it closely on its first aerial journey, in the manner of parent birds of many kinds. For an hour, the young quetzal rested quietly on the branch where it had first alighted; and here the father brought it food. While perch- ing near it, he called many times in a clear but subdued voice, no louder than that of the Jalapa trogon. Meanwhile, the other fledgling, which I had left inside, had climbed up to stand in the doorway of the nest, looking forth. At 11 o’clock, I left them in these positions. When I returned at a quarter to 2 in the afternoon, I found that the second fledgling had departed and was resting in the poro tree in front, where it repeated over and over a beautiful, low, soft whistle. The other, which had flown first, had moved farther down the slope and perched high up in a tree at the edge of the woods. Here the father brought it food and rested close by it when not away foraging. Although this fledgling was given as much as it could eat, the other called and called in vain for attention. Yet its soft whistles carried faintly to the edge of the woods where its father perched. I watched all afternoon; it lingered in the poré tree, and the parent did not come near it. At 5 o’clock, despairing of attracting attention where it had so long perched, the second fiedgling suddenly took wing and flew down the slope in the direction where it had last seen or heard its parent. It came to rest in a small tree and continued to call tirelessly. It now began to vary its whistles, uttering some which were longer and slightly sharper than I had previously heard and others that sounded very pleading and mournful. Still no food was brought to appease its hunger. At a quarter past 5, the neglected fledgling continued down the slope to the edge of the woods, where it came to rest upon a branch of a cecropia tree covered over with a dense tapestry of climbing bamboo. LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 289 But the other fledgling, accompanied by the father, had long before gone farther into the woods and neither was now in view. The abandoned young quetzal continued ceaselessly to call, until at half past five the male brought the big green fruit of an zva, which quieted its eries of hunger. For the next half hour, the parent, doubtless tired ‘by a long day devoted to hunting food for his children, rested quietly on a neighboring branch, without bringing any additional nourishment for the fledgling. At 6 o’clock he flew into the woods and left the youngster alone on the cecropia branch, where it still perched quietly in the gathering dusk and the light rain that was now falling. Here it passed its first night in the open. From the time of my arrival at a quarter to 2, it had received no food, except the single fruit brought to it nearly 4 hours later. I doubt whether its father had given it anything else since the first fledgling left the nest at 10 o’clock in the morning, for, exactly as had happened with a brood of Mexican trogons that I had watched fly from the nest 5 years earlier, he was almost exclusively occupied with the first to take wing. At dawn, I found the second fledgling on the cecropia bough where it had passed the night. The male arrived with food and led it deeper into the woods. Thus ended my long association with the quetzals. Going to examine the deserted nest cavity, I found that during the last 9 or 10 days of occupancy, when the parents no longer cleaned it out, waste matter had accumulated to the depth of 314 inches. The chief components of this debris were the seeds of the lauraceous fruit which the parents brought in such great numbers. These were ellip- soidal, measuring 134 by 34 inches. Mixed with them were the re- gurgitated shards of beetles and other hard parts of insects, a few snail shells, a few smaller seeds, and much excrement. The fledgling quetzals which forsook the nest at the age of 23 days probably left prematurely as a result of having been removed for photography and examination. The lowness of the nest, with con- venient trees in front, may also have encouraged their relatively early departure. At my first nest, which was high and inaccessible, the parents were first seen to carry in food on April 21. On May 14, I saw for the first time a nestling appear in the doorway. 'Two days later, both nestlings were glimpsed in the entrance at once. They departed between the 19th and 20th, when at least 29 days of age. At the higher first nest of the pair whose second brood departed at the age of 23 days, food was carried in as early as April 19, while the last nestling departed on May 20, indicating a nestling period of 31 days. Other available nestling periods of trogons are: Mexican trogons, 15 to 16 days; black-headed trogons, 16 or 17 days; and Baird’s trogons, 25 days. 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 INCIDENTAL OBSERVATIONS Fach of the three pairs of quetzals to which I devoted most atten- tion reared, or attempted to rear, a second brood. Incubation of the first set of eggs began in early April and the nestlings departed about May 20. At least two of these pairs, and probably all three, were successful with their early broods. In June, all three were incubating once more. The two whose 60-foot-high holes were still available, laid their second sets of eggs in the same cavity as the first. I saw one of these pairs cleaning out the old nest, but how thoroughly they performed this task must be left to the imagination. The pair whose 30-foot-high nest we had the inspiration to pull over, after the de- parture of the fledglings, laid again in a lower hole 50 yards distant from the first, where at last I was able to see the eggs and follow the development of the nestlings whose history we have recorded. While he incubated the eggs and attended the nestlings, the male quetzal’s ornamental plumes suffered severely from constant flexing and from friction against the rough edges of the nest’s single entrance. The wear and tear began to tell even before the nestlings of the first brood were old enough to get along without brooding. As early as April 30, I found my second male sitting in his nest with only the short length of a single plume projecting from the doorway to show that he was within. Most of the males, I believe, suffered similar losses by the time the first brood was awing. The point where the plumes broke off was often a little beyond the tip of the tail proper. But at least one male proudly displayed both his banners before his doorway while he incubated the second set of eggs. Possibly he was a new mate of the female who attempted to rear a first brood in the same hole. On all my visits to their nest, the parent quetzals had never darted at me nor made any display to lure me from its vicinity. ‘They merely perched close by to watch, nervously twitching their tails or at most darting excitedly from branch to branch. In this they agreed with all other trogons I have watched at the nest. In no other region have I found the birds of nearly all kinds so fearless of man as in the forests of the more remote parts of the Costa Rican highlands. In this respect they differed greatly from those I studied in the Guatemalan highlands, where the human population is relatively dense. The quetzals were by no means the most con- fiding of the birds; yet I never ceased to marvel that such large, brilliant wild creatures should be at all times so bold in the presence ofman. In sharp contrast to the behavior of some other birds I have watched, the quetzals’ disregard of the human presence became most pronounced while they attended their nestlings. With the exception of a pair of Baird’s trogons that nested last year in the forest near my ” LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—SKUTCH 291 house, I have found all the smaller members of the family far more wary. The quetzals would as a rule go about feeding their nestlings while I stood conspicuously nearby. Both of the males that I knew best were at first less trustful than their mates, but they grew more confiding in my presence as we became better acquainted. The nest of one pair was in the same trunk as that of a pair of house wrens (Troglodytes musculus). The tiny, dull brown wrens were far more wary than the great, glittering quetzals! When I took leave of the quetzals in August, after more than a year amid their beautiful but uncomfortably wet forests, they had become as silent as when I first found them and they wore only the tattered remnants of their full plumage. SUMMARY The quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), one of the most magnificent birds of the Western Hemisphere, has a long history of human asso- ciation. Its plumes were used for personal adornment by Indian royalty and nobility in pre-Columbian times. The bird is the emblem of the Republic of Guatemala, whose monetary unit has been named for it. A number of legends have gathered about the quetzal. The quetzal is an inhabitant of the lofty, humid forests of the Sub- tropical Zone, ranging from 4,000 to 9,000 or 10,000 feet above sea level in Costa Rica, somewhat lower in Guatemala. Where these forests are destroyed, the bird disappears. It is at present protected by law in Guatemala, but owes its survival largely to the inaccessibility of its habitat. While making this study, the writer dwelt for a year in a part of the Costa Rican cloud forests where quetzals were abundant. The appearance of the quetzal is described from notes taken while observing the living bird. The female is exceptional among trogons in the large amount of green in her plumage. The bird eats many small fruits, which it plucks on the wing, in the manner of other trogons. Its vocabularly is varied: a loud note, given in flight, was heard throughout the year; additional notes were heard during the mating and nesting periods. In the breeding season, the male often rises above the treetops in a flight display, calling loudly as he goes. No other trogon, nor rain- forest bird of any kind, is known to make similar flights. The quetzal is found in pairs in the breeding season, and usually singly at other times. Flocks have been reported, but no trogon is known to be truly gregarious. In the Costa Rican highlands, the nesting season extends from early April to July or August. Two broods are reared, where possible in the same nest. 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 The quetzal nests in a hole resembling that of a big woodpecker, with a single round doorway at the top. Old woodpecker holes may be enlarged to serve its purposes, but at other times it appears to excavate a new cavity in decaying wood, male and female working alternately, in the manner of other trogons. No lining is taken into the cavity. The same hole appears to be used in successive years. The eggs are light blue; there are apparently two in a normal set. Male and female share the duty of incubation. Each takes two turns on the eggs in the course of 24 hours, the female during the night and the middle of the day, the male in the early morning and late afternoon. There is considerable variation in the actual times of nest relief, even from day to day with the same pair; but this general scheme seemed to be consistently followed by the two pairs studied in detail. Each sex may interrupt its period in charge of the eggs by one or more brief recesses. The male sits about 6 or 7 hours each day. Quetzals incubate far less patiently than many smaller trogons. Upon leaving the eggs at the end of a session, the male sometimes rises directly into the air in a flight display. The period of incubation is 17 or 18 days. The nestlings are hatched with perfectly naked, pink skin and tightly closed eyes. The heels are studded with papillate protuber- ances. The pinfeathers begin to push through the skin when they are about 2 days old. The contour feathers begin to escape their sheaths at about the seventh day after hatching; and by the fourteenth day the young birds are well clothed on the body but not on the head. The eyelids begin to separate at about the fifth day, and by the eighth day the eyes can be opened. During the first 10 days, the nestlings were fed almost exclusively on insects and other small invertebrates. From this age onward, fruits became increasingly important in the diet, especially the large, hard, green fruits of the laurel family (Lauraceae). The diet of the young quetzals was amazingly varied, including beetles and other insects of many kinds, larvae, small frogs, small lizards, land snails, and hard fruits. Feedings were infrequent; but the portions were substantial. Empty egg shells were promptly removed by the parents, who kept the nest clean during the first 10 days or so of the nestlings’ life, in this respect differing from other trogons. After that, waste matter began to accumulate. The big, regurgitated seeds formed the chief bulk of this debris, which raised the level of the floor 314 inches, before the departure of the fledglings. One of the females became inattentive while her nestlings of the second brood were growing up. After the seventeenth day she was not seen at the nest. During the last 6 days in the nest, and so far as LIFE HISTORY OF THE QUETZAL—-SKUTCH 293 seen after the departure of the fiedglings, the male was the sole attendant. The nestlings, dull blackish on the upper parts when first clothed with feathers, became increasingly green after they were 2 weeks old. This was accomplished by overlaying the down feathers by green- tipped contour feathers whose development had at first lagged behind that of others in the same tract. The expansion of the feathers of highland trogons and motmots begins earlier than with their lowland relatives but may be carried out more gradually. - This appears to be an adaptation to the cooler climate of the highlands. Two nestlings, which had been removed for photography and exami- nation, flew from their low nest at the age of 23 days. In two high, inaccessible nests, the nestlings remained for about a month. The first fledgling to leave the nest received at first the whole atten- tion of its father, while during 4 hours or more the second called in vain for food. At the end of the day, the parent returned to feed the second fledgling. Alig sagy ve eyed ily Lae eh bese "S861 ATONE ‘SUIIBO]O SI} JO pUd JAMOT OY} YB 4SoI0J OY} JO OFpo ayy ye poqsou spezjonb Jo aed y ‘VOI VLSOD ‘1LES4 0066'S ‘VONV1g VYVA YVAN LSSYO+4 AHL NI SONIYVATD Vv | 3LV1d YPINYS—“9pH| ‘oda ueruosyyiWig 8E6l AINGS ‘VDIN VLSOD ‘13554 009'S ‘INDIdVYVS OIN AHL AO SYHALYVNOAVAH BHL YVAN 'LSSHYHO4 WOIdOULENS AHL AO YAqCHOG fp. , oe + 9 seats yoynysg- “Or6l *qioday URTUOSYAIWIS Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Skutch PLATE 3 FEMALE QUETZAL AT THE NEST, ABOUT TO DELIVER A GOLDEN BEETLE TO THE NESTLINGS, JULY 20, 1938. (Reproduced by permission of The Scientific Monthly. PLATE 4 Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Skutch 1938. DAYS OLD; AUGUST 1, NESTLING QUETZAL, 21 THE SUN AND THE HARVEST OF THE SEA? By WaA.po L. ScHMITT Head Curator of Biology, U. 8S. National Museum [With 10 plates] None of the preceding Arthur lectures, of which this is the four- teenth, have particularly concerned themselves with the sun’s relation to life in the oceans and the food that man harvests from that abund- ant life. Those who attended the previous lectures or read them as published perhaps gleaned a few memorable facts regarding the sun and its importance in the daily life of man and to the world about him, but others may not yet have had these facts presented to them. Therefore, I beg to recall at this point a few facts regarding the rela- tive size of the sun and the earth, the land area of the earth as com- pared to the sea, and the sun’s output of energy upon which all living things ultimately depend. RELATIVE SIZE OF SUN, EARTH, AND SEA Fabre, in his delightful series of little essays entitled “This Earth of Ours,” tells us that the sun, as compared to the earth, is enormously large—over a million times larger than the earth; that if the sun’s center coincided with that of the earth, it would reach about as far beyond the moon as the moon is distant from the earth. The moon is some 240,000 miles removed from the earth; its diameter is 2,160 miles. The sun’s diameter is roughly 860,000 miles; that of the earth 8,000 miles. Between the earth and the sun some 93 million miles of space intervene. From H. A. Marmer’s informative treatise on “The Sea” we learn that the area of the earth totals approximately 197 million square miles, of which 13914 million square miles (71 percent) are sea and 5714 million square miles (29 percent) are land. The greatest ocean depth is 35,400 feet below the level of the sea; the highest mountain, Mount Everest, rises 29,000 feet above it. Though the average depth of the sea is only 2.386 miles (12,450 feet), the total volume of water in the oceans is 11 times that of all land above the level of the sea. 1FWourteenth Arthur lecture, given under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution March 5, 1946. 295 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: Tf all land above and below the ocean waters were leveled off around the globe, sea water would cover the land to a depth of 114 miles. THE SUN’S ENERGY Our weather, as Dr. Abbot has shown us in earlier lectures in this series, depends upon solar activity. Without the sun there would be no winds, no evaporation, no clouds, no precipitation, no fog or rain, sleet or snow, no ocean currents, no springs or streams to return water _to the sea to complete the cycle which fertilizes and irrigates the land, as well as the sea. From the sun the earth receives the energy which warms it and makes it a habitable place for living things, and which enables plants to grow, to synthesize, to utilize, and to store that self-same energy in the form of carbohydrates. This process, peculiar to plants alone, by which they can manufacture starches, sugars, and other substances from carbon dioxide and water under the influence of sunlight, is called photosynthesis. It has been estimated that the energy that the earth receives from the sun totals 240 trillion horsepower. For all its magnitude, this figure represents just about two-billionths of the sun’s total output of energy, which, boiled down to simple figures, on a good sunny day, amounts to 1 horsepower per square yard of the earth’s surface. A very considerable part of the energy received from the sun goes into the maintenance of the water cycle between the ocean, atmos- phere, and land. In the conclusion of his study of this cycle, Dr. George F. McEwen, of the Scripps Institution, remarked, * * * The annual precipitation over all the oceans is 80,000 cubic miles, or 244 units, if the volume of the ocean is 1,000,000, and the annual evaporation from the ocean surface is 89,000 cubic miles, or 272 units. Thus a run-off from the land to the oceans of 9,000 ecubie miles, or 28 units, is required to balance precipi- tation and evaporation, and the whole process involves an expenditure of 500,000 horsepower from the sun for every square mile of the earth’s surface. * * * Five hundred thousand horsepower is perhaps the maximum peak load that our local power plant (Potomac Electric Power Co.) could possibly deliver ; its actual steady delivery of energy is nearer 380,000 horsepower. ‘Thus, in order to keep the earth’s water cycle in motion, a power plant at least as large as the huge Pepco installation at Ben- nings, D. C., operating continuously at peak load—which is impossi- ble—is needed, one for each square mile of the earth’s surface. As has been already pointed out, there are 197 million square miles of surface to the earth. It is inconceivable that man could supply the fuel for such a power network. Today you might quickly say atomic energy, not realizing the time, money, material, and plant size that is now needed for the production of a very limited supply of man-made atom bombs. SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCHMITT 297 The sun’s energy, as you may have heard, is atomic, resulting from the transmutation of hydrogen into helium. We know the sun gives up energy as hydrogen gas becomes helium. The mechanism is per- haps unknown to us. The sun spots are magnetic fields of tremendous size and power. Could they be solar cyclotrons splitting the hydrogen atom ? HYDROPONICS, TERRESTRIAL AND OCHANIC The ocean has been described as the world’s largest septic tank, but this concept is descriptive of a very small part of the marvelous or- ganic mechanism that is the sea. The comparison is based upon the activity of bacteria in the septic tank, as well as in the sea, in bringing about the reconversion of complex plant, animal, and mineral sub- stances for reuse by living organisms. More apt, and permitting bet- ter visualization of the processes involved, however, is a comparison of the oceans with a sizable hydroponics installation. Such an installation was set up on Ascension Island by the Air Transport Command of the Army during the war, when both the Army and the Navy, by force of circumstances, became hydroponics- conscious. On that largely soilless island so strategically placed in mid-south Atlantic on the principal military air route from the New World to the Old, fresh vegetables were urgently needed in quantity for great numbers of men, men in transit and at work keeping other men, planes, and supplies flowing in an unending stream to the Afri- can and mid-European theaters of war. Even if garden produce or the foodstuffs to take its place could have been obtained elsewhere, neither the ships nor planes to move it were to be had. Ships and planes were too limited in number to be diverted from the urgent war missions in other directions. Hydro- ponics was the only possible solution of a pressing problem. To undertake hydroponics, the soilless culture of plants, or nutri- culture, as the more recent publications on the subject have it, on any comprehensive scale, a series of tanks or waterproofed troughs must be provided to hold the nutrient solution in which the plants are grown. Gravity is the cheapest means of circulating the solution through the tanks or troughs if the installation is such as to permit it, as on Ascension Island. In any case, pumps must be used to areate as well as to return the nutrient solution to its original container for redistribution, whether replenished or not. In lieu of the soil in which the plants naturally grow, support of some kind has to be pro- vided. The smaller installations have metal or wooden racks in which the plants are embedded in excelsior or sphagnum moss or both, so that the roots will hang down into the solution in the tank below. In the larger installations the supporting medium may be 2998 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 sand, cinders, gravel, or crushed rock. On Ascension volcanic ash or pumice was used. The nutrient solutions of our land or shore installations are made up of salts of the principal plant foods, calcium, magnesium, phos- phorus, sulfur, and nitrogen, with the addition of indispensable “mi- chronutrient supplements,” chiefly iron, copper, manganese, molyb- denum, and zinc. With one notable exception, the composition of this nutrient solution is quite similar to that of sea water. That excep- tion is sodium chloride, which forms approximately 78 percent of the total dissolved solids in sea water. To marine plants in the usual concentrations this salt is harmless, to land and fresh-water plants it is quickly lethal. There is no problem regarding micronutrient sup- plements in sea water, for all the supplements that are ever supplied land plants, along with many more, including at least traces of a majority of the known elements, are present in sea water. In the seven seas we have the world’s greatest hydroponics set-up, with a limitless supply of nutrient solution immediately at hand. In the oceans, as in the hydroponics tanks, no plant growth is possible without the energy given up by the sun. Besides the nutrient mate- rials in solution, plants must have unlimited supplies of carbon di- oxide and water for their photosynthetic processes. The land plants derive their carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, their water from the nutrient solution. In the sea carbon dioxide, either as the dissolved gas or in the form of readily hydrolyzed bicarbonates, is so abundant as never to be a limiting factor to plant growth. When the nutrient solutions in the hydroponics tanks become exhausted the needed chemicals are added or fresh solutions made up and circulated through the tanks. In the sea comparable enrichment is brought about by the leaching and erosion of the constituents from the land,? as well as by the end products of the bacterial decomposition of past generations of marine plants and animals and the breaking down of complex inorganic substances. All the plant foods thus released, replenishing the nutrient sea- water solution, are redistributed and circulated by currents powered in large measure by the heat of the sun and in part by the earth’s rotation, which likewise is dependent upon the sun’s attraction. The earth’s rotation also brings about pronounced upwellings along the west coasts of continents, notably the west coast of the Americas and West Africa. These upwellings, along with convection currents, due to differences in temperature and salinity of various bodies of water, bring up other still untouched reserves of plant foods and dissolved gases for the use of the plants in the photic zone. Thus the nutrient 2 Coker ventures the estimate that 8 billion metric tons of material from the land is annually being dumped into the sea. SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCHMITT 299 solution is renewed and kept in constant circulation and is also aerated. Important adjuncts to the mixing apparatus of the oceans are the drifts and tides, the waves and breakers, and the winds and storms. THE MBADOWS OF THE SEA* The plants which form the greater bulk of plant life in the sea are microscopic, swimming or floating freely but more or less pas- sively at or relatively near the surface. That this planktonic plant life is so very tiny is Nature’s way of meeting the problem of deriving nutriment from a very dilute solution. The salt content of water is generally expressed in parts per thousand, per mille, instead of per- cent. It is a well-known physical fact that the smaller the body, the greater the ratio of surface to volume. The greater the surface for a given body, the greater its power of absorption of the nutriment from solution as well as energy from the sun. Best known of these plant forms are the diatoms and the dinoflagellates or peridinians. They have been most intensively studied not only because they are so numerous, but also because they can be so conveniently screened from the sea with the fine-meshed silken tow nets generally used for sampling plankton. Less well known because of their very much smaller size are other plant forms which readily pass through the meshes of the tow nets, even though the meshes run as small as sixty-four hundredths of a millimeter. We speak here of the coccolithophorids, the yellow algae, as distinguished from the yellow-green diatoms, which under ordinary circumstances seem only to be caught by accident in our silk nets. They are obtained for study by centrifuging sea water, or by running it through filter paper. By some investigators the role played by the coccolithophorids in the economy of the seas is con- sidered at least as important as their larger relatives, the diatoms and peridinians, along with a widely distributed true green algalike plant, Halosphera viridis. In the Antarctic region this plant is one of the dominant forms of planktonic plant life, standing next in importance to the diatoms. As the plants in the hydroponics tank need support of some kind, so also must the marine plants be supported in their nutrient medium if they are to remain within the so-called photic zone. This zone com- prises that part of the upper levels of the sea to which the sun’s light and radiant energy penetrates in suflicient strength to permit photosyn- 3 Not mentioned are the algae of the littoral zone, including the giant kelps and free- floating sargassum, and the higher forms of marine plants such as the eel grass of northern waters and the turtle grass of southern waters. All play important roles in the economy of the sea. The story of their several roles is as interesting as the one involving the planktonic forms of plant life. 725362—4T. 21 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 thesis to take place. Though the blue-violet rays of sunlight may be detected at depths as great as 500 fathoms, and green light somewhat lower down, the red rays, the most effective photosynthetically, are probably all absorbed in the upper 250 fathoms. At just what depths photosynthetic activity may still be possible for marine plants is yet to be definitely determined, but surely for the diatoms it must be very limited to at most 50 fathoms, even under the most favorable circumstances. When the phytoplankton sinks below the level where photosyn- thetic activity is no longer possible, it soon perishes. Remaining afloat within the higher levels of the sea, therefore, becomes a matter of life or death to all planktonic plant life. Living matter is heavier than sea water. Its higher specific gravity must be compensated in some fashion if sinking is to be retarded. We find many adaptations among marine plants designed to achieve this end, the storage or retention within the body of lighter materials, such as oil droplets, various fatty substances, and even water of a lower salinity than sea water, and the inclusion of air or gas in vacuoles. Hard parts are usually drastically reduced. By the devel- opment of projecting horns or branches or bristlelike structures, by taking on a bladderlike or floatlike form, or by the forming of aggrega- tions, ribbons, or chains of individuals, surface area is increased and ~ with it the ability to remain afloat. Here again small size is of great advantage. Just as reduction in body size increases the ratio of sur- face to volume and facilitates absorption, so a high ratio of surface to volume retards sinking, especially in a solution as heavy and viscous as sea water. Some diatoms take on a slender rodlike or hairlike form which also facilitates floating in a horizontal position. Vertically, sinking would be thereby accelerated, except for a further adaptation to overcome this tendency. These slender forms are either a little curved, or have sloping or oblique ends, so that in pressing against the water in sinking, the diatoms are rapidly turned back to a horizontal position. The horns with which some dinoflagellates are provided are also bent in order to keep these organisms broadside on, retarding sinking. The dinoflagellates, as the name implies, are provided with a pair of flagella with which the plant can propel itself after a fashion. Most coccolithophorids are also flagellated, motile forms. The various floating forms of plant life are found in incredible numbers over wide expanses of all oceans and form the so-called meadows of the sea. Not in kind, but in the manner of their culture, they correspond, for the purposes of our discussion, to the plants grown hydroponically. From time to time investigators have made estimates or contributed remarks regarding the abundance of the phytoplankton in areas with SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCH MITT 301 which they have been concerned, chiefly in the North Temperate Zone, where some of the world’s greatest fisheries are found. On the basis of a very rich diatom haul in Kiel Bay, the marine biologist Brandt calculated that the estimated 114 cubic meters of water that passed through the silk net on that occasion contained about 9,000 millions of diatoms, or about 6,000 per cubic centimeter. Hensen, working in the west Baltic Sea, estimated the average number of diatoms in that area to be about 457 millions per cubic meter, or 457 per cubic centimeter. Apstein found the commonest species of dinoflagellates to be less numerous than diatoms, but that, even so, they occurred at the rate of from 1 to 10 million for each square meter of the surface. In the Skager-Rak, in Norway, Gran estimated on the basis of another rich diatom haul that there was at the time an average of 228 million diatoms per square meter of surface in that body of water. An American, Peck, as the result of a quantitative study made at Woods Hole and in Buzzards Bay, claimed a total of some 420 million diatoms per cubic meter of sea water for some of his largest catches. Herdman and his associates, working in the Irish Sea, have made many interest- ing contributions to our knowledge of marine biology. They tell of several notable diatom catches made with small nets in brief tows, netting on one occasion 150 millions of Chaetoceras and on another 180 millions of Rhizosolenia. Moore, from a study of the carbon di- oxide consumption of the phytoplankton of a 16-square-mile area of the Irish Sea, estimated that this area produced on the average 2 tons of dry organic matter, equal to 10 tons of moist vegetation per acre, a yield that does not compare unfavorably with the yield of cultivated land. Bigelow, in his report on the plankton of the Gulf of Maine, figuratively throws up his hands at the futility of calculating the abundance of phytoplankton, saying that, “When such numbers‘ as I have listed as examples are expanded from the trifling bulk of a cubic meter of water to cover the 36,000-square- mile area of the Gulf of Maine north of its offshore banks and to a stratum at least 20 meters thick, they become too vast for the human mind to envisage.” In general, the chemical composition of the crops of the sea is not so very unlike average meadow hay. Diatoms, the most studied con- stituents of the phytoplankton, show about the same proteid and fat content, somewhat lower carbohydrate content, but considerably more ash due to their siliceous shells; the peridinians very closely approxi- mate better than average meadow hay in proteid and carbohydrate content, though falling a little below in fat and ash.5 *These numbers are based on the number of cubic centimeters of plankton taken per standard half-hour haul of a No. 18, 0.079-millimeter-mesh silk net. These catches varied from very meager ones to some containing nearly 600 cubic centimeters of plankton. © After Johnstone. 302 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: Carbohy- Crop Proteid Fat into Ash Percent Percent Percent Perecnt Ordinary meadow: hay -s--s--+ 4-24-22 8.7 1.7 83. 6 5.8 Good ineadow Way. cnr skeen ene: a 13.6 3.2 75.0 8.2 (5) 2 1: ll a age rea tne 11.15 2.45 79. 30 7. 00 DIACONI Se eee ne eee aan e ee ewes See 10.0 2.8 22.0 65.0 Peridinians) 9. te oO) 5 ee ee 13.0 1.3 80. 5 5.2 PAIN OTEPO me 5- ata a= SE ee ee a a ee 11. 50 2.05 61. 25 35. 10 MARINE HERBIVORES AND CARNIVORES Any attempt by man to harvest directly the microscopic plant life forming the meadows of the sea would be as impracticable as to grow forage hydroponically for meat production. Fortunately, this will never become necessary, as nature has provided herbivorous ani- mals specifically adapted to graze those vast oceanic fields and to con- vert their forage crop into animal food acceptable to the higher and more carnivorous forms of marine life, as well as to man himself. The marine herbivores, as well as the marine carnivores that prey on them, are well adapted to moving about in their watery environ- ment. All are motile to a greater or less degree; the protozoa or single-celled animals are flagellated or ciliated, as are the larvae of most marine invertebrates, or provided with pseudopodia; some, like the jellyfish, squids, and octopi, are after a fashion jet-propelled ; most crustacea have oar- or paddle-feet for locomotion when they are not strictly sedentary or ambulatory forms. The marine vertebrates, as a rule, have powerful tails to drive them forward, assisted by fins and flippers used also for balancing. Most, if not all, of the various adap- tations for facilitating flotation in plants are repeated in one form or another in the animal life of the sea: expansion of the body; the development of bristles, setae, and horns; the storage of oil droplets and fatty material; and inclusion of gas or air in the bladders of certain fishes. The number of grazers on the meadows of the sea is also a measure of the productivity of those fields. The principal grazers are the Crustacea, foremost among which in numbers and in consumption of phytoplankton are the small relatives of the shrimps known as the copepods. Various estimates have been made of the abundance of copepods. The North Sea is believed to support from a quarter of a million to a million per square meter of surface. For the West Baltic Hensen estimated a total of something like 80,000 per cubic meter, or 80 to 100 billion to each square mile of surface. Gulf of Maine aver- ages reported by Bigelow ran from 6,000 to 500,000 per square meter of surface. His record catch of copepods was obtained in the course of a 15-minute vertical haul, July 22, 1916, from 40-0 fathoms. The net on this occasion yielded about 6 quarts of large calanoid copepods, SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCHMITT 303 roughly 2,500,000 individuals, chiefly Calanus finmarchicus, the dominant copepod in the Gulf of Maine. The abundance of this species makes it the most important North Atlantic consumer of marine plants on the one hand and the most valuable food for the larger carnivorous marine animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate, on the other. According to Farran, in the path of the Labrador current along the coast of North America Calanus finmarchicus forms in the summer months a rich belt which is at least 500 miles wide off Newfoundland. An evaluation of what copepods mean in terms of diatoms and peri- dinians has been made by Johnstone. He found that while it took from 300,000 to 500,000 copepods to make 1 gram of dry copepod sub- stance,® an equivalent mass of dry phytoplankton material required 675 millions of specimens of the diatom Chaetoceras or 42 to 65 mil- lions of peridinians. On this basis 1 copepod contains about as much substance as 135 peridinians or 1,687 diatoms. The dry substance of 1 peridinian equals that of 12 diatoms. Coming back now to the Gulf of Maine, where Redfield restudied the distribution of the calanoid community in 1933 and 1934, we learn that the average haul for all sectors of the Gulf and for all cruises consisted of about 40 cubic centimeters of “dry”? plankton. This, if the area of the Gulf be taken at 36,000 square miles, according to Redfield’s figures, would indicate a total population of primarily crustacean grazers aggregating some 4 million tons. Copepods pre- dominated among the crustacean grazers making up this immense mass of animal matter nurtured in that body of water. Yet the euphausid shrimps must have formed no inconsiderable part of that mass. Though figures as detailed as those available for the copepod grazers are not at hand for the euphausids, it is known that in various places they occur in almost equally great numbers. Bigelow speaks of sev- eral half-hour surface and vertical hauls from 60 to 100 meters which returned 500 cubic centimeters of zooplankton, “chiefly euphausids.” S. I. Smith and Verrill have told of the swarms of euphausids in the Eastport region “filling the water for miles,” and of the occasion when they were so abundant among the wharves at Eastport that they could be dipped up by the quart. From a study of the food habits of certain fishes and whales, euphausids are seen to be as important as copepods in converting the ocean’s pasturage into food for higher animals, car- nivorous and omnivorous. Most animals feeding directly on plant or animal plankton are equipped with filters, or strainers, which enable them to strain these small organisms from the water. The filtering apparatus in crusta- ceans, which include the euphausids and copepods, is made up of 6 Dry weight in this instance is based upon a completely desiccated sample. ™The plankton, after removal from the tow net, was collected on filter paper and suction applied to the funnel until the fluid in which the catch was preserved ceased to flow. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 appendages richly supplied with bristles or setae; in the fishes the gill rakers and in the whalebone whales the fringes of the plates of baleen serve the same purpose. Other filter feeders are found among the shellfish, such as the oysters, mussels, and clams, and among the lower chordates, of which the pelagic forms, such as the salps and appendicu- larians, have filters so fine and delicate that they strain out the cocco- lithophorids for whose successful capture man must centrifuge the water or employ filter paper. The structure of the apparatus determines the type of food ingested by the filter feeders. The great majority of the copepods, as well as the euphausids, have their filters adapted to the capture of phyto- plankton. In the plankton-feeding fish there is a nice adjustment between the armature of the gill arches constituting the water-strain- ing mechanism and their food. First and foremost among the plank- ton-feeding fish are the clupeoids, or the herrings, and their relatives, the menhaden, sardines, alewives, and shad. Bigelow has remarked that the menhaden “has no rival among the fishes of the gulf [of Maine] in its utilization of * * * pelagic vegetable pasture; nor is any other local species possessed of a filtering apparatus comparable to that of the menhaden for fineness and efficiency, though in European waters its relative, the sardine, feeds equally on microscopic plankton as well as copepods.” As fine-straining as the menhaden’s sieve may be, it is unable to retain coccolithophorids. The herring’s gill rakers, though they may retain masses of the larger floating algae, seem particularly adapted to the capture of copepods, their chief source of food. The mackerel, with somewhat widely spaced spines on the gill rakers of the first gill arch, may at times pick up more or less phyto- plankton if composed of fairly large species. Like the herring, the mackerel has a sieve more especially suited for the capture of copepods. Differentiation in filter mechanisms determining feeding habits extends also to the various species of whales. The finback and hump- back whales, with rather coarse and comblike fringes, feeds largely on fish, herring, and sardine, and on the larger zooplankton, particu- larly euphausids. The pollock whale, with “unusually fine and curly” fringes, almost wholly bristles, and the right whale, with “silk-fine” fringes, strain out plankton animals as small as copepods, which sometimes are exclusively their food, though at times they feed on euphausids either along with the copepods or when the latter are unavailable. In the whalebone whales, the food-carrying water is taken into the mouth and strained as it is forced outward through the fringes of the baleen plates by the tongue as the mouth is closed. In the SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCHMITT 305 fishes, on the other hand, the food is strained as the water passes backward through the mouth between the gill rakers and out of the gill openings. The amount of food found in the stomachs of various filter feeders examined by investigators is prodigious: a small cope- pod was found to contain 120,000 diatoms, a herring, 60,000 copepods, a Pacific humpback whale, from 1,500 to 3,000 pounds of sardines, besides a miscellaneous lot of smelt, anchovies, hake, shrimp, and squids; and a blue or sulphur-bottom whale, which has coarse-fringed baleen plates like the humpback, but takes no fish, over 3800 gallons of euphausids. For a blue whale to have as much as a ton of crus- tacean remains in its stomach is no novelty in some of the larger specimens taken in the Antarctic. Filter feeders are not the only marine carnivores. Indeed, they are the chief sustenance of many other carnivores. The herring is an important source of food to many inhabitants of the sea. It is preyed upon by innumerable fish (rockfish, cod, haddock, pollock, hake, albacore, and dogfish), squid, whales, seals, and porpoises. The eges and young of most fish, including the herring, constitute a source of food for many predaceous creatures, including the glass or arrow worms, the pelagic worm, Zomopteris, and the pelagic amphipod, Euthemisto, jellyfish, and comb-jellies. The glass worms, in turn, are preyed upon by whales, herring, mackerel, salmon, and medusae. The adult herring retaliates for the injury that Tomopteris does to its young by making this worm part of its dietary. Huthemisto fur- nishes food for more animals than has been hitherto realized. Captain Bartlett, who saved the stomachs of many animals that he collected in the Arctic regions, found that Huthemisto was eaten in quantity by the sulphur-bottom whales, ringed and harp seals, and codfish. Mackerel have long been known to relish this amphipod. Though the common mackerel is largely a filter feeder, it frequently eats other smaller fish—herring, menhaden, anchovies, silversides, and the sand lance. The latter at times has been found also in herring stomachs. Feeding on the mackerel in turn are sharks, which are said to be their worst enemies, cod, bluefish, porpoises, whales, and squid. The larger relatives of the mackerel include the tunas and the albacores, both voracious carnivores. The salmon at sea are wholly carnivorous. Even among the copepods there are some carnivorous species which prey on their inoffensive filter-feeding relatives. Though some of the more important groups of marine herbivores have been briefly discussed, only a few of the many marine carnivores have been referred to. It is believed, however, that this discussion will give some idea of the food relations of the animals and plants of the sea and of the ultimate dependence of the animals, through the intermediation of the plants, upon the energy given off by the sun. 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: 7-12 mm YOUNG 12-50 mm HERRING 50 7O0mm ADULT HERRING O-! menth Le a 1-6 months 6 = té months 200 mm. 8-9 inches H Be aaa i j 7 ' Asie pa ae a s ne =e i Picwrobraci i Mollusca | ‘ Barnacle |, ~ nee e Decapod } tecren Nauplii Larvae ’ \ iN. Bchizopoda Amphipoda . x al N S Tintinnidae A ; Acartla ‘| Meiridta a Caianus Narpactids Neupli COPEPCDA ° 5 P| Rotifera teas Pseudocaianus ~ {Centropages acai ate Euchaeta [. . \ M 1 H Echinoderm | } Invertebrate ‘ Larvae Ova ui H H Dincfiag= allatcs Thallzseiosira Coscinodiscus Chaetcceros Skeietonema Nitzechla Speres DIATOMS Spores Thailassiothrix Melosira Ditylum Biddulphia Fihizoeolenta FicurE 1.—Food relations of the Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi. In this dia- gram the complex relations of the various marine animals and plants entering into the diet of herring are set forth. The arrows point to the food eaten, the solid lines indicating that consumed by herring, the dotted lines that consumed by other animals. It has not been possible to figure all the animals and plants mentioned in this diagram, but most of them will be mentioned, described, or figured in one or more of the works cited in the selected bibliography, page 310. (Courtesy of G. H. Wailes, from the Vancouver Museum Notes. ) FRESHWATER i-2 YEARS MARINE 2-5 YEARS INSECTS |} Fis” | | -REPTILES BIRDS INVERTEBRATES FISH Water-heatios | Riou Snakes Kingtishers Parasites Dogfish ae = weieh aa-Lions Dragon-fly larvae ane Turtles Herons Loon Cod et cetera SUCKERS Ducks Grebo Lampreys Blackfish Whiteiieh ! Grows Porpoises Liag ii H Parasites ’ 2 : Besar Raccoon . H + 7°) Fung * + | Otter Marten ‘ ' ' oat Ml Bectaria ‘, Mink ENEMIES Fry Fingerlings 3 Yearlings z= 0-3 months 3-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 inches 2-4 Inchee 4-3 inches *. 4 ADULT SOCKEVE 3-6 Years SOCKEYE Gnate ¥ Copspoda Small Fish Echinodermata Schizopoda Midges ; Coe! Amphipoda Nauplil 4 L Leeches oelenterates Cladocera t Roltera anita ee fa | E Ciliates Annelids Alga a cis 2 Dinofiagatlates || Dinoflagetlates Ficure 2.—Food relations and enemies of the sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka. In this diagram the complex relations of the marine animals and plants entering into the diet of the salmon, as well as the species of animals preying upon the salmon, are set forth. The arrows point to the food eaten, the solid lines indicating that consumed by salmon, the dotted lines that con- sumed by other animals. It has not been possible to figure all the animals and plants mentioned in this diagram, but most of them will be mentioned, de- scribed, or figured in one or more of the works cited in the selected bibliog- raphy, page 310. (Courtesy of G. H. Wailes, from the Vancouver Museum Notes.) SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCH MITT 307 These relationships may be best reviewed in diagrammatic form. To that end, three diagrams outlining them are here reproduced. The first sets forth the food relations of the Pacific herring. It is par- ticularly to be noted that herring at all growth stages, in addition to whatever other food they may consume, including some algae, feed to a very large extent on copepods. These, in turn, derive their sus- tenance almost wholly from diatoms. Not indicated in the diagram are the animals, including man, which prey upon the herring. In the second diagram attention is called to the marine phase of the life of the sockeye salmon as an example of the food relations of a fish wholly carnivorous as an adult. Plant food does not directly enter into its dietary. Man is not here shown as an enemy of the salmon. The third diagram is both a summary and an amplification of all that has been said regarding the relations of the sun’s energy to the life in the sea. The input of solar energy is indicated, but not the “take” that constitutes man’s harvest of the sea. SOLAR ENERGY FLOATING PLANTS ¥ 7S (PHXYTOPLANKTON)- FLOATING ANIMALS SURACE SES: SAE IREC ESET DIATOMS AND DINOFLAGELLATES ETC : Sand a SRE MICROSCOPIC IN SIZE BUT VAST IN NUAGERS : vs Se ees LONG SHOR EI Fishes, TOOTHED Aig anes Ere — PRODUCED ONLY IN THE LIGHTED ZONE AND CARNIVORA ' *. H : : ' SURFACE TO ABYSSAL DEPTHS SYUILIN TOP OL O JNOZ D4L0NAND co. 4,0. AND PLANT NUTRIENTS BACTERIA AND (NP ETC) BACTERIAL ACTMTY HERBIVORA AND CARNIVORA . . . ns Oe 1G » ' “sy MID DEPTH FISHES ; ‘ : : REGENERATED PLANT NUTRIENTS RETURNED : TO LIGHTED ZONE BY ——*: VERTICAL WATER : MOVE! $ : NOILSNGONd LNW Id ON 3NOZ WuvG> —— DOIRECT FOOD “=== SINKING ANO DETRITUS FOOD -—= DECAY CARMIVORA AND DETRITUS FEEDERS RETURN OF MINERAL PLANT NUTRIENTS BACTERIAL ACTIVITY fe a aS . aay Ti ea ' - , - “-" ey ABYSSAl BACTERIA ANO he = SRIMALS j Ficure 3.—Diagram showing the main features of the interrelations of marine organisms, both plants and animals. The several volumes indicated are not based on computation and should be considered as being only very roughly proportional and presented only as an aid to the visualization of conditions. The volume of plants is indicated as greater than that of animals, whereas actually there are seasons when it is less. (From The Oceans, by Sverdrup, et al. Courtesy Prentice-Hall Inc., publishers.) In the diagram is indicated the contribution of solar energy to the economy of the sea, aS well as the role played by bacteria as reconverters of organic and inorganic materials. 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 THE HARVEST OF THE SEA As space limitations have prevented more than a brief mention of a few of the marine plants, grazers, and carnivores, so they also preclude here all but a few statistics concerning the harvest which man takes from the sea. Accompanying these figures are diagram- matic summaries of the Pacific salmon and the world’s herring fish- Figure 4.—World production of herring. European production, including Iceland, 3,000 million pounds. Eastern coast of North America, 225 million pounds. Western coast of North America, 350 million pounds. Japanese production, 700 million pounds. Siberian production, unknown. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.) eries because they pertain to fishes for two species of which food rela- tions diagrams are given above. As great as these graphically presented harvests are, perhaps the most spectacular is the harvest resulting from the whale fisheries of the world, which in 1938 accounted for about 55,000 whales of all kinds. The principal product of this harvest is whale oil, which had SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCH MITT 309 in the more normal years a market value of between 19 and 20 million dollars annually. This same fishery for each of the 8 years previous produced on the average 30,000 whales per year. The world participates in the tuna harvest. This, in normal times, amounted to 675 million pounds of fish, of which the United States’ Milione of pounde 40 80 Red < King dg 0. Coho ALASKA O28} Ea Purchased in 1867 f Value of Alaska scl Chum ure) e "a or | ue O, asKa sclmor (EAS 7.2 million dollars Kk in 1943 Total annual catch BRISTOL 57.3 » anillios dollars ae 130 million pounds BAY —7 Japansse vessolo fished in Bristol Ray / \ Jrom 1950 to 1941 for king crabs, bottom i. V4 fish, and to some extent for salmon. Z J Dy _-_Lk, _- 17s Millions of pounds ie Z o # 8 120 : Millions of pounds Ce Red re. King 2 | 4 ° Coko gi! Pink 3 | Chum 1 Total annual etch Pe ol 195 million pounds ty] WESTERN ALASKA 234 million pounds Rg SQUTHEASTERN ALASKA Total annual catch Millions of pounds 167 miilion pounds o 0 Red NN BRITISH COLUMBIA King > acl Coho SEATTLE- -~ Pink Zifeso WASHINGTON Chum Total annual catch OREG 67 million pounds ON PACIFIC NORTHWEST Millions of pounds - o 2 ; ah Red F y Ki ei 7 ar CALIFORNIA Salmon Pink N Chum Total annual catch 5 million pounds CALIFORNIA e Salmon Fishing Grounds Salmon Canneries Ficgure 5.—Salmon production and distribution, and location of canneries for the west coast of North America, with value of Alaska salmon pack for 1948. (Courtesy Fish and Wildlife Service.) share was 23 percent. The salmon represent the United States’ most valuable fisheries resource, in 1943 exceeding in value the original purchase price of the Territory of Alaska more than eightfold. The halibut harvest in Atlantic waters over the years dropped from a previous high of 14 million pounds to its present level of about 310 §ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 1 million, but the loss in that area has been more than compensated by the great increase in the yield of the Pacific halibut banks, which, from relatively small beginnings before the turn of the century, reached a high of 69 million pounds in 1915 with unrestricted fishing. Today the annual harvest is nearer 50 million pounds under regulation which has resulted in a catch per unit of gear 112 percent greater than in 1930. Among the fisheries of the Western Hemisphere, that of the Pacific sardine or pilchard is outstanding. It is the largest in the hemisphere, averaging today 1,000 million pounds a year. It accounts for nearly 25 percent of all fish caught in the United States. Of the lowly oyster, the American harvest alone totals 89.8 million pounds of oyster meat, equivalent to 160,360 beef cattle in edible flesh. The total capitalized value of the United States fishery resources alone is $5,855,000,000. The total world production of fish is esti- mated at 13 million tons, or 26 thousand million pounds. At one time or another surely we all have made the acquaintance of cod-liver oil. We know its source, its high medicinal value, and are aware that it has long been familiarly called bottled sunlight. Whether we believe it or not, modern research in the field of vitamins and irradiation of foods has proved that statement to be literally true. From the sun to the oil extracted from the cod’s liver is but one short step. As the sun sets once again at the harvest’s end, it may be a little less difficult to understand the utter dependence of the sea’s abundant harvest on the sun than was possible at the beginning of this brief discourse. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ABgot, C. G. 1931. Solar radiation. Ohio State Univ. Bull., vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 403-416, figs. 1-11. (Also in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1932, pp. 107-120, 8 figs., 3 pls., 1933.) BicELow, H. B. 1926. Plankton of the off-shore waters of the Gulf of Maine. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish., vol. 40, pt. 2, pp. 1-1027, figs. 1-207. (Contains very complete bibliography through 1925.) CLARKE, GEORGE L. 1939. The utilization of solar energy by aquatic organisms, in Problems of Lake Biology, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Publ. No. 10, pp. 27-88, figs. 1-9. Coxsr, R. E. 1938. Life in the sea. Sci. Month., vol. 46, April and May, pp. 229-322 and 416- 432, illustrated. HERDMAN, Sir WILLIAM. 1923. Founders of oceanography and their work. xii+340 pp. London. INTERIOR, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF THE. 1945. Fishery resources of the United States. S. Doc. 51, 79th Cong., Ist Sess., iv-+185 pp., illustrated. SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCH MITT 311 JOHNSTON, Hart §. 1937. Sun rays and plant life. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1936, pp. 353- 371, 8 figs., 4 pls. JOHNSTONE, JAMES. 1608. Conditions of life in the sea. xiv-+322 pp., 31 figs. JOHNSTONE, JAMES, Scott, ANDREW, and CHADWICK, HERBERT C, 1924, The marine plankton... A handbook for students and amateur workers. xvi+194 pp., 20 pls. London. MarMER, H. A. 1930. The sea. 312 pp., 45 figs. New York. Mourray, Sir JOHN, and Husort, JOHAN. 1912. The depths of the ocean. xx-+821 pp., frontispiece, map, 575 figs., 9 pls. London. STETSON, HARLAN TRUE. 1942. Solar radiation and the state of the atmosphere. Sci. Month., vol. 54, pp. 513-528, figs. 1-11. (Also in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1942, pp. 151-171, 8 figs., 4 pls., 1943.) STEUER, ADOLF. 1911. Leitfaden der Planktonkunde. xv-+382 pp., 1 pl., 279 figs. Leipzig. SvVERDRUP, H. U., JOHNSON, MARTIN W., and FLEMING, RICHARD H. 1942. The oceans, and their physics, chemistry, and general biology. x-+-1087 pp. 265 figs. 7 charts. New York. (Contains comprehensive bibli- ography in part through 1941.) WAILEs, G. H. 1929. The marine zoo-plankton of British Columbia. Mus. and Art Notes, vol. 4,13 pp. Vancouver. ZOBELL, CLAUDE H. 1946. Marine microbiology. xv-+240 pp., frontispiece, 12 figs. Waltham, Mass. EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE 1 Hydroponics installation on Ascension Island, covering 80,000 square feet of ground, with windbreaks and sunshades. Center photograph shows the type of waterproofed concrete troughs that were built. They were constructed on several levels, to facilitate the gravity flow of nutrient solutions from the higher to the lower levels. From the lower end of the system the solutions were pumped back to the higher level for recirculation, with replenishment of nutrient solutions as required. In full production, lettuce, tomatoes, cucum- bers, green peppers, radishes, beans, and other greens were raised in quantity. (Courtesy Army Air Forces and Purdue University.) PLATE 2 Upper: Sample of diatom-rich phytoplankton in which a number of species are represented: Lauderia glacialis, the large disklike forms; Thalassiosira, chains of tiny boxlike diatoms, of which a few isolated specimens present the circular face view; Chaetoceras, chains of long-bristled, laterally rec- tangular cells; Rhizosolenia, stout-pointed rodlike forms; and Thalassiothrin nitschioides, slender needles. All these diatoms, either in company or in- dividually dominating samples, form verdant oceanic pasturage. X 150. Lowrk: Sample of phytoplankton dominated by a single species, Thalassiosira, showing also a specimen of Rhizosolenia and one foreshortened disk repre- senting perhaps Lauderia. XX 150. (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 PLATE $ Upper: Sample dominated by the green algalike plant, Halosphaera viridis, with a few peridinians, Ceratium longipes, from a surface haul made off Shel- burne, Nova Scotia. X 40. LOWER: Sample of midwinter phytoplankton from the inner part of Massachusetts Bay, dominated by the disklike diatom, Coscinodiscus, together with a few bristled Chaetoceras, peridinians, Ceratiuwm tripos, and a few microcopepods. X 40. Pate 4 Upper: Sample of phytoplankton dominated by the oceanic diatom, Chaetoceras densum, a surface haul from the west side of the Gulf of Maine. X 150. Lower: Sample of phytoplankton dominated by the slender rodlike diatom, Rhizosolenia semispina, including one specimen of a horned peridinian. From south of Martha’s Vineyard. X 150. The diatoms in these two photographs show their specific adaptations for flotation, the Rhizosolenia by its slender, rodlike form and oblique ends, the Chaetoceras by its development of bristles and the formation of chains. (See p. 300.) (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service.) PLaTe 5 Urprre: Rather monotonous sample of phytoplankton consisting almost wholly of the horned peridinian, Oeratium tripos, with occasional C. fusus, Peridinium, and some developmental stages of copepods. Surface haul from off Cape Cod. X about 25. Lower: Sample of zooplankton dominated by herbivorous copepods, Calanus finmarchicus and other species, and euphausid shrimps, Thysanoessa, with one glass worm. Taken in vertical haul from 100-0 meters, over the south- west slope of Georges Bank. X 4. These photographs will give some idea of the relative size of peridinian pastur- age and the grazers which feed upon it. (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) PLATE 6 Upper: Sample of zooplankton dominated by the pelagic herbivorous euphausid shrimp, Thysanoessa longicaudata, along with the copepod Calanus finmar- chicus, two predaceous glass worms, Sagitta elegans, and one naked, shell- less pteropod mollusk, Clione limacina, relished by plankton-feeding whales when dominating the plankton. From a vertical haul from 100-0 meters off Shelburne, Nova Scotia. X 1.75. LowEk: Zooplankton dominated by the predaceous glass, or arrow, worm, Sagitta elegans, very destructive to copepods and the eggs and larvae of fish. From a vertical haul from 80 meters in Massachusetts Bay. X 1.75. (Both photograpbs from Bigelow, courtesy U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service.) PLATE 7 Upper: Sample of an unusually rich catch of haddock eggs, ineluding one of the glass worms, Sagitta elegans, known to prey upon them, a single pteropod mollusk, Limacina retroversa, and several Calanus and other copepods, from a surface haul over the eastern part of Georges Bank. X 4. A single female haddock may spawn as many as 100,000 eggs. Lower: Sample of rather uniform zooplankton consisting almost wholly of the copepod Calanus jfinmarchicus, from a vertical haul from 30-0 meters in Massachusetts Bay. X 1.75. (Compare with photograph of same species at higher magnification, pl. 9, lower.) (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service.) SUN AND HARVEST OF THE SEA—SCHMITT 313 PLatse 8 Urrrr: Sample of a chiefly herbivorous plankton community, largely copepods, the copepod Oalanus finmarchicus predominating, with some O. hyperboreus and Huchaeta norvegica, and the euphausid shrimp, 7'hysanoessa, together with several carnivorous forms—the glass worms, Sagitta elegans, the pelagic worm, Tomopteris, and two small jellyfish, Aglantha. From a yer- tical haul from 200-0 meters. X 1.5. Lower: Sample of zooplankton consisting almost wholly of comb-jellies, the ectenophore Plewrobrachia pileus, with an admixture of barnacle larvae, Balanus, in the so-called free-swimming nauplius stage, taken in a vertical haul in 40-0 meters over Brown’s Bank. X 1.5. (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) PLATE 9 Urrre: Sample of zooplankton dominated by juveniles of the amphipod Huthe- misto, a yery voracious devourer of copepods and in turn the food of larger earnivores. A surface haul from the south slope of Georges Bank. X 9. Lower: Sample of zooplankton consisting almost exclusively of the large copepod, Calanus finmarchicus, the most important of the small herbivores of the North Atlantic area. This is a portion of the most productive catch of Calanus yet made in the Gulf of Maine, a haul from which an estimated 2,500,000 copepods weer taken off Cape Cod from 40-0 meters. X 9. (Both photographs from Bigelow, courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) PLATE 10 Food strainers of certain plankton-feeding fish and whales. . Portion of branchial sieve of menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. X 25. . Portion of branchial sieve of herring, Clupea harengus. X 25. Portion of branchial sieve of mackerel, Scomber scombrus. X 25. . Portion of marginal fringe of baleen plate of pollock whale, Balaen- optera borealis, from Gulf of Maine. Natural size. . Portion of marginal fringe of baleen plate of finback whale, Balaen- optera borealis, from Gulf of St. Lawrence. Natural size. (From Bigelow, courtesy U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service.) aoop © oe ey a ioe ¢ Has y : oe ee Ne eo irre gy” f ey we aby, ts “ - ~ a bya. F = - ' < a 7 “! ) ; i «at ~ ; ¢ f 4 s i 7 ' ry A ' 5 z ; = . ’ = z ‘ Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt PLATE 1 (For explanation, see p. 311.) PEATE 2 Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt MEMS MG. €) (For explanation, see p. 311.) PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt (For explanation, see p. 312.) Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt PLATE 4 Sof ‘ Fie. Ce Bee WO (For explanation, see p. 312.) PLATE 5 ‘Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt (For explanation, see p. 312.) Smithsonian Repert, 1946.—Schmitt PLATE 6 (For explanation, see p. 312.) RISA Ea, Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt PLATE & (For explanation, see p. 3138.) PLATE 9 Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt 3.) »xplanation, see p. 31 (For € Smithsonian Report, 1946.—Schmitt PLATE 10 (For explanation, see p. 313.) ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT? By T. D. STEWART Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum ... America is God’s Crucible, the great Melting-pot, where all races of Europe are melting and re-forming! * * * Here you stand in your 50 groups, with your 50 languages and histories, and your 50 blood hatreds and rivalries. But you won’t be long like that, brothers, for these are the fires of God. ... A fig for your feuds and yendettas! Germans and Frenchmen, Irishmen and English- men, Jews and Russians—into the Crucible with you all! God is making the American. * * * the real American has not yet arrived. He is only in the Crucible. * ¥* * he will be the fusion of all races, perhaps the coming superman.—F rom The Melting-pot: A Drama in Four Acts, by Israel Zangwill. INTRODUCTION One of the outstanding phenomena in the field of human biology during the nineteenth century was the rapid population growth of the United States. By 1900 the population of continental United States had increased more than fourteenfold.2, In Europe, by con- trast, France had failed to double its population and Belgium alone had attained a threefold increase. Stating this comparison in another way, at the beginning of the nineteenth century every important European country, even including Spain and Turkey, exceeded the United States in number of inhabitants; whereas now only the U.S. S. R. has a larger population. To a considerable extent this remarkable rate of population growth was due to an attendant phenomenon of human biology, remarkable itself for scale, namely, immigration. Between 1830 when it got well under way, and soon after 1920 when it practically ceased, over 88 million immigrants arrived in the United States. This accretion from foreign sources is about equal to the total population of our country in 1870 or to that of France in 1895. It is easy to see, there- fore, why at the height of this period of immigration (1908) Israel Zangwill, the dramatist, was led to coin the metaphor “melting pot” 1 Address of the retiring president of the Anthropological Society of Washington, de- livered before the Society on the evening of Apr. 16, 1946. 2Such introductory statements are based on the census publications listed in the bibliography at the end. 315 725362—47——22 316 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 and thus to characterize the United States as the place of the amal- gamation of races and of mores. Owing to the almost total cessation of immigration about 1920, our foreign-born are now as a whole a rapidly aging population. “Whereas in 1920 about 15 percent of their number were under age 25, the figure was only 4 percent in 1940. On the other hand, the proportion at ages 65 and older almost doubled within this period, from not quite 10 percent in 1920 to 18 percent in 1940.* The growth of the population of the United States has been af- fected not only by a century of unprecedented immigration, but also by a differential birth rate as between foreign, native, rural, and urban elements. It is well known that the foreign-born at first had larger families than the native-born. Nevertheless, there has been a steady decrease in family size, both in the population as a whole (fig. 1) and also among the foreign-born (fig. 2). The average size of family in 1790 was 5.7 persons for the area covered by the census of that date; in 1900 it had decreased by 1 person (5.7 to 4.6), both for the area covered in the first census and for continental United States as a whole; and in 1940 it had decreased still further to 3.15. That urban birth rates tend to fall below rural has been shown by the ratios of children under 5 years of age per 1,000 women aged 20 to 44. This ratio is known as “effective fertility.” Between 1800 and 1930 for the United States as a whole this ratio dropped from over 900 to under 400. Yet in 1930 effective fertility for the farm popu- lation as a whole was over 500 and in one isolated county in Kentucky it was still over 900.4 The tendency of many foreign-born peoples to avoid rural areas and to congregate in cities may be a factor in the rapid lowering of their birth rate. The net effect of these and other more involved factors is a gradual slowing down of population growth in the United States. According to a conservative recent prediction, made on the basis of the censuses up to and including that of 1940, the population of the United States should level off at around 184 millions about the year 2100 (fig. 3).* This means that, if the present trend continues for another century and a half, natural growth will cause the population to increase only about 50 millions more. Although we have seen the virtual end of immigration into the United States and are aware that the natural increase in the popu- 3 Statistical Bulletin, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., June 1945. 4See Lorimer and Osborn, 1934. 5 Back in 1919 Raymond Pearl and his associates fitted a logistic curve to the census counts from 1790 to 1910. Their prediction of the 1920 population proved to be in excess of the actual figure by 16 parts in a thousand; it missed the count in 1930 by 2.5 parts in a thousand (in defect) ; and it went wide of the mark in 1940 (37.3 parts in a thousand in excess). This error may have been due in part to the change in immigration policy. The latest prediction takes these trends into account. ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—-STEWART Sh PER CENT OF TOTAL FAMILIES NUMBER OF PERSONS IN FAMILY Fieurz 1—Change in average size of families, 1790 to 1940. (Based on census figures for the respective years.) 318 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 lation is slowing, we know surprisingly little about the American physical type that is evolving. In support of this statement I shall review the racial elements that have entered into the American melt- ing pot and also the efforts made by physical anthropologists to sample the product. Americans, as Hooton has said, may be divided into five classes: 1, Real Americans, otherwise known as Indians; 2, Old Americans and 3, new Americans, both of whom have been born to Americanism; 4, immigrant Americans, those who have achieved Americanism; and 5, Afro-Americans, or those who have had Americanism thrust upon them. For lack of space the first and fifth of these classes will not be considered here.® PEOPLING THE UNITED STATES Before 1800.—¥ ortunately for our purposes, the national origins of the peoples coming to America, and accordingly the implications of their racial background, are well documented. This is due largely to the fact that a provision for census taking is included in the Con- stitution and consequently that the first census of the entire United States was taken in 1790, or nearly 10 years before the first census in any European country except Sweden. In this first census the names of the inhabitants were recorded, but not the places of birth. Hence, the proportions of the various European nationalities comprised in the population of the United States at that time have been worked out from inspection of the names. In general, 82.1 percent of the names are English, 7.0 percent Scotch, 5.6 percent German, 2.5 percent Dutch, 1.9 percent Irish, and all others less than 1 percent. Thus, although the early settlers were predominantly (91 percent) from the British Isles, there were goodly numbers of Germans and Dutch, and small numbers of still other nationalities. However, there was not a uniform distribution of these nationalities even at the beginning, for the Scotch show a concentration in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas; the Germans in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir- ginia; and the Dutch in New York. Incidentally, the late Ale’ Hrdlitka designated the descendants of this early population as Old Americans, and this explains Hooton’s use of the term as appears above. According to the original definition, Old Americans include those whose ancestors on each side of the family were born in the United States for at least two generations. At the time Hrdlicka was working (1910-1924) this meant in general that - all the ancestors on both sides of the family were in this land before 1830. ® The situation as regards the American Negro has been summarized recently in a series of publications assembled by Gunnar Myrdal under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution. ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART 319 FOREIGN UNoer 25 Years or Ace 2 Native UNDER 25 poe Ne ne ee Le For ein 25-3¢ <= = Bir ale e NATIVE 25-36 CO PO, wane ae FOREIGN 35-44 “Seewen = = 2 7) 2 ° 3 u b z 3 i°) Wu a « < 2 ° ° ° NATIVE 35-44 BrirTnHs PER Fieurp 2.—Annual number of births per 1,000 married white women of specified age and nativity. Up-State New York, 1917-1934. (From Kiser. 1936, fig. 2.) 200 175 1¢p) S 0 | = UNITED STATES = 125 | <9 ene Teg ee J 9 = Ss a Q i700 20 40 60 80 1600 20 40 60 80 190020 40 60 60 200020 40 60 60 2100 YEAR FicurE 3.—Using the method of successive least square approximations, a smooth curve has been fitted to the census counts from 1790 to 1940, inclusive (given in circles). The dotted line shows the further extrapolation of the same curve. According to the predic- tion of this logistic curve, the population of the United States should stabilize around the year 2100 at about 184 millions. (From Pearl et al., 1940, fig. 2.) 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: After 1800.—To this early population, itself conceived through immigration and grown during 2 centuries to around 10 million, was added during the century beginning in 1820, as already mentioned, 38 million more through immigration. This stream of foreign-born varied in number and composition from year to year (fig. 4). In the fluctuations are mirrored the history of Europe and the United States during this period. The peaks show when America was most inviting and the troughs reflect the wars and depressions. And finally, after the immigration acts of 1921 and 1924 setting quotas went into effect, there is a rapid falling off in numbers. However, since the present quotas are based upon the numbers of the different nationals resident in the United States in 1890, that is, before the immigration from southern and eastern Europe got under way, they have insured that most of the small number now being admitted come from those coun- tries that contributed the bulk of the early population. Now it is one thing to know which nationals participated, and to what extent they are represented, in the great period of immigration, and another thing to know how these nationals have become dis- tributed in the general population of the United States. Of course, there are well-known concentrations of foreign-born in various locali- ties, such as Germans in Pennsylvania, Poles in Connecticut, Scanda- navians in Minnesota, etc., but where else did these peoples go and in what numbers? Some idea of this distribution is given in the census recordings of the different nationalities by States. As an indication of what has happened to two of the foreign contingents (Irish, Itali- ans), I have plotted on outline maps their numbers in percentages of the native white population and by three census years (1880, 1910, 1940). For example, in 1940 there were 3,408,744 native Whites in Massachusetts and only 114,362 foreign-born Italians. On the other hand, in 1880 the Whites in Massachusetts numbered only 1,320,291 and there were in the State at that time 226,700 foreign-born Irish. Thus, the relationship of these two foreign-born elements to the native white population may be represented by the percentages 3.35 (Italians in 1940) and 17.17 (Irish in 1880), respectively. In using the native white population as a basis of comparison I have had in mind the population being affected by the immigrants. However, I realize that this gives a rather distorted view when the figures for 1880 are compared with those of 1940. This is owing to the fact that the native population has increased during this period. Because of this fact a group such as the Italians, that immigrated in large numbers only after 1890 (cf. fig. 4) , does not show the concentra- tions of a group such as the Irish, that came in greatest numbers before 1890. In the example cited above, had the native white population of Massachusetts remained constant from 1880 to 1940 the Italians in 321 ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART (‘adJAIOG WOBzI[CIN}JBN PUB UOT}BISTWM] oY} JO s}10de1 9q} UO paseq) ‘POUIBU 1B VpBdEP YORE UI Soy}I[BU0]}BU SuIpReT 9919} 84} PUB P2}BdIPU! VIv SUOT}BNyoNY oy} JO sasnvd oy} JO oMIOG ‘OFGT 0} OZST WIZ $9}0jg po}UQ 94} 0} UOPBAS;UMyI—y}F aunorLg ° wHOILV381035 aw ITT tN | SBRiL 4 000'002 . ooo'oos 000'00% 000°00S 000'008 600'002 000'008 000'006 000000" 000'001') 7 000°00T! ANVRUDO Alwai voveve Alwal vissny vischu vigsane VIAVHIGNYSS | MIVIIVE AVDYS /HIVIIBES AVEUS |MIVIIES AVEUO[HIVAIVS AVOWO BUViIUG AVDYO 2DIMVESs O3:xan AUVONNH VilusAY avvat AUVONNH ViusshUiaivilud svace Qnviaul Guviau Guvise) ANVAR WIS ABUREDO MVAINS LV 36S Vovnvo AlWAl AUVOKAN wWinLsny Alvai AHVRUD® AWVRUDS ABVRUBD ANURUID Quvisel Guvt3e0 Quviewe ' ous Ort Oc16! osial ogat ogal ose! ost Ovet ons over LEV t tI AL ‘ven tr SBmIs CuvA BVA G1N0a von IN Ua tL) nn Awe A NAN fee i _ W i | HH | PSAAEaT UD OuVIDU! WI BHIMYS IN ry ge BOBVT GIIWHEHN BOs ONUABG ANBDAAOIBARG IVivsenans wen wm ooo'oss “OBoI-O4at SIVAIUEY GRAV RIS 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 1940 would appear as 8.66 percent instead of 3.35 percent. Also, of course, if a State has a small native population, a relatively few for- eign-born will show up as a high percentage, whereas in a populous State only a very large number of foreign-born will produce this same high percentage. Glimpsing the record of each of these immigrating nationals in this way (figs. 5 and 6), which is comparable to looking at random frames from different moving picture reels, we get impressions of a repeated story varying in minor details. Essentially—and this is true also for English, Germans, Swedes, Poles, etc.—the same nationals have tended to go to the same parts of the country decade after decade, although the distribution differs for each. The northern and western European peoples, among them the Irish, came early, as already pointed out, and the southern and eastern European peoples, among them the Italians, came late. However, in both cases in 1940, nearly 20 years after immigration was drastically curtailed, few remain in the category of foreign-born. Henceforth the foreign-born will be a very minor element in census records. Now, again, it is one thing to know where the foreign-born have settled and in what proportions, and it is quite a different thing to know what has become of their descendants—now native-born. In most cases, and certainly it is true of the descendants of northern and western Europeans, the second generation born in America is already indistinguishable culturally and physically from the descendants of Old Americans. Lacking stigmatizing foreign traits, there are few limitations on travel within the United States. Although we have no detailed records, we know that there has been an increasing internal migration in recent years. Using the State-of-birth data in the census reports, it is possible to learn not only the birth sources of the people living in each State, but also the destinations of the natives who had moved away from the State. The difference between those born out of a particular State who are living in it, and those born in the State who are living out of it, while not a complete measure of the net interstate migration, is a useful migration index. Obviously, depend- ing upon the direction of this migration, the index may be positive or negative. The positive changes in population calculated in this way for the periods 1900-1910 and 1920-1930 are shown in figure 7. During the last depression and again during World War II internal migration, especially to California, reached tremendous proportions. This is vividly illustrated by the following quotation from a popular news weekly: 7 The westward wartime migration which had increased California’s population from 6,907,000 to 9,000,000 by VJ-day was growing heavier. Despite the fact 7 Time Magazine, April 15, 1946, p. 23. ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART 323 IRISH s000 IRISH /910 Fieur® 5.—Foreign-born Irish in percentage of native-born Whites for the three census years 1880, 1910, and 1940. Black=10 percent and up; striped—=5-10 percent; stippled= 1-5 percent ; and white=below 1 percent. The foreign-born were not reported for three States in 1880. Note early and continuous wide distribution of Irish (except in South) with concentration in States adjacent to the port of New York. 4 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 AJALIANS (440 = } Q + ATALIANS 1970 } | , ITALIANS /940 peorge avs : / etn: Ficure 6.—Foreign-born Italians in percentage of native-born Whites for the three census years 1880, 1910, and 1940. Striped=5-—10 percent ; stippled=1-5 percent ; and white= below 1 percent. ‘The foreign-born were not reported for three States in 1880. Note that the Italians did not arrive in numbers until after 1880 and that they have tended to settle in the same places decade after decade (including parts of the South). ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART 325 BASED ON MET DECENNIAL CHANGES IN TNE SIRTH-RESIDENCE REMAINDERS OF THE SEVERAL PAIRS OF STATES ower POSITIVE NET DECENNIAL CHANGES OF 10000 OR MORE SHOW wiOTM OF ARAOWS PROPORTIONAL TO AMOUNT Of Cancel NUMBERS “1M TrOUS4NDS : BASED ON NET DECENNIAL CHANGES DV THE BIRTH-RESIDENCE REMAINDERS OF THE SEVERAL PAIRS OF STATES OnLy POSITIVE NET? DECENNIAL CHANGES OF 10000 OR MORE SHOWN WIOTH OF sRPOWS PROPORTIONAL TO AMOUNT OF CHANGE NUMBERS IN THOUSANDS Figure 7.—Direction and rate of internal migration in the United States in two recent decades. (From Thornthwaite, 1934, pl. 6.) 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 that California was jammed to the last shack and trailer, 383,252 people had arrived by automobile alone in the first 2 months of the year. And they were no longer just the aged from Iowa, going west to die. Many were young and vigorous, their future bright before them. A wartime poll of service men Ssta- tioned in California showed that 52 percent wanted to stay there. Obviously this internal migration has served to break up and mix up many heretofore stabilized communities. One result of this is that both the latest foreign-born and the inbred descendents of the older foreign-born are marrying more and more out of their national groups. As long ago as 1931 in “An Ethnic Survey of Woonsocket, Rhode Island,” Wessel found that, whereas in the first generation born in this country intermarriage amounted to only 12.1 percent, by the third (and 3/2) generation, it had reached 40.4 percent. She found also that “the Irish and British rank first in marrying out of their group. By comparison with these, French Canadians are slow to intermarry. Jews seldom intermarry.” [P.109.] In this connection it is appropriate to return to the dramatist Israel Zangwill and to quote a pertinent statement which appears in the appendix to the 1914 edition of his play, “The Melting-pot” : [Religious] discords, together with the prevalent anti-Semitism and his own ingrained persistence, tend to preserve the Jew even in the “Melting-pot,” so that his dissolution must be necessarily slower than that of the similar aggrega- tions of Germans, Italians or Poles. But the process for all is the same, however tempered by specific factors. Beginning as broken-off bits of Germany, Italy or Poland, with newspapers and theaters in German, Italian or Polish, these colonies gradually become Americanized, their vernaculars, even when jealously cherished, become a mere medium for American conceptions of life; while in the third generation the child is ashamed both of its parents and their lingo, the newspapers dwindle in circulation, the theaters languish. The reality of this progress has been denied by no less distinguished an American than Dr. Charles Eliot, ex- president of Harvard University, whose prophecy of Jewish solidarity in America and of the contribution of Judaism to the world’s future is more optimistic than my own. Dr. Eliot points to the still unmelted heaps of racial matter, without suspecting—although he is a chemist—that their semblance of solidity is only kept up by the constant immigration of similar atoms to the base to replace those liquefied at the apex. Once America slams her doors, the crucible will roar like a closed furnace. [Pp. 209-210.] As we have seen, the door was slammed about 20 years ago. And available evidence seems to bear out this prediction: the process of racial amalgamation in America is speeding up; the crucible is roaring like a closed furnace. STUDYING THE PRODUCT OF THD MIXTURE For many years now physical anthropologists have been trying to discover the American physical type that is emerging as the product of the melting pot. To evaluate properly the studies made thus far it ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART 327 is necessary to consider the European groups entering into the mixture. Diversity in Europe.—As Boas pointed out in 1922: It would be an error to assume that the intermingling of different Buropean groups is a unique historical phenomenon which has never occurred before. On the contrary, all European nationalities are highly complex in origin. Even those most secluded and receiving the least amount of foreign blood at the present time have in past times been under entirely different conditions. [For example] in Great Britain * * * thereis * * * clear evidence of a large number of waves of migration. In prehistoric times we find a long- headed type, quite different in appearance and in customs from a later round- headed type. With the beginning of historic times we observe first Roman coloni- gation, then waves of migration entering Great Britain from all parts of the North Sea, from Scandinavia and northern Germany, and, finally, the influx of the Normans. With this event extended migration ceased and the population of the island was gradually welded into the modern English. The long continued stability of European populations which set in with the beginning of the Middle Ages and continued, at least in rural districts, until very recent times, has brought about a large amount of inbreeding in every limited district. [Pp. 181-182, 184.] Because of such a history, Europe’s peoples present great physical diversity. For instance, stature varies on the average in different parts of Europe over 7 inches, the tallest people being in the north and west (fig. 8) ; head shape varies over 15 index units, the roundest heads being in the south-center and east (fig. 9) ; and pigmentation ranges all the way from light blond to dark brunet with corresponding strati- fication from north to south (fig. 10). Accordingly, the early immi- grants into the United States, being from the northern and western parts of Europe, were predominantly tall, long-headed blonds; whereas the later comers, being from the southern and eastern parts, were mostly short, round-headed brunets. Of course, there are exceptions to this generalization. STUDIES UNDER GOVERNMENT AUSPICES Immigrants——Here in America comparatively little effort was made to study the immigrants on arrival. During 1908-9 Boas undertook to investigate the physical characteristics of immigrants for the United States Immigration Commission. dark Fiecure 10.—Approximate distribution of light and dark pigmentation in Europe. (Modified from Coon, 1939, map 8.) ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART Spl that the bodily form of the descendants of the immigrants was differ- ent from that of the immigrants themselves. He said: It appears that the longer the parents have been here, the greater is the divergence of the descendants from the European type. These results are so definite that, while heretofore we had the right to assume that human types are stable, all the evidence is now in favor of a great plasticity of human types, and permanence of types in new surroundings appears rather as the exception than the rule. [1912, pp. 5, 7.] Incidentally, it should be noted that, owing to the dates of the work by Boas and Hrdlicka, the immigrants available to them for study were mostly from the southern and eastern parts of Europe. Soldiers—World War I yielded as one of its useful byproducts some measurements of the men drafted into the Army and also of those later demobilized. Because of the conditions of the draft, the Army necessarily included some recent immigrants and descendants of older immigrants. Analysis of these measurements by districts, therefore, gives a partial indication of the physical variation in the different parts of the country. The variation in stature among the first million recruits is shown in figure 11. In general, the areas of tallest stature are those least affected by recent immigration. The distribution of short stature is about what would be expected from the data already presented on immigration. Unfortunately, such data as were obtained during the Civil War were restricted to the northern States, and those for World War II are reported to have been de- stroyed.® In passing, some comment should be made on the limitations of the Army for anthropometric purposes. Such a group represents only the healthy young men within certain age and size limits. Obviously, therefore, it is not a random sample of the population. Also, the measurements taken thereon are quite restricted in number and are not always taken carefully. Even the additional: measurements on 100,000 soldiers taken at demobilization in 1919 under the direction of anthropologists have the same limitations as to sample and more- over were intended for tailoring rather than for biological purposes. Clothing standards.—The mention of tailoring leads us naturally to another Government anthropometric project, namely, that carried out by the United States Department of Agriculture for garment and pattern construction.° The data used in the industry for the con- struction of clothing have grown up apparently chiefly by trial and ®* Personal communication from Dr. George D. Williams, formerly in the Vital Records Division, Office of the Surgeon General. For Army anthropology see the reports by B. A. Gould (1869), Baxter (1875), and Davenport and Love (1921). 7°The project was under the direction of Miss Ruth O’Brien, Textiles and Clothing Division, Bureau of Home Economics, and was carried out in cooperation with the Work Projects Administration. 725362—47 23 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946: error, based upon measurements taken on a few individuals by various inaccurate procedures. To remedy this situation the Department of Agriculture has undertaken to provide reliable measurements of an adequate sample of the population. So far only women and children have been studied. The women number 14,698, which is a very small proportion of the approximately 45 millions in the country. Also, only 7 States (Arkansas, California, Illinois, Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania) and the District of Columbia are represented. By reference to figure 11 it will be seen that all these States, except Arkansas and perhaps North Carolina, are in the low- stature area. Thus, although this study has attempted to get a ran- dom sample, it has not wholly succeeded. Moreover, since the em- phasis here is on tailoring, relatively few of the measurements are suitable for general comparison. Old Americans.——One more anthropometric project carried out under a Government agency may be mentioned. This is the study of Old Americans by AleS Hrdlicka of the United States National Museum. At the time this study was undertaken conflicting views were held regarding the nature of the earlier comers to this country as well as their successors up to the time when immigration assumed large proportions. These uncertainties could be resolved, Hrdlicka believed, by examining the descendants of this early population. The term “Old American” has already been defined. If used in the strict sense that all the ancestors on both sides were in this land before 1830, obviously the group is fast disappearing. As Hrdlicka says: In the beginning of the studies it seemed desirable to make the limit of four, or still better five, generation Americans; but on trial this was found quite im- practicable. When the eastern and southern communities, where considerable inbreeding has taken place and the subjects from which would obviously not be the most desirable for our purposes were excluded, it was found that those who could qualify to four or five generations of pure American ancestry on both sides were astonishingly scarce, and that also, on the whole, they represented rather too much of social differentiation. Even those of three generations pure native ancestry are far less common than might at first be imagined. [1925, p. 5.] Since this work was carried out with maximum precision and with the biological point of view, it furnishes a useful description of a selected element of the American population. Although the Old Americans examined by Hrdlicka had a limited geographical dis- tribution and the total did not exceed 2,000, his results have been confirmed by Bean and Carter. Incidentally, a comparison of stature between the Old American females and the Department of Agriculture garment-series females shows the latter to be the shorter by nearly 1.5 cm. (161.85 vs. 160.42). This is probably due to the foreign element in the latter less selected series, ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE MELTING POT—STEWART 333 BLACK » BELOW 172 wate #1738 UP STRPED © 172-173 WORLD WAR | FIRST MILLION ORAFTEES . wil AVERAGE STATURE BY SECTIONS Figure 11.—Distribution of stature in the United States as revealed by measure- ments on soldiers of World War I. (Prepared from data supplied by Davenport and Love, 1921, pl. 5 and table 21.) 334 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1946 STUDIES UNDER THE AUSPICES OF OTHER INSTITUTIONS Students.—Outside the Government, the main anthropometric studies on the American people have come from colleges and universi- ties. In general these studies have been based upon the entrance physical examinations of students. The reports are very numerous, but only a few have received thorough analyses.11 However, all have served to call attention to the secular changes taking place in this element of the American population. By comparing year by year the dimensions of students of the same age, it has been discovered that size is increasing. Studies made in New England colleges by Bowles and involving father-son and mother-daughter combinations show the changes illustrated in figure 12. It is now known that this is a part of a world-wide phenomenon and it has been suggested that it is due to nutritional changes or perhaps may be evolutionary in nature.” We have seen already that Boas detected such changes in immigrants. Obviously, this secular change, regardless of its explanation, serves to confuse the picture as to the developing American type. Criminals.—In addition to the work on students, a broader attack on the problem of the developing American type has been undertaken at Harvard by Hooton and his students in the Department of Anthro- pology. Their approach has been through criminals and such civilian groups as could be measured in Boston and at A Century of Progress Exposition held in Chicago in 1933-1934.