Dyes aeorencoeecanaburabeied: Sanne EAA et leita ieteta ad shitaaammereresereereeme ee Agee cavers eds lnverer erase dat CLO en ens ews 4: Tosasevennenepeghy byset pr onenety tes A i porrmeneinnnn ta meneame RT ee ern ne ENR N IAT ae rane — i é I vy) on a i} \ is. : Rf ’ i) ra - i An [ fh i co Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PUBLICATION 4232 Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30 1955 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON 11956 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price $4 (cloth) NOV 2 ~ 1956 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 29, 1956. ’o the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1955. I have the honor to be, Respectfully, LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary. - ‘CONTENTS Mist OmORIClal Serre meee wees ee nee ee ee ee eee ees eee GENETA BU ALCTICM Geers ee ese eee ee ene ee ee retreat ae eee laren cei Stes sbheplstablishmen Gees sss seme ae eee hen ee mer nee met rene See ee Une STO DOATOTOr VCR CILUS Serre mete ee eee See eee ee eran ate TESTES a 61S ae a epg AS ee oe OSS TATSTT Oy gee ah Bh a pi ie Re Ae il oan PN ar gr eae ees Wheetures! oa 5-2 aa oes See ee a eee ee SES AWAEOPOISUAN COV IMC Ale. eat eee nee ee i ee ee ee EP Our hON OL CS eee ne ee ete ee ee oe ee ee eee undstior whe WnsvituvlOne ¢ os ee ae ea er eS eee se IBio-Sciencesp informs fi Ome EXC ls 1 Ge meee ye ee ee ee Organization andsstalteso. fe aes oa ee eee se ee eee Summary of the year’s activities of the Institution-________-___-_---_-- Reports of branches of the Institution: Wnited staves National Wiuseum 2) oe) 2 2 a ee Bureaulor American: LtINOlOSY 2222 50 oe ane ee ee es INECTODNVSICAl ODSEIVALOLY.- 6a Se eee oan cee we ee ee National’ Collection of Fine, ATts=- => 22oa es ea 22 ee ee reer Gallery O1cArh se 5 <2 ce en Spare een ee ere ape Nation aleATr a VUUSeU rie as oe Si ree Noe EL eaten oe De eB National LOOLO eI CANGE ar Kee ans apa Sie Sn Ee eee apa eee cas @analeZone DiOlogiCAlvATeAa! = ==. SUSE 2s oe ee en ee international’ Hxchange, Services. semen eee ee ee National GallorysolvArts <6 225 -uia ee Oe eae ge a RECTION THe, MOLAR. 2 2-8 bos ae eee ae oe eee eee oe en so ee enoronspublicationsss2— = as S28 Bee aes oe ee ee esc Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents____..------- GENERAL APPENDIX Science serving the Nation, by Lee A. DuBridge__-___-__-----__--------- The development of nuclear power for peaceful purposes, by Henry D. Genetics in the service of man, by Bentley Glass___..__..__.___----------- Cultural status of the South African man-apes, by Raymond A. Dart__- The history of the mechanical heart, by George B. Griffenhagen and Calvanerineriichesy ce Seer ys Li. MR ee ete See it IV CONTENTS Some chemical studies on viruses, by Wendell M. Stanley________._____ The scent language of honey bees, by Ronald Ribbands- --_-__ pegs = eee Thearmy ants; by -Da'C..Schneirlas-3 323 522) sae se eee ee ae ne The hibernation of mammals, by L. Harrison Matthews___-__._________ Parasites common to animals and man, by Benjamin Schwartz_______ __- Some observations on the functional organization of the human brain, by Wilder Penfield-.222°o. o. 5. SSee soe ee ee ee ree The place of tropical soils in feeding the world, by Robert L. Pendleton__ Tree rings and history in the western United States, by Edmund Schulman_ New light on the dodo and its illustrators, by Herbert Friedmann__-_-____ George Catlin, painter of Indians and the West, by John C. Ewers_-______ LIST OF PLATES Secretary’s Report: Plates 2ssor is seen ae see On a ee Plates’) 45 202 ee see ee es Se eee ae PIS GEST Dr Osada om em NS Te ar et oy ne ro Solar activity, (Spencer,Jones) Plates Wc22— 2 2 ee ee ee Forty years of aeronautical research (Hunsaker): Plates 1-10___________ South African man-apes (Dart): 1 2 EE Ps Ye I ES Pag ae ES OI SE PACA, ph Ae oe A ema re. Ss Mechanical heart (Griffenhagen and Hughes): Plates 1-4__-___________ : Viruses (Stanley) sb lates or ne nc nee os Oe es eee ee ee Scent language of honey bees (Ribbands): Plates, 1, 2---._-_-____--____ Army, ATCS (OCOMEIEIA) = ey LAbes tema on ae St oe eee ee Hibernation of mammals (Matthews): Plates 1, 2______---___________- Parasites common to animals and man (Schwartz): Plates 1-4______ ape Functional organization of the human brain (Penfield): Plate 1_________ Tree rings and history (Schulman): Plates 1-4_____.-.--_-__-__.______- Dodov (Hriedmanmn) Pla test la ee eee lee ee eng ee ee George Catlin (Ewers): Plates 1-20_...._____---__-- ee spec tapes ay Page 357 369 379 407 419 433 44] 459 475 483 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1955 Presiding Officer ex officio—DwicHt D. EIseENHOwER, President of the United States. Chancellor.—HarL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: DwicHt D. EISENHOWER, President of the United States. RicHarD M. Nixon, Vice President of the United States. Hart WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. JOHN Foster DULLES, Secretary of State. GrorcE M. HUMPHREY, Secretary of the Treasury. CHARLES BH. Winson, Secretary of Defense. HERBERT BROWNELL, JR., Attorney General. ARTHUR E). SUMMERFIELD, Postmaster General. Dovetas McKay, Secretary of the Interior. Hizra TAFT BENSON, Secretary of Agriculture. SINCLAIR WEEKS, Secretary of Commerce. JAMES P. MITCHELL, Secretary of Labor. Oveta CuLp Hossy, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Regents of the Institution: HARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. RicHARpD M. NIxon, Vice President of the United States. CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Member of the Senate. LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate. H. ALEXANDER SMITH, Member of the Senate. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. OvERTON Brooks, Member of the House of Representatives. JOHN M. Vorys, Member of the House of Representatives. VANNEVAR Bus3H, citizen of Washington, D. C. ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Missouri. Rosert V. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D. C. JEROME C. HUNSAKER, citizen of Massachusetts. Heecutive Committee—Rosert V. FLEMING, chairman, VANNEVAR BUSH, CLAR- ENCE CANNON. Secretary.— LEONARD CARMICHAEL. Assistant Secretaries.— JOHN BH. Grar, J. L. Keppy. Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Mnkrs. LOUISE M. PEARSON. Treasurer.—THOMAS F. CLark. Chief, editorial and publications division.—PaAvUL H. OEHSER. Assistant chief, editorial and publications division.—JoHN S. LEA. Librarian.—Mrs. Leta F. Clark. Superintendent of buildings and grounds.—L. L. OLIvER. Assistant superintendents of buildings and grounds.—CHARLES C. SINCLAIR, ANDREW F.. MICHAELS, JR. Chief, personnel division.—Jack B. NEWMAN. Chief, supply division—ANrTrHONY W. WILDING. Chief, photographic laboratory.—¥F. B. KEstNeER. VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director.—A. REMINGTON KELLOGG. Evhibits specialist —J. FE. ANGLIM. Echibits workers.—VT. G. Baker, Don H. Berkepiin, R. O. Hower, BENJAMIN LAWLEss, W. T. MARINETTI, Epwarp W. NORMANDIN, JR., Morris M. PEARSON, GEORGE STUART. Chief, office of correspondence and records ——HrELena M. WEISS. DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY : Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, exhibits specialist ; Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood, Smithsonian fellow in anthropology ; W. W. Taylor, Jr., collaborator in anthropology. Division of Archeology: Waldo R. Wedel, curator; Clifford Evans, Jr., asso- ciate curator; George S. Metcalf, museum aid; Mrs. Betty J. Meggers, research associate. Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; J. C. Ewers, C. M. Watkins, associate curators; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. Dale Stewart, curator; M. T. Newman, associate curator; W. J. Tobin, research associate. Associate in Anthropology: Neil M. Judd. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY : Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief exhibits preparator ; C. R. Aschemeier, W. M. Perrygo, E. G. Laybourne, C. S. Hast, J. D. Biggs, exhibits preparators; Mrs. Aime M. Awl, scientific illustrator. Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, acting curator; H. W. Setzer, Charles O. Hanley, Jr., associate curators; J. W. Paradiso, museum aide; A. Brazier Howell, collaborator; Gerrit 8. Miller, Jr., associate. Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; H. G. Deignan, associate curator; Gorman M. Bond, museum aide; Alexander Wetmore, research associate and custodian of alcoholic and skeleton collections. Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, associate curator. Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schultz, curator; H. A. Lachner, associate curator; Robert H. Kanazawa, museum aide. Division of Insects: J. F. Gates Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, W. D. Field, Grace EH. Glance, associate curators; Sophy Parfin, junior ento- mologist; W. L. Jellison, M. A. Carriker, R. E. Snodgrass, C. F. W. Muese- beck, collaborators. Section of Hymenoptera: W. M. Mann, Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodians. Section of Diptera: Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian. Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection. Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; Frederick M. Bayer, T. E. Bowman, associate curators; Mrs. L. W. Peterson, museum aide; Mrs. Harriet Richardson Searle, Max M. Ellis, J. Percy Moore, collaborators; Mrs. Mildred 8. Wilson, collaborator in copepod Crustacea. Division of Mollusks: Harald A. Rehder, curator; Joseph P. E. Morrison, associate curator; W. J. Byas, museum aide; Paul Bartsch, associate. Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, collabo- rator. Associates in Zoology: T. S. Palmer, W. B. Marshall, A. G. Biéyving, C. R. Shoemaker. Collaborator in Zoology: R. S. Clark. Collaborator in Biology: D. C. Graham. SECRETARY’S REPORT Vil DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY (NATIONAL HERBARIUM) : Jason R. Swallen, head curator. Division of Phanerogams: A, C. Smith, curator; BE. C. Leonard, E. H. Walker, Lyman B. Smith, Velva "h: Rudd, associate curators; E. P. Killip, research associate. sa at Se Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator. Division of Grasses: Ernest R. Sohns, associate curator; Mrs. Agnes Chase, F. A. McClure, research associates. Division of Cryptogams: C. V. Morton, acting curator; Paul S. Conger, asso- ciate curator; John A. Stevenson, custodian of C. G. Lloyd mycological collections and honorary curator of Fungi. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY : W. F. Foshag, head curator; J. H. Benn, museum geologist; L. B. Isham, Scientific illustrator. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. F. Foshag, acting curator; EH. P. Henderson, G. 8. Switzer, associate curators; I’. 8. Holden, physical science aide; Frank L. Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths. Division of Intertebrate Paleontology and Palcobotany: Gustav A. Cooper, curator; A. R. Loeblich, Jr., David Nicol, associate curators; Robert J. Main, Jr., Mrs. Vera M. Gabbert, museum aides; J. Brookes Knight, Mrs. Helen N. Loeblich, research associates in paleontology. Section of Invertebrate Paleontology: J. B. Reeside, Jr., custodian of Mesozoic collection; Preston Cloud, research associate. Section of Paleobotany: Roland W. Brown, research associate. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle, associate curator; F. L. Pearce, G. D. Guadagni, F. O. Griffith, IIT, exhibits workers. Associates in Mineralogy: W. T. Schaller, S. H. Perry. Associate in Paleontology: R. S. Bassler. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES: Frank A. Taylor, head curator. Division of Engineering: R. P. Multhauf, curator; William EH. Bridges, Mu- seum aide. Section of Civil and Mechanical Engineering: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. Section of Tools: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. Section of Marine Transportation: K. M. Perry, associate curator. Section of Electricity : K. M. Perry, associate curator. Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. Section of Horclogy: S. H. Oliver, associate curator. Section of Land Transportation: S. H. Oliver, associate curator. Division of Crafts and Industries: W. N. Watkins, curator; Edward ©. Ken- dall, associate curator; HE. A. Avery, museum aide; IF’. L. Lewton, research associate. Section of Textiles: Grace L. Rogers, assistant curator. Section of Wood Technology : W. N. Watkins, in charge. Section of Manufactures: Edward C. Kendall, associate curator. Section of Agricultural Industries: Hdward C. Kendall, associate curator. Division of Medicine and Public Health: George B. Griffenhagen, associate curator; Alvin EH. Goins, museum aide. Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator; J. Harry Phillips, Jr., museum aide. Section of Photography: A. J. Wedderburn, Jr., associate curator. vill ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY: Mendel L. Peterson, acting head curator. Divisions of Military History and Naval History: M. L. Peterson, curator ; J. R. Sirlouis, assistant curator; Craddock R. Goins, Jr., junior historian. Division of Civil History: Margaret W. Brown, associate curator; Frank BE. Klapthor, museum aide. Division of Numismatics: S. M. Mosher, associate curator. Division of Philately: Franklin R. Bruns, Jr., associate curator. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Director. —MaTTHEW W. STIRLING. Associate Director—FRANK H. H. ROBERTS, JR. Anthropologists.—H. B. CoLiins, Jr., PHILIP DRUCKER. Collaborators.—FRANCES DENSMORE, JOHN R. SwANTON, A. J. WARING, JR., R. J. Squires, R. F. HEIZER, Sister M. Inez HinceEr, RALPH S. SOLECKI. Research associate-—JOHN P. HARRINGTON. Scientific illustrator.—H. G. ScHUMACHER. River BASIn Surveys.—FRANK H. H. Roserts, Jr., Director. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—Loyat B. ALDRICH. DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH : Chief.—[Vacancy.] Astrophysicist.— FREDERICK A. GREELEY. Instrument makers.—D. G. TALBERT, J. H. HARRISON. Research associate-—CHARLES G. ABBOT. Table Mountain, Calif., field station—Atrrep G. FRomanp, STANLEY L. ALDRICH, physicists. Calama, Chile, field station—James E. ZIMMERMAN, physicist; JoHN A. Pora, physical science aide. DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Chief.—R. B. W1tHROW. Plant physiologists —WiL1i1aAM H. Kretn, Leonarp Price, V. B. Exstap, Mrs. AxicE P. WitHRow, CHAo C. Mon. Biochemist.—JoHN B. WOLrr. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Director.—THoMAs M. Braas. Curator of ceramics.—P. V. GARDNER. Chief, Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service—Mrs. ANNEMARIE H. Pope. Haehibits preparator.—RowLanp Lyon. FREER GALLERY OF ART Director.—A. G. WENLEY. Assistant Director—Joun A. Pore. Assistant to the Director—Burns A. Sruprs. Associate in Near Eastern art—RicHarp ErrinaHAUSEN. Associate in technical research.—RuUTHERFORD J. GETTENS. Assistant in research.—Harotp P. Stern. Research associate—Grace DUNHAM GUEST. Honorary research associate-—Max LOEHR. Consultant to the Director.—KATHERINE N. RHOADES. SECRETARY'S REPORT NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Advisory Board: LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Chairnan. Mag. Gen. George W. Munpy, U.S: Air Force. Rear ApM. APOLLO SoucEK, U.S. Navy. GROVER LOENING. WILLIAM B. Strout. Head curator—PauvL E. GARBER. Associate curator.—R. C. STROBELL. Manager, National Air Museum Facility —W. M. Mate. Museum aides—StTANLEY Porrer, WINTHROP S. SHAW. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. Assistant Director.—ERNEST P. WALKER. Head Animal Keeper.—F RANK O. LOWE. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Resident Manager.—JAMES ZETEK. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Chief.—D. G. WILLIAMS. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: EARL WarREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. JoHN Foster DULLES, Secretary of State. Grorcr M. HumpHREY, Secretary of the Treasury. LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. SAMUEL H. Kress. FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. DUNCAN PHILLIPS. CHESTER DALE. PauL MELLON. President.— SAMUEL H. Kress. Vice President.—FERDINAND LAMMOT BELIN. Secretary-Treasurer.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Director —Daviw E. FINLEY. Administrator —ERNEST R. FEIDLER. General Counsel—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Chief Curator.—JoHN WALKER. Assistant Director.—MAacGIL.L JAMES. aie ui | ae - Aaxtdive rN, ‘ihebiata, Nas ttf Lihled a Ce bi AR Te ba hag : i + } Mss F 7 Toe At APS hee aa ve i 1) ue ‘unk DiI : ios ay fae oe ws = ; Pgs * “@ ea oe Lenn . Piss e ni ec i . yeaah ‘earns johaies patie en alta at a Oy, ch: Sa No Coin emcee! natac’s Yok ES oy Tf setae wit NG ya elorone Pe ge | WIMOEL i ‘ samtiotent tte ince oth qn liena amass ash ae 7 ee eee Lt — mi q abt Wont ak et M va . i ia’ be rr u i a q? SHON kK, bad eas pee esa yor al }; 7 : ky y ka, | VEL?) fi! pen kil ces OYE Peay i, lite nei Oe “ea 2 Sue # fan ns ~ Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution LEONARD CARMICHAEL For the Year Ended June 30, 1955 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit a report showing the activ- ities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955. GENERAL STATEMENT The period covered by this report has been an active and fruitful one for the Smithsonian Institution. It was noted in last year’s report that much time has been devoted to preliminary planning for the new buildings so urgently needed to make the museums of the Smithsonian comparable to the modern national museums of other great nations. The Institution’s collec- tions are probably the largest in the world, but because of the inade- quacy of its present buildings these collections can now be presented to the public in only most limited ways. Building Program Gains Congressional Support It is a great satisfaction to be able to report that legislation pro- viding for the planning and erection of a new museum building for the Smithsonian Institution was enacted during the first session of the 84th Congress. The bill, authorizing a $36-million Museum of His- tory and Technology, was signed by President Eisenhower on June 28, 1955. Subsequently, Congress appropriated $2,288,000 for the im- mediate planning of this great new museum, bringing it even further toward the realm of actuality. During the discussion of this legis- lation on the floor of the House of Representatives, many favorable statements were made about the place of the Smithsonian Institution in our national life. All of us at the Smithsonian are indeed grateful for the hard work done by so many people in connection with this leg- islation, which clears the great hurdle from the path toward providing adequate and fitting housing for many of the Nation’s priceless treas- ures. Certainly it is the greatest event for the Smithsonian Institu- tion since the erection of the Natural History Building half a century ago. io ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The new Museum of History and Technology will house all the national collections that record and illustrate the political, cultural, industrial, scientific, and military development of the United States. For the most part the materials to be exhibited in this new museum are those now on display or stored in the Arts and Industries Building. Some collections now temporarily housed in the Natural History Building will also find a place in the new building. The new museum as we plan it will be both a museum of United States history and a museum of science, engineering, and industry. This combination is especially appropriate for a nation in which the industrial revolution achieved a most luxuriant flowering—matching the earlier American Revolution that gave our country its freedom and its unique institutions. The Museum of History and Technology will be the Nation’s his- tory book of objects. In it the main elements of our national progress will be represented and related. To replace the clutter of cases and machines that crowd the old Arts and Industries Building, we plan a series of modern halls highlighting the principal periods of our history from colonial days to the present. Each main hall will illus- trate the dominant character of a particular period (the exploration of the West, for example) against a background of the times. This story of our national development will be told with original docu- ments, machines, costumes, inventions, home furnishings, weapons, the personal effects of famous Americans, and many other classes of authentic objects. Connected with these main halls will be others in which the exhibits will amplify the themes of the main halls with subjects that might include Agriculture and Trade in the Colonies, Transportation to the Frontier, and others. Many halls will illustrate the development of particular devices or subjects, such as automobiles, mining, medi- cine, costumes, manufactures, engineering, and science. Here will be demonstrated the painstaking study, work, management, and trials that have been the lifeblood of our Nation’s progress. Likewise will be shown the Smithsonian’s world-famous collections of stamps and coins, guns, watercraft models, and all the others that have made the Institution a mecca for scholars, collectors, and hobbyists, the country over. The site chosen for the new building is the Mall area of Washington bounded on the north by Constitution Avenue, on the east by 12th Street, on the south by Madison Drive, and on the west by 14th Street. Naturally much difficult and prolonged work lies ahead before such a monumental task can be consummated, but it is our earnest hope that the final planning of this new building may be done in 1956 and that construction may begin in 1957. SECRETARY'S REPORT 3 Other Buildings Planned By the use of private funds given to the Institution specifically for the purpose, preliminary drchitectural studies were made during the year for the projected new National Air Museum. ‘The proposed site for this museum is between 9th and 12th Streets, SW., on the south side of Independence Avenue, where it would be closely associated with other Smithsonian buildings. No final estimates have yet been given of the new Air Museum’s cost or of the time when it may be most appropriate to ask for public or private funds for its erection. This new building is urgently needed. The airplane is in many respects a product of the genius of the American people. The Smith- sonian collections in this great field, beginning with the Wright brothers’ “Kitty Hawk” itself, are unrivaled in the world. ‘Today many of the most important treasures of the Smithsonian collection of aircraft and associated objects are crated and held in storage. They are thus not available either for the public or even for the use of en- gineers and patent authorities. As soon as possible it is important to find means, public or private, or both, for the erection of a suitable building for this great collection. The National Collection of Fine Arts is now also most inadequately provided for in an incongruous setting in the Natural History Build- ing. As was especially emphasized in last year’s report, a new Smith- sonian Institution Gallery of Art to house the great historical paint- ings in this collection, the National Portrait Gallery, and the work of deserving living artists is most urgently needed. The collections that will be displayed in the proposed new gallery would include painting, sculpture, ceramics, and other forms of decorative art. Authorization to construct wings on the Natural History Building was approved by Congress in 1932, but it has never been implemented by an appropriation. Our superlative study collections in natural history are crowded from attic to basement and have extensively in- vaded the exhibition halls. ‘To be of the greatest use to the Nation, these collections must continue to grow, for only in this way can they become more complete and thus more useful in the scientific and eco- nomic researches conducted by many other agencies. Room for ex- pansion is urgently needed for all the collections in anthropology, geology, and zoology. Also far below our needs is laboratory space for the scientists and aides working on these collections, and for the visiting specialists who so freely and generously assist in this work. The over-all situation is such that the addition of wings on the Natural History Building must hold high priority in the Institution’s build- ing program. 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Exhibits Modernization in Full Swing During the year further progress was made in the renovation of major exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution, under the long-range modernization program authorized by Congress. President and Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower honored the Smithsonian by coming to the Institution on May 24. On that occasion Mrs. Eisenhower officially opened the new First Ladies Hall at special ceremonies in the Arts and Industries Building. This hall displays in authentic settings gowns worn by each of the ladies in the history of the country who have served as Presidential hostesses. In creating the new settings the de- signers wherever possible have combined real architectural details taken from the White House in its various renovations with furniture and fixtures owned by or associated with both the White House and the First Ladies. The dresses are thus seen in the type of surround- ings in which they were worn. All the objects, for example, in the room in which Martha Washington’s dress is displayed, belonged to President Washington. WieSE VAT eee = 8 oe ee ee os 172 District, of Columbias2 222 2. 21°52 Massachusettge a-ha files 1.1 Rennsylvaniaa= 22 ee Ae GyrWlorid avert aes at et ee 0.9 SING eX OT Re ee a a rs Ame UUDLTA OTS iene eee ie ee Ont North’ Carolinas. =. as 2s (Calitormiges soe soe ee see 0.7 INC Ws JELSCy ae set oe ea ee ee Te SOuUtLhe Carolinas ses sees eee 0.6 The cars that made up the remaining 10.6 percent came from every one of the remaining States, as well as from Alaska, Austria, British Columbia, Canada, Canal Zone, Cuba, England, Germany, Hawaii, Japan, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Okinawa, and Puerto Rico. On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the Zoo from at least 15 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries. On average days there are cars from about 22 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries; and during the periods of greatest attendance the cars represent not less than 34 different States, Territories, and countries. COOPERATION At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts with other Government and State agencies, private concerns and indi- viduals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result the Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable specimens, and in turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, specimens it does not need. Particular thanks are due C. W. Phillips, Paul R. Achenbach, and R. S. Dill, of the National Bureau of Standards, for their advice and assistance in bringing about the best possible conditions in the refrig- erated penguin room. Dr. Willard H. Eyestone, veterinary pathologist of the Cancer Divi- sion of the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., gave much valuable advice on matters pertaining to the welfare of the animals, and made every effort to help save the emperor penguins. He and other members of the National Institutes of Health isolated the organ- ism Aspergillus and established pure cultures of it, and are now trying to find a chemical or bacterial agent to combat the fungus. Dr. Eyestone also continued his own project of making autopsies on animals that died in the Zoo, in order to obtain information re- garding cancer and other diseases affecting human beings. Special acknowledgment is due to the United States Dispatch Agent in New York City, Howard Fyfe, an officer of the State De- 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 partment, who has frequently been called upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad. This he has done, often at great per- sonal inconvenience, and the animals have been forwarded to Wash- ington without the loss of a single specimen. For several years past the Zoo has been given, or has been able to buy at greatly reduced prices, considerable quantities of food ma- terials such as rice, flour, beans, and canned and packaged foods that had been condemned by the courts as unsuitable for human consump- tion. But this year almost no material of this type was made avail- able and the Jack has been reflected in the additional expenditures necessary for the purchase of food for the animals. The National Institutes of Health, the Army Medical Center, the Navy Medical Center, and the Nutritional] Laboratory of the Depart- ment of Agriculture gave the Zoo mice, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and other animals no longer suitable for their purposes. These are valu- able food for many animals. The Poultry Division of the Department of Agriculture gave a considerable number of day-old chicks that were hatched in connec- tion with certain of their experiments. These are a highly desirable addition to the diet of many animals. Samuel M. Poiley, associate chief of the Animal Production Sec- tion, National Institutes of Health, continued to supply surplus lab- oratory animals and some that were raised for laboratory purposes, which were desirable additions to the exhibition collection. NEEDS OF THE ZOO Replacement of antiquated structures that have long since ceased to be suitable for the purposes for which they are used is still the principal need of the Zoo. Urgently required are: A building to house antelopes and other medium-sized hoofed ani- mals that require a heated building. A new administration building to replace the 150-year-old historic landmark that is still in use as an office building but that is neither suitably located nor well adapted for the purpose. A fireproof service building for receiving shipments of animals, quarantining them, and caring for those in ill health or those that cannot be placed on exhibition. A new ventilating system for the bird house. Lesser items of equipment that are needed are a vacuum pump for more efficient and economical operation of the heating system in the reptile house; a band saw to replace one that is more than 40 years old; and an air compressor for general use about the Park. The enclosures and pools for beavers, otters, seals, and nutrias, in the ravine, need to be reconstructed. Owing to lack of funds for up- SECRETARY’S REPORT 127 keep, and consequent deterioration, this area has become unsightly and inadequate for the proper care and exhibition of these animals. In addition to new buildings, new paddocks are needed. Over the years, space for the exhibition of such animals as deer, sheep, goats, and other hoofed animals has been so curtailed that the collection no longer contains the proper assortment of these attractive and valuable animals, This has been brought about by the natural deterioration of materials, making some of the paddocks no longer usable; elimination of some paddocks for the construction of buildings on the sites; and abandonment of some paddocks that were in undesirable locations. Further abandonment of some paddocks is imminent to make way for parking space for cars and buses to offset losses in such space that will occur if the Rock Creek—Potomac Parkway is extended through the Zoo property on the east side of the creek. Construction of ten new paddocks and rehabilitation of six old cones are urgently needed. Provision of new parking space necessitates grading and surfacing about 14,000 square yards of land in several different locations. The establishment of parking space near the mechanical shops will make unavailable an area that has been used for the storage of a reserve pile of coal. As this location has never been an entirely satis- factory one, it would be highly desirable at this time to build an addition to the regular coal bunker to increase the capacity and elimi- nate the need for maintaining a separate reserve pile. The steadily increasing popularity of the Zoo, as a source of both entertainment and education, has developed such a volume of requests for information that there is now need for an additional scientist to thare the load of answering queries and to assist in other administra- tive work so that the Director and Assistant Director can devote more time to general supervision of the Zoo. One additional general mechanic is needed to assist the maintenance personnel in what has hitherto been a losing race in trying to keep pace with natural deterioration in the structures. The newest of the ex- hibition buildings are 18 years old, the reptile house is 24 years old, and the bird house is 27 years old. The minimum of maintenance has fully occupied the mechanical force, mainly on the larger structures, so that there has been almost no opportunity to take care of the lesser structures such as paddocks and outside cages, with the result that an increasing number of these are unusable. Two additional permanent laborers are needed for proper mainte- nance, removal of dead or fallen tree limbs and other safety hazards, and repair of walks, guard rails, and other structures, for the protec- tion of the public. To comply with the requirements of keeping property and inventory records, in accordance with the program laid down by the General 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Services Administration, by authority of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 (Public Law 152, 81st Congress, approved June 30, 1949), General Regulation 100 of the General Ac- counting Office, and Budget-Treasury Regulation No. 1, there is need for three additional clerks. STATUS OF THE COLLECTION Class Se Individuals JW CCS CO 00 21 FR Sas a eet i he a eh Se 242 836 NB Wea YO are pe a sh pe a Ml i he ga ps a 302 1, 383 Reptiles=. 2222 See Sh Se Gees eh eee jae 146 701 Amphibians?: 2522.0 502 oe oo Se Pee eee ee 26 95 NSS i eStart re ere en, eee eee 25 292 Arachnids: 2 arte tnjie 4). aati bee ee See 1 3 rSeCtSS 2s nse ee re re ee ee a a eo ee 1 100 Totalive sss beens Sos cee ee Be mie ers ss 743 3, 410 ‘Animals)‘on Hand duly ol, Ob4.2 2) oo a ee ee © 2, 980 Accessions | during, the: year+. 2222 820 Se ee ee eee 2, 847 Total number of animals in collection during the year____________ 5, 327 Removals for various reasons such as death, exchanges, return of animals on’ deposlt,vetessee. Sh este oo ee ee ee eae ere 1, 917 in collection on June 30) 19502 ess ee eee ee ee eee 3, 410 Respectfully submitted. W. M. Mann, Director. Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 1 Many small creatures are given to the Zoo that have been pets in homes where they are no longer welcome, or where circumstances necessitate giving them up. These include ducks, chickens, and rabbits given to children at Easter time, parakeets, alligators, caimans, guinea-pigs, ete. Also many of the common local wild things that are found by children or adults who think the creatures need help are brought to the Zoo. This includes a wide array, but particularly gray squirrels, cottontail rabbits, opossums, skunks, raccoons, foxes, woodchucks, blue jays, robins, sparrows, box turtles, as well as other less plentiful forms. The quantity of these received far exceeds the need for exhibition animals and facilities to care for them; therefore, some are used in exchange for other animals that are needed, and some are liberated. During the past year there were 925 individuals of 27 different kinds of such unneeded animals brought in. These were accessioned and therefore are recorded, which accounts in part for the large number of removals listed. Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area Sir: It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report on the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended June 380, 1955. SCIENTISTS AND THEIR STUDIES During the fiscal year 43 scientists came to Barro Colorado Island to do research in their respective fields. This is 21 more than last year. The following list does not include the large number who came to get acquainted with the island but who could spend only a day or two there. Investigator Principal interest or special study Abegg, Dr. Roland, Observational studies of birds and University of Louisiana. plants. Ansley, Dr. Hudson, Collection and preservation of certain Johns Hopkins University. pentatomids, scutigerids, and related forms for spermatogenesis studies. Barnard, Dr. J. Laurens, Fresh-water amphipods. Allan Hancock Foundation. Chickering, Dr. A. M., Continuation of intensive study of the Albion College, Michigan. spider fauna. Clark, Dr. Walter, Evaluation of extensive corrosion and Hastman Kodak Research Labora- deterioration tests. tory, Rochester, N. Y. Dawson, Dr. J. Wm., To know the richness of the island’s New Zealand to California. flora and plant ecology. Hisenmann, Dr. Eugene, Continuation of studies of birds of the New York City. island. Enders, Dr. Robert K., Survey of mammalian fauna and pres- Swarthmore College. ervation of material for histological and embryological studies of agouti, Proechimys, and sloth. Freund, Rudolf, Photography of army ant life for ex- Life Magazine. tensive paper on these, and collection of much new data and specimens for future articles. Grégoire, Dr. Ch., Mechanism of coalgulation of insect L’Université de Liége. haemolymph. Grégoire, Dr. Jenny Legasse, Collection of insects for Dr. Grégoire’s Brussels, Belgium. studies. Haig, Miss Janet, To study the biota for future trips. Allan Hancock Foundation. Harrell, Dr. Byron E., Natural areas in middle America, dis- University of Minnesota. tributional studies of birds in cloud forests, ecology of birds of neotropi- cal rain forest ; behavior of Peripatus. 129 130 Investigator Henry, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas R., Smithsonian Institution. Huber, Hugh, Tubingen, Germany. Humphrey, Richard, Albion College, Michigan. Linford, Mr. and Mrs. James B., Oakland, Calif. Lichtwardt, Dr. Robert W., University of Illinois. Lichtwardt, Mrs. Robert W., University of Illinois. Littau, Dr. Alan S., Barnard College. Littau, Dr. Virginea, Barnard College. Lloyd, Ivan, Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory, Panama City. Lundy, Wm. E., Assistant Treasurer, Panama Canal. McEvoy, J. P., Pleasantville, N. Y. Mitchener, Dr. C. D., University of Kansas. Morris, Robert C., U. S. Department of Agriculture. Olivares, Tito, Eastman Tropical Research Labora- tory, Panama City. Patrick, Dr. Ruth, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Pippin, Miss Mary Ellen, Allan Hancock Foundation. Rettenmeyer, Carl, University of Kansas. Roberts, Dr. H. Radclyffe, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Schneirla, Dr. T. G., American Museum of Natural His- tory. Schrader, Dr. Franz, Columbia University. Schrader, Dr. Sally Hughes, Columbia University. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Principal interest or special study To collect more material on plants and animals for press releases. Naturalistic studies in association with Dr. Ansley. Assisting Dr. Chickering with his spider studies. Studies of bird behavior and nesting. Study of fungi of the Hccrinales living within the hind guts or on the exo- skeleton of various arthropods. Collection of host material of the Eccrinales order of fungi and re- lated forms. The ecology of fungus-growing ants, and photography. Ecology of fungus-growing ants and related species. Deterioration and corrosion studies. Further biological and ecological studies of mammals, birds, and insects. Material for The Readers’ Digest. Biology of soil-nesting halictine bees. Annual inspection of the termite tests begun in 1923 and his extensive new test areas. Biological aspects of corrosion and deterioration. Appraisal of the islands limnological possibilities. Plants and animals for future studies, Associate of Dr. Schneirla and aid to Mr. Freund; observations and collec- tions of bees and social wasps. A revisit to study the surrounding forest improvements. Continuation of his studies of the army ants and preparation of manuscripts and his forthcoming book on army ants. Continuation of extensive cytological studies. Further cytological studies; research on chromozones and preparation of preserved material for further study. SECRETARY’S REPORT 131 Inveatigator Principal interest or special study Schubert, Dr. Bernice, Survey of plants of pharmaceutical im- U. S. Department of Agriculture. portance for more intensive future ’ studies. Soper, Dr. Cleveland C., Direction of deterioration and corrosion Eastman Kodak Tropical Research studies with particular emphasis on Laboratory, Panama City. photographie equipment. Swift, Paul, Physical and chemical studies related Eastman Kodak Tropical Research to corrosion and deterioration. Laboratory, Panama City. Weber, Neal A., Cultivation of the fungi cultivated by Swarthmore College. fungus-growing ants. Wetmore, Dr. and Mrs. Alexander, Inspection of the physical plant and Smithsonian Institution. continuation of his bird studies. Wislocki, Louis, Survey of mammal fauna and collec- Swarthmore College. tion of tissues for histological and embryological studies. VISITORS In all, 636 local visitors spent at least a day on the island, and some stayed several days. All were most enthusiastic. Visitors and scien- tists alike were most interested in taking pictures, especially in color. Scientists are finding photographs increasingly valuable aids in their research and teaching. It is unfortunate that the high cost of trans- portation still keeps many away or considerably curtails their stay. It is hoped that means can be found to hold seminars of 20 or so under- graduate students for about 3 months each year. Such a program has tremendous possibilities and is receiving careful consideration. Anyone contemplating a visit to this unique spot in the American Tropics should communicate with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D. C., or with the Resident Manager of the Canal Zone Biological Area, Drawer C, Balboa, Canal Zone. RAINFALL In 1954, during the dry season (January through April) rains of (0.01 inch or more fell on 40 of the 120 days (94 hours), and amounted to only 5.84 inches, as compared to 12.83 inches during 1953. During the wet season of 1954 (May through December) rains of 0.01 inch or more fell on 191 of the 245 days (724 hours) and amounted to 99.84 inches, as compared to 92.14 inches during 1953. During 1954 rain fell on 21 days (818 hours), and averaged only 0.45 inch per day, almost 0.13 inch per hour. March was the driest month (0.21 inch) and November the wettest (17.14 inches.) The wettest year of record (30 years) was 1935 with 143.42 inches, and the driest year of record was 1930 with only 76.57 inches. 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The maximums of record for short periods were: 5 minutes, 1.30 inches; 10 minutes, 1.65 inches; 1 hour, 4.11 inches; 2 hours, 4.81 inches; 24 hours, 10.48 inches. TapLy 1.—Anxual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island Total Station Total Station Year inches average Year inches average NO 2 yee aaa nee ere nes OAS ese eee LO4Q Ee eee as ae 86. 51 109. 43 HODG es Pees ae eee LSS 220 9 ALSO 6 AOI aa ee 91.82 108. 41 IO a reas rarer 116. 36 L468 VO422. ee ee 111.10 108.55 1028 a6 ae Sark ud Vee LOTS Zip elelelers Spl 9 4c een eee 120.29 109. 20 WS) AO eatin gen saa NT Sieo4. LLOGISGNO44ue a eee 111.96 109. 30 OS OE is eee 1B; BY Ie Bil Weve 120.42 109. 84 OSES See UPBY Bi) 104569) |1946 ae ee 87.38 108. 81 TOS Die AR «ties oe, SOs O D7 GOA ieee ee ee ee 77.92 107. 49 OBS ea ene wee pa 101. 73 105. S2i|\T94Sss2 2 oa Se 83.16 106. 48 11S 5 ela “hee aig aarp Ss 22 42 LOR OL NO4OY ee 114.86 106.76 HOS 5 2S Ae eee Ne ZB 2B) TL), 455|| THOR e oe eek wilh, Gil 107. 07 LOSGL 22S. eee O35 8S OSes Oble. ==) a Ze LO 2S OS TER Ls 22 eee 124. 13 LO) V2 1T9b2ee2 =. eee 97.68 106. 94 LO BS xe eae at ad Ae LOO el O3G6 2) | p95 5a eee 104.97 106. 87 195 Oe ee ete Maa AOU OA INO} = ee ee 105.68 106. 82 TABLE 2.—Comparison of 1958 and 1954 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island (inches) Total Accumu Month Station | Years of | Excess or lated average | record | deficiency | excess or 1953 1954 deficiency Januarys 252 2522s oc os cee ae owas awe 4.30 1, 24 1. 84 29 —0. 60 —0. 60 Méebrnuary2 202 2 ee . 69 1, 29 1. 25 29 +0. 04 —0. 56 March soar nn eee aan ee 1. 20 0. 21 1.16 29 —0. $5 —1.51 Aprilinos so. 203 es Se ee 6. 64 3.10 3.16 30 —0. 06 —1.57 BY 2. osnc tase ccsse ccs asescesscscseen 9. 21 11. 09 10. 84 30 +0. 25 —1.32 JUNO she seks soa eee 3. 81 12. 06 11.17 30 +0. 89 —0. 43 DONS. sen cas eeeas oats anesthe sswecases se 15. 93 15. 05 11. 66 30 +3. 49 +3. 06 Angust. 2 ast SA eee 15. 60 12. 92 12. 30 30 +0. 62 +3. 68 Septembertes 2s a2 2-222 sees see cosse 5. 70 11.19 9. 95 30 +1. 24 +4. 92 QOctoberzesss Foe ee eee eee ee 18. 27 13. 14 13. 66 30 —0. 52 +4. 40 NOVEM Defec cs i ccns scone oceans coseee 19. 28 17.14 19. 04 30 —1.90 +2. 50 Decem ber2 45224 Sec 22 Hoss oa ee 4.34 7. 25 10. 89 30 —3. 64 —1.14 Wear =< 2 4 Fates 32 eee 104. 97 105. 68 106382))|Ss2224|e2- 2-5 es —1.14 Dry: season £4222. 5. a saSecc es 12. 83 5. 84 (6 0 Eee See —1.57 Wot sessoneco =< si25-25-2-2-525—5 92. 14 99. 84 CEC 8 1 = ae ee —0. 43 BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS The 110-220-volt, 60-cycle overhead electrical installation was com- pleted. The electrical installation in the new building is about half com- pleted. The necessary pipes, sinks, and valves have been obtained and six electric dehumidifiers purchased. New meta] shelving was purchased for two of the rooms on the upper floor, which will house the library and in which humidity control is readily possible, and a supply of Dexion slotted angles was purchased for additional shelv- ing, laboratory tables, and benches. Metal is being used wherever possible instead of wood, which is so susceptible to termite infestation. All the old metal beds were repainted, and four comfortable new beds were purchased for the two large laboratory-dormitory rooms SECRETARY’S REPORT oe on the lower floor of the new building. This ground floor has a large dark room, four toilets, and shower baths with hot water. Much of the material for the dark room is on hand for early installation. The large laboratory building, built in 1923, is in good condition, though a few changes are contemplated which will add to the facili- ties it offers. | The kitchen was repainted inside, and a new 66-inch white enameled cabinet sink was ordered to replace the stained and corroded iron sink. An electric water heater was purchased and will be installed shortly. Two of the cottages were repainted and the screening repaired and are now in very good condition. Corrugated iron sheets were pur- chased to replace the roof on the Haskins building. The repairs made to the Chapman house, plus liberal use of coal-tar creosote, should make this important building serviceable for several years to come. The three other cottages are serving their purpose well, and the few relatively inexpensive changes to be made will enhance their useful- ness. Of the trail-end houses, only the Drayton and Fuertes are in good shape. The one at the end of Zetek trail could be used if repaired. Neither the Bangs house nor the one at the end of Barbour trail is usable. A 14-foot metal boat and a 10-horsepower Johnson outboard motor were purchased to permit more effective patrolling of the island and in which it will be possible to reach Frijoles faster in emergencies. A new 102-horsepower Gray-Marine Express engine was purchased and installed in the U. S. Snook to replace the worn-out Red-Wing en- gine, and glass windows were made and installed, replacing the in- adequate and unserviceable canvas curtains. The U. S. d/oon is still serviceable. A railing made of galvanized iron pipe was installed along the north side of the long line of steps from the dock to the laboratory levels. This safety measure has long been needed. MOST URGENT NEEDS A new water tank is very badly needed, for the one fed from the roof of the old laboratory building is of coal-tar, creosote-treated tim- ber and may collapse at any time. The use of concrete is not feasible because of the stratigraphy of the area in which it is located. A new tank of California redwood should be purchased without delay. It would cost less than concrete and would last long enough to be eco- nomical, Two of the metal septic tanks, which were installed at least 15 years ago, have rusted through and are a menace. They should be re- placed with concrete tanks as soon as possible. 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The laboratory storerooms in the new building, which will also house the library, herbarium, and species index, should be stocked with chemicals, preservatives, laboratory glassware, and other neces- sary equipment. A separate dry room should be built on the ground floor of the new building to provide a storage area free from mold for visiting scien- tists to store their cameras, clothing, and luggage. A similar dry room is needed in the old large building for the storage of such items as linens, towels, and bedding to keep them free from the musty odors of the humid tropics; and dry closets should be installed on the up- per floor of this building and in the old Z-M-A cottage, the old Chi- chi cottage, the Barbour guest house, and the Chapman house. Tables are needed for the additional laboratory rooms, the library, herbarium, and kitchen to replace the miscellaneous collection of odds and ends that have been serving as tables. These can be economically built of Dexion slotted angles and heavy plywood. Repainting of the exteriors of all buildings is needed. Considera- tion is being given to making this a paint-test program to determine which paint gives the longest and most satisfactory service at the least cost. Since electricity is now available 24 hours a day, 4 attic fans, 6 oscillating fans, and 2 window air-conditioning units should be in- stalled in carefully chosen areas. These will help to reduce the in- terior temperatures and humidity of the laboratory buildings, and thus contribute to the comfort and efficiency of the scientists. The 29-year-old building occupied by the three laborers is in a bad state of disrepair and must be rebuilt. Originally the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture used this building for long-term termite tests, and termite damage has contributed largely to its present unsatisfac- tory condition. The dock at the island, though it has been extended each year be- cause of silting from the Allee and Lutz streams, is already at an un- safe distance from the shore. Consideration is being given to the relocation of the dock on the south shore of laboratory bay where soil deposition is less likely to occur. A trail will have to be made from the dock to the landing and this will require the purchase of more Decauville track. The engine of the U.S. Afoon, which carried the heavy burden when the U. S. Snook was laid up for repairs, is still serviceable, but needs to be overhauled soon to prevent more extensive and costly repairs at a later date. FINANCES The rate for scientists and visitors for one-day visits is $3 per person. This provides for the launch trip from Frijoles to the island, a guide on the trail, noon meal, and launch trip back to Frijoles in SECRETARY’S REPORT 135 time for the evening train. Scientists from institutions that con- tribute to the support of the island through table subscriptions pay $4 per person for each full day; others pay $5 per person for each full day. The full-day rate provides for three consecutive meals and lodging, in addition to the two launch trips required to reach and leave the island. The grant made by the National Science Foundation to the Smith- sonian Institution for the Canal Zone Biological Area was received with sincere appreciation. These funds enabled the Institution to continue the operation of the island without interruption. The following institutions continued their table subscriptions: BERET TCE Od ERA yo Fe Feo Oa aay oye ah fees eat ee $1, 000 News Yorks Zoological Society=— eo Se eee ee eee 300 American Museumiot Naturale History se 2 soe. ee Se ee eee 300 Smithsonian® institution fee ee ee eo eee 300 [The Smithsonian Institution provides other funds as needed.] Donations from the following are also gratefully acknowledged: E. G. Cherbonier, Dr. Eugene Eisenmann, Dr. Margaret Fulford, Dr. C. M. Goethe, Father J. L. Hartman, Robert M. Laughlin, Dr. Harold L. Pierson, James Reid, Dr. Herbert Schwartz, and Dr. G. C. Shattuck. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due to the Canal Zone Government, its Executive Secre- tary, the Customs and Immigration Divisions, the officials and em- ployees of the Panama Railroad, and especially the Police Division; the Panama Canal Company, particularly its Dredging and Com- missary Divisions and the Storehouses; and also Dr. Soper, Dr. Swift, and other staff members of the Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory, especially Dr. Soper. Without such generous and un- failing assistance, the Area could not function so successfully. Respectfully submitted. JameEs ZetveK, Resident Manager. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 370930—5é6——i10 Report on the International Exchange Service Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ- ities of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955: The Smithsonian Institution is the official United States agency for the exchange with other nations of governmental, scientific, and lit- erary publications. The International Exchange Service, initiated by the Smithsonian Institution in the early years of its existence for the interchange of scientific publications between learned societies and individuals in the United States and those of foreign countries, serves as a means of developing and executing in part the broad and compre- hensive objective, “the diffusion of knowledge.” It was later desig- nated by the United States Government as the agency for the trans- mission of official documents to selected depositories throughout the world, and it continues to execute the exchanges pursuant to conven- tions, treaties, and other international agreements. The number of packages of publications received for transmission during the year increased by 126,463 to the yearly total of 1,146,972, and the weight of the packages increased by 15,640 to 812,960 pounds. The average weight of the individual package decreased to 11.34 ounces, as compared to the 12.49-ounce average for the fiscal year 1954. The total weight of the foreign packages is higher than that received in any year since 1939. The 63 cases received from the National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan, China, partially accounts for the increase. This is the first shipment from China since the one received from the National Central Library (then at Nanking) in 1949. The publications received from foreign sources for addresses in the United States and from domestic sources for shipment abroad are classified as shown in the following table: Classification Packages Weight Number Number Pounds Pounds United States parllamentary documents sent abroad_- 620/900". ss. Gece se 272, 433 Publications received in return for parliamentary docu-. es A ne ee EER eee Seer eH CL Hens Soseeccoenas SEORA i ase aes 16, 432 United States departmental documents sent abroad ---- D436 OR ht aaa eee 175803" (-28es Sees Publications received in return for departmental docu- Mente. 52 Ses ee Ee ee Loe ee 8) 455) |New aes ess 21, 306 cel baa tee As ee a ee eee 16,008 Ee case eee 20851845 |2SS. cence Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications re- eee from abroad for distribution in the United Statesiote ss. 2 ra ee ca eee | eee 96;400t|Saeesesoese 118, 712 No telinsan =e ese ao ee eed eee 1, 033, 535 113, 437 656, 510 156, 450 Grand itotal: 2 - ==. ee os eet eee 1, 146, 972 812, 960 136 SECRETARY’S REPORT 137 The packages of publications are forwarded to the exchange bu- reaus of foreign countries by freight or, where shipment by such means is impractical, to the foreign addressees by direct mail. Dis- tribution in the United States of the publications received through the foreign exchange bureaus is accomplished primarily by mail, but by other means when more economical. The number of boxes shipped to the foreign exchange bureaus was 2,836, or 730 less than for the previous year. Of these boxes 897 were for depositories of full sets of United States Government documents, these publications being fur- nished in exchange for the official publications of foreign governments which are received for deposit in the Library of Congress. The num- ber of packages forwarded by mail and by means other than freight was 212,789. There was allocated to the International Exchange Service for transportation $41,000. With this amount it was possible to effect the shipment of 800,308 pounds, which was 12,552 pounds less than the weight of publications received during the year. However, ap- proximately 14,000 pounds of the full sets of United States Govern- ment documents accumulated during the year because the Library of Congress had requested suspension of shipment to certain foreign depositories. Ocean freight rates to the English and European ports were in- creased 15 percent in April, and the rates to Japanese, Philippine, and other eastern ports were increased 10 percent in May. The total outgoing correspondence was 2,568 letters, exclusive of information copies. With the exception of Taiwan, no shipments are being made to China, North Korea, Outer Mongolia, Communist-controlled area of Viet Nam, Communist-controiled area of Laos, or the Haiphong Enclave. With certain exceptions the regulations of the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, Department of Commerce, provide that each package of publications exported bear a general license symbol and a legend, “Export License Not Required.” ‘The International Exchange Serv- ice accepts for transmission to foreign destinations only those pack- ages of publications that fall within the exception and those packages of publications to which the general license symbol and legend have been applied by the consignor. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The number of sets of United States official publications received by the Exchange Service for transmission abroad in return for the official publications sent by foreign governments for deposit in the Library of Congress is now 105 (62 full and 43 partial sets), listed 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 below. Changes that occurred during the year are shown in the footnotes. DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINA: Divisiédn Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA; Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SourH WAtEgEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. SourH AvsTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. AustTriA: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna. BrierumM: Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. BraziL: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Burearta: Bulgarian Bibliographical Institute, Sofia? Burma: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. CAnaDA; Library of Parliament, Ottawa. MAnItTosa; Provincial Library, Winnipeg. OnTaARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto. QUEBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. CryLon: Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. CHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. CHINA: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan.” Perrine: National Library of Peiping.* CoLoMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José. CuBA: Ministerio de Estado, Canje Internacional, Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: National and University Library, Prague.’ DENMARK: Institut Danios des Exchanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. Eayrt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. France: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GEEMANY: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin.® Free University of Berlin, Berlin. Parliamentary Library, Bonn. GREAT BriraIn: HnGtanp: British Museum, London. Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) Huncaky: Library of Parliament, Budapest.’ InprA: National Library, Calcutta. Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. INDONESIA: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. IsraEL: Government Archives and Library, Hakirya. ITaty: Ministerio della Publica Istruzione, Rome. 1 Shipment suspended. 2 Changed from National Central Library, Nanking. ® Name changed from Offentliche Wissenschaftliche Bibliothek, Berlin. SECRETARY’S REPORT 139 JaPANn: National Diet Library, Tokyo.‘ Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departmento de Informacién para el Extranjero, México, D. F. NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Bx- teriores, Lima. PuHmrrines: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PoLanD: Bibliothéque Nacionale, Warsaw.’ PortuaaL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Spain: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. SwebDENn: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. TurKEY: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education, Is- tanbul. Union oF SoutH Arnica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Union oF Soviet SocrAList RePusrics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow, 115. UnIreD Nations: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Urvauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Yueosiavia: Bibliografski Institut, Belgrade.‘ DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SupDAN: Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. Eotrv1a: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. BRAZIL: Minas Gerais: Directoria Geral de Estatistica em Minas, Belo Horizonte. BriTIsH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. CANADA: ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. BritisH CoLumMsBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s. Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. Dominican REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. EL SALvapor: Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. GREEcE: National Library, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala, Hiat1: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. HONDURAS: Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. “ Receives two sets. 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 INDIA: BIHAR AND OrIssA: Revenue Department, Patna. Bompay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart- ment, Bombay. UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. Secretariat Library, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow. West BenGaL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly House, Calcutta. IRAN: Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. JraQ: Public Library, Baghdad. JaMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. LEBANON: American University of Beirut, Beirut. Linerra: Department of State, Monrovia. MaALAyA: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Manta: Minister for the Treasury, Valleta. Nicaragua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. PAKISTAN: Chief Secretary to the Government of Punjab, Lahore. Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asunci6n. Scortanp: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. Sram: National Library, Bangkok. SinGAPoRE: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. VATICAN Ciry: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 92 copies of the Federal Register and 94 copies of the Congressional Record. This is an increase over the preceding year of 2 copies of the Federal Register and a decrease of 10 copies of the Congressional Record. The countries to which these journals are being forwarded are given in the following list. DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER ARGENTINA } Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires. Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.° Boletin Oficial de la Reptiblica Argentina, Ministerio de Justica e Instruc- ci6n PGablica, Buenos Aires. Camara de Disputados Oficina de Informaci6n Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires, AUSTRALIA : Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SoutH WALES: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.® WEestTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. 5 Federal Register only. SECRETARY’S REPORT 141 BRAZIL: Biblioteca da Camera dos Deputados, Rio de Janeiro. Secretaria de Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.° Amazonas: Archivo, Biblioteca e Imprensa Publica, Manifos.* Banta: Governador do Estado da Bahia, Sio Salvador.” Esperito Santo: Presidencia do Estado do Espirito Santo, Victoria. Rio GRANDE DO SUL: Imprensa Oficial do Estado, Porto Alegre. SAo PavuLo: Imprensa Oficial do Hstada, Sio Paulo. SerGirE: Biblioteca Piblica do Estado de Sergipe, Aracaju.® British Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize. CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. CEYLON: Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.® CHINA: Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.® Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan. CuBa: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca Publica Panamericana, Habana.® Biblioteca Marti Camara de Representantes, Habana. Eeyrt; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.® Ex SatvabDor: Library, National Assembly, San Salvador. FRANCE; Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris. Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.® Publiques de l’Institut de Droit Comparé, Université de Paris, Paris.° Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.’ Service de la Documentation Etrangére, Assemblée Nationale, Paris.* GERMANY : Amerika-Institut der Universitit Miinchen, Miinchen.’ Archiv, Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn. Bibliothek der Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit Kiel, Kiel- Wik. Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.° Der Bayrische Landtag, Munich.® 7 Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.° Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.® Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg.’ Gotp Coast: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra.® GREAT BRITAIN: Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London.® House of Commons Library, London.° Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.°® GREECE: Bibliothéque, Chambre des Députés Hellénique, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. HAITI: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honpvurss: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. ® Congressional Record only. 7 Three copies. ® Added during year. 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 INDIA: Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.® Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.’ Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.® Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.® Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. Legislative Assembly Library, Trivandrum.‘ Madras State Legislature, Madras.” ® Parliament Library, New Delhi.* Servants of India Society, Poona.* IRELAND: Dail Eireann, Dublin. IsraEL; Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. ITALY: Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. European Office, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.* International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.® JAPAN: Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. Korea: Secretary General, National Assembly, Pusan. LUxEMBOURG: Assemblée Commune de la C. H. C. A., Luxembourg. MExico; Direccién General Informacién, Secretaria de Gobernacién, México, D. F. Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D. F. AGUASCALIENTES: Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. Basa CALIFORNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. CHIAPAS: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. COAHUILA: Periéddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. scans CoLtImMa: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. DuraANGO: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango.® GuaNnaJsvuATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.® GUERRERO: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo.® JALI8cO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. Méx100: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MicHoAacAN: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacin, Morelia. MorExLOos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. NayakiT: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. Nuevo Le6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. Oaxaca: Periédico Oficial, Palacia de Gobierno, Oaxaca.’ Pursia: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. San Luts Porosf: Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosi. SrnaLoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacin. Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. SECRETARY’S REPORT 143 Mextco—Continued Tapasco: Secretarfa de Gobierno, Sessi6n 3a, Ramo de Prensa, Villaher- mosa.* TAMAULIPAS: Secretarfa General de Gobierno, Victoria. TLaxcaLa: Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala.’ VERACRUz: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- nacion y Justicia, Jalapa. YucatAn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatin, Mérida. NETHEBLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.® New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. PAKISTAN; Punjab Legislative Assembly Department, Lahore. PANAMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.® Peru: Camara de Diputados, Lima. PoLaND: Ministry of Justice, Warsaw.® PorTuGaL: Secretaria de Assembla National, Lisbon.° PortuGuEsE Timor: Reparticio Central de Administracio Civil, Dili. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.® International Labor Office, Geneva.” ® Library, United Nations, Geneva. UNION oF SOUTH AFRICA: Carr oF Goop Hore: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. UNIon or Sovier Soclarist REPUBLIcS: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obschest- vennykh Nauk, Moscow.’ Urvuauay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca del Congreso, Caracas. FOREIGN EXCHANGE SERVICES Exchange publications for addresses in the countries listed below are forwarded by freight to the exchange services of those countries. Exchange publications for addresses in other countries are forwarded directly by mail. LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES AusTrRIA: Austrian National Library, Vienna. Betcium: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel- gique, Bruxelles. CuinA: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan.” CzECHOSLovAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, National and University Library, Prague. Denmark: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, Copenhagen K. Eeyrpt: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulag, Cairo. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies, Snellmaninkatu 9-11, Helsinki. FRANCE: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, 58 Rue de Richelieu, Paris. GEBMANY (Eastern): Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. ®Two copies. 10 Changed from National Central Library, Nanking. 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 GreMANY (Western): Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, Bad Godesberg. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Wheldon & Wesley, 83/84 Berwick Street, London, Wi Huneary: National Library, Széchényi, Budapest. InpIA: Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. INDONESIA: Minister of Education, Djakarta.” IsRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. ITaty: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Publica Istruzione, Rome. JAPAN: Division of International Affairs, National Diet Library, Tokyo. NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- brary, The Hague. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norvégien des Kchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de l'Université Royale, Oslo. PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PotanpD: Service Polonais des changes Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PortuGaL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre- tary’s Office, Brisbane. SoutH AusTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisici6n de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- eas Piblicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Avenida Calvo Sotelo 20, Madrid. SweEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Swirzertanp: Service Suisse des changes Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- trale Fédérale Palais Fédéral, Berne. TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. TurKEY: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving, Istan- bul. UNION oF SoutH Arrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. UNION oF Soviet SocraAList REPUBLICS: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin Library, Moscow 19. Victor1IaA: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. Yuaostavia: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. Respectfully submitted. D. G. Wiu1aMs, Chief. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 14 Between the United States and England only. 14 Changed from Department of Cultural Affairs and Education, Djakarta. Report on the National Gallery of Art Sim: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, the eighteenth annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955. ‘This report is made pursuant to the provisions of section 5 (d) of Public Resolution No. 14, Seventy-fifth Congress, first session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51). ORGANIZATION The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre- tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. The five general trustees continu- ing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955, were Samuel H. Kress, Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Duncan Phillips, Chester Dale, and Paul Mellon. The Board held its annual meeting on May 3, 1955. Samuel H. Kress was reelected President and Ferdinand Lammot Belin Vice President, to serve for the ensuing year. All the executive officers of the Gallery continued in office during the year. The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1955, are: Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Treasurer. David E. Finley, Director. Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. John Walker, Chief Curator. Macgill James, Assistant Director. The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the annual meeting May 3, 1955, were as follows: EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Chief Justice of the United States, Harl Warren, Chairman. Samuel H. Kress, Vice Chairman. Ferdinand Lammot Belin. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Leonard Carmichael. Paul Mellon. FINANCE COMMITTEE Secretary of the Treasury, George M. Humphrey, Chairman. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. Samuel H. Kress. Ferdinand Lammot Belin. Paul Mellon. 145 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Chairman. Dunean Phillips. Chester Dale. Paul Mellon. David E. Finley. PERSONNEL On June 30, 1955, full-time Government employees on the staff of the National Gallery of Art numbered 301, as compared with 306 employees as of June 30, 1954. The United States Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of employees paid from appro- priated public funds. APPROPRIATIONS For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955, the Congress of the United States appropriated for the National Gallery of Art $1,300,000, to be used for salaries and expenses in the operation and upkeep of the Gallery, the protection and care of works of art acquired by the Board of Trustees, and all administrative expenses incident thereto, as authorized by Joint Resolution of Congress approved March 24, 1937 (20 U. S. C. 71-75; 50 Stat. 51), and a supplemental appropriation of $23,264 to meet the Gallery’s requirements for the fiscal year under the “Federal Employees Salary Increase Act of 1955.” The total appropriation for the fiscal year was $1,323,264. The following ex- penditures and encumbrances were incurred: PErsonal Ser viCese ee eres ee ete Renan ie Ee SNe al Mae cee eee + $1,173, 681. 41 Printing san dereprogucclon sess ee 3, 082. 05 Hlectricity, supplies, equipment, ete_--__.____.__._----___---_--~. 146, 500. 54 4 Ni) 1 een ee le eS RENO me OR Pee oe trees eee 1, 323, 264. 00 ATTENDANCE During the fiscal year 1955 there were 814,932 visitors to the Gal- lery—an average daily attendance of about 2,245. ACCESSIONS There were 842 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts, loans, or deposits during the fiscal year. Most of the paintings and a number of the prints were placed on exhibition. 1 This includes the $23,264 of the supplemental appropriation and $2,572 of the other- wise unobligated balance of the regular appropriation. SECRETARY’S REPORT 147 GIFTS During the fiscal year 1955 the following gifts were accepted by the Board of Trustees: c PAINTINGS Donor ei Artist Title Mrs. Charles D. Draper----- Stuartas cusses George Washington Mrs. Charles D. Draper.---- Stuarteeacsssseseas Ann Barry. Mrs. Charles D. Draper_---- Stuarts22s343se ees Mary Barry. Mrs. Charles D. Draper---_-- Raeburns sso 252 cu Jean Christie. Mrs. Margaret S. Lewisohn_. Renoir__..-----.---- The Vintagers. Mrs. Dwight Davis__...-_-- Romneyeen-s soso S55 Captain Forbes. Mrs. Leland Harrison_-__-__~- TwBeale esse ul oes a Thomas Sully. Mrs:-Wms De® Vogel-22--. =< IRS terete reo On the Terrace, Lessing J. Rosenwald___-__- Blakesvienti s42e0c 22 The Last Supper. Lewis’ Einsteins 5-..22=- 5.2 Rosalba Carriera__-_--_ Portrait de Femme, Comtesse Orzelska. ewis. Hinsteinges 22222252 Patents bar horas Scene Champétre. Arthurisachs'2o_- == 5255-22 Goya;vattr. tos 2 2222 The Bullfight. SCULPTURE Mrs. Margaret S. Lewisohn_._ MRenoir__..-----_---. Coco. Miss Mildred Howells_____-- JE Ot rAma Warden see Wm. Dean Howells. Lessing J. Rosenwald_-_-_---- Daumier <= Aas. esses Le Bourgeois qui flAne, Lessing J. Rosenwald---_---- Daumier. 2-22-2222 -% L’ Amoureux. PRINTS Lewisshinstein= eee “Jeu de Cartes” by Du Rameau. Mrs. W. Murray Crane________. 27 prints. George Matthew Adams_______. 56 prints. Lessing J. Rosenwald_________. 253 prints. People of the Federal Republic ofGermany see 64 prints. EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART The Board of Trustees during the year accepted the offer of Lessing J. Rosenwald to exchange the following prints for superior impres- sions of the same works: Artist Title Manternaiccs soi sete ean ans Bacchanalian Group with a Press. Mantegn acs. meee se een ne ae Entombment. ZOMW ANGTCA. oot ee eee A Nereid and Two Children Playing Musical Instruments. ZOUNPANGTEA= saa ae ee Griffins and Two Cupids Crossing Halberds. ZOANPANGRGR! 2s oo ee A Nereid Ridden by Two Children. ZoantAndrea! = 2 se Three Children Blowing Horns. 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 WORKS OF ART ON LOAN During the fiscal year 1955 the following works of art were received on loan by the National Gallery of Art: From— Artist Chester Dale, New York, N. Y.: Chrysanthemtims 2) =. 225 222 oe 2 ee eee William Chase. Portraitiofia BYOUne aV.OlG aT es =e a eee David D’Avignon. Edward T. Wailes, Washington, D. C.: Etalianvioan cd scape tees ee 0 Ds eee aie een Jan Both. Robert Thayer, Washington, D. C.: Harrison: Grays sao Lo aes Br eae Copley. HhizabethiGraycOus 2. 2. lee I ee Copley. SamuelwAdleyne Otis. 28 fae eo le eo Stuart. Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch, New York, N. Y.: Sixty-three early American paintings. Robert Woods Bliss, Washington, D. C.: Nineteen objects of Pre-Columbian art. LOANED WORKS OF ART RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year 1955: To— Artist Chester Dale, New York, N. Y.: RalphtWaldothmerson22 222-2 ee ee Thomas Sully. Ther SeineiatiGiverny 22 ee ee eee Monet. Mrs. Charlotte Fuerstenberg, Johannesburg, South Africa: VB) ere (o Lier 06 Ue) OFEfaf 1 See ee ee ee ee eee Cézanne. ihe Bridzeiof wang] ol sas ta ee ee ae ee ee Van Gogh. MUD OUT te ey ee Bn ee aa a el as See ai Sev Be Toulouse-Lautrec. John S. Broome, Oxnard, Calif. : oston the:Grand ‘Banks= 222 ee Homer. Mr. and Mrs. Charles B. Wrightsman, Palm Beach, Fla.: Girl witha: Cat oa ane 2 aa ae ed ee Renoir. WORKS OF ART LENT During the fiscal year 1955 the Gallery lent the following works of art for exhibition purposes: To— Kennedy Galleries, New York, N. Y.: Artist Arcti¢ Haren uote se ss3 sole sk aeten 2 See bees J. J. Audubon. Sharp-Tailed. Sparrow —.2-2--5. = 222s oe ee ee J. J. Audubon. Yellow. Warblet<2.22 222222220) 2522 ee eee J. J. Audubon. Orchard yOriole soe ee Se ee a ee J. J. Audubon. Marmyard Powis 2-0. ee Se ee ee J. J. Audubon, John James AlGubon2s=s52=) 5s eee ee eee J. Woodhouse Au- dubon. Armed Forces Medical Library, Washington, D. O.: Christ Healing therSicks (print) ease Rembrandt. The White House, Washington, D. C.: Ships in the Scheldt Estuary__._._________---_--_---__.- Storck. SECRETARY’S REPORT 149 To— Artist The Morgan Library, New York, N. Y.: Bil OSOp li yay pyri Ge ae a ee ic Diirer. Man of, Sorrowsi(print) #22 —- 25 2 nes ae ee Diirer. Young Woman (Costume Study) (print) -______________ Diirer. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Pa.: RimothygyMatioc kaa ee oe ee ee Charles Willson Peale Lady, witha Harp >;Pliza Ridgely__.=-.--—-==—+ =. — Sully. Moung Womanviny Whites... 26 ees i ee Henri. The Supreme Court, Washington, D. C.: Vue general des Alpes et Glaciers________________--___ Descourtis. QUAD LIE CERES a6: Ro Fy Tea ca A eh ee ee Descourtis. ChuterdeyStaubbach=2=2es ease ee ee eee a ee Janinet. Vuede ThuniduiCéte du Midix. 22s 2 ee Janinet. Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass. : StOLMPOVER Las ware ek aout a eee dE Tes Re ee SoS Marin. Phillips Memorial Gallery, Washington, D. C.: StormOveruTaos see Se ae Marin. The San Francisco Museum of Art, San Francisco, Calif. : Stormyovers Laos ew re eee ee ee eee eee Marin. EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1955: American Primitive Paintings. From the Collection of Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch. Continued from previous fiscal year, through July 11, 1954. Renaissance Prints by Lucas van Leyden, Marcantonio Raimondi and Jean Duvet. From the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection. October 24, 1954, through February 6, 1955. Austrian Drawings and Prints. From the Albertina Museum, Vienna. February 20 through March 20, 1955. Goya Drawings and Prints. From the Prado Museum and the Lazaro Galdiano Museum, Madrid. April 2 through April 24, 1955. American Primitive Paintings. From the Collection of Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch. Opened May 29, 1955. Miniatures and Prints. From the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection. Opened May 29, 1955. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald Collection——Special exhibitions of prints from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated to the following places during the fiscal year 1955: Milwaukee Art Institute, Milwaukee, Wis.: Prints for an exhibition, “Music in Art.” September 1954. The Print Club of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.: Exhibition of prints from the collections of Board Members. Anonymous German, “Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem.” September 1954. 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Portland Art Museum, Portland, Oreg.: Exhibition of Early German Prints. October 1954. Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio: Renoir, “Portrait of Wagner” (lithograph). Lent to “Composer Portraits and Autograph Scores.” October 3—November 7, 1954. The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio: Two Huber drawings lent to the Chinese Landscape Exhibition. November 4, 1954—January 2, 1955. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.: Loans to the exhibition, “American Drawings,” sent to Munich, Rouen, and London, by the United States Information Agency. 1954-55. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.—Traveling Exhibition: Goya Drawings and Prints. Rosenwald Goya prints added to those from Madrid. 1955. The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, N. Y.: Diirer Prints and Drawings. March-April 1955. Davidson Art Center, Middletown, Conn. : Early French Prints. Modern French Monotypes. April 1955. Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. : Early prints showing musical themes to illustrate two concerts called “Love Songs of the Renaissance.” April 1955. Marion Kogler McNay Art Institute, San Antonio, Tex. : Daumier Drawings. May 1955. Tyler School of Art, Elkins Park, Philadelphia, Pa.: Hobby Show—F our American Contemporary prints. May 12-14, 1955. American Federation of Arts—Traveling Exhibition: Nuremberg and the German World. 1955-1956. Indew of American Design—During the fiscal year 1955, 33 travel- ing exhibitions of original watercolor renderings of this collection, with 60 bookings, were sent to the following States: State Pons Arkansase? 22 228 225 2o ene one We 1 Coloradoiss 222222 eee oe a ee ee 3 Connecticuti =. 222 22. ee See en een eee al District zofiColumbia2. 222s ee ee See tee ee mae pean 6 WlOrid a a ee 2 Georcian ce 2 titre ryt Se Ea ee S0E Re PRE a 38d 1 Tn og 2 re a, SOLE ATS EE RUE Laie ae Seen Seen 8 eae 1 TOW aes 2 Si ea ah ee ae ee 11 SECRETARY’S REPORT 151 Number of State evhibitions Massachusetts seis See Sees ee eee a WYO rh hegeh o e Pee S Ee Sea a ee ee Missouri 2 = sees pas Le Bees en ee Bennsylvaniage se eine ee eee Se ie See en eens TMENMESS CO See ase os ol ae ol Se ee ee SVL rn ee a Sie wo ewe ge el ee AWS CONS iT ee oe ee ee ee ee a ee ie) iz i=] ° ! | ! i} t ' ! 1 ! ! { 1 1 ! i} i} | i} 1 i} | if 1 1 I 1 1 | 1 | | 1 1 | ! | 1 1 1 1 | 1 i} | ! | ! i} 1 | | | aAawnwnnwwrFrwwh & CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES The Curatorial Department accessioned 417 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1955. Advice was given regarding 365 works of art brought to the Gallery for expert opinion, and 65 visits to col- lections were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gift or for expert opinion. About 1,500 inquiries requiring re- search were answered verbally and by letter. John Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, gave a lecture at the Seattle Museum of Art on the occasion of the opening of the Samuel H. Kress Collection in that museum. Mr. Walker also lectured on masterpieces of painting in the National Gallery of Art to the Woman’s Club in Richmond, the museum Class at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and the Twentieth Century Club in Pittsburgh. Miss Elizabeth Mongan gave a series of five lectures on the history of printmaking at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. She gave a lecture at Wesleyan University on the First French Engraving. She also conducted a symposium at Bryn Mawr College on Piranesi and one at Swarthmore College on Rembrandt. Charles M. Richards conducted two courses in art history under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture. Mr. Richards, as chairman, prepared the program for the regis- trar’s section of the American Association of Museums meetings held in Washington this spring. He attended the Southeastern Museums Conference in Miami, and Miss Katharine Shepard was the official delegate to the General Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America in Boston. William Campbell selected reproductions of Gallery paintings which are to be installed in new domiciliary buildings of the U. S. Soldiers’ Home, Washington, D. C. Mr. Walker served as trustee for the American Federation of Arts, the American Academy in Rome, and the Bureau of University Travel. He also served on the following committees: Dumbarton Oaks Visiting Committee, Harvard University Press Visiting 370980—56——12 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Committee, Art Committee of the New York Hospital, Harvard Committee on the Visual Arts, Committee for the Exhibition of Nineteenth Century French Paintings from American Collections in Paris. Mr. Walker was also a member of the United States National Commission for UNESCO. Perry B. Cott served as President of the Washington Society, Archaeological Institute of America. Miss Shepard was secretary of this organization. Mr. Cott served on the following art juries: Corcoran Alumni Association, Arts Club, National Museum Sculpture Exhibition. RESTORATION AND REPAIR OF WORKS OF ART Necessary restoration and repair of paintings and sculpture in the Gallery’s collection were made by Francis Sullivan, resident restorer, at the Gallery. PUBLICATIONS During the year Huntington Cairns contributed an article on “Tegal Theory” to a Jurisprudential Symposium in Memory of Felix S. Cohen, published in the Rutgers Law Review, and reviews of “Aesthetics and the Gastalt,” by Ian Rawlins, to Philosophy and Phenomenological Research; “Definition and Theory in Jurispru- dence,” by H. L. A. Hart, to the Philosophical Quarterly ; “The Age of Ideas,” by George R. Havens, to the Washington Post and Times Herald; and “The Law of Primitive Man,” by E. Adamson Hoebel, to the Journal of Politics. Mr. Walker wrote an article on a painting by Delacroix in the National Gallery, London, for the Ladies Home Journal. He also prepared the text for a “pocketbook” of works of art in the Gallery’s collection to be published by the Harry N. Abrams Company. Mrs. Fern R. Shapley wrote an article on Bingham’s “Jolly Flatboatmen” for the Art Quarterly. Mr. Cott wrote an article for the Gulf Oil Orange Disc publication on Della Robbia sculpture. An article by Miss Mongan entitled, “New Acquisitions in the Lessing J. Rosen- wald Collection” appeared in Arts Digest, and she also wrote an ar- ticle on Norma Morgan for the International Graphic Arts. A total of 125,000 leaflets describing paintings in galleries 8, 52, and 57 have been printed and are being distributed to the public in the respective galleries. Mr. Walker’s monograph on Bellini’s “Feast of the Gods” has gone to press. Publications in process include Mr. Walker’s text for a portfolio of works of art in the Gallery’s collection to be published by the Harry N. Abrams Co., an article written by Mrs. Shapley for The Studio, and a book she is preparing to be published by the Phaidon Press. SECRETARY’S REPORT 153 Gallery publications in process include the catalog of paintings and the catalog of paintings and sculpture acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Collection since 1951 for the exhibition in 1956. During the past fiscal year the Publications Fund published seven new 11- by 14-inch color reproductions and acquired five new Christ- mas card color plates. ‘Two large collotype reproductions of paint- ings in the collection and nine sculpture reproductions distributed by two New York publishers were placed on sale. A new Portfolio No. 4 entitled “Landscape Paintings in the Na- tional Gallery of Art” (containing text by a staff member and twelve 11- by 14-inch color reproductions, of which seven were completely new prints) is in the process of publication. The catalog of “Twen- tieth Century French Paintings from the Chester Dale Collection” was reprinted during the year. The Fund made available to the pub- lic a National Gallery of Art engagement calendar. Exhibition catalogs of the Austrian Drawings and Prints, and Goya Drawings and Prints, were distributed. Representations of Gallery works of art in 2- by 2-inch color slides and in “stereo” color slides are now being sold in the Gallery Infor- mation Rooms. These slides, which are all original photographs, are an entirely new type of item in Publications Fund stock. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The attendance for the general, congressional, and special tours, and the “Picture of the Week” totaled 41,023, while that for the 44 audi- torium lectures on Sunday afternoons was approximately 10,025 dur- ing the fiscal year 1955. Tours, lectures, and conferences arranged by appointment were given to 256 groups and individuals. The total number of people served in this manner was 6,042. This is an increase of 110 groups and 2,586 people served over last year. These special appointments were made for such groups as representatives from leading high schools, universities, and museums, other governmental agencies, wives of members of the Cabinet and of Congressmen, women’s clubs, store su- pervisors, and attaches from foreign embassies. Three separate training programs for volunteer docents from the Junior League, the American Association of University Women of Arlington County, and members of the Parent-Teacher Association of the Barrett School of Alexandria were carried forward during the year by several members of the Education Department. Lecture programs on “American Cultural Life” have been prepared for librarian members of the United States Information Agency, and for members of the Department of State, who may act as cultural at- taches on overseas duty. The wives of the officers in the Departments 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 of State, Army, and Navy at Fort McNair, who are preparing for overseas duty, also attended these programs. The staff of the Education Office delivered 14 lectures in the audi- torium on Sunday afternoons, and 30 were given by guest speakers. During March and April, Dr. Etienne Gilson, Director of Studies at the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies at Toronto, delivered the Fourth Annual Series of the six A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts on the theme, “Art and Reality.” During the past year 150 persons borrowed 4,697 slides from the lending collection. The 16 centers throughout the country that dis- tribute the National Gallery of Art film, report that approximately 49.564 viewers saw the film in 260 bookings. Members of the Education Office prepared and gave 32 broadcasts to accompany the Sunday night concerts over Station WGMS. The Curator of Education prepared and produced a half-hour television program entitled “Rembrandt and the Art of the Dutch Homeland” as part of the project of the Citizens Committee on Educational Television. The printed Calendar of Events announcing all Gallery activities and publications is distributed monthly to a mailing list of 5,316 names. LIBRARY The most important acquisitions to the Library during the fiscal year 1955 were 1,940 books, pamphlets, periodicals, subscriptions, and photographs purchased from private funds made available for this purpose. Gifts included 639 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, while 717 books, pamphlets, and bulletins were received on exchange from other institutions. There were more than 540 visits and phone calls to the Library by persons other than Gallery staff during this fiscal year. The Library is the depository for photographs of the works of art in the collections of the National Gallery of Art. A stock of repro- ductions is maintained for use in research by the curatorial and other departments of the Gallery; for the dissemination of knowledge to qualified sources; for exchange with other institutions; and for sale at the request of interested individuals. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN In March 1955 the Gallery began to take part in the orientation program for United States Information Agency personnel about to be sent overseas. The Index was included in this program, and once a month the group listened to an illustrated lecture given by the Cura- tor in charge of the Index. The Index material was also studied during the year by 638 persons who were interested in the material SECRETARY’S REPORT 155 for publication, for special research, exhibitions, designers, and those who wanted an idea of the collection as a whole. There were 33 sets of 2- by 2-inch slides (consisting of 1,416 color slides) circulated in 22 States and Alaska. MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS The usual care of the building and its mechanical equipment and the grounds was maintained at the established standard throughout the year. Contracts were entered into with Eggers & Higgins, architects, and Vermilya-Brown Co., Inc., general contractors, for the alteration of a portion of the library area in the Gallery building. The remodeled space is intended for the exhibition of the Samuel H. Kress Collection of Renaissance Bronzes. Alterations were made in gallery 11 so that the opening in the north wall of that gallery now matches in architectural design the openings in the east and west walls. These modifications were made to enable the more effective and suitable exhibition of the Donatello “David,” which stands in the center of gallery 11. Eggers & Higgins were the architects, and Vermilya-Brown Co. the general contractor. The Gallery staff constructed an L-shaped, 3-compartment green- house within the southwest moat wall; and the staff is now construct- ing a cold-conditioning unit to be used in conjunction with the green- house. These facilities will enable the horticultural staff to supply suitable flowering and foliage plants for the garden courts and for special exhibitions at almost any time of the year. A new plaque of Andrew Mellon, sculptured by Walker Hancock, was installed in the Constitution Avenue Lobby. OTHER ACTIVITIES David E. Finley, Director, delivered the following speeches during the fiscal year: “The Museum in the Cold War” at a luncheon meeting prior to the opening of the Kress Wing at the Denver Art Museum in September 1954; the principal address at the annual meeting of the National Trust for Historic Preservation in Chicago in October 1954; in May 1955, in New York, he delivered a speech entitled “A Bridge for the Arts” at a meeting of the Columbia Associates of Columbia University; and at the annual meeting of the American Association of Museums in Washington in June 1955 he spoke on “Museums and their Public Relations.” Forty Sunday evening concerts were given during the fiscal year 1955 in the West and East Garden Courts. The National Gallery Orchestra, conducted by Richard Bales, played 10 concerts at the Gallery, with additional performances at the United States Naval 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Academy at Annapolis, Md.; at the Corcoran Gallery of Art; and in Alexandria, Va. Two of the orchestral concerts at the National Gal- lery were made possible by the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation of Musicians. A preseason concert was played by the National Gallery Orchestra on Tuesday, September 7, 1954, sponsored by the International Congress of Clinical Pathologists at a reception held at the National Gallery. During April and May, six Sunday evenings were devoted to the Gallery’s Twelfth American Music Festival. All the concerts were broadcast in their entirety by Station WGMS-FM, Washington, and the Good Music Network. The intermissions, during these broadcasts, featured discussions by members of the curatorial staff on painting and sculpture in the National Gallery of Art, as well as on musical subjects by Richard Bales. In October 1954, the Columbia recording of “The Confederacy” by the National Gallery Orchestra with the Church of the Reformation Cantata Choir, soloists, and speaker was released. It has received widespread press notice, including an article in the Saturday Review of March 19, 1955, by former President Truman. The photographic laboratory of the Gallery produced 7,368 prints, 366 black-and-white slides, 20,101 color slides, 105 color transparen- cies, in addition to 1,820 negatives, color-separation negatives, infra- red and ultraviolet photographs and X-ray shadowgraphs; also 2,936 lantern slides were bound. During the fiscal year, 1,289 copies of press releases were issued in connection with Gallery activities, and 302 permits to copy and 141 permits to photograph in the Gallery were also issued. OTHER GIFTS Gifts of money were made during the fiscal year 1955 by the Old Dominion Foundation and the Avalon Foundation. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit of the private funds of the Gallery has been made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be for- warded to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted, Huntineton Cairns, Secretary. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Library Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955: The library owes its growth in strength and in the richness of its collections primarily to the extension and continuity of its exchange relations with scientific and other learned and cultural establishments and societies throughout the world, and the larger number of the 71,179 publications recorded in the receiving room during the past year came in exchange for Smithsonian publications. There were 654 new exchanges arranged, and 5,038 volumes and parts needed to complete sets of serial publications were obtained by writing special requests for them to the issuing agencies. The continuing generosity of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Association of Museums accounted for a very large number of the 24,801 pieces recorded as gifts, but other organizations and more than 150 individual donors sent gifts of important and much-appreciated books and periodicals as well. The high cost and ever-rising prices of much-needed books and journals not obtainable by exchange permitted the purchase of only 488 volumes and 419 periodical subscriptions this year. Additions to the Smithsonian Deposit at the Library of Congress numbered 6,348 publications, chiefly volumes and parts of long-estab- lished sets of serial publications issued by foreign institutions and societies. Other current accessions sent to the Library of Congress were 3,106 doctoral dissertations, mostly from European universities, 6,201 foreign and State documents, and 21,382 miscellaneous publica- tions on subjects not immediately connected with the work of the Institution. Because of their special subject interest to other agencies of the Government, 5,133 incoming publications were transferred to their respective libraries. Most of them went to the Armed Forces Med- ical Library and to the libraries of the Geological Survey, the Depart- ment of Agriculture, and the Naval Observatory. By the employment of part-time temporary helpers for a few weeks during the summer good progress was made in putting the library’s large collection of duplicates in order. From among this newly ar- ranged material the Library of Congress selected 38,906 pieces for 157 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 use in its own collections, and 61,017 others were sent to the United States Book Exchange for exchange credit. The catalog section classified and cataloged 4,949 volumes, entered 21,305 periodicals, and filed 32,371 cards. The important work of combining into a single comprehensive dictionary catalog the two separate Smithsonian union and Museum catalogs was finished, but there is still a great deal of revisionary work to be done on it. This catalog cannot be a fully effective key to all the library’s resources until the many thousands of incompletely or wholly uncataloged volumes in bureau and sectional libraries and in special collections have been cataloged in full. The use of the library which, with its branches and sectional li- braries on special subjects, is a series of reference and research collec- tions, is always difficult to show statistically, even in those areas where it is possible to keep accurate records at all. The library is freely open to anyone who wishes to use it for reference, but circulation of its books and periodicals is restricted to individual members of the staff of the Institution and, within certain necessary limitations, to other libraries; therefore 10,2638, the recorded number of loans during the year, represents only a fractional part of the large and continuous use of library books in evidence all day, every day, in the main ref- erence rooms, in the bookstacks, and in the many decentralized units throughout the Institution. Demands on the staff of the reference section for reference and bibliographical assistance were heavy, as usual, and it was especially gratifying to receive recognition from outside as well as from within the Institution of the painstaking and time-consuming skill of the staff in answering difficult questions. Visiting scientists and other scholars from Europe and South America, as well as from institutions throughout the United States, made more or less extensive reference use of the library, and the sphere of its usefulness was further ex- tended by loans to 94 different libraries. There were 1,527 volumes, mostly of serial publications, prepared and sent to the bindery for binding or rebinding, and 1,540 volumes were repaired in the library. Most of these latter were old and rare volumes in the Bureau of American Ethnology which had been ac- quired through the years, not at all because of their rarity, but because they were rich and sometimes unique sources of material on the American Indians. The installation of 200 feet of shelving in the National Collection of Fine Arts library helped a little to relieve the congestion there, but was only a temporary palliative to the serious overcrowding that threatens deterioration to many beautiful books, and handicaps the ease of their use. SECRETARY’S REPORT 159 Understaffing continues to be the most immediately serious obstacle to giving the Institution better library service, based on orderly, well- kept, and well-cataloged collections. With so many of the larger decentralized units left without regular full-time attendants it is im- possible to give proper custodial care and supervision of the books. SUMMARIZED STATISTICS ACCESSIONS Volumes | Tafa recorded Smithsonian Deposit at the Library of Congress___- 1, 002 585, 592 Smithsonian main library (includes former Office exaval Wakueeioren |bloyera es) )S aes Se ee eee 4,020 297, 277 Astrophysical Observatory (includes Radiation and Organisms) Ses Sore Ee oe VE SAE 480 14, 701 Bureau of American Ethnology__._._._.......------- 78 35, 590 IN ERO lWatite Whee uhie ees SS ee ee 12 335 National Collection of Fine Arts__..__._..____-__-- 254 13, 709 NationaléZoologicalibarkee sso ss os so se eee nee 1 4, 205 AO CSIR: SiMe SES Ses Pe Le Sal Gus yee ea 5, 847 951, 409 Unbound volumes of periodicals, and separates and reprints from serial publications, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in these totals. EXCHANGES INGweexchanres arranged == 2-s2. 2-22 a a Se aera eh iol ey ee 654 316 for the Smithsonian Deposit. Specially requested publications received__.._______________._._-______ 5, 038 806 to fill gaps in Smithsonian Deposit sets. CATALOGING VOU ES Rice Call oe Ce se eee ree eee eae ee 4, 949 Catalogacand sei] cle ree ee ee eo ae es Te ee a 32, 371 PERIODICALS Eeriodicnlapantsyenteregs: sited res Jars) cence d. Yes iin ert MO 21, 305 5,314 sent to the Smithsonian Deposit. CIRCULATION iteans Of books; ands periodicals= = 2222-2. fen te ee ee ee 10, 263 Circulation in sectional libraries is not counted except in the Division of Insects. BINDING AND REPAIR Wolumestsent“toythe bindery =a 2 25 SO ne aes ee es ee 1, 527 Volumes;repaired in ‘thedibrarys{ 2.2 935) morrio lh Bice Sabet. 1, 540 Respectfully submitted. Lema F. Cuarx, Librarian. Dr. Lzonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on Publications Sim: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian and its branches for the year ended June 30, 1955: The publications of the Smithsonian Institution, comprising 14 different series, are issued partly from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publications of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Collection of Fine Arts, and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow- ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Insti- tution also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art the series Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint im- print of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. The first volume in this series was issued during the year. In addi- tion, the Smithsonian publishes a guide book, a picture pamphlet, postcards and a postcard folder, a color-picture album, and color slides for sale to visitors. Through its publication program the Smith- sonian endeavors to carry out its founder’s expressed desire for the diffusion of knowledge. During the year the Institution published 17 papers and title page and contents of 3 volumes in the Miscellaneous Collections, 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents and separates of 19 articles in the Re- port appendix, 1 Annual Report of the Secretary, and 4 special publications, The United States National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 8 Pro- ceedings papers, and 2 Bulletins. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report and 4 Bulletins. The Astrophysical Observatory published Volume 7 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. The Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, under the National Collection of Fine Arts, published catalogs for 5 of the circulating exhibits. The Freer Gallery of Art issued 1 paper in the Occasional Papers series, 1 booklet, and Volume 1 of Arts Orientalis. There were distributed 428,286 pieces of printed matter—192,108 copies of the publications and 226,178 miscellaneous items. Publica- tions: 40 Contributions to Knowledge, 37,495 Miscellaneous Collec- 160 SECRETARY’S REPORT 161 tions, 10,907 Annual Reports and 20,620 pamphlet copies of Report separates, 579 War Background Studies, 26,595 special publications, 232 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 40,069 publications of the National Museum, 24,533 publications of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, 24,243 publications of the National Collection of Fine Arts, 699 publications of the Astrophysical Observatory, 1,339 pub- lications of the Freer Gallery of Art, 3,515 Reports of the American Historical Association, and 1,242 publications not issued by the Smith- sonian Institution. Miscellaneous: 7 pictures of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 7 sets and 613 prints of North American Wild- flowers and 2 Pitcher Plant volumes, 23,388 picture pamphlets, 71,378 Guide Books, 122,498 postcards, 2,003 postcard folders, 3,222 photo sets, 3,806 color slides, and 9,257 color picture albums. The 1955 allotment from Government funds of $93,000 for printing and binding was entirely obligated at the close of the year. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS The Institution published during the year the first of a series of popular publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its important exhibits and collections. Designed for both young and adult readers, the booklet, entitled, “Masters of the Air,” depicts in story and pictures the progress of aviation from the first glider flight by the Lilienthal brothers of Germany in the 1890’s to the superjets of today that fiy faster than sound. Included are the stories of the Smithsonian’s own former Secretary Samuel P. Langley; flying planes of the first World War; the early flights across the ocean and around the world; and the achievements of the famous “firsts,” such as Lind- bergh, Wiley Post, and Sikorsky. The text of the booklet was pre- pared by Prof. Glenn O. Blough of the University of Maryland and formerly science and education specialist of the U. S. Office of Educa- tion, with the technical assistance of Paul E. Garber, head curator of the National Air Museum, and was designed by William D. Crockett, of the staff of the Editorial and Publications Division. The publica- tion was made possible by a grant from the Link Foundation. SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 121 Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 4220.) 1955. VOLUME 122 No. 14. A new genus and species of plankton diatom from the Florida Straits, by Paul S. Conger. 8 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 4171.) July 15, 1954. (30 cents.) Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 4219.) 1955. 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 VOLUME 123 No. 2. The dragonfly larva, by R. E. Snodgrass. 38 pp., 11 figs. (Publ. 4175.) September 21, 1954. (35 cents.) No. 8. A method for the measurement of atmospheric ozone using the absorp- tion of ozone in the visible spectrum, by Oliver R. Wulf and James E. Zimmer- man. 14 pp. (Publ. 4177.) October 27, 1954. (25 cents.) No. 4. Revision of the flea genus Peromyscopsylla, by Phyllis T. Johnson and Robert Traub. 68 pp., 1381 figs. (Publ. 4178.) November 23, 1954. (65 cents.) No. 5. Concerning Smithsonian pyrheliometry, by C. G. Abbot, L. B. Aldrich, and A. G. Froiland. 4 pp. (Publ. 4179.) November 2, 1954. (5 cents.) No. 6. A new pictographic autobiography of Sitting Bull, by Alexis A. Praus. 4pp.,7pls. (Publ. 4180.) January 20,1955. (35 cents.) No. 7. Early Cenozoie vertebrates in the red conglomerate at Guanajuato, Mexico, by Carl Fries, Jr., Claude W. Hibbard, and David H. Dunkle. 25 pp., 1 pl.,6 figs. (Publ. 4181.) February 17,1955. (30 cents.) Title page and table of contents. (Publ. 4218.) 1955. VOLUME 124 The material culture of Pueblo Bonito, by Neil M. Judd. With appendix, Canid remains from Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo, by Glover M. Allen. 398 pp., 101 pls., 101 figs. (Publ. 4172.) December 29, 1954. ($5.00.) VOLUME 125 No. 1. The black flies (Diptera, Simuliidae) of Guatemala and their role as vectors of onchocerciasis, by Herbert T. Dalmat. 425 pp., 44 pls., 21 figs., 14 maps. (Publ. 4173.) April 5, 1955. ($5.00.) No. 2. The pyramidellid mollusks of the Pliocene deposits of North St. Peters- burg, Florida, by Paul Bartsch. 102 pp., 18 pls. (Publ. 4186.) May 5, 1955. ($1.40.) VOLUME 126 No. 2. The archeological and paleontological salvage program in the Missouri Basin, 1950-1951, by Paul L. Cooper. 99 pp., 12 pls., 1 fig. (Publ. 4188.) April 28, 1955. ($1.35.) No. 3. A revision of some glanduline Nodosariidae (Foraminifera), by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr., and Helen Tappan. 9 pp.,1 pl. (Publ. 4189.) February 3, 1955. (20 cents.) VOLUME 128 No. 1. Amphipoda collected at the Arctic Laboratory, Office of Naval Research, Point Barrow, Alaska, by G. A. MacGinitie, by Clarence R. Shoemaker. 78 pp., 20 figs. (Publ. 4209.) June 21,1955. (75 cents.) No. 2. Washington, D. C., precipitation of 1954 and 1955, by C. G. Abbot. 3 pp., 1 fig. (Publ. 4210.) March 1, 1955. (10 cents.) No. 8. Sixty-year weather forecasts, by C. G. Abbot. 22 pp., 11 figs. (Publ. 4211.) April 28, 1955. (25 cents.) No. 4. Periodic solar variation, by C. G. Abbot. 20 pp., 5 figs. (Publ. 4213.) June 14, 1955. (25 cents.) No. 6. A revision of the chiggers of the subgenus Gahrliepia (Acarina: Trombi- culidae), by Robert Traub and Mary Lou Morrow. 89 pp., 194 figs. (Publ. 4215.) June 30, 1955. ($1.00.) SECRETARY’S REPORT 163 ANNUAL REPORTS Report for 1953—The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1953 was received from the printer Sep- tember 2, 1954: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1953. 481 pp., 83 pls., 27 figs. (Publ. 4149.) The general appendix contained the following papers (Publs. 4150- 4168) : Science, art, and education, by R. E. Gibson. Recent progress in astronomical photography, by C. E. Kenneth Mees. Radioisotopes—New keys to knowledge, by Paul C. Aebersold. The push-button factory, by Frank K. Shallenberger. The science of musical instruments, by E. G. Richardson. Genetics and the world today, by Curt Stern. Climate and race, by Carleton Coon. Vegetation management for rights-of-way and roadsides, by rank E. Egler. Applied systematics: The usefulness of scientific names of animals and plants, by Waldo L. Schmitt. The geological history and evolution of insects, by F. M. Carpenter. The coelacanth fishes, by Errol White. Barro Colorado—Tropical island laboratory, by Lloyd Glenn Ingles. Norsemen in North America before Columbus, by Johannes Br¢gndsted. The mountain village of Dahr, Lebanon, by Raymond E. Crist. The problem of dating the Dead Sea Scrolls, by John C. Trever. Kinreizuka—The “Golden Bells Tomb” of Japan, by Motosaburo Hirano and Hiroshi Takiguchi. The archeology of colonial Williamsburg, by Thomas J. Wertenbaker. The story of the Declaration of Independence desk and how it came to the National Museum, by Margaret W. Brown. Charles Bird King, painter of Indian visitors to the Nation’s Capital, by John C. Ewers. Report for 1954.—The Report of the Secretary, which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, was issued January 14, 1955: Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and financial report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1954. 175 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 4182.) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS History under the sea, by Mendel L. Peterson. 16 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 4174.) [August 9], 1954. (25 cents.) Bess Wallace Truman, by Margaret W. Brown. (Supplement to ‘Dresses of the First Ladies of the White House,” by Margaret W. Brown. Publ. 4060.) 4 pp.,2 pls. [September 1], 1954. (50 cents.) Masters of the Air, by Glenn O. Blough. 32 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4183). [Decem- ber 16], 1954. (50 cents.) First Ladies Hall, by Margaret W. Brown. 10 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 4212.) [May 25], 1955. (25 cents.) 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 8 Proceedings papers, and 2 Bulletins, as follows: ANNUAL REPORT The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 1954. ix+100 pp. [January 14, 1955.] PROCEEDINGS VOLUME 103 No. 3334. A supplement to W. M. Tattersall’s review of the Mysidacea of the United States National Museum, by Albert H. Banner. Pp. 575-583. July 8, 1954. No. 3335. On the anatomy and relationships of glossy cuckoos of the genera Ohrysococcyx, Lampromorpha, and Chalcites, by Andrew H. Berger. Pp. 585-597, figs. 69-71. January 19, 1955. No. 3336. Supplement and corrections to J. A. Hyslop’s genotypes of the elaterid beetles of the world, by Ross H. Arnett, Jr. Pp. 599-619. April 14, 1955. No. 3337. Neotropical Miridae, LXIV: New bugs of the subfamily Cylapinae (Hemiptera), by José C. M. Carvalho. Pp. 621-632, figs. 72-76, pl. 15. March 2, 1955. VOLUME 104 No. 3338. Revision of the vittate species of the chrysomelid beetle genus Disonycha from the Americas south of the United States, by Doris Holmes Blake. Pp. 1-86, figs. 1-75. April 4, 1955. No. 3339. A revision of the Nearctic species of the beetle genus Meligethes (Nitidulidae), by Alan M. Easton. Pp. 87-103, figs. 76-78. February 25, 1955. No. 3340. Four new Venezuelan reduviid bugs, by Maldonado Capriles. Pp. 105-113, figs. 79, 80. March 28, 1955. No. 3341. Some polyclad flatworms from the West Indies and Florida, by Libbie H. Hyman. Pp. 115-150, figs. 81-89. May 2, 1955. BULLETINS 205. List of North American Recent mammals, by Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., and Remington Kellogg. xii+954 pp. March 3, 1955. 206. Frogs of southeastern Brazil, by Doris M. Cochran. xi+423 pp., 28 figs., frontispiece and 34 pls. June 22, 1955. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY There were issued 1 Annual Report and 4 Bulletins, as follows: ANNUAL REPORT Seventy-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 19538-1954. li+17 pp. 1955. BULLETINS Bulletin 157. Anthropological Papers, Nos. 43-48. iii+415 pp., 76 pls., 23 figs. 1955. No. 43. Stone monuments of the Rio Chiquito, Veracruz, Mexico, by Mat- thew W. Sterling. SECRETARY’S REPORT 165 No. 44. The Cerro de las Mesas offering of Jade and other materials, by Philip Drucker. No. 45. Archeological materials from the vicinity of Mobridge, South Da- kota, by Waldo R. Wedel. No. 46. The original Strachey vocabulary of the Virginia Indian language, by John P. Harrington. No. 47. The Sun Dance of the Northern Ute, by J. A. Jones. No. 48. Some manifestations of water in Mesoamerican art, by Robert L. Rands. Bulletin 158. River Basin Surveys Paper No. 7. Archeological investigations in the Oahe Dam area, South Dakota, 1950-51, by Donald J. Lehmer. xi-+-190 pp., 22 pls., 56 figs., 6 maps. 1954. Bulletin 159. The horse in Blackfoot Indian culture, with comparative mate- rial from other western tribes, by John C. Hwers. xv+3874 pp., 17 pis., 33 figs., 1955. Bulletin 160. A ceramic study of Virginia archeology, by Clifford Evans. With an appendix on An analysis of projectile points and large blades, by O. G. Holland. viii+196 pp., 30 pls., 23 figs., 1 chart. 1955. PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, vol. 7. 184 pp., 8 pls., 13 figs. (Publ. 4138.) 1954. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Brazilian landscape architecture. New designs by Roberto Burle Marx. (Smith- sonian Institution Traveling Hxhibition Service catalog.) 16 pp., illustr. [July 1954.] Nineteenth century American paintings, 1815-1865, from the private collection of Maxim Karolik. (Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service eatalog.) 22 pp., including 11 pls. [October 1954. j Watercolors and prints by Redouté. (Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibi- tion Service catalog.) 12 pp.,1 pl. [December 1954.] Austrian drawings and prints from the Albertina, Vienna. (Smithsonian Insti- tution Traveling Exhibition Service catalog.) 27 pp., 6 pls. [February 1955.] Goya. (Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service catalog.) [April 1955. ] PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART Abstracts of technical studies in art and archaeology, 1943-1952, by Rutherford J. Gettens and Bertha M. Usilton. Occasional Papers, vol. 2, No. 2, 408 pp. (Publ. 4176.) 1955. ($3.00.) The Freer Gallery of Art. (Rev. ed.) 16 pp., 8 pls. 3 figs. (Publ. 4185.) 1955. (15 cents.) Ars Orientalis, vol. 1. 267 pp., 93 pls., 80 figs. (Publ. 4187.) 1954. ($16.00.) REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 in the act of incorporation of the Association. The following reports were issued during the year: Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year 1952. Vol. 2. Writings on American History, 1950. xiii +609 pp. 1955. Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year 1953. Vol. 1. Proceedings. 52 pp. 1955. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The manuscript of the Fifty-seventh Annual Report of the Na- tional Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to Congress, in accordance with law, on March 21, 1955. DIVISIONAL ACTIVITIES The chief of the division continued to represent the Institution on the board of directors of the Greater Washington Educational Tele- vision Association, Inc., of which the Smithsonian is a member. During the year the Association produced a series of educational television programs broadcast over Washington stations, and the Smithsonian participated in two of these. The assistant chief of the division, John S. Lea, devoted consider- able time during the last half of the year to the preparation of a brochure explaining the history, purposes, and accomplishments of the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. Lea also served as chairman of a committee formed to assist the Washington Area School Study Council, representing the school boards of the area, in working out a method of making more effective use of the educational potential of the Institution. Members of the division, particularly Ernest E. Biebighauser, as- sisted the Personnel Division in planning and inaugurating publi- cation of Zhe Torch, a multigraphed house organ for Smithsonian employees superseding the monthly newsletter of the Smithsonian Employees Federal Credit Union. The first number appeared in March 1955. Respectfully submitted. Pau. H. Oxrxser, Chief, Editorial and Publications Division. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution For the Year Ended June 30, 1955 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re- port in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Govern- ment bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s. 6d.— $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay- ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld dur- ing the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. Since the original bequest, the Institution has received gifts from various sources, the income from which may be used for the general work of the Institution. These, plus accretions, are listed below, to- gether with a statement showing the income for the present year. ENDOWMENT FUNDS (Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) Partly deposited in the United States Treasury at 6 percent and partly invested in stocks, bonds, and other holdings Fund Investment 1955} Income 1955 Parent Fund (original Smithson bequest, plus accumulated savings) -- $729, 112. 87 $43, 735. 37 Subsequent bequests, gifts, and other funds, partly deposited in the U.S. Treasury and partly invested in the consolidated fund: Abbott Wrglar SpeCinlo = --s kasi eee tose es eee te oneeeec soos 16, 960. 64 729. 45 AV OLY SRODEELIS TUG MV Oldee seees es see ee ee 61, 655. 14 3, 330. 03 Wend OWMEN Ga eee ono oa crac elec cee sas ewes en see a na acewsese cea 426, 417. 89 22, 280. 66 HishelsibriSoocecs- asses ake oowe = coe oo bocce eee emocc ese ceenes 500. 00 30. 00 Hachenberg;| Georgee., and © aroline)--- -2---.-----2 + sne-- eee eee 4, 852. 15 253. 31 Hamilton: James) ees 2 ens one as ona eto e area Seaaeeae ee 2,987 02 175. 43 Henry Caroline: sess sc a se setae awe oe Seuee ee cee cueeee cee sans 1, 459. 14 76. 24 Hodgkinss.p horas Gye a ce ee eee ane ee eee 152, 547. 21 8, 869. 61 Porters benry Kirke ers= ose seen ceen oe cece ae atone eae eee eee 345, 528. 58 18, 054 12 Rhees William) ONES se ees he ae eo ee ee Sone ee se eenanons 1, 160. 79 65. 24 Sanford’: George peters ce eae ete es areas an een nner 2, 174. 00 122.11 Witherspoon EHOMagrA ene nee ee Se ns a ene eee en 155, 696. 68 8, 135. 27 FT ota aera ee ee ee ae oe eine a ee aaa omen 1, 171, 939. 24 62, 121. 47 GranGato tl eee eee ee ee ae ee oer ee oe te arate 1, 901. 052.11 105, 856. 84 870930—58——12 167 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts, the income of each being restricted to specific use. These, plus accretions to date, are listed below, together with income for the present year. Fund Abbott, William L., for investigations in biology.----_---.------------ Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the sun and annual lec- tureion' same 2k. 2 one ae ee ne eee an oansar ante etace Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship to investigate fauna of countries other than the United States_.___..__--_----------------- Baird, Lucy H., for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird__.__-.____- Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and pastels and for en- couragement of American artistic endeavor--_____--.----------_----_-- Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals for Zoological Park-___- Canfield Collection, for increase and care of the Canfield collection of mineral sescets se Pee ee ee a ee ee Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey collection and promo- tion of researches relating to Coleoptera_...-_..--.------------------- Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and promotion of Isaac Lea collectioniofi gems: andurioll us kg sees ae ee Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research______------_-------_-- Eickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preservation and exhibition of the photographic collection of Rudolph Eickemeyer, Jr___--_-----------_ Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer collection of light- Ingiobjects 2-5. tes ee a a a ee eee Hitchcock, Albert S., for care of the Hitchcock Agrostological Library-_- Hodgkins, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric air__-.-_.-_---____- Hrdlitka, Ale§ and Marie, to further researches in physical anthro- pology and publication in connection therewith____..-.-_.-.-------_ Hughes; Bruce; tofound Euches alcovesss so ese eee ee se eeeneeeeee eee Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in the exact sciences--.--_- Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and preservation of Long collection of embroideries, laces, and textiles....-__------------------ Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of Maxwell collection_-_____ Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first-class works of art for use and benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts_--------_---- Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological studies_--.-.---.----.--- Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the collection of dolls placed in the U. S. National Museum through the interest of Mr. and'iMrs:(NOVCS=- soe cone oan oc oe pee coe eee one eee eee! Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pell (COLECH One ee ae ee ae nae eee cae ae eee ete Poore, Lucy T. and George W., for general use of the Institution when principalfamounts:t0) $200! 000 ease ane eee ee eee ee Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U. S. National Museum con- taining @rustacea se case oot koe cee cet ee eee re Ter Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, in memory of Asher Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling collection‘ofiminerals: 2-622 bao eae ok eee eon asusecsetacee Roebling Solar Research -22-2 soe ee ee eee eee Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations in physics and chemis- Smithsonianiemployoes’ renirements=--2-- aa eee eee eee Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer collection and Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts__-- Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for development of geological and paleontological studies and publishing results of same----------- Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publications in botany_-.._-_-.-.------------ Younger Helen: Walcott, beldunitrustes- 2s ese eeeeesn ae eee nea e eae Zerbee, Frances Brincklé, for endowment of aquaria___..-_-.---------. Investment 1955 $126, 133. 83 48, 251. 29 60, 445. 71 29, 048. 33 34, 603. 85 1, 206. 20 46, 144. 43 15, 122. 61 33, 975. 14 61, 949. 32 13, 114. 20 7, 929. 25 1, 903. 73 100, 000. 00 42, 591.09 23, 093. 68 105, 148. 40 655. 11 23, 664. 64 24, 369. 74 15, 481. 54 1, 159.14 8, 943. 00 187, 379. 67 12, 832. 12 33, 057. 38 145, 608. 17 41, 358. 82 113, 285. 62 31, 506. 84 21, 635. 66 12, 062. 97 576, 151. 56 69, 837. 46 76, 483. 45 1, 144. 42 2, 137, 278. 37 Income 1955 $6, 658. 00 2, 552. 98 3, 198. 16 1, 536. 97 1, 830. 87 63. 81 2, 441. 50 800. 16 1, 797. 62 2, 748. 27 693. 89 419. 56 100. 72 6, 000. 00 2, 125. 40 1, 221. 90 5, 563. 39 34. 68 1, 252. 11 1, 210. 05 697. 44 61.35 473.18 9, 600. 62 678. 96 1, 813. 97 7, 704. 13 953. 75 5, 993. 93 1, 703. 67 1, 144. 76 638. 27 29, 674. 11 3, 695. 10 3, 765. 36 60. 55 110, 909. 19 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 169 FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his coHection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and se- curities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $7,230,968.48. SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS Invested endowment for general purposes___-_________-__------ $1, 901, 052. 11 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer en- Gowmen t= 22 ae ee a a eee eee 2, 137, 278. 37 Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment. 4, 088, 330. 48 Freer invested endowment for specific purpoSes___-__-____-___--- 7, 230, 968. 48 Total invested endowment for all purposes_____--_---- 11, 269, 298. 96 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U. S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as au- thorized in the U. S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591_-__-_--_-_-____ $1, 000, 000. 00 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : SOT So eee ate ee ee $1, 144, 322. 62 SCO Cisse ae a eee Se 1, 872, 085. 09 Real estate and mortgages=22- = = See 5, 936. 00 Uninvested! capital 222 ss See 15, 986. 77 ——_—__—_———___ 8, 088, 330. 48 Total investments other than Freer endowment________ 4, 038, 330. 48 Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : 150) AYE Fs (2 RO pe ee a eee ee gt Pe ee ee $4, 374, 757. 31 StOCKs rete ee ee ee eee 2, 835, 878. 90 Uninvested: capitals = ee 20, 332. 27 -——_—_—___———._ 7, 230, 968. 48 Totaloinvestmentsie 2 = sas Ae ee 11, 269, 298. 96 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 1955 * Cashtbalancejon hand! djune:s0! 19545 ee eee ee ee $867, 671. 10 Receipts, other than Freer endowment : Income from investments_._._______________ $233, 712. 18 Gifts sand contributions=-—-— ee 355, 562. 07 Books and publications=—- 2-2-2 46, T51. 72 Miscellaneousest= sera Se ee 37, 105. 24 Proceeds tromirealestates= 2 ones e. 45. 00 1 This statement does not include Government appropriations under the administrative charge of the Institution. 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBURSEMENTS DURING FISCAL YEAR 1955—Continued Receipts, other than Freer endowment—Continued Proceeds from sale of securities (net) -----__ ($338, 782. 94) Proceeds from sale of cash securities (net)_- ( 1, 450. 00) Total receipts other than Freer endowment___-__~--~ $362, 943. 27 Receipts from Freer endowment: Income tron investmMents2 222) ae eee eee 346, 395. 48 htc) e's Mees Se a Sa ee 1 2 eee ee ee 1, 577, 009. 85 Disbursements other than Freer endowment: Administration: 2.22.3 ee $98, 438. 50 Publication ee ee ee ee = 60, 837. 53 DWT OS EW Seem gt AA Set AI Ce weeny ot a teeth OU oe oe 535. 47 Custodian fees and servicing securities______ 2, 538. 12 MiSCETLAN COUS ae eae en ere ecieatin oe Dene TASES 2, 069. 44 Payroll withholdings and refund of advances (UNE) ee a ee ee Se 1, 073. 65 Researches and explorations__._____.______-__ 478, 806. 28 Sol Retirement Systemsase22 =) aaa 2,375. 10 Total disbursements other than Freer endowment____-~ 641, 734. 09 Disbursements from Freer endowment: BS AULT CS Bee eS Se eee a ae eee ee ee $122, 868. 40 Purchases: for collections soso ee nee 175, 435. 00 Custodian fees and servicing securities_____-_ 12, 678. 14 Miscellancous 2222 = a 2 ee a eee 37, 440. 84 Total disbursements from Freer endowment__------_ 348, 422. 38 Total :disbursementss22o2u2s 25 eS eee ee 990, 156. 47 Cash balance; June(3O 955 ae a ee ee 586, 853. 38 80) 12 ee sic os Oe ee 1, 577, 009. 85 ASSETS Cash: United States Treasury cur- rent account=22=====aa= $192, 330. 69 In banks and on hand-__--_- 394, 522. 69 586, 853. 38 Less uninvested endowment SEU Ch as es ae ea ea ee a 36, 319. 04 —_____——_- $550, 534. 34 Travel and other advances__.----- = 22 =e 10, 555. 00 Cash invested (U. S. Treasury notes) -----_-_- 725, 960. 92 $1, 287, 050. 26 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Wal ASSETS—Continued Investments—at book value: Endowment funds: Freer Gallery of Art: Stocks and bonds------ $7, 210, 636. 21 Uninvested cash_----- 20, 332. 27 GPA ae eS Investments at book value other than Freer: Stocks and bonds_--------- $2, 939, 736. 63 Uninvested cash. -----~-<- 15, 986. 77 Special deposit in U. S. Treasury at 6 percent in- terestitet es Sa 1, 000, 000. 00 Other stocks and bonds_-_--- 76, 671. 08 Real estate and mortgages_ 5, 936. 00 ae en, 4, 038,330. 48 $11, 269, 298. 96 Total______.._._------------—-----------=-===-------=- 12, 556, 349. 22 UNEXPENDED FUNDS AND ENDOWMENTS Unexpended funds: Income from Freer Gallery of Art endowment__------------ $535, 740. 89 Income from other endowments: RESET CLG Ge ae $325, 014. 80 Generals ee eee 222, 876. 06 547, 890. 86 Gifts and grants____---------------------------------------- 203, 418. 51 1, 287, 050. 26 Endowment funds: reer Galleryioceaties = eee $7, 230, 968. 48 Other: Restricted. eee $2, 137, 278. 37 General) 2242 ee 1, 901, 052. 11 SS A038 o00N45 11, 269, 298. 96 0 (2 Le eee ee 12, 556, 349. 22 The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during the past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $3,162.17. Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks, and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United States Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed by the Sec- retary of the Institution and drawn on the United States Treasury. 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from the following: American Museum of Natural History, additional gift, for a study of the eth- nology of the Tsimshian Indians of the British Columbia coast. American Philosophical Society, for studies on the behavior and life histories of solitary wasps. Dr. Robert A. Vines, Director of the Museum of Natural History of Houston, for improvement of the United States National Herbarium Collections. Agnes Chase, additional gift, for copying the index to grass names. The Washington Fashion Group, additional gift, for the costumes collection. Geological Society of America, for services of a scientific illustrator. Johns Hopkins University, additional gift, for publications on Arctic research. Link Foundation, additional gift, for preparation and distribution of materials related to the contributions of the National Air Museum to aviation education. BE. A. Link, Link Aviation, Inc., additional gift, for historical research (marine archeology). Merck & Co., Inc., for preparing a vitamin exhibit. National Academy of Sciences, for typing the manuscript of the second edition of the Flora of Okinawa. National Geographic Society, to establish the Olmec Archeological Fund. National Geographic Society, additional grant, for the publication of “The Mate- rial Culture of Pueblo Bonito.” National Science Foundation, for the publication of “Annotated Subject-Heading Bibliography of Termites.” National Science Foundation, grant to provide maintenance and operation of the Canal Zone Biological Area, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone. National Science Foundation, grant for research on “Taxonomy of the Bamboos.” J. Townsend Russell, to secure archeological series from the Scandinavian countries. Harvard University, for the Peabody Museum, Harvard—Smithsonian Institution Kalahari Expedition. Malcolm MacGregor, for “The Philatelic Fund.” I. A. O’Shaughnessy, for publication of Sister Inez Hilger’s manuscript of her study of Araucanian Child Life and its Cultural Background. Mr. and Mrs. Bruce Bredin, for an expedition to the Belgian Congo. State Department, grant to cooperate on Educational Exchange Services. Guggenheim Foundation, additional grant, for the wax metabolism fund. The Wenner-Gren Foundation, for use in connection with a seminar on the role of physical anthropology in the identification of human remains. For support of the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange: Atomic Energy Commission. Department of the Air Force. Department of the Army. Department of the Navy. National Science Foundation. Public Health Service. Veterans Administration. The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Insti- tution. The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1955; REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 173 Salariesand expenses see eee eee eee $3, 048, 146. 00 National) ZOolOs1 Cal ee ve kee eee a wena ee eee 648, 000. 00 These figures include supplemental appropriations to pay salary increases of approximately 714 percent voted by Congress effective March 18, 1955. In addition, funds were transferred from other Government agencies for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian In- stitution as follows: Working funds, transferred from the National Park Service, Interior Department, for archeological investigations in river basins throughout sther United Statesass se) ae eee $52, 700. 00 The Institution also administers a trust fund for partial support of the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island in the Canal Zone. AUDIT The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds follows: Wasuinerton, D. C., August 8, 1955. To THE Boaxrp oF REGENTS, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington 25, D. C. We have examined the financial statements and schedules, as listed in the accompanying index, of the Smithsonian Institution relative to its private en- dowment funds and gifts (but excluding the National Gallery of Art and other departments, bureaus or operations administered by the Institution under Fed- eral appropriations) for the year ended June 30, 1955. Our examination was made in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of the accounting records and such other auditing proce- dures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. The Institution maintains its accounts on a cash basis and does not accrue income and expenses. Land, buildings, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other specimens and certain sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Institution. In our opinion, the accompanying financial statements present fairly the position of the private funds and the cash and investments thereof of the Smith- sonian Institution at June 30, 1955 (excluding the National Gallery of Art and other departments, bureaus or operations administered by the Institution under Federal appropriations) and the cash receipts and disbursements for the year then ended, in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles applied on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year. Prat, MARWICK, MitcHELL & Co. Respectfully submitted. CLARENCE CANNON VANNEVAR BusH Rosert V. FLEmMiIna Ewecutive Committee. 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BRL C8: settee te gegltut tian! cnlaor collgTei: oar 4 ‘hontai tal rete wo areay by pee meLecocied zatcpob wate baw ots 707 wtust siaaity diet Sis aliilysas Head odd bata Collyer Invebdt whan. i ‘ently qi fatty Gatab Raa balgdoos. ~11Te9 Hey dahw “iboyetut DEMS Kat van Be OA, piibabet att} Yo tat. ah am ihn 1G boltaae. 3) ih. lash ehive th Waren ds au a am, ' Pest wl ia res i ee ae Aa ay wo ie wl sedges os Rae (oO n Rn (on a ye Nikhew hae rf tei ‘hag ig is ane an oii 4) wow Khe r) iets en i re ou , “haw te Lane SARHARIEAN hors wie rc sist: Cougs, sd ‘th satire al diaiiea l why GENERAL APPENDIX to the SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1955 175 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the Grnrrat Appenprix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remark- able and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- tution ; and, during the greater part of its history, the purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1955. Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Edi- torial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton 25, D.C. 176 Science Serving the Nation By Lee A. DUBRIDGE President, California Institute of Technology WE ARE SOMETIMES INCLINED to think that the phenomenon of science being of service to the Nation is a development of recent years—say since 1940. However, as a matter of fact, science has always been a national asset and has always been in the Nation’s service. Science and technology indeed have been among the deci- sive influences that have improved the condition of the American people, and thus made this Nation fine and strong. However, even if we think of science directly serving the govern- ment, rather than serving the people generally, we are still not dealing with anew phenomenon. Beginning with the day Benjamin Franklin invented the postage stamp, the United States Government has needed and has used science and technology, not only to promote the general welfare of the people but also to advance the special functions of the Federal Government, including, of course, the function of national defense. This long experience has led this Nation to the conclusion—a conclu- sion not always expressed or adequately implemented, but nevertheless definite—that the Government and the Nation are heavily dependent for strength, welfare, and security on science and technology. Hence, it follows that the Government must do two things: (1) Make pro- vision for the carrying on of scientific and technological activities within the framework of government to serve specific government needs, and (2) encourage and support throughout the country a strong nongovernment science and technology. Both of these activities are necessary for a strong and prosperous nation in time of peace; both are vital to bring military strength in time of war. However, it is one thing to recognize these two facts and obligations; it is quite another thing to do anything sensible about them. The history of government relations with science is replete with examples 1 Address delivered at opening ceremonies of new building of The Johns Hop- kins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Howard County, Maryland, October 16,1954. Reprinted by permission of the Laboratory. 177 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 of good intention and bad implementation. A desirable agency is established and is then deprived of funds. Laws enunciating high- sounding ideals are passed, and then the men who are appointed to implement them are denied secretarial help and travel funds. Scien- tists are saluted as being essential to the Nation’s progress, and are then drafted as privates in the army, or employed by the Govern- ment under policies set up for postal clerks. I am told that men who have been in politics for many years do not expect political institutions in a democracy to be either reasonable or consistent on any policy matter. The implementation of policy, they say, will always be in the hands of many people who have differing views on various aspects of the policy, and these people will change with time; hence there is bound to be confusion. Those of us who are less experienced, however, still think of “the Government” as an entity with a mind and a purpose. And we shall never get over the shock of seeing the Government do one thing with one hand and a wholly contradictory thing with the other. Some people react to this paradox by turning their backs on government entirely, refusing to have any- thing whatsoever to do with it—except when forced to serve in the army or to pay an income tax. Such people often come to despise the Government to such an extent that they castigate anyone having anything to do with it. Most reasonable people, however, though they sigh sadly at the vagaries of a democratic government, still realize that it is the only government we have and that we should try to put up with it, to help it and to try to make it better and more consistent. In time of war we alldothis. In time of peace it is more difficult to do, but—on a smaller scale—no less necessary. If this be our desire then it is certainly necessary to be very frank and very objective. We must ask penetrating questions about what is wrong—and what is right. We must be very free to discuss these matters with others in a spirit of good will—never throwing doubt on another’s ideas or suggestions by questioning his patriotism or in- tegrity. We must be willing to speak frankly and to listen to frank talk. For purposes of simplicity it will be necessary for me to ignore now a large portion of the areas of government where problems relat- ing to science may lie. I shall not speak at all of the many civilian agencies of our Government which may deal with science—the Bureau of Standards, the Public Health Service, the Smithsonian Institution, the Departments of Agriculture and of the Interior, and all the rest. IJ shall confine myself to one question: What are the problems relating to improving the ways by which science and tech- nology can contribute to making the Nation so strong that it SCIENCE SERVING THE NATION—DUBRIDGE 179 can achieve its national aims and ideals in the face of opposition from potential enemies? In short, what are the ways in which science promotes national security ? Even this simple question does not have a simple answer. The roots of national strength extend deeply into the national pattern of living, into the Nation’s industrial, social, educational, and economic systems. We cannot trace all these roots. But we may select a few essential items that are necessary to answer our question. In the first place, we now understand that both a strong military technology and a strong industrial technology must rest upon a solid base of fundamental science. This is a fairly obvious remark, of course, since all technology grows out of discoveries in basic science. But it immediately follows that the Government should encourage the building of a strong science. There are several specific reasons for this: 1. New knowledge is essential to future progress. 2. The corps of scientists engaged in basic science are among the most able and imaginative in the country. Their number should in- crease, not only because of the scientific advances they will produce but because they stand as a “ready reserve” available to accelerate the development of military technology when emergencies arise. 3. Basic science carried on in universities is the sole source of edu- cation of future scientists and technologists. Those wellsprings of future talent must be maintained and enlarged. 4, Basic science in relevant fields has an important place in laboratories of applied science. It improves the intellectual tone, it stimulates the imagination, satisfies the curiosity, helps attract new scientists, and, of course, fills in essential gaps in knowledge. How do we stand in this area of basic science? Are we as a nation doing all right? I am convinced that the answer is in the negative. But I am also aware that great progress has been made. There have been important forwards steps during the postwar years. For example: 1. The military services, realizing the importance of scientists to wartime technology, aided mightily after the war in financing a re- habilitation of university research. The funds made available for equipment, for services, and for graduate student support stimulated a spectacular postwar development in university science laboratories. We will forever owe a debt, particularly to the Office of Naval Research, for what was done in this respect. The Atomic Energy Commission and the Public Health Service have also made important contributions. They have shown that government can encourage university science without the necessity of unwise political interfer- ence, provided, of course, the universities themselves remain alert. 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 2. Most American industries have increased their research expendi- tures by an amount which, for the country as a whole, adds up to a very large factor. Industries have increased the amount of basic research in their own laboratories, and they have made substantial grants to support basic research in universities. This is excellent and I hope the latter practice especially will greatly increase. 3. The Government itself, especially the military agencies and the AEC, have put their own applied research programs on a long-term stable basis and have made provision within the Government labora- tories for such basic research as is appropriate and relevant in each case. (I amnotsaying there is agreement on how much and what kind of basic research is proper or relevant in each laboratory, but I do say that the principle has been recognized.) 4. The Congress finally passed the National Science Foundation Act and gave the Foundation modest funds to get its program started. The Foundation Fellowship program has been an outstanding con- tribution. All these steps have helped to strengthen basic research, have helped in the education of students, have helped to attract young men into science, and have also brought about a degree of contact, of friendship, of understanding between the scientists and the military which was unheard of before 1941, and which will be a mighty element of strength in future (and current) conflicts. But there is much that has been left undone, much that has been done inadequately or unwisely. Someone, for example, started the idea that the purpose of the National Science Foundation was to “eliminate the tremendous dupli- cation in basic research.” This is one of the most tragically mistaken delusions of recent years, and I must take a moment to deal with it. Duplication in basic research is, in the first place, a contradiction of terms. Research is the seeking for new knowledge. If the know]- edge has already been found no one else will seek for it—so duplica- tion is impossible. If someone wished to check up on a discovery and repeat an experiment, this is certainly not duplication because science, by definition, deals with those phenomena which anyone can duplicate at will. Should one say then that it is duplication for two people to be searching for the same knowledge? This is like saying that it is duplication for more than one person to search for a child that is lost in the woods. We all know that when many people participate in the search it is greatly accelerated, and if two searchers should come upon the child at the same time do we complain of duplication ? Even more, when one is searching the infinite wilderness of the un- known for an uncountable number of undiscovered pieces of knowl- edge, it is clearly evident that the more people engaged in the hunt SCIENCE SERVING THE NATION—DUBRIDGE 181 the better. And if, once in 10 years, two scientists happen to run onto the same discovery at the same time this is good, not bad, for it gives an immediate confirmation of the validity of the finding. As long as science is carried’on in the open, not in secrecy, then duplica- tion is, by the very nature of science, nonexistent—indeed it is impossible. But the duplication idea leads to another illusion: that science will be more efficient or effective if it is all under one management. To move in this direction, when Congress increased the National Science Foundation funds this year, it imposed an almost equal de- crease in the funds allocated to other agencies. This, it seems to me, was unfortunate, for it caused disruption of existing programs and a net decrease in the amount of research in progress. In science—as in education—diversity is our most precious asset. No single agency with a particular policy, a particular program, a particular group of advisers, and a particular staff can possibly accommodate all the diverse needs of science. It is almost as bad as trying to decree that all children should have the same father. So I suggest that in the field of basic research we all have an educational job to do. We need to convince the public of the value of encouraging basic reasearch. We need to convince both the execu- tive and legislative branches of the Government that all agencies con- cerned with science and technology should encourage and support basic reasearch in their own laboratories and in universities; that the more agencies that are doing it the more effective and productive our program will be; that the dividends which will be repaid in new knowledge, in additional scientists trained, and in more scientists brought into contact with the Government will be worth a thousand times the investment. The dividend may indeed be the survival of the Nation. Let us now turn to some problems of applied research conducted by the Government—confining our attention to research carried out for military purposes by the Defense Department and the AEC. Applied research is in many ways a very different animal from basic research. It is true that the scientific training required is much the same and that quite similar techniques and equipment are involved. But the eastbound and westbound sections of a streamlined train look similar too. It’s just that they are not headed for the same place. Applied research is research aimed at a goal, i. e., a better or im- proved weapon, a new industrial product, a cure for a disease. Be- cause the goal is established or agreed upon (this is important of course!) it is possible to organize the attack on the problem, to assign a number of specific tasks or areas of investigation to different indi- viduals or groups. In contrast to basic research it is desirable in 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 applied research to take steps to avoid duplication—since for two groups to be assigned the problem of developing the same weapon is usually less efficient than for them to combine forces. Also, since applied military research is usually necessarily secret, it is important to establish coordinating mechanisms to avoid the waste of unknow- ingly repeating what another laboratory has done. For these and many other reasons it is important, when talking about government activities in science, to distinguish sharply be- tween pure and applied science. What is good for one may not be good for the other. Now it is not surprising to note that the military services and the AEC have developed not one but many patterns for carrying on applied research. A democracy never does anything in a unified or monolithic way. This is both our strength and our danger. The strength is that diversity of approach and individuality are conducive to new ideas. The danger is that resources will be scattered and in- effective, policies will be confused, and high priority tasks will be neglected. In applied research, as in basic research, it is not necessarily efficient to have it all under a single management. But to an extent not de- sirable in basic research, applied military research must be under relatively few agencies, and they must be closely coordinated to avoid wasteful repetition. Thus, for example, it is quite proper that the direction of all military development has no¢ been consolidated under one office in the Department of Defense. But it is proper also that there has been created there one office to give guidance and coordina- tion to all the service agencies. It is also not surprising to find the research pattern different in the three services—nor is this disturbing. Yet each service needs one office which gives rather close attention to the supervision of the whole pro- gram of that service. Also each service needs an effective mechanism for keeping new developments closely tied to plans—to requirements— to logistics—to tactical development. This is probably the area in which there is greatest weakness. New weapons are often produced in ignorance of tactical requirements; they are introduced without adequate study of their tactical possibilities, without adequate logistics and maintenance and training. Military plans, on the other hand, are sometimes drawn up without taking into account new weapons that will shortly be available. There is, in short, inadequate atten- tion given to clarifying the goals of the military research program and making clear to every agency its part and purpose in the program. There are many people aware of these shortcomings, and many in the military establishment are trying to remedy them. It is not my task today—or any day—to tell them how to do the job. Wecertainly do wish them success. SCIENCE SERVING THE NATION——DUBRIDGE 183 I turn now to a discussion of the mechanisms by which military research is carried out. These show great diversity, and this is both desirable and troublesome. Broadly speaking, military research may be carried on either in a government-owned and government-operated laboratory, in a govern- ment-owned-contractor-operated laboratory, or in a contractor- owned—contractor-operated facility. In true military style these are, I understand, called respectively : coco, coco, and coco. Examples of gogo would be the Naval Research Laboratory, the Army Ordnance Arsenals, the Fort Monmouth Signal Corps Labora- tories, the Naval Ordnance Test Station (Inyokern), the Wright- Patterson Air Base Laboratories, and many others. In each case the facility is under the command of a military officer, and there is normally a chief civilian scientist to whom varying degrees of responsibility for the technical program may be delegated. In the coco class we have such laboratories as Los Alamos, Argonne, and, indeed, all the AEC laboratories, plus such facilities as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, operated by the California Institute of Tech- nology, the Lincoln Laboratory operated by the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology, etc. In these laboratories the land, buildings, and equipment are owned by the Government. However, after the general goals of the technical program have been agreed on jointly between the Government and the contractor, the contractor is given managerial responsibility for all operations. For example, all per- sonnel and other administrative policies are set by the contractor— normally to be in line with those he employs in other operations. Finally, in the coco class come the great mass of contractual projects in industries and in universities. Some of these are small basic re- search projects only remotely related to a military problem. At the other extreme are vast industrial projects for development of a new airplane, a new radar, or a guided missile. Then there are establish- ments like this new Applied Physics Laboratory, and the Rand Cor- poration of Santa Monica, Calif., in which a privately owned facility is wholly devoted to government work—in these cases to a broad pro- gram of applied research rather than to the development of a single device. Now it is easy enough to classify military research centers in this way. But it is not easy to draw any general conclusions from such a classification. It would be simple if we could say that all laboratories of one class were dismal failures while all of another were great successes. But in human affairs things are generally not so simple. We can find examples of successful and productive centers of all three kinds. We can also find members of each class which, let us say, have not been as productive as could be expected. 370930—5é——18 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The reason for this is not hard to find: research success in either basic or applied research is the product of good ideas; and ideas cannot be manufactured like automobiles on a production line. Ideas arise in the brains of individual people, and they arise under circumstances which no one—not even the individual himself—fully understands. We do know how to increase the probability of new ideas arising—and therefore increase their frequency. There are some simple rules for this: 1. Find some well-trained people who have been successful in getting ideas in the past. 2. Give them full information about the nature and importance of the problem being tackled. 3. Keep them in close touch with each other and with others engaged in similar work in such a way as to allow the maximum interchange of ideas—for out of such interchange and stimulation are new ideas frequently born. 4. Provide these people with the facilities and the help which they need in developing and testing their ideas. 5. Keep the environment, the atmosphere, and the administrative arrangements such that there is the maximum stimulation to imagina- tive thought processes and the minimum of interruption and frustration. Even these rules are not very specific. ‘They do not tell you how to find the right people, just how they are to be thrown together, what facilities they will need, or just what administrative arrangements provide maximum stimulation and minimum frustration. All these are delicate and subtle matters. They are also variable; a combina- tion that works in one set of circumstances with one set of people may not work with others. Arrangements which are most satisfactory during an all-out war may prove hopelessly unsuitable in time of peace. An organization which is operating beautifully under one director may sink into mediocrity or worse under another. A research team which has delivered an outstanding contribution in the form of one new weapon falls to pieces when that job has been done, and never quite “clicks” on another. All these are, as I have said, subtle and difficult problems. Their solution depends on the ability, the intuition, the adaptability, the imagination of relatively few people, possibly of only one person, in each organization. One person who can judge people, who can sense and who can sef the spirit of the group, who can anticipate difficulties and avoid them, who can stimulate enthusiasm—such a person can make a successful team under almost any circumstances. And whenever you find a highly successful group I suggest you seek the causes for its success not in the organization chart, not in the budget SCIENCE SERVING THE NATION—DUBRIDGE 185 book, not by counting uniforms or rank, but by finding a man or a small group of men who have created the spirit of the place and who know how to preserve that spirit. There really haven’t been very many spectacularly productive ap- plied research organizations—civilian or military—in this country. And the reason is just that so few men have been found who have this inner feeling for the spirit of organized research. It is something that cannot be advertised for, cannot be explained to Congress or to the Chiefs of Staff. But it is there, and it is very real, and it is vitally important that we seek it out and exploit it to the fullest when it does appear. If one keeps in mind the essentiality of this intangible “spirit” of a research organization, one can understand why there are so many arguments about the best way to “manage” military research. There are in fact many ways to “manage” it—if the spirit is there. There is no way to manage it if the spirit is absent. From this point of view many of the familiar arguments fall into proper perspective. For example, the argument about whether it is best in a labora- tory to have a military or a civilian director misses the point. A good military officer will clearly be better than an incompetent civilian and vice versa. The main advantage of a civilian—assuming equal competence—is the matter of contiénuity—and continuity is very im- portant in maintaining spirit. Also one is more likely to find able, inspired research directors among civilians, because many years of experience én research is helpful in developing this innate feeling for its spirit. Experience in a fighting organization is not intended to develop this same characteristic. Again, the arguments about the relative merits of government opera- tion versus contractor operation now fall into perspective. The Government can and does find and employ good civilians—and it has created some excellent applied research centers. However, the difli- culties are somewhat greater. A government civil service bureau geared to employ a million clerks and secretaries may not be an efficient mechanism for employing a few hundred scientists. And a govern- ment financial system geared to a budget of 70 billion dollars a year may lack some of the flexibility needed for the rapidly changing needs of a research laboratory. For these reasons the Government, when it delegates applied research operations to a contractor, buys an impor- tant asset in additional flexibility of the administrative, personnel, and financial policies which a contractor may supply. And this flexi- bility is, in turn, an attraction to good scientists—thus increasing the probability of finding and maintaining high-quality leadership and performance, 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 We must, however, keep in mind that there are many types of so-called “research and development” enterprises under the military services, and each kind carries its own set of special circumstances, its own problems and restrictions. For example, if a new fighter aircraft is needed the only possible mechanism to obtain it is through a development contract with an aircraft company. No one thinks of any other scheme. On the other hand, if one needs a testing facility whose prime function is to test and evaluate many different kinds of ordnance equipment, say, and to evaluate their military usefulness, then a military establishment would appear to be appropriate. For the wide range of activities in between these on the one hand, and the pure research projects on the other, there is a range of choice of methods of operation. If one is starting from scratch he will, of course, if possible, choose a modus operandi which has the highest probability of success for that operation. The objective must always be to find a mechanism which is appropriate to the task and which has the greatest probability of developing and encouraging the cre- ative spirit of research, and bringing that spirit to bear on the specific military problem at hand. An able team, ably led, which under- stands where it is going and why, will surely get there. This brings me to a problem which I think neither scientists nor the military agencies have solved, namely, the problem of trying, at every stage in the development and use of new weapons, to bring together scientific and military experience. Every time an intensive effort has been made to do this in a particular area the results have been most fruitful—sometimes spectacularly so. I think of the Hartwell project, for example. But this should be a continuous process. It seems to me that it is the responsibility of every scientist and engineer who is working in a laboratory devoted to military purposes to keep himself continuously informed of the Nation’s broad military problems and of the specific ones in his area. If he is working on a radar he should inform himself fully of the military situations in which it is to be or could be used. If he is working on a missile he should know what it is for, what other equipment it will be used with, what military problems it is intended to solve. A weapon designed in the dark, no matter how technically clever it is, may be of little or no military utility. Conversely, of course, the military agencies have a responsibility. A weapon dreamed up as desirable by a soldier who is without access to knowledge about technological possibilities may also be a dud—or at least less effective than it could be. The point is that military and scientific people should do their dreaming together. They should be continually exchanging ideas about defense problems. ‘The scientist may then hear of military situations he did not know existed—and SCIENCE SERVING THE NATION—DUBRIDGE 187 potential aids to meeting them may come to mind. Similarly the military officer, hearing about new weapon developments may see new possibilities for their tactical use or how they could be adapted to new situations. The idea that the function of the military is to tell the scientists what weapons they need, and that the function of the scientists is to deliver them without argument, is as obsolete as the idea that the scientist can toss new weapons at random at the military and that it is their job to find a use for them. We must face the fact that weapon development which will keep us ahead of our enemies is a tough business, and it requires the best combined talents we can muster at all stages of the enterprise. We have no talent to waste on either the military or civilian side. If mili- tary secrecy is interfering with this intimate meeting of minds then secrecy is working against national security, and it is time that real security considerations come first. If I were to express a hope for the future of this Laboratory which we are dedicating here today, it would be that, as it maintains and develops the spirit of research that I have been talking about, it also becomes a meeting place where scientists and military men discuss broadly, intimately, and vigorously the problems of the military de- fense of this country. Out of such discussions will come, we can be sure, new and important concepts in the field of military weapons and their uses. Your business and my business is not just a better device for this or that purpose; it is, rather, nothing less than the safety of this Nation. And it is your responsibility and mine—not someone else’s—to insure that each of us is making his most effective contribu- tion to that end. 7; ried my ey ni on ane Bede. nS Aba” Ti, oie te tive wide we TaseapenecTecae nfl b ma beatin vila eA een aria Tea ea Me ea devintad ry" wera: toy kre cas ise: can tinned hal ‘ttien ee of tot Drevael don ihe Peto anved cx? thee 2 reach cirts Pas Ose uae ene vay Beeolini Pal totes har tontny heat: obey vt (he aliieg aittiind ty Whiele We te tte ce erakn tae a5 he worlongean Oto te tincatiowtd Winthw samt 10a hor, -€ webbie Eg. inna By i he tiist withy what Gailbary poate. i a abet co eoteis wfc fennel in, hw ehgtaty ie mires uw ae clvvar fy a inaece! er Atay ow ees itary v4 Reet det . if aR i i” erieny nl gay triky’ ee con eee ; saree AS a: Oe OAL, ane iu kai wintian sbont pitied iee pagal Bases: fee Hii ahaa iby ihe ate.) exe upping eal t Hig chia i prnbbsnigen foaw Aiyeoi hiaee tt maletoney a He ii rh se aa a — = - 7 atk "an toe A kde ia > so ae oe ee | The Development of Nuclear Power for Peaceful Purposes’ By Henry D. SmytH Princeton University Formerly Member, United States Atomic Energy Commission Tue structure of modern industrial society depends on plentiful supplies of energy. There is never enough. We are always seeking new sources. Yet we have not tapped the most generous sources of energy that nature has supplied to us—the winds, the tides, the rays of the sun. We have not yet learned how to harness these great nat- ural forces. Fifteen years ago a new natural force was discovered, the fission of uranium. Within the first 2 months of 1939 the idea of uranium fission was suggested, communicated, proved experimentally, and pub- lished. The speed and importance of this discovery constitute one of the most spectacular events in the history of science. It involved men of many nations, free communication, high imagination, and precise experiment. In a world at war, the potential use of nuclear fission in bombs meant that vast sums of money were soon available for its exploita- tion. In 1945, only 6 years later, an atomic bomb marked the end of the second World War. Weare now engaged in an effort to harness this same atomic energy for peaceful purposes. It is a great effort and indeed should be so, for success in it may materially change the lives and conditions of men. The accident of history has placed the major responsibility for this effort on the Government of the United States. As its agent, the Atomic Energy Commission has brought together an array of scientific and engineering talent never before equaled. Private in- dustry already is carrying a major share of our enterprise under * Talk delivered at the national meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, March 9, 1954. Reprinted by permission from Electrical Engineering, vol. 73, No. 6, June 1954. 189 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 contract to the Government and is now becoming more and more active on its own initiative. This is as it should be. Those of us engaged in this effort believe we shall be successful. We are so confident of success that we do not begrudge the years and the skill and the millions of dollars that are being spent to make available to man the kind of energy that heats the stars. But the road to suc- cess will bealong one. We know that it will have many dead ends and wrong turnings and many dull and dreary stretches. The barriers to be surmounted or bypassed are formidable. By now we think we know what these barriers are, what kinds of problems have to be solved if nuclear power is to be significant in our economy. Weshould know these problems, for it is now 15 years since nuclear fission was discovered, 10 years since the first large-scale nuclear reactor was started, and 5 years since the Atomic Energy Commission announced its first program of nuclear reactors aimed at power. Energy from nuclear powerplants will be just like energy from coal-burning powerplants. Except for special purposes, the sole criterion of comparison will be cost. The problems of reactor development today are best explained in terms of those which faced the designers of the first great reactors at Hanford. They are so fundamental that they will continue to be of major importance even though the emphasis may shift from time to time. Once I have defined the problems, I shall outline our present state of knowledge and the next major steps we are planning for their solution. THE GENERAL PROBLEMS OF A NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR Let me recall to you the three major facts of nuclear fission: First, that enormous amounts of energy are released; second, that the prod- ucts of fission are radioactive; and third, that fission is caused by neutrons and results in the production of further neutrons, thereby making a chain reaction possible. These basic facts confront the designers of reactors with a series of technical questions which can be grouped in five general areas. These general areas that have to be considered are, first of all, what we call neutron economy; second, the effects of nuclear radiation; third, heat transfer or removal; fourth, control and instrumentation; and fifth, chemical processing of fuel both before and after it goes into the reactor. Let me go into some detail about these five areas. NEUTRON ECONOMY It is evident that the first requirement of a nuclear reactor is that the nuclear chain reaction shall occur. In other words, if a uranium nucleus in a structure containing uranium does undergo fission, it must NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 191 produce neutrons in sufficient quantity to cause other nuclear fissions in the vicinity and to set up a self-propagating nuclear chain reaction. Actually the number of neutrons produced by a single fission is not very large. On the average, for every neutron used up in producing a fission, about 214 new neutrons are released, a net gain of 114 neutrons per fission. At first sight, this would appear plenty to produce a multiplication of fissions. Unfortunately, from the point of view of neutron economy, all the neutrons produced in a single fission are not absorbed in uranium 235 to produce additional fissions. There are, in fact, four things that can happen to the neutrons that are produced in the fission process. First of all, since neutrons are extremely penetrating, they may simply escape to the outside environ- ment. A second way in which they disappear is by capture by ura- nium 238 without causing fission. A third possibility is that they may be captured by impurities in the uranium or by the structural materials that have to be introduced for cooling or other purposes. The fourth possible process that can occur is, of course, the capture of neutrons by uranium 235 resulting in fission. If the fourth proc- ess produces more neutrons than are lost by the first three processes, the chain reaction occurs. Otherwise, it does not. Evidently, in a given arrangement the first three processes may have such a high probability that the extra neutrons created by fission will be insufli- cient to keep the reaction going. One obvious way to reduce the probability of the escape of neutrons is to increase the amount of uranium present. The more uranium there is, the more likely it is that the neutrons will be absorbed in it and cause fission rather than escape. This leads, of course, to the concept of critical mass, which is familiar to many and which I will not discuss any further. The second process we need to minimize is the capture of neutrons by uranium without producing fission. There are several things that can be done to minimize this process. Two of them depend on the great effect which the speed of the neutrons has on the probability of their absorption in uranium 238. This probability is reduced by using a slowing-down material, called a moderator, and arranging the ura- nium in a lattice. Another way to reduce nonfission capture by uranium is to eliminate part or all of the uranium 238 isotope, since it contributes very little to the fission process and does absorb many neutrons. Of course, in the Hanford reactors, this was not desirable because one of the objectives of the Hanford reactors was to produce plutonium by absorption of neutrons in uranium 238. To reduce the third process, the nonfission capture of neutrons by impurities or structural materials, requires that the uranium itself be very highly purified in the first place and that structural materials be 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 used which have a low capacity for the absorption of neutrons. ‘This last consideration puts many restrictions in the path of the designer of a nuclear chain reactor. THE EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION The effects of nuclear radiation have several aspects that the de- signer needs to keep in mind. Perhaps the most important one tech- nically is the fact that the constant bombardment of structural ma- terials and of uranium itself causes changes in their properties. A piece of uranium, a piece of steel or aluminum in a nuclear reactor is continually bombarded by neutrons, by gamma radiation, and to some extent by other nuclear radiations. ‘The result of such bombardment may be a change of shape, an embrittlement, a change in thermal conductivity, or of almost any other property of the material. The rate of corrosion of a material is affected by the presence of nuclear radiation. Nuclear radiation is dangerous to health. Consequently, the whole reactor structure must be surrounded by a shield which will not be penetrated by the neutrons and other radiation. Radiation is present not only while the reactor is running, but induces a lasting radioactiv- ity in the materials of the reactor. In particular, fuel elements in the reactor become highly radioactive, and when they are unloaded for chemical processing, they have to be handled by remote control. It is unsafe for any personnel to handle them directly. Similarly, main- tenance must be held to an absolute minimum, and actual direct access of the operators to the heart of the reactor must be avoided. HEAT TRANSFER OR REMOVAL The principal interest in establishing a nuclear reaction is because the fission processes release such enormous amounts of energy, millions of times the amount of energy released in chemical reactions in corre- sponding amounts of material. To be sure, the Hanford reactors were not designed for the purpose of producing energy but for the purpose of producing plutonium. Nevertheless, the production of large amounts of energy is inescapably associated with the fission process, and, therefore, the designers of the Hanford reactors had to provide some means of removing that energy. It was a simpler prob- lem for them than for the designers of a reactor intended to produce energy. The Hanford designers had merely to get rid of the energy in some way. The designers of a power reactor must extract the energy in a form which can be put to use. Nevertheless, many of the problems are the same. They differ from ordinary heat transfer problems for reasons that have already been suggested, namely, that the choice of materials is limited by neutron economy, that corrosion effects may be enhanced NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 193 by the radiation present, and, finally, that the replacement of parts is difficult or impossible because of the health dangers involved. In a power-producing reactor, the temperature should be as high as possi- ble so that the heat energy removed can be converted efficiently into useful power. This is a real difficulty as we shall see later on and is one point where the Hanford designers had a considerable advantage. CONTROL When the first reactors were designed, the question of control was a very critical one. No one knew very certainly whether it would be possible to prevent the reactor from running vay with itself. We do not want to have a reactor heat up to the point where it will melt and destroy itself. We wish to avoid this for two reasons: first, we do not want to lose the reactor; and second, we do not want to spew radioactive material all over the countryside. By now we have had enough experience to relieve our concern about essential difficulties of control. We are perfectly sure that we can build a reactor which we can control. In fact, as I shall mention later, some types of reactor are self-controlling. There does remain, however, a problem of con- venience, efficiency, and cost in designing the proper controls to start, stop, or maintain at a desired operating level the nuclear chain reaction. CHEMICAL PROCESSING OF FUEL Ideally, we would like to put into a nuclear reactor a certain amount of uranium and leave it there until all the uranium had been con- verted into heat energy and fission products. If that were possible, we would be concerned with chemical processing only in preparing the fuel. Unfortunately, the difficulties both of neutron economy as affected by the growth of fission products and of the corrosion or radiation damage of structural materials or fuel elements make it quite out of the question to consume more than a fraction of a nuclear charge in any known design of reactor. After a certain length of time—and one of the problems in the design of reactors is to make that length of time as great as possible—it is necessary to remove the fuel. It is too valuable to throw away, since it will probably still contain some 90 percent or more of the fissionable material. Conse- quently, we have to reprocess it chemically, separating out the fission products and refabricating the uranium into new fuel elements. This turns out to be one of the most costly processes in the whole business of operating a reactor for power. T believe it is possible that the nuclear power industry will stand or fall economically depending on the success which chemists and chemi- cal engineers have in developing cheap processes for purifying and refabricating nuclear fuel, 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 THE HANFORD REACTORS I have been speaking of the general technical problems of reactor design. Tobe more concrete, let me recall briefly in specific terms how these problems are met in the Hanford reactors. For neutron economy, the reactor is large. It uses graphite as a moderator, and the natural uranium fuel elements are arranged in alattice. Both graphite and uranium are very highly purified. Cool- ing channels and protecting coatings of the uranium fuel elements are aluminum of minimum dimensions. To shield operating personnel, the reactor is surrounded by heavy composite walls and all control and operations are from outside the shields. To reduce corrosion of the aluminum, the cooling water is purified and the temperatures held relatively low. To avoid corro- sion or distortion of the uranium, it is canned in aluminum and not left in the reactor very long. Heat is removed by large volumes of Columbia River water with relatively low exit temperature. The water is then held in retention basins before returning to the river. Control is by neutron-absorbing rods that move in and out of the reactor. The position of the rods is recorded at the contro! desk and varied by the operators or automatically in response to instruments. Chemical processing by a solvent extraction process is done in a separate plant to which the fuel elements are transported in shielded railroad cars, with all operations remotely controlled. Fundamentally, it is the low exit temperature of the cooling water and the short life of the fuel elements that make this plant imprac- ticable as a power source. BREEDING Uranium 235 is the isotope of uranium in which fission occurs most readily. Unfortunately, it is present in natural uranium only 1 part to 140. Natura] uranium is none too plentiful, and to be able to use only seven-tenths of a percent of it is frustrating. Neutrons absorbed in the other uranium isotope, uranium 238, lead to the produc- tion of plutonium and plutonium is readily fissionable. This fact early suggested the possibility that a reactor could simultaneously produce heat energy from the uranium 235 in natural uranium, and produce plutonium from the uranium 238, and that then the plu- tonium could be used as fuel for further production of energy. It was even suggested that the plutonium produced might be greater in quantity than the uranium 235 burned up. Such a process is called a breeding process, since more fuel can be produced than would be burned. NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 195 This is, of course, a very fascinating idea. It turns out, however, that it may not be so very important whether actually more material is produced than is burned. It is obviously possible to produce some plutonium, since that is what the Hanford reactors are for, and it should be possible to take that plutonium and use it as fuel for power reactors. Whether the amount of plutonium produced is slightly less or slightly greater than the amount of uranium 235 burned up is not very important. We do, however, make a distinction in nomen- clature whereby we call a reactor that produces plutonium in smaller quantity than uranium burned a converter, and one where the quan- tity produced is greater than that of uranium burned a breeder. In either case, it should be possible eventually to convert the fission energy of both isotopes of uranium to useful power. In the case of the converter, there would be some loss; in the case of the breeder, the losses in the reactor would be zero, but in either case there will be losses in chemical processing so that the difference is not very sig- nificant. The difference, however, between using just the uranium 235 and eventually using all the uranium in natural uranium is enor- mous and may well make the difference between an ample supply of nuclear fuel for many years to come and a rather scanty one. THE FIRST ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION REACTOR PROGRAM When the Atomic Energy Commission took over the plant and equipment of the Manhattan District in January 1947, the problems that I have been reviewing were already clear. Although the Com- mission’s first responsibility was to prosecute the atomic weapons pro- gram with vigor, it soon turned to the possibility of atomic power, both for special military purposes and for ultimate peacetime uses. Early in 1949, Dr. Bacher, my predecessor as the scientific member of the Commission, made a speech in which he outlined the ways in which the Commission was attacking the problems I have reviewed. Essentially, the program consisted of a plan to build four major re- actors. Let me describe three of these that have been finished at our Idaho Test Site and explain why they were built. The first of them was the so-called materials-testing reactor, MTR. It was aimed primarily at getting information on the effects of radia- tion on uranium fuel elements or other materials that might be used as tubes for cooling water, or as coolants, or containers for uranium fuel elements. The object of this reactor then was to provide very high intensity radiation in a machine so designed that many experi- mental samples could be placed in it. It has now been running for about 2 years, and it has in fact proved exceedingly useful. Inci- dentally, it also was a novel kind of reactor and therefore was in itself a step toward the development of new types of reactors. 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The second reactor built at Idaho was the so-called experimental breeder reactor, EBR. As the name implies, it was specifically aimed at demonstrating whether or not breeding was possible. It has dem- onstrated that breeding is possible and has had a number of other incidental interesting results. The third reactor was a special-purpose one aimed at providing power for a submarine. You have heard a great deal about that one and about the submarine in which a similar reactor is now being installed. In all three of these reactors, the neutron economy problem was solved by using uranium from which much of the uranium 238 isotope has been extracted. Whether or not, in the long run, this is the kind of reactor we will build for power purposes will be largely a question of economics. Personally, I doubt it, but I do not doubt the wisdom of having built these three reactors and the value of the results we have obtained from them. A more modest undertaking initiated later is the homogeneous- reactor experiment at Oak Ridge. From the atomic point of view, the homogeneous reactor is misnamed. In reality, one can think of it as a lattice where the spacing is very small and the size of the fuel elements is of atomic dimension. To put it more simply, and in more familar terms, the homogeneous reactor is a solution of uranyl] sulphate in water. The water serves as the moderator, and the uranyl-sulphate molecules serve as the fuel elements in which the chain reaction is set up. The immediate and obvious advantage of the homogeneous reactor is that fuel fabrication and processing is enormously simplified. The solution is pumped continuously through the reactor chamber and then cooled in outside heat exchangers, and some of it can be continually bled off for purification and then reintroduced into the circulating stream of combined fuel and moderator. One of the interesting fea- tures of the homogeneous reactor is that it turns out to be self-regulat- ing. As the temperature of the reactor rises, its reactivity decreases and therefore it controls itself. One difficulty that was anticipated in the homogeneous reactor was that the water itself would be dissociated by the radiation. This does occur, but it has been found possible to re- combine the hydrogen and oxygen formed without too great difficulty. In addition to the results obtained with the three reactors I have been discussing, and the homogeneous-reactor experiment, there has, of course, been an extensive program of study of the various associated problems in the laboratory. These range from fundamental studies of what causes radiation damage, or of the absorption probabilities of various materials for neutrons of various energies, to component testing in heat loops, and experimental fabrication of fuel elements. Some of NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 197 these studies use the various low-power research reactors that have been built. One of the most interesting experiments that has been done was car- ried out last summer at the Idaho Test Site by Dr. Zinn, director of our Argonne Laboratory, and his associates. We had long worried about what would happen to a water-cooled reactor if the flow of water should be cut off. We were afraid that if the water supply was cut off or if the temperature of the reactor rose too rapidly boiling would occur and that this might have disastrous results. Dr. Zinn decided to make a direct approach to this problem and built a small reactor with the deliberate intention of producing boiling. When it was set up at the Tdaho testing station, it had an arrangement in it which suddenly ejected the control rods so that the power generated by the chain reac- tion went up in a fraction of a second from a few watts to many thou- sands of watts. This had the expected effect on the water. It boiled. It boiled so violently in fact that it was ejected from the reactor in a small geyser. Repeated trials showed that in every case the boiling reduced the power of the reactor so rapidly that no serious damage was done. This particular experiment illustrates very well the reasons for choosing an isolated area as a site for experimental reactors. It was not only that some of the reactors might be inherently dangerous, but it was felt that an experimental reactor, one built primarily for the purpose of obtaining information, should be operated to extremes, and that it was desirable to have such reactors in an isolated location for that reason. In other words, if you want to get as much information as you can out of a reactor, you need to push it to the point where it might conceivably run into trouble. RESULTS OF THE PAST FIVE YEARS AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE ART Let me summarize some of the major results that we have obtained in the past 5 years either directly from the reactors we have built and operated or from laboratory work. I will take them in terms of the five general areas that I enumerated at the start. So far as neutron economy is concerned we have learned a great deal about the prob- abilities of various nuclear events, including the relationship between the probability of fission and the energy of the neutrons. (This, for example, was tested in the experimental breeder reactor.) We have found that we can use a number of different substances as moderators, specifically beryllium, light water, and heavy water in addition to the familiar graphite. As to the effects of radiation, the MTR has, of course, been of the greatest value as one might expect, since it was designed for that purpose. But we also have the benefit of studying the fuel elements 198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 that have been in the EBR and in the submarine thermal reactor. These, too, have been valuable. We have a great variety of alloys and have tested various fue] elements. In particular, the submarine thermal reactor has shown that fuel elements sheathed in zirconium will resist corrosion and radiation effects over considerable lengths of time and represent a great improvement over the aluminum-sheathed fuel elements in the Hanford reactors. Radiation effects have also been studied in a variety of coolants including sodium and heavy water. In the matter of heat transfer we have found we can remove the heat from a reactor by circulating molten sodium-potassium alloy through it. This is the system of heat removal used in the EBR. We have also done a great deal of work on pure sodium as a possible coolant and are using it in the second type of submarine reactor now under construction. We have also found that we can use a cooling system of pressurized water. This is the system used in the submarine thermal reactor. We have run reactors at much higher temperatures than we were ever able to run them at Hanford, and, therefore, we have moved in the direction of efficient use of the energy from nuclear fission. As to control and instrumentation, the most striking results have been those already mentioned where we have found that certain types of reactors are in fact self-regulating as a result of boiling or near boiling as the temperature rises. The only other result I will mention is the use of hafnium as a material for control rods. Hafnium is present as an impurity in zirconium and has to be removed before zirconium cladding can be used for fuel elements because it absorbs neutrons. For the same reason it is very useful as a control material. In the matter of chemical processing, perhaps it is fair to say that most of the work has been accomplished in the laboratory, although we have had experience with actual processing of the various types of fuel elements in the new reactors, none of which is exactly like those at Hanford. We have also proved that the homogeneous reactor will work, at least on a small scale, and we therefore know that that is one direction ir which to hope for improvement. In the matter of costs, we still have much work to do. None of the reactors we have actually put up is cheap, either to build or to operate. The submarine thermal reactor probably costs somewhere around $1,500 or $2,000 per kilowatt to build, which is to be compared with the cost of a modern steam plant—somewhere around $180 per kilowatt. But the submarine thermal reactor does prove one over-all major result, namely, that it is possible to build a reactor for the production of power that will run continuously and efficiently for at least reasonably long times. NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 199 QUESTIONS STILL TO BE ANSWERED The fundamental question still to be answered is whether a power- producing uranium reactor can be built which will compete with other sources of energy. The answer to that question will be found in the choice of some one of the kinds of reactors we have already built or thought about. None of them has yet been proved to be the ideal or even the best choice. The homogeneous reactor, for example, does simplify chemical processing, but it requires enriched fuel and it is not yet certain that the corrosion problems can be solved. The breeder has not yet been proved on any large scale so that we do not know at all how expensive that may be. The submarine thermal reactor uses such expensive materials for cladding the fuel elements that it is almost certainly not competitive, even though we may be able to produce zirconium at lower and lower costs. It also uses enriched material. And so it goes all through the list. PROPOSED FIVE-YEAR PROGRAM In the past few months we have been reviewing the results that we have obtained up to the present time and planning what would be best to do over the next few years in order to arrive at an economical solu- tion of the problem of nuclear power. We have decided that there are six programs that we should pursue. One of these is the general program that we must obviously continue, the program of research on fundamental properties of materials, on nuclear reactions, on compo- nents that might go into the reactors of the future, and on chemical processes. This work will be continued principally in our Argonne and Oak Ridge laboratories. In addition to this general research and development work, we wish to build five reactors of varying size and cost. The Commission has recently submitted to the Joint Com- mittee on Atomic Energy a special report on the reactor program prepared at the request of the Committee. The first of these reactors in our new program has already been publicly announced. It is the so-called PWR reactor which is de- signed to generate at least 60,000 kilowatts of electric power. It will use slightly enriched uranium as fuel, ordinary water as a moderator and coolant. The reactor will be operated under reasonably high pressure and temperature—not nearly so high as are used in modern steam plants, but as high as we feel to be safe in terms of our present knowledge. Specifically, the water in the reactor will be under 2,000 pounds per square inch pressure and at a temperature between 500° and 600° F. Steam will be delivered to the turbine at about 600 pounds per square inch. The temperature is limited by the corrosion of the fuel elements and piping and container, and the pressure is 870930—b6——14 200% ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 limited by the strength and size of the vessel in which the reactor must be contained. One of the difficult problems in this reactor will be that of getting control mechanisms to operate in a high-pressure vessel. Principally, we hope to learn from this reactor how such a plant may stand up under ordinary operating conditions of a central- station electric powerplant and how much it costs to build and operate it. We have no expectation that this reactor will produce power as cheaply as a modern coal-burning plant, but we hope to learn how costs can be cut in later plants. The second new reactor which we wish to build is a breeder of intermediate size. It will not be of direct interest from the point of view of economic power, but it will be much larger and much more nearly a power-producing, continuously-operating reactor than the small experiment we have been running out in Idaho. The scale-up planned is from 1,400 to 62,500 kilowatts of heat, and from 170 to 15,000 kilowatts of electric power. Temperatures and steam pressure will be increased to values appropriate to a full-scale power breeder reactor. Auxiliaries such as pumps, heat exchangers, valves, etc., will be of sizes suitable to a full-scale reactor. Our third step is based on the boiling experiment that I have already described. It will be an attempt on an intermediate scale actually to use boiling of the water as a method of heat extraction. We hope in this way to get a very cheap method of getting the heat out of the reactor and possibly of eliminating one step between the coolant in the reactor and the turbines which turn the generator. It is planned to feed the steam generated in the reactor directly to the turbines. Present plans call for 20,000 kilowatts of heat and 5,000 kilowatts of electric power. The fourth reactor which we intend to build is a larger version of the homogeneous reactor. Again, it will be a step in the direction of a practical power-producing unit and should give us information about corrosion, chemical processing, and operating conditions that cannot be obtained with the small machine now in use at Oak Ridge. Present specifications call for only 3,000 kilowatts of heat in this re- actor experiment compared to 1,000 in the present experiment. The next step, already planned, calls for 65,000 kilowatts of heat in a homogeneous reactor which will breed uranium 233 in a blanket of thorium surrounding the chain reacting core. The fifth reactor experiment which we plan to build is a little differ- ent from any that I have described. J have mentioned that the breeder reactor uses sodium-potassium alloy as a coolant. The Hanford re- actors use graphite as a moderator. We hope to be able to combine these two materials, getting the advantage of high temperature with- out high pressure from the sodium coolant. To test this combination, NUCLEAR POWER FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES—SMYTH 201 we will build a reactor generating about 20,000 kilowatts of heat but without any electric generating plant attached. In addition to these new proposals, we shall continue several other programs already under way. These include the so-called inter- mediate submarine reactor now under construction at West Milton, N. Y., near Schenectady, and the development of a reactor to propel aircraft. Though the aims of both of these projects are special, they will undoubtedly contribute to the general technology. COSTS It is evident that we can build powerplants which will convert the energy released in nuclear fission into electrical energy to be fed into transmission lines. The question that has not been answered and may not be conclusively answered even by the program I have out- lined is whether this power can be produced cheaply enough to be of general use. The Atomic Energy Commission believes that it can be done and this is the opinion also of the several private industria] groups that have been studying the problem for several years at the invitation of the Commission. At present, the power delivered by the submarine reactor at our Idaho plant costs about ten times as much as it would if we bought it from the Idaho Power Company. From this figure you can see that it will require all the ingenuity of our staff, our con- tractors, and private industry working together to get costs down, but it is reasonable to assume that eventually this will be done. INDUSTRIAL PARTICIPATION These private industrial groups I have mentioned are interested in more than just cost studies. They have assigned able members of their staffs to design studies of nuclear powerplants and in some cases are doing considerable amounts of research at their own expense. But it is a mistake to think that private industry can or will pick up the burden of development of nuclear powerplants in the present state of the art. It is a field in which knowledge and competence are still largely confined to government laboratories and in which the financial risks are still too great for private industry to carry alone. The Commission hopes for greater and greater participation by in- dustry both technically and financially and for a gradual transfer of the nuclear power part of the Commission’s responsibilities to private enterprise. The many problems of such a transfer are too numerous for discussion here. Personally, I feel they are just about as difficult as the technical problems of getting cheap nuclear power. Time, money, and thought will be needed for both sets of problems. I be- lieve they can be solved. 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 CONCLUSION To establish a nuclear power industry in this country will be a great achievement. If power becomes cheaper and more plentiful, our ma- terial standard of living will be raised. In other countries the effect may be even greater. By the accident of history the first use of this great new discovery has been in the development of weapons of war, weapons of appalling magnitude. The nations of the world have to- day the means to destroy each other. They also have, in this same nuclear energy, a new resource which could be used to lift the heavy burdens of hunger and poverty that keep masses of men in bondage to ignorance and fear. Toward this peaceful development of nuclear power we have, all of us, a high obligation to work with all the in- genuity and purpose we possess. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D. C. The Time Scale of Our Universe’ By E. J. Oprx Armagh Observatory Armagh, Northern Ireland INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY THE AVERAGE SCIENTIST of half a century ago did not ponder much the question of the beginning and age of the universe. For lack of observational approach this problem remained outside the realm of exact science. It was generally felt that the universe should have neither beginning nor end, a viewpoint which was more influenced by opposition to former mythological or religious ideas of creation than by impartial reasoning. Indeed, the second law of thermodynamics was well established at that time. According to this law, the universe is steadily running down toward equalization of the energy content of its parts. The ultimate state is that of universally constant temperature, “Warmetod” or thermal death, where, in the absence of temperature differences, no exchange of energy, no relative motion except that of molecules could take place. Organic life, the metabolism of which consists in ex- change of energy, could not exist then, even were the temperature favorable for life—which, in all probability, it would not be. The mere fact that temperature differences exist, that suns shine and planets carry life in the face of the immensities of cold space (into which heat energy is lost in the form of radiation), would point to the youthfulness of our world, to a beginning a finite interval of time ago. Scientists of the beginning of this century preferred to ignore this writing on the wall. There were some reasons or, rather, pretexts which seemed to justify this eluding of the fundamental problem. The second law of thermodynamics, or that of increasing “entropy,” determines only the direction, not the speed with which equalization is approached. The speed, depending on a number of unknown ‘Armagh Observatory Leaflet No. 26. Reprinted, with some revision as of July 1955, by permission from the Irish Astronomical Journal, vol. 3, No. 4, December 1954. 203 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 processes, being itself unknown, no definite calculations of the time intervals involved could be made. When going back in time, the second law leads to ever-increasing energy concentrations in the past; an unlimited past would lead to infinite energy concentrations, a concept which is physically unaccept- able. Certainly some uneasiness was felt in this respect by those who did not want to draw the logical conclusion of a finite age for the present universe. But, then, there was Maxwell’s demon, an imagi- nary intelligent being who could, at will, regulate molecular processes and thus do away with the law of entropy. This sufficed to show that the law is not absolute. The law is only of a statistical nature, excep- tions being always possible although more or less improbable. Fur- ther, its validity for unlimited intervals of space and time was ques- tioned. A perhaps not very justifiable complacency about the begin- nings and ends of the world was thus sustained. During the second quarter of this century a great change in the scientific outlook in this respect took place. The recession of the extragalactic nebulae, coupled with the finite age of the radioactive elements, suggested that there was a beginning a few thousand million years ago, the same for the galaxies and for the atomic material of which our planet is built. Following the above-mentioned phenomena back in time, moments could be reached beyond which the recession of nebulae and the decay of radioactive isotopes could not continue in the same manner as they donow. The two time limits were not found to be equal although they were of the same order of magnitude; but, within the uncertainties of theory and observation, they could be adjusted to each other. The idea of a finite age for the universe emerged. A stage, some 3,000 million years ago, was visualized at which the universe was closely packed together, when the temperature and density were high enough to invert the radioactive processes and to cause the building up of the heavy unstable isotopes at a rate equal to, or faster than, their total rate of decay (spontaneous+ induced) in these conditions. One view considered this stage merely the remotest phase of evolu- tion of our world, beyond which extrapolation from the present state is not possible. It was not meant to be necessarily an absolute begin- ning—more likely it was not. The concept of age is thus reduced to that of a time scale, or a time interval during which the properties of the universe have radically changed. This definition appears to be somewhat vague; but it would imply nothing short of a complete ab- sence, at the early stage, of all the classes of celestial bodies which are familiar tous now. In such a form the definition is stringent enough. Therefore, even if we could assign an upper limit of age to all existing stars, this would be only a subordinate time scale—that of stellar evo- TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 205 lution—unless we could prove the total absence of any stars before that date, and not only of those existing at present. A more drastic view preferred the concept of an absolute beginning, perhaps identifiable with an act of creation. The definition of the time scale remained the same.as before, but additional meaning was attached to it as that of the absolute age of the universe. The initial stage, a singularity from which the universe started expanding, was the limit of extrapolation not only from the present, but from any state of the universe, however close to the initial stage. The difference between the two viewpoints is a matter of principle, and not of how the initial state of the universe is pictured. Although Eddington’s primeval nebula, assumed to have preceded the present expanding state of the universe, could have existed indefinitely, it could equally well have been the first created object, called into being in a peculiar state of almost exact equilibrium between gravitational attraction and the hypothetical force of cosmic repulsion. On the other hand, Lemaitre’s primeval atom, “the egg from which the uni- verse hatched,” is most simply interpreted as the result of an act of creation; yet it could also have been the final outcome of collapse of a previous universe, oscillating indefinitely in alternating expansion and contraction. ‘The choice between the two, continuous existence or creation, will remain a matter for esthetic judgment, not for positive science defined as theory verified by observation. There is no proof in purely esthetic matters. This does not mean that esthetic methods of approach to scientific problems are worthless. On the contrary, scientific theories are created by intuition, or by an essentially esthetic process. However, without the flesh and bone of experiment such theories remain mere shadows of possibilities. To remain on solid ground, in the following we will pay little atten- tion to esthetic considerations, however important these might appear from the standpoint of philosophy or religion. We will, further, be guided by the principle of minimum hypothesis, or economy of thought, which requires that new laws of nature must not be used for the explanation of phenomena which can be accounted for by known laws. This is a safeguard against becoming lost in the blind alleys of guesswork. The chances are small that a theory not supported by facts would prove to be correct. As already mentioned, the fundamental fact requiring a short time scale was, and remains, the red shift of the extragalactic nebulae. With the existing laws of nature this phenomenon is explained in the most straightforward way as recession. There are yet no facts known which would contradict this explanation. The Hubble-Humason law (1928) of proportionality of the red shift, or velocity of recession to distance, led to a time scale for the universe equal to a few thousand 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 million years. The uncertainty of the estimate depended upon how the rate of expansion of the universe, as revealed by recession, was assumed to vary with time. Nevertheless, various models of the ex- panding universe, based on different assumptions (de Sitter, Kinstein, Friedmann, Lemaitre, Eddington), gave figures within the same order of magnitude for the time of rapid change. The new “short” time scale of some 3,000 million years was like a bombshell amidst the complacent “permanentists.” At that time the pundits as well as the rank and file accepted a thousand times longer time scale for the stellar content of our galaxy alone, no men- tion being made of the universe as a whole. This “long” time scale, a multiple of a million million years, was mainly the outcome of mathematical investigations by Jeans into the statistics of stellar motions and the distribution of the orbits of double stars. Jeans assumed a state of “statistical equilibrium,” or that the present motions of the stars are essentially influenced by their mutual gravi- tational action in past close encounters. A close encounter would mean the passage of another star through our planetary system at a distance—say, between Mercury and Neptune. Such a passage would leave both suns physically intact (although its effect on plane- tary orbits might be disastrous), yet their motions would be changed in much the same manner as those of two gas molecules after an elastic collision. Jeans actually applied the kinetic theory of gases to the stellar universe. Because of the great distances separating individual stars, close encounters can happen only about once in several million million years, a figure which can be arrived at by elementary calcula- tion if the average velocity and distance between the stars is known. The “long” time scale was thus not a result of Jeans’ elaborate math- ematical theories, which were undoubtedly correct, but follow merely from his basic assumption of statistical equilibrium, implying that each star during its lifetime had a fair chance of undergoing several close encounters with other stars. In trying to prove his basic assump- tion, Jeans selected only certain statistical data which, superficially, seemed to agree with it, and, strangely enough, overlooked numerous more important criteria which contradicted his assumption. Thus, while carefully considering the effects of encounters on close binary stars, he disregarded the wide pairs and star clusters upon which the effects, according to his own theory, should have been thousands of times stronger. Indeed, with the long time scale these objects should have ceased to exist long ago, in contradiction to observation which reveals numberless wide double stars and loosely bound clusters in the sky. ‘The evidence against statistical, “gas-kinetic” equilibrium is overwhelming, and there is no foundation whatever for the “long” time scale in our stellar universe. The battle of “short” versus “long” TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 207 time scale is definitely won by the former, although the latter did not yield without a struggle. In the course of the controversy, arguments based on subordinate time scales were produced. These subordinate time scales—of the earth, the radioactive elements, stellar evolution, stability of binaries and star clusters—all fell below a not too large multiple of one thou- sand million years; as, moreover, some were obvious overestimates, they were considered as supporting the short time scale of the universe itself. An early, apparently the first, synoptic account of the evidence relating to the age of the universe concludes as follows (1) ?: “the combined evidence presented by meteorites, by statistical data relating to wide double stars, by the distribution of stellar luminosities in globular clusters ..., and by the observed recession of spiral nebulae . . . points to an age of the stellar universe of the same order of magnitude as the currently accepted age of the solar system: not much more than 3,000 million years.” In this account stress was laid on radioactive age determinations of meteorites by Paneth (whose results were later greatly changed), and on the abundance of lead isotopes in the earth’s crust as testifying to the age of the radioactive elements (results which have been corroborated since). Subsequent synoptic reviews invariably arrived at practically similar conclusions, formulated sometimes more, sometimes less cautiously, although, with the changing aspect of our knowledge and different personal approach, the emphasis was on different phenomena: radioactivity and the age of the earth, and stellar evolution with a hydrogen-helium source of energy (2); galactic dynamics (3) ; the stability of star clusters and binaries (4, 5); the red shift of nebulae and the radioactive age of the earth’s crust (6). The survival of the idea of the short time scale over two decades of intense astronomical and physical research is in itself a measure of its worth; it serves now as a generally accepted working basis in widely different fields of study. In the following an attempt is made to draw an up-to-date balance for the problem of the time scale or age of the universe. THE AGE OF THE EARTH The continental shields of northeastern Europe, Canada, South and Central Africa, and others, where mountain building ceased at an early age of our planet’s history, represent the oldest undisturbed portions of the earth’s crust. All these regions are lowlands or pla- teaus devoid of mountain chains, and are free from earthquakes which are the sign of continuing upheavals. The age of these old formations * Numbers in parentheses are references to the literature cited at end of text. 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 is expected to come nearest to that of the earth’s crust or the earth itself. The most suitable method of age determination of rocks consists in a comparison of the abundance of radioactive isotopes, such as those of uranium, with the abundance of their end products, e. g., lead isotopes. Pure minerals in the form of crystals are chosen for samples; there must be a guaranty that no exchange of substance between the sample and its surroundings has taken place, in which respect only individual crystals can be considered as reliable. Know- ing the rate of decay of the radioactive substance, the time during which decay has been going on can be calculated from the amount of end product accumulated. The determinations are accurate to within 8 to 10 percent, much more accurate than the other astrophysical age estimates referred to below. Radioactive age determinations yielded, indeed, high values for some mineral samples from the shields. Pegmatites from northern Karelia, in the so-called Baltic shield, gave an average age of 1,950 million years according to the lead method, but without isotope anal- ysis (7). In the Canadian shield, lead isotope determinations for pegmatites from southeastern Manitoba resulted in an average age of 2,100 million years (8); for the same an average of 2,240 million years was derived by the radioactive rubidium-strontium method (7), in good agreement with the former value. At that remote epoch, un- like the present conditions, volcanic activity was prominent in the Canadian shield. The Manitoba pegmatites are associated with granitic intrusions into older rocks which reveal traces of a long pre- vious geological history, and whose age can be estimated at 2,550 million years (12,22). Recent very consistent lead-isotope age deter- minations (9) have yielded still higher values of age for some samples from the continental shields: LOCALITY OF SAMPLE AGE Millions of years Evigtut,” Greenlanders 22 2 Se 3 At See arr 8 SAE aE ES eee a ee 1, 830 Yellowknife: Area;NiOW.2“T. 2 Canadas s_ 1 re as Sey Tees 2,140 Horseshoe Island, Great Slave Lake, Canada______________._._______-___ 2,180 Phoenix Mines Norsemans swWAvAustra lige sete leeds een ee eee 2, 190 Borderline) Mine) Busia, Province, Uganda ee eee 2, 220 Risks “Mine, Keniyat oot otis 266i ue ee eee ee ec ieee Be eee ees 2, 220 Copperhead Mine WeyAustralial ws oe ee ee eee eee 2, 300 Inguladhal,)Mysores clin ig 5a 2, 300 SOUX OOK OUG, \OUNLAELO! eae mek ee ere ee ee enn ome ee ee gee 2,310 SteclRocksLakevOntari ose sees ke ere ae oe ee eee eee ee econ = rene eee 2, 360 Rosetta’ Mine South “Atri cae 208 20 tee: Pk ee aaa ear ee wee ee 2, 860 Sierra:iLeone;, Br.-Wi Africa l@18)\2 ao ae ae es 2 eee 2,930 Pegmatites from the Rhodesian shield, near Bulawayo, yield an age of 2,640 million years (10), yet the surrounding rocks—sediments TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 209 and Javas—are still older; and, what is more remarkable, remains of primitive plants—algal structures—are found there in graphitic lime- stone (Macgregor 1940, 1941). ‘This provides “indubitable evidence that life has existed for at least 2,600 million years and probably for considerably longer than 2,700 million years” (10). Similarly, signs of organic remains are either found or strongly suspected in the rocks of Lake Superior and Manitoba, which are 2,000 to 2,500 million years old (11, 12). Thus, direct measurements set the minimum age of the earth’s crust at 2,900 million years, the oldest specimens being found in Africa. This confirms also a long-maintained belief that Africa was the first continent to be formed. It is but natural to expect that the oldest rocks have not yet found their way into man’s laboratories, and that the age of the earth’s crust is greater than the presently known oldest sample. An ingenious method, based on data for rocks of widely different ages from 25 to 1,330 million years as determined by Nier, led Holmes (14) to the calculation of the true age of the earth, or the time during which radiogenic lead has been produced in its materials. The method is one of extrapolation, consisting in the study of the observed relative isotopic abundances within one age group and their theoretical varia- tion with time. The moment when the isotopic ratios, calculated back- ward for various age groups, become equal is the “beginning.” Holmes found in such a manner 3,350 million years for the age of the earth. The oldest analyzed sample used in his calculation was 2,000 million years younger than this figure—a gap which might have caused con- siderable error in the extrapolation, as was pointed out by Jeffreys (15). Recent data as quoted above push the directly observed age limit much farther back in time, and nearer the beginning. Applying the method of extrapolation to modern data, the probable age of the earth results as 3,500 million years (16), in excellent agreement with Holmes’ former figure, but more reliable, the range of extrapolation being now only a few hundred million years. The figure of 3.5 thousand million years can at present be accepted as a close approximation to the age of the earth—the time elapsed since its elements were uniformly mixed, probably in a molten state. The same figure, or one perhaps only slightly greater, can be con- sidered the age of the solar system; the formation of the planets and of the earth’s crust must have taken relatively short intervals of time (17). The uranium and thorium content of iron meteorites is so small that their lead can be assumed to be of primeval isotopic composition, no radiogenic lead having been added in the course of time. If this 210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 is so, the present average isotopic composition of lead, uranium, and thorium in the earth’s crust indicates an age of 4,500 million years (18, 19), in remarkable agreement with a similarly determined age of stony meteorites (20). This would be the time elapsed since the separation of the iron from the silicate phase, which may have taken place in a diffuse state of matter and may have preceded the forma- tion of the planets. THE AGE OF THE ELEMENTS Time intervals can be calculated only for radioactive elements with a known rate of decay. According to the well-known laws of radio- active decay, the amount of these elements decreases exponentially with time; calculating their amounts for distant epochs in the past, one inevitably arrives at time limits beyond which the calculated abundances of radioactive isotopes become unreasonably large— greater than those of the presently observed end products, or even greater than the total amount of matter in the universe. Clearly, the radioactive elements can only be of finite age. Now, the rate of decay of radioactive elements is not influenced by external conditions if the temperature remains below 1,000 million degrees and the density below, say, one million times that of water. Neither in the interior of normal (dwarf or “main-sequence”) stars, nor in interstellar clouds from which suns and planetary systems are believed to have sprung, do such extreme conditions exist. We may well say that the state of matter in the observable universe requires radioactive decay to proceed relentlessly. As this could happen only for a finite interval of time, it would mean that the observable agglomerates of matter in the universe could also have existed for only a limited time. Thus, at a remote epoch a building up of the radioactive isotopes must have taken place, in addition to their spontaneous or forced decay. Now, conditions leading to the formation of the heavy radio- active isotopes will throw the rest of the lighter elements into a melt- ing pot, too—will cause their rapid building up and disintegration; this is a trivial consequence of the theory of nuclear structure. The age of the radioactive isotopes is thus almost synonymous with the age of the elements. According to a method proposed by Russell (21), a maximum age for the elements can be derived from the relative terrestrial abun- dances of a radioactive isotope and its end product. It yields a maximum age, because some of the end product must have been created nonradiogenically in the initial “melting pot,” when all the elements came into being under extreme conditions of temperature and density. Of the different isotopes, that leading to the lowest estimate of age is to be taken. The upper limit of age of the terrestrial elements thus found TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 211 equals 5 to 6 thousand million years, less than the double of the age of the earth (1, 16, 22, 23). The sharpest margin results from the uranium 235-lead 207 ratio. The closeness of the order of magnitude of the upper limit to-the age of the earth is significant and makes it likely that the true age of the elements does not differ much from that of the earth—a figure of about 4,500 million years appearing to be plausible. In these estimates there is some uncertainty from the unknown composition of the earth’s interior, which, however, is hardly signifi- cant in view of the exponential law of variation of abundance ratios with time. Even a large error in the present ratio will not affect the order of magnitude of the resulting age. The mere presence of radio- active substances is a proof of the temporal origin of the terrestrial elements. Except for meteorites, there are no data available as to the abundance of radioactive isotopes outside the earth; the above-mentioned time limit refers therefore strictly only to the sample of matter represented by our globe. Although the relative abundances of the elements (excluding the lightest, which have escaped from small bodies like our planet) in the earth’s crust and in the atmospheres of the sun and most stars are very similar, this does not necessarily mean a simultaneous origin for their elements. Only a similar mode of origin is implied. Several attempts have been made to explain, with more or less suc- cess, the origin and relative abundances of the elements by equilibrium conditions inside superdense stars (Klein, Beskow, and Treffenberg; Hoyle; van Albade). Supernova explosions inject the mixture into space, whence it condenses again into new-born stars (24). Observa- tions of the Crab Nebula (25), a former supernova, suggest that the product of explosion—the amorphous core of the nebula—is poor in hydrogen, whereas its hydrogen fringe appears to be interstellar gas pushed ahead of the expanding core. We may thus have a double origin for the elements: hydrogen already present in space with an unknown original content of other elements; and the heavier elements enriching the mixture through supernova explosions. Old stars— those of “Population II” — seem to show, indeed, a smaller metal content than those believed to be more recently formed (26), suggesting a gradual change in the composition of the medium of which stars are built. If this is so, we need not go to the beginnings of the universe to account for the radioactive isotopes on earth: they may be the products of supernova explosions that preceded the forma- tion of the solar system. Nevertheless, serious doubts with respect to the latter conclusion are justified. The theory of stellar structure would admit the building 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 up of the lighter metal nuclei in superdense stellar cores (27, 28), as well as during the hydrogen explosion of a star that has become hydro- dynamically unstable (24). From this, however, it is a long way to the extreme conditions at which uranium and similar elements of high atomic number can begin to be produced. Although light metals can, indeed, be currently supplied by the above-described mechanism, it is doubtful whether the heavy radioactive isotopes could originate in stellar interiors. More likely, these isotopes have come into being in a more powerful “explosion” which involved the whole universe, namely, that which happened at an early stage of its expansion. In that case the age of at least the heavier terrestrial elements would still be synony- mous with the age of the world. This leads us to another group of theories which explain the ob- served abundances of all elements, including the heaviest, by their building up from a nonequilibrium, extremely hot mixture (chiefly neutron gas) at an early stage of an exploding universe (Alpher, Bethe, Gamow). It is possible that the lighter elements (say, those lighter than iron) have originated from two different processes—during the primordial explosion, and currently in stellar interiors—whereas the heavy iso- topes were all created at the “beginning of the world”; in such a case, as shown above, the “radioactive” age of the universe, or the time elapsed since the big explosion, is about 4.5 thousand million years. However, unless the possibility of formation of the heavy elements in superdense stellar interiors can be definitely disproved, a certain ambiguity will remain attached to the meaning of this figure. METEORITES The pioneer work of Paneth 20 years ago raised hopes that radio- active age determinations of meteorites, based on their helium content, might yield a clue to the age of the solar system at least, or even to that of the whole universe (1). Unfortunately, the meteorites did not come up to original expectations. Paneth’s struggle with this problem, which is not concluded yet, led over disappointments and disclaimers of former results; e. g., he announced that all his determinations prior to 1940 were technically unreliable. Paneth’s researches are a re- markable example of a gallant fight for the truth, without bias toward his former work, some of which he rejected as soon as it was found that it did not comply with his own high standards. The leakage of helium from meteorites to space was one of the many difficulties, and for this reason stony meteorites proved unreliable, so that only data referring to iron meteorites could be fully trusted. From refined analysis of the helium content of the latter Paneth found the ages of meteorites to lie between 100,000 and 9 thousand million TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 213 years. ‘The higher values represented a puzzle as, for example, they considerably exceeded the upper limit of age for the earth and the solar system as set by the abundances of radioactive isotopes (cf. preceding section). Now came the latest act of the drama. Bauer (29) and Huntley (380) pointed out that part of the helium in meteorites must have been produced by nuclear transmutations, caused by cosmic rays during millions of centuries. This suggestion has now become an estab- lished fact, as otherwise the presence in meteorites of the isotope He’ in considerable amounts (18 to 32 percent of He‘) cannot be ex- plained: radioactive disintegration leads to He* only, not to He’. On the other hand, cosmic rays produce both isotopes in the approxi- mate proportion of 10 He* to 8 He*® atoms (Le Couteur). This ratio being given, an analysis by the mass spectrograph leads to the deter- mination of the amount of purely radiogenic Het, which is very much less than the total amount of helium. Asa site the estimated ages of meteorites are greatly reduced and, from the provisional data avail- able, hardly attain 1,000 million years (31). This is much less than the well-established age of the earth and the solar system; therefore, the method is of no avail in estimating the age of the universe. It has been suggested that the meteorites lost their original helium when passing near the sun and melting in its heat; their orbits are sometimes likely to become highly eccentric from perturbations at close ap- proaches to the planets, in which case near passages to the sun become possible. However, unpublished calculations by the writer show that such happenings are very rare, and that the explanation is invalid. Urey (82) pointed out that iron meteorites are unlikely to contain enough radioactive elements to account for measurable amounts of radiogenic helium. The correlation between the total amount of helium and its isotopic ratio in iron meteorites is highly remarkable (31). Inthe opinion of the author of this review the simplest explana- tion of Paneth’s results could be that all the helium is produced by cosmic rays, the absolute amount and isotopic ratio depending upon the original thickness of the protective layer, subsequently lost through ablation in our atmosphere. The time of separation of the stone and iron of meteorites, as determined from the isotopic composition of lead, is consistently found to be 4,500 millions years (20). This may refer to a preplanetary stage. Potassium-argon-40 ages of stony meteorites are found to be 1,900 to 3,800 million years (38) and 4,700 to 4,800 million years (34). Evidently there has been little or no escape of argon from stony meteorites. The argon ages would date from the moment of last solidification, thus probably from a planetary or postplanetary stage. Also, these high argon ages of stone seem to indicate again that the helium ages of iron inclusions, often con- nected with stone, are unreliable. 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Meteorites point to an age of the solar system, or its parent nebula, close to 4,500 million years. THE AGES OF THE STARS At present there is little doubt that main-sequence (“dwarf”) stars depend upon the conversion of hydrogen into helium for their energy source. The correlation of radius and mass, indicating central tem- peratures of precisely the range required by the corresponding slow nuclear reactions, can hardly be interpreted in a different manner. This knowledge is so well founded that it furnishes a reliable basis for the calculation of time rates of stellar evolution. To cover radiation losses to space, the sun has to spend an amount of hydrogen very nearly equal to 1 percent of its mass in 1,000 million years. Sirius, a typical star of spectrum AO quite common in the galaxy, emits 13 times more energy per unit mass than the sun, con- suming thus 13 percent hydrogen by weight in 1,000 million years. With 60 percent hydrogen originally, the store of energy would last 4,600 million years. There is probably not much mixing in stars out- side their central regions (35, 36, 37, 38); therefore, only about 25 percent of the fuel is available (from the central regions where the temperature is high enough for nuclear reactions to proceed at a not- negligible rate), and the lifetime of Sirius becomes 1,150 million years. It may then become a giant (85), and ultimately collapse—possibly by throwing off its outer shell in a supernova explosion, leaving be- hind a remnant which ultimately becomes a white dwarf. The success in calculating “composite” models of red giants (39, 40), as well as Trumpler’s classification of star clusters, lends support to this concept of stellar evolution. The more massive B stars will have a lifetime of a few hundred million years only. This being much shorter than the lifetime of the galaxy, which cannot be younger than the earth, it is concluded that the early-type stars are currently replaced by new stars condensing out of diffuse matter (35). Where diffuse matter is no longer available, early-type stars are absent and only giants of the corresponding luminosity remain, as is actually observed in glob- ular clusters. Using Baade’s terminology (41), Population IT of the globular clusters, the galactic center, and the general galactic back- ground, consists of aging members born at a remote epoch; whereas Population I, connected with the diffuse matter and spiral structure of the galaxy, contains young early-type stars steadily coming into being and dying, in addition to the background of less massive young and old stars, some of the latter existing from the very beginning of the galaxy (35, 42). The absence of normal B and A stars from the globular clusters sets their age, as well as that of the galaxy, at more than 1,500 million years. The energy source of the giants remains a puzzle. If we take their TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 215 persistent appearance in globular clusters as an indication of their longevity, a more powerful source of energy must be assumed for their maintenance (35)—either gravitation of their superdense cores, or annihilation of matter. On the other hand, these giants may repre- sent short-lived objects in “statistical equilibrium” with the rest of the stellar population—those which blow up or collapse being replaced by others becoming giants. This latter concept would agree with the calculated red-giant models (39, 40) which are supposed not to draw on unknown sources of energy and are short-lived, their luminosities being abnormally high as compared with their masses. The giants of the globular clusters, as well as the short-period variables which should represent a phase preceding the giant stage, would then cor- respond to stars of more or less similar mass for which the exhaustion of hydrogen has reached a critical limit (35). Taking the observed luminosities with Schwarzschild’s models, the limiting mass would be from 3.0 to 2.0 solar mass, indicating for the clusters an age between 800 and 2,500 million years. The fork-shaped H-R (Hertzsprung-Russell) diagram of the globu- lar clusters represents apparently the result of aging, in contrast to the continually rejuvenated Population I of our galactic surround- ings (the difference in metal content having only a secondary effect). The globular clusters, which are all well outside the galactic plane and are not sharing in galactic rotation, will necessarily oscillate on both sides of the galactic plane, the period of oscillation being less than 100 million years (Oort). Thus, they must have repeatedly gone through the galactic plane. While passing for the first time through the plane, they must have been stripped of all their diffuse matter—which could have been but loosely bound by a gravitational potential of only 1/1000th that of the galaxy—through collision with the diffuse matter near the galactic plane; the mechanism is similar to that visualized by Spitzer and Baade (48) for collisions of galaxies. This would have prevented the subsequent formation of new stars in them. ‘The stellar population of the globular clusters must therefore consist of members of almost the same age, which came into being when the galaxy was formed, and represents thus one of the oldest time indicators. The lower branch of their H-R fork appears to join the H-R diagram of Population I at absolute bolometric magnitude +2 (41); this should be the luminosity of old stars which have now arrived at the end of their career as dwarfs. The evolution of dwarf stars, without much mixing of their sub- stance, amounts to chemical changes around their central cores, where hydrogen is converted into helium; the composition of the outer re- gions remains unchanged. Opik (27) has followed the evolution of such stellar models by numerical integrations. From these calcula- 370930—56——15 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 tions it can be estimated that stars which have nearly exhausted their central store of hydrogen yet remain dwarfs should be about 0.5 mag (or by 60 percent) brighter than “normal” dwarfs of equal mass. If we take this into account, it is estimated that the above-mentioned “ultimate” dwarfs in globular clusters, about 10 times brighter than our sun, should have a mass of 1.7©. The total duration of the dwarf stage at this mass would be around 4,000 million years. The numerical value of this estimate may be considerably in error; yet, qualitatively there is little doubt about the soundness of the inter- pretation which ascribes to the stellar population of the globular clusters the same age as that of the galaxy itself. By essentially the same method, but on the basis of more recent observational data, Sandage (44) finds an age of about 5,000 million years for the globular clusters. We may take the average of the two estimates, 4.5 thousand million years, as the probable age of the globular clusters, as well as of our galaxy. Among the many data concordantly pointing to an age of the stellar universe of a few thousand million years, there is one which seemingly strikes a note of discord—some uneasiness may be felt about the high frequency of white dwarfs. If they are remnants of supernovae, which appear only once in a few hundred years, they would have required perhaps 100,000 million years to accumulate. However, at the beginnings of the galaxy, at the time when Population II was formed, star formation must have proceeded at a faster rate than now. The frequency of supernovae, directly related to the frequency of for- mation of massive stars, may then have been much higher (26). Fur- ther, the possibility of white dwarfs being formed in another way cannot be ruled out. Doubts as to the time scale cannot be maintained on such slender evidence. Besides, a direct estimate of the age of individual white dwarfs can also be made, and this turns out to be in agreement with the other estimates. The energy source of white dwarfs can consist only in the thermal agitation of atomic nuclei (45) or upon explicit heat— like a kettle of hot water gradually cooling. The time of cooling, until the present state is reached, or the age of a white dwarf can be easily calculated when A, the mean atomic weight of this material, is known. Considering that all hydrogen must previously have been converted into helium, and that, before the “degenerate” stage of a white dwarf is reached, triple collisions at temperatures of a few hun- dred million degrees will convert all the helium into carbon, and then into lighter metals such as magnesium, we find that A=24 can be assumed, and Mestel’s highest values for the ages of white dwarfs become equal to 4,000 million years. This may be near the age of Population II and the galaxy, in thrilling agreement with other estimates (27,28). TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK O17 STABILITY OF STAR CLUSTERS AND DOUBLE STARS The dynamical stability of clusters has been investigated repeatedly, with the result that most, galactic clusters will dissolve, either under the tidal action of the galactic center or through encounters with field stars or other members of the cluster, in time intervals of the order of 1,000 million years (46,47). Although this statement refers to the future and, theoretically, is compatible with an unlimited past, the probability of simultaneous occurrence of a great number of old clus- ters which just now have come to the verge of disruption is very small. We may expect an average cluster to be observed in the middle of its lifetime, and assume, therefore, that the age of most clusters is some 1,000 million years or less. Yet, most of them contain early-type stars which cannot be very old. Consideration of the dynamical sta- bility of clusters confirms thus the youth of their members, and adds another argument in favor of the theory that stars are being born continually. Apart from that, no new criterion of age for the galaxy is forthcoming—clusters which are older than their stellar content cannot be observed. The situation is similar with wide double stars. The distribution of the distances between their components (48, 49) indicates that equipartition of energy cannot have taken place (50), and that the binaries could not have been subjected to encounters with field stars for longer than, say, 5,000 million years (4). On the other hand, the statistical material from which this conclusion is drawn is based chiefly on the relatively luminous A-type binaries which, according to the preceding, cannot have lived to so great an age, anyway. Thus, conclusions as to age based on the dynamical stability of clusters and double stars are overruled by the shorter lifetime of their components, and can be used only to reaffirm the short time scale of stellar evolution. THE RED SHIFT OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE The observations by V. M. Slipher, Hubbie, and Humason, if in- terpreted in a straightforward manner, indicate a recession of the extragalactic nebulae proportional to distance, or an expansion at a uniform rate of the visible portion of the universe. Recent developments have shown, in a manner that leaves practically no deubt, that Hubble’s scale of distances should be at least doubled. The distances of the nearest nebulae were determined by Hubble from the period-luminosity relation of the long-period cepheids. The zero point of this relation depended upon space absorption in low galactic latitudes, and was known to be inaccurate, but, for lack of better data, it was accepted and used during the past quarter of a century as a basis for work on the structure of the universe. Some cosmological theories 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 actually depended upon the particular value of the zero point and the resulting scale of distances. The unexpectedly large correction in the scale is a shock to all theories involving the so-called cosmological con- stant. We need not express regret that these theories were created— they were fully justified by the esthetic value alone—but, from the standpoint of economy of thought, the cosmological constant (equiva- lent to a repulsion) must be suspended from active duty for the time being and put in cold storage until new observational facts sound the trumpet for its revival. It is rather doubtful whether this ever will happen. The zero point of cepheid luminosities affects only the distances of extragalactic nebulae. Within the galaxy, including the globular clusters, a more reliable criterion of distance is offered by the known luminosities of the short-period cepheids, the so-called cluster-type or RR Lyrae variables. The average luminosity of these Population IT high-velocity objects does not depend so much upon space absorption, and is well determined. They were too faint to be observed in the nebulae by Hubble. In the Magellanic Clouds, whose estimated dis- tances depended also upon long-period cepheids, persistent Harvard Observatory searches failed to reveal cluster-type variables, a circum- stance sometimes interpreted even as indicating the actual absence of these objects. Now, as last, numerous cluster-type variables have been found in the Magellanic Clouds (51), but about 1.3 mag (or 3.3 times) fainter than expected from the magnitudes of the long-period cepheids. Thus, the long-period cepheids are 1.3 mag brighter and all distances based on them 1.8 times greater than was formerly assumed. The apparent diameters and integrated luminosities of globular clusters in external galaxies call for a similar correction (52), and independent support for these conclusions is forthcoming from other sources (Baade). This, however, is not the whole story. The recession constant of the nebulae depends entirely on the more distant objects, for obvious rea- sons; yet in these no variable stars could be observed. Their distances were linked to the cepheid scale of the nearer galaxies through inter- mediate criterla—the magnitudes of the brightest stars and of the nebulae themselves. Both criteria are of a statistical nature and not only involve various photometric errors, but also depend upon the true dispersion (variety) of the magnitudes of the objects used as stand- ards; the dispersions, and therefore the distances, seem to have been underestimated by Hubble. A comprehensive survey of the problem has been given by Behr (53). He concludes that those of Hubble’s intrinsic luminosities of the nebulae which are not based on variable stars should be increased by 1.7 mag. Behr was not aware of the need for adjustment of the cepheid scale of the nearest nebulae, and this TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 219 correction, evidently, must be added to that found by him. The total correction amounts thus to 1.7+1.3=38.0 mag, or an increase in the distances of nebulae (except the nearest, which are based on cepheids) in aratio of 4to1. The constant of recession, or the rate of increase of velocity with distance as based on observed red shifts, now becomes 145 km./sec. per magaparsec (3.25 million light-years), only one- quarter of the formerly assumed value. The expansionistic time scales are increased fourfold, and even the shortest will yield more than the lower limit—the age of the earth. The retention of the cosmological constant by Eddington and Le- maitre was justified by the need to extend the time scale; the slow phase of expansion, when gravitational attraction and cosmic repulsion nearly balanced each other, allowed this to be done almost indefinitely. Now, with the increased distances, cosmic repulsion becomes a super- structure of a purely esthetic nature, serving no practical purpose. Besides, Einstein, the originator of the concept, has disavowed the cosmological constant ever since, in spite of the then favorable numeri- cal aspect of the problem. Without the cosmological constant, the Friedmann-Einstein cos- mological models (54) furnish a working hypothesis best suited to deal with the expanding universe. These models are very similar to an ordinary gravitating sphere in uniform expansion. Gravitation, working against expansion, is slowing it down. When the velocity of expansion is below a certain limit, the expansion will be ultimately stopped by gravitation, and contraction will start; when the velocity of expansion equals or exceeds the limit (velocity of escape), gravita- tion will be unable to stop it and the sphere will disperse into space, expansion never ceasing. According to the general theory of relativ- ity, and without cosmological repulsion, a similar state of affairs in the expanding universe prevails. The first case, when expansion is ulti- mately stopped by gravitation, would correspond to positive curvature of space, or to closed space and a relapse of the universe, after maxi- mum expansion, into the original state of high density (atom or nebula). The second case would correspond to zero or negative curva- ture, to open and infinite space, and to a one-way development of the universe by perpetual expansion. For an expansion constant of 145 km./sec. per megaparsec the line between the two cases is set by a certain limiting value of the average density of matter in space (i. e., if all the matter of the universe were spread uniformly over its entire volume, instead of being concentrated into galaxies, stars, and atoms), equal to 3.9X10-° gm./em.3 The volume of the earth filled with matter of so low a density would contain only a mass of 42 milligrams. The probable value of the average density of matter in space can be estimated in the following way. There are in the universe, on the 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 average, 12 nebulae per cubic megaparsec (55). The average mass per nebula, including intergalactic matter, can be estimated from the internal motions in clusters of galaxies according to the “virial theorem” (mean kinetic energy per unit mass proportional to the po- tential of gravitation) ; this, of course, depends upon the assumption that the clusters are held together by gravitation. The assumption can nowadays hardly be subjected to doubt, considering that otherwise, with the velocities observed, the clusters would have dispersed long ago; on the contrary, they are gathered so closely together that numer- ous interpenetrations or “collisions” of the member galaxies of a cluster must have happened during the lifetime of the universe (43). Repeated collisions must have led to “statistical equilibrium” in the distribution of velocities of the member galaxies; the similarity be- tween the radial density distribution of nebulae in these clusters and that of an isothermal gas sphere (56) supports this assumption and the validity of the virial theorem. For the Virgo cluster a mass of 500,000 million suns per nebula results with Hubble’s scale of distances (5), and four times as much with the corrected scale. These data lead to a world density of 2.5X10-? gm./em.? or 64 percent of the critical density. If the result is taken literally, this would mean negative curvature, an open and infinite space into which the universe is irreversibly expanding. However, the calculations are not exact enough to warrant un- reserved acceptance of such a conclusion. The estimate has come astonishingly close to the critical density, and therefore, within the limits of uncertainty in the data, the alternative case of closed space and limited expansion followed by collapse is also possible. Indeed, Zwicky (57) finds considerable amounts of matter in the space be- tween the galaxies, and favors a world density about 25 times that of cur estimate, which would bring it far above the critical value. How- ever, Zwicky’s value is a very rough estimate, not based on the virial theorem. Our estimate of 2 million million suns per nebula would ascribe 90 percent of the mass to intergalactic matter (that between the galaxies) and only 10 percent to the galaxies themselves; this figure seems to be more realistic than Zwicky’s, which would set the percentages at 99.5 and 0.5, respectively. It is, perhaps, permissible to speculate on the closeness of the world density to its critical value, and to suggest an intrinsic reason for this near equality of the kinetic energy of expansion and the absolute value of the gravitational potential. The reason should be sought in the past history of the world. For example, an oscillating universe whose maximum world radius greatly exceeds the present value would lead to the above-mentioned near equality except when close to the phase of greatest expansion (which should be far ahead of present TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK 221 time). In that case the time of expansion from the state of greatest density until today is insensitive to the precise value of world density, and depends only upon the rate of expansion; it is practically equal to that of uncurved (Euclidean) space and, with the revised value of the expansion constant, becomes t=4,500 million years. The figure is surprisingly close to the other estimates, although a considerable uncertainty is involved, the extreme admissible values being, perhaps, from 3 to 6 thousand million years. This would represent the age of the universe in a restricted sense, or the time elapsed since it was in a highly condensed state. This state cannot yet be described. Lemaitre’s primeval atom is one of the possibilities. The theory of the origin of the elements, as shown above, does not provide a clue. The same is true of the cosmic rays, which appear to be of stellar origin and whose connection with the prestellar stage of the universe seems to be improbable (58, 59). SPACE REDDENING OF THE GALAXIES This phenomenon, announced by Stebbins and Whitford (60), and consisting in an increase of the color index of distant galaxies, not accounted for by the red shift, led to far-reaching speculations on observable effects of stellar evolution. The effect seems to be restricted to elliptical nebulae (purely Population II), whereas spirals (mixed populations) do not show reddening (61). The distant nebulae are observed at an earlier stage of evolution (on account of light time), and it has been suggested that the effect could be accounted for by the red giants of Population II disappearing with time (blowing up or collapsing), which would tend to make the population bluer. How- ever, a multicolor study of the spectral-energy distribution of a dis- tant elliptical nebula has shown that “the result is definitely not that expected from the death of red giants” (62). The effect continues to the greatest distances (63). Vaucouleurs (64) suggested that the effect is due to the depression in the ultraviolet produced by absorption lines and bands. With the red shift the ultraviolet depression is displaced into the blue, making the blue-red color index redder. At least part of the effect can be accounted for in such a manner (65). As to the spirals, they are known to contain a considerable amount of nebulosity in emission (66) ; this, especially that due to hydrogen, will fill the ultraviolet depression, counterbalancing the absorption. The absence of the reddening for spirals is thus explained without in- voking stellar evolution. Over the time intervals involved, evolution may well affect individual stars, but considerable effects upon the entire Population II are unlikely. 222, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 In any case, the present evidence is inconclusive as to the reality of the space-reddening effect. Some residual reddening from absorption by intergalactic matter may exist. The question may be decided by two-color observations in yellow and red, avoiding the unreliable violet-blue spectral regions. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES It has been repeatedly stressed that the nebular red shift may not indicate recession, and alternative suggestions have been made recently (Freundlich, Shelton). It is difficult to imagine a collisional process of reddening without simultaneous blurring of the nebular images (67). Further, the nonexpanding universe will be unstable and will end in collapse; or in expansion, if the cosmological repulsion is intro- duced. Thus, the present state would be exceptional, the normal state being one of Doppler shifts corresponding to real approach or reces- sion. It does not seem advisable to sacrifice the solid concept of reces- sion to a piling up of ad hoc new laws and improbable states. Continuous creation of matter under various aspects (Kapp, Jordan, Bondi, Gold, Hoyle) is another alternative which would dispense with a finite age for the universe. It requires the retention of the cosmo- logical constant (repulsion), or a pulsating variety of it (Kapp). For reasons similar to those given above these theories can at present he assessed only from the standpoint of their esthetic value. It is not easy to image observational criteria for them which cannot be ex- plained away. Perhaps the distribution of masses of the galaxies can provide the least objectionable proof. In Hoyle’s expanding universe galaxies will continually grow by accretion, especially large ones with gaseous envelopes firmly bound by gravitation; the envelopes will act as nets catching atoms from interglactic space, or Incorporating whole gase- ous envelopes of smaller galaxies which happen to be in their way (43). They will grow almost indefinitely with time. Their frequency per unit volume in Hoyle’s universe will vary inversely as the cube of age, thus more or less as the cube of mass, too; when selected by apparent magnitude, there will be no upper limit of mass and almost no correlation of distance with magnitude. The available evidence implies a frequency of nebulae in space decreasing with the 4/3 power of mass (68, 69), a definite upper limit of mass (66), and a correlation of distance with apparent magnitude. What evidence there is, is definitely negative. CONCLUSION The rate of irreversible processes in different physical complexes-- the radioactive elements, the earth and the solar system, the stars, stel- lar systems, the galaxy, the observable portion of the extragalactic TIME SCALE OF OUR UNIVERSE—OPIK apse universe—is such as to suggest an age not exceeding 6,000 million years for the universe in its present form and content. The extragalactic nebulae, with our galaxy and its backbone of Population II, may have been formed some 4,500 million years ago, the sun as a star of Popula- tion I coming into being perhaps later. Cosmological repulsion is a theoretical superstructure which is not necessarily required by the existing observational evidence. The same is true of the continuous creation of matter and the alternative interpretations of the nebular red shift; these are mere possibilities, serving the purely esthetic purpose of denying the universe a temporal origin. The observed velocities of recession exceed one-fifth of the velocity of light, the energy corresponding to a packing fraction (fraction of mass converted into kinetic energy) of 0.02 per nucleon (proton or neutron). Nothing short of an explosion from the densest-known state of matter—nuclear fluid—could be advocated as the cause. Our knowledge of the present density of matter in the universe is insufficient to decide between the two possibilities: that of open space, in which case the whole universe is an irreversible process of temporal origin, and that of closed space, in which the universe may return to its initial state, implying oscillations—the collapsing universe rebounding from the elastic forces of the nuclear fluid at a state of maximum compression, to begin a new phase of expansion. It may appear at first sight that, at an advanced stage of collapse, when all individual bodies have melted into a uniform gaseous mass, the gaseous universe may be prevented from further collapsing by the elastic forces of the gas itself, like an oscillating gaseous star of which the cepheids are examples. However, it is likely that, with the enor- mous kinetic energy of contraction, the universe will first pass quickly through the stage of building up of heavy elements from hydrogen and helium, most of the hydrogen remaining unconverted before the next stage, that of nuclear dissociation and formation of neutron gas, begins—electrons being squeezed into and absorbed by the positively charged atomic nuclei. This is the reverse of the process by which Gamow and others visualized the origin of the elements after the ex- plosion of the primeval atom. Formation of neutron gas absorbs enormous amounts of energy, and this, so to speak, blows the bottom off the resistance of the gas to compression. In such a case, the so-called ratio of specific heats of the gas (mixed with strong radia- tion) is less than 4/3 and, according to a well-known theorem on the structure of gaseous spheres, the universe becomes intrinsically un- stable and cannot cease collapsing while in a gaseous state. Only when the perfect-gas laws no longer are valid, i. e., when the stage of nuclear fluid is reached, will there develop enough resistance to stop the collapse and invert the trend of events. 224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 In the case where open space appears to be required by the physical characteristics of our neighborhood, we never will be sure of its validity for the universe as a whole. The possibility should not be overlooked that what we observe now is merely the metagalaxy—only a step in the hierarchy of physical systems. The observed expansion may refer only to this limited, although large, material system; in other parts of the world conditions may be different. The finite intensity of the sky background has often been advocated to prove the finiteness of the world. However, as shown by C. V. L. Charlier on purely classical lines, an infinite world is compatible with a finite intensity of the sky background if the universe is built on a hierarchical principle, systems of each order (atomic nuclei, atoms, planets, stars, clusters, galaxies, metagalaxies, etc.) being separated by distances considerably greater than their diameters. Such a “hierarchically diluted” infinite universe has a finite and small surface brightness even in the absence of absorption or Doppler shifts. In the case of closed space the universe (the whole, or the observ- able metagalaxy), with all its energy content, including radiaticn, is bound to return to the initial state of nuclear fluid. This course of events is likely to repeat itself, the universe oscillating without ex- ternal loss, implying an unlimited age in the past and in the future (time here meaning simply a succession of events, irrespective of its numerical value). 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Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D. C. Solar Activity and Its Terrestrial Effects’ By Sir Harowp SPENCER JONES Astronomer Royal of Great Britain [With 2 plates] In THE YEAR 1610 Galileo, using the then newly invented telescope, discovered that there were spots on the sun. He observed that they moved from east to west across the face of the sun and that they changed their shape and size from day to day, so establishing that they were not planetary bodies seen in projection upon the face of the sun. For more than 200 years little more was learned about sunspots. In 1826 Schwabe, an apothecary of Dessau, commenced the systematic observations of the sun which he continued for nearly 50 years, making a record of the spots seen in his telescope on each day that the sun was visible. He soon noticed that the appearance of the spots was not accidental. In some years there were very few days of observa- tion on which no spots were to be seen; in some other years there were many. In 1843 he announced that there was a periodicity in the appearance of the spots and this was fully confirmed by his further observations. It may be remarked that the discovery of sunspots and their perio- dicity might have been made before the invention of the telescope, if the sun had been observed systematically when dimmed by haze near the horizon. Large spots are easily visible to the naked eye and a record of the appearance of naked-eye spots is adequate to reveal the periodicity. The average length of the sunspot period is about 11.2 years, but there is a considerable range in the actual length of the cycle, which may be as short as 8 years or as long as 18 years. The height of the maximum can vary widely from one cycle to another; the maximum of the last cycle was the highest for more than a century. The rise in sunspot frequency from minimum to maximum is usually more rapid than the subsequent fall from maximum to minimum. The last * Twenty-second James Arthur lecture, given under the auspices of the Smith- sonian Institution on April 27, 1955. 227 228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 maximum occurred in 1947 and the last minimum in 1954. The next maximum is likely to oceur during the operations of the International Geophysical Year, July 1, 1957-December 31, 1958. Sunspots occur only within two zones extending northward and southward from the equator to a latitude of about 35°. At the com- mencement of a new cycle, spots begin to appear in the outer parts of these zones; as the cycle advances they appear in progressively lower latitudes and in increasing numbers, completely leaving the higher latitudes. The mean latitude of the spots in each zone progressively diminishes until, toward the end of the cycle, few spots are found more than 10° from the equator. As the spots near the equator gradually die out toward the end of a cycle, other spots begin to appear in high latitudes, being the first spots of the new cycle. Thus there is always some overlapping between successive cycles. These features of the sunspot cycle are well illustrated by the so-called butterfly diagram (fig. 1) furnished by E. W. Maunder, Greenwich, in which is indicated the latitude of each spot appearing through a sequence of years. The figure shows the butterfly diagram from 1874 to 1954, compiled from the Greenwich Observatory data. Below is shown the mean area of the spots for each solar rotation, together with a curve representing the same data smoothed. The lower section of the diagram will be referred to later. Strong magnetic fields are associated with sunspots. The intensities of these fields can be determined from the splitting of the lines in the sunspot spectra which they produce, known at the Zeeman effect. During the course of a cycle the polarities of the sunspot fields, which are opposite in the two hemispheres, remain unchanged, with few ex- ceptions; during the next subsequent cycle the polarities in each hemi- sphere are reversed. Thus it seems that the length of the cycle is really 22 years, divided into the two periods of 11 years. Various attempts have been made to represent the sunspot numbers over the past two centuries or so by the combination of a number of periodic terms. By taking sufficient terms it has been possible to provide a satisfactory representation of the observed numbers; but the predictions made from these representations have invariably rapidly diverged from the subsequent sunspot numbers and it can be con- cluded that the representation has no physical reality. It is not possible to say when or where a spot will appear on the sun. Many spots are small and short-lived, lasting for not more than a few days; others grow rapidly and attain a great size, becoming easily visible to the naked eye; a large spot may last for several weeks, or even fora few months. ‘The five largest spots on the sun during the 80 years of observation at Greenwich all appeared in the course of the recent cycle; the greatest of all appeared in April 1947 (pl. 1, fig. 1) 229 SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES “P$S6I-FZ81 ‘uviseip AyIsNg—] Tun 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 and at its stage of maximum development covered an area exceeding 6,000 million square miles, or about 130 times the equatorial cross section of the earth. A typical spot consists of an umbra or dark center, surrounded by a penumbra in the form of a more or less complete ring, which is darker than the surrounding solar surface, though not so dark as the umbra. This darkness is only apparent, being the effect of contrast against the brighter surrounding disk, and is the consequence of the temperature of the spots being lower than that of the normal solar surface. Around every sunspot group there is an irregular bright patch. In integrated light these patches are best seen near the sun’s limb, where the surface brightness, because of absorption of light in the sun’s outer atmosphere, is less than at the center of the disk. These bright patches are regions of higher temperature and are called faculae, they do not occur exclusively around sunspots, often appear- ing in regions devoid of spots. The total area of the faculae increases and decreases in close correlation with the increase and decrease of the sunspot areas and numbers. Further information about the sun can be obtained by photograph- ing it in light of one particular wavelength, either by the use of the spectroheliograph or by the use of a monochromatic filter of the type designed by Lyot, which transmits a narrow band about 1 ang- strom in width. Spectroheliograms are usually obtained in either the Ha line of hydrogen or the K line of ionized calcium; the Lyot filter transmits a narrow band at He. With the spectroheliograph, different levels in the sun’s atmosphere may be photographed by narrowing the slit so that the light from the center of the line, or from one of its wings, is used. The principle can be illustrated as follows: when we look vertically downward into perfectly clear water we are able to see to the bottom; if the water is slightly turbid we can see to a lesser depth; if it is very turbid, we can see only to a small depth. In the center of an absorption line, the absorption is a maximum; a photograph taken in the light from the center of the line therefore gives a representation of a high level in the atmosphere; one taken in the light a little away from the center gives a representation of a lower level; one taken in the light from the wing gives a representation of a still lower level. Photographs at the lowest level closely resemble those in integrated light (pl.2). As the level is raised the faculae become more prominent and at the highest level the spots are usually completely hidden by them. In the K line of ionized calcium a coarse granulation structure appears, giving a mottled appearance, somewhat like the surface of a Seville orange. These clouds, fairly round in shape, are called floc- Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Spencer Jones PLATE 1 & EARTH 1. Sunspot group of April 1947, with the earth shown to scale. This is the largest sunspot group to appear since the Greenwich sunspot observations were commenced in 1874. (Royal Greenwich Observatory.) 2. Bright eruption on the sun, February 22, 1926, 8 h. 36 m. ‘This eruption was followed by aa magnetic storm commencing February 23, 16 h. 30 m. (Kodaikanal Observa- tory. PLATE 2 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Spencer Jones (‘Ato}e AlasqQ uopney) OUI] eydye uaso1pAY oyi fo 1ysT| ul (ysl) pue oul, WY WINTO[vo 9Yy1 FO JoJUID 9} fo 1y3I| ul Gye) usyv} UNS aq} fo sydeisojoyg SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES 231 culi. In the Ha light of hydrogen, the flocculi are finer and more threadlike in structure and in the vicinity of sunspots show evidence of circulatory or vortex motions, which are in the opposite direction in the two hemispheres. In the highest-level photographs, long dark markings, called fila- ments, appear. The filaments are much longer-lived than sunspots and are among the most stable of the solar markings. Many of them are associated with sunspots, from which they spread out in a north- south direction. Because the rotation of the sun is most rapid at the Equator and is slower the higher the latitude, a filament progressively changes its orientation in the course of its lifetime. When a filament comes to the edge of the disk it is seen to project beyond the limb, appearing as a prominence at the limb. The prominences, and neces- sarily also the filaments, consist of flames of incandescent gas at tem- peratures of from 10,000° to 20,000°, standing up above the surface of the sun, and often extending to heights of many thousands of miles. The prominences absorb light from the solar surface and the atoms of the gaseous matter re-emit it at discrete wavelengths in all directions; they therefore appear dark when seen in projection on the disk. The frequency and latitudes of occurrence of the prominences vary through the cycle of solar activity. There are two principal prom- inence zones in each hemisphere. The more important of these coin- cides with the sunspot zones; prominences commence to appear in lati- tudes of about 30° N. and S., within a year or two after the epoch of minimum activity and, becoming more frequent as the spots become more frequent, follow the drift of sunspots toward the equator with a lag of several degrees in latitude; like the spots, they die out around minimum activity. A second prominence zone commences in latitudes of about 45° N. and S. at about the time of sunspot minimum and moves toward the poles, reaching latitudes of 75° N. and S. shortly after sunspot max- imum. In this zone the prominences occur most frequently some 2 years before maximum sunspot activity. The prominences assume a great variety of forms. They may per- sist in a comparatively stable form for many months and then sud- denly develop into an eruptive type, when the whole prominence may be rapidly dissipated away into space with a speed of several hundred miles a second. In the vicinity of a large spot, particularly when it is in the stage of active development, a limited region of the sun’s surface may become intensely bright. The area of the region affected may be as great as a few thousand million square miles. Such a solar eruption or flare (pl. 1, fig. 2), as the phenomenon is usually called, normally lasts for about 370930—56——16 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 45 minutes. The first recorded observation of one of these flares was made by Carrington in 1859 and was described by him as follows: While engaged in the forenoon of Thursday, September 1, 1859, in taking my customary observation of the forms and positions of the solar spots, an appear- ance was witnessed, which I believe to be exceedingly rare. The image of the sun’s disk was, as usual with me, projected on to a plate of glass ... I had se- cured diagrams of all the groups and detached spots ... when, within the area of the great north group (the size of which had previously excited general re- mark), two patches of intensely bright light broke out... My first impression was that by some chance a ray of light had penetrated a hole in the screen at- tached to the object-glass ... for the brilliancy was fully equal to that of direct sunlight; but... by causing the image to move... I saw I was an unprepared witness of a very different affair. I thereupon noted down the time by the chronometer, and seeing the outburst to be very rapidly on the increase, I hastily ran to call someone to witness the exhibition with me, and on returning within 60 seconds, was mortified to find that it was already much changed and enfeebled. Very shortly afterwards the last trace was gone, and although I maintained a strict watch for nearly an hour, no recurrence took place. The instant of the first outburst was not 15 seconds different from 11.18 G. M. T., and 11.28 was taken for the time of disappearance. In the lapse of 5 minutes, the two patches of light traversed a space of about 35,000 miles ... It was impossible, on first witnessing an appearance so similar to a sudden conflagration, not to expect a considerable result in the way of alteration of the details of the group in which it occurred; and I was certainly surprised, on referring to the sketch which I had carefully and satisfactorily (and I may add fortunately) finished before the occurrence, at finding myself unable to recognize any change whatever as having taken place. The impression left upon me is, that the phenomenon took place at an elevation considerably above the general surface of the sun, and, accordingly, altogether ahove and over the great group in which it was seen projected. Carrington, at the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in November 1859, pointed out that a moderate but very marked mag- netic disturbance was shown on the Kew magnetograms at about 11:20, September 1, of short duration, and that toward four hours after midnight there commenced a great magnetic storm. While the contemporary occurrence might deserve noting, he would not have it supposed that he even leaned toward hastily connecting them. Carrington drew attention to two magnetic disturbances: the first was of short duration and synchronized with the observation of the outburst; the second followed some 17 hours later and was a great magnetic storm. He evidently suspected that they were connected in some way with the flare. This suspicion was no doubt suggested by the fact that a few years earlier Sabine and Wolf had independently found that there were similarities between the periodic variations in sunspot frequency and the range of diurnal variation in different components of the earth’s magnetic field, such as declination, hori- zontal intensity, and dip. The lower curve in figure 1 shows the diurnal variation in declina- tion as measured at Greenwich from 1874 to 1923 and since 1928 at the Abinger Magnetic Observatory. The smoothed curve for the SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES 233 diurnal variation shows a striking similarity to the curve of sunspot frequency, the diurnal range being from 60 to 100 percent greater at sunspot maximum than at sunspot minimum. When, however, the individual values of the sunspot areas and of the diurnal range in declination are compared, the similarity is much less apparent, as will be seen from the unsmoothed curve. The diurnal changes of the earth’s magnetism are not therefore to be attributed directly to the spots themselves, though they must be due to some effect originating in the sun. The daily motion of a suspended magnet needle is such that the needle points to the east of its mean position in the morning, moves westward during the day, and returns during the night. Some effect emanating from the sun and reaching the earth without sensible delay therefore appears to be involved. The passage of a large spot across the central meridian of the sun is often followed after a day or two by a magnetic storm, which suggests that an effect emanating from the sun reaches the earth with a time lag of one or two days. The central meridian passage of a large spot is not invariably followed, however, by a magnetic storm and, on the other hand, a storm may occur when there is no spot on the sun. The ultraviolet light emitted by the sun causes photoionization (or splitting of molecules and atoms into free electrons and ions). There are two principal ionized layers: the lower, called the K-layer, is at an average height of about 120 Inlometers; the upper, called the F-layer, has an average height of about 250 kilometers. During the daytime the F-layer frequently splits into two overlapping layers, referred to as the F,- and F,-layers; the F,-layer is the higher, having an aver- age height of about 350 kilometers, and is very diffuse. There is also a third layer, known as the D-layer, which has an average height of about 80 kilometers. The precise nature of the reactions taking place in these layers is not fully understood, though the photoionization by ultraviolet light from the sun of molecules of oxygen and nitrogen undoubtedly plays an important role. These ionized layers collec- tively form what is termed the zonosphere. Radio waves are able to travel round the curved surface of the earth because they are reflected by one or another of the ionized layers and prevented from escaping into space. Long waves, of wavelength from about 600 meters upward, are reflected principally by the D-layer, medium waves of wavelengths between about 200 and 600 meters principally by the E-layer, while the short waves of wavelengths from about 10 to 200 meters are reflected by the F-layer. For each layer there is a critical frequency, depending upon the electron concentration in the layer, beyond which the radio waves are no longer reflected but penetrate the layer. Thus waves of medium frequency are able to penetrate the D-layer but are reflected by the 934 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 E-layer; those of higher frequency are able to penerate both the D- and E-layers but are reflected by the F-layer. Waves of very high frequency pass through all three layers. The critical frequencies beyond which reflection no longer occurs are subject to marked solar control. They depend not only on the daily and seasonal variations in the sun’s altitude but also vary in sympathy with the frequency of sunspots. The dependence upon sunspot frequency implies a varia- tion through the sunspot cycle in the degree of ionization in each layer and therefore also in the intensity of the radiation from the sun in the far ultraviolet, which is responsible for the photoionization; this radiation must be much more intense at sunspot maximum than at minimum, in order to account for the observed variation through the sunspot cycle in the critical frequencies. The diurnal variations in the earth’s magnetic field are associated with this ionization. For simplification we need consider only the lower and more important layer. It has a diurnal motion, due in part to its heating by the sun and consequent expansion and in part to the tidal action of the sun on the atmosphere. The layer, because of its strong ionization, is electrically conducting and behaves somewhat like a metallic conductor. Its diurnal motion in the earth’s magnetic field therefore causes, by induction, an electric-current system, which may amount to many thousands of amperes, to circulate in it. This current system can be regarded as fixed with respect to the direction earth-sun, relative to which the earth itself is rotating. The magnetic effect of the current system at any point of the earth’s surface therefore varies as the earth rotates, producing the diurnal variations in the earth’s magnetic field. The correlation between the mean amplitude of the diurnal variation and the mean sunspot frequency is further evidence of a variation through the sunspot cycle in the emission of ultraviolet light by the sun. At sunspot maximum the emission in the far ultraviolet is of the order of 60 percent greater than at sunspot minimum. The close correlation between sunspot frequency and the rate of emission of ultraviolet light must be due to some underlying cause to which sunspots themselves are directly related. Carrington had noted that a moderate but very marked magnetic disturbance had occurred at the time of the bright flare which he had observed and that it had been followed some 17 hours later by a great magnetic storm. With true scientific caution, though he suspected that these phenomena were related, he remarked that “one swallow does not make asummer.” ‘This same sequence of events has, however, been found to follow many intense flares in recent years. Carrington’s observation of a flare in integrated light is almost unique; it is ex- tremely rare for a flare to be so intense that it can be seen by ordinary visual observation of the sun. The flares are best observed in the light SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES 235 of the He line of hydrogen, either visually with the spectrohelioscope or photographically with the aid of a monochromatic filter or with the spectroheliograph. A characteristic magnetic disturbance which is termed a crochet is found to be associated with each intense flare. The amplitude of this magnetic disturbance is comparable with the amplitude of the normal diurnal magnetic variation. These crochets are better observed at places near the magnetic equator than at places in higher magnetic latitudes; this is understandable, as the effect on the ionospheric cur- rent system tends to be greatest near the subsolar point. The emission of ultraviolet light from a very bright flare is thus comparable with the normal emission from the whole of the sun’s disk. There is conse- quently a great enhancement of ultraviolet light radiation from the sun during a flare, which gives rise to greater ionization in the iono- sphere. The crochet is the magnetic effect associated with this in- creased ionization, arising from a great enhancement in the strength of the electric-current system in the ionosphere. It is found that when a bright flare occurs on the sun there is a practically simultaneous fadeout in short-wave radio transmissions on channels passing over the sunlit hemisphere of the earth. The trans- missions over the dark hemisphere remain unaffected. The enhanced emission of ultraviolet light from the sun, which occurs while the flare is In progress, causes the photoionization to extend to a much lower level, where the atmospheric density is much greater. The radio waves are then absorbed instead of being reflected and the phenomenon of a radio fadeout occurs. The suddenness with which a fadeout develops is very striking: in the course of a few seconds the radio waves can fade from normal intensity to complete inaudibility. This is a con- sequence of the extreme rapidity with which the outburst develops. A secondary effect associated with the flare outburst is an enhance- ment in the reflection of the very long waves reflected by the D-layer, which is a consequence of the increased ionization in this layer pro- duced by the flare. The occurrence of a flare is thus accompanied by a sudden enhancement of the atmospherics which come to us mainly from the tropical regions where thunderstorms are most numerous. Thunderstorms are occurring throughout the 24 hours somewhere or other on the earth; a receiver which records the integrated intensity of the atmospherics will show a sharp increase in intensity when a flare occurs. Such receivers have been built and provide a simple means of recording and timing the occurrence of flares which may not be ob- served because of cloudy weather and, if the weather is not cloudy, of enabling observations of a flare to be secured during its progress, if the sun was not already under observation at the time. 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Carrington remarked that a great magnetic storm commenced at an interval of about 17 hours after he had observed the flare. Many other instance of magnetic storms following flares after an interval of 16 to 80 hours have since been observed. But not every flare is fol- lowed by a magnetic storm; for a storm to develop the flare must occur in a region of the sun that is not at a great distance from the central meridian. The time interval between the two phenomena indicates that the storm is produced by an effect that travels from the sun with a speed of the order of 1,000 to 1,500 miles a second. This is now known to be corpuscular or particle emission from the sun. The stream of particles is emitted in a direction nearly normal to the sur- face and will not meet the earth unless the region from which it is emitted is near to the central meridian. A magnetic storm usually begins suddenly and at the same time all over the earth. Its duration is normally between one and two days. The intensity of the magnetic disturbance during a magnetic storm increases with magnetic latitude. In sufficiently high latitudes a bright auroral display is invariably seen during a magnetic storm and the most brilliant periods of the display synchronize with the most rapid and violent movements of the magnetic needle. Aurorae occur most frequently in a belt with a radius of about 23°, centered at each magnetic pole, a further indication of their relationship with the earth’s magnetism. The frequencies of both magnetic storms and of aurorae increase and decrease with the increase and decrease in the frequency of sunspots. The corpuscular stream emitted from the sun, though on the whole electrically neutral, contains charged particles. As these particles approach the earth, they are deflected by the earth’s magnetic field toward the magnetic poles. When they enter the earth’s atmosphere, the electrical effects produced are seen as an auroral dis- play, while the magnetic effects give rise to the phenomenon of a magnetic storm. During the magnetic storm there is widespread interference with radio propagation, which, unlike the radio fadeouts associated with solar flares, is not limited to the sunlit half of the earth. The magnetic storm disturbance is attributed to an intense electric- current system circulating mainly within the ionosphere, but possibly in part also outside the earth’s atmosphere. This current system is about one thousand times more intense than that which produces the normal diurnal variation. The currents are intense across the polar cap and particularly so over the zones of maximum auroral frequency, and they do not show the marked difference of intensity between the sunlit and dark hemispheres that characterizes the current system responsible for the diurnal variation. There is also evidence of an intense current flow over the magnetic equator. The phenomena which SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES 237 accompany a storm are of great complexity and although they can be accounted for in their broad outlines, there is not as yet any com- pletely satisfactory theory of magnetic storms. There are some significant differences between great magnetic storms and smaller storms. A great storm is almost always associated with a large sunspot and usually occurs within a day or two of the passage of the spot across the central meridian. It is often preceded about a day previously by a bright flare. The smaller storms may be, but usually are not, associated with a sunspot. They may occur when no spot is to be seen on the disk. Like the great storms, the small storms must be produced by corpus- cular emission from the sun; the emission must sometimes, therefore, take place from regions where there is no visible spot. The frequency of great storms correlates very closely with the sunspot frequency; the smaller storms, however, reach a maximum a year or two after sunspot maximum and show a pronounced lag, as compared with the sunspots, during the period of decreasing sunspot frequency. Small storms often occur within the two years preceding sunspot minimum, when sunspots are few. Both magnetic storms and aurorae show a tendency to recur after 27 days, which is approximately the period of rotation of the sun relative to the earth. This is to be expected if the particle radiation from the sun is produced by a cause which persists for longer than 27 days. A great storm, however, is very rarely followed by appreciable disturbance after a 27-day interval, while a small storm may have several recurrences at 27-day intervals. The small storms are on the whole longer lived than the great storms. It seems then that the mechanism which gives rise to the small storms is essentially different from that which gives rise to the great storms. The small storms mostly come from areas of long-lived disturbance. A connection with filaments which, as we have seen, are also long-lived, has been suspected. Another solar phenomenon which is intimately linked with large sunspots, solar flares, and radio fadeouts is the emission by the sun of radiation in the centimeter and meter wavelengths. During the solar maximum of 1937-38 many radio amateurs reported a troublesome hiss in their 10-meter receivers, which they found to be associated with periods of solar activity. At various times during the last war radar transmitting and receiving installations recorded strong sources of noise which were at first thought to arise from enemy interference but which, on further investigation, were found to occur only when the aerial was directed toward the sun. As the sun radiates approxi- mately as a black body with a temperature of about 6,000° K., some radiation in radio wavelengths is to be expected. But the intensity of such radiation would be very far below that which could be detected with the most sensitive short-wave receivers available. 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Since the end of the war the radiation from the sun on radio wave- lengths has been extensively investigated. It proves to be complex in nature. There is radiation from the normal quiet sun, and much more intense radiation associated with various aspects of the active sun. The radiation from the normal quiet sun is much more intense than can be attributed to a black body with a temperature of 6,000° K. The intensity of the radiation on wavelengths from one centimeter to several meters has been measured. It is usual to express the intensity at any wavelength in terms of the effective temperature of a black body that would emit radiation of the observed intensity at that wave- length. I:xpressed in this way it is found that the effective tempera- ture required to generate the centimeter waves is about 10,000° K., and that with increase in wavelength the effective temperature rapidly increases, so that a temperature exceeding 1,000,000° K. is required to account for the observed intensity at wavelengths of several meters. When a large sunspot appears on the disk of the sun the radiation in radio wavelengths is much enhanced; its greatest intensity occurs at about the time of central meridian transit of the spot. The radia- tion is found to be circularly polarized, which suggests that it is con- nected in some way with the magnetic field associated with the spot. Whenever a flare occurs an outburst of radiation on radio wavelengths is produced, which is of a temporary character, lasting for several minutes only. Such outbursts do not occur simultaneously with the peak intensity of the flare but follow it with a lag of several minutes. This lag is not the same at all wavelengths or frequencies but is greater on the lower frequencies. The outburst occurs first on the short waves of high frequency and then on the longer waves, with lags increasing progressively with the wavelength. This suggests that there is an effect that travels outward from the sun. The key to the solution of many of the perplexing problems which the sun presents will ultimately be provided by the corona, the faint tenuous appendage to the sun which extends outward from the sun for more than two million miles. Until recent years the corona, because of its faintness, could be observed only on the rare occasions of a total eclipse of the sun. But Lyot has shown that by making observations under favorable conditions at a high altitude, when the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere of the earth is much reduced, and by careful design and construction of apparatus, so as to eliminate instru- mental scattering, it is possible to see the corona by producing an artificial eclipse. The shape and structure of the corona change through the sunspot cycle. At sunspot minimum, there are long equa- torial streams and, in the polar regions, short plumes or tufts; at sunspot maximum the corona shows a more uniform distribution. SOLAR ACTIVITY—SPENCER JONES 239 The great extension of the corona implies a rate of decrease of density outward about 500 times slower than that in the sun’s photo- sphere. The only logical explanation of such a small density gradient is that the coronal temperature is extremely high. It may be inferred that it is at least one million degrees, as compared with the sun’s effec- tive temperature of about 6,000°. This conclusion may seem absurd at first sight, but there is ample corroborative evidence. The corona gives a continuous spectrum, on which are superposed a number of bright lines; none of these lines has ever been observed terrestrially, nor, until the last few years, had they ever been detected in the spec- trum of any other celestial body. Their origin was one of the major unsolved problems of astronomy. In 1942 Edlen showed that the principal lines were due to atoms of iron, nickel, and calcium from which a large number of electrons—from 9 to 13—had been stripped. To produce such a high degree of ionization, a correspondingly large amount of energy is needed, and this in turn requires a high tempera- ture of the order of one million degrees. This high temperature pro- vides an explanation, moreover, of why the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum are absent from the corona. The velocities of the elec- trons in the corona are, because of its high temperature, so large that the absorption lines are broadened through the Doppler effect to a width of about 100 angstroms and are, therefore, completely washed out. On the other hand, the velocities of the iron and nickel ions, because of their greater mass, are only of the order of 20 km. a second; the width of the coronal emission lines should therefore be about one angstrom, which agrees closely with observation. The radiation from the sun itself has maximum intensity at a wave- length of about 5,000 A., whereas the radiation from the corona has maximum intensity at about 80 A. and thus consists largely of X-rays. In the visible region the radiation from the sun is about 108 times that from the corona, but at a wavelength of 600 A. the radiation from the corona is about 10° times that from the sun. It is the radiation of about this wavelength that is responsible for the ionization in the earth’s atmosphere, so producing the ionosphere. Theoretical investi- gations have led to the conclusion that the observed degree of ioniza- tion in the E-layer of the ionosphere requires radiation whose intensity is of the order of 10° that of a black body of a temperature 6,000° K. This high intensity of radiation, which at first appeared puzzling, is readily accounted for by the high temperature of the corona. The radiation on radio wavelengths emitted by the normal quiet sun is also explained by the high coronal temperature; its source is in the corona and not in the sun itself. There has been much speculation about the mechanism by which the high temperature of the corona is maintained. One theory attributes it to the infall of interstellar dust, the kinetic energy of the dust par- 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 ticles being distributed as heat throughout the coronal matter. An- other view is that it is produced by magnetic processes, associated with magnetic fields on the sun and the emission of high-speed particles, the corona possibly being heated by electric currents flowing within it. A third suggestion is that sound waves are generated by the turbulent motion of gases in the sun’s atmosphere and that as these waves move outward into more tenuous regions they develop into shock waves, which produce the high temperature of the corona. These alternative views are all very tentative; no completely satisfactory explanation of the high coronal temperature has yet been given. The increase in effective temperature from centimeter to meter wave- lengths that is required to account for the observed intensities of radia- tion on radio wavelengths from the quiet sun, can be explained on the assumption that the centimeter waves originate in the level just above the visible surface of the sun, while the meter waves originate at a much greater height, where the temperature is much higher. If these latter waves were generated near the surface of the sun they would be absorbed and would be unable to escape into space. There is in fact for each level above the surface an appropriate critical frequency of escape, which progressively increases as we penetrate deeper and deeper through the corona toward the visible surface of the sun. The increase in the lag between the visible flash and the radio out- burst accompanying a flare, as the frequency decreases and the wave- length increases, is an indication, as already mentioned, of some effect that travels outward from the sun. It is probable that a stream of particles is shot out with high velocity when the flare occurs and that as the stream passes outward through the corona the highly ionized gas is set into oscillation and radio waves are emitted of wavelengths which are appropriate to the electron density at the particular height reached by the stream. We should expect the radiations of very high frequency to be excited first, then, as the stream moves outward, radia- tions of progressively diminishing frequency to be excited. This is in agreement with what is actually observed. There are many problems presented by the sun which are as yet unsolved. The corona probably holds the key to many of the hidden mysteries. Further observations, supplemented by theoretical investi- gations, are required before a complete and satisfactory explanation can be provided. Intensive observations of the sun will be made at many observatories during the International Geophysical Year, when the sun will be at or near its maximum sunspot activity; during the same period there will be worldwide observations of ionospheric, geo- magnetic, auroral, and other phenomena. The coordination of the solar and terrestrial observations will lead, it is hoped, to a more com- plete understanding of phenomena occurring on the sun and of the manner in which the associated terrestrial effects are produced. Forty Years of Aeronautical Research By J. C. HUNSAKER Chairman, National Advisory Commiitee for Aeronautics Regent, Smithsonian Institution {With 10 plates] BEFORE THE WRIGUTS’ AIRPLANE FLEW, all the elements of the airplane were known: wings, rudders, engine, and propeller. The Wrights showed how to combine a man’s senses and refiexes with the controls of a flying machine to make the machine both controllable about its atti- tude of equilibrium and steerable as desired. The secret of flight was manual control, in a three-dimensional fluid medium, in accordance with visual signals (the pilot’s view of the ground and observation of his attitude relative to it—fixed axes of reference), and monitored by visual observation of the response to his control actions (feedback). The Wrights’ airplane was, however, like the Wrights’ bicycles, in- herently unstable and was controllable only when it had sufficient for- ward speed. Controlled by the sight, brain, nerves, and muscles of man, the Wrights’ unstable vehicle was the first practical flying machine in the history of the world! The Wright airplane was quick te respond to control action because it had no righting tendency if disturbed. The pilot was expected to act at once to recover from any disturbance of equilibrium. There was no fixed tail to push it into a safe glide if the engine stopped. The early pioneers of flight worked with gliders and with self-pro- pelled models. They strove for inherent stability and conceived the ideal to be an inherently stable flying platform on which the pilot need do no more than steer. Pénaud’s model gliders of the 1870’s, with long tails, were stable; Lanchester developed prior to 1908 a theory of dynamical stability for his model “aerodromes”; Langley flew stable steam-powered models in 1896, and Bryan in 1903 published the dy- namical equations of motion for a glider, and criteria for inherent stability. In all cases, stability was found to require a tail and slightly elevated wing tips. As might be expected from complete and constant dependence on one man’s sometimes defective judgments and reactions, the Wright air- 24) 242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 plane could be tricky and even dangerous, especially in rough air. Furthermore, the gasoline engines of the day were notoriously unre- liable. Asa result of what later came to be known as the stall, Wright airplanes too often dived into the ground out of control. The press blamed it on an “air pocket” or “hole in the air.” European airplane builders were prompt to copy the Wrights’ sys- tem of control but soon discovered the dangers of instability. They abandoned the Wrights’ form of structure but retained their system of controls on airplanes shaped more like successful gliders. The world was astonished in 1909 when Louis Bleriot flew across the English Channel in his little monoplane. It had a long tail, tractor propeller, and wheeled landing gear. It was, in fact, the prototype of the airplanes of the next 20 years. After 1910, with the mounting tension of approaching war, aero- nautical development in Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy was intensively pushed. Scientists, engineers, and indus- trialists were encouraged by their governments to devote their skills and resources to the new art. European progress was rapid, and at times spectacular. While development of the airplane in the United States was de- pendent largely upon the efforts of a host of amateur inventors, there was in Europe a quick recognition of the gains to be had from aero- nautical laboratories staffed by competent engineers. The French were among the first to utilize scientific techniques in aeronautics. The army’s aeronautical laboratory at Chalais-Meudon and Gustav Eiffel’s private wind tunnel clarified some of the prin- ciples of powered flight. As early as 1904 Riabouchinski had an aeronautical laboratory in Koutchino, Russia, and the same year Ludwig Prandtl began his classic aerodynamic research at Gottingen University, Germany. After 1908, German aeronautical work as rapidly expanded, first at Gottingen and later at the government es- tablishment at Adlershof, near Berlin. Italy provided an aero- dynamics laboratory for her Specialist Brigade of Engineers. Great Britain was relatively late in undertaking a national pro- gram of aeronautical research. However, Great Britain could record a full century of experiment. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Sir George Cayley had made important contributions, and Stringfellow and Henson had succeeded, as early as 1848, in flying a steam-powered monoplane model a distance of 120 feet. In 1866 the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain was formed; it served to stimulate research and experiment by individuals, and to provide a forum for interchange of information. Wenham (the Society’s first president) and Phillips were the first to devise and use wind tunnels. After the public demonstration of practical human flight by Wilbur 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 243 Wright on his 1908 visit to France and Bleriot’s 1909 cross-channel flight, the British Prime Minister was moved to appoint an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics with the great physicist Lord Rayleigh as chairman. During this same period the United States made no special effort. The Army Signal Corps bought a few airplanes to train pilots and the Navy set up a flying school equipped with Glenn Curtiss seaplanes. When World War I erupted in 1914 it was reported that France had 1,400 airplanes, Germany 1,000, Russia 800, Great Britain 400, and the United States 23! DRIVE FOR A NATIONAL LABORATORY The backward position of the United States in the application of applied science to this new art was realized by a growing list of promi- nent Americans who believed the situation was not only a national disgrace, but a possible danger to our security. More Americans, in- cluding the leaders in Congress, were strong for neutrality, and felt that any special government concern with aeronautical development might imply belligerent intentions. Capt. W. I. Chambers, USN, officer-in-charge of naval-aviation experiments, proposed in 1911 that a national aeronautical research laboratory be set up under the Smithsonian Institution. Along with objections by both the War and Navy Departments, the plan was re- ferred to President Taft’s Committee on Economy and Efficiency, from which it was never returned. ‘Two men who were more influential in the drive for a national aero- nautical laboratory were Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Doolittle Walcott. The former, as a regent of the Smithsonian In- stitution, had been a supporter of Langley and had experimented with the lifting capabilities of kites. With Mrs. Bell he formed the Aerial EXxxperiment Association in 1907 to support the airplane experiments of Glenn Curtiss, Lt. T. E. Selfridge, F. W. (“Casey”) Baldwin, and J. A.D. McCurdy. Their efforts resulted in the development of the Curtiss biplanes and the use of ailerons to replace the Wrights’ wing warping for lateral control. Dr. Walcott was no aeronautical scientist; his field was geology. But Dr. Walcott, as successor to Professor Langley as Secretary of the Smithsonian, was determined that the Institution should resume its position as a leader of aeronautical science in America. How better than to have the new aeronautical laboratory attached to the Smithsonian ! The establishment of a national aeronautical laboratory was pressed by members of the National Academy of Sciences, notably by Bell and Walcott. The Academy had been created by Congress during 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the Civil War and had the duty of giving advice to the Government, when asked. The Academy, as a body, was not asked for advice on this matter, but its members appear to have been influential in per- suading President Taft to appoint on December 19, 1912, a 19-man commission to consider such a national laboratory and its scope, or- ganization, and cost, and to make a recommendation to the Congress. The President’s Commission was headed by Dr. R. S. Woodward of the National Academy of Sciences and the Carnegie Institution of Washington and included Dr. Walcott. The Army, Navy, Weather Bureau, and Bureau of Standards were represented, as well as inter- ested civilians. The Commission recommended that the laboratory be established in Washington and administered by the regents of the Smithsonian Institution. President Maclaurin of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology objected to the location at Washington, which the majority report favored as “conveniently accessible to statesmen of the National Government who may wish to witness aeroplane demonstrations.” Unfortunately, the President had appointed the Commission with- out “the advice and consent of the Senate.” Authorizing legislation failed to get unanimous consent and the Commission’s report was buried in the archives. Probably as a result of his service with the President’s Commission, President Maclaurin in May 1918 persuaded the Corporation of M. I. T. to authorize a graduate course in aeronautical engineering and a wind tunnel for aerodynamic research in the Department of Naval Architecture. He requested the Secretary of the Navy to detail an officer of the Construction Corps to take charge. The writer was so detailed for 3 years. At about the same time, the Smithsonian regents decided to reopen Langley’s old laboratory, with Dr. Albert F. Zahm in charge. It was arranged by Walcott and Maclaurin to send Zahm and Hunsaker abroad, armed with personal introductions to scientific friends. Their objective was to visit the principal aeronautical research laboratories and, as far as possible, to learn how to operate the special facilities and equipment in use there with a view to duplicating them in this country. Visits were made to the Royal Aircraft Factory, the National Physical Laboratory, and Cambridge University in England; to the St. Cyr, Chalais-Meudon, and Eiffel Laboratories in France; and to the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fiir Luftfahrt and Gottingen Univer- sity in Germany. In 1918, security restrictions did not apply to scientific and engineering work and the visitors were cordially re- ceived. In fact, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology later built its wind tunnel from drawings supplied by Sir Richard Glaze- brook of the N. P. L. and had the N. P. L. aerodynamic balances dupli- 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—-HUNSAKER 245 cated by Sir Horace Darwin’s Cambridge scientific instrument shops. Dr. Zahm’s report, published by the Smithsonian in 1914, made clear the width of the gap between European and American positions in aeronautical science. This report had an important influence on the decision of the Smithsonian regents in 1915 to memorialize the Con- gress once again on the subject of a national aeronautical laboratory. Woodrow Wilson approved the Smithsonian plan of reopening Langley’s laboratory with representatives of the War, Navy, Agricul- ture, and Commerce Departments serving on an Advisory Committee. However, the Comptroller ruled that, under an Act of 1909, such an Advisory Committee could not serve without the authority of the Congress. On December 10, 1914, the Chancellor of the Smithsonian, Chief Justice White, appointed Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Senator Wil- ham J. Stone of Missouri; Representative Ernest W. Roberts of Massachusetts, and John B. Henderson, Jr., regents; and Dr. Walcott, Secretary, to consider once again “questions relative to the Langley Aerodynamical Laberatory.” On February 1, 1915, a “memorial on the need for a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics” was delivered to the Speaker of the House. Pertinent sentences from the memorial follow: This country led in the early development of heavier-than-air machines. Today it is far behind.... A National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics cannot fail to be of inestimable service in the development of the art of aviation in America. Such a committee, to be effective, should be permanent and attract to its membership the most highly trained men in the art of aviation. ... Through the agency of subcommittees the main advisory committee could avail itself of the advice and suggestions of a large number of technical and practical men.... The aeronautical committee should advise in relation to the work of the Government in aeronautics and the coordination of the activities of gov- ernmental and private laboratories, in which questions concerned with the study of the problems of aeronautics can be experimentally investigated. The Navy heartily endorsed the idea in a letter dated February 12 and signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt as Acting Secretary. ESTABLISHMENT OF NACA The Joint Resolution establishing the Advisory Committee and authorizing the President to appoint its 12 members was given final form in February. The people of the United States were at the time generally anxious to avoid involvement in what was then called the War in Europe. President Wilson is said to have felt that the estab- lishment of a new aeronautical enterprise might reflect on American neutrality. Such reasoning may explain why the Resolution was at- tached to the Naval Appropriation Bill; perhaps a more likely reason was that in the rush to clear the legislative “log jam” by March 4, the 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 date for adjournment of the Congress, Representative Roberts, Smithsonian regent, had found it simpler to effect its adoption by introducing the measure, as a rider to the Naval Appropriation Bill, in the Committee on Naval Affairs, of which he was a member. Following is the provision in the Naval Appropriations Act, approved March 3, 1915: An Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is hereby established, and the Presi- dent is authorized to appoint not to exceed twelve members, to consist of two members from the War Department, from the office in charge of military aero- nautics; two members from the Navy Department, from the office in charge of naval aeronautics; a representative each of the Smithsonian Institution, of the United States Weather Bureau, and of the United States Bureau of Standards; together with not more than five additional persons who shall be acquainted with the needs of aeronautical science, either civil or military, or skilled in aeronautical engineering or its allied sciences: Provided, That the members of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, as such, shall serve without compensation: Provided further, That it shall be the duty of the Advis- ory Committee for Aeronautics to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution, and to determine the problems? which should be experimentally attacked, and to discuss their solu- tion and their application to practical questions. In the event of a laboratory or laboratories, either in whole or in part, being placed under the direction of the committee, the committee may direct and conduct research and experiment in aeronautics in such laboratory or laboratories: And provided further, That rules and regulations for the conduct of the work of the committee shall be formulated by the committee and approved by the President. That the sum of $5,000 a year, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for five years is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not other- wise appropriated, to be immediately available, for experimental work and investigations undertaken by the committee, clerical expenses and supplies, and necessary expenses of members of the committee in going to, returning from, and while attending meetings of the committee: Provided, That an annual report to the Congress shall be submitted through the President, including an itemized statement of expenditures. This language establishing the NACA closely followed that used by the British Prime Minister when he announced the formation of a similar committee to the House of Commons on May 5, 1909, in the following words: It is no part of the general duty of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics either to construct or to invent. Its function is not to initiate but to consider what is initiated elsewhere, and is referred to it by the executive offices of the Navy and Army construction departments. The problems which are likely to arise in this way for solution are numerous, and it will be the work of the com- mittee to advise on these problems and to seek their solution by the application of both theoretical and experimental methods of research. The work desired thus falls into three sections: (1) The scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution. (2) Research and experiment into these subjects in a properly equipped laboratory with a Italics in this and the following quotation supplied by the author for emphasis. 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 247 trained staff. (3) The construction and use of dirigibles and aeroplanes, having regard mainly to their employment in war. The Advisory Committee are to deal with the first section, and also to deter- mine the preblems which the experimental branch should attack, and discuss their solutions and their application to practical questions. The second section repre- sents the work referred to the laboratory (the National Physical Laboratory), while the duties concerned with the third section remain with the Admiraity and the War Office. On April 2, 1915, President Woodrow Wilson appointed to the new Committee: Prof. Joseph S. Ames, of the Physics Department of Johns Hopkins University ; Capt. Mark L. Bristol, USN, Director of Naval Aeronautics, Navy Department; Prof. William F. Durand, of the Engineering Department of Leland Stanford University; Prof. John F, Hayford of the Engineering Department of Northwestern University; Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau; Hon. Byron R. Newton, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury ; Prof. Michael I. Pupin of the Physics Department of Columbia Uni- versity; Lt. Col. Samuel Reber, USA, Officer-in-Charge, Aviation Section of the Signal Corps, War Department; Naval Constructor Holden C. Richardson, USN, Department of Construction and Repair, Washington Navy Yard; Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven, USA, Chief Signal Officer, War Department; Dr. Samuel W. Stratton, Director, National Bureau of Standards; and Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Of the initial 12 members, 6 were members of the National Academy of Sciences (within the period of their NACA membership). It is of interest to note that for 40 years all chairmen of the NACA ex- cept the first, General Scriven, have been members of the National Academy. In 1955, there are 5 Academy members out of 17 members of the NACA. This statistic is of significance in view of the increas- ing impact on aeronautics of advances in many fields of science: for example, physiology and psychology of pilots, chemistry of combus- tion, physics of metals, physics of the atmosphere, acoustics, communi- cations, electronics. The Committee is strengthened by the special knowledge of its individual members. By direction of the President, the Secretary of War called the first meeting. The date was April 23, 1915; the place, his office. Con- forming with the designation in the call for the first meeting, the word “National” was prefixed to the title “Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.” General Scriven was elected temporary chairman, and Naval Constructor Richardson temporary secretary. With formu- lation of rules and regulations, subsequently approved by the Presi- dent, the temporary chairman and secretary were elected for one year. Perhaps the most important regulation adopted was for an execu- tive committee, composed of 7 of the 12 members of the Advisory 370930—56——17 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Committee. The full Committee was to meet only semiannually. The executive committee was set up to meet regularly throughout the year and was charged with the administration of the affairs of the Committee and “general supervision of all arrangements for research.” Dr. Walcott was the first chairman of the executive committee. The other members were Dr. Ames, Captain Bristol, Dr. Marvin, Dr. Pupin, Colonel Reber, and Dr. Stratton, with Naval Constructor Richardson, ex officio, as secretary. Improvised quarters in the Army’s Aviation Section were used the first year. In the beginning the executive committee was a working group; the NACA had no paid personnel. It was not until June 23 that the first employee was hired. He was John F. Victory; 41 years later he is continuing his faithful, effective service to the Committee. In 1917 he was named assistant secretary of the Committee; 10 years later he became secretary, and in 1945, executive secretary. One of the first problems was to examine what aeronautical research was then in progress in the United States—both under Government auspices and by private organizations—and then to effect rational co- ordination to assure maximum value from the total effort. Congress- man Roberts, reporting on the need for the NACA on February 19, 1915, had well stated the situation: Besides these governmental agencies [he named the Bureau of Standards, the Weather Bureau and the War and Navy Departments] for the development of aviation, individuals in civil life have devoted time and expense in the scientific study and practical development of aeronautics. At the present time all of these agencies, both governmental and private, work independently without any co- ordination of activities. Ten years later Dr. Ames gave a prime reason for “the great success of the Committee, because the Committee is a success,” the coordination, on a rational scale, of American aeronautical research. His comments were made before hearings of the President’s Aircraft Board (often called the Morrow Board). He spoke as chairman of the executive committee, to which position he had been elected when Dr. Walcott became Committee chairman in 1919. In part, Dr. Ames said: The organization has an Hxecutive Committee which appoints a number of technical subcommittees whose function it is to coordinate the research work throughout the country .... The various problems which all the services of the Government and the people engaged in industry, so far as we know, have in mind are brought before these subcommittes. The importance of each problem is discussed, and a program is laid out .... Around our table meet . . . representatives from all the Government services involved .... We work for all the departments of the Government. Furthermore, there are discussions going on at our table between the Army and the Navy and all other people interested which otherwise would not take place. We are really a coordinating body and that function would be impossible 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 249 if our organization were to be transferred to any executive department as such, because if our Committee were to be a part of any department it would neces- sarily follow that the aeronautical needs of that department would be primarily served .... We think, therefore, that in our independent existence we offer a wonderful opportunity for serving all the departments. In 1915 one of the first projects undertaken by the executive com- mittee was a survey of facilities available “for the carrying on of aeronautic investigations.” It was determined that “a number of institutions have available mechanical laboratories and engineering courses capable of application to aeronautics, but only the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology and the University of Michigan so far offer regular courses of instruction and experimentation.” Note was made of the experiments with full-scale propellers mounted on a whirling table, being conducted at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. “Tt appears that the interest of colleges is more one of curiosity than that of considering the problem as a true engineering one, requiring development of engineering resources and, therefore, as not yet of suffi- cient importance to engage their serious attention,” the NACA com- mented in its first Annual Report. “Manufacturers are principally interested in the development of types which will meet Government requirements or popular demand, but which will not involve too radical or sudden changes from their assumed standard types.” The Committee recognized that “considerable work had already been accomplished with which the general public is not acquainted.” The Annual Report said of this point: “This covers lines of develop- ment and investigation which if published would save money and effort on the part of individual investigators and inventors who are now duplicating investigations already made by others .. . . Some of this information is already embodied in reports which are only ac- cessible to a few interested parties who know of its existence.” The Smithsonian Institution had published a bibliography of aero- nautics, covering the period through the middle of 1909. Now the NACA undertook publication of later bibliographies compiled by Paul Brockett of the Smithsonian. The first such volume covered the period 1909-16; as soon as past years had been “caught up,” the bib- liography was published annually into the early thirties. The Committee was fully aware that to fulfill its obligations would require not only a well-equipped, suitably staffed laboratory, but also a flight test center where engineers could determine “the forces acting on full-sized machines.” It was felt, however, that “since the equip- ment of such a laboratory as could be laid down at this time might well prove unsuited to the needs of the early future, it is believed that such provision should be the result of gradual development.” 250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 In October 1916 the Committee recommended that the War Depart- ment (which alone had funds available) purchase land about 4 miles north of Hampton, Va., for use by the Army and Navy as an aircraft proving ground. Named Langley Field, this site became the home of NACA’s first research center. The War Department used it for pilot training during World War I. Aircraft development work of both the Army and Navy was centered elsewhere. Lacking its own facilities, the NACA took prompt steps to contract for research to be performed for it by others. The first annual re- port included seven reports, as follows: No. 1. Report on behavior of aeroplanes in gusts, by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Part 1. Experimental analysis of inherent longitudinal stability for a typical biplane, by J. C. Hunsaker. Part 2. Theory of an aeroplane encountering gusts, by EH. B. Wilson. No. 2. Investigation of pitot tubes, by the United States Bureau of Standards. Part 1. The pitot tube and other anemometers for aeroplanes, by W. H. Herschel. Part 2. The theory of the pitot and venturi tubes, by BE. Buckingham. No. 3. Report on investigations of aviation wires and cables, their fastenings and terminal connections, by John A. Roebling’s Sons Co. No. 4. Preliminary report on the problem of the atmosphere in relation to aeronautics, by Prof. Charles F. Marvin. No. 5. Relative worth of improvements on fabrics, by the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. No. 6. Investigations of balloon and aeroplane fabrics, by the United States Rubber Co. Part 1. Balloon and aeroplane fabrics, by Willis A. Gibbons and Omar H. Smith. Part 2. Skin friction of various surfaces in air, by Willis A. Gibbons. No. 7. Thermodynamic efficiency of present types of internal-combustion engines for aircraft, by Columbia University. Part 1. Review of the development of engines suitable for aero- nautie service, by Charles E. Lucke. Part 2. Aero engines analyzed with reference to elements of process or function, by Charles E. Lucke. “What has already been accomplished by the Committee has shown that although its members have devoted as much personal attention as practicable to its operations, yet in order to do all that should be done technical assistance should be provided which can be continu- ously employed,” the Committee said in its first Annual Report. For the fiscal year 1917 the NACA asked for and received $85,000. Of the funds available, $68,957.35 (all that was not spent otherwise) went toward construction of the new laboratory at Langley Field. Its total cost was estimated at $80,000, a figure that later was revised upward, 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—-HUNSAKER 251 The war was over before the “Committee’s field station” at Langley Field could be said to be in useful operation. The Annual Report for 1919 noted that the Committee’s first wind tunnel, with a 5-foot test section, was completed but inoperative for lack of power. The Army’s power plant at Langley Field was incomplete, with construction stopped for lack of money. With the Army planning to keep its experimental work in aeronau- tics at McCook Field, Dayton, and with the Navy’s experimental avia- tion work centered at Norfolk, the NACA in 1919 felt it had good reasons for moving its field station activities to Bolling Field, just across the Anacostia River from the Capital. It asked Congress to authorize the move: The Committee believes it uneconomical and unsatisfactory to remain at Lang- ley Field. The same work can be carried on more efliciently, more promptly, and more economically at Bolling Field, where the work can be closely watched by all members of the Committee, and where the members of the engineering staff in charge of work can have ready access to the Committee, to large libraries, and other sources of information, constant communication with the Bureau of Stand- ards, a more satisfactory market for labor and supplies and adequate power supply, and relief from the perplexing question of securing quarters at Langley Field or in Hampton or other nearby towns. Congressional approval for the move to Bolling Field did not come. In April 1920, the Committee, perhaps with a collective sigh, took action that accepted as permanent the Langley Field site for the “field station.” It sought Presidential approval of the name, “Langley Me- morial Aeronautical Laboratory.” President Wilson concurred, and dedicatory exercises were conducted on June 11. Attendance included guests, it was later reported, “of whom a number had flown to the field.” This date, June 11, 1920, may be considered the real beginning of NACA/’s own program of aeronautical research, conducted by its own staff in its own facilites. The previous year a start had been made in obtaining full-scale performance data from flight tests, but now the availability of a wind tunnel made possible systematic investigations of critical aerodynamic problems, such as: (1) Comparison between the stability of airplanes as determined from full-flight test and as determined from calculations based on wind-tunnel measurements; (2) comparison between the performance of full-scale airplanes and the calculations based on wind-tunnel experiments, and (3) airfoils, including control surfaces, with special attention to thick sections, plus combinations and modification of such sections. THE COMMITTEE’S ADVISORY FUNCTIONS This has been essentially a chronological account, first, of events pre- ceding establishment of the NACA, and then its early steps to under- 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 take its responsibilities as the nation’s aeronautical research establish- ment. At this point it is in order to glance briefly at some early activi- ties of the Committee which were consonant with the “Advisory” in its name. In 1916 the executive committee invited engine manufacturers to attend a meeting on June 18 in Dr. Walcott’s office at the Smithsonian Institution to discuss the problem of obtaining more powerful and more reliable engines and to bring about a better understanding be- tween builders and users. Representatives of the military services were in attendance, and although it is to be doubted that many prob- lems were solved, unquestionable good was done by bringing them into sharp focus. Another benefit from the meeting was an arrangement whereby the Society of Automotive Engineers became active in provid- ing assistance in the solution of aircraft powerplant problems. Also in 1916 the Committee examined the problem of the carriage of mail by air. The Post Office Department had failed in efforts to establish a contract air-mail service in Alaska and from New Bedford to Nantucket Island. Air mail was then considered to be justified only over almost impossible terrain. “Conditions of both these routes were so severe as to deter responsible bidders from undertaking this service,” the Committee decided. It felt, nonetheless, that because of the great progress made in aviation, the Post Office should set up one or more experimental routes, “with a view to determining the accuracy, fre- quency, and rapidity of transportation which may reasonably be expected under normal and favorable conditions, and therefrom to determine the desirability of extending this service wherever the con- ditions are such as to warrant its employment.” The above-stated opinion was transmitted to Congress in 1916 as a recommendation. In 1918, when $100,000 was appropriated for creation of an experimental air-mail service, the NACA invited the attention of the Secretary of War to the following facts: “Practically all aircraft manufacturing facilities in the United States were being utilized by the War and Navy Departments, and all capable aviators were in the military or naval air services ..... [andj it was exceed- ingly desirable that Army aviators be regularly and systematically trained in long-distance flying ..... [and that] it would appear to be to the advantage of the War Department and of the Government generally that military airplanes be used to render practical and effective service” in carrying mail between Washington, Philadelphia, and New York. In its 1918 Annual Report the NACA viewed with satisfaction the manner in which the experimental airmail service had been established along the lines recommended, and expressed the opinion it had already “been sufficiently well demonstrated since its inauguration to justify its extension generally.” 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 253 In 1921, the Committee noted in a special report to the President that— There are several causes which are delaying the development of civil aviation, such as the lack of airways, landing fields, aerological service, and aircraft properly designed for commercial uses. The Air Mail Service stands out as a pioneer agency, overcoming these handicaps and blazing the way, so to speak, for the practical development of commercial aviation. As a permanent proposi- tion, however, the Post Office Department, as its functions are now conceived, should no more operate directly a special air mail service than it should operate a special railroad mail service; but until such time as the necessary aids to commercial aviation have been established it will be next to impossible for any private corporation to operate under contract an air mail service in competition with the railroads. In January 1917, the War and Navy Departments complained to the NACA about prohibitive prices for aircraft, said to be due to “the extra item of royalty added by each firm in anticipation of infringe- ment suits by owners of alleged basic aeronautic patents who were then threatening all other airplane and seaplane manufacturers with such suits, and causing thereby a general demoralization of the entire industry.” The Committee held meetings with Government officials, owners of patents, and aircraft manufacturers. It then recommended organiza- tion of a Manufacturers Aircraft Association to effect the cross licens- ing of aeronautic patents and to make the use of all such patents avail- able to any member firm at the relatively small cost of $200 per airplane. This happy solution was adopted, and resulted, in the Committee’s opinion, in “the prevention of the virtual deadlock with danger of monopoly existing under the patent situation.” In many other ways the Committee gave advisory service on such varied matters as provision of insurance for aviators, naming of flying fields “in commemoration of individuals who had rendered conspicu- ous service,” aerial mapping techniques, and selection of a site near Washington for a “landing field” to provide “accommodation of transient aviators.” A special subcommittee during World War I examined some 7,000 inventions and suggestions in the field of aeronautics, Of this work the NACA later said, “The great majority of the suggestions received are obviously of an impractical nature. Several, however, have seemed worthy of further consideration and have been referred to military or naval experts.” In addition to this arduous task, the Committee served as arbitrator in the settlement of disputes involving technical questions between private parties and the military services. Perhaps the most important of NACA’s advisory services was the leadership which the Committee gave to the efforts for legislation necessary to the orderly development of civil aviation. With cessation of hostilities in 1918, the Committee promptly took up the basic ques- 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 tion of what should be done about the civil use of aircraft. Although it would be nearly 8 years before the required Federal legislation was adopted (the Air Commerce Act of 1926), the recommendations made by the Committee in 1918 encompassed what was needed: “Federal legislation ..... governing the navigation of aircraft in the United States and including the licensing of pilots, inspection of machines, uses of landing fields, etc... ... designed to... . . encourage the development of aviation .... ., and at the same time to guide the development .... . along such lines as will render immediate and effective military service to the Nation in time of war.” On April 1, 1921, President Harding directed the Committee to meet with representatives of interested Government departments to determine what could be done to achieve Federal regulation of air navigation without legislative action, and what new legislation was needed. April 9, the recommendations were formulated. The Com- mittee was brief: “Federal regulation of air navigation cannot be accomplished under existing laws ...... It is recommended that a Bureau of Aeronautics be established in the Department of Com- merce.” There were other NACA proposals in 1921: That the Post Office be authorized to extend its air-mail routes across the continent, and that naval aviation activities be centered in a Bureau of Aeronautics within the Navy Department. In its Annual Report for 1921, the NACA noted the principal rea- son for delay in passing the recommended legislation : The Committee is not unmindful of the legal sentiment that a constitutional amendment should first be adopted before such legislation is enacted, on the ground that effective regulation of air navigation as proposed would otherwise be unconstitutional as violating the rights of property and encroaching upon the rights of States. To postpone such legislation until a constitutional amendment can be proposed and ratified would have the effect of greatly retarding the de- velopment of commercial aviation, with no assurance that sufficient popular interest would ever be aroused to accomplish such an amendment. The Com- mittee is of the opinion that the most effective course to be followed for the development of aviation would be first to enact the legislation deemed necessary for the Federal regulation of air navigation and the encouragement of the develop- ment of civil aviation, and let the question of the constitutionality of such legisla- tion be tested in due course. In the meantime, there would be development in civil and commercial aviation, and if eventually the legislation which made pos- sible such development should be definitely determined to be unconstitutional there would then, in all probability, be sufficient public interest in the subject and. popular demand to adopt an amendment to the Constitution. Years of perseverance culminated, in April 1926, in a careful an- alysis by the Committee of fundamental differences of opinion respect- ing certain aspects of the basic legislation then before the Congress. The solutions then proposed by the NACA were accepted by the joint 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 255 Senate-House conferees, and the Air Commerce Act became law on May 20, 1926. “This act provides the legislative cornerstone for the development of commercial aviation in.America,” the Committee said. It “gives an important measure of stability to commercial aviation as a business proposition and in its direct effects will go far toward encouraging the development of civil and commercial aviation.” AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH The Air Commerce Act made the Secretary of Commerce responsi- ble for the regulation of civil aviation, and for its encouragement. At the same time, this action freed the NACA from an “advisory” burden it had carried during its first 10 years. From now on, the Commit- tee could concentrate upon its chief responsibility—the conduct of aeronautical research. During the first 10 years of the Committee’s existence, demands upon the time of NACA members were very heavy. From 1915 to 1919 the Committee had three chairmen: General Scriven, 1915; Dr. Durand, 1916-1918, and Dr. John R. Freeman, 1919. Dr. Freeman was sent on a mission to China and was succeeded as chairman in 1919 by Dr. Walcott, who had served as chairman of the executive committee since its formation in 1915. Dr. Walcott was succeeded as chairman of the executive commit- tee by Dr. Ames, who effectively supported Dr. Walcott until the lat- ter’s death in 1927. At that time Dr. Ames became chairman to serve until his retirement in 1939. The fact that he was located in Balti- more, where he headed the physics department of Johns Hopkins University until he became president of the University in 1929, proved no handicap. Dr. Ames was in Washington as often and as long as Committee business required. With the development of laboratory facilities at Langley, the NACA began building a competent engineering staff. ‘The Langley Labora- tory attracted young men with good training, who could grow to do work of increasing importance. The independence of the NACA was one of the attractions, as was also the opportunity for the young engi- neer to sign the published report of his own research. So was the availability of superior research and test equipment. In 1919 the Committee invited Dr. George W. Lewis, professor of mechanical engineering at Swarthmore College, to become its execu- tive officer. In this capacity, he was called upon to guide the research programs and to plan and build the research tools needed. In 1924 Dr. Lewis’ title was changed to one that more closely described his re- sponsibilities, director of aeronautical research. From then until 1945, when his health failed under the tremendous burdens he insisted upon 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 carrying during World War IJ, George Lewis gave devoted and effec- tive leadership to the staff of the Committee. While the Committee was acquiring the equipment at Langley necessary for the research programs envisioned, use was made of facili- ties available elsewhere for certain investigations. Before the end of World War I Dr. Durand was conducting most valuable research on air propellers at Leland Stanford University, and at M. I. T. the availability of a wind tunnel and staff made possible fundamental aero- dynamic research on stability and control and on the characteristics of wing sections. The National Bureau of Standards worked on aeronautical prob- lems at the request of the NACA and with its financial support. The Bureau developed apparatus for the study of combustion problems under simulated conditions of high altitude and later equipped itself with wind tunnels for fundamental research on turbulence and boundary-layer problems. The aeronautical experimentation carried on at the Navy Yard in Washington and at McCook Field in Dayton was correlated with a comprehensive plan which the NACA formulated and which was kept up to date as military and industry needs changed. The pioneer- ing work by Naval Constructor Richardson on seaplane hulls, and the later researches directed by Chief Constructor David W. Taylor, contributed significantly to the advancement of naval aviation. At McCook Field (later moved and enlarged to become Wright Field) the availability of a wind tunnel caused the NACA to detail one of its first technical employees, Dr. George de Bothezat (best known, perhaps, for his later work with helicopters) to Dayton to assist with aeronautical research there. In 1920 the NACA’s first wind tunnel was put to work. With relatively minor exceptions, this first major piece of equipment was patterned after one at the British National Physical Laboratory. The work that could be done with this tunnel was essentially no different from that which could be accomplished at the Navy Yard, McCook Field, M. I. T., or other locations where conventional wind tunnels were located. In June 1921, the executive committee decided to build a new kind of wind tunnel. Utilizing compressed air, it would allow for “scale effects” in aerodynamic model experiments. This tunnel represented the first bold step by the NACA to provide its research personnel with the novel, often complicated, and usually expensive equipment neces- sary to press forward the frontiers of aeronautical science. It was designed by Dr. Max Munk, formerly of Gottingen. The value of the new tunnel was explained in 1922 by Dr. Ames: When a new design of airplane... is made, it is customary to construct a model of it, one-twentieth the size or less, and to experiment upon this. The 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 257 method now in universal use is to suspend the model from suitable balances in a stream of air... at a velocity of 60 mph... The balances register the forces and moments acting on the model. From the results of such measure- ments one decides whether the original design is good or not. But is one justified in making such a decision? Why should the same laws apply to a little model inside the wind tunnel, as it is called, and to the actual airplane flying freely through the air? Evidently there is ground for grave uncertainty. The Com- mittee has perfected a method for obviating this. It has been known from aerodynamic theory for some time that the change in scale, from airplane to its model, could be compensated by compressing the air from ordinary pressure to 20 or 25 atmospheres; as the structure moving through the air is reduced in size from 50 feet to 2 feet, the molecules of the air are brought, by comparison, closer and closer together until their distance apart is one twenty-fifth of what it was originally. The effect of scale is thus fully compensated and experiments upon a model in this compresed air have a real meaning. The Committee has constructed a large steel tank, 34 feet long and 15 feet in diameter, inside which is placed a wind tunnel with its balances, ete., and in which the air may be kept in a state of high compression. The information to be obtained from the appa- ratus will be the most important ever given airplane designers. Experience with simple airplane models without propellers in the variable-density tunnel encouraged the NACA, in June 1925, to con- struct a wind tunnel large enough to test full-scale airplane propellers under conditions of flight. This was a costly decision, but the cost was repaid manyfold by improved airplane performance. The propeller research tunnel was put into operation in 1927. It had a circular test section 20 feet in diameter and was powered by two Diesel engines rated at 1,000 hp. each. Its air speed was 110 mph. and, at the time, it was the largest wind tunnel in the world. Almost from the beginning of its use, the PRT provided information leading to design changes which resulted in dramatic improvements in air- plane performance. The first and most spectacular of these productive researches brought about the development of what became known as the NACA cowling for air-cooled radial engines. In its 1928 report, the Com- mittee said that “by the application of the results of this study to a Curtiss AT-5A Army pursuit training plane, the maximum speed was increased from 118 to 137 mph. This is equivalent to providing approximately 83 additional horsepower without additional weight or cost of engine, fuel consumption, or weight of structure. This single contribution will repay the cost of the Propeller Research Tunnel many times.” The Collier Trophy, awarded annually “for the greatest achieve- ment in aviation in America, the value of which has been thoroughly demonstrated by actual use during the preceding year,” went to the NACA for the development of this form of cowling. President Hoover made the presentation on January 3, 1930 (for the year 1928), and after the reading of the citation Dr. Ames responded that “a scientist receives his reward from his own work in believing that he 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 has added to human knowledge; but he is always gratified when his work is recognized as good by those competent to judge.” A second important benefit accruing from work in the PRT was more positive information about the best location of engine nacelles. The engines of the Ford Tri-motor, and similar aircraft of the twen- ties, were hung below the wing. As a consequence of research reported confidentially in 1930, multiengine aircraft designed thereafter had their engines faired into the leading edge of the wing with an impor- tant gain in speed. The systematic work accomplished in the PRT led to other practical design changes. Kor example, it was possible to obtain an accurate estimate of the drag caused by such apparently insignificant details as the location of a gasoline filler cap. Similarly, engineers studied the aerodynamic interference of wings and fuselage, and the use of fillets to reduce the interference was proposed. (In 1928 the NACA pub- lished its first Technical Note on this subject, by Melvin N. Gough.) That the fixed landing gear represented a large amount of drag had long been appreciated, but it was not until the PRT became operative that the drag penalties of fixed landing gear could be determined pre- cisely. The higher speeds made possible by use of the NACA cowling, the wing positioning of the engine nacelles, the filleting of wing- fuselage junctures, and other aerodynamic refinements now made attractive the investment of added cost and weight implicit in retract- able Janding gear. In 1933, looking at the gains from the research at its Langley Lab- oratory, the Committee said: “No money estimate can be placed on the value of superior performance of aircraft in warfare . . . nor can a money estimate be placed on . . . improved safety. . . . The value in dollars and cents of improved efficiency in aircraft resulting from the Committee’s work can, however, be fairly estimated. For example, the results of . . . researches completed by the Committee within the last few years, show that savings in money alone will be made possible in excess annually of the total appropriations for the Committee since its establishment in 1915.” The economic depression that began with the stock-market crash of 1929 was not an unmixed evil for the NACA. Although there were strong pressures to reduce operating expenditures, these were success- fully resisted, in the main, by such impressive evidence of the money value of the Committee’s work as that just cited. On the favorable side was the opportunity for the NACA to construct at depression costs new research equipment with funds already appropriated, and the availability of engineers, from whom many of its future leaders have developed. The 30- by 60-foot, “full-scale” wind tunnel and the 2,000-foot tow- ing tank (for study of hydrodynamic characteristics of water-based 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 259 aircraft) were completed in 1931. The designer of the $900,000 “full- scale” wind tunnel (then the world’s largest) was Smith J. DeFrance, who became director of the Committee’s second research center, at Moffett Field, Calif., when it was established in 1941. A somewhat later “depression baby” was the 500-mph. 8-foot wind tunnel. For some time after its completion in 1936, it was known, somewhat optimistically, as the “full-speed wind tunnel.” Other novel research equipment constructed at Langley in these years included a free-spinning wind tunnel and a refrigerated wind tunnel (for study of icing problems). In this depression period NACA engineers first disclosed the ability to use air more than once. Soon after the variable-density tunnel was rebuilt following a fire in 1927, it was suggested that some use should be made of the air released each time the tunnel was returned to atmos- pheric pressure. Why not discharge the pressurized air through an appropriate nozzle and thus obtain a really high-speed air stream? The result was a blow-down device, with a 12-inch test section in which aerodynamic phenomena could be studied at speeds almost that of sound (about 760 mph. at 60° F.). Thus far, the discussion of research by the NACA has been largely concerned with aerodynamics where the greatest effort was made. Nevertheless there was fruitful work on powerplants, loads, and struc- tures, which will be noted later. In retrospect, one marvels that so much could be accomplished. At the beginning of 1930, for example, the total employment at the Langley Laboratory was only 181. By the mid-thirties, the work of the NACA had become interna- tionally known and respected. Somewhat earlier the British journal Aircraft Engineering had commented about the Committee: “They were the first to establish, and indeed to visualize, a variable-density tunnel; they have led again with the construction of the 20-foot pro- peller research tunnel; and .. . [with] a ‘full-scale’ tunnel in which complete aeroplanes up to 35-foot span can be tested. The present- day American position in all branches of aeronautical knowledge can, without doubt, be attributed mainly to this far-seeing policy and ex- penditure on up-to-date laboratory equipment.” Somewhat wryly, A. J. Sutton Pippard of the University of London observed in 1935 “that many of our most capable design staffs prefer to base their technical work upon the results of the American NACA.” An important effort of the NACA was to make its research findings fully available for use. First, there were Reports, comprehensive presentations expected to have lasting value. Then there were Tech- nical Notes, preliminary or narrower in scope. Technical Memoran- dums were reprints, or translations, from the aeronautical literature of other nations. Aircraft Circulars reported information about foreign aircraft and engines, In later years Research Memorandums 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 were added; these were limited in distribution for reasons of military security or because they contained proprietary information. Recognizing the importance of knowing what was available in the aeronautical literature of the world, Dr. Ames had been instrumental in the formation of an Office of Aeronautical Intelligence as an inte- gral part of the Committee’s program, and for years he served both as its director and as chairman of the NACA’s subcommittee on publications and intelligence. Beginning soon after World War I and continuing (except for a break in World War II) until 1950, the Committee maintained a technical assistant in Europe. From 1921 the post was held by John Jay Ide, who faithfully and intelligently served the NACA both as European reporter and in a liaison capacity with foreign aeronautical research organizations. It was decided in 1950 to close the NACA’s European office because the art and science of aeronautics had become too complex for reportage by a one-man bureau. International interchange of information is now handled by other means. Beginning in 1926, the Committee sponsored an annual conference at the Langley Laboratory with representatives of the military serv- ices and the industry. In addition to the opportunity to see what the NACA was doing, guests had an occasion to criticize and to suggest new research on problems they felt were especially pressing. In the first years of the conference, “everyone” from the industry and the military services attended; even so, the guest list numbered little more than 200, and the journey to and from Langley, via Potomac River steamer, resulted in many unofficial but profitable sessions. After World War I, it became necessary to provide two types of meetings: (1) Technical conferences concerned with a specific subject, usually classified for security reasons, e. g., supersonic aerodynamics. (2) Inspections. Held annually, on a rotating basis at each laboratory, the NACA inspections seek to give the industry and military services a comprehensive view of technical progress. As many as 1,500 attend these meetings, which are not classified. Also of importance from the standpoint of communication is a steady traffic of industry and military visitors to NACA research centers. Much is accomplished by discussion of matters of specific concern to those involved. No less important are the visits by NACA technical personnel to specific industry plants. Beginning in the mid-thirties, the NACA reported annually to the Congress and to the President that certain European nations were making a determined effort to achieve technical and quantitative supremacy in aeronautics. Each year the Committee’s comments on this subject were stronger. In 1937, for example, Dr. Ames reported: “The greatly increased interest of the major powers in fostering aero- nautical research and their determined efforts to excel in this rapidly 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 26] expanding engineering science constitute a scientific challenge to America’s present leadership.” He explained: Up to 1932 the Committee had constructed at its laboratories at Langley Fields5 45 special equipment such as the variable-density tunnel, the propeler- research tunnel, the full-scale tunnel, and ..... a seaplane towing basin. They were at the time of construction the only such pieces of equipment in the world. The possession of such equipment was one of the chief factors in enabling the United States to become the recognized leader in the technical development of aircraft. Since 1932 this research equipment has been reproduced by foreign countries and in some cases special research equipment ..... abroad) =. (o. is superior to the equipment existing at Langley Field. This condition has impressed the Committee with the advisability of providing additional facilities promptly as needed for the study of problems that are neces- sary to be solved, in order that American aircraft development, both military and commercial, will not fall behind. EXPANSION OF FACILITIES In 1938, the Committee reported that its laboratory employees at Langley Field were “working under high pressure.” It warned that “the recent great expansion of research facilities by other nations will bring to an end the period of American leadership in the technical development of aircraft unless the United States also constructs addi- tional research facilities.” Dr. Ames, in October 1988, appointed a Special Committee on Future Research Facilities to make recom- mendations. But even before the Special Committee met, the NACA was making a strong recommendation for special facilities for research on aircraft structures. “With the advance in size and speed of aircraft ..... the problems involved require the conduct of laboratory research on structures on an increasing scale,” the Committee wrote Congress. “This is the greatest single need for additional research equipment and ..... in the interests of safety and of further progress in aero- nautics, it should be provided at the earliest possible date.” On December 30, 1938, the Special Committee recommended immedi- ate establishment of a second NACA research center, in California, to relieve what the late Maj. Gen. Oscar Westover (then Chief of the Army Air Corps and a member of the NACA) called “the congested bottleneck of Langley Field.” Although the recommendations had been presented as emergency in character, it was not until midsum- mer—August 9, 1939—just before the start of World War I, that the second laboratory was authorized by Congress. Hardly a month later, September 14, ground was broken at Moffett Field, some 40 miles south of San Francisco, for what became the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory. Earlier that year an expansion of Langley facilities was authorized by Congress. S. Paul Johnston (now managing head of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences) was named Coordinator of Research to 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 assist Dr. Lewis. Further intensification of research effort obviously was needed in the face of war in Europe, and a second Special Com- mittee, headed by Charles A. Lindbergh, was appointed. This group recommended, October 19, 1939, that a powerplant research center be established at once. “There is a serious lack of engine research facilities in the United States,” Lindbergh’s committee stated. ‘The reason for foreign lead- ership in certain important types of military aircraft is due in part to the superiority of foreign liquid-cooled engines. At the present time, American facilities for research on aircraft powerplants are inade- quate and cannot be compared with the facilities for research in other fields of aviation.” It was June 26, 1940—after Belgium and Holland had been overrun—that Congressional authorization for the new flight- propulsion laboratory was forthcoming. A site was made available by the city of Cleveland adjacent to its municipal airport. Immediate steps were taken by Dr. Lewis to plan and construct a complex of laboratories equipped with facilities for the investigation of airplane engines, their parts and materials, fuels and lubricants, ignition and combustion, heat transfer and cooling, intake and exhaust aerodynamics, as well as for the fundamental physics, chemistry, and metallurgy of power generation. In addition, facilities were provided for flight testing in laboratory-instrumented airplanes— practical flying laboratories for propulsion research. There is no doubt that this flight-propulsion center was a large step in advance of any comparable facility in the world. It has cost up to date about $110,000,000 and now employs about 2,800 people. After the death of Dr. Lewis in 1948, the Committee decided on the name “Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory,” as a memorial of that great engineer’s crowning achievement. Here it may be proper to explain why the research effort on power- plants and on structures had been so much less than that devoted to aerodynamics. In the first place, it must be remembered that between World Wars I and II, the United States was an intensely peace-minded nation. In addition, the thousands of miles of ocean to our east and west gave a feeling of safety from attack, a complacent sense of detach- ment. The Congress was unwilling to expend really large sums for national defense or on research to improve it. Until the eve of Pearl Harbor, the annual expenditure by the United States to support aeronautical research was indeed modest. Even as late as the summer of 1939, the NACA’s total complement was 528, including only 278 technical people. The major effort by the NACA over the years had been deliberately concentrated on aerodynamic problems. Here, for a given expendi- ture, the possible gains to be achieved were very large, particularly in view of the relatively few engineers who could be assigned to the work. PERARE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker ‘L761-6161 ‘URUTNeYD */76[-ST6] SoNeUOIOy Iof 99} TUTUTO7) AIOSIAPYV [PUOTIE NT Joquioul ‘1761-L061 uolqyn} -I]suy Uvluosyyug AIR} IIDIS ‘ 110 AUN 9/1 1Ood SopIey) ‘Id G He ‘SI16I-916] ‘uewureYyD SCHOI-IF6I “EE6I-SI6I soNeuoIsy OF seq tuTWOD AIOSIAPY [BUOTLE NT Joquiout ‘puving acl uel] I \\ “Iq ‘T PieAsEs 2 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker ‘L¥6I-6161 ‘sonneuoloy Of 99} TUUO") ALOSIAPY [PUOTLE NT “YO1VOSOYT [eonnvuoloy fo 10,9911 “SIMO'T “M 93.1094) il Ghee “6S6I-LZ6I ‘UPUIIEYD S6E6I-SI6T SouneuOIOy JOJ 9d}WWIWOD AlOSIApY [euOneN Joqurou ‘soury *g ydosof iq *] Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 3 ~ 1. Application of NACA cowling on AT-SA Army pursuit training plane increased its speed from 118 to 137 mph. This was equivalent to providing 83 additional horsepower. 2. The NACA Langley Lakoratory’s low-drag wing was first used on the P-51 Mustang fighter, making it the fastest propeller-driven airplane of World War II. PLATE 4 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker ‘vA ‘purysy sdoje Ay ‘uonrig yoivasay, Yeioy ssopolig WOVN 4? qe durer suryoune] sil WOlf UkIdDQ BULLY 9Y pxeMO} pIeMAYS sJooys “ssurA ond Joodse MO] JO soNsiojovIVYyD Jon oy} s1esNsoaut 0} VOVN 242 Aq paisei solias B Jo auo ‘Japour pastamod-joyooI sty], *Z -o1pAy YIM p vy! INvUOIOV \o] “UNI {sd} % IO} SIs oddinbs japour stueuAp v soivdaid AiojeI0ge'T Suey ie yuel Surmo} s VOVN Ul Jooulsue uy *T Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 5 1. The 14-foot test section of the Ames Unitary Plan wind tunnel. It is capable of operating smoothly from subsonic speeds through the speed of sound to low supersonic values, a region where conventional wind tunnels are not usable, owing to choking. The perforated or slotted walls of the tunnel permit flow disturbances to pass through the open parts while retaining sufficient solid area to guide the air uniformly past the model. ‘Two other test sections operate at speeds up to Mach No. 3.5. S82 8Es ee5 een Soe S88 Pan Tare BES 408 Bas gen al S25 825 gen S88 222 909 ane 2. The NACA Lewis Laboratory’s new 10-by-10-foot supersonic wind tunnel is used research of aircraft power plants. This tunnel is designed for speeds of Mach Nos TONES: bo Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 6 1. Six dummies, seated in various positions and in several types of seats, rode a service-weary Lodestar transport plane through a severe crash, one of a series staged by a research group of the NACA Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. Objective of the crash program is to gather data on passenger and pilot survival problems in aircraft accidents. 2. Damage was heavy but fire was prevented in this experimental crash because of a fire- inerting system devised by the NACA Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. A series of crashes was staged with worn-out turbojet- and piston-powered aircraft to study problems of fire and human survival in crash accidents. The white cloud in the picture is jet fuel issuing from the ripped tank in the right wing. Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 7 1. Caught in flight by shadowgraph technique, this free-flight research model shows the complicated pattern of shock waves and vortexes associated with high-speed flight. Vor- texes are left in the wake of the model. The unsymmetrical shock-wave pattern shows that the model is turning. The model is 7 inches long and has just been fired from a 3-inch smooth-bore Naval gun into still air. Mach number at the instant of this photograph 1s 1.6. 2. Infrared photograph of a laboratory experiment simulating aerodynamic heating. At 2,000 miles per hour, sustained flight could produce temperatures up to 1,200° F. Much additional research is required to permit. successful operation under such conditions, Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 8 Flying regularly at transonic and supersonic speeds, these research airplanes are exploring new fields for data needed to design the military and civil airplanes of the future. In center is the Douglas X—3; at lower left, the Bell X—1A flown late in 1953 at a record 1,650 mph. or 2.5 times the speed of sound. Continuing clockwise irom the X—1A are the Douglas D-558-I *‘Skystreak”; Convair XF—-92A; Bell X—5 with variable sweepback wings; Douglas D-558-II ‘“‘Skyrocket,” first piloted airplane to fly at twice the speed of sound; and the Northrop X-4. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Air Force, the Navy, and the aircraft manufacturing industry are joined to design, build, and fly these and other advanced airplanes in a high-speed flight research program. Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 9 ger cae zi i <4 1. Grumman FI1F-1. Use of the NACA-developed “‘area rule” concept for decreasing drag rise at transonic speeds gave this ‘‘Tiger” fighter plane supersonic performance. ‘The ‘‘wasp-waisted”” Navy carrier plane uses one-third less thrust than other airplanes of equivalent performance. 2. West Area, Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Langley Field, Va. Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Hunsaker PLATE 10 1. Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, Moffett Field, Calif. pT eo 3 ise 2. Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, Cleveland, Ohio. 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 263 Powerplant research and structural research are expensive, and re- quire extensive facilities for full-scale investigations. Small models are of limited utility in powerplant research. Furthermore, power- plants and structures are the immediate concern of strong and highly competitive industrial firms. The Committee evidently felt that under its fiscal restrictions, it would do better to concentrate on basic aero- dynamic problems and might, hopefully, leave research and develop- ment of powerplants and structures to the industry and the military services. However, the Lindbergh committee in 1939 said that this past policy was wrong, and the NACA agreed. It appeared that leaving funda- mental research to the industry meant, in effect, that such research would be indefinitely postponed. A competitive engine firm must concentrate on what its customers want. The firm improves its engine with small changes based on experience. It seeks the minimum risk of interruption of production. The military services, its principal customers, conduct competitive trials based on standard performance specifications. After quantity orders are placed, no major changes are possible. The services, of course, welcome small changes based on experience, if the risk of trouble be slight. As a result, engine development tends to adhere to a definite pattern and progresses slowly. An engine manufacturer must make a relatively heavy investment in plant and tooling for production of a particular engine. The manu- facturer is naturally inclined to concentrate on improvements in this engine to prolong its commercial life. These improvements are essen- tially proprietary in character. Similar remarks apply to the airplane industry. Every effort is made to improve a particular airplane to prolong its vogue in produc- tion. This development effort is restricted to conservative changes in a basic design acceptable to the customer. In this country, the Navy standardized on air-cooled radial engines that met Navy requirements, while the Army insisted on 12-cylinder liquid-cooled engines to power the fighters in their program. However, there were important fundamental applications of science to engine design that needed investigation in 1940. From the beginning, one of the principal technical committees of the NACA was concerned with powerplants. During World War I, a few research projects in the powerplant field were carried on under its auspices, notably in the altitude facility at the Bureau of Stand- ards, where engines could be operated under conditions simulating those experienced by high-flying aircraft. A program of systematic tests was conducted there for the NACA, including supercharging with a Roots-type blower. 370930—56——18 264. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 At Langley the small but expert powerplant staff made some im- portant contributions, in addition to their cooperation with the wind- tunnel people in developing the remarkable NACA cowling for air- cooled engines. One recalls improved finning for air-cooled engine cylinders, methods to decrease the octane requirements of high-com- pression engines, and work on such fundamental matters as the be- havior of fuels—how they ignite, how they burn, and how this burning corrodes critical parts of the engine. A principal tool in the study of these latter questions was high-speed photography, and cameras capable of taking pictures at the rate of 400,000 per second were developed by the NACA. In the field of jet propulsion the NACA exhibited an early aware- ness of its possible advent but did little about it. In 1923, in Report No. 159, “Jet Propulsion for Airplanes,” Edgar Buckingham of the Bureau of Standards, reported that: “The relative fuel consumption and weight of machinery for the jet decrease as the flying speed in- creases; but at 250 mph. the jet would still take about four times as much fuel per thrust horsepower-hour as the air screw, and the power plant would be heavier and much more complicated. Propulsion by the reaction of a simple jet cannot compete, in any respect, with air screw propulsion at such flying speeds as are now in prospect.” This conclusion was entirely rational on the basis of the technology at that time. In the early thirties, the NACA was asked by a representative of the airframe industry to resurvey jet-propulsion prospects and, although airplane speeds by then had passed the 250-mph. mark which Buckingham considered a goal, the story was much the same. The inefficiency of the jet engine at the speeds contemplated ruled it out of consideration. Near the end of the 1930’s, some preliminary experimental work on jet propulsion was undertaken at the Langley Laboratory. These experiments indicated that jet engines would be so fuel-thirsty as to limit their useful application to very high-speed, very short-range air- craft. American thinking, perhaps because of geography, was focused on long-range performance where fuel economy was paramount. This idea served to discourage any real jet-development effort in the United States until intelligence of British and German experiments reached us. In March 1941, Dr. Durand was recalled from retirement to head a special NACA Committee on Jet Propulsion. The fact that he was in his 82d year was only a matter of calendar counting. The vigor with which he and his committee launched a belated development effort would have done credit to a man less than half his age. Later in 1941, Gen. H. H. Arnold secured from the British one of the earliest 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 265 of the Whittle jet engines to aid the development program initiated by Dr. Durand. In this program, the Durand committee was handi- capped by the fact that the country had just been plunged into a war for which it was ill prepared and the principal airplane-engine firms were overloaded. The decision came “from the summit” that we would fight with the weapons in hand. First priority was given their production in immense quantity. Consequently, the Durand com- mittee had to arrange with nonaeronautical firms to undertake the development of turbojet engines for possible later use to power fighter airplanes. Over some 20 years, aerodynamic and powerplant improvement, much of it based on application of research results, permitted the top speed of military airplanes and the cruising speed of commercial airplanes to be doubled; the air loads imposed on the faster airplanes were severely increased, especially in rough air and when maneuvering. The loads research group at the Langley Laboratory consisted of but 20 men in 1939, but their contribution was considerable, notably the V-G recorder (V for velocity, G for gravity) by R. V. Rhode and H. J. E. Reid. It was devised to measure continuously the loads ex- perienced by an airplane flying in rough air. This was but one of many novel instruments which NACA engineers have devised for precise measurements in flight. The research problem directly related to loads deals with structures to carry the loads. Here again the manpower available at Langley prior to World War IT was small; as late as October 1940, only 10 men were working on airplane structures. Their work was concerned, principally, with fundamental knowledge about structures from which a trustworthy theory could be developed for design application. Del- icate experiments and mathematical analyses dealing with the behavior of thin-walled cylinders, stiffened panels, and other structural units produced useful conclusions that were used on our World War IT aircraft. On October 7, 1939, Dr. Ames resigned from the Committee be- cause of failing health. His responsibilities as chairman of the Com- mittee were given to Dr. Vannevar Bush, who had been serving both as vice chairman and as chairman of the executive committee. Note has been made already of the manner in which Dr. Ames had provided leadership of the highest quality to the Committee for nearly a quarter-century. The letter President Roosevelt wrote upon the occasion of his retirement contained this statement : Our Republic would not be worthy of the devoted service you have rendered for over 24 years without compensation if it could not on this occasion pause to pay tribute where it is so justly due... . That the people generally have not known of your brilliant and patriotic service is because it has been overshadowed by your passion for accomplishment without publicity. But the fact remains, and I am 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 happy to give you credit, that the remarkable progress for many years in the im- provement of the performance, efficiency, and safety of American aircraft, both military and commercial, has been due largely to your own inspiring leadership in the development of new research facilities and in the orderly prosecution of comprehensive research programs. The Committee’s resolution, tendered to Dr. Ames in Baltimore by a special delegation, said : When aeronautical science was struggling to discover its fundamentals, his was the vision that saw the need for novel research facilities and for organized and sustained prosecution of scientific laboratory research. His was the pro- fessional courage that led the Committee along scientific paths to important discoveries and contributions to progress that have placed the United States in the forefront of progressive nations in the development of aeronautics. His was the executive ability and far-sighted policy of public service that, without seeking credit for himself or for the Committee, developed a research organiza- tion that holds the confidence of the governmental and industrial agencies com- cerned, and commands the respect of the aeronautical world. Withal, Dr. Ames was an inspiring leader of men and a man beloved by all his colleagues because of his rare qualities. In July 1941, the President appointed Dr. Bush director of the newly established Office of Scientific Research and Development, and he re- signed as chairman of the NACA. The writer was elected chairman, an honor he has been privileged since to hold. WORLD WAR II AND AFTER The war years for the NACA were plagued by the necessity for rapid expansion of the civil-service staff from hardly 500 in 1939 to more than 6,800. Trained engineering personnel were unavailable. Consequently, it was mandatory that professionals be spread ever thinner, while loom fixers, toymakers, mechanics, blacksmiths, and women school teachers were recruited for jobs they could do or for which quick instruction could be given. Especially in the matter of skilled management of research pro- grams, the NACA might have been expected to be sorely weak. And yet, somehow, with each expansion of effort, new leaders were found from within the permanent NACA staff. No sooner did Henry J. E. Reid, director of the Langley Laboratory, see some of his best men on their way to build the new laboratory at Moffett Field—named in 1944 in honor of Dr. Ames—than the process of designating the leaders of the new engine laboratory—named in honor of Dr. Lewis in 1948—was begun. Smith J. DeFrance was named director of the Ames Aero- nautical Laboratory, and later Edward R. Sharp became director of the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. Both of these men were senior members of the permanent staff at Langley. NACA’s war effort was of necessity devoted very largely to applied research, the business of finding “quick fixes” to make existing aircraft 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 267 better performers, and production engines more powerful. Fortu- nately, a considerable backlog of design data was available for appli- cation to such subjects as low-drag wings, high-speed propellers, sta- bility and control, and improved systems for cowling and cooling engines. Between December 1941 and December 1944, the Commit- tee’s research centers worked on 115 different airplane types. In July 1944, 78 different models were under simultaneous investigation. Perhaps the best comment on the value of NACA’s World War II work is to quote from a statement by the late Frank Knox, made in 1943 when he was Secretary of the Navy: New ideas are weapons of immense significance. The United States Navy was the first to develop aircraft capable of vertical dive bombing; this was made possible by the prosecution of a program of scientific research by the NACA. The Navy’s famous fighters—the Corsair, Wildcat, and Hellcat—are possible only because they were based on fundamentals developed by the NACA. All of them use NACA wing sections, NACA cooling methods, NACA high-lift devices. The great sea victories that have broken Japan’s expanding grip in the Pacific would not have been possible without the contributions of the NACA. The end of World War II marked the end of the development of the airplane as conceived by Wilbur and Orville Wright. The power available in the newly developed turbojet and rocket engines for the first time brought within man’s reach flight through and beyond the speed of sound. In the years following World War II there were changes, too, in the membership of the Committee. In 1948, the death of Orville Wright closed 28 years of his membership on the NACA. Though he was but one among many strong men who had given of time and talent to the work of the Committee, his passing sharpened the realization that in the working years of one man’s life—between December 17, 1903, and January 30, 1948—the speed of the airplane had been in- creased from hardly 30 mph. to almost 1,000 mph. In 1948 the membership of the Committee was increased to 17. This permitted the inclusion of a representative from the Department of Defense, presently the Assistant Secretary (Research and Develop- ment). Since the war the Committee has included one Presidentially appointed member from the airframe, the engine, and the air-transport industries, thus insuring awareness of the needs of those major seg- ments of American airpower. In 1948 Dr. Lewis died. In 1945, his health broken by the war effort, he had been forced to withdraw from active participation in the work of the Committee. For almost two years, John W. Crowley, Jr., served as acting director of aeronautical research. With the Com- mittee since 1921, Crowley had been chief of research at Langley for a number of years. He provided vitally needed leadership during a critical period. 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 To succeed Dr. Lewis, the Committee in 1947 chose the Associate Director of the National Bureau of Standards, Dr. Hugh L. Dryden. He was no stranger to the NACA. Trained in physics and mathe- matics by Dr. Ames at Johns Hopkins University, he had gone to the Bureau of Standards in 1917, where he soon earned an international reputation by his aerodynamic researches in turbulence and boundary layer. His new task at the NACA was extremely difficult, yet it was vital to the Nation that a “new look” at the postwar situation be taken, and new objectives defined in terms of supersonic jet-propelled ve- hicles potentially available for the worldwide exercise of air power and, eventually, for civil air transportation. At the end of World War II, the most urgently sought goal was attainment of practical flight at supersonic speed. It was realized that success in this effort required new knowledge which could be obtained only with new tools and new techniques. Even before the end of the war efforts were made to acquire needed data. Efforts to de- velop useful transonic aerodynamic theory had failed and it was neces- sary to resort to direct experimentation at velocities passing through the speed of sound. The fact that the principal tool of aerodynamic research, the wind tunnel, was subject to “choking” phenomena near the speed of sound forbade its use for the critical experimentation. Entirely new techniques had to be devised. ‘The NACA’s attack was broadened to include all approaches which oifered promise. The earliest attempt used especially instrumented aerodynamic bodies dropped from a high altitude, but it was not until late in 1948 that advances in radar and radiotelemetering equipment made it pos- sible to obtain reliable data by this method. Even then, the velocity of a free-falling body seldom went much beyond a Mach number of 1 (M=1 equals the speed of sound). Other attempts sought to use the acceleration of airflow above a curved surface. Smal! model wings were mounted near the leading edge of the wing of an airplane. In this way, lift, drag, and other aero- dynamic characteristics of the model were measured. The method was employed also to study stability and trim of airplane shapes in the transonic speed range. The same principle of accelerating airflow was tried with small models positioned over a “hump” in the test section of a subsonic wind tunnel, but scale effects complicated the interpretation of test results for use in design. Use of rocket-propelled models fired from the ground followed the first work with free-falling bodies by about a year. As instrumenta- tion has been improved, this technique has become a valuable tool for transonic research. By the addition of powerful booster rockets, models of this kind are being used to study aerodynamic problems at speeds ranging up to a Mach number of 10 and higher. The fact that 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 269 very high speeds are reached at low altitude, where the air is dense, makes the aerodynamic data readily usable for plane and missile de- sign. In 1945, the NACA established a Pilotless Aircraft Research Station at Wallops Island off the Virginia coast, to carry on this work. It is attached to the Langley Laboratory. In 1943, the idea was advanced of using specially designed piloted airplanes to explore the transonic speed range. Propelled by powerful rocket engines and provided with elaborate data-recording equipment, the research airplane could be safely flown at high altitudes where the density of the air, and hence the loads imposed on the structure, would be low. The spectacular accomplishments of the research airplanes—the supersonic flight of the Bell X-1, October 14, 1947; the twice-the- speed-of-sound flight of the Douglas D-558-I1, November 20, 1953, and the even faster flights of the Bell X-1—A which followed soon after— have sometimes obscured the fact that these airplanes were tools for research. These flights are historic; all agreed as to the rightness of the Collier Trophy award to three men for the year 1947: John Stack, Langley Laboratory, for conception of the research airplane program ; Lawrence D. Bell, for design and construction of the X-1, and Capt. Charles E. Yeager, USAF, for making the first supersonic flight. But even more valuable than the dispelling of the myth about the sound barrier was the accumulation of information about the tran- sonic speed region. The shape and the performance of tactical military aircraft which have been designed since reflect the use of data obtained by the research airplane program centered at the NACA’s High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. Despite the success of this flight program, there remained the need for a technique whereby transonic experimentation could be carried on under the closely controlled conditions possible only in the laboratory. Actually, the data coming from the research airplanes accented this need, because they pointed up the fundamental problems of fluid me- chanics that would have to be studied in great detail for the design of useful supersonic aircraft. By late 1950, following intensive theoretical work, there was put into operation at the Langley Laboratory a new type of wind tunnel. Incorporating a “slotted throat” at the test section, it was free from choking near the speed of sound and truly could be described as a tran- sonic wind tunnel. Again, the Collier Trophy was awarded to John Stack and his Langley associates for the conception, design, and con- struction of his most useful research tool. One must appreciate the very great difference between airplane de- sign in the past and today. In the past, the difference between the best design and the second best, assuming the same power, might be at most 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 only a few miles an hour. Now the difference may be measured in hun- dreds of miles an hour. The art is being extended so rapidly that no longer is there a comfortable time margin between the acquisition of research data and its application. Hardly had the first of the NACA’s transonic wind tunnels gone into full operation, in 1951, when Richard T. Whitcomb, a young engineer at the Langley Laboratory, began the experimental verifica- tion of what has since become known as the “area rule.” In essence, Whitcomb worked out a rational way to balance the lengthwise distri- bution of volume of fuselage and wings to produce an airplane form with minimum drag at high speeds. Seemingly slight modifications to the shape of the airplane fuselage greatly improved performance. As soon as the new design principle was verified in preliminary form, it was made available in confidence to the designers of military airplanes and the new information was promptly applied. In one instance, the prototype of a new fighter aircraft was unable on test to attain supersonic speeds. With the deceptively subtle modi- fications dictated by the “area rule,” the airplane enjoyed a perform- ance gain in speed of as much as 25 percent. At the velocities contemplated for our future missiles and airplanes, temperatures measured in thousands of degrees Fahrenheit will be encountered owing to aerodynamic heating—friction. The consequent structural problems are little short of fantastic and, with presently available materials of construction, the solution is not in sight. More research is needed. The performance possible from the harnessing of nuclear energy for airplane propulsion would be nonstop flight over virtually un- limited range. Again, one is faced with problems of enormous com- plexity and difficulty, but national security requires that research and development be carried forward with imagination and vigor. Millions of passengers are now carried by air. Air transportation also expedites the delivery of great volumes of mail and goods. Air- liners regularly span oceans and continents, and smaller utility planes serve remote regions in the Arctic and tropical jungles. There is promise of helicopter service between nearby cities, with no need for large outlying airports. The safety record of civil aeronautics is remarkably good, but it is never good enough. We still read, from time to time, of disasters from collision, fire, storm, human error, and, rarely, from structural or mechanical failure of the airplane itself. The human pilot is aided by wonderful instruments and by radio, radar, gyros, etc., but we still depend on his judgment and skill. He must be better protected against noise and fatigue—subjects for research. Air transportation is fast and can be faster. But greater flight speed is illusory if it requires too long a climb to reach the high altitude 40 YEARS OF AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH—HUNSAKER 27] necessary for economy. Furthermore, higher-speed airplanes tend to require longer runways and bigger airports. This could mean a new program of airport building at colossal expense, with the new airports even farther from the passengers’ ultimate destination. Getting to and from the airport could consume more time than is saved by faster flight. Research continues on improving landing and takeoff char- acteristics of airliners. It may be that airliners of the future will be designed to the limita- tions of the airports they are to serve, just as transatlantic steamers are designed to enter only a few major seaports, where the channel and piers have adequate depth of water. Civil aeronautics can make its greatest contribution to trade and commerce under a favorable international climate of free interchange of people, goods, and ideas. Greater economy, efficiency, and safety are prerequisites for its full utilization. Research can show the way to advance toward these goals. Through the years the NACA has been provided by Congress with the most modern research equipment at a total cost of approximately 300 million dollars, and the present operating staff numbers about 7,600 persons of whom over 2,000 have professional degrees. These resources, in the present hostile and threatening international climate, are directed for the most part toward research helpful to national security. Research to improve military aircraft is ultimately applied to civil aviation, when proved to be thoroughly practical by experience, but there are differences in emphasis, because safety, comfort, and economy are relatively more important in civil airplanes. The Com- mittee has numerous investigations in progress which are directed toward the immediate problems of civil aviation, as for example the work on noise, icing, fire prevention, atmospheric turbulence, and reduction of landing speed. A more favorable international climate would permit greater em- phasis on civil aviation, but it is likely that for some time to come the national security will require a great effort to penetrate more rapidly into the vast region of the unexplored and unknown. The Committee feels its responsibility for guidance of the over-all research effort in aeronautics, and it is hoped that through its work aeronautics may make the maximum possible contribution to human welfare. 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AFFEL Assistant Vice President, Bell Telephone Laboratories In THE FALL oF 1955 telephone communication was established for the first time across the Atlantic by means of a submarine cable. In the summer of 1956, when weather conditions permit, a second cable will be laid to provide the return transmission paths for the speech channels. The new cable system will then become a reliable addition to the global telephone network which links the continents. In the summer of 1955, the British cable ship Monarch, with hun- dreds of miles of cable stored in its hold, set out from Newfoundland shores in the direction of Scotland to lay the first section of the new telephone cable. Somewhat less than a hundred years ago the old Great Eastern set forth from Ireland westward toward Newfoundland to lay the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable. Superficially, the old telegraph cable and the new telephone cable would not look much different in the process of paying out over a large sheave on the bow or the stern of a ship, but at this point the similarity ends. In the case of the first crossing, the cable provided one very slow-speed telegraph channel—at the most a few words per minute. The new cable will provide 35 talking paths. If employed exclusively for telegraphy, it would yield more than 500 high-speed telegraph channels having a total capacity of 30,000 words per minute. This is considerably more than now derived from all existing transatlantic cables or, indeed, all the deep-sea submarine telegraph cables in the world. The improvement in information-transmitting capacity is a rough measure of the advance in performance that the new cable represents. In detail, a century of technical progress lies between the two projects. This would be more evident if one opened up the cable to examine the insides, or if one waited until, in the course of paying out the cable, there appeared a bulge in the new structure for a distance of some 20 feet. But this is getting ahead of the story. 1This article is based largely on a detailed technical description of the same title by Mervin J. Kelly, Sir W. Gordon Radley, G. W. Gilman, and R. J. Halsey, which was delivered as a paper in the spring of 1955 before the British Institution of Electrical Engineers and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, published in Electrical Engineering, vol. 74, No. 3, 1955. 273 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 SOME HISTORY A transatlantic cable was envisioned not many years after the electric telegraph had been born. As early as 1840, telegraphy was being applied over land circuits, both underground and overhead. The first transatlantic telegraph cable, laid in 1858, failed a few weeks after it had been put in service. It was 1866 before more scien- tific studies, chiefly under the direction of Sir William Thompson (later Lord Kelvin), inspired renewed faith in the project so that a new cable could be laid which continued to operate satisfactorily. The foresight, courage, and determination of Cyrus W. Field, an Ameri- can, were also powerful factors in the ultimate success of the under- taking. Decades after the first transatlantic telegraph cable there came radio telegraphy, then radio telephony. Transatlantic radio telegraphy started with the Marconi experiments in 1901. In 1927 commercial transatlantic radio telephony was inaugurated. 'This has grown over the years until now there are some 15 radio-telephone circuits in operation between the two continents. Radio has the advantage of being comparatively inexpensive as compared with transatlantic cables, but radio, either telegraph or telephone, for the distances involved, has proved to have serious weaknesses. The wavelengths that are available and useful for the single-span operation across the Atlantic are greatly dependent on Nature’s vagaries. Transmission is frequently interrupted for hours at a time, particularly in periods of unusual sunspot activity. It was not until about 1928 that advances in the technique of con- structing submarine cables, together with the science of electronics, had reached the point where serious consideration could be given to the design and laying of a transatlantic telephone cable. The American Telephone and Telegraph Co. made a good start on this project, but this was interrupted by economic considerations resulting from the depression of the thirties. Had it not been so interrupted, it is likely that such a cable would have been installed. It would have provided a single reliable talking path across the Atlantic. Its cost, however, would have been many times that of a single radio-telephone link. As a technical achievement, it would have had something like 1,000 times the message-carrying capacity of the original transatlantic tele- graph cable. In addition to taking advantage of improved materials and cable construction, it would have incorporated at the terminals vacuum-tube amplifiers capable of boosting the feeble voice power of a telephone transmitter manyfold to enable it to override the high at- tenuation of the cable for the voice currents. The history of transatlantic communication is fascinating and has been well documented. In the Kelvin Lecture before the Institution TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 275 of Electrical Engineers in 1942, Dr. Oliver E. Buckley, then president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, summarized the status of and prospects for transoceanic telephony. He commented on the fact that the interruption of the first, telephone cable proposal may, indeed, have been fortunate because it offered an opportunity later for a new ap- proach that led to the present project, which is not only technically sound but economically justified, because it provides not merely one, but a large number of telephone circuits. SOME BASIC PROBLEMS Consider briefly some of the problems that make long deep-sea com- munication difficult. Structurally, the cable is disarmingly simple. It generally consists of a sizable flexible copper wire, surrounded by a layer of flexible insulating material (in the early days guttapercha), which may be covered with some fabric. To give it physical strength to resist abrasion, and tension, it is further covered with a spiraled layer of heavy steel wires. Over-all, the structure may be from 34 to 11% inches in diameter. Of course, the insulating material must not have any holes to permit the sea water to reach the inside conductor under pressures which, for an Atlantic crossing, may reach several thousand pounds per square inch. It must also withstand electrical pressures, resulting from the voltages necessary to signal over the cable. In our present technical knowledge the electrical problems can be approached quite scientifically, but in the early days of transoceanic telegraphy things were not quite so simple. Experimenters with elec- tricity fairly early became aware of the fact that any electrical con- ductor insulated from ground has the characteristic of acting to store or soak up electrical energy to a degree depending on the size of the conductor. This characteristic was termed “capacity.” ? Long wire circuits naturally had greater capacity than short cir- cuits. This capacity is not generally harmful in a circuit of established conditions in which the eurrent flows from one end to the other, but it was not at first realized that an effort to vary the current in order to produce telegraph signals could be seriously frustrated by the capacity that exists in a long submarine cable circuit. It acts as if the signaling path consisted of a long trough of water and the signals were received as changes in the level of the liquid—but the mass or volume of the water in the trough swamped out most of the level changes that were imparted at the sending end—particularly the fast changes involved in rapid signaling. There would also be considerable time delay as the wave passed from end to end. * More recent terminology is “capacitance.” 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Apparently it was thought by some that the use of higher voltages would tend to overcome the capacity effect. This may have been part of the reason why very high voltages were applied to the first trans- atlantic cable. The insulation was seriously affected, making the cable unworkable and discouraging further efforts for several years. How- ever, as noted, by a more complete understanding of the physics of the problem, under the leadership of Lord Kelvin, terminal equipment and operating techniques were devised which imposed lesser stresses on the cable insulation. Reliable transoceanic cable telegraphy then came into being (1866). Even then the operating speeds were only of the order of three words per minute—very modest, but nevertheless an achievement, considered in the light of the fact that the alternative at the time was no direct communication, only a delay of days, if not weeks, in getting messages across the Atlantic via ship. How far such a telegraph cable falls short of serving for telephony will be appreciated from the fact that the current fluctuations, or range of frequencies, required for a single speech path are roughly one thou- sand times as great as the slow-speed telegraph signals. It is not sur- prising therefore that it took many decades to achieve performance of this order. In the meantime, the communication needs across the Atlantic were being augmented from time to time, until there are now some 20 tele- graph cables, as well as numerous radio-telegraph and more than 15 radio-telephone circuits, between the two continents. STEPS TOWARD THE ULTIMATE TELEPHONE CABLE Beginning in 1919 a small development group was organized under Dr. Oliver E. Buckley at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to study the problem of increasing the transmission capacity of long deep-sea cables. These studies led to several important developments. 1.—Experiments were made and cables successfully laid using “load- ing” in order to improve their transmission capabilities. Loading is a process of adding “inductance” along the cable in order to offset the effect of the capacity effects which have been previously noted. Inductance may be added by inserting coils of wire at intervals in the cable, or by surrounding the conductor with tapes of some mag- netic material, A special magnetic material called perminvar was de- vised for this purpose. The addition of loading to cables greatly reduces the effect of ca- pacity and makes it possible to use much longer cables for a given amount of distortion, or it may permit higher signaling speeds for a given cable. However, one difficulty with loading is that it imposes an upper limit on the speed of operation. In other words, it limits the TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 277 band of frequencies which can be transmitted. Loading was, how- ever, a feature of the proposed single-channel telephone cable of the thirties. 2.—Incident to the other work, better materials were devised for use as insulators. These included a material termed paragutta, a mixture of guttapercha and rubber, which served effectively as a substitute for the guttapercha of the earlier cables. More recently, another material, which was originated by the Imperial Chemical Industries, called poly- ethylene (polythene), has been found to have greatly superior qualities as an insulating material for cables. A very useful improvement in cable structure for long cables con- sisted in providing a definite path for the return currents by adding a thin coaxially located sheath of copper outside the insulation, instead of permitting the return currents to follow the ocean path. It also lowers the attenuation of the cable for high-frequency currents. An incidental advantage is that if there are spurious currents in the ocean which may get into the cable circuit, the coaxial return con- ductor effectively shuts them out and permits the application of higher amplification on the cable. 3.—But the most important advance in thinking leading to the final concept of a multichannel cable consisted in the application to undersea cables of the techniques that had grown up over the years for overland cables, namely, the introduction of amplifiers or repeaters in order to boost the feeble cable currents at intervals before they have a chance to become sufficiently attenuated to be lost in the background disturbing currents of a cable circuit. The proposals of Dr. O. E. Buckley and his associates, in particular O. B. Jacobs, included certain fundamental features that led to the present successful telephone cable system: 1—Relatively closely spaced, low-power repeaters, which favored the development and application of vacuum tubes having a long life. 2.—The use of separate cables for opposite directional transmission, which minimized the problem of two-way transmission. 3.—A flexible repeater structure incorporated under the cable armor to minimize laying difficulties and having necessary physical strength to function satisfactorily at depths up to several miles and with ten- sions of thousands of pounds often involved in normal cable-laying operations. The details of this amplifier structure, how it retains its flexibility to pass over a sheave several feet in diameter, at the same time main- taining its integrity from the standpoint of water seepage, will be told in more detail later. These amplifiers are installed at intervals of some 40 nautical miles across the Atlantic, and the power necessary to actuate their vacuum tubes is fed over the cable conductor which also carries the communication currents. 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 For those who are unfamiliar with an amplifier of this sort, it may suffice to note that, in basic principle, it is not unlike that which forms part of any radio receiving set in order to amplify the speech waves from a minute amount to that which finally radiates from the loud- speaker. In the case of the cable, the amplifiers are designed to be effective over a very wide frequency band so that they have carrying capacity for many voice channels when used with terminal equipment of the proper type. The vacuum tubes involved must necessarily be very special and have lives many times that of conventional tubes. In pursuing this problem of amplification in long cable circuits, British engineers later devised amplifiers that are housed in long tank- like structures. These are suitable for relatively shallow water condi- tions and are laid by somewhat different techniques. In the new transatlantic cable, whose route is shown in figure 1, the major deep-sea portion of about 2,000 miles is equipped with the flexible amplifiers. The shallower section from Newfoundland to Nova Scotia —some 330 miles—is being equipped with tank-type amplifiers having somewhat greater channel-carrying capacity. This route is partly overland. Ficure 1.—Transatlantic cable route. In the case of the long deep-sea portion, a separate cable is laid for each direction of transmission. In the shallow-end section a single cable suffices for both directions of transmission. The whole transatlantic circuit, from working terminal to working terminal, is a splendid example of the adaptability of modern com- munication practices. For example, from Nova Scotia to New York, where most of the circuits will terminate, the circuits are largely over repeatered microwave radio links. The cable techniques being used, particularly the deep-sea portion, have previously had a tryout in other installations. No apprehension TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 279 is felt about their continued success, although the previous experiences have been for shorter distances. In the case of the deep-sea section, the same technique was employed in 1950 for cables between Key West and Havana, some 120 nautical miles long, having three repeaters in each direction. This system has operated over 5 years with no notice- able deterioration. The whole project has required great attention to detail and great precision in design and manufacture. Very small differences in the cable and in the amplifier performance would, if allowed to accumu- late, have serious over-all results. At least 20 years’ life has been the objective in designing the elements making up the cable system. It is possible, of course, that in time certain parts of the cable or repeaters may become faulty and will have to be removed. This is done by grappling and raising them to the surface from a cable ship. Unfortunately, each time this is done in deep-sea section it is necessary to splice in a longer piece of cable than already existed. This is because, when the cable is first laid, it follows the bottom closely and, since it has very little stretch, it is almost impossible to pick it up by grappling in the deepest sea portions without first cutting it at the bottom. The two ends are then brought up separately and repairs are made. A new section of cable, perhaps as long as 5 or 10 miles, must then be spliced in to close the gap. What follows gives more details of the new project and, as noted, is largely taken from the paper “A Transatlantic Telephone Cable,” by Mervin J. Kelly, Sir W. Gordon Radley, G. W. Gilman, and R. J. Halsey, published in Electrical Engineering, vol. 74, No. 3, 1955 (see footnote 1, p. 273). That paper goes into more detail in his- torical and other aspects of the project. It should be referred to for a still more complete appreciation of the numerous technical prob- lems that had to be solved to obtain assurance that a project representing an outlay of as many millions could be relied on without unreasonable maintenance. BACKGROUND OF AMERICAN EXPERIENCE As noted previously, when the proposal for a transatlantic telephone cable was first considered, electronic techniques were becoming estab- lished in land-cable practice, although they had not reached the point where serious proposals could be made to lay a submarine cable with submerged repeaters on the ocean bottom. To permit this, further improvements in technology were required, notably the use of ampli- fiers whose performance could be stabilized by features such as nega- tive feedback and long-life vacuum tubes. Negative feedback is a modification of an amplifier circuit which greatly improves its stability with time and power fluctuations. It tends to insure that the amplified currents are an exact replica of those 370930—56——19 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 that are applied to the input, with the exception, of course, that they are much larger in amplitude. These developments contributed greatly to long-distance multi- channel telephony in the early thirties. Until they were available, the only kind of repeatered transatlantic-cable system that could be imagined was one in which the repeaters could be mounted on moored platforms at sea or in submerged buoys fed with power from local batteries and visited at intervals for maintenance and repair—an arrangement considered impractical. The advances made in the long-distance systems for land use by the early thirties involved not only vacuum-tube repeaters at frequent intervals on open wire lines and cables, but the use of carrier systems in order to obtain many talking channels through one set of conductors and repeaters. Carrier systems obtain their name by virtue of the fact that each talking channel is associated with its own “carrier” current, the different carrier currents having different frequencies. By the use of a number of carrier currents, the combined intelligence of several speech channels can be joined at the sending end of a circuit to pass over one set of conductors and through a single repeater. At the receiving end, the different carriers, with their intelligence content, can be separated by filters or tuned circuits responsive to the different frequencies, as they are in the process of selecting particular radio stations in the tuning-in process. The design of vacuum tubes reached a point permitting considera- tion of tubes whose effective life would be extremely long. There grew, therefore, the broad concept of a transatlantic cable system using two nonloaded coaxial cables, one for each direction of transmission, into which the repeaters would be spliced at regular intervals. The term “coaxial” is here used to indicate a type of cable in which the return conductor consists, as previously noted, of a thin sheath of copper sur- rounding the insulating material. The use of loading to improve the transmission characteristics of the cable was omitted since it was hoped that, by the use of a sufficient number of repeaters, i. e., a relatively short interval between them, a wide band of frequencies could be transmitted, providing many tele- phone channels, using a range of frequencies beyond which loading would no longer be effective. Detailed discussion of the relative merit of two cables versus one is outside the scope of this paper. As a matter of present-day technical achievement, the twin cables, i. e., one-way operation in each, may be more economical on deep-water routes where traflic capacity is grow- ing rapidly. In the practical case, the present choice was also in- fluenced strongly by the need for a repeater of small size which would cause a minimum of physical irregularity in the cable structure and therefore permit more practical deep-sea handling. TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 981 The repeaters required for the deep-sea system had to be designed to withstand the shocks of laying and recovery and the pressure of water encountered at the greatest depth on the North Atlantic route— approximately 3 miles. | There are three vacuum tubes in each repeater. These had to be de- signed not only for long life but capable of operating with compara- tively low power and potential to make it safe to supply power to all the 50-odd repeaters from the shore ends without exceeding a safe working potential. This potential, incidentally, is of the order of 2,000 volts direct current at each terminal. DEEP-SEA REPEATER CONSTRUCTION The desirability of a flexible type of housing has been referred to. The structure, as noted, is a flexible bulge in the cable, 10 feet long, and 2.8 inches in diameter, tapering, for a distance of about 28 feet at each end, down to the cable diameter. The armor of the cable it- self is continued over the repeater housing but with extra armor wires added to get complete coverage. To prevent the twisting of the re- peater in the laying operation, there is a second layer of wires with opposite lay. The structure of the repeater container is shown in figure 2. It can pass readily around a cable drum several feet in diameter, and over the bow sheave of the cable ship without requiring that the ship be stopped. To attain this flexibility, the repeater elements within the container are mounted inside a series of plastic cylinders, successive units being held together by a spring assembly to form an articulated system. Surrounding this series of plastic cylinders is a series of butt- ended steel rings. There are two layers of rings, the joints between successive rings in the two layers being staggered. Over the rings and supported by them against collapse at sea-bottom pressure, there is an envelope in the form of a long tube of thin copper. Over the copper tube are certain protective coatings and armoring wires. The repeater enclosure is terminated at each end with a series of seals, comprising, first, a glass-metal seal adjacent to the repeater ele- ments, next, a plastic seal molded to the cable insulation, and, finally, at the extreme ends, a 7-foot-long seal formed within a copper tube which is an extension of the repeater housing. Sea water, in order to penetrate the housing, would therefore have to thread a long multi- barriered path. All the seals are adapted for the sea-bottom pres- sures that they may have to withstand. A partially sectioned por- tion of the seal is shown in figure 3, together with further details of the repeater structure. The 51 repeaters in each cable will be located at intervals of 37 nauti- cal miles. They will be fed with direct-current power originating at each shore end, as described later. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 282 *UOI}IOS UBQQO-e]]IAUIe] ‘oInjonI3s Jojvoday—'7 ANNOY 38NL YSNIVLNOD Y3dd09 SONIY 1331S Y3LNO SONIY 1331S YANNI NOILOSS LINN Y31V3d35uy u NS NEES LEE QE EEE, EE? EE DE CES, GER, NUE) NOILO3LONd NOISONYOD GNY ONIGG3S YONYY—~“ Y3SAV1 YOWNV LSHls Y3AV1 YONWYV GNOOSS IEE LE LEA ONS Y31IV3Sd3SY GIYOWYV 8 vid NIZe TWNINYSL LAdLNO YOLIOVdVD ONINDOT18 LNdLNO YSANG gan. sv9 (Z) HYOMLIN VL39E (1) HYOMLIN VL38 YYOMLIN LNdLNO (S39VLS GUIHL) S3ENL WANOWA YYOML3EN JOVLSYSLNI GNOOSS (39VLS GNOO3S)3ENL WANDVA YYOMLIN JOVISHSLNI LSYIS (39VLS 1SYI5)398NL WANDVA YYOMLIN LNNI AVLSAYO YOLIOWVKVO INIGNNOYND YOLIOVdVD ONINDO18 LAAN TVNINYSL LAdNI SNOILO3S LINN Y31V3d35y 8 VIO NIE 2 LNd NI STIVL INIGNIONI 13 0S! -wnmqwuoorodo 283 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL "svas Joyeades Jo UOT]ONI}sUOD [eUIOJU[—'¢ TUNITY SLuvd AISBW3SSY 38Nt MISW3SSV MISW3sSsyv siaqeneos 38NL 340d ONISON Y3A09 3AILO3 10d Ww3s y3a3sEny IV3S=SSV19 TWNIN SSL yOLINVdVO ss SER SUS) to, LF LF LOT LF ie a : CNN PALTZ vy 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 LONG-LIFE TUBES The vacuum tube finally adopted was a conservatively designed so- called suppressor-grid pentode whose details were finalized in 1941 and which has not since been changed in any significant way. Essen- tial features of its construction are unusually low cathode tempera- ture and liberal internal spacing between elements, with generally rugged and shock-proof construction. Some of these tubes have been under continuous test for over 13 years and 18 have been in opera- tion for about 5 years in repeaters on the Key West—Havana cables referred to previously. All indications are favorable for something better than 20-year life expectancy for North Atlantic service. OTHER COMPONENTS In addition to the tubes, about 60 other circuit elements have to be accommodated inside the submerged repeater housing. These include resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and crystals. Like the tubes, these elements have been designed and fabricated so as to avoid all possible risk of failure in service. They have also had to meet requirements of ruggedness and reasonably small size. As in the case of the tubes, cost has fortunately been a less important factor than it is in many other applications. In the choice of details of design of the components, conservative design was followed. For manufacture, particular effort was made to select and train personnel for skill and pride in product. Extraordinary inspection techniques were em- ployed. CABLE The cable consists of a solid dielectric coaxial structure covered by the usual jute and armor for protection. In its broader aspects this is not unconventional, and the term “solid dielectric” is used to differen- tiate it from other types of coaxial structure in which the insulating material is often permitted to include large portions of air or other gas. The composite central copper conductor consists of a central solid wire surrounded by a single layer of spiraling abutting tapes, care- fully formed to fit close about the wire with a minimum of voids. Such a composite structure has better flexibility and protection against breakage than a solid conductor and has better alternating-current and direct-current resistance than a stranded conductor of the same outside diameter. The return conductor is also a flexible composite copper structure consisting of a single layer of abutting spiraling tapes care- fully formed into a tubular configuration. It is covered with an over- lapping spiraling copper tape for teredo protection. ] Ban} a i} oss OOS OOv OooE 002 OOo! OS (e) 5 a w > rm a nm (1S3M O1 1SV3) uy 2 (1SV3 OL 1S3M) 2 B a Qa ro) 9 mM | " ® % ay 4 STANNVHO 3UVdS ONV 1V901bZSNId OLLNVTLWSNVYLOSHY Re 288 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 289 Clarenville and the frequency band 312 to 552 kilocycles per second in the reverse direction. The cable will therefore provide 60 carrier telephone circuits with channels spaced 4 kilocycles apart. One of two 12-channel groups in each direction not employed for transatlantic service will be used to provide 12 circuits for “local” telephone circuits between Newfoundland and the rest of Canada; the other will be held spare for the present. The junction point between the eastward and westward parts of the system at Clarenville will be in effect a group connector. The trans- atlantic channels in both parts will appear here as primary groups in the frequency range 60 to 108 kilocycles per second. Connection will also be made here to the local and spare groups. Equipment to bring each of the 12 channels in any one transatlantic group down to ordi- nary speech frequencies will be installed but not normally connected. Availability of such equipment is desirable for testing purposes. The traflic operating terminals will be in London, New York, and Montreal. Twenty-nine telephone circuits will be put into service between London and New York and six between London and Montreal. It is planned to split the thirty-sixth telephone circuit at the western end between New York and Montreal and use it for other purposes. Telephone and telegraph circuits for maintenance purposes will be provided between Oban and Clarenville in the frequency band below 20 kilocycles per second, as indicated in figure 5. Between Clarenville and Sydney Mines, telephone service circuits will be provided in the “crossover” frequency band between 260 and 312 kilocycles per second and telegraph service circuits below 20 kilocycles per second in one direction and 552 kilocycles in the other direction. TRANSMISSION OBJECTIVES Since the transatlantic circuits will serve to connect two extensive telephone networks on opposite sides of the ocean, including connection to the European continent, which will be reached through London, they are being designed to cause as little extra loss and other forms of impairment as possible. For example, it has been agreed that the target for frequency characteristics of the channels between London and New York or London and Montreal should be as good as that specified by the C. C. I. T.4 for a 2,500-kilometer international circuit. Other objectives for the circuits compare favorably with those speci- fied for long-distance circuits wholly on Jand. CABLE DETAILS As already indicated, two cables will be used between Newfoundland and Scotland, one for each direction of transmission. The cable used “Comité Consultatif International Telephonique. 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 on the transatlantic route will have a somewhat greater thickness of insulation than that included in the makeup of the Key West-Havana cable. The core diameter before the addition of the return coaxial conductor will be 0.62 inch. Figure 6 illustrates the typical cross sections used in different parts of the over-all cable system. It will be noted that the interior structure, namely, the inside conductor, the insulation, and coaxial return conductor are the same in each case, the cables differing only in the degree to which external materials, includ- ing armoring, are applied, depending on the location of the cable. Manufacture of the cable demands control of the dimensional tolerances to a greater degree of precision than has been attempted heretofore. This is because the large number of repeaters in the cir- cuit make it of great importance to maintain a fine balance between repeater amplification and cable loss. Predetermination of the effects of temperature and pressure on cable attenuation assists in maintain- ing this balance when the cable is at sea-bottom temperature and pressure. Fortunately, the sea-bottom temperature is very constant. Electrical irregularities which would result from structural imperfec- tions must also be avoided since they affect the gain-frequency char- acteristics of the repeaters. As is customary in cable practice, special cable armoring will be used near the shore ends and the various types are shown in figure 6. Type A has an armoring consisting of 12 galvanized mild-steel wires, each 0.3 inch in diameter, and is laid in water not deeper than 300 fathoms; type AA, used for some landings, is similar but has an extra layer of armoring. Type B is laid in moderate depths and has 18 mild-steel wires, each 0.165 inch in diameter. Type D is laid in all depths greater than 700 fathoms. It is armored with 24 high-tensile steel wires, each 0.086 inch in diameter, each wire being taped; these enable it to be laid and lifted in the deepest water. The structure and dimensions of the conductors and core of the sub- marine cable used between Clarenville and Sydney Mines will be iden- tical with those of the cable used between Clarenville and Oban. The cable will have AA- or B-type armoring. It will, however, be tested to a specification appropriate to the higher frequencies to be transmitted. The land cable will be basically the same as the submarine cable but, being more subject to electrical interference, will be shielded with lay- ers of soft iron tape applied over the outer conductor. The tape in turn will be protected from corrosion by a polythene sheath over which will be applied jute bedding. The cable will be laid in a trench at a depth of approximately 30 inches where the temperature is expected to have an annual variation of about 35° F. and a maximum daily variation of about 2° F. Guard wires, for the protection of the system against lightning, will be laid in 291 AFFEL TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE "sajqeo jo sodkT—9 aunoig JLNf G3BLVNOAYdWI SONIAN|S ZF (Q3dVi 341M HOV3) VIO NI 980°O ‘1331S JTISN3L HOIH‘SaMIm MONEY b2 H 3LAP Q3HOLND ONIANSS | 9 (G3ddV9) 3dvL XVNOOT34L 4 NI £000 (G3ddV143A0) Y3ddO9‘ 3dvi OOZNRL 3 NI9SIOO ¥3dd00 ‘S3dv1 NUNL3Y 9 A NI 121 wid VIO ‘NI 0290 O1 ‘3NITAHLZAI0d 9 Q 3dAL ‘NI S100 Y3dd09 ‘S3dvV1 GNNOYUNS ¢ 2 . VIG'NI BIE1O Y3ddO0'YOLONGNOD Y3LN3ZO V c H ; @ Iii 1 Uy ete, 9 q G, 3 & & (ZO \ Dp a >A Z 4) EG pe. a \. Vv ‘'NI69'2 VIA VV S3dAL V 3dAL Q 3dAL 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the trench above the cable. The two repeaters in the land section will be identical with those in the sea and, according to the terrain de- termined in the final survey, will be laid in ponds, buried in the ground, or located in small manholes. TANK-TYPE REPEATERS The mechanical design of the tank-type repeaters which will be used in the Clarenville-Sydney Mines section is shown in figure 7. The electrical equipment is mounted in an inner sealed cylinder 4 feet 2 inches long and 734 inches in diameter, filled with dry nitrogen. This is mounted between brazed-in bulkheads in the pressure-resisting outer housing which is 9 feet long with a maximum diameter of 101% inches. The gaskets or glands are suitably molded polythene. The cable- armoring wires are fastened under clamps which transfer the laying tension to the housing; the design of these clamps is adequate to permit the laying of the repeaters at ocean depths although, of course, such strength will be unnecessary for cable-laying operations between New- foundland and Nova Scotia. The 16 repeaters in this section will be located approximately 20 nautical miles apart. There are two 38-stage vacuum-tube amplifier units in parallel in the repeater and the circuit is so designed that the failure of a vacuum tube or any other faulty component in one ampli- fier will not affect seriously the functioning of the over-all circuit. In this respect the repeaters have some margin over the repeaters used in the main deep-sea portion of the circuit since, because of space limitations, the latter have only a single amplifier. To some extent, this is offset by the fact that the vacuum tubes employed in the deep- sea section are of a design which has been subject to a Jonger period of test and experience. The space afforded by the rigid housing not only allows more compli- cated circuitry, such as required to achieve two-way operation through a single amplifier, but it also makes it possible to design some of the components on more generous lines than can be fitted into the American flexible housing. AIl components are manufactured and tested to extremely high standards. TESTING ARRANGEMENTS It is an advantage of a two-way cable that, provided some form of frequency translation is possible in each repeater, signals transmitted from one terminal can be returned from the repeaters to the same terminal. In this case, the frequency translation at the repeater is effected by a so-called frequency-doubler associated with filters in the range of 260 to 264 kilocycles. Signals at twice these frequencies are returned to the sending terminal and enable an accurate measurement 293 CABLE—AFFEL TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE ‘uorjoes sourpy AoupAg-ayjiAuoreys ‘Suisnoy Joywoday—'y TANT ONV19 Q31V1139LSV90 9 (A) OVLSIA ONISOIONS WYYHdVIG 378IX3134 G H U yj IY ~ Hi BG IPI ero 8 ‘NI ¢ il 138 dNV19 YOWNY 9 (NI G3ZVv4a)OQvVSHNINE sg SNLVEVddY 1V9INL93173 ONISOTONS LINN MSNNI V ROSE 7 RES ND Se s j=ZN 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 to be made of the transmission level at the output of each repeater at any time. Other more complicated testing equipment provided at each terminal will enable measurements to be made to determine whether both amplifiers are functioning in each repeater. In the case of the deep-sea “snake”-type repeaters which transmit in only one direction, an arrangement is employed in which each repeater of the 51 in the one-way circuits has slightly different electrical char- acteristics, determined by a quartz-crystal resonator, in the frequency band above that used for the speech channels. This enables a selective measurement to be made from the terminals to determine, in effect, how well each of the individual amplifiers is functioning. Arrangements are provided to insure continuity of the power circuit even in case of the complete failure of the heater circuit in one of the vacuum tubes. | REPEATERS | CARRIER CARRIER EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT | POWER FEED : < GROUND PLATES SHORE STATION | = pin 5 > SHORE STATION ANODES CATHODES ee RA 3 HEATERS =55V | GHEATERS =33V 90V. REPEATER POWER CIRCUITS REPEATER POWER CIRCUITS CLARENVILLE - SYDNEY MINES SECTION OBAN- CLARENVILLE SECTION Ficure 8.—Basic power-feeding arrangements. POWER FEED TO REPEATERS The arrangements for feeding power to the repeaters on the two sec- tions are generally similar and involve the use of constant-current gen- erators series-aiding, and designed so that both ends control the value of the line current. It will be noted from figure 8 that at the terminals the power currents are basically separated from the speech currents by so-called high-pass and low-pass filters. These electrical circuits, as the name implies, divide the currents in such a way that the direct current necessary to feed the vacuum tubes at the repeater points, and TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 295 the high frequencies of the speech channels find free access to their respective terminal equipments. The repeatered cable on the Clarenville-Oban section will require initially a total voltage of about 3,700 volts, increasing with later years perhaps to about 4,450 volts, or even up to about 4,700 volts if it is necessary to introduce additional repeaters after repairs. Since these voltages are divided between the two terminals, the maximum voltage on the cable is only half the above figures. I*or the repeaters on the Clarenville-Sydney Mines section, the necessary total driving voltage will be only about 2,300 volts and, if necessary, it will be possible to feed this from one end only since the cable and other circuit elements will withstand this voltage. There are some differences in the makeup of the constant-current generators used on the two sections but these are incident to the par- ticular problems involved and not generically important. Every effort will be made to insure continuity of the direct-current power supply to each cable. In order to assist this, the alternating current supplied to each constant-circuit power-feed unit will be de- rived via alternating-current—direct-current—alternating-current machines. These machines will normally be driven from commercial power-supply means. In the event of power-supply failure, a storage battery continues to drive the direct-current machine. If the failure is of long duration, diesel engines will be started up. CABLE-LAYING ARRANGEMENTS All the cable is being laid by the cable ship Monarch. This ship, which was built for the British Post Office in 1945, has a gross tonnage of some 8,000 and, with full oil bunkers, can carry between 5,000 and 6,000 tons of cable. The Monarch is the only ship afloat capable of laying the whole of the deep-water part (about 1,600 nautical miles) of each cable between Newfoundland and Scotland in one operation. It is obviously desir- able to avoid any sequence of operations which will make it necessary to pick up a cable end and make a splice in deep water. Such opera- tions will have to be carried out if repairs are necessary after the cable has been laid, but inevitably at some risk of the cable’s kinking. All repeaters are joined into the cable before it is loaded into the ship. A period of 12 days during which continuously good weather condi- tions may be anticipated is necessary in order to carry out the main operation without undue hazard to the repeatered cable. In the North Atlantic such conditions are unlikely except during the period mid- May to mid-September, and it has not been practical to lay both the * The tons referred to here and elsewhere in the paper are long tons of 2,240 pounds. 370930—56——20 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 cables on the main crossing in one summer. As noted, one of these cables was laid during the summer of 1955 and the reverse-direction cable will be laid during the summer of 1956. The essential parts of conventional paying-out, or picking-up, ma- chinery are shown in figure 9. Although the flexible, built-in repeaters are designed to be handled as part of the cable, it is, of course, desir- able not to bend them to a small radius. New cable drums of approx- imately 7-foot diameter have been fitted on the Monarch. Bow and stern cable sheaves have also been made this diameter. Various other minor structural changes, some based on successful laying of the Key A CABLE TANK (ONE OF FOUR) E DYNAMOMETER B CRINOLINE F STERN SHEAVE CG JOCKEY GEAR 6 GRINOLINE BLOCK AND TACKLE D PAYING OUT DRUM (ELECTRIC DRIVE) ALL CABLE GEAR HAS A MINIMUM RADIUS OF 3FT. SIN Ficure 9.—Cable-laying machinery, H. M. T. S. Monarch. West-Havana cable, have been made in the cable-laying machinery to ease the passage of the repeaters from the hold over the sheaves. New dynamometers for measuring and recording the cable-laying stresses have also been provided and these enable the tension on the cable to be closely controlled as it is paid out. The laying of the cable between Newfoundland and Nova Scotia presents no special problems, but an electrically driven hoist has been fitted over the ship’s bows to facilitate handling the rigid tank-type repeaters. CONCLUSION AND SPECULATION Barring unforeseen and unexpected delays, the latter part of 1956 should see the completion of the first transatlantic telephone connec- TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONE CABLE—AFFEL 297 tion by submarine cable. With the completion of this project, tele- phone service between the two continents should enter a new era marked by improved quality of service and reliability. Capacity for growth will no longer be restricted by the limited capacity of the radio spectrum. +3 Certain advantages of the radio will remain, however: flexibility, the speed with which communications can be established and switched from route to route, direct access to one country from another, rela- tively lower cost, etc. These are not inconsiderable advantages and they augur for the continued importance of shortwave radio-telephone services. On the other hand, the new transatlantic cable will by no means represent all that could be done if full advantage could be taken of con- temporary techniques. The submarine cable art is a conservative one. As Dr. Buckley observed, the laying of a deep-water submarine cable, like any other activity on the high seas, must be planned with its un- avoidable hazards in mind, and experience over 100 years has shown that in such a project it is better to be safe than sorry. But the consequences of this doctrine of caution are equally plain. The submerged repeaters in the 1956 deep-water cable section incor- porate tubes whose proven design dates back to 1941. On the other hand, more recently designed tubes provide superior performance and these are the types that will be used in the system between Newfound- land and Nova Scotia, where the consequences of tube failure will be minimized. The integrity of such postwar tubes, under the severe and highly specialized conditions of installation and use, remains to be established. However, with such new types of tubes, it is certain that cable systems with still greater communication capacity can be realized. Looking still farther ahead, the transistor looms as a development which has the potentialities of making possible long, deep-water sub- marine cables with much greater communication capacity than can be realized with repeaters employing vacuum tubes. The voltage re- quired by the tubes sets an upper limit on the number of them that can be operated in tandem before the power supply results in voltages on the cable that are beyond the limits of safety. The much lower power drain of the transistor would overcome this obstacle and permit more repeaters to be used and wider frequency bands to be accommo- dated. Ruggedness, long life, and small size are added attractive features of the transistor which are of not inconsiderable importance to the future development of submarine cables. A transatlantic submarine television cable is a long-range goal worthy of serious study and by no means to be dismissed as impractical of attainment. 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 The concept of a transatlantic telephone cable, as noted, owes its origin to the inspiration of Dr. Buckley’s early work. He laid the firm technical foundation for such a project. Subsequent develop- ments which have been described have been the work of many engineers and physicists on both sides of the Atlantic; on the American side, in the Bell Telephone Laboratories, the Western Electric Co., and the Simplex Wire and Cable Co.; on the British side, in the Post Office Research Laboratories, Standard Telephones and Cables, Limited, and Submarine Cables, Limited. Without this development work, the particular project would be impossible. In carrying out the complete project, individuals possessed of a variety of skills, representing many organizations, have worked in close cooperation. In addition to the scientists, engineers, and tech- nicians, the office staffs, lawyers, financial specialists, and administra- tors of the British Post Office and other organizations previously mentioned and, in particular, the general departments and long-lines department of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, have played an important part. Not to be neglected are the capable staff and crew of H. M. T. 8. Monarch. Genetics in the Service of Man’ By BENTLEY GLass Professor of Biology The Johns Hopkins University Human power, which mounted slowly indeed through the eons of prehistory and somewhat more rapidly after the advent of the sword and pen, has gathered momentum with logarithmic sweep since the dawn of modern science. Today it seems to be rocketing into outer space with the incredible energy of atomic fission. I would be the last to imply that the principal value in the pursuit of scientific knowledge is the utilitarian one—that society should nurture science only because of its fruits. Yet the fruits are of undeni- able importance, and before we eat, it might be well for us to see upon which side of the tree of good and evil they are borne. Power, espe- cially unlimited power, can be more danger than blessing, and what foresight and intelligence we do possess ought to be exercised in safe- guarding and channeling it into wise uses. Mankind was not prepared to use and control nuclear power. Today we stand on the verge of biological discoveries of an equally revolutionary and potentially devastating kind, which it will require all our wisdom to control. It is these eventualities which I wish to discuss. A century ago, when my grandfather was born, the life expectancy of the average male infant was 40 years. At the turn of the century, it was still only 48 years; but by 1930 it has jumped to 59 years, and today stands at the amazing average of 69 years. Whatever we may think about the wise use made of those extra 29 years of life by the average American man, surely this achievement of medicine and biol- ogy has been spectacular. Without recounting here the several steps in the advancement of health and longevity, I wish merely to point out that genetics has contributed its share to this progress. You are certainly aware of the tremendous role of penicillin in virtually wiping out many infectious diseases. In the course of the enormous wartime effort that went into Reprinted by permission from The Johns Hopkins Magazine, vol. 6, No. 5, February 1955. 295 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the attempt to produce penicillin on a large scale, one serious difficulty was met. The highest-yielding strains of the mold Penicillium would grow only on the surface of the culture medium in the great vats, and strains that grew well when submerged were poor penicillin producers. Applying the methods of inducing mutations already known to genet- icists at the time, Milislav Demerec and his coworkers at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington undertook to irradiate with high doses of X-rays some Penicillium strains that grew well when submerged, and to look for mutations that would permanently affect the yield of penicillin. Among 504 selected products, one was found that doubled the production of penicillin over that in the original strain. This high-yielding strain became the basis of the enormous production of penicillin that within the last 10 years has contributed so much to our national health. Even more significant than the production of this strain, however valuable, was the insight gained in the studies by Demerec and others into the fluctuating relations between virulent, disease-causing bac- teria and viruses and those agents that may be used to combat them. It was discovered that the infectious agents have powers of mutation too; and among the mutations that can be induced by X-rays or by chemical compounds, or among those that are always arising spon- taneously in any large population of organisms, there are some muta- tions that confer resistance to the sulfonamide drugs, to penicillin, to streptomycin, in fact, to the killing effects of radiation itself. Learn- ing this, geneticists at once made dire predictions about the conse- quences of an overenthusiastic use of the wonder drugs and the anti- biotics. But it seems that their medical colleagues failed to understand the danger, while the clamor of those who were ill led to the widespread use of such agents even for the common cold. Millions of doses were given to soldiers as mere prophylaxis, in the hope of warding off some possible infection. The result, now well known, was a near-disaster. People began to say, “The miracle drugs don’t work any more. Peni- cillin has lost its punch. Streptomycin is no good.” What had hap- pened was exactly what the geneticists had predicted. Mutant strains of infectious germs had arisen that were now resistant to our drugs and antibiotics, just like the now all-too-common houseflies that seem to thrive on DDT. Asa matter of fact, there is in existence at least one bacterial strain that actually requires a supply of streptomycin in order to grow. New kinds of antibiotics had then to be discovered and put into mass production. Yet the race was a losing one, for the mutational powers of the infectious organisms seem virtually unlimited and permit change far more rapidly than scientists can discover and produce new agents. GENETICS IN THE SERVICE OF MAN—GLASS 301 Here again the geneticist may interpose a prediction. The simul- taneous coincidence of two mutations, say to penicillin resistance and to streptomycin resistance, is of an order of probability so low (about 107°) as to be truly negligible. Start out with two antibiotics to which the infectious agents have never been exposed, and use them together; and use a high enough initial dose to leave no survivors— except, of course, your patient. In this way the antibiotics may con- tinue to serve mankind in the future. But meanwhile, penicillin and streptomycin must be given a rest. In recent decades the shade of Malthus has once again risen to trouble us. Clearly, if the general life expectancy doubles, then even without any increase in births at all there are twice as many mouths to feed at any one time as there were before. But there are also more than twice as many adults with unmodified (or but slightly mod- erated) yearning to have children and rear families. The world population has soared, in spite of wars and famines, from one and a half billions of people, a century ago, to two and a half billions today. Fertile land is almost fully occupied. How can we feed another billion people, whom we may expect inevitably to arrive before the slowly dropping birth rate overtakes the still declining death rate? The immediate answer, if there be one, lies in the almost unheralded achievements of geneticists in increasing the food supply. On September 28, 1954, there died in Princeton, N. J., a geneticist who never received a Nobel prize or made a fortune. To most Ameri- cans George H. Shull remains completely unknown. Yet this man, together with a few others who made his theoretical achievement a practical possibility, has brought about a two-thirds increase in the United States yield-per-acre of the corn crop with no further require- ment for labor, and has added literally billions of dollars to the income of our nation. In fact, a true agricultural revolution, though scarcely recognized, has resulted from the discovery of hybrid corn. During the war years 1942-44, in the face of acute shortages of labor and of bad weather, and at a time when the corn acreage of the United States was still only about one-half planted with hybrid corn, the increased yield amounted to approximately 50 percent—a total of 1,800,000,000 bushels worth two billion dollars. Hybrid corn thus in a sense paid for the entire de- velopment of the atomic bomb. Even more important, it was a large factor in preventing this time the aftermath of hunger that followed the end of the first World War; for the amount of food we were able to ship to the desolated countries of Europe in 1946-47 was more than equaled by the increase in the corn crop attributable to the planting of hybridcorn. The hunger and chaos of eastern Europe in 1918 and 1919 furnished communism with the seedbed in which it first rose to politi- 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 cal domination in Russia. The curbing of the spread of communism in western Europe after the more recent World War may in a very consid- erable measure have been due to the boon of hybrid corn, as Paul Man- gelsdorf of Harvard University has claimed. It is of some interest, therefore, to see just what G. H. Shull did with his corn plants. He started out with the intention of studying the in- heritance of quantitative characters, such as yield, in order to see whether these followed the laws of Mendelian inheritance; and he began by inbreeding his lines. He found that this inbreeding brought out a number of hidden, deleterious hereditary characteristics, and that the inbred strains showed a marked loss of both vigor and productive- ness. Eventually he obtained very pure strains of great uniformity, though for the farmer totally worthless, runty, and weak, with small ears bearing few seeds, and of course very low in yield. When, how- ever, two of these inbred lines were crossed together, there was a phe- nomenal improvement in the hybrids. The ears were large and full, and the production equaled or bettered that of the best strains of the time. In 1917 Donald F. Jones, at the Connecticut Agricultural Experi- ment Station, invented the so-called “double cross,” with quite the op- posite effect from that of the usual connotation. By crossing together the two hybrids produced from the single crosses of four different inbred lines, A, B, c, and pD, Jones obtained seed that, when planted, con- siderably exceeded in vigor and yield even the hybrids of the first crosses, of A with 8, and of c with p. Seed produced by Jones’ method is the present-day hybrid corn, and later efforts have been devoted simply to finding the best inbred lines to combine for a particular pur- pose or area, and to producing the hybrid seed in a quantity great enough to plant some 60 million acres. The same hybrid corn that is best suited for growth in Iowa is not adapted to Texas, and assuredly not to Mexico. Hence the extension of the benefits of hybrid corn to the entire Nation, and then to foreign countries, requires a repetition of the process while utilizing native strains of maize. This takes time, but requires no essential modifica- tion of theory or method. Already in Mexico hybrid corn suited to the country has been produced and is revolutionizing the agriculture of that country, and with it the level of well-being and the culture of the people, which from pre-Conquest days has been based on maize. When we realize that today two-thirds of the world’s population are chroni- cally malnourished, and that larger and larger populations are inevi- table before the world population can be stabilized, the importance of hybrid corn and similar products of the geneticist’s plant breeding becomes fully evident. Eventually we may have to subsist on great quantities of yeast or some microscopic alga like Chlorella that can be raised by the ton in GENETICS IN THE SERVICE OF MAN—GLASS 303 tanks of nutrient solution, but these answers to the world’s hunger are not yet ready. Meanwhile the geneticist must continue to breed drought-resistant sorghums, new wheat varieties that are resistant to the latest mutant forms. of wheat rust, and more productive fruits, vegetables, and field crops like hybrid corn. Even when the day of mass-produced yeast and algae does arrive, the geneticist will have had to make an essential contribution in finding palatable, productive, and disease-resistant strains, as the British learned during World War If. For after many millions of dollars had been spent in producing a great yeast plant in Trinidad, which was to run on waste molasses and feed cheaply the teeming populations of the Caribbean, it was found that the natives didn’t like it and wouldn’t eat it, regardless of how nutritious it was said to be. The geneticist faces such responsibilities with modest confidence, for within the past 50 years his knowledge of reproductive processes and hereditary mechanisms, of the nature of genetic changes within popu- lations, and of evolutionary processes on a still larger scale has so in- creased as to enable him at will to alter the hereditary nature of any plant or animal in an astonishing variety of directions. He can even create new species—in fact, he has already done so. He can, in short, control the course of evolution. The evolutionary process is conceived today in somewhat different terms from those of Charles Darwin, although his ideas have been supplemented rather than superseded. In a population that is breed- ing quite at random with respect to certain alternative characteristics, the gene frequencies underlying those characteristics will remain in equilibrium, unchanging from generation to generation. In other words, the hereditary nature of the species, the makeup of the popu- lation, will change only if some factor upsets the equilibrium and favors one gene over another. Four major factors contribute to evolutionary change. Only these four, and no others, can be shown to be effective in altering the fre- quency of particular genes in populations. The first of these factors is mutation, the rare but permanent change of individual genes or chromosomes. This is the process fundamental to all the others, for it provides the variety of hereditary material upon which the other factors can act. The second factor is natural selection, which is today regarded simply as the differential reproduction of genetic types rather than as that ruthless competition embodied in the classic phrase, “the survival of the fittest.” The third factor is genetic intermixture, brought about by means of the migration and interbreeding of indi- viduals from populations that have been to some degree isolated in the past and have become genetically differentiated, like the several races of mankind. The fourth factor is chance itself, which in popu- lations of very small size may result in statistical fluctuations about 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the expected composition of the population. These deviations may sometimes chance to occur in the same direction, like a run of luck, until the hereditary composition of the population is quite altered. Human control over the mutation process began in 1927 and 1928 when my former teacher H. J. Muller and my later friend and mentor L. J. Stadler, working quite independently, the one with fruit flies and the other with maize and barley, succeeded in demonstrating that ex- posure to X-rays enormously increases the frequency of all kinds of mutations. Other kinds of potent radiations, and even ultraviolet rays, were found to do the same. During the course of World War II, as a byproduct of the scientific study of poison gases, chemical com- pounds were discovered that likewise enhance the frequency of muta- tion. Dozens of workers are now actively studying the conditions that limit or enhance the action of physical and chemical mutagens. From all this exploration there is arising the ability—not yet to direct the course of mutation so as to produce just the mutation desired, or even a particular type of mutation, for that is still impossible—to increase the over-all frequency of mutation so that once-rare hereditary changes become common. Most of the mutations produced are harmful to their carriers, as might be expected from a blind interference with the delicately bal- anced mechanisms of life. Most mutants have a lower viability and a poorer fecundity than the types they are derived from. Yet this is not always so. Sometimes a new mutant type may be poorer than the original type under the existing conditions of life, but may prove itself superior when these are altered. Flies dependent on garbage pails do better in the city of Baltimore if they have wings, but on the storm-swept island of Kerguelen in the southern Indian Ocean the only flies to be found creep about without wings, or with little stubby vestiges of wings. Natural selection, as Darwin pointed out, deter- mines the differential survival of various hereditary types, and natural selection is but a name for the complex combination of conditions under which each population lives and reproduces, and which is dif- ferent, at least somewhat different, in every other time and place. For a long time now mankind has substituted for the selection of nature his own artificial selection of whatever chance mutations ap- peared in his domestic animals and cultivated plants and which seemed to him to be desirable. It is thus that all the progress in plant and animal breeding has been made, from the day the first animal was tamed and the first seed planted to the beginning of our own century. What geneticists are now enabled to do is merely to speed up this process a thousandfold and to control and direct it more effectively. Thus, for example, it was discovered about five years ago that certain inbred strains of field corn have as high a sugar content in the stalk as sugarcane itself. The genetics has been worked out, selection has ‘GENETICS IN THE SERVICE OF MAN—GLASS 805 been used to obtain strains with a constant high sugar content in the stalk, and now hybrid corn with sweet stalks is ready to be used, either for the human sweet tooth or as silage for our horses and cattle, which need sugar too. A shorter corn plant that would stop growing at less than 6 feet in height would clearly be invaluable to the seed growers of hybrid corn, who find some diflicuity in detasseling, by hand, corn plants that grow 12 feet tall. The desired mutation was found, and now hybrid corn that is just as productive as formerly, but grows to only 6 feet, is available. The third evolutionary factor is genetic intermixture, certain possi- bilities of which have already been indicated in what has been said about hybrid corn. Intermixture may, however, be extended to wider limits, to encompass crosses bet ween different geographic races or even different species. The latter have evolved to a point where the hybrids between them are commonly highly sterile—witness the mule. Yet. just here, by an odd chance, there emerges the very mechanism that has enabled the geneticist to create his first true new species. For if in some way the chromosomes of a sterile hybrid can be doubled, its self-fertility is often completely restored, although it remains infertile when crosses are made with either of the parent species. If, for example, one could double the chromosomes of the mule, the latter would have two sets of horse chromosomes and two sets of ass chromo- somes. Hybrid sterility is often due to the inability of the chromo- somes of different species to pair with one another during the forma- tion of the sex cells; but after doubling, one set of horse chromosomes could pair with the other and likewise for the ass chromosomes, so that each egg cell or each sperm cell would possess when mature a full set for both kinds. No one has yet succeeded in doing this to a mule, or in breeding two mules together afterward, but exactly this feat has been accomplished a number of times in the plant world. The first and most famous instance was performed by a Russian geneticist, G. D. Karpechenko, in 1927. Karpechenko crossed two different genera, the radish (Raphanus) with the cabbage (Brassica), and obtained a sterile hybrid. He then succeeded, with some difficulty, in getting the chromosomes to double, following which he could self- pollinate the hybrid and obtain in the next generation a perfectly fertile form which he named Raphanobrassica and which, according to the same etymological principle, should in English be called by the common name of “rabbage.” Since it could be crossed with the orig- inal radish or cabbage parent species only with a resultant almost- complete breakdown of fertility, Karpechenko rightly regarded this as a new species, the first man-made one in history. But unfortunately for Karpechenko, the new rabbage species com- bined the prickly inedible leaves of the radish with the miserable root of a cabbage. Although he received worldwide fame among geneti- 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 cists for his feat, it was scarcely an achievement to impress the makers of agricultural 5-year plans. Karpechenko was later liquidated. The method is nonetheless one of great promise, for in some instances the valuable characteristics of two species may thus be combined in a single new one; and today, by means of the drug colchicine, it has become easy to double the chromosomes of a hybrid, just the step where Karpechenko met his greatest difficulty. There is, at any rate, no difficulty in controlling the amount of ge- netic intermixture by performing, on the one hand, the desired crosses, and on the other by isolating and otherwise preventing intermixture, just as man in the past has controlled the interbreeding between dif- ferent breeds of dogs or cats. As to the fourth factor, this too is under human control because it depends particularly on the size of popula- tion, which may be readily regulated. At this point one might feel like singing, with Swinburne, “Glory to Man in the highest, for Man is the Master of things.” But one had better be wary. Problems aplenty remain just as soon as one begins to consider the application of this newfound genetic power to man himself. Eugenics, the term Francis Galton applied to this endeavor, was envisioned by him as the safeguarding and improvement of our human heritage. The late Professor W. E. Kellicott of Baltimore defined it as “the social direction of human evolution.” This seems to be a very good definition, for it focuses attention on the process as well as the power to control it, on the choice of goals as well as the ultimate chooser. The basis of effective eugenics must include not only an un- derstanding of evolutionary processes and the power to control them ; it must include also a far wider knowledge of human genetics than now exists, and the ultimate consideration by society of many questions of human values. The idea of the social direction of human evolution is not new. Many people have practiced infanticide in order to rid their society of abnormal or defective individuals. The ancient Spartans not only did this, but also, in order to maintain ascendancy over the helots, they practiced most of the eugenic measures advocated in recent times. Their emigration was restricted, and marriage within their own order was encouraged. Special taxes were levied on celibates, and the pro- duction of offspring was rewarded by the state. A severe regimen was maintained to promote fitness and to eliminate the weak or deformed. Also, periodically, the helots were massacred, so as to keep that sup- posedly inferior element of the population down. Plato’s proposals for a eugenic society are likewise famous. There are many misconceptions about heredity. For example, in the strict sense, there are no hereditary characteristics at all. The ferti- GENETICS IN THE SERVICE OF MAN—GLASS 307 lized egg from which each of us starts out in life must develop those characteristics common to all members of its species, race, and family, besides those peculiar to itself. One inherits only what is in the ferti- lized egg: that is, in the physical sense, only the chromosomes and the genes they contain; in the developmental sense, only the potentialities and capacities inherent in those genes. Those potentialities can be realized only within the limitations of the environment. Heredity is biparental; for each gene inherited from one’s mother, a corresponding gene is inherited from one’s father. These corre- sponding genes are not always identical, because mutations give rise to varieties of the same gene within the population. Should the two genes of a pair happen to be different (a condition called “heterozy- gous”), then one gene, known as the dominant, commonly determines the specific trait concerned; and the other gene, the recessive, is masked, although it will still be transmitted to succeeding generations without alteration. Thus a person who has a pair of genes, one for brown hair and the other for red, will have brown hair, and the presence of the gene for red hair may be quite unsuspected. One can have red hair only by inheriting two genes for red hair, one from each parent; one would then be “homozygous.” A good many of each person’s genes are probably recessive, and most of these will be heterozygous and as a consequence unobservable. The significance of this for eugenics is unmistakable: a considerable proportion of the genes in any person, and therefore in the entire popu- lation, is hidden, and to that extent the measures of eugenics must be applied blindly. Many characteristics are determined or affected by more than one pair of genes—intelligence, for example. In such a case it is a partic- ular combination of dominant genes, perhaps together with some homozygous recessive genes, that determines the nature of the char- acter. These combinations are very rarely inherited zn toto, the reason being that no one inherits all his parents’ genes, but only half of the genes of each. Pure chance determines which gene of the two making up each pair in the father and the mother will be transmitted to the child. Hence, the more genes there are in a given combination, the lower the chance that that combination will be transmitted intact. Nearly all combinations are broken up as the germ cells mature, and new combinations of a biparental origin are formed. Inasmuch as most of the human characteristics which are of social significance de- pend upon multiple genes, the combinations of which cannot be pre- served, whether good or bad, the importance of this reassortment and recombination of genes in heredity to the success of eugenics can scarcely be overemphasized. Moreover, a particular gene which in most combinations has an adverse effect may, in just the right combina- 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 tion, produce a desirable effect; and conversely, a particular gene that in most combinations has a favorable effect may get into a bad com- bination. The geneticist can scarcely appraise the absolute, over-all effect of a gene; it must be judged by the company it keeps. Galton was the first person to try to assess the relative power of heredity and environment in determining a person’s characteristics. From his studies of the familial occurrence of genius and special talents, and from comparisons of one-egg and two-egg twins, he was convinced that “the power of nature was far stronger than the power of nurture, when the nurtures of the persons being compared were not ex- ceedingly different.” There is no reason to alter this judgment today, although one may amplify it. Thus, in general, physical traits are most rigorously determined by heredity, mental traits are more modi- fiable by environment, and social traits and personality, although still clearly affected by heredity, are most readily suppressed, diminished, or enhanced by past experience and present environment. ; (d) this growth rate is often ap- proached by early maturity—two or three centuries—after which the mean growth rate decreases very slowly; (¢) the absolute minimum in total mean radial growth of the lower stem for an entire century is about 6 mm.; (f) the number of sapwood rings in over-age Douglas fir does not seem to be significantly related to either the number of heart- wood rings or thickness of heartwood (for relatively young trees a systematic relation has been found by Stallings when groups of five or more trees are averaged); (g) false rings are almost completely absent in these over-age trees of all species except the scopulorum juni- per, and there is a marked tendency to decreased incidence of locally absent rings in higher latitudes. The asymmetric age distribution is most clearly noted in drought- type Douglas fir, which has been sampled on many sites throughout its range of some 30° of latitude in the inland western cordillera from central Mexico to Jasper National Park in Alberta. Ina belt roughly defined by latitudes 30° and 40° N. in the Colorado River basin of eastern Utah and western Colorado literally thousands of trees may be found from 700 to 900 years old. Curiously, Douglas fir east of the Continental Divide in these latitudes and also in the Great Basin ranges to the west of the Colorado River basin shows much lower maximum ages. Although the distribution of such trees is, as already noted, highly dependent on local site conditions and therefore very spotty, there is a decided tendency to generally decreased maximum ages both northward and southward. Douglas firs in the 600-year age class may be found in considerable numbers on careful search in southern Utah and southwestern Colorado, but are, in contrast, quite rare in the forests of northern Arizona and New Mexico, and in the writer’s knowledge are unreported in the southern areas of these States or in Mexico, where the average maximum age seems to be about ‘The extraordinary longevity in certain stands of the high-altitude pines P. flevilis and P. artistata, observed in very recent field sampling by the writer, is being reported in detail elsewhere; the chronologies in the oldest known Juniperus scopulorum (the Jardine juniper of Logan Canyon, Utah, about 1,500 years) and in J. osteosperma or utahensis (about 1,650 years) are of doubtful climatic significance. *It may be noted that Douglas fir on locally moist sites in this generally dry region may attain growth rates comparable to those in wet-climate regions: the “Hitchcock Douglas fir’, over 125 feet in height and 7-foot base diameter, a re- cent windfall in the Santa Catalina Mountains near Tucson, Ariz., had an aver- age ring width of 2.53 mm. for the 281 years of growth at the 12-foot level (5.06 mm. for the inner 50 years). 470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 350 years. Maximum ages are generally less than 600 years north- ward from the 39°-40° belt to the Canadian border, are less than 500 years in southern British Columbia and at Banff, and may be no more than about 400 years near the northern limits for the species in central British Columbia and at Jasper Park. Much less complete sampling of species other than Douglas fir does not allow more than a suggestion of the age distribution pattern. One limber pine maximum seems to occur near 44° in eastern Idaho, the pinyon pine in the 39°-40° belt, like the Douglas fir maximum, and the ponderosa pine in the 37°-38° belt in southern Utah; all species seem to show a marked decline in maximum ages southward and to a lesser degree northward of the respective belts of maxima. Climatic histories—In the Scandinavian Arctic, ring indices up to five centuries in length and with correlation coefficients of the order of +0.7 against observed growing-season temperature are obtainable, particularly at or near the northern tree limit; in the drier areas of the western United States and southwestern Canada, ring indices up to 1,000 years in length and with coefficients of +0.7 to +0.8 against total yearly rainfall ending in June or July are obtainable, particularly at the lower, or dry, forest margin. The significance of the ring record in upper timberline trees of midlatitudes is not yet entirely clear. For more stress-free areas, such as the eastern United States and central Europe, variant conclusions have been reported as to the climatic significance of ring growth—e. g., no relation, fair relation to the annual number of rainy days, pronounced effects in years of physiological drought, and moderate relation to rainfall of certain months. However, C. J. Lyon and others have shown that in such mesophytic areas the basis for significant ring histories does exist in the fair degree of cross-dating which may be found in selected species and trees. When properly analyzed, the sequences of ring width in over-age drought conifers may provide long and highly significant extensions into the past of the gage records of rainfall and runoff. It must be emphasized, however, that the correlation observed for recent decades between growth and rainfall may be applied only with diminishing assurance to successively earlier centuries of growth index. It has already been noted that the effect of hypothetical secular trends in climate, such as a steady decrease in mean rainfall by as much as 5 percent during the life of a tree many centuries old, cannot at present be separated from the tree’s decreased radial growth as a function of age. Other centuries-long, nonclimatic effects on growth rate, such as might conceivably result from radical long-term fluctuations in the activity of the soil micro-organisms, must remain as a source of uncer- tainty which only the most widespread sampling can in part reduce. PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Schulman FTX ‘emoy t7¢ & ‘a]ppru ‘0'2 X ‘soddn /UONPOYlUseT *uIseq JOATY OPPIO[OD 9yi Ul ssoujaM IO JYSnoIp Jo ainjeu peoidsopim A][eiouss oy) YIM P1OII" Ul “sI9YIO IY} Ul pozlusodeI aq AUT satias asay} jo Auv ul ssur apiM JO MOlIvU AT[eIDads aYy1 Jo IsoPY ‘T[EFUleI [Lo] vy} 0} [euonsodoid Ajasojs ase say Se[snoq sAT{Isuas pure e1s-AIp Ivpnoied ssoyi ul SyIpIM BULI OUT, ‘SYIVU O1¥p apedsop o1v sjods Ylep Ie[NdI9 oy J, ‘spueq polO[oo-191YSI] ay fo yovo jo 14s oud QO} oul] yep Ivjnstpuodisd oy Aq sojoyd ot ul pelussoidai pue Jo1e] poultof ‘uon10d Josuop ‘IOMOIIVU yonu e pue “IOWIUINS pue Sutids v | ul peulloj “poom fo uoniod osuop SSo] *Pol0]O9-1 431] ‘TOpIM 174 fo S}STSUOD sul jenuue Yori ‘a3pa JYysi1 18 yleq oyy ‘sojoyd ayy JO to] ayy 1e M Sd01] 9yt JO Jo]U95 eUL “UISe TOATT Opk®1O]O") ehep! fo SOTT[RIOT 991} UI Soo1} Iu se[snoqd fo *Io10q eB Yim SoIOD JUSS. g 1 se IDUT Se peouteigo “suolqoas SSOI") Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Schulman PLATE 2 given by these annual rings in a recently dated Douglas fir beam, Magnification: X 3.2. « B. C. times was ing ific years dur Mummy Cave, in the Navajo Reservation, Arizona. , from GP=2997 The first information about Southwestern rainfall in spec 3 PLATE Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Schulman ‘OJOD ‘g[3eq Ieou sodo]s pliv asay} uO O1}sI190}9¥ Je l | 5 o1e *soyoul tc] ‘ajpury saoqe yiZue] Wg “punom WSs oyi Yo [eas Apyoinb ssoyruod snouisai sopjo sy} UIAG “JOO JUSUIAIOUI YsIPEMg sy YIM poaurergo Appeas oq Avur ytd 0} y1eq WO] 910) ‘WW-F VW ‘ysty "|[efulei Ul sasuvys jo xopul Zul 1vad-Ac PLATE 4 |-IvaA poos v sulptaoid oA Atnquasd 313d snipvi JO Os IO YouUI ue A[UO BuIppe “punof} aq Avw auo si} FIT $991] p[O-solinzuos Auvul yIeg jeuoIeNy UOAURZ DdAIG UT sdo} a8plI pue sadoyjs saddn aut ud ‘vazua ‘¢ azejd uo uMoUs so01) I1e9A- du] [oO WUQ ‘zfa : ted | DeN 6) tal ee he) t | 0 {? f Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Schulman TREE RINGS AND HISTORY—SCHULMAN 471 These considerations do not, of course, apply to fluctuations from dec- ade to decade. Three critical regional indices for the western United States, based on the ring growth of dry-site conifers of the type just discussed, are compared with appropriate water-year flow data in figure 3. The strong parallelism to be noted in this figure suggests that variations from year to year in the pattern of climate—distribution and intensity of storms, anomalous temperatures, the varying ratio in different years of runoff to rainfall, ete.—introduce only a relatively small error in such regional indices. It is highly probable that local biotic and other factors are to a substantial degree canceled out in these large- scale means. Pronounced differences in some years in the march of the compared variables will undoubtedly be corrected somewhat with more repre- sentative tree indices which await development; minor errors in the river-gage data no doubt also exist and may be found and corrected. For example, reexamination of the early gage measurements at Fort Benton, Mont., recently led to somewhat reduced annual totals for the flow of the Missouri River at this station from 1891 to 1918, as shown in the figure. Despite such improvements in the data, however, it cannot be hoped that the observed correlation between river flow and the best regional tree indices will ever substantially exceed about +0.85, the presently observed value for some of the comparisons. Certain features of the probable past rainfall in the western United States suggested by figure 3 may be specially noted. A strong though by no means perfect parallelism is evident between the Colorado River basin and southern California. The final 25 or 30 years of the 1500’s in these regions seem to have been characterized in general by deficient growth, rainfall, and river flow of severity substantially greater than that in the recorded “dry spells” near 1900 and 1934; data based on the oldest trees appear to show, in fact, that this was the worst drought since the century-long dryness of the 1200’s. The pronounced deficiency of the late 1500’s seems to have affected the Missouri River basin also. The occurrence of two extremely deficient years in succession, however, is apparently quite rare, except during the major general minima. The bearing of inferences of this nature on water and power reserves, such as those at Hoover Dam on the Colorado, is perhaps obvious. The minimum near 1900 in water supply in the Southwest, evident in the figure, is less severe in the upper Missouri River basin and, in fact, is replaced still farther north by what appears to be the greatest maximum in three centuries, at latitude 51° N. in Banff National Park. 370930—56——31 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 472 *SOIINJUID JOlIvS Ul 9[QGUIIeA STU} JO YOIeUL ajvurxoidde 94} JO MoIA & opraoid sny} pue suorjeys aqetidoidde ye MOY JOA poInsvoul Ul suOoI}eNIIN JOUIW 94} JO JsOUI puL Jofew oy} Joyezed $9}¥1S$ PovlUus) UloISaM 944 JO SvoI} dATIISUSS-IY4S3NOIpP uo paseq S9dIpul yyMo1Z [euolsay— ¢ aun y HiMOND 3381 sy \/ VINYOSIIVD NYSHLNOS ‘Te ‘AYU32 $337 Av MOUs WAIN HLMOND 3301 NISVG YBAIN OdVYOT0D ANOR ‘NOLN3® 1u0s 4v MO12 UIA HLIMOHOD 3341 NISVB UBAIN INNOSSIN Y3ddN MeL OW bt WINYOSITVD KYBHLNOS TREE RINGS AND HISTORY—SCHULMAN 473 It is of no little interest to find, in the over-age conifers, a strong suggestion that a century of great drought in the Southwest was followed during the 1300’s by a century of seldom-interrupted rainy years. This very wet interval was perhaps the greatest in two thousand years in this region, as the supplementary evidence in the archeo- logical chronologies suggests. A great deal of attention has been devoted to the attractive hypoth- esis that tree-ring series contain a history of solar or other extra- terrestrial variations, especially cyclic ones. Some instances of direct parallelism which have been noted between sunspot variation and the ring growth of certain trees are often cited and indeed may not be entirely due to chance. In general, however, extraterrestrial vari- ations, if they are recorded by trees, must be in very complex form and are largely obscured by what seem to be random cyclic variations, for no aid toward the solution of the problem of long-range climatic forecasting is as yet established in growth cycles. Nevertheless, the very great importance of the problem and the strong evidence that real, if hidden, nonterrestrial effects are, in fact, present in such growth cycles, would seem to justify continued scientific inquiry. Geographic distribution of drought conifers.—Do over-age conifers providing significant rainfall chronologies exist on other continents? It now seems quite certain that they do. Along the foothills of the Patagonian Andes of Argentina, between latitudes 38° S. and about 43° S., dry sites comparable to the semi- arid Rocky Mountain margins were sampled in early 1950 by the writer. In two coniferous species, Araucaria imbricata Prav. and Libocedrus chilensis Endl., the ring records showed the characters of sensitivity and cross-dating which are essential for the derivation of climatic chronologies. Since these conifers are developed only in scattered stands in a very thin and short belt between the line of the Andes and the plains, little area is available for development of long- lived strains. Yet the same inverse relation between mean growth rate and age was found for the two Patagonian species as for the conifers of the Rockies. When the analysis of these collections and others in southern Chile is completed, some hundreds of years of climatic chronology for Patagonia should be available. Xerophytic conifers, and possibly some hardwood species, exist in apparently suitable environments in a number of other regions, par- ticularly in Asia, and will probably be found to provide significant rainfall chronologies; little exploration seems yet to have been made of the extensive Siberian forests as sources of temperature chronol- ogies. In the light of present knowledge, however, it appears that the combination of factors which makes possible long tree-ring histories of climate is particularly favorable and widespread in western North America. oie MAE EMA terHbas THe vail an Eee dat ly Sacra g erstins 9 > oye tO elt gfe ‘init ot ‘ot aisle OED ane’ alti On i | a BS oew MawaIVER exlte nt ‘Ydevosh jag to vrirlase 2 dads — (alee botqureestui-aggbles to Seuss on 4 B00 naiieh 8 Heindieds owt tnipera sip e gilsaiy 8) -orlor odds. ak ansinhiiva % esd. piney eviloa tie wall of thick bd ay notitettg © léab t & -Oxe “sorlio re-ral 2 to yroleid a arising. enix Audion ga éize jasrib Fo esomiitant 4aj0e RAND oto. gl Ilemeges Zaotfaicay, leindenrtyos bre noitainey, soasine: nsewted hetoa' ae aval daniw tie 40 ton yet heobyrt iiwe Hotie aoiio oie costs alaliay lojddwaay ft art Meg thineoraietixe wise vou, Jntdasy i . patil: wezot alqarss, y19" at od dager POPE: ¢d beh OGOT Sis $6 ehobieray oie esha ait of iris act s sroadey visgis Ls siigenils, earner citot Yoansiiord dil: te no oukbe percha bis 7 ole 401 oda eotienlinores .23igys Myo. itchodeifdnies jor Be si gui emoiot jams sonshive wuoide ‘atk lies méidota ot Ip sinattogrnt Jaary? dave sth Hmenty tant tet ou pista Teits tapi isi10m” eobbal re AEuaipes nBidigiiina hortaiinos TE fhiaE~ Os ed bin pales. 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DA] Cay Yo BdorLiion ba by ts) ‘ia | orth taal BIBOqAY di cbirawolt orihsirond sigbong to it ot oe | enteaetd gnit-oen) saol eldicipy'2 ‘Boitsiest shoe? aiohiat to woth nda isro% mintesw ni hasrqaabivt barn alderonragt ghealuoirrag ai adam Toy : , Sobran hes New Light on the Dodo and Its Illustrators By Hersert FRIEDMANN Curator, Division of Birds U. S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution [With 5 plates] Amone the strange birds that have become extinct within historic times none was stranger, more unusual in appearance, than the dodo, a cumbersome, flightless, huge-bodied, heavy-billed bird, allied more nearly to the pigeons than to any other group of living birds. Fur- thermore, although but little is, or ever was, known of it, few birds became known by name to so many people otherwise not especially interested in natural history. “As dead as a dodo” has become a com- mon expression of extinction, while the term “dodo” has also come to be used as a connotation of stupidity, based partly on the ridiculous appearance of the bird, made widely known by Tenniel’s illustrations of it in Lewis Carroll’s ever-popular “Alice in Wonderland.” As a living creature the dodo was known to civilized Europeans for barely a century, being first seen and described by the early Dutch mariners in 1598, and last recorded in life in 1681. Its extermination in its homeland of Mauritius was probably largely due to, and cer- tainly expedited by, the introduction of hogs into that island. For- tunately, a few (a very few) dodos were brought to Europe, where they were depicted by several artists, the chief and most important of whom was Roelandt Savery. Two and three hundred years later numerous dodo bones were collected and brought to Europe for study. These, and the scant notes and sketches of the early voyagers to the remote Mascarene Islands where the dodos lived, still constitute the source of the little we know of these remarkable birds. In the spring of 1954 the Museum of Fine Arts at Ghent, Belgium, held an important exhibition of the work of Roelandt Savery (1596- 1639), an artist remembered chiefly for his picturesque landscapes literally crowded with animal life. It so happens that Savery, by virtue of his being the chief delineator of the dodo from life, has become important to the ornithologists as well as to students of Euro- pean art. In the absence of other comparable observations of this 475 476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 unusual fowl, Savery’s renditions of it come close to being the main source of our concept of its appearance in life. Among the items assembled at Ghent was a drawing belonging to the E. B. Crocker Art Gallery, at Sacramento, Calif. (Pl.1.) This drawing, in black crayon, 140 x 210 mm., signed in gauche at the bot- tom: “Savery,” is listed as “Deux. . . Dodo. . .,” number 107 (p. 36) in the excellent catalog issued for the exhibition under the supervision of Paul Eeckhaut. In the discussion of a painting, “Landscape with Birds,” signed and dated 1628, loaned by the Kunsthistorisches Mu- seum, Vienna, number 75 of the Ghent exhibition, the dodo in it (pl. 8, fig. 2) is singled out for brief comment, with a reference to the Crocker Gallery’s drawing, “. . . qui prouve que Savery a du exécuter son tableau d’aprés un spécimen vivant... .” The Crocker Gallery drawing had remained unstudied and even unrecorded for many years. It was one of a number of old master drawings, formerly in the possession of Rudolf Weigel, of Leipzig, Germany, purchased in Europe by Judge and Mrs. Crocker in the early 1870’s. According to the 1954 Ghent catalog it had at one time been number 448 of the “Ancienne Collection Rosey,” a collection concerning which I have been unable to learn anything further. For the next 80 years it remained, virtually unnoticed, in the Crocker files, labeled simply “Exotic Birds,” under which title it was once included in a temporary exhibition in the late 1930’s. Because it was unpublished and unknown, it was not mentioned in Strickland and Melville’s monograph “The Dodo and Its Kindred” (1848) or in Rothschild’s “Extinct Birds” (1907), and not even in Hachisuka’s re- cent book “The Dodo and Kindred Birds” (1954). It was first brought prominently into public notice in 1950 when the great assemblage of art treasures from Vienna was touring the United States. Among the paintings was the one by Savery men- tioned earlier in this note. It came to the attention of John B. Mat- thew, then director of the Crocker Gallery, who recalled the Savery drawing in that museum and was stimulated to study it more care- fully. He noticed that the drawing contained no less than three dodos and that they were depicted with webbed feet, whereas the painting included a single one, with no webs between the toes. Savery’s Vienna painting had long been well known and was often reproduced but was suspected more than once of not being wholly accurate inasmuch as the artist had apparently given the dodo two right feet. Because of this inaccuracy Matthews was inclined to sug- gest that where the artist had gone astray in one particular he might have done so in another, and that the error perpetrated therein was even greater than previously supposed and the bird’s feet should have been shown with webs between the toes. Inasmuch as the drawing THE DODO AND ITS ILLUSTRATORS—FRIEDMANN A477 was more probably done from life than was the painting, which con- tained so many kinds of birds as to be obviously a studio résumé of many original studies, it seemed as if the treatment of the feet could presumably be considered’more realistic in the drawing than in the oil painting. The drawing was then put on display together with the Vienna picture when the Hapsburg treasures were exhibited at the M. H. De Young Museum in San Francisco, when it received its first publicity, first in the columns of the San Francisco Chronicle, and then shortly thereafter in Life magazine, for December 11, 1950 (pp. 171-172), under the unacademic title “New-Fangled Dodo.” This brought it to the attention of the wide-reading art authorities in Belgium and resulted in a request for its loan to the Ghent show in 1954. When studied in connection with the other Savery materials assembled there, the authenticity of the Crocker drawing was ap- parently unquestioningly accepted. The drawing definitely posed a problem: Was the dodo provided with webbed feet or was it not? All the delineations of the bird de- scribed and illustrated by Rothschild (1907) and by Hachisuka (1954) show no definite webs. However, there is one picture, which was un- known to these authors, that does agree with the Crocker drawing. Both Rothschild and Hachisuka list an oil painting containing a dodo by Savery, known to have been in the possession of a Dr. Otto Seiffer, in Stuttgart, Germany, in the 1870’s, but which had disappeared with- out a trace some time before 1900. Fortunately for us, we do know something of the appearance of the dodo in this painting, as it was copied in pencil by the great naturalist Theodor von Heuglin, whose drawing was then used as the basis for an engraving by M. Toller, which, in turn, served as a frontispiece for Gustav Hartlaub’s book “Die Vogel Madagascars und der benachbarten Inselgruppen,” pub- lished in 1877. In this rendition the dodo is clearly shown to have webs between the three front toes. It follows, then, that Savery depicted the bird with webbed feet at least twice and that in all his other known pictures he gave it unwebbed toes. It may be recalied at this point that many years ago George Clark, a resident of Mauritius (1866, pp. 141-146), discovered quantities of dodo bones in the mud in a marsh near Mahébourg, on that island. Associated with them he found many bones of flamingoes, gallinules, whimbrels, and egrets, all marsh-dwelling birds. Clark noted that all the dodo bones appeared “‘to have belonged to adult birds; and none bear any marks of having been cut or gnawed, or of the action of fire. This leads me to believe that all the Dodos of which the relics were found here were denizens either of this marsh or its immediate neigh- borhood, that they all died a natural death.” Recently, Hachisuka (1954, p. 85) has commented that the observations of several earlier 478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 writers that the dodo “was a shore bird are probably based upon con- clusions drawn from most of the oil-paintings, which represent the bird standing near, or even in, water. Artists who painted the Dodo from life doubtless found them kept, not in cages, since they could not fly, but in enclosures along with other ornamental birds, such as Ducks, Geese, Storks, etc., i. e., near a body of water ... He possessed no power to swim, as Peter Mundy clearly states.” In fact, Peter Mundy (Journal, 1914) who was in Mauritius from 1628 to 1634, writes of “Dodoes, a strange kind of fowle, twice as big as a Goose, that can neither flye nor swimm beinge Cloven footed.” In response to my request, R. E. Moreau kindly made a careful examination of the actual foot of a dodo (pl. 4) preserved in the Uni- versity Museum at Oxford, and he reports that there is no trace of webbing between the toes, agreeing in this respect with the bulk of the illustrations and with the literature. Moreau suggests that it is conceivable that the heavy phalangial pads under the toes might have flattened out somewhat in a captive bird walking on a hard sur- face. This might have suggested webs, but not more than that. Apparently Savery himself was not too certain of the foot structure, as he did not endow the dodo with webs in most of his pictures; the fact that he did so twice may be attributed to carelessness, but it does suggest that he, our main first-hand observer of the bird in life, prob- ably saw it but seldom, or only casually. His renditions of other kinds of birds are more consistently alike than are his dodos. It is a sad thing that the results of further study of this remarkable bird and its literature and iconography should reduce rather than enhance the little we know of it, but we cannot avoid the conclusion that our primary source of information about its appearance did not know it very well. If we accept the Crocker Gallery drawing as an original by Roelandt Savery, as is done by the compiler of the Ghent catalog (who was in a better position to decide this than anyone else), it becomes possible to point out the sources of two better-known renditions of the dodo. The first of these is a painting by Jan Goeimare (pl. 2, fig. 1), done in 1627, now in Sion House, the seat of the Duke of Northumberland. It shows a dodo bending down over asmew. The painting is obviously a studio invention, as these two birds would not occur together in na- ture, and from this it follows that the painting was probably done from sketches made separately of the two birds. The dodo in it seems to be merely a poor version of the dodo to the right in the Crocker Gallery sheet. The body has become formless, the wings obviously wrong and made to conform with those of ordinary birds although reduced in size, the tail greatly minimized, and the pattern of the head altered, giving it a double frontal band and eliminating the peculiar cross-net lines on the cranium. Similarly, we find that Bontekoe’s PEATE Smithsonian Report 1955.—Friedmann HE® ‘ oOJUsWIRIDeg ‘AIBT[VD WV JOYIOIN “g “| "AIOACS JPUL[IO’ Aq sopop 9OIT 1 } Jo Sul MPIC Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Friedmann PEATE 1. Jan Goeimare’s dodo with a smew. Sion House; Duke of Northumberland. This dodo is a poor version of the one at the right of the Crocker Gallery drawing. (pl. 1) KV SS AAA AEA RSS aN) a My: Uy La i Zé Vite» "i iti 2. Bontekoe’s dodo, published in Amsterdam about 1646. It is now preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. ‘This is a reversed or mirror image of the one at the left of the Crocker Gallery drawing. (pl. 1) PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Friedmann peonpoidayy) -JSUNY ayy (88 I ‘ ATAPI pue purpyIINAs woly “ePuUdIA ‘winasnyy SOYISTIOISTY ut Sunuied s AlaAeg WOlf Opod ‘7 *11e311n1 g ‘u0lD9] I CZZ81 “qneper wWorJ) 09 JayIag ay} ul Ayioursoy “Bulquied AJaAvG SO] VY} WOIf OpOp poioof-qaM *] Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Friedmann PLATE 4 The preserved foot of a dodo showing absence of webs. (From Strickland and Melville, 1848.) Smithsonian Report, 1955.—Friedmann PLATE 5 tex es Drawing of a dodo by Aert Schouman. K. J. Hewitt Collection, London, THE DODO AND ITS ILLUSTRATORS—FRIEDMANN 479 figure of a dodo (pl. 2, fig. 2), first published in 1646 and preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, generally assumed by recent authors to be the white dodo of Réunion, is merely a reversed or mir- ror image of the one at the left of the Crocker Gallery’s Savery, which is ostensibly based on the gray dodo of Mauritius! Credit should be given to Strickland who long ago thought Bontekoe’s fig- ure was based on the Mauritius bird. The fact that the Bontekoe figure is a mirror image suggests the possibility that the Savery drawing had been engraved at some time and that Bontekoe may have used a copy of the engraving. The feet in his drawing are rendered in a somewhat unclear manner as if he was not certain whether the toes should be webbed. Now that we have some inkling of his source, it is understandable that he should have been puzzled and uncertain, and it is possible to interpret the very broadened, almost coherent, toes in his picture as being webbed. Years ago Newton (1876, p. 334) suggested that the figure of a dodo in A. de Wees’s amplified Dutch version of Pliny’s Natural His- tory (many editions, 1650 to 1776), “is unquestionably of cognate origin with that given in . . . Bontekoe’s Voyage ...Ithink... the copper plate of the Pliny has not been copied from the woodcut of the Bontekoe, but the woodcut from the copper plate ...” Later, Oudemans (1917, esp. pp. 56-64) brought together the variations of this figure, credited to Salomon Savery, in the different editions of de Wees’s compilation. Most of them (Oudemans, figs. 13-18, 20) show the webs very clearly, while one (fig. 19) is similar to the Bonte- koe one with very widened, almost coherent toes. According to Henkel (1935), Salomon Savery, like his uncle Roelandt, was an etcher as well as a painter and thus might have produced an etching from the drawing, which, in turn, may have been used by Bontekoe. Were it not for the fact that the drawing must have been done not later than 1627 (the date of Goeimare’s derived painting), and also the fact that the Belgian art authorities apparently have accepted the Crocker sheet as an original by Roelandt, and not as a work of his nephew Salomon, I would have been inclined to suggest that the latter might have been the author of the sketch. Additional support for the drawing’s being by Roelandt may be derived from the fact that the lost Seiffer painting (pl. 3, fig. 1), reported to be by him, also showed a web-footed dodo. Iam indebted to Ernest van Harlingen, director of the E. B. Crocker Art Gallery, for a photograph of the Savery drawing here discussed, and for the loan of a copy of the Ghent exhibition catalog. Even though it has no bearing on the Crocker Gallery’s drawing, the fact that another unrecorded painting of the dodo has come to my at- tention may be added to this discussion of early illustrations and illus- 480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 trators of this fabulous fowl. This is a painting by van Kessel, done about 1660, now in the Prado, the great art gallery of Madrid. The dodo is included among a very large number of birds in a many-seg- mented triptych representing the Animal Kingdom. Hachisuka (p. 56) notes an oil painting of a dodo, “gaunt, but not moulting,” done about 1655 by Johannes van Kessel. This picture, said to be in Munich, has been assumed by Killermann to be a copy of one done in 1605 by Clusius, whereas Oudemans considers it to have been done from a living bird. Hachisuka argues for the latter view, stating that “since it is improbable that a painter like Johannes van Kessel of Amsterdam would use the old picture of Clusius as a model for his painting of a Dodo, as Killermann thinks, it may be assumed that there was a living specimen in Amsterdam at the time . . .”” This issupported by the fact that van Kessel did a second version of the dodo, in the picture now in Madrid. This later version, apparently overlooked by all previous writers on the subject, is clearly not based on the old, crude one by Clusius, a fact that is in complete agreement with the presumed inde- pendence of van Kessel from Clusius, his predecessor by half a century. Still another unpublished, fairly early, although definitely post- humous portrayal of a dodo may be mentioned here. Itisasmall draw- ing on a sheet measuring only 8 by 6 inches, by Aert Schouman, a Dutch painter and engraver. Inasmuch as the artist was not born until 1710, nearly 30 years after the dodo was last seen alive, it is obvious that this sketch could not have been done from a living model. In fact, the un- certain, rather hesitant treatment of the tail, which is depicted almost as if it were something behind, on the far side of the bird and merely projecting beyond it, rather than an outgrowth from the posterior end of the body, bears this out. This drawing was included in an exhibition at Agnews, in London, in November 1955, and is now the property of K. J. Hewitt, of that city. I am indebted to both the dealer and the present owner not only for the photograph of this interesting sketch but also for permission to publish it here for the first time (pl. 5). Schouman was born in Dordrecht in 1710 and died in The Hague in 1792. He painted numerous pictures in which birds played a conspicu- ous part and worked, on the whole, somewhat in the manner of the bet- ter known bird painter Melchior Hondecoeter, but he also did work in portraiture and genre. His drawing of a dodo shows the top of the head covered with rather ruffled, frowzy dark feathers, agreeing in this respect with van Kessell’s Madrid version. It is not unlikely that he may have seen van Kessell’s picture and partly derived his from it. THE DODO AND ITS ILLUSTRATORS—FRIEDMANN 481 LITERATURE CITED BONTEKOE, VAN Hoorn. 1646. Iovrnael ofte Gedenckwaerdige beschrijvinghe vande Oost-Indische Reyse van Villem IJsbrantsz. Bontekoe van Hoorn. Begrypende veel wonderlijcke en gevaerlijcke saecken hem daer in wedervaren. Begonnen den 18 December 1618, en vol-eynt den 16 November 1625. CLARK, GEORGE. 1866. Account of the late discovery of dodos’ remains in the Island of Mauritius. Ibis., n. s. vol. 5, pp. 141-146. CLUSIUS, CAROLUS ATREBATUS. 1605. Aulae Caesareae quondam familiaris, Hxoticorum Libri decem. Antwerp. DE WEES, ABRAHAM. 1650. Caii Plinii Secundi, “Des wijtberoemden, Hoochgeleerden ouden Philosophi ende Natuyrcondigers, Boecken ende Schriften. . .” (Many editions from 1650 to 1776.) EECKHAUT, PAUL. 1954. Musee des Beaux-Arts Gand. Roelandt Savery 1576-1639. 135 pp. HAcHISUKA, MASAUJI. 1954. The dodo and kindred birds. xvi+250 pp., 22 pls., 385 text figs. HARTLAUB, GUSTAV. 1877. Die Védgel Madagascars und der benachbarten Inselgruppen. xii+-425 pp. HENKEL, M. D. 1935. Salomon Savery. Jn Thieme-Becker, Ktinstler Lexikon, vol. 29, pp. 507-508. KILLERMANN, S. 1915. Die ausgestorbenen Maskarenenvégel. Naturw. Wochenschr., vol. 30, pp. 353-360, 369-378. NEWTON, ALFRED. 1876. Remarks upon a book belonging to the Rev. R. Hooper, containing a notice of the dodo. Proce. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 333-334. OuUDEMANS, A. G. 1917. Dodo-Studien. Naar aanleiding van de vondst van een gevelsteen met Dodo-beeld van 1561 te Vere. 140 pp., 15 pls. Peter Mundy’s Journal (1628-1634). 1914. Issued by the Hakluyt Society. ROTHSCHILD, WALTER. 1907. Extinct birds. xxix-+244 pp., 45 pls. STRICKLAND, H. E., and MELVILLE, A. G. 1848. The dodo and its kindred. 141 pp., 18 pls. eh yoraamist—-eaoTAR CuAtT Sri dea Odom attr eo ing bpyat tas Tey Siete, so9 on PE erp xfest talents Ha50 Shber! Siparenntasa piers teen STS fokhvsoRi Eos ‘ebasge 254 -amooH yexomistaoH sialanadg lit adolh apt sete Pig hyinc | dato ey 79097 ul isa) mad seviogue cubes rg, BS: HoVirahae ry, weraiig, ce PSE baie inns nah AO JUF BA sOLOL todiatas G I ppb, aac t" v Mai ve vat bay Paid ‘date Sty at watsaer’ Webi Re! 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Mss, AEF Iho? abt ‘ay agiskht aye. tt79 neki nolbyiRenhoe. 3 a) an aigeah ,.yep O22 A154 93,5 GL nay bleed ODOT Jani, ih | ; Te Tay (2581-2291) ) fawisole a ian wat siti il ia A kcal ity tok Poteet sce Baa tee” te aN LEAs OS PUN ag Ean Wilt OPemetae dieranmnseos ‘al Macy ME dio! dipeidi toate AOR th a Py SRY Dae Ey Bln a a copa eky eT ay Apt hae ett Re phoh, ner link ~ | | iendocnetey, bibdad ules dl: he ia eli wer « tinder wien j) ant hte THY oSak Jee wis , uD gt ie thie oa ee BGs ris » is ». 1] Ay cok tint On ay bh liven ‘oigits phil wirtia ae. hie Orie oe George Catlin, Painter of Indians and the West By Joun C. Ewers Planning Officer for the Museum of History and Technology U. S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution [With 20 plates] GrorcE Catirin holds a unique position in the history of American art. No other artist painted as many pictures in the trans-Mississippi West in the days before the development of photography as did Catlin. No other painter of the early West is so well represented in museum collections today. Yet during his lifetime and for many decades thereafter Catlin remained a minor figure in American art. As recently as the 1930’s his paintings were rarely exhibited in art museums or seriouly studied by historians. In recent years, however, there has been a marked revival of interest in George Catlin’s works. This has been due in part to a widespread and growing popular interest in the history of the romantic and al- ways colorful American West. Historians and museum directors seeking pictorial interpretations of the real wild West before the advance of white settlement into the Great Plains have rediscovered George Catlin. He was never really lost. For generations he has been known to (if not entirely appreciated by) anthropologists, who have had primary responsibility for preserving the larger collections of his paintings in museum study collections. Yet the resurgence of popular interest in Catlin’s paintings is a recent thing. Within the past decade the U. S. National Museum has received scores of requests from other museums for the loan of original oil paintings from its Catlin collection for temporary exhibition. These paintings have been shown to hundreds of thousands of interested viewers in museums of history, of science, and especially of art in all sections of the United States, in Canada, and in western Europe. Today, a century and a quarter after vigorous, restless George Catlin braved the dangers and discomforts of the Indian country beyond the Mississippi to record on 483 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 canvas the appearance of the land and its people, scholars and the pub- lic are gaining an understanding of the true significance of his paint- ings as pictorial documents of the old West. THE MAKING OF A PAINTBRUSH PIONEER George Catlin was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pa., on July 26, 1796. As a boy his interest in American Indians was aroused by Indian legends and stories of Indian captivities which were current in his neighbor- hood. His own mother, as a girl, had been taken prisoner by Indians in the bloody Wyoming Massacre of 1778. Young George loved the outdoors and cared much more for the world of nature than that of schoolbooks. He was fond of hunting and fishing. He also collected flint arrowheads and other Indian relics. At the request of his lawyer father, George Catlin entered the law school of Reeves and Gould at Litchfield, Conn., in 1817. Next year he passed his bar examinations and began the practice of law in Lucerne, Pa. But his heart was not in the courtroom. Rather he was becoming more and more interested in art. Finally he sold his law books, abandoned his legal career, and moved to Philadelphia to devote full time to painting. As a painter Catlin was entirely self-taught. With characteristic enthusiasm and industry he worked at his art until he developed skill both as a miniature painter in watercolors and as a portrait painter in oils. In 1824 he was elected an academician of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, a select company that numbered among its members such masters of the period as Charles Willson Peale, Rem- brandt Peale, and Thomas Sully. In 1828, 12 of Catlin’s works (in- cluding both drawings and paintings) were exhibited by the Ameri- can Academy of Fine Arts. One of these was a full-length portrait of the late Gov. De Witt Clinton of New York State, which Catlin had painted for the Corporation of the City of New York. The fame of some of his sitters and the acceptance of his paintings in important exhibitions indicate that Catlin early achieved a degree of success as a portraitist. Yet he was restless, dissatisfied. As he himself later explained it, he was “continually reaching for some branch or enterprise of the arts on which to devote a whole life-time ofenthusiasm.” (Catlin, 1841, vol. 1. p. 2.) While he was trying to find himself, Catlin saw some 10 or 15 Indian members of a delegation from the wilds of the “Far West” who were passing through Philadelphia on their way to visit the Great White Father in Washington. Sight of their handsome features and picturesque costumes rekindled Catlin’s youthful enthusiasm for Indians. It changed the course of his career and provided him with a goal for his life’s work. In later years he worded his new resolve thus: GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS — 485 Man, in the simplicity and loftiness of his nature, unrestrained and unfettered by the disguises of art, is surely the most beautiful model for the painter, and the country from which he hails is unquestionably the best study or school of the arts in the world; such I am sure, from the models I have seen, is the wilderness of North America. And the history and customs of such a people, preserved by pic- torial illustrations are themes worthy the life-time of one man, and nothing short of the loss of my life, shall prevent me from visiting their country, and of becoming their historian. (Catlin, 1841, vol. 1, p. 2.) No missionary answering a call to service among a heathen people ever dedicated himself to a cause more steadfastly or energetically than did George Catlin to his self-determined task of “rescuing from obliv- ion the looks and customs of the vanishing races of native men in Amer- ica.” To this single purpose he devoted the best years of an amazingly active life. TRAVELS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY George Catlin gained his initial experience as a painter of Indians among the acculturated, reservation Iroquois of western New York. His earliest known Indian subject is an unfinished portrait of the Seneca orator, Red Jacket, signed and dated “Buffalo, 1826.” (It is reproduced in Haberly, 1948, pl]. 2.) ‘This work may have been the one exhibited in the American Academy of Fine Arts show in 1828 as “No. 68. Red Jacket, a sketch.” In 1829 Catlin returned to western New York to paint portraits of other Seneca, Oneida, and Tuscarora Indi- ans. That winter (1829-30) he painted an Ottawa Indian visitor to Niagara Falls and two Mohegan Indians. One of the latter was frock- coated John W. Quinney, noted as a missionary preacher among his own people (pl. 2, fig. 1). In the spring of 1830, Catlin started on his great western adventure by traveling to St. Louis. There he gained the friendship of William Clark, best remembered as coleader with Meriwether Lewis of the over- land expedition to the Pacific Ocean a quarter-century earlier, and then Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the western tribes. No one was in a better position to introduce Catlin to the Indians west of the Missis- sippi. In July of that year Catlin accompanied General Clark to Prairie du Chien and Fort Crawford to make treaties with the Iowa, Missouri, Sioux, Omaha, and Sauk and Fox. Early that fall he was at Cantonment Leavenworth on the Missouri painting Iowa Indians and members of tribes removed from the Eastern Woodlands—Dela- ware, Kaskaskia, Kickapoo, Peoria, Potawatomi, Shawnee, and Weah. Later that fall he accompanied General Clark to Kansa Indian villages on Kansas River where he executed a series of portraits of tribal leaders. In the spring of 1831 Catlin accompanied Indian Agent (Major) John Dougherty up the Missouri and Platte Rivers to visit his charges, 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the horticultural Pawnee, Omaha, Oto, and Missouri. The rough-and- ready appearance of Horse Chief, Grand Pawnee head chief (pl. 2, fig. 2), contrasts sharply with that of mild Mohegan pastor Quinney. Late that fall Catlin met the members of a small delegation of magnificent savages from the Upper Missouri, 2,000 miles upriver from St. Louis, who were passing through St. Louis en route to Washington in charge of their agent. Catlin obtained permission to make their portraits. Among them were The Light, powerful son of an Assiniboin chief (pl. 11, fig. 2), and Broken Arm (No. 176), a handsome Cree. The year 1832 marked another turning point in Catlin’s career. Prior to that time he had been content to paint only portraits. Nor is there evidence that he had taken extensive field notes describing his previous experiences among the redmen. In 1832, in taking advantage of a unique opportunity to visit the wild tribes of the Upper Missouri as a guest of the American Fur Co., Catlin expanded his activities. On this (and later) trips he would paint landscapes, Indian villages, and scenes illustrative of Indian life. He would also write extensive eth- nological descriptions of the Indians he encountered. Catlin’s expedi- tion from St. Louis up the river Missouri to the mouth of the Yellow- stone and return in the spring and summer of 1832 proved to be “the most fruitful journey in artistic and ethnographic material that he ever made.” (Mathews, 1891, p. 597.) Catlin was a passenger on the Yellowstone, which in that year was the first steamboat to ascend the Missouri 2,000 miles to Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone. From the deck of the steamer he painted landscapes on the lower river. At Fort Pierre (mouth of Teton River) he painted a large series of Western (Teton) Sioux por- traits and scenes in Sioux life. He also portrayed a visiting Cheyenne chief and his attractive wife (Nos. 143, 144). Continuing upriver he recorded more landscapes and the appearance of the Arikara village as seen from the passing ship (pl. 12, fig. 1). At Fort Union he met and painted leading men and women of those tribes who came in to trade—Assiniboin, Blackfoot (individuals of both Blood and Piegan tribes), Crow, Plains Cree, and Plains Ojibwa. He also painted a landscape indicating the natural setting of that fort (pl. 19, fig. 1) and a number of wildlife and hunting scenes on the neighboring plains. From Fort Union Catlin returned downriver by skiff in company with two French-Canadian trappers who regaled him with tall tales of the Upper Missouri. They stopped at the American Fur Com- pany’s post, Fort Clark, near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages. There Catlin exploited his remarkable opportunity to record with pen and brush the appearance of those Indians, their villages, games, dances, and ceremonies. Catlin’s little party then continued down the Missouri to St. Louis. Soon after his arrival Catlin learned that GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 487 UN CT AssINBOIN, get é SYFORTIMCKENZIE. ll em ARIKARAT PIPESTONE QUARRY AG Tap 0,8 FORT PIERRE A pes mie ate GREEN BAY § z @ | 5 ye) U hr eth QU. Lake Michigan — > é L FORT GIBSON oF GEORGE CATLIN'S TRAVELS IN THE WEST 1830-1836 1830 BNOSETGOUIER 1834 Q 2 BBmRo0) oD 1831 BMUIGMIB 1835 @@eC@ee 1832 EGER «1936 MSS ee MILITARY POSTS a FUR TRADING POSTS A Ficure 1.—George Catlin’s picture-making travels in the West , 1830-1836. 880930—5é6——32 488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Black Hawk, the great Sauk war chief, his sons and leading warriors were imprisoned at nearby Jefferson Barracks. He gained permission to visit them and to paint their portraits. (See Black Hawk, pl. 3, fig. 1.) The year 1832 had been a bonanza year for Catlin. He had assem- bled a large and imposing series of paintings and sketches illustrating the physical appearance, costume, customs, and home country of some of the most picturesque tribes of the Great Plains. Catlin’s biog- rapher, Loyd Haberly (1948, p. 79 ff.), found that he was fully occu- pied during the suceeding year, 1833, putting finishing touches on his field paintings and readying them for public exhibition. Years later Catlin claimed he had traveled westward over the famous Oregon Trail to the Rocky Mountains in ’33. There is no proof whatever, in the major collections of Catlin’s paintings and drawings that have been preserved, of his having made such a trip. There are none of the striking natural landmarks of the Upper Platte Valley, no views of the Rocky Mountains, no portraits of mountain Indians such as Arapaho and Shoshoni. George Catlin was a showman. Had he seen the Rocky Mountains in the thirties he surely would have dis- played views of them prominently in his public exhibitions. In 1834 Catlin gained an opportunity to interpret the Indians of the Southern Plains much as he had the Upper Missouri tribes two years before. The Secretary of War granted him permission to accompany an expedition of Dragoons from Fort Gibson on Arkansas River to the country of the wild and little-known Comanche and Kiowa Indians. Prior to or following the Dragoon Expedition Catlin painted portraits of recently displaced Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw Indians in the neighborhood of Fort Gibson. They had been removed from lands east of the Mississippi to make room for expansion of white settlement in the Southeast. He also painted a Choctaw eagle dance (pl. 17, fig. 2) and lively views of the fast action in a Choctaw lacrosse game. Osage Indians also posed for their portraits near Fort Gibson. The Dragoon Expedition under Col. Henry Dodge left Fort Gibson late in June, traveled westward to the great village of the nomadic Comanche on Cache Creek east of the Wichita Mountains (present southwestern Oklahoma), and on to the Wichita (Catlin’s “Pawnee- Pict”) village of grass-covered lodges above the junction of Elk Creek and the North Fork of Red River. Although illness claimed the lives of several Dragoons, and Catlin also suffered from fever, the expedition was a successful venture. Peaceful relations were established with the warlike Comanche and Kiowa, which laid the groundwork for the first treaties between those tribes and the United States in 1835 and 1837. George Catlin returned with portraits of Comanche, Kiowa, Waco, and Wichita Indians. He also brought GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS - 489 back scenes in the great Comanche camp, several of which emphasized the remarkable skill of those Indians in handling horses, an ability which caused experienced cavalry officers on the western frontier to term the Comanche “the*finest horsemen in the world.” (See pl. 17, fig. 1.) Had Catlin been in geod health throughout this trip he doubt- less would have completed a larger and more varied series of scenes contrasting the customs of the nomadic Comanche and Kiowa with those of the semisedentary, horticultural Wichita. His 1834 paint- ings then might have rivaled in historical and ethnological importance his Upper Missouri series. Nevertheless, the 1834 expedition must be regarded as Catlin’s second most significant venture in western painting. It produced the first known pictorial interpretation of important Southern Plains tribes. It also furnished some of the earliest views of wildlife and scenery in the Arkansas River Valley. In 1835 Catlin shifted the scene of his travels and artistic endeavors to the forested country of the Upper Mississippi. That spring he ascended the Mississipp! to the Falls of St. Anthony where he painted Ojibwa portraits and scenes. On the way downstream he recorded landscapes, visited and painted Eastern Sioux near Fort Snelling, and the Sauk and Fox of Chief Keokuk’s village. Next summer (1836) Catlin approached the Mississippi by way of the Great Lakes—by steamer from Buffalo to Green Bay, Wis. Thence by canoe via river, lake, and portage he traveled to Fort Winnebago, paddled down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi, up that river to Saint Peter’s (Minnesota) River, and ascended that stream in search of the famed quarry where Indians cut the handsome, easily worked red stone from which many tribes of the Great Lakes and Plains fashioned their tobacco pipes. He found it in the rising country of present Pipestone County, Minnesota. Catlin painted a panoramic view of the quarry (pl. 19, fig. 2) and collected samples of the stone. Dr. Charles Thomas Jackson, of Boston, a leading min- eralogist of the time, examined the stone, pronounced it “a new mineral compound” and named it “catlinite” in honor of the man who first widely publicized the quarry site and the importance of this stone to Indians. On this 1836 field trip Catlin added portraits of Ojibwa, Winne- bago, Menominee, and Sauk and Fox Indians. He also extended his series of landscapes in the Upper Mississippi Valley. The map, figure 1, graphically summarizes Catlin’s travels in quest of pictures among the Indians and in the West in the years 1830-1836. This series of field trips provided the source materials for the great majority of the oil paintings in what later became known as Catlin’s Indian Gallery. Not shown on this map are Catlin’s earlier trips to western New York or his later (1837) journey from New York to 490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Charleston, S. C., to obtain portraits of Osceola (pl. 6) and those other Seminole and Yuchi Indian prisoners held at Fort Moultrie. INTERPRETING INDIANS TO THE PUBLIC George Catlin made a virtual second career of interpreting his art to the public. He began exhibiting his Indian paintings in Pitts- burgh in 1833 and thereafter showed them in other midwestern river towns. It was not until after he enlarged the collection through his field trips of 1834 to the Southern Plains and of 1835-36 to the Upper Mississippi that he was ready to present his Indians on canvas to the critical eyes of New Yorkers. Catlin’s Indian Gallery opened at Clinton Hall late in 1837. It was such a hit with sophisticated New Yorkers that the artist had to move his vast one-man show to Stuy- vesant Institute on Broadway. Later he exhibited it in Washington, Philadelphia, and Boston to large and appreciative crowds. At Faneuil Hall in Boston the English phrenologist George Combe saw Catlin’s Indian Gallery. It was one of the sights really worth remembering on his visit to this country. He said of it— The pictures, as works of art, are deficient in drawing, perspective, and finish ; but they convey a vivid impression of the objects, and impress the mind of the spectator with a conviction of their fidelity to nature which gives them an in- expressible charm. (Combe, 1841, vol. 1, p. 70.) Many other critics as well as the public succumbed to the charm of Catlin’s show. They were willing to overlook the artist’s technical limitations in view of his obvious sincerity and the tremendous inter- est of his subject matter. No one had brought the Wild West to civilization in pictorial form for everyone to see before. In the fall of 1839 Catlin packed his Indian Gallery and sailed for Europe. He opened in London’s Egyptian Hall. The published catalog of this exhibition of Catlin’s Indian Gallery listed 507 num- bered paintings, 310 of them portraits. In the same hall he exhibited a fine collection of Indian artifacts—costumes and ornaments, weapons, musical instrument, tools, and ceremonial objects, even a full-sized Crow Indian tipi with a cover of 25 buffalo skins. For nearly five years Catlin’s Indian Gallery was exhibited in England. Meanwhile Catlin the artist gained a reputation as an author. In 1841 his first and most popular book appeared, a 2-volume work entitled “Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Condi- tion of the North American Indians.” In it Catlin combined the tall tales of an adventure book with sound ethnological information. Reprinted many times, this has remained a classic description of the Indians and the West. It was illustrated by 312 plates of little line drawings (some less than 214’’ x 314’’, none larger than 5’’ x 7’’). The great majority of these pictures were simplifications of original GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 491 oil paintings exhibited in Catlin’s Indian Gallery and executed prior to 1840. In 1844 he published “Catlin’s North American Indian Portfolio,” a handsome collection of 25 large (18’’ x 1214’’) litho- graphic reproductions of-his most popular paintings. Although the crude linecuts in his first book failed to do Catlin’s work justice, the carefully drawn and colored lithographs in the Portfolio improved upon some of the originals. (Compare Catlin’s painting of the Sioux scalp dance with the colored lithograph of the same subject, pl. 14.) In the lithograph the figures are more realistic, the details more sharply defined, the action more intense. In the summer of 1845 Catlin moved his exhibition to Paris and exhibited there until the following spring. Even before that time Catlin began to employ live Indians to give dances and demonstrations in his exhibition hall, adding the attractions of sound and action to the static picture gallery and museum. Thus Catlin anticipated the appeal of the Wild West Show the year before Buffalo Bill was born. In 1848, after the fall of his French patron, King Louis Philippe, Catlin returned to London. “A Descriptive Catalogue of Catlin’s Indian Collection” (1848a) listed 607 paintings. This was 100 more than he had shown in London previously. Among them were 35 portraits of Iowa and Chippewa Indians who had performed for him in 1845-46. The other new pictures were primarily wildlife and hunting scenes developed from old field sketches and from memory of his western travels more than a decade earlier. But the new pic- tures were not enough to insure success for the exhibition. Catlin’s Indian Collection was no longer a novelty to the English public. Catlin ran heavily into debt. PRESERVATION OF CATLIN’S INDIAN COLLECTION Catlin’s impatient creditors were beginning to auction off his be- longings when a wealthy fellow American appeared in the person of Joseph Harrison. Mr. Harrison paid off Catlin’s indebtedness, took over the greater part of his collection as security and shipped it to his home town of Philadelphia. Years passed. George Catlin, the artist, after a vain effort to sell to the Government his Cartoon Collection, comprising revised replicas of his earlier works and paintings based upon later travels in South America and the Far West, died in Jersey City, N. J., on December 23, 1872. Joseph Harrison also passed away. Then one day in 1879 Thomas Donaldson, a lawyer from Idaho Territory who was inter- ested in Indian affairs, learned that the original Catlin collection was in Philadelphia in the possession of the Harrison estate. The collection was said to have been through two fires since its arrival in Philadelphia from Europe. It was also believed to be in a dilapidated 492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 condition. Spencer F. Baird, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and Mr. Donaldson were eager to see that as much of the collection as possible should be salvaged and preserved. Donaldson’s suggestion that the collection be made a part of the national collec- tion was received with favor by Mr. Harrison’s widow. On May 15, 1879, the George Catlin collection was given to the Nation by Mrs. Joseph Harrison of Philadelphia. Examination of the valuable ethnological specimens revealed that many of them were destroyed by the actions of fire, water, and insect pests. There is no record of paintings in the collections which may have been destroyed. But it is remarkable that by far the greater part of Catlin’s original collection of oil paintings was salvaged. No fewer than 80 percent of the 507 paintings listed in Catlin’s Indian Gallery on its London opening in 1840 are preserved in the Division of Ethnology of the U. S. National Museum. One-third (383) of the additional 100 paintings which he executed in Europe between 1840 and 1848 are also preserved there. CATLIN’S PAINTING METHODS George Catlin rarely mentioned his painting methods in his own writings. His pictures, however, reveal two distinct styles. One of these may be termed his studio-portrait style. Its outstanding ex- ample is his portrait of Osceola executed in 1838 (pl. 6). Osceola was then a Seminole War hero for whose portrait there was a popular de- mand. Catlin visited him in prison and slowly and realistically rendered Osceola’s physical appearance and the details of his costume. Osceola’s grandfather was a Scotchman and the Caucasian strain is apparent in the features and complexion of Catlin’s portrait. Few other half-length portraits by Catlin approach this one as finished works of art. Catlin’s second style we may term his impressionistic or field-sketch- ing style. He achieved it through a remarkably disciplined coordina- tion of eye and hand, quick observation, and rapid execution. If his subject was a person, Catlin tried to catch a likeness in a few deft strokes of his brush. If it was an Indian activity, he merely suggested the position and actions of the figures with a like economy of time and paint. If it was a landscape, he indicated the general character of the country without dwelling on the details. This bold simplification of man and nature is typical of the great majority of paintings in the Catlin Collection in the U. S. National Museum. Only by employ- ing a sort of pictorial shorthand could even the energetic Catlin have performed the amazing feats he accomplished on some of his field trips. GEORGE CATLIN—-EWERS 493 In the summer of 1832, for example, George Catlin spent exactly 86 days on the Upper Missouri from Fort Pierre northward (May 23 through August 16). During that period he traveled upriver to Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone by steamboat and back downstream by skiff. ‘This travel averaged 18 miles per day. In ad- dition he participated in buffalo hunts, watched prolonged and com- plicated ceremonials (including the 4-day Okipa of the Mandan), talked with officials and employees of the American Fur Co., and gathered material for a series of popular travel letters for the Com- mercial Advertiser which he later expanded into the greater portion of his 2-volume book of 1841. At the same time he created more than 135 pictures—some 66 Indian portraits, 36 scenes in Indian life, 25 landscapes and at least 8 hunting scenes. Only a man of bound- less energy, roused to a feverish pitch of creativity, could have per- formed all these tasks in so short a period. Holger Cahill, the art critic, who has examined the entire collection with me, expressed the opinion that Catlin may have painted some of these Upper Missouri pictures in a matter of minutes. Yet the series of paintings resulting from this 1832 expedition comprise the most important part of his oeuvre. In addition to his oils, Catlin apparently made rapid full-length pencil or pen-and-ink sketches of many of his costumed Indian sub- jects and sketchbook renderings of some of his scenes of Indian activ- ities. He described his method of preparing the most controversial of all his paintings, those illustrating the Okipa ceremony which he was permitted to observe among the Mandan that summer, as follows: I took my sketch-book with me, and have made many and faithful drawings of what we saw, and full notes of everything as translated to me by the inter- preter; and since the close of that horrid and frightful scene, which was a week ago or more, I have been closely ensconced in an earth-covered wigwam, with a fine sky-light over my head, with my palette and brushes, endeavouring faith- fully to put the whole of what we saw upon canvas. .. . I have made four paint- ings of these strange scenes, containing several hundred figures, representing the transactions of each day. (Catlin, 1841, vol. 1, p. 155.) Add to this at least 20 portraits of Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Indians and a score or more of landscapes and scenes in Indian vil- lages and we have the production of Catlin’s short stopover in the neighborhood of Fort Clark. Surely, there must have been days dur- ing this stay when Catlin created more than a half-dozen pictures. Recent cleaning of a number of paintings in this collection has revealed some of the tricks Catlin used to save time and shortcut his field studies. He commonly painted the backgrounds of his landscapes and scenes first. Then he drew his figures over the backgrounds. In some pictures the figures are so thinly painted that the backgrounds 494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 under them show through. Catlin quickly roughed in the figures in brown outline. If he had time he filled in the outlines. Catlin’s field portraits were started in this same technique of rapid outlining in brown. Sometimes he never bothered to develop any part of the painting but the head. (See pls. 2 and 7%.) At other times he added or refined details after his return to civilization. An article in the Pittsburgh Gazette of April 23, 1833, the spring following his busy summer on the Upper Missouri, refers to his practice of touching up his fieldwork in the studio: The total number (of paintings) which he commenced during his expedition is very large, most of them are yet in an unfinished state, he only having had sufficient leisure to secure correct likenesses of the various living subjects of his pencil and the general features of the scenery which he had selected, the backgrounds and details being reserved for the labours of a future time. Probably Catlin paid much more attention to his portraits in the studio—adding backgrounds and finishing touches—than to his scenes in Indian life. He was content to let some of his oil paintings of Indian activities remain as rough suggestions, little more refined than the crude pictographs drawn by Indians themselves. Years later (in the 1850’s) he redrew some of these subjects in greater detail in pencil retaining the basic composition but sharpening the individual figures. Compare Catlin’s painting of Sioux moving camp (1832) with his pencil rendering of the same subject 20 years later (pl. 13). UNUSUAL HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CATLIN’S WORKS As historical documents George Catlin’s paintings offer a broad panorama of the Wild West as it appeared a century and a quarter ago. Indians were then as independent as their aboriginal ancestors had been when they met the first white explorers. The Great Plains were still Indian country. The few white men who entered it were mostly traders and trappers. Cowboys, prospectors, land surveyors, and homesteaders were unknown there in the 1830’s. The buffalo was the Indians’ staff of life. The bitter Plains Indian Wars that followed settlers’ disturbances of native hunting grounds were yet far away. Indeed Catlin traveled almost alone through the country of the warlike Sioux before either Sitting Bull or Custer were born. Catlin journeyed up the Missouri 28 years after Lewis and Clark ascended that river on their trek to the Pacific. The country and its native cultures had changed little in the intervening years. Three of Catlin’s works are especially reminiscent of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. One is a portrait of the aged Hidatsa chief Black Moc- casin (pl. 4), who was a virile leader well known to Lewis and Clark. Another is a panoramic view of the double village of the Arikara (pl. 12, fig. 1), 4 miles above the mouth of Grand River. Lewis and Clark GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 495 visited this village in 1804. Although still occupied when Catlin painted it, this site was abandoned soon thereafter (Wedel, 1955, pp. 80-81). A third is Catlin’s distant view of the grave of Sergeant Floyd, sole fatality of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, atop a lonely hill beside the Missouri (No. 376). The Mandan Indians near whom Lewis and Clark wintered in 1804-5 had intrigued the explorers and the readers of their journals. In Catlin’s time they were still the most remarkable tribe on the Mis- souri. He painted their proud leaders in their beautifully decorated dress costumes, their villages, their traditional recreations and sacred ceremonies—something no member of the Lewis and Clark party had had the skill to do. (See pls. 8, 10, 12, 16.) Five years later an epidemic of smallpox decimated the Mandan. The remnant of that tribe found residence with other farming Indians on the Missouri but never regained prominence among the tribes of the region. Less spectacular but no less historically significant are Catlin’s paintings executed in the Southern Plains in 1834. Removal of South- eastern tribes to land west of the Mississippi was already underway and Catlin was the first artist to portray the Creek, Cherokee, and Choctaw Indian leaders in their strange new homeland. These pic- tures of gun-carrying, calico-clad civilized Indians contrast sharply with the wild Comanche and neighboring natives of the plains farther west—Indians who had yet to sign their first treaty with the United States. (Compare the portrait of Creek chief “Ben Perryman” with that of the Comanche warrior, Little Spaniard, in pl. 5.) CATLIN’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS Catlin was at his best as a painter of portraits. His early experi- ence and reputation as an artist were achieved as a painter of por- traits of white men and women. His bust or half-length portraits are the best of his Indian work. Catlin never was content to portray generalized or idealized Indian types. He was a realist who tried to produce recognizable likenesses of real people. He possessed an uncommon genius for seizing upon those features of a sitter’s face that defined its individuality. Catlin’s Indians are sympathetically presented. They have a proud bearing and an expression of dignity which should be familiar to anyone who has photographed Indians on western reservations. Catlin was less successful in his full-length portraits. He never quite mastered the human body. His attempts to solve problems of foreshortening sometimes led to the representation of huge hands and feet thrust forward as if projected in three-dimensional motion pictures. Some of his well-proportioned heads sit like peanuts upon gigantic bodies. 496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Indian portraits comprise more than half of the paintings in the George Catlin Collection in the U. S. National Museum. Some of these Indians were men famous in American history—such men as Black Hawk (pl. 3, fig. 1), The Open Door, brother of Tecumseh (pl. 3, fig. 2), and Osceola (pl. 6). Others played roles of some importance in regional or local history. Many were men of prom- inence in their tribes who have received little recognition in written history. They lived far beyond the frontiers of white settlement decades before their descendants gained fame fighting wars or mak- ing treaties with white men. Yet such men as the Mandan Four Bears (pl. 8, fig. 1; pl. 10, fig. 1), Bull’s Back Fat, Blood (pl. 20), The Light, Assiniboin (pl. 11, fig. 2), and Horse Chief, Pawnee (pl. 2, fig. 2) are remembered in the oral literature of their tribes as powerful leaders. Probably the most appreciative viewers of Catlin’s Indian por- traits have been members of the tribes whose early chiefs he depicted. Less than 40 years after Catlin painted Indians on the Upper Mis- souri, Dr. Washington Mathews showed the small line illustrations in Catlin’s 2-volume book to Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Indians near Fort Buford. Some of these people were children and grand- children of persons portrayed in Catlin’s pictures. Dr. Mathews was impressed by their ability to recognize and identify the portraits of their forebears. All those who remembered the old chief, Black Moccasin (pl. 4), pronounced that portrait “a wonderful likeness.” Rushing Eagle, son of Four Bears, the Mandan chief twice painted by Catlin in 1832, was still living. Old men of the tribe considered him “the image of his father.” Mathews pointed out the close simi- larity in features between Catlin’s profile of Four Bears and a pro- file photograph of Rushing Eagle (Mathews, 1888, entire; 1891, pp. 602-604). On plate 8 I have juxtaposed Catlin’s previously unpublished three-quarter view of Four Bears and a photograph of Rushing Eagle taken in 1874. The similarity between the two in this more difficult pose is very striking. Members of Indian delegations from western tribes to Washington have shown a lively interest in Catlin portraits of their tribal leaders of more than a century ago. These pictures serve to substantiate and complement their own oral traditions of great leaders in their grand- fathers’ or great-grandfathers’ generations. I have taken selected photographs of Catlin’s portraits into the field to show elderly Indians as an aid to obtaining biographical information and data on the history of Indian costume and crafts. In 1947, I was surprised to find hanging on the wall of Maggie No Fat’s log cabin on Pine Ridge Reservation a faded photographic print of one of Catlin’s oil portraits in the U. S. National Museum. GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 497 This aged Oglala woman explained that a delegation of Sioux Indians had brought it to her from Washington some years before. It was a portrait of her father, Shell Man, as a young man. She had care- fully made a porcupine-quilled buckskin frame for the photo and kept it where she could see it often because it reminded her very much of her father. My field photograph of Maggie No Fat hold- ing her father’s picture, a reproduction of Catlin’s painting of Shell Man, appears on plate 9. INDIAN COSTUMES AND ORNAMENTS John James Audubon, the famous artist-naturalist, saw Assiniboin Indians clad in dirty garments at Fort Union in the summer of 1848, and was moved to write: “When and where Mr. Catlin saw these Indi- ans as he represented them, dressed in magnificent attire, with all sorts of extravagant accoutrements is more than I can divine” (Audu- bon, 1897, vol. 2, p. 109). The answer is quite simple. Among the As- siniboin, as among other tribes of the west, Catlin painted prominent Indians attired in their finest clothes. Most of his subjects were chiefs and their wives and children. They were Indians of considerable wealth who owned the most elaborate suits, dresses, and ornaments to be found in their tribes. Students of the history of costume should keep these facts in mind when viewing Catlin’s portraits of Indians. Catlin doubtless had good reasons for painting the best families in their best clothes. It made the Indians feel honored to sit for him. It appealed to their pride and vanity. Had he painted these people in everyday dress they would have had much less interest for the average white viewer of Catlin’s paintings. Indians in their drab, undecorated daily garments would have appeared about as unattractive as birds of paradise in molting season. Catlin’s interest in the details of Indian costume always was second- ary to his keen desire to record his sitter’s facial features. In some por- traits Catlin ignored the details of his sitter’s costumes (see pl. 7). In others he called particular attention to some items while slighting the delineation of other details. A good example is his full-length portrait of Four Bears (pl. 10, fig. 1). When we compare the shirt depicted in this painting with the actual garment preserved in the collections of the U. S. National Museum (pl. 10, fig. 2) we see that Catlin exag- gerated both the length of the shirt and the diameter of the quilled rosette in the center of the chest. He did not attempt te indicate the exquisite pattern of finely woven quillwork appearing in the arm and shoulder bands. This was typical of Catlin’s manner of painting when he was hurried, as he certainly was at the Mandan villages in 1832. I do not believe he intended to mislead or deceive anyone. In fact he ex- 498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 hibited both the painting and the shirt in the same gallery for years. Anyone so minded could have made his own comparisons. Catlin’s renderings of ornaments are spotty. His reproductions of the geometric patterns painted on buffalo robes by Plains Indians are approximations, not exact copies of Indian paintings. This was true even of his drawings of actual specimens of painted robes in his own collection. Nevertheless, the details of some of the ornaments of costumes worn by Catlin’s sitters are rendered with remarkable accuracy. Dr. Waldo R. Wedel (1955, p. 152) noted that in Catlin’s painting of the wife of the Arikara head chief he depicted the exact size, shape, and colors of distinctive “wire-wound” trade beads such as have been found in recent excavations in the cemetery near the village in which that woman lived. The beads may be very nearly contemporary with Catlin’s painting. Catlin’s portrait tells us how the beads were worn in a necklace in al- ternating colors, blue and white. (See pl. 11, fig. 1, shorter bead strand.) Again, in his portrait of the Assiniboin delegate to Washington, painted in St. Louis in the fall of 1831, Catlin clearly depicted the col- ors and forms of small designs in porcupine quills on the shirt-sleeve band (pl. 11, fig. 2). Anelderly Assiniboin craftworker, in discussing traditionally old quillwork patterns among that tribe, drew for me this “three-row quillwork” design. Later I showed her this picture of Cat- lin’s which exactly illustrated the design. It would be dangerous to generalize regarding Catlin’s rendering of the details of Indian costume. As I have pointed out above, his treat- ment of costume details ranges all the way from omission, through gen- eralization and exaggeration, to very accurate rendering of minute units in their true colors. SCENES IN INDIAN LIFE When we consider Catlin’s scenes in Indian life it is well to remem- ber that Catlin the portraitist preceded Catlin the illustrator. His interest in painting Indian activities developed as his first-hand experi- ence among the Indians increased. He may have felt also that a con- siderable number of lively scenes in Indian life would be essential to relieve the monotony of a large series of portraits when he began to exhibit his Indian Gallery to the public. Catlin’s status among the Indians was that of an enthusiastic and sympathetic observer. His knowledge of Indian customs was limited to what he saw with his own eyes and what better-informed white traders or English-speaking Indian interpreters told him. He was no linguist. The names he recorded for the subjects of some of his portraits are incorrectly rendered or translated. For example, his GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 499 “Wi-jun-jon, the Pigeon’s Egg Head,” should be “Ah-jon-jon, The Light,” as I have given it in the caption to plate 11, figure 2. Most of the scenes in Indian life which Catlin actually witnessed were hurriedly painted. ~ Yet the action in many of them is good. (See the dances and ceremonies pls. 14, 16,17.) Catlin certainly did not understand everything he saw Indians do. But at times his sec- ondary action is excellent. In his pencil drawing of a Blackfoot medicine-man, dressed in a grizzly-bear skin, doctoring his patient (pl. 15, fig. 1), Catlin shows a number of Indian onlookers trying to hide their astonishment by placing their hands over their mouths. This was typical Indian behavior under the circumstances. It shows the acuteness of Catlin’s observation of the witnesses as well as the star performer in that dramatic action outside Fort Union in 1832. Cat- lin’s oil painting of this action pictured only the medicine-man (pl. 15, fig. 2). The more interesting and meaningful elaboration was drawn (though possibly not for the first time) in 1852. No series of his paintings was more severely criticized in Catlin’s own time than those portraying the Mandan Okipa ceremony which he witnessed in 1832. D. D. Mitchell, Superintendent of Indian Af- fairs, declared two decades later that these scenes “existed almost entirely in the fertile imagination of that gentleman [Catlin]” (Schoolcraft, 1851-1857, vol. 3, p. 254). Sure of his ground, Catlin countered by publishing an entire illustrated volume, “O-Kee-Pa, a Religious Ceremony and Other Customs of the Mandans,” in 1867. His written descriptions and pictures of this ceremony were upheld by the intelligent fur trader, James Kipp, in whose company the artist had witnessed the ceremony (Kipp, 1873). Catlin’s painting of the most dramatic episode in that ceremony, the self-torture, appears as plate 16. At times, however, in his haste to record on canvas what he saw, Catlin resorted to shortcuts which left him open to criticism. Audu- bon, on seeing the Mandan earth lodges near Fort Clark in 1843, commented: “The Mandan huts are very far from looking poetical, although Mr. Catlin has tried to render them so by placing them in regular rows, and all the same size and form, which is by no means the case. But different travellers have different eyes.” (Audubon, 1897, vol. 2, p. 10.) The outlines of Catlin’s Mandan and Arikara earth lodges (pl. 12, fig. 1) are much more half-globular than those structures actually were. Likewise Catlin employed an artistic convention of simplified triangles, all about the same size, to denote the tipi villages of nomadic tribes. He failed to indicate the considerable range in the size of tipis in a camp, owing in large part to variations in family numbers and wealth. 500 §$ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 WILDLIFE AND HUNTING SCENES Catlin made the buffalo hunt a favorite subject for his brush. On his trip up the Missouri in 1832 he experienced the excitement of running buffalo on horseback. More than a score of paintings in his original Indian Gallery interpreted various aspects of hunting those big, shaggy beasts. Catlin continued to be fascinated by this subject after he went to Europe. Indeed, more than a quarter of the 100 paintings he created from field sketches or from memory while in Europe dealt with buffalo hunting on the Great Plains from Texas to Canada. The artist painted himself in several of them. If Catlin had painted no other scenes than buffalo hunts he might have gained a measure of fame. He was the first artist to picture this American big-game hunting on horseback for the benefit of a host of readers and viewers. It was natural that many easterners and Euro- peans came to visualize buffalo hunting in Catlin’s terms. Less ad- venturous illustrators found inspiration in Catlin’s pictures. Even F. O. C. Darley, one of America’s most competent draughtsmen, pre- pared an engraving entitled “Hunting Buffalo” for Graham’s Maga- zine in 1844, which was a thinly disguised copy of one of Catlin’s paintings (Baur, 1948, pp. 17-20). Visitors to the Great Plains in later years were prepared to view the buffalo as Catlin had revealed that animal to them. Edward Harris, the nature enthusiast who accompanied Audubon to the Upper Missouri in 1848, observed that a buffalo bull wounded in a hunt in which he participated “was brought to a stand in exactly the position represented in Catlin’s painting of the wounded bull” (Harris, 1951, p- 139). Perhaps it was his enthusiasm for buffalo-hunting scenes that led Catlin to attempt pictures of Indians chasing buffalo on snowshoes in the dead of winter even though he had never seen the Great Plains when there was snow on the ground. The imaginative quality of such scenes reveals itself in his portrayal of winter hunters lightly garbed in summer war dress. Both Kurz (1937, p. 130) and Mathews (1891, p. 602) noted this strange error in Catlin’s work. Catlin’s Indian Gallery also included other wildlife scenes—wild horses at play, Indians hunting horses, antelope, and grizzly bears on the plains, and deer in the woodlands. The paintings which he added to his collection while in Europe included a good many hunting and fishing scenes, some idyllic (possibly imaginary) views of elk and buffalo grazing, and several life-sized “portraits of Grizzly Bears.” LANDSCAPES Catlin’s landscapes are historically significant as interpretations of the appearance of the Great Plains and the Upper Mississippi Valley GEORGE CATLIN—-EWERS 501 before the advance of white settlement into those regions. Hundreds of thousands of easterners and western Europeans first saw the West in Catlin’s paintings or book illustrations. Modern art critics have taken a particular interest in Catlin’s landscapes. They have approved their simplicity of form and color. Yet they convey a clear impression of the bigness of the West—the breadth of the plains, the distance to the horizon, the vastness of the sky (see pl. 19, fig. 1). Earlier critics who knew the country Catlin portrayed have praised his landscapes in general. Joseph N. Nicollet, government explorer and mapmaker, who ascended the Missouri to Fort Pierre in 1839 and who knew the Upper Mississippi well, wrote: “The spirited pencil of Mr. Catlin has faithfully represented the pictorial features of this country in some of the sketches contained in the first volume of his travels” (Nicollet, 1843, p. 39). Dr. Washington Mathews, who traveled up and down the Missouri several times in the 1860's and early ’70s, praised Catlin’s ability to catch the distinctive char- acteristics of each locality, be it eroded sandstone bluffs in the South Dakota Badlands or the conical hills farther upriver with “marvelous quickness and insight” (Mathews, 1891, p. 599). When they began to compare some of Catlin’s landscapes with ' specific topographical features in that locality, critics found that he did take some liberties with what he saw. Audubon, who seemed to enjoy calling attention to Catlin’s lapses, wrote at the mouth of Knife River, June 10, 1843: “We saw many very curious cliffs, but not one answering the drawings engraved for Catlin’s work” (Audu- bon, 1897, vol. 2, p. 24). Again, while at Fort Union near the mouth of the Yellowstone River, he commented: “Sprague walked to the hills about two miles off, but could not see any portion of the Yellow- stone River, which Mr. Catlin has given in his view, as if he had been in a balloon some thousands of feet over the earth” (idem, p. 96). This is the view reproduced in plate 19, figure 1. Recently, Harvey B. Reynolds, Superintendent, Pipestone National Monument, informed me that Catlin’s historic panorama of the pipe- stone quarry (pl. 19, fig. 2) exaggerates the height of the quartzite ledge and moves the boulders known as “Three Maidens” far to the left of their actual location to get these picturesque landmarks into his scene. It should be clear, then, that Catlin did exercise his artistic license when painting landscapes. While his landscapes show the general character of the country they are not all precise pictorial documents. CATLIN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES George Catlin was not the first artist to paint western Indians from life. Delegations from some tribes beyond the Mississippi were 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 escorted to Washington to meet their Great White Father as early as the first decade of the nineteenth century. In 1806 the French artist St. Memin employed a mechanical device called a physionotrace to outline exactly the striking profiles of a Mandan chief and several Osage Indian visitors to the Nation’s Capital. In 1821 Charles Bird King began to paint for the Government’s own collection portraits of Indian leaders brought to Washington from tribes of the Great Lakes, the Southeast, and the central Great Plains. Yet these stay- at-home artists knew their red-skinned sitters only as picturesquely costumed, befuddled strangers in the complex civilization of the alien white man. They had little or no knowledge of the cultural back- grounds of these Indians or the country they called home. Other artists had traveled and painted in the Great Plains before Catlin did. Samuel Seymour, official artist of Major Long’s Expedi- tions to the Rocky Mountains in 1819-20 and to the Upper Mississippi in 1823, is said to have executed more than 150 landscapes in addition to a number of Indian portraits and some scenes in Indian life. Prince Paul of Wiirtemberg, a skilled draughtsman, traveled up the Missouri as a guest of the American Fur Co. in 1823. Peter Rindisbacher, a young Swiss settler on the Red River in Canada, painted winter and summer buffalo hunts and camp scenes among the Cree and Assiniboin tribes prior to 1826. But by and large these predecessors of Catlin had had little influence on the popular mind. They had written no popular illustrated books, organized no great traveling exhibitions to take their interpretations of the West to the people. Their message was muted or restricted to the few. When George Catlin went west in 1830 the average easterner and the interested European had only a vague and confused impression of the country beyond the Mississippi and the people who lived there. In- dians appeared in the popular art of the time as lovely dark-skinned maidens or tall handsome hunters beside some cool forest stream. They were the romantic creations of sentimental landscape painters, as un- real as James Fenimore Cooper’s poetic redmen in Leatherstocking Tales. On the other hand, in the widely read horror stories of the period—the Indian captivities—Indians were presented as blood- thirsty savages who enjoyed torturing helpless prisoners. One ex- treme view of the Indian was as false as was the other. George Catlin, master showman as well as artist, certainly was the first artist to win a great mass audience for his interpretation of the West. As a pioneer on-the-spot reporter Catlin broke the trail for a number of other artists who came to recognize that if they would truly picture the West and its people they must go there and see them with their own eyes. Among the best known of these artists in the pre- camera, pre-Civil War period were John James Audubon, Albert Bier- GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 503 stadt, Seth Eastman, Paul Kane, Baldwin Mollhausen, John Mix Stan- ley, and Charles Wimar. Catlin’s pioneer work bore the brunt of the criticism of later artists. It set the standard they hoped to better. His, too, was the model for many eastern artists content to profit from the popular interest in the West without bothering to learn about it firsthand. All or very nearly all these later artists were familiar with Catlin’s work, either in the original oils or in the little linecuts of his 1841 book. Audubon probably was not the only artist to carry a well- worn copy of Catlin’s “Letters and Notes” into the field. Catlin’s paintings most frequently are compared with the works of Carl Bodmer, a 23-year-old Swiss artist who accompanied the noted German scientist, Maximilian, Prince zu Wied, to the upper Missouri in 1883-34. This comparison is an obvious one because Catlin and Bodmer saw much of the same country and met the same Indian tribes within a period of one year. In this comparison Catlin’s impressionistic field sketches commonly suffer at the hands of Bodmer’s painstaking studies. Yet, as an ad- mirer of the accomplishments of both artists, I should like to point out their very different backgrounds and the fact that even though they worked in the same region they did so under quite different condi- tions. George Catlin was self-taught. He developed a definite style, but it lacked the polish academic training might have given it. Catlin traveled on his own as a free-lance artist-writer. He had only 86 days on the Upper Missouri. Time was precious. He had to work very fast or miss a great deal. Carl Bodmer, on the other hand, was academically trained in the best European tradition of fine draughtsmanship. His sole responsi- bility on the Upper Missouri was that of preparing field studies to il- lustrate the scientific writings of his employer, Prince Maximilian. They had to be exact to the finest detail. Indian costumes, ornaments, and accessories had to be so rendered as to suggest the qualities of ma- terials from which they were made as well as their colors, sizes, and shapes. The Prince and Bodmer spent 11 months on the Missouri above Fort Pierre (May 30, 1833, to April 29, 1834). Bodmer worked slowly and methodically. His artistic production of 11 months (judg- ing from the number of his known Upper Missouri field drawings in pencil and watercolor preserved in the collections of the estate of Prince Maximilian) little outnumbered Catlin’s output of approxi- mately 12 weeks. Maximilian’s journal tells of the infinite care taken by himself and Bodmer in selecting subjects and the time devoted by Bodmer to some of his drawings. Bodmer worked several days on a watercolor of an elaborately costumed dancer. Several more days were given to sketching the interior of a Mandan earth lodge, and another series of days to recording a view of the Rocky Mountains from 870930—56——88 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 the heights above Fort McKenzie. Restless Catlin probably could not have worked so deliberately even if he had had the time. Perhaps, though, had Catlin known that an artist of Bodmer’s tech- nical skill and infinite patience was to follow him up the Missouri in the very next year he might have painted fewer pictures in greater and more precise detail. Bodmer, however, was well acquainted with Cat- lin’s strengths and weaknesses as an artist as well as his coverage of Upper Missouri subject matter. Maximilian’s account of his party’s sojourn in St. Louis before traveling upriver tells of their visit to the country home of Maj. Benjamin O’Fallon, Indian Agent and friend of Catlin : “We found at his house an interesting collection of Indian arti- cles, and a great number of Indian scenes by Catlin, a painter from New York, who had traveled in 1831 [sic] to Fort Union” (Maximilian, 1843, p. 111). Possibly it was owing to Maximilian’s and Bodmer’s prior knowl- edge of Catlin’s work that there were so few duplications in the subject matter of Catlin’s and Bodmer’s Upper Missouri pictures. Probably fewer than a dozen Indians posed for both artists. Comparison of the portraits of Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat, head chief of the Blood Indians, by Catlin in 1832 (pl. 20, fig. 1) and Bodmer in 1833 (the lithograph here reproduced, pl. 20, fig. 2, is a very good copy of the origina] water- color which I have seen) illustrates the different styles of the two artists. Nevertheless, the modern critic cannot say which is the better likeness of that great chief. They look very much like two views of the same face. From the scientific viewpoint Catlin’s and Bodmer’s Upper Mis- sourl pictures complement one another very nicely. Bodmer spent a month at Fort McKenzie, near the mouth of the Marias River (in present Montana), farther upriver than Catlin had traveled. He sketched scenes in the great summer encampments of the Black- foot tribes and a large series of Piegan, Blood, and North Blackfoot portraits. Catlin met and painted a few Blackfoot Indians at Fort Union far from their home camps. On the other hand, he created many more Crow and Sioux portraits and scenes in Sioux life than did Bodmer. Although Catlin never saw the country west of Fort Union portrayed in a number of Bodmer’s landscapes, the former painted many views on the Missouri downstream from Fort Union which Bodmer did not attempt. Bodmer wintered at Fort Clark and pictured winter life and ceremonies of the nearby Mandan and Hidatsa. Catlin depicted the important midsummer Okipa among the Mandan and self-torture in the Sioux sun dance, neither of which Bodmer witnessed. Together, the artistic endeavors of George Cat- lin and Carl Bodmer in 1832-34 on the Upper Missouri are of unique ethnological importance. They comprise the largest, most colorful, GEORGE CATLIN—-EWERS 505 and most comprehensive series of portraits and scenes executed from life in the country of any group of culturally related North Amer- ican Indian tribes in the days before the perfection of photography. Undoubtedly these pictures have been very influential in implanting the stereotype of the Plains Indian as the American Indian par excellence in the minds of millions of Americans and Europeans. CATLIN’S PAINTINGS AS ART, HISTORY, AND SCIENCE George Catlin has been a controversial figure in American art for generations. His paintings have been enthusiastically praised and disparagingly condemned. Some art critics have tagged him a romantic, others a realist, and still others an American primitive. Catlin certainly was not a member of any traditional school of art. He was self-taught and there were both strong and weak points in that “teaching.” Initially and primarily Catlin was a portraitist. At his best, in his “studio” portraits, Catlin deserves to rank among the better portrait painters of his time. There can be no question of his ability to create a realistic likeness of his sitter. Catlin’s field- sketching style, however, was impressionistic. It was developed to meet the needs of his working conditions—a bold, rapid technique for pictorial reporting. What his field pictures lacked in technical skill they may have gained in freshness and directness. In his haste to make his field record as complete as his limited time permitted Catlin could not wait to fully exploit the artistic possibilities of each subject. To speed his work he adopted some shortcutting con- ventions—his own system of pictorial shorthand. Undoubtedly Cat- lin’s reputation as an artist would have fared better had he not tried to paint so many pictures and to preserve them all—good, bad, and indifferent. Nevertheless, the great number and variety of Catlin’s western paintings give his work a comprehensiveness that is important to the historian and ethnologist. Catlin himself expressed the hope that visitors to his exhibitions would “find enough of historical interest excited by faithful resemblance to the physiognomy and customs of these people, to compensate for what may be deficient in them as works of art” (Catlin, 1871). Probably the great majority of men, women, and children who have enjoyed Catlin’s pictures have preferred to look at them as historic documents or scientific illus- trations rather than as works of art. Catlin painted the largest collection of early pictures of the west- ern wilds and their Indian inhabitants. How reliable are these pictures geographically and ethnologically? The only proper answer is that each painting must be appraised on its own merits. When we begin to do that we find that the scientific significance of Catlin’s 506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 paintings varies as does their artistic quality. One can neither praise nor condemn them all in the same words. Some paintings by Catlin do contain questionable or erroneous elements. In some other paint- ings he exaggerated the truth. But we know, too, that in still other pictures Catlin was remarkably accurate even to minor details. And finally there are paintings by Catlin that no one now living can appraise precisely because they are the only remaining records of their respective subjects. These pictures may be uniquely valuable as contributions to knowledge. Scholars, hobbyists, in fact anyone, adult or child, who enjoys learning about the old West should be grateful to George Catlin for his vision and accomplishment in pre- serving a pictorial record of a picturesque era in western history that is forever gone. THE GEORGE CATLIN COLLECTION OF PAINTINGS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM The collection of original paintings by George Catlin in the U. S. National Museum comprises 445 items, including the majority of the original oil paintings in Catlin’s Indian Gallery exhibited by him in the United States and in Europe in the years 1833-1852. By actual count 422 of the 507 painting numbers listed in Catlin’s exhibi- tion catalog of 1840 are in this collection.1 In addition the collection includes 33 of the 100 paintings which Catlin executed and added to his exhibition between 1840 and 1848. When Thomas Donaldson prepared “The George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U. S. National Museum” published in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1885 he based his studies upon the entries in Catlin’s exhibition catalogs rather than upon a precise check of paintings in the Catlin collection received by the U.S. National Museum. In consequence, the Donaldson catalog lists some 85 numbered items that refer to paintings in the original Catlin Gallery but that are not and never were in the collections of the National Museum. The Donaldson catalog has long been out of print. The checklist that follows has been compiled from the catalog records of the museum. To facilitate use of this checklist by students it has been organized primarily by natural and cultural areas (i. e., Great Plains, Wood- lands, Far Northwest) and secondarily by tribes, alphabetically, within each primary area. The reader interested in determining what paintings in the collection refer to the Mandan Indians, for example, will find all the Mandan portraits and scenes listed under that tribal heading in the Great Plains major division. Under each tribe is given a brief statement of its location at the time George Catlin visited it and of the present location of sizable concentrations of descendants of that tribe. Each painting is designated by a short title rather than by the lengthy one Catlin may have given it in his exhibition catalogs. The exhibition catalog number of each painting which was exhibited in Catlin’s Indian Gallery is given and the U. S. National Museum catalog number of each painting is listed. *Catlin gave more than one number to portraits which included likenesses of two or more individuals. Hence painting numbers in his exhibition catalogs exceed the actual number of paintings. 507 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Persons wishing to order photographs of paintings in this collec- tion will find Catlin’s 2-volume work (Catlin, 1841) a helpful refer- ence for identifying many subjects. The majority of the subjects in this collection were reproduced as line illustrations in that publica- tion. Asa general rule, however, the large oil portraits (28’’ x 23’’), the landscapes, and many of the scenes in Indian life are more at- tractively rendered than are the same subjects in the little book illustrations. ‘Those subjects not reproduced in Catlin’s book are preceded by an asterisk in this list. Many of them never have been published. INDIAN TRIBES OF THE GREAT PLAINS Arikara 1832 location: On Missouri River north of mouth of Grand River, present South Dakota. Now on Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota. Catlin U.S.N.M., number number Bloody Hand, chief of the Arikara_._.--.---------- 123 386123 The Twin, wife of Bloody Hand_--_._-.----------- 124 386124 Sweet-scented Grass, 12-year-old daughter of Bloody LE E:S Yo WRN aeRO oh SEUND | Sreley even ee er aes a aeeee mee are 125 386125 Arikara village of earth-covered lodges, 1,600 miles ADOVEL St. MOUS ™ ere a ce es ee seo seed Sah 386 386371 Assiniboin 1832 location: North of Missouri River in present North Dakota and Montana and adjacent areas of Canada. Now on Fort Beiknap and Fort Peck Reservations, Montana, and in Canada on Battleford, Edmonton, Assiniboin, Moose Mountain, and Stoney Reserves. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Pigeon’s Egg Head (The Light), distinguished young WATTIOr! JHCMIUT LeU e De er OP a Pe 179 386179 Pigeon’s Egg Head (The Light) going to and return- ing from Washington (1831-32) ._.-------------- 474 386454 Fire Bug That Creeps, wife of above.._------------- 180 386180 ARSIDI DOIN WOMSM ANG CHIC eine cee ee meee eee 181 386181 Pipe’ Dance; Assiniboin it. )U0 1 Ske, ASE Ae 453 386436 *Assiniboin Indians running buffalo on snowshoes- - - - 558 386480 Blackfoot 1832 location: Present north-central Montana and southern Alberta, Canada. Now on Blackfeet.Reservation, Montana, and in Alberta, Canada, on Blackfeet, Blood, and Piegan Reserves. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat, head chief, Blood tribe--~--_- 149 386149 Crystal Stone, wife of above. ....-..--2e2u2eee he 25 150 386150 Grandson of Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat..__-.--------- 159 386159 GEORGE CATLIN-—-EWERS 509 Catlin U.S.N.M. Blackfoot—Continued number number Biita1O/S\ CDi eae Ue A ce aa 151 386151 Eagle’s Ribs, a Piegan.chief (full-length) -.--------- 152 386152 *Eagle’s Ribs, a Piegan chief (bust only)__-_.-------- 160 386160 Sl rone OTM ge Wil One ee er eel ee ce eee 153 386153 Woman: Who strikesaivianye 222k he ele 155 386155 ALB evap AS} (loll co ita), V0) uf: tS pce pa a a A TR 157 386157 White Buffalo, an aged medicine man_____._-__-_.- 158 386158 Medicine man, performing his mysteries over a dying bea 2) 01 ea ne es ee eae Bay WN a BN EA MW AU A I 161 386161 Caddo 1834 location: Northern Texas. Now in southwestern Oklahoma near Anadarko. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number *Caddo Indians chasing buffalo, Cross Timbers, Tex-- 589 386492 Cheyenne 1832 location: In Platte River valley, present eastern Wyoming and Colorado. Now on Cheyenne Reservation, Montana, and Cheyenne and Arapaho Reservation, Oklahoma.) Catin U.S.N.M. number number Wolf on the Hill (High Wolf), tribal chief..___.__-- 143 386143 She Who Bathes Her Knees, wife of above..__.___-_- 144 386144 Comanche 1834 location: In present northwestern Texas and western Oklahoma. Now in southwestern Oklahoma near Lawton. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Bow and Quiver, first chief of the tribe._.__._____-- 46 386046 Mountain of Rocks, second chief of the tribe____.___- 47 386047 Carries a Wolf, a distinguished brave______.._-.--- 48 386048 chiainofethebullsmNecksrarchiete ss seus eran 49 386049 Wolfie daw nWetel irene aigc inl e femmes aien eles Ranney ate aetna 50 386050 HittlerSpaniand saiwancio view sek aaaye: usin ae sent 51 386051 See B Ca Viel.y a) WATTIOR ones kane pasa) a2 ua pe 52 386052 Pwo Comanche ping tic Sieh ii a) 2 chek, iad ais 53--54 386053-4 Comanche village. Women dressing robes and drying pO Pe AUIS a WIR TEN SCN AN LNT A A Oe a 346 386338 Comanche warriors, with white flag, receive Dragoons Tn PSS Ae oes Se ie ee IN eae ne ala Lia a ee 353 386345 *Comanche war party, chief discovering enemy and ligping hisimen: at: SUNTISeL A ok ek 459 386442 Comanche moving camp, dog fight en route______-- 466 386447 *Comanche warrior lancing an Osage at full speed__--- 471 386451 *Comanche giving the arrows to the Medicine Rock to PIN IAWOeESS IMG WAT. Ue Nea ee op ela 472 386452 Comanche feats of horsemanship—sham battle-___- 487 386463 Comanche meeting the Dragoons___._..._.-__----- 488 386464 “Comanche skin lodge (tipi) ss core te ie ol los Coons 493 386467 510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Catlin U.S.N.M. Comanche—Continued number number *Comanche mounted war party 222.22 4.28) Peele 496 386470 Breaking down the wild horse..........-----.----- 501 386473 *Comanche chasing buffalo with bows and lances_-_-__- 564 386483 *Mounted war party scouring a thicket____-_-____-- 586 386491 *War party on the march, fully equipped.-_._..-_--- 596 386496 *Comanche (or Kiowa) Indians dressing skins, Red RAV OR £4 SEAS ChoctawsawOman... o-oo aoe Boe ee eee 297 386297 *Drinks the Juice of the Stone..._..__.--.---_----- 298 386298 Drinks the Juice of the Stone, in ball-player’s dress-_- 299 386299 Ball-piay dance... 22 225.42. hs ee oe 427 386410 Ball play of the Choctaw—ball up__..-.-.--------- 428 386411 *Variant of above, but with tipis in background_---_-- oe 386412 Ball play of the Choctaw—ball down_-.--.-------- 429 386413 Eagle Dance of the Choctaw.......-.-.-.-.------- 449 386449 GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 519 Creek 1834 location: In process of removal from Georgia and Alabama to present Oklahoma. Now primarily in the area of the old Creek Nation in Oklahoma. - Catlin U.S.N.M. ye az number number Great King, called Ben Perryman, a chief__--_----- 288 386288 Sam Perryman, brother of above_--._.....--.----- 289 386289 *Wat-al-le-20 ai Dl avescn2-— o-oo na ose ceca 290 386290 *Hose-put-o-k4w-gee, a brave__._......------------ 291 386291 *Tchow-ee-ptt-o-kaw, a woman-_--_--_--------------- 292 386292 *Tel-maz-ha=2zay @iWAartiOn- =. — 22 sea eae eee 293 386293 Delaware 1831 location: Remnant living on western borders of Missouri. Great majority of remaining Delaware are now living in Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M, number number *Bod-a-sinsbhe) chief 23225. ss) te Secs fo ae 274 386274 Rhe Answerssecond, ¢hief==--2_ 2222-2522 So oee 275 386275 Non-on-d4-gony a chief- 25522 ee a 276 386276 Iroquois 1830 location: Primarily on reservations in New York and Ontario, Canada. Now located in same areas. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number INGI-LO-WayraiChiGla sere oe eee te ee ee 196 386196 *Chée-ah-k4-tchée, wife of above._-.--...----------- 197 386197 Kaskaskia 1831 location: Tribal remnant near Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. ‘This was once the leading tribe of the Illinois Confederacy. Survivors primarily in Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number hittle- Chietwarehioboes 22 coe eee ae See escola 246 386246 Wah-pe-séh-see, mother of above__-.-.------------- 247 386247 Kickapoo 1831 location: Part of tribe removed from Illinois to west bank of Missouri River near Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. Now on Kickapoo Reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number The Foremost Man, chief of tribe..........-------- 240 386240 Cock Turkey, repeating his prayer.....------------ 241 386241 =nlk’s Horna subchief-2.-.s 4. soe Ss Bee 242 386242 ePigobesrweee: 222 sp ssee ewe sc2esl tt DT Sk ayo 243 386243 *A’h-tee-wdt-o-mee, @ WOMan_-__.-_._..__----------- 244 386244 *Shee-nsh=wees. --- sor ea SSO, BE See) Pe 245 386245 370930—56——34 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Menominee 1835 location: On the Fox River and western shore of Green Bay, Wisconsin. Now on Menominee Reservation, Wisconsin. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Grizzly Bear, .chiekin- a2) Ses. Shs ee Be ee 218 386218 Wounded Bear’s Shoulder, wife of above___._-___-_- 219 386219 Great Cloud, son of Grizzly Bear___......-_--_---- 220 386220 SLittle Whale; a, braves s:-: => Si se2e55 oe 221 386221 +The South,,a:notedswarriors----2s2 =e 2 222 386222 *Mash-kee-wet, a great dandy__-.----.------------- 223 386223 *Pash-shee-nau-shaw, a walrior.._..----------------- 224 386224 Great Chieti see Sees Get ne aa ee eee 225 386225 *One Sitting in the Clouds, a boy..-_-_.._---------- 226 386226 *Earth Standing, an old warrior____.........----.--- 227 386227 *Big Wave, old and distinguished chief__.__......._-- 228 386228 *Small) Whoop. a warrior). -.-2- ==. 2-222. 2225-242 229 386229 *Ah-yaw-ne-tah-car-ron, a warrior.__.._-.---------- 230 386230 ‘ThexO wisantolatichietiec» ist rw gio een alpine 232 386232 *Wahschees:\a braves see ee ei SN 233 386233 *Portrait of two unnamed men___.--_.------------- 235-6 386235-6 Mohegan (Stockbridge) 1830 location: At New Stockbridge and Brotherton in western New York, already removed from farther east. Now on reservation on east side of Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Both Sides of the River, tribal chief__......_..---_- 272 386272 John W. Quinney (The Dish), missionary preacher-_- 273 386273 Ojibwa (Chippewa) 1835 location: East of Mississippi River in woodlands of present Minnesota, Wisconsin, and adjacent areas of Canada. Now primarily on reservations in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and southern Canada. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number ‘Meeting ‘Birds ta brave:-s- sess eae eco e cee en 184 386184 *Tries the Ground with His Poot-s--2. 2) s-seaceeoae 185 386185 Jt-ah-kfs-gaw, woman with child in cradle____--__- 186 386186 Sits: Hverywhere;asbravel beseess 2si_ 22 seen 187 386187 The Ottaway, a. warriors. Pen serede bus at dealavs 188 386188 VELGR VV HO"FRGNOCS. sec cece mee aoe nae ome ee 192 386192 her CrowneaGdandy 2 eect ee acces Coe ae ea eee 193 386193 “Male @aribou, a brave. ..--.-..-.--ssese3> Seite! 194 386194 *Strong Wind (painted in Europe)_-.-..------------ 513 386311 *The Hail Storm (painted in Europe) -_....--------- 532 386317 *Tempest Bird (painted in Europe)_.--------------- 535 386318 *Bird of Thunder (painted in Europe)_--_----------- 536 386319 *Pelican, a boy of 10 years (painted in Europe) ------ 538 386320 GEORGE CATLIN—EWERS 5A Catlin U.S.N.M. Ojibwa (Chippewa)—Continued number number Canoe race near Sault Ste. Marie___..__.____-______ 434 386418 Snowshoe dance at first snowfall_._..___._.__._._.--___-- 451 386434 “Braves Dancer ues ee er as Dee oe es eee 452 386435 *Four dancers (probably. Ojibwa, painted in Europe) -- 386439 Making portage around Falls of St. Anthony with barkicangestas = ssc eee are meee eee eee eee 465 386446 *Spearing salmon by torchlight__..........--------- 575 386486 Oneida 1830 location: In New York and Ontario, Canada. Now primarily on Oneida Reservation, Wisconsin, and Oneida Reservation, New York. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Bread: the chief. .ut8 13. act. aoe ote 270 386270 Ottawa 1830 location: Upper Canada and Michigan. Now in Michigan, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and vicinity of Lake Huron, Canada. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number *RighSailtey chieises sat a ee 198 386198 Peoria 1831 location: Remnant of tribe of the Illinois Confederacy removed to vicinity of Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. Now on reservation in northeastern Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number nunrber MantWihomiracks>avchiefss 2222) sere sae eas 251 386251 INotEnglish> a\dandy-222==-5- Sees oe Bees eee 253 386253 Piankashaw 1831 location: Remnant of tribe from Indiana and Illinois removed to vicinity of Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. Now consolidated with Peoria in Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M., number number ix, withtthe! Hootwa ibraver.. os. oe ee eee eee 254 386254 heftiland tawarriorleses 200 = see oe es eee eS 255 386255 Potawatomi 1831 location: Tribe in process of removal from Michigan, portion resettled near Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. Now on reserva- tions in Wisconsin, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number ihe Sauk: in; act/of praying==----------.---- === 237 386237 Bear Traveling at Night; a: chief2.----------2 5-5. 238 386238 522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Sauk and Fox (Sac and Fox) 1834 location: On Upper Mississippi and Des Moines Rivers in present Iowa. Now on Sac and Fox Reservations in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Towa. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Keokuk (The Watchful Fox), chief of Sauk tribe_-__- 1 386001 *Keokuk onshorseback 3). 22.236 coe cee aa eee ee eee 386000 Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Black Hawk, prominent Sauk chief___------------- 2 386002 Whirling Thunder, eldest son of Black Hawk__-._-_- 3 386003 *Roaring Thunder, youngest son of Black Hawk-_---- 4 386004 Wife of Keokule .2.22-s2ssss este sesee sobre ss ses. 5 386005 Deer’s Hair, favorite son of Keokuk____-____-_---- 6 386006 White Cloud (called The Prophet), adviser to Black Hawke. 225 Sane Soe Sie gee ee aati 7 386007 *Soup, adviser to"Black Hawk. 222222225222 2s255-5- 8 386008 The Whale, one of Keokuk’s principal braves-_------ 9 386009 The Buck’s Wife, wife of The Whale___.-__.-__---- 10 386010 Little Stabbing Chief, venerable old Sauk chief_-_--- 11 386011 *The Ioway, one of Black Hawk’s principal warriors-- 12 386012 *The Swimmer, one of Black Hawk’s warriors-_------ 13 386013 *Little Stabbing Chief the Younger, one of Black Hawk s( braves] ase se mete em Cee ee 15 386015 +Bearis Wrack Sauk Sues Qh je a icise 3a pee es Saye 16 386016 *The Fire, a Fox medicine man__.___..-._--.------ 17 386017 Sturgeon’s Head, a Fox warrior. .-=---5-- sta) 18 386018 *Three Fox Indians (names not given) .-.__---_----- 19-21 386019-21 Begging Dance; pauk and Pox2=. 2c 2 222 oes soe seF 439 386423 Dance torthe berdash= 22s = 442 386425 Dance to the medicine bag of the brave____.------- 444 386427 Discovery, Dance as. 25. 595 So oa ee ee 448 386431 Slave; Dance) = .s22 2. 2 os oe a ee eee 450 386433 “Smoking Horses.’’ Fox going to war beg horses from’ the Sauke234) Sees ee eee oe eae 463 386444 Salling invcanoes:2.2-- 22-25-22. sees = ee eee 479 386458 Shawnee 1831 location: Removed from land east of the Mississippi River to present Kansas. Now on Shawnee and Eastern Shawnee Reservations, Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Goes Up the River, an aged chief__.._...-.-.--------- 277 386277 The Open Door, known as The Prophet, brother of the greatichief, Tecumseh= ==. 2-2-2222 te eee 279 386779 Straight Man, 'semicivilized).2-2)--_-- 22222222 ee 280 386280 *Grass, Bush, and Blossom, semicivilized_____.------ 281 386281 GEORGE CATLIN-—EWERS ae Seminole 1837 location: Part of tribe removed from Florida to present Okla- homa. Now on reservations in Florida and Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. ais number number Mick-e-no-p4h, first chief.of the tribe-------------- 300 386300 *QOsceola, the Black Drink, distinguished warrior ---- 301 386301 King Phillip, second chief-..---------------------- 302 386302 ‘nha GlouG warehicke a2 a aan one 303 386303 Wo-ce-na-10; & Chief 2-8 oe aoe eee ae ene 304 386304 Mahe, lickers called: Creek, Dilly/¢. casey 2224 es 305 386305 FRG SOMO] eS SWOT Tle ee Se ee ta ee cee lee 307 386307 Osceola Nick-a-no-chee, a boy...------------------ 3863073 Seminole drying fish, White Sand Bluffs on Santa Rosa Island, near Pensacola - = .222252-2) 22 -222—=2=— = 354 386346 Seneca 1830 location: Primarily on reservation.in western New York. Now primarily on reservations in New York and Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number *Teopuake any OldleChichumess= saae ae meee nae 264 386264 SRound lslanuAtwarrlors so. ooe- ale oes ene 265 386265 » Hard Hickory, an amiable man_-_------------------ 266 386266 2; Good Hunter, @ warriorl_---—--2-------==- === — 267 386267 *String. a renowned WaIrlol= = os sse oo ee kee 268 368268 *Seneca Steele, a great libertine___....------------- 269 386269 Tuscarora 1830 location: Primarily on reservation in western New York. Now primarily on Tuscarora Reservation in western New York. Caitlin U.S.N.M number number Ca-sick, \soniof the chief: -2-2=. /S so 2242222 -- 22-2 — 271 386271 Wea 1831 location: Removed from Indiana to the Missouri, Valley south of Fort Leavenworth in present Kansas. Later consolidated with Peoria and other remnant tribes in Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number Stands by Himself, a distinguished brave_---------- 248 386248 The Swab, 8 WalrlOtes ssa ee eee 249 386249 Winnebago 1836 location: North of Wisconsin and Fox Rivers in Wisconsin. Now on the Winnebago Reservation, Nebraska, and in public domain allotments of Wisconsin. * Catlin U.S.N.M. number number *Du-cor-re-a, chief of tribe, and his family.._-------- 199-206 386199-206 Man Who Puts All out of Doors_-_----------------- 207 386207 SRN ERVWONOCE Nee oe ae eee eee eee eee aeses 208 386208 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1955 Catlin U.S.N.M. Winnebago—Continued number number Wood. . 2525-558 62 eae eee ees See 209 386209 *Kiiw-kaw-ne-Ch00-8, a Draven. =a—— 2 == aes ae ee eee 210 386210 *Comes on the Phunder-— -- 223-2. 255- seo eee eae 211 386211 + RhersOldiere tens see = eee See cee eee ee 212 386212 ‘Rhesndke. {22h eee tee) eee een 213 386213 Sei OpaAniArd 8 te Bee eee eee eee 214 386214 ‘The Littie Lik. = sssssr sn naeaee sn se eee ao 215 386215 '5reaks the bushes ee ee ee ee 216 386216 FIVoistens then OO sae a 2a eee ee eee 217 386217 *Winnebago shooting ducks on Wisconsin River------ 347 386339 Yuchi 1837 location: Part of tribe with Seminole and part with Creek Indians. Now primarily in Oklahoma. Catlin U.S.N.M. number number *Deer without a Heart, a chief.-.-22.-----—=-=2=2-— 309 386309 *Chee-a-ex-e-co, daughter of above__--------------- 310 386310 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY LANDSCAPES Catlin U.S.N.M. number number

ot CE onl aol ‘= “4 N olKva) © CO Ore Ac SI aS) — 5+ v a) em) | 2) d 1. Buffalo Bull’s B INDEX A Abbot, Charles Greeley, viii, 10 Abbott, R. Tucker, 35 Accessions, 12, 14, 15, 16, 58, 76, 101, 105, 146, 157, 159 Bureau of American Ethnology, 58 Freer Gallery of Art, 14, 76 Library, 15, 157, 159 National Air Museum, 14, 101 National Gallery of Art, 14, 146 National Museum, 12, 16 National Zoological Park, 14, 105 Achenbach, Paul R., 125 Aeronautical research, Forty years of (J. C. Hunsaker), 241 Affel, H. A. (A transatlantic telephone cable), 273 Air Museum (See National Air Museum) Aldrich, Loyal B., Director, Astro- physical Observatory, viii, 11, 63 Aldrich, Stanley L., viii Alva Studios, 81 American Ethnology (See Bureau of) Anderson, Clinton P., Regent of the Institution, v Andrews, A. J., vi Andrews, T. Coleman, 34 Anglim, John E., vi, 31 Appointments, 11 Honorary, 12 Appropriations, 7, 40, 104, 137, 146, 172 International Exchange Service, 137 National Gallery of Art, 146 National Zoological Park, 104 River Basin Surveys, 40 Army ants, The (T. C. Schneirla), 379 Arthur lecture, 9 Aschemeier, C. R., vi Astrophysical Observatory, viii, 13, 60, Astrophysical Research, Division of, viii, 60 Field stations, viii, 61 Publications, 61 Radiation and Organisms, Division of, 62 nT Astrophysical Observatory—Continued Report, 60 Staff, viii Work in the field, 61 Work in Washington, 60 Astrophysical Research, Division of, viii, 60 Avery, E. A., vii Awl, Aime M., vi B Baker, Edward W., 28 Baker, Thomas G., vi, 32 Balchen, Col. Bernt, 91 Bales, Richard, 155 Barisch, Paul, vi Bassler, R. S., vii Bayer, Frederick M., vi, 30 Beaubien, Paul, 37, 51 Beggs, Thomas M., Director, National Collectior of Fine Arts viii, 64, 65, 73, 75 Belin, Ferdinand Lammot, Vice Presi- dent, National,Gallery of Art, ix, 145, 146 Benn, J. H., vii Benson, Ezra Taft, Secretary of Agri- culture, Member of the Institution, v Berkebile, Don H., vi Biebighauser, Ernest E., 166 Biggs, J. D., vi Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, 11 Blackwelder, Richard EH., 35 Blaker, Mrs. Margaret C., 53 Bleyer, Mrs. Chester S., 92 Bliss, Robert Woods, 64 Bond, Gorman M., vi Béving, A. G., vi Bowman, Thomas E., vi, 34 Brain, human, Some observations on the functional organization of the (Wilder Penfield), 433 Bredin, Mr. and Mrs. Bruce, 27 Bridges, William E., vii Brooks, Overton, Regent of the Insti- tution, v 529 530 Brown, John Nicholas, 64 Brown, Margaret W., viii, 30 Brown, Roland W., vii Brown, W. L., vi, 30 Brownell, Herbert, Jr., Attorney Gen- eral, Member of the Institution, v Bruns, Franklin R., Jr., viii, 30 Buchanan, L. L., vi Building program, 1 Museum of History and Tech- nology, 1 National Air Museum, 3 Smithsonian Institution Gallery of Art, 3 Wings on Natural History Build- ing, 3 Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 13, 36 Archives, 53 Collections, 58 Illustrations, 37 Publications, 57 Report, 36 Researches, 36 River Basin Surveys, 40 Staff, viii, 59 Bush, Vannevar, Regent of the Insti- tution, v, 173 Byas, W. J., vi Cc Cairns, Huntington, Secretary-Treas- urer and General Counsel, National Gallery of Art, ix, 145, 152, 156 Caldwell, Henry, 90 Campbell, William, 151 Canal Zone Biological Area, ix, 14, 129 Acknowledgements, 135 Buildings, equipment, and improve- ments, 132 Finances, 134 Needs, 183 Rainfall, 131 Report, 129 Scientists and their studies, 129 Visitors, 14. 181 Cannon, Clarence, Regent of the Insti- tution, v, 173 Carmichael, Leonard, Secretary of the Institution, v, ix, 1, 31, 33, 34, 64, 65, 145 Carriker, M. A., vi INDEX Cartwright, O. L., vi Catlin, George, painter of Indians and the West (John C. Ewers), 483 Chace, F. A., Jr., vi Chancellor of the Institution (Earl Warren, Chief Justice of the United States), v, ix, 145 Chapman, Carl H., 32 Chase, Mrs. Agnes, vii Cherbonier, ®. G., 1385 Chief Justice of the United States (Harl Warren, Chancellor of the Institu- tion), v, ix, 145 Clark, Austin H., 35 Clark, Mrs. Leila F., librarian of the Institution, v, 159 Clark, R. S., vi Clark, Thomas F., treasurer of the Institution, v, 11 Clarke, Gilmore D., 64 Clarke, J. F. Gates, vi, 11, 29, 35 Cloud, Preston, vii Clowry, Maj. John P., 90 Cochran, Doris M., vi Collins, H. B., Jr., viii, 37, 38 Compton, Arthur H., Regent of the Institution, v Conger, Paul 8., vii Contreras S., Ing. Eduardo, 39 Cooper, G. A., vii, 26 Cooper, Paul L., 44, 49, 50, 51 Corbett, John M., 37, 51 Cott, Perry B., 152 Cressman, L. 8., 52 Crosby, Sumner McKnight, 9 Cushman, Robert A., vi D Dale, Chester, ix, 145 Dart, Raymond A. (Cultural status of the South African man-apes), 317 Deignan, H. G., vi Densmore, Frances, viii, 59 Dill, R87 125 Dodo and its illustrators, New light on the (Herbert Friedmann), 475 Drucker, Philip, viii, 38, 39, 40 Dubridge, Lee A. (Science serving the Nation), 177 Dulles, John Foster, Secretary of State, Member of the Institution, v, ix Dunkle, D. H., vii, 26, 27 INDEX 1) East, C. S., vi Edgell, George H., 64 Eisenhower, Dwight D., President of the United States, Presiding Officer ex Officio, v, 33 Hisenhower, Mrs. Dwight D., 33 Eisenmann, Eugene, 135 Elder, R. A., Jr., vi Ellis, Max M., vi Elstad, V. H., viii Emerson, J. N., 37 Establishment, The, 5 Ettinghausen, Richard, viii, 84, 85, 86 Evans, Clifford, Jr., vi, 24 Ewers, J. C., vi (George Catlin, painter of Indians and the West), 483 Executive Committee of the Board of Regents, v, 167, 173 Members, v, 173 Report, 167 Appropriations, 172 Assets, 170 Audit, 173 Cash balances, receipts, and disbursements, 169 Endowment funds, 167, 168, 169 Gifts and grants, 171 Investments, classification of, 169 Exhibits, 4, 12, 13, 41, 70, 74, 90, 149 Modernization of, 4, 12, 31 Special, 13, 74, 90, 149 Traveling, 70, 149 Eyestone, Willard H., 125 F Feidler, Ernest R., Administrator, Na- tional Gallery of Art, ix, 145 Fellows of the Institution, 12 Field, W. D., vi Finances, 7, 167 Appropriations, 7 Executive Committee report on, 167 Finley, David E., Director, National Gallery of Art, ix, 64, 145, 155 Fleming, Robert V., Regent of the In- stitution, v, 173 Foshag, W. F., vii 370930—56——36 531 Francis, Arlene, 99 Freer Gallery of Art, viii, 13, 76 Accessions, 14, 76 Attendance, 81 Auditorium, 82 Building, $1 Collections, repairs to, 79 Lectures, 82, 83 Library, 79 Publications, 80 Report, 76 Reproductions, 81 Staff, viii Activities of, 83 Friedmann, Herbert, vi (New light on the dodo and its illustrators), 475 Fritz, Lawrence G., 92 Froiland, Alfred G., viii, 60 Fulford, Margaret, 135 Funds for the Institution, 10 Fyfe, Howard, 125 G Gabbert, Mrs. Vera M., vii Gallitelli, Eugenia Montanaro, 26 Garber, Paul E., ix, 103 Gardner, Paul V., viii, 64, 73 Gazin, C. L., vii Genetics in the service of man (Bentley Glass), 299 Gettens, Rutherford J., viii, 84, 85, 86 Gifts and grants, 171 (See also Accessions) Glance, Grace E., vi Glass, Bentley (Genetics in the service of man), 299 Goethe, C. M., 135 Geins, Alvin E., vii Goins, Craddock R., Jr., viii Goodrich, Lloyd, 64, 65 Graf, John E., Assistant Secretary of the Institution, v Graham, D. C., vi Greeley, Frederick A., viii Greene, Charles T., vi Greenwood, Mrs. Arthur M., vi, 12 Griffenhagen, George B., vii, 25 (The history of the mechanical heart), 339 Griffith, F. O., III, vii Guadagni, G. Donald, vii, 27 Guest, Grace Dunham, viii 532 H Hamilton, Edward G., 92 Hancock, Walker, 64 Handley, Charles O., Jr., vi, 29 Harrington, John P., viii, 59 Harrison, J. H., viii Hartman, Father J. L., 135 Hartmann, Armageddon, 29 Hayes, Bartlett, 64 Heizer, Robert F., viii, 12, 39 Henderson, E. P., vii, 27 Hess, Frank L., vii Hibernation of mammals, Harrison Matthews), 407 Hilger, Sister M. Inez, viii, 12, 59 Hintlian, Neshan G., 74 Hobby, Oveta Culp, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, Member of the Institution, v Holden, F. E., vii Honey bees, The scent language of (Ronald Ribbands), 369 Hoover, William H., 60 Howard, John D., 11 Howell, A. Brazier, vi Hower, R. O., vi Hughes, Calvin H. (The history of the mechanical heart), 339 Humphrey, George M., Secretary of the Treasury, Member of the Institution, v, ix, 145 Hunsaker, Jerome C., Regent of the Institution, v, 9, 14, 92 (Forty years of aeronautical re- search), 241 Hurt, Wesley R., 45 Huscher, Harold A., 44, 50 The (L. I International Exchange Service, ix, 14, 136 Appropriation, 137 Foreign depositories of govern- mental documents, 137 Foreign exchange services, 143 Interparliamentary exchange of the official journal, 140 Publications received and shipped, 136 Report, 136 Isham, L. B., vii INDEX J James, Macgill, Assistant Director, National Gallery of Art, ix, 145 Jelks, Edward B., 43 Jellison, W. L., vi Jennings, Jesse D.. 53 Johnson, David H., vi, 28 Jones, Lt. J. Knox, 29 Judd, Neil M., vi K Kainen, Jacob, vii, 26, 33 Kanazawa, Robert H., vi Keddy, J. L., Assistant Secretary of the Institution, v Kellogg, A. Remington,’ Director,’ Na- tional Museum, vi, 35 Kendall, Edward C., vii, 25 Kestner, F. B., chief, photographic laboratory, v Killip, E. P., vii Kivett, Marvin F., 44 Klapthor, Frank E., viii Klein, William H., viii Knight, J. Brookes, vii Kress, Samuel H., President, Naticnal Gallery of Art, ix, 145 Krieger, H. W., vi L Lachner, Ernest A., vi, 29 Lahm, Gen. Frank P., 91 Langley Medal award, 9, 14, 92 Laughlin, Robert M., 135 Lawless, Benjamin, vi Laybourne, E. G., vi Lea, John S., assistant chief, editorial and publications division, v, 166 Lectures, 9, 82, 154 Freer Gallery of Art, 82 National Gallery of Art, 154 Leonard, E. C., vii Lewis, Fulton, Jr., 99 Lewton, F. L., vii Library, 15, 79, 100, 154, 157 Freer Gallery of Art, 79 National Air Museum, 100 National Gallery of Art, 154 Smithsonian, 15, 157 Accessions, 15, 157, 159 Report, 157 Summarized statistics, 159 INDEX Link, Edward A., 30, 96 Link Foundation, 96 Loeblich, Alfred ‘R., Jr., vii, 26 Loeblich, Mrs. Helen N. (Tappan), vii, 12 7 Loehr, Max, viii Loening, Grover, ix, 90 Lorenz, Konrad Z., 9 Lowe, Frank O., ix Lyon, Rowland, viii, 74 M Main, Robert J., Jr., vii Male, W. M., ix Man-apes, South African, Cultural status of the (Raymond A. Dart), 317 Mann, William M., Director, National Zoological Park, vi, ix, 128 Manship, Paul, 64 Marinetti, W. T., vi Marsh, Reginald, 64 Marshall, W. B., vi Martin, Glenn J., 74 Matthews, L. Harrison (The hiberna- tion of mammals), 407 McClure, F. A., vii McKay, Douglas, Secretary of the In- terior, Member of the Institution, v Mechanical heart, The history of the (George B. Griffenhagen and Calvin H. Hughes), 339 Meggers, Betty J., vi, 12 Mellon, Paul, ix, 145 Members of the Institution, v Metcalf, George S., vi, 50 Michaels, Andrew F., Jr., assistant superintendent of buildings and grounds, v Miller, A. K., 26 Miller, Carl F., 42, 43 Miller, Gerrit S., Jr., vi Milliken, William M., 31 Mitchell, James P., Secretary of Labor, Member of the Institution, v Moh, Chao C., viii Mongan, Elizabeth, 151, 152 Moore, Bruce, 90 Moore, J. Percy, vi Morrison, Joseph P. E., vi Morton, C. V., vii Mosher, S. M., viii 533 Muesebeck, C. F. W., vi Multhauf, Robert P., vii, 25 Mundy, Maj. Gen. George W., ix, 89 Murray, Maj. Arthur, 91 Myers, George Hewitt, 64 N National Air Museum, ix, 88 Accessions, 14, 101 Advisory Board, ix, 89 Building, 88 Improvements in exhibits, 93 Information service, 96 Link Foundation, 96 Reference material and acknowl- edgments, 100 Report, 88 Research, 96 Special events and displays, 90 Staff, ix Stephenson bequest, 90 Storage, 95 National Collection of Fine Arts, viii, 13, 64 Art works lent, 66 Barney, Alice Pike, memoriai fund, 68 Information service and staff activ- ities, 73 Loans returned, 68 Ranger, Henry Ward, fund, 69 Report, 64 Smithsonian Art Commission, 64 Smithsonian lending collection, 68 Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, 70 Special exhibitions, 74 Staff, viii Transfers accepted, 65 Withdrawals by owners, 66 National Gallery of Art, ix, 14, 145 Accessions, 14, 146 Activities, curatorial, 151 Other, 151 Appropriation, 146 Attendance, 146 Audit of private funds, 156 Educational program, 153 Exhibitions, 149 Special, 149 Traveling, 149 534 National Gallery of Art—Continued Gifts, 147, 156 Index of American Design, 150, 154 Library, 154 Maintenance of building and grounds, 155 Officials, ix, 145 Personnel, 146 Publications, 152 Report, 145 Rosenwald collection, 146 Trustees, ix, 145 Works of art, exchange of, 147 lent, 148 on loan, 148 restoration and repair of, 152 returned, 148 National Geographic Society, 39 National Museum, U.S., iv, 12, 16 Accessions, 12, 16 Exhibits, modernization, 13, 31 Explorations, fieldwork, and related travel, 23 Report, 16 Staff, vi, 34 Visitors, 34 National Zoological Park, ix, 14, 104 Accessions, 14, 105 Cooperation, 125 Depositors and donors and their gifts, 108 Exhibits, 104 Funds, 104 Maintenance and 121 Needs, 127 New building, 123 Problems, 121 Report, 104 Status of the collection, 128 Visitors, 14, 124 Newman, Jack B., division, v Newman, M. T., vi Nicol, David, vii, 26 Nixon, Richard M., Vice President of the United States, Member of the Institution, v Normandin, Edward W., Jr., vi Nuclear power for peaceful purposes, The development of (Henry D. Smyth), 189 improvements, chief, personnel INDEX O Oehser, Paul H., chief, editorial and publications division, v, 166 Officials of the Institution, v Oliver, L. L., superintendent of build- ings and grounds, v Oliver, S. H., vii Opik, E. J. (The time scale of our universe), 203 Ostroff, Eugene, 37 RP Palmer, T. 8., vi Paradiso, J. W., vi Parasites common to animals and man (Benjamin Schwartz), 419 Parfin, Sophy, vi Pearce, F. L., vii Pearson, Mrs. Louise M., administra- tive assistant to the Secretary, v Pearson, Morris M., vi Pendleton, Robert L. (The place of tropical soils in feeding the world), 441 Penfield, Wilder (Some observations on the functional organization of the human brain), 433 Perry, K. M., vii Perry, Stuart H., vii, 27 Perrygo, W. M., vi Peterson, Mrs. L. W., vi Peterson, Mendel L., viii, 30 Phillips, C, W., 125 Phillips, Duncan, ix, 145, 146 Phillips, J. Harry, Jr., vii, 33 Pierson, Harold L., 135 Poiley, Samuel M., 126 Pope, Mrs. Annemarie H., chief, Smith- sonian Traveling Exhibition Service, viii, 73 Pope, John A., Assistant Director, Freer Gallery of Art, viii, 84, 85, 86 Pora, John A., vili Porter, Robert, 91 Potter, Stanley, ix President of the United States (Dwight D. Eisenhower, Presiding Officer ex officio), v, 33 Presiding Officer ex officio (Dwight D. Hisenhower, President of the United States), v INDEX Price, Leonard, viii Publications, 15, 57, 61, 73, 80, 152, 160 American Historical Association, 165 Annual Reports, 163 Astrophysical Observatory, 61, 165 Bureau of American Ethnology, 57, 164 Daughters of the American Revo- lution, 166 Distribution, 15, 160 Divisional activities, 166 Freer Gallery of Art, 80, 165 National Collection of Fine Arts, 73, 165 National Gallery of Art, 152 Popular, 161 Printing allotment, 161 Report on, 160 Smithsonian Miscellaneous lections, 161 Smithsonian Traveling exhibition Service, 73 Special, 163 Putnam, John Marble, 35 Col- R Radiation and Organisms, Division of, viii, 62 Rawley, W. N., 79 Reeside, J. B., Jr., vii Regents of the Institution, Board of, v, 6 Annual meeting, 6 Executive Committee, v, 167, 173 Members, v, 173 Report, 167 Members, v, 6, 7 Rehder, Harald A., vi Reid, James, 135 Rhoades, Katherine N., viii Ribbands, Ronald (The scent language of honey bees), 369 Richards, Charles M., 151 River Basin Surveys, 40 Appropriation, 40 Columbia Basin and Texas, 43 Cooperating institutions, 52 Missouri Basin, 43 Report, 40 Washington office, 42 370930—56——85 535 Roberts, Frank H. H., Jr., Associate Director, Bureau of American Eth- nology, Director, River Basin Sur- veys, viii, 36, 37, 40, 42 Rogers, Grace L., vii, 25 Rudd, Velva E., vii Ruppe, Reynold J., Jr., 37 Ss Saltonstall, Leverett, Regent of the In- stitution, v Sawyer, Charles H., 64 Scent language of honey bees, The (Ronald Ribbands), 369 Schaller, W. T., vii Schmitt, Waldo L., vi, 27 Schneirla, T. C. (The army ants), 379 Schuiman, Edmund (Tree rings and history in the western United States), 459 Schultz, Leonard P., vi Schumacher, E. G., viii, 57 Schwartz, Benjamin, vi (Parasites common to animals and man), 419 Schwartz, Frank, 29 Schwartz, Herbert, 135 Science serving the Nation (Lee A. DuBridge), 177 Searle, Mrs. Harriet Richardson, vi Secretary of the Institution (Leonard Carmichael), v, ix, 1, 31, 33, 34, 64, 65, 145 Setzer, H. W., vi Setzier, Frank M., vi, 23 Sexton, Roy Lyman, 28 Sexton, Roy Lyman, Jr., 28 Shapley, Mrs. Fern R., 152 Shattuck, G. C., 135 Shaw, Winthrop &., ix Shepard, Katharine, 151, 152 Shepherd, Gen. Lemuel C., 33 Shiner, Joel L., 43 Shoemaker, C. R., vi Sinclair, Charles C., assistant superin- tendent of buildings and grounds, v Sirlouis, J. R., viii Smith, A. C., vii Smith, Carlyle S., 45 Smith, G. Hubert, 43, 45, 50 536 Smith, H. Alexander, Regent of the Institution, v Smith, Lyman B., vii Smithsonian Art Commission, 13, 64 Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, viii, 138, 70 Smyth, Henry D. (The development of nuclear power for peaceful pur- poses), 189 Snodgrass, R. E., vi Sohns, Ernest R., vii, 24 Solar activity and its terrestrial effects (Sir Harold Spencer Jones), 227 Solecki, Ralph S., viii, 59 Soper, Cleveland C., 135 Soucek, Rear Adm. Apollo, ix, 90 Spencer Jones, Sir Harold, 9. (Solar activity and its terrestrial effects), 227 Squier, Robert J., viii, 12 Staff, vi, 11, 59 Stanley, Wendell M. (Some chemical studies on viruses), 357 Stephenson, George H., bequest, 90 Stephenson, Robert L., 43, 51 Stern, Harold P., viii, 85, 87 Sternberg, George F., 27 Stevenson, John A., vii Stewart, T. Dale, vi, 24 Stirling, Matthew W., Director, Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 36, 59 Stout, William B., ix, 90, 92 Strobell, R. C., ix Stuart, George, vi Stubbs, Burns A., viii Sugiura, Takashi, 79, 87 Sullivan, Francis, 152 Summerfield, Arthur E., Postmaster General, Member of the Institution, v Swallen, Jason R., vii Swanton, John R., viii, 59 Swift, Paul, 135 Switzer, G. S., vii T Talbert, D. G., viii Taylor, Frank A., vii Taylor, William E., Jr., 37 Taylor, W. W., Jr., vi Time scale of our universe, The (E. J. Opik), 203 Tobin, William J., vi, 12 INDEX Tolman, Ruel P., 64 Transatlantic telephone cable, A (H. A. Affel), 273 Tree rings and history in the western United States (Edmund Schulman), 459 Treganza, Adan E., 52 i Tropical soils, The place of, in feeding the world (Robert L. Pendleton), 441 V Vice President of the United States (Richard M. Nixon, Member of the Institution), v Viruses, Some chemical studies on (Wendell M. Stanley), 357 -: . Visitors, 7, 14, 34, 81, 124, 129, 181, 146 Canal Zone Biological Area, 14, 129, 131 Freer Gallery of Art, 81 National Gallery of Art, 146 National Museum, 34 National Zoological Park, 14, 124 Vorys, John M., Regent of the Insti- tution, v WwW Walker, E. H., vii Walker, Ernest P., Assistant Director, National Zoological Park, ix Walker, John, Chief Curator, National Gallery of Art, ix, 145, 151, 152 Waring, Antonio J., Jr., viii, 59 Warren, Earl, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Institution, v, ix, 145 Watkins, C. Malcolm, vi, 23, 31 Watkins, W. N., vii Wedderburn, A. J., Jr., vii Wedel, Waldo R., vi, 24 Weeks, Sinclair, Secretary of Commerce, Member of the Institution, v Weiss, Helena M., vi Wengenroth, Stow, 64 Wenley, A. G., Director, Freer Gallery of Art, viii, 64, 84, 85, 86, 87 Wetmore, Alexander, vi, 28 Wetmore, Mrs. Alexander, 28 Wheeler, Doanda, 74 Wheeler, Richard P., 51, 52 Whipple, Fred L., 11, 60 INDEX 537 White, Lawrence Grant, 64 Woolworth, Alan R., 45, 51 Wilding, Anthony W., chief, supply | Wyeth, Andrew, 64 division, v Williams, D. G., chief, International Y Exchange Service, ix, 144 Young, Mahonri, 64 Wilson, Charles E., Secretary of De- fense, Member of the Institution, v L Wilson, Mrs. Mildred S., vi Zetek, James, Resident Manager, Canal Withrow, Mrs. Alice P., viii Zone Biological Area, ix, 135 ' Withrow, R. B., chief, Division of| Zimmerman, James E., viii))* Radiation and Organisms, viii, 62 Zoological Park (See National Foataeical Wolff, John B., viii Park). @. $. 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