o. ay as . yy rt ke toh aed "i ap ‘ a" ont i f be act Oa i eee t, if nh) ‘ " ; ; J, . ; (2 . , " 4 f id i i Wh, | | i v, . A Fei a y a hy ay i said ilthal a Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PUBLICATION 4272 Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30 1956 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1957 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price $4.50 Cloth LETTER.OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 28, 1956. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1956. Ihave the honor to be, Respectfully, Leonarp CarmicHazEL, Secretary. ‘4 en: | \ DEQA 7 cs) Liby. OF CONTENTS or, Page Nes GrOl OM ClAlS yee er en ee Se ee ee ee ee ete Vv SPECS AEE INIOI Geet yore a ne oe ae! 8 3h ee ee ee eee a 1 SrerHstalolishm erties ee eek ete eee re re Be er Eee oe 6 Sibrom Es OArGnOl Regenta: == 2 se 2 26 te eS ye a ea ane 7 InAN CORR Beek Aan Se ae te ak Pal Re De Sa 8 \YTTS RON GSI =e aes ee 310 Thunder-eggs and geodes (Brown): Plates 1-6--_______-_-_-._______._- 334 Giant ground sloths in Panama (Gazin): Plates 1-8_____._.-.__-.----_-- 342 Kitimat story: (Croome); Plates l=42222 2ass0- 22 eee eee ee 358 Sewage treatment (Keefer) :\Platesyi=6s. 34394932325 Soo ea ot = 2 374 Pioneer settlement in eastern Colombia (Crist and Guhl): Plates 1-8__ __- 406 Rivers inthe sea (Smith) > Plates: 1-6. 2-2 = se eee eee eee 438 Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition (Schmitt): Plates 1-8____.._. 454 Project Coral Fish (Bayer and Harry-Rofen): Plates 1-10___.-_-------- 486 Plates 11-20... 225-22 25 ee he ed ee e_ ae 502 Archeological work in Arctic Canada (Collins): Plates 1-14___-_-_-_---- 518 Cherokees of North Carolina (Gilbert): Plates 1-8_____-_-_------------ 550 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1956 Presiding Officer ew oficio—Dwicut D. EIseNHOWER, President of the United States. Chancellor.—BHarL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: Dwicut D. EISENHOWER, President of the United States. Ricuarp M. Nrxon, Vice President of the United States. HaRL WakkREN, Chief Justice of the United States. JOHN Foster DULLES, Secretary of State. Grorce M. HUMPHREY, Secretary of the Treasury. CHARLES E. WILSON, Secretary of Defense. HERBERT BROWNELL, JR., Attorney General. ARTHUR E. SUMMERFIELD, Postmaster General. Frep A. Seaton, Secretary of the Interior. Ezra Tart Benson, Secretary of Agriculture. S1ncLatr WEEKs, Secretary of Commerce. JAMES P. MITCHELL, Secretary of Labor. Marion B. Foutsom, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Regents of the Institution: EARL WaAkkREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. RicHarD M. Nixon, Vice President of the United States. CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Member of the Senate. LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate. H. ALEXANDER SmMiTH, Member of the Senate. OveRTON Brooks, Member of the House of Representatives. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. JoHN M. Vorys, Member of the House of Representatives. ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Missouri. EVERETTE L. DEGOLYER, citizen of Texas. RosBERT V. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D. C. CrAWForD H. GREENEWALT, citizen of Delaware. CARYL P. Haskins, citizen of Washington, D. C. JEROME C. HUNSAKER, citizen of Massachusetts. Executive Committee.—RoBERT V. FLEMING, Chairman, CLARENCE CANNON, CARYL P. HASKINS. Secretary.— LEONARD CARMICHAEL. Assistant Secretaries.—J. E. GraF, J. L. Keppy. Administrative assistant to the Secretary—Mrs. Louise M. PEARSON. Treasurer.—T. F. CLARK. Chief, editorial and publications division—Pavut H. OEHSER. Librarian.—Mrs. LEmA F. CLarKk. Superintendent of buildings and grounds.—L. L. OLIVER. Chief, personnel division.—J. B. NEWMAN. Chief, supply division—A. W. WILDING. Chief, photographic laboratory.—F. B. KESTNER. VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director.—A. REMINGTON KELLOGG. Assistant Director.—F. A. TAYLOR. Planning officer.—J. C. EweErs. Chief exhibits specialist.—J. BE. ANGLIM. Chief exhibits preparator.—W. L. Brown. Registrar.—HrLeEnA M. WEISS. DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: F. M. Setzler, head curator. Division of Archeology: W. R. Wedel, curator; Clifford Evans, Jr., associate curator. Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; C. M. Watkins, associate curator; R. A. Elder, Jr., G. C. Lindsay, assistant curators. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. D. Stewart, curator; M. T. Newman, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY: W. L. Schmitt, head curator. Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, acting curator; H. W. Setzer, C. O. Handley, Jr., associate curators. Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator; H. G. Deignan, associate curator. Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator. Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; E. A. Lachner, associate curator. Division of Insects: J. F. G. Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, W. D. Field, Grace E. Glance, associate curators. Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; F. M. Bayer, © T. H. Bowman, C. EH. Cutress, Jr., associate curators. Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. H. Morrison, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF BoTANY (NATIONAL HERBARIUM) : J. R. Swallen, head curator. Division of Phanerogams: A. C. Smith, curator; E. C. Leonard, L. B. Smith, I. H. Walker, Velva 1). Rudd, associate curators. Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator. Division of Grasses: Hrnest R. Sohns, associate curator. Division of Cryptogams: C. VY. Morton, acting curator; P. S. Conger, asso- ciate curator. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: G. A. Cooper, acting head curator; J. H. Benn, museum geologist. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: G. S. Switzer, E. P. Henderson, associate curators. Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: G. A. Cooper, cura- tor; A. R. Loeblich, Jr., David Nicol, associate curators. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND JNDUSTRIES: R. P. Multhauf, acting head curator. Division of Engineering: R. P. Multhauf, curator. Section of Civil and Mechanical Engineering: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. Section of Tools: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. SECRETARY’S REPORT VII DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIES—Continued Division of Engineering—Continued Section of Marine Transportation: K. M. Perry, associate curator. Section of Electricity: W. J. King, associate curator. Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: R. P. Multhauf, in charge. Section of Horology: S. H. Oliver, associate curator. Section of Land Transportation: S. H. Oliver, associate curator. Division of Crafts and Industries: W. N. Watkins, curator; H. C. Kendall, associate curator. Section of Textiles: Grace L. Rogers, assistant curator. Section of Wood Technology: W. N. Watkins, in charge. Section of Manufactures: E. C. Kendall, associate curator. Section of Agricultural Industries: E. C. Kendall, associate curator. Division of Medicine and Publie Health: G. B. Griffenhagen, curator. Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator. Section of Photography: A. J. Wedderburn, Jr., associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY: M. L. Peterson, acting head curator. Division of Military History and Naval History: M. L. Peterson, curator; J. R. Sirlouis, assistant curator. Division of Civil History: Mrs. Margaret W. Brown Klapthor, associate curator. Division of Numismatics: M. L. Peterson, acting curator. Division of Philately: F. R. Bruns, Jr., associate curator. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Director.—M. W. StT1riina. Associate Director.—F. H. H. RoBerts, Jr. Anthropologist.—H. B. Cottins, Jr. Ethnologist.—W. C. STURTEVANT. River Basin Surveys.—F. H. H. Rosenrts, Jr., Director. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—F. L. WHIPPLE. Assistant Director.—J. S. RINEHART. Table Mountain, Calif., field station—F. A. GREELEY, A. G. Fromanp, 8. L. AL- DRICH, physicists. DIVISION oF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Chief.—R. B. WiTHROW. Plant physiologists —W. H. Kixern, Mrs. Atice P. WirHRow, LEonARD PRIcE, V. B. Exstap, C. C. Mou. Biochemist.—J. B. Wourr. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Director.—T. M. Brces. Curator of ceramics.—P. V. GARDNER. Chief, Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service.—Mrs. ANNEMARIE H. Pops. vil ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 FREER GALLERY OF ART Director.—A. G. WENLEY. Assistant Director.—J. A. POPE. Assistant to the Director.—B. A. STUBBS. Associate in Near Eastern art.—RIcHARD ETTINGHAUSEN. Associate in technical research.—R. J. GETTENS. Assistant in research.—H. P. STERN. NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Advisory Board: LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Chairman. Maj. Gen. JoHn P. Doyte, U. 8. Air Force. Rear Adm. JAMgEs S. RUSSELL, U. S. Navy. GROVER LOENING. Head curator.—P. HE. GARBER. Associate curator.—W. M. Mate. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—W. M. MAnn. Assistant Director.—E. P. WALKER. Veterinarian.—T. H. RrEeEp. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Resident Naturalist.—C. B. Kororp. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Chief.—D. G. WILLIAMS. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: Hart WarRkEN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. JOHN Foster DuLiss, Secretary of State. Grorcet M. HumpuHrey, Secretary of the Treasury. LEoNARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. F,. LaMMot BELIN. DUNCAN PHILLIPS. CHESTER DALE. Pau. MELLon. RusH H. KRgEss. President.—CHESTER DALE. Vice President.—F. LAMMorT BELIN. Secretary-Treasurer.—HuUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Director.— JOHN WALKER. Administrator.—ERNEST R. FEIDLER. General Counsel.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Chief Curator.—(vacancy). Assistant Director.—MAcGILL JAMES. SECRETARY’S REPORT Honorary Research Associates, Collaborators, and Fellows Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood N. M. Judd T. W. McKern Paul Bartsch, Mollusks A. G. Boéving L. L. Buchanan, Coleoptera M. A. Carriker, Insects R. S. Clark, Zoology R. A. Cushman, Hymenoptera D. C. Graham, Biology C. T. Greene, Diptera A. B. Howell, Mammals W. L. Jellison, Insects . M. Mann, Hymenoptera Mrs. Agnes Chase, Grasses K. P. Killip, Phanerogams R. S. Bassler, Paleontology R. W. Brown, Paleobotany Preston Cloud, Invertebrate Paleontology Anthropology Betty J. Meggers W. W. Taylor, Jr. W. J. Tobin Zoology J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates C. F. W. Muesebeck, Insects Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology 5». Mrs. Harriet Richardson Searle, Marine Invertebrates C. R. Shoemaker R. E. Snodgrass, Insects Alexander Wetmore, Birds Mrs. Mildred S. Wilson, Crustacea Botany ¥. A. McClure, Grasses J. A. Stevenson, Fungi Geology Copepod Mrs. Helen N. Loeblich, Invertebrate Paleontology S. H. Perry, Mineralogy J. B. Reeside, Jr., Invertebrate J. B. Knight, Invertebrate Paleontology Paleontology W. T. Schaller, Mineralogy Engineering and Industries F. L. Lewton, Crafts and Industries History P. A. Straub, Numismatics Bureau of American Ethnology Frances Densmore J. P. Harrington R. F. Heizer Sister M. Inez Hilger R. S. Solecki R. J. Squier J. R. Swanton A. J. Waring, Jr. Astrophysical Observatory Cc. G. Abbot Freer Gallery of Art Grace Dunham Guest Max Loehr Katherine N. Rhoades Canal Zone Biological Area C. C. Soper | James Zetek dain C5 0) (ASnatly Peep y, UA: iin B Ciniteedaw ine Sve 2 CEOLER ree TS LGN kal 14 (ape be, aa E hw geet wpe qi fo pr pe ee me eae a Parti, Maver winie A Yi be sheet «4 eereyo 4 | wy Geb piling ce ONAL id “Roeetary Tre hr erode nde Pa Ai dq Tadley etio = PACA 40 Joe @ | Mite dudporviertae.. as "id ‘nme A 0. | Lv at Sen Ppigie. eh lepeke : | Gatien RA 10 "Vonitad) ve " eae a Si claiax eign 6 i f | pnd bokgll oa de 40S wwasnt | Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution LEONARD CARMICHAEL For the Year Ended June 30, 1956 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit a report showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ended June 380, 1956. GENERAL STATEMENT Botanists have learned in their study of the rings in the cross sec- tions of trees that all years are not equally favorable for growth. When sun and moisture are just right, development is best. In the life of the Smithsonian Institution, the one hundred and tenth ring, which is covered by this report, shows what is probably an unparal- leled period of healthy growth in this old and honored institution. Museum of History and Technology Assured Last year it was possible to report that $2,288,000 had been appro- priated to plan the already authorized new Museum of History and Technology building for the Smithsonian. This year the additional $33,712,000 has been appropriated to make possible the building of this great and most urgently needed new museum structure. The established site for this building is an admirable one. It is in the Mall area of the Capital, near other Smithsonian buildings, and is bounded on the north by Constitution Avenue, on the east by 12th Street, on the south by Madison Drive, and on the west by 14th Street. It is expected that the construction of the foundation of the building will begin in the spring of 1957, and it is hoped that the building will be completed in 1960. The Smithsonian Regents selected the New York firm of McKim, Mead & White as architects for the building. Under its direction the development of the necessarily elaborate plans for the structure is progressing in a most promising manner. These plans are being worked out so as to meet the requirements for the new building that have been set by the staff of the Smithsonian Institution on the & DEC 1 - 1057 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 basis of detailed study of similar buildings and especially on the basis of the knowledge of the objects to be displayed in it. The Joint Committee on Construction of a Building for the Museum of History and Technology for the Smithsonian Institution, of which our Regent Senator Clinton P. Anderson is chairman, and our Regent John M. Vorys, House of Representatives, is secretary, has devoted much careful attention to the architectural problems presented by the building. When the new structure becomes a reality, the Nation will owe a deep debt of gratitude to the wisdom and effective assistance that this committee has provided in the development of the new museum. The full membership of the committee is as follows: Clinton P. Anderson, Senator from New Mexico. Leverett Saltonstall, Senator from Massachusetts. H. Alexander Smith, Senator from New Jersey. Stuart Symington, Senator from Missouri. Edward Martin, Senator from Pennsylvania. Clarence Cannon, Representative from Missouri. Overton Brooks, Representative from Louisiana. Robert E. Jones, Jr., Representative from Alabama. John M. Vorys, Representative from Ohio. Laurence Curtis, Representative from Massachusetts. Now that the Museum of History and Technology building is becom- ing a reality, we must remember that even this great structure is but one step, although a very important one, in providing our Nation with suitable modern buildings in which to house and display its unequaled collections that tell the story of the rise to greatness of the United States of America. Other Buildings Needed Of all the urgent additional building needs of the Smithsonian, that which has highest priority is the expansion of the Natural History Museum. In 1930 the two wings needed for this building were au- thorized by the Congress. This was done because at that time—a quarter of a century ago—the crowding of the Nation’s great Natural History Museum had come to seem intolerable. In the intervening years, conditions in this building have become progressively worse. Now world-famous study collections must be piled to the ceiling in the hallways of certain parts of this building. It is most sincerely to be hoped that during the present year funds may be appropriated for this long-delayed, although already authorized, addition to the plant of the Institution. As indicated in my report a year ago, by a special gift of private funds an architectural study of an adequate building for the National Air Museum was made last year. The site that had been tentatively allocated to the Smithsonian for this building, on Independence Avenue at 10th Street, near other Smithsonian structures, now has SECRETARY’S REPORT 3 been declared unavailable to the Institution. Other promising loca- tions, however, are ready for consideration. The National Air Museum today maintains, mostly in storage for the future, effective displays of the world’s most comprehensive collection of historic air- craft, including innumerable devices and pieces of scientific apparatus that are related to this important phase of modern life. It is hoped that funds may soon be provided to make possible a suitable building for the National Air Museum in close proximity to the other units of the Smithsonian. The Congress, in 1846, authorized the establishment, within the Smithsonian organization, of an art gallery, which later was desig- nated as the National Collection of Fine Arts. The important works of art in the custody of this bureau are now inappropriately housed in the Natural History Museum. A new and proper building to ac- commodate this notable collection and to make possible the acceptance of other available collections in the fine and decorative arts was au- thorized by the Congress in 1938. In spite of many efforts, however, the private funds that were expected to finance the planning and erection of this building have not been secured. Each year pressure from the public to make this building a reality becomes greater. Soon some positive action in regard to this problem must be taken. Congressional proposal has been discussed in the public press for the establishment, possibly as a new and separate bureau of the Smith- sonian Institution, of a National Portrait Gallery. It has been sug- gested that this collection be housed in the old Patent Office Building. This handsome building is now occupied by offices of the Civil Service Commission, but it is not too well suited for a modern office building. It is believed that this architectural monument of early Washington could be transformed without too great cost into an admirable gallery to house collections of portraits of Americans who have contributed importantly to our country. The possibility that the National Col- lection of Fine Arts could also be housed in this building deserves study. Besides the buildings mentioned above, additional structures are urgently needed by the Smithsonian Institution at the National Zoological Park. There is also continued discussion by interested members of the public of the need for the erection of a National Planetarium in connection with the Smithsonian’s Astrophysical Observatory. Such a building would have great educational value for the millions of citizens who come each year to Washington. Rebuilding of Exhibits Continues The program for the renovation of the exhibits in the old existing Smithsonian buildings, which has been discussed previously, continued 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 during the period covered by this report. On March 22, 1956, the new Bird Hall of the Natural History Museum was opened to the public. It has been described by one internationally known ornitho- logical expert as the most effective and most instructive museum display of birds in the world. Dr. Herbert Friedmann, curator of birds in the United States National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, is an artist as well as a scientist, and he and his associates developed this hall in such a way as to make it not only beautiful and eye-arresting but also instructive. The notable success of this hall, with its many new display features, illustrates a function of the Smithsonian Institution that is not always remembered. This is an age in which museums are becoming very common throughout the country. Leadership at the Smithsonian in the development of effec- tive museum displays is thus especially important because, as the world’s largest museum in number of cataloged objects, it almost auto- matically sets for many other museums a pattern for guidance in developing new and small museums throughout the country. There is broad advantage, therefore, when the Smithsonian leads the way in new museum display ideas as it has done in the Bird Hall and in the other recently opened halls that are transforming the old exhibitions of the Institution. During the year progress was made in the renovation of the second secion of the American Indian Hall, the Engineering Power Hall, and the Health Hall. The notable artistic work required for the back- grounds of the new North American Mammal Hall was produced under special contracts. Part of the Printing Art Hall in the old Smithsonian Building was renovated and is now open to the public. The lights that have been installed in this hall are, so far as is known, the first artificial illumination of any kind ever to be used in this section of the Institution. Progress was also made in preparing a hall displaying the style of life of the early American colonies. Under the difficult conditions already referred to, improvements in displays were made both in the National Collection of Fine Arts and in the National Air Museum. Many of the plaster casts, which were in far too great a variety of scales and which have long confused the visitor on entering the Rotunda of the Natural History Museum, have been placed on exhibit. elsewhere or are in storage. Rehabilitation of the structures of the older Smithsonian buildings went on during the year covered by this report. Painting of the re- maining halls and courts in the Arts and Industries Building, started last year, was completed. It is believed that some of this painting, such as that on the underportions of the roofs, is possibly the first since the building was completed in 1878. New and safer entrance and exit doors were installed in this building. SECRETARY’S REPORT 5 Nine halls of the Natural History Building were also repainted, and a contract was let for the urgently needed repair of the roof of this great structure. The ancient so-called “converter” heating system of this building was modernized and made more economical. Steam lines in various buildings, which were in a dangerous condition, were replaced. Work on the air-conditioning of the Freer Gallery of Art was begun. The air-conditioning of this building will protect the price- less objects of art contained in the Freer collections which were deteri- orating under the extremes of temperature and humidity of Washing- ton. Also, possibly for the first time since this building was opened, the gallery has been completely repainted, and its library has been renovated and provided with adequate lighting fixtures. Modern rest rooms for the public were opened in the Natural History Building and in the old Smithsonian Building. Research in Astrophysics It is always important to remember that Smithson, in establishing his institution, and the Congress, in founding it, directed that it should not only “diffuse knowledge” but also “increase knowledge.” During the current year, effective research has continued in all the scientific and artistic departments of the Institution. A particularly notable development, as is indicated in the detailed report that follows (p. 65) has taken place in the program of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Astrophysics has long been one of the principal research activities of the Institution. With the retirement a year ago of Loyal B. Aldrich as head of this bureau, it became clear that, because of the growing importance of astrophysics in national defense as well as in pure science, the future program of this bureau required careful study. With the assistance of Mr. Aldrich, authorities in this field were con- sulted and it was agreed that the time was ripe to expand both the bureau’s facilities and programs. The Smithsonian was fortunate in securing as director Dr. Fred L. Whipple, then chairman of the Department of Astronomy at Harvard University. The scientific headquarters of the Observatory have been moved from temporary buildings behind the old Smithsonian Building to more adequate quarters in immediate association with the Harvard College Observa- tory in Cambridge, Mass. By this physical change, the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, without compromising its independence, has gained the advantage of close association with an active group of scientists in the mathematical and physical as well as astronomical sciences. Without such association, modern advances in astrophysics are severely handicapped. 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Dr. Finley Retires The National Gallery of Art, a bureau of the Smithsonian, has had a notable year. The art world has been saddened by the fact that at the close of June, the Director of the National Gallery, Dr. David E. Finley, whose unremitting labor has done so much to make this insti- tution world famous, reached retirement age. It is most gratifying to announce, however, that this important post has been filled by the promotion of John Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, to the post of Director. Mr. Walker has been connected with the Gallery from its beginning and brings to his new post an outstanding international reputation as a student of art. Financial Support Grants continue to be made to the Smithsonian by private founda- tions, by individuals, and by other agencies in support of specific service functions, such as the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, and many research projects. One of the most interesting of these grants names the Smithsonian Institution as the agency to organize throughout the world the program of observing the artificial earth satellites that are to be launched under the auspices of the International Geophysical Year. The fact that the Smithsonian Institution was selected for this important function attests the recognition accorded to it by the scientists who are responsible for this great and novel project. Detailed reports of all the ten bureaus under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution follow. In addition, there are included a report on the Smithsonian Library (p. 193) and a report of the Edi- torial and Publications Division (p. 197) with a complete list of the publications issued during the year. These publications have had a most enthusiastic reception by the scientific and learned world. In concluding this general introduction to the 1956 Smithsonian Annual Report, it is impossible to resist an expression of deep appre- ciaton to the Regents of the Institution for all that they have done during the current year to advance the welfare of the Smithsonian. The executive committee of the Board of Regents has been most active and effective in the difficult tasks of managing the details of the private funds of the Institution. In many other ways the Regents, not only as a corporate body but also as individuals, have made possible the really memorable advances in the Smithsonian that are recorded in this report of the operations of its one-hundred and tenth year. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of Eng- SECRETARY’S REPORT rf land, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without au- thority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establishment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS The affairs of the Institution are administered by a Board of Regents whose membership consists of “the Vice President, the Chief Justice of the United States, and three members of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives; together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resi- dent in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” One of the Regents is elected Chancellor of the Board. In the past the selection has fallen upon the Vice President or the Chief Justice. The past year brought the resignation of a highly valued member of the Board, Dr. Vannevar Bush, who had been a Regent since April 5, 1940. He was also a member of the executive committee of the Board and in this capacity, too, rendered distinguished and outstand- ing service to the Institution. The Board is honored to welcome as new members the following: Everette Lee DeGolyer, to succeed Harvey N. Davis, deceased ; Craw- ford Hallock Greenewalt, to succeed Vannevar Bush, resigned; and Caryl Parker Haskins, to succeed Owen Josephus Roberts, deceased. The annual informal dinner meeting of the Board was held in the main hall of the Smithsonian Building on the evening of January 12, 1956, amid various exhibits showing phases of the work being carried on at present. Brief talks on their special fields of research and ac- tivities were made by two staff members: Dr. T. Dale Stewart and Dr. Fred L. Whipple. The regular annual meeting of the Board was held on January 13, 1956. At this meeting the Secretary presented his published annual report on the activities of the Institution and its bureaus; and Robert VY. Fleming, chairman of the executive and permanent committees of the Board, presented the financial report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1955. The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; Vice President Richard Nixon; members from the Senate: Clinton P. An- derson, Leverett Saltonstall, H. Alexander Smith; members from 412575—57——2 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 the House of Representatives: Overton Brooks, Clarence Cannon, John M. Vorys; citizen members: Arthur H. Compton, Everette Lee DeGolyer, Robert V. Fleming, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Caryl P. Haskins, and Jerome C. Hunsaker. FINANCES A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian pri- vate funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, page 204. APPROPRIATIONS Funds appropriated to the Institution for its regular operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956, total $4,166,000, obligated as follows: Mia rial gern Gri bet Sc ee Se a ck te a ed eS es a $77, 906 WnitedStatessNational Museums. =e eee ee oe ee ee 1, 386, 023 BUreCa TOL -AINeriGAN HLT Ol Oya a ee eee eee 59, 248 Astrophysical Observatoryeee= eee 2 eS Se 121, 102 National¥CollectioniofiminerArisz 22: 262 Fase eee ee 47, 635 National SAir Musetime!.. 23% 0 os 8 aos be ee OY oe Ed een 120, 334 International suxchanges Service 2s 225 9s ee ee 90, 946 Canal Zone: Biolog) Cal Aw Ca ees case ee EB es ee ee 14, 326 Maintenance and operation of buildings___________________-_______- 1, 826, 376 Other general'services #2232) _ 2 Nh OE Sh eee oe BS 422, 104 MOG a ep 2 ee Ee ee he ee ee 4, 166, 000 In addition, the Institution received an appropriation of $2,288,000 for the preparation of plans and specifications for the new Museum of History and Technology. Besides these direct appropriations, the Institution received funds by transfer from other Government agencies as follows: From the District of Columbia for the National Zoological Park______ $690, 900 From the National Park Service, Department of the Interior, for the RiversBasiniSurvey sss: i: ue einige. een. ofa) Se eee eee ae 92,360 VISITORS Visitors to the Smithsonian group of buildings during the year reached an all-time high of 4,145,591, which was approximately a quarter of a million more than the previous year. April 1956 was the month of largest attendance, with 667,752; May 1956 second, with 597,566; June 1956 third, with 489,999. Largest attendance for a single day was 54,466 for March 31,1956. Table 1 gives a summary of the attendance records for the five buildings. These figures, when added to the 3,788,229 estimated visitors at the National Zoological Park and 1,013,246 recorded at the National Gallery of Art, make a total number of visitors at the Smithsonian of 8,947,066. SECRETARY’S REPORT 9 TABLE 1.—Visitors to certain Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June 80, 1956 Smithso- | Arts and Natural Aircraft Freer Year and month nian Build | Industries | History Building | Building Total ing Building | Building 1955 DULY 2 - 26S. - Sets sees 2a bee oe 72, 782 191, 975 $3, 645 62, 162 10, 392 430, 956 WAUIRUS Ge se ae fe Ene 79, 521 195, 036 100, 443 62, 002 11, 021 448, 023 Septenmmper 22220427 tia2 . Sa 47,146 110, 582 64, 918 37, 020 7, 914 267, 580 October ss see tee 4 39, 978 107, 259 70, 290 29, 331 6, 553 253, 411 IWOVOIIDGI= 2-2 soot 52 238 £525 33, 959 76, 639 59, 150 26, 801 5, 371 201, 920 IDSC 0”. ee 20, 632 44, 485 40, 088 20, 058 3, 209 128, 472 1956 UANUATY oo eset ke es 22, 059 54, 566 43, 515 21, 325 3, 604 145, 069 Hepruary 4 9 = 2 aa et 30, 761 66, 471 58, 645 26, 793 4, 756 187, 426 Nrarchaessiee eee ee to 52, 088 148, 340 84, 211 36, 145 6,633 | 327,417 Amrit ts 8 eT! 132, 642 284, 232 155, 494 82, 412 12,972 | 667, 752 17 ES is Sa SS ae 101, 112 281, 049 135, 286 69, 102 11,017 597, 566 FUNG Se 4) a= Sons ose ee 83, 368 235, 846 101, 839 58, 058 10, 834 489, 999 sPotalese eases en ee! 716,048 | 1,796,480 | 1,007, 578 531, 209 94,276 | 4,145, 591 A special record was kept during the year of groups of school children visiting the Institution. These figures are given in table 2: TABLE 2.—Groups of school children visiting the Smithsonian Institution, 1955-1956 Year and month Number of | Number of groups children 1956 Ahh a eS ee 24 ce ee ae eae es eee eee 37 1, 054 PAURTEEUIS beeen rte ose ocr rae TS eta ee ee ee 139 4,379 NeEplrempersanne se we ore mehr a laergs icles selorr 94 2, 585 October 2 sn ee ee eat ee 313 10, 559 INO Veber eet we ia te eae eae eh tee eA 389 12, 392 Ietembery. 2S od sireyiys To aun lage je et! 167 4,717 1956 Januaryeaeoina lanrsnianaswier rye ota thyeep T 190 5, 086 HD RUA ete eee eo ee i Sevan 369 10, 621 1 LAT x ia a a «at ee cs 2p eas 1 il 41, 655 April: pemets hin eetote heatnn) TL Anti wares) 2, 501 94, 569 OPS 2 le eee eRe rp TR ee 2 853 152, 961 Abie ey ofa atime) a eckig as thE “dott a apap ade ee SON pag poe Eas wo ee cae 1, 194 44, 609 AUG Lapeptpinene ota Ulery 1a Be plies OnEee oy ENE hoe, 10, 457 385, 187 LECTURES In 1931 the Institution received a bequest from James Arthur, of New York City, a part of the income from which was to be used for an annual lecture on some aspect of the study of thesun. The twenty- third Arthur lecture was delivered in the auditorium of the Natural History Building on the evening of April 26, 1956, by Dr. Donald H. 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Menzel, director of the Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. This illustrated lecture, on the subject “The Edge of the Sun,” will be published in full in the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1956. John K. Marshall, of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., showed his color film “The Hunters—African Bushmen” before a large audience in the Natural History Building auditorium on the evening of February 9, 1956. This showing was under the joint sponsorship of the Smithsonian Institution and the Anthropological Society of Washington. Prof. Millar Burrows, chairman of the Department of Near Eastern Languages, Yale University Graduate School, delivered his lecture on “The Dead Sea Scrolls” before an overflow audience in the Natural History Building on the evening of February 29, 1956. This lecture was sponsored jointly with the Archaeological Institute of America. Dr. Gunnar Thorson, of the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Den- mark, on the evening of May 10, 1956, lectured on the subject “The Relationship Between Prey and Predator on the Sea Bottom” in the auditorium of the Natural History Building. This was one of a series of lectures that this distinguished foreign scientist delivered in America that season. Several lectures were also sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these bureaus. BIO-SCIENCES INFORMATION EXCHANGE The Bio-Sciences Information Exchange continued during the year under the directorship of Dr. Stella L. Deignan. This agency operates within the Smithsonian Institution under funds made available to the Institution by other governmental agencies. By performing the unique function of effecting an exchange of information on work just beginning or not yet published, it serves as a clearinghouse for current research in the biological, medical, and psychological sciences. Its services are provided, free of charge, to investigators associated with recognized research institutions in the United States and abroad. The body of information within the Exchange now consists of brief abstracts of over 10,000 active research projects and of a somewhat greater number of summary statements on investigations which are no longer current. The studies registered with the Exchange are for the most part being carried out in laboratories in the United States. Requests for information on work in scientific fields come to the Exchange from granting agencies, committees, and from individual investigators. For the first two groups, detailed surveys of current work in broad fields are provided; for the individual investigator the service is limited to information on work on one or a series of specifi- SECRETARY'S REPORT 11 cally defined problems. The purpose is not that of a reference library to provide guidance to publications, but to place investigators in contact with others having immediate and similar interests. During the fiscal year 1956 replies to over 900 requests for subject information were supplied by the Exchange. Among these were requests for rosters of scientists to be used in planning symposia, con- ferences, and international scientific meetings, and calls from scientists abroad who were planning itineraries for visiting United States laboratories, as well as from investigators planning problems and wishing to know of others in related fields. A primary purpose of the Exchange is to prevent the inadvertent duplication of support by granting agencies of a field of research or of an investigator. To carry out this responsibility, the Exchange prepares, at the request of government and nongovernment granting agencies, résumés of the support of men, research institutions, and departments of such institutions. Approximately 7,500 such reports were prepared during the year. Because a large proportion of the research registered is supported by grants and contracts, the Exchange prepares for its cooperating agencies and, within the limits of its charter, for other qualified groups, statistical information on the amount and distribution of research support. As a correlation to liaisons with granting agencies, it pro- vides also a considerable body of information on the general policies of granting agencies. As staff and time permit, this information is employed to aid scientists in locating possible sources of support. JUNIOR LEAGUE DOCENT ACTIVITIES In the fall of 1955, through the cooperative assistance of the Junior League of Washington, a program was inaugurated for a volunteer docent or educational guide service in Smithsonian exhibition halls for elementary school children in the Greater Washington area. Such a service has long been needed at the Institution. The project is one of many voluntary programs undertaken by members of the Junior League. This program is under the immediate supervision of Frank M. Setzler, head curator of the National Museum’s department of anthro- pology, who undertook the task in addition to his regular duties. Representing the Junior League are Mrs. Robert Nelson, Jr., chair- man of the project, and Mrs. Alexander Chilton, vice chairman. They organized the volunteers and met frequently with the Secretary, Mr. Setzler, and other Museum officials concerned with procedures and scripts. To begin the program, two of the recently modernized exhibition halls were selected—the Hall of American Indians and the First 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Ladies Hall. The professional staff of the Smithsonian Institution prepared the scripts used by the docents. All the drudgery of organ- izing the tours, notifying the various elementary school systems in the District and those in the adjoining counties of Maryland and Virginia, and making all tour arrangements with the school teacher and respective docent, was graciously assumed by Mrs. Nelson and Mrs. Chilton. On January 25, 1956, the first trial was held in the American Indian Hall, and the first official scheduled tours began February 20. The following Junior Leaguers served as docents in the American Indian Hall: Mrs. George Goodrich, Mrs. William McClure, Mrs. Robert McCormick, Miss Mary McNeil, Mrs. John Manfuso, Mrs. John Mash- burn, Mrs. Robert Nelson, Mrs. Bolling Powell, Mrs. Walter Slowin- ski, and Mrs. George Wyeth. During the final stages of completing the First Ladies Hall, a script was prepared emphasizing in this unique display graphic por- trayals of interesting episodes in our American history. The program for fifth- and sixth-grade pupils was inaugurated on March 29, 1956. The following served as docents in the First Ladies Hall: Mrs. Alex- ander Chilton, Mrs. William Evers, Mrs. Walter Graves, Mrs. Harold Hull, Mrs. John W. Kern, III, Miss Mary L. Krayenbuhl, Mrs. Peter MacDonald, Mrs. Jay B. L. Reeves, and Mrs. John Schoenfeld. In reviewing the number of tours and children accommodated in this short period, I am extremely pleased with the response and yet somewhat chagrined that the Institution has not been able in the past to offer more of this kind of service. The numerous requests for it only accentuate the acute need for this type of educational pro- gram. Moreover, it becomes especially desirable as we continue to modernize our exhibition halls. During the 3-month period in the American Indian Hall the Junior League completed 58 tours, escort- ing over 3,000 third- and fourth-grade pupils. During the 244- month period in the First Ladies of the White House Hall, 44 tours guided over 1,500 elementary school classes. One of the most encouraging features resulting from a final con- ference before the summer vacation period began was the manifest enthusiasm on the part of the Junior Leaguers to continue this school guide service in the aforementioned two halls and to extend the pro- gram to other new halls as they are completed and opened to the public. In many ways the project has been the culmination of several years of hopes, desires, and plans for assisting school children in under- standing the Smithsonian’s new and modernized exhibition halls. I feel confident that the members of the Board of Regents join with me in expressing gratitude to the members of the Junior League SECRETARY’S REPORT 13 Docent Service and those members of our professional staff who par- ticipated in the establishment of one more educational program within the Smithsonian Institution. SUMMARY OF THE YEAR’S ACTIVITIES OF THE INSTITUTION National Museum.—Accessions to the national collections showed a normal growth, slightly more than 900,000 specimens being added during the year. The total catalog entries in all departments now number 43,756,010. Some of the year’s outstanding accessions in- cluded : In anthropology, collections of ethnological material from the Sudan, Peru, and New Zealand, fine lots of pottery and ceramic tiles, a collection of Mexican jadeite, a series of pathological human bones from Illinois, and a group of early Eskimo skeletons; in zoology, valu- able collections of mammals from Siam and Africa, a Ross seal from the Antarctic, a giant sea bass from the Marshall Islands, a collection of over 230,000 termites, and more than 10,000 invertebrates from the Antarctic; in botany, the James Smith Memorial Collection of fossil diatoms from the Philippines and important lots of plants from Brazil, New Guinea, Australia, Idaho, and Alaska; in geology, an exhibit of synthetic diamonds, 11 meteorites new to the Museum, sev- eral thousand miscellaneous but important invertebrate fossils in- cluding many type specimens, a notable collection of fossil fishes and reptiles from Kansas, and an example of a very rare Middle Eocene bowfin from Wyoming; in engineering and industries, an unusual number of turbine and other power machines; and in history, additions to the collection of White House state china, more than 30,000 phila- telic specimens lent by former Postmaster General James A. Farley, including original, autographed sketches of stamps made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Members of the staff conducted fieldwork in Peru, Europe, Canada, Palau Archipelago, Libya, West Indies, Panama, and many parts of the United States. The exhibits-modernization program was successfully continued, and the new Bird Hall was opened to the public. Bureau of American Ethnology.—The staff members of the Bureau continued their researches and publication in ethnology and arche- ology: Dr. Stirling his Panamanian studies, Dr. Roberts his work as Director of the River Basin Surveys, Dr. Collins his archeological fieldwork in the Hudson Bay area, and Dr. Drucker his Mexican studies. Astrophysical Observatory.—Scientific headquarters of the Observ- atory were moved to Cambridge, Mass., at the beginning of the year. Broadened research programs of the agency now include not only strictly solar research but also meteoritic studies and studies of the 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 higher atmosphere. The Observatory is also participating in the new Satellite Tracking Program of the International Geophysical Year. The division of radiation and organisms continued its research on the role of light in regulating growth in higher plants. National Collection of Fine Arts—The Smithsonian Art Commis- sion accepted for the Gallery 1 oil painting, 3 miniatures, a German antique cabinet, a collection of 31 pieces of glassware, 2 ceramic pieces, and 8 bronze busts. The Gallery held 13 special exhibits during the year, while the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service circulated 72 exhibitions, 71 in the United States and 1 abroad. Freer Gallery of Art.—Purchases for the collections of the Freer Gallery included Chinese bronzes, paintings, and pottery; Japanese lacquer work, metalwork, and painting; Indian and Syrian metal- work; Coptic painting; and Persian pottery. The Gallery continued its program of illustrated lectures in the auditorium by distinguished scholars in Eastern art. National Air Museum.—All the Museum’s stored materials have now been moved to the storage facility at Suitland, Md. During the year 118 specimens in 45 separate accessions were added to the aero- nautical collections, including the first Pitcairn autogiro constructed in America, a Stearman-Hammond airplane of the 1930’s, the Curtiss Robin monoplane Ole Miss, which established an endurance record in 1935, an original amphibious aircraft of 1909-12, and a Bell P-39 Airacobra, besides many scale models and other aeronautical acces- sories and equipment. National Zoological Park.—The Zoo accessioned 1,710 individual animals during the year, and 2,155 were removed by death, exchange, or return to depositors. The net count at the close of the year was 2,965. Noteworthy among the additions were a pair of European wisents, a rare dwarf Bolivian armadillo, an olingo from Colombia, fine examples of gelada baboons, and a Guianan crested eagle. In all, 252 creatures were born or hatched at the Zoo during the year—77 mammals, 43 birds, and 182 reptiles. Visitors totaled 3,788,229. Canal Zone Biological Area.—Mr. Zetek, longtime resident man- ager, retired at the end of May. He is succeeded by Dr. Carl B. Koford. The year’s visitors to the island totaled 440, of whom about 50 were scientists using the station’s facilities for special researches. International Exchange Service—aAs the official United States agency for the exchange of governmental, scientific, and literary publications between this country and other nations, the International Exchange Service handled during the year 1,161,855 packages of such publications, weighing 803,056 pounds, about the same as last year. Consignments were made to all countries except China, North Korea, SECRETARY’S REPORT 15 Outer Mongolia, Communist-controlled areas of Viet-Nam and Laos, and the Haiphong Enclave. National Gallery of Art—The Gallery received 477 accessions dur- ing the year, by gift, loan, or deposit. Ten special exhibits were held, and 23 traveling exhibitions of prints from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated to other galleries and museums. Exhibitions from the “Index of American Design” were given 42 bookings in 20 States and the District of Columbia. Nearly 46,000 persons attended the various tours conducted by Gallery personnel, and the 42 Sunday-afternoon lectures in the auditorium attracted 9,470. The Sunday-evening concerts in the east garden court were continued. Library.—A total of 78,715 publications were received by the Smith- sonian library during the year. In all, 237 new exchanges were ar- ranged. Among the gifts were several private collections of valuable material, both of books and periodicals. At the close of the year the holdings of the library and all its branches aggregated 956,157 vol- umes, including 586,447 in the Smithsonian Deposit in the Library of Congress but excluding unbound periodicals and reprints and sepa- rates from serial publications. Publications.—Seventy-four new publications appeared under the Smithsonian imprint during the year (see Report on Publications, p- 197, for full list). Outstanding among these were “The Brome- liaceae of Brazil,” by Lyman B. Smith; “The Last Cruise of H. M. S. Loo,” by Mendel L. Peterson; “Chazyan and Related Brachiopods” (2 vols.) by G. Arthur Cooper; “The Honey-Guides,” by Herbert Friedmann; “The Diné: Origin Myths of the Navaho Indians,” by Aileen O’Bryan; and “Chinese Porcelains from the Ardebil Shrine,” by John Alexander Pope. In all, 424,389 copies of printed matter were distributed during the year. Report on the United States National Museum Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi- tion and operations of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956: COLLECTIONS During the year 905,473 specimens were added to the national col- lections and distributed among the six departments as follows: An- thropology, 19,371; zoology, 409,127; botany, 32,616; geology, 48,900 ; engineering and industries, 4,292; history, 391,167. This increase is smaller than last year, when the unusual increase resulted from the accession of several million small fossils. This year’s total is a more normal annual accretion. Most of the accessions were received as gifts from individuals or as transfers from Government departments and agencies. The Annual Report of the Museum, published as a separate document, contains a detailed list of the year’s accessions, of which the more important are summarized below. Catalog entries in all departments now total 43,756,010. Anthropology—Among the outstanding accessions received in the division of ethnology is a collection of specimens from the environs of Nasir on the Sabat River in South Sudan, East Africa, presented by Rev. A. MacRoy, an American missionary. These come from an area hitherto unrepresented in the national collections. An interest- ing object is a much-worn leopard skin, a traditional court accessory, on which the witness sits while giving evidence during a trial. A perjurer would be subject to dire consequences if he gave false evi- dence while sitting on this leopard skin. Rings perforating one cor- ner indicate the number of occasions the skin has been used by wit- nesses. Another item, significant of the culture of the Nuer, is a fight- ing bracelet of brass, generally worn on the right wrist by men and women alike. While building a railroad in about 1910, Alexander J. Norris col- lected objects used in the daily life of the Arawak Indians living in the colony of Perené in the watershed of the Rio Perené (upper Uca- yali River), and from the Quechua Indians in the vicinity of Cuzco, Peru. These ethnological specimens consist of hunting and fishing weapons, woven ponchos, and various objects of personal adornment, 16 SECRETARY’S REPORT Hz. presented by Mr. and Mrs. Joseph C. Green. Another acquisition of note, a stylistically carved wooden treasure box, “waka,” originally presented to President Calvin Coolidge by the assembled chiefs of the Arawa, was transferred from the Department of State. The Arawa, a federation of Maori tribes living on the east coast of New Zealand’s North Island, claim descent from members of the Arawa, the legend- ary voyaging canoe that brought the Maori to New Zealand. A notable collection of ceramic tiles given to the division by E. Stanley Wires, ranges from early Moorish, Spanish, and Dutch tiles to Amer- ican types of recent manufacthure. They are the result of Mr. Wires’s lifetime interest in the history of tile manufacturing. Through the efforts of Mr. Wires, the tile collection was further enhanced by a pair of ceramic tile panels with animal designs in relief, sculptured by the late Frederick G. R. Roth and presented by his widow. Other donations to the ethnological collections include a total of 170 examples of Rockwood and other late nineteenth century and early twentieth century pottery assembled by the late Dr. Edwin Kirk and presented by his widow, Mrs. Page Kirk; 17 examples of stoneware and pottery made by country potters in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, given by Clyde N. Fahrney; and numerous glass and ceramic specimens together with documented papers and account books presented by Miss Madeleine Wilkinson. The division of archeology received a collection of 187 polished jadeite and other stone objects from La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico, as a permanent loan from the Museo Nacional, Mexico. ‘These include beads, celts, figurines, ear-spool parts, and other objects representing the prehistoric Olmec culture of southeastern Mexico. A group of conch-shell segments elaborately carved with anthropomorphic and ceremonial art motifs in the style of the late prehistoric Southern Cult, from the Spiro Mound, near Spiro, Okla., was received as an indefinite loan from the Lightner Museum of Hobbies, St. Augustine, Fla. - a = ov - ¥ vo n SECRETARY'S REPORT 55 With the added results of the current year’s work, it is now possible to identify at least nine archeological complexes in the Oahe portion of the Missouri Basin, covering the years about A. D. 850 to 1859. Some indications have been found of occupations belonging to an earlier period, but they are not sufficiently known as yet to be included in the definitely identified list. In the Fort Randall Reservoir two field parties operated in the 1955 field season. The Nebraska State Historical Society, under a cooper- ative agreement with the National Park Service, had a party directed by Marvin F. Kivett excavating at the Crow Creek site (89B¥F11). Work was started on this site in the 1954 season and the second sea- son’s digging there was completed late in August of 1955. This com- plex site contains the remains of two and possibly three occupations ranging in time over 3800 or more years. The season’s work provided new data on village plans, house types, fortifications, and relationships of this area to other areas in South Dakota and Nebraska. The second party in this area was that of the University of Kansas led by Dr. Carlyle S. Smith of that institution and working under a cooperative agreement with the National Park Service. They exca- vated site 89B F204 over a 7-week period ending the last of July. They also conducted some test excavations in site 39BF201, which appeared to be culturally identical to the former site. Both relate directly to the Spain site (89L.M301) and the Talking Crow site (89BF3), which were excavated in previous years by parties under Dr. Smith. In the Big Bend Reservoir area a Smithsonian Institution party directed by Harold A. Huscher began an intensive survey and site- testing operation in this newly activated reservoir on the Missouri River in South Dakota on June 2. The party planned to search the entire reservoir area for archeological potentialities. It was scheduled to visit all known sites, locate all possible new sites, and make explora- tory tests in all of them in order to determine what additional excava- tion must be done before inundation. By the end of the fiscal year it had visited and tested 20 sites and had located several others from pre- vious records. In the Lovewell Reservoir area a Smithsonian Institution party directed by Robert W. Neuman began the excavation, on June 12, of three sites on White Rock Creek in Jewell County, Kans. They started at site 14JW1 and worked there until the end of the fiscal year. The other two sites are 14JW2 and 14JW201. These sites should help materially in establishing the significance and cultural 412575576 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 content of the White Rock Focus and its relation to the western ex- tension of the Oneota Aspect. A total of 15 parties were in the field during fiscal 1956, 7 in the 1955 season, and 8 in the 1956 season, investigating archeological remains in 8 reservoirs. ‘They conducted excavations at 24 sites, tested over 40 sites, and examined the surfaces of nearly 100 sites. Fach field party consisted of a crew chief and from 6 to 10 crewmen. Bulldozers and other heavy equipment, supplied through the courtesy of the Lytle-Green Construction Company and the Corps of Engi- neers, were used at some sites in order to expedite investigations. At all reservoir projects the complete cooperation of the Corps of Engi- neers and the Bureau of Reclamation personnel was always willingly given. On May 14 three members of this staff jomed Dr. Dwight R. Cran- dell of the U. S. Geological Survey, Denver office, on an archeological- geological field trip to the areas of the Oahe, Big Bend, and Fort Randall Reservoirs in South Dakota. The party was in the field for seven days, examining Pleistocene and early Recent geological de- posits and fossil soils. The principal purpose of the trip was to instruct members of the River Basin Surveys staff how to recognize possible localities where archeological deposits of Early Man mate- rial or other pre-pottery cultural remains might be found. The results of the trip, while negative from the standpoint of actually finding such sites, provided this office with a great deal of informa- tion as to where and how to search for such material in the future and what might be expected in specific localities. The three members of this staff who accompanied Dr. Crandell were Richard P. Wheeler, G. Hubert Smith, and Lee G. Madison. Dr. Crandell’s participation in the project was arranged through the cooperation of Dr. Wilmot H. Bradley, Chief, Geologic Division of the Geological Survey. While fieldwork during the fiscal year was devoted to phases 1 and 2 (survey and excavation) of the salvage program, laboratory and office activities were devoted to phases 3 and 4 (analysis and report- ing). During the time the archeologists were not in the field they were engaged in analyses of their materials and in laboratory and library research. They also prepared manuscripts of technical scien- tific reports and wrote articles and papers of a more popular nature. The laboratory and office staff devoted its time to processing specimen materials for study, photographing specimens and preparing speci- men records, and typing and filing records and manuscript materials. The accomplishments of the laboratory and office staff are listed in the following tables. SECRETARY’S REPORT Vi TABLE 1.—Artifact materials processed Number Catalog | Number of Reservoir of sites numbers | specimens assigned | processed (GHIBST (6 (G\cae eine RR Pa pS cd Sl ge ley Aa are Bao BTN 16 431 585 Nlrerrit ts ayes Seek hy Sie ter Vee lek Pate et iy 1 Mi 220 OS ao eS sae eee eS See eee ee 14 5, 183 36, 376 ANN OYE) collie le a Da ER ub 3 a ES eR a teed See 3 172 374 Non=Rieservoire Gas owd P e e eee 2 58 70 THE SISTED 125 aS ea OR OT ee RE te 4 179 527 AKC tie A A BB oh gh 5 ee Se 40 6, 030 Soalb2 As of June 30, 1956, the Missouri Basin project had cataloged 570,238 specimens from 1,517 numbered sites and 47 collections not assigned site numbers. Two shipments of archeological materials were sent to the United States National Museum for permanent transfer. One was by Missouri Basin project vehicle and consisted largely of fragile items such as human skeletal remains, pottery vessels and vessel sections, bone, shell, and wooden artifacts. The second was by truck freight and consisted of stone specimens and other more durable materials. TABLE 2.—Record materials processed CH EXT CODIESPOLeTCCOLGS 22 SE ae 8 ee St eee a ae ae ere cere ee Ss 1, 286 ENOCOSEAPHICENCLAC Ves sri Ces ees se ee 615 PHOLOsr ap hice pLiNts) 11 MOC ae ae es ee 2, 784 Photosraphicaprints mounted: and filed] === 202s ee ee ee 1, 004 Platenayours made LOL ManUSCELPUS= sos ee nes en eee eee eee 42 AMTaANSpATenciess Mounted Ine Classe] 22s 2 eae ee Deel ee eee eee 81 Driwinesacracines* And: Maps sss 2) L oerk Sah et he ee ee 14 ER OthenyaayeSS@IS: TEStOred=s:3 22 Bs sed od a SEEN gee 3 Bottenvivessel-sections restored..= 2 #2 ee 32 On May 3, 4, and 5 the annual meetings of the Society for American Archaeology were held in Lincoln, Nebr. As a programmed part of the meetings, Thursday evening, May 3, was devoted to an “open house” at the Missouri Basin project laboratory at 1517 “O” Street. The office and laboratory were prepared with suitable displays of photographic and specimen materials in order to best exhibit the work of the Missouri Basin project. The “open house” was scheduled for 8:00 to 10:00 p. m. but lasted until well past midnight. Approxi- mately 120 people visited the office and laboratory at that time. Most of the activities of the Lincoln office during the first three weeks in March were devoted to a general remodeling of the office space at 1517 “O” Street. The entire first floor was cleaned and painted. The floors were sanded and coated with floor preservative. 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The west half of the first floor was partitioned into seven office cubicles. A map room was made and the filing and secretarial facilities were im- proved. All the work was done by members of the staff. Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, chief of the Missouri Basin project, re- turned to Lincoln on January 10 after 16 months academic leave and resumed his duties at the headquarters and laboratory. During the remainder of the fiscal year most of his activities were directed toward the preparation of plans for the summer’s field program. In addition, he started work on a summary report of the Missouri Basin Salvage Program for the calendar years 1952-1955. He presented a paper, “Topography of a Late Archeological Site,” at the 66th Annual Meet- ing of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences held in Lincoln on April 20-21. An abstract of the paper was published in the Proceedings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences. He also took an active part in the annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology held in Lincoln May 3-5 and presented a paper entitled “Pottery from the Accokeek Site, Maryland.” At the close of the fiscal year he was pre- paring to take a field party to the Sully site (39SL4) in the Oahe area north of Pierre, S. Dak. Harold A. Huscher, field assistant, who worked several previous seasons for the River Basin Surveys, rejoined the staff on May 28, and on June 2 left Lincoln in charge of a survey party which proceeded to Pierre, S. Dak., and began a reconnaissance of the proposed Big Bend Reservoir area on the Missouri River. The work of the Huscher party was continuing on June 30. Robert W. Neuman, temporary field assistant, joined the staff on June 11. He left Lincoln on June 12 as the leader of a party which proceeded to the Lovewell Reservoir on White Rock Creek, Jewell County, Kans. By the end of the fiscal year he had excavated for two weeks in site 14JW1 and one week in site 14JW201. The work of Mr. Neuman and his party was handicapped by severe rains but was continuing at the close of the year. G. Hubert Smith, archeologist, as previously stated was in charge of the Lincoln office during most of the period from July 1 to January 10. His work for the Department of Justice pertained to preparing an ethnohistorical report on the Omaha tribe and appearing as a wit- ness at a hearing held in Washington late in September when his report was introduced as evidence. During the fall and winter months Mr. Smith completed the manuscript of a detailed archeological report on excavations at the site of Fort Berthold II (32ML2) in the Garri- son Reservoir area in North Dakota. In addition Mr. Smith worked on a manuscript pertaining to excavations at Fort Berthold I and the adjacent Like-a-Fishhook Village. The latter paper is being prepared in collaboration with Alan R. Woolworth of the North Dakota His- torical Society and James H. Howard who was formerly associated SECRETARY’S REPORT 59 with that organization and is now at the Kansas City Museum. Mr. Smith participated in the annual Plains Archeological Conference, the meetings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences and of the Society for American Archaeology which were held at Lincoln. At the An- thropological Section of the Academy of Sciences, he presented a paper on the ethnographic contributions of Paul Wilhelm, Duke of Wuerttemberg, who first visited the Upper Missouri region in 1820. Early in May Mr. Smith went to Pierre, S. Dak., and spent a week with the geological party that was studying deposits in the Oahe Reservoir area. Following that activity he remained at Pierre and began his regular summer’s program, as mentioned in previous pages. Mr. Smith’s party was continuing its excavations just below the Oahe Dam at the end of the year. Upon completing the 1955 season’s work Dr. Waldo R. Wedel re- turned to Lincoln, and before his departure for Washington from the Missouri Basin project headquarters, proceeded to Turin, Iowa, to examine a reported find of human skeletons. He was accompanied by Lawrence L. Tomsyck of the Lincoln office, and when they arrived at the location of the burials they joined representatives from a num- ber of institutions in studying the finds. Absence of diagnostic arti- facts with the skeletons precluded any valid estimate of age or cul- tural affiliations, but nothing was noted that would confirm assertions which had been freely made that the bones were those of Paleo-Indians and had a Pleistocene dating. Upon his return to Washington Dr. Wedel resumed his regular duties at the U. S. National Museum. He was again detailed to the River Basin Surveys for the 1956 season and reported at the Lincoln headquarters on June 4. His subsequent activities were described in the preceding discussion of field parties in the Oahe area. Richard P. Wheeler, archeologist, was in charge of a field party working in the Oahe Reservoir area from July 25 through October 29. During the remainder of the fiscal year he devoted his time to analyz- ing the materials obtained in the field and in working on a number of technical reports and short articles. One article, “Recent Archeo- logical Salvage Operations in the Missouri Basin,” was published in the Missouri River Basin Progress Report, October-December, 1955, and another, “ ‘Quill Flatteners’ or Pottery Modeling Tools,” was published in the Plains Anthropologist, April 1956. Wheeler pre- sented a paper on his work in the Oahe Dam area at the Plains Con- ference in November and participated in a number of discussions during the conference. He was elected chairman of the 14th Plains Conference which will be held in Lincoln in November 1956. At the end of the fiscal year Mr. Wheeler was at the Lincoln headquarters working on reports. 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Cooperating institutions Several State and local institutions con- tinued to cooperate in the Inter-Agency Salvage Program throughout the year, although the shortage of funds for working agreements in projects outside the Missouri Basin considerably reduced the activities. Several State groups carried on independently but their investigations were correlated with the general program. The New York State Museum at Albany kept close check on projects in that State. The Department of Anthropology at the University of Michigan studied the possible effect of proposed enlargements of the South Canal on St. Marys River on archeological manifestations in that district. The University of Minnesota made preliminary investigations relative to sites that may be involved in the flood-control program for the Mankato area. The Florida State Museum checked several proposed canal routes in the northern part of Florida. The Ohio State Histor- ical and Archeological Society continued salvage work in several localities, and the Historical Society of Indiana included examination of proposed reservoir areas in its general program for surveys in that State. The University of California Archeological Survey did some further work on projects for which it previously had agreements with the National Park Service, and the Archeological Survey Association of Southern California continued its volunteer efforts in the vicinity of San Diego. In the Columbia Basin the University of Oregon did additional digging at sites on the Oregon side of the Columbia River at the Dalles Reservoir, while the University of Washington continued its investigations on the Washington side. The only work done under an agreement with the National Park Service, except for that previously described for the Missouri Basin, was that of the University of Missouri in the Table Rock Reservoir on the White River in southern Missouri. Ge sees Male Wood Duck, by Abbott H. Thayer. LOANS RETURNED Oil, Abraham Lincoln, by George H. Story, lent March 15, 1955, te the Department of Justice, was returned November 22, 1955. 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Oil, Andrew Jackson, by Ralph E. Earl, lent September 20, 1949, to the Department of State, was returned November 30, 1955. Oil, Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, by Capt. Sir Oswald Birley, lent June 29, 1955, to the Bureau of the Budget, was returned November 30, 1955. Two oils, Charles G. Abbot, by Samantha L. Huntley, and Charles D. Walcott, by Hattie Burdette, lent April 17, 1953, to the National Academy of Sciences, were returned November 30, 1955. Oil, Samuel P. Langley, by Robert G. Hardie, lent May 1, 1950, to the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory of the National Advisory Com- mittee for Aeronautics, Langley Field, Va., was returned December 2, 1955. Oil, Man in White (Dr. Henry S. Drinker), by Cecilia Beaux, lent December 7, 1954, to the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Phila- delphia, Pa., was returned December 15, 1955. Oil, Early Spring, by Alexander T. Van Laer, lent November 10, 1953, to the Department of State, was returned January 16, 1956. Oil, Summer, by Charles H. Davis, lent September 17, 1954, to The White House, was returned April 4, 1956. Oil, Stephen Decatur, by Gilbert Stuart, lent August 11, 1955, to the Naval Historical Foundation, was returned May 1, 1956. SMITHSONIAN LENDING COLLECTION Oil, Grand Canyon, by Carl Oscar Borg (1879-1947), a gift of Mrs. Martin O. Elmberg, was accepted December 6, 1955. Two hundred and seventeen unframed oils, by Frank W. Stokes (1858-1955), to be known as the Arthur Curtis James and Robert Curtis Ogden Memorial Collection, were added. One hundred and thirty-five were received July 19, 1954; 76 on April 5, 1955; and 6 on May 18, 1955. The following paintings were lent for varying periods: To the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, Washington, DACrs Afadhy tsps (Slats eee Se ee Hippolyte Dreyfus, by Alice Pike Barney. La Concord, by Edwin Scott. Place de la Concord, No. 2, by Edwin Scott. Porte St. Martin, No. 1, by Edwin Scott. Rue de Village, by Edwin Scott. Rue des Pyramides, by Edwin Scott. Rue San Jacques, by Edwin Scott. Self Portrait, by Edwin Scott. Mayi24 1195642222 Marine, by Edwin Scott. The Seine at Paris, by Hdwin Scott. SECRETARY'S REPORT Sl To the Department of Labor, Washington, D. C.: Ase AR oppo I fs eae ae A. P. B. in Painting Robe, by Alice Pike Barney. Porte St. Denis, by Edwin Scott. Somnolence, by Edwin Scott. Study of Seated Woman, by Alice Pike Barney. Mme. I. D. C., by Alice Pike Barney. KE. P. (Evalina Palmer), by Alice Pike Barney. Italian Woman and Child, by Alice Pike Barney. Italian Woman at Foot of Steps, by Edwin Scott. La Madeleine, No. 1, by Edwin Scott. Notre Dame in Winter, by Edwin Scott. Old Dwelling, Paris, by Edwin Scott. St. Germain des Pres, No. 1, by Edwin Scott. (The last nine were returned July 27, 1955.) To the Bio-Sciences Information Exchange, Washington, D. C.: olye26 61905252 2 Minnete and Minet, by Alice Pike Barney. The Visitor (Mrs. Richard P. McCuilough), by Alice Pike Barney. Endymion, by Alice Pike Barney. The Dimple, by Alice Pike Barney. Little Girl, by Alice Pike Barney. Hail Fellow, Well Met, by Alice Pike Barney. November 2, 1955______- An Oriental, by Alice Pike Barney. Fantasy, by Alice Pike Barney Gladys, by Alice Pike Barney. Hippolyte Thom, by Alice Pike Barney. Laura in Hat, Profile, by Alice Pike Barney. Natalie in Greens, by Alice Pike Barney. Peggy, by Alice Pike Barney. Romance, by Alice Pike Barney. To the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C.: October 4,°1955__—-_ Musketeer on Guard, by A. Arrunategin. St. Germain des Pres, No. 1, by Edwin Scott. The Bali Temple Festival, by Maurice Sterne. To the Department of Justice, Washington, D. C.: November 21, 1955______ Mountain and Valley, by James Henry Moser. Notre Dame in Winter, by Edwin Scott. La Madeleine, No. 1, by Edwin Scott. Church of St. Germain des Pres, by Edwin Scott. Church and Lake, by Henry Bacon. To the Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C.: February 23, 1956____-- An Evening Effect, Greenland, by Frank W. Stokes. To the Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington, D. C.: June 20; 1956222 === The Placid Potomac, by William H. Holmes Greenland, by Frank W. Stokes. ALICE PIKE BARNEY MEMORIAL FUND Additions to the principal during the year amounting to $1,824.37 have increased the total invested sums in this fund to $36,428.22. 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND No. 176, On Strike, by Robert A. Hitch (1920- ), purchased by the National Academy of Design March 24, 1954, was assigned by the Academy to the Hudson River Museum at Yonkers, Yonkers, N. Y., on December 3, 1955. According to a provision in the Ranger bequest that paintings pur- chased by the Council of the National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger Bequest, and assigned to American art institutions, may be claimed during the 5-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented, four paintings were re-called for action of the Smithsonian Art Commission at its meeting December 6, 1955. No. 28, Brooding Silence, by John F. Carlson, N. A., listed earlier in this report, was accepted by the Smithsonian Art Commission to become a permanent accession. No. 36, Midsummer, by William S. Robinson, N. A. (1861-1945), assigned in 1956 to the George Washington University, Washington, D. C. No. 100, Rhododendron, by H. Dudley Murphy, N. A. (1867-1945), assigned in 1932 to the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Okla. No. 107, The Blue Jar, by Cullen Yates, N. A. (1866-1945), assigned in 1954 to the Norfolk Museum of Arts and Sciences, Norfolk, Va. The last three paintings were returned to the institutions to which they had been assigned by the National Academy of Design, as indicated. SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE Seventy-two exhibitions were circulated during the past season, 71 in the United States and 1 abroad, as follows: UNITED STATES Paintings and Drawings Title Source American Indian Painting__._________ Philbrook Art Center, Tulsa, Okla. American Natural Painters________ —. Galerie St. Etienne and private collec- tions. A Century and A Half of Painting Government of Argentina; Argentine in Argentina. Embassy; private collections. Asi See: Myself. 22... == = ae Ge Junior Arts and Activities; Galerie St. Etienne. Austrian Drawings and Prints_______ Albertina, Vienna; Austrian Embassy. Paintings by Austrian Children______ Superintendent of Schools in Vienna; Austrian Embassy. California eainting =< 2 eee Municipal Art Center, Long Beach, Calif. Paintings by George Catlin__________. Smithsonian Institution, Department of Anthropology. SECRETARY’S REPORT 83 Children’s Paintings from Forty-five Countries IV. Children’s Paintings from Forty-five | Embassy of Denmark; Friendship Among Countries V. Children and Youth Organization. Children’s Paintings from Forty-five Countries VI. Children’s Paintings from Japan.__._. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Dthiopian,Paintingss=— 22.24 - = George Washington University; Dr. Bruce Howe; Embassy of Ethiopia. Watercolors and Drawings by Ga- Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore; Rosen- varni. wald Collection, National Gallery of Art. Germans Dra winge2te sleet Ae German Government; German Museums and private collections; German Em- bassy. Goya Drawings and Prints_____-____ Prado and Galdiano Museums, Madrid; Spanish Hmbassy; Rosenwald Collec- tion, National Gallery of Art. Kialy = Rediscovered 2-22) 22 ss Munson-Williams-Proector Institute, Uti- ca; dealers; museums; artists. 18th Century American Paintings Maxim Karolik; Museum of Fine Arts, from the Karolik Collection. Boston. Kokoschka’s “Magic Flute”__-_______ Minneapolis Institute of Arts; artist. Pennsylvania Painters] = =s- Pennsylvania State University, State College; museums; private collections. BlaniePortnal tae: 2 sie. ae bre University of Colorado Museum, Boulder. Work by Rudy Pozzatti (graphic Print Club of Cleveland; Cleveland work also). Museum of Art; dealers; private collections. Watercolors and Prints by Redouté._. Luxembourg State Museum; private col- lections; Legation of Luxembourg. Sarrenb Watercolors. 2 2- 2e Ss Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Sealpelsiands 3] oe Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Contemporary Swedish Paintings_._._-_ National Museum, Stockholm; Swedish Embassy. Swedish Children’s Paintings________ National Museum, Stockholm; Swedish Embassy. Painters of Venezuela_______________ Ministry of Education at Caracas; Pan American Union. Watercolor Roddy --2-s**5- 4. ote Toledo Museum of Art; dealers; artists. Graphic Arts American Color Prints__.__.__-._--- Library of Congress. Recent British Lithographs____-____ British Council; British Hmbassy. Children’s Picture Books II_________ Washington Post Children’s Book Fair. International Children’s Books__-__-_ Washington Post Children’s Book Fair; Embassies. Contemporary Japanese Prints______ Art Institute of Chicago; Japanese Asso- ciation of Creative Printmakers. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Japanese Woodcuts:=2—" 2 +e United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Southern California Serigraphs__---_ Los Angeles Museum of Art; artists. Woodeuts by Antonio Frasconi____-- The Print Club of Cleveland; The Cleve- land Museum of Art; Weyhe Gallery; artist. Architecture Contemporary Finnish Architecture__ Finnish-American Society; Association of Finnish Architects; Finnish Embassy. New luibrariesl222. 22-2. 2s American Institute of Architects. The Re-Union of Architecture and American Institute of Architects. Engineering. Building in the Netherlands___-_-~- Bond of Netherlands Architects and Bouwcentrum; Netherlands Embassy. San Francisco Bay Region Archi- California Redwood Association; North- tecture. ern California Chapter American In- stitute of Architects. Design American Orattsmeny Wee aaa University of Illinois, Urbana; artists. American Jewelry & Related Ob- Huntington Galleries, Huntington, W. jects I. Va.; artists, Hickok Company. Brazilian Landscape Architecture— Brazilian Embassy; artist. New Designs by Roberto Burle Marx. Contemporary European Tapestry___. Contemporary Arts Association, Houston, Tex.; artists; private collections; mu- seums. DutcheArtstandsiC cats See Department of Education, Arts and Sciences in The Hague; Netherlands Embassy. European Glass Design__-__________ Georg Jensen, Inc.; designers. Fifty Years of Danish Silver________ Georg Jensen, Inc.; Danish Embassy. Hinnish’.Cratis 2: on 2 eee ae Waertsila-Arabia and other Finnish Manufacturers; Finnish-American So- ciety, Helsinki; Finnish Embassy ; art- ists, Tapio Wirkkala and Rut Bryk. Italian-Artsrand Cratis2=22)) 2.2] 2— Compagnia Nazionale Artigiana, Rome; Bonniers; Altamira; Italian Embassy. New Eneland: Cratts= 22-2 eee Worcester Art Museum ; Junior League of Worcester, Inc.; The Craft Center, Worcester, Mass. Tapestries by Hannah Ryggen_______ Norwegian Government ; Embassy of Nor- way; Norwegian Museums; private collections. Ceramics Norwegian Ceramics___.._.._.______ Norwegian Embassy. SECRETARY'S REPORT 85 Oriental Art Chinese Gold and Silver from the Dr. Carl Kempe; Embassy of Sweden. Kempe Collection. Chinese Ivories from the Collection Sir Victor Sassoon. of Sir Victor. Sassoon. Folk Art INSTT LW TE Pe i eo Sake Index of American Design, National Gal- lery of Art. Eskimo Art I Eskimo Art, Inc.; Canadian Handicrafts Eskimo Art III fig vee ye hadae wat Guild. Norwegian Decorative Painting______ Norwegian Artists Guild; Embassy of Norway. Popular Art in the United States_.__._Index of American Design, National Gallery of Art. Scrimshaw HExhibition-_._____.______~ Col. Leslie Buswell. Photography Ansel Adams Photographs 1933-19538__ Artist; George Eastman House, Roch- ester. Architectural Photography__-------- American Institute of Architects; Archi- tectural Photographers Association; George Eastman House. Birds in Color, by Eliot Porter___--- Artist; American Museum of Natural History. Birds of Argentina, by Salvador Artist; Williams Foundation; American Magno. Museum of Natural History. This is the American Earth_-__----~-- Ansel Adams; Nancy Newhall; National Park Service; California Academy of Sciences ; Sierra Club. WMENEGLATIe Vall ts ee ee ae ee Soprintendenza ai Monumenti Medievali e Moderni, Venice; Dr. Michelangelo Muraro; Italian Embassy. Japan, by Werner Bischof__________- Magnum Photos, Ine. Ethnology Art and Magic of Arnhem Land__-_-_-_~_ Smithsonian Institution, Department of Anthropology. Carl Bodmer Paints the Indian Karl Viktor, Prinz zu Wied; German Frontier. Embassy. ABROAD, BY THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY Plastics in America These displays were scheduled as an integral part of the programs of 182 museums and galleries, located in 89 States, the District of Columbia, Hawaii, Canada, and Cuba. 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Twenty-seven exhibitions are in preparation, 26 for circulation in the United States and 1 abroad, as follows: FOR CIRCULATION IN THE UNITED STATES American Printmakers. German Art Books. . A Half Century of Architectural Edu- Contemporary German Prints. cation. Japan II by (second edition), Werner Contemporary American Glass. Bischof. American Jewelry and Related Objects Japanese Woodcuts II (second edition). II (second edition). Landseape Architecture Today. Argentine Children as Illustrators. A. J. Miller Watercolors. Recent Work by Harry Bertoia. Perceptions. Contemporary Brazilian Prints. Prints by Henri-Georges Adam and Canadian Abstract Paintings. John Paul Jones. Prints by Chodowiecki. Sixty Swedish Books. Contemporary Danish Architecture. Swedish Rock Carvings. Dutch Art, 1946-1956. Venetian Villas If (second edition). Harly Prints and Drawings of Cali- The World of Edward Weston. fornia. Fritz Winter and Hans Uhlmann. German Architecture Today. FOR CIRCULATION ABROAD BY THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY John Marin. INFORMATION SERVICE AND STAFF ACTIVITIES In addition to the many requests for information received by mail and telephone, inquiries made in person at the office numbered 2,257. Examination was made of 598 works of art submitted for identification. An article, “The Golden Brush of Kristian Krekovic,” by Thomas M. Beggs, was published in the December 1955 issue of the American Artist and reprinted (revised and translated) in Cultura Peruana, January 1956. Special catalogs were published for the following six exhibitions: Italian Arts and Crafts; German Drawings; Hannah Ryggen; Con- temporary Finnish Architecture; Venetian Villas; and Finnish Crafts—Tapio Wirkkala and Rut Bryk. The last five contained acknowledgments written by Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope, chief of the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service. In recognition of the significant contribution Mrs. Pope had made to the re-establishment of cultural relations between the United States and Germany, she was decorated with the Order of Merit of the Fed- eral Republic of Germany by German Ambassador Heinz L. Krekeler on April 28, 1956. Mr. Beggs discussed the problem of a college museum for classical antiquities at Howard University on December 13, 1955. He was also a speaker at the biennial art banquet of the National League of American Pen Women on April 8, 1956, at the Sheraton-Park Hotel. He served as a judge for four exhibitions in the Washington area. SECRETARY’S REPORT 87 Paul Vickers Gardner, curator of ceramics, attended the Wedgwood International Seminar in Philadelphia on April 12 and 13, 1956, and was moderator of a panel “The Editors Discuss Design,” at the con- vention of the American Ceramic Society held in New York City April 28 through 25, 1956. Rowland Lyon, exhibits preparator, served on the juries of five local exhibitions and one at La Plata, Md. He exhibited sculpture, prints, and designs at the Silver Spring Art Gallery, Woodward and Lothrop, the Artists Guild of Washington, and the Society of Wash- ington Printmakers. The canvases of 14 paintings were cleaned and varnished, and 33 frames were renovated. Under special contract, Glenn J. Martin cleaned and restored 10 paintings. Nine paintings by George Catlin were retouched and revarnished for the United States National Mu- seum, and one was relined, cleaned, restretched, and retouched. Mrs. Pope gave a talk, illustrated with slides showing various phases of the work involved in preparing exhibitions for travel, to the Cul- tural Attaches Luncheon at the Dupont Plaza Hotel on October 17, 1955, and attended meetings of the Southeastern Museums Directors’ Council at Chattanooga, Tenn., and Southeastern Museum Officials in Nashville, October 10-15, 1955, and also the annual convention of the American Association of Museums in Cincinnati, Ohio, May 26—June 1, 1956. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS Thirteen special exhibitions were held during the year: July 19 through August 28, 1955.—‘Paintings of Peru, Past and Present,’’ by Kristian Krekovic, held under the sponsorship of His Excellency, the Ambassador of Peru, Sr. Don Fernando Berckemeyer, consisting of 61 paintings. A cata- log was printed with private funds. September 1 through 24, 1955.—The Fifth Exhibition of Ceramic Art, spon- sored by the Kiln Club of Washington, D. C., consisting of 177 pieces (71 by local ceramic artists, 69 by invited American artists, and 37 by. artists of various nations through their respective embassies or legations in Washington). Dem- onstrations on the potter’s wheel were given daily. A catalog was privately printed. October 24, 1955, through January 8, 1956.—An exhibition of “Ceramics of the World,” in celebration of the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the United Nations was shown in the lobby of the Natural History Building. It included 71 objects from 43 nations and was assembled from articles in the Division of Ethnology dating from about 1800 to the present. November 26 through December 18, 1955.—An exhibition of 50 watercolors of “Plant Portraits,” by Ida Hrybesky Pemberton (1890-1951), inaugurating the tour scheduled by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service. A catalog was privately printed. January 15 through February 2, 1956.—An exhibition of the Society of Wash- ington Printmakers, consisting of 137 prints. A catalog was privately printed. January 15 through February 2, 1956.—A Smithsonian Institution Traveling 412575—5 77 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Exhibition of 44 watercolors and prints, by Pierre Joseph Redouté (1759-1840), held under the sponsorship of His Excellency, the Ambassador of Luxembourg, Hugues Le Gallais. A catalog was privately printed. February 19 through March 8, 1956.—The Twelfth Annual Exhibition of the Artists Guild of Washington, consisting of 51 paintings. A catalog was privately printed. February 19 through March 8, 1956—The Fifth Biennial Exhibition of the Washington Sculptors Group, consisting of 34 pieces of sculpture. March 25 through April 15, 1956.—The Biennial Art Exhibition of the National League of American Pen Women consisting of 198 paintings, sculpture, prints, ceramics, textiles, jewelry, and other craftwork. A catalog was privately printed. April 29 through May 17, 1956.—A Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exbibi- tion of Finnish Crafts by Tapio Wirkkala and Rut Bryk, held under the sponsor- ship of His Excellency, the Ambassador of Finland, and Madame Nykopp, con- sisting of 130 pieces of sculpture, wood carvings, brass, glass, and silver designs by Mr. Wirkkala and works in ceramic by Rut Bryk. April 29 through May 17, 1956—A Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibi- tion of 28 watercolors by Henry Wood Hiliott (1846-1930). These works consti- tute the first pictorial record ever made of the seal herds that populated the Pribilof Islands in the 1870's. June $ through 24, 1956.—The Fifty-ninth Annual Exhibition of the Washington Water Color Club consisting of 149 watercolors, etchings, and drawings. =3.5 Melopsittacus undulatus......-------- Grass parakeeti=22i¢_2222is 0 Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli..-..-.---- Black-crowned night heron------ REPTILES AMCTSILOL OTD ISCUUOT US == eee ne WisSterinocessins#=o esse Hoaciontuicatum 8 of) 225120 se African house snake, or musaga- -- Chamacteon dilepis. i s5 2082 eo Le Flap-necked chameleon_-__-..---- Chamncicon yackROnias ae 528 oe Three-horned chameleon_-_-_-_---- CHiUSCMYSIDUCLO = ee ee So ee Painted turtles 222 + Diadophis punctatus edwardsi___------ Ring-necked snake__-._--_--.--- Drymarchon corais couperit..--------- iiidizo snakes ss22 20 230s sev Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta.__..--------- Riotibigsckisnakes.s ss. sae a PE DUCTOLCSICEN CATIA pes Eke A Rainbow boner 22 eae a eas HIAUIVCCESH) SCULLICS 2 me i ae eee Hive-linediskinke ==. 2021005 ae LATENT ST) Tae Ro Hey puanmcopre oes 2 8 PN SITEDCUCIODCOM.

- -22= 1 46 Connectiont=224 2 32 10 764.|| New Jersey-=--+-= 2... ~<= 32. 19 1,389 Delaware ee 7 B26) PING WY Orkeeoe= ae ee eee 101 6, 589 District of Columbia_-__-_-_-_- 141 8,049 || North Carolina .._-.____._.__- 186 11, 123 lori dae A ae a 13 15789) |nO iow 2 ae See ee 38 1, 965 (C iia es See 48 10, 487 || Pennsylvania__....___..._--_- 238 11, 964 Jb) hye SEE eee oe aaya: S 5 17291\ South’ Carolings=-2)2)5_- 22252 73 2, 202 iris neers nee hn eee ee 8 640) ||| (South Dakotas-22 2-2-2 5-22 = 1 32 KANSAS eee eee ane ee en eS 1 38)" || el enniessee= =) =< = sa oe 61 2, 973 Kontuckysoseeu esse: See ipl G666U | MiVermont=2.-=+eece a se eee 1 24 MOMisign nes = kee se 3 124 eVarginipaee. =o ee oo hee 562 32, 986 Wiain@us se tae Sone ee 16 6867 || MWiestavirginias sss. esses 29 2, 833 Marylanid= S30 125i s2 ss. bolt 543 30; 451e) |e WAScOnsine-=s saee== sees eee 3 284 Massachusetts_...-....----_-- 11 657 ——_——_ Michigances = skeen 2 8 631 TOtaleeee eee eae 2, 168 134, 479 About 2 p. m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted and listed according to the State, Territory, or country from which they came. This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo, but is valuable in showing the percentage of attendance, by States, of people in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The tabulation for the fiscal year 1955 is as follows: Percent Percent Marviandesc. sete ee Dock Wil Q) 10) see ee ee eee 1.3 WAT PINT Ree eet eee eye ao VES AVIT SIN aes eee eee ee 1.0 Districtiof Columbia =_ 22 -—--_— 22. 4 | Massachusetts _________-_______ 0.9 ennsylvania eit 2228s eee GS OW Wloridat 42s Pe ee Sees Se 0.9 ING WAVOMKG ee kD 29) || Califormiay a. ss eee ee 0.8 Northi@aroling= oo ee 2.6 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The remaining 8.1 percent came from Alaska, Austria, British Columbia, Canada, Canal Zone, Costa Rica, England, France, Germany, Hawaii, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Newfoundland, Philippine Islands, and Puerto Rico. On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the Zoo from at least 15 States, Territories, District of Columbia, and foreign countries. On average days there are cars from about 22 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries; and during the periods of greatest attendance the cars represent not less than 34 different States, Territories, and countries. Parking spaces in the Zoo now accommodate 1,079 cars when the bus parking place is utilized, and 969 cars when it is not used. COOPERATION At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts with other Government and State agencies, private concerns and individuals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result the Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable specimens, and in turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, specimens it does not need. Special acknowledgment is due the United States Dispatch Agent in New York City, Howard Fyfe, an officer of the State Department, who has frequently been called upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad. This he has done, often at great personal in- convenience, and the animals have been forwarded to Washington without the loss of a single specimen. U. S. Marshal Carlton G. Beall turned over to the Zoo 50 bags of rice and 200 pounds of poultry that had been condemned by the court. The National Institutes of Health, the Army Medical Center, the Navy Medical Center, and the Nutritional Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture gave the Zoo mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, and other animals no longer suitable for their purposes. These are valuable foods for many animals. The poultry division of the Department of Agriculture gave a considerable number of day-old chicks that were hatched in connection with certain of its experiments. These are a highly desirable addition to the diet of many animals. The Fish and Wildlife Service also gave some young chicks. Dr. John C. Pearson, of the Fish and Wildlife Service’s aquarium, in the Commerce Building, has traded specimens and given much valuable assistance and advice. Samuel M. Poiley, associate chief of the animal production section, National Institutes of Health, continued to supply surplus laboratory animals, some of which were desirable additions to the exhibition collection. SECRETARY’S REPORT 139 C. W. Phillips and P. R. Achenbach of the National Bureau of Standards and R. W. Seiders of the General Services Administration gave the Zoo valuable advice in connection with many of the problems incidental to improving conditions in the penguin cage. The National Institutes of Health, the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the Johns Hopkins Medical School, and the Neurophys- iology section of Walter Reed Medical School have given valuable assistance and advice in the treatment and handling of animals. The zoological division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture Research Center, Beltsville, Md., continued to identify parasites found on the animals. Dr. Charles G. Curbin, associate veterinarian, medical division, bu- reau of medicine, Food and Drug Administration, has supplied the Zoo with surplus medicines, and the following commercial firms have been extremely kind in furnishing drugs for use and for clinical] trials: Lederle Laboratories. Schenley Laboratory, Inc. (pharmaceutical division). B. R. Squibb & Sons, Upjohn Co. Wyeth Laboratories. The DeVilbiss Co. lent equipment for experimental purposes. At the request of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, a branch of the World Health Organization, Ernest P. Walker, Assistant Direc- tor of the Zoo, went to Mexico to photograph bats. Mr. Walker has specialized in the photographing of mammals and has taken many pic- tures of bats, both fiying and at rest. Certain species in Central and South America have been found to be involved in the spread of rabies. There have been no satisfactory photographs or drawings that could be used by public health workers and others to determine and demon- strate the kind of bats that they might be studying or discussing. Therefore, they desired photographs that could be used in this work. Mr. Walker left Washington October 31 and returned December 22. NEEDS OF THE ZOO Because of the natural deterioration of structures and equipment, and rising costs, the need for more funds for maintenance, repair, and improvements becomes more critical every year. The newest of the exhibition buildings are 19 years old, the reptile house is 25 years old, and the bird house is 28 years old. These and the buildings and other structures that were erected during the depression days now require a constantly increasing amount of repairs. It has recently been neces- sary to abandon 10 enclosures that have deteriorated to such an extent that they can no longer be repaired. Large areas of the grounds have had to be neglected entirely, or given scant care, in order that 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 the meager funds available may be used to maintain the areas most used by the public. Additional funds are most urgently needed for personnel, mainte- nance, installations, and the following construction : Buildings: A new administration building to replace the 151-year-old historic landmark that is still in use as an office building but that is neither suitably located nor well adapted for the purpose. A building to house antelopes and other hoofed animals that require a heated building. A fireproof service building for receiving animals shipped in, quar- antining them, and caring for those in ill health or those that cannot be placed on exhibition. E’nclosures : Enclosures and pools for beavers, otters, seals, and nutrias, which cannot be adequately cared for or exhibited under existing conditions. New paddocks for the exhibition of such animals as deer, sheep, goats, and other hoofed animals, to provide for the exhibition of a greater assortment of these attractive and valuable animals, Installations: A new ventilation system for the bird house. A vacuum pump to provide more efficient and economical operation of the heating system in the reptile house. An air compressor for general use about the park, particularly for freeing sewers of stoppages, operating air hammers, blowing out boiler tubes, and for use in excavation and construction work. Additional parking space to be developed on about 14,000 square yards of land in several different locations, mainly near the creek. An additional coal bunker for storage of a reserve supply of coal. Personnel and maintenance: 1 assistant director. The steadily increasing popularity of the Zoo as a source of both entertainment and education has developed such a volume of requests for information that there is now need for an additional scientist to share the load of answering queries and to as- sist in other administrative work so that the Director and Assistant Director can devote more time to general supervision of the Zoo. 1 general mechanic to assist the maintenance personnel in what has hitherto been a losing race in trying to keep pace with natural deterio- ration in the structures. 6 laborers for the mechanical force to replace 6 who were reallo- cated by the Wage Board to the position of truck drivers, thus cutting the laborer force from 13 to 7—a number way below the minimum SECRETARY'S REPORT 141 necessary to carry on even the most urgently needed work that must be done in the Zoo every day in the year. 1 gardener (foreman) and 1 laborer for the gardener’s crew for proper maintenance of the grounds, removal of dead or fallen tree limbs and other safety hazards. 2 attendants for the public restrooms to maintain these rooms in a clean and sanitary condition and to prevent vandalism. 2 policemen to serve as station clerks in the new police headquarters. 3 property and supply clerks to comply with the requirements of keeping property and inventory records, in accordance with the pro- gram laid down by the General Services Administration. ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1956 MAMMALS Scientific name Common name Number MONOTREMATA Tachyglossidae: Tachyglossus aculeatus._....------- Echidna, or spiny anteater_______ 2 MARSUPIALIA Didelphiidae: Caluromys philander. 2 _------ Woolly opossum_-_...-._------ 2 Phalangeridae: Petaurus norfolcensts_-. 222. Lesser flying phalanger____---_-_-- 3 Trichosurus vulpecula__........---- Nulpine opossum). 2—- 2) 2k 1 Phascolomyidae: Lastorhinus latifrons..........---- Hairy-nosed wombat___._.------ 3 Vombatus hirsutus22 22-2... .--L- Mainland» wombat.2=2—-.2..-"2. 1 Macropodidae: Dendrolagus inusius.._...-.-------- ‘ree Kangaroo. 22 ee a ee ee 1 Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_-_------ Ra bce Oar OO see eee 5 Macropus giganteus_...__.__.-__-- Grasp kanparods ses 6. soe ee 3 MGESAPUS TU US 2 2. Ste ee ed: kangarog.22)25) 22 So ee 1 Protemnodon agilis.............--- Wielidbyse so to pea ee 1 Protemnodon bicolor__...-.-------- Swap wauabyese coe) en 2 Protemnodon dorsalis._......-.---- Black-striped wallaby_---------- if INSECTIVORA Erinaceidae: Hrinaceus europdeus_-------------- European hedgehog___________-- 1 PRIMATES Lemuridae: Galago crassicaudatus_..._.-.------ Galera 28 Sos Se A 4 Galago senegalensis____...-.------- African. galago..—. Bee ose es ot 2 TCATULL TE TIUILCOLC 0 ne eg ee ae Acoumba Jem: — = Sas ais eae Y 2 Deni Menges. — Saat Bie Le Mongoz lemur: 2. sae ree Be 1 Lorisidae: eV VetICebUs COncang 222 eo be es oS BlOW JOLIS. «cas ee SS 3 LON IeUCUS ADO 2 feet Bets Pottos. a. so ee ne 1 142 Scientific name Cebidae: Ateles fuscicep robustus__-..--------- Aieles geoffroyt geoffroyi or griscesens_ Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus._...------ ALOLULS HET CULTG GLULLS ne Cacajao rubtcundus = 29s Callimico goeldis Sans ee Cebusial bajar ses ae ee ene Cebuseapuctiuses &o- o- s ee eS Cebus fatuclitn. 2. sce Wagotnpicalagounch = ae ee SQUNITISCTURCUR =. ao = Cee ee Callithricidae: Caliithniavorolio tae oa ee Callithrxpeniediatasee = eee GCebuellaminmacase sass seen ee DBeontocebus'rosalia-2 22-2222 2 = ee Marikinamigricollist= (2 ae Cercopithecidae: Allenopithecus nigroviridis_.._...-.-- Cerncocebusialoigendae= same a Cercocebus aterrimius2. = 52 e5-see Cercocebus aterrimus opdenboschit_ _ - Gencocebus chiysogastere == ee ae Cercocebus fuliginosus= = -.=-=----<~ Cercocebus galeritus agilis._._._------ Cercocebus torguaiises= 22 sees ne Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus_ -- Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus------ Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus X C. a. pygerythrus. Cercopithecus cephus_-=2 222222 Cercopithecus diana. see sn eee ees Cercopithecus diana roloway__------ Cercopithecus neglectuse.— 0 2a 2 Cercopithecus nuctitansa. == see eee Cercopithecus nictitans petaurista_.--- Cercopithecus preusst= 22 ne ae Colobus:polykomos: 2. > 44a eee Comopithecus hamadryas_..-------- MGCACE TUS Mnordaes- = eee aes Macaca philippinensis.......-...--- Wiaracaaimicdse es eae ose e te eek Machcaspectost= 2-22 4 s0 xe ele Macoraisylianius. 2202 2 a es tle Mandriligs sphingen = seat sos ees Paptocomajus. 2235 = eet sae PEDO CUNOCEDNGIUG Sa eee a ae IPresbytts DROyrel co ce eee ee Theropithecus gelada__......------- ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Common name Colombian black spider monkey_- Spider monkeys .2 20 8 ons Spider. monkeyse 208. ee Nighimonkey =. s2Saee eee Red‘ikeri- == Season eens ae Brown capuchin monkey_______- White-throated capuchin monkey. Capuchimanonkey #2522 222s Woolly ‘monkey-2- 22202222 2205 Squirrel monkey___.__...___._-- Geoffroy’s marmoset___..._--.-- Black-tufted marmoset_________- Pigmy marmoset=.222222 22222 Golden) marmosets 322 ae Allen’s monkey 228 <2 ees See Gray-cheeked mangabey -_-__----_- Black-crested mangabey___-__-_- Crested mangabey___--_._--___- Golden-bellied mangabey_______- Sooty mangabey =.= .<22---=2-s= Agile mangabey o25_=222-2 ee oo5 Red-crowned mangabey--_-_----_- Vervet guenons2)2-222. Uae Greenjguenons 22-2225. 5 2552 oe Hybrid, green guenon X vervet guenon. Mustached monkey.-._--.---__-- Diana*monkey . 2 eee. oe eee Roloway monkey2ee= see De Brazza’s guenon______-.----. White-nosed guenon___-----__-_- Lesser white-nosed guenon__-_-__- Preussi's| guenon= 222-22 255 22 3 White-tailed colobus__....------ Hamadryas baboon= =. -=2-—s-=— VANE AC ACC eee eee ee Moor macaquesss. 20222 22eeeeee Rhesus monkey= === se se ae eee Pig-tailed monkey--.-------.-.- Philippine macaque__=52---232-- Toque or bonnet monkey_------- Red-faced macaque._..-_------- Barbary, ape..3. 22s susie sees Mandrilln 6 Jacek eee ee Goldenibaboons] eee Spectacled languri- S230 s- 222422 Gelada baboons] 222 seas. aaa Number NON NH RR Pe w~ moh ee On RN ORF KR Oe ee od — NRrYMDENNRF RENN PE NNR RR ewe op SECRETARY’S REPORT Scientific name Pongidae: Gortllargorillas == 222s sas Hylobates agilis X H. lar pileatus---- Hylobates hoolock__--------- EIR OUGLESHLOT tame ee Fijlovates motochs.=-=—..=-=- JEGSD, GAT Te ee ee Pongo pygmaeus abelit__._--- Pongo pygmacus pygmaeus Myrmecophagidae: Myrmecophaga tridactyla_-- -- Tamandua tetradactyla_-_-_---- Bradypodidae: Choloepus didactylus..._.---- Dasypodidae: Burmeisteria retusa___------- Chaetophractus villosus_-_----- Leporidae: Oryctolagus cuniculus_.------ Sylvilagus floridana...------ Sciuridae: Calloscrunus BDL eee 2S Callosciurus caniceps_-_------ Callosciurus erythraeus_..._..------ Callosciurus nigrovittatus___-- Citellus undulatus kennicottii Cynomys ludovicianus - - - ---- Glaucomys volans volans__---- Menetes berdmorei__------_-- WOluIG tied. 2 = Se ISCLUNUSIMIG Ene a se eee Tamas siriatus.-.-—.-_-— ~~ Heteromyidae: Perognathus parvus olivaceus Castoridae: Castor canadensis__...------ Cricetidae: Mesocricetus auratus___----- Muridae: Acomys caharinus_._-------- Aethomys kaiseri__..-------- Arvicanthus niloticus_.-.--~-- Cricetomys gambianus _ _ ----- Meriones unguiculatus__-_--~-- Phloeomys cumingii_.------- Rattus infraluteus_.--------- otius sabanus.___.-...-=— Common name Eby brid) sibbon_ 22s) 2 ae Hloolock ol a- at =a nee! See White-handed gibbon__________-_ Wau-wau gibbon___...........- @himpanzee~ 32 22 oo ok eS Bornean oranguvane =e Sumatran orangutan____._____-- ENDENTATA Giantantesters2 25s eee Tamandua=ce6 soso ot eee Tapafrasco, or dwarf armadillo__- Hairyrarmadillo. <2 5.2 ee LAGOMORPHA RODENTIA Southern Asiatic squirrel________ Golden-backed squirrel__________ PAGS Ss) SQUIITCL: o-oo one oe Southern Asiatic squirrel_______-_ Arctic ground squirrel_____-_--_-- Praiie.dog .- 2.25. saee ee Eastern flying squirrel_-___------ Berdmore’s squirrel. 2.22 - = 22-5 Giant Indian squirrel___._-_-___ Hox SqUiirele secre eee = ee Hasterm chipmunk. =.-2--22--=-= Rocketmouseson see eee Beay ele ee eee eee Hamsters eee ete eee Egyptian spiny mouse-____----- ROCK abae ten oe eee aan oes Giant pouched rat.2- == es = Monrolianigerbilas ===) s-o— = 2 —— Kanabalu dree rate2- =e — ee Large spiny-backed tree rat__---- Slender-tailed cloud rat________~- — me bo et ie SOON De Ne —_— iS rad) SMS LS 1s =) 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Scientific name Common name Number Gliridae: Graphiirus murinus2. 2-2 eee IOTMOUSes sso eee eee ane 1 Hystricidae: Acanthion brachyurum___---------- Malay *porcupine=-2 2 oe 1 Ey stris GQlealta =e eee ae ATIC an POLCUpiNne === =e 5 Caviidae: Casta porcellus =32 92225 foe ae Guinesa=pigts 22 coe eee 8 Hydrochoeridae: Hydrochoerus hydrochoeris_--------- Capy bara 2-2 --e 2-2 eee 4 Dasyproctidae: Chines pacaya= ae ese eS fT RARE gen ch Sete alts a ee a 5 Dasyprocdaaes sons ee Ae eee eS AGOULIL 22 aso cae eee ees 13 Dasyprocta punctata_...----------- Speckled agoutiz=-22-- = --s-—— 6 Dinomys branickiy2 222202 22. IBTANICK S’paCkeee = ne ae eee 2 Chinchillidae: Chinchilla.chinchilla_2== 2222-2222 -- Chinchillgves ste sone eee 2 EAGtavim VISCalcia=- see ae Peruvian! viscacciae ss) ]- eee 1 Capromyidae: IMNOCHStOTCOUDUS 5— = ae ee Coypus S22 ese eee 2 CARNIVORA Canidae: Canismntanciicuss* s2e2 5) ess 2 Dingo. fsetsel ss eeneeeeeeaclee 1 Canisilupus nubilusnc—s-- -==- S55 Woliie 2 eee 4 Ganisimesomelasteeee aoe eee eee Blaek-backed jackal_..-.------- 1 Canisimigen Tinie: se oe Red wolft:2ks2s22-225sessesee2 1 Mennecusiend@s 22. 552228 eo eee Pentiec fox. 22 222322 s.\- se eee 2 Tajcaonw pictues =e < Sees rs Soe, © African hunting dog=- 2=2===-=== 2 Nyctereutes procyonoides__--------- Reccoon Goes. sass ese s=s sees 6 Otocyon: megalotis.=2-52-- = =--2=- Big-eared fox 22 o2-<- oe 2 oe ee 4 SMCOLROS VENQUICUS. oe Se Busitdog ss... tee eae oe 2 Urocyon cinereoargenteus_---------- Gray fOx2c= 2 ahs 222 essen see 11 Red fox =2 2 iesceses ssn ees 18 VUE DE KET fies ial pees {OX 5225522225 eee 4 Ursidae: Buarctosamertcanus=—- == =o Black'bear: 222-524 sesene= = 2 Helarctos malayanus_----=-.------- Malay sun bears. 22 - see ae 3 Selenarctos thibetanus...__-=--_..=- Himalayan bears 2.222 2s2-s5s=— 2 Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus----- Japanese black bear-—--..------ 1 Selenarctos thibetanus ussuricus - - - - - Korean bears 22 4s 2s2525se55 55 2 Thalorctos Mmorivmus=2-222 22-525 2= Polar bears222+ <2 Sss32ee5s5e4" 1 Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus mid- Hod first generation - - -- 4 dendor ffi. yorid bear ‘| second generation_-_ 3 TremanctOsiOrnQlus= = 5-5-5 S2 Spectacledtbear2 222-522-222 --— 1 Wrseaiip ae eens a esses Alaskan brown bear---.-------- 2 Wrsisvanclost= 23 2s ee oe European brown bear---_-------- 1 Ursus arctos occidentalis_---------- Syrian brown bear.=2==---==--.—- 2 Wrswsrgyas tess ae ewe ee ee Alaskan Peninsula bear- -------- 2 Wreusthoriltseee ee See Grizzly beareas=sse-- 42 2-2=-= 2 Ursus middendorffi_.-.------------ Kodiak: bearvs: js 5555 225 22 25— 2 TP SUSRULICCTISIS Sa ee Sitka: brown bearse22232- 2222 -=- 3 SECRETARY’S REPORT Scientific name Common name Number Procyonidae: PALILIESe) BIEN he aha 5s See as esserpand ae. pase eet 2 passanicyon gauur. 5—2 28 2S Olin go #2 rss tee 2 1 IBOSSQRUSCUSICST ILL USee ee eee eee Ringtail, or cacomistle_________- 2 PNEISIER NENLCAR ee Se ee Coatinund? 22224 = 5-2 sees ee 4 INGSUOANGSU Geen Ree ee ee ed ee Wihooper swanss2 020-95 == 2 CUGITUSEOLOT A Sean ee oe Miuterswan 2225 eae 2 Dendrocygna autumnalis____------- Black-bellied tree duck_______-__- 35 Dendronessa galericulata_________-_- Wien cdaninnc ck eee 2 Padmocrmandica === 200 22 a0 ee Indian bar-headed goose. ____-_--_- 6 Marecracamerscand 222) Baldpates 2308 sh-2 ok ee eae 1 Vein Bea ane ee St eee Red-crested pochard_-_-_______--- 1 ipmarwuniinis= == =< se i eee Lexseriscnup?s=ss20 7522 --- 1 ighectcrcanag CO = Soy pat Himperomgoose=ea eae =a 2 Plectropterus gambensis---_-------- Spur-winged goose___-___-_-_--- 1 Sarkidiornis melanota------------- Combiduek ss 22265258 se soa 1 OMALCTIOMNOUISSUMOG == 2 a= ee GER C kates ee ee 1 Wanonna tanormansos * 2 S20 European shell duck______------ 1 FALCONIFORMES Cathartidae: CET bes CUP: tier eh ‘Miurkeyawulture: 202-2052 4 COnTG DSTO OLS ee ee Blackavultres. sess 2a eee ee 6 GABEMTUSDPClas 75 = a8 ee ye Rtppell’s vulture. 23-3. te 2 Pseudogyps africanus_.------------ Vulture: see ke et 5 ete 1 parcoramphus PApG.- =.=. --.-=-- King vultures. 22 22322 = aeianseagh 1 Sagittariidae: Sagittarius serpentarius___--------- secretary bird: 2.2. 2 eek 2 Accipitridae: LEDER INGICEN STE. 3 nt Red=tatled hawk... .-.-=-=-.- ci PSUIRCAN LEN CNS! 5S 2 ee Red-shouldered hawk----------- 1 PS uCOMDOPLUOCREOUS..- = 82 52 = Buzzard eagle. 953.222 .=.2-2. 54e 1 ECOL RIPONROnt = Sire el coleye he Swainson’s hawk. 222208 soo 2s022 1 Haliaeetus leucocephalus ___--------- Baldeaciens == 22. esses seers 10 Haliaeetus leucogaster__------------ White-breasted sea eagle__-_--_--_- if Pinlenstimanius £823 Idler es use. Brahiminy, kite... 3 Sesseers 1 IGE psO nOeny gi & 2. tees 2 Senet Harpyreagieta.-- Sesh eesle 1 Milvago chimachima--------------- Yellow-headed milvago---------- 1 Milvago chimango__--------------- Chimgngo.s. 2232. S52 Sits 2 Ae 2 Milvus migrans parasitus - - - ------- African yellow-billed kite_-_--_-_- 2 Morphnus guianensis_..------------ Guianan crested eagle__.--_------ 1 Pandion haliaetus carolinensis_ ----- Osprey asta eases 2 oh 6 Pithecophagus jefferyi_------------- Monkey-eating eagle___--------- 1 Wpzarlne Ornatus. =. - == -- Manduit’s hawk-eagle-_-_--------- 2 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Scientific name Common name Number Falconidae: Palco mexicantie! Paid so. jk hon Grus leucageranus =~ 2 eae ei Psophiidae: Psophiaerepianse-- 2 see Demoiselle crane = 3222 S222 West African crowned crane_-_--_- East African crowned crane____-- Florida sandhill crane__._-.------ Siberian crane=2_2252- sees See Gray-backed trumpeter._.------ no BD WOO HERE NEP HEH ANN WHEE eR We DO iS) a ee SECRETARY’S REPORT AS | Scientific name Common name Number Rallidae: ECOMOINET ICON De ee American. coot_ Jest 225.22 25¥< 4 Gallinula chloropus cachinnans-__---- Fiorida; gallinules: soe se 4 Laterallus leucopyrrhus_-..-------- Black-and-white crake_-__--- -- 1 Porphyrio poliocephalus__._.-------- South Pacific swamp hen__--_---- 1 Rallus limicola limicola__---------- Mirernia, rales = es eek ek Aes 1 Eurypygidae: Pro pyod Nellgs See eee ee eee St Slay DIGhern. 2.02.05 5 o555 tee Se 4 2 Cariamidae: Carsama: cristiia......,. 2So 522268 ahs Cariama, or seriama. ....==-====- 2 Otididae: Chlamydotis undulata macqueenti_._. MacQueen’s bustard__-_-------- 2 GHARADRIIFORMES Recurvirostridae: Himantopus mexicanus_..--------- Black-necked stilt. ....._.-.--- 1 Burhinidae: Brarinus Uisivtatus. <2 2.3 os South American thick-knee-__-__-- 2 Haematopodidae: Haematopus ostralegus_..-.-------- Oystereatcher= 525k 2 Charadriidae: Belonopterus cayennensis_._..------- South American lapwing_--_----- 2 Charadrius vociferus._._.~.~.-----= Malideer: =o ar ehe 2 ee see 1 Stercorariidae: Catharacta maccormicki._...------- MacCormick’s skua___-..-.-----. 5 Laridae: WHT OStCENG INCE eee aes Seas Wines Pern Ss st 2 GOTUSEGUTECTL ne ee ee Baughine ulle! 5: 2 1 OTUs dela warensige nse s Ring-billed cull 4 2 Garus dominicanus.2--- <2. -- = Kelp pullo t= ---o ha ee ee 2 Larus novaehollandiae_..-.-------- SEVER pulls ne Soe ee Re 14 COLUMBIFORMES Columbidae: Conmuag (Ota 2) Son ee Domestic pigeon == -52- = s- 3 Columba nigrirostris_.-........---- Black-billed pigeon__.....-.---- 1 Gallicolumba luzonica__..-..------- Bleeding-heart dove____-------- 6 Geaneiia cuneaia__.- 25 =-- ne Diamond Gove= 2.22 2257 3 Gouri Orclonile 2 oe ee Crowned pigeon__.-~+-- =. 22-2. 2 Lophophaps ferruginea__.---------- Red-plumed pigeon_---.-_------ 6 Streptopelia decaocto__._._.--------- Ring-necked dove_-___---------- 41 Streptopelia tranquebarica__-------- Blue-headed ring dove____------ 3 Wenn ne OstONeG. =e eee tS White-winged dove_____---.---- 2 Aenatdura macroura:— 2-5. =--= Mourning dover 22--- 55-557 5 PSITTACIFORMES Psittacidae: MMMMOFNES ASCRETES@ =~ oe cess Yellow-collared lovebird.__------ 3 Agapornis personata__._..---------- Masked lovebird- =_-~ ~~ =.==2--~ 5 Agapornis roseicollis__._......------ Rosy-faced lovebird.....-.-.---- 1 wmazone-Gestiea.__ = 5 St 4 32 Blue-fronted parrot..-..-.------ 2 Amazona auropalliata___..-------- Yellow-naped parrot.__.-----.-- 3 MOEORG PROCNKS oo te he Finsoh’s parrot.2 222225) 552 0 33. > 1 412575—57——-11 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Scientific name Common name Number Psittacidae—Continued Amazona leucocephala__------------ Cuban parrotoes saree ts. Susie 1 Amazona ochrocephala__------------ Yellow-headed parrot__--_------- 1 AIM QZON Gr OT OUNG as eee ee Double yellow-headed parrot_--_-_- 4 Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus___------ Hyacinthine macaw__._-._.--__-- 1 AG OOrOnGUNG eee eee eee Yellow-and-blue macaw--_-------- 4 Arai Chlonoplel. a= ee ae ee Red-and-blue macaw-.-..-------- 3 ALG NOCH Sse ae eee es oe ee Red-blue-and-yellow macaw- --.--- 2 Aratinga, canicularigas 33 So) aa ee Petz’s,parakeet..c 3. BUSS Sees 1 VATU GUL NORMNGGe | hee ee a 2 ae Rusty-cheeked parrot___-_______- 4 Callocepthalon fimbriatum_---------- Gang-gang cockatoo___.__.._---- 4 Calyptorhynchus magnificus___------ Banksian cockatoo:-. 2.22 == 22225 2 Domiceula garrulas = 2235-252 aaa Redon ses an eee 1 Piclectus Mectar Giga. 2 ae Eclectus parnot.-- 2) eee eee 1 EGrpus CHONODUULUS= cn noe tne ore Little green parakeet___._._..__-_- 1 GikGtor GubGe ss soe eee eee eee NWinite Cockatoo 22 05 eee 2 Rakatoerducrapseven 0 en toe Solomon Islands cockatoo__-_____- 1 IG GLOCNOOLCTILG See ae Sulphur-crested cockatoo______-_- 8 Kakatoeleadbeatertt== = = Pat 2) 2 fe ae Leadbeater’s cockatoo_____...--_- 10 Kakatoe moluccensts——- 22-22 == Great red-crested cockatoo_-_-__--- 1 Kakatoe sanguineus. 222 22-2 Bare-eyed cockatoo_.------------ 5 Melopsittacus undulatus___._-------- Grassoparakeets =.= Los > aes taee 48 Nestor MOLAbIS 2s a = eee eS Kea, parrot. 2282s sae eee 3 Nymphicus hollandicus_-_----------- Cockatiel: == «=tiae) Na eet eemerseee 3 PrORUS ONERSILUUS Se oe ee ee ee ee Blue-headed conure___----------- 1 PIG Cer CusTeleg ans == ee ee ne Pennant/s!parakect=s2222- 25-2222 3 Pa COnCUSTCLEM TUS = a ae osellasparakecet ees === ee 1 FZAGUCEDRALUSESCREG ALLS Sana a a Yellow-vented parrot._....__---_- 1 Polmleisswaisonis. 2222252 ses see Barraband’s parakeet_--...--.--- 2 Psritucule cupariaces 2 2s eee Red-shouldered parakeet__-_----- 1 Psittacula kramert.. =. 2) = ass Kramer's parakeet... 22.522 scs22 1 StlaCusiercthacusa ee ee ATriCAnveT ay DALLOt = ae ee 2 Trichoglossus moluccanus.---------- Rainbow, Jorikeet. 2-23-22. —-==—= 3 CUCULIFORMES Cuculidae: Eudynamys scolospacea_-_----------- Koel tsFs> sears Sa eye eee 1 Musophagidae: Criniferranicanuere= eee ee Plantain-eater 222 UUse 22. OMe ree 2 DOM ACOlCOn ELCs a ee eee South African turaco! 2 ~_-_=-=2 =~ 1 Tauraco Gonaldsont. &. 2. na oe Donaldsen’s*turacoe =o 52. ee Senrr 1 GAC DCN SES tan rm Se ene eee are Purpleduracoss=— 10 Rhinoclemmys punctularia_--------- South American red-headed turtle_ 1 Merrapene COn6ina = 22 eee Boxtturtless: -2o = aa ee 50 Terrapene carolina triunguis____---- Three-toed box turtle-___.------ 3 Terr anene'07 OTNGIa= = 22 = S2 2 s= Western box turtle. ~.----_-.--= 2 Pelomedusidae: IPRrYN OPS GUNG Ba es es South American gibba turtle____- 3 Pelomedusg guleqtasss aa ae African water vUntLe es 1 IPEMISTOSiIIG LCA S aan ee African black mud turtle______-- 8 PPCLUSTOSHRUIILCLUS = African snake-neck turtle______-- 8 IPOAOCHENUISMIENT LIS === ee Amazon spotted turtle__..------ 15 Testudinidae: Restwae Bpe= so 24225522 esl Pee Galapagos turtle. = 222225522 1 Testudo elephanteng..2— =... 2-22. - Giant, Aldabra turtle222-2-— 52" 2 Testudo ephippium_._--..2-2------ Galapagos turtle. 222222 22225) 4 Testudo marqunata_— = 22252522222 Margined ‘turtle... 2242-92 2-2202 1 Testudo tabulatas 222223 2 South American turtle____------ 1 Testudeoicina si oes SIO See ee Galdpagos turtle. ....---------- 1 Trionychidae: Trionyejerog. <2 ee eee American soft-shelled turtle__---- if Trionys rungs. 2oL 22s 2a African soft-shelled turtle___----- 2 AMPHIBIANS CAUDATA Salamandridae: Diemictylus pyrrhogaster_---------- Red-belliedinewtssssoe5----- = 31 Diemictylus viridescens__----------- Red-spotted newt... ---..-----==2 5 VarichatorosG22= 3-3 eee eee ae California newt... 22422232225" 2 Amphiumidae: Amphiuma. meanss-2 2525-252 22--22 Congoreelioe 222522. eeen eases 1 SALIENTIA Dendrobatidae: Dendrobates tintoria..__-------==== Arrow-poison frog. --- 2 eet 2 Bufonidae: (BuO OIMETACONUS. = eee ane American {ead a 5222----2-sc= 4 Bujo Manns. . 2o2 22-5 sens oe Gisnt'toad .25 2252 se gee ae ee SECRETARY'S REPORT 159 Scientific name Common name Number Bufonidae—Continued SO PALECNOMIS ns ose Rococo toad -a22e ee Ses 1 Bujo pellocephalugcsius-i...-=2-.. Cuban toad: 2247 eer sl 7 LSSTH TR hos, kA ee SMe We, 2 ieee Send Burapean toad Se 7 1 Leptodactylidae: Ceratophrys calcarata_.----.------- Colombian horned frog_________- 2 Ceratophrys ornata__-.------------ Argentine horned frog_______.__- 1 Hylidae: VIN CINETER 26 2 ot eeeee teens Green- tree frog-=-.-22--.- ue! 3 Piya eruciers-— ke eee eee ces prime peeper= 2-22.22 e Le en 4 digia squiren@.. oS. 25225. 2282-5 Squirrel-tree frog: =2 io l2u oie 4 Helaiwersicolor © 22 -). = shee oe Gray. tree froraesue-222-2 52 3 et 2 Microhylidae: Microhyla carolinensis._.---------- Narrow-mouthed toad____----_- Pe Pipidae: BSI T i. 2k OR le ed ee eee Surinam COAd (seeks ee ese 4 Ranidae: GRUP As es eee ATTICA DULL TOR Sse, eae ee 15 ATE CLOMMANS [2S ae en TCG, MOPS nn ee a eee ee meee 4 FISHES Acanthodoras spinosissimus__..------- Talking cathsh. 2. See = 1 Acanthophthalmus semicinctus__.----- TherperkuGllss 222s 22 eee 3 aeas westudineus..—- =. 52. k=. Climbing perches. 2 es es 5 Astronotus ocellatus...-.-........-~-< Peacock cichlids: 22. ee ee 4 Barbus evereiiy ti isc) Weed iad uke s Clown: barbi tas. ets a) eek Pe Reape Atle gli anes n ese uL a iphipine fishes.) s o-asenl Gh ay 1 Brachygobius xanthozonus._...------- Bumblebee-fish__..._.._._-.-___ 2 Corydoras hasiatus 222262. 224.222. Coryderastecto os cio eeli ly etes 15 Electrophorus electricus.....--------- Hlectri¢jeclt etei.e2 4 puts eens 1 Hyphessobrycon innesi__...-.-------- INeomtietira 228 Ag) 3 Saunesd on 9 Labeo chrysophekadion.._-.-.--.----- Blackisharifishie3 1) Jewisses ole 2 E ’ Guppy 223 s3ee2 tere cto nay 25 Die RPMS ELICLINILIER he e pecs ae ee ce tee 35 Lepidosiren paradoza__.-.-.---------- South American lungfish__-_-__-_- 1 Metnntagpeend 2d scl? . beh ect Metynnis Ree _ Selassie s teats ph 3 Plecostomus plecostomus....---------- Armored) Gatfish $22 eet hat 350 2 Protopterus annectens__...-.---------- African lungfish 2.92 oeos ssio_ 2 Quintana Girizond_-- 2 Sa - 2-2 Cuban mosquitofish.____...____- 1 Serrasaimius niger... =... -=- Piranac so - ee eee ete 1 plernarchell@ schottit_< 2 5.5222. == African: knifefish 24. os. 7if-t nce 3 Tanichihys albonubess. 22. 22..-.-.-. White Cloud Mountain fish______ 1 mennopnorus heer... 262 osm Greenrswordtails 5.4275 os 4 ARACHNIDS LEGA OTS | | ee SP APARiMAn Sen. ele ee 1 batrodectue mactans.-...~..===<=- Black-widow spider_-.....---.-- 1 INSECTS UP SS ee eee er Giant eockroseh. 2 o. 22-25... 100 MOLLUSKS me a Pond tanailss soe ees eee eel 10 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 STATUS OF THE COLLECTION Class Species or | Individuals subspecies Mammals... 2. = s»-8 eee ear ae 246 786 Birds. .2- 2222 30 ees Pee See 300 1, 212 d ERC) 0h CYS pe Oe OR I et a ea ye ee ee 148 625 Amphibians: 2.224 Se eae ee eee oe ee 21 107 TT) ea a a gE te EP en RS 22 123 Ara chnidse sfc £c7s. 32 ee see Bers Boek 2. oe es ee 2 2 HmSecte= oo 6 6 eS Le Sh eel ee Se ee 2 100 IMOMUSiS silt ae ee BS ee ee eee if 10 WOtAl eats ee eS oe ne ee ee 742 2, 965 Animalston hand duly le lOhh —. = aes ar ee eee Eon 3, 140 ACCessions during the year: == = aoe eee eee a eee Bee ee 1,710 Total number of animals in collection during the year______-____- 5, 120 Removals for various reasons such as death, exchanges, return of animals ONT CPOSIt. CLO Mee ao ree Sa oa ok eS ee ee eee ees 2,155 Inveolicction-on ume, 30; (9062-2 ese s case See 2, 965 2The Zoo is given many small creatures that have been pets in homes where they are no longer welcome, or where circumstances necessitate giving them up. These include ducks, chickens, and rabbits given to children at Easter time, parakeets, alligators, caimans, guinea-pigs, etc. Also many of the common local wild things that are found by children or adults who think the creatures need help are brought to the Zoo. This includes a wide array, but particularly gray squirrels, cottontail rabbits, opossums, skunks, raccoons, foxes, woodchucks, blue jays, robins, sparrows, box turtles, as well as other less plentiful forms. The quantity of these received far exceeds the need for exhibition animals and facilities to care for them; therefore, some are used in exchange for other animals that are needed, and some are liberated. During the past year there were 215 individuals of 19 different kinds of such unneeded animals brought in. These were accessioned and therefore are recorded, which accounts in part for the large number of removals listed. Respectfully submitted. W. M. Mann, Director. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area Sm: It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report on the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956. The principal portion of this report was prepared by James Zetek, who retired from the position of resident manager of this bureau on May 30, 1956. Mr. Zetek has been succeeded by Dr. Carl B. Koford who assumed his duties as resident naturalist on June 30, 1956. SCIENTISTS AND THEIR STUDIES During the fiscal year 51 scientists, not including the Corrosion Conference group, came to the laboratory. Some of these, such as the research team from the University of Oslo, stayed for extended periods. In addition, there were many scientists who wanted to “get acquainted” with the island and had scheduled a one-day stopover to inspect the laboratory and the forest area. Investigator Altman, Stuart, Walter Reed Medical Center. Athern, D. D., Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion. Blew, Oscar, U. 8. Forest Service. Coursan, Blair, General Biological Supply House. Davis, Malcolm, National Zoological Park. Enders, Robt. E., Swarthmore College. Enger, E. S., University of Oslo. Gillespie, David M., Ohio State University. Haas, Theodore P., Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. Hartman, Frank A., Ohio State University. Hartman, Armaguedon, El Volean, Chiriqui. Henry, Mr. and Mrs. T. R., Washington, D. C. Principal interest or special study Biology of mammals and birds, partic- ularly howler monkeys. General biological survey. Evaluation of reports on termite re- sistance tests. Bird and mammal studies. Biological survey. Histochemical studies and mammals surveys. Member of Dr. Scholander’s research group. Assistant to Dr. Hartman. Plant studies. Muscle studies of birds and adrenal gland. Assistant to Drs. Enders and Wislocki. Obtaining press release material for the Smithsonian Institution. 161 162 Investigator Heed, Dr. and Mrs. Wm. B., The Genetics Foundation, Tex. Horning, Dr. and Mrs. BE. C., National Heart Institute, Bethesda, Md. Hoover, Mr. and Mrs. I. C., Arlington, Va. Hyman, Dr. Libbie, American Museum of Natural His- tory. Johnson, H. R., U.S. Forest Service. Krog, John, University of Oslo. Leivestad, Helge, University of Oslo. Lloyd, Ivan M., Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory. Lufburrow, R. A, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion. Lundy, W. E., Assistant treasurer, Panama Canal. Olivares, Ismael, Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory. Pinney, Roy, New York City. Reed, Mrs. Albert C., Salt Pines, Cape Cod, Mass. Rettenmeyer, Mr. and Mrs. Carl, University of Kansas. Riegel, Mr. and Mrs. H. J., Dwight, Il. Ruud, Berthe, University of Oslo. Scholander, Dr. and Mrs. Per, University of Oslo. Schrader, Dr. Sally Hughes, Columbia University. Stoutamier, Warren P., Fort Myers, Fla. Serafin, Mitrotti, Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory. Soper, Cleveland C., Eastman Kodak Tropical Research Laboratory. Austin, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Principal interest or special study Survey and collection of wild Dro- sophila for gene research. Survey for future chemical studies. Ornithological studies. General survey, especially of the soil fauna. Examination of tests of treated woods against termite attacks. Associate of Dr. Scholander. Member of Dr. Scholander’s research group. Deterioration and corrosion studies. General biology. Continuing studies of the birds, mam- mals, and insects. Fungi as affecting photographic equip- ment. Photography of wildlife. Ornithology. Soil organisms and general entomology. Study of birds. Member of Dr. Scholander’s research group. Heat regulation in sloths and other mammals. Cytological studies. Wildlife protection studies. Corrosion and deterioration studies. Corrosion and deterioration studies, SECRETARY’S REPORT 163 Investigator Principal interest or special study Swift, Paul F., Physical and chemical studies related to Eastman Kodak Tropical Research corrosion and deterioration. Laboratory. Verity, Erwin, Photography and study of mammals. Walt Disney Production. Verrall, A. F., Inspection of controls for corrosion and U.S. Forest Service. termite installations. Warren, James W., Study of fungus-growing ants. Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Weber, Neal A., Study of fungus-growing ants. Swarthmore College. Wetmore, Dr. and Mrs. Alexander, Continuation of bird studies. Smithsonian Institution. Wilmar, Mr. and Mrs. H., Photography and study of mammals. Walt Disney Production. Wislocki, Louis, Associate of Dr. Enders. Swarthmore College. Zeigler, John N., General biological observations. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- tion. Corrosion Conference Annual conference on island. (a group of United States scientists). VISITORS The visitors who spent at least a day on Barro Colorado Island * this year totaled 440. The majority of these were local people, but there were some who came by plane or boat to the mainland and had included a side trip to the laboratory in their plans. As in other years, all appeared to be very enthusiastic, and many expressed the wish that they could stay longer or return again at some later time. RAINFALL In 1955, during the dry season (January through April) rains of 0.01 inch or more fell on 44 of the 120 days (128 hours) and amounted to 10.78 inches, as compared to 5.84 inches during 1954. During the wet season of 1955 (May through December) rains of 0.01 inch or more fell on 202 of the 245 days and amounted to 103.64 inches as compared to 99.85 inches during 1954. During 1955 rain fell on 246 days (975 hours), and averaged only 0.45 inch per day, almost 0.12 inch per hour. March was the driest month of 1955 (0.21 inch) and November the wettest (17.14 inches). The wettest year of record (31 years) was * Anyone contemplating a visit to this unique spot in the American Tropics should communicate with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington 25, D. C., or with the Resident Naturalist of the Canal Zone Biological Area, Drawer “C,” Balboa, Canal Zone. 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 1935 with 143.42 inches, and the driest year of record was 1930 with only 76.57 inches. The maxima of record for short periods were 5 minutes 1.30 inches; 10 minutes 1.65 inches; 1 hour 4.11 inches; 2 hours 4.81 inches. TABLE 1.—Annual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island Total Station Total Station Year inches average Year inches average OZ Soe Oe ha ae OAM Sieben ee 1AM a oh YB pes Leen TB oe pn 91.82 108. 41 PO DGes 2 dae S22 eS OO OAD Mee ght eo ae LOM lOssa5 LO Dip x cis Code ee TIL ey oe LW bees | A abe A ee 120. 29 109. 20 1S AS tesa aa Sd ae pe ee de HOMO 2 SOMO AA ee ee ay eee eee 111.96 109. 30 ODO Reis OP aE TESARITOGH SOI 1945. eee eee 120.42 109. 84 TOS QR erars es Tene se oon » VO 14) 1946022. Sia aeaere 87. 3 108. 81 Oe is pt Ms Rg V2 SOO wel OA: OOM MOA ee eee 77.92 107. 49 ORD a ot eh eee TUB SPI" waa 7G} || IMCS a 83.16 106. 43 VOSS Rie yu tee LOM 73) OS. S 2G 4G ois ee ae eee 114.86 106. 76 POSAL Sasa foe aM 22542 SOT OA O50 Rees eee 114.51 107. 07 LOSS Reve ele ese 437427 OOS So Obes eee LIQ 2 OR 28 P9OS3Ge 2 seks ehhh ees Ey cokes oO eS | epi ee 97.68 106. 94 1S 37 eee ee AY eat cae NAL Bye UTD 1 |) Be ee 104.97 106. 87 fA a tl gl alte ee bb 1 O97 UVONG 21) Ob Awe creer eee 105. 68 106. 82 POZO SEG ery ee a IbiUiss, a7 a) VE || Te 114.42 107. 09 LGAQE i sees. A te oe 86. 51 109. 43 Taste 2.—Comparison of 1954 and 1955 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island (inches) Total Accumu- Month Station | Years of | Excess or lated average | record | deficiency | excess or 1954 1955 deficiency VATU AI) oe ere nee Lee ease 1. 24 9.05 2.08 30 +6. 97 +6. 97 HE Diary pee eae ee ene eee eee 1.29 | 0.46 1, 22 30 —0. 76 +6. 21 March sc ee teen eens ane. eee Rees une 0. 21 0. 90 1.16 30 —0. 26 -+5. 95 TAUPO: pat ane = SN oa ae 3.10 0.37 3.07 31 —2.70 +3. 25 Wiaiy oo a eee. Shes SS SIS es ee eS eee 8S 11.09 | 10.58 10. 838 31 —0. 25 +3. 00 AAT eee a eRe 2 Be eee eee 12.06 | 18.54 11.25 31 +2, 29 +5. 29 Ay oe eee See Re eee one ee eeecne os 15. 05 11. 49 11. 56 31 —0.07 +-5. 22 PAI OUISE sae owe se ae eee eee 12,92} 11.36 12227, 31 —0.91 +4.31 Septemiberzenac-= sess a sees aoe ea ae 11.19 9. 27 9. 93 31 —0. 66 +3. 65 Octd ber: 2-2 eee ee ee 13.14 | 16.33 18.75 31 +2. 58 +6. 23 INoOvemibeneeccssce neers ae eae eee ane eee 17.14 | 18.35 19. 02 31 —0. 67 -++5. 56 December! 202s 2 ae ee See 25 |) 12572 10. 95 31 +1.77 +7. 33 Viearn 2 ee on ee cece state 105. 68 | 114. 42 10709) |2Se =a ees See eee +7. 33 IDry S@asons 2 3 So ane eo anac cen eae 5.84 | 10.78 (08. |Saceeesaslecoeeeeeeece +3. 25 Wet season.=.=-2222.25-5-222-8.-2.3 99. 84 | 103. 64 99) 564) eces coc cu | ee +4. 08 BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS When the new laboratory building was constructed, the contractor could not obtain United States lumber for the flooring, and lumber cut and milled in Chiriqui, Panama, had to be used. During the year dry-wood termite infestation was observed, and though the damage was not extensive and appeared to be spreading slowly, immediate steps were undertaken to correct this condition. All the floor paint was scraped off and two very liberal brushings of Penta W-R were ap- plied and allowed to soak in thoroughly. Since this treatment was given, no further signs of termite activity have been seen. SECRETARY’S REPORT 165 Water and electrical installations in this new building were com- pleted, and the large darkroom is almost finished. It is expected that the building will soon be used to its full capacity and effectiveness. All the screening on the original large laboratory was replaced with plastic screening, as expert advice had indicated this type was ex- ceptionally good. Unfortunately, experience did not bear out that recommendation as rats ate the plastic with gusto, and cigarettes which accidently came into contact with the screen caused holes to develop immediately. It is planned to replace all the plastic screen- ing with the aluminum type. Some of the lumber and other materials needed for rebuilding and repairing the laborers’ quarters were purchased. This project in- cludes the installation of indoor toilet facilities, a luxury to the labor- ers, but an added health protection factor on the island. The roof of the Haskins Library Building appeared to be in poor condition, but a careful examination revealed that the damage was superficial, and the only repair needed was scraping and painting the existing covering. These projects were carried out thoroughly, and the roof is now in excellent condition. The runoff from the roof of this building is not used as a means of water supply, and so painting it presents no problem in this respect. The new electric water heater furnishes hot water for the kitchen and shower baths and is proving to be a valuable addition. Though hot water cannot be used too freely when a large number of scientists are on the island, it has been a welcome convenience for all. The 110-120-volt, 60-cycle, overhead electrical installation, com- pleted in 1955, is giving satisfactory service. Excellent arrangements were made during the year for the maintenance and repair of the Diesel generators. A Caterpillar generator was obtained on transfer, and when this third unit is installed it is expected that no interruptions in the electric supply will be experienced. Materials were purchased for building dry closets, electrically heated, in the various buildings. Some dehumidifiers have been in- stalled, and they are doing an excellent job of drawing incredible amounts of water from each room. The large wooden water tank north of the old laboratory was in danger of collapsing, and so some temporary, emergency repairs had to be made until the water-supply problem can be resolved. During the year it was discovered that a spring on the Snyder-Molino trail may bethesolution. Before this can be determined, possible contamination from rain drainage during the wet season will have to be eliminated in order to obtain a good sample of water for analysis. Minor necessary repairs were made to the launch Afoon. Local reg- ulations make it necessary to equip the speedboat with life preservers. 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Further safety measures were taken by obtaining spotlights for the launch and by having all the fire extinguishers recharged by the Fire Division. The dock proper is joined to a large platform covered with corru- gated roofing and used for storage purposes. A portion of the roofing caved in because of rot-infested roof timbers. This damage was quickly repaired, and the new lumber was treated with preservatives to retard decay. URGENT REQUIREMENTS The most urgent requirement of the island, which has been referred to in the preceding section, is a safe and permanent supply of drinking water. This problem is expected to be resolved during the coming fiscal year. The island dock still presents a perennial problem, but funds have been made available to provide for its relocation. Engineering studies will be made to determine the most suitable location for rebuilding the dock so that the silting of the channel will not present an annual problem. The construction of the dry rooms referred to earlier in this report is urgently required so that scientists may store in safety such property as suitcases, cameras and their carrying cases, winter clothing, and shoes. Since the termite infestation of the floor in the new building has been eliminated, the floors must be repainted soon. The engine and hoist, which provide the only means of lifting heavy shipments of supplies and equipment from the dock to the laboratory level, must be replaced as soon as possible. Though the existing equip- ment has given many years of fine service, it is now worn out, break- downs are frequent, and repairs are more and more difficult to make. Only two of the trail-end houses, the Drayton and the Fuertes, are in usable condition, the others being in a very bad state of disrepair and so cannot be used. Now that better facilities are available for preserving books, much work has to be done on the existing library, such as the rebinding and repair of old, valuable, and irreplaceable publications and the binding of series of scientific journals. Essential scientific reference texts and publications which are not included in the existing collection should be procured. Provision must be made to accommodate library mate- rial being transferred from the Balboa office to the island. Some of this is property of the bureau, but a large portion of it represents the personal collection of Mr. Zetek who has indicated that he plans to donate these fine publications to the island library. His generosity is greatly appreciated. The laboratory in the new building and its related storerooms have to be equipped and properly organized. Funds have been provided SECRETARY’S REPORT 167 to obtain some of the required equipment and supplies, but more will be required. An annual requirement, and one which is always a pressing problem in any tropical environment, is the constant need of painting all exterior and interior surfaces regularly to prevent wood rot. FINANCES The following institutions again contributed their table subscrip- tions, which were received with sincere appreciation inasmuch as without them the uninterrupted operation of the laboratory could not be accomplished : aN tMAnelcod a Kio oe = Ee ei eee ele ee ase 3 oa eee Fe $1, 000. 00 INeWRYOrks ZO0lOfICAl SOCLOLY = = ee Ss SE eee 300. 00 SHIH SOn LATE ONSET UL OMe ee ee ee ee eee ee eee 300. 00 Donations are also gratefully acknowledged from the following: Eugene Eisenmann, C. M. Goethe, D. S. Lee, and Harry C. Nichols. A concerted effort must soon be made to interest additional groups in supporting atable subscription. Though the needs of the laboratory are great, its improved facilities are such that any participating group would find that an outlay of $300 or $400 would reap unforeseen dividends in the form of sound tropical research accomplishments. The rate for one-day visits to the island is $3 per person. Such visitors are met by launch at Frijoles and taken to the island and back again in time to board the evening train home. The fee also covers the noon meal and a guided trip into the forest. Scientists from institutions which contribute to the support of the island through an annual table subscription are charged $4 per person per day. For others the fee is $5 per person per day. These rates provide for the two launch trips to and from the island, three con- secutive meals, and lodging. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due the Canal Zone Government, its executive secretary and staff, the Customs and Immigration officials, the officials and employees of the Panama Railroad, and also the Police Division, for their excellent cooperation. The Panama Canal Company, particu- larly Mr. P. Alton White, chief of the Dredging Division, and his technical staff were also of great assistance. Particular mention is made also of Dr. Cleveland C. Soper, director of the Eastman Kodak Company’s Tropical Research Laboratory, and his efficient technical and clerical staff who despite their heavy re- search program found time to help with the problems of the CZBA, especially when emergencies arose. Without such kind and unfailing assistance the Area could not function as it does. 412575—57——12 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Special appreciation must be expressed for the constant cooperation and efficiency of Mrs. Adela Gomez, particularly when Mr. Zetek was hospitalized on February 23, 1956, and the burden of managing and operating the bureau fell on her shoulders. Respectfully submitted. J. K. GraF, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the International Exchange Service Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956: The Smithsonian Institution is the official United States agency for the exchange with other nations of governmental, scientific, and literary publications. The International Exchange Service, initiated by the Smithsonian Institution in the early years of its existence for the interchange of scientific publications between learned societies and individuals in the United States and those of foreign countries, serves as a means of developing and executing in part the broad and comprehensive objective, “the diffusion of knowledge.” It was later designated by the United States Government as the agency for the transmission of official documents to selected depositories throughout the world, and it continues to execute the exchanges pursuant to con- ventions, treaties, and other international agreements. The number of packages of publications received for transmission during the year increased by 14,983 to the yearly total of 1,161,855 but the weight of the packages decreased by 9,904 to the yearly total of 803,056 pounds. The average weight of the individual package decreased to 11.14 ounces, as compared to the 11.34-ounce average for the fiscal year of 1955. The publications received from foreign sources for addressees in the United States and from domestic sources for shipment abroad are classified as shown in the following table: Classification Packages Weight Number | Number | Pounds | Pounds United States parliamentary documents sent abroad __-_-------- 668; 968" ]-- esac Ste SOC Senseo Publications received in return for parliamentary documents-_-_|-------_-- G6: 9684 | = 5825 ae, 11, 579 United States departmental documents sent abroad___-_-_-___-- 2005166) |e aa oe 24S TGs ese se = Publications received in return for departmental documents____|-----_-__- hel L | See Se 17, 132 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad___| 165,769 |_____-____ 1915-655)|--- Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States__....-....-_--___|---------- 62),765"|2=2- 2&3. 83, 539 EN Gea te ee ee one eon eS ee 1 ee ea) eh 1, 084, 903 76,952 | 690, 806 112, 250 rsiniGl LOGAN sone ee een oe ee ee ee 1, 161, 855 803, 056 The packages of publications are forwarded to the exchange bureaus of foreign countries by freight or, where shipment by such means is 169 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 impractical, to the foreign addressees by direct mail. Distribution in the United States of the publications received through the foreign ex- change bureaus is accomplished primarily by mail, but by other means when more economical. The number of boxes shipped to the foreign exchange bureaus was 3,064, or 228 more than for the previous year. Of these boxes 986 were for depositories of full sets of United States Government documents, these publications being furnished in exchange for the official publications of foreign governments which are received for deposit in the Library of Congress. The number of packages for- warded by mail and by means other than freight was 228,394. There was allocated to the International Exchange Service for transportation $45,040. With this amount it was possible to effect the shipment of 837,188 pounds, which was 37,188 pounds more than was shipped the previous year. However, approximately 11,000 pounds of the full sets of United States Government documents accumulated during the year because the Library of Congress had requested suspen- sion of shipment to certain foreign depositories. Ocean freight rates to the Mediterranean ports were increased by 10 percent in June and the freight rates to and from the New York piers were increased by a 10-cent arbitrary in April. The total outgoing correspondence was 2,497 letters, exclusive of information copies. With the exception of Taiwan, no shipments are being made to China, North Korea, Outer Mongolia, Communist-controlled area of Viet-Nam, Communist-controlled area of Laos, or the Haiphong En- clave. On May 14 the International Exchange Service received from the Kast German Exchange Service a shipment of 179 packages. This was the first shipment received from East Germany since 1939. On June 7 an announcement was received that another shipment containing 181 packages was in transit. With certain exceptions the regulations of the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, Department of Commerce, provide that each package of publications exported bear a general license symbol and legend, “Ex- port License Not Required.” The International Exchange Service accepts for transmission to foreign destinations only those packages of publications that fall within the exception and those packages of publications to which the general license symbol and legend have been applied by the consignor. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The number of sets of United States official publications received by the Exchange Service for transmission abroad in return for the offi- cial publications sent by foreign governments for deposit in the Library SECRETARY’S REPORT 17Al of Congress is now 104 (62 full and 42 partial sets), listed below. Changes that occurred during the year are shown in the footnotes. DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINA: Divisién Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New South WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Vicrorta: Publie Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. AvustTriIA: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna. BeteiuM: Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. Brazi.: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Burearia: Bulgarian Bibliographical Institute, Sofia? BueMa: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. CanaDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Mantirospa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. QvueEsBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. CEYLON: Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. CuuE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan.” Cotomsta: Biblicteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José. Cusa: Ministerio de Estado, Canje Internacional, Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: National and University Library, Prague. DENMARK: Institut Danios des Exchanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. Eeyrt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Free University of Berlin, Berlin. Parliamentary Library, Bonn. GREAT BRITAIN: ENGLAND: British Museum, London. Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Scienee. (Depository of the London County Council.) Huneary: Library of Parliament, Budapest.” Inp1A: National Library, Calcutta. Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. INDONESIA: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. IskAEL: Government Archives and Library, Hakirya. Iraty: Ministerio della Publica Istruzione, Rome. JAPAN: National Diet Library, Tokyo.* 1 Shipment suspended. 2Changed from National Library of Peiping, Peiping, China. * Receives two sets. 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departmento de Informacién para el Extranjero, México, D. I. NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. New ZEALAND: General ASsembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. PERU: Seccidn de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- teriores, Lima. PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Hducation, Manila. PoLaNnpD: Bibliothéque Nacionale, Warsaw." PorTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. SPAIN: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. TuRKEY: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education, Is- tanbul. Union or SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. UNION oF Soviet SocraLtist ReEPusLics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow, 115. UNITED NATIONS: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. YuceostaviA: Bibliografski Institut, Belgrade.® DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. ANGLO-HGYPTIAN SuDAN : Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. Boutv1A: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. BRAZIL: Minas Gerais: Directoria Geral de Estatistica em Minas, Belo Horizonte, BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. CANADA: ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. BRITISH CoLUMBIA : Provincial Library, Victoria. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s. Nova Scotia : Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. DOMINICAN ReEpustic: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. HL SALVADOR: Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. GREECE: National Library, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. Harri: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. HONDURAS: Biblioteca y Archivo Nacionales, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. ICELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. SECRETARY’S REPORT 173 Inp1A: Secretary to the Government of India, Bombay.‘ BIHAR AND ORISSA: Revenue Department, Patna. UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OUDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. Secretariat Library, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow. West BENGAL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly House, Calcutta. IrnaN: Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. TRAQ: Public Library, Baghdad. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. LreBANON: American University of Beirut, Beirut. Lizerta: Department of State, Monrovia. MaayA: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Matta: Minister for the Treasury, Valleta. NicaRAGuA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. PAKISTAN: Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. ParaGuay: Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asuncion. ScorLanp: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. Sram: National Library, Bangkok. Singapore: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 76 copies of the Federal Register and 88 copies of the Congressional Record. This is a decrease from the preceding year of 16 copies of the Federal Register and of 6 copies of the Congressional Record. The countries to which these journals are being forwarded are given in the following list. DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER ARGENTINA: Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.* Boletin Oficial de la Reptiblica Argentina, Ministerio de Justica e Instruc- cidn Piblica, Buenos Aires. Camara de Disputados Oficina de Informacién Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library, Canberra. New SourH WateEsS: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. Victor1A: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.® WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. BRAZIL: Biblioteca da Camera dos Deputados, Rio de Janeiro. Secretaria de Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.® * Changed from Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay. 5 Federal Register only. 6 Congressional Record only. 174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 BritisH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize. CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. Cryton: Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.® CHINA: Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.° Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan. CUBA: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca PGblica Panamericana, Habana.* Eeyrt: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris. Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.° Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.° Service de la Documentation Etrangére, Assemblée Nationale, Paris.° GERMANY: Amerika-Institut der Universitit Miinchen, Miinchen.° Archiv, Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn. Bibliothek der Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit Kiel, Kiel- Wik. Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.® Der Bayrische Landtag, Munich.°* Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.°® Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.° Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg. Gop Coast: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra.® GREAT BRITAIN: Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London.’ House of Commons Library, London.® Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.° GREECE: Bibliothéque, Chambre des Députés Hellénique, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. Hatt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Huneary: National Library, Budapest.’ INDIA: Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.‘ Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.® Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.°® Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.® Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. Legislative Assembly Library, Trivandrum.® Madras State Legislature, Madras.° Parliament Library, New Delhi.® Servants of India Society, Poona.’ 7 Three copies. ® Added during year. SECRETARY’S REPORT 175 IRELAND: Dail Hireann, Dublin. IsrRAEL: Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. PPA: 2 Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. European Office, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.5 International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.* JAPAN: Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. Ministry of Finance, Tokyo.* JoRDAN: Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.® Korea: Secretary General, National Assembly, Pusan. LuxeMBoure: Assemblée Commune de la C. E. C. A., Luxembourg. MExIco: Direcci6n General Informacién, Secretaria de Gobernacién, México, D. F. Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D. F. AGUASCALIENTES: Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. Baga CALIFORNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. CHIAPAS: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. CoAHUILA: Periddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. Cotrma: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato. JALISCO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. México: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MicuoaoAn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, Morelia. Moretos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. Nayarit: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. Nuevo Lre6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. Oaxaca: Periddico Oficial, Palacia de Gobierno, Oaxaca.® PueEsta : Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. SrnALoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan. Sonora : Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. VERACRUZ: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- nacién y Justicia, Jalapa. YucatTAn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatan, Mérida. NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.* New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. PanaMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.° PortTUuGuUESE T1MoR: Reparticiio Central de Administracio Civil, Dili.‘ SwitzERLAND: Bibliothéque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.® International Labor Office, Geneva.” ° Library, United Nations, Geneva. UNION oF SouTH AFRICA: CAPE or Goop Hope: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. ®°Two copies. 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Union or Sovier Socratist Repustics: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obschest- vennykh Nauk, Moscow.® Urvuauay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. FOREIGN EXCHANGE SERVICES Exchange publications for addresses in the countries listed below are forwarded by freight to the exchange services of those countries. Exchange publications for addresses in other countries are forwarded directly by mail. LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES AustTrIA: Austrian National Library, Vienna. BeLGIuM: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel- gique, Bruxelles. CuinaA: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. CzECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, National and University Library, Prague. DENMARK: Institut Danois des changes, Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, Copenhagen K. Eeyet: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies, Snellmaninkatu 9-11, Helsinki. FRANCE: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, 58 Rue de Richelieu, Paris. GERMANY (Eastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. GERMANY (Western): Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, Bad Godesberg. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Wheldon & Wesley, 83/84 Berwick Street, London, Weed Huneary: National Library, Széchényi, Budapest. Inp1A: Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. INDONESIA: Minister of Education, Djakarta. IsRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Publica Istruzione, Rome. JAPAN: Division of International Affairs, National Diet Library, Tokyo. NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- brary, The Hague. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de l’Université Royale, Oslo. Puirprines: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila, PoLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PortuGcaL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre- tary’s Office, Brisbane. 10 Between the United States and England only. SECRETARY’S REPORT 77 SoutH AusTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- cas Publicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Avenida Calvo Sotelo 20, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SwWITzeERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- trale Fédérale, Palais Fédéral, Berne. TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. TuRKEY: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving, Istan- bul. UnNIon oF SouTH ArFrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin Library, Moscow 19. Victor1A: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. YuGosutaviA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. Respectfully submitted. D. G. Wuu1aMs, Chief. Dr. Lronarp CarMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Gallery of Art Str: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, the nineteenth annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956. This report is made pursuant to the provisions of section 5 (d) of Public Resolution No. 14, Seventy-fifth Congress, first session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51). ORGANIZATION The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre- tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. On September 22, 1955, Samuel H. Kress, trustee and President of the Gallery, died, and Rush H. Kress was elected a general trustee to succeed him. Chester Dale was elected President of the Gallery. The four other general trustees continuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956, were Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Duncan Phillips, Chester Dale, and Paul Mellon. The Board of Trustees held its annual meeting on May 1, 1956. Chester Dale was reelected President and Ferdinand Lammot Belin Vice President, to serve for the ensuing year. David EK. Finley retired as Director of the Gallery on June 30, 1956, and John Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, was elected by the Board of Trustees as Director to succeed Dr. Finley effective July 1, 1956. The other executive officers of the Gallery continuing in office as of June 30, 1956 are: Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Trea- Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. surer. Macgill James, Assistant Director. Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the annual meeting May 1, 1956, were as follows: EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Chief Justice of the United States, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Earl Warren, Chairman. tion, Dr. Leonard Carmichael. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. Paul Mellon. Ferdinand Lammot Belin. FINANCE COMMITTEE Secretary of the Treasury, George M. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Humphrey, Chairman. tion, Dr. Leonard Carmichael. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. Ferdinand Lammot Belin. Paul Mellon. 178 SECRETARY'S REPORT 179 ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Chairman. Paul Mellon. Dunean Phillips. David EK. Finley. Chester Dale. PERSONNEL On June 30, 1956, full-time Government employees on the staff of the National Gallery of Art numbered 312, as compared with 301 employees as of June 30, 1955. The United States Civil Service Regulations govern the appointment of employees paid from appro- priated public funds. APPROPRIATIONS For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1956, the Congress of the United States appropriated for the National Gallery of Art $1,436,000, to be used for salaries and expenses in the operation and upkeep of the Gallery, the protection and care of works of art acquired by the Board of Trustees, and all administrative expenses incident thereto, as author- ized by Joint Resolution of Congress approved March 24, 1937 (20 U.S. C. 71-75; 50 Stat.51). The following obligations were incurred : Personal services (including $409,143 for guard protection) ______ $1, 265, 700. 00 Othersthan personal’ servicesal oo 21s Pes tes ed oe) a es 170, 268. 65 Wnebligatedsbalanceies 2250209 abe ES Se eta eee at $1. 35 EIDE ETD eee i e E eee es A $1, 436, 000. 00 ATTENDANCE There were 1,013,246 visitors to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1956—an increase of 198,314 over the attendance for the fiscal year 1955. The average daily number of visitors was 2,791. FIFTEENTH ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION March 17, 1956, was the fifteenth anniversary of the opening of the National Gallery of Art. On that date a special night opening was held from 9:00 p. m. until midnight. As part of the celebration a special exhibition was arranged of important paintings and sculpture acquired in the last five years by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation. The Samuel H. Kress Collection of Renaissance Bronzes, installed in three specially prepared rooms, was also opened to the public. The number of guests attending the special evening exhibition was 11,690. ACCESSIONS There were 477 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts, loans, or deposits during the fiscal year 1956. 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 GIFTS A total of 112 paintings and 22 sculptures of the highest quality, which had been given to the National Gallery of Art by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation in 1952, were placed on permanent exhibition, some of them in galleries newly finished for them. Especially notable in this generous gift were the following: Artist Title Botticelli 2. 222 eee ee ee Giuliano de’ Medici. Master of Heiligenkreuz_________-__-_-. The Death of St. Clare. AN TCOTTe Tene eee eee Eee ee The Fall of Man. Memilin ose s See ee eee St. Veronica. Desiderio=- sa =e Tabernacle. Verrocchio, Circle of (possibly Madonna and Child with a Pomegranate. Leonardo). IB OSCN? Ui Eras Shee ee ieee ee A ee ae Death and the Miser. Giorgione Ake ea ee The Holy Family. TANI ty earns rea AS Ranuccio Farnese. ID b=) ee ee ee Portrait of a Clergyman. Fra Angelico and Fra Filippo Lippi___. The Adoration of the Magi. TMHEDOLO 22. Se se nee aren ee eee Apollo Pursuing Daphne. Chardin’s2 2332 sa Selreo ie eee The Kitchen Maid. Bruegel, Pieter the Elder______-___-_~- The Temptation of St. Anthony. In exchange for these 134 outstanding masterpieces, the National Gallery of Art returned to the Samuel H. Kress Foundation 266 paintings and 2 sculptures which had previously been given to the Gallery by the Foundation and which had become less suitable for the Gallery’s collection. During the year, the following gifts or bequests were also accepted by the Board of Trustees: PAINTINGS Donor Artist Title Mrs. A. J. Beveridge_-_-__-_- DrOUaTS ese ee Marquis d’Ossun. Count ©. ©. Pecci-Bluntls, ‘Coftot 22-2022 222228 L’Ktang de Ville d’Avray. Dr. and Mrs. Walter Rembrandt. 22-252 — 5 Old Woman Plucking a Timme. Fowl. Howard Sturges_____-___- Mie polowsy= 4s se= tes Small oval ceiling design. Col. and Mrs. EK. W. Gar- A. E. Zeliff......-_.. The Barnyard. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- IL. Sachs___..___._.__. The Herbert Children. bisch. Col. and Mrs: E. W. Gar- \ Unknown2_-....-_=-:- Mounting of the Guard. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown______-.---- Allegory of Freedom. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown___...------ Miss Arnold Holding an bisch. Apple. Col. and Mrs. EH. W. Gar- Unknown._._...--.-+- Miss Arnold Knitting. bisch. SECRETARY’S REPORT 181 Donor Artist Title Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown___________- Henry Wells. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Susane Walters____-___ Memorial to Nicholas Cat- bisch. lin, Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Samuel Jordan__-_____ Eaton Family Memorial. bisch. @ol."and Mrs. E. W. Gar- A.A. Tamb_2. So. Kmancipation Proclama- bisch. tion. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- A. R. Stanley________ Eliza Wells. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown_____._-___- New England Village. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- J.C. Robinson____-__- Portrait of an Old Man. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- J.C. Robinson______- Portrait of an Old Lady. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. -W. Gar- C. Hofmann____—<__- View of Benjamin Reber’s bisch. Farm, Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Attributed to Stet- Wellington. bisch. tinius. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Samuel Enredy_______ Van Reid. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Samuel Enredy_______ Jane L. Van Reid. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Erastus 8. Field_____- Portrait of a Man. bisch, Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Erastus 8. Field______ Portrait of a Lady. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown___________- Columbia. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown_________-_- Dr. Alva Cook. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown__________- General Washington on bisch. White Charger. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown____--_____- The Hobby Horse. bisch. Col. and Mrs. E. W. Gar- Unknown_-_____---_-- Portrait of a Young Man bisch. Wearing White Stock. SCULPTURE Winston Guest. ....2" 2222 Benin style, Nigeria__ Bronze Cock. Mrs. Herbert N. Straus-._._ Attributed to Verroc- Alexander the Great. chio. PRINTS AND DRAWINGS Howard Sturges_________- Gabriel de St. Aubin_. ‘‘La Parade Chez Nicollet.” Howard Sturges__________ Watteaus 2220s! The Violin Player. Howard Sturges____.--__- Gainsborough-_----_-_-_- Cart and Horse. Howard Sturges_____.____ WOsway <2 a2 sbes se Lady’s Portrait. Howard Sturges_________- Miepolons sa ee Mother, Child and Angel. Howard Sturges_________- Miepol@eaa= 2 Ss = Ceiling design. 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Donor Artist Title Howard Sturges.2 52-3 Chardint <6.) st coos Baby’s Portrait. Howard Sturges. ..---.--- ELE FPS an a Classic Ruins. Howard Sturges_-.------- STS Te | ee ed Classic Ruins. Howard Sturges_._-..---. EU EST ii a fo Venice. Howard Sturges__...----- Guards ols aus Venice. Howard Sturges_-.---.--- Grands Gree: 2. oe French Soldier and Child. Howard. Sturges.-.-..-2< Canaslettos= 2 2-22 e— Grand Canal, Venice. W. G. Russell Allen_.-__- Rembrandt... 222 2— 6 19 etchings. George Matthew Adams... Legros__--..-------- 51 prints. EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART The Board of Trustees accepted the offer of Lessing J. Rosenwald to exchange a Gauguin woodcut entitled “Interior de Case” for a finer impression of the same work. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN In connection with the fifteenth anniversary of the opening of the National Gallery of Art, 96 works of art from the Samuel H. Kress Collection were lent to the Gallery. Notable among these were the following: Artist Title AndreardelsatiO === aanes= aaa Charity. Bellini Giovanna a ee ee The Infant Bacchus. CaTpaCClO =e =e eee Madonna and Child. @lovuetyhrancoissa- es 2 -= == eee Diane de Poitiers. David, Jacques-Louis____-_--------- Napoleon in His Study. Ma SON ATO eee ees Blindman’s Buff. Nraconand =a ee nee The Swing. Ghirlandaio, Domenico___--------~--. Madonna and Child. TOL (GR RO0 ee Christ Cleansing the Temple. Griinewald222235 222 = oe The Small Crucifixion. IMemiling 222s" 52 ae eae The Presentation in the Temple. Pontormo=}=-—- oe ene eee eee Monsignor della Casa. ubens2 2224 a ee ae ee eee Deciug Mus Addressing the Legions. Sienredamns == see eee Cathedral of St. John at ’S-Hertogenbosch. Sub O ae ee The Conversion of St. Paul. Gtian2 Saco 3 oeee Soe a eee Doge Andrea Gritti. WMtlane = 9s 22 Se ee ea ae St. John the Hvangelist on Patmos. Benedetto da Maiano__------------~ Madonna and Child. Bernini; Gian Torenzo--—-_-- Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Nino Pisano. 22-222 eee The Archangel Gabriel. Nino: Pisanos2oe ee ee ee The Virgin Annunciate. During the fiscal year 1956 the following works of art were also received on loan by the Gallery: SECRETARY’S REPORT 183 From: Artist Chester Dale, New York, N. Y.: Tisnac; devheysteritn ot So bb 2o See eeet sae F. V. Doornick. ‘Anne; de Peysters- 22222 S= 22 See oes 2 ee ee, F. V. Doornick. The Sacrament of the Last Supper_-____________ Salvador Dali. Claiborne Pell, Washington, D. C.: ‘The Jolly ihiatboatmens assem 2s ee ee ee Bingham. Mr. and Mrs. C. B. Wrightsman, Palm Beach, Fla.: ae OAUSe ubeae ieee Bee ie a ee ee Pissarro. Portraitrorcaovoune. Girl! 222-52 2 eee See Vermeer. Sketch for staircase ceiling in Wiirzburg________ Tiepolo. Robert Woods Bliss, Washington, D. C.: Thirty-seven objects of Pre-Columbian art. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year: To: J. H. Whittemore Co., Naugatuck, Conn.: Artist Three Ballet Girls Behind the Scenes____________ Degas. Chester Dale, New York, N. Y.: TSAaAClOCME CY Stereo eos ee F. V. Doornick. PANINI CCV CV StCleN eu: Sian 2 BeINL TNL Silene teed, F. V. Doornick. Portrait of a Young Woman in Riding Dress______ David d’Avignon. Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Garbisch, New York, N. Y.: Fourteen American primitive paintings. Robert Woods Bliss, Washington, D. C.: Nine objects of Pre-Columbian art. Samuel H. Kress Foundation, New York, N. Y.: Sacritice Ofsiphigenia= 4.6L cet ete hers Pee Tiepolo. PALO Tie Gi O iy eee Os aera EEE 2 eve le a eh Titian. Siem CHPISCO DM Cress eh ea ee a Massys. SBE XD) aerate SV EVE TTS CG ee ee ee ee Mabuse. MGCiyee SETI CLO = he eer eee ee ee ee ee Mabuse. HaAnNdSCape ase Se ee eek Ys et eh Ruysdael, Salomon. WORKS OF ART LENT During the fiscal year the Gallery lent the following works of art for exhibition purposes: To: Artist Boston Museum of Fine Art, Boston, Mass. : ERC OSG ie eee oe ee ee gi eS See se Sargent. Mrsi Walliams indicott 222 S22) 2 ee eae Sargent. Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pa.: axa, SCULCHINGY IDC Oi = seek ma. So ee Linton Park. Traveling Exhibition Service, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.: lax Scutching eels 22 ae se Le I EO a Linton Park. Peale Museum, Baltimore, Md.: Portrait of Richardson Stuart_2——-—----- === Rembrandt Peale. 412575—57——13 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Hos Artist Woodlawn Plantation, Virginia: General Washington at Princeton-___________---~- C. P. Polk. Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio: TheJReturmofiRip Van Winkles—- ieee tan eee Quidor. Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, Ala.: Portrait of a Young Man Wearing White Stock_-_-_ Unknown. Houston Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Tex.: Vermont ma wiyiel sas ae ee Horace Bundy. View of Benjamin’ Reber’s) Marm_—_---_-_ 22. = C. Hofmann. The SargentiMamily—__ eee ese at oi ieee a Unknown. Kruit and Wlowers2.2222 22422 eee ates Unknown. Columbia 22 ee etal ae Bey Unknown. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Va.: Méte-a-Tete: thus Gee A Bee kA ee Ao A ee Boucher. RasPetiie (i0get ce ee Le eee ee ees Moreau le Jeune. Washington County Museum, Hagerstown, Md.: Twenty-five American portraits. EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1956: American Primitive Paintings. From the Collection of Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch. Continued from previous fiscal year, through August 1, 1955. Miniatures and Prints. From the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection. Continued from previous fiscal year, through August 1, 1955. American Paintings. From the Collection of the National Gallery of Art. August 7 through September 18, 1955. German Drawings—Masterpieces from Five Centuries. Through the cooperation of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Staatliche Graphische Sammlung in Munich, and the German Embassy in Wash- ington. October 10 through October 31, 1955. A Collection of Contemporary German Prints. Presented by the people of the Federal Republic of Germany to the United States of America. November 9, 1955, through January 4, 1956. Asian Artists in Crystal. From Steuben Glass. In addition to the Asian crystal, designs by contemporary American glassmakers were exhibited by the Corning Museum of Glass. January 18 through February 19, 1956. Masterpieces of Graphic Art. From the Lessing J. Rosenwald Col- lection. January 21 through April 9, 1956. Reopened May 23, 1956. Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture Acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1951-1956. Opened on the occasion of the Fifteenth Anniversary of the Opening of the National Gallery of Art. Evening celebration March 17,1956. Public opening March 18, 1956, to continue on indefinite loan. SECRETARY'S REPORT 185 The Sacrament of the Last Supper. By Salvador Dali. First ex- hibition. Placed on view March 31, 1956, on indefinite loan. A Century and a Half of Painting in Argentina. Exhibition assem- bled under the direction of a committee including the Counselor in charge of Cultural Affairs of the Argentine Embassy in Washington. April 17 through May 17, 1956. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald Collection.—Special exhibitions of prints from the Ro- senwald Collection were circulated to the following places during the fiscal year 1956: Michigan State University, Mich.: Ten German prints. October—November 19955. Marion Koogler MeNay Art Institute, San Antonio, Tex. : Thirteen Degas prints. October-November 1955. University of Nebraska Art Galleries, Lincoln, Nebr. : Exhibition of work of Ernst Barlach. October—November 1955. Norfolk Museum, Norfolk, Va.: Two illuminations, Anonymous Flemish, XV Century. November 1955. Museum of Modern Art, New York, N. Y.: Nolde, “The Prophet.” November 1955—January 1956. Lowe Gallery, Coral Gables, Fla. : Vifty-seven prints and drawings for prints. December 1955. Henry Gallery, University of Washington, Seattie, Wash. : Exhibition of work of Ernst Barlach. December 1955—January 1956. American Federation of Arts—Traveling Exhibition : Exhibition of Abraham Bosse. 1956. Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio: Exhibition of work of Ernst Barlach. January—February 1956. Michigan State College, Mich. : Thirty-three Italian prints, XV Century—XVIII Century. Japuary—February 1956. Four Arts Society, Palm Beach, Fla.: Exhibition of Gauguin prints. February 1956. Smith College, Northampton, Mass. : Exhibition of Abraham Bosse. February—March 1956. Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colo. : Prints by Bosse, Callot, Hollar. Spring, 1956. 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Atlanta Art Association, Atlanta, Ga.: Ninety-three Toulouse-Lautrec prints. March-April 1956. Busch-Reisinger Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. : Exhibition of work of Ernst Barlach. March-April 1956. Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, Tex. : Exhibition of Steinlen and Munch. March-April 1956. Watkins Gallery, American University, Washington, D. C.: Exhibition “Art and Theatre.” March-April 1956. Citizens’ Committee for Children of N. Y. C., Inc., New York, N. Y.: Gaugin exhibition. April-May 1956. City Art Museum of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.: Sixty XV-Century woodcuts and engravings. April-May 1956. Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C.: Meryon, “Malingre Cryptogramme.” April—May 1956. Museum of Art, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oreg.: Hxhibition of “Music.” April—May 1956. Philadelphia Art Alliance, Philadelphia, Pa.: Klee, Lautree, and Biddle. May-June 1956. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Holland: Three Rembrandt drawings. Opened May 1956. Index of American Design.—During the fiscal year 1956, 28 travel- ing exhibitions of original watercolor renderings of this collection, with 42 bookings, were sent to the following States: Number of Number of State exhibitions State exhibitions Arkansas qcsc ose oll ete Belnsts AMichigan) 22322. _. 52. lane ad Be 4 California; 222220 2s 2 eet 2 Minnesota 222 ee oe ee 1 Districh of sColumpia=====——— DING WoONOnIKs oo oo a Ee 1 Wloridaqes sae ene se eee S| North) Carolin aes eee ees 5 ino sio 26 a a AME CTINS Vly Tl oy eee ee ee 2 MO wWaly sae ee lee. sees tere ee ete te SouthmC@arolinas = esas se eens 3 IGANS8 Sg fo he Se SS a ee SS is “ennessees 2. 2 ewe at a ae 1 IeEnGUCK Yo sae ate Se St | OMS geese ee ee ee ae ens 4 Maine pe ses = = eee ee NT WWASGONSGIN Ca oot = os ee ee eee 1 Maryland @22- 22 2=- S20 oe MG VLISE URL cesses So eee ee aren ee 6 Massachusetts) 2225202") ..—5— 2 CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES The Curatorial Department accessioned 118 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1956. Advice was given regarding 324 works of art brought to the Gallery for expert opinion and 61 visits to SECRETARY'S REPORT 187 collections were made by members of the staff in connection with of- fers of gift or for expert opinion. About 1,550 inquiries requiring research were answered verbally and by letter. John Walker, Chief Curator of the Gallery, gave a lecture at the Newark, N. J.. Museum before the opening of an exhibition of Old Masters from American Collections. He also lectured to Miss Porter’s School in Farming- ton, Conn., on the Kress paintings which were placed on exhibition on March 17. Miss Elizabeth Mongan assisted with seminar courses on prints at Beaver College, Bryn Mawr College, and Swarthmore College. She also lectured to school and adult groups in and around Philadelphia. Erwin O. Christensen gave a lecture on the decorative arts in the National Gallery to an adult women’s group at the Uni- versity of Maryland. He also delivered one of the Sunday afternoon Gallery lectures on the decorative arts. John Pancoast gave one of the regular weekly tours on the Italian Sculpture in the Samuel H. Kress Collection. Hereward Lester Cooke lectured at Washington University in St. Louis on “Picasso in the Chester Dale Collection.” Mr. Cooke assisted in the judging of seven art exhibitions during the course of the year in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia. Mr. Walker served as trustee of the American Federation of Arts, the American Academy in Rome, and the Bureau of University Travel. He also served on the following committees: Dumbarton Oaks Visit- ing Committee; Harvard University Press Visiting Committee; Advisory Council, University of Notre Dame. Mr. Walker is also a member of the United States National Commission for UNESCO. Perry B. Cott served as a member of the Board of Governors of the Archaeological Institute of America, Washington Society. Katharine Shepard served as secretary of this organization and was official delegate to its General Meeting in Chicago. For the first half of the year members of the curatorial staff were intensively engaged in the preparation of new installations and re- hanging of the Samuel H. Kress Collection, which was opened to the public on March 18. These included 26 galleries containing paintings, 6 galleries containing sculpture, and 3 rooms especially designed for the exhibition of Renaissance bronzes. These installations were under the supervision of the Director, Dr. Finley; the Chief Curator, Mr. Walker; and Mr. Cott. RESTORATION Francis Sullivan, Resident Restorer of the Gallery, made regular and systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery’s collec- tions and on loan at the Gallery, and periodically removed dust and bloom as required. Mr. Sullivan relined 12 paintings, cleaned and 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 restored 21 paintings, and gave special treatment as required on 10 paintings. Fourteen paintings were X-rayed as an aid in research. The X-ray developing baths were redesigned, and experiments were continued with the application of 27H and other synthetic varnishes developed by the National Gallery of Art Fellowship at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Proofs of all color reproductions of Gallery paintings were checked and approved, and technical advice on the conservation of paintings was furnished to the public upon request. Mr. Sullivan also gave advice on and special treatment to works of art belonging to other Government agencies including The White House, the Freer Gallery of Art, and the Smithsonian Institution. PUBLICATIONS John Walker wrote the text for a portfolio of paintings which was published by the Harry N. Abrams Co. in the spring. Mr. Cott con- tributed an article to the Orange Disc, published by the Gulf Oil Co. Mrs. Fern R. Shapley was coauthor with Dr. William Suida of the painting section of the catalog, “Paintings and Sculpture from the Kress Collection acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1951- 1956.” Mr. Pancoast compiled the text of the sculpture section of the same catalog. An article by Mrs. Shapley on “The Holy Family” by Giorgione appeared in the winter issue of the Art Quarterly. She also wrote an article on the Gallery acquisitions 1945-54 which was published in The Studio. Mr. Christensen’s book entitled “Primitive Art” was published by Crowell-Studio in the fall. He also revised the Gallery handbook on Chinese porcelains. Mr. Cooke contributed an article to the College Art Journal on “The Exhibition of German Drawings at the National Gallery of Art.” Mr. Cooke wrote an article for the Burlington Magazine entitled “Three Unknown Drawings by G. L. Bernini.” He also prepared a series of ten short articles for publication in the Ladies Home Journal. Three of these articles have appeared this year. An article by Mr. Cooke entitled, “Il Museo e gli Artisti” appeared in Atti del convegno di Museologia, Ministry of Public Instruction, Rome. Mr. Cooke prepared the texts for 20 brief articles which were published to ac- company reproductions of paintings in the Samuel H. Kress Collec- tion, which are on sale in Kress stores throughout the country. During the past fiscal year the Publications Fund published 44 new 11-x-14’’ color reproductions and a new color postcard, and made plates of two prints for new Christmas folders; four additional new color postcards were also on order. Three more large collotype re- productions of paintings on exhibition, distributed by a New York publisher, were placed on sale. SECRETARY'S REPORT 189 Portfolio No. 5 entitled “Masterpieces of the Samuel H. Kress Collection, 1956” was published, as well as a catalog of the 1956 exhibition of paintings acquired by the Samuel H. Kress Foundation. A fourth printing of Handbook No. 1, “How to Look at Works of Art; the Search for Line,” was on order, and a bock entitled “A Gallery of Children” covering paintings of children in the Nationa! Gallery was placed on sale. Exhibition catalogs of the Asian Artists in Crystal, German Drawings, and A Century and a Half of Painting in Argentina ex- hibitions were distributed. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The attendance for the general tours, Congressional tours, “Tours for the Week,” and “Pictures of the Week,” totaled 45,797, while that for the 42 auditorium lectures on Sunday afternoons was approxi- mately 9,470 during the fiscal year 1956. Tours, lectures, and conferences arranged by appointment were given to 299 groups and individuals. The total number of people served in this manner was 7,290. ‘This is an increase of 43 groups and 1,248 people served over last year. These special appointments were made for such groups as representatives from leading high schools, universities, museums, other governmental agencies, and distinguished visitors. Three separate training programs for selected members of the Junior League and the American Association of University Women of Arlington County and Montgomery County were carried forward during the year in connection with the programs of those organizations to assist school children in tours of the Gallery. This training was under the general supervision of the Curator in Charge of Education and the specific supervision of members of the Education Department staff. Lecture programs on “American Cultural Life” were prepared for librarian members of the USLA and for members of the State Depart- ment, who may act as cultural attachés on overseas duty. The lectures for these are given by three members of the Education Department, joined by the Curator of the Index of American Design and a repre- sentative from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in America. The staff of the Education Office delivered 9 lectures in the audi- torium on Sunday afternoons, while 33 were given by guest speakers. During April and May, Prof. Ernst H. Gombrich, lecturer at the Warburg Institute in London and Slade Professor of Fine Arts at Oxford, delivered the Fifth Annual Series of seven A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, on the theme “The Visible World and the Language of Art.” 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 During the past year 184 persons borrowed 4,996 slides from the lending collection. The centers throughout the country which dis- tribute the National Gallery of Art film, report that approximately 55,538 viewers throughout the country saw the film in 298 bookings. Members of the Education Department prepared and recorded 34 broadcasts for use during intermission periods of the National Gallery concerts. The printed Calendar of Events announcing all Gallery activities and publications is distributed monthly to a mailing list of approxi- mately 5,100 names. LIBRARY The most important acquisitions to the Library this year were 2,140 books, pamphlets, periodicals, subscriptions and photographs pur- chased from private funds made available for this purpose. Gifts included 296 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, while 663 books, pam- phlets, periodicals, and bulletins were received on exchange from other institutions. More than 400 persons other than Gallery staff spent time in the Library for study or research during this fiscal year. More than 600 reference requests were answered by telephone. The Library is the depository for photographs of the works of art in the collections of the National Gallery of Art. -s C 961d Y LOSS ‘odd. 18) Oy atti bite A: se 2 Dn ittewrte Vs engi Tih tthe yoahewollor, es 7 : ae Woy a Suse, ath rel ec) : Ai : - | shee a b ‘ ; S38 Ane dob k , van ORE: = a at Seonsaoor ; a aaa a | bcs’ cris WARIS See eager _estai8 batiaU odtgno a a6 “eagle (ie eet. 2 ory ae 2: Yossogque Laitrecp oF. bersst, ditch . . notutienl ga drachnaranicniniind sas fated wurst. leoiyoloith anoX Saas’) ads Peenetqnis sian Maety rc? Te Ovnalouy oe Malabar socoS fini odd at Ad > DTA jalighy Ba ies . ; "SICHITA : ; a A OVER EFFLUENT CHANNEL wr > EFFLUENT CHANWEL PLAN scum PIT Ar SKIMMER EXD ff = COLUMN OUTLET PORTS i support =f CENTER See SECTIONAL ELEVATION ° u. 2 . . * Ficure_1.—Dorr,sifeed_sedimentation_ tank, tanks (fig. 2) consists of a series of wooden flights or squeegees, the ends of which are connected by two endless chains. The flights rest on the bottom of the tank; and as they are moved by motor-driven sprockets, they scrape the sludge to one end of the tank. There are various other mechanical methods of removing sludge from sedimenta- tion tanks, which are modifications or refinements of the two above mentioned. 369 SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 0) SSOud ~~” 13311 ‘J-3-NOILIAS 5 ae SLHONA jatojoo id pj ('2d41 Yag-yury) ‘*sIoAaauoo our-7Y3IeI7s YIM Yue. uoNeJUsUTIpaS—'7 AUNdIT oe es i Waddon 2aNI1S YOLISTION Yad OM) y= ex ; 4H9INa O3LOAId VV -NOILDaS se emai’ LEE OL. O78 ' -SAIOVA Dye, SSE Ao praeraneseanebeaneencananesl wolda 109 aL WIMOT| | WOLDS TOS | seven || [=> | |e wano, ce =i), ssoud SAVE) ) 380018 | bisaq aay aigavel os df-anvi| | _ nes Lavus OVaH s at Ry |e Ty as —SSSAS1 BLM Sis Ja1d —_ HON 14 SAECO NIVHD ° ; LNANTASNI Whos | eee en = TavHS waLnno ae ANVL 30 H1ION3T = — 801937109 WA Adid ‘Fpat’ ANANISN! || Wyaonasy Q33dS ANaN1443 QAaZIyOLON Si¥0d INSNTSN 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION At one time the chemical precipitation of sewage was extensively adopted ; today, however, it is little used. The process consists of mix- ing one or more chemicals with sewage to produce an insoluble or slightly soluble floc, which enmeshes and precipitates particles in sus- pension. The facilities required to treat sewage by this method consist of equipment for dosing and mixing the chemicals with the sewage and sedimentation tanks, in which the precipitated solids can be removeil. One or more of a number of chemicals are employed in the precipita- tion process. Those most frequently used are alum, lime, ferrous sul- fate and lime, ferric sulfate, and ferric chloride. Using chemicals to precipitate the sewage solids increases the amount removed and conse- quently produces a better effluent. Chemical precipitation will remove 70 to 80 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand and 80 to 90 per- cent of the suspended solids and bacteria, Chemical precipitation gives a degree of treatment intermediate between that obtained by plain sedimentation and that by oxidation processes to be described later. SEPTIC TANKS A septic tank (text fig. 3) is a sedimentation tank in which the sludge remains for a considerable time and decomposes as the result Lffluent pipe ~~. ’ Influent pipe Plan 4 q “-Surtace of sewage. BGR S nae Cedar DPAFFICS ice 1270" | pSludge outlet Longitudinal Section Ficure 3.—Typical septic tank for school or factory. (Bull. 16, Engineering Experiment Station, University of Washington.) SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER Stl of anaerobic bacterial action. From time to time after the sludge has digested, it is removed and disposed of. The septic tank was in- vented by Donald Cameron in 1895 and was adopted by many large cities. The objections to septic tanks are that they produce un- pleasant odors and the effluent often becomes contaminated with sludge solids, which, after decomposing on the bottom of the tank, rise to the surface of the sewage and flow out with the effluent. They have not been installed at medium- and large-size sewage plants for many years. Their use has been restricted to treating the sewage from in- dividual dwellings, small real-estate developments, schools, hospitals, ete. IMHOFF TANKS An Imhoff tank (fig. 4) is a two-story tank, designed to remove the suspended solids from sewage in an upper or sedimentation com- partment and to provide space in a lower compartment for the di- gestion and stabilization of the solids. The sedimentation compart- ment is usually of such a size that the sewage takes 2 or 3 hours to pass through it. During this detention period the velocity of the flow is such that the suspended solids settle on the sloping floor and slide through a slot in the floor into the lower compartment. The solids are retained in the digestion compartment for several weeks or months until they have decomposed and have lost much of their Gas Vent ~ Grams E SECTION /-/ a0 SEGHION 2-2 Ficure 4.—Typical Imhoff tank. 372 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 objectionable characteristics. In the operation of Imhoff tanks the top of the sludge in the digestion compartment is maintained well below the elevation of the slots connecting the sedimentation and the digestion compartments to prevent the reentry of sludge into the sedi- mentation compartment, which would adversely affect the clarity of the effluent. Decomposed sludge is withdrawn from the tank through a pipe (text fig. 4), the lower end of which terminates just above the bottom of the digestion compartment. One distinguishing charac- teristic of Imhoff tanks is that gas-lifted solids in the digestion com- partment, as they float upward, cannot reenter the sedimentation compartment and contaminate the effluent. Imhoff tanks, which were first adopted in Germany, were a marked improvement over septic tanks and were built at many sewage-treat- ment plants in this country such as those serving Akron, Ohio; Fitch- burg, Mass.; and Fort Worth, Tex. During the past 30 years, how- ever, Imhoff tanks have been superseded by mechanically cleaned sedimentation tanks and separate sludge-digestion tanks. SECONDARY TREATMENT FACILITIES In many instances the above-mentioned facilities do not furnish the required degree of treatment. Such is the case if there is an insufficient volume of diluting water into which the sewage effluent discharges. The three principal types of supplementary treatment usually called secondary treatment, are intermittent sand filters, trick- ling filters, and the activated-sludge process. Although intermittent sand filters were often employed 50 years ago, their present use is in general restricted to those places where the sewage flow is quite small and where a high degree of treatment is required. Either trickling filters, or the activated-sludge process are widely adopted where sup- plementary treatment is called for. The activated-sludge process is more generally used than trickling filters where large sewage flows must be treated. INTERMITTENT SAND FILTERS An intermittent sand filter consists of a bed of sand varying from 30 to 36 inches in depth. Each bed is surrounded by a low earth embankment, and one or more pipelines with pen joints are provided at the bottom of the beds to drain off the effluent. The raw sewage is ap- plied, at stated intervals, to the beds to a depth of about 3 inches. The sewage solids are strained out in the upper few inches of the bed, and the effluent is usually quite clear with a low suspended solid content. Between each application of sewage several hours are allowed to elapse to permit the entry of air into the bed so that the entrapped materials can be oxidized. From time to time it is necessary to re- move and dispose of the solids caught on the surface of the beds. SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 373 Although it is possible to apply untreated sewage to intermittent sand filters and produce a good effluent, the more general practice is to give the sewage preliminary treatment by coarse screens and sedi- mentation tanks. Intermittent sand filters are capable of removing as much as 95 percent of the organic and suspended solids from sewage with the production of an excellent effluent. The disad- vantages of intermittent sand filters are that they require considerable areas of land where large volumes of sewage must be treated, and they produce disagreeable odors. One of the last large intermittent sand filteration plants in this country was in Worcester, Mass., where 74.3 acres of filter beds treated an average flow of over 4 million gal- lons a day. They were superseded by trickling filters in 1925. TRICKLING FILTERS Trickling filters for many years have been and still are one of the most important treatment facilities for oxidizing sewage. A trickling filter consists of an artificial bed of durable material such as gravel, crushed stone, or slag, on which sewage in the form of a spray is intermittently or continuously applied. The sewage trickles down over the surfaces of the stones and is collected in underdrains in the filter bottom, from which it discharges for subsequent treatment. The filtering medium usually varies in size from about 1 to 3 or 314 inches. Fine-grained material will produce a better effluent than a coarse-grained medium. On the other hand filters with fine-grained material are more liable to become clogged with sewage solids. The depth of trickling filters varies from about 8 to 10 feet. Several ways of applying sewage to the surface of filters are avail- able. One much-used method consists of distributing the sewage through a network of pipes laid on or beneath the surface. Projecting vertically upward from these pipes are equally spaced pipes, which are usually 3 or 4 inches in diameter and which terminate some 2 or 3 feet above the filter. At the top of each vertical pipe there is a nozzle through which the sewage discharges in a fine spray on the surface of the stone. Various means are used to vary the pressure in these pipes so that sewage is applied uniformly to the filter both close to and at a distance from the nozzles. Sewage is also applied to trickling filters by means of rotary dis- tributors (pl. 2, fig.2). This device consists of a vertical column, into which the sewage enters at the bottom and isdrawn upward. Attached to this column are two or more horizontal pipes, which rotate about the center of the column a few feet above the surface of the filter. Sewage flows through these pipes and discharges through a series of nozzles on the filter. The flow from the nozzles furnishes sufficient impulse to rotate the distributor so that sewage is applied to the entire surface of the filter. 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 When a trickling filter is first put in service, purification of the sewage is not great. However, within about a month or more the filter media becomes coated with slime, containing a multitude of lower forms of life such as bacteria, fungus, fly larvae, spiders, and many types of werms. As the sewage trickles over the surface of this slime, the carbonaceous and nitrogenous materials are oxidized by bacterial action with the production of carbon dioxide, water, and nitrates, and with a reduction of 60 to 85 percent in the oxidizable matter. As the bacteria and other forms of life in trickling filters are affected by temperature, a better effluent is produced in summer than in winter. The quantity of sewage that can be treated on trickling filters varies from 1 to 2 million gallons per acre per day, up to 30 million gallons per acre per day or more. Prior to about 20 years ago from about 1.5 to 8 million gallons per acre per day of settled sewage was applied to trickling filters, or about 12,000 to 24,000 persons were served per acre by a filter 6 feet deep. Experimental work and many full-scale instal- lations have since indicated that considerably greater applications of sewage can be made, and that by pumping back a portion of the effluent to the filter influent much larger quantities of sewage can be treated with no decrease in efficiency. Trickling filters are used in many parts of the world for treating both small and large sewage flows. During the past 20 or 30 years in the United States, where the sewage from large cities requires sec- ondary treatment, the trend has been to provide activated-sludge units instead of trickling filters. The three largest trickling-filter plants in the world are those serving Baltimore, Md.; Bradford, England; and Birmingham, England. The effluent from trickling filters usually contains from 50 to 100 parts per million of suspended solids. In order to remove these solids the effluent is almost always treated in sedimentation tanks, which are frequently called humus tanks. They generally have a detention period of about 2 or 3 hours and asa rule are provided with mechanical equipment for removing the sludge. ACTIVATED-SLUDGE TREATMENT The activated-sludge process, which was invented in Manchester, England, consists of bringing sewage into intimate contact with air and biologically active sludge. As a rule the sewage is first clarified in preliminary settling tanks and then permitted to flow continuously through aeration tanks with a detention period of several hours. Activated sludge is added to the sewage entering the aeration tanks in amounts varying from about 10 to 30 percent by volume, and air is added to the mixture. From the aeration tanks the sewage and PEATE 1 1956.—KEEFER SMITHSONIAN REPORT, . . ‘ fo 2 2 fi N UOJUOL T, SIOQqUreyo 113 poeuroos Ae o1ue MOBI 7c “UddIDS OSIPOD pourolo Aj[eoluryoour 4Pq uleyy) "II SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—KEEFER 1. Comminutor. PLATE 2 2. Trickling filter equipped with Dorrco rotary distributor. ha SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—KEEFER PEATE; 3 S % >< Sa 1. Chlorinators at sewage-treatment plant, Washington, D. C. (Wallace & Tiernan Co.) a S 2. Covered sludge-drying beds, New Lexington, Ohio. (Lord & Burnham Co.) SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—KEEFER PLATE 4 ie 1. Oliver vacuum filter, Middletown, Conn. (Dorr-Oliver, Inc.) 2. Rotary sludge dryer, Fairfax County sewage-treatment works, Va. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—KEEFER Pe AES - rt Fs \ HOT AIR RETURN TO FURNACE EXCESS COOLING AIR er es Ee, TO ATMOSPHERE ean i ——~ = ee TOP FRAME : spl do Wied ek BEARING eas SLUDGE FEED INLET 2B ABBLE ARMS hey it 4 STEEL SHELL INSULATION BRICK FIRE BRICK HOT AIR ASH OUTLET ; FRESH COOLING AIR | ' TO SHAFT € ARMS———™ | Nicholas Herreshoff sludge incinerator. PLATE 6 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—KEEFER NOILOAS wna ONINIOASY “udd19S OUT Ye, at et oe ae NOILWAS 14 aais SONI Was 2 LZ xy 2 GOMNMURS ETUC Uaaetti i (iibiti4 I cae THT PPELEEOTETTEEEE S C1 ‘WNdd Ne SSHSNUG ONIATOASY SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER oo sludge, called mixed liquor, flows to sedimentation tanks. The clari- fied effluent from these tanks can be discharged into a watercourse, and the settled solids, called activated sludge, is also removed. The major portion is added to the sewage flowing to the aeration tanks, and the remainder is treated and disposed of in a variety of ways. The activated-sludge process has several advantages. It is free from odors and flies, and the necessary treatment units occupy less space and are less costly to construct than trickling filters and humus tanks. The disadvantages of the process are that it is costly to operate, and it is frequently adversely affected by industrial wastes in the sewage. Authorities differ as to how the process functions. The various reactions involved have been stated to be biological, biochemical, physiochemical, base-exchange and enzymic. There seems to be no question that the bacteria and Protozoa, which are present in vast numbers in the activated sludge, play a major role in the transforma- tion of the nitrogenous and carbonaceous substances in the sewage into simpler and more stable compounds. The three requirements of the process are biologically active sludge, an ample supply of air, and an intimate mixing of the sludge and the sewage for a suflicient time. METHODS OF AERATION Three methods of introducing air into sewage, to which activated sludge has been added, are used. These are (1) mechanical aeration, (2) diffused-air aeration, and (3) a combination of these two methods. Mechanical aeration consists of providing mechanical means of intro- ducing air from the atmosphere at the surface of the sewage-sludge mixture flowing through aeration tanks. Diffused-air aeration in- volves blowing compressed air through nozzles, perforated pipes, or porous diffusers at some distance below the surface of the mixed liquor. Mechanical aeration—Many different types of mechanical aeration have been perfected. Only two will be described. One of these, called a Simplex aerator (text fig. 5), was developed in Bury, England. This aerator consists of a steel cylinder, which is placed in a vertical position on the center line of a relatively deep tank, with the bottom a few inches above the tank floor. Attached to the top of the cylinder at the surface of the sewage there is a rotating cone with steel vanes, driven by an electric motor. As the cone rotates, it draws the mixed liquid up the cylinder and throws it out over the surface of the sewage in a spray. Oxygen is absorbed from the air by the spray and the agitated surface of the sewage. Simplex aerators have been provided at Princeton, Il., and Dunsmuir, Calif. A second type of aerator (fig. 6) embodies the use of a paddle wheel about 30 inches in diameter in the form of latticework, which is sup- 4125755725 376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 | / DRIVE UNIT Base SRive vit ——__ a ates / /— SHAFT- HovsinG BE FURNISHED (Y STEEL iF REQD)—_— WATER Lever SSS =i ee INFLLERT BSDRVE RING — <= TORN BOCKLE — SuPPORT ROoOS ~ \ ee \ — STAY Robs : a SinGcre Avcnor UOPTACE TOBE— Wy hea GRovuT AS REQUIRED SECTIONAL ELEVATION Ficure 5,—Simplex aerator. ported by and rotates about a horizontal shaft, extending along and adjacent to one of the walls of an aeration tank at the surface of the sewage. A longitudinal vertical baffle, reaching from the surface of the sewage to a point near the bottom of the tank, is provided below the paddle wheel and about 18 inches away from the wall supporting the aerator. As the paddle wheel rotates, it not only breaks up the surface of the sewage, thus exposing it to the atmosphere, but it also imparts a spiral motion to the flow of sewage in the tank. Sewage is drawn upward between the above-mentioned baffle and tank wall from the bottom of the tank. The sewage then flows horizontally across the surface of the tank in contact with the air; and after reaching the opposite tank wall, the flow is directed downward to the tank bottom. Aeration tanks provided with this type of aerator have been installed at Collingswood, N. J., and Fort Atkinson, Wis. Diffused-air aeration—Various types of compressors are used to supply air to aeration tanks. During the early history of the activated- sludge process single-stage piston compressors were used. At the present time positive-pressure blowers or centrifugal compressors are generally adopted. The advantage of positive-pressure blowers is that es a = SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 377 A uM HL Mn 4 < He tt My) oe mo: TTT] orwine HTT TROVUG in ar vas R Wl It E ee TUT f Stee Tl te i beet) ST) ep ry ne ee i TT -——_—__—_- ‘\ LINK-BELT MECHANICAL AERATOR ve CHAIN.” CF Sige a ta = rms a Se Se oe — Gee SY oO DEPTH MAXIMUA WIDTH OF TANKS Figure 6,—Link-Belt mechanical aerators used in activated-sludge aeration tanks. their capacity can be varied by changing their speed, and their capacity remains the same even though the frictional resistance to the flow of the air may increase as air diffusers become clogged. Where air is blown through porous diffuser plates or tubes with narrow air passages, it is necessary to clean the air to prevent the clogging of the plates or tubes with foreign matter. Various methods of cleaning the air are available, such as passing it through a multi- plicity of overlapping oil-coated screen panels, canton flannel, or cellulose tissue filters. The mixture of sewage and activated sludge is aerated in long rectangular tanks, a typical cross section of which is shown in text figure 7. Aeration tanks used in the United States are generally designed to have a detention period of 4 to 6 hours. In many instances they are several hundred feet long with a working depth, which has become fairly standard in large installations, of about 15 feet and widths varying from 20 to 30 feet or more. Many methods have been perfected for introducing air into the sewage in fine bubbles, one of which is to blow the air through porous tubes or plates. Porous plates, 12 inches square and 1 inch thick, are made of crystalline alumina or a high-silica sand. A number of the plates are set in a row in a horizontal position in shallow cast-iron or concrete containers with space provided for the passage of air between ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 378 TIT ‘OSvoryD ‘syoM JUSUI}vAI}-93eMIs JsaMYINOG-s39\\ JY sYULI UOIVIA¥ JO UOT}DAS ssOID—'/ TUNOIY SAIUIDQJUOI AD ~., [yf C@zearama | UIDU MD /2AS 109 BOR AS ae ae SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 379 the under side of the plates and the bottom of each container. ‘These containers are placed in one or more rows in the bottom of the aeration tanks adjacent and parallel to one of the tank walls. From the diffuser containers air pipes extend from the aeration tanks to air blowers or compressors. When a tank similar to that shown in figure 7 is in operation, the flow of the sewage through the tank and the upward force of the air adjacent to one of the tank walls imparts a spiral motion to the mixed liquor. This motion results in new sewage surfaces coming in con- tact with the air at the tank surface, permitting the dissolving of additional oxygen. For aeration tanks to be effective the mixed liquor should contain an appreciable quantity of dissolved oxygen at all times. Usually from 2 to 4 parts per million is adequate. The amount of suspended solids in the mixed liquor resulting from the addition of activated sludge is generally kept between 1,000 and 3,000 parts per million. Maintaining higher percentages of activated sludge in the mixed liquor will result in a greater purification of the sewage but more air will be required. The amount of air used varies as a rule from 0.5 to 1.5 cubic feet per gallon of sewage treated. After the mixed liquor discharges from the aeration tanks, the acti- vated sludge must be removed promptly. Conventional sedimentation tanks, either circular, square, or rectangular, with adequate sludge- removal equipment are usually provided. The sludge must be with- drawn in a fresh condition, as most of it is returned to the aeration tanks for a continuation of the treatment process. The effluent produced by an activated-sludge plant is generally some- what better than that from a trickling-filter plant with the 5-day bio- chemical oxygen demand and the suspended solids averaging from 10 to 25 parts per million. The process has been adopted very widely in this country and abroad for treating the sewage from both large and small cities. A few of the notable installations are in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. LAND TREATMENT OF SEWAGE The application of sewage to the land and the use of the land for agricultural purposes is one of the oldest methods of sewage treatment, dating back to the middle of the sixteenth century. The sewage thus serves to fertilize and irrigate the soil. A sewage farm must be pro- vided with the necessary pipes and ditches, and the land must be graded to prevent the accumulation of sewage in stagnant pools. Be- fore applying sewage to the land, it is desirable to remove a consider- able portion of the suspended solids, which normally tend to clog the soil. The disadvantages of the process are that large areas of land are needed, odors are liable to be produced, and the proper treatment 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 of the sewage is likely to be neglected for the raising of crops. The process is most applicable in arid countries. Although sewage farms are used to only a limited extent in this country, they still serve to treat the sewage of several large cities in Europe such as Paris and Berlin. CHLORINATION Chlorine and chlorine compounds have been used since 1854 for the treatment of sewage. However, it has been only during the past 50 years that chlorine has been employed extensively at sewage-treatment plants. Except at very small plants chlorine is purchased in liquid form in steel containers of different sizes, holding from 100 pounds to 30 tons. It is then fed as a gas in amounts that can be regulated manu- ally or automatically by chlorinators (pl. 3, fig. 1) to any point of application. The following are some of the uses of chlorine for treating sewage: 1. Odor control. 2. Control of trickling-filter flies. . Control of trickling-filter ponding. . Reduction of biochemical oxygen demand. . Disinfection of sewage. . Control of aquatic life. oO OR & ODOR CONTROL Chlorine has been widely used at sewage plants to control odors. Many of the disagreeable odors are due to hydrogen sulfide. When chlorine is added to sewage containing this gas the following reaction occurs: Ch+HS=2H01-+8 Chlorine can be applied to the sewage at one or more points in the sewerage system, at the inlet to or at some point in the sewage-treat- ment works. It is often preferable and cheaper to apply the chlorine at one or more points in the sewerage system where the sewage is fresh than to apply it at the sewage works where the sewage may be septic and may contain hydrogen sulfide. CONTROL OF TRICKLING-FILTER FLIES Practically all trickling filters are the habitat of small flies, called Psychoda alternata, which frequently create a nuisance in the vicinity of sewage works. Of the many methods adopted to control them the application of chlorine to the influent of trickling filters has proved quite effective. A sufficient quantity is used for several hours at weekly or biweekly intervals to reduce the adult fly population. CONTROL OF TRICKLING-FILTER PONDING One of the difficulties in operating trickling filters has been the clog- ging of the filtering material with organic solids. The clogging is SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 381 often so pronounced that it is impossible to get the sewage to flow through the filter bed. At times it is necessary to remove the filtering material and wash it. As this process is quite expensive, cheaper ways of correcting the difficulty have been devised. One of these is to add a small quantity of chlorine to the sewage being applied to the filter bed. REDUCTION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND Chlorine can be used to reduce the biochemical oxygen demand of sewage. This reduction is probably caused by the oxidative action of chlorine. Chlorine reacts with nitrogenous bodies to produce chlo- rine substitution compounds, some of which are probably useless as bacterial food and are therefore less putrescible. Every pound of chlorine added to sewage is capable of reducing the biochemical oxygen demand about 2 to 2.5 pounds. Using chlorine to reduce the biochemi- cal oxygen demand is not a routine procedure, because the expense is considerable and other cheaper methods of sewage treatment are available. DISINFECTION OF SEWAGE Where sewage effluents are discharged into watercourses that are used for bathing, for the culture of shellfish, or for sources of water supply, chlorine is often used to disinfect the effluent. The amount required will depend upon the degree of treatment the sewage has re- ceived; sewage that has undergone complete treatment will require less chlorine than that partially treated. Dosages vary from 2 or 3 parts per million up to 25 to 30 parts per million. When sewage effluents are disinfected with chlorine, it is essential that the chlorine be thoroughly mixed with the sewage and be maintained in contact with it about 15 to 30 minutes. If the proper operating procedures are followed, chlorine will kill more than 99 percent of the bacteria. CONTROL OF AQUATIC LIFE Where sewage effluents are discharged into some watercourses, both the organic and inorganic matter serve as a source of nutriment for aquatic life such as fungi and algae. These growths may become very prolific and produce nuisances. Chlorine has been applied in a num- ber of instances to inhibit these biological growths. TREATMENT OF SLUDGE SLUDGE DIGESTION The sewage solids, which collect in sedimentation tanks, contain 90 percent or more of water and from about 60 to 80 percent of organic matter on the dry solids basis. Within a few hours after sludge is drawn from sedimentation tanks, it becomes highly odorous. Many ways of treating and disposing of it are available. One method fre- quently adopted is to store it in tanks, called sludge digesters, where 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 the material decomposes and eventually loses its objectionable odor. Furthermore, the digested material can be more readily dewatered than the raw sludge. The first digesters were open masonry tanks, in which the sludge was stored for several months before being removed for further treatment or disposal. The first two large sludge-digester installations were put in service about 1911 in Baltimore, Md., and Birmingham, England. In the 10- or 15-year period following World War I, as a result of considerable research, many of the factors affecting sludge digestion were determined. These included the effect of temperature, the pH value of the sludge, and the percentage of well-digested sludge used for seeding purposes. As a result of this work many improvements were incorporated in the design of digesters. These improvements consisted of providing digesters with rigid or floating covers to collect the sludge gas and prevent the escape of heat from the sludge, facili- ties for heating the sludge, and equipment for mixing the tank contents. When sludge is maintained at a temperature ranging from 85° to 100° F., digestion can be accomplished in about 30 days. During the past two or three years, by following certain procedures, satisfactory digestion in about 10 days has been reported by some investigators. SLUDGE-GAS COLLECTION AND UTILIZATION When sewage sludge digests, it produces considerable volumes of gas. As this gas contains from 60 to 75 percent of methane with a net heat value of from 540 to 675 B.t.u. per cubic foot, the usual procedure is to collect and utilize it. The quantity of gas produced, which de- pends upon the amount of organic matter in the sludge, averages about 1 cubic foot per day per capita served by the sewage plant. The gas is used for many purposes, the chief of which is to maintain a suitable temperature in digesters so that the decomposition of the sludge will continue at a rapid rate. The gas is also used for generating power, heating buildings, incinerating sewage screenings, and drying and incinerating sewage sludge. In a few instances the gas is sold to municipal gasworks for general use. Several methods of heating digesters have been perfected, one of which consists of using the sludge gas to fire boilers and produce steam or hot water. The hot water is pumped through pipe coils sus- pended in the digester. Another method of heating involves the use of a gas-fired heater, which contains a series of pipe coils. Sludge from the digester is pumped through these coils back again into the digester. Sludge gas is extensively used as a fuel in internal-combustion engines for power production. About 17 cubic feet of gas with a heat content of 600 B.t.u. per cubic foot will produce one horsepower-hour. SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 383 Gas engines usually operate electric generators, centrifugal sewage pumps and blowers. Gas engines can be obtained that use either sludge gas or oil as fuel. If there should be insufficient gas, there need be no interruption in operation, since oil can be used. The advantages of using sludge gas as fuel for gas engines is that considerable power can be developed and at the same time the water used to cool the engine can be pumped through pipe coils in sludge digesters for heating pur- poses. Many sewage plants have been provided with gas engines. Typical examples are the plants serving Miami, Fla., Toledo, Ohio, and Peoria, Ill. SLUDGE DEWATERING As the sludge drawn from digesters contains from 90 to 95 percent water, it 1s desirable to reduce its volume by decreasing its water con- tent. The two most widely adopted methods of accomplishing this is by sludge-drying beds or vacuum filters. Sludge-drying beds.—These are level beds of porous material, situ- ated out-of-doors and consisting usually of sand, superimposed on a layer of gravel. Underdrains with open joints are provided under the gravel at regular intervals. Sludge beds are generally divided by means of wood planks or thin concrete partitions into compartments to facilitate operating procedures. The wet sludge flows to the beds through pipes or open channels. ‘The necessary sludge bed area, which depends upon climatic conditions, amounts to about one square foot per person served by the sewage works. Under favorable atmospheric conditions well-digested sludge can be dried in about one or two weeks. When its moisture content has been reduced to about 70 percent or less, the sludge can be removed and another application can be made. At many sewage-treatment plants (pl. 3, fig. 2) the sludge-drying beds are covered with greenhouses. The advantages of this type of construction are that a somewhat smaller drying area is needed, the problem of odors is less acute, and some sludge can be dried in winter. The use of drying beds for dewatering sludge has several dis- advantages. In the first place unpleasant odors will result if the sludge is not well digested. Moreover it is impossible to dry sludge when the weather is very cold. Extra volume, therefore, must be pro- vided for the storage of the sludge in tanks during the winter. Vacuum filters—Vacuum filters (pl. 4, fig. 1) have been used for a number of years in this country to dewater both raw and digested sludge. The moisture content of wet sludge, which will vary from about 90 to 99 percent, can be reduced to approximately 65 to 83 per- cent by filtration. The amount of water removed will depend upon a number of factors such as the type and characteristics of the sludge, the rotating speed of the filter drum, and the kind and amount of coagulant used. 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Several different designs of vacuum filters have been perfected and are in general use. One widely adopted consists of a wooden drum that is supported with its axis in a horizontal position in a Jead-lined steel tank. Attached to the outer surface of the drum are a number of narrow wooden strips, parallel with and equidistant from each other. These strips, which divide the periphery of the drum into a number of shallow compartments, support a coarse-mesh screen, around which a filter cloth made of wool, canton flannel, or some synthetic material is wrapped. Vacuum pipes on the inside of the filter drum connect each of the compartments with an automatic valve at one or both ends of the filter. This valve connects with piping that supplies a vacuum to the filter cloth. Sludge enters the filter tank through a sludge supply pipe; and as the filter drum rotates about its axis, a layer of wet sludge about one-half inch thick adheres to the filter cloth. The differential in air pressure between the surface of the sludge cake and the under side of the cloth forces the water out of the sludge and through the vacuum pipes away from the filter. By the time sludge cake reaches the discharge side of the filter, its moisture has been greatly reduced. One essential step in preparing the sludge for filtration is to coagu- late it with a suitable chemical such as alum, ferric sulfate, chlorinated copperas, ferric chloride, or ferric chloride and lime. Of these, ferric chloride is the most effective. Another step in the preparation of sludge for filtration, especially if the materia] has been digested, is to remove a considerable percentage of the bicarbonates, which are formed as the sludge digests. Since they combine chemically with any coagulant used, it is desirable to reduce their concentration so that less coagulant be required. The concentration of bicarbonates is reduced by mixing the sludge with a large volume of water or sewage effluent and allowing the sludge to settle out from the liquid. The bicar- bonates diffuse into the water and are removed. Sludge filtration is used in many cities in the United States. Three of the most notable installations are in Chicago, Milwaukee, and Los Angeles. SLUDGE DISPOSAL The satisfactory disposal of sewage sludge is often a vexing problem that confronts the operators of sewage-treatment plants. In most in- stances sewage, after it has received partial or complete treatment, is discharged into a watercourse, which quickly removes it from its source; it frequently happens, however, that sewage sludge remains to plague the operator. The following are the more common methods of sludge disposal: 1. Disposal in water. 2. Disposal on land. 3. Heat drying. 4, Incineration. SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 385 DISPOSAL IN WATER Where sewage-treatment plants are situated near sufficiently large bodies of water that can dilute and carry away the sludge without creating unsanitary conditions, this method of disposal has been adopted with considerable success. The sludge is pumped into spe- cially designed steamers that transport and dump it at some remote spot. Sludge has been disposed of in this way for many years at Elizabeth, N. J., and New York, N. Y., in this country, and in London, Manchester, and Glasgow in Great Britain. DISPOSAL ON LAND The most generally adopted method of sludge disposal is to apply it to the land, either wet or dry, raw or digested. The methods of land application include lagooning, trenching, flowing on land, depositing in dumps, and distributing for fertilizing purposes. Lagoons consist of natural or artificial depressions in the ground enclosed by earth dykes. Wet sludge in a semidigested or digested condition is pumped into the lagoons. The disadvantages associated with lagoons is that they occupy large areas of ground, they are fre- quently odorous, and they are usually a temporary expedient. Another method of disposal is to pump the wet sludge into trenches, which are then covered with earth. After the sludge has decomposed and the water has drained away, it is often possible to reuse the same land. At a few plants wet digested sludge is pumped through pipes and channels and allowed to flow over the ground. The sludge serves to irrigate and fertilize the soil. Any crops that are grown should be such that they will not be contaminated by the sludge. At many sewage plants such as those serving Baltimore, Md., and Washington, D. C., sludge that has been dewatered on sludge-drying beds or by vacuum filters is deposited in dumps. Sludge dumps are unsightly and frequently produce odors; therefore, they are not looked upon with favor by sanitary engineers. Sludge that has been dewatered on sludge-drying beds or by vacuum filters is widely used by gardners and farmers as a soil conditioner. The water content of the material, which may vary from about 50 to 75 percent, is such that it can be readily applied to and incorporated in the soil. The chief advantages of sludge are that it has excellent moisture-retaining characteristics and contains a considerable per- centage of humus. The nitrogen and phosphates in sludge are low. Primary tank sludge contains about 1 to 2 percent of nitrogen on the dry basis, and activated and humus-tank sludge contains 4 to 6 per- cent. The phosphates in sludge vary from approximately 2 to 3 per- cent. At many sewage plants a small charge is made for air-dried 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 sludge or vacuum-filter cake. In other localities where the demand is not great, the material is given away. HEAT DRYING SLUDGE When sludge is heat dried, its moisture content is reduced to 10 percent or less. In this condition the material is more easily handled, it can be used as a base for fertilizer, and transportation costs are reduced. Two methods of heat drying, which have been most generally adopted in this country, involve the use of rotary heat driers and flash driers. A rotary heat drier (pl. 4, fig. 2) consists of a steel drum with its longitudinal axis, about which it slowly rotates, set in a horizontal position. At the end of the drum where the wet sludge cake is added a coal- gas- or oil-fired furnace is provided. As the drum rotates, the wet sludge cake is lifted on the inside of the drum to such an eleva- tion that the sludge falls through the hot gases back to the bottom of the drum. By the time the sludge reaches the discharge end of the drum, its moisture content has been reduced to 10 percent or less. The outstanding rotary drier installation is in Milwaukee, Wis. Rotary driers have also been used at Houston, Tex., Grand Rapids, Mich., and Baltimore, Md. The flash drying system (text fig. 8) is the second method of heat drying sludge that has been extensively adopted. Heat, which is generated in an oil- gas- or coal-fired furnace, is supplied to a cage mill or flash drier. Wet sludge, to which a known quantity of pre- viously dried sludge is added, is introduced continuously into the drier and is intimately mixed with the hot gases by means of a rotating cage in the drier. The mixture of sludge and hot gases flow vertically upward through a duct into a cyclone separator, in which the sludge is separated from the gas stream. Flash driers have been installed in Chicago, Ill., Los Angeles, Calif., and Houston, Tex. SLUDGE INCINERATION One method of sludge disposal that is being more widely adopted is burning it. The two types of incinerators most generally used are multiple-hearth furnaces and furnaces used in conjunction with flash driers. A multiple-hearth furnace (see pl. 5) is cylindrical in shape with a number of horizontal hearths, spaced equidistantly apart. Pass- ing vertically up through the center of the furnace is a motor-operated shaft, attached to which are a series of rabble arms, suspended several inches above each hearth. Wet sludge is introduced on the top hearth, and as the rabble arms rotate they push the sludge from one hearth to the next lower one. Several oil- or gas-fired burners, attached to the side of the furnace, provide the necessary heat to initiate incineration. The bottom hearth is furnished with an outlet for the discharge of the SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 387 RELIEF VALVE AIRLOCK A\ i J ORY DIVIDER C\ : EXPANSION JOINT CYCLONE } £ STORAGE VENT FAM Bel (aes | | ( 4 | | | STORAGE BIN \ / > Lv CY \ i COMBUSTION 5 \ AIR FAN, me \ \ 4 = SLIDE GATE Ni ae * 5 ASH SUMP Yo/ Ficure 8.—Flash drying and incineration system, Combustion Engineering, Inc. ash. Furnaces of this type are provided at Detroit, Cleveland, and Minneapolis-St. Paul. The second type of incinerator combines flash-drying equipment with facilities for conveying the dried product to the drying furnace, where the material is incinerated. This type of incinerator is used at Buffalo, N. Y., Washington, D. C. and Neenah-Menasha, Wis. COMBINATIONS OF SEWAGE-TREATMENT PROCESSES The foregoing sewage-treatment processes can be grouped in a num- ber of ways. The processes that are selected depend upon several factors. If the ratio of the volume of diluting water to the volume of sewage is great, it may be that the removal of only the coarse sus- pended materials is necessary. Should such be the case, fine screens may suffice. Fine screens have been in service for many years at the Canal Street plant and the Dyckman Street plant in New York City. Where a somewhat higher degree of treatment is required, sedimen- tation tanks are generally provided. They are preceded by coarse screens and also by grit chambers if the sewage is from a combined system of sewers. The use of sedimentation tanks requires facilities to treat and dispose of the sludge that is produced. Plants of this type serve Buffalo, N. Y., Detroit, Mich., and Washington, D. C. 388 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 A still higher degree of treatment can be attained by adding chemi- cals to the sewage for coagulation purposes. If more complete treat- ment is necessary, trickling filters followed by humus tanks or the activated-sludge process may be required. If the sewage flow is small and sufficient land is available, intermittent sand filters may be used. Chlorine can be used in conjunction with any of the foregoing methods of treatment to reduce odors or to disinfect the effluent. COST OF SEWAGE TREATMENT The cost of sewage-treatment plants depends upon a number of factors, some of which include the cost of the plant site, the presence of foundation problems, the types of treatment units adopted, and the volume and character of the sewage. Plants that provide partial treatment and contain screening equipment, grit chambers, sedimen- tation tanks, sludge digesters, and sludge-drying equipment will in general cost from $10 to $30 per capita served, and plants that contain, in addition to the foregoing facilities, provision for oxidizing the sewage either by trickling filters or by the activated-sludge process will cost from $15 to $50 per capita served. The yearly operating and maintenance costs per capita will usually vary from approximately 25 cents to $2.00 for plants in the former group and from 50 cents to $4.00 for plants in the latter group. These costs do not include fixed charges. WHAT OF THE FUTURE? The growth of the urban population in this country is such that the need to build and enlarge sewage-treatment facilities and sewerage systems will continue perhaps indefinitely. Coupled with this need is the increasing demand by the public for clean streams and water- courses. It is estimated (McCallum, 1955) that $5,330,000,000 will be required within the next 10 years to keep up with this demand. If the future advance in sewage-treatment continues as in the past, a greater use of mechanical equipment seems likely. There are possi- bilities that the efficiency of the activated-sludge process can be ma- terially increased, that the time required to digest sewage sludge can be reduced, that the efficiency of sludge filtration can be improved, and that better ways of heat drying sludge will be developed. It is most important that adequate funds and personnel be made available so that research relating to sewage treatment can be continued on a university, city, State, and national level. Much of the future ad- vance in sewage treatment will depend on the emphasis placed on research. SUMMARY Sewage-treatment processes have been perfected to such an extent that most any degree of treatment can be obtained with a minimum SEWAGE TREATMENT—KEEFER 389 of objectionable features and at a reasonable cost. Most modern plants are mechanized so that a much smaller personnel is required, and what were formerly disagreeable working conditions have been largely eliminated. An increase in the use of such sewage-treatment plant byproducts as sludge gas, dried sludge, and plant effluents will most likely continue. The art of sewage treatment has reached such a degree of perfection that there should be no excuse for the failure tc maintain a sewage-treatment plant other than in a first-class con- dition. The gross pollution of watercourses with untreated sewage should be regarded with disfavor both by the taxpayer and by city and State officials, since adequate means are available for maintaining them in a satisfactory condition. REFERENCE McCatium, G. BD. 1955. 6,685 sewage plants and trunk lines will cost $5.33 billion. Wastes Engineering, vol. 26, p. 504. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D. C. aie wna Pale’: ibe 2 duit reg ah auth Ged one ata enti ¥ sen Raga Ot PORES ANE eatr es thin 0 bem : lh z dt ’ VOlitti Al Chane tee op eiiag P at hat parc pi tobkinuest and vabtald aonying ep HENe Fast! 2 united eetan Wt | adhll{d S288) snd Sie -moclh ately Roy i Ct ivi Aig aan wey eye ert! bis 1 moe On be ti POPE ia Tani, Cooelalaa Try andr ieee RFI 1 Tigeee nest true iThge f Viptcr ie Gee eb tebed-s hides. prieege wie Re Ee a ee a a. wonaeel The. ual y operst aig. Ag eile Se ab mrth Wh ue athe Tare fro. apposimmtely fe Wekie toe Sle oe ante 1a Ae doe Grune da a eases SLi i> wiley _ gn they Ma bis iege Cities toes Pa ating inode ixe) ’ t t | a) Me peowil, of dhe whiwponp)stien tn atldsocuates $9 pale epi vo dr aun share fanless tots fuistittos afd rieaerege diana Will cotta piehipe Teiioaials Coayind OM) Chie fuel le dh incre: ug and: G9 the pubheonnciien sire ia eee wonyhad. Fb oh aetindled Tate wii. 1 Rb that Sh, ca CR) silt Ny 1 ie within the neri/ad wens tat ki ory Gp eae Shag dermend, | SEAT OF THE VEEYURE q tan Watt: AVN Pa SOW Ce 2 eet DOE eee Be tie past, BL ays te Eh atanien captpntent same Ted. Theirs ate eae lett 6S, Chto toscana teed oe ie ania tea bautns fares vetaceul ten Cie Loe requ w? Lie geek are dee shidge nat Ty ae eae jt Liieleaun Ot hook ¥ ie alirataric orn hy apron iti pied Oty wes of Daath Gerke edge will ie ieee jit Bh pete nh coh adn ef eede Sit poreaina) Ra eee a or oplataltio ndlatny ey more treet. ah Ga oe Ai VepEM yy ey Galo. Aa Untianel eve, Roe en iAs fatnrd ee- Varo 1 CMS Hout metike)) oo huh) BRyet cory lapis) ee a peornel. SUMALARY en acai mOrATER TRIMS Tae silken. fo snrineoanyl abel Tl ad Tre in a 2 8S detgatden W eothatiieat meinoadtiong aoietvidl } et a ge Pioneer Settlement in Eastern Colombia By Raymonp E. Crist anp ERNESTO GUHL? [With 8 plates] INTRODUCTION One of the last great frontiers in the world is the vast tropical rain forest found on both sides of the Equator in Africa and South America. Extensive desert areas have been made fruitful as technical develop- ments brought them life-giving water. The cold lands of Canada and Kurasia have experienced great development during the past half century as man became better and better equipped to cope with the cold. Tobe sure, millions of people, engaged in agriculture and house- hold crafts, do live in tropical lowland areas, such as the islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific, as well as on the mainland of monsoon Asia. But hundreds of millions of acres in the wet lowland tropics of Africa and South America are still covered by a rank growth of dense forest, and other millions of acres are grasslands or savannas. These vast tracts have remained an almost 100-percent physical en- vironment, on which man has seemed barely able to make a dent, in contrast to the continental expanses of Eurasia and northern North America, which are about 100-percent cultural landscape. But these * The senior author is professor of geography, University of Florida at Gaines- ville. His field and library work for this article was made possible by a grant of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Observations along the Pasto-Mocoa route and a reconnaissance trip from Neiva to Florencia were made in 1949 while he was stationed in Popaydn, Colombia, as cultural geographer of the Institute of Social Anthropology of the Smithsonian Institution, in charge of its Colombian program of collaboration with the Instituto Etnolégico of the Universidad del Cauca. The wholehearted cooperation of the junior author, in the field, in library research, and in the organization of material is hereby grate- fully acknowledged. The junior author, one-time professor of geography in the Escuela Normal Superior, later technical collaborator in the Instituto Colombiano de Antro- pologia, and at present director of the Comisién de Planeamiento de la Seguridad Social Campesina, Ministry of Labor of Colombia, acknowledges his indebted- ness to those organizations in helping to make possible his contribution to this article as well as to the geographic literature of his adopted country. 412575—57——26 391 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 trackless forests are gradually being penetrated and settled, along their borders as well as along the great rivers that drain them. In what might be called the “Wild East” of the Republic of Colombia, there is a broad transition zone where low-lying, grass-covered plains, the llanos, and the great rain forests of the upper Amazon and its tributaries seem to break on the foothills of the towering Andes like billows on a rock-bound coast. This is a sector of the vast area men- tioned in “Partners in Progress,” the report to the President by the International Development Advisory Board (March, 1951) : In South America, east of the Andes, runs a 2,000-mile-long stretch of fertile valleys and plateau land which may lend itself to development. If carried through successfully, it would open up a new major source of food for the entire Continent, as well as a home for settlers from the most densely populated areas of Western Europe. (P. 38.) This sector of Colombia has been of interest to geographers for many years. Perez wrote almost a century ago: What was there in the Europe beyond the Rhine in Caesar’s time? <---—-— JILNVTILV HLYON a3HL 30 “SENGYUYNO FOVAUNHS — MMO Mn SIM POD OT MT OTD Sar ae ed POM RIVERS IN THE SEA—SMITH ' 433 would take for deep bottom water at any given place to reach the sur- face. If the time is great enough, much of the radioactivity might be lost, otherwise it would become a hazard. GIANT EDDIES The major currents of the world, with some exceptions, run as part of a continuous circulation, completing a clockwise circuit in the northern oceans and a counterclockwise one in the southern oceans. In general, the current flowing toward the Pole on the western side of the ocean tends to be comparatively narrow and fast, whereas the cor- responding current on the east, flowing toward the Equator, tends to be wide and slow. Thus the Gulf Stream, a flow of between 25 and 50 million tons of water per second, is concentrated into a fairly narrow stream in its most westerly part, and has a maximum velocity of over six knots at times. Having crossed the Atlantic Ocean, the stream veers south again, off the coast of Africa, to complete the circuit. Here, as the Canaries Current, its flow is very slow and is spread over a wide area. The counterpart of the Gulf Stream in the North Pacific is the Japanese Current, the Kuroshio, and in the Indian Ocean there is the strong Agulhas stream flowing south, off the coast of east Africa. There are, of course, many other currents besides those which form the major circulations of each ocean. Some are tidal, others due to seasonal winds, to unequal heating of the water, or indirectly caused by winds which pile the water up against the coast, thereby bringing about a longshore current parallel to the coastline. And here it may be said that, as a rule, the currents caused by winds do not flow in the direction of the wind, but at an angle to it, with a right-hand twist in the Northern Hemisphere, left-hand in the Southern Hemisphere. Thus the trade wind of the southern North Atlantic blows from the northeast in a southwesterly direction toward the Equator but the north equatorial current which it drives across the Atlantic moves to the right of the wind, in a westerly direction toward the Windward Islands. Although, for the most part, the ocean circulations of the two hemis- pheres do not directly intermingle, there is a current which branches off from the South Equatorial Current, flows across the Equator and joins the westerly movement into the Caribbean. This transports something like six million tons of water a second across the Equator. There is no compensating surface current in the opposite direction, and the North Atlantic and Polar Sea have no other outlet. Ob- viously there must be an accounting for this net gain of surface water by the North Atlantic, and equally obviously there must be a compen- sating return movement somewhere. Since it does not take place at 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 the surface there is, as might be expected, a flow of water deep below the surface, to the south. A number of compensating flows of deep water are found in all of the major oceans and they, in turn, are linked to vertical movements, the transfer of water back and forth between the surface and the deeper layers. SINKING WATER The net gain of surface water to the North Atlantic is balanced by water which leaves the surface and sinks below in areas between Greenland and Iceland, in the Labrador Sea, and to the west of where the Mediterranean communicates with the Atlantic. Each of these three downward movements removes from the surface about one-third of what the Southern Equatorial Current brings to the North Atlantic. There are reasons for these vertical movements, based upon unequal heating and cooling of sea water and upon evaporation and rainfall. The hotter sea water becomes, the lighter it is, so that it tends to rise to the surface. The cooling of sea water has the reverse effect and gives it a tendency to sink. Evaporation of sea water at the surface, due to winds and the heat of the sun, makes it saltier and heavier. The addition of fresh water by heavy rains has the effect of reducing the salinity and so causing surface water to become lighter. SIX MILLION TONS PER SECOND The surface of the Mediterranean Sea loses more fresh water by evaporation than it gains from river discharge and rainfall and there- fore becomes heavier than the water in the adjacent Atlantic. The result is that in the Straits of Gibraltar there is a 2-knot inflow of lighter surface water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, and this is compensated for by a deep subsurface flow of the heavier Mediter- ranean water into the Atlantic. This continues to sink and joins the deep south-flowing stream on its way to cross the Equator. A similar amount of surface water joins the deep southward flow by sinking off Greenland and in the Labrador Sea at places where the cold Arctic water, meeting warmer, but saltier Atlantic waters, especially in winter, cools the latter by mixing until the surface waters become heavier than those below. ‘The North Atlantic loses in this way a total of 6 million tons of surface water a second, but this amount returns to the surface in the South Atlantic, owing to other forces, where it exactly replaces the six million tons of water which originally crossed the Equator to enter the North Atlantic circulation. SOURCES OF FERTILIZER There is another type of vertical movement in the sea. When winds or other causes bring about a divergence of currents, water will well RIVERS IN THE SEA—SMITH 435 up from below to fill the void. Similarly, when currents meet or converge, there is a net displacement of water in a downward direc- tion. Winds blowing away from a coast may have most important effects since the water displaced offshore must be replaced from below. The lower layers of water are often better supplied with natural fertilizer than those at the surface so that upwellings of water are apt to be more productive of sea life, including commercial fishes. The west coast of Africa is a good example of such a situation. The reverse case, when water is piled up along the shore, may result in a sinking surface water which is replaced by less fertile surface water from oftshore. MEASURING CURRENTS How is it possible to measure the rate of these various currents and to estimate the volume of water transported? There is a wide variety of methods available to oceanographers, some simple and some more complicated, but the simplest are those that are based upon the meas- urement of a drifting object. For instance, a line might be let down to the bottom with a weight for anchor and the ship allowed to drift, without power or sail. The rate at which the line is dragged out would provide an approximate measure of the ship’s movement due to the current. When Columbus, halfway across the Atlantic on his first voyage, tried to sound for bottom he failed to find it, but the angle at which his leadline ran out from the becalmed ship gave clear indication that the ship was moving westward with the surface water layer while the weighted end of the line was in a deeper, relatively motionless layer. Today a ship may be moored to an ice flow and the current speed measured in a similar way by dropping a weighted line to the bottom and measuring the speed at which it has to be run out as the ship moves within the ice and current. CURRENTS FROM SHIP’S LOGS A great deal of information about currents has been obtained from the navigational records of ships, filed with the U. S. Navy Hydro- graphic Office. From this information the monthly averages of cur- rents are charted. Using the known speed of the ship through the water a navigator is able to calculate what his position should be at the end of any given period of time, assuming that no currents are diverting the ship. At the end of this time he finds his actual position or fix by taking bearings of a stationary light or by observations of heavenly bodies. The difference between the predicted position and the actual position gives the direction and speed of the current. Today, there are more and more reliable methods of fixing a ship’s position, even with an overcast sky, owing to the invention of Loran, radar, and radio direction finding. Even so, this method will only 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 give the average current speed over a more or less extended distance and gives no information about the actual speed of current at any one point or about its variations. MEASURING THE SHIP’S SPEED The speed of a ship is measured in a number of ways. The patent log, a propeller towed behind the vessel, clear of its wake, is attached by a cord to an instrument that records on dials the distance traversed. Another device, the pitot log, measures the pressure differences in tubes projecting from the ship’s hull, and records this as speed, much as the air-speed indicator of a plane. The Kenyon log measures speed by the deflection of a blade projecting from the hull into the water. And the speed of revolution of the ship’s engines and propellers may be used to judge her speed through the water when properly calibrated for various conditions. Most of these methods are designed for meas- uring the comparatively high speeds of ships through the water and are not accurate when used to measure the slower drift of ocean cur- rents past the hull of an anchored Vessel. Special instruments have therefore been designed for use from anchored vessels in order to measure currents, both at the surface and at various depths below. Lightships thus become of especial value to the oceanographer inter- ested in currents at sea. FLOWMETERS Flowmeters used from stationary vessels or buoys are frequently driven by means of a propeller or by a set of cups similar to those of a wind gauge. These are set in motion by the water passing by. Their speed of rotation is proportional to the current, and they are so ar- ranged as to register the number of revolutions on a dial. The Ekman type of meter, which has been used most frequently, also has an in- genious arrangement for showing the changing direction of the cur- rent. The propeller is geared so as to rotate a horizontal disk con- taining a single hole of the exact size to allow a small shot to pass through from a shot reservoir above it. Every 33 revolutions of the propeller the hole arrives in position and the shot drops through the disk. Beneath the hole in the disk is a pivoted magnet carrying a channel along which the shot rolls. Beneath the magnet is a box with 36 radially arranged compartments, each corresponding to a 10-degree sector of the compass. The whole instrument is suspended so that vertical fins will keep it alined with the direction of the current. ‘Thus, each time a shot drops, the compartment to which the magnet directs it indicates the direction of the current. Current meters of the Ekman type may be suspended at intervals on a long cable and in this way measurements may be made at various | | | RIVERS IN THE SEA—SMITH 437 depths from the surface to the bottom. Special weights sent down the cable will release trigger devices so as to start and stop the meters at precise times after lowering the cable and before hauling it back to the surface. Variations of this type of meter are also designed so as to make mechanical records, or to record current velocity and direc- tion on the deck of the ship by electrical means. Among the ingenious devices applied to current meters are those designed to keep the recording or electrical parts in a waterproof housing. One type of meter, designed to operate for long periods without attention, has the propeller outside of the main instrument. Instead of a shaft entering the instrument through a watertight seal, the propeller carries a magnet. As this rotates it actuates the record- ing mechanism within the watertight shell, so that no shaft need pene- trate and the problem of a seal resistant to the high pressures of deep water is sidetracked. Some instruments of this type are designed so that at regular intervals of time part of a strip of photographic film is exposed, while a light illuminates the dials showing the time and the velocity and direction of current. In an instrument developed at Miami which can be left unattended on the bottom of bays and estuaries, the photographic record also includes the salinity of the sea water measured by its density, and the tidal depth of the water. There are simpler devices that tell the speed of currents at the sur- face only. These depend usually upon the drag of a float upon a pendulum or cable, which is pulled at an angle from the vertical ac- cording to the speed of flow. For measuring current at various depths the more complicated meters are needed. Even here the problem arises of the back-and-forth motions of the vessel as it rides to its anchor, especially in deep water. Fortunately, the motion of the ship is rhythmical in nature and can be subtracted from the meter records by careful analysis. DRIFT BOTTLES AND FLOATS When measurements are needed over a wide area, anchored ships do not offer a practical solution and, instead, use is made of drifting bottles or floats. The simplest observation of this kind must have been the discovery of tropical woods or fruits on European shores, which indicated that currents reaching northern Europe must have origi- nated in the Tropics and to the west. Perhaps this influenced the Norse explorations long before the time of Columbus. Today various types of floats are set free upon the water so that when recovered they may indicate something of the nature of the currents that carried them. Glass bottles with addressed postcards and directions for filling out details of time and place of recapture have long been used. Some types of bottles are weighted and have a wire trailer below so that 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 they will drift just clear of bottom obstructions and be carried by bottom currents. RED TIDE This is one of several hundred cards released along the West Coast of Florida for the study of currents in connection with the Red Tide. Your cooperation in giving accurate information and returning the postage-free card will be greatly appreciated, and will be very beneficial to you and your neighbors. Datevand), DimesTound 2024 =o Sas Se ee 3 a ae oe es = Wihere found 4 2 08 os] ke ee ee ee a ee ee eee (Name of Beach, Key, Place on shore, near what city, or other prominent reference point. OR, if at sea, exact latitude and longitude.) Nameand Address.of Winder?:-f3i22.—5042-52. Bee ee Se ee Re eee The back of a prepaid postal card used in drift bottles and in pliofilm envelopes for investigating currents in their relation to Red Tide DRIFT CARDS An interesting variation in the use of drifting floats is the drift card, which consists of the usual information postal card enclosed in a transparent pliofilm envelope so that it floats. During investigations of the Florida Red Tide, The Marine Laboratory of the University of Miami used thousands of these cards. They were distributed from a fleet of private motorboats in such a way that very large areas of water were covered, and when picked up by the same fleet some days later an unusually detailed picture of the complicated system of currents and eddies off the west coast of Florida was obtained. The interpretation of float records is full of difficulties, since any one bottle, card, or float can only tell the beginning and end of its course and the time taken. It does not show whether the course was direct or indirect. An example of this was given by Dr. Tait in his study of the North Sea currents in relation to fisheries. Bottles released at one place were picked up near the coast of Jutland at various times. The times taken for them to reach the place where they were picked up were in multiples of 20 days. The explanation was that there is a big eddy off the Jutland coast and that the circula- tion time of the eddy is about 20 days. Some bottles completed the course once, but others went around twice or even more before being picked up. RADIO FLOATS As electronic devices are being applied more and more to oceano- graphic problems and instruments today, it is not surprising to find — the drift buoy or float undergoing its own kind of evolution. Floating | PEATE! 1956.—SMITH SMITHSONIAN REPORT, "vas oyt JO AU[No} Jensnun 10} Jed Ul JUNODDe J91eM FO syUdUTDAOUT [POA puv JUdLINS Nog IYI xMoyM “LYS ‘onbinby Yo vas oy} Ul YSy JO UOTe.1]UIIUOD ea13 v UOdN Zurpaoy sp.lq fo syooy a31P| SMOYS UO LIYSNI[! PY], “UvIIO dy} Jo yAuvd Auv Jo ANA} ayy Sututurtay. op ul qed asivj e Avid YotyM Jovem vas Ul peAossip S}[PS JozIPof oy) pure ‘Aqrulyes “ornqesoduray Jo UOT NqUISIP 9YI SI 9say1 JO ouG “suOsvos AUBUT JOF JULIOdUAT d4¥ s]UDIIND uvIDg) ene Ripe iene = Se oe Ig . copeeemaii ail 5 — “3 Fe ad - at peer < «fis _——— < Tia =e in nga PE tage = ETI rt FA EO - - wr 4ir- pe Tiylepotmers x Bitl Prttgg Oe Ae MeN A PE eM SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SMITH PLATE 2 Currents are measured directly by means of specially designed meters, similar in prin- ciple to wind recorders, which are lowered on cables to the required depth. ‘The fins ensure that the propeller which is turned by the current always faces toward it. PEATEsS SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SMITH eB uO soul] Se sie “SOIIBNISA Ul JUOUIIAOUI 101eM Sulesiysoaul 1Of AjuTeul posn St JUDUTOINS vO fo addy SIT, *][O4 SUIAOU adde uOleutoful our 21OYM “osnoyyIop out ul JUOWINAYSUI BUIPIOIII pue SuLINSeoUI ey QO} S}UIUT9]O ey SJIOUUOD 9[GQeO III} d9]9 uV *[OSSOA ey pulyoq syidop SULAIvA 1e PpeMo}y pue ys od ie sulsnoy aylopadi10} J10Ys 9yt ul Pesopsua ole uoljelsny]i oy {Oo uI0}}10q oy ie SJUIWIjo din} eladuray pue “QDUPSISOI ‘1nssoid oUL “BUTYIOM SI JUOUINA} SUI oy Yorum ul yad 9p Ae! pue IDTEM BOS fo AVIATION pUuos [BIT I9]9 pue ainjeloduis} SoInseoul Yory mM JUSWINILSUT ue SI Riel) aH, SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SMITH PLATE 4 Samples of sea water used in the measurement of ocean currents are taken in special steel containers known as Nansen bottles. A series of these, open at each end, is lowered on a cable to the required depth. Weights are then sent down the cable which release one end of each bottle so that it turns upside down, at the same time closing each end so as to trap water from the required depths. Thermometers may be seen in metal tubes at- tached to the side of the bottles for measuring the temperature at each depth. 1956.—SMITH PEATE: SMITHSONIAN REPORT, "JNO puP opIsU OUTS JI} SI ainssoid ay) 1¥YI Os ‘palamoy st a]qQeo oy} Udy spud y10q Ie uado si afMOq dy} osn JeUIOU UT ‘smmOyIey QOD] ©} UW poelomo] pure pasopD spua oY} YIM 9IqQed dy 02 I poyoeae A][eUApIOoN URIDIUYIO] B UdYM poudIey sem ‘1oyder. P2090 "sISA[BUY [OIUTaYD JOF $oj1}0q ajdures JaaIs urqnd ‘O1ARY ][aMoyT siny “iq Aq uMoys WOJf JoJvM vos JO soyduivs SuIAOWaI JaydeiZo0uvs00 uv smo ‘gjj10q ~«ussuRNy «sIyy, ‘“Ioyem doap ul ons ‘X97 OY] Ul poute[dxo sv ‘19]vM oY} JO JUaIUOD IRs dy} jo -soid ay1 Aq Ivy poeysnad ap30q Jars Aavay V [njores uodn spusdoep sjualin> uvsso Sutinsevour jO poylour jut SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SMITH PLATE 6 In ocean races today more and more yachtsmen are taking advantage of the fact that | temperature changes take place at the sea surface in relation to the position of ocean cur- rents. ‘This has been especially true in the Newport-Bermuda race which crosses the Gulf Stream, variable in speed and position. ‘The illustration shows Comanche leaving Jubilee at the start of the Lipton Race, sailed in the Florida Current, at the headwaters of the Gulf Stream. RIVERS IN THE SEA—SMITH 439 buoys, with deep keels or weighted poles to minimize wind action, are now equipped to send out radio signals which carry information about water temperature as well as signaling their changing positions. Surface vessels are thus able to follow individual fioats at their will, simply by “homing” on the radio signals. Another type of float works in reverse, as it were, by having a staff and metal flag that acts as a radar target, so that the research vessel may find its free floating buoys on its own radar screen. This system obviously suffers from being unduly subject to the effects of wind on the target. Still an- other type of free-floating buoy, developed at Miami, has a lightweight anchor and cable. At the end of a specified period, say 30 hours, a clockwork mechanism trips the anchor, thus mooring the float, and erects a radar target, previously folded down out of wind action. So far we have considered the more or less direct ways of measuring ocean currents, but there are some interesting properties of sea water that make it possible to use indirect methods, involving, odd as it may seem, tide gages, thermometers, electric currents, and even chemical analysis. Only by means such as these is the oceanographer able to compute more or less accurately the volume of water flowing in the sea which, in the case of the Gulf Stream, is many hundred times that of River Mississippi in flood. ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASUREMENT An old principle has been recently applied to the measurement of currents. This is based upon the electromagnetic properties that underlie the dynamo from which we obtain our electricity for power and light. When an electrical conductor moves across a magnetic field, then an electric current is developed in the circuit containing the con- ductor. The faster the conductor moves the more electricity is pro- duced. Pretty much the same thing happens when sea water, itself a conductor of electricity, moves across the earth’s magnetic field. And so, by measuring the small amounts of electricity produced at sea, we have a means of measuring the rate of flow of the water. For this purpose two stationary electrodes may be placed at suitable dis- tances apart and the electrical flow between them measured. Or they may be towed behind a ship. In each case they measure the water flow between and at right angles to the line joining the elec- trodes, independent of the ship’s speed. The instrument used at sea today, including a potentiometer, which records the speed of water current continuously on paper, is known as the G. E. K., or to be more exact the geomagnetic electrokinetograph. When the method was originally tested in England by Faraday from a bridge over the River Thames the results were not satisfactory, but in more re- cent years Longuet-Higgins and subsequently Von Arx have developed 4125755729 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 a satisfactory system. A remarkable feature of this method is that under some conditions the measurement of water currents may be carried out without even leaving the shore. Since the electrical field caused by currents extends beyond the edge of the water the electrodes may be used on land where they measure the speed of water from the terrestrial part of the electrical field. Water in the open sea is not exactly the same from top to bottom. As mentioned previously, sea water is lighter when it is warmer and fresher, and heavier when it becomes cooler and saltier. As might be expected, when undisturbed by currents or mixing processes, the sur- face layers of the sea will be lighter and successively deeper layers will be increasingly heavy. The exact density can be calculated from the temperature and salinity. When a current flows, however, there is a readjustment of the distribution of density in the water to com- pensate for the earth’s rotation, which exercises an effect on moving bodies known as the Coriolis force. The effect of this is to shift the heavier water toward the left of the current when looking down- stream in the Northern Hemisphere. ‘The degree of this shift is pro- portional to the current. The oceanographer can therefore calculate the flow of a water current at sea provided he knows the way in which the water density is distributed. For practical purposes, the research vessel steams at right angles to the current, stopping at intervals to make the necessary measure- ments. At each station a cable is sent down with a number of water- sampling bottles attached to it at appropriate intervals. The Nansen hottles, as they are called, are made of steel tube, and are sent down with both ends open so that the water runs through them. When each arrives at its proper depth, messenger weights are sent down the cable so as to trip a trigger mechanism that turns the bottle upside down on its hinged attachment to the cable, while at the same time closing it. The temperature is meanwhile measured by means of a sensitive thermometer, attached to the bottle, which automatically records the temperature registered at the time it is upended. The saltness of the water is measured by chemical analysis of the sample brought back in the bottle. The thermometer used is guarded against the pressure of water by being enclosed in a protecting tube. A second thermometer is car- ried on the Nansen bottle for the surprising purpose of measuring the depth at which the sample is taken. In order to do this, this ther- mometer is not provided with a protecting tube. Asa result, the water pressure causes the bulb to be slightly compressed and so the thermom- eter registers higher than it should. The amount of pressure and therefore the depth of water can be calculated from the difference in reading of the two thermometers. RIVERS IN THE SEA—SMITH 44] Another consequence of the way in which the Coriolis force causes a redistribution of water density enables changes in the flow of ocean currents to be measured by means of tide gauges. Since the heavier water shifts to the left of the stream, the water surface tilts in order to maintain equilibrium so that the right-hand edge of the stream is higher than the left. For instance, the Atlantic circulation, including the Gulf Stream, flows in a circuit with the Sargasso Sea near the center. On all sides, therefore, there is a downward slope of water from the Sargasso Sea outward. In the Florida Straits this means that the water level at Miami on the coast of Florida is around two feet lower than it is at Gun Cay on the Bahamas side of the Straits. This downhill gradient increases when the current increases, so that comparison of tide-gage records at the two places enables the ocean- ographer to detect changes in the pace of the Gulf Stream, after averaging out the tidal movements, of course. AID TO YACHTSMEN Yachtsmen in the Newport-Bermuda ocean race go to sea equipped with water thermometers, not through an enduring interest in oceanographic science, but for navigational reasons, since they are able to judge when they enter the Gulf Stream by changes in the surface temperature. Since there is relatively less change in saltness than in temperature in the open ocean it follows that the density distribution is more noticeably reflected in the temperature of the water. For this reason there is a rise of temperature as a ship enters the Gulf Stream from the American side. VERTICAL CURRENTS Mention has been made of vertical currents and the huge slow move- ments of water deep below the surface. The measurement of these presents a different kind of problem to that of surface currents and so other methods must be used. An obvious approach, of course, is to add up the volume of water flowing into and out of any particular ocean or body of water. When the surface currents are known and hence reliable estimates can be made of the vertical movements, then a balance may be struck and the residual amount of flow must take place below the surface. A water budget, in fact, is set up. Other methods are used, involving the measurement of carbon isotopes in the sea. The ratio of the carbon-12 and carbon-14 atoms in the water varies according to the length of time it has been away from the sur- face so that isotope measurements provide a measurement of the water movement. Other approaches involving changes in oxygen concen- tration, temperature, and salinity have been used and will be de- scribed, it is hoped, in a future article. A Narrative of the Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expedition, 1956 By Watvo L. ScuMitT Head Curator of Zoology, U. S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution [With 8 plates] The Caribees, the Lesser Antilles, the Windward and Leeward Islands !—names to conjure with. This cradle of many of our hurri- canes and much of American history is equally fascinating from a purely scientific point of view. It is still a happy and a fruitful hunting ground for the naturalist, and so it proved to be during the recent Smithsonian-Bredin Expedition to the Caribbean, spon- sored and led by J. Bruce Bredin,? of Wilmington, Del. The Smith- sonian has long been interested in these islands “adjacent” to our continent and has welcomed all opportunities such as the present one to learn more about them and their inhabitants—animal, plant, and human, present and past, recent and fossil. In 1947 Ernest May financed explorations along the historic route of Columbus so that Dr. Herbert Krieger, Smithsonian ethnologist, might reconnoiter the native village sites reported by the discoverer of the New World in the course of his four voyages of exploration, and so that Conrad Morton, Smithsonian botanist, could spend six weeks on the Island of St. Vincent sampling the flora of its little- investigated higher levels and mountains. Earlier, in 1937, the writer, as marine biologist to the Smithsonian-Hartford Expedition on the Joseph Conrad, visited a number of the islands of the West Indies, including some in the current itinerary, and others in the Greater Antilles, and in 1938 as a member of the Hancock Atlantic Expedition to the north coast of South America he was enabled to collect on the island of Tobago, not reached during the Bredin Expedition. 1 An Honorary Fellow of the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. Bredin sponsored the Smithsonian-Bredin Expedition to the Belgian Congo in 1955 and another expedi- tion to the Society Islands in 1957. Previously he had actively participated in the Smithsonian-Hartford Expedition. 443 444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The Smithsonian’s earliest collections for the area are recorded in the National Museum’s fish and invertebrate divisions as having beeu received from Theodore N. Gill, who collected extensively in Trinidad and Barbados in 1857-58. These expeditions, undertaken and underwritten for the purpose of broadening the Institution’s coverage of the animal and plant life of the world, do much to increase its knowledge of their kinds and dis- tribution and their representation in the study and reference collections of the U.S. National Museum. The Smithsonian-Bredin party, besides Mr. Bredin and the writer, included Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., carcinologist and marine biologist ; Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke,? entomologist and microlepidopterist; and Dr. Albert C. Smith, botanist and specialist on the flowering plants— all then members of the professional staff of the U. S. National Museum. Desmond Nicholson captained our chartered yacht, the Freelance, out of Antigua, which served as our floating laboratory. His school- days acquaintance with the seashore life of the British Isles, his skill and experience with the underwater face mask and snorkel, and his untiring efforts afloat, ashore, and under water materially enhanced the collections of marine animals taken in the course of the expedition. Supporting the captain was the F'reelance’s cooperative, able crew of native Antiguans, all five experienced sailors—“Kennet” Potter, cook, a man who commanded universal respect and who also took over as first mate in the captain’s absence or whenever his services were needed ; Smith, the engineer, who saw to it that the yacht’s twin auxiliaries, the generator, motorboat, and outboard functioned properly and when wanted; Danny Thomson and Miguel, deck hands; and Thomas, cabin boy. Among them, all our wants were well attended, even to trudging miles overland, assisting the botanist with his plant collecting. Haul- ing seines or cracking rocks and coral heads for the contained borers and other life harbored in their crevices and interstices was all in the day’s work for the crew. No matter what other work was being carried on, there was always a line, hook, and spinner or two trolling off either quarter while the ship was under way. The cry of “fish” always called forth speedy action. Everyone but the man at the wheel dropped what he was doing and ran aft either to take a look or to lend a hand getting the line aboard. Most of these interim catches of fish were eaten, if not wanted for specimens or for the parasites attached to them. ? Desirous of spending more time on the island of Dominica than the planned itinerary of the expedition would have permitted, Dr. Clarke flew to Dominica while the rest of the party proceeded to Port of Spain, Trinidad. Dr. Clarke joined the expedition at Roseau. Pertinent notes on insects and plants were supplied by Drs. Clarke and Smith, respectively. CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—SCHMITT 445 The Freelance herself, a twin diesel schooner, measured 86 feet over- | all. She had a 19-foot beam and 11-foot draft and was equipped with motorboat, sailing dinghy, electric generator, electric fans and refrig- eration, with hot and cold running water in each stateroom. Two single and two double cabins provided ample accommodation for our party. To keep our rendezvous with the Freelance in Trinidad we obtained passage for ourselves and our bulky outfit and collecting gear aboard the cruise ship Je de France to Port-of-Spain. A one-day’s stop in Barbados made it possible to visit the Bellairs Research Institute of McGill University and the Barbados Museum. The Institute, at St. James, a short distance out of Bridgetown, is being set up primarily as a marine laboratory. The director, Dr. John B. Lewis, had visited us previously at the National Museum, and we were anxious to learn more of the scientific work of his laboratory. He showed us through the Institute’s newly acquired quarters, a for- mer private residence located on a lovely beach with a variety of ma- rine habitats, including a flourishing coral reef close at hand. At the time of our visit the residence was in the throes of renovation and con- version into a well-appointed laboratory for marine study, with all fa- cilities, including, of course, aquaria and running salt water. The Museum, under the directorship of Neville C. Connell, is main- tained by the Barbados Museum and Historical Society. Of marine invertebrates, in which two of our party were especially interested, there is a fair display of the commoner species of Crustacea and coel- enterates, a habitat group showing a section of a local coral reef with associated fauna, and a rather comprehensive and well-prepared series of colored casts of the commoner fishes as found or taken about the island. Most of the exhibits in the Museum, however, pertain to the early history of the island, its inhabitants, their lives, local manufac- tures, and importations. Very pertinent and of most interest were the objects and the models relating to the early days and development of the sugar industry in Barbados. In Trinidad, the following day, March 7, we were met at the Cus- toms House dock by Jocelyn Crane and Henry Fleming of the New York Zoological Society’s staff working with Dr. William Beebe at the Society’s Tropical Research Station at Simla. Miss Crane, well- known authority on fiddler crabs, is associate director of the station. Her cordial invitation to Simla was accepted forthwith by Dr. Smith who wished to botanize the area and by the rest of us for several days later, as we wished first to undertake shore collecting at Maracas Bay, one of the island’s many beauty spots. We went to Simla on March 11, it so happened in time for the dedication of the station’s new butterfly flight cage. This was erected so that the species then under investiga- 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 tion could be closely followed and observed under virtually normal, natural, yet controlled conditions. During the entire period of our stay in Trinidad, Dr. Smith made headquarters at Simla, which is located at an elevation of about 800 feet on the inland (southern) slope of the Northern Range of Trini- dad. This Range comprises the island’s highest and most heavily for- ested Jand, reaching an elevation of more than 3,000 feet; its third highest peak, Morne Bleu (2,781 feet) lies some miles northeast of Simla. Botanical collecting along the crest of the Range toward Morne Bleu provided Dr. Smith with excellent material; the low crest forest bears a heavy growth of epiphytic ferns and bryophytes, with many species of orchids, aroids, and bromeliads. Among the in- teresting trees and shrubs of this rain-drenched forest are species of the melastome, madder, and pepper families, while among the under- growth of ferns is to be found the beautiful white-flowered succulent Begonia glandulifera, one of a group that ranges throughout the Les- ser Antilles in wet areas. In Port-of-Spain we paid our respects to the American Consul, and fortuitously, through a misdirected telephone call, we became ac- quainted with Frank Ambard, customs official, who has a very fine and complete representation of the butterflies of Trinidad. Nearly every species in his collection is represented by a pristine pair—with few exceptions reared by himself. We also visited the Royal Victoria Museum, of which Arthur N. Greenhall is the director. This museum possesses a number of zoologi- cal rarities, including the giant tadpole of a relatively small frog, Pseudis paradowis. The adult is under 4 inches long, whereas the tadpole may reach 71% inches in length. On March 12, at 5 p. m., we were under way on the first leg of our 40 days’ and 40 nights’ cruise through the islands. This last day in Trinidad had been a busy one getting our stores aboard, filling the water and the fuel tanks, and our collecting chests with alcohol needed for the preservation of zoological specimens. It was a rolling first night at sea. The next morning was one of busy preparation organiz- ing gear and containers, fitting together our water glass, and as- sembling the bottom sampler. By lunch time we were tied up off the sea wall in St. George Harbor, Grenada, just across the roadway from the ship chandlers and the wholesale district, a busy harbor indeed, teeming with the loading and unloading of cargoes from the interisland schooners. We took time to make a number of pur- chases essential for our collecting work, particularly a small kerosene heater for Dr. Smith’s plants in their presses below deck, where the plant specimens had to be dried because of the wind, the occasional rain or spray, and the lack of space topside; and a wooden shovel for screening beach sand for its contained macroscopic organisms. CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—SCHMITT 447 I was told that this type of shovel was ordinarily used for shoveling cocoa pods and beans about. Before us, atop the sea wall, we saw another step in the journey of the cocoa beans on their way from the parent tree to the tin of commerce in which cocoa is sold. Along the harbor road square yards of pods were spread out on tarpaulins to dry in the sun. Over them a buxom, heavy-weighted native woman strode in endless measured tread back and forth, crunching the pods to free the beans, Grenada, the southernmost of the British Windward Islands, 97 miles to the north of Trinidad, and only 133 square miles in extent, is a veritable “Spice Island,” for, aside from cocoa beans, of which over 5 million pounds are exported each year, nutmegs are the largest item in the island’s economy. Before the well-nigh disastrous hurri- cane of 1955 more than 6 million pounds of nutmegs and mace were shipped out of Grenada. Most of these two spices are exported to the United States, where, according to local reports, the nutmegs are used chiefly to flavor sausage meats. Included in the island’s spice exports are cinnamon and cloves; considerable cotton is also grown here. The morning after our arrival in Grenada, Mr. Bredin and Dr. Smith headed for the hills and Grand Etang, a beautiful crater lake 2 miles in circumference situated in the heart of a tropical rain forest which covers most of this island. The volcanic depression in which the lake is located at an elevation of about 1,600 feet is reached by a steep, much-contorted, yet exceedingly picturesque road. It is often— as it was this day—overhung with curtains of moist fog, while hard showers of rain fell intermittently. The forest that fills the inner valleys of Grenada shows the effects of the recent hurricane violence, in that the trees, often too thickly growing to fall, stand broken and leafless in eerie ranks. The region is not high enough to support the “elfin woodland” that characterizes high portions of the Antilles, but nevertheless the predominant trees do not much exceed a height of 30 or 40 feet. The immediate shores of the lake are low and swampy, and here the botanist found excellent collecting, obtaining many herbaceous plants such as sedges and the pretty yellow-flowered Utricularia obtusa. On the slopes farther from the lake, in the debris of the ruined forest, were found the coarse large-flowered Lobelia cirsifolia, masses of the little prostrate shrub Sauvagesia erecta, and many small-flowered orchids and ferns on the fallen branches of trees. It is the luxuriant vegetation of the moister islands among the West Indies that have merited them the name Isles of Paradise. Cer- tainly those who live on Grenada, Martinique, Dominica, and Guade- loupe—and many who visit them—feel this way about them. While Dr. Smith was sampling the flora, Dr. Chace and I, with our para- phernalia, took a taxicab out to Point Saline, for here the rocky 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE, 1956 shores, sea caves, and interspersed sandy beaches held promise of good collecting of marine invertebrates. We spent the afternoon collecting on a rocky reef between the ship and the farther shore in a bight called St. Martin’s Bay. A few dredge hauls were also made off Grenada’s famed swimming beach, Grand Anse, just outside the harbor proper. Although we planned an early morning start for Carriacou, 30 or 40 miles to the northward according to the strength of the wind, a case of dysentery on board led us to seek advice and a prescription from a local doctor. He refused payment for his services, considering us as guests of the city, but finally he was persuaded to accept something toward the cost of the local hospital’s charity patients. The delayed sailing made it possible for us to extend the courtesies of the Freelance to Dr. Slominsky, the resident physician on Carria- cou, sparing him a 4-day wait for the next boat returning there. In turn he was of service to us in locating a good and convenient anchor- age in Tyrrell Bay. The bay is ringed with conical “peaked-cap” shaped hills, all seemingly a little slumped over to the right. This gnomelike setting was one of the richest collecting grounds of the cruise: Porites beds with turtle-grass patches, rocky reefs, mangrove swamps, and a wooden wreck thickly encrusted with animal and plant growths. In a few hours, over the flats, along shore, and in the wreck, this well-populated littoral area yielded such a profusion of specimens representative of all groups of invertebrates that we could not prop- erly preserve all of them before sailing the next day at noon. Never- theless, that night we put over an electric light at the gangway. Under it the captain wielded a busy dipnet. This routine was a regu- lar thing for the captain almost every evening, and it always brought in a host of the “finer things” of life, from Protozoa and copepods to pelagic mollusks, little squids, and small octopuses, and now and then an unexpected fish and many bizarre larval forms of them and no end of large olive-green and blue-black sea-hares that were drifting or swimming by. At this time of the year they were spawning in the grass patches in shallow water, and evidently Tyrrell Bay was one of their favored habitats. That afternoon the weather began kicking up, and by 4 o’clock we were driven to seek shelter in Chatham Bay on the lee side of Union Island. This was the only really bad spell of weather encountered during the 514-week cruise. The wind screeched and whistled all night, and for a time both anchors with all available chain threatened to drag. The clearing sky the next morning was ushered in with a light breeze. Before long we reached the idyllic anchorage among the Tobago Cays for which we had been headed the afternoon before. Except for the utter lack of water ashore, one would be tempted to CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—SCHMITT 449 spend a lot of time here. The botanist and a helper from the crew ascended the little islet of Petit Batteau to its high point of only 140 feet. Petit Batteau is a rough island composed largely of stony debris, covered by a thick and thorny growth of low shrubs and cacti. While the plants of this area represent widespread and common ele- ments of the Antillean flora, the region is so seldom visited by botan- ists that it seemed worthwhile to obtain representative specimens of even well-known plants. Diving inside the reef, Captain Nicholson brought us our first living crinoid of the trip. It was with sincere regret that we left this beautiful anchorage for Mustique on the way to St. Lucia by way of Bequia. Mustique is one of the few remaining “feudal” holdings among the islands. It has been in the hands of one family from the time of the original grant to the present day, and on it is a village of several hundred of the descendants of the original slave laborers on its plantations, who today work as tenants for the owners of the island, whose responsibility they are for life. As one might say, they are an integral part of the Jand—they neither know nor have any other home. Seining was attempted off one of the better looking beaches, but the effort was not worthwhile because the many ‘scattered coral heads made it impossible successfully to complete a single haul. Skin diving saved the day for us, as cracked-up coral clumps and the sponges so retrieved were alive with small animals of all kinds. A 4-hour run brought us to Bequia. Its harbor, Admiralty Bay, is a quiet, out-of-the-way, withal very beautiful place, unspoiled by tourists except for the few who may go there for no more than a dip in the sea, a sunning on the beach, and a sleep in the shade. It was there that we saw some of the neatest sailing ever. It is marvelous how some of the stolid looking island schooners, with nothing but their sails to power them, can make their anchorages in a light breeze among other craft as easily as the best of motor sailers. True enough, it takes them a bit longer to tack back and forth across the bay, but the consummate skill and the certitude with which it is accomplished are a thrill to watch. We witnessed just such a performance during the heavily overcast afternoon that we were in Bequia; then, as the schooner came to anchor, the sun broke through the clouds to high- light the previously shaded white sails, a brilliantly scarlet hull against the azure sea, the green hills in back, and the white-flecked blue sky above. It was a seacape unsurpassed. In passing on the way to Castries, St. Lucia, we stopped briefly at Soufriére. Through intermittent showers we beheld one of the most impressive harbor entrances in all the Lesser Antilles, guarded as it is to the east by the Pitons, Petit and Gros. Here, warm sulfur baths were enjoyed. History has it that the Empress Josephine spent her 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 childhood days on this island and bathed in the sulfur waters of these self-same springs. Soufriére is almost as French as English, in its place names at least. It changed hands a dozen times or more in the days the French were harassing the English during our own Revolu- tion. Castries is big and bustling, having staged a most remarkable comeback following the disastrous fire of 1949. For the most part, it can now boast of new, clean, and modern shops, office buildings, and warehouses. We found it an excellent place for replenishing our stores and fuel and water supplies. The next morning we dropped back a few miles to Marigot Bay—a most intriguing locality for the collector. The entrance to this secluded, sheltered place is scarcely to be marked from offshore, yet within it is a typical buccaneer’s hideaway. On one shore the channel is so steep-to that one can tie up to the palm trees and literally step ashore. The ship’s masts were completely hidden in the tops of the trees. All that the black-hulled Freelance lacked to complete the picture was a “Jolly Roger” emblazoned with skull and crossbones. Some of our most successful seine hauls were made in this lovely spot. Our botanist, Dr. Smith, returned with ample booty from the hill above our mooring place, despite the warning posted near our landing place that “any trespass done under this woodland will be arrested & deal with arcording to the law.” Captain Nicholson, with his expert diving, found something quite new to him, and to me also— a pair of plump brownish white-spotted snapping shrimps (Alpheus armatus) that find themselves at home in the shelter of the tentacles of the large fleshy sea-anemone Bartholomea annulata, which lives almost buried on sandy bottoms. These shrimps clambered over and among the tentacles of the anemone with impunity where other species of shrimps quickly became entangled in the mucus given off by the tentacles and perhaps also stunned by their nematocysts and were forthwith ingested. Though similar associations are known in zoolog- ical literature, it had not before been observed by any of us. Later, in an aquarium, the captain held two anemones and two pairs of these shrimps alive for several weeks with only an occasional small freshly killed fish for sustenance. From Marigot Bay the course was set for Pigeon Island, which in 1782 was garrisoned by the English under Rodney in order to keep watch on the French West Indian fleet based on Martinique. Remains of the old fortifications and several of the cannon were noted by Mr. Bredin and Dr. Smith while exploring the heights above the landing place. Mr. Bredin brought back a much-corroded uniform button that must have been dropped in the fort during its occupation in Rodney’s day. Now the island sports a beach club with overnight cottages run by a retired former member of the D’Oyly Carte Opera Co. CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—SCHMITT 451 Captain Nicholson had told us of the great seine hauls made in favorable weather by the natives of the adjacent villages on the beach fronting Pigeon Island. The net is dropped and the haul begins far out in the bay at the very break of dawn. We went ashore an hour and a half or two hours later—nearer 6 o’clock. Even then there was scarcely light enough for regular color film—all that we had along. More of interest to us than the seine haul was the sight that greeted us as we struck the beach—as far as we could see in either direction—a conspicuous pink windrow of crab larvae in the megalops stage, and as we looked more closely the lapping wavelets and the waters of the receding tide were “peppered” with more of these larvae, three or four or more to every cubic foot of water. The natives said they had never seen anything like it before. Meanwhile the wings of the seine were coming closer and closer to shore. One of the lines, the left one looking at the shoreward moving seine, was manned by the womenfolk, with one lone man in the lead at the water’s edge. The other line was being pulled in by an all-man crew. Natives in dugouts or canoes off either end of the net beat the water with their paddles and oars or threw stones to frighten back any fish that might try to escape the net. After three or four hours of labor the net was ashore. The catch was pitifully small—just not enough fish to go around. Which of the many native families participating got what and how much, we were unable to determine. It certainly looked as if the place was being overfished, too regularly and too thoroughly. Specimens represen- tative of the catch were bought for the Museum. Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, the seine hauls do not appear to be any more pro- ductive, perhaps for the same reasons. At least in Martinique in the French West Indies, and in St. Kitts in the Leewards, this seems to hold true. In Martinique, where we drove along the shore for a con- siderable distance from St. Pierre to Fort-de-France, more than in any other island there were numerous large seines drying on every suitable beach. One haul that we witnessed not far from St. Pierre was most scanty. Certainly something should be done to rehabilitate the shore or seine fisheries of these islands. At 5 o’clock on March 22 we made Fort-de-France, which must be a popular port of call, for we found several] yachts there from the States, including the Maverick, another of the Nicholson charter yachts, and one from South Africa hailing from Hong Kong and on a trip around the world. Early the next morning we paid our respects to our American Consul, William B. Cobb, Jr., whose in- troductions enabled us to make a number of valuable contacts and to arrange for Dr. Smith to meet, at Guadeloupe, Dr. Henri Stehlé, a botanist colleague with whom he had long beeen in correspondence. This last was attended to by Dr. Blanche, Directeur du Service de 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Protection des Vegetaux, Service de |’Agriculture, who also took us to meet J. Morice, Directeur de l’Office de Péches. A further courtesy was the gift of a complete set of the bulletin issued by the local natural history society, a periodical not otherwise available in Wash- ington that will be very welcome to our systematic biologists. Mr. Cobb also kindly conducted us on an extended all-day tour of the island, first inland through rain-forested valleys to the sulfur baths, and then over the hills to St. Pierre. St. Pierre is the now famous city where on Ascension Day, May 9, 1902, 30,000 inhabitants lost their lives in a matter of moments in that fearsome cloud of incandescent gas that rolled down Mount Pelée. Parts of the city today are strongly reminiscent of Pompeii, except where some of the new, though not always modern, buildings are being erected among the old. Some protection is now being accorded the more significant ruins, and continued excavation is opening up more of the important structures and the streets of old St. Pierre. The vulcanological museum, with its host of “relics” and photographs taken shortly after that fatal eruption, furnishes a sad and moving visual commentary on what was that once flourishing town and what happened to it. It was perhaps the Creole Paris of the New World and is memorialized in Lafcadio Hearn’s “Two Years in the French West Indies,” written long before the disaster. Later that day we received an invitation to meet M. Morice at the local yacht club with Dr. Blanche, where we were shown a number of interesting preserved specimens of Crustacea, including the three species of spiny lobsters known from Martinique. Then he mentioned a special zoologist’s treat he had in store for us—a bottle full of red megalopa from Pigeon Island! Although they were picked up on the beach 30 hours after our visit, they were little the worse for wear. Morice assured us, too, that it was the first time the phenome- non had come to the attention of any observant person and that he was as anxious as we were to determine the species of crab represented. Dr. Chace has since determined these as probably previously unknown larval forms of an oxystome crab of the family Raninidae. An urgent cablegram recalled Mr. Bredin to the States. His going left a gap in our ranks, which he promised to fill at the first oppor- tunity with his brother-in-law, Ernest N. May. It was Mr. May who sponsored the Smithsonian-May Expedition of 1947, also to the West Indies, mentioned on the first page of this article. Dominica is a beautiful high island, as attractive in many ways as equally verdant Martinique, with its majestic and destructive Mount Pelée. Our sails, with an assist in the lee of the island from our twin diesels, brought us from Fort-de-France to Roseau in about 9 hours. Greeting us on the dock was Dr. Clarke, who had already spent 17 CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—-SCHMITT 453 days on the island thoroughly sampling the microlepidopteran fauna. In this brief span, in a rather restricted area, nearly 100 species of Microlepidoptera were taken. In this material are many species formerly unknown to science, many of which appear to be endemic. Other species such as Brachyacma palpigera, and the notorious pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) were formerly unrecorded from the island. Extensive collecting revealed the presence of both of the above species on many of the islands to the north. Preliminary exami- nation indicates that the microlepidopterous family Blastobasidae, the larvae of which feed in dead and decaying vegetable matter, finds its greatest development in the New World Tropics where it replaces the Lyonetiidae of the Old World Tropics. The Blastobasidae were formerly considered a largely temperate zone family. Dr. Clarke wished to make a final trip to the fresh-water lake that lies some miles inland, near the main ridge of the island at the head of the Roseau River. He and Dr. Smith spent a very profitable day in the vicinity of the little lake, which les in a forest-surrounded val- ley at an elevation of about 1,700 feet. Along the swampy shores of the lake are found several species of grasses and sedges, behind which occur the usual genera of tropical trees and shrubs. Collecting along the trail back toward the coast, the botanist obtained many epiphytes in the wet moss-covered forest, while an endemic West Indian ericaceous plant, Hornemannia racemosa, was noted as abundant. A little trailside raspberry, Rubus rosaefolius, was appreciated by the collectors for its excellent edible qualities. This was Dr. Smith’s best day of the trip from the viewpoint of quantity of material, as he pre- pared 92 numbers of specimens with about eight duplicates of each. In general he obtained this number of duplicate sets, so that the Museum’s Department of Botany will have available seven sets of the expedition’s plant collections to use for exchange purposes. We anchored in Woodbridge Bay, a few miles up the coast, a some- what better roadstead than at Roseau. Here there was a pier for lightering bananas out to the English-bound Martha Reuter. The loading was done with expedition, for here, as everywhere else, time was money. All day long the trucks were discharging heavy loads of bananas alongside natives from the hills, who brought in their one or two stalks upon their heads. In the same fashion the stalks were taken from the storage shed down to the pier to the lighters. Al] this carrying was done by the women—one stalk to a head and at a rapid walk, often a half trot, because they got so much for each one car- ried. Returning “empty headed,” the more ambitious ones came on a run—the more trips the more earned. The steamer was in for only a day and had to leave at midnight. Except for brief pauses for snacks at noon and midafternoon there was no cessation of the work. 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 As each woman passed a checker on the way down to the pier she was given a metal token, for each of which she collected the equivalent of about 2 cents (U. S.). The minimum weight of any stalks accepted by the buyer, who pays the grower about 6 cents a pound for them, is 18 pounds, but the heaviest of these stalks easily weighed twice this. A woman might well carry nearly a ton of bananas from morning to midnight, when the steamer sailed, if she worked the entire time. Here too we met Stephen Haweis, longtime resident artist of Dominica, who painted several of the color plates for Hildebrand’s account of fishes in the Smithsonian Scientific Series. Among other things, Haweis is interested in the conservation of “mountain chick- ens,” a delicacy much sought after by natives and Europeans alike, so much so that they are becoming scarcer by the year. The mountain chicken is neither bird nor fowl, but a large frog, Leptodactylus fallaz, found now only in the mountain streams of Dominica. A specimen as much as 614 inches long may weigh as much as a pound. Tasting like breast of chicken, the flesh is firmer than that of the frog’s legs served in the States. On March 28 we moved up the coast hoping to explore the Layou River Valley, a surprisingly beautiful place according to the captain, but, to our disappointment, the surf on the river bar was impassably high. Instead, we cast anchor in Prince Rupert Bay off the town of Portsmouth, where we were able to secure an additional length of stout tow line needed for contemplated dredging on the Saba Bank later during the cruise. We got another crinoid here off Portsmouth, and at night with the electric light lured two myctophids, fishes with rows of small luminous spots on each side. On our way in to Pointe 4 Pitre, Guadeloupe, we passed just the type of reef over which we wanted to collect. It looked so good and was so close in that Dr. Chace remarked that it could well be the type locality for a number of the crustaceans first described from this island. On the natural history of their West Indies the French zoologists in the early days published a number of fine papers, but very little has ap- peared since. On the quay we met Dr. Blanche again. He had made a direct and quicker trip up from Fort-de-France. With him was Dr. Stehlé, the now resident French botanist. An all-day field trip to the uplands had been arranged for Drs. Smith and Clarke. But the pleasure of the meeting of two longtime friends who had only known each other through correspondence rather overshadowed the fieldwork this day. Nevertheless, Dr. Smith obtained some specimens of remarkable interest in the forest adjacent to the Institute for Agro- nomic Researches, as a result of Dr. Stehlé’s intimate knowledge of the flora. Of particular interest were the little yellow-flowered iridaceous Trimezia martinicensis and a species of Polygala which has an odd known distribution of only Guadeloupe and Cuba. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT PLATE 1 1. The Freelance, the 86-foot auxiliary schooner which served the expedition as a floating laboratory during the 40-day cruise from ‘Trinidad to St. Croix. 2. The crew of the Freelance: Thomas, Kennet, Potter, Edmund, Smith, Danny, Miguel, and Captain Nicholson. This picture was made at Basseterre, St. Kitts, where Edmund replaced Miguel who had injured his hand. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT PLATE 2 1. The anchorage at Tobago Cays, Grenadines, from the summit of Petit Batteau. This was one of the most beautiful localities visited by the expedition. The reefs, where the surf is breaking in the background, merit further investigation by marine biologists. 2. Hauling the seine in Marigot Bay, St. Lucia. It was in this spot that Captain Nicholson found the first of the striking snapping shrimps, 4/pheus armatus, associated with the sea anemones, Bartholomea annulata. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT PLATE 3 1. Dr. Clarke collecting insects from a bromeliadon Dominica. The boy on the left trudged 10 miles over the mountains to sell his bunch of bananas, only to have his crop rejected. 2. Miguel among vegetation typical of the dry slopes of one of the smaller Grenadines. The spiny character of this environment led to the conclusion that stout clothes and a for- giving disposition were prerequisites for collecting on these otherwise delightful islands. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT PLATE 4 1. The Caribee. This yacht, once owned by Ernest N. May, was encountered in Sir Francis Drake Channel while Mr. May was aboard the Freelance. 2. Faggot fishing in the Barbuda lagoon. The three fishermen are moving the stack of waterlogged sticks outside of the net before pursing the latter and gathering the spiny lobsters trapped inside. PLATE 5 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT Sssoul out uo ¢ { ‘o[qei n Ppopus ABM styd ul pouleyqo Soysy oyt jo ISO, “O1TM BUTTON oy uo 1Yysned Bpnoeileg id yim JOUUDYN C *poAowo Ud9q pey SIS out Jojje Jou oY} ul $191SQO| Autds 97 d1OM O1OU T, ‘epnaqiegd qe oid 1OSSe] oy WOT, yo ed at q pnugie gd I! F 9 FY Gls | | " 1956:—SGCHMIUi Th PLATE 6 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, ‘pouuryd uey? A[pides o10u Popusdsop oy YoTyM uMOp pue neaqe]d aYyi 02 ssad0¥ oyIe[D “Iq oAvs YIYM vpuUOopsy uo AT[NS pue oovjd sulpuy] oly, oC “IOI STUBIIOA styy uo Poetes0] 9IUO0 eloOM Soulul ajeydsoyg ‘aAOge nvoalyid Assess suldojs oy pue pues] wpuopay fO sHIf> suIlppIqioy oy], “T EESMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT PEATE 1, Dr. Clarke pinning Microlepidoptera in the Freelance’s saloon. After a successful light- trap station, this operation sometimes lasted most of the following night in order to obtain good study specimens of each of the species caught. 2. Dr. Smith stacks his plant presses around a lantern in his cabin. Because of unpredict- able drying conditions on deck, all the botanical specimens had to be dried by this im- provised method. PEAGESS SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—SCHMITT H & One of the less pleasant chores of a marine biologist is injecting the 1. Pickling the catch. larger fishes to insure proper preservation. CANA and the author segregating the fragile and un- Dr. Chace usual invertebrates before preservation. 2. After a good day on the reef. CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—SCHMITT 455 The reef we spotted on the way in was centered about Rat Island. It was indeed rich collecting, reminiscent of Carriacou. Roundabout were mud flats, sand flats, weedy patches rather than turtle-grass shoals, Porites clumps again, and, on the little island itself, much honeycombed and fissured sandy limestone alive with shrimps, crabs, and barnacles, boring, stalked, and sessile, and all manner of other invertebrates. On the other hand, the electric light over the ship’s side within the harbor that evening lured virtually nothing to our dip net, probably because the waters here are too polluted. Recalling that a longtime friend and correspondent of the National Museum lived in Pointe & Pitre, we undertook to look him up—Adrian Questal, now in his 80’s and confined to his third-floor elevatorless apartment. He is very proud of the several papers he published on the island’s flora, helped with identifications made for him in Wash- ington. While looking for the Questal residence, we encountered a Mr. Halley who was anxious to have a strange crab identified. He said it had been taken in a fish pot or trap, locally. This we could not believe, for what he had was a beautifully mounted and varnished Birgus latro, the coconut “robber crab” known to us only from the mid and south Pacific. We were most skeptical of his claim that this crab came from the offshore waters of this Atlantic island, yet as we were preparing to leave Pointe & Pitre, we spied in the curio shop just within the customs house gates three identically mounted speci- mens in a case with a lot of West Indian shells, sea fans, and corals. Could it be that the robber crab has become an “acclimatized” inhabi- tant of the coconut groves of Guadeloupe? I shall always regret that a tight schedule did not permit us to check his information. We are still inclined seriously to doubt it. However, the rufus-tailed guan, a pheasant which was introduced into the islands of Bequia and Union in the 1800’s, has become well established there; and monkeys said to have been brought over in the slave-trading days are at home in the forests of Grenada, according to Fredric Fenger (1926). The night’s run northward in the lee of Guadeloupe was uneventful. Our tries on the 40-fathom bank off Antigua for red snappers were futile; all we got was one black crevalle. It was midafternoon before we tied up at English Harbour and were received by Cmdr. and Mrs. V. D. B. Nicholson, Desmond’s father and mother, from whom we had chartered the Freelance. Here, roundabout, were what was left of the buildings of Nelson’s day, many of which were still in good repair when used in part as the shore laboratory of the Barbados-Antigua expedition of the University of Iowa in 1918. It was from English Harbour that Nelson sailed with his 12 ships to victory at Trafalgar over the French fleet which greatly outnumbered his small fleet. 4125755730 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The old sea wall of Nelson’s day, still standing, is a marvelous place for collecting invertebrates, mobile as well as sessile, and many small fishes, too. At night, with flashlight and long-handled dip net, night prowlers, which seldom if ever leave the crevices in which they hide by day, fall easy prey to the collector. Here the long-clawed, red- banded Stenopus can be caught in quantity, one specimen at a time. While Chace and the writer worked over the seashore, the reefs, the harbor piling, and an old wreck, the captain successfully dived for more of the sandy, bottom-dwelling anemones and their associated crustaceans. In addition to the snapping shrimp, Alpheus armatus, that he had discovered lurking among the tentacles of the sea anemones at Marigot Bay, he found here another species with similar habits, a hippolytid shrimp, 7hor floridanus, and also a small red mysid shrimp of which he got several specimens under the same conditions. The botanist and entomologist were otherwise engaged. They always sought out the higher elevations of most of the islands visited, fer the higher one got, and the farther from civilization, the more natural and unspoiled the flora and fauna. The main range of hills on Antigua bears an imposing name—the Shekerley Mountains— although only in a few places does the elevation exceed 1,000 feet. There remain a few patches of native vegetation on these hills, but in the main the whole of the island has been cleared at one time or another. On Boggy Peake, the highest on Antigua, 1,314 feet, and later on Falmouth Peak (“Sugarloaf”), the collecting was varied. Much of the hill area is clothed with a thorny evergreen bush con- sisting of many species of the legume family; such genera of other families as Guettarda, Capparis, Cordia, and Rapanea are represented among the small trees. Several species of epiphytic bromeliads and peperomias thrive in spite of the scanty precipitation. At lower elevations, and especially on the dry hills near English Harbour, a predominant plant is the tall yellow-flowered Agave obducta, endemic to Antigua and the nearby island of Barbuda. This lowland vegeta- tion is characterized by a preponderance of thorny plants, not only such horrendous cacti as Opuntia triacantha and O. dillenii, but thorny legumes, thorny Verbenaceae, thorny Rubiaceae, and thorny Euphorbiaceae. Dr. Clarke and Dr. Smith agreed that, in pursuit of their specialties on the hills near English Harbour, stout clothes and a forgiving disposition were prerequisites. The low-lying, seldom visited, reef-girt island of Barbuda was next on our itinerary because we wanted to see there the spiny lobster faggot fishery, about which the captain had told us. To the island’s treacherous reefs are credited perhaps more wrecks than any other island in the West Indies. But the island is nevertheless blessed with a large, almost landlocked lagoon. An opening to the north permits the shallow draft, usually Antigua-bound, sloops to make their way CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—-SCHMITT 457 from and to the town of Codrington on the eastern shore of the lagoon. It is in this relatively quiet inland sea that the faggot fishery is carried on. For the spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus, called crawfish in Florida, and crawfish or langouste in the West Indies generally, the lagoon seems to constitute a huge nursery. It is this circumstance, coupled with the relatively shallow water in much of the lagoon, that makes this unique method of fishing possible. In suitable parts of the lagoon, in about half to three-quarters of a fathom of water, the natives build up piles of waterlogged brush, tree limbs, and small stumps. This pile of “faggots” is usually about 414 feet high and roughly 6 or more feet in diameter. Left to soak undisturbed for some weeks, it becomes a well-populated refuge or shelter for young lobsters. These are then secured by surrounding the pile of faggots with a seine or gill net of sufficiently small mesh. Then the fishermen stand within the en- circling net and toss over the faggots to form a new pile just outside the net. Thus the faggot fishery is a continuing one. When all the faggots have been removed, the net is pursed at the bottom and the catch dumped into the sloop in which the natives travel about the lagoon. In the haul described there were 26 sizable lobsters. The three fisherman who put on the “performance” for us maintain seven of these faggot piles, in addition to whatever other fishing or agricultural work they may do. Ashore with his ight-trap set overnight, Dr. Clarke secured no less than 3,000 specimens of the tiny moths, Microlepidoptera, that he es- pecially sought. Also, in the course of a hike to the so-called south landing, from the reefs there, additional forms of marine life were collected, and on the road to and through the brush from the landing Dr. Clarke got many other unexpected insects from bromeliads and other vegetation that he hacked to pieces on the way. From Barbuda we returned to Antigua, but our stopover this sec- ond time was scarcely longer than necessary to stock up for the last lap of the cruise, and to await Mr. May’s arrival by plane. This was his first opportunity to “sign on” following Mr. Bredin’s return to the States from Martinique. Nevis was our next destination. On the way, early in the afternoon, we found ourselves passing close to that isolated volcanic “extrusion” from the bottom of the sea, Redonda. About 20 years ago I had hoped to land on this small uninhabited island, but was thwarted by the high seas beating against its precipitous cliffs and boulder-strewn shores. For all these years I had wanted to get back to secure a few specimens of the “phosphate rock” formerly “mined” here for our late chief geologist, Dr. William F. Foshag, who had always wanted some of it. This year I was able to gratify that ambition; the sea was calmer, and the surf ashore far less forbidding. The captain 458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 assenting, Dr. Clarke and I made it for a few hours, with Danny Thomson as boatman. While I worked the shore among the boulders, Clarke scaled the heights up a steep, narrow gully or rift. He retraced his steps a bit faster than he went up, riding a rock slide that he started in his descent. Though neither of our collections was at all extensive, we must have set up a number of records. Both of us got samples of the desired phosphate “ore,” Clarke at the upper end of a former cableway that brought down the rock to the long-demolished pier, and I from the dump at the lower end, where remained still a lot of rock and debris. Nevis is the island on which Alexander Hamilton was born, but all that remains of the reputed site of his home are bits of foundation walls and a few stone steps. On this day Dr. Chace and I were pitied by the entomologist and botanist, who, as usual, headed for the high point; on Nevis this is the precipitous truncated cone that dominates the island, Nevis Peak, with an elevation indicated (perhaps opti- mistically) on the charts as 3,596 feet. Marine biologists cannot always understand the exhilaration reserved for the mountaineering biologist, but on this clear and beautiful day we could indeed envy our colleagues “up the hill.” They circled the peak to its eastern base by road, and then, with a local guide, struck up the unrelenting slope, following a single ridge to the summit. The cleared land gives way to forest at about 1,000 feet, and from that point the ascent was a scramble over boulders, roots, and saturated tangles of vegetation. Occasionally the climbers came to an open shoulder from which the cultivated fields and the shore line of Nevis could be seen far below. After three hours of climbing the party reached the summit ridge, above an old breached crater, which they followed to a surveyor’s tripod on the actual summit. Several hours were spent here and on a slower return trip. Here is one of the most spectacular views avail- able in the Antilles, as the whole of the adjacent island of St. Kitts, culminating in Mount Misery, spreads northward under piled white clouds. The summit ridge of Nevis bears an excellent sample of Antillean “elfin woodland,” a dwarfed type of forest of which the component trees are bent and gnarled by the wind. Epiphytic ferns, mosses, bromeliads, and orchids abound in this cool, wet realm, and collecting for the botanist was excellent. Inasmuch as marine collecting at Nevis was poor, we decided to move over to Frigate Bay near the southern end of St. Kitts and investigate what appeared on the chart to be a promising reef on the windward side of that island. A walk of about half a mile across the narrow neck of St. Kitts, past a pond where natives in festive mood were sacking blocks of salt that had crystallized on the surface, brought us to one of the most interesting reefs encountered on the CARIBBEAN EXPEDITION, 1956—-SCHMITT 459 trip. A steep, sandy beach provided an underwater grandstand from which to view the activities of reef fishes about the bases of colonies of Acropora palmata. While we were there two native fishermen, with spear guns and goggles, wended their way across the flat tops of these coral growths to the outer edge of the reef a couple of hundred yards away as confidently as a woodsman might follow a forest trail. As the long haul to Tortola would take us over the Saba Bank, we had planned a few dredge hauls on it. For us fortunately the great underwater plateau in some places reaches to within 6 to 9 fathoms of the surface. The ground fishing attempted by the crew drew a blank for reasons unknown to us, but the dredging exceeded all expectations—it was the best of the cruise. Farther along and much nearer Tortola, we stopped briefly on Virgin Gorda to work over another rich littoral fauna in Gorda Sound, and to permit Drs. Clarke and Smith to ascend Virgin Peak (1,379 feet). They found no part of this hill with its original vegetation cover, but nevertheless the second-growth thickets and woods dis- closed botanical and entomological components of considerable inter- est. A further stop was made near the western extremity of Virgin Gorda to visit the locally famous “Baths.” These are veritable indoor pools open to the sea but sheltered in “chambers” formed by the most gigantic boulders any of us had ever seen. Tortola is another of those islands, like Barbuda, that few people ever visit unless they have special business there. Here the last mountain, Mount Sage, 1,780 feet high, was climbed by Clarke on his last hunt for insects on this expedition. It zs a small world after all. Mr. May, in 1947, was the proud owner of a very fine yacht, the Caribee, which he later sold, but this very day of April 18, as we were bowling along with a fair breeze through the beautiful, blue, island-studded water, Sir Francis Drake Channel, bound for St. Croix, Mr. May, who was watching sails on the horizon, exclaimed, “There’s the Caribee!” “How do you know?” “T sailed her too long not to know the cut of her sails anywhere.” It was the Caribee! In response to a radiotelephone request the present owner kindly brought her over so that we might photograph her under full sail. A once-in-a-lifetime happenstance—our boat being there and for a brief spell sailing the same course in the same direction. It was with sincere regret that we had to pass up St. Thomas and St. John of the American Virgin Islands, but time was running out, as did our charter of the /’reelance, too, in Christiansted, St. Croix, on April 19, 1956. Captain Nicholson most kindly granted us several days’ grace to get our specimens packed as the expeditionary party scattered. Mr. May enplaned for Puerto Rico and Drs. Clarke and Smith for the States and the Museum, to which Dr. Chace and I were 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 also returning with the collecting gear and pickled specimens by slower transport, the Alcoa Runner. All in all, the Smithsonian-Bredin Expedition on the Freelance covered, as a ship sails into the wind, perhaps a thousand miles be- tween Trinidad and St. Croix, and from one to another of some 28 islands or islets, rocks, or reefs on the way. Biological collections were made on or about most of them, bottom samples were taken at 15 different anchorages, and samples of soil for biotic assay at 38 lo- calities. The entomological aspects of the expedition were concerned primarily with obtaining material from an area that is rather weakly represented in the national collection. Much information on distri- bution and ecology, and some on habits and life histories were obtained, but the distributional data were by far the most important. The various materials collected at this writing are still far from being completely sorted and critically identified. Included are over 4,000 specimens of plants, more than 18,000 individual specimens of Microlepidoptera and other insects, over 27,000 marine invertebrates of various kinds, sea anemones, corals, polychaete worms, shrimps, and crabs, and their smaller relatives, and many mollusks, squids, and octopuses. Among this material are many little-known or undescribed species. The fishes saved for the Museum’s ichthyological collections numbered 1,700—a not insignificant showing for five “collectors” for a 514-week period. The Institution is again immeasurably indebted to Mr. and Mrs. Bredin for underwriting this second of their recent scientific expe- ditions undertaken for the enhancement of the study collections of the United States National Museum. Of course, there was much more to the trip than is, or can be, re- counted in these few pages. We have set forth, briefly annotated, the greater part of our itinerary and a few of our experiences. I cannot refrain from citing one quotation quite typical of the natives’ phi- losophy throughout the islands, lifted, with apologies, from a little real-estate folder distributed in Christiansted: “Only so many dollars on St. Croix—mon kill heself try get more’n he share.” Man as a Maker of New Plants and New Plant Communities’ By Epcar ANDERSON Curator of Useful Plants, Missouri Botanical Garden Engelmann Professor of Botany, Washington University St. Louis, Mo. THaT MAN changes the face of nature may be noted by any casual observer; not even the ablest and most experienced scholar can yet estimate just how far this has reclothed the world. Whole landscapes are now occupied by man-dominated (and in part by man-created) faunas and floras. This process began so long ago (its beginnings being certainly as old as Homo sapiens) and has produced results of such complexity that its accurate interpretation must await research as yet scarcely begun. Though answers to many basic questions re- main unknown, they are by no means unknowable. The average thoughtful person has little inkling of this reclothing of the world; even professional biologists have been tardy in recog- nizing that in the last analysis a significant portion of the plants and animals which accompany man is directly or indirectly of his own making. The ordinary American supposes that Kentucky bluegrass is native to Kentucky and Canada bluegrass native to Canada. A few historians and biologists know that these grasses (along with much of our meadow and pasture vegetation) came to us from Europe. The research scholar inquiring critically into the question realizes that some of this vegetation was as much a Neolithic immigration into Europe as it was a later immigration into the New World. Like Ken- tucky mountaineers, this vegetation has its ultimate roots in Asia, and spread into central and western Europe at times which, biologically speaking, were not very long ago. It is obvious that landscapes such as the American Corn Belt have been transformed by man. Other man-dominated landscapes do not * Reprinted by permission from Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, published and copyrighted by the University of Chicago Press for the Wenner- Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1956. 461 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 betray their origin to the casual observer. Take the grasslands of California, the rolling hills back from the coast, the oak-dotted savan- nas of the Great Valley. Here are stretches of what look like indige- nous vegetation. Much of this mantle is not obviously tended by man; it has the look of something that has been in California as long as the oaks it grows among, yet the bulk of it came, all uninvited, from the Old World along with the Spaniards. Most of it had a long history of association with man when it made the trip. Wild oats, wild mus- tards, wild radishes, wild fennel—all of these spread in from the Mediterranean, yet over much of the California cattle country they dominate the landscape. Native plants are there, even some native grasses, but it takes a well-informed botanist going over the vegetation item by item to show how small a percentage of the range is made up of indigenous California plants. For those parts of the Tropics where plants grow rapidly it will take careful research before we can have an informed opinion about such questions. ‘Thorn scrub, savannas, bamboo thickets, weedy tangles of quick-growing trees and shrubs are known to have covered vast areas in the last two or three millenniums. Yet Standley, our greatest authority on the vegetation of Central America, digging up a small tree in what appeared to him to be a truly indigenous forest in the Lancetilla Valley, came upon a layer of potsherds (Standley, 1931). What is the relation between the supposedly wild avocados of such a forest and the avocados eaten in the village that once covered that site? We now have various techniques (pollen profiles, carbon-14 datings, chromosome analysis, extrapolated correlates) which can give critical answers, but they are time-consuming, and their application to such problems has just begun. The total number of plants and animals that have moved in with man to any one spot on the earth’s surface is way beyond what even a biologist would estimate until he looked into the problem. There are the cultivated plants both for use and for display, the domesticated animals, the weeds, and their animal equivalents such as houseflies, clothes moths, rats, and mice. A much larger class comprises organ- isms not purposely introduced by man, which are neither eyesores nor plagues, but which, like weeds, have the capacity to get along in man’s vicinity. Such are the daisies and yarrows and buttercups of our meadows. Such, in a sense, are even those native species that spread under man’s influence. Take, for example, the sunflowers of Wyoming. They are certainly native to North America and may pos- sibly in part be prehuman in Wyoming. They line the roadways yet seldom are elsewhere prominent in the native landscape. They ap- peared along with the road, even though they may have moved in from not so far away. But how did they get into the spot from which they MAN AS A MAKER OF NEW PLANTS—ANDERSON 463 spread, and did pioneers or primitive man have anything to do with making this previous niche? This is the sort of question we are now making the subject of decisive experiments; we do not yet have enough results for decisive answers. For micro-organisms the problem of the species that travel about with man staggers the imagination. Micro-organisms seemingly fall into the same general categories as macro-organisms. Brewers’ yeasts are as much cultivated plants as the barleys and wheats with which they have so long been associated for brewing and baking. The germs of typhoid and cholera are quite as much weeds as are dandelions or Canada thistles. The micro-organisms of our garden soil are appar- ently the same mixture of mongrel immigrants and adapted natives as our meadow and pasture plants. Soils are good or bad quite as much because of the microcommunities they contain as because of their composition. Man’s unconscious creation of new kinds of micro- organisms is an important part of his total effect on the landscapes of the world. Think, then, of this total composite mantle of living things which accompanies man: the crops, the weeds, the domesticated animals, the garden escapes such as Japanese honeysuckle and orange day lily, the thorn scrub, the bamboo thickets, the English sparrows, the starlings, the insect pests. Think of the great clouds of algae, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi—complex communities of micro-organ- isms that inhabit our soils, our beverages, our crops, our domesticated animals, and our very bodies. If we turn to the scientific literature for an orderly summary of where these species came from and how, there is a depressing lack of information. The crop plants and domesticated animals have been somewhat studied, the ornamentals and the weeds scarcely investi- gated. Even for the crop plants one notes that for those that have been the most carefully studied—wheat (Aase, 1946), cotton (Hutch- inson et al., 1947), maize (Mangelsdorf and Reeves, 1938)—there is now general recognition that their origins, relationships, and exact histories are much more complex problems than they were thought to be a generation ago. In spite of these wide gaps in our knowledge, I believe the following generalizations will stand: 1. All the major crops and most of the minor ones were domesti- cated in prehistoric times. J/odern agriculture, classified solely by the plants it uses, ts Neolithic agriculture. 2. For none of the major crops can we point with certainty to the exact species (or combination of species) from which it was derived: for some we can make guesses; for a number we can point to closely related weeds. This merely complicates the problem. We then have to determine the origin of the crop, the origin of the weed, and the history of their relationships. 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The world’s knowledge of crop plants, in other words, does not tell us very much. Al] we know is that we are dealing with man’s effects on certain plants in the Neolithic or before. Yet for weeds and orna- mental plants even less is known. hi “fy Pe Tres i Shi wate wel Me OF Gi Lpakek ot! roliaesala batons othe alban mutant ky Rear anil a eae Sh Cie eae an a ‘ — ME le | | | ee Le, 2 A: essere es WieieauheDrar’s euhteat cenit ‘alfisesadt ait ty nore RE bil tetova: toh engienabe UUAEED, "Age HO) 00.078. toSet aks Pe hye @ Wen oD vi ee) EN VOR Ae tadh Eaees, | - patie pedenMino! do gkahiye) td ot: aothnsa PONE Viet Sige: (hae. ale BRE-BR Bae Bier fer ; fore TexaiSs - ive, Abs Cervedaion te. cdeere ves, Lat Aang Bat) Gemden on ay 0 'ug) gad \ daw en, Wiad A ee vee a2 ' Coase HNG cwgetaite oa wat errs ont Bejoto eter eee ; : 7 ’ ct ies . i : n an Sn yo 2 ; Pe ; ; : re cw Wye 5 pha Frog oe by TEL ral, Rie “a rai weldeita ls " arta rea Ud tds ‘hs | od pices hace? pit iy Drbeeph ik bay)! uae ee her's jonas, Peart. (tee a Lik Ppa: Vila Vy ter fel a reid ita Rea byhay Voth, JSR Ret rntia', eB | : ae ‘ x <7 rine, 1 ae j [Sh wotyael My ! Wily eines Lieder = > ie ibe i. P pestle. of Balela apidie eo gals "aii ray }. Pree id Ce eal , - (ih ap ee Baan? Yea ai ti pyeobbe be Wtepeibudics ot heen) cond ae eee ma mca bp BL, NOt, OL ae. id) wy re t4h—4078, piAdar 1 anta ; z : \ chidy ‘date ‘es apres, 4+ bee. itodpey ie meege See an rig i leaped 1s es, pa ei Pegi tlh wpe = an snel an biphaidnued rae Hoel’ sicl yt elt anodialy onl lo dining — envitestidn® featietinaib oi ofoboieo hw ne pite erty repent oul babaih V4 Siac ala AR Ne Oe 509 or Project Coral Fish Looks at Palau By FrepertcK M. BAYER United States National Museum Smithsonian Institution and RosBert R. Harry-RoFen The George Vanderbilt Foundation [With 20 plates] WE WHo Live on continents can rarely appreciate the vastness of the world’s oceans. Those of us who may be prompted by business or pleasure to traverse them learn of their two-dimensional magnitude, but there are a few of us who are privileged to investigate the secrets of the seas first-hand, by living among them. We look upon the seas in their role as an environment and seek to unravel the interwoven facts of life within them. One of the first facts we learn is the com- plexity of their many-faceted wonders, and we consider ourselves fortunate when we are able, as it were, to polish a few of these facets so as to see more clearly into them. Of all the seas, the one with the greatest area, greatest depth, and most to tell us is that restless giant, the Pacific. Even before we begin to study it we must concede, if not defeat, at best a draw, for it is prac- tically axiomatic that one solution leads to another problem. When our words are as antiquated as those of the Renaissance pioneers Belon and Rondelet and Marsigli now seem to us, people will still be learning new things about this watery one-third of our planet. When we look upon the Pacific, or any ocean for that matter, as an environment, the central problem deals with the physical and chemical properties of the fluid medium that make it adequate to support life. This is a vast field of investigation to which many people in many laboratories are devoting tireless efforts. We, however, as biologists, can devote time to such problems only when they have direct and im- mediate bearing upon some question involving the organisms with which we are concerned, and even then we must rely upon specialists in those restricted fields for most of the information we need. The 481 482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 next problem is a qualitative one regarding the population of the sea: what are these creatures that populate the waters? This is a basic problem in marine biology; upon it depend the solutions to problems of economic, or ecologic, or purely biologic interest. We must know what organisms we are working with before we can determine how they live together in communities, how they depend upon one another, and how they affect us. Creatures of the sea do, in fact, affect the affairs of man in many ways. Many of them have served us for food since the beginning of mankind. When we build structures in the sea for our own purposes, certain of the animals and plants whose domain we have invaded use those structures to their own ends and thus either destroy what man has made or so befoul and beclog it as to render it worthless. When we sail in tropic waters, other marine life—corals and algae—has been there long before us and raised up an edifice that passively awaits the unwary navigator and his fragile keel. If we are thrown into the sea, or when we voluntarily venture into it, still others may unintentionally do us bodily damage or even deliberately seek us out as a meal. Most “dangerous” of all, to marine biologists anyway, are those that have such bizarre or complicated ways of life that they entice us to devote most of our lives to learning of them and solving their riddles. Since the close of World War II, interest in the Pacific Ocean has been increasing steadily. A number of expeditions were sent out to study the tropical Pacific, among which were those of the Pacific Science Board (National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council) and the George Vanderbilt Foundation. Among the expeditions of the Pacific Science Board were those comprising the 5-year Coral Atoll Program, in some of which the present authors participated. The expeditions of the Coral Atoll Program did much to broaden our knowledge of life on the coral atolls of the Marshalls, Gilberts, Carolines, and Tuamotus. But field team studies came to a close before the most interesting part of the Pacific could be studied: the western rim, the faunal gateway to that vast coral world that reaches to Hawaii, the Galapagos, and even our own western shores. Moving eastward from the Malay Archipelago and its wonderfully rich fauna, we find no depletion through the Philippines, but what of the western- most islands of Micronesia? They are a scant 600 miles east of the Philippine Islands (see map, fig. 1), no journey at all for sea creatures with free-swimming young stages. However, between the Philippines and the Palau Archipelago lies one of the greatest deeps in all the seas. How many of the East Indian species have been able to span this deep? Even the submarine ridge upon which the Palaus are situated, extending northeastward from the Moluccas, is covered by 483 PALAU—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN "plvog aoua!og syed 941 Aq paipnys s]jore aay ay? pue nejeg JO uoIed0] dy} ZulMoys IyIO¥g [es}UN. ay} Jo dew oulpinQ—y] aunory NS cake - 0}20UuQ ts y re) ibe eR oud 7 yp a anja SADIDY °s j . $ J huvswurv bude y ae Y “x : a Pa = 2 aS . < Ve ( ‘ 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 waters too deep to serve as a shallow-water passageway for littoral forms. Are the Palaus now so isolated that special endemic species, found nowhere else, have evolved from their East Indian ancestors? How do the reefs, the habitat of most tropical shallow-water animals, as we see them in Palau, differ from those elsewhere in Micronesia, and from those in the East Indies? Such were the questions we hoped to answer when we, as part of a 4-man team, set out for the Palau Islands late in June 1955. PROJECT CORAL FISH Together, we formed Project Coral Fish, a continuing field program devoted to the study of the marine biology of the high islands and atolls in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. This program was initiated in 1954 by the George Vanderbilt Foundation at Stanford University, with the cooperation and support of the Pacific Science Board (National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council), the Office of Naval Research, the United States Department of the Navy, the United States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, and the Smithsonian Institution. Aside from the present writers, the team included H. Adair Fehlmann, assistant curator of the George Vander- bilt Foundation collections at Stanford University, and Sterling H. Pierce, technical assistant. We hoped to gather data and specimens of all kinds to give us an approximate answer to the question: What lives in the waters of Palau? With this basic information we would be in a better position to answer such practical questions as: What kind of marine life can be exploited for food? How can their supply be conserved? What other marine products of economic importance could the Palauan people develop successfully ? What are the dangers in fishing the reefs, and how can they be avoided? As a byproduct of our basic task of finding out what animals popu- late the reefs of Palau, we studied the communities living in various kinds of habitats, especially in Iwayama Bay, and the strange associa- tions that develop between different kinds of animals. After many months of preparation, during which supplies and equipment were assembled and shipped to the western Pacific, the four team members assembled on June 22, 1955, at the George Vanderbilt Foundation headquarters on the Stanford University campus, and final plans for the trip to Palau were made. Under orders from the Chief of Naval Operations, the following day we left Moffett Field, Calif., aboard a military transport plane bound for Guam. Two days and more than 6,000 miles later, we arrived in Guam, where we learned that the expedition equipment had all been for- warded to the Palaus on schedule. D. H. Nucker, the Acting High Commissioner of the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, with PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 485 whom arrangements for the expedition had been made months pre- viously, issued the permits necessary for our travel and fieldwork in the islands. All was in readiness. We were in the Tropics again, and our destination was almost in sight. It was an impatient group that awaited the next weekly flight of the Transocean Airliner to Koror, but at last Thursday came and we were at the air terminal in the Naval Air Station, Agafia, early that morning. A few moments after Miss Thelma Gorman, of Trust Territory Headquarters, had bustled us and the other passengers aboard the Albatross amphibian and breathed a sigh of relief, we were airborne. The islands of Palau lie some 800 miles southwest of Guam, a flight of about six hours, including stops at Ulithi Atoll and Yap. At Ulithi, we touched down on the airstrip to discharge passengers, where two years previously we ourselves had landed on our way to Tfaluk, a tiny jewel in the sea that captured our hearts as could no other spot. But that is another story, and we were back in the air before we could reminisce about it. At Yap, the lagoon is the air- strip and we made a water landing to discharge passengers, cargo, and mail. Again, after a pause of only a few minutes, we were taking off on the last leg of our journey halfway around the world. The next land we would see would be Palau—first the great, hilly island Babelthuap, then Koror with its settlement and the broad harbor on which we would land. Reaching up toward us from the sea below, were the jagged ridges of the islands we would come to know so well (pl. 1, fig. 1). Amid sheets of spray we settled in the green water of the lagoon and taxied up to the ramp that led the plane out of the water. At last we were in Palau. THE PALAUS Although the Palau Islands were discovered in 1710 by Francisco de Padilla and his pilot, Joseph Somera, on the galleon La Santisima Trinidad (and may have been sighted earlier, perhaps by Diego de Rocha in 1525-26 or Lope Martin in 1566), the first Europeans to publish an extensive account of their visit were the crew of the British East India Company’s Antelope in command of Capt. Henry Wilson. The keel of the luckless Antelope struck the coral rocks of the barrier reefs near Aulong Island on the morning of August 10, 1783. Only one man was lost in the disaster, and the remainder of the crew escaped safely to set up camp on Aulong. The castaways salvaged every usable item from the wreck and, although the Antelope was a total loss, were able to build another vessel large and seaworthy enough to take them all safely to Macao. This vessel, the Oroolong, brought 700 Spanish dollars (about equivalent to the U. S. dollar of the 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Kayenge!l n 19/35 N Y oe one cre 6) V3 ° Or é oe asf Dae Saat a : ENS ORY Rt ~ Ge Urvkthopel pal ae Ca aa Figure 2.—Tthe Palau Islands. PALAU ISLANDS ee ater oe : ean Adapted from U. S. H. O. chart 6073. reef outiine AS land outline SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN REeAvurial 1. Koror from the air, with Iwayama Bay and the limestone islands in the distance. The abrupt headland on the horizon at right is Ngaremediu Point on Urukthapel. 2. Looking east through Ngasaksao Pass, the eastern entrance to Iwayama Bay. ‘To the left is Ngalap region of Koror, and to the right Kwannon (Ugeliungs) Island, with conical Ngaraglbukl (Ngergelbakl) Rock in the pass. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 2 1. The Lenore in Lebugol Passage, the narrow western entrance to Iwayama Bay. This boat was used by field parties to reach the more remote localities investigated in the Palaus. Se SS J reenter * wt e af AERA eee Ee eeee® pe ee eee POT og nee & hat < ed 2. A building that was once part of the Japanese meterological station on Koror now accom- modates biological activities in the Palau District of the U. S. Trust Territory. The ground-floor laboratory to the left of the main entrance is occupied by the George Vander- bilt Foundation, and the apartment above (now remodeled) provides living quarters for members of its field parties. PLATE 3 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN “ABPO} BuUIpurys UleUal Moy YSTYM Jo ‘sivqe 24] SuUNnevIODZp Ul pasn ATUOUIWIOD dom soysy NIpsWoiesN}y 1v9U SUopieS ]vIOD IOAO WIMS § dUIT}-pjO fo sajqe3 194JO pure 9SoU [, aysyuossins OM], *7 “Sneed oy} punole soysy fool UuOWUIOD ayy JO 9UO “soysyuoosins qatM Pele 1osop Ayle3 o1e JO. OY uo Teqe styy fo so]qesa IFUL ‘ HF t ! f : ‘|! PLATE 4 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN ‘o1oYy} pure olay saa1] vuRUEQ yitm ‘a]qISIA SI O1e] pue eOIdey JOF UOTJRAT[ND “1OIOY UO asKI]IA [OseYaly St YSIYM ‘punoiso10f ay} uy “AjaatT{oodse1 VYySII Iv} puev jo] Iv} oY} 0} Us—as aq UL SUOISIAIC] Jj pur [ fo soyoied [[vuIG ‘sdAOIZUPUT Aq IOIOY O} pa}9UUOD SI YSIYM “CT PURIST SI AIOYS Yi IW9NY “YSLI ay] OF /] puryst ym ‘uses aq wed QZ purysi “TZ purls! pulyeq ‘JoJus2 oYi pleMOT, “77 PULIS! Jo pUa UJoYIIOU dy} SI If9] 9Y1 OF purys! [B1UOS OY, “o[Ppltu ay1 pieMo} [7 purjst Aunty yim *(¢ “BY 7x9} 99S) UOISIATG 'T 0} ssucjeq JajeM jo ssuvdxs UleW OY T, “JOIOY UO oSpli YsIY ve WOIZ YINOS ZuTyOo] ‘Avg vuIeARMT JO MaIA aztsodutOos PLATE 5 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN "ou0 Ivap & Yydeassojoyd srtyi fo aotid ayi ayvuI 0} Surdjay ‘syoeq Zutddip imo 19A0 poutrems jnq 911g JOU pIp Jey JU yori fo soloods v UIIM DATTL JOM soyouvig SUIBUBYIOAO OUT, UOT} 219S9A YIM UMOIZIOAO Ajasuop len snon}10} pue dsaqs v dn AyuO poutes oq urs SPU SPM MOTA SITY YOTYAM WOIF JUIOd oseIURA OY], “YOU 24} OF “1 puodag usppry [sat IO1OY ‘99UPISIP 94} Ul Uses aq Uv puL{sy (jasviIdn[ny) nieyoysndeiny 1y3I oY IV ‘oul] Yep & sev spualxo sseq [eYL[ePY YOY SSO1D¥ “Je fool oY} SI 19]vM OY] Ul kore ajed ‘peolg oY], ‘Sla[SI JO 9zZeUI SUIpUNOLINs sz YIM jedeyiynsg jo wie UJOYIIOU 9} ST IYfoy ay1 Of, ‘Jadeyyynsp jo odes usojs¥a ySiy oyi “‘nipeuialvs \y uO ssnoyIysl] pourns oY} WOIZ UIye? ‘TeYe[ePy plemo} YOU Suryooy Mat A Bees PLATE 6 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN ‘] OINSY UT UMOYS 9Avd ][BUIS OY} fO YINou sy} opisino ysnf usye} seM MOIA SIYT, ‘“apnpooy ie vas 94} Sjoow pur JoAO sijids sAoqe Jsa10F JY WOIY UOeIOS0A o[ZuN[ ‘ul pueis OJ YSsNoUS I51e] 91ev soyd}OU SuUN[Nsel sy J, ‘Joao, epn -Yysty ot 1e dnoJopun A|daep ole spurs 9UO0 sou] poepts-daais IU, nC ‘S140]NI1g40 Wos0d F “ysy [euIpied poqjods v JO JeUGey [eoidAy ay wo; soovyd AYO yong *sojvolun} pur *0153]2 J, [e409 UvIIvUOAD]e ayy “sploipAy SuIpnoul “QAR SIY} fO fOOl OY} Wolf SUIZULY o1OM sjeUITUY dIISsas jO spury JPIQAVG *Z VINBY Ul Udas oq AvuI ods S14} 7B SUIQINOJOpuN Jo JuaIxa ey, “oul] apn-ysty ye dAvd ]]vUISs v OJUT SYOO] s1oy Ne sy} JO 9uC ‘T Gens ‘pur, Aip uo Aydvisojoyd ‘ Jaquao ul se Asevd sv JSOUI[R SoUsdS JO BUIWIeI] pue SUISNdO} 9oIvIND¥ Yt ‘sel0do19e o¥I[1ojjue Moy] YIM Sfool UPIPUT ISaA4 DUTIOS soyeu JUuowdinbs jo odd} siyy, ‘soinqoid osoya oyeur 0} px a[quiasol Ap}VoIs s jool ayy yods sii “nIpsuiates xy JO puly oy fO eIOUed JoeMilopun Ue suleiodo stoyine o9Y1 fo suc) “CG yanos fool Joltieg 1SBO oud ysnoiyy ssed Sud 10q YIMOIS [e107 al PLATE 7 Z W re fe) n > © 6 < 20 a) Zz < Yr W > < SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.— SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 8 1. One of the authors preparing to descend in a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (aqualung). x 0 i my . ‘ SS. # ¥ 2 2. A dark green feather-star (Comanthus) of the species that is the host of the commensal clingfish. The small urnlike objects to the left of it are colonies of an ascidian, Didemnum ternatanum. DIVDAD AISSPUL 9 PLATE 9 ods d1)s119}< Z W Te to) es > ra x < Ab a z < x ul > < a | © is) oy E x fe) a W x Zz = Z fe) Y) Ir fe = 17) SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 10 eg 1. Shallow reefs in Iwayama Bay are in some places dominated by the large poritid coral Gontopora. ‘The stubby branches of its skeleton are obscured by the exceptionally large polyps, which remain extended even in daylight. Unlike most anthozoan corals, it can sting, thus making collecting near it very unpleasant. 2. This species of mushroom coral, Fungia actiniformis palawensis, has long, creamy-yellow tentacles that completely hide its stony skeleton which is nearly the size of a saucer. It is a solitary polyp that never forms a colonial skeleton as most other reef corals do. A small specimen of a wrasse, Cheilinus, that is common in enclosed bays like Iwayama, can be seen at the top of the picture. PALAU—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 487 period) when sold in Macao, and stands as a tribute to British forti- tude and resourcefulness in the face of adversity. The English, although at first apprehensive, found no difficulty in establishing friendly relations with the Palauans. Even though they “had not on board philosophers, botanists, draughtsmen, or gentle- men experienced in such scientific pursuits as might enable them to examine with judgment objects which presented themselves, or trace nature through all her labyrinths,” they nevertheless gave us a fasci- nating account of the islands and people and their experiences among them. Palau and the Palauans today present a far different impression from that described by Wilson and his men in 1783. Although the na- tives had complete power over the English, they did not take advantage of their superior position, but instead did everything possible to help their hapless visitors. Admittedly, the Palauans were awed by fire- arms, and the English assisted Abba Thulle (Ebadul or Ibedul) the chief of Koror, in some of his interisland campaigns. Good relations were thereby strengthened, but it probably was not guns alone that made the Palauans friendly. We ourselves have been residents of islands where the people have had little real contact with civilization as we know it, and found that they remain much as Wilson pictured the Palauans, with a high regard for honesty and respect for their fel- lows. Now the Palauan people have become sophisticated and mun- dane after 20 years of German administration and another 26 under the Japanese. Missionaries long ago insisted that they give up their native way of dress (or undress) in favor of less practical European- style clothing. Their airy, thatched houses and abais, or men’s houses (pl. 3, fig. 1), decorated with colorful murals depicting historical and mythological events or droll folk tales, have given way to quonset huts and quasi-Japanese frame structures. Their elegant outrigger canoes are becoming a rarity, replaced by dirty little diesel boats like the My Flower—anything but flowerlike—that plies between Peleliu and Koror. The Palau Archipelago in the western Caroline Islands (fig. 2) ex- tends northeastward from about latitude 6°53’ N. to 8°06’ N., or over 70 miles, at a longitude of about 134°29’ E. The main islands, dominated by Babelthuap, lie between latitudes 7° and 7°45’ N. Ex- cept for Kayangel, the northern part of the islands is volcanic in origin. Babelthuap is about 25 miles long and 8 miles wide, covered with rugged hills and dense jungle, rolling grasslands, sparkling streams and dashing water falls, (pl. 12, fig. 1), and fringed with man- grove. Twenty miles to the north of it is Kayangel, a true atoll like the islands far to the east, and to the south of it is the maze of lime- stone ridges and conical islets (pl. 1) that forms one of the most re- 412575—57——32 488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 3 ee | boewwrrey H@QOAGoORs ne HM OPsaKoOo ween ; a | prosocoodsd sacc00c000]/@ o WoW ada OO 2 Cao sco me ned a WN SISSIES BS . » ~ “ ° 7 Sen J aa — = [= ie eT ~f= Sag -——= ee a SSS 5 = a aa eae IN eee ewes 5 Peat: = eS aS - ee ae ZS = ae Sketch of old abais, based on several published photographs. markable features of Palau. Here and there on the edge of the reefs there are islets of wave-tossed coral debris and sand, much like the atoll islands. Together, the Palaus offer the most diversified collec- tion of marine habitats to be found anywhere in Micronesia. The Japanese recognized the unusual scientific opportunities pre- sented by the Palaus and, during their administration of the South Seas Islands (Nanyo Gunto), established at Koror a tropical biological station devoted to the study of coral reefs, under the directorship of Dr. Shinkishi Hatai. At that time, Koror was the capital of the Japanese mandated islands of the South Seas and was a thriving city. The Palao Tropical Biological Station is no more, but we hope to build upon its accomplishments and contribute further to a more thorough understanding of the fauna of Palau. ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD Our first big job on Koror was to unpack and organize our field equipment. The territorial entomologist, Robert P. Owen, had gen- erously provided us with laboratory space in the entomological labora- tory (pl. 2, fig. 2), one of the few bullet-scarred Japanese buildings still usable. A rebuilt second story over the laboratory served as our quarters until a nearby house could be made ready for occupancy. For days we moved boxes and steel drums full of supplies from the district warehouse to the laboratory grounds, and the unpacking went on far into our first few nights in the islands. PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN ie 489 One morning while we were busy setting up the laboratory with the help of Bob Owen’s Palauan assistants, we became aware of a scowling stranger who at first hesitated around the periphery of ac- tivity, and then picked up a hammer and began energetically opening boxes. This was Rikrik (pl. 18, fig. 1). We asked the others about him and learned that he was a willing and able worker, knowledgeable in English, Palauan geography, and fishing. We had learned from experience that such a man is indispensable to an expedition, so we hired him on the spot. Rikrik’s scowl broke into a broad but tempo- rary grin and we had gained a true friend. Later, we added to our staff another Palauan named Sumang, who had a remarkable knowl- edge of Palauan natural history. He could speak both English and Japanese, was a village chief or “Ya’at,” and knew practically every- body from Angaur to Kayangel. Amiable Sumang Y. was a valuable public-relations department whose good offices were a great advantage, particularly during the long overland trips on Babelthuap, and his memory of Palauan geographic names gave valuable documentation for our collection records. The Palauan people use a different approach from ours to naming the various parts of their homeland. ‘They often do not give names to islands as a whole, whereas groups of islands or localized regions on islands may have special names. Rivers and streams may have as many as three names—one for the part near the mouth, another for the headwaters, and a third for the parts between. The imposition of our own practice of giving a single name to geographical features upon the Palauan system has led to either a part taking the name of the whole, or the whole taking the name of one of its parts. Examples of the latter kind are Koror, which is the name of a village that we apply to an entire island, and Kil Malk, the name of a cape which we use for the island of which it is a part. The situation is complicated by the circumstance that we take many of our spellings of Palauan place names from Japanese maps, which expressed them in phonetic katakana characters. The English transliterations from the Japanese spellings usually bear little, if any, resemblance to actual pronuncia- tion, but they appear almost universally on American maps so we are obliged to employ them in this account. Thus, the name “Ankosu” as we use it is correctly spelled “Nghus,” and “Geruherugairu” should be “Ngaregelngael.” A complete list of the place names we will men- tion in these pages, giving the correct (and any common alternate) spelling, may be found on p. 507. Actual fieldwork could not be started until our 18-foot fiberglass boat was put into commission. Sterling H. Pierce, our engineer and electronics technician, installed wiring, instruments, and cabin con- trols for the powerful outboard motor. In due time, the final coat 490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 of paint was applied, the name Lenore and the George Vanderbilt Foundation insigne inscribed on her bows, and the boat was ready for launching. She was both speedy and seaworthy, and in her we could make trips to outlying islands and return to the laboratory the same day, a distinct advantage when perishable specimens must be promptly preserved. When the Lenore was fully loaded for a day’s work, there was scarcely room left for us. Nets, containers large and small, inflatable floats for receiving specimens as we took them from the water, spray apparatus for distributing the poison we used to stupefy fishes and other active specimens, tools for digging and breaking up coral, pre- servative, cameras and, often, bulky diving apparatus loaded the boat to capacity. The self-contained diving apparatus was useful not only for col- lecting in water too deep for free diving, but also in shallow-water areas where we wanted to see the exact situation under which certain animals were living, or to observe their behavior at length. When- ever possible, both the habitat and the inhabitants at collecting sta- tions were photographed in detail, both in color and in black-and- white, using reflex cameras in waterproof casings (pl. 7, fig.2). These excellent cameras greatly minimized waste of film by enabling us to watch moving specimens until they were in range and focus. Because one of our chief aims was to get as complete a biological sample as possible, every available means of collecting specimens was employed, from hand capture and hook-and-line to explosive charges. Although different situations required different techniques of sam- pling that had to be carefully decided upon before attempting to col- lect, the most generally useful method of obtaining active specimens was by the use of the vegetable poison rotenone. In liquid form this is extremely potent, so it must be diluted with water in a spray pump and distributed over the area to be collected. Fishes, crustaceans, cephalopods, and certain other types of animals are suffocated by it and are soon made helpless. When we used this technique, we needed every available hand to collect specimens before they were swept away by the current or eaten by larger fishes not affected by the poison. Often we enlisted the aid of youthful spectators, who are character- istically good collectors, and they would scurry about in response to Sumang Y.’s commands, enjoying all the bustle of excitement. IWAYAMA BAY Our program of faunal sampling took us the length of Palau, from Arekolong Peninsula at the northern end of Babelthuap to Peleliu, but one of the most fascinating and complex areas in the islands was virtually in our own front yard. The Japanese scientists of the PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 491 Palao Tropical Biological Station were attracted by it 20 years ago and made a survey of it that was reported in the first volume of their journal (Abe, 1937). We became greatly interested in that study and had decided, even before reaching Palau, to resurvey the same area to see what had happened to the different habitats since they were origi- nally studied. This area is an island-studded lagoon, partly enclosed by Koror Island (pl. 4), which the Japanese called Iwayama-wan, or “Rocky-mountain Bay.” The Japanese name is generally accepted now, because the nearly forgotten original Palauan name for it is a matter of debate (some maps use Kriimer’s coined name for it, “Songel a Lise,” which, although utilizing Palauan words, is a European inven- tion). We therefore use Iwayama Bay as a neo-Palauan name. Iwayama Bay isa roughly circular body of water about 114 nautical miles in diameter, enclosed by Koror on the north and Auluptagel on the south (see map, fig. 8). Its west entrance is a long, narrow pass called Lebugol Channel, and its east entrance a wider, coral- and sand- choked passage called Ngasaksao Pass. The western arm of Koror is voleanic land with a wide, muddy mangrove shore; its eastern arm is limestone, like Auluptagel and the 40 small islands in the Bay, with a fringe of corals. The Palauan names for most of the islands are all but forgotten (Sumang Y. succeeded in tracking down most of them by lengthy conferences with the prominent patriarchs of Koror) so, to simplify matters, the Japanese students assigned each island a number, which they actually emblazoned on them in white paint. These roman numerals are still legible on some of the islands, and we also found that system more convenient to use than names, either Palauan or Japanese. N. Abe and his colleagues further divided the Bay into “divisions” bearing letter designations (see fig. 3), in most of which they studied transects from island shore to reef margin. In the process of collecting, we revisited each of the transects in the bay and studied the 16 divisions, wherever possible taking photographs of the coral growth, animal communities, and general habitat. Because of the many islands and narrow passes, tidal currents are swift at many points in Iwayama Bay. The Islands, which are very close together, rise up almost vertically from the bay floor and create very narrow, deep waterways many of which are 100 feet or more in depth. The islands are deeply undercut at the high-tide line (pl. 6, fig. 2)—as much as 5 to 10 feet—forming deep “notches” above a sub- marine shelf of variable width. In favorable localities where the cur- rent is strong, as on the north shore of island 29, coral growth on the shelf and vertical submarine cliff is exceptionally luxuriant. Here, one could stand among flourishing corals and look either directly overhead into dense jungle vegetation or straight down the coral preci- Pice into a hundred feet of deep blue water. Occasionally we saw the ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 492 ‘Te 12 oqY ‘N Joye suoistatp ‘sydessojoyd [eloe uo paseq dej| ‘SuOISIAIp s}t pue Avg vuedAem[—¢ AUNTY poo. euijjno pup] eaosBubw euljno 4002 SU01}INAISGO [9945 sojid 204 ovoneenen S149 gs, spapd Oost pupjs} 1010] AVE VWYAVMI PALAU—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 493 shadowy shapes of giant blue parrotfishes, perhaps 6 feet long, rise from the depth to which they had fled at our coming, or a shark patrol- ling his accustomed beat, or the faint silvery glint of sunlight on a distant school of swift predators, perhaps some kind of jack (Car- angidae), near the limit of our vision. On the submarine shelf of these undercut shorelines, the coral variety was great, with multicolored Pectinia lactuca, commonly called lettuce coral (pl. 9, fig. 1), green, orange, or brick-red Lobophyllia, and a few others dominating the shallower areas. The less colorful Plerogyra, with bubblelike tentacles an inch across, the closely re- lated Physogyra, and long, wiry antipatharians (black corals) were usually found on the vertical face of the cliffs. On the shadiest slopes we often met with handsome specimens of Palauphyllia, a subgenus of corals named in honor of their homeland. The bright colors of Palauphyllia, like those of most other stony- reef corals, are located not in the coral skeleton but in the soft tissues of the polyps themselves, and are due in part to the presence of minute unicellular algae living in the cells of the endoderm. These remark- able algae, called zooxanthellae, actually serve the coral polyps in the capacity of excretory organs by taking up from the animal tissues such waste products as they can use in their own life processes. They have never been found living free of corals, and have never been artificially cultured. Their only reproductive process seems to be simple division and they are passed on from generation to generation of corals through the eggs, which become infected before leaving the parent. Several species of fishes were found only in such situations in Iwa- yama Bay. Among these were the brilliant gold-and-black striped butterflyfish (Chaetodon octofasciatus Bleeker), wrasses of the genus Chetlinus (pl. 10, fig. 2), and several kinds of cardinal fishes belonging to the genus Apogon. Many species of highly colored fishes that reach a length of no more than one or two inches balance like jeweled spangles among coral branches that rival them in beauty, or conceal their splendor in holes in the coral cliffs. Ever present are the preda- tors that seek out these defenseless inhabitants of the coral slopes. Some, like trumpetfish, have long snouts with which they relentlessly explore all holes and crevices in search of prey; others, such as the turkeyfish, have wide jaws and gaping mouth that enable them to en- gulf their prey in one quick gulp, in much the same way that a vacuum-cleaner may inhalea feather. Solitary sharks were patrolling the bottom of the deep waterways, but their presence was of most importance to the inhabitants of the deeper waters for the sharks sel- dom came to the surface. Some of the islands in Iwayama Bay have protected little baylets in which the coral growth may consist largely of Gondopora, a thick- 494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 branched stony coral with huge, protruding polyps (pl. 10, fig. 1). We soon learned to expect trouble when we collected these secluded spots, for the unusually virulent nematocysts, or stinging capsules, of the Goniopora polyps were easily dislodged by the currents we pro- duced by swimming, and stung us so badly that we sometimes were obliged to leave the water. Much more troublesome than Goniopora, however, was an arbor- escent, colonial scyphistoma (called Stephanoscyphus) of the medusa Nausithoe, which also released its nematocysts into the water upon agitation by strong currents. The stings produced by this animal left angry red welts that itched for days afterward, and even caused swell- ing of adjacent lymphatic glands. It seemed probable to us that a dense growth of Stephanoscyphus could liberate enough nematocysts into the water to inflict serious stings upon unsuspecting swimmers. Fortunately, this coelenterate seems to be common only locally in Palau, where we found it in only two localities. In spite of seemingly ideal surroundings in most parts of Iwayama Bay, dead corals could be found at almost any location, suggesting that conditions are not always so favorable. A day or so of heavy rainfall will dump tons of fresh water not only into the bay but also upon the islands, from which it cascades down to the Bay, carrying with it great quantities of silt and forest debris. Salinity must be much reduced, especially near the surface, for many hours, if not days; the normal water temperature of about 85° F. may be lowered by 5° or more; suspended matter beclouds the water and the more delli- cate corals may be smothered. But, after a few clear days and several tidal cycles, the water clears and the survivors continue their struggle for existence. The northwest corner of the Bay, forming divisions M, N, and O, is bathed by good tidal flow, but silt from the nearby mangrove shore discourages coral growth and the reef has a sickly appearance that belies the large number of species that comprise it. One of the resurveyed transects crosses the reef-flat at the south end of island 15, and we studied it during several low tides. Here we collected dead coral heads with cylindrical black sponges growing on them, which we soon found were only the external portions of a boring sponge that had excavated great hollow caverns in the coral boulders. Some coral heads were thus reduced to hollow shells, and we have yet to learn what becomes of the sponge after it has completely “eaten itself out of house and home”—whether it then assumes a massive, free- living form as do some other boring sponges, or simply dies of expo- sure. Whatever its fate after the destruction of the rock in which it lives, it is certainly an active reef-destroying agent. At the same locality we found another rock-boring sponge that attacked not only PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 495 dead corals but also the limestone floor of the tide-level notches. This sponge is almost certain to prove to be one of the important bio- logical agents contributing to the formation of undercut shorelines. The swift tidal currents that breath life and variety into the reefs do not reach the upper part of division K in the northeast corner of Iwayama Bay, which is a quiet backwater. An abundant growth of coral is nevertheless present, but it lacks variety. Fingery masses of Porites and great, white, papery chalices of Montipora (pl. 11, fig. 2) flourish everywhere, but few others can be seen. Even the fishes are fewer in kind and smaller in size. Small dragonets (Cal- lionymidae) dart about in sandy patches or seek refuge among the coral branches. One of these dragonets (Synchiropus splendidus) is Figure 4.—The splendid dragonet, Synchiropus splendidus, slightly larger than natural size. probably the gaudiest fish we found during the summer—colored blue, green, and red in an intricate design of spots and bands (see fig. 4). A few species of damselfishes (Abudefduf) were abundant, each fish with its own territory of coral and water. Each individual vigorously defends its own particular home, bullying intruders with threatening advances, cheeks distended, clicking and grunting indignantly. Hovering over the branches of Porites we could always find little bronze and maroon cardinalfishes (Apogon nematopterus), ready to retire into their stony sanctuaries at the approach of our staring camera lenses (pl. 11, fig. 1). In the undercut shoreline of Koror nearby we found a small cave of the sort that permeates many of the limestone islands (pl. 6, fig. 1). 496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 It was too small to crawl into very far, but in its dark and narrow recesses we found some alcyonarian corals (Zelesto) hanging from the roof, completely exposed by the ebbing tide. Elsewhere there are larges caves, some at water level and large enough to admit a boat, others equally large but completely submerged. In most of the major limestone islands there are large caves that have collapsed, forming lakes connected with the sea by subterranean passages. These salt- water lakes contain large gobies, mussels, and sedentary jellyfish (Cassiopeia). One of our reconnaissance techniques was to cruise slowly along the coral slope in the Lenore, watching for changes in the appearance of the reefs to indicate interesting spots to be examined more closely. We followed the bay shore of Koror south from the little cave, around the so-called Arappu Peninsula (Ngalap), where the submarine cliff was almost devoid of corals and the only conspicuous organism was a large, sprawling, branched, pale pink sponge that looked white in 20 or 30 feet of blue water. Even the stiff snaky “wire corals” (Antipatharia) that usually thrive on the cliffs were missing. We could find no explanation for the absence of corals there, for the current flow is better than it is in many other places, the water clearer. After we passed through the narrow strait called Kaki-suid6 (Oyster Pass) in the Japanese reports (Palauan name Ngerikiuul), the situation changed, and we came upon one of the most interesting areas in Iwayama Bay, one that we visited and revisited, each time to find something new. Here the undercut was very deep and the foliage of the jungle-covered slopes above hung far down over the water, blocking the midday sunlight and producing an almost con- stant twilight. For only a few moments in the afternoon could a few rays of sunshine slip through before the shadow of island 29 across the pass crept up to throw the waters into increasing darkness. A yawning cavern gaped in the cliff wall, entirely under water, its roof festooned with huge, netlike antipatharians (“black corals”) hanging down like drapes. They were so flexible and so large that they could grow only in hanging position (pl. 18, fig. 2). When fresh, their polyps were brilliant orange in daylight, but they ap- peared almost white in the murky blue water of the cave. ANIMAL PARTNERSHIPS Only on this half-lit slope did we find the whip-corals, Junceella; they grew here like tall, waving grass reaching out toward the light, with their tips drooping like buggy whips. They form the hub of an interesting association that we will describe in detail in a future paper. The most unusual member of this association is a little transparent pink goby, a new species allied to the genus Cottogobius. It isa tiny PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 497 fish, not much more than an inch in length, that clings to the stalks of the whip-corals. They may be pursued up one side of the coral and down the other, but rarely will they move to another coral even though it is very near. Our ingenious Rikrik found that by sliding a coral stalk through his fist, he could catch its fish in a small net as it popped off the end. The water was often murky and the light always poor, but we did get a picture of Rikrik catching gobies in a field of junceellas (pl. 16, fig.1). Also clinging to the whip-corals were many handsome gray feather-stars, or stalkless crinoids (comatulids) , some of them grasping several corals at once (pl. 16, fig. 2). The cirri (the clawlike “feet”) of the crinoids irritated the surface of the corals and scarred it permanently wherever they had clung, indicating that these “free-living” crinoids move about little, if at all. One of the crinoid’s distant cousins, a bright orange brittle-star, lived entwined in the arms of the crinoid, and among them could also be found a spider crab, Harrovia, that had joined the partnership. Another crustacean, a small porcellanid crab, scuttled over the surface of the whip-corals, completing this curious association of vertebrates and invertebrates. Among the most studied of symbiotic relationships to be found on tropical reefs is that involving several species of large sea-anemones that allow certain kinds of small but colorful damselfishes (genera Amphiprion and Dascyllus) to seek protection among their tentacles. These clownfishes, as they are sometimes called, rarely stray far from their host anemone, and are ready to dart down among the stinging tentacles at the first hint of danger (pl. 14, fig. 2). In spite of years of study, the details of this association are still not clear (Gohar, 1948 ; Gudger, 1946). It is believed that the fishes avoid being stung by swimming in a distinctive fashion that is “recognized” by the coelen- terate. Clownfishes have been seen to drag food to the waiting ten- tacles of the anemones, but, on the other hand, we watched an Amphi- prion seize a tentacle of its host in its mouth and with a few quick tugs pull it loose and eat it. This finny ingrate expected, and received, sanctuary from the very anemone it had been nibbling upon, for it dashed headlong among the tentacles when we approached too closely. Some investigators have suggested that by eating bits of the anemone, Amphiprion builds up an immunity to nematocyst poison, but this suggestion has never been scientifically confirmed. It does seem fairly certain, however, that the clownfishes recognize their preferred species of host anemone partly by sight and partly by chemical emanations. There is also some indication that the anemones do not sting their partner fishes because of some kind of chemical “recognition.” Coelenterates and echinoderms seem often to play the host role in these partnerships, probably not because of any inherent good nature or native generosity, but because they are slow moving or sedentary 498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 and therefore an easy mark. One of our most startling discoveries of the summer was a fish that lives with anechinoderm. This, of itself, is not unusual, for the eel-like pearlfishes (Carapus, Fierasfer, and Jordanicus) have long been known to inhabit the cloaca of holo- thurians (sea-cucumbers) and the body cavity of Culcita (the cushion starfish). But our fish was a previously unknown species of clingfish (Gobiesocidae) and the echinoderm host was a feather-star (Coman- thus), a completely unexpected combination. The clingfish was black with a bright yellow stripe down each side, perfectly camouflaged among the arms of its host. It was on August 7 that we discovered it, as we were returning from a 2-day trip to Ngemelis. We had stopped in Meharehar, the labyrin- thine lagoon of Eil Malk, to look for future collecting sites and to ob- tain some samples of the lagoon bottom sediments. It was a stormy day with heavy downpours that had hampered our observations and dampened the spirits of everyone aboard the Lenore. We had taken the bottom samples in the rain, and were heading for home by way of the inside route west of Urukthapel when we found ourselves over some coral flats near Ankosu Point, the southernmost cape of Urukthapel. Not wishing to pass up any likely localities, we dropped anchor and went over the side to look around. The water was about 6 feet deep and the bottom was covered with a tangle of staghorn coral (Acropora), most of it lying loose upon the sandy bottom. A few knolls of massive coral could be seen, with chalice-shaped acroporas and sea-fans (Melithaea) growing on them. Here and there, hidden among the corals, we found a many-rayed spiny starfish (Acanthaster planci), which is a real danger to bare feet (even those tough enough to disregard the jagged coral). It is widely feared by the natives of Micronesia, and with ample justification. A friend of ours was vir- tually incapacitated for a week or more by wounds inflicted by this animal, and he was not fully recovered for a month or more. Between the coral branches everywhere, and on the coral knolls, the restless, fernlike arms of feather-stars swayed with the rising tide. Because we knew that crinoids are ever-gracious hosts to a va- riety of invertebrates, we collected some of them to find their lodgers. There are usually two kinds of shrimp, a galatheid (or “squat-lob- ster”), and a polychaete worm, all protectively colored to match their host—usually black and greenish yellow in this locality. The first feather-star that Adair Fehlmann collected had some black-and- yellow striped shrimps among its arms. Safely inside a glass vial, they gave us a real surprise. They were not shrimps at all, but fishes—and clingfishes at that—the only ones we would find all sum- mer. A careful search disclosed a number of additional specimens before the current became so swift that we could work no longer. We PALAU-——BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 499 continued our homeward trip with one of the prize catches of the expedition—some tiny black-and-yellow fishes little more than an inch in length. In practically any protected sandy area of the lagoon we could ex- pect to find the unusual partnership of shrimps and fishes that we first observed at Ifaluk Atoll in 1953. We were delighted to find this association at Palau in such shallow water and in such abundance that we could observe it closely and collect the animals in numbers. At Palau, two kinds of alpheid shrimps and at least four kinds of gobies live together with identical habits. Each pair of shrimps excavates its own burrow and then plays host to a pair of fishes. The fishes sit Just outside the mouth of the shrimp burrow (pl. 14, fig. 1) while the shrimps repair and deepen it, bringing load after load of sand to the surface on their large claws, bulldozer-fashion. But should any danger threaten, the gobies dart down the hole in a trice, tumbling the shrimps over in their haste. From this activity the shrimps detect that something is amiss and cease digging until the gobies regain their composure and their usual position on the front doorstep. Whether this inadvertent warning is the only benefit derived by the shrimps from the association we are unable to say at present. It seems probable that the gobies obtain, in addition to shelter, an occasional banquet at the expense of their hosts, since one of the specimens collected was stuffed with larval crustaceans—probably the young of the shrimps whose home it had shared. There is still much to be learned about these and various other rarely observed biological associations, and it will take patient observation, study, and experimentation in the field before we know the exact nature of the relationship between the partners and how it may have developed. THE OUTER REEFS The outer reefs have an entirely different appearance from the lagoon reefs of Iwayama Bay and the staghorn coral thickets of the shallow passes. On the west side of the archipelago the reefs are barriers, but on the east they are fringing reefs that follow the land closely, with an offshore barrier in only a few places. Whether barrier or fringing reefs, they are bathed with the always clean water of the open sea and pounded by its sometimes thunderous surf. Different and stronger corals live in these exposed situations, and a whole new population of fishes swims among their branches. The surgeonfishes, butterflyfishes, and wrasses that live here are for the most part peculiar to this zone of churning, turbulent water. Few species of the quiet lagoon waters are hardy enough to adapt to this rigorous environment. Sharks and barracudas in particular prefer this region, 500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 constantly patrolling it for food. Certain surgeonfishes also are char- acteristic of the surf zone, among them Acanthurus lineatus, a yellow and neon-blue striped fish that loves turbulent, surging water. Their relatives, the fan-finned zebrasomas, hide under the spreading table corals. Huge parrotfishes, six or more feet in length, graze like cattle upon the corals, producing a noisy chorus as they crunch their limy meals in large, gregarious schools. Moray eels (@ymnothoraz) lie in wait in their holes, their malicious eyes alert for any unwary fish that may pass within striking distance. The butterflyfishes (Chaetodon), so named because of their brilliant coloration, are especially numerous and are endowed with an insatiable curiosity. They seem unafraid of divers and will approach very close in order to get a good look. On many occasions they have startled us by a quick nip or a tug on some especially attractive hair. This has an electrifying effect upon swimmers already fearful of a surprise attack by prowling sharks, and the sheepish feeling combined with relief upon seeing these small challengers, is more amusing now than it was on the reef. The spiny lobsters (Panulirus) that lurk in crevices of the outer reef are different species from those found in the lagoon. So are the coral crabs (Zrapezia) among the massive branches of pocilloporas, veri- table giants by comparison with their relatives in more protected waters. Any specimens taken from the surf zone are collected only through great exertion, for it is one of the most difficult habitats to sample. Swift currents rapidly dissipate the rotenone and sweep away the speci- mens killed by it. The collector himself may be picked up by the swell and dropped 15 or 20 feet away, as likely as not on a jagged coral. When explosives are used instead of rotenone, all the nearby sharks materialize as if from nowhere, considering its sound a dinner bell inviting them to a free meal. Needless to say, we used this explo- sive technique infrequently, so as to avoid becoming the piéce de résistance of some shark’s luncheon. Near the reef passes and in the deeper waters offshore the corals flourish in stony gardens of eerie and awesome beauty. Some species of Acropora produce towering spires and antlers (pl. 7, fig. 1) that bring to mind the reefs made by the same genus of corals in the West Indies, and others form great, spreading disks and platforms com- posed of tiny branchlets, a growth form peculiar to the Indo-Pacific area (pl. 18). The sea gardens of swaying alcyonarians (sea-fans and sea-whips) that give the West Indian reefs their color and fluid beauty are nowhere to be seen, for the aleyonarians here are nearly all massive, rubbery kinds (pl. 13, fig. 2) that have not the elegance of their Caribbean relatives. The few species of sea-fans that do occur PALAU—-BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN 501 are more abundant along deep channels or in the protected lagoons than on the seaward reefs. EEL-GRASS ENVIRONMENT A conspicuous feature of the Palau lagoon is the great extent of sandy bottom covered with eel-grass (#’nhalus acoroides and some re- lated species). It is a distinctive and complex habitat. The most ex- pansive eel-grass beds lie near Peleliu, to the south of Koror, al- though the west coast of Babelthuap also has some fine ones. We made two trips to Peleliu to survey the grass beds there, but on both oceasions we found poor conditions due to the stage of the tide. The water was so murky and full of plant debris that collecting was un- pleasant and photography impossible. Among the anima] inhabitants, fishes are particularly abundant and thrive in the eel-grass environment. Sharks, jacks, barracudas, and other predaceous fishes constantly search the eel-grass beds for prey. Food is not easy to find here, even in the midst of plenty, for the eel- grass forms the home of many highly specialized fishes that blend with their background in both form and color. Some of them, such as the pipefishes (Syngnathidae) and certain wrasses (Cheilio), are elongate in outline and green in color, so perfectly camouflaged that sharp eyes are needed to separate them from the grass in which they live. Others, such as the parrotfish (Scarichthys), spinefish (Siganus), and some snappers (Lethrinus), are not shaped like the grass blades but are so much like it in color that they are virtually invisible. The filefishes (Monacanthus) , blennies (Petroscirtes),and dragonets (Callionymus) goastep farther in having their bodies covered with waving filaments and hairlike growths that resemble the hydroids and other epiphytes covering the eel-grass blades. The Palauan boys pointed out some peculiar little black-and-yellow fishes that were swimming about a water-logged branch half buried in the sand and hidden by grass and warned us that they were very dangerous. When we insisted upon catching them, Sumang Y. and Rikrik must have regretted pointing them out to us. The fish were small catfish (Plotosus anguillaris) with barbed pectoral and dorsal spines that are venomous and can inflict a nasty wound. They were swimming in a curious manner, very close together and wiggling vigor- ously, in a compact school that moved slowly forward like a dark cloud. It was simple to frighten them into the range of a large dip- net, and each fish captured caused our sturdy Palauans to wince in anticipation of the painful punctures to come when we pulled them out of the nets, and later, when we placed them in containers of for- malin. A month or so later, when we were in Japan to consult with biologists who had worked in Palau before the war, we encountered this 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 same fish in southern Honshu. It was living in a completely different ecological situation, in rocky tide pools near the Seto Marine Biologi- cal Station at Shirahama. One of the major eel-grass inhabitants is a mammal, the little-known dugong, or sea-cow (Dugong dugon). During our stay in Palau we were always especially watchful while passing over eel-grass areas, in the hope of seeing some dugongs, but as they are quite scarce we never did see one in its natural habitat. During our last few days at Koror, however, some Palauans speared and captured alive a half- grown specimen that provided us with considerable excitement and be- came the first ever to be exhibited alive in an American aquarium. We bought this dugong, otherwise destined for sale as food in the local market, and kept it alive in a large pool at the end of Koror dock until we were ready to begin our return trip to the United States. Then we caught it, wrapped it in wet blankets (pl. 20, fig. 1), and carried it, lying on the floor of the plane between our seats, to Guam (pl. 20, fig. 2). At Guam it was ensconced in a sturdy crate and transferred to a commercial airline for shipment to California. The California Academy of Sciences had arranged for its transportation to the Steinhart Aquarium, where it proved to be an unusually popular exhibit. It was certainly the first Palauan dugong ever to fly to America, and we have no doubt provided some material] for the “talk- ing picture” carvings that decorate Palauan abais. HERPETOLOGICAL STUDIES Another Palauan animal that never before had been displayed alive in an American zoo or aquarium, and which we succeeded in bring- ing back to the United States, is the deadly poisonous sea snake (Laticauda colubrina), a relative of the cobras and coral snakes. Our first encounter with the banded sea snake in the wild was on a field trip to Ngemelis, a group of islands along the southwest barrier reef. We were making our way toward the beach just before dusk when, a hundred yards or so from shore, we came upon a huge snake, a good 6 feet in length, slowly working its way seaward along the bottom, poking its head into nooks and crannies and in and out of corals, carefully feeling with its tongue. It paid no attention to us, and we stood or swam near it for several minutes, in water perhaps 5 feet deep. At no time did we see it surface for air, and as we con- tinued on our way it was still swimming seaward along the bottom. The Palauans have an odd story about using sea snakes to catch fish. They say that if one holds the snake by the tail, it will probe among the rocks and catch fish, which can then be easily seized. We never saw this method of fishing practiced. Probably no modern Palauans are courageous enough to try it, for our helpers invariably let out SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PEATE. iit sn ee =e UT : bs a . 1. Graceful, spotted cardinalfishes (4pogon nematopterus) hover over the branches of a Porites colony that is their refuge in times of danger. This little fish, with its red spots on a bronzy ground color, and a dark-brown cummerbund, is one of the loveliest denizens of protected reefs. 2. Huge, fragile chalices of Montipora foliosa dominate the reef slope in the innermost part of K Division of Iwayama Bay. They form an uncertain retreat for fishes like the small damselfish (Pomacentrus) swimming above them. SMITHSONIAN REPORT. 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 12 ct ee r Mec et reat eM *” gta oe Ta y “ae Dh che RS Oe ; 1. The beautiful falls of Matal Eigad on the Ateshi River, in Ngardmau Municipality of Babelthuap. Note figure at foot of falls. The only fishes collected above the falls were eels, which can travel overland around obstacles insurmountable to other fishes. (Photo- graphed by H. A. Fehlmann.) bi = E : ki £ uebe — Vier i a Bs oi " 2. H. Adair Fehlmann and Rikrik collecting in a small stream on Arekalong Peninsula of northern Babelthuap. Such a locality yields many gobies, and prawns of the genus Macrobrachium. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 13 1. Great, circular plates of acroporas grow one above the other like modernistic buildir in this scene along a reef channel south of Ngaremediu. SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN PLATE 14 1. At left, a pair of speckled gobies sit outside the burrow made by the dark-banded snapping shrimps. At right, the banded gobies are living with a pale, fine-striped shrimp that is almost invisible against the sand. 2. At left, a clownfish (Amphiprion) pauses above its host anemone. At right, a clownfish can be seen hiding among the tentacles of the anemone, which do not sting it. PLATE 15 SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—BAYER AND HARRY-ROFEN “A|IpRol Pp 2Injdes aq snyy APU pue ‘vas oud woly{ peAaowoal SI au fl UIAD [BIOS ayy ul ulelulod soysy IU ISAO SIOAOY (Snuvnio SnJKISBC) SOYSY[Istuep pepueq Jo *ponsind uoyM }PO1O1 Aoyy Yorum OjUl *S[B109 peyouerlg jooyys V - c SuOUIe [Jom o1e Ajaqeys IO SddTADID s}ynous YIM WIMS ul uopply BuO] IY, (5 UIIS IUD: ) Ss "[B.109 JO soysueiq Ajdoap poof Burulezgo 10F poidepe ayouvig [v10. dy} Bsuowe sdueZa]9 SNIIUDT ) S[Opl-yst1oour fo lied V ay *plouULID oY} JO sue ay} SuOUIe dAT| sivjs-afiqiiq pue ‘sdutiys ‘sqeio puev ‘s[eioo-diym ay} 0} s3ullo ‘poq vyaaaunf[ ayy Jo souvivadde SjsliojaeieYyS sMmOYs ‘Joa} QZ JO Aqos jo solsods Aun V “(supsoaf p7]299Un [) sy[eis ]eroo-diym yidop ev ie uayei ‘ydeisojoyd styy, ‘sseg JoiskQ jo odojs [e105 OmMy Suidsei3 ‘(pljnqeuod) ploulio payjeisun 10 “1vqs-1oyIws} YW °Z ay} uo sdiyMm-vas JO poq v Ul ,Salqos-e]|/a90uN(,, SUTYIIVD YUAN “| PLATE 16 ‘ Z Wl Le 0 a > x iN < aE, Q Za < ig Wl > . ere - athe “eae B. House 6, one of the more recent houses at Walrus Island. The house, constructed of granite slabs and boulders, was cloverleaf in shape. ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARCTIC CANADA—COLLINS 519 lar side blades with shallow flaking on one or both surfaces (pl. 8, q, r) ; spalls struck from the lateral edges of prepared cores or of chipped blades (pl. 9, 7-2); and knives made from microblades and heavier flakes, having one edge sharp for cutting and the opposite edge thick, like the back of a penknife, to serve as a rest for the finger (pl. 9, m-v). The first two are types that occur at Mesolithic and early Neolithic sites in Mongolia and Siberia (Maringer, 1950, pl. 30, figs. 1, 4, 5; pl. 95, figs. 7,8; Okladnikov, 1950, fig. 62). The third type is one that was similar in function, though not in method of manufacture, to the “backed” blades so characteristic of the Old World Mesolithic. Plate 8, A, is an unusual flake blade, the under or bulbar surface of which is carefully retouched along the base, lower right edge and upper end, while the outer surface, illustrated, is unmodified. In form and tech- nique this blade is closely similar to some of those from Mesolithic sites (Khina period) in the region of Lake Baikal and the Angara River (Okladnikov, 1950, figs. 16,17). There was still another reason for believing that the T 1 material may have had Mesolithic affinities and that it represented an early or formative stage of Dorset culture. Microblades—narrow rectangular or pointed fiakes struck from prepared cores (pl. 9, a—e)—and deli- cate spall implements (pl. 9,2) were present in large numbers at T 1, and several burins (pl. 8, 2) were also found. Burins, spalls, and microblades are among the implements most characteristic of the Denbigh Flint Complex recently discovered by Dr. J. L. Giddings on the Bering Sea coast of Alaska (Giddings, 1951). The Denbigh culture is at least 4,000 years old and probably older, and it has strong connections with the Old World Mesolithic. Though older than any known stage of Eskimo culture, there are strong indications that the Denbigh Complex was one of the sources from which the Dorset cul- ture was derived (Collins, 1951, 1953; Harp, 1953). More conclusive evidence of the age of T 1 finally came from radio- carbon analysis, the newly developed technique which makes it pos- sible to date organic materials by measuring the amount of carbon 14 which they contain. Pieces of charred mammal bones from one of the test cuts were submitted to the University of Pennsylvania Car- bon-14 Laboratory and were found to be 2,060+2380 years old. This may be taken as a minimum date, for grass roots had penetrated even the deepest parts of the T 1 middens, and thus could have contributed an unknown amount of more recent carbon to the bone fragments. The T 1 finds are also of interest in connection with a larger prob- lem, that of the origin and relationships of Eskimo culture as a whole. Close resemblances have previously been observed between the tools and techniques of the earliest Eskimos and those of the early Neolithic and Mesolithic peoples of Eurasia, particularly in the region of Lake 4125755784 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Baikal and northern Europe. On the basis of these resemblances the present writer has suggested that Eskimo culture was of Old World origin, its earliest roots stemming from the Mesolithic cultures of Eurasia (Collins, 1948, 1951). The T 1 artifacts, which include addi- tional types resembling those of the Mesolithic, as well as those of the Denbigh Flint Complex, would seem to lend weight to the hypothesis. In drawing this conclusion it is recognized of course that the T 1 site is thousands of years later than the Old World Mesolithic. It is equally true, on the other hand, that established culture patterns may persist over long periods of time. The Dorset people, in the isolation of the Arctic, may have perpetuated Mesolithic techniques and tradi- tions that had long since faded away in the Old World. The early Dorset Eskimos who lived at the T 1 site were a hunting people, like all Eskimos, and sea mammals were their principal source of food. The village they occupied 2,000 years ago is now half a mile back from the shore, an inconvenient location for people who were dependent on the sea for their livelihood. However, when the site was occupied geographical conditions in the Hudson Bay region were con- siderably different from those of today. Asa consequence of the post- glacial marine submergence the sea level stood higher in relation to the land, so that the T 1 plateau was much nearer the sea than at present. Though we uncovered a number of hearths where the people had done their cooking, we could find no traces of dwellings of any kind. They might possibly have lived in snow houses, which would have left no trace, but this seems unlikely as we found no snow knives which Eskimos always use in constructing these winter dwellings; moreover, the large number of bird bones in the refuse suggested that the site had been occupied in summer as well as winter. If the climate 2,000 years ago was milder than at present, for which there is some geologi- cal evidence, the people could have lived there the year around in light skin-covered tents. Whatever the climate may have been, we can be sure that the early Dorset people wore tailored skin clothing, for bone needles, which could only have been used for sewing skins, were ex- ceedingly common in the midden deposits. The skins used were prob- ably those of seals and birds or, less likely, foxes. In order to learn as much as possible of their food habits we kept every animal bone that was excavated. These were counted and when- ever possible identified as to species. The majority of the mammal bones, such as ribs, vertebrae, and foot bones, were too difficult to iden- tify in the field, but the skulls, jaws, and body bones such as scapulae, pelves, and limb bones presented no great difficulty. In 1954 over 25,000 mammal bones were excavated at T 1, of which over 3,000 were identified, and almost as many were obtained from the excavations at the Sadlermiut site (pl. 12, A). ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARCTIC CANADA—COLLINS 521 TaBLE 1.—Distribution of identifiable mammal bones excavated at T 1 and Sad- lermiut sites Mio! Sadlermiut Number Percent Number Percent Sea liestene of aes Ao ee ld, 2, 035 66. 5 1, 840 65. 2 VADs Dre Pe 379 12. 4 149 5, 3 IBeCaTrOeCdiseale o. 0 eee ee 299 9. 7 204 dee TeNO Saeed NI a 2 a aE aa 315 10. 3 75 PA) Canibus oO a ee ee 25 .8 332 Mab ts) Ola Casey wetland Dorie. dul 4 a 38 Me) ID Opi. abe RS BRE ee eee 0 a) 180 6. 4 Vilas meee en ay ys ke 0 0 6 APs cRopals se ET SU Pee 3) OF 99. 8 2, 824 100. 1 Comparison of the two series reveals some interesting differences in the hunting practices and food habits of these two groups of Eski- mos who had occupied the same locality at different times in the past. The seal was the principal food animal of both groups, represented by 66 and 65 percent of the bones. Next in importance were the walrus and bearded seal. Fox bones were much more numerous at the Dorset site and polar bear bones were relatively rare at both sites. One somewhat surprising result of the bone count was evidence that the Dorset people made very little use of the caribou, which was one of the most important sources of food of the later Sadlermiuts. More striking still was the fact that not a single dog bone was found at T 1, though they numbered over 6 percent at the Sadlermiut site. The absence of dog bones may explain the paucity of caribou bones at T 1. Since they had no dog sleds and therefore no effective means of winter travel, the early Dorset people would have been unable to go on long hunting trips to the eastern side of the island where the caribou mostly lived. Birds were also an important element in the diet of the Dorset and Sadlermiut people if we may judge from the thousands of bones exca- vated and brought back to the Smithsonian for identification. In the eastern part of the Dorset site about 90 percent of the bones were those of birds. It is probable that this part of the site was occupied only during the summer months when enormous flocks of migratory birds come north to breed. There are no indications as to how the birds were captured. We found no bolas weights or bird spears such as other Eskimos, including the Sadlermiut, used for this purpose. The early Dorset people may have caught their birds with snares made from perishable materials such as skin thongs or sinew, which would not have been preserved. 022 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Identification of the bird bones from T 1 will provide at least a par- tial inventory of the kinds of birds that migrated to this area 2,000 years ago, for comparison with those now found there. The low-lying area around Native Point, with its network of ponds and lagoons, fairly swarms with bird life during the summer. The principal species that we observed nesting were king eider and Old Squaw ducks, gulls, terns, various kinds of waders, snow buntings, and Lapland longspurs. Flocks of Canada, snow, and blue geese were constantly passing by. Loons, singly or in small groups, seemed to maintain regular flight schedules over our camp, filling the air with their strident cacophony as they shuttled at high speed from one pond or lagoon to another. From two to seven beautiful white swans were usually visible on the surface of the large pond, which we called Swan Lake, a few hundred yards from our tents. Longspurs and snow buntings nested all around the camp area, seeking the protection of grassy tussocks and of fallen rocks and crevices in the old house ruins. The snow buntings showed a special predilection for old tin cans and human and animal skulls lying on the surface around the Sadlermiut site. Under a permit from the Canadian Wildlife Service we collected a small number of migratory birds, mainly jaegers, gulls, ducks, geese, and loons, as well as lemmings which were particularly abundant in 1954 and 1955. As the avifauna of Southampton Island is fairly well known, our purpose was not to collect bird skins for museum specimens but for the ectoparasites—lice and mites—which they might contain. Each species of bird and mammal has its own species of insect para- sites, and Col. Robert Traub of the Walter Reed Medical Center was interested in obtaining these for study in connection with his investi- gation of the role of such parasites in the transmission of typhus and other diseases. One of my most tedious afterdinner chores was the “louse hunt,” in which I would painstakingly examine birds and lem- mings in search of the elusive quarry. The jaegers, rapacious gulls with hawks’ habits that prey on smaller birds, were heavily infested with mites, and several hundred could easily be scraped from a single wing feather and dropped into a vial of aleohol. Examination of the other birds and lemmings required constant use of the magnifying lens and was a much greater strain on one’s eyesight and patience. Often the most prolonged fluffing of fur and feathers would produce no more than one or two lice or mites. Our other afterhours activities involved the collecting of plants, fossils, fresh-water invertebrates, moths, butterflies, beetles, and other insects. The most abundant, and unwelcome, form of insect life was mosquitoes. July was “mosquito month” and life would have been miserable indeed if we had had no protection against them. Fortu- ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARCTIC CANADA—COLLINS 523 nately, however, Dr. S. A. Hall of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture had provided us with mosquito repellents that worked like magic. With faces and hands covered with liquid repellent, we were able to dig in relative comfort even on warm, calm days, despite the frustrated buzzing of the clouds of mosquitoes that surrounded us. We were fortunate, too, in the weather we had. Though many days were cold and windy and we had to wear our heaviest clothing, there were many other fine clear days when we could enjoy the warm sun and wish that there were more hours for digging, for exploring the surrounding country, and doing the other things we wanted to do. The average temperature was in the low 40’s, sometimes dipping down to freezing at night and then rising to 60° or more at midday. On July 17 Sandy Santiana and three other Eskimos from Coral Harbour—Napayuk, Okerluk, and Kolugjak—arrived in the Peter- head boat, Vayavak (Little Gull). They had come to deliver the rest of our food supplies and take us on an exploring trip to Coats Island. This island, though the second largest in Hudson Bay, is still relatively little known. Few scientists have been there, and the geology, botany, and animal life have not been studied. I planned to collect plants, fossils, and insects, and was especially anxious to obtain lemmings, which might be of a different species from those on Southampton. My lemming traps, however, proved useless, for as I learned from Sandy and later saw for myseif, this little rodent, so typical of most Arctic areas, does not live on Coats Island. Another typical Arctic mammal missing there is the hare. Our principal purpose was to look for Eskimo ruins, as the arche- ology of the island was also unknown. Some of the material utilized by Dr. Diamond Jenness when he first described the Dorset culture was reported to have been excavated by Eskimos on Coats Island. It would appear, therefore, that Dorset sites existed somewhere on the island. We also wished to locate Sadlermiut sites. The Eskimos whom Capt. Lyon found at the southwest end of the island in 1824 were in all probability Sadlermiuts, but so far as known this was the first and last time that anyone had seen living Eskimos on Coats Island, except, of course, the few Okomiuts who were brought there by the Hudson’s Bay Company almost a hundred years later. The native inhabitants of Coats Island had simply disappeared from history. They may have died out or moved away soon after Lyon’s time, or some of them may have continued to live there, isolated from other Eskimos, for some years later. From the ruins that we might find on the north side of the island we hoped to determine whether the Coats Island Eskimos were, in fact, Sadlermiut, and if so whether they differed in any way from the main body of the tribe that had lived on Southampton. 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The Vayavak was a trim little vessel, 40 feet long and powered by a gasoline motor. Our quarters were in the tiny cabin in the bow, which was large enough for three men but rather crowded for four (pl. 12, B). About an hour out of Native Point we encountered dense fog and heavy fields of ice. With visibility of 100 yards or less we slowed down to half speed, about 5 miles an hour. Sandy was now forced to follow a zig-zag course, steering with his foot as he stood up in the little wheelhouse peering ahead in search for safe openings among the ice floes. By midnight we were out of the ice but the fog con- tinued until we finally anchored at 2a.m. When the fog lifted later in the morning we found we were about 2 miles offshore from Coats Island, about midway of the north coast. The Nayavak then headed eastward and a few hours later was approaching the north end of little Bencas Island when we saw four old house ruins on the opposite Coats Island shore. We moved in closer and went ashore in the canoe to investigate the ruins, pre- pared to stay all day. The houses were not the only evidence of human activity at this abandoned settlement. Between the houses and the beach we found an array of stone structures—caches, cairns, and a number of others difficult to identify as to function. The most impressive of these stone structures were two well-preserved cairns of a peculiar “mushroom” shape (pl. 13, A), a type which had been reported previously only from Sadlermiut sites on Southampton Island. This suggested at once that the site was Sadlermiut. We lost no time in getting to work. Emerson and Taylor began excavating in House 3, the largest of the group, their first task being to remove the heavy fill of sod that had accumulated in the sunken interior. Ostroff photographed the houses and other structures and then began to excavate in House 4, the westernmost of the group. I began collecting samples of the grasses, mosses, and flowering plants that grew around the site, and made notes, measurements, and sketches of the houses and other stone features. I also made a careful but futile search of the surrounding area for traces of Dorset occupation. House 3 was a 8-room structure, built somewhat in the shape of a cloverleaf (pl. 18, B). It had an over-all width of 22 feet and measured 15 feet from entrance to rear wall. It had a carefully con- structed floor of stone slabs and four sleeping platforms, also made of stones, rising about a foot and a half above the floor. The roof, still partly intact, consisted of large flat slabs resting on stone up- rights. The walls were made of stones piled one above the other. Blocks of sod were banked up along the outside of the walls and over the roof. The house was entered by means of a narrow passageway 10 feet long and 30 inches wide, at the outer end of which was a small ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARCTIC CANADA—COLLINS 525 stone anteroom. The other houses varied somewhat in size and shape, but had been constructed in the same manner. By 8 p. m., when we went back to the Vayavak for the night, we had accumulated a rich store of artifacts, most of them from House 3. These included harpoon heads of bone and ivory, some equipped with stone and some with iron blades; ivory knife handles also with stone and iron blades; harpoon foreshafts and socket pieces, bone arrow- heads, bolas weights for catching birds, lumps of iron pyrites for making fire, lamps made of limestone slabs cemented together, iron- bitted drills with nicely carved ivory handles, harness toggles, whet- stones, ivory combs, and dish bottons made of whalebone. These artifacts were all typically Sadlermiut in form, as were the houses themselves and the curious mushroom-shaped stone cairns. The well- preserved houses, some with roofs partly intact, could not have been abandoned for many decades, and the presence of considerable quan- tities of iron was a clear indication of white contact, probably with the whalers. We had evidence, therefore, that Sadlermiut Eskimos had lived here on the north coast of Coats Island, probably within the past 50 years, though there had been no record of their existence. The next day we examined two house ruins on the north end of Bencas Island. They, too, appeared quite recent but much less promis- ing than those on Coats, so we returned and spent the rest of the day completing the excavations we had begun there, after which we started back to Native Point. The warm, calm weather that had favored us throughout the trip continued on this last day and the Peterhead glided along over a glassy sea, surrounded by floating masses of ice that shone like blue erystal in the brilliant sunlight. We followed a course to the east and north of Coats and Bencas Islands, where ice conditions were favorable for hunting walrus and the big bearded seal, or ugchuk, which the Eskimos prize for its tough skin as well as its meat. One walrus and three ugchuk were shot by the Eskimos and their meat and hides stowed away in the hold. After the Coats Island trip we resumed our work at Native Point, remaining for another month until the Peterhead AXpa (Guillemot), under command of Pamiulik, came to take us back to Coral Harbour. We had realized soon after beginning work at Native Point in June that another season’s work would be necessary at this remarkably rich and important old site. Accordingly we returned early in June of 1955, supported in part by a research grant from the American Philosophical Society. The party consisted of Bill Taylor, Norman Emerson, Jim Wright, and myself. As in the previous year we went from Carol Harbour to Native Point by dog team, making the trip in two days instead of one, a more comfortable arrangement that al- 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 lowed us to camp overnight at Prairie Point and examine an old Sadlermiut village site of 15 stone and sod house ruins. At Native Point we had another busy and productive summer. Ad- ditional excavations were made at the Sadlermiut site, at the early or proto-Dorset site, T 1, the later Dorset site, T 2, and at a third site, T 3, which appeared to be slightly younger than T1. A large body of material was excavated which strengthened and rounded out the archeological picture obtained the previous year. We planned to make another reconnaissance trip to Coats Island, this time toward the southwest end, and on July 20 we set out in the Nayavak for that purpose. As it was not much out of the way we decided to stop briefly at Walrus Island where there were several old house ruins we wanted to examine. Walrus Island is a small granite islet 25 miles off the south coast of Southampton. The six house ruins lay in a valley extending east and west across the south end of the island. The three oldest-looking houses (Nos. 1, 8, and 5) consisted of a single room round to oval in shape (pl. 14, A). Another (No. 4), more recent in appearance, had two oval-rectangular rooms. The two remaining houses (Nos. 2 and 6), also recent looking, were cloverleaf in shape, with three rooms (pl. 14, B). The house walls had been made of massive blocks of granite piled one above the other. Most of the houses were deep and all had entrance passages from 5 to 10 feet in length. In some cases natural rock ledges and huge boulders én situ had been incorporated into the house structure to serve as parts of floors, walls, or sleeping platforms. House No. 6, the best preserved of the group, had upright stone pillars—roof supports—still in place, and fallen slabs indicated that the roof itself had been made of stones as in the case of the Sadlermiut houses on Southampton and Coats Islands. The absence of roofing slabs and supports in the other houses suggested that the roofs had been made of skins. When we began to excavate we had naturally assumed that these well-preserved house ruins were of Sadlermiut origin. They were similar in general structure and two of them, Nos. 2 and 6, had the cloverleaf shape characteristic of many Sadlermiut houses. More- over, some of these Walrus Island houses had been partially exca- vated in 1936 by the British Canadian-Arctic Expedition (Manning, 1942) and found to contain material described as resembling Sadler- miut, with only a few Dorset artifacts which might easily have been explained as relics. We had not been digging long, however, before we began to suspect that the houses were Dorset rather than Sadler- miut. With this unexpected development, we stayed at Walrus Island for five days instead of going on to Coats Island as originally planned. Our excavations in and around five of the houses produced over 100 ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN ARCTIC CANADA—COLLINS 527 typical Dorset artifacts, mostly stone, and large numbers of stone flakes with retouched edges such as had been found at T 1, and which were also probably Dorset. In contrast we found only three artifacts that were unquestionably Sadlermiut and seven others that were non- Dorset and therefore probably Sadlermiut. Eight of the non-Dorset artifacts came from House 2, the recent-looking house that was irreg- ularly cloverleaf in shape; however, the bulk of the material from this house, found on and between the floor stones, was Dorset. The other two non-Dorset objects were found in House 4, together with several Dorset pieces, also from the floor area. The three oldest-look- ing houses (Nos. 1, 8, and 5) yielded only Dorset material, though little digging was done in the last two. No work was done in House 6 and no artifacts were found in or around it; this well-preserved cloverleaf-shaped house, typically Sadlermiut in form, may well have been built by the Sadlermiuts. The few Sadlermiut artifacts that we found in Houses 2 and 4 and the apparently larger amount of such material reported by the British Canadian-Arctic Expedition indicate that some of the Walrus Island houses had been occupied by Sadlermiut Eskimos, probably around the beginning of the present century. Such an occupation, however, would have been secondary, for our excavations, which revealed Dorset material in the floor areas of Houses 2 and 4, as well as in Houses 1, 3, and 5, showed that the Dorset people were the original occupants of these houses. If the Dorsets had lived in the houses originally they also in all prob- ability had built them. The Walrus Island ruins thus provide the first adequate information on Dorset house types. One of the houses that contained Dorset material, No. 2, was of the cloverleaf shape char- acteristic of many Sadlermiut houses. This suggests that the Sadler- miut may have derived their principal house type, like other features of their culture, from the Dorset. It lends weight to the supposition that the Sadlermiut were culturally, perhaps even physically, de- scended from the mysterious Dorset people, who now appear to have represented the basic, dominant Eskimo population in the eastern part of the Canadian Arctic. The Walrus Island finds thus rounded out the cultural reconstruction previously established at Native Point. There, at the proto-Dorset site T 1 and at the somewhat later site T 3, we had been able to trace the earlier history of the Dorset Eskimos and obtain an insight into Dorset culture in the process of formation. The excavations at these early sites, plus those at the later, classic Dorset site T 2 and the Sadlermiut site, had thus brought to view a picture of cultural development and continuity over a period of 2,000 years. 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 REFERENCES Birp, J. BRIAN. 1953. Southampton Island. Canada Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Geographical Branch, Mem.1. Ottawa. Boas, FRANZ. 1901-7. The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 15. CoLiLins, HENRY B. 1948. Eskimo archaeology and its bearing on the problem of man’s antiquity in America. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 86, pp. 220-235. 1950. Excavations at Frobisher Bay, Bafiin Island, Northwest Territories. Ann. Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1948-49, pp. 18-43. 1951. The origin and antiquity of the Eskimo. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1950, pp. 423-467. 1953. Recent developments in the Dorset culture area. Mem. Soc. Amer. Archaeol., No. 9, pp. 32-39. 1956. The T 1 site at Native Point, Southampton Island, N. W. T. Anthrop. Pap. Univ. Alaska, vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 68-89. Comer, G. 1910. A geographical description of Southampton Island and notes upon the Eskimo. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 42, pp. 84-90. Frerauson, R. (Ed. L. D. Stair.) 1938. Arctic harpooner. Philadelphia. GippiInes, J. L., JR. 1951. The Denbigh Flint Complex. Amer. Antiq., vol. 16, pp. 193-203. Harp, ELMER. 1953. New World affinities of Cape Dorset culture. Anthrop. Pap. Univ. Alaska, vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 87-54. HOLtvED, ERIK. 1944. Archaeological investigations in the Thule district. Medd. Grgnland, vol. 141, No. 2. Copenhagen. JENNESS, DIAMOND. 1925. A new Eskimo culture in Hudson Bay. Geogr. Rey., vol. 15, pp. 428-437. Lyon, G. F. 1825. A brief narrative of an unsuccessful attempt to reach Repulse Bay. London. MANNING, T. H. 1942. Remarks on the physiography, Eskimo, and mammals of Southamp- ton Island. Can. Geogr. Journ., vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 17-83. MARINGER, JOHN. 1950. Contribution to the prehistory of Mongolia. The Sino-Swedish Exped., Publ. 34. Stockholm. MATHIASSEN, THERKEL. 1927. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Hxpedition, 1921-24. Copenhagen. Monn, H. T. 1919. Southampton Island. Geogr. Journ., vol. 54, pp. 52-55. O’ BRYAN, DERIC. 1953. Excavation of a Cape Dorset Eskimo house site, Mill Island, West Hudson Strait. Ann. Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1951-52, pp. 40-57. OKLADNIKOY, A. P. 1950. Neolithic and Bronze Ages of the Pribaykalye. Historical and Archaeological Study, PartsI and II. Materials and Investigations on Archaeology of the U. S. S. R. No. 18. Moscow and Leningrad. (In Russian.) The Cherokees of North Carolina: Living Memorials of the Past By Witu1am H. GIBert, Jr. History and General Research Division Legislative Reference Service Library of Congress [With 8 plates] THE CHEROKEE STORY WueEn the first English settlers came to the shores of North America they encountered a series of environmental barriers to their settlement that had to be surmounted in the conquest of the continent. First the Atlantic Coastal Plain, then the Piedmont above the fall line, and finally the Blue Ridge loomed up as great natural features of the continent’s terrain requiring subjugation. Almost to the very end of the Colonial period the Blue Ridge and the Appalachian Mountain chain constituted a certain natural and formidable limitation to the horizons of expansion of the new nation then coming into existence. Finally, however, the Blue Ridge Mountains and their aboriginal inhabitants, the Cherokee Indians, were conquered and their original area and range made part of the expanding domain of the newly formed republic, the United States of America. As the Scotch-Irish, Germans, English, and other populations spread down from Pennsyl- vania through Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and into Tennessee and Kentucky, the Cherokee Indians were gradually displaced and the greater bulk of them moved westward to a new home beyond the Mississippi to the west of the Ozark Mountains. Only a fraction of these mighty warriors remained to guard for all time the inner fast- nesses of the Appalachians in the Great Smokies of our day. The story of the Cherokees and their homeland begins back in the dim recesses of geologic history in the latter part of the Paleozoic age when the Appalachian Mountains came out of the great thrusts of the earth’s crust and became a major feature of the earth’s surface. Throughout the vast period of at least 10,000,000 estimated years of the Paleozoic Era a gigantic land mass called “Appalachia” existed along what is now the eastern coast of the United States. Its western 529 530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 shores were most of the time just east of the present Appalachians, while its eastern border must have been in the neighborhood of the present Continental Shelf. The rocks of Appalachia were of pre- Cambrian age and from them was derived an enormous mass of sedi- ment in the western sea trough which was latterly uplifted to form the Appalachian Mountain chain. Hence the home of the Cherokees is formed by the remnants of deposit of ancient seas of far-off geologic periods. The actual origin of the Cherokee tribe has been the subject of con- siderable speculation by scholars and students of these matters. As we see them today the Cherokees appear to be a race well adjusted to a mountain habitat and who may well have dwelled in these areas of western North Carolina for millennia. The early writers on the Cherokees thought that they detected many resemblances to the ancient Hebrews in the priesthood, “cities of refuge,” and ceremonial proce- dures of these Indians. They even pointed out physical resemblances in color of skin, shape of face, and other traits which would ally the Cherokees with the so-called “lost tribes of Israel.” John Haywood, in his book “Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee” (1823, p. 231 ff.), thought that the Cherokees were a tribe compounded of two populational elements. The first element was a group from southern Asia, perhaps from India, or from the ancient Near East, who established an empire centering at Natchez on the lower Mississippi River. These people built mounds, erected idols, performed human sacrifices, erected walled wells of brick, constructed fortifications, worshiped the phallus, revered the number seven as sacred, and lived under despotic rulers. The second element, which entered later, was “from the north” and composed of a savage people, rude but under democratic institutions, well organized for military purposes, and who conquered and amalgamated with the first element to form the Cherokees as the white man encountered them. In a work entitled “The Cherokees in pre-Columbian Times” (1890) the great American archeologist Cyrus Thomas traced the Cherokee Indians as a mound-building group to the upper reaches of the Ohio River and thence to the Mississippi River and to its upper sources near Lake Superior. His evidence lay in the discoveries regarding the distribution of mounds, platform pipes, engraved shell work, tradi- tions of northern affiliation, and other items. It has been known since 1798, through the work of Benjamin S. Barton (New views on the origin of the tribes and nations of America) that the Cherokee language shows many similarities to that of the Iroquois Indians of New York. On the basis of this and other north- ern affiliations it has been assumed that the common ancestors of the Cherokees and the Iroquois found their way from the Mississippi up CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 531 the Ohio to its origin at the junction of the Allegheny and Mononga- hela Rivers and that they there divided into two groups, one going northward and the other southward. Certainly, we may cite in par- tial confirmation of this the course of the Tuscarora Indians, another southern Iroquoian tribe, who left their homes in North Carolina within the historic period and moved up to New York State to join their ancient kinsmen. Yet there is much that points to southern affiliations of the Cherokee tribe. On the basis of their historic culture, John R. Swanton (1928) classifies the Cherokees as a cultural subtype of the Creeks. SOCO GAP ~- se - m 5 i - - . “~ o- _-" os eteny cts -- Seen “wc ecee ¢/ BOUNDARY [TREE | OCONALUF TEE VILLAGE : TOWN \, FAIRGROUNDS | \) AMPHITHEATRE © O*1 Pas agency / Pr ij \ COUNCIL HOUSE; \ MUSEUM ¢f Rn orm SS \. EASTERN CHEROKEE \ RESERVATION NORTH CAROLINA MILE Ficure 1.—Eastern Cherokee Reservation, North Carolina. 532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Studies of Cherokee art motifs and basketry types show that these were indubitably of southern origin and traced back to the lower Mississippi River area. The evidence would seem to point to the Cherokees as hangers-on and pupils of better developed cultures of the southeastern area. The danger of inferring racial movements from cultural evidence is likely to be present here, however, and we must hold in reserve our final judgment as to the origin of the Cherokee and his civilization. Today the traveler coming into the Qualla Boundary may approach from Asheville on the east or from Knoxville on the north. Coming from Asheville by car he will be impressed by the memorable mountain scenery and by the carefully engineered road by which, through a se- ries of magnificent curves, he proceeds over the ridge through the Soco Gap and down into the valley of the Oconaluftee River, where the Cherokee Indian Agency is situated. Here he is impressed by the many tourist courts. Approaching the reservation from Knoxville he proceeds first through Sevierville, through the fine curves upward to Newfound Gap, where a magnificient panorama of both Tennessee and North Carolina is to be viewed. Proceeding down the road he follows a lively and beautiful mountain stream, the Oconaluftee River, which dashes over rocks and through glades of delicate and sylvan character. Further on as he enters the reservation he passes the fine Boundary Tree Tourist Court built and maintained by the tribe. At length he arrives at the great outdoor amphitheater built into the mountainside for the annual summer-long performances of the spec- tacular drama of Cherokee life, “Unto These Hills.” After the amphi- theater then he arrives at the modern and well-kept Agency buildings and the Tribal Council Hall in the center of the reservation. To rescue and preserve for posterity the unique cultural and other contributions of the Cherokees to the world’s resources in ways of liv- ing a typical tribal village of 1750 has been reconstructed in recent years near Mountainside Amphitheatre, called Oconaluftee Village. Inside the village during the summer Cherokees carry on the ancient way of life, practicing basket weaving, aboriginal cooking, beadwork, pottery and weapon making. Dug-out canoes are hollowed out of poplar logs with primitive ax and fire, and other arts are pursued. Near the Tribal Council Hall a Museum of the Cherokees has been established since 1948, in which are housed tools, household utensils, ornaments, primitive money, and weapons. Household and daily- used artifacts made of cane, stone, bone, shell, and wood are on dis- play. Other items to be seen include an ancient rifled blowgun with its poised dart, a large bow which could hurl its arrow more than 400 yards, grotesque hand-carved masks of the medicine men, arrowheads of quartz and flint, stone axes, celts, chisels, stone hammers, and ritual pipes of stone and clay and catlinite. Here, too, are pictures of the CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 533 great Cherokee chiefs shown wearing their colorful costumes and turbans. In the same way in which the turbulence of the ancient seas was frozen into great rock strata of the Appalachian folds, so the turbu- lence of the early frontier life and the Indian way of living have been frozen into the present-day Cherokee Reservation in North Carolina. The Indians who can be seen there today memorialize the past in a very real and vivid manner. The conflicts of the Indians and whites furnish the theme of the drama “Unto These Hills,” given annually at the Mountainside Amphitheatre. The intertown conflicts are symbol- ized in the boisterous Cherokee ball game. Everywhere we see action of the past memorialized in ancient weapons and implements, in the Cherokee Museum, and in the many products on display in the curio shops. Commemoration or memorialization of past events typifies the cul- tural influences now at work among the Eastern Cherokees. It is as if the Cherokees had taken to heart the famous lines of Pope: First follow nature and your judgment frame By her just standard which is still the same. and in another context: All nature is but art unknown to thee. But before we proceed to expound the details of this theme it might be well to bring into our consciousness the contemporary condition and general picture of Cherokee life in North Carolina today. THE CHEROKEES TODAY Since 1917 an annual 5-day Cherokee Indian Fair has been held near the Agency late in September or early in October. The purposes of the fair have been to stimulate agricultural enterprise by offering prizes for various products, to encourage arts and crafts (especially weaving of linen and woolen goods, weaving and braiding of rugs), art metalwork, silverwork, beadwork, cabinetmaking, wood carving, jewelrymaking, basketry, and pottery. Various recreational activities include Cherokee stick ball games, archery contests, dances (both In- dian and square dances), singing contests, and baby shows. In 1947 the Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual Incorporated was or- ganized to market the products of 175 Cherokee Indian craftsmen. In 1950 the Cherokee Indian Farmers Cooperative was organized and the Boundary Tree Tourist Enterprise was opened for business. In 1955 it was estimated that there were 90 business enterprises owned and operated by Cherokees on the reservation. Much of the growth of the Cherokee economy has come about since the development of good roads, beginning in 1931, brought swarms of tourists into the area. This has permitted the development of, and 534 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 access of visitors to, the Mountainside Amphitheatre, the Oconaluftee Village, the Cherokee Museum, and the innumerable curio shops of the reservation. Institutional development has kept pace with the economic improve- ment. The Indian Bureau provides a free school system which in- cludes five elementary schools and a central high school. The U.S. Public Health Service, of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, operates a modern 25-bed hospital at the Agency where in- digent Indians receive free of charge diagnosis, treatment, hospitaliza- tion, and dental care. There are 25 or more churches on the reservation, nearly all of which are served by Indian pastors. Baptists far outnumber other congre- gations, but there are also Methodist, Episcopalian, and Latter Day Saints missions among these people. Hymn singing is a favorite pastime, and all-day “sings” are frequent. Truckloads of singers from various communities meet at appointed churches to sing, and bring their basket lunches with them. THE PHYSICAL TYPE Along the road the visitor sees the Cherokees, here a mother or two walking with the children, there an old man humped with age and plodding his way slowly to some nearby goal. These rather small brown-skinned people contrast with the neighboring mountain whites, who are on the average taller and are fair-skinned. The older Indian men tend to be lean and wiry in build, the women more heavy-set and stocky. Prominent cheekbones often appear in the women and prog- nathism or projecting jaws may be present. The straight and jet-black hair is typical of the fullbloods and the Mongolian eye appears occa- sionally in the females. A hawklike or beaked appearance of the face is frequently noticeable and it reminds one of the Maya and Mexican sculptured faces. Today about 25 percent of the enrolled Cherokees are fullbloods, and it is from these people that early students of blood type first recog- nized the distinctive predominance of type I blood in the American aborigines. There can be no doubt that in the present-day Cherokees we are dealing with an aboriginal racial island separated by distinct racial ancestry from the surrounding mountain people of the Appa- lachians. Here and there in an area from Georgia, through eastern Tennessee and the Carolinas, western Virginia, Kentucky, West Vir- ginia, Maryland, and even Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the occa- sional appearance of Indian physical traits and ways in the local popu- lation is attributed, rightly or wrongly, to an infusion of Cherokee blood. The long-continued habit of inbreeding or marrying within their own race has set the Cherokees apart from others. The ensemble of CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 535 genetic traits, including both matters of temperament and ways of acting, as well as physical traits, conjoined with the maintenance of the aboriginal speech and home-taught traditions, has made of the Cherokees a true nationality, sojourning in the same State with those of European and African descent but clearly differentiated from them. WHITE MAN VERSUS CHEROKEE A people firmly rooted in the soil and in their own traditions will never be extirpated but will persist and grow in spite of an adversity which may seem to undermine their continued existence. The strength of a race lies in the tenacity of its attachment to the physical environ- ment, along with the degree of its adherence to traditional ways of life. It is quite a problem at this late date to analyze the degree of blood admixture of Cherokees and whites. However, some indications exist which point to the continued existence of a considerable body of near fullbloods as the core of the band. Early descriptions indicate that the Cherokees were of fine muscular physique and tall in stature. The hair was described as always black, lank, and straight, and the beard variously noted as thick or sparse. Blood admixture with whites, particularly Scotch and Scotch-Irish, Germans, and English, has been widespread and prolonged over the entire historic period. Mixing with other Indian tribes has occurred, particularly with the Catawba. L. H. Snyder (1926) reported on an examination of 250 individuals wherein the fullbloods showed a per- centage of 93.6 of blood type I while mixedbloods were 59.3 percent of blood type I. An examination of the clan affiliations of the heads of 321 families was made by the present writer in 1932 and clan affiliations were noted for 475 persons. Of the families listed, about 8 percent (28 families) showed no clan affiliation of either father or mother. These may be taken to be persons of little or no Indian blood. In the case of 71 families, 1. e., 22 percent, only one of the two heads of the families showed clan affiliation. These may be taken as definitely mixedbloods. The remaining 216 families, or about 60 percent of the whole, gave evidence of clan affiliations in both parents. The mixedbloods and “white Indians” occupied the bottom lands along streams which furnish the best agricultural possibilities, whereas the fullbloods and near fullbloods tended to live on the slopes and upper reaches of the streams. Of all the several communities at Qualla, the Indians at Big Cove seem to have retained their traditional culture the most effectively. However, predictions as to the future complete dissolution of the Cherokee tradition may have been prema- ture. Much of the traditional culture probably continues through oral transmission from parent to child in fullblood families. 4125755735 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 The activities of anthropologists have undoubtedly contributed to the conservation of the old cultural traditions, and the demonstra- tion that the remunerative tourist industry can be developed through reconstruction of traditional community life and activities has helped also. What must be noted in this connection is the linkage between conservation of the culture and the conservation of the race. The one is inseparable from the other. An enlightened recognition of this fact by the white man is of the greatest importance to our generation. Respect for the integrity, not only of the race but also of the culture, is fundamental, and a characteristic of our times. The position of the mixedbloods is a difficult one. Drawn by their diverse racial inheritance partly toward the white and partly toward the Indian, they have a hard row to hoe. In some respects they form an entirely distinct group which perhaps could develop a cultural tradition, partly Cherokee and partly white, with a happy blend of the best features of both. The history of mixedblood groups has not been a happy one, however, and time and patience are required to work out all the many problems that beset them. THE CORE OF TRADITION Cherokee life revolves about the traditional institutions that have survived over the centuries as means of maintaining and perpetuating the social and biological continuity of the tribe. Of these the most important is the system of clans. The clan is not what we think of as in the case of Scottish clans, but rather an outmarrying group that insures the marriage within the tribe but only within certain modes of relationship. In early times marriage within the clan was punishable by death and it is still observable that such breaches are the exception. Clan membership was transmitted through the mother. The clan names translated into English are as follows: Wolf, Deer, Bird, Red Paint, Blue, Wild Potato, and Twister. The following associations of ideas presented by the Cherokee may explain in part the derivation of these clan names. The Wolf Clan was composed of great huntsmen—hunters who in their assiduity and attention to their profession were keen as wolves. It was also said that the members of this clan were fond of capturing young wolves and raising them in captivity and training them just as dogs are trained. It was and still is regarded as bad luck for any Cherokee to kill a wolf, although in former times a profession of wolf killers existed. To the east of Qualla on the reservation is a section called Wolftown. Members of the Deer Clan were like the Deer for swiftness. It was thought that they also kept deer in captivity. They were reputed to be specialists in the hunting and killing of deer. Just east of the Agency is an area called Deer-place after this clan. CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 537 The Bird Clan people were always fond of birds and kept captive crows and chicken hawks. They were also noted for their successful use of snares and blowguns in bird hunting. Birdtown, near Qualla, is named after this clan. Possession of magic was the principal characteristic of the Red Paint Clan who employed iron oxide or hematite for the purpose of securing success in love and protection in war. In fact these people were the great conjurers of the old days and Painttown, to the east of the Qualla Agency, was named after them. The Blue Clan was named after a wild plant of bluish color which was gathered by them in the low swampy grounds along streams and used for food and medicine. The plant is described as being narrow- leafed, like grass, and with berries resembling a young cucumber, but it is explained that only the roots were used by the Indians. At each new moon, in the old days, children were bathed in a decoction of this plant to protect them from all diseases. The Wild Potato Clan was also named after a plant of the swamps along the streams which was gathered and eaten by this clan. No tradition of any ceremony connected with this plant survives. The Twister Clan was so named because of the haughty manner in which they formerly conducted themselves, twisting their shoulders as they walked. They were accounted a rather vain people who grew their hair long and adorned it with elaborate coiffures and decorations. In order of numbers the most numerous is probably the Wolf Clan, followed at a distance by the Bird. These two clans, in fact, accounted for over 50 percent of all Indians in the reservation in 1932. Some- what less numerous were members of the Twister and Deer Clans, with the Red Paint, Wild Potato, and Blue trailing at the bottom of the list. The clan is an institution of fundamental importance in Cherokee tradition and way of life. It is symbolized in blood and is associated with descent from and through the mother. According to the myths the clan was derived, along with songs, dances, and magical formu- las, from the great giant “Old Stonecoat,” who was slain by the In- dians at the beginning of time by being burnt at the stake. As he died he sang, as was the Cherokee custom, his “death song.” In this song, uttered as the spirit of Old Stonecoat ascended into Heaven, was the entire Cherokee tradition. Included in it were the rules and regula- tions which governed the clan membership and the rituals associated therewith. One such ritual was called “going to the water.” This involved a group of brothers and sisters of the same clan ceremonially bathing in a stream and the conjuror prayed for the clan by name, prognosti- cating the future fortunes of the individual members present. 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 One’s clan affiliation is of the utmost importance in determining kin- ship behavior and relationships to everyone else in the tribe. Since the most important relationships are those sustained by birth or consan- guinity and by marriage or affinity, the clan is fundamentally involved with both. To cite a typical example, let us take the individual W. L., whose clan, inherited from his mother, is Wolf. AJ] members of this clan are brothers and sisters to him, in common with his own real brothers and sisters, and he visits and associates with members of this clan on the most familiar terms—familiar in all ways except that he may not, according to the rules of the clan, ever marry a “sister,” that is, a woman of the Wolf Clan. It is his mother who makes known to him the rights and duties incumbent on him through his membership in the Wolf Clan. His mother will never permit familiarities with her- self and her generation. Nor may W. L. behave otherwise than with great circumspection toward his sister and her children, who are also of his clan. As a child W. L. is gently teased by his father who is of the Wild Potato Clan. “You must marry my aunt,” he tells his son. W. L. thinks of the elderly and rather unattractive woman whom his father calls “aunt” and who is really W. L.’s father’s father’s sister and whom he himself calls “grandmother.” He learns from his father’s teasing that it is customary for him to joke with his paternal grandfather’s sister about this marriage business and since she is of the Deer Clan he finds that all her “brothers” and “sisters,” including those of his own age, are also joking about the same theme. Thus as time goes on his mind becomes accustomed to the idea that he will find his wife in the Deer Clan, which was the clan of his father’s father. Toward his father’s clan, i. e., the brothers and sisters of his father, the Wild Potato Clan, he maintains respectful and circumspect behavior. In fact anyone whose father is in the Wild Potato Clan is a brother or a sister to him. W. L.’s mother, like himself, is of the Wolf Clan, but her father is of the Red Paint Clan. Hence she too can tell him that he must marry her aunt or a woman of the Red Paint Clan when he comes of age. It can be seen that there are four clans with whom an individual Cherokee is closely concerned: (1) His own clan containing his “brothers” and “sisters,” both actual and classificatory; (2) his fa- ther’s clan containing “fathers” and fathers’ “sisters,” toward which he must always show respect and deference; (3) his father’s father’s clan which contains “grandmothers” and “grandfathers” with whom he can marry; and (4) his mother’s father’s clan, containing “grand- mothers” and “grandfathers” with whom he can marry. Let us carry the type case a stage further. W. L. marries a wife of the Deer Clan. Her father, let us say, is of the Blue Clan which she CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 539 must always respect. Her father’s father, however, was of the Wolf Clan and she marries a man of that Clan (W. L.). Her mother’s father is of the Bird Clan, which also contains potential mates for her. W. L.’s children will have two clans to choose mates from, the Wild Potato Clan and the Blue Clan, i. e., provided the selected mates have grandfathers and grandmothers in the Deer Clan. Thus it can be seen that lineage through the mother is of the essence in Cherokee life. One acquires a clan membership by birth, through the mother, and by no other way. Even after marriage the individual is still a member of the same clan and remains so until death. The solidarity of the clan lineage is the most important single element of traditional Cherokee culture and the most effective influence toward conservation of the race and the culture. THE TIDES OF LIFE Anyone who has ever spent time at the seashore is familiar with the phenomenon of the tides, those regular daily risings and fallings of the water level. The regularity of the tides, like the regularity of day and night, and the alteration of the seasons, impresses itself on the mind of man to the degree that he memorializes it in his ceremonies and rituals in a variety of ways. Thus the rituals of a primitive people commemorate, not only the events of past importance to their an- cestors, but also the cyclic or rhythmic aspects of life generally. Observations on Cherokee festivals by the missionary, D. S. Butrick, and others early in the nineteenth century were recorded and sum- marized in a manuscript by John Howard Payne, the famed author of the song “Home Sweet Home.” This manuscript, now in the New- berry Library at Chicago, contains a very extensive and detailed ac- count of the regular monthly and seasonal feasts of the Cherokee. From this account it can be seen that the great principle at work in primitive art forms, and perhaps in all art forms, is the commemora- tion of the past in terms of stressing the continuity between the lives of the many generations. In fasting as a ritual, we cannot fail to observe the periods of starvation and want in wintertime when game was scarce and the future problematic. The dances, lustrations, prog- nostications, ceremonial hunts, new-fire making, and the like, were artistic delineations of the great natural rhythms that tie together the life of the past, the present, and the future. The celebration of these festivals was basic in Cherokee life, even as it was in all Indian life, and constituted the logical and motivational basis of the social order. In his book entitled “Moon Up and Moon Down,” John Alden Knight (1942) has outlined the feeding activities of fish as related to the height of the tides. A regular “solunar” rhythm exists, he says, and the higher tides at new moon and full moon are directly cor- 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 related with good fishing because the fish are biting and feeding at those times. Thus activities of the fisherman would in turn be in- fluenced by the recurrence of good fishing in accordance with the phases of the moon. Some marine animals appear in great abundance once or twice a year in accordance with special phases of the moon. One such animal is the palolo worm which appears in great numbers in the waters off Samoa during the last quarter of the November moon. Here breeding and feeding go hand in hand in the rhythms of nature as large numbers of fish find sudden accessions to the food supply. So it was possible, in the human world, to correlate activities of animals with periods of hunting and fishing which would be sym- bolized in feasts. The regular sequence of new-moon feasts among the Cherokees was, so far as we are able to judge, connected with the rhythms of human breeding and feeding. The monthly friendship dances of today still commemorate the cleansing of menstrual taboos, which are imposed by clan sanctions and relate to the monthly feasts of an earlier period. The shedding of blood, from whatsoever cause, invokes sanctions of uncleanliness which must be given recognition. The avenger of blood could not slay the fugitive who reached a city of refuge, or a “white town” because it would produce an uncleanness. The special clan that killed a particular animal in the hunt had to be absolved from blood revenge by the animal’s clan relatives by special rituals. Among the early Cherokees the year was divided into two sequences. The first, for winter, began with the Great New Moon feast of October and the second with the New Moon feast of April, and included the summer months. The two important New Moon festivals were each seventh in a continuous series reckoning from the other and each began a new season and a new year. Each of the two main festivals of April and October were celebrated with hunts, dances, lustrations, divinations, and a feast. Each was succeeded a short time afterward by a festival in which new fire was made to renew the life of the tribe for the new season. The principal purpose of all new-moon feasts seemed to have been to purify from uncleanness and to protect against harmful forces. They celebrated renewal of life and life’s friendships after segregation for impurities and uncleannesses. There were six major new-moon feasts pointed out as of special significance, and which were as follows: 1. The First New Moon of Spring, celebrated when the grass began to grow in April and possibly represented by the Corn Dance of today. 2. The New Moon of August when the corn first became fit to eat, the roasting- ears time of today. CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 541 3. The Green Corn Feast of September when the corn crop was harvested; still celebrated. 4, The Great New Moon of October, which was called the Great Medicine Feast Since at that time the leaves of many curative plants fell into the streams and imparted their properties to the water. 5. The Cementation of Reconciliation Festival at the end of October which involved cleaning of all houses, the use of new utensils, forgetting of differences between people and cases of blood revenge, donning of new clothes and exchange of clothes, pledging of eternal friendship and soli- darity, and making of new fire (probably represented today by the “Woman Gathering Wood” Dance). 6. The Exalted or Bounding Bush Feast, held in December, characterized by the waving of pine boughs; thought to survive in the Pigeon Dance of later times. THE DANCE OF LIFE Dancing is of primary importance in the traditional Cherokee cul- ture. It is difficult to gather up all its varied meanings into one sen- tence, but it is possible to say that in the dance rhythms all the essen- tial life activities are memorialized and the continuity of the race is maintained. The so-called Friendship Dance, for example, gives one the impression that for the Cherokee all the world is a ballroom and all the men and women merely dancers, each with his exits and his entrances. This is in a way a community opera in which the drama and the music induce a state of emotional exaltation which commemo- rates the ancestors and assures them of the loyalty of the present gen- eration to the principles of the race. In the cheerfulness of the occa- sion those who mourn find comfort. In the participation in com- munity of demonstration the young as well as the old find a primary life satisfaction. In the dance the familiarity with joking clan rela- tives is carried on freely so that on such occasions the young people may find their mates in the proper clans. Three musical instruments are employed: the skin drum, the tor- toise-shell legging rattle, and the gourd hand rattle. The drum con- sists of a barrel fastened with wooden hoops and with a groundhog skin stretched across the top. The skin must be moistened at times from the inside for proper tonal effects. Usually a little warming at the fire will lessen the tautness of the skin. The diameter at the top of the drum is 6 inches and at the bottom 8 inches, and the length is about 12 inches. The beater is of carved wood and about 8 inches long. In making a tortoise-shell legging rattle five terrapins of approxi- mately the same size are caught and boiled and the flesh scraped out four days later. Small gravel or pebbles are put in each shell and the ends of the hinged parts are tied up with strings and set before the fire until they harden shut. The tops are perforated with small holes and strings put through them. Four terrapin shells are then 542 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 placed together on a piece of groundhog skin or buckskin about one yard square in size and the fifth tortoise shell placed on top of the other four and tied with them to theskin. Thongs of skin are used for tying one of these combination rattles to each leg. The hand rattles are made from gourds. A small hole is bored at each end of the gourd and a slender piece of wood a foot long is run through the oval or egg-shaped gourd. The typical gourd shell is about 4 inches long and about 3 inches in diameter and contains smal] pebbles to make the rattling sound. Dance teams are organized in the different communities—at Big Cove, Birdtown, and elsewhere, especially for Friendship Dances. Each team has a “caller” who calls forth the names of those who are to lead each song step, and directs the sequence with the proper sig- nals. The caller endeavors to pick out the best and most effective sing- ers to lead the songs. The number of songs in each dance averages about four, and the song consists in the repetition of a single melodic theme to the accompaniment of archaic words. An alternation of slow and fast tempos can be noted, with the faster tempos predominating at the close. Dances may be held as often as once a week, generally in the evenings. The action and speech simulates and refers to basic life activities such as playing the game of Cherokee ball, planting and tilling the soil, curing and preventing disease, hunting various wild animals, and joking with familiar clan relatives. Clapping the hands together is a common feature of the Friendship Dances and expresses the hap- piness and the good time being enjoyed by all the participants. Solo dances are sometimes given in which the dancer sings and tells a story as he dances, occasionally poking fun at his familiar clan relatives. The names of the principal dances of the Cherokees and the signifi- cance of each is given below. Name of Dance Significance Anti Dances: 2. sore ghee ted Imitates the movements of ants Ball Dancens oot tA do Magic for obtaining victory in ball game Bear Dances-2228 1. ~ fey rs Imitative of the bear Beaver Dance_______________. Imitative of killing beaver ButtaloDanee@ss = Imitative of killing buffalo Bugah’Dancest): soot SEP Buffoonery Chickens Dance##. Soe) Near Mimetic of birds Coat sDances eee Buying a wife CorniDancesii sau aie ae se ae Corn planting HMaglewmances. we ee a, Victory in war Friendship Dance___________. Promotes social intercourse Green Corn Dance! 22-23" Celebrates the harvest of corn Groundhog Dance___________- Hunting the groundhog Horse Dance. 228828 ae 2 es Mimetic of the horse Knee-deep Dance____________. Mimetic of knee-deep spring frog Medicine Dance__________--.. Physic dance for health CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 543 Name of Dance Significance Partridge Dance2=s-2--<>=- Mimetic of quail movements Pheasant: Dancen= 222 22-— =.= Mimetic of pheasant drumming Piccone ances a ee Hunting of pigeons by hawks Raccoon Dance=222— 222022 5—= Hunting raccoon Hound) Dances feos Se Dance around the fire Snakelike Dance_____-__----~- Magic power from the snake Wine ances 2525 SS ee: Magical protection in war Woman Gathering Wood TOPS CG as ee, ee ee aes New-fire making CHEROKEE INSPIRATION: THE ORAL TRADITION An idea or a feeling grandly expressed lives forever and gives immortality to the words that enshrine it—Viscount Bryce. Speech can be looked upon as a system of signals or symbols, not only of ideas but also of sentiments, feelings, and emotions. The first words and the nursery songs that are learned orally at the parent’s knee form the basis of all subsequent language learning and stay with the individual to the very end of his life. Nothing can be more im- portant to the preservation of a race and its culture than the continued oral transmission of ideas, principles, and sentiments within the do- mestic household, from generation to generation. This is particularly true of the religious and moral sentiments, those ultimate realities with which language, in its most exalted use, is par- ticularly concerned. Hence many religious systems have evolved ritual or liturgical languages which commemorate the religious senti- ments in fixed linguistic forms and which stand in contrast thereby to everyday language with its multitude of vulgar innovations and neologisms. In India the Vedic language represents an even more in- tensive conservatism of speech wherein a liturgical language, San- skrit, has preserved in Vedic texts the remnants of a still earlier liturgi- cal form. In his work on the Swimmer manuscript, Olbrechts (1932, pp. 160-165) has discussed the liturgical language of the Cherokee sacred prayers or formulas. In a matrilineal clan society, such as that of the Cherokees, the transmission of both oral and written liturgical material is from mother or mother’s brother to the daughter and son. So it is that, in the same way that we of the Western civilization at- tempt to learn the elements of Latin and Greek in our youth for the better preservation of those ideas, sentiments, and values most intrinsic to our culture, the Cherokee student learns the ritual language of the prayers or formulas that in part have been preserved in written form through the good offices of Sequoia’s syllabary and given literary rec- ognition by Mooney and Olbrechts, in their printed texts with English translations. Thus the mentality of the Cherokee and the values of Cherokee traditional culture are made manifest and enter into the 544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 modern inheritance of a pattern of world cultural and racial pluralism. The inspirational works or formulas are accompanied by a collection of narrational commentaries, or the so-called “myths” of the Cherokee, assembled by James Mooney (1891, 1900.) THE PRAYERS OR FORMULAS The Cherokee ancestors believed that the earth was flat and that the sun sets through a hole in the ground in the west every night and rises through a hole in the ground in the east every morning. Four ropes are attached to the four corners of the earth to hold it up, stretching horizontally outward. At the edge of the earth there is “something hammerlike” which keeps pounding on the ground constantly. When people die their souls must go through this gauntlet and the good suc- ceed but the evil are crushed by the hammer. Heaven is beyond the edge of the earth and is like this world, only more beautiful, with all sorts of fruits and deer meat in plenty. It is also very light there. The moon has a path like the sun and goes down through one hole in the earth and rises through another. 7UL V7 a SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1956.—GILBERT PLATE 8 1. This Cherokee Indian boy is explaining how in ancient times the Cherokee trapped fish for their food with such implements as this handmade fish trap in Oconaluftee Indian village. (Photo courtesy Cherokee Historical Association, ca. 1956.) 2. The log structure shown is one of several progressive types of structure depicted in Oconaluftee village. (Photo courtesy Cherokee Historical Association, ca. 1956.) CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 551 of one or two clans over the others than do the more densely populated Painttown and Yellow Hill. Examination of the record of marriages between clanspeople indicates that the chance propinquity of residence has little to do with choice of mate. Intertown rivalry is expressed in the ball game. Great stress is laid on magical power or the lack of it as the sole detriment to the winning or losing of ball games. These games, together with the ball dances, resolve themselves into a rivalry between teams of conjurers in the opposing towns. The magical rites surrounding the ball game are ex- tensive and esoteric but include a weakening of the opponents through trickster joking of familiar clansmen in the opponent’s town. Ex- traordinary measures are resorted to in order to obtain the more pow- erful conjurers for one’s ball team. In fact the entire community has been known to turn out to hoe the fields and perform work on the con- jurer’s fields in order to show their good will and regard for the conjurer’s abilities. The conjurer prays and divines the future. If he finds the opponents stronger than the home team, he takes magical measures to strengthen the latter. The life in Cherokee towns in early times has been described in great detail in the Payne-Butrick manuscripts. The number of dwellings varied from a dozen to 200, depending upon the importance of the settlement. 'Townsites were usually on small creeks near the mouth, while larger streams were used for water travel and fishing. Stock- ades surrounded those settlements whose exposed position rendered it necessary. In the center of the town stood the town house or council house on a level area adjacent to the stream. The council house was 7-sided and in arrangement and use served as a temple for the Indians. Within the council house was an altar of clay at which the sacred new fire was kindled at certain specific times. Houses within the village were built with posts and wickerwork plastered with clay and with a bark or thatched roof. There were also hothouses for sweat baths and for cold-weather habitation. Store- houses were used to hold stored food. There was a dance square in front of the council house at which important ceremonies were held. Nearby were ball grounds for the ball play and chunkey yards for the chunkey game. Towns were classified as white towns and red towns, depending upon their traditional ceremonial affiliation. There was a complete hier- archy of so-called white or peace officials and a similar hierarchy of red or war Officials. CHEROKEE PERSONALITIES The preservation of Cherokee culture and traditions is largely an affair involving personalities, particularly the medicine men. In John 412575—57-_36 902 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 Howard Payne’s time (1830) information regarding the traditions was gleaned by the missionary, D. S. Butrick, from Nutsawi Pinelog, Awayu, Corn Tassel, Deer-in-the-water, Nettle, Nutsawi Saddler, Rain, Raven, Thomas Smith, T. Smith, Jr., Shortarrow, Situegi, Ter- rapin Head, and Toleta. In Mooney’s time (1890-1910), the principal informants were Swim- mer, John Axe, Suyeta, Catawba-killer, Chief N. J. Smith, Salali, Jessan Ayasta, and James and David Blythe. In recent years of the twentieth century there were Will West Long, Deliski Climbing Bear, Morgan Calhoun, and others. The tend- ency of medicine-making to run in families was noted by Olbrechts (1932, p. 106). A detailed study of the matrilineal pedigrees among the Cherokees would reveal much of the background of the prominent personalities of the band. This is true both of the earlier period and the later his- tory of this group. The science of human genetics is only in its in- fancy, yet a brilliant future may be forecast for it in the study of groups like the Eastern Cherokee. The tracing of clan descents, together with historical notices of the personalities and the lineages achieving con- tinued distinction in the Cherokee tribe, is of the greatest importance. Whether the distinction was socially inspired or biologically trans- mitted is of little account in our present state of knowledge. The important thing is to trace the genealogy of achievement within the group. The famous Atakullakulla or Little Carpenter was a nephew of Old Hop of Chote, who was principal chief in the early eighteenth cen- tury. Little Carpenter was noted as a man of superior abilities who was peace chief of the tribe through many difficult years. One of his sisters was said to have been the mother of the famous Nancy Ward, who was described by William Martin as “One of the most superior women I ever saw.” Since Nancy Ward is described as having been of the Wolf Clan, we may assume that her mother and Little Carpenter were also of this clan and possibly Old Hop also. Little Carpenter’s son, Dragging Canoe, was another famous Cherokee leader. Also of the Wolf Clan was Charles R. Hicks, principal chief, and son of Nancy, a daughter of Chief Broom, and a white man, Nathan Hicks. Still another lineage development is suggested in the case of Old Tassel, principal chief of Chote, and of the Twister Clan, a lineage noted for its pride and haughtiness. John Watts was a nephew of Old Tassel and son of a white trader, John Watts, and a sister of Old Tassel. He was a headman of the Cherokees and a chief of the Chickamaugas. It is said that Nathaniel Gist, a Pennsylvania Ger- man, married another of the sisters of Old Tassel and became the father of George Gist, the famous Sequoia, inventer of the Cherokee CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 553 syllabary. Two other distinguished nephews of Old Tassel were Tolluntiskee, a principal chief, and his brother, John Jolly, also a principal chief. The Wolf Clan, the line of Little Carpenter as we have seen, has also given in more recent times the famous medicine woman, Ayasta, mother of Will West Long, Climbing Bean Calhoun, Lawyer Calhoun, Morgan Calhoun, and John Calhoun. Of these, Will West Long and Morgan Calhoun were famous medicine men of the Wolf Clan at Big Cove. The famous Swimmer, Mooney’s formula informant, was of the Wolf Clan and married a Blue Clan woman. His daughter Mary had a son Uweti who had a son, Luke Swimmer, living in the reserva- tion in 1932. Yonaguska or Drowning Bear was a peace chief and the best orator of histime. He married twice, in both cases women of the Wolf Clan. His son Julio married Ensi of the Deer Clan and had a son Faidil Skiti or Waving Ears, who was a householder in Big Cove in 1982. From this and other examples, it may be seen that descent can be traced back to the period of the middle nineteenth century and be- yond. The continuity of descent afforded by the clan traditions of su- perior achievement, especially in the cases of the Wolf and the Twister Clans, doubtless accompanies the transmission of formulary lore and other cultural items. Thus it is made to appear that a tribal society such as the Eastern Cherokee is essentially made up of contend- ing lineage groups (clans) each of which carries its own placement status within the society. The personalities produced by the lineage are but facets of the clan and the social standing of the clan. This is because behavior in a primitive society is always conditioned by lineage affiliations and by the prestige attaching thereto. CONCLUSION We have examined a number of facets of the Cherokee tribe oper- ating in relation to its natural environment. In this brief paper the idea has been stressed that culture is mainly an ecological adaptation of a race to its environment and is designed to enable survival and expansion of the biological heritage of that race. In other words the culture is not regarded as operating, per se, ina vacuum. It is thought of as inseparable from the natural ecology of the race or people under consideration. The people are primary objects of consideration, their culture secondary. The first principle of social continuity of the generations is illus- trated by the clan or matrilineal lineage. Next, attention is called to the principle of rhythms in nature and the commemoration of these rhythms in the ancient monthly feasts. ‘These in turn are shown to be the likely antecedents to the modern Cherokee dances which commem- 554 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 orate the rhythmic recurrence of needs just as did the ancient monthly feasts. Then, turning to the Cherokee prayers or sacred formulas, which are in some cases hundreds of years old, it was found that they lend force to social continuity through their conservation and commemora- tion of traditional values, both orally and in writing. The prayers are in turn buttressed by the myths or stories that illustrate the think- ing of the ancestors and explain the present in terms of the past. The town or community life of the Cherokees shows its roots in the clan lineage system and its relation to the civil and military needs of a primitive people. Out of this lineal emphasis of the community life emerges a view of the Cherokee personality, a product of lineage and social status, but permissive nonetheless of special individual achieve- ment. The final conclusion is that Cherokee life today is a going concern and gives no evidence of dying out or disappearing through absorp- tion within the non-Indian society that surrounds it. Commemora- tion and innovation are the two forces still constituting the cycle of life as far as the stream of Cherokee existence is concerned. REFERENCES BARTON, BENJAMIN S. 1798. New views on the origin of the tribes and nations of America. Philadelphia. Broom, LEONARD, and SPECK, F. G. 1951. Cherokee dance and drama. Berkeley, Calif. DONALDSON, THOMAS. 1892. The eastern band of Cherokees of North Carolina. Extra Census Bull., 11th U. S. Census. GILBERT, WILLIAM H., JR. 1943. The Hastern Cherokees. Anthrop. Pap. No. 23, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 133, pp. 169-418. Haywoop, JOHN. 1823. Natural and aboriginal history of Tennessee. Nashville. KNIGHT, JOHN ALDEN. 1942. Moon up and moon down. New York. Lewis, T. M. N., and KNEBERG, MADELINE. 1954. Oconaluftee Indian village, an interpretation of a Cherokee com- munity of 1750. Cherokee Historical Association, Inc. Mooney, JAMES. 1891. Sacred formulas of the Cherokees. 7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1885-86, pp. 301-397. 1900. Myths of the Cherokee. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1897-98, pt. 1, pp. 3-540. OLBRECHTS, F'RANS M., and Mooney, JAMES. 1932. The Swimmer manuscript. Cherokee sacred formulas and medicinal prescriptions. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull, 99, 319 pp. Snyper, L. H. 1926. Human blood groups; their origin and social significance. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 233-263. CHEROKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA—GILBERT 555 SPEcK, F. G. 1920. Decorative art and basketry of the Cherokee. Bull. Publ. Mus. Milwaukee, vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 54-86. SWANTON, JOHN R. 1928. Aboriginal culture of the Southeast. 42d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1924-1925, pp. 673-726. THOMAS, CYRUS. 1890. The Cherokees in pre-Columbian times. New York. Supplemental Reading Thirty-eighth Annual Cherokee Indian Fair, Oct. 4-8, 1955. 30 pp. Cherokee, N.C. “Unto These Hills,” brochure describing this drama of the Cherokee Indians, Mountainside Theatre, Cherokee, N. C. (Published by Cherokee Historical Association, 1955.) The Official Guide to Cherokee, official publication of the Qualla Boundary (Cherokee Reservation) by sanction and appointment of the council of the eastern band of Cherokee Indians. 38 pp. Cherokee, N. C., 1955. The Official Guide to Cherokee. 30pp. 1956. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. é é P * F PEPED al SR REVEL, Dm aly ; t? , A j : " t i a, ® & fT ; , 4 t we ei : ‘ to Dried Meat—Karly Man’s Travel Ration’ By Epwarp N. WENTWORTH Past President, Agricultural History Society Chesterton, Ind. PRIMITIVE MAN originated three methods of meat preservation— freezing, salting, and drying. Later on, according to skills and lati- tude, he developed further offshoots of each through refrigeration, spicing, and smoking. Some tribes that lived near salt springs, dead seas, or ocean flats discovered that salt was a good preservative, while the subarctic tribes naturally learned the efficacy of cold. Drying came from experience on the edges of the desert or in mountain alti- tudes where the air was light and arid. When the atmosphere proved too humid for the sun- and wind-drying process, these methods were supplemented by fire, either in outside frames or in the hut, and the smoke from the wood or brush imparted distinctive flavors. Drying as a method of preservation was just as natural a discovery as were the other two. Any meat left on a carcass by a predator or hunter would dry quickly in the regions were humans first emerged from the anthropoid. Possibly this location was Asia or Africa; and most probably it was north of the Himalaya Mountains. Perhaps the method of drying was worked out independently in several locations. For example, archeologist William A. Ritchie of the State of New York has found extensive sites in Cayuga County, which radio-carbon dating by Dr. W. F. Libby of the Atomic Energy Commission shows to have been in existence about 3500 B.C. Apparently large racks for meat and fish drying were erected, and numerous remains of bones (principally deer) were present—either whole or cracked for the mar- row. Dried meat has been found in the ancient Sumerian sites, on the lower Egyptian Nile, and in the extreme northern and eastern edge of Mongolia. Ina few cases it can be determined definitely that the meat was dried before storing. Perhaps the first tradition in Kurope was learned from the experiences of Genghis Khan, Tamer- Jane, and other “Hun” invaders. In their first expedition, the Mon- gols ran short of the cattle they drove en route, but they apparently *Reprinted by permission from Agricultural History, vol. 30, January 1956. 557 558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 had enough dried meat in their haversacks to last until they could find additional food in the civilized settlements. In the days before wheeled transportation, it was very important to carry meat in some form that would not spoil and yet could be con- veniently borne by travelers on foot or horseback. Even before re- corded history began, swarms of warriors, traders, and travelers were traversing the trade routes along the Mediterranean Sea—the famed “Course of Empire.” Wild food animals disappeared rapidly, and farmers that dwelt along the highways could not raise enough cereals or domestic livestock to meet the needs of the villages already in the course of development. Ultimately, market centers grew up where pastoral tribes, hunters, and farmers, operating in areas lying off the trade routes, could bring their meats and grains for sale in a form the wayfarer could use. Jerky was a prime market product. The practice of meat drying undoubtedly came to this continent by the great migration across the Bering Strait several millennia ago. It was the most convenient method of preserving meats, at a minimum weight, that the Asiatic tribes reaching North America then knew. No one can date the calendar for this event, but it was at least 40 to 60 centuries ago. Possibly the method of desiccation with which this continent was acquainted had originated in several places but, because it was so uniform among all the primitive tribes in America, it seems likely that it sprang from one source. In the Western Hemisphere, dehydration of meat was practiced all the way from the Arctic Circle to Patagonia. On the east coast of South America, numerous Brazilian and Paraguayan tribes, including those in the swamp areas, dried their seasonal meats over smoke. The Portuguese explorers called this meat xarque; the Spanish explorers, char-qui; and the English, jerky. In North America the term jerky was confined principally to the United States, with only slight usage in Canada—probably adopted from the fur traders. However, Charles J. Lovell calls attention to the fact that references to pemmi- can were in the literature of Canada as early as 1743 and 1772.5 The Mexicans used still another word, ¢asajo, which may be nearer the original Indian sound, but now it cannot be identified. 2 V. Stefansson to author, February 16, 1955. > Charles J. Lovell to author, February 16, 1955, quotes James Ishman’s Ob- servations on Hudson’s Bay, 1743, p. 156, Toronto, 1949, where it is called “Pimmegan,” and the Cumberland House Journal of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany, September 23, 1777, which lists 2,924 pounds of beat meat, 1,720 pounds of “Fatt,” and 100 pounds of “Pimmacon.” The first citation in print in England is in the Oxford Dictionary in 1801, from Alexander Mackenzie, the great Canadian explorer, and the first citation from an American source was from the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804, though the dictionary purports to in- clude only words that first entered the English language in the United States. DRIED MEAT—WENTWORTH 559 In the fifteenth century dried meats were known traditionally by the Celts in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, as used by their warrior forebears 8 or 10 centuries earlier. The Basques in the Pyrenees, as well as the French races of old Provence, were familiar with the prod- uct during the ascendency of Rome. Earlier still, the ancient races of lake dwellers in the Balkans, Switzerland, and islolated regions of the Alpine mountain chains, left remnants of dried meats around their ancient dwellings that indicated their use of the product. In his study of the American Indian, Clark Wissler divided the North American continent according to basic meats consumed.‘ Throughout the arctic and subarctic regions the chief dependence was placed on the flesh of the caribou, although in the northeast musk oxen were occasionally substituted. The salmon area extended as far south as San Francisco and eastward to the crest of the Sierras. The heart of the continent, however, depended on the bison, which even today contributes the best flavored jerky produced under conditions of sun and wind drying. In eastern Canada and New England, deer and moose, with an occasional elk, furnished the foundation; while along the Atlantic coast to the south, and in the Gulf region, deer and an infrequent bear seemed most important. The first historical reference to jerky in the Western Hemisphere was furnished by Castafeda, who prepared the records of the Coro- nado expedition (1540-1542). Two standard translations exist, the older being by George Parker Winship: They dry the flesh [of the bison] in the sun, cutting it thin like a leaf and, when dry, they grind it like meal to keep it, and make a seasoup of it to eat. A handful thrown into the pot swells up so as to increase very much. They season it with fat, which they always try to secure when they kill a cow [bison]. 5 The other standard translation, by Hammond and Rey, renders, “sea- soup” as “mash” and romanticizes the “pot” by calling it an “olla.” ¢ Some students have tried to assume that Castafieda referred to pem- mican rather than jerky because of his allusion to fat, but it seems rather obvious that he was discussing fat added during cooking or eating. Pemmican itself seldom required added fat to improve its ap- petite appeal, as it usually consisted of 35 to 50 percent fat and on the northern plains it might contain as much as 60 to 80 percent. The chief problem was to gather enough meat during the hunting season to warrant drying. Both the plains Indians and trappers re- lied on the bison, but the forest-dwelling tribes also sought caribou, moose, and deer. Indian attempts to catch numbers of salmon during ‘Clark Wissler, The American Indian, 2d ed., pp. 2-3, New York, 1922. 5 George Parker Winship, The Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542, Fourteenth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Pt. I, pp. 527-528, 1896. *George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, Narratives of the Coronado Expedi- tion, 1540-1542, pp. 262, Albuquerque, 1940. 560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1956 the seasonal runs have been well described by explorers and anthropol- ogists. But not many are familiar with methods used by the tribal hunters of the Mississippi Valley before the horse age, who dwelt on the borders of the bison range. They hunted the bison afoot, a difii- cult and dangerous procedure. Back in 1700 Nicholas Perrot, French commandant of the North- west, described an even earlier buffalo hunt among the Illinois tribe.” Long before daylight a hunting party of young braves started out in three groups. One section went to the right, another to the left, and the third served as gap closers, dividing into two parts—able to sup- port the right or left groups as they needed re-enforcement. The bison was more than a match for single hunters who approached on foot. A long section or file was formed on each side, and after traveling about a league toward the bed grounds of the herd, some of the party remained to await daylight. After another league had been covered, a second party was detached, while the rest marched another half league and waited there. When the dew had dried, they closed the opening between the right and left groups and encircled the entire area, setting fire to the dried herbage. At this moment, the old men and boys from the tribal village joined them, and the completed fires on four sides surrounded the game.