ree GGG SGegq ny re patted Sha Ue i Pee a ue oy an, ces (nt «= Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SORE INCRE vy, SRE: fas AS, WAS |Z i AS ieee j X Se ES ave PUBLICATION 4478 Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30 1961 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1962 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price $4.25 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Smirusonian Lystrrution, Washington, December 29, 1961. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1961. Respectfully, Leonard CARMICHAEL, Secretary. It CONTENTS MUERTE OL Re mentee aor eee ee ee ek Verte ee aga Se 2 ETT BSR Sm eae eer ea Ml i lg le ape eae tee bee te Uae TSM 3 Be Se ES ee reno eran em ve SRE TAS re Ag Reports of branches of the Institution: Named states National Museum: . 99-2222 222 2 2 ese BureauofeAmentcans Bi hnolo py = wee aa yay ee ee PASrenIaysICAl OMSErVAUOLY <5 28> ete eee Ce = Oye ee Sey Manonal Collection of Mine Arts=225% 23 524. 32g Perea re tretNOty Ol Ar GR, = So. ee See rete RE ak ee ea Picuienial AIPA NIUSSUMIA ne ee 2 te (te a ee Bee a Ineabion Als OOlOPICR Par k= = 5 5-20 P ens roe se PaatiEAOnesDiIGlOFiCAl ATER == 252 2, ae BA Se he Se eee international ixchange Service. 2-22 222 e= 2 so National Gallery of Art. 22222 J os Rt De OC eae Ga “ETH Sia Cavan] Ul a2 ey ieee a ne te ne es ee tg el, a eA OE ADDR UDI CHOONSS = foo Seke 2 hfe PE 8 le i ee oe ea Other activities: Hierulben= ae et Sip. RRR esa tl Apia SS ek oe pcience, Information: Hxchange.= 2522552 Bree at yt, ee Simitsonian. Museum service. si. 2 Si ek See Pee GENERAL APPENDIX Some astronomical aspects of life in the universe, by Su-Shu Huang_____-_ perays from the sun, by Herbert Friedman_.=..~.-......=2..-...2.=-. The challenge of space exploration, by Robert C. Seamans, Jr_-._____--_- The Smithsonian’s satellite-tracking program: Its history and organization, RR Pre IST ERR VCS Eo ee Soe ak ay ee So hh Te The main lines of mathematics, by J. L. B. Cooper_....----------_---- Early experiments in instrument flying, by James H. Doolittle__________ Three famous early aero engines, by Robert B. Meyer, Jr_____--_______- Organic chemistry: a view and a prospect, by Sir Alexander Todd___-__-_- miie mew ape of the sea, by Philip B. Yeager... ...2. 2-22 -4- Drilling beneath the deep sea, by William E. Benson____-----_-_-_-___- A natural history of trilobites, by H. B. Whittington. _.____.__-_______- Chromosomes and the theory of heredity, by C. D. Darlington_______-_- fropieal climates and biology, by G. 8. Carter. .........._..-......_-- Rumor acroniolory, by P. iH. Gregory. 0-22 sce sse cee e ee Ss “INSTITUTION NOV 15 1962 110 124 133 183 192 205 209 218 ° 218 219 221 IV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Page The detection and evasion of bats by moths, by Kenneth D. Roeder and (Asher Htireate v8 2acc22 nose se coe eee e eee eee oe aa eee nee eens 455 ihe honey bee, by vames . Hambleton 22 2-22 e ea ee ee eee 465 Australopithicines and the origin of man, by J. T. Robinson-_---------- 479 Evolution, genetics, and anthropology, by A. E. Mourant_------------- 501 The skull of Shanidar fl, by. L: DaStewart222- 222-52 -- sae eee 521 Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki theory and its relation to ethnobotany, by F. P. OMG? ee ee ee ae ere Se ee ee ee a ee es era 535 Minerals in art and archeology, by Rutherford J. Gettens_.------------ 551 LIST OF PLATES Secretary’s Report: Plates 22s S22 ORS e Re Se eee See eae oat ane aee eee eee me nee 62 Platesso=Ge0 tent ee nee Lele ae eee es oe Cee See eee 110 Plates (<0 eo Sven aoe ssc cece ccs me cme ase ase see seco see 134 Bl ates: QS 1:A ae ee a ne ee eee 198 Astronomical aspects of life’ (Huang): Plates 1-3_ 22 -- 2226 See le 246 Satellite-tracking program (Hayes): Plates 1-4___-__--_---.------------ 294 instrument flying (Doolittle): Plates a) (22-9 2852S oe ee eee eee 342 Early aero engines (Meyer): Plates 1-92. 2222222222 + oe lost ee ee See 358 Newlage of the'sen Ox eager)* Plates 1-30 <= ee ee eee ee eee 390 Drilling beneath the sea (Benson): Plates I—-4_._..--..-----__------+-- 398 ebrilobites (Wihitvington)snblates 1-325 ses ee eee eee 406 Tropical climates and biology (Carter): Plates 1-4..-__--_---_---------- 438 Aerabiology (Gregory)* Plates ly 2352-25-22 eee se eee eee ee 446 Detection and evasion of bats by moths (Roeder and Treat): Plates 1-6. 462 Honey, pce. cambleton)): Plates d=40 vues Se eee eee ee oe 470 Sknlliof shanidareUle(Steware): elatesl—9 saa = es ee ee 526 Minerals in art and archeology (Gettens): Plates 1-8..-......--.------ 566 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1961 Presiding Officer ex officio—Joun F. KENNEDY, President of the United States. Chancellor.—EarL WakkEN, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: JoHNn F. Kennepy, President of the United States. Lynvbon B. JoHNsoNn, Vice President of the United States. Hart WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. Dean Rusk, Secretary of State. DovueLas DILLON, Secretary of the Treasury. Rosert 8S. McNamara, Secretary of Defense. Rosert F. KENNeEpy, Attorney General. J. Epvwarp Day, Postmaster General. Stewart L. UDALL, Secretary of the Interior. OrvILLE L. FREEMAN, Secretary of Agriculture. LuTHER H. Honaes, Secretary of Commerce. ARTHUR J. GOLDBERG, Secretary of Labor. ABRAHAM A. Rigicorr, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Regents of the Institution: Wart WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. Lynpon B. JoHNSON, Vice President of the United States. CLINTON P, ANDERSON, Member of the Senate. J. WILLIAM FULBRIGHT, Member of the Senate. LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate. FRANK T. Bow, Member of the House of Representatives. Overton Brooks, Member of the House of Representatives. CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives. JOHN NIcHOLAS Brown, citizen of Rhode Island. ARTHUR H. Compton, citizen of Missouri. Rospert VY. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D.C. CRAWFORD H. GREENEWALT, citizen of Delaware. Cary P. Haskins, citizen of Washington, D.C. JEROME C. HUNSAKER, citizen of Massachusetts. Executive Committee—Rosert V. FLEMING, Chairman, CLARENCE CANNON, CaryL P. HASKINS. Secretary.—LEONARD CARMICHAEL. Assistant Secretaries—A. REMINGTON KeEtloaae, JAMES C. BRADLEY. Assistant to the Secretary.—THEODORE W. TAYLor. Administrative assistant to the Secretary—Mrs. Louise M. PEarson. Treasurer.—Hpear L. Roy. Chief, editorial and publications division —PAavL H. OFHSER. Librarian—RovutH EB. BLANCHARD. Curator, Smithsonian Museum Service.—G. CarroLt LINDSAY. Buildings Manager.—ANvREW F.. MICHAELS, JR. Director of Personnel.—J. A. KENNEDY. Chief, supply division—A. W. WILDING. Chief, photographic service division —O. H. GREESON. VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Director—A. Remington Kellogg. Registrar.—Helena M. Weiss. MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Director.—A. C. Smith. Administrative Officer.—Mrs. Mabel A. Byrd. DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: T. Dale Stewart, head curator; A. J. Andrews, exhibits specialist. Division of Archeology: W. R. Wedel, curator; Clifford Evans, Jr., G. W. Van Beek, associate curators. Division of Ethnology: S. H. Riesenberg, curator; G. D. Gibson, H. I. Knez, associate curators; R. A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Physical Anthropology: T. D. Stewart, acting curator; M. T. Newman, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF ZooLoay: F. A. Chace, Jr., acting head curator. Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, curator; C. O. Handley, Jr., H. W. Setzer, associate curators. Division of Birds: H. G. Deignan, curator. Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator. Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; E. A. Lachner, W. R. Taylor, associate curators. Division of Insects: J. F. G. Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, R. B. Crabill, Jr., W. D. Field, O. 8S. Flint, Jr., associate curators. Division of Marine Invertebrates: F. A. Chace, Jr., curator; F. M. Bayer, T. E. Bowman, C. E. Cutress, Jr., associate curators. Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. HE. Morrison, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF BoTaANy (NATIONAL HERBARIUM): J. R. Swallen, head curator. Division of Phanerogams: L. B. Smith, curator; R. S. Cowan, E. C. Leonard, Velva E. Rudd, J. J. Wurdack, associate curators. Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator. Division of Grasses: J. R. Swallen, acting curator; T. R. Soderstrom, assistant curator. Division of Cryptogams: M. EH. Hale, Jr., associate curator in charge; P. S. Conger, associate curator; R. R. Ireland, Jr., assistant curator. Division of Woods: W. lL. Stern, curator. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: G. A. Cooper, head curator. Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: G. S. Switzer, curator; P. B. Des- autels, E. P. Henderson, associate curators; R. S. Clarke, Jr., chemist. Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: R. S. Boardman, associate curator in charge; P. M. Kier, Richard Cifelli, E. G. Kauffman, associate curators. Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; Nicholas Hot- ton, III, associate curator; I’. L. Pearce, exhibits specialist. MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Director.—¥. A. Taylor. Assistant Director.—J. C. Ewers. Administrative officer—W. 1. Boyle. Chief exhibits specialist —J. KE. Anglim. SECRETARY’S REPORT VII In charge of Taxidermy.—W. M. Perrygo. Assistant chief exhibits specialists.—B. S. Bory, R. O. Hower, B. W. Lawless, Jr. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: R. P. Multhauf, head curator. Division of Physical Sciences: R. P. Multhauf, acting curator. Division of Mechanical and Civil Engineering: R. M. Vogel, curator in charge; HE. A. Battison, associate curator. Division of Transportation: H. I, Chapelle, curator; K. M. Perry, J. H. White, Jr., associate curators. Division of Electricity: R. P. Multhauf, acting curator. Division of Medical Sciences: J. B. Blake, curator; S. K. Hamarneh, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES: P. W. Bishop, head curator. Division of Textiles: Grace L. Rogers, associate curator in charge. Division of Ceramics and Glass: P. V. Gardner, associate curator in charge. Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator; Eugene Ostroff, F. O. Griffith, associate curators. Division of Manufactures and Heavy Industries: P. W. Bishop, acting curator; C. O. Houston, Jr., associate curator. Division of Agriculture and Forest Products: FE. C. Kendall, associate curator in charge. DEPARTMENT OF Civizt History: R. H. Howland, head curator; P. C. Welsh, associate curator; Arlene P. Kringold, assistant curator. Division of Political History: W. E. Washburn, curator; Mrs. Margaret Brown Klapthor, associate curator; Mrs. Anne W. Murray, H. R. Collins, assistant curators. Division of Cultural History: C. Malcolm Watkins, curator; Rodris C. Roth, associate curator; Cynthia L. Adams, J. N. Pearce, assistant curators; Anthony Hathaway, junior curator. Division of Philately and Postal History: G. T. Turner, associate curator in charge; F. J. McCall, associate curator; C. H. Scheele, assistant curator. Division of Numismatics: Viadimir Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator in charge; Mrs. Elvira Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator. DEPARTMENT OF ARMED Forces History: M. L. Peterson, head curator. Division of Military History: H. M. Howell, curator; C. R. Goins, Jr., associate curator. Division of Naval History: P. KK. Lundeberg, associate curator in charge. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Director.—¥. H. H. Roberts, Jr. Anthropologist.—H. B. Collins, Jr. Ethnologists.—W. C. Sturtevant, W. L. Chafe. River Basin Surveys.—F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director; R. L. Stephenson, Chief, Missouri Basin Project. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—F. L. Whipple. Assistant Director.—C. W. Tillinghast. Astronomers.—G. A. Bakos, G. Colombo, G. H. Conant, Jr., L. Goldberg, I. G. Izsak, Y. Kozai, K. Lassovszky, J. Slowey, P. E. Zadunaisky. Mathematicians.—R. E. Briggs, D. A. Lautman. Physicists —R. J. Davis, BH. L. Fireman, F. Franklin, O. Gingerich, M. Grossi, P. W. Hodge, L. G. Jacchia, M. Krook, R. E. McCrosky, R. B. Riggs, Jr., O. Rustgi, A. Skalafuris, R. B. Southworth, D. Tilles, C. A. Whitney. vil ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Geodesists.—J. Rolff, G. Veis. Geologist.—J. Wood. TABLE MouNTAIN, CALIF., FIELD STATION.—A. G. Froiland, physicist. DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: Chief.—W. H. Klein. Plant physiologists—J. L. Edwards, V. B. Elstad, L. Loercher, L. Price. Biophysicist—W. Shropshire. Biochemist.—M. Margulies. Cytogeneticist—R. L. Latterell. Electronic Engineer.—J. H. Harrison. Instrument maker.—D. G. Talbert. NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Director.—T. M. Beggs. Associate curator.—Rowland Lyon. SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE.—Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope, Chief. FREER GALLERY OF ART Director.— A. G. Wenley. Assistant Director.—J. A. Pope. Head curator, Near Eastern Art——Richard Ettinghausen. Curator, Japanese Art.—H. P. Stern. Associate curator, Chinese Art.—J. F. Cahill. Head curator, Laboratory.—R. J. Gettens. NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Advisory Board: Leonard Carmichael, Chairman. Maj. Gen. Brooke Allen, U.S. Air Force. Rear Adm. P. D. Stroop, U.S. Navy. Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle. Grover Loening. Director.—P. S. Hopkins. Head curator and historian.—P. E. Garber. Associate curators.—L. S. Casey, W. M. Male, K. BE. Newland. Junior curator.—R. B. Meyer. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—T. H. Reed. Associate Director.— J. L. Grimmer. Veterinarian—James F. Wright. CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA Resident Naturalist—M. H. Moynihan. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE Chief.—J. A. Collins. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Trustees: EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. DEAN Rusk, Secretary of State. Dovucias DIL1on, Secretary of the Treasury. LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. F. LamMMor BELIn. SECRETARY'S REPORT Ix Trustees—Continued JoHN HAy WHITNEY. CHESTER DALE. Pau MELLON. Rusu H. Kress. President.—CHESTER DALE. Vice President,—PavuL MELLON. Secretary-Treasurer— HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. Director.— JOHN WALKER. Administrator. —ERNEST R. FEIDLER. General Counsel.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS, Chief Curator.—Prrry B. Cort. x» *¢ #& 8 Honorary Research Associates, Collaborators, and Fellows OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY John H. Graf UniTEp STATES NaTIONAL MusEUM MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Anthropology J. M. Campbell, Archeology. F. M. Setzler, Anthropology. N. M. Judd, Archeology. H. Morgan Smith, Archeology. H. W. Krieger, Ethnology. W. W. Taylor, Jr., Archeology. Betty J. Meggers, Archeology. W. J. Tobin, Physical Anthropology. Zoology Doris H. Blake, Insects. W. L. Jellison, Insects. J. Bruce Bredin, Biology. Allen McIntosh, Mollusks. M. A. Carriker, Insects. J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates. Ailsa M. Clark, Marine Invertebrates. C. F. W. Muesebeck, Insects. C. J. Drake, Insects. W. L. Schmitt, Marine Invertebrates. Herbert Friedmann, Birds. Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology. D. C. Graham, Biology. R. E. Snodgrass, Insects. H. H. Hobbs, Jr., Marine Invertebrates. | T. EH. Snyder, Insects. A. B. Howell, Mammals. H. K. Townes, Insects. ¥. M. Hull, Insects. Alexander Wetmore, Birds. Laurence Irving, Birds. Mildred 8. Wilson, Copepod Crustacea. Botany C. R. Benjamin, Fungi. Kittie F. Parker, Phanerogams. Agnes Chase, Grasses. J. A. Stevenson, Fungi. E. P. Killip, Phanerogams, W.N. Watkins, Woods. F. A. McClure, Grasses. Geology R. 8. Bassler, Paleontology. C. W. Cooke, Invertebrate Paleontology. R. W. Brown, Paleobotany. W. T. Schaller, Mineralogy. P. E. Cloud, Invertebrate Paleontology x ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Exhibits W. L. Brown. History Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood, Cultural | I. N. Hume, Cultural History. History. FE. W. MacKay, Numismatics. HE. C. Herber, History. Science and Technology Derek J. Price. BurREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY J. P. Harrington. M. W. Stirling. Sister M. Inez Hilger. A. J. Waring, Jr. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY C. G. Abbot. FREER GALLERY OF ART Oleg Grabar. Max Loehr. Grace Dunham Guest. Katherine N. Rhoades. NATIONAL AiR MusEUM Frederick C. Crawford. | John J. Ide. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK EH. P. Walker. Cana ZoNE BIOLocicaL AREA C. C. Soper. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution LEONARD CARMICHAEL For the Year Ended June 30, 1961 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit a report showing the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961. GENERAL STATEMENT Just 115 years ago, Joseph Henry presented to the first Board of Regents of the Institution, at their request, a “Program of Organ- ization of the Smithsonian Institution.” While this document was being formulated, Henry was still a professor at Princeton and actively engaged in teaching and experimental work in physics. He was a man of broad influence. His eminence in science had already led his contemporaries to describe him as being next to Franklin in the list of great American physical scientists. The program that he outlined for the Smithsonian was so good that he was almost at once offered the position of Secretary of the Institution. After much hesitation he accepted the post and spent the next 32 years skillfully putting into practice and developing the plan that he had evolved. Today, as we look at Henry’s program for the Smithsonian and study the steps that he took to give it reality, we are struck by his wisdom and especially by his foresight. Before writing the basic program, Henry acquainted himself with the life and the attitudes of the distinguished English scientist, James Smithson, whose bequest established the Institution. This study led Henry to place great emphasis on the words Smithson himself had used to describe the objective of his establishment, that it should be “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” It is almost startling to note, in spite of intervening wars and many social and economic changes, that the constructive activities of the Smithsonian Institution in 1961 can still accurately be subsumed under the headings of the zncrease and diffusion of knowledge as directed by Smithson and as made a reality by Joseph Henry. 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 By means of research publications, popular publications, museum activities, lectures, international exchange of scientific documents, — and a voluminous correspondence, the Institution during the current year, as in Henry’s time, has effectively diffused knowledge. By investigations in a wide range of fields, the Smithsonian has also continued the research for which it has long been world-famous and that has increased the true sum of human knowledge. It can there- fore be said with assurance that the current year has been outstanding in the two main activities which both Smithson and Henry saw as fundamental at the Smithsonian. Much progress was made during the year on the new buildings that will soon help in a most basic way these great twin objectives. Con- struction progressed on the additional monumental building of the Institution which when completed will house and display the notable collections of the Smithsonian in the fields of history and technology. The laying of the cornerstone of this building, with appropriate cere- monies, took place on May 19. Work was also begun on the building of the long-needed East Wing of the Natural History Building. De- tails of these building operations are given on later pages of this report. Good progress was also made in the continuing gradual renovation of all exhibits now displayed in existing Smithsonian buildings. It may be appropriate and useful to recapitulate here the work that has been completed in this great program since it began some eight years ago, inasmuch as such a summary has not previously been pre- sented in any annual report of the Institution. 1. FOSSIL PLANTS AND INVERTEBRATES The new Hall of Fossil Plants and Invertebrate Animals shows in a modern series of artistically arranged exhibits the scientific record of the early development of life on this planet. At the very beginning of the hall care is taken to show and explain what a fossil is, what animals and plants have been found as fossils, how animals become entombed in rocks, and how the geologic time scale was formed. A special case displays what may well be the oldest fossil known. Visitors see not only some of the Smithsonian’s outstanding fossil preparations but also full-scale reproductions by means of colored models of typical groups of the plants and animals that lived all over the globe in the warm seas of millions of years ago. An exhibit called “Giants of the Past” shows some of the largest. known invertebrate fossils. As in all modern Smithsonian exhibits, this hall displays only a small fraction of the total collections of fossil plants and inverte- brates that belong to the Institution. Those selected for public display are shown in such a way as to give each visitor a vivid, interesting, and accurate introduction to the basic science of paleontology. The SECRETARY'S REPORT 3 remaining collections in this, as in all fields, are available for study by qualified students. 2. FOSSIL FISHES AND AMPHIBIANS The Hall of Fossil Fishes, Amphibians, and Primitive Reptiles displays selections from the Smithsonian’s superb collections of these fossil creatures which represent the most primitive groups of back- boned animals. Here are many actual skeletons of some of these great ancient animals that ruled the land and the seas before modern ani- mals evolved. This hall portrays in a particularly clear way the development of jaws and the anatomical changes related to the transi- tion from life in water to life on the land. A habitat group illustrates for the visitor what some of these animals were actually like when they ranged the globe. A life-size diorama shows conflict between two kinds of pelycosaurs, or fin-backed reptiles, as might have hap- pened 260 million years ago. 8. PREHISTORIC MAMMALS In the Hall of the Age of Mammals in North America lifelike dioramas and scientifically accurate and artistically significant murals recreate a mammalian world that existed before modern man ap- peared. Here are shown skeletons of some of the marine and land mammals that swam, climbed, ran, or even flew millions of years ago. To give but one example, in a well-lighted case is the complete fossil skeleton of a 55-foot-long primitive whale. The remarkable series of skeletons exhibited in this hall were painstakingly collected by Smith- sonian scientists in the field over many years and were then skillfully prepared for display in the museum laboratory of the Institution. 4. GEMS AND MINERALS The Smithsonian Institution has one of the world’s great collections of minerals. Competent observers declare that the Smithsonian’s new Hall of Minerals is the best single exhibition of its kind in the world. The immediately adjacent Gem Room is also spoken of as the best exhibition of gems on public display in the United States. Thousands of specimens, many of them of great rarity and beauty, are featured in cases at an ideal height and so lighted as to show colors properly. The galleries are arranged so that the student of mineralogy can learn about both the crystalline structures of min- erals and the chemical composition of the specimens displayed. But the hall is also significant from an esthetic and natural-history point of view for persons interested in minerals and gems as beautiful ob- jects rather than as basic specimens for the science of mineralogy. One dramatic case shows selected minerals under ultraviolet light, which causes them to fluoresce with glows of many different colors. 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Here too, by the use of a rotating disk, the radioactivity of a natural uranium ore is demonstrated. This hall displays only 3 percent of the total Smithsonian’s mineral collection, which has been gradually assembled by transfer to the In- stitution of minerals collected by other Government agencies, by pur- chases made possible by the expenditure of funds given to the Smithsonian exclusively for this purpose, and by gifts of minerals and gems by many citizens, not only of America but also of countries throughout the world. In the Gem Room in a specially constructed safe is the Hope Diamond, the largest deep blue diamond in the world. Because of its rarity and aura of romantic mystery it is of intense interest to visitors. 5. THE JADE ROOM Immediately adjoining the Gem Hall is a room devoted to a collec- tion of carved jade given to the Smithsonian in 1958 by the executors of the estate of the late Mrs. Maud Monel Vetlesen. This collection shows many large and beautifully carved jade objects from the 17th and 18th centuries. Many objects displayed here, such as the jade and gold scepters of old imperial China, are world famous. Adjacent to the Jade Room is a new but still temporary display of outstanding examples of meteorites from the Institution’s large collec- tion of these natural objects that so unpredictably come to the earth from outer space. 6. LATIN AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY The Hall of Latin American Archeology brings together a unified range of important objects selected from the Smithsonian’s extensive study collections of articles made by inhabitants of Central and South America before the coming of Columbus. The exhibits portray the wide range of early cultures in Latin America from those of simple hunting and fishing people to the high civilizations of the Incas, Mayas, and Aztecs. The emphasis of this hall is given to cultural development and the interchange of material objects by Indians before the advent of Europeans. The great accomplishments of pre-Columbian Indians in developing a number system, a calendar, and the cultivation of plants are shown. Some of the stone sculpture is remarkably modern in its feeling and execution. Here, as in all other new Smithsonian halls, the visitor is not presented with ponderous cases of the almost end- lessly repeated ceramic, stone, gold, silver, and other objects that are in the possession of the Institution. This old, so-called “visual storage,” method of exhibition has for good reasons been abandoned. The objects on public display today are carefully chosen to give a coherent picture of each topic under consideration. Such general SECRETARY’S REPORT 5 instruction cannot be conveyed to the nonexpert visitor by case after case of almost identical artifacts. It should be added parenthetically that from the standpoint of scientific American archeology and ethnology the study collections of the Smithsonian are perhaps even more important than the collec- tions on public display. Each year these study collections are becoming organized in a more accessible way, so that they may be used effectively by qualified research scientists. 7. NORTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY The Hall of North American Archeology displays selected objects from the collections of the Smithsonian dealing with prehistoric cultures of the Eskimo and the American Indians of the far North, the North Pacific coast, California, and the Southwest. The visitor gains a synoptic view of different styles of life of human beings in these areas of the continent in the centuries before the coming of the white man. Outstanding exhibits deal with primitive methods of quarrying, mining, making artifacts of stone, cultivating crops, and developing ornaments, household utensils, and many varieties of carved and sculptured pipes used in smoking tobacco. The objects displayed in this one new hall were selected from cataloged collections which number over 600,000 items. A second North American Indian Hall, which will show the prehistoric cultures of other North Ameri- can Indians, is now being prepared for public display. 8. NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS This anthropological hall shows typical examples of the life char- acteristic of the native peoples in both North America and South America. Large glass-sided rooms have been installed depicting out- standing patterns of behavior of particular Indian tribes from Cal- ifornia, the Southwest, and south to the Fuegians at the lowest tip of South America. Here full-scale figures prepared under the direction of expert physical anthropologists and modeled by skillful sculptors illustrate ways of life considered by anthropologists to be of special significance in relation to each group represented. Some of these world-famous models have been shown in older exhibits at the Smith- sonian for many years, but before the development of the present modern, well-lighted, well-organized presentations many of them were not exhibited to best advantage. The present-day Smithsonian staff owes a debt of gratitude to their skillful and devoted predecessors who as much as 60 years ago created these scientifically correct figures that can now for the first time be displayed adequately. In this hall, also, by means of small dioramas, other typical phases of general life of the Indians of the Caribbean, of California, and of other regions of the continent are portrayed. 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 9, INDIAN AND ESKIMO ARTS AND CUSTOMS The American Indian Hall dealing with the Eskimo and with the Indians of the Eastern woodlands, the Great Plains, and the North Pacific coast differs markedly from the one just described. In this hall or series of halls are displayed notable items from the Smith- sonian’s vast study collections which preserve for scientists hundreds of thousands of objects or artifacts of the tribes here considered. Many of the objects shown here in the beautifully lighted and care- fully labeled cases are unduplicated elsewhere in the world. ‘Today in the art world much is said of the importance of primitive sculpture and painting, but the work of the American Indians has not always been emphasized. In this hall one sees masks and figures that well illustrate the deep artistic feelings of their creators. The Smith- sonian, as the central museum of the United States, has long been the repository for ccllections of Indian objects belonging to the Govern- ment and dating back even into the colonial period. The Institution also preserves hundreds of thousands of objects collected by the great Western explorers of our young country. Army officers on isolated posts in the old West also were valued collectors for the Smithsonian. Objects from these and other sources have through the years been carefully cataloged, protected, and preserved at the Smithsonian. In this Hall of Indian and Eskimo Arts and Customs many of these priceless treasures are on public display for the first time. In one case are originals by George Catlin selected from the 450 paintings of this master in the collection of the Smithsonian. One of these paint- ings, for example, shows, almost as a modern color photograph would, Indians quarrying red pipestone to use in making ceremonial tobacco pipes. Thus in the same case the visitor can see examples of completed pipes as well as Catlin’s on-the-spot painting showing exactly how Indians, who were then hardly influenced at. all by Euro- peans, carried on this skillful work. It is interesting to note that the soapstone quarried here is scientifically called “catlinite” in honor of the artist who painted the very pictures here on display. In this hall is shown an unusual example of a Great Plains tepee. This large, portable living establishment of skins, like many other specimens at the Smithsonian, was first displayed at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, at the close of which 66 freight car loads of important specimens were brought to the Smithsonian for permanent preservation. When this hall was being set up this tepee was still wrapped in old Philadelphia newspapers of the 1870’s. This fact dramatically illustrates how important the present renovation of Smithsonian exhibits is for the American people and for visitors to our shores. As a result of these new displays, many of the great treasures of the Nation for the first time can be studied and under- SECRETARY'S REPORT 7 stood by the millions of Americans of the present generation who come in ever-increasing numbers to the museum. 10. THE WORLD OF MAMMALS Scientifically, the Smithsonian has sometimes been called the Na- tion’s biological bureau of standards. It has been given this name because in the Smithsonian’s collections zoological and botanical specimens are used every day by hundreds of scientists for compari- son and identification of new or unknown specimens. In connection with this work, for example, the Institution has developed one of the great collections of the furs of mammals of the world. Many of these pelts are kept in special storage rooms at low temperature for scientific study. In the new World of Mammals Hall, however, the visitor has an opportunity to see and study, in many instances in habitat placements, some of the most interesting and important mam- mals of the globe. These specimens are not presented monotonously as one “stuffed” animal after another in case after case. Rather, they are displayed so as to teach the basic principles of biology that are related to nutrition, locomotion, evolution, ecology, and survival. Here the student of zoology can see the many different ways in which the mammals of the world have adapted themselves to tropic heat and arctic snows. The ecological approach of many of these displays gives new significance to the exhibits that they present. Some of the groups of animals are dramatically arranged. Changing lights, for example, make it possible for the visitor to see first how lions view their prey, and then how the would-be prey, in this case zebras, view their would-be predators. Many of the great African mammals dis- played were collected by President Theodore Roosevelt during his history-making African Expedition of 1909-10, sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution. 11. NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS In the hall just described, emphasis is given to mammals of the world exclusive of the great North American mammals. In this specifically North American Mammal Hall is a series of 12 large habitat groups showing the great and now often very rare wild ani- mals of the Northern Hemisphere of America. Each of these large exhibits not only shows numbers of specimens of such animals as bison, elk, moose, and bear but also presents each group, often show- ing both adult and young animals, against a skillfully painted back- ground of the terrain typical of the habitat of the animal. The mounted specimens in the foreground are shown in settings of care- fully reproduced trees, rocks, and other natural items. The rapid restriction of the range of some of these great animals, and even their 625325—62—_-3 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 virtual extinction, make it important to show here each of these groups. Species such as bighorn sheep and wolves, for example, now occupy in the wild state only a fraction of the area that was once theirs when the continent was first known to European settlers. This presenta- tion is important in zoological training. It gives a record of ani- mals that. played a large part in providing through their furs much of the wealth of colonial America as well as food and clothing for the pioneers of the new land. 12. BIRDS OF THE WORLD Ornithology is one of man’s oldest scientific interests. This is at- tested by the frequent reference to birds in the Bible and in the writ- ings of ancient classical authors. The Smithsonian possesses one of the world’s great collections of birds. The new Bird Hall of the Institution has been organized to show the principal birds of the world in natural, effective, and pleasing settings. But the hall goes far beyond a mere presentation of specimens. It depicts the biology of bird life in relation to feeding habits, aerial locomotion, nest build- ing, and the rearing of young. On the ceiling are lifelike paintings of birds in flight so skillfully done that they seem to be seen in full round of three-dimensional form as if arrested in flight. A unique case called “Birds and Man” portrays the role of birds in mythology and art. In addition to the displays in this hall, the Smithsonian has, of course, in its study collections, bird specimens from almost every geographical region of the globe. 13. LIFE IN EARLY AMERICA The Hall of Life in Early America is an easy transition from the characteristics of the Indian population of the country and the mam- mals and birds of America to the life of early European settlers before the mechanization of the industrial revolution changed the American way of life. It shows the early life of the European settlers in America by demonstrating the tools and furniture that they used. For many years generous donors have brought together at the Smith- sonian large collections of objects used by Americans in what may be called the era of the handcrafts. In the present hall are displayed selected items from these collections, including implements and fur- niture that the colonists brought with them from England, Ireland, Germany, Spain, Scandinavia, and many other countries. Next is shown the adaptation that was made on these shores of these imported objects as a new and truly American culture gradually emerged. One may see an entire house built in New England about 1690. In this building, which was taken down board by board and brick by brick and transported to Washington and reassembled, are objects that were actually used during the early period when the house was SECRETARY’S REPORT 9 inhabited by the artisans who built it. Many of them were collected and given to the Smithsonian by the donor of the house, Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood. In this hall are shown other rooms depicting styles of life in different colonies—for example, a small but elegant paneled room of a Virginia gentleman. The visitor may see also a notable mahogany Philadelphia highboy and a number of cases of fine silver made in the South, Pennsylvania, New York, and New England. American forged iron, glass, pottery, pewter, and textiles are all dis- played. Another feature is an entire schoolroom of an early period showing the simple desks and equipment of elementary education in the formative days of our country. This hall has been visited by millions each year since its opening. Not only are its displays signifi- cant for Americans, who can learn from them how their predecessors of European stock lived in pre-industrial revolution days, but also the hall is especially interesting and important for foreign visitors, who may absorb something of the evolution of the present style of life of the United States during the early difficult and formative years of the country. 14. GOWNS OF THE FIRST LADIES The First Ladies Hall in a sense carries forward in one special area ~ the same philosophy shown in the large American cultural history hall just described. Here, ina series of special rooms, reproduced from various periods at the White House, are dresses actually worn by the wife or the official hostess of each President of the United States. In developing this series an effort was made to put in place furniture and other objects actually used in the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia before the White House was built and in the White House itself in different periods. ‘This series is especially appropriate in this truly national museum setting of the Smithsonian. For example, the room in which the dresses of Martha Washington, Dolley Madison, and Abigail Adams are exhibited contains objects that were owned and used by President and Mrs. Washington. The visitor views this full series of simulated White House rooms from a setting treated in a dignified manner to suggest the White House itself. A large and beautiful early Victorian chandelier hanging in the middle of the visitors’ space does much to enhance this atmosphere. In small wall cases are other objects related to the presidential families of America, including fine examples of White House china of various periods, jewelry, and decorations used by the Presidents and their wives throughout the history of the country. 15. TEXTILE MACHINERY AND FIBERS The Textile Machinery and Fiber Hall shows the evolution of man’s efforts to make materials of plant and animal fibers from prehistoric times to the present. It supplements well the First Ladies Hall 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 because it demonstrates how dress fabrics themselves and many other textiles are created. It also demonstrates how the techniques of textile production have changed through the years. The visitor begins by looking at spindles recovered by archeologists from the sites of early human habitations. He then sees the development of more and more effective machinery for the manufacture of textiles. Some notable “firsts” are shown, for example, the actual model made by Whitney himself of the cotton gin and the first American spinning frame constructed by Slater in Rhode Island in the 18th century. Visitors may see a most rare and beautiful dress made years ago entirely of silk from silkworms grown in America—the silk fibers processed in America and then hand sewn in America. Modern synthetic metallic and glass fibers and a wide variety of the textiles and textile machines that have made possible the modern multiplicity of industrial and decorative fabrics are included in the displays. One of the notable exhibits of this hall is a Jacquard loom more than a century and a half old which has been put in perfect working order by Mr. Arthur Wullschleger, who gave it to the Institution. This wonderful punch-card device weaves tapestries and patterned bro- cades without requiring a laborious setting by human hands. The student of the history of ideas looks at this machine with surprise as he wonders why such a device which uses punch cards that are very similar in size and shape to modern punch cards, was not applied to other industrial programing tasks until many years after the Jacquard loom had proved so well its practical usefulness. In this textile hall are many typical forms of textiles arranged so that each visitor may touch and feel them. In museums visitors expect to see signs reading “Please Do Not Touch.” Here the Smithsonian has reversed the injunction to “Please Touch.” Experts in textiles know that only by feeling fabrics can the visitor actually gain a satis- factory knowledge of different types of materials. 16. TEXTILE PROCESSING Immediately above the textile hall just described is another new hall devoted to the display of textiles used in human clothing, house- hold decoration, and many industrial functions. This hall shows the history of sewing machines and other devices used in processing the textiles of civilization. Here one may also see illustrated the different types of dyeing and printing that have been used through the years for the embellishment of textiles and collections of great textile types such as lace and embroidery. No one who thinks of our modern world can fail to realize the role that the sewing machines of factory and home have played in the emancipation of women from monotonous toil. The collection of these interesting and effective machines at the SECRETARY'S REPORT 11 Smithsonian is one of the best in the world. The thoughtful visitor who studies them learns not only a mechanical but also a sociological lesson of importance. 17. POWER MACHINERY In the Hall of Power Machinery the visitor sees how human beings have progressed from the use of their own puny muscles to the great power devices of our industrial age. Here original machines and patent models illustrate the contribution of engineers and inventors such as Stevens, Corliss, Otto, and Diesel. By diagrams and pictures, waterwheels and windmills are shown. Included is a working model of a classical heat engine that was used to open and close temple doors in ancient Greece. Major displays demonstrate the invention and the development of the steam engine portrayed by a series of working models of great early steam engines which may be activated by each visitor at the push of a button. Also on display are the beginnings and indeed the full development of the internal combustion engine and some of the early devices of Edison and others that show the rise of the use of electricity as a power source. A permanent display of the role of atomic energy in peacetime activity and defense is not yet open to the public, but a number of temporary exhibits on this subject have been presented from time to time by the Smithsonian. 18. FARM MACHINERY In the Hall of Farm Machinery are shown a selection of the imple- ments and devices which man has contrived to further his basic work of securing food from the soil. The emphasis is upon the history of American agricultural implements. Here, for example, the visitor may trace the evolution of the plow as used by North American settlers from Europe from the earliest days to the present. One interesting phase of this development shows how President Thomas Jefferson used his mathematical and scientific knowledge to make one of the first real improvements in the plow in several thousand years. Also shown are some of the “historic firsts” of the more complex agriculture machinery which has made America famous throughout the world. These exhibits show how the development and use of labor-saving machinery for planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops helped solve the problems of feeding America’s rapidly growing urban population after the Civil War. 19. PRINTING ARTS Another specialized group of industrial devices is shown in the new Printing Arts Hall. The gradual development of pictorial and text printing is illustrated in these displays. The famous printing press used by Benjamin Franklin in London in 1726 is here. The emphasis 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 is upon the various processes by means of which printing blocks and later movable type have been used down through the centuries, to- gether with the techniques and tools involved. Here is also demon- strated how black-and-white and color pictorial prints have been made, especially in recent years. Examples are shown of the work of some of the great printmakers of the world, including such outstand- ing artists as Rembrandt and Diirer. In the study collections of this division are examples of the work of many of the great printmakers of the last six centuries. 20. MILITARY HISTORY The Military History Hall is divided into two large sections, one devoted to the United States Navy and Marine Corps, the other to the United States Army. Elaborate exhibits of the development of avia- tion, both civil and military, are shown in the National Air Museum to which reference is made below. The Naval-Marine Corps Hall shows the evolution, by the use of models and contemporary prints and charts, of the Navy from the first commissioned vessel of 1775 to the atomic submarine. Many portraits and memorabilia of the great Naval and Marine leaders of our Nation are exhibited. One who studies the ex- hibits of this hall can clearly see how the rise of the modern Navy is related to the evolution of sources of power for naval vessels as illustrated in the nearby Power Hall. Here also can be seen the ves- sels and equipment that led to the emergence of the sea strength of the United States from the small sailing craft of the colonies to the present Navy of this country as a preeminent world power. The change from wooden to steel warships and the development of modern naval armaments are portrayed. Also shown are a few selected ex- amples of objects recovered from the ocean floor by the use of the new techniques of marine archeology. The hall showing the rise of the American Army begins with ex- amples of uniforms and equipment of colonial troops. At the entrance is placed the actual field uniform worn by General Washington when he was conducting his great campaigns of the War of Independence. The visitor can also follow the evolution of American arms and equip- ment down through the years. Attention is given to present-day uniforms and the arms used in each of the great wars of the Nation. Outstanding objects here include a beautiful bronze cannon brought to the colonies by General Lafayette, uniforms of both Union and Confederate officers of the Civil War, General Sheridan’s horse on which he made his famous ride, a complete display of modern military missiles, including those with atomic warheads, and a very complete display of Atmerican military heraldry including the battle ribbons of all the Nation’s great Army regiments, SECRETARY’S REPORT 13 21. NUMISMATICS The Numismatic Hall, or Hall of Monetary History and Medallic Art, can best be described as an amazingly complete world museum of the history of money. Here are shown real examples of the first coins ever minted in ancient Greece. Following the case that shows these very early coins are others in which a visitor can see illustrated the spread of coinage throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. Also shown are means of exchange other than coins and samples of the gold and other monetary forms of non-European nations. The special feature is the great collection of colonial American and United States coins and paper money for which the Smithsonian has long been famous. The newly opened presentation of coins has a com- pletely novel objective, for it is organized to teach the history and geography of the world in relation to money. Many of the out- standing gold pieces from the Institution’s great Straub collection are on display, as are also coins of the recently presented Du Pont collection ef Russian money. Many examples in the well-lighted eases are from the United States mint collection, which is now part of the over-all Smithsonian collection. Examples of almost every coin ever struck in America are thus on view or in the study collec- tions of the Institution. The visitor to this hall who comes to it with intellectual curiosity will learn not only the fascinating story of coinage, sculpture, design, and medallic art through the centuries, but also much else that is important in the history of economics and even of civilization itself. 22. HALL OF HEALTH Years ago, national representatives of American medical organ- izations urged the Smithsonian to establish a hall of health. For many years the original hall was open, but gradually it became shabby and outmoded. The modern Health Hall at the Smithsonian, on the contrary, presents the basic anatomical and physiological processes of human beings as they are known to modern science. The hall shows something of the mechanisms by means of which electronics and other technologies assist the physician in measuring and record- ing the human heart beat, blood pressure, respiration, visual and auditory acuity, and the like. Here the visitor can watch his own heart beat on a cathode-ray tube by holding a receiver on his chest. In this hall is located a fascinating transparent human figure which by a series of lights and a concomitant electronically reproduced lecture shows in a vivid and accurate way the principal organ systems of the human frame and how they work. 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 23. HISTORY OF MEDICINE, DENTISTRY, AND PHARMACY Immediately adjacent to the Hall of Health is the Hall of Medi- cine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy, where the evolution of many of the devices used by physicians, surgeons, dentists, and pharmacists down through the years is shown. The development of such now common aids to the physician’s practice as the stethoscope and blood-pressure instrument is traced. Some of the more elaborate devices of modern medicine and surgery such as the artificial heart and the X-ray ap- paratus are also exhibited. Here too is displayed a complete medieval pharmacy with an almost unique and very beautiful collection of early pharmaceutical ceramics and glassware. THE NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM Of all the notable renovations of exhibit presentations at the Smithsonian, none has been more outstanding than the recent trans- formation of the small temporary Air and Space Building. The National Air Museum, a special unit of the Institution, has in its custody probably the world’s greatest collection of aircraft and instruments and objects related to aviation. Nearly all the great treasures of this museum are in storage. Some of its outstanding possessions, such as the first Wright plane and the Lindbergh plane, are on display in the Arts and Industries Building. The main museum displays of aviation, however, are now shown in a building built as a temporary test center for Liberty Motors during the First World War. This galvanized-iron building on Independence Avenue behind the original Smithsonian Building has been renovated in such a way that the new exhibits installed in it can be moved without loss to a new and permanent building when such a building is constructed. Even the present “temporary” structure in its renovated form gives a vivid demonstration of the public’s interest in aviation. This small, far from commodious structure has now become one of the great attractions of Washington. During the first 12 months after this renovated building was opened, more than a million visitors sought it out and studied its exhibits portraying man’s conquest of air and space. Here are shown a few examples from the Smithsonian’s pos- sibly unrivaled collection of kites. The basic principles of the aerial navigation of birds as studied by the first aviation scientists are displayed. In the center of the building are a few of the actual early aircraft of peculiar significance in the history of aviation. Models of hundreds of types of balloons and heavier-than-air craft are shown. Here also are presented many early and important types of aircraft engines. One of the notable exhibits is a collection of the great early liquid-fuel rockets made by America’s, and indeed the world’s, pioneer scientific student of devices for the exploration of space, the late SECRETARY'S REPORT 15 Dr. Robert H. Goddard. The unique specimens of Goddard’s work were given to the Smithsonian by Mrs. Goddard in tribute to the early support that the Smithsonian gave to Dr. Goddard’s scientific work. Other more modern space-flight specimens on display are the first recovered American Space Flight nose cone, the Able-Baker space flight apparatus, the first recovered orbiting satellite (Discoverer XIII), and many other “firsts” of modern air-space science. Immediately outside this temporary building are displayed not models, but actual examples, of present-day rockets, including a United States Army Jupiter C, a United States Navy Vanguard, a Navy Polaris, and an Air Force Atlas. In the paragraphs above reference has been made to the present progress of the renovation of exhibits at the Smithsonian. Mention could also be made to improvements and better lighting used in the display of the outstanding collections of oriental objects and paintings at the Smithsonian’s Freer Gallery of Art. The National Collection of Fine Arts of the Smithsonian has also improved some of its tem- porary galleries. Notable new installations, including rooms for the decorative arts, have been opened at the National Gallery of Art, which is a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution. The summaries that have been presented in the immediately pre- ceding pages have been given to bring the reader of this report up to date in regard to one aspect of the work of the Smithsonian. This is a report of progress. It suggests something of the accomplishments of the past 8 years in transforming the formerly old and then sadly outmoded museum presentations at the Smithsonian Institution into modern effective and educational exhibits. During 1953, the year in which this work began, 3,429,429 visitors came to the Smithsonian buildings on the Mall. In the year covered by the present report, as noted elsewhere, 7,103,474 came to these same buildings. There can be no doubt that the renovations summarized here have met warm public acceptance. This whole great program of renovation has been possible only because of the enthusiastic support that has been given to it by the Board of Regents of the Institution, by the Congress, and by the labors of the Smithsonian’s devoted and skillful staff of curators and exhibit workers. Because of this work it is now beginning to be possible for many millions of American citizens and for foreign visitors also to see the great national treasures of the Smithsonian in an orderly and also in an educationally significant way. Other new halls are in the process of development and will be open to the public as soon as the complex work of constructing them can be completed by the small staff of the Institution. These other new halls include a Hall of Dinosaurs, a Hall of Pleistocene Mammals, a 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Comparative Anatomy Hall, a large Hall of Botany and Wood, a Hall of Ocean Life, a Hall of Reptiles and Fishes, a Hall of Man em- phasizing the methods and accomplishments of physical anthropology, and a Classical Archeology Hall, a Peoples of Asia and Africa Hall, a Peoples of the Pacific Hall, a second North American Archeology Hall, a second Geology Hall, and a Hall of Insects of the World. Work on still other major displays of collections already in storage at the Smithsonian is underway so that they may be presented in the new Museum of History and Technology Building when this structure is completed. In introducing the present report, reference was made to the em- phasis given by James Smithson and Joseph Henry to the twin ideas of the diffusion and the increase of knowledge among men. Although the museum displays described in the foregoing pages constitute an important means of diffusing scientific and technologica] knowledge, the Institution employs many other means to promote this diffusion. One of these has traditionally been publications, and during the year represented by this report the publication program was advanced by 97 titles issued under Smithsonian imprint; and nearly 775,000 copies of Smithsonian publications were distributed, an increase of about 18 percent, over the previous year. Details of these publications are given on later pages of the report. It may be pointed out that the publications of the Smithsonian are known worldwide, and the “ex- change publications” that come without charge to Washington in response to Smithsonian publications from scientific research organi- zations all over the world play an important role in maintaining in America a complete library of scientific research. Such a collection is basic in modern American life, not only in national defense but also in the development of the cultural and industrial life of the country. It is difficult in brief compass to describe the research activities of the Institution. The reader of this report, however, is especially urged to note the pages that present the results of research studies conducted during the current year by the Institution. The Astro- physical Observatory of the Smithsonian, for example, is concerned in the development of the science that is basic to a modern understand- ing of astronomy and space. Only a few years ago research in astro- physics seemed interesting but highly theoretical. Today the significance of investigations in this area for our national defense and welfare is recognized everywhere. Research investigations are also conducted in almost all the other specialized divisions of the Institu- tion as reported on later pages of this report. Special emphasis should be given to the fact that it is the research activities of the members of the Institution’s scientific staff that have established its worldwide reputation and won for it academic distinction. SECRETARY’S REPORT TZ THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted an “establishment,” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” THE BOARD OF REGENTS The membership of the Board of Regents remained unchanged except for the new Vice President of the United States, the Honorable Lyndon B. Johnson, who became an ex-oflicio member to succeed the Honorable Richard M. Nixon on January 20, 1961. The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson; members from the Senate: Clinton P. Anderson, J. Wil- liam Fulbright, Leverett Saltonstall; members from the House of Representatives: Frank T. Bow, Overton Brooks, Clarence Cannon; citizen members: John Nicholas Brown, Arthur H. Compton, Robert V. Fleming, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Caryl P. Haskins, and Jerome C. Hunsaker. The usual informal dinner meeting, preceding the annual meeting, was held on January 12, 1961, in the main hall of the Smithsonian Building amid exhibits showing the most recent developments in the work of the Smithsonian bureaus. Col. Howard I. Chapelle spoke on “Description of the American Watercraft Collection”; Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., on “Mammal Survey of Panama”; Dr. T. Dale Stewart on “Reconstructing Heads of Ancient Man”; Dr. Harold P. Stern on “Hokusai in the Freer Gallery of Art”; and Dr. Fred L. Whipple on “Dust in Space.” The annual meeting was held on January 13, 1961. The Secretary presented his published annual report on the activities of the Institu- tion. The Chairman of the Executive and Permanent Committees of the Board, Dr. Robert V. Fleming, gave the financial report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1960. The Regents participated in the ceremonies for the laying of the cornerstone of the Museum of History and Technology on the after- noon of May 19, 1961, and met at 5 o’clock that day in the Regents Room for the spring meeting of the Board. 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 FINANCES A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian private funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, page 221. Funds appropriated to the Insti- tution for its regular operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, totaled $8,114,000. Besides this direct appropriation, the Institution received funds by transfer from other Government agencies as follows: From the District of Columbia for the National Zoological Park, $1,304,000; from the National Park Service, Department of the In- terior, for the River Basin Surveys, $123,895. VISITORS Visitors to the Smithsonian group of buildings on the Mall reached a total of 7,103,474, an all-time high and 608,844 more than the pre- vious year. April 1961 was the month of largest attendance, with 1,082,827; August 1960 second, with 1,051,733; May 1961 third, with 990,230. Table 1 gives a summary of the attendance records for the five buildings; table 2, groups of school children. These figures, when added to the 1,032,340 recorded at the National Gallery of Art bring the year’s total number of visitors at the Institution buildings on the Mall to 8,135,814. TaBLe 1.—Visitors to certain Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June 80, 1961 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Smithsonian Arts and Natural Air and Freer Year and month Building Industries History Space Building Total Building Building Building 1860 Ue ee ee, 151, 286 385, 718 269, 451 1135, 672 | 16, 021 958, 148 ANI CUSt= =. oe 178, 859 365, 810 316, 074 |171, 414 | 19, 576 |1, O51, 7338 September____- 55, 579 153, 369 10352408)" 58; 073) 52, Ose 382, 272 Octobers= = 23. 50, 835 130, 833 112, 431 | 47, 384 8, 079 349, 562 November _- _-_- 50, 864 WI) als L(Goson Agwosl 8, 088 336, 081 December_-_-_-_- 22, 786 58, 899 53, 4389 | 23, 703 4, 608 163, 435 1961 PANMAPY 2 eo - 34, 523 67, 348 73, 588 | 25, 023 5, 419 205, 901 February —_ 24, 812 70, 596 59, 541 | 29, 469 4,428 188, 846 March_._____- 57, 184 157, 668 135; 663 |) 04) flo 8, 645 413, 875 /\o}at eee 154, 793 483, 752 283, 071 |144, 790 | 16, 421 |1, 082, 827 Maye Sat 116, 978 457, 832 286, 067 |115, 758 | 13, 595 990, 230 UNE se 2 s_ ee 126, 027 470, 333 238, 073 |132, 276 | 13, 855 980, 564 Total.22 22 1, 024, 526 |2, 912, 371 |2, 047, 973 |987, 858 |130, 746 |7, 103, 474 SECRETARY'S REPORT 19 TABLE 2.—Groups of school children visiting the Smithsonian Institution during the year ended June 30, 1961 Year and month Number of | Number of Year and month Number of | Number of children groups children groups 1960 1961 {\ Si i are 6, 233 199 |\eJanuary os ee 7, 804 223 Auguste 22.225 3, 896 To ||P Kebriuary222 = —— 12, 510 365 September- _---_- 2, 048 S2*) Marchi oege. 2. 41, 558 1, 004 October22 2 7s2- 13, 061 S627 |\eeAjorilteee eae 2s 85, 084 1, 817 November-_.___-_ 21, 995 ESS7A0) 3 [alia 2 ee eg ee 115, 996 2, 623 December- ----_- 8, 238 2545 || JUNOL a2 ee = aes 44, 650 1, 042 Total.__-| 363, 073 8, 707 Report on the United States National Museum Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi- tion and operations of the U.S. National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961: COLLECTIONS During the year 971,150 specimens were added to the national col- lections and distributed among the eight departments as follows: Anthropology, 19,764; zoology, 369,701; botany, 103,160; geology, 229,676; science and technology, 4,231; arts and manufactures, 5,521; civil history, 237,323; and armed forces history, 1,774. The total number is less than half as many as recorded last year, when an extraor- dinary number of postage stamps, approaching a million and a half, was accessioned. Most of this year’s accessions were acquired as gifts from individuals or as transfers from Government departments and agencies. ‘The complete report on the Museum, published as a sep- arate document, includes a detailed list of the year’s acquisitions, of which the more important are summarized below. Catalog entries in all departments now total 54,963,805. Anthropology.—Through an arrangement with Dr. Ralph S. Solecki, of Columbia University, whereby the Smithsonian Institution sponsored his 1957 expedition to Iraq, the division of archeology re- ceived 8,770 artifacts from Shanidar cave and neighboring sites. In addition to a few specimens from the historic and protohistoric cul- tural periods, the representation is mainly from the proto-Neolithic and the Mousterian, the whole indicating a time span of around 65,000 years. ‘The division also received, by transfer from the River Basin Surveys, 5,153 artifacts collected at numerous prehistoric sites in South Dakota and Wyoming. Mrs. Virginia M. Pollak added to her earlier generous donations a wooden ibis from the Ptolemaic-Roman period of Egypt. Of special interest among the new accessions in the division of ethnology are two rare Chinese scrolls written in the Chinese and Manchurian languages and representing awards in the years 1753 and 1868 for loyal services to the Chinese Government, donated by Dr. David C. Graham, honorary research associate in biology. A late 19th century Chinese four-panel lacquer screen was received from the estate of John T. Owens. The decoration thereon, showing four 20 SECRETARY’S REPORT m1 birds in a natural setting, has been executed by inlaying mother-of- pearl, rose quartz, white and stained ivory, and semiprecious stones. A group of 54 ethnological specimens of Eskimo manufacture, col- lected in Alaska in 1908, was presented by Dr. F. F. Fellows, West Linn, Oreg. A representative collection of 104 smoking pipes, mainly from the Near East, India, China, and Japan, was given by Dr. Leo Stoor, of Cleveland. A good collection of 84 Micronesian objects was obtained in exchange from John H. Brandt, of New York City. Among the rare specimens in this group is a type of necklace from Yap no longer obtainable from the natives. The division of physical anthropology added to its collection of American Negro skeletal remains 14 skulls and a few miscellaneous bones recovered by the District of Columbia coroner, Dr. A. Ma- gruder MacDonald, when an abandoned cemetery near the Calvert Street bridge in Washington was exposed in the course of building operations. The Zoller Laboratory of Dental Anthropology of the University of Chicago presented the division with 11 standard models for classifying crown characters of human deciduous teeth. The mod- els, accompanied by an explanatory manual, were prepared by Dr. Kazuro Hanihara, of Sapporo Medical College, Japan, and are based on a series of 600 subjects representing various racial groups. Zoology.—The division of mammals acquired a total of 4,076 speci- mens, comprising 42 accessions. Dr. Robert E. Kuntz forwarded nearly 1,000 specimens from Formosa and 400 from North Borneo, collected by field parties of U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2. Bernard R. Feinstein, of the Museum staff, working in cooperation with the Army Medical Research and Development Command and the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, sent 600 mammals from South Viet- nam. Dr. Robert Traub forwarded 121 additional specimens col- lected by the U.S. Army Medical Research Unit. Capt. Vernon J. Tipton sent 273 mammals collected in Panama by the Army Preven- tive Medicine Division. E. V. Komarek presented 83 mammals, mostly carnivores, from the southeastern States, as well as an addi- tional lot of 53 small mammals from the Southwest; Russell E. Mum- ford and Ralph D. Kirkpatrick each sent additional mammals from Indiana; and the Virginia State Department of Health, through J. T. Banks and T. M. Mullman, presented 44 mammals collected in the course of epidemiological surveys. The same sources that were responsible for several of the mammal collections referred to above contributed some important accessions for the division of birds. From the lowlands of North Borneo, a series of 512 bird skins was received from the U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No.2. A total of 565 bird skins, 6 alcoholic specimens, and 20 skeletons from South Vietnam resulted from the activities spon- sored by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum and the Army Medical oe ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Research and Development Command. Received by transfer from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were 1,411 bird skins and 6 al- coholic specimens from Formosa. Noteworthy collections received in the division of reptiles and amphibians include 19 salamanders from Alabama, donated by Leslie Hubricht. certerane Aa ayes 3 : ¢ bs Stacker eee tree ty “ a ee 4 w <) ieee ee a OS SSS EN he ES as Ui eed 9 hat Oe 60.25. 60.26. 61.10. 61.11. 60.14. 60.15. 60.27. 60.28. 60.17. 60.21. 60.22. 60.23. 60.31. 61.1- 61.2. 61.4— SECRETARY’S REPORT eet Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, by Hua Yen (1682-1755). Ten album leaves of birds, flowers, ete.; ink and colors on paper. Average dimensions: height, 0.818; width, 0.454. (Illustrated.) Chinese, Ming dynasty, 16th century, dated 1547, by Ch‘iu Ying. Narcissus and flowering apricots in ink and colors on paper. Kakemono: height, 0.495 ; width, 0.246. Chinese, Ming-Ch‘ing dynasty, by Ch’en Hung-shou (1599-1652). Album of eight leaves: landscapes and figures. Signature of artist and one seal plus one collector’s seal on each leaf. Inscriptions (quatrains) by the artist on opposite leaves, each with signature and two seals. Two inscriptions and eight seals on double leaf following paintings; ink and colors on paper. Average dimensions: height, 0.335; width, 0.2738. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, by Kung Hsien (b. ca. 1610, d. 1689). Winter landscape; two seals on painting and two on mount. Album leaf in ink on paper. Height, 0.205; width, 0.340. Indian, third quarter of 16th century (ca. 1560-80), Mughal period, school of Akbar. “Sa‘id arrives with Khish Khurram on the roof of the castle; sees two girls wrestling.” Miniature from Hamza-ndma, executed for Emperor Akbar. One of a set: 49.18 and 60.15. Painting: height, 0.676 ; width, 0.5138. Indian, third quarter of 16th century (ca. 1560-80), Mughal period, school of Akbar. “Umar in disguise of surgeon Mizzmuhil arrives before the Fort of Antalya (?).” Miniature from Hamza-nadma, executed for Emperor Akbar. One of a set: 49.18 and 60.14. Painting: height, 0.673 ; width, 0.512. (Illustrated.) Indian, end of 16th century, Mughal period, school of Akbar. “Prince Salim with a courtier and attendants in a tent.” Painted in gold and colors; framed by gold-flecked borders of various widths to form part of an album. Inscription in devanagari characters on back. Painting: height, 0.170; width, 0.114. Indian, ca. 1595, Mughal period, school of Akbar. “Akbar, enthroned, gives an audience before a pavilion.” Painted in gold and colors. Akbar’s nose and forehead repainted; small piece of pigment below vizier’s mouth chipped off. Framed by inner buff border with floral decoration in gold; outer border rose-colored and gold-specked. Painting: height, 0.261; width, 0.142. Japanese, Ashikaga period, Idealistic Chinese school, 16th century, at- tributed to Gakud. Rocky landscape with wild geese; ink and colors on paper. Kakemono: length, 0.440; width, 0.330. Japanese, early Momoyama period, Tosa school, late 16th century. Battle scene, Fan-shaped; ink, color, and gold leaf on paper. Kakemono: height, 0.245; width, 0.545. Japanese, Edo period, Nanga school, by Ikeno Taiga (1723-76). “One hundred old men gathering for a drinking party’; ink, color, and gold on silk. Makimono: height, 0.538 ; width, 2.923. Japanese, early Ashikaga period, by Kao (fl. in 14th century). Kanzan; ink monochrome on paper. Kakemono: height, 1.025; width, 0.309. Japanese, Edo period, Decorative school, by Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828). “The thirty-six master poets”; ink, colors, and gold on silk. Kakemono: height, 1.361 ; width, 0.677. Japanese, Edo period, Nanga school, by Baiitsu (1789). Landscape. A pair of six-fold screens in ink and slight colors on paper. Painting: height, 1.530; width, 3.556. Japanese, Edo period, Nanga school, by Buson (1716-83). Landscape, 112 61.5. 61.6. 61.8. 60.18. 60.16. 60.29. 61.18. 61.14. 61.15. 61.16. 61.17. 61.18. 61.19. 61.20. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 figures and wind in willows. A pair of six-fold screens in ink and colors on silk. Height, 1.665; width, 3.710. Japanese, Heian period, Buddhist school, 12th century. Nyoirin Kannon; ink, colors, silver, and gold on silk. Kakemono: height, 0.777; width, 0.405. Japanese, Ashikaga period, Tosa school, artist unknown. Utatane Monogatari (The tale of Utatane) ; ink and color on paper. Makimono; height, 0.188; width, 10.873. (Illustrated.) POTTERY Chinese, Shang dynasty. Figure of a crouching stag with horns; fine- grained light buff stoneware; hollow with opening in back; linear designs all over body and head. Height, 0.172; length, 0.175; width, 0.063. Chinese, T‘ang dynasty, San-ts‘ai ware. Figure of a seated man with black beard and Armenian features holding a wine skin; buff stoneware ~ with transparent glaze. Height, 0.882; width, 0.173. (Illustrated.) Chinese, T‘ang dynasty, San-ts‘ai ware. Figure of a standing female; buff stoneware with transparent glaze; finely crackled ; unglazed head shows remains of painting. Height, 0.853 ; width, 0.156. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty. Ovoid vase with tall cylindrical neck; fine- grained white porcelain with transparent glossy glaze decorated in colored enamels over glaze; a landscape with palaces; poem of 14 characters; three simulated seals; four-character Ch‘ien-lung mark in blue enamel on base. Height, 0.196; width, 0.098. Chinese, Ming dynasty, early 15th century. Large dish with plain rim and unglazed base; fine white porcelain with transparent, thick glaze with some orange-peel effect; decorated in underglaze blue; a control landscape with rock, coxcomb, etc., and eight flower and fruit sprays in cavette; outside, “three friends.” Height, 0.095; diameter, 0.680. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, early 18th century (K‘ang-hsi). Dish with rim of interlocking rings; fine white porcelain with transparent glaze, decorated in overglaze famille verte enamels and gold, dragons and floral patterns, iron-red dragon on base. Height, 0.045; width, 0.105. Chinese, T‘ang dynasty. Low round box with cover; creamy white porcelain, medium grain, with transparent, smooth, off-white glaze and no decoration. Height, 0.045; diameter, 0.105. Chinese, Sung dynasty, ting ware. Dish with plain rim bound in brass; fine, off-white porcelain with transparent glaze with teardrops outside. Decorated with fish and lotus plants inside. Height, 0.060; diameter, 0.304. Chinese, Sung dynasty, ting ware. Dish with plain rim bound in copper; fine off-white stoneware with transparent glaze with teardrops outside; decorated with molded bird and flower patterns inside. Height, 0.056; diameter, 0.291. Chinese, Sung dynasty, northern celadon. Bowl with small foot and slightly flaring rim; grayish-brown stoneware with transparent, grayish-green bubbly glaze; molded decoration inside of two babies amid flowering vines. Height, 0.049; diameter, 0.121. Chinese, Sung dynasty, northern celadon. Bowl with small foot and slightly flaring rim ; grayish-brown stoneware with transparent, grayish- green bubbly glaze; decorated inside with molded fish among waves. Height, 0.037; diameter, 0.094. SECRETARY’S REPORT 113 60.30. Japanese, Momoyama period, oribe ware. Tray in the form of two fans with vertical sides and arching handles; coarse, buff stoneware with transparent glaze, decorated with brown, green, and white designs. Over-all height, 0.143; width, 0.2384. 61.9. Japanese Momoyama period, shino ware. Round dish with lip folded in and squarish at the rim; three low loop feet and three spurmarks; rough stoneware with thick, bubbly crackled, mottled reddish-brown and gray glaze; decorated with floral designs in white slip under glaze. Height, 0.057 ; width, 0.170. 61.7. Mesopotamian, 10th century. Bowl of pale yellow-brown luster painted on a tin glaze; the design on the interior is a horseman turned toward the right holding a flag; broken and repaired, but only tiny pieces missing and replaced by plaster. Height, 0.058; diameter, 0.235. 61.21. Persian, mid-12th century, lakabi ware; large platter with carved design of horseman wielding a sword; set against arabesque background. Broken and mended with few missing pieces replaced by plaster. Height, 0.086; diameter, 0.408. REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTION Fifteen Chinese, Japanese, and Korean objects were restored, re- paired, or remounted by T. Sugiura. In addition, one large rubbing was mounted for the University of Michigan and repairs or remount- ing completed for six Japanese screens in private collections. Re- pairs and regilding of 18 frames for American paintings were done outside the Gallery. CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS Changes in exhibitions amounted to 134, as follows: American art: Japanese art: Oiseeee es a see ee eee 18 BRIN GIN PS apse een Ie no 18 Chinese art: Pottery et we seat tS 5 “BS y D117) eres Aen pee Mees See ae 8 Wood sculpture. 2-22 -2.-.- 2 Pan GINO Ss oa ee he a 2| Korean art: LPN gi Oe ee ere 6 BrOnze 2 We te ik ea eee 3 SLone acuiptures —. = 2S 1 5 SVG [RRR A A lite AE DLS, ce iy 7 Christian art: Metalwork: seewe ame a eee: 6 Crystalee eee 1 Paintings «22.2 e ReneS 3 Glasshen Seth fa bin Babyy Boal 2 Pottery: 228 se eet js peer 19 Cold ae ee ts ee 6| Near Eastern art: Indian art: Metalwork 00.08 22 seep So 2 RIGOR oe eee as rey ae 2 IP SIT Gi OS ee ee ee ee 12 POUCClYy = ee eee eee 10 Stone sculpture(s_ 2222-22 _8 1 LIBRARY One of the high spots of the year was the “Bronze Symposium” held at the Freer Gallery, which brought specialists from all over the United States, Canada, and Australia. An exhibition of books in this special field was arranged in the library and proved a busy place during the visitors’ free time. During the year 594 acquisitions were added to the library by title, 267 by gift and exchange from other institutions and individuals, 114. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 and 827 by purchase. Among the outstanding purchases were Nihon shiicho shina-kodé seika (selected relics of ancient Chinese bronzes from collections in Japan), compiled by Sueji Umehara and issued in a limited edition in six volumes, 1960-61; Shdsdin Homotsu (treasures of the Shdsdin), which is to be completed in 1962 in three folio volumes; Figure prints of Old Japan, a pictorial pageant of ac- tors and courtesans of the eighteenth century reproduced from the prints in the collection of Marjorie and Edwin Grabhorn, with an introduction by Harold P. Stern, San Francisco, 1959. Xero- graphic copies of microfilms of two rare manuscripts were made. (1) Téban shimpin zukan (album of sword guard masterpieces). This illustrated manuscript written in 1783 (De Rosny’s catalogue) and never published is now in the Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm, Nor- denskjéld Collection, No. 525. In 1912 Henri L. Joly made a copy and translation and issued privately 15 copies, none of which has been located. (2) Wu Ch‘i-chen shu-hua chi (record of calligraphy and painting seen by the author, Wu Ch‘i-chen), written in mid-17th century giving the descriptions of the works, comments, and infor- mation on the collections owning them, with the dates on which he saw them. Six volumes of text with one volume of catalogue or in- dex. A copy of the manuscript is in the Ssu-k‘u-ch‘tian-shu (the good repository of manuscripts of Chinese books) but the book was never printed(?). The copy in the Gunnar Martin Collection, Stock- holm, was presumably copied from the Ssu-k‘u-ch‘tian-shu manuscript, and is the only copy outside China(?). The book is of particular importance because the author saw many of the important collections of his day and records their contents carefully. Many of the paint- ings he describes are still extant in the Ku-kung Collection, the Freer Gallery of Art, and other collections. Two outstanding gifts were Chinese painting, by James F. Cahill, Geneva, Skira, 1960 (gift of author) ; Persian painting by Basil Gray, Geneva, Skira, 1961 (gift of publisher). The year’s record of cataloging included a total of 967 entries of which 534 analytics were made, and 197 new titles of books, pamphlets and scrolls were cataloged. Only one-ninth of the cards required were available in printed cards from the Library of Congress. The current state of the cataloging has given opportunity for special projects. Mrs. Hogenson began indexing the correspondence of Charles Lang Freer. Mrs. Usilton prepared a subject index for Technical Studies in the Field of Fine Arts, vols. 1-10; revised and enlarged the Bibliography for the Chinese Outline; and continued to serve as assistant editor of JJC Abstracts; Abstracts of the Tech- nical Literature of Archaeology and the Fine Arts. There were 162 requests for bibliographic information by tele- phone and letter. In all, 515 scholars and students who were not SECRETARY’S REPORT 115 members of the Freer staff used the library. Thirteen of these saw and studied the Washington Manuscripts and five came to see the li- brary installation. Students at Columbia University and Catholic University of America, who were completing their graduate work in library science, made surveys of the library as a part of their required studies. Lou Cushing Harden, University of Rochester, served as volunteer for the intern program for the summer. This program is intended to give students a rounded experience in the general operation and purposes of a gallery, and to broaden their familiarity with the field of art in general. PUBLICATIONS Two publications were issued by the Gallery as follows: Ars Orientalis, Vol. IV. 17 articles in English, French, or German, 21 book reviews, 1 bibliography, 5 notes, 2 memorials. 462 pp., 143 collotype pls., text ill. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4431.) Second presentation of the Charles Lang Freer Medal, a brochure issued in con- junction with the presentation to Prof. Ernst Kiihnel, May 3, 1960, honoring this eminent scholar for his outstanding contributions and achievements in the field of Near Eastern art. Publications of staff members were as follows: CAHILL, JAMES F. Chinese art treasures. (See under Pope.) Chinese painting. Geneva, Skira, 1960. 211 pp. with 100 col. ills. (Treasures of Asia.) The Chinese Imperial art treasures. Horizon, a magazine of the arts, vol. 3 (Jan. 1961), pp. 14-25, 8 col. pls. “Concerning the I-p‘in style of painting,” by S. Shimada. Translated by James F. Cahill. Oriental Art, n.s., vol. 7 (Summer 1961), pp. 66-74. Confucian elements in the theory of painting. In “The Confucian Persuasion,” edited by Arthur F. Wright. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1960, pp. 115-140. A rejected portrait by Lo P‘ing; pictorial footnote to Waley’s Yiian Mei. Arthur Waley anniversary volume, London, Lung Humphries, 1959, pp. 32-39, pls. The Six Laws and how to read them. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 372-881. - Review of “Some Tang and pre-T‘ang texts on Chinese painting.” Edited and translated by W. R. B. Acker. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 440-444. ETTINGHAUSEN, RicHarp. Automata: Islam. Hncyclopedia of world art, New York, 1960, vol. 2, cols. 185-186, pl. 77. (Also published in Italian edition, Rome, 1960.) The Hmperor’s choice. De Artibus opuscula XL: Essays in honor of Erwin Panofsky, edited by Millard Meiss, New York, N.Y. University Press, 1961, vol. 1, pp. 98-120, and vol. 2, figs. 1-19 on pls. 27-35. The iconography of a Kishan luster plate. (Co-author, Grace D. Guest.) Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 25-64, 74 figs. on 22 pls. 116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ETTINGHAUSEN, Ricuarp. The Illuminations in the Cairo Mosche-b. Asher- Codex of the Prophets ..., by R. H. Pinder Wilson with contributions by R. Ettinghausen. Der Herbdische Bibeltext Seit Franz Delitzsch, by Paul Kahle. Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1961, pp. 95-98. Paintings of the sultans and emperors of India in American collections. Bombay, Lalit Kala Akademi, 1961, 19 pp. 14 col. pls. . Taklif (inlay). Urdu encyclopedia of Islam, Lahore, 1960, vol. 1, pp. 597-607, 4 pls. Review of “The Chester Beatty Library: A catalogue of the Persian manuscripts and miniatures, vol. 1, MSS. 101-105,” by A. J. Arberry, M. Minovi, and E. Blochet. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 393-396. Review of “The Chester Beatty Library: A catalogue of the Turkish manuscripts and miniatures,” by V. Minorsky. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 385-392. Review of “Indian painting: Fifteen color plates,’ by W. G. Archer. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 397-3899, pls. 1-2. Review of “The Nala-Damayanti drawings,” by Alvan Clark Hastman. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 896-3897. Review of “Persian miniatures; the story of Rustum.” Introduction and notes by William Lillys. Artibus Asiae, vol. 22 (1959), p. 268. Review of “Turkisches Puppentheater. Versuch einer Geschichte des Puppentheaters im Morgenland,” by Otto Spies. The Muslim World, vol. 50, No. 3 (July 1960). GETTENS, RuTHERFORD J. European conservation laboratories. Museum News, vol. 39 (Dec. 1960—Jan. 1961), pp. 23-27, ills. Teaching and research in art conservation. Science, vol. 183 (Apr. 21, 1961), pp. 1212-1216, 3 ills. KATSUKI, TAKASHI. Review of “The beauty of ceramics,’ by Seizo Hayashiya. Tokyo, Kawade Shobo, 1960. Far Eastern Ceramics Bulletin, vol. 12, No. 48 (June—Dee. 1960), p. 47. Review of “Chinese ceramics, one hundred selected masterpieces from collections in Japan, England, France and America,” ed. by Fujio Koyama. Tokyo, Nihon Keizai, 1960. Far Eastern Ceramic Bulletin, vol. 12, No. 48, (June—Dec. 1960), p. 48-49. Translation of “Chidsen toji gaisetsu,” or general observations on Korean ceramics, by Fujio Koyama. Far Hastern Ceramic Bulletin, vol. 12, No. 43 (June—Dec. 1960), pp. 19-38, 6 pls. Porr, JoHN ALEXANDER. Chinese art treasures, exhibited in the United States py the Government of the Republic of China, Washington, 1961, 286 pp., pls. (part col. and mount.) Text by John A. Pope, Aschwin Lippe, and James F. Cahill. Chinese art treasures cross the Pacific. The Connoisseur, New York, vol. 147 (June 1961), pp. 231-240, col. front., 20 figs. Review of ‘Dated Buddha images of Northern Siam,” by A. B. Griswold. Ars Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 446-452. STERN, Harotp P. America; a view from the East. Antiques, vol. 79 (Feb. 19, 1961), pp. 166-169, ills. A ninth-century eleven-headed Kannon. Worcester Art Museum An- nual, vol. 8 (1960), pp. 1-7, front., 4 pls. Obituary, James Marshall Plumer. Oriental Art, n.s., vol. 7 (spring 1961), p. 47. SECRETARY’S REPORT LEZ Review of “Hokusai,” by J. Hillier. London, Phaidon Press, 1955. Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 19 (Nov. 1959), pp. 87-88. Review of “Graphic art of Japan, the Classical school,’ by Owen H. Holloway. Hollywood-by-the-Sea, Florida, Translantic Arts, 1957. The Art Bulletin, vol. 42 (Dec. 1960), pp. 311-312. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY The photographic laboratory made 10,378 items during the year, as follows: 7,363 prints, 864 negatives, 2,013 color slides, 100 black-and- white slides, 38 color-film sheets. In all, 3,133 slides were lent during the year. BUILDING AND GROUNDS The exterior walls appear to be sound and in good condition, but plans are under way for roof repair during the next year. Painting of structural steel in the attic was begun but not completed. The cleaning of the interior limestone was finished, which improved the general appearance greatly. All concrete floors were painted and given a protective coat of wax. In storage 14 all stone storage was confined to two walls by refitting with new steel and wood shelving. The remaining area will be fitted in the near future for the expansion of storage of various art objects plus an examining table. Storage 16A is now under construction to provide more space for storage and a research work area. The doors leading from the main office to the anteroom were re- designed and fitted with glass. The dais in Gallery V was completely refinished. In the auditorium new drapes and stage curtain were installed. A new projector was installed, and with this second projector and the enlarged screen it is now possible to show two slides side by side for comparison purposes for the lecture series. Old boxwood plants from the courtyard were transplanted to the north entrance of the building and smaller replacements were made in the court. Lantana was planted around the fountain for the summer season and appears to be doing well. ATTENDANCE The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4:30 every day except Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the main entrance was 130,949. The highest monthly attendance was in August, 19,576. There were 2,140 visitors who came to the Gallery office for various purposes—for general information, to submit objects for examination, to consult staff members, to take photographs or sketch in the galleries, to use the library, to examine objects in storage, etc. 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 AUDITORIUM The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows: 1960 October 11. Dr. Nelson I. Wu, Yale University, “In Search of a New Style in Chinese Painting.” Attendance, 155. November 15. Dr. John D. Cooney, Brooklyn Museum, “Disasters in Collecting.” Attendance, 142. 1961 January 10. Dr. Richard Edwards, University of Michigan, “Painting of the Southern Sung.” Attendance, 142. February 14. Professor Benjamin Rowland, Harvard University, “The Translation of Indian Art to Central Asia.” Attendance, 203. March 14. Henry Trubner, Royal Ontario Museum, “Han Pictorial Design.” Attendance, 118. April 11. Professor George H. Forsyth, Jr., University of Michigan, “The Fortified Monastery of St. Catherine at Mt. Sinai.” Attendance, 202. From June 12 to 14 a seminar on “Technical Studies of Ancient Metal Artifacts” was held, the chief purpose of which was to gather together specialists in ancient metals and other interested persons from fields of Chinese art and conservation. Problems in analysis, composition, fabrication, and alteration of ancient metal artifacts were discussed with particular reference to Chinese ceremonial bronzes in the Freer collections. Question periods and informal discussions followed each of the 15 papers read by specialists from the United States, Canada, and one from Australia. Attendance, 57, 44, and 52. Outside organizations used the auditorium as follows: The Bellhaven Woman’s Club held a short October18. Attendance, 40. business meeting in the morning. The United States Department of Agriculture held meetings as follows: Foreign Agriculture November 14. Attendance, 198. May 22. Attendance, 499. Federal Extension Service November 16. Attendance, 290. March 20. Attendance, 181. Food and Drug Administration November 23. Attendance, 95. December 21. Attendance, 68. February 15. Attendance, 76. March 15. Attendance, 63. April19. Attendance, 101. Mayi17. Attendance, 89. June 21. Attendance, 72. Marketing Division, Economic Research November 28-30. Attendance, Conference 150, 195, and 109. December 2. Attendance, 85. Farmers’ Co-op Service December 18 and 15. Attend- ance, 115 and 119. 4-H Clubs March 23. Attendance, 176. SECRETARY'S REPORT “The Story of Gosta Berling” (1923) Sweden. “Los Olivadados” (1951) Mexico. “Munna” (1957) India, and “Song of Ceylon” Great Britain (1934). “Where Chimneys are Seen” (1953) Japan, and “Fable for Friendship.” “Warrebizue” (1947) France, and “Trut” (1944) Sweden. Three short films from the British Free Cinema. “The White Reindeer’ (1956) Finland, and “Glimmering” (1948) France. “Goja” (1951) Tunisia, and “Time Out of War” (1955) France. “Bab El-hadid” (1959) Egypt, and “N.Y., 119 The Washington Film Society showed the following films: April 6 and 7. Attendance, 254. April 13 and 14. Attendance, 168. April 20 and 21. 313: April 27 and 28. Attendance, lil Attendance, May 4 and 5. Attendance, 194. May 11 and 12. Attendance, 209. May 25 and 26. Attendance, 168. June land 2. Attendance, 154. June 8 and 9. Attendance, 275. N.Y.” (1950) United States. Alfred Friendly, of the Washington Post, lec- tured on “Bushmen (African) Paintings.” Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute of America showed three films: “Roman Mosaics,” “Colors in the Dark,” and “Book Festivities.” May 10. Attendance, 170. Mayi18. Attendance, 229. On May 2, seven members of the Washington Society of the Archae- ological Institute of America held a Board Meeting in the Staff Room, Dr. Ettinghausen, president, presiding. STAFF ACTIVITIES The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of new accessions, objects contemplated for purchase, and objects submitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects in the fields represented by the collections of Chinese, Japanese, Persian, Arabic, and Indian materials. Reports, oral and written, and exclusive of those made by the technical laboratory (listed below), were made on 7,221 objects as follows: For private individuals, 5,438; for dealers, 874; for other museums, 909. In all 1,373 photographs were examined, and 780 Oriental language inscriptions were translated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 23 groups totaling 550 persons met in the exhibition galleries for docent service by the staff members. Two groups totaling 24 persons were given docent service by staff members in the storage rooms. Among the visitors were 64 distinguished foreign scholars or per- sons holding official positions in their own countries who came here under the auspices of the Department of State to study museum ad- ministration and practices in this country. 625325—62——9 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 During the year the technical laboratory carried on the following activities : Objects examined by various methods including microscopic, microchemical, X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet light, spectrochemical analysis, and specific gravity determination: Mreer objects @xamined ae se ee ee ee 19 OUESIAS) OD TCCS ee KANT Cee ee a 93 The following projects were undertaken by the laboratory during the year: 1. For a period of three weeks, February 24 to March 15, Miss Elisa- beth West worked as a guest in the Conservation Center of the Insti- tute of Fine Arts, New York University, where she continued the spectrochemical analyses of inscribed ceremonial bronzes from the Freer collections. 2. In April 1961, R. J. Gettens, at the Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, gave a seminar entitled “Use of the Microscope in Examination of Works of Art.” Attend- ance, 8. 3. R. J. Gettens continued as editor and Miss West as assistant editor of J7C Abstracts published by the International Institute for Conser- vation of Historic and Artistic Works, London, England. 4. Continued systematic collection of data on the technology of an- cient copper and bronze in the Far East. By invitation the following lectures were given outside the Gallery by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) : 1960 August 11. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Twenty-fifth International Con- gress of Orientalists, Moscow, U.S.S.R., “Pre-Mughal- Indo-Muslim Manuscripts.” September 15. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the American School of Oriental Re- search, Jerusalem, Israel, “The Interrelationship of India and the Near East in the Middle Ages.” October 20. Dr. Cahill, at Yale University, New Haven, Conn., “The Coming Discovery of Chinese Paintings.” November 1. Dr. Ettinghausen, at Ankara University, Turkey, “Variety of Arts in Museums of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey.” November 13. Dr. Cahill, at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, “The Com- ing Discovery of Chinese Paintings.” November 14. Dr. Cahill, at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, “Great Chinese Paintings in Far Hastern Collections.” November 17. Dr. Cahill, at Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Va., “In Search of Chinese Paintings.” November 28. Dr. Cahill, at the Japan-America Society, Washington, D.C., “The Southern School in Japanese Painting.” 1961 January 12. Dr. Stern, at Regents’ Dinner, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., “Hokusai.” January 19. February 3. February 6. February 14-15. February 23. February 24. March 10. March 16. March 24. March 30. April 3. April 12. April 15. May 23. May 23. June 6-11. SECRETARY'S REPORT 121 Dr. Ettinghausen, at Hermitage Foundation, Norfolk, Va., “TIslamie Art in the Mediterranean World.” Dr. Ettinghausen began teaching a semester’s course on “Tslamic Painting” at New York University. Dr. Cahill began an academic course of lectures on Chinese paintings at the American University, Washington, D.C. Dr. Ettinghausen, at University of Southern Illinois, Car- bondale, Ill., “Mughal Painting: A Critical Comparison.” Dr. Stern, at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., “Japanese Paintings of the Tokugawa Period.” Dr. Cahill, at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, Wash- ington, D.C., “Chinese Art and the Contemporary West.” Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Foreign Service Institute, Wash- ington, D.C., “Islamic Art.” Dr. Cahill, at Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Md., “Great Chinese Paintings in Far Eastern Collections.” Dr. Ettinghausen, at Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn., “Islamic Art.” Dr. Cahill, at the Chinese Art Society, Asia House, New York City, “Chinese Art and the Contemporary West.” Dr. Pope, at the Far Eastern Luncheon Association, Carl- ton Hotel, Washington, D.C., “The Chinese Exhibition.” (Not illustrated.) Dr. Stern, at the Birmingham Museum of Art, Birming- ham, Ala., “Japanese Painting of the Tokugawa Period.” R. J. Gettens, at the Conservation Center, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, ‘‘A Proposed Handbook for Analysis of Materials of Art and Archaeology.” R. J. Gettens, at the American Association of Museums meeting, Detroit, Mich., “Maya Blue: An Unsolved Prob- lem in Ancient Pigment.” Elisabeth West, at the American Association of Museums meeting, Detroit, Mich., ‘“Efflorescent Salts on Museum Objects.” Dr. Cahill, at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., gave seven lectures on “The Chinese Exhibition.” Members of the staff traveled outside Washington on official busi- ness as follows: 1960 July 1. July 18- December 16. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects at dealers and in museums and private collections. Dr. Ettinghausen attended the 25th International Con- gress of Orientalists in Moscow on behalf of the Smith- sonian Institution and the American Council of Learned Societies, as well as the Cultural Seminar on Art and Archaeology of the CENTO Powers, in Ankara, on be- half of the Department of State. He also studied Is- lamic objects, paintings, and manuscripts in the museums and libraries of Dublin, London, Oxford, Paris, Hamburg, Bukhara, Kabul, Teheran, Damascus, Jerusalem, Qusair, ‘Amra, Cairo, Istanbul, Ankara, Konya, Bursa, Vienna, Milan, Florence, Bologna, Rome, Palermo, and Madrid. 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 September 7-14. September 8-23. October 22. November 5. December 14-18. 1961 January 6. January 9-10. January 19. January 23. January 26. February 17. February 17- March 20. February 21— April 10. March 29- April 1. April 22. April 28— May 2. May 4, 5. May 12-16. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects at dealers and in museums and attended exhibitions at the Mu- seum of Modern Art and the Metropolitan Museum. Elisabeth H. West spent two weeks in England visiting laboratories and conferring with members of various staffs in London: Research Laboratory; British Mu- seum; National Gallery of Art; Victoria and Albert Mu- seum; Institute of Archaeology; Courtauld Institute of Art; University of London; and the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art. Oxford: Research Labora- tory for Archaeology and the History of Art. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined Chinese paintings belonging to dealers and museums, and attended an ex- hibition of Chinese paintings at Asia House. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined Chinese paintings belonging to a private collector. Dr. Stern and T. Sugiura, in New York City, attended an official meeting of the Rockefeller Foundation; attended the opening of the Modern japanese Craft Show at the Museum of Decorative Arts; an exhibition of Japanese screens at the Willard Gallery; the Rappert exhibition at Asia House; and examined objects. Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects. Dr. Pope, in Boston, attended the final meeting of the Far Eastern Ceramic Group. Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at dealers. Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended meetings of the Conservation Committee at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, broadcast over THE VOICE OF UNESCO, Riverside Radio program WRVR, on “Books and the Artist.” Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects. Dr. Pope, in Geneva, Switzerland, for consultations re- garding printing of the catalogue for the Chinese Exhibition. Dr. Stern, in Chicago, Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Bar- bara, Los Angeles, Kansas City, and Cleveland, examined objects in museums, private collections and at dealers. Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined objects. Dr. Cahill, in Chicago, examined objects. Dr. Pope, in Chicago, examined objects. Mrs. Lnor O. West, in the Boston area, attended the meet- ings of the Museum Store Managers Association held in the Museum of Fine Arts, Worcester Art Museum, and Old Sturbridge Village. Dr. Pope, in Philadelphia, appeared on the University Museum’s WCAU-TYV program, WHAT IN THE WORLD, later going on to New York City to examine objects. SECRETARY’S REPORT 123 May 18-24. Dr. Stern, in Philadelphia, examined objects at the Phila- delphia Museum of Art, and later, in New York City. As in former years, members of the staff undertook a wide variety of peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held honorary posts, and received recognitions. Respectfully submitted. A. G. Wentey, Director. Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Air Museum Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961: Administrative studies and planning continued for the new Na- tional Air Museum Building, pending the appropriation of planning funds. Many interesting and historically significant accessions were re- ceived during the year. Among the more notable ones were a full-size mock-up of an inertial guidance platform used for navigation in space-flight vehicles, from the Autonetics Division of North American Aviation, Inc.; an early Curtiss-built OX-5 aircraft engine, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; the RVX 1-5, first re- covered nose cone after a flight of intercontinental range, from the U.S. Air Force; three additional volumes of Dr. Robert Goddard’s notes on his experiments, from Mrs. Goddard; the XF8U-1 “Cru- sader” airplane (the “One X”), from Chance Vought Aircraft Com- pany and the U.S. Navy; the Hiller “Flying Platform,” from the U.S. Army and Navy; memorabilia of Norman Prince of the Lafa- yette Escadrille, from Frederick H. Prince, Jr.; Discoverer XIII, first recovered orbiting satellite, from the U.S. Air Force; the “Que Sera Sera,” first airplane to land at the South Pole, from the U.S. Navy; 150 volumes of Pilots and Engine Manuals, from the Shell Companies Foundation; the first camera to take stabilized motion pictures of the earth from space, from the General Electric Company ; the radio transmitter used by Adm. Richard E. Byrd in his historic first flight over the South Pole; and a painting of astronaut Alan B. Shepard, from Congressman James Fulton. The name of the old Aircraft Building was changed to the Air and Space Building to refiect the many famous firsts of space flight now exhibited. During the fiscal year, 987,858 visitors to this renovated display were counted. It is expected that the Mercury capsule “Free- dom 7” will be placed in this building shortly. Information service continued to increase during the year. The museum now averages about 400 letters per month, furnishing histori- cal, technical, and biographical information on air and space flight to authors, researchers, schools, government agencies, and the public. ADVISORY BOARD No formal meetings of the Advisory Board were held. Individual members were consulted from time to time. 124 SECRETARY’S REPORT 135 SPECIAL EVENTS The following special presentation ceremonies were held during the year. The RVX 1-5 nose cone, presented by Gen. Bernard A. Schriever, USAF; a Beechcraft Executive airplane, presented by George L. Lee, Sr., chairman of the board of the Red Devil Tool Co.; the Able-Baker space flight equipment, presented by Lt. Gen. J. H. Hinrichs, U.S. Army; the XF8U-1 “Crusader,” presented by Charles J. McCarthy of Chance-Vought Company and Adm. James S. Russell of the Navy; the Discoverer XIII satellite, presented by Gen. Thomas D. White, Chief of Staff, USAF; and the first space camera, pre- sented by Hilliard W. Page, general manager of the missile and space vehicle department of the General Electric Company. The Director attended the Air Force Association Annual Meeting in San Francisco at which he was honored with the Alpha Eta Rho Aviation Fraternity Award for contributions to Aviation Education. He also attended the annual meeting of the National Aeronautic As- sociation, the Lester D. Gardner Lecture by Gen. James H. Doolittle at MIT, the dedication of the Paul Moore Research and Development Center at Republic Aviation Corporation, and visited numerous Army, Navy, Air Force, and NASA bases. He spoke frequently on these visits, emphasizing the importance of the proper preservation and recording of the history of space flight now being made. Paul E. Garber, head curator and historian, and curators Louis S. Casey and Kenneth E. Newland represented the air museum at a number of aviation meetings during the year. Mr. Garber delivered 27 lectures. IMPROVEMENTS IN EXHIBITS There have been continuous experimentation and improvements in the Museum’s exhibits, reflected particularly in the renovated Air and Space Building which has proved to be a valuable testing ground for new methods of display, in anticipation of the new building. REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION Continued improvement in the facilities at the Silver Hill, Md., restoration and preservation division has been accomplished. This is now a busy little aircraft “factory,” made out of storage space, pre- serving and restoring aircraft and engines for display in the new building. Examples of the work done are found in the Air and Space Building. ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Service and information was provided during the year to various Government departments including the Federal Aviation Agency, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Justice Department, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, Post Office Department, and Bureau of Standards. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 PUBLIC INFORMATION SERVICE This service grows in volume, and requires the majority of the time of the curatorial staff. The historical research involved is val- uable not only to the the authors, researchers, historians, students and teachers served, but also to the Museum staff as potential material for eventual Museum publications. REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Much useful material was added to the reference files, library, and photographic files of the Museum during the year. This is very valuable to the staff for providing information, authenticating data, and for historical research. The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in pro- viding this material is sincerely appreciated and acknowledged: Arr Force Logistic CoMMAND, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Two copies of the Index of Serial Numbers assigned to aircraft through fiscal year 1958. AITKEN, WILLIAM D., Jacksonville Beach, Fla.: One photostat of page 2 of the Boston Herald, Dec. 5, 1909, magazine section and three photographs. Amos, VINCENT S., St. Petersburg Beach, Fla.: 20 volumes aviation periodicals. Anpo, Hipeyo, Tokyo, Japan: Nine 4-x-5’’ photographs of Japanese aircraft. ARMY BALLISTIC MIssILE AGENCY, REDSTONE ARSENAL, Huntsville, Ala.: 16-mm. sound motion picture of “Recovery of Able-Baker Nose Cone,” edited copy of ABMA-film No. 89, copy 3 unclassified. ArnorpD, Mrs. H. H., Sonoma, Calif.: A group of 36 photographs. Backarp, P. H., Lockheed Aircraft Service Inc., Ontario, Calif.: Book, “The Flying Flea,” by Henri Mignet. BELL AEROSYSTEMS Co., Buffalo, N.Y. : Motion picture, “Report on Jet Propulsion.” Boring AIRPLANE Co., Seattle, Wash.: Photographs, several lithographed 3-view drawings of aircraft (Boeing). BrocKHAMPTON Press, Leicester, England: Book, “Hovercraft,” by Angela Croome, Brown, W. NorMAn, Toronto, Canada: Five 414-x-6’’ photographs. BucKLEY, Mrs. W. W., Washington, D.C.: One 16-x-20’’ photograph of a Farman airplane taking off from street between White House and State, War, and Navy Building. CANNON, JAMES, OFFICE OF PUBLIC INFORMATION, U.S. Atomic ENERGY COMMIS- SION, Washington, D.C.: Two photographs of atomic bombs (WWII). CoLEMAN, “Coz,” New Orleans, La.: One 12-x-1514’’ photograph of Lindbergh. Cox, JERE, Branirr ArrwAys, Dallas, Texas: 19 8-x-10’’ photographs (14 of Braniff type of aircraft and 5 of presentation ceremonies and T. HB. Braniff) ; organization chart; chart showing Braniff routes; also four fact sheets. Dovueras ArRcRAFT Co., Inc., Santa Monica, Calif.: Two sets of drawings of Douglas “World Cruisers.” Downer AIRCRAFT INDUSTRIES, INC., Alexandria, Minn.: Photographs, miscel- laneous data on Bellanca 260. EarLy BIRD ORGANIZATION, HE. A. Goff, Jr.: Early Bird files. FAIRCHILD ENGINEERING AND AIRCRAFT Corp., Hagerstown, Md.: Specifications of the Fairchild F27 and F27A. SECRETARY'S REPORT 127 Frazar, Mrs. PEARL, San Diego, Calif.: Program of the International Air Meet at Grant Park, Chicago, Aug. 12—20, 1911. GEUTING, JOSEPH T., Washington, D.C.: Copy of “The 1961 Aerospace Year Book.” Grsson, CHRISTIAN D., RAyMoND Corp., Greene, N.Y.: 16 issues of Industrial Aviation magazine, May 1944-August 1945. GLENBOW FOUNDATION, Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Hight 8-x-10’’ photographs, 14 5-x-7’’ photographs, all of JL-6 type of aircraft. GopDARD, Mrs. Rosert H., Worcester, Mass.: 1929 transcription of the material in Vols. 1 and 2 of set of 20 volumes. Report on the development of liquid- propelled rocket. Consists of 8 sections (3837 pages) of transcript, and 8 re- ports of August 1929, containing 398 234-x-4%4’’ photographs. Grreson, Otis H., Washington, D.C.: 13 photographs of miscellaneous aircraft and shows. Hacert, Henry, Moorestown, N.J.: 28 copies of “Aero and Hydro” magazine from December 1912 to July 1913. HAWKS, CHARLES R., FEDERAL AVIATION AGENCY, Los Angeles, Calif.: 39 boxes of engineering data on obsolete aircraft. HorrMan, Mag. WM. WECKHAN, New York, N.Y.: One photo album; three artil- lery School Manuals, WWI; one pictorial, “Belgium at War’’; one translation of the campaign of the Belgium Army. INTERNATIONAL CIvIL AVIATION AGENCY, Montreal, Canada: 16-mm. films, “Ap- proach to Land GCA” and “Approach to Land ILS.” JOHNSON, F. Roy, Murfreesboro, N.C.: Copies of two old prints of Henry Gat- ling’s pre-Civil War gliders. KNABENSHUE, Mrs. H. Roy, Arcadia, Calif.: Books, photographs, photo albums, Magazines, newspaper clippings, airship log books, maps, drawings. Korn, Epwarp A., East Orange, N.J.: Three photographs. Liprary oF Coneress, Nathan R. Hinhorn, Washington, D.C.: Miscellaneous. LOCKHEED AIRCRAFT INTERNATIONAL, INC., Los Angeles, Calif.: Brochure contain- ing news releases, photographs, and general information on Lockheed LASA-60 aircraft. Martin Co., Baltimore, Md.: Drawings and photographs of Martin aircraft. Picture history of the Martin Co. with 3-view drawings. Massin, ALEx, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: 16 commemorative air mail envelopes. MAYERMAN, SAMUEL, Philadelphia, Pa.: Four bound volumes of “American Avia- tion.” McGuinn, Capt. MicHaret E. III, New York, N.Y.: Drawing of 1906 and 1909 Ellehamer plane, magazines and clippings on Ellehamer. Meap, Mrs. CLARENCE, Seattle, Wash.: Five photographs of Post-Rogers crash scene. MeEyYErR, Corp, New York, N.Y.: Identification card of Lt. A. B. Thaw, II. Motson, KEN M., Islinzton, Ontario, Canada: Book by Alan Sullivan, Lt. RAF, “Aviation in Canada, 1917-1918.” Myers, Frank A., Cleveland, Ohio: 20 pages of photostats of 1910-11 Harvard Boston Aero Meets as reported in The Boston Evening Transcript, September 1910, August and September 1911. Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS, Washington, D.C.: 53 photo- graph albums. Noorpvuyn, Rosert H., Irving, Texas: One photograph of Fokker T-2, one booklet of Fokker aircraft. NORTHWEST AIRLINES, INC., Ronald McVickar, Washington, D.C.: History, photo- graphs of their airlines and two annual reports, 1958 and 1959. 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Pacer, GrorcE A., and PURDUM, VERNON, AERONCA MANUFACTURING Corp., Middle town, Ohio: 36 drawings of Aeronca aircraft, E113A installation drawing, low wing data report, production quantity listing (1930-44) miscellaneous performance data sheets (2). Pace, GeorGE, JR., Reynoldsburg, Ohio: National Geographic Magazine, 1918-46, including photographs, negatives, blueprints (Curtiss). News clipping of Ballooning. Parker, FRED: One photograph scrapbook, two photographs, one book. PoLITELLA, Dario: Book, “Operation Grasshopper.” ReEsEaRcH Srupies INstiruTrE, Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Documents on the B-29 “Hnola Gay” and organization. REYNO Lbs, B. C., Santa Barbara, Calif.: Roland Rohlf’s chronology. Four tran- scripts of personal interviews. RUSSELL, FRANK F., New York N.Y.: Three photograph albums and assorted photographs. SEBOLD, R. C., GENERAL DyNAMIcS Corp., San Diego, Calif.: Two sets of 3-view drawings, 1:16 scale of Convair F2Y-1 and Convair XE Y-1 airplanes. SHIPMAN, ERNEST, INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES Corp., New York, N.Y.: Photographs, photo album, correspondence, pamphlets, Hammer collection. SrKorsky ArrcraFt, Stratford, Conn.: Photographs and reference material on the Sikorsky S-61 and HSS-2 helicopters. STRICKLAND, Mrs. P. O’MaALLey, FEDERAL AVIATION AGENCY, Washington, D.C.: Copy of ‘Leslie Takes the Skyroad.” VERNON, VIcToR, St. Petersburg, Fla.: Two scrapbooks. Victory, Dr. Joun F., Washington, D.C.: Bound book “L’Aeronautica Italiana Nell ’Immagine, 1487-1875.” WEBSTER, CLIFFoRD L., West Palm Beach, Fla.: 185 photographs and 5 flight log books. WEEKS, Mrs. Harotp B., Brooklyn, N.Y.: Book of bound copies of The Weekly Bulietin of the School of Instruction, Army Balloon School, Arcadia, Calif., dated 1918 through 1919. WENTZEL, VOLKMAR, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SocrETy, Washington, D.C.: Photo- graph of early airship. WILLIAMS, Cot. Davin M., Alexandria, Va.: Photo copy of diary. ACCESSIONS Additions to the National Aeronautical and Space collections re- ceived and recorded during the fiscal year 1961 totaled 266 specimens in 110 separate accessions, as listed below. Those from Government departments are entered as transfers; others were received as gifts or loans. AERONCA MANUFACTURING Corp., Middletown, Ohio: An Aeronca E-113 engine cut-away. (N.A.M.1176.) Arm Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: Four aircraft engines of World War I period. (N.A.M. 1218.) Ballistic Missile Division, Calif.: Capsule that contained the measuring and recording instru- ments during the Discoverer XIII experiment. (N.A.M. 1183.) Through Marquardt Aircraft Company, Ogden, Utah: A Marquardt YRJ-43-MA-3 ram-jet engine, serial No. 00001, embodying the latest developments in the ram-jet propulsion system. (N.A.M. 1184A.) Air Force Museum, Fairborn, Ohio: A Russian Yakovlev 18 (YAK-18), post-World War II advanced trainer and nuisance raider. (N.A.M. 1153.) Air Research and Development Com- SECRETARY’S REPORT 129 mand, Dayton, Ohio: RVX 1-5, the first nose cone recovered after a flight of intercontinental range. (N.A.M. 1159.) AMERICAN MACHINE & Founpry Co., Springdale, Conn.: Model of a ground-effect machine developed by Walter Crowley. (N.A.M. 1233.) ARMY, DEPARTMENT OF THE, ARMY BALLISTIC MISSILE AGENCY, Huntsville, Ala.: Bxact duplicate mockup of monkey Baker space capsule covered with lucite walls (N.A.M. 1173) ; Able-Baker Project recovered nose cone (N.A.M. 1164) ; two Explorer I satellites (first U.S. satellite in orbit) and two final-stage power packs (N.A.M. 1168). ArRMy ORDNANCE MISSILE CoMMAND, Redstone Arsenal, Ala.: 12 varied-scale models of Army missiles and launch vehicles. (N.A.M. 1175.) Army Exuripits, Cameron Station, Va.: 1:24 scale model of Jupiter C with Explorer I satellite mounted on it. (N.A.M. 1151.) ARNOLD, Mrs. H. H., Sonoma, Calif.: Memorabilia of Gen. H. H. Arnold, includ- ing his personal flags of rank, dress uniform worn at his wedding, and eight academic hoods for the various honorary degrees he received (N.A.M. 1246) ; duty uniform of Gen. Arnold. (N.A.M. 1149). AUSMUS, REINHARDT, Sandusky, Ohio: Two early aircraft propellers. (N.A.M. 1236.) AUTONETICS Division, NoRTH AMERICAN AVIATION, INc., Downey, Calif.: Full-size mockup of inertial guidance platform used for navigation in nuclear sub- marines and space vehicles. (N.A.M. 1146.) AVIATION GAS TURBINE DIVISION, WESTINGHOUSE ErEctTrRIc, Kansas City, Mo.: Westinghouse J-32 gas turbine engine produced in 1948-44 and the smallest of this type of engine produced, developing 300 Ibs. thrust at 35,000 rpm. (N.A.M. 1180.) AzBE, Victor J., St. Louis, Mo.: Original letter written by Otto Lillienthal to his brother Gustav, Oct. 25,1886. (N.A.M. 1152.) Bates, Mortimer F., Burbank, Calif.: 1912 aviator’s helmet purchased from Roold in Parisin1912. (N.A.M. 1182.) BeecuH Arrcrart Corp., Wichita, Kans.: Model of the Beech AT—7, a World War II twin-engine advance pilot training aircraft. (N.A.M. 1230.) CAIN, CHARLES W., Milwaukee, Wis.: An ashtray of aluminum from the tank of the Bellanca airplane “Columbia” which twice flew across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927 and 1930. (N.A.M. 1154.) CARMELO, ALFREDO, Bethesda, Md.: Painting of Bevo Howard’s Jungmeister aero- batie plane. (N.A.M. 1240.) CHANCE VouGHT AIRcRAFT, INC., Dallas Tex.: Model of the Regulus I surface- to-surface missile (N.A.M. 1168); the Chance Vought XFS8U-1 “Crusader,” popularly known as the “One X” (N.A.M. 1174). ConvaAIR, DIVISION OF GENERAL DYNAMICS, San Diego, Calif.: Two scale models of the Convair Atlas launch vehicle (N.A.M. 1224) ; 8-x-10’ photo montage mural of the launching of an Atlas (N.A.M.) 1215). CurRTISS-WRIGHT CorP., Woodridge, N.J.: 1:16 scale model of Curtiss A-1 air- craft, the first U.S. Navy aircraft. (N.A.M. 1221.) DoouitTLE, GEN. JAMES H., Los Angeles, Calif.: Six items of personal memo- rabilia: special awards, plaques, ete. (N.A.M. 1145.) DuPont, F. V., Cambridge, Va.: Model of the Wright “B” airplane. (N.A.M. 1244.) FEDERAL AVIATION AGENCY, Oklahoma City, Okla.: Radio equipment. (N.A.M. 1172.) FULTON, CONGRESSMAN JAMES, Pittsburgh, Pa.: Loan of a painting of Alan Shepard, America’s first man-in-space, painted by James Scalese of Pittsburgh. (N.A.M. 1241.) 130 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 GENERAL Eectric, Philadelphia, Pa.: First camera to take pictures of earth from outer space. (N.A.M. 1218.) GoppAakp, Mrs. EstHer C., Worcester, Mass.: Vols. 21, 22, and 23 of Dr. God- dard’s notes on his experiments. (N.A.M. 1165). GOLDEN, Bernig£, Asbury Park, N.J.: A propeller manufactured by the Simmons Co. of Washington, D.C., of a very early vintage. Fitted with sprocket attach- ment for chain drive. (N.A.M. 1148.) GRUMMAN AIRCRAFT Corp., Bethpage, N.Y.: Model of the Grumman F10F Jaguar fighter aircraft. (N.A.M. 1238.) Hatt, ERNEST, Warren, Ohio: Fragments of aircraft and engines built by the Wrights, Curtiss, and Bleriot. (N.A.M. 1237.) HARTMAN, ARTHUR J., Burlington, Iowa : Oil painting of early hot-air balloon ascension at a county fair and a full-size cut-off release with model para- chute. (N.A.M. 1251.) HEINTZ, RatPpH M., Los Gatos, Calif.: Antenna weight used on the “Floyd Bennett” during its flight over the South Pole in 1929 (N.A.M. 12382); air- craft transmitter used by Richard E. Byrd in his historic first flight over the South Pole (N.A.M. 1228). Hytan, Ray, Henrietta, N.Y.: Boeing F4B-4 single-engine biplane Navy fighter of the early 1930 period. (N.A.M. 1248.) ITALIAN GOVERNMENT, Air Attache, Washington, D.C.: Model of a Macchi 202 fighter, the most advanced fighter design produced by Italy in World WarlIl. (N.A.M. 1147.) JovurTT, Con. JouHn, Washington, D.C.: Trophy urn presented to a group of Americans for their service to the Republic of China during World War II. (N.A.M. 1239.) KLEAN, LESTER E., Bensenville, Ill. : Model of the Curtiss JN4-D-2. (N.A.M. 1166.) LOCKHEED AIRCRAFT CorP., Burbank, Calif. : 1:16 scale model of the Navy submarine-launched missile, the “Polaris.” (N.A.M. 1249.) MArtTIN ComMpaANy, Baltimore, Md.: Model of early monoplane patrol bomber (N.A.M. 1225) ; model of the SM68 Titan missile produced by the Martin Company for the U.S. Air Force (N.A.M. 1222). MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Cambridge, Mass.: Curtiss-built OX-5 engine with manufacturer’s number 6329. (N.A.M. 1157.) Massin, ALrex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Set of 12 U.S. Air Force insignia, (N.A.M. 1214.) McDONNELL AIRCRAFT Corp., St. Louis, Mo. : 1:3 scale model of the Mercury eapsule with escape tower (N.A.M. 1231); model of the McDonnell F4H-1 Phantom II (N.A.M. 1285) ; 12 1:16 scale models of aircraft produced by the donor (N.A.M. 1242). MEAD, CLARENCE H., Seattle, Wash. : Pontoon flat cap from Post-Rogers plane wreck. (N.A.M. 1167.) MEsseErRscHMiITT, A. G., Augsburg (through German Air Attache), Washington, D.C.: Model, 1:16 size, of the famed Messerschmitt BF 109 single-seat, single-engine fighter of World War II. (N.A.M. 1162.) MIKESH, Capt. ROBERT C., Washington, D.C. : Models of two Japanese fighters. (N.A.M. 1226.) Miiter, L. B., Tarpon Springs, Fla. : Leather flight coat-jacket that belonged to Amelia Earhart. (N.A.M. 1227.) MoperN ArT Founpry, New York, N.Y.: Purchase of bronze casting of plaster bust of Dr. S. P. Langley. (N.A.M. 1229.) , I SECRETARY’S REPORT bea | NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND Space AGENCY, Washington, D.C.: 14 framed photographs of former members of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (N.A.M. 1161) ; 8-x-10’’ piece of skin used in construction of 100’-diameter “Echo” passive communication satellite (N.A.M. 1160). Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Washington, D.C.: Production version of Pratt & Whitney J-57 jet engine (N.A.M. 1156). Nava Air Station, Patuxent, Md.: Hiller Rotorcycle, one-place, portable helicopter (N.A.M. 1245). ExuHIsiTs Section, Washington, D.C.: Models of technically and historically significant Navy aircraft (N.A.M. 1234). Orrice or Navat ResearcH, Washington D.C.: Hiller ducted platform (N.A.M. 1177). Bureau or Weapons, Washington, D.C. Culver TD2C-1 target drone aircraft (N,A.M. 1196) ; Grumman TBF-1 Avenger, U.S. Navy torpedo bomber (N.A.M. 1197); Curtiss SB2C-5 “Hell- diver” aircraft (N.A.M. 1198) ; Grumman FS8F-1D “Bearcat” aircraft, last of the reciprocating-engine carrier-based fighters developed for World War II (N.A.M. 1199) ; first airplane to have landed at the South Pole, “Que Sera Sera,” an-R4D (N.A.M. 1200) ; Vought V-173 “Flying Pancake” full-size flying model, built to examine the practicability of a low aspect ratio wing configu- ration (N.A.M. 1201) ; specimen of Japanese attack aircraft developed in an- ticipation of a “last ditch’ defense of the Japanese homeland (N.A.M. 1202) ; Grumman F4F (FM-1) manufactured by Eastern Aircraft (N.A.M. 1203) ; North American SNJ-4 (AF AT-6), advanced trainer used by both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army Air Force during World War II (N.A.M. 1204) ; Vought F4U-1B “Corsair,” single-engine, single-place, inverted-gull-wing fighter of World War II (N,A.M. 1205); Ryan FR-1 “Fireball,” single-place twin-engine low-wing aircraft (N.A.M. 1206) ; specimen of the Kaman K-225 helicopter, the first such vehicle powered by a gas turbine engine (N.A.M. 1207) ; Piasecki PV-3 tandem-rotor helicopter, designed as a medium-range rescue and cargo vehicle (N.A.M. 1208); Arado Ar—-196A, twin float recon- naissance monoplane used on the German battleship “Prince Eugene” (N.A.M. 1209) ; Dornier Do-835 “Pfiel (Arrow)” twin-tandem-engined heavy fighter, developed by the German Air Force about 1942 (N.A.M. 1210); an example . of the Vought OS2U-3 scout observation type aircraft (N.A.M. 1186) ; Grum- man F6F-3 single-engine, single-place, low-wing monoplane fighter of World War II vintage (N.A.M. 1187) ; Douglas D-558-2 “Skyrocket,” rocket-powered research aircraft, first to exceed twice the speed of sound (N.A.M. 1188) ; Douglas SBD-6, of a type used extensively in the Pacific theater of opera- tions during World War II (N.A.M. 1189); Interstate TDR-1 twin-engine, low-wing monoplane, designed as a remote-control torpedo launching vehicle (N.A.M. 1190); Naval Aircraft Factory N3N-38, single-engine two-place bi- plane trainer of World War II vintage (N.A.M. 1191) ; Sikorsky JRS-1 am- phibian aircraft (N.A.M. 1192); Boeing (Stearman) N2S-5 Kaydet, two- place, biplane, primary training aircraft (N.A.M. 1193); Grumman JRF-2 “Petulant Porpoise’ modified to take different experimental hull configura- tions (N.A.M. 1193); Hiller HOE-1 ram-jet-powered helicopter (N.A.M. 1195) ; Navy-Curtiss TS-1 (TR-1), single-place biplane fighter-trainer of 1922 vintage (N.A.M. 1219) ; components of Navy-Curtiss NC-4, the first airplane to cross the Atlantic Ocean (N.A.M. 1220); group of 34 exhibition models of varying scale of Navy aircraft types (N.A.M. 1253). PackKarD, Patrick H., Ontario, Calif.: Airplane designed by M. Henri Mignet, the first of this design built in the United States at the direction of Powell Crosley. (N.A.M. 1158.) PateN, Coir, Rhinebeck, N.Y.: Seven early aircraft instruments, mostly of World WarlI vintage. (N.A.M. 1179.) 132 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Piece ArrcraFrT Corp., Lock Haven, Pa.: Models 1:16 size of the Piper Apache PA-23, Aztec PA-23-50, and the Comanche PA-24 aircraft. (N.A.M. 1217.) PRINCE, FREDERICH H., Jr., Long Island, N.Y.: Memorabilia of Norman Prince. (N.A.M. 1181.) Rep Devit Toots, Union N.J.: Beechcraft Model D-18-S, an example of an executive transport. (N.A.M. 1171.) RICKENBACKER, Capt. E. V., New York, N.Y.: A German World War I flyer’s crash helmet and a log book showing flight operations of the 94th Squadron (Rickenbacker’s). (N.A.M. 1247.) RockweEL., Cou. Pau, Asheville, N.C.: Bronze reproduction of gold medal struck to commemorate the launching of the French aircraft carrier “LaFayette.” (N.A.M. 1248.) Ryan AERONAUTICAL CorP., San Diego, Calif.: Two 1:20 scale models of Ryan- developed aircraft, the FR-1 “Fireball” and the X-13 “Vertijet.” (N.A.M. 1155.) SHarrer, CLEvE F., San Francisco, Calif.: Experimental liquid-fuel rocket motor and spring scale for measuring thrust, used by donor during period 1927 to 19382. (N.A.M. 1252.) SHELL CoMPANIES FouNDATION, INc., Washington, D.C.: Handbooks, erection and maintenance manuals for aircraft and engines. (N.A.M. 1212.) SHOEMAKER, Jos., ESTATE OF, Bridgeton, N.J.: Two aircraft of 1909-11 vintage. (N.A.M, 1211.) SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SECRETARY’S Orrice, Washington, D.C.: Two guilded metal copies of the Langley Medal which was awarded to Dr. Robert Hutch- ings Goddard posthumously, June 28, 1960. (N.A.M. 1178.) ; DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES: Three examples of airplane tail-wheel tires pro- duced by the B. F. Goodrich Company. (N.A.M. 1185.) Topp, H. S., Miami Springs, Fla.: A unique 5-cylinder, radial model aircraft engine, complete with accessories and a 8-blade adjustable-pitch propeller. (N.A.M. 1150.) Tracy, DANIEL, Lakewood, Ohio: Model 1:16 size of the Curtiss R-6 racer, winner of the 1922 Pulitzer Prize Race. (N.A.M. 1216.) Unitep Controxt Corp., Seattle, Wash.: Aircraft warning tone generator for Cessna 210. (N.A.M. 1170.) Waker, L. L., Jr., Houston, Tex.: A group of 10 historically and technically significant engines (N.A.M. 1250); wooden timing disk for a Hispano-Suiza engine. (N.A.M. 1184.) WATERMAN, WaLpo, San Diego, Calif.: The Waterman Aerobile, a unique ex- ample of the airplane-automobile combination. (N.A.M. 1228.) WRIGHT, ORVILLE, Estate or, Dayton, Ohio: The original Wright Brothers’ aero- plane, invented and built by Wilbur and Orville Wright, and flown by them at Kitty Hawk, N.C., December 17, 1903. (N.A.M. 1169.) Respectfully submitted. Pur §. Horxins, Director. Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Zoological Park Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ- ities of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961: GIFTS From the standpoint of both popular interest and rarity, the out- standing gift of the year was the white tigress, Mohini of Rewa, which arrived on December 4, 1960. This beautiful animal, cream colored with brown to black stripes and ice-blue eyes, was the gift of the Metropolitan Broadcasting Corporation of New York and Ralph Scott of Washington, D.C. The Director of the National Zoological Park, accompanied by Bert Barker, senior keeper of small mammals, flew to India to select the tiger from a litter of four white cubs raised by the Maharajah of Rewa and escort it to Washington. Thomas J. Abercrombie, staff member of the National Geographic Magazine, joined the Zoo men in Rewa to make photographs. The Maharajah had captured a male white tiger cub in 1951, and when it was adult mated it to a normal-colored Bengal tiger. The young were all the usual orange color. Then he mated the white male to one of the female offspring, and the resulting four cubs were all white. A subsequent litter, from the same parents, had one orange and two white cubs. Mohini was formally presented to President Eisenhower on the White House lawn by John Kluge, president of the Board of the Metropolitan Broadcasting Corporation, as a gift to the children of America. Mohini, when she arrived, was a little over 2 years old and weighed about 200 pounds. Her name is Hindi for Enchantress, and she continues to enchant the throngs who daily come to see her. She is the only white tiger in any zoo in the world at this time. Through the efforts of Mrs. Ira J. Heller, the “Share Your Birth- day Foundation”—an organization to promote international good will among children—brought an Indian elephant as a gift from the chil- dren of India and the Maharajah of Mysore to the children of America. Ambika is a female approximately 9 years old and weighs 2,820 pounds. She arrived in the United States on April 14, 1961, after a 47-day voyage on the S.S. Steel Architect of the Isthmian Line. Between various appearances before school children in other cities she is on deposit in the National Zoological Park, which will eventually be her permanent home. 133 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The Montana State Fish and Game Department, of Helena, Mont., sent to the Zoo five bighorn sheep and one Rocky Mountain goat, thus helping to build up the collection of North American game animals. The Department of External Affairs, Canadian Government, Ot- tawa, gave a pair of Canadian beavers. On May 31 they were for- mally presented by the Speaker of the Canadian Senate, Mark Drouin, and the Speaker of the Canadian House, Roland Michener, and ac- cepted on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution by Assistant Secretary Remington Kellogg. Representative Cornelius E. Gallagher of New Jersey, representing the Interparliamentary Union, also spoke at the presentation. The beavers were placed in the newly renovated pool in the section of the Park long known as Beaver Valley. Sir Edward Hallstrom of the Taronga Zoological Park Trust of Sydney, Australia, sent eight lesser flying phalangers, a welcome addi- tion to the collection. Through John Hoke of the American Consulate in Paramaribo, the Government of Surinam sent a three-toed sloth. While the two-toed sloth is commonly seen in zoos and has frequently bred in the National Zoological Park, the three-toed is a rarity as it does not adapt well in captivity. This animal lived from July 2, 1960, to January 29, 1961, and produced a young one after it arrived. The baby, unfor- tunately, died after 14 days. When Mr. Hoke returned from his Surinam mission, he brought two more three-toed sloths and gave them to the Zoo on June 19, 1961. The Hogle Zoo in Salt Lake City, Utah, sent the Park two kit foxes, a species that had not been represented in the collection for several years. J. Lear Grimmer, Associate Director, made another field trip to British Guiana to study the life history of the hoatzin and returned with three red agoutis and a large collection of birds and reptiles, including the brown-throated conure, the black-headed conure, yellow- headed marsh bird, black-throated cardinal, crested oropendula, three species of ground doves, Cook’s boa, and the rainbow boa. Space does not permit a complete list of all gifts received during the year, but in addition to those already mentioned, the following are of interest : Alston, F. J., Charlotte, N.C., sea lion. Armstrong, Wallace J., Washington, D.C., African lungfish, 2 angelfish, peacock cichlid. Balakirshnan, M. P., Kerala, India, Malabar squirrel. Brady, James, Arlington, Va., night monkey. Bump, Dr. Gardiner, New Dehli, India, jungle cat (Felis chaus), coppersmith (barbet). Cate, Mrs. Robert, Washington, D.C., 2 toucans. Department of Preventive Medicine, Entomology Branch, Fort Sam Houston, Tex., cacomistile. Secretary's Report, 196] PLATE 7 1. Three ring-tailed lemurs from Madagascar are the first to be exhibited at the National Zoological Park in many years. gab A ethene Rh hae ELS 2. A young serval cat, born May 2, 1961, in the National Zoological Park. Secretary's Report, 1961 7 1. A clouded leopard. ae National Zoological Park. Ba a The white tiger from Rewa. National Zoological Park. PLATE 8 Secretary's Report, 1961 PLATE 9 1. A mother two-toed sloth and her two-month-old baby. National Zoological Park. ] 2. Male kookaburra (on the right) and three of his offspring. The second clutch of eggs can be seen in the nest at the base of tree. National Zoological Park, SECRETARY’S REPORT 135 Fish and Wildlife Service, Annapolis, Md., Virginia deer; Boothbay Harbor, Maine, 5 great black-backed gulls, 3 harbor seals; Eastern Shore, Md. (through Vern Stott), 2 pied-billed grebes, 6 whistling swans, 3 golden-eyed ducks, bufilehead ; Turkey Bay, Md., whistling swan. George’s Pet Store, Bladensburg, Md., spider monkey. Harbaugh, George, Mount Rainier, Md., spiny-tailed iguana. Joy, Chief Petty Officer J. H., San Angelo, Tex., 22 western diamond-backed rattlesnakes. Kuntz, Dr. Robert, Taipei, Taiwan, 11 green snakes, water snake, 6 green vipers (Trimeresurus stejnegert), 3 green vipers (7. gramineus), striped rat snake. Moynihan, Dr. Martin H., Barro Colorado Island, C.Z., 4 spider monkeys. Muckels, R. N., Irongate, Va., spider monkey. Nye, Alva G., McLean, Va., golden eagle. Pinkston, Miss Nell S., Arlington, Va., tovi parakeet. Pomeroy, Mr. and Mrs. Eugene, American Embassy, Benghazi, Libya, 2 spiny- tailed lizards. Roeder, H. Edward, Churchtown, Md., red-crowned mangabey. Sather, Ken, Round Lake, Minn., 3 red-breasted geese. Stambaugh, Dean, Washington, D.C., 2 troupials, 1 yellowhammer. Statland, Samuel, Washington, D.C., 5 African clawed frogs. Swain, Mark, Las Vegas, Nev., puma. Wetmore, Dr. Alexander, Washington, D.C., crowned hawk eagle. Xanten, William Jr., Washington, D.C., collection of North American snakes. PURCHASES Among important purchases of the year were an African rhinoceros, three Cape buffaloes, three brindled gnus, a clouded leopard, and three ring-tailed lemurs. The Director, while in New Delhi making arrange- ments for the shipment of the white tiger, purchased a sizable col- lection of native birds, including bulbuls, tits, thrushes, parrots, and parakeets. Other purchases of interest were: Rocky Mountain goat 2 South American lapwings 3 Patagonian cavies 2 pileated tinamous Emu Quetzal 5 lesser African flamingoes 2 purple gallinules 4 Dalmatian pelicans 7 Nanday parrots 2 black-necked swans 2 Illiger’s macaws 4 coscoroba swans Concave-casqued hornbill Harpy eagle EXCHANGES By the judicious use of exchanges with other zoos and with individ- uals the following animals were obtained: Barcelona Zoo, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Goliath frogs. Breazeale, Edgar, Edmonton, N.C., 6 chukar quail, 8 bobwhite quail. Calgary Zoo, Calgary, Alberta, 2 Arctic foxes. Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, jaguar. 625325—62——_10 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Crandon Park Zoo, Miami, Fla., 3 green frogs, 4 Cuban tree frogs, 2 oak toads, 5 spadefoot toads. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, 2 hellbenders. Emperor Valley Zoo, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, 2 spider monkeys, blue tanager, 2 palm tanagers, maroon or silver-beaked tanager, violet tanager, 3 jacarini finches, 2 saffron finches, 4 purple sugarbirds, 4 yellow-winged sugarbirds, 4 bananaquits, 3 black-headed sugarbirds, 6 scarlet ibis. Hanson, Charles, Oak Harbor, Ohio, 3 banded geckos, 2 Uta sp., California king snake, 2 glossy snakes, bull snake, mud snake, 2 fox snakes, garter snake (black phase), 2 island water snakes. New York Zoological Park, New York, N.Y., 4 faleated teals, 2 triangular spotted pigeons. Okit, W., Winston-Salem, N.C., black swan, 2 mutant pheasants. Philadelphia Zoological Garden, Philadelphia, Pa., 4 prairie dogs. Phillips, Mrs. Jerry, Waldorf, Md., 4 wood ducks. Portland Zoo, Portland, Oreg., 2 alligator lizards, Columbian ground squirrel, 3 North American porcupines, 2 ring-tailed cats, 10 least chipmunks, 11 golden- mantled squirrels, 2 murres, 3 herring gulls, 6 Washington ground squirrels, chickaree, 4 chukar quail, 2 Onogadoria chickens, 2 Pacific rattlesnakes, rubber boa. San Diego Zoo, San Diego, Calif., 2 Indian monitors, 8 valley quail, 4 Gambel’s quail, 4 burrowing owls, toco toucan. Southwest Wild Animal Farm, Blackstone, Mass., 4 peach-faced lovebirds. Thomas, Charles, Washington, D.C., silver pheasant. Tote-em-In Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 2 Asiatic chipmunks, 2 European hedgehogs, 3 Indian monitors, 3 black racers. Whiteman, Robert L., Fairfax, Va., 2 hog-nosed snakes, 3 water snakes, 2 ribbon snakes, 3 worm snakes. The following animals were sent to other zoos and to private collectors in exchange: Alipore Zoo, Calcutta, India, 4 scarlet ibises, 2 roseate spoonbills, 12 wood ducks, 2 Gambel’s quail, 2 California Valley quail, 2 bobwhite quail, 2 coscorobas, sulphur-and-white-breasted toucan, white-lined toucanet, 3 cackling geese, 4 red-breasted marsh birds, cardinal, Gila monster, Mexican bearded lizard, 2 armadillos. Barcelona Zoo, Barcelona, Spain, 10 prairie dogs. Breazeale, E., Edmonton, N.C., 4 Canadian geese. British Guiana Zoo, Georgetown, British Guiana, 4 domestic rabbits, 4 peafowl. Calgary Zoo, Calgary, Alberta, Cape hunting dog, 2 brown pelicans, 2 barred owls, 3 night herons. Ceylon Zoological Gardens, Colombo, Ceylon, 6 prairie dogs. Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, 2 lion cubs. Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark, 6 cardinals, white-throated sparrow, 2 zebra finches, white-headed nun, blue jay, robin, 2 Java finches, 2 baldpates, 80 common Anolis. de Lauerolle, Vasantha, Berkeley, Calif., Indian python. Detroit Zoo, Royal Oak, Mich., 2 Pacific rattlesnakes, 2 pygmy rattlesnakes, 2 western rattlesnakes, 2 Amazon spotted turtles, 1 copperhead, 4 Taiwan cobras, 2 flat-headed turtles, South American red-lined turtle, large side-necked turtle, Murray turtle, Indian monitor, 3 Cook’s boas. Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., 8 red deer, 2 white fallow deer, 2 Virginia deer. ; SECRETARY'S REPORT 137 Hanson, Charles, Oak Harbor, Ohio, 2 Cook’s boas. Houston Zoo, Houston, Tex., South American rat snake, 2 common iguanas, 2 Indian monitors, 6 pilot black snakes, black tegu, 2 African bull frogs, fox snake, 2 Amazon spotted turtles, gibba turtle, Pacific rattlesnake, 2 manushi, glossy snake, 4 palm vipers, 2 flat-headed turtles, Formosan striped rat snake, Formosan rat snake, 2 South American red-lined turtles, milk snake, 2 Indian wolf snakes, 2 large snake-necked turtles, 2 Murray turtles, boa con- strictor, Indian python, 2 Taiwan cobras, snorkel viper, 6 tree boas, Cuban boa, Indian cobra. Portland Zoo, Portland, Oreg., Nile hippopotamus, 2 eastern box turtles, 2 yellow- bellied turtles, 2 eastern painted turtles, Florida water turtles, red-lined turtle, 2 western diamond-backed rattlesnakes, 2 African porcupines. Sacramento Zoo, Sacramento, Calif., 2 Cape hunting dogs. Salisbury Snake Farm, Southern Rhodesia, anaconda. San Antonio Zoo, San Antonio, Tex., black leopard, water civet, 2 golden- bellied badgers, lesser panda, giant Indian squirrel, 2 kelp gulls, 2 American ospreys, 2 cotton teal, 10 Quaker parakeets, 3 ring-necked teal, llama, 2 For- mosan masked civets, 3 Newman’s genets, Patagonian cavy, sika deer, laughing thrush, 2 Formosan red-billed pies, 2 plain-breasted ground doves. Seattle Zoo, Seattle, Wash., 3 mute swans. Southwick Wild Animal Farm, Blackstone, Mass., 1 wild turkey. Thomas, Charles, Washington, D.C., 2 cockatiels. Toledo Zoo, Toledo, Ohio, 2 Cape hunting dogs. Tote-em-In Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 8 fallow deer, 5 Virginia deer, elk, yak, Columbian ground squirrel, 4 eastern flying squirrels. BIRTHS AND HATCHINGS The number of young animals born in the Zoo was gratifying and included several “firsts,” either for this Zoo or for the United States. The pair of Margay cats that had a young one last year produced another kitten, which was cared for by the mother. A baby serval was taken away from its mother and raised by hand. The Canadian beavers, which were gifts from the Canadian Government, had a young one just after arriving in the park and before the formal presentation by Canadian officials, and so it was on view during the ceremony. The Dorcas gazelles were equally obliging and had their fawn at the time when President Bourguiba of Tunisia, who gave the original pair to Mrs. John Eisenhower, was in Washington. A pair of kookaburras, a gift in 1954 from Sir Edward Hallstrom of the Taronga Zoological Park Trust in Sydney, Australia, began laying eggs in February 1961. The nest was built in an opening at the base of a hollow tree, and the birds excavated the site until the nest was 2 or 3 inches below ground level. Three eggs were laid, and the male and female birds took turns incubating them, neither bird leaving the nest until the other had replaced it during the 25 days of incubation. On four occasions the female was observed calling the male by rapping on the tree with her bill, and the male responded immediately and entered the nest. The kookaburras had always been 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 fed on dead mice, and before the eggs hatched the keepers began ac- customing the adults to eating mice that had been cut up in small pieces. These chopped mice, supplemented with cockroaches that had been injected with multivitamins, were fed directly to the young birds by the parents after the old birds had crushed them thoroughly either in their bills or by rapping them against the tree. Thirty days after hatching, the first bird left the nest, but they continued to be fed by the parents until they were 2 months old. Before the first brood was self-reliant, the female began laying eggs again, and two more young were hatched on June 5. Following the procedure of previous years, all births and hatchings are listed below, whether or not the young were successfully raised. In many instances the record of animals having bred in captivity is of importance. MAMMALS Common name Scientific name Number Mat ikanearvoo ssa hee eee EP OLOROUWS SDs es ee ee 2 INI shit Ome yee Oe a ea ela A OUUSURUUIGOALUG me eee 2 Squirrelimonkeys se eee SQUN ints 8CUI CU Sean ee 2 Ey bridsmacaque:ssss eee we es igs Macaca philippiensis x M. irus—— 1 Rhesus monkey. eek sae Pe ie ae NAGKEU GE OIA ae ee 1 Barbanryadpe sees Le PPR Ree eee MGCOCUMSYLULINUNS =e ee ee 3 Moustachedtmonkey=2 sae a Cercopithecus, cephus. = 1 WeBrazzays2ien Ona eee a see Cercopithecus neglectus___.______ 2 White-handed gibbon_________________ Hylovatesi (a= ee eee 1 Chimpanzee=® (22S sa ee eae PON SOUT Ue se ee ee een eee 1 SWO-COCG ISI OUN == Steet = ee ee Choloepus didactylus___________ 1 ‘Three-toedtsloth222 22 2. oe Bradypus tridactyluse—- == 1 BGA Vir eke ied eT SEN aE Castor canadensis== ae 1 Brainiefdogt seek 2 eee es Pua ee _~ Cynomys ludovicianus________-_ 3 African)crestedyrates2 a hea ea ODL Y SES Ds oe 1 Wihite-footed) mouse. 6.2. el ee ECrOMYSCUSESD =a eee eee 1 WM eersmouse a. 2 Se ee See Peromyscus maniculatus________ 5 ALTI CAN MOLCUPIl C22 eee eee TI SEGUD OCLC eee 3 Batazonian ca viva sees ee ee eee i ee Doiichotis patagona_____________ cS Ding ONs0O OC NGS Pi ee FC dees Beg ie Canis antarctitwsl 2. at eee 1 Common) jaekaiees clea eet i eye lh Canis aqametis 232 nw eee 6 Aim ber wo bias aio: hie en pr ee te Canis lupus nubilus._._2-______ 3 Capeshunting, dog. 2a. te iy CAOTR A DICH S eee a ee 5 Huropean brown bearses 2222 2s See CSU8: (OT CLOG nas ae be cea a 5 Grizzlytbeare sis A5 Se a RK a) UT SWS WOTTVOUNS ae a See ee 2 Elypridsbear HW: Se Pubes payee Thaiarctos maritimus x Ursus Middendongi =222-45 8 a ae 4 Woabimun diss 322 lata ee ee 2 eat NOSUG NATiCG =e ee 3 ING Winans enehes Mes me sae Genetta genetta neumanii_______ 4 Wis Lenaciviete. 2 220 oes ln Se Atilan paludinosus____- 3 Seriya Teel fe DS beh A Cdk OS ee CUS SET val 22 Sa. ce 2 Marrayeca tine oe7s hh 2 heh eh bee aes Melis: tetedit2 Se a ICE ee al Toi Ope ere es SB al et Sol 2D Ponthena) ledssat=.- Fis etn batk 2 IPeCCatiy nse eas Li Recent ajacu 22 eee 1 ECRETARY’S REPORT ion Common name Scientific name Number Nilesh ppopotamMuUs === = 2 ee Hippopotamus amphibius_______ 1 LAT On a ee ee OTOL OUTING 22 ee ee ee 4 IBAGCEEIAN Cameleon eos 2 se eee Camelus bacirianus—_— al Winter low- deers == a- = see eee ee ee DANO CUN Gases 4 Aisvdeeneiit. 21228) th te erik tee AIRS Adige Bat ieee | 2 IRedh deer tr .23 U6 a total weer ca dd eh Cenvusrelanhuset 22322 2 oe 2 ese FES), COANE it a a AR Bes Sloe a ee Be Cervus nippon 2 ee 4 Wineinia: deera=- 23!) eee ee — Odocoileus virginianus__________ 7 PERE TING CN ae a Rangifer tarandus______________ 3 Woreasjeazellen oe he Gazelia) dorcas= eee 1 Barbary; sheepsa——— se a Ammotragus lervia__.__________ il Rocky Mountain sheep_ 22.2. a Ovis canadensis______________ ” 1 BIRDS Wii ine a ee eee ee CygnusdOloness 2 eae 6 WihoOpeny Swank. eee ee OQlOTSCYON Sem ee a ee 3 NVW FOO CN GLC Ket eps a ee 2 ALDUSNONSES ae aoe ee es 2 Americans pinta 2-222 = ANDS TOCULOL ees ee 9 Mand arinvduckococan poe oY Dendronessa galericulata_______ 22 Goldens pheasants. 22 234.2 0 4 se Chrysolophus pictus___________ 4 FTE a RON if Se Ea NS SO Gallusigalist =e es tf WTO GGT Key eno te De es ae Meleagris gallopava___________ 2 @uakersparakeet. “8 -<:41 2: eee Myopsittacus monachus________ 8 IBULrowine. Owls =. =) 8 Le re Spectyto cunicularis hypugaea__ al OGKAD IEA ae sae 2 Ee DGCCIOLOIG GS aaa es ea 5 REPTILES SHapping turtles Sarees 2S Chelydra serpentina___________ 11 TS ONG TUT OE = Ce a Terrapene caroinag_ 2a 24 Bainteds turtles 2s See. ene Chrysemys pictaln ins Se 8 Yellow-bellied turtle____..._._.___._._-_._- Pseudemys scripta sp__________ AT Red linediturile:coso = 2 2s eee Pseudemys scripta callirostris__ DO Red-bellied “turtle: ae Pseudemys rubriventris__.______ 1p. ReG-ined -furile sve ie bn oe he Pseudemys elegans. eee 16 Hastern= water snake 2252 Natrin sipedon... es et 14 Florida green water snake___________- Natriz cyclopion floridana_____. 29 island water snake:-=—-- =.= --.- 5 NGQETAD ANSULOTUN Eee ee 45 Carters snakes 215 sees sitw at ira: ba ho Thamnophis sirtalis___________ 11 Ribbon snakes 2 un wee es bet Thamnophis sauritus________-~_ of IBIACKEra Ceres ae Se eae Cotuberconst7ictor== 22s 4 Pilotiblackssnakelsssete oun desis 5 Hlapneousoleta=tae2= hasan 13 Paiwanecovras-2— 6c eaaks Bvt fhe 2 ING40/ NGG At, ae ee 7 Northern’ copperhead=—__. +2 Ancistrodon contortriz_______~- 12 FISHES African™=mouthbreeder222 22" 22s Pelmatochromis guentheri_____- 15 The importance of a zoological collection rests, to a large extent, upon the diversity and scope of its representation throughout the whole of the animal kingdom. The National Zoological Park has 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 enjoyed some measure of success in efforts to add representative species belonging to little-known or absent families, The total number of accessions for the year was 1,371. This in- cludes gifts, purchases, exchanges, deposits, births, and hatchings. Several minor species, which are best displayed in large numbers, do not have an individual count, merely being listed as “many.” STATUS OF THE COLLECTION Class Order Family Species or Individuals subspecies Mammals: tose) ae eee 15 51 244 627+ Bin shee ee ees ee 22 ad 419 1, 196+ Repinless . secon seas ease 4 23 161 414+ Amphibianss}==52 55-552 Seseo 2 Tel 25 108+ ish ee eae eee 4 8 21 86+ Arthropods=*2.2—===2- 22 sseee 3 3 3 Many Mollusks See S 22 2-2. eee 1 1 1 Many Totals eal ee 51 174 874 2,431+ ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1961 MAMMALS MONOTREMATA Family and common name Scientific name Number Tachyglossidae: Echidna, or spiny anteater__-_---_--__- Tachyglossus aculeatus_-_----- 1 MARSUPIALIA Didelphidae: Opossum S552. Seas SAS Didelphis marsupialis________-- 5 Dasyuridae: "RASMANIAN GG Cyl) See Sarcophilus harrisii_-__._.___._--~ 1 Phalangeridae: Sucariclider etre Sa ee Ree. = Petaurus vreviceps22.- ase 4 Squirrelislider sees See Petaurus norfolcensis________--~ 7 Phascolomidae: Hairy-nosed wombats2= 2 aa Lasiorhinus latifrons__._._.___-— 2 Wilewwoikeyersl yoda yre Wiombatus hirsutusane- seen 1 Macropodidae: Cd ekan Sar OQ ee ee ee ree ING@CEODUS TAURUS ee ee 1 Treevkanvaroo-22- oo) 2 eee eee Dendrolagus matschici______--_ 3 mat kancaroosaei es ae eee ‘POLOTOUS ISD. canes ee ee eee q INSECTIVORA Erinaceidae: EKuropean hedgehog______--______-- Hrinaceus europaeus __-_..---- 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT CHIROPTERA Family and common name Scientific name Number Vespertilioninae: ttle: brown Dato. INAS OLE STU CTIU GALS ee al PRIMATES Lemuridae: Ring-tailed lemurs — === =. IGCINUT COU = a ae eee ee 3 Lorisidae: (Chinen e IG yo eee Galago crassicaudatus_________ 2 Seneraillraila coi ee Galago senegalensis_—— 2 TON ADS caree7 i edo ak ee ae Galago senegalensis ZONZUO USTs en ee 2 Slik land ee ee Nycticebus coucang.--- = a | Gommon; POtlo: 22 ==. —— = ee Perodicticus potto-——-_ = 2 Cebidae: Nich tmonkeys === 222 AOtUs i TAVING Use ae 3 Brown capuchin monkey White-throated cus eas CEOUSICODUCTIVN Sa ee 10 Capuchin Sauimmelemonke ys! 2—— ==. 22 eee Satmirt sCiureus———- 7 Blacksspider monkey-=22—=— =, ALClES i USCICE) Sa eee 5 Biter monkey = — <= Ateles geofjroyi____- == _-_ === 5 MOLLY: WONKeY.-. — Lagorhrie. spoon ee a Callithricidae: @ottontop marmoset__._.____-.__..==- Saguinus oedipus______________ al Black-and-red tamarin_____________- Saguinus nigricollis___._________ al Cercopithecidae: Toque, or bonnet monkey___---~-~---. MQCOCE NICE oe 3 dawanemaAcague 2. — so oe Macaca irus mordag___________ 2 Crab-eating macaque_.___-----___-.. RUD CO CONTR ee ern 1 Philippine) macaque-=-—--- = === = Macaca philippinensis___________ 2 MaCAgue HyDMG= ==. 2 Macaca philippinensis X MC COCONTAULS = eee ee ee 2 WUReCSUSEIMNON KEY 222 20S ae Macnca mulattas---— = 4 Hormosane monkey. 22202 2 2s Macaca cyclopis=—= eee 2 Red-faced macaque____-__--_-----~- Macaca speciosa_________-__--_- 1 Sar ae Ce ee as 8 i bs MOCACH SYLVGNU Sea a ee ee 13 MOorAMaAcagness. 4 So sos so Moacacomaturnsiiae ss eas eee al Gray-cheeked mangabey__-___--_-_- Cercocebus albigena____----__-- 1 Acilevmangabeysoo2= 22222 ee 22 Cercocebus galeriius agilig______ al Golden-bellied mangabey___-_----__ Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster iL Red-crowned mangabey_____---___-- Cercocebus torquatus____._______ 2 Sooty. manecabey-.5224 231-6 ee Cercocebus fuliginosus__________ 5 Crested: mangabey =-=- sae eee Cercocebus aterrimus opden- ORG ISR sie nore alten ys eee 2 Blacked-crested mangabey__________ Cercocebus aterrimus___________ 3: Chacma: baboons 5222.8. EOD On COMOLMLS eee ee a Visa ret V2 wea Oe A os Mandriltws sphing2_- - 1 Gelada. baboon. ts Theropithecus gelada—__- = 1 I MervetscUenOn==.2 oso no oee oe Ceropithecus aethiops pygery- TUM Sec eee ee a Teen. PUCN ONS a2 a ea Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus__ 2 142 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Cercopithecidae—Continued (Ghrieaevi, lonyavale oe es Cercopithecus aethiops X C. A. DYUGCTYUINTUS —a—-=2 ee Ye Moustached monkey__-~__-__------- Cercopithecus cephus__-__------ 3 Diana monkey .=2!=222- es eee Cercopithecus diana---.----~---- af Roloway monkey==—2—— sea Cercopithecus diana roloway_--- il IPreuss:s) cUChOn esse eee eee Cercopithecus Vhoesti preussi___ at DeBrazza’s Menon 222 — === ae Cercopithecus neglectus__-___-_-~ 3 Wihitenosed cuenon= 23s 2s ae Cercopithecus nictitans_-_------ 1 Lesser white-nosed guenon_____-__-- Cercopithecus nictitans petaurista if Allen Siem OnK@ yeaa see ee Allenopithecus nigroviridis___---~ 2 Spectacled, or Phayre’s langur___-_- Presoylis DUAYTel =e ne 1 Entellus, or Hanuman monkey_----- iPresoytis Cnueuusen === = 2 IGE ROY 0 eS Oe i a PRES0Yls (Spice seen eee eee il Pongidae: Wihite-handedsribbOne ss ase Hgylovates Mates.) oe 5 Wal-wall- clbpponss aa. nae Hylovates molocn a2 eee 1 Gibbonwhybrid2o2-222---- ar Hylobates agilis X H. lar pilea- 1G oe ae oe ee ee ee i Gibbons hybrida e225 ee ylovates lar Xe Heispee sae 2 Sumatran orangutan. 22222 Pongo py gmacie= 2 IBormeany Oraneutana-— = == eee ae Pongo pygmaeus abelii________-- ak Chimpanzee Leo wea ee (PON SOLU TALS a 4 CGC 6) BS Wea av cae = Se Gornillangoriligzas eee 2 EDENTATA Myrmecophagidae: Giantlanteater=. 2222). 2 ae Myrmecophaga tridactyla_______ 1 Bradypodidae: MmhTree-LOedsS LOGiaa as ane ee ee Bradypus tridactyliis=—— 1 IP wio-toed SlOpne tens oe acts a eee Choloepus didactylus___________ 6 Dasypodidae: Nine-banded armadillo_______._____- Dasypus novemcinctus_________- 1 LAGOMORPHA Leporidae: Domestic rabbit — > — ea ey Oryctolagus cuniculus__________ 7 RODENTIA Aplodontidae: Mountain’ beavers-222 24 Fea Aplodontia rujas22 See 1 Sciuridae: Gray squirrel: ‘(black)=22 2 ss Sciurus carolinensis, melanistic phases2 2-22 27a nab tiers 2 Gray squirrel (albino) 22 ee Sciurus carolinensis______-__-__ 3 Moxaisqubrrels2. SSeS See NSCiUrU8 6 NG eraas a COE ee 1 CHICKAT EE s2ciiras ont aren es Tamiasciurus douglasiti____.__..- 1 Gianteindianysquirrel2= == ae ae Peatupa waa a aa ee ee 2 Asiaticrsquirreltec este ae Callosciurus nigrovittatus_______ 1 Formosan tree squirrel_____________ Callosciurus erythraeus____----- 3 Asiaticriorest squirrels - 2s ee Callosciurus caniceps___.____-_- 3 Striped ground squirrel____________ Lariscus insignigs_____.__---_-_-_ 1 Tong-nosedinsquirrelc=----=-~ Be Dremomys rufigenis__..._-_---- 1 Woodchuck, or groundhog__________ Marmota monag____.---------- 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT 143 Family and common name Scientific name Number Sciuridae—Continued prairies dogs] Sos ee eae aes Cynomys ludovicianus__________ 6 Round-tailed ground squirrel________ Citellus tereticaudus____________ 1 California ground squirrel______-___ Citelius. beecheyi2 seo betes 1 Washington ground squirrel________ Citellus washingtoni___._________ 5 Golden-mantled ground squirrel_____ Citelius, lateralige 2 2) 4 Hasternechipmunketet+ _ 24 toy ent TOMiGs [87a ea week eee Saas 2 Eastern chipmunk (albino) —----__-__ Tamiasastriatuge 2. 1 Yellow-pine chipmunk__._-___-____- Hutamias amoenus____.__----_-- i Indian; palm isquirrel- —_.. -- 28s Funambulus palmarum_______-- 1 Formosan flying squirrel_.__..__-._~ Petuurista orandisa. oa il Hasternjilying, squirrel_2.ce Shes Glaucomys volang_____--___-_-~ 6 Castoridae: IDCOV eens. 28 oo eee eet Castor canadensig__-221 2-2 8 Cricetidae: Goldenzhamster:.< 2 shane bee pie tT Mesocricetus auratug___________ 1 White-footed mouse______________-_ ‘ReromysSCus Spo ee ayant IPinetivole 0% 2 Gist ew, de Sewer Pitymys pinetorum_____________ 2 Gerbils ss 2st > eh heat kee Gerbillus pyramidum____-____-~_ 2 Hat-tailed ,cerbilschs alain antonio’. Pachyuromys duprasi___________ Many Hairy-taileds jird=— 22s ees eee thee Sekeetamys calurus______-2 +2 1 UTC pep A RE Se See el pene Meriones Spy 2s 22222 Se ahae 8 Muridae: Egyptian spiny mouse______________ Acomys cahirinusa lesbo 10 Egyptian spiny mouse______________ Acomys dimidiatus_____________ Many Multimammate mouse______________ Mastomys spa sai-s5- -. ieee 2 @restedgrate2-—— 23s is es. 4 ewes eat Lophiomysisp= ae ae a Se fe: 4 Slender-tailed cloud rat-_____-_____ Phloeomys cumingii____________ 1 Gliridae: Atricanegonmouse.—— te ey See Graphiurus murinus____-__---__ 1 Hystricidae: Malay, porcnpineews aan ie) ee Acanthion brachyura_______---- 1 ALTICANL DOLCUPING Sas seuss a ener. HYStvi@ (OLA eee vi Caviidae: Patagonian: cavy._. = sees Se Dolichotis patagona______-__---~ 6 Dasyproctidae: Red Ra goutin 2 = essen et sea SS Dasyprocia spanss. see ee eee 3 Chinchillidae: Peruyianiviscaccia-- ee ss sae Lagidium. viscaccia_.__-_.__...-- 1 CARNIVORA Canidae: Dingo: spas Ne Sela Canis antarcticus® 00" Sts” 8 COV Obes a> SBE GO Ba Canis *tetranst2. 282 Boe s Be aL Common ickal == 222 2 ee Canis-qureus=2 20 ee 8 EIMbperAWOlE= sole! Beran ae = Canis lupus-nubilussicasae cease 74 Mexas«red+wolt-225_ 2020000 Se isne Canis niger rufugel le. S283) 32 a ATChiCriOX e526 2 =U: Deno eee Alopen-lagopugt)_ 2 Lik Tes 2 edeiox 2 =h- - BOS OR RN? errredi Valpes-fuilcoge =. 297s bn fl Gt foe Se Ree ask Vallpes“macrotiss ss. =. 322-3022 2 Mennecs = st 22k22 bb a ey Fennecus*zerd@ana 2 23 ee 2) 2 Big-eared: fox iu: 2253 Eee Otocyon megalotis__________...- 1 Raccoon: d0gs.==- SEU. bey us Nyctereutes procyonoides____--- 3 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Canidae—Continued Cape hunting dogs 2533 -ee Lycaon iptetuss 2255s eae eee ?] Ursidae: Spectacled) bear 2. 2233452 Tremarctos ornatus__-___-----_-- 1 Himalayanybearss22 ene eee See Selenarctos thibetanus thibet- QNUs2Si Lee Swe Soe lhe: nie) 24 Japanese black bear_--------------- Selenarctos thibetanus japoni- CUSv25atont tise abeterey tis: pend cf Korean bears 222. 23a enee se Sees Selenarctos thibetanus ussuri- Clige scores > Aiptek eee bers 4 BlackibearT. 3. #2 hyn eee Euarctos americanus. ____----- 2 European brown bear_~—.------~—-—-~- OPSU3 JO ClOs eee See ee 3 Iranian Drownsbearss-=———=s—-- Ursus arctos occidentalis_______ 2 Alaskan Peninsula bear____---~--_-_.- UORSUShOU CSS aaa Sse Le a ee eee 2 Grizzlyabeare 22s 222 cae eee Ursus nhornivilises ee 2 Sitka, brownjbears=) ae Ursususitkensis-.= ea ee ee 1 POLAT DCAT= ese Le 2 eee arate AREY Thalarctos maritimus___._._._-_-- 2 Hybrid jbears. sess. eee Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus MAC CeEnC On Gta ee 4 Malay. sunibeat-+si22c sa ae Helarctos malayanus_-__-----~- 2 Slothibears tis. este ae Gu esc see MCTUSUSEUTSINUS == eee 2 Procyonidae: FERC COON Se ee ee ee ee ee IProCcyonimlotoTee eee ee ee 10 Raccoon (black phase) ~------------. Procyon), eee 1 Raccoons (albino) 2 ee. TORO UOUO Rea ee 1 Coatimundl: 2] 22-2 eee INGSUGMIUOTACC sas ee ee 4 Cacomistle, or ring-tailed cat_______~_ Bassariscus astutus_____..----=— 5 inka] ous! 222 — ee as a. See POtos flavussscs= eae ate ea 4 Olingowaeieer foo a eee Bassaricyon gabbi_._-_-__-_-___ 2 Juesserspandas=_ Sse eet see ess: Ailunisifulgens=s=—2 ee 3 Mustelidae: Merre tak. 2 ie eet ee eee Mustela eversmanni_____--_---- 1 WERK) obeys ee, Oe ee es CE ee Martes americana..——~----=.-_- 1 Wishersee ae ae eh eat eee Marntespennanti===—— ae il Lf Ti) of, ea eT eee Hire Uenvarda—2— ee eee a Grisonie sao ee ee ee a ee Coliciscittcc ee a: Zorilla, or striped weasel___--__-~-~_. TCLONYUDRCADENS San === eae 2 Wrolvering= os )2 oa 2 se ese eee GavloWuscusseese eee 1 Amenicangbadrersaae see aan ee Tavidcan tics eee 1 Golden-bellied ferret-badger__-______- Helictis moschata subauran- lacas 22 22 eee ee 3 Common skunk 2222 - = Seana eee Mephitis mephitis____-________.— 3 California spotted skunk__________~- Spilogale putorius phenav______ 1 South American flat-tailed otter_____- Pteronura brasiliensis.______._.-. 1 Viverridae; Genet eee bya ae es hae Genetia genetta neuwmanii_____- 8 Genet; (black phase) 222-2522. e Genetia genetta neumanii______ 1 Formosan spotted civet ___----_--_-. Vavenricula indica sess 2 Ground! civet2. 2-2-9 = a ee Viverra tangalunga.2 2-2 if Vain San eee ae he PTAONCAORMUNSONG ae eee i African palm civets. =e. Sa see Nandinia binotata- 2 -——2-—- === 2 Formosan masked civet______--_____ Paguma larvata taivana________ 1 Binturong 1-22 28st ss tee Anctictiis binturong===-—=—) ee a SECRETARY’S REPORT Family and common name Scientific name Number Viverridae—Continued African gray mongoose________-___. Herpestes ichneumon___--__-~__ il Black-footed mongoose___------~-~-. Badeogaleé: sp.22-- 222 a55- ss 2 Atricanawater. civets eves = axes = 8 Atilan paludinosus==- 2-222 ee> 5 Striped African mongoose_____-____- Orossarchus fasciatus. .--=..— 2 White-tailed. civetla22 2: 2224s Ichneumia albicauda______-_--_- 1 Cryptoproctidae: iS eee ee Cryptoprocia -jerom= 22-2 = 1 Hyaenidae: Nimpedenyenda-. 22s)" .2 2. ee HYGenG NyaenG 2 === ee 2 Felidae: Un COCA sess ee en ae WCUSCN GUS sane ee 2 alles st cata. soe See Meise Mon eee a eee eee 74 Senvaleca teen sass te ee Be CLS SCT UL eee eee eee = OCC tee as a ae eee CUS DOT OU See ae ee Pe Margayeca ta s= a2 = eae 2 Helis mciedittigning= 2 ee 4 ie ee ee ee ee WCHS (CON COLON = ane ee 3 NN igy nikon a ak i ot TGYNDCONUAeNSt Sane il BES Tye Ga ee a ks LY NO TU US See ae ee 2 WACO AE eee a a TEE OUGINGRTD FOU RUKT Ip A 5 Blaeksleopangs. eae. ae oe Panthera pardug 22222222 2 1 TROY SS aS Bi el Re TED Came eee PONTRCnGLCOns aaa eee eee eee 3 IBCHeAeti sere eee nce Dee PONthehagtugnise: 3 Bengal tiger (white phase)________ SE PONtUhel Goris anne eee 1 Se eeUN ER ee et ee Pantwveraionea= 2 Clouded@leopard==- 2 e- ee INeoTels: nevulosa_——_- 1 SHOW sleOpard == os eee IPantherag.uncid 2. 3 CITES 2) ET NESS a a oa ey Aicinonya jubata =o--- 2a. eee 2 PINNIPEDIA Otariidae: California: ‘sea-lion ===. = Zalophus californianus_._________ 6 Patagonian’ sea-lion__ == Otaria’ favcescens!=— 1 Phocidae: ITA DOTS ete ee ee ee PROCG CUMING oo eee eee 3 TUBULIDENTATA Orycteropodidae: Aardvark, or antbears:. 222 2is2 Orycteropus-afer_.—_— al PROBOSCIDEA Elephantidae: Africantelephant. 22.22) oe ee Lovodonta africana 22-2 = il Morest; elephant... 2 == 22a se ee Loxodonta cyclotis_o- == 1 indianvelephant=: 2.) cass Elephas mazimus_.__.___.._.-_ 2 HYRACOIDEA Procaviidae: 12 Nig: 6 Cee pee coe ae Ree ees Rrocavia. syriaca_._.. == 1 PERISSODACTYLA Equidae: Mongolian:wild horse. 2 2=_ 22s Hquus przewalskii2= = i Burrow Oredonkey se eee HQUUSI Asie ee ee ee a Grant sezebrame srs se et Nee Equus burchellii boehmi_____---- 3 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Equidae—Continued Grevy"s* zebra. oh as eee aes Hquusionevyi- 22222 Tapiridae: Brazilianstapir 22 aes ae ee as Tapirws TErnesinisea.= eee Rhinocerotidae: Great one-horned Indian rhinoceros__ Rhinoceros unicornis___-_---- White, or square-lipped rhinoceros___ Ceratotherium simum__—_------ African black rhinoceros__________-- DiGerGsuDiCOnnis= == ARTIODACTYLA Tayassuidae: Collared peccaty2222-———- = RECO OIOCU Sine eee Hippopotamidae: EDO POLS = eee ee Hippopotamus amphibius_____ Pygmy hippopotamus_.-_-___---___- Choeropsis liberiensis________- Camelidae: 1 CA so 0 ipa hot ee ah i ale aa ee TONE SOLON ee ee Guiana CO ee eee es ee Lama glama guanicoe___----- PAST) a Gales cies inne eee ee ek eee TGC COCO Sr a cee eos Bactrianicamele i 22--—— a ee ee Camelus bactrianus____-_----- Cervidae: White: tallow deers = -- 22s ee DONG CONG ee IACKANIO COT sear ree Se ae ARIS" O@ tetas hs Pe ee one 18505 WHS (SY Sy ae ey er pa a ER A ao Cervus claps American Cla ssa sa ee er Cervus canadensis—_____=__ = Nika GC awe el ae eee tele Sener oie ee Cervus nippon___ RéresDavid Ss 0 Cer tes ae ee EHlaphurus davidianus____---- Warns CCCs aa re ae ee eS Odocoileus virginianus________ DR VET AUG (SYST celine a ee wr pl inuha sblbnet ho ita ania RANG er taranause =e MOTESERCAEI DOU ae ee RONG ET: COTM00U 22-2 ane Giraffidae: Nubian ginatie: os = Saas Giraffa camelopardalis________ Antilocapridae: PLOT SOT hy ee eee ee Antilocapra americana________ Bovidae: Siltahingas see ee ee eee Tragelaphus spekii__.________ IB TINO Ossie ee = es ae eee Connochaetes taurinus________ AMOR) os a aE Anoa depressicornis_______-___ VIGS OY 1 ee EE Sie EL A eee eee er OS MAN GACL Ga tat ae eee ee DVS eerste or) ce Us ba Poephagus grunniens________- Gai ee aes 2S De Seen IB TOOS IO CUTUS Sa = ae ene PACED CMe ULE 0 eee ere SUMCCTAUS (COL Che eee FATNETI CANN DISON= 2 amet se eens SAS OW OVS ON ses eee ee Wisent, or European bison__________ S25 GURU GTULS US eee Doreas gazelle 2 ee Gaceula (Wonedsiai-- = = mockyamnountain f£0abe eee Oreamnos americanus________- NO Weta ests ERS RMR Hermitragus jemlahicus_____- 10) Bebo Eee eR SS Beep eS SE ee eee OC DROID CD = ia aee yee eee Bnew SHeEeD Ss esc ee a ae PSCULOISINAY OU ee POUIC 8 ips ee Ss a Ammotragus lervia___._.____-~ Bighorn SNe sco s= = a Ovisncanadensis=— ee Mall sheep. 2 sews ete es Ovis\ dal daltia2-— ee ae 2 es NAR RF RE HY WON DS Rw we Pw He SECRETARY’S REPORT 147 BIRDS SPHENISCIFORMES Family and common name Scientific name Number Spheniscidae: Ranp= pene wines = ee eae ah) _. Aptenodytes patagonica______--- 4 AGGHeMpenSuINe oe =e eS ea Pygoscelis adeliae__.__---------- 2 STRUTHIONIFORMES Struthionidae: CE CE a ee ee Striuthio: camelus_ >.<) - eee 1 RHEIFORMES Rheidae: Jae Saye i he ae ays ee CIE G UMLCTACO NL 2a 1 CASUARIIFORMES Casuariidae: ASSO WAT Yet ee eee eee Casuarius: sp; 2825 echt ss 2 Dromiceidae : Shr ree ets EDS eR ined. a age he 3 Dromiceius novaehollandige___- 5 TINANIIFORMES Tinamidae: Eilested: tinagmou_-- = - Crypturus soui panamensis_____ 1 PROCELLARIIFORMES Diomedeidae: Black-footed albatross______-_------ Diomedea nigripes_________-..- 2 PELECANIFORMES Pelecanidae: Rese-colored pelicano... =. _~--. 2 Pelecanus onocrotalus__..._-_._ 2 Whitenpelican = 92 = 4 = =o at es a Pelecanus erythrorhynchos__--- 3 Browne peleana sss eee ee Pelecanus occidentalis__________ a | Dalmatian pelicans... 225. - 25. Pelecanus crispus_.__._.__.___.___._ 4 Phalacrocoracidae: Double-crested cormorant___________ Phalacrocoraz auriius auritus___ 4 iHharallon: cormorant... -— ee Phalacrocoraz auritus alboGiiatus 22. eo es ul Huropean cormorant... 2 2 = Phalacrocorawy carbo__-_-_~---- 6 Anhingidae: ; Anhinga, or snakebird______________. Anhinga anhinga_—-=——-—-—-— =. — 1 End int) Garter 5 3 ee 8s Anhinga melanogaster_________~ 2 CICONIIFORMES Ardeidae: Reddish. egreta.4-8 a0 Neen 4s na at) Dichromanassa rufescens Pee 3 Reddish egret (white phase)________. Dichromanassa rufescens____--- 1 Cattle-errete = 52s hee ee pe Ay, Bubuleusytbis. eens ol 3 American, egret2= =. Yi ont ote. Casmerodius albug___-_._--__-_~ 1 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Ardeidae—Continued Snowy ‘egret_os=4-.._. 2-2-2 eee Leucophnoys: thulaszso2 2s 2 Greatuwhite sherons===2-2 == Ardea (occidentalis===))2==- -— 2 Bastern green heron---=—=_-=_=--_=- Butoribes ‘wvirescens-__-.-—__—_= 3 ouisianamheronss222 252 See ygranassa Aricolon== ase eee 3 Black-crowned night heron_--_--_~-- Nycticoraz nycticoray_____-_-__ 12 Witte blue wmeron===22se2—— oe Hlorida nCGenulen asa =e ae ae 1 beast. bittem=<< £2 2-2 = = = SSE eae TcobrnyCnugierilisas2= = ase 1 Ticerspittennes.=e2 22a anaes Tigrisoma lineatum___--------- 2 Cochleariidae: Hoat-billed, heron =o. = ee Cochlearius cochleariugs_______-~ al Balaenicipitidae: SHoebi Lee ete ee ea ee Balaenicens Fense 222 ee 1 Ciconiidae: American wood ibis222--——---=----— Mycteria americana _.._--__-__- 8 European white stork_.------_----- Ciconiasciconi( nee 4 Indianvadjutant)storke=—---——---==— LEDLODULOSEO LOL Usa a eee 1 iWhite-bellied™ stork22=22--—--.----—-—-= Abdimia sphenorhyncha_____-_-- 2 Threskiornithidae: White ibis=222=2 2250 3s os Eudocimus albus. ss 2. Scarletstbiss2= 2S ee DAT UNOGIIROE) CONGR 4 Black-faced ibis2 se) 5 seas ae Theristicus melanopis___._.______ 1 Blackheaded thiss22-2 esas Threskiornis melanocephala_____ 1 White-faced glossy ibis______-_------ Plegadismenicona=as ase 2 astern glossysibis= === - = = Plegadis falcineliuss 22s =2 5 oseate ‘spoonbillass2 aoe AJQIG -Cjaja=t= eee eee 6 Phoenicopteridae: Chilean shaming oss ee Phoenicopterus chilensis___...._ 2 Cuban’ flamingos eee eee Phoenicopterus ruber____.___--- 1 Old) World flamingos Phoenicopterus antiquorum_____ 1 Ncessers flamingos oe eee Phoeniconais minor____-__------- 2 ANSERIFORMES Anhimidae: Grested screamer --.2----5-eeeoaee Chauna torquata_.___________. us 4 Anatidae: Coscoroba’ 8wankee 2220 aeeee Coscoroba coscoroba____________ 4 Mute ms wane cease. - ee eee oe eae Cygnus: olor eee 6 Black-necked swan. ..--..---.-...-— Cygnus melancoriphus______--__ 2 Wihooper SWaleesesenee eee Olorscygnuss==s226 5s 4 Whistling swans= 2-222. -= Olor columobtanis=2 see 11 Trumpetet Swaneo---- esa aoe esas Olorbuccinalor2=2ess ee 2 Black swan. 2---2o> neon aoe eee Chenopis atrata-______._ 2 Heyptian ‘gooseL2o2 esas owns ceo Alopochen aegyptiacus_________- ple White-fronted goose____------------ AN Ser Albi LOns== =e 3 Indian bar-headed goose__-------_-- TULWOCLT AN OACO aaa 5 Himperor goosel oa eee Cle (CON AGICO Sea eee 2 Blue P00Se= = 22a eae eee aes Chen caerulescensi----— == S = 6 lesser. snow g00ses22 ae ee Chen hyperborea hyperborea____- 2 Greater snow gooSe___...-_--------- Chen hyperborea atlantica_______ 5 Ross's; goose--2i-.-. oe co eet Ohen rosé eS 4 Red-breasted goose.-_._------------ Branta rujicollis.__..--2 2. =. 4 SECRETARY’S REPORT 149 Family and common name Scientific name Number Anatidae—Continued Canada goose Lesser Canada goose Cackling goose White-cheeked goose Canada goose X blue goose, hybrid_._ Branta canadensis X Chen caerulescens) =- 2) =. a ees 22 Weoodwdiuck——- 52 225 Sas ALD) SDONSO=— a. 3s ee Eat Many Wood duck X red-headed duck, Aix sponsa X Aythya americana_ 1 hybrid Pintail duck2s S34 ssueh. 22 Sn Anas.actita =.= --= 222 2 wees 10 Chestnut-breasted teal__-____________ Anas -castanea--—_ = ee ee 1 Gadwall ya 2.2 ate wien AnQs Stnepend2oe= 2) ae a ee 5 HUrOpean. Wig eonhese kaise eos Toes Anas penelope - a bane eee 5 NMallards duck=- S22. Res & ee eae Anas platyrhynchos_._--__..--.- 25 Mallard) duck) albinos = ee Anas platyrhynchos_____-------~ 1 Mallard duck X American pintail Anas platyrhynchos X Anas duck, hybrid. CCuld) asaebisee ae Sees 1 Indian spotted-billed duck_-___-____ Anas poecilorhyncha__-__--_----~ nb Tet krva 'ee(sha(cl eee Se ee eS eee Anasirubripes-=—. eee 9 Greaternscanp ducks esas ane eee! Aythya: marila.. 22222223 22S 7 ILCSSCrISCAUD GlICKHee 2 was ye Aythyatafinis.._ Stet Se 5 Red-headed, duck__ 222220 #5 ee aS Ayvthyaramenicangs.-- 2 eee 9 Ring-necked duck_______--_________ Aytiyancollarisie== 222.) sees 3 Canvasback duck use oe. sn ohn’ Aythya valisineria ------..---.~ 7 Buillehead ducks tenet be ase eso A Bucephala, albeolia==-2—= 1 American goldeneye________________. Bucephala clangula americana_- 1 Black-bellied tree duck______________ Dendrocygna autumnalis __----~ 2 Hinlvous tree @ucek2- Dendrocygna bicolor ___-_------ alt Mandarinvduck=22=-"0ne ie) & one Dendronessa galericulata _____-- 18 ISlih ett ee ee Mareca americana22--=--- 2s 10 Rosy-billed-pochard-=-2--- S -8aes Metopiana peposaca _.---_------~ 1 Red-crested pochard________________ Nettaerujfing 2.5 eee eo) 1 Cotton teala22-2 == =F eS eee Nettapus coromandelianus_____- 4 Combsduck===—- 222 Bae Sener es Sarkidiornis melanota____---_--~ i South African sheldrake____________ Casarca: cong 2S Sa aI Rugddyasheldyeke as 282 eee Casarce, ferrugines === = 2223 2 Huropean shelduck=22= 22 seni. Tadorna tadorna ~~ ~2222=_==2 1 FALCONIFORMES Cathartidae: AnGeANicONd Oreste 2s 22S Be See Vailturnorypnis ene ea eS a ines vulture ssn te tee Se ee Sarcoramphus papa __--__---_--~ iL Blackstwultune eter ee ee ee Cordguyps tat ats = ee 6 Hloodedtivulture= = = oe Necrosyrtes monachus__---~--~- 1 Ruppell’si vulture= = os" —- eS Gypsy rueppelitecn 3 Purkevevultune: 22-20 CUlthGrtesqur ae eee 9 Sagittariidae: Seerebaey Dine eee ee ee ee eee Sagittarius serpentarius___.__-- 2 Accipitridae: African yellow-billed kite___.__._____ MAUS NT aN se 2 PB raliminiys Kite a ee ee FL QUST RING ghee cee eee = a IB wek-tacedthawkee een Leucopternis melanops _-------- 1 Red-winzed ‘hawk... ---2s=-2--- 2 Heterospizias meridionalis_____- 1 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Accipitridae—Continued Red=tailedthawks 22.2 2 ee Buteo jamaicensis..__._2====— == 3 Red-shouldered hawk--__-_________- Buteo lineatug —22s25-284552+ 25 1 Nwalnson s hawke. 252 2teo aes Buteo swainsont ~~ 222-2222 il Mauduyt’s hawk-eagle______________ Spizaetus ornatusssso hess. 1 Great black*hawk. 222.honi. ora Ictinaetus malayensis __--------~ il Goldenyeagie2#..... =. Saas Aguila senrysaeros=— 2 3 imperialjeagle.2 252223 eee Alqila Nelaca ———-- = = aes 2 White-breasted sea eagle_____-_-___-_- Haliaetus leucogaster _-___---~-~ al Pallas’s enelee fis! BES Se Ser ees Haliaetus leucoryphus____------ 1 Baldvengleses26 5 Se eee Haliaetus leucocephalus____-_-- 5 iBuzzardseagie.2-.- Se eens Sees Buteo poecilochrous.-.._._-~---- 1 Harpyneagle:-202 oo ees eet Hopiogharnpyja a ee 2 Guianan crested eagle__-________---_- Morphnus guianensis _.__------- al Monkey-eating eagle________-------- Pithecophaga jefferyi _-_-------- 1 Bateleur eagle cst sens eee Beet Terathopius ecaudatus _._------- 2 Bearded: vulture lee 2s Bs eS Gypaetus barbatus_2__2-22. = 1 Falconidae: Sparrowshawk..seetatiseas eset Falco spanverius- aust Sees 5 Duck whe wk ee oes Falco peregrinus anatum____---- 1 Red-footed falcon, or crane hawk-_-_--. Halco vespentinus 22 ee 1 Horestitalcope.2- == See ee Micrastur semitorquatus____----~ 7s Chimango22¢ 22... ee ee ee ed Milvago..chimangon 22a. a ee 2 Chimachima bawk222 seal ks seeebes Milvago chimachima____--------~ if! Audubon’s caracara____-----_-~----. Polyborus cheriway 222 SS 3 White-throated caracara____-____--_- Phalcoboenus albogularis____--_- 3 GALLIFORMES Megapodiidae: Brush turkeyi2o tessa eee eee Ss Alectura lathamiznn oo 223 225% 1 Cracidae: Blue-cered curassow....------------ Oren alberti_.-W. 222-2 Bates 1 Wattled curassow-=-—-.. == eee Crag. globulosa=- 2. eee 2 Panama. curassowessas.e25— eee Crag nanamensts2aa- eee 1 Nocturnal curassoweoo- 225-22 -2-— Nothocrawy urumutum____------- al White-headed piping guan________~__. Pipile cumanensisa =. assess af Phasianidae: Hirckel’s francolin. | sae See ay Francolimus erckei2--22 1 Hildebrandt’s trancolin=-2222-2 2222 Francolinus hildebrandti__.._____ 2 IBob2 wih tes co a eae Colinus virginianus__.___.___==. a Oil c ith) Pe a ee ALCCLOTAS SOT CCG See ae 4 (Op bon ays) WMC heey bee ee Lophoriya gambelt —.2-— 2 AV SU ys UL ee ee Lophortyx vallicola.________.__.-~ 6 Argus) pheasant 22-5512 eee ATOUSNONUS GONG =e ee 1 Golden; pheasant= 222 ee ee Chrysolophus pictus. === 7 Onogadorichicken=—= 22 ee COUMS SO GUUS 2 oe 2 Red jungletowl] i222) eee GOLILES SO CULMS Sa 2 See ee ee 6 Nepal mheasanta5 52 ee Gennaeus leucomelanus______--_ 2 Black-backed kaleege pheasant_____- Gennaeus melanonotus_______--- ve Silver pheasanto= 22022 o =e ae Gennaeus nycthemerus_________~ 1 Peat Ow se 2 eis cooks oh ee TEA DON ( EQUCT a ee 5 Ring-necked pheasant___.___________. Phasianius) colchicus2 ===) 4 Ring-necked pheasant, albino_______- Phasianus colchicus______--..-- 2 SECRETARY’S REPORT 151 Family and common name Scientijic name Number Phasianidae—Continued Ring-necked pheasant X green pheas- Phasianus colchicus X P. versi- ant, hybrid COlOr, SoS AES h eee a 1 Bhutan, or gray peacock pheasant___. Polyplectron bicalcaratum___---~- 2 Heeves’sipheasant=- ===. = == Syrmaticus reevesi.______----~-~ y Numididae: Vulturine guineatowlio os 2s = = Acrylliium vulturinum__.__._----- 3 Meleagrididae: Ocellated#turkey #2428 338s Agriocharis ocellata_____.__--..- 2 Walditurkey: 222 20a Sipe se sete ofa Meleagris gallopavo______------- 5 GRUIFORMES Gruidae: Siberiankcranes.2 lees eee = Grus_leucogeranus=——— == -- === 22 1 Wemoiselleverane.22 522222) Pa a Anthropoides virgo_______.____- Al Sarisrerane: tes eee eens Antigone antigone______________ Pe African crowned crane__-___---____- Balearica pavonina____—_--_ = = 6 Psophiidae: EN ECC ee eee ee ene ee Psophiamerepians22-—) =. 2 Rallidae: Cayenneiwood rail. eee ATOMLCESCO ONC a eee 2 AIA Dee U SUEY gece WD Meee aE Dk a iad eek Sebel lee Rathussimicolg= ee ee al TRS GYR Tig A oe are ale ee A i le ee EOUAUS CLE A115 et eee ee eae 1 Purplervallinule®=\22*- Sos. sosee TOnOrnis Marntinieda a eee 2 South Pacific swamp-hen___________- Porphyrio poliocephalus_________ 1 PAM CTI CANS COU te ae a eee ene EWU CONAMCTICUNG ne enn 1 Eurypygidae: Sine D Ceres a ee ee ee ere ETA GO ILC UTS rene ee ee al Cariamidae: Wariamay or seriama== 2) os Cantanarcristale ee 1 Otididae: Seneca le DUstard= 222 -s eeee Eupodotis senegalensis_________- B.) CHARADRIIFORMES Jacanidae: Commonjacana_ Sie reas Sievert JACONG=8SPiNOS8C 2 2 Haematopodidae: Oystercatcher. 2-2. Bs Ania Haematopus ostralegus____--__-~ 2 Charadriidae: Goldenvplover:a. 2. sing Aeon? Charadrius apricarius_______-_- 2 Australian banded plover__________-_ Lonijperitzicolor.. eee ae 3 uropean. lapwing=2S2es isk anne ay Vanellus vanetitsia.ualeece ies th 4 South American lapwing__-________- Belonopterus cayennensis______- 4 Crocodile bird--22 Sets sada oy Pluvialis aegyptius_.__________-- a Scolopacidae: Pectoral sandpiper___ 22 4s es ee Erolia melanotos_______________ 1 Recurvirostridae: Black-necked' stilt... ssn Himantopus mewvicanus______--~ 1 Burhinidae: South American thick-knee_________- Burhinus bistriatus...222 224 1 Stercorariidae: MacCormick’s skua_______--________ Catharacta maccormicki__-.--~- 2 625325—62——11 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Laridae: Rine-pilled= gulls seen =e Larus delawarensis______------- 3 Rely (oul oe ee eee Larus dominicanus____--—===-=— 8 auching gullo 22 ae ee GOTUS COUT ACUL =a ee il Herrin= 2ulles= Se ee eee OTUs Or Gentatusan 3 Western, or California gull_________. Larus argentatus californicus—_-~ 2 Great black-backed gull_____-_--_-_ LOrus Marinus = ese eee 2 Silver: culls 2s Soe ee ee Larus novaehollandiae__-------- 8 rankings? oul] one ene eee Banus pipiccanas 2 INO. terns aoe a ee eens ANOUSESEOLICN Soe ee 2 Commontitern == 20 22) a eee Sterna hirunde hirunde__-------~ 4 COLUMBIFORMES Columbidae: Band-tailed ipigeon==—— = Countess 2 High-flying Budapest pigeon______~-_. Cont. eee 9 Black-billedpigeon=2222222s2=--———— Columbia nigrirostris_—---—-__ == il Triangular spotted pigeon________-_-_- Colunta. quince 2 Crownedy pigeons ta one eee Gouraivictoria=— 1 iBluewround doves ee Clan avisupretiosd 2a eee 5 Ruddy ground d0vela—-=- 5a Chaemepelia rufipennis_____-----~ tf Indian emerald-winged tree dove___-- Ohalcophaps -indica==—=- = == 10 Bleeding-heart dove-=—-----—-=— = __: Gallicolumba luzonica___-.~-----~ 2 Diamond doveL——— = a2 5 Geopehacuncaia all Plain-breasted ground dove_____--_--. Columbigallina minuta_____-----~ 12 Ground d0vess 22222 ee eee Columbigallina passerina__-_---~ 5 Ring-necked Gove==2=2-=—-— Streptopelia decaocto__-_____--- ¢¢ Blue-headed ring dove___-----------_ Streptopelia tranquebarica_____- 2 White-winged dove__---___--------- ZEniagiesiauicg = eee 1 Mourning doves =—=- == === =a esse Zenaidura macroura_._--_----—- 3 PSITTACIFORMES Psittacidae: Kea parrot) sess oe === se Nestor notabilis = eee 2 Redo Oyj eee Domicella garrula ____--------~-- 2 Banksian cockatoo ~_-_------------ Calyptorhynchus magnificus ~~~ 1 Wihite cocka toons =22— = sas eee==— KGKOLOG GLUG. ==) = eee 2 Solomon Islands cockatoo___-_----- EH AGRIN CRG RODS Sa 1 Sulphur-crested cockatoo ~---~----- makatoe. galertta =-- ae ae 4 Bare-eyed cockatoo ~----_---------- Kakatoe sanguinea ___________- 5 Great red-crested cockatoo ~----~--- Kakatoe moluccensis —--------- al Leadbeater’s cockatoo ~------------ Kakatoe leadbeateri ~--_-----~- a Cockatiels ae ee eens Nymphicus hollandicus ~_---~-- 7 Yellow-and-blue macaw ------------ ALG OT GULCUNG: 22a ee 3 Red-and-blue macaw —-~------------ Ara Chlioropierd, 2 ae 3 Red-blue-and-yellow macaw __---~-- Ara \mnacdo: a eee 2 Niger's macaw2s2t2= = en ee eee Ara MaraconG, 2-2 eae 2 Brown-throated conure —~_____---_-- Conurus aeruginosus ____--_-__-- 2 Petz’s parakeet 2 4233232 Se Aratinga canicularis ~__.--_-_- 1 Rusty-cheeked parrot _---_________- Aratinga pertinam —__--+ =.= 2 Tovi parakeet) = SUNCOUMUECIIGILS aan eee eee 1 iBull-throated, saltator=o—- = 2==2- = Saltator’ macimusszas— ee 1 Tawny-bellied seedeater______-----~- Sporophila minuta___________--— it SORPRSD ATT OW = ae ee ee cere Metlospiza melodia. 2222) Ss it RE RGIS pe ee ee ae Spied @mericengee eee 5 White-throated sparrow__---------- Zonotrichia albicollis________---~ 1 White-crowned sparrow__----~~-.-- Zonotrichia leucophrys____------ 2 Sellowiaimimenrns ee a eee Hmberiza citrinetia__-______-_-__ al HHLOpeCaneDUNtINe = eae ee ee Hmoberiza caltandra_2_ 2 AEM SEDT oh ea Lk 0 aC yaaa ed ee eee Volatinita: jacarint22 2 2 ee 3 Tropienioseed finch. 2 ae Oryzoborus torridus._—--—-- ==> 3 REPTILES LORICATA Alligatoridae: Ona ii soe a ee ee Caimanzsclerops=— 2 2 Tarek eatin 11 ies. Se ee Bete ae Melanosuchus niger. = 8 Americamalligatonr—— -2 92s. eee Alligator mississipiensis_______- 9 Chinesevalligators= 2222-2 es ae ANG UOT sinensis 2 Crocodilidae: Broad-nosed crocodile-__.___________- Osteolaemus tetraspig__________- a Adricantcrocodtle. 3s eh Crocodyltus niloticus___.-.-—-_ = 2 Narrow-nosed crocodile_____________. Crocodylus cataphractus_____--_ 1 Salt-water crocodile_._____._.________. Crocodylus porosus.___._______._- 1 American! Crocodile=s2=-— 2 a= es Crocodylus aceutus______-_____-_ 2 Gavialidae: indian) ca vial? sae s oe es a Gavialis gangeticus__________--- 1 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 CHELONIA Family and common name Scientific name Number Chelydridae: Snapping turtles so eee ee ey Chelydra serpentina____.________ Many Alligator snapping turtle____________ Macrochelys temminckii________ 1 Kinosternidae: Musk tor tlet siesta oe Sternotherus odoratus__________ 3 Mudiiturtlet=:2 eo Sis Wa 28 ee ee Kinosternon subrubrum_________ 7 South American mud turtle_________- Kinosternum cruentatum____--__ 2 Emydidae: BOxibirtlesso= See ee ee Terrapene carolina_______-_____ Many Three-toed box turtles == == Terrapene c. triunguig________._— Ornateiboxturties=s2 es a eee TLerranene OTNGtdaae es 1 Hloridaibox turtles... 222i Hernapene) Caurtizin as 1 Kouravkunsa, Doxacunil@2 as a= ae aoe Cuora amboinensis______________ 2 Dinmondhback turtle2222 2252s ee Malaclemys terrapin____._...__.. 8 Map tur tl ena ee aoe eee _ Graptemys geographica_________ 2 Malsemapiturties= =. 2 2 ee Graptemys pseudogeographica___ 2 Barbour'smap turtles.—- =o 2 Graptemys barbouri____________ 4 Paintediturtles 2222224 ee ae (OOMATXGIDND (DNA Many iwesternipainted turtlessa22 == Chrysemys picta belli____.______ 15 Cumberland turtles 22222 eee Pseudemys scripta troostii______ 23 South American red-lined turtle_____- Pseudemys scripta callirostris___ 2 Yellow-bellied turtle___________-__--. Pseudemys scripta scripta__.____ 15 Red-belliediturtles 22a ee Pseudemys rubriventris________ 10 ed-eareqiturtles 22-2 ee Pseudemys scripta elegans_____- 12 Southern water turtle______._..____- Pseudemys floridana___________— ile Florida red-bellied turtle____________ Pseudemys nelsom—__ 2 Central American turtle____________- Pseudemys ornata....---~--.... Pe Cubaniwater'turtles222 2) 3 ees Pseudemys decussata___________ 1 Chickentturtles 232. 3 ee ee Deirochelys reticularia__._______ 1 Spottedtturtle=--= === ee Clemmys guttata_.____.______-... 4 Wiooditurtlet 2 = 22s sees ee eee Clemmys insculpta_.____._._______ 6 Iberian pond turtlessse—— = ee Clemmys leprosa______.---_.—-.- 2 Huropean pond turtles==—--- == Hmys orbicularie_—-- = —- === 8 BlandingisiturileLs 2h sos so ee. Emys blandingit________-.------ 2 Reeve siturties fs 20. hee Ohinemys reevesitz2= 4 Testudinidae: Giant Aldabra tortoise___.._..----- Testudo elephantina_._._._________ - Galapagos, tortoiseso2==- 222-2222 =2= Mestudo ViCing 222s eee 2 Duncan Island tortoise__________--_ Testudo ephippiwms.—_—_-—-_- = 2 South American tortoise____.__-_--- Testudo taulcc_- 1 Star tortoise! 2 eee Nestudowelegans] =e 2 Huropesantoriolsese. seen hestudovgracta222- See 1 Pelomedusidae: African water turtles. 22) oe. Pelomedusa subrufa_._..________ 2 Africanwplack mud iburtie: 2222s s=2=— Petwsiossnignicans=222 ea 1 Amazon spotted) buLtleses === a= Podocnemis unifilis_____________ 2 Chelydidae: South American side-necked turtle__ Batrachemys nasuta___._________ 2 Australian side-necked turtle_______ Chelodina longicollis_________.-~ 3 Small side-necked turtle____________ Hydromedusa tectifera______-_- 2 Large side-necked turtle____________ PIUNODS UGTA ae eee 8 Kerefrts (turtles=- 22 22 eee Emydura krefftti___.—._____.__ 3 SECRETARY’S REPORT 159 Family and common name Scientijfio name Number Chelydidae—Continued Whibeetiy (and al ee Emydura macquarrii______---_- 3 South American gibba turtle__-_----- Mesoclemmys gibba__----------- 2 Hiatneaded turtle. ——- = Platemys platycephala_____----- 3 Trionychidae: Southern soft-shelled turtle__-_-_---- Tiny D) fel OM a2 a— 5 African soft-shelled turtle___-__----- Trionya trvuinguis.____________- 2 SAURIA Gekkonidae: Ginn sr eCCk Os. o2e.28 ao ee Gekko. stentor_..- =.= est 1 INGISOn:S) -2eCKo=...._- See BSE ES Aristelliger nelsoni_.______----=- aft Banded cecko=- ===. Stee ees Coleonyw variegatus________--__ zt Iguanidae: Gammon; iguanas {2220s sites eee Iguana. 4quana == ee 3 Warolina. anole: 5... .2sao he sass see Anolis carolinensis_________----~ Many INGISONSA ANNO Les as ese eens 222 82 Anolis ncisont.._._ _S4 a Aas il Giants anoles sot se ee Bete Anolis equestits: 22225) es il Texas shored, lizard? ise ens = ees Phrynosoma cornutum__—------ 1 Crested), lizar diss 2sie_ssAmienen ss Leiocephalus varius_______----- 3 Blue scaly. lizards] 22 ss. sbt anniek” Sceloporus cyanogenys_-------~- aL Hencertlizard:: 2s isees esha ghnil Sceloporus undulatus__-___----- 2 Spiny-tailed iguana_____----------- Otenosaura acanthura______---- 1 Scincidae: Moumning, skink = studies) = aes Egernia tuctuosa__._-_--=--+--— 2 Wihite:s Skink: 22 ne os ees Egernia whitei__.____-_---------+ 4 Greater five-lined skink____------~- Eumeces fasciatus______-__---- 1 Broad-headed skink..-_--~--_----~- Humeces laticeps________—--~--- 1 Great plains. skink-~ Ste ee EHumeces obsoletus._______=---=- 1 Sanduskink. = s2etius okulaoke shat’ Scincus officinalis__._._ccc-___-- 4 Stump-tailed) (skink“_}*s2hn skews THqQua, TUGO8a= 2s ee eee 1 Malaya SKI 15 iy eee eh GAINS Mabuya multifasciata______---- 2 Gerrhosauridae: Plated. Lizard st wee ya fe Ae igus 1 Gerrhosaurus major._____------~ 1 Teiidae: Blackartegd ti nulla ei iisieeveny ait) Tupinambis nigropunctatus____- 1 Varanidae: Dunner s smonitonswa2 2) oe Varanus dumerili_._tcc-_____-_- 1 Indian monitors sk Yiis ninety Varanus flavescens_______------ 1 Malayan wmonitore ese abt te renee! Varanus salvator______~------- 1 IndianwmonitoroAmsody. } wort gen Varanus bengalensis______------ 1 Pakistan’ monitor sivse: este heen Varanus griseus_._____-_------- 2 Australian lace monitor____________ Varanus varius___.___--------- 8 Helodermatidae: Mexican beaded lizard____________- Heloderma horridum____------- 1 Beaded lizard (black phase)_______ Heloderma horridum___----~--- 1 Gllaiamonstereiinlunr can gabon, Heloderma suspectum___------- i Anguidae: slong ied tse So Ophisaurus ventralis____------- 3 SERPENTES Boidae: BACT SRR EL GD foros ce eee ae ae a Re ee Eunectes murinus______-------- i! BEE SE. OMe ee ee rae nae eee Boa enydris enydris____-____---- 1 WOOK: Stee. DON see a ee Boa enydris cookt___..-------—-- 6 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientijic name Number Boidae—Continued Boar iGonstrictores == eee Oonstrictor constrictor__________ 1 MMmperon yt. -= 222 Le Constrictor wmperator——- 1 Cubanweround:) boda =e Tropidophis melanura__-_------- 1 Rain bGwaboa is soe ee 2 eS Epicngtesscenchii0= ee 4 Cubanistree: boas o—* 2 a ees Epicrates anger 3 IB alisunyGhOns 2-2 2 so ee eee PACLONSTCOMS Soe ee ees raph: mdianvrock py thon= 2422222 -2- =s Python nouns 2 Regal Spy thona ss." See eee eS Python reticulatus.—---_ === 1 Colubridae: iWater:snakes = — tess vena NGUAORSIDCLON===— aa ee Pe Huropean grass snake_-_____-__-_-- Natioanaiiian se oe ees 1 Diamond-backed water snake_______- Natria rhombiferd=———- == 1 Red-bellied water snake ___-__-_-___- Natriz erythrogaster___________- 1 island awaterasnakes=s2. ne oes Natria insularum____=_—_-__--_- 1 Mangroves snaket. =.=. =os aa Sa Natrie compressicauda_________- al Florida green water snake_________- Natrin cyclopion floridana______- 1 Queenisnake vast ey a A Natria septemvitta_____________- 2 Garter.snakel. shee oi ewetac) Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis_____ 3 RIPON «SHAK Asay wees eine Thamnophis sauritus____--___-- 6 Ring-necked. snakes22 2 26 ese Diadophis punctatus edwardsii_ 1 Black.racer=_.. 2Yeetiawes _ eens amas’ Coluber constrictor constrictor__ 5 eG GTACCE sauna 22s ot Sek ee eS Masticophis flagetlum___-------- 1 Asiatic natisnakes: - Saati) sash TORE Nee UKE DA RU ee 1 Lesser Indian rat snake____________ Hlapne Carinatas==22-= 1 Pilotiblackisnake. =n eas) Sena Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta______-- 3 Pilot black snake (albino) ____---__~ Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta_.______- 1 Hox, snake = i: ase ehn try pretehigeue® Hilapwe Vulping22- ie eee 2 Cornisnakes. 2 eee i eee tet Elaphe obsoleta guttata________- 2 Lindheimer’s rat snake_____________ Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri_____ 1 Chickens snakes#t2ssoe teas | eens Elaphe quadrivittata_________~- 1 Aesculapian) snake22222 222 Elaphe longissima_______-___---- iti King snakes s.r se ie Oty aealen Lampropeltis getulus getulus____ 1 Speckledtkimeysnakes aes ae ase Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki___ 3 Calitorniaskingnsnake 22 apna Lampropeltis getulus californiae. 2 SOnoLranwkingusnake saa eee Lampropeltis getulus splendida__ 1 Scarletakinersnake asses eaeeeee Lampropeltis triangulum doliata_ il Milk .snake.2.. 2sanecvee alter Lampropeltis triangulum______-- 1 Tropicalyking snake ees aacemene Lampropeltis polyzonus_______-~ 1 Mole.snake..... 2 uatvindo So weyers’ Lampropeltis rhombemculata ___ 1 Cat-ey.e. snake... Avon sete Leptodeira annulata_________-_-~ 1 Hastern worm snake__-_-____-______ Carphophis amoenus____-__--_-- 1 Wekayisisnakese. esata tee Ee Storeria dekayi_-_____- 2 1 Green Whip, snakesss sce: neal Dryophis prasinus______________ 1 Wile'snake.- sere sh _mimeomliogiey Simocephalus capensis________-_ 1 Wolf snake. ctesingee) : coer Lycodon flavomaculatus________- 2 Green-headed tree snake____________ Leptophis mewicanus___.__------ 1 Elapidae: 1 Gave haere oy gs ee ee NGI NG) Ole S22 2 ee ee 2 (A NESW NST OMI G10) 09 of Weir Ae reese Mp Unt ae Diopae INO] GO CUO = ee oe ai Hey oblianyco preg: =a wee ee INGA GANG C2 sates wees ae nea 1 YE 1 A ORS i aI er Bungarus multicinctus________-- 1 SECRETARY’S REPORT 161 Family and common name Scientific name Number Acrochordidae: Elephant trunk snake__------------. Acrochordus javanicus__-_------- 1 Crotalidae: Southern copperhead_--------------. Ancistrodon contortriw contor- TAD ee ee eee il Northern copperhead___------------. Ancistrodon controtrix mokeson_ 2 Western broad-banded copperhead_-. Ancistrodon contortrig laticinc- EUS See ee 1 Water moccasin, or cottonmouth___-- Ancistrodon piscivorus._.._---_-- 3 Manus nies ee ea ees Ancistrodon halys blomhofi_---- 1 Agianisnorkell viper-----—--—-—— = Ancistrodon Gcutusoaa-—=-- 2 Greenypalm viper=s—2--2--=- ===: Trimeresurus granvineus__------~ 2 Stejneger’s palm viper_._..-------_- Trimeresurus stejnegeri_____---- 1 Warlers pit viper.——-_-- "= Trimeresurus wagleri______----- a Mamushi, or Asiatic viper_---------. Trimeresurus elegans___________ al Habu, or Asiatic viper__.__.__------- Trimeresurus flavoviridis______- 1 Southern Pacific rattlesnake__------ Crotalus viridis helleri_______--- 1 Prairie rattlesnake: 2 )- === == Crotalus viridis viridis___.___---- 1 Western diamondback rattlesnake___ Crotalus atrow____-----~~-~---~- 24 Timber rattlesnake_---------------- Crotalus horridus___--- Saetecte= 2 AMPHIBIANS CAUDATA Amphiumidae: WOncoreelge aaa ae ea Sas Amphiuma means__._.__~------- 1 Cryptobranchidae: elihender? 222-2222 es th Soran OCryptobranchus alleganiensis__-_ 2 Ambystomidae: Spotted salamander_____ epider Bole Dyed De Ambystoma maculatum____----- 2 Jefferson’s salamander___--_-------. Ambystoma jeffersonianum____-- 1 Salamandridae: Red-bellied) newt-2==-=====-===--—_— Cynops pyrrhogaster___________ 10 Red-spotted: newts--——=——— soa eee Diemictylus viridescens____----- 19 SALIENTIA Bufonidae: PAMETICAN OAM === ts ee BU fOmaMeriCOnt Sas 1 Gismtetoad 2a eee eee ee BAG ORIEL S ae ne ee 5 Oubsanpionds=s eee ee Bufo peltocephalus_____-------- 6 COMMU S: (HOG Yes ee ee BUfO Quer CUCus2as =e eee 2 Pelobatidae: Spadetoot, todd=-- = 22a ae Scaphiopus holbrooki____-_----- 14 Pipidae: Surinam toad] === 2 = see ee Ping Piptso==* == eae ee ee 14 Aericanvelawed frog ese. set ee KeCNOpUS ULevis=2 ea ee ee ES 5 Leptodactylidae: Colombianjhorned frog] >), Ceratophrys calcarata____..__--- 2 Arzentine horned frog]. = ee Ceratophrys ornata-..._---~_- il Hylidae: Barking tree frOee se eee JEL R OND a 2 Greent tree: frog = eee ae ees EGHAM GL ORG ee ee ab Cubanstreestrog=s = ee Hyla septentrionalis_________--- 4 Squirrelitree frogs ae US GUAT CL a ee ee al Gray tree frog=22 2. = ae, Hal Ge COT StCOlOT a ene een eee 2 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Family and common name Scientific name Number Microhylidae: Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad_._ Microhyla olivacea__-__-------~-- il Ranidae: Africans bull frogs ses ee eee RANG Gdspensa= ee 4 American bull, frog 6.0 Rana catesbeiana________--___- a Grecnitrog ts ewe Re ee Rana clamitans melanota____-~-~ 5 Meopard frogs os Sh eee SH ELLON GE DIUDI CTS ae ee ee Many ARTHROPODS DECAPODA Cenobitidae : Mandehermitver ap meee ae eee ees Coenobita clypeatus_______--__- Many ARANEIDA Theridiidae: iBplack=widOwAspider=s==- ae Hatrodectus mactansl-— al ORTHOPTERA Blattidae: Tropical giant cockroach--_-_______- Blaberus giganteus____________ Many MOLLUSKS PULMONATA Planorbidae: Pond snaile tt See Helisoma trivotvis=—==— ae Many FISHES NEOCERATODONTOIDEI Protopteridae: oA firey CEUTTO UE TT Pht Sa es ees ee Protopterus annectens_________ 2 OSTARIOPHYSOIDEI Characidae: Pirsig soe ee EE EA aly MAPS Serrasaimus niger________-____ 1 Mie Evans) eres se siete ee a eS Metynnis rooseveltii___________ 1 STACK CO Gr ae a ee A Gynmocorymbus ternetzi___--_- 3 Cyprinidae: Zepraiis nse) 222 eo ies eee Brachyaanio 1,0 3 Clown aban 222 ee eee eee TOR ROTI. COG a eae 1 Tger:barbes= S25 =s2222 2 eee Puntius partipentazona_____---~ 2 White Cloud Mountain fish_____---- Tanichthys albonubes-————_____— 15 Electrophoridae: Hlectric eels keke ales ee eee Electrophorus electricus____-_--~ efi CYRINODONTOIDEI Poeciliidae: inia2e-tailedsoupp yess ee Lebistes reticulatus____________ 10 GUDDY) S22 an ae ee a ee Lebistes reticulatus_.____________ 15 BACK MOlMiCn San a ee eer men Mollienesia latipinna______-__~_ 2 Pigty, oLmoontishes=oe sees ee ae Xiphophorus maculatus___-_---~ 1 SECRETARY’S REPORT 163 PERCOMORPHOIDEI Family and common name Scientific name Number Anabantidae: Climbing perches 22 24 22— see ee Anabas' testudineus_-——=- = === * 3 Cichlidae: ibeacock ciehlidss as 2a 282 fea ents. Astronotus ocellatus______--_---- 1 Egyptian mouthbreeder____--------- ._ Haplochromis multicolor____- ~~ 3 J NTORERE) HEE ES Be ee ae eae eee Se Pelmatochromis guentheri____-- 2 African mouthbreeder.——- === Pterophyllum eimekei___------- 2 JACK DeEMpSey Nsnes. ses eae Cichlasoma biocellatum___---~--~ 15 UENO eee ee ee Hemichromis bimaculatus__----- ell Lorcariidae: South American catfish_.--——---.-—_ Plecostomus plecostomus_——~--- 2 FINANCES Funds for the operation of the National Zoological Park are appro- priated annually under the District of Columbia Appropriation Act. The operation and maintenance appropriation for the fiscal year 1961 totaled $1,304,000, which was $138,800 more than for the fiscal year 1960. The increase consisted of $22,000 to cover salary increases for General Schedule employees in accordance with Public Law 86-568; $16,000 to cover salary increases for police employees in accordance with Public Law 86-379; $25,800 to cover salary increases for Wage Board employees; $12,900 for within-grade salary advancements for both General Schedule and Wage Board employees; $8,500 for Fed- eral Employees Health Benefits; $46,100 to establish 11 new positions; $7,500 for the purchase of new equipment. Of the total appropriation, 83.5 percent ($1,089,002) was used for salaries and related personnel costs and 16.5 percent ($214,998) for the maintenance and operation of the Zoo. Included in the latter figure were $74,000 for animal food; $18,000 for fuel for heating; $34,257 for materials for building construction and repairs; $9,725 for the purchase of animals; $9,600 for electricity; $5,400 for tele- phone, postal, and telegraph services; and $5,000 for veterinarian equipment and supplies. The balance of $35,675 in operational funds was expended for other items, including freight, sundry supplies, uniforms, gasoline, road repairs, equipment replacement, and new equipment. In addition to the regular appropriation, $240,000 for safety im- provements was appropriated for capital outlay. This was to carry out the second phase of the safety program. PERSONNEL On October 10, 1960, Dr. William M. Mann, Director of the Na- tional Zoological Park from 1925 until 1956, died at the age of 74. During his regime he had built up the collection of animals from about 1,600 to more than 8,000 specimens; he had supervised the build- 164 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ing of modern quarters for birds, reptiles, large mammals, and small mammals, as well as of machine shops, the Zoo restaurant, and police headquarters. He led numerous expeditions to South America, Indo- nesia, and Africa to collect animals for the Zoo. It was during his tenure of office that the National Zoological Park grew from a second- rate Zoo to one of world-wide importance. Russell Morrison, supervisory keeper, came to the Zoo March 1, 1931, and was assigned to the reptile house. He died of a heart attack while on duty August 14, 1960. Malcolm Davis, who first came to the Zoo on November 16, 1927, retired on July 1, 1960, to accept a research position in private in- dustry. He had for many years been in charge of the bird house and was associate head keeper at the time of his retirement. He had been on many expeditions to collect animals, including three voyages to Antarctica to bring back penguins. Other retirements were those of Bertelle Ford, keeper, employed at the Zoo from December 5, 1942, to October 31, 1960; Leonard Ford, supervisory animal keeper, December 29, 1950, to June 15, 1961; Wil- liam G. Modena, December 16, 1936, to July 31, 1960, assistant super- intendent of maintenance and construction; Charles Dean, operating engineer, August 16, 1927, to December 31, 1960; and Ada McNeil, custodial laborer, from November 10, 1952, to July 31, 1960. Reily Straw, a welder, was promoted to take Mr. Modena’s place as assistant superintendent of maintenance and construction. Donald Swartzback of the grounds department was made supervisor of the new tree section. A night-keeper program was initiated this year to insure care of the animals 24 hours a day. This is essential particularly in the case of baby animals that are being hand fed or sick animals that need medication during the night. In fiscal year 1961 there were 197 authorized positions at the Zoo, divided as follows: Administrative office, 16; animal department, 76, an increase of 6 over the previous year (2 night keepers, 2 commissary stewards, 2 laborers) ; mechanical department, 61; police department, 33, an increase of 3; and grounds department, 11, an increase of 2. Mrs. Fruza C. Kussrow was appointed budget analyst on July 18, 1960, and Frank Maloney came in as engineer on April 16, 1961. FRIENDS OF THE NATIONAL ZOO “Friends of the National Zoo,” a group of civic-minded District residents, were active again this year. On December 16, 1960, John Perry, president of the organization, presented to the Smithsonian Institution a “master plan” which had been made by Meade Palmer and Morris Trotter, landscape architects. This substitutes a pedes- trian “greenway” for the dangerous automobile road that now goes SECRETARY’S REPORT 165 through the center of the Zoo and suggests locations for new buildings such as a new monkey house, monkey island, lion house, hoofed-stock complex, administration building, and auditorium. Dr. Carmichael presented the master plan to the Board of Regents at their annual meeting in January 1961. The “Friends” were responsible for a brass plaque which was placed at the base of the flag that flies at the Connecticut Avenue entrance to the Zoo. This flagpole was dedicated in September 1959, “as an expression of warm affection for Dr. William M. Mann, former Director of the Zoo,” and on the day of Dr. Mann’s funeral the flag was flown at half-staff. June 5, 1961, was designated as Zoo Night for the “Friends.” About 200 of them gathered at the Police Station at 8 p.m. and were taken on a conducted tour. INFORMATION AND EDUCATION The Zoo continues to handle a large correspondence with persons all over the world and from every part of this country, who write to the Zoo, as a national institution, for information regarding animals. Telephone calls come in constantly asking for identification of ani- mals, proper diets, or treatment of disease. Visitors to the office as well as to the animal exhibits are constantly seeking information. On his trip to India for the white tiger, the Director had an oppor- tunity to visit zoos in Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, Malaya, and Thailand, as well as India, and to photograph various types of new construction and design. He has lectured on these Oriental zoos to civic and scientific groups. His article on “Enchantress, the White Tiger” was published in the National Geographic Magazine for May 1961. J. Lear Grimmer, Associate Director, continued his fieldwork in British Guiana and spent 7 weeks there studying the life history of the hoatzin. For 2 weeks he was joined by William Widman, senior keeper. Mr. Grimmer left again for British Guiana in June 1961, accompanied by Keeper Charles Hall. The Director and Travis E. Fauntleroy, Jr., assistant to the Di- rector, attended the annual convention of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums at Long Beach, Calif., in Sep- tember 1960. Mr. Fauntleroy stopped at Brookfield (Chicago), San Francisco, San Diego, and San Antonio to study management meth- ods in these well-known zoos. The Director visited Vancouver, B.C., Seattle, Wash., Portland, Oreg., San Francisco, and San Diego, study- ing recent construction at these zoos. In February, the Director and Dr. James F. Wright attended the Midwinter Conference of Midwest Zoo Directors in St. Louis, where the Director presented a paper on Oriental Zoos and Dr. Wright spoke on the immobilization of animals. 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 In Washington, the Director spoke on three radio programs and. appeared on television, showing a number of Zoo animals. Senior Keeper William F. Widman and Supervisory Keeper Holmes M. Vorous have written an article on the hatching of kooka- burras in the Zoo, which will be published in England by Avicultural Magazine in the autumn of 1961. Senior Keeper Mario DePrato and Holmes M. Vorous accompanied a shipment of live reptiles to the Detroit Zoo in August 1960, arriving there in time for the opening of the new reptile house. While in the Midwest they visited zoos in Toledo, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh, studying methods of exhibiting and handling animals. Ordinarily the Zoo does not conduct guided tours of the Park, but exceptions were made for a group of children from the Columbia Lighthouse for the Blind and for four other groups of handicapped children. On July 14, 1960, 1,523 foreign exchange students visited the Zoo; the schoolboy patrol, consisting of 9,740 students from all parts of the country, came to the Park on May 13, 1961; and a group of African students toured the Park on June 21, 1961. While the Zoo does not conduct a regular research program as such, effort is made to study the animals and improve their health, housing, and diet in every way possible. REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN The veterinarian, Dr. James F. Wright, reports that the major veterinary problems at the National Zoological Park for this year, as in past years, stem from the lack of facilities and help to investigate disease in the collection, absence of suitable hospitalization and quarantine, and the need for a full-time arrangement for orphan- animal care. The central nervous system disease of monkeys mentioned in last year’s report is still under investigation by the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Necropsies have been performed on seven monkeys which during life had shown the typical signs of acute amaurotic epilepsy as described by Langdon and Cadwallader in 1915 and again by Van Bogaert and Scherer in 1935. These cases include two im- mature Barbary apes (died January 5, 1960, and April 8, 1961), an immature pig-tailed macaque (July 20, 1959), an immature hybrid (Philippine x Javan) macaque (January 6, 1960), an immature drill (April 9, 1960), an immature mandrill (June 24, 1960), and an im- mature hybrid gibbon (Hylobates lar x H.sp.) which was raised in a keeper’s home from the day of birth and was thus rather free of the Park environment. Three monkeys in the collection, a gray-cheeked mangabey, a black-crested mangabey, and a mandrill, all female SECRETARY’S REPORT 167 adults, have the typical seizures of this malady periodically but act normal in every way except during the attacks. The black-crested mangabey is, as nearly as can be determined, blind without obvious gross defect in either eye. For almost a year, these three animals have received daily doses of diphenylhydantoin sodium, which ap- parently has suppressed the occurrence and severity of the seizures to a minor degree. Ingestion of toxic quantities of lead has always been considered a strong possibility in causing this condition, but it has been determined that no lead-base paints have been used in the animal areas, and an analysis of the water supply at the monkey house dis- closed less than acceptable minimums of this element. A maned wolf (Chrysocyon jubatus), received from a dealer in South America, died after a short illness in February 1961. The only antemortem signs were inappetence and inanition leading to a comatose state on the day before death. Antibiotics, canine antidistemper serum, and intravenous therapy were without observable effect. A necropsy performed immediately after death by the Pathology In- stitute disclosed the following conditions: heartworm (Dirofilaria sp.), lungworm (filarotdes osleri), and hookworm infestations; presence of the giant kidney worm (Dioctophyma renale) ; parasitic nodules of Spirocerca lupi in the aorta and other great vessels; large ulcerated areas in the stomach; and negri bodies of rabies in microscopic preparations of brain tissue. Just prior to death blood samples were taken from this animal for blood-picture study and serology. The interesting finding of these studies was the presence of serum anti- bodies to the disease caused by Leptospira canicola. The serum titre was a very high 1 :6400. A female maned wolf, which was obtained from the same source in January 1960, died in August 1960, with the same antemortem signs. The necropsy report describes only an infestation with the lungworm Filaroides oslert. The central nervous system of this individual was not examined because the carcass was requested for the U.S. National Museum. Juvenile osteoporosis occurred in a pair of bobcats and a mountain lion, all being .raised with the parents and all showing similar signs of onset-lameness in one hind limb progressing to severe lameness and ultimately posterior paralysis. Radiographs taken of one of the bob- cats showed a fracture of the femur, a folding fracture of the pelvis, and collapse of the lumbar vertebrae with resultant compression of the spinal cord. Necropsy reports by Dr. Wayne Riser established the condition as juvenile osteoporosis. For future cases he recommended the addition of potassium iodide to the ration as well as increased calcium and vitamin D (one-half teaspoonful daily of a solution of 50 mg. KI to 100 cc. of water). 625325—62——_12 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 In the report for 1960 it was stated that attempts were being made to develop a diagnostic test for tuberculosis in wild hoofed animals through serum antibodies. Blood samples were obtained from two elands and a giraffe suspected of being infected with this disease. These samples were checked serologically by investigators of the De- partment of Agriculture, whose preliminary report indicated that no specific antibodies for the tuberculosis antigen were present in the serums of these animals. Since the samples were examined, all three animals have died with the necropsy diagnosis of pulmonary tuber- culosis. These pathological findings have been supported by reports from Dr. Alfred G. Karlson of the Mayo Foundation, who isolated and identified the bovine variety of the tuberculosis organism from tissues of these animals. A lammergeyer, or bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), which was acquired from a dealer in West Germany in June 1960, developed wartlike lesions on both feet after one month in the collection. In two more days similar lesions were noticed on the lower lid of the right eye. The left eyelid became involved in another three weeks. The growths were fleshy in nature with no vesicle formation noted, although there did appear to be some secondary infection and dis- charge from the sites. Except for an erratic appetite, which may have been caused by shipment, it was not apparent that this condition had any general debilitating effect on the bird. The largest growth was easily removed from the eyelid for pathological examination; the smaller “nodules” all dropped off after three or four weeks. As this bird was returning to normal, similar lesions were noticed on a king penguin. Again the condition occasioned the bird no distress and dis- appeared in about one month. While the penguin was recovering, a black-footed albatross developed some nodules in and around the beak which disappeared in about six weeks. Finally an Adélie penguin was found with numerous growths around the beak and eyelids. Whereas the aforementioned birds recovered, this penguin died before the lesions had disappeared. The pathologists found pathognomonic evidence of fowl-pox infection in this penguin and in the tissue sub- mitted from the lammergeyer vulture. It is probable that the virus was introduced from the vulture brought from overseas by air ship- ment. The black-footed albatross and the king penguin are also presumed to have been infected with this virus. There has been no subsequent appearance of this condition to date. Two three-toed sloths (Bradypus tridactylus) were acquired during the past year from South America: a male, which lived only four days after arriving in poor condition, and a female, which lived from September until February 1961 and produced a baby, which lived for 14 days. Both the adult sloths had severe anemias and bone marrow hypoplasia, according to the pathologists’ report. SECRETARY'S REPORT 169 A female spotted hyaena died May 12, 1961. No report has come in as yet from the AF IP except that the anima] had mammary tumors. Both this hyaena and the male, which died in 1960, were received at the Park July 1, 1947. The use of the intramuscular, long-acting barbiturate “Capchur- barb” was continued, both in the projectile syringe and by hand syringe. Among the animals requiring sedation or anesthesia with this drug were two American alligators, an eland antelope, a prong- horn antelope, zebu cow, American elk, raccoon, bighorn sheep, puma, capuchin monkey, Java macaque, lesser panda, and Grevy’s zebra. An- other anesthetic preparation that was found most useful was the rectal thiopental sodium (Pentothal-Abbott). This drug is packaged in disposable plastic syringes for immediate use with a graduated plunger and two separate applicators per syringe. This type of seda- tion or anesthesia was used for short procedures and for restraint on primates and carnivores. Dr. Wright made two trips to a game farm in Florida and one to the quarantine station in New Jersey at the request of the Depart- ment of Agriculture for the purpose of immobilizing captive wild animals with the projectile syringe method. The drug used in these immobilizations was succinylcholine chloride, with one exception de- scribed below. The list of animals successfully immobilized with succinylcholine includes 23 Grant’s zebra, 11 Grevy’s zebra, 8 Damara zebra, 17 eland, 4 greater kudu, 4 beisa oryx, 2 blackbuck, 2 aoudad, 1 hartebeest, 1 brindled gnu, 3 nilghai, 1 American bison, 3 red deer, 1 giraffe, 1 spotted hyaena, and 1 white-handed gibbon. In addition to these, 5 white-tailed gnus were immobilized with the drug gal- lamine triethiodide (Flaxedil-Lederle). On the basis of reports re- ceived from investigators in Africa it seemed that this latter drug was more satisfactory for immobilizing wildebeest. However, both gallamine and succinylcholine have been used successfully in this type of animal. Complete reports on these immobilizations are in preparation. Dr. Wright’s paper “The Immobilization of Captive Wild Animals with Succinylcholine II,” prepared in collaboration with Dr. Warren R. Pistey of the New England Institute for Medical Research, was published by the Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, vol. 25, No. 3, March 1961. A demonstration of the use of the projectile syringe was given at the University of Maryland for a combined meeting of the Maryland State Veterinary Medical Association, the District of Columbia Veterinary Medical Association, American Animal Hospital Associa- tion, and the District of Columbia Academy of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. F. R. Lucas, Livestock Sanitary Laboratory, Centreville, Md., 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 provided clinical laboratory services including microscopic tissue reports. Identification of parasites from specimens in the collection were made by M. B. Chitwood and W. W. Becklund of the Parasite Classi- fication and Distribution Investigations, Beltsville Parasitological Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Necropsies of major and important specimens were performed by the pathologists of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Necropsy materials not needed by the Institute were offered to Dr. Thomas Peery of the George Washington School of Medicine for comparative pathology study. Isolations and identifications of suspected tubercular tissues were made by Dr. Karlson of the Mayo Foundation. Following are the statistics for the mortality rates during the past fiscal year and a table of comparison with the past 6 fiscal years: Mortality, fiscal year 1961 Total mortality, past 6 fiscal years Attri- Death, | tions 1956-202 2. te eager a ae ee 618 Mammals. (22 2 eee Le 102 PS PRN Ws 2 | (MAN ect AS ae a al a 549 Birds C2 eet eo Morena 163 TY: ODS re ee eee Sere inky eae 550 Repuleslis yee eet kaos} 132 CL PAG 5 OU ees ee eae See aR eee 472 eee ie TO BOs Day f ee tae TE. eke Bee 532 SO7E. pA QO MEL OG Ny: SG Aes Pa eR a 517 *Attrition is the term used for those losses due mainly to the trauma of shipment and handling after ac- cession at the Zoo, or before an animal can adapt to cage habitation within the collection. The old pair of Nile hippopotamuses, Pinky and Bongo, were “re- tired” from the Zoo in the summer of 1959 and placed on deposit at a private zoo in Virginia to make room for a younger pair. The male, Bongo, who had come to the Zoo on April 7, 1914, died on December 4, 1959, after 45 years 7 months 27 days in captivity. The female, who was 11 years old when she was obtained on April 25, 1939, died on December 31, 1960. Other animals that had been in the collection for a relatively long time and died this year were: A kiang (“quus onager) received Oc- tober 14, 1934, died August 16, 1960, after 25 years 10 months 2 days; South American lungfish (Lepidosiren paradowa), received May 6, 1932, died January 18, 1961, after 28 years 8 months and 12 days. An Indian fresh-water turtle (Batagur baska) was a very old specimen when it arrived on September 17, 1947. It died May 19, 1961, after 13 years 8 months 2 days. It was the only one in captivity in the United States and probably the oldest specimen of its kind in any zoo. A horned toad, Ceratophrys ornata, collected by Frances Shippen on the National Zoological Park Expedition to Argentina (received SECRETARY'S REPORT L7k in the Zoo June 27, 1939) is still living. A salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), purchased July 12, 1932, when about 8 years old, is still living and is believed to be the largest in captivity. COOPERATION At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts with other Federal and State agencies, private concerns and indi- viduals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result, the Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable animals, and in turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, animals it does not need. In cooperation with the State Department and the White House, the National Zoological Park arranged for the fulfillment of Presi- dent Eisenhower’s promise to General DeGaulle to send him three pronghorn antelopes for the Paris Zoo. The antelopes selected had been in the collection here and were thus accustomed to captivity. They had originally come from the State Fish and Game Department of Montana, which will send replacements to the National Zoological Park. The pronghorns, the only ones in any European zoo, were flown from Andrews Air Force Base on August 2, 1960, on an Air Force C-130 cargo plane. Lt. Col. Perry Penn, 62d Squadron com- mander, and Capt. Donald Gould, aircraft commander, were in charge, and the Director of the Zoo accompanied the shipment. All arrangements were made at the request of President Eisenhower. In addition, the plane carried two Virginia deer fawns and an assortment of small mammals, birds, and reptiles. The plane stopped at Prest- wick, Scotland, and unloaded there two bear cubs, birds, and alli- gators for the zoos in Edinburgh and Bristol, before continuing on to Orly Field in France. Through the cooperation of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Senior Keeper William Widman made a number of collecting trips on Chesapeake Bay to secure waterfowl for the Zoo. Special acknowledgment is due George Kirk and John Pulaski, in the office of the U.S. Dispatch Agent in New York City, and Stephen E. Lato, Dispatch Agent in San Francisco, who are frequently called upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad, often at great personal inconvenience. The animals have been forwarded to Washington without the loss of a single individual. When it is necessary to quarantine animals coming into this country, they are taken to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s station in Clifton, N.J. During the past year Dr. B. C. Swindell and Andy Goodel, two of the officials stationed there, have been most cooperative 172 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 in keeping the National Zoological Park informed as to the well- being of animals and birds being held there for quarantine. Animals that die in the Zoo are offered to the United States Na- tional Museum. If the Museum does not need them, they are sent on request to reasearch workers in other institutions. The Zoo cooperated with the National Capital Parks and lent small animals to Park naturalists and to the Nature Center in Rock Creek Park for demonstration. Gifts of plants were received from Mount Vernon, the Botanical Gardens, National Bureau of Standards, District of Columbia Water- works, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, the Naval Observatory, and the Soldiers’ Home. A very welcome gift was a 15-by-40-foot greenhouse, from the Bureau of Standards, to supply tropical plants for forage and for planting in indoor cages. VISITORS Tn cooperation with Albert Mindlin and Samuel Rosenthal, analyti- cal statisticians of the Management Office of the District of Columbia, a new method of estimating the visitor attendance is being developed for greater statistical reliability. Number of bus groups visiting the Zoo in fiscal year 1961 Locality Number | Number Locality Number | Number of groups | in groups of groups | in groups Alabama ose hea 30 12137 Wuississippice.2 222024 14 541 IATIZONR 2 eis ee one 1 Px | IMO NO So aee 1 25 Avkansas2 2244 254755 2 70 || New Hampshire ----- 1 40 Califormal==ae== = 1 40 || New Jersey_._----.- 12 963 Connecticut_-_------- a 259 || New Mexico_--____-- 1 26 Delaware= 2.25 =t4—- = 13 AQS*|\ New: York. 222222523 269 | 10, 753 District of Columbia- Le <, O21) North Carolinaz—2 == 218 | 8, 652 Mloridass 22 he Ler see 33 Le atGGe Ohions sas 2hanwes 222 32 1, 241 Georgina se oe oe 124 | 4,995 || Pennsylvania_-_-_--_- 294 | 11, 775 MhnGis.s: oe tt ee 6 241 || Rhode Island_----_-__ 16 604 diana te 6 ae 5 200 || South Carolina_-__-_-_- 52) lee 2 0ce NOW See ee 5 188 || Tennessee_...-_--_- 52 i, 22022 Kansas vo eee 2 GOs exas sae cacoe 22 2 92 Kentuckyeesooa sees 16 GLSe| Veron ts= == a 1 35 Wouisianasss24. seen. 2 COR PVirginias aso ee 735 | 29, 449 Misineke at = seek ee 2 441 || West Virginia. ______ 66 2, 352 Moarnyland22o2s) oo. 954) PSS loon | Wasconsin === 22.2 es 5 182 Massachusetts_-__.-__ 11 64 Michigan= —.22 202242 9 303 Morale Sees 3, 171 }118, 043 Minnesotas222s2 5222 6 213 SECRETARY'S REPORT 173 Groups from foreign countries Number | Number Number | Number of groups | in groups of groups | in groups TACIT yas 2 ene eee ee 3 5 Ob | WH aitiees i Se eek 1 58 LBENNO Ko) oe ee 1 BO SRR rs oe te ee Re 70 Exchange students_-_- 40 1 ap. a inland es seo eee 2 80 Total ueeeoe 51 1, 966 About 2 p.m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted and listed according to the State, Territory, or country from which they come. This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is valuable in showing the percentage of attendance by States of people in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Mary- land, and Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The tabulation for the fiscal year 1961 is as follows: Percentage Percentage Jabs OSU ea OY Le oe hs a ates Rl eee S23) Calitormigye ses 2 ees ees ee eee eee ee 0. 7 ‘Wiberg ont) ieee MeN ee eee a tye ee oe) CONNEC Cui ee ae ae ee aif DistrictioL Columbiqge= 2-22 tes Die South Carolina.) 2s. sees .6 iRennsylvaniay=-oe Ses: |MVEL CHT ay | ee ee a a .6 ING Wom WOr ke Skee hl ARE) Dt es 253) |BELIN OS to ees ae Ae ee ee 5 INonthyi@anolinagZ! 4 Seared ie li DiGeorgiae; ta: at ie tel ee .4 Olio g see Ss eee ae IPA eleiware st. 283 ar a eee 4 ING WARIGE SCY et eee ae ae 0 ERR SI GoGo Wr ye ee as oe ee a ee 4 WVieStemValC cinta ell SEE of Oi Mennesse@e@re= 2s eee ers 4 Gri ee ee eee ee Texas to een SAE eee WE ee 4 Massachusetts 2222-2 5 Sete .9 The remaining 4.3 percent came from other States, Azores, Bahamas, British Columbia, Canada, Canal Zone, Cuba, England, Finland, France, Germany, Guatemala, Japan, Mexico, Newfoundland, Norway, Okinawa, Philippines, Switzerland, and the Virgin Islands. On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the Zoo from at least 15 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries. On average days there are cars from about 92 States, Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries}; and during the periods of greatest attendance the cars represent no less than 84 different States, Territories, and countries. Parking spaces in the Zoo now accommodate 1,079 cars when the bus parking ~ place is utilized and 969 cars when it is not used. POLICE DEPARTMENT The practice of using men for police duty on a temporary basis during the busy season continues to prove a highly satisfactory ar- 174. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 rangement, releasing the regular officers for special details and assign- ments, as well as patrol duty. Refresher courses in first-aid training were given by Set. A. L. Canter, Pvt. C.S. Grubbs, and Keeper Lester Ratliff. Sgt. A. L. Canter, Pvts. G. H. Adams, M. J. Devlin, Jr., and A. S. Kadlubowski attended an extensive course on the handling of juveniles administered by the Youth Aid Division of the District of Columbia Metropolitan Police Department. The police force conducted 1,647 investigations of traffic violations, 137 investigations of a general nature, picked up 42 truant children and took appropriate action and returned 269 lost children to their parents or groups. The First Aid Station handled 1,575 cases, mostly for minor injuries. Visitors who stopped in the police headquarters for information numbered 8,202. Eyeglasses and sunglasses found in the Park and unclaimed were turned over to the Society for the Pre- vention of Blindness, and unclaimed articles of clothing, etc., were given to the Goodwill Industries. The Mounted Color Guard, now numbering six officers, continued _ to participate in local parades. SAFETY SUBCOMMITTEE Lt. John R. Wolfe is chairman of the Nationa] Zoological Park Safety Subcommittee, which consists of Dr. James F. Wright, admin- istration office; Lt. C. E. Brink, police department; Bert J. Barker, animal department; Reily Straw, maintenance and construction; Michael Dubik of the grounds department; and Mrs. W. M. Holden of the Smithsonian Institution as subcommittee secretary. Monthly meetings of the Safety Subcommittee were held to discuss safety measures and make recommendations to the Director. In addition to the safety manual issued to the animal department in January 1960, a new safety manual for the maintenance and con- struction department was issued in October 1960, and one for the grounds department in January 1961. A safety manual for the police department is now being printed. A survey of all Park buildings was conducted on September 27, 1960, by Harold McCoy of the Federal Civil Defense Organization, accompanied by Captain James and Lt. Brink of the Zoo police. This was in regard to “Fall Out Space,” and the total number of square feet of floor space and the number of persons who could be sheltered in case of bombing were established. Reily Straw represented the Subcommittee at the National Safety Conference’s annual convention in Chicago in October 1960. Set. A. L. Canter and Pvt. G. H. Adams attended the General Services Administration “Driver Training School” and are now quali- SECRETARY’S REPORT 175 fied to test Park employees and other Smithsonian employees for issuance of Government drivers’ permits. Sergeant Canter and Private Adams attended the Federal Safety Council’s meeting on the use of safety belts in Government vehicles and gavea report to the subcommittee. Five fire extinguishers were added to fill the requirements of the District of Columbia Fire Marshall. Directional signs to the extin- guishers have been painted and installed. First-aid boxes have been placed in all Park buildings. Exit signs have been installed in all buildings frequented by the public. A shifting conveyor was made in the mechanical shop for use in moving large animals. Red flags and danger signs have been purchased for use on moving vehicles and when work is being done on trees. Public pay telephones have been relocated to aid the public and relieve inside communications, and 14 new telephones and extensions were added to the Park tele- phone system to improve communications and supply contact in iso- lated areas. The police pistol range has been improved, the work being done by the police in their off-duty time with assistance from the grounds and maintenance department. An oxygen inhalator was added to the police first-aid room for use in case of heart patients, electrical shock, etc. Dr. Wright instructed the police in its use and operation. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS Much of the work accomplished during the past fiscal year was done to insure the safety of visitors, employees, and animals. The District of Columbia Department of Buildings and Grounds, from funds appropriated in FY 60, installed 5,000 feet of standardized visitors’ safety fencing in front of many outdoor exhibits. They also repaired the roofs of the small-mammal building, elephant house, and bird house, and the walls and ceiling of the reptile house. The ceiling of the reptile house was sprayed with an accoustical com- pound, which reduces noise in the building by at least 50 percent. Because of the bad echo, this house had been extremely noisy when filled with people. The new gorilla cage, which was made by remodeling the former gibbon cage, is now adequate for the apes which came here as babies but are now nearly full-grown animals. This cage has electrically controlled doors for the shifting cage, heavy 84-inch steel bars, 14-inch plate glass on the inside quarters, and protective wiring on the outside. The outside enclosure has a roof of corrugated fiberglass panels so that the gorillas can enjoy being outdoors, protected from rain and excessive heat. 176 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Fronts of the other great-ape cages, used by chimpanzees and orang- utans, were moved back to allow for more keeper space between the bars and the glass. Formerly there was a possibility that a chimpan- zee might reach out through the bars and seize a keeper passing by. While this work was being done, the interior of the cages was brightly painted. Remodeling of the alligator and crocodile exhibit in the reptile house was done primarily for safety reasons, but resulted in an im- provement in the general appearance. The old coping was removed, and 14-inch glass fronts installed up to a height of 8 feet. A 42-inch guard rail prevents the visitors from tapping on the glass. Inward- curving spikes keep the alligators back from the glass. A child with a 28-inch eye level is able to see all but 10 inches of the water. In the small-mammal house, the old guard rail was topped with an angled railing that keeps visitors back and makes it impossible for them to reach over and put fingers in the cages. An attractive new exhibit during the summer of 1961 was the in- stallation of a group of 10 capuchin monkeys on a small island in the waterfowl pond near the crossroads. Trees were cut back so that there is no possibility of the monkeys’ jumping from branch to branch to freedom, and the surrounding water is sufficient barrier to keep them from climbing the low fence that surrounds the area. With a small tree-house shelter against inclement weather, the monkeys have done well, and the ducks and geese have accepted the new arrivals with equanimity. “Beaver Valley,” the wooded ravine below the bear dens, which fell into disuse during World War II, was finally restored, and new pools and fencing put in. In addition to the large beaver pond, on which a pair of mute swans raised their young, there are pools for harbor seals, otters, and other aquatic mammals. Three dens in the main bear line were repaired with reinforced concrete floor slabs, copings, gutters, partition walls, and ironwork. Five cages in the short bear line above the reptile house were also re- paired. This meant breaking up old deteriorated concrete walkways, floor slabs, and pools, and replacing them with new concrete. Major alterations were made to the interior of the old cookhouse, which will now be used as an operating room for animals. An exten- sion to the parking area fronting the pachyderm house was completed, and repairs were made to holes in the main roadways. 1.91 | 26. 64 S2 1G) 222k oA See +18. 45 Wet'season-...2-=.2=- 92797 lon 40 ei oes jesse ne eee +14, 21 SECRETARY'S REPORT 181 BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS The existing facilities on Barro Colorado Island were improved in a number of ways during the last year. The top floor of the Old Laboratory was renovated to provide additional living accommoda- tions for visiting scientists. The reconstruction of Barbour House at its new site, necessitated by the 1959 landslide, was completed. Ex- tensive repairs were made to the dock, and a new landing stage, to facilitate loading and unloading of gas and diesel oil drums, was constructed. Routine maintenance activities included painting some buildings, and minor repairs to several houses and aviaries. One generator was overhauled, and a new electric 14-hp. water pump was installed. New rain-recording equipment is in process of being in- stalled by the Hydrographic Office of the Panama Canal Company. Expansion of the library continued. OTHER ACTIVITIES Scientific research conducted on Barro Colorado Island during the past year encompassed every field of tropical natural history except anthropology. The Resident Naturalist continued his research on the behavior of several groups of tropical birds and monkeys. Field observations of the behavior of tropical American carnivores were completed. Dr. John Ebinger, of Yale University, conducted botanical studies in addition to adding considerably to the collection of botanical speci- mens and reorganizing the station herbarium. John Zimmerman continued the research on the physiology of tropical birds begun in 1959 by Dr. Charles Kendeigh of the Uni- versity of Illinois. Other research projects continued dealt with temperature and humidity gradients conducted by Dr. Charles F. Bennett, Jr., and the analysis of the behavior of Lepidoptera by Dr. Andrew Blest. A summary of Dr. Blest’s earlier work on Barro Colorado Island appeared in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959. Termites and ants, both of which have been favored subjects for study from the inception of the station, continued to provide material for several scientists. Those birds that follow army ants were the subject of a year-long investigation by Edwin Willis of the University of California. FINANCES Trust funds for the maintenance of the island and its living facil- ities are obtained by collections from visitors and scientists, table subscriptions, and donations. The following institutions continued their support to the laboratory through the payment of table subscriptions: Eastman Kodak Co., 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 New York Zoological Society, and Smithsonian Institution. Dona- tions are also gratefully acknowledged from Eugene Eisenmann and C. M. Goethe. PLANS AND REQUIREMENTS The only major building project in view is the reconstruction of the boathouse for which work plans have been made. Plans have also been made to overhaul the Snook, the large motor launch. The improvement of the library will continue. Within the next few years several major items of equipment will need to be replaced. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Canal Zone Biological Area can operate only with the excel- lent cooperation of the Canal Zone Government and the Panama Canal Company. Thanks are due especially to the former Lt. Gov. John D. McElheny, and the Executive Secretary Paul Runnestrand and his staff; the Customs and Immigration officials; and the Police Division. Also deeply appreciated are the technical advice and as- sistance provided by P. Alton White, Chief of the Dredging Division, and members of his staff; and C. C. Soper of the Eastman Kodak Co. Respectfully submitted. Martin H. Mornrnan, Resident Naturalist. Dr. LeonarD CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the International Exchange Service Sm: Ihave the honor to submit the following report of the activities of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961: The International Exchange Service was initiated by the Smith- sonian Institution in the early years of its existence for the inter- change of scientific publications between learned societies and individuals in the United States and those of foreign countries. It serves as a means of developing and executing, in part, the broad and comprehensive objective of the Institution, “the diffusion of knowledge.” The Smithsonian Institution is the official United States agency for the exchange with other nations of governmental, scientific, and literary publications. The International Exchange Service is the bureau designated to carry out the functions assigned to the Smith- sonian Institution in various conventions, treaties, and international agreements relating to the international exchange of publications. Publications were received from approximately 250 domestic sources including United States Government bureaus and departments, con- gressional committees and members of Congress, universities, agri- cultural experiment stations, learned societies, organizations, and individuals for transmission to foreign addressees in more than 100 foreign countries. Among the publications received for transmission abroad are the following: Language, Journal of the Linguistic Society of America; Journal of the National Education Association; Journal of the American Dental Society; Journal of Science, Iowa State Col- lege; Virginia Journal of Science, University of Virginia; Novitates, American Museum of Natural History; Expedition, University Mu- seum, University of Pennsylvania; Brevoria, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College; Anthropological Record, University of California; Yale University Bulletin; Yearbook of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington; Zoologica, New York Zoological Society ; Transactions of the American Geophysical Union; Transactions of the American Association of Physicians; Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; American Midland Naturalist; Museum of Art Register, University of Kansas; Paleontological Con- tributions, University of Kansas; Oregon Law Review, University of 625325—62——18 183 184 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Oregon; Studies in English, University of Texas; Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society; Contributions, Scripps Institution of Oceanography; and Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The number of packages of publications received for transmission during the year was 1,272,604, an increase of 130,606 over the previous fiscal year. The weight of the packages received was 923,179 pounds, an increase of 45,543 over the previous fiscal year. The packages of publications are forwarded by ocean freight to the port of entry selected by the foreign exchange bureau to whom the shipment is consigned. They are then distributed by the foreign ex- change bureau to the intended addressees. In the countries where there is no exchange bureau, the publications are mailed directly to the addressees. However, if the weight of the packages (intended for one addressee) would make it more econom- ical to forward by ocean freight, the packages are so transmitted to the port selected by the addressee, who must make all arrangements for accepting the shipment at that port of entry. The total weight of the packages forwarded during the year amounted to 895,010 pounds, of which 571,181 pounds were forwarded by ocean and domestic freight, and 323,829 pounds were forwarded by mail or other means. This was 24,226 pounds more than was for- warded during the previous fiscal year. The number of cases shipped to the foreign exchange bureaus was 3,375, or 74 less than during the previous fiscal year. Of these cases 1,028 were for the full depository recipients of official United States publications which were compiled and forwarded in accordance with bilateral treaties made between the United States and other countries for the exchange of official publications. Shipments are made to Formosa. No shipments are being made to the mainland of China, North Korea, and Communist-controlled area of Viet-Nam. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS The recipients of the official United States publications are deter- mined as a result of bilateral treaties entered into between the United States and the various foreign countries for the mutual exchange of their official publications. The treaty stipulates whether the recipient will receive all the official publications of the United States Govern- ment or only a selected list. The recipient receiving all the official publications is classified as a full depository. The recipient receiving a selected list is classified as a partial depository. The International Exchange Service receives copies of all the official United States pub- lications. These are sorted and transmitted to the depositories desig- nated by the Library of Congress. During the past fiscal year there were 598,238 pieces weighing 184,264 pounds assembled for transmis- SECRETARY’S REPORT 185 sion to the full depository recipients, and 71,940 pieces weighing 31,108 pounds assembled and transmitted to the partial depository re- cipients. The names and addresses of the full and partial depositories are given in the following list: DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINA: Divisién Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Sourn AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. AuvsTRIA: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna. BraziI.: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Butearia: Bulgarian Bibliographical Institute, Sofia.* BurMa: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. CanapDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. MANITOBA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. QuesBEc: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. CrYLon : Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. CuHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan. CoLoMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José. Cuspa: Direcci6n de Asuntos Culturales, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Habana.” CzECHOSLOVAKIA: University Library, Prague. DENMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. Eeypt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Free University of Berlin, Berlin-Dahlem. Parliamentary Library, Bonn. GREAT BRITAIN: ENGLAND: British Museum, London. Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) Huneary: Library of Parliament, Budapest.” Inpra: National Library, Calcutta. Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. Parliament Library, New Delhi. InpoNEsIA: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. IsRAEL: State Archives and Library, Hakirya, Jerusalem. 1 Shipment suspended. ® Change in address. 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ITaty : Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. JAPAN: National Diet Library, Tokyo.’ Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informacién para el Extranjero México, D.F. NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo. Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Hx- teriores, Lima. PHILIPPINES : Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PoLaAND: Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw.* PortuGaL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. SpaIn : Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. SwEDEN : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. TurKEY : National Library, Ankara. UNION oF SoutH AFRICA: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. UNION oF Soviet SocraList Repustics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow. United Nations: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Yucostavia: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.® DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS AFGHANISTAN : Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. BELeIuM : Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. Bortvra : Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. Brazit: Minas GERAIS: Departmento Hstadul de Hstatistica, Belo Horizonte. BritIsH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. CANADA: ALBERTA : Provincial Library, Edmonton. BritisH CoLumpBria : Provincial Library, Victoria. NEw Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s. Nova Scotts: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Ciudad Trujillo. Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. EL SALVADOR: Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. GREECE: National Library, Athens. GUATEMALA : Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. Hait1: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. HONDURAS: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. INDIA: Bomsay: Secretary to the Government, Bombay. Brn AR: Revenue Department, Patna. 8 Receives two seta. SECRETARY’S REPORT 187 KERALA: Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum. Uttark PRADESH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. Secretariat Library, Lucknow. West Bencat: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly House, Calcutta. Tran: Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. Iraq: Public Library, Baghdad. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. LEBANON : American University of Beirut, Beirut. LiseriA: Department of State, Monrovia. MaLayA: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Matta: Minister for the Treasury, Valletta. Nicaracua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. PAKISTAN: Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asuncidén. PHILIPPINES : House of Representatives, Manila. ScorLanD: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. Sram: National Library, Bangkok. SrngAPoRE: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. Supan : Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL There are now being sent abroad 87 copies of the Federal’ Register and 100 copies of the Congressional Record. This is an increase over the preceding year of three copies of the Congressional Record with no change in the recipients of the Federal Register. The countries to which these journals are being forwarded are given in the following list. DEPOSITORIES OF CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER ARGENTINA : Biblioteca de la H. Legislatura de Mendoza, Mendoza.‘ Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.* Boletin Oficial dela Republica Argentina, Buenos Aires. Camara de Diputados Oficina de Informacién Parliamentaria, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Commonwealth National Library, Canberra. NEw SoutH WALES: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. Vicrorta: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.® WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. Betctum: Bibliothéque du Parlement, Palais de la Nation, Brussels.‘ ® Braziv: Biblioteca da Camara dos Deputados, Brasilia, D.F.‘* Brazi.: Secretaria da Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.* BririsH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize. CampoptiA : Ministry of Information, Phnom Penh. 4 Congressional Record only. 5¥Wederal Register only. ® Added during the year. 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 CANADA: Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Cryton : Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.‘ CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.* CHINA: Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.‘ Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan. CUBA: Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. Biblioteca Ptiblica Panamericana, Habana.* CZECHOSLOVAKIA : Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved. Prague.‘ Eeyrt: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.* FINLAND: Library of the Parliament, Helsinki.‘ ® FRANCE: Bibliothégue Assemblée Nationale, Paris. Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.‘ Research Department, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.* Service de la Documentation Etrangére, Assemblée Nationale, Paris.‘ GERMANY: Amerika Institut der Universitit Miinchen, Miinchen.‘ Archiv, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn. Bibliothek des Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit Kiel, Kiel-Wik. Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.* Deutsches Institut fiir Rechtswissenschaft, Potsdam-Babelsberg II.* Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.‘ Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.‘ Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg. Westdeutsche Bibliothek, Marburg, Hessen.‘ *’ GHANA: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra.‘ GREAT BRITAIN: Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London. House of Commons Library, London.‘ N.P.P. Warehouse, H.M. Stationery Office, London.*® Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.‘ GREECE: Bibliothéque, Chambre des Députés Hellénique, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca dela ASamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. Haiti: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. Honpvuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Hunaary: Orszigos Széchenyi Konyvtir, Budapest. INDIA: Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.® Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.‘ Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.‘ Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.‘ Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.‘ Madras State Legislature, Madras.‘ Parliament Library, New Delhi. 7 Three copies. 8 Two copies. SECRETARY’S REPORT 189 Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.‘ IRELAND: Dail Eireann, Dublin. IsRAEL: Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. TTALy ; Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.’ Periodicals Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.* JAPAN: Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. Ministry of Finance, Tokyo. JorDAN : Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.‘ Korea: Library, National Assembly, Seoul. LuxemsBoure: Assemblée Commune de la C.H.C.A., Luxembourg. MExIco: Direccién, General Informacion, Secretaria de Governacién, Mexico, D.F. Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D.F. Aguascalientes: Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. Basa CALIFORNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali. CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche. Cxur1apas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Guitiérrez. CuinvaAHvA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. CoaHutmLa: Periddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. Corima: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. Guanasuato: Secretarfa General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.* JaLisco: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. México: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. MicnoacAN: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, Morelia. MoreELos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. Nayanrir: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. Nuevo Lzon: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. Oaxaca: Peridédico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca.’ Pursia: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. QueréTaro: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. SrvaLoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacdn. Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. Veracruz: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- nacién y Justicia, Jalapa. YucatAn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatan, Mérida. NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.* NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. PaNnaMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.‘ PHILIPPINES: House of Representatives, Manila. PoLanpD: Kancelaria Rady Panstwa, Biblioteka Sejmowa, Warsaw. PortTuGuESE TiMoR: Reparticio Central de Administracio Civil, Dili.* RHODESIA AND NYASALAND: Federal Assembly, Salisbury.* RuMaANIA: Biblioteca Centrala de Stat RPR, Bucharest. Spain: Boletin Oficial del Estado, Presidencia del Gobierno, Madrid.° 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 SwiTZERLAND: Bibliothéque, Bureau International du Travail, Geneva.® International Labor Office, Geneva.*® Library, United Nations, Geneva. Togo: Ministere d’ Etat, de l’Interieur, de l’ Information et de la Presse, Lome. UNION OF SouTH AFRICA: Care or Goop Horr: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. UNION oF Soviet Socialist REPUBLICS: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obshchest- vennykh Nauk, Moscow. Urvueuay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. YuGosLaviA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.* FOREIGN EXCHANGE SERVICES Exchange publications for addressees in the countries listed below are forwarded by freight to the exchange services of those countries. Exchange publications for addressees in other countries are forwarded directly by mail. LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES AuvustTrRIA: Austrian National Library, Vienna. BELaIuM: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel- gique, Bruxelles. Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, University Library, Prague. DENMARK: Institut Danois des Hchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, Copenhagen. Eeyrr: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulag, Cairo. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies, Helsinki. FRANCE: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GrerMaAny (Eastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. GERMANY (Western) : Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bad Godesberg. Huneary: Service Hongrois des Echanges Internationaux, Orszigos Széchenyi Konyvtar, Budapest. Inp1A: Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay. InponestA: Minister of Education, Djakarta. ISRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. Japan: Division for Interlibrary Services, National Diet Library, Tokyo. Korea: Korean Library Association, Seoul. NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- brary, The Hague. New South WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibilothéque de l’Université Royale, Oslo. PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. PoLtanp: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Warsaw. PortTuGgaL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Chief Secre- tary’s Office, Brisbane. Rumania: International Exchange Service, Biblioteca Centrala de Stat, Bu- charest. } ' { SECRETARY’S REPORT 191 Soutm AvusrraLiA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- cas Ptblicas, Ministerio de Educaci6én Nacional, Madrid. SwEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SwiTzERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- trale Fédérale, Berne. TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. TuRKEY: National Library, Ankara. Union oF SourH Arrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape Town. Union oF Soviet Socratists REPuBLIcS: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin Library, Moscow. VicToriA: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. YUGOSLAVIA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. The number of packages and the weight of the packages received from sources in the United States for transmission abroad, and the packages received from foreign sources intended for domestic ad- dressees are classified in the following table: Received by the Smithsonian Institution for transmission . For transmission abroad For distribution in the Classification United States Number of Weight in | Number of] Weight in packages pounds packages pounds SS EE EES a United States parliamentary docu- ments received for transmission Publications received from foreign sources for United States parlia- TECNICA AG ATESSCES eo ee ee a eee eer eee ee ee 10, 819 14, 613 United States departmental documents received for transmission abroad____| 249,019 | 235, 823 |___._-__|_--_..__ Publications received from foreign sources for United States depart- NE TIALS ESSEC sa ees a te NS elle ee AS Oa 11, 651 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received for transmis- SACCHOU-M Ob ys Pe Were ie ZOO 2a) 220% 24.00 Se ee ee eee Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution inithewWnitedsstatess|-2e-— 22-=—-|--- see oe Stay Ce Tha) 85, 966 Pothier s pak ee 1, 201, 289 | 810, 949 | 71, 315 | 112, 230 Granel hota) 200s) OA ee nc tin 1,272,604 packages | 923,179 pounds Respectfully submitted. J. A. Cotitins, Chief. Dr. Lzonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the National Gallery of Art Str: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, the twenty-fourth annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961. This report is made pursuant to the provisions of section 5(d) of Public Resolution No. 14, Seventy- fifth Congress, first session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51). ORGANIZATION The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre- tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. The four general trustees con- tinuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, were Fer- dinand Lammot Belin, Chester Dale, Paul Mellon, and Rush H. Kress, Duncan Phillips, a general trustee, resigned from the Board of Trustees on December 1, 1960, and on May 3, 1961, John Hay Whitney was elected a general trustee of the National Gallery of Art to serve in that capacity for the remainder of the term expiring July 1, 1963. On May 4, 1961, Chester Dale was reelected by the Board of Trustees to serve as President of the Gallery and Paul Mellon was elected Vice President. The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1961, are as follows: Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Treas- Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. urer. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. John Walker, Director. Perry B. Cott, Chief Curator. The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the annual meeting on May 4, 1961, were as follows: EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Chief Justice of the United States, Earl Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Warren, Chairman. tion, Leonard Carmichael. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. Paul Mellon. John Hay Whitney. FINANCE COMMITTEE Secretary of the Treasury, C. Douglas Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- Dillon, Chairman. tion, Leonard Carmichael. Chester Dale, Vice Chairman. John Hay Whitney. Paul Mellon. 192 SECRETARY'S REPORT 193 ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE Paul Mellon, Chairman. John Hay Whitney. Chester Dale. John Walker. PERSONNEL At the close of the year full-time Government employees on the staff of the National Gallery numbered 312, as compared with 314 employees at the close of the previous fiscal year. The United States Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of employees paid from appropriated public funds. Continued emphasis was given to the training of employees under the Government Employees Training Act. Under the provisions of this act, the Gallery secured training and development of several of its employees in their profession to help maintain the standing and prestige of the Gallery. Among those for whom training was provided during the year were the assistant chief curator, the curator of painting, the curator of education, and the associate curator of education. APPROPRIATIONS For the fiscal year ended June 380, 1961, the Congress of the United States in the regular annual appropriation for the National Gallery of Art provided $1,848,000 to be used for salaries and expenses in the operation and unkeep of the Gallery, the protection and care of works of art acquired by the Board of Trustees, and all adminis- trative expenses incident thereto, as authorized by Joint Resolution of Congress approved March 24, 1937 (20 U.S.C. 71-75; 50 Stat. 51). Congress also included in a supplemental appropriation act $72,000 to cover pay increases not provided for in the regular appropriation. The total appropriation for the fiscal year was $1,920,000. The following expenditures and encumbrances were incurred: Personaleservices ies se seer oso Bente Pale ee Eee Ee $1, 569, 500. 00 Othersthan’ personaly servicessss ss saws eee oe 350, 395. 29 Wnoblizatedsbalance sa = tie i ere ee oes ee 104. 71 ET eh Use ek ee ra ap Due ne a gee eee he 1, 920, 000. 00 ATTENDANCE There were 1,032,340 visitors to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1961, an increase of 67,150 over the total attendance of 965,190 visitors during the fiscal year 1960. The average number of visitors daily was 2,843. ACCESSIONS There were 1,387 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts, loans, or deposits during the fiscal year. 194 GIFTS ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 During the year the following gifts or bequests were accepted by the Board of Trustees: PAINTINGS Donor Artist Title Coe Foundation, New York, Beechey_-_-----_-- General Sir Thomas Picton. Ns DG 2 ee ee ee Cotes. aceon ae ee Miss Elizabeth Crewe. DG See ye Nae a AS Gainsborough_--___-_ William Yelverton Daven- port. - Doe eh yest bc ey ae Miereveld_-_------ Portrait of a Lady with a Ruff. Chester” Dale, “New .York, Stuart... 2-7 =" Lady Liston. N.Y. The Fuller Foundation, Inc., Reynolds_-_.---.-- Squire Musters. Boston, Mass. 1D Yc, Sea SS eee Ue 8 aes Gainsborough__-_-__- Master John Heathcote. 18) Rea aro ENS aed "DUBNER Ge eee oe The Dogana and Santa Maria della Salute, Venice. Colonel and Mrs. Edgar W. Greenwood-_------- Mrs. Welshman. Garbisch, New York, INSY. The Adele, Levy Fund, | Renoira. 220.52 5. Madame Henriot. Ine., New York, N.Y. National Gallery of Art Copley____.__.-~-- The Copley Family. Purchase Fund— Andrew W. Mellon Gift. de Heem____--_--_- Vase of Flowers. Mrs. ‘Killian?(S?? Dimken; © -Pry2. 2 2) oes Landscape. New York, N.Y. Doe Reg ne Soa Si ee yt AOS Sei hee aes ie ae Potters in Landscape. IDG Se siesta Sec (eee ee Obv.: Seascape. Rev.: Landscape with Palm Tree, DOL ie eee 2 Hedok Aerie Sheep by Stream and Field. SCULPTURE Stanley Mortimer, Litch- field, Conn, Coe Foundation, New York, NOY: Italian School, XVI Century. DECORATIVE ARTS Flemish Gothic Tapestry. GRAPHIC ARTS Farnese Hercules. The Return from the Hunt. During the year Mrs. E. C. Chadbourne gave a colored mezzotint portrait of George III with autograph of George I. An etching en- titled “Pastorale” by Hans Thoma was given by Rabbi Hugo B. Schiff, and a water color entitled “The Clipper Ship Minnie G. Loud” by Roux was given by Robert Peet Skinner. OTHER GIFTS During the fiscal year 1961 gifts of money were made by The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, Old Dominion Foundation, SECRETARY’S REPORT 195 Avalon Foundation, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, The Fein Foundation, James N. Rosenberg, Irving R. Saal, Mrs. John T. Terry, and various donors in memory of Mrs. Dorothy V. Keppel. An additional cash bequest was received from the estate of William Nel- son Cromwell. EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART In exchange for nine works of art in the Samuel H. Kress Collec- tion, the Kress Foundation gave the National Gallery of Art the fol- lowing pieces of sculpture: Artist Title TinowoiOagmaino es saa ee ee Madonna and Child with Queen Sancia, Saints and Angels. Giovanni di) Balduccio==222 === === = Charity. ‘Boninoda, Campione=-—- === - === Justice. DO} eo ae See oes Prudence. CONG IEA IEE, eee ead A esa eS oh 8 OE a ee eget ee Angel with Tambourine. OY) th ee ee ee eee Angel with Hurdy-Gurdy. @Qunercias Jacopo) dellass= 22 isa es Madonna of Humility. Master of the Mascoli Altar__________ Angel of the Annunciation. A) Op eee re te ee eee eT ES Virgin of the Annunciation. i]t) pe ee Ea oes Se ee St. Peter. HID) Ope eee a ee ee St. Paul. Benedetto: da Maiano. 2 U2 ee Madonna and Child. RPT SATIN) Ts beds ee ee eke eee ee ee Madonna and Child. Roppia; Andrea della 2 ee The Adoration of the Child. Robpianea dellgzc tne ee Nativity. SolarionOristororo: a2 eed Madonna and Child. Michelangelo (attr. to) _--.._-.______ Apollo and Marsyas. SAUDIS OWA Oe eet ee Madonna and Child. CWOVSCVO Ke ee es Louis of France, The Grand Dauphin. French School, Early 18th Century____ Louis, Duc de Bourgogne. Wesijarding, a 2. a es Louis XIV. iRiemenschneider) 22222522 ae St. Burchard of Wiirzburg. In exchange for a print by Odilon Redon entitled “Profile de Lumiére” in the Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection, Mr. Rosenwald gave the National Gallery of Art a superior impression of the same print. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN The following works of art were received on loan by the Gallery: From Artist Title Robert Woods* Bliss, Wash-. ..<..--~.-2 2.2222 28 objects of Pre-Columbian ington, D.C. Art. Mrs. Mellon Bruce, New Goya------------- Condesa de Chinchon. York, N.Y. Chester Dale, New York, Bellows.-------.-- Blue Morning. N.Y: Gwe ds SOS i ia td Monette... ues The Seine at Giverny. Jerome Hill, New York, MDelacroix__..------ The Arab Tax. N.Y. Doro. 222. shou SOAS; (Cee ee Fanatics of Tangiers. 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 To Artist Title Samuel H. Kress Founda- Master of Badia Madonna Enthroned with tion, New York, N.Y. a Isola. Angels. BBY Pg SS Rial pg 2 MUR nd ig Signorellit =22525 22 Madonna and Child with Saints. Oe eeteeee es ee al Tintorettom. = 22.2 = Summer. Mrs. Eugene Meyer, Wash- Dufresne__-------- Still Life. ington, D.C. 1) Oe aie: Be ee ae ane Renoir2 secs ees Nude. Date se oa) Ae ee SOELAG SHA Ae! Man Lying on a Sofa. WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal year: To Artist Title Robert Woods) Bliss; Wash= =-2.-2--2---52-—25 6 objects of Pre-Columbian ington, D.C. Art. Mrs. Mellon Bruce, New Pissarro_---------- Spring at Louveciennes. York, N.Y. Stephan Walter Cassirer, Cézanne___--------- Pears. Copenhagen, Denmark. The Calouste Gulbenkian Egyptian, Saite Statuette of the Courtier Foundation, Lisbon, Por- Period. Bes. tugal. DOSs eee ee aoe ae Egyptian, Saite Head of a Priest. Period. Srngt Jel Nats Woh sop feeseeekes-oses 30 paintings and 8 sculp- tion, New York, N.Y. tures. Mrs. Eugene Meyer, Wash- Dufresne_.----.--- Still Life. ington, D.C. ED) re SAR Ne ee Ren Ole eee Nude. Doms ae aaa ae sa Renoir. soc soe Man Lying on a Sofa. Richard W. Norton, Shreve- Bingham.__-_------ The Result of the Election. port, La. WORKS OF ART LENT During the fiscal year the Gallery lent the following works of art for exhibition purposes: To Artist Title American Federation of Daumier (bronze)._. Le Dédaigneux (Prunelle). Arts, New York, N.Y. I) yee eae eae Daumier (bronze)_. Le Rieur Edente. i 0 pan ep a ot east ak whet Daumier (bronze)... Le Stupide (Chevandier de Valdrome). Birmingham Museum of Sally ses She ae Andrew Jackson. Art, Birmingham, Ala. University of California, Boucher 2-2 —- == Téte-a-Téte (drawing). UCLA Art Galleries, Los Angeles, Calif. DD) Oeste est een Moreau le Jeune__. La Petite Loge (drawing). Corcoran Gallery of Art, Ryder oo oe eee Mending the Harness. Washington, D.C. 1 Yo Yee aS hy RvGer she sae Siegfried and the Rhine Maidens. SECRETARY’S REPORT 197 To Artist Title El Paso Museum of Art, Buuaroe ss whe oo Betsey Hartigan. El Paso, Tex. 1) CE ey ee iy eae ee Seer Westte-oen sobs Self-Portrait. 1D ea eager ae Trumbulle—- 22 == oS William Rogers. EBD pe oe nae ae ek Richholtz2- 25 =. The Ragan Sisters. Wns fone oe See el Copley* 22.225 2=. Henry Laurens. 1M 0) = pa a eo Peles 3.65 se Benjamin Harrison. Department of Justice, Dupré... ------_-- The Old Oak. Washington, D.C. BID ye Lo oe ie Diaz de la Pefia_-__. Forest Scene. 1D ee ree Tanners: ce 7552 eS Engagement between the Monitor and Merrimac, Hampton Roads. De ee ee Unknown. :.-.=.. Lexington Battle Monu- ment. PO a ee oe dons eco Leaving the Manor House. Dios S53 eae ee eee dole sees sae Village by the River. 1) (0S SOS eee tere do... es Regatta Near Sandy Hook. Smithsonian Institution, RoW x sc ae ee The Clipper Ship ‘‘Minnie Washington, D.C. G. Loud.” Department of State, Beechey.2.=-2—-= +s General Sir Thomas Picton. American Embassy, London. Yr An Sears Se Colest a2 soenese Miss Elizabeth Crewe. Gren ee es oe Sets Gainsborough..---- William Yelverton Daven- port. DS ARs ee ae ee Miereveld_..-----. Portrait of a Lady with a Ruff. gee ee Se Flemish Gothic The Return from the Hunt. Tapestry. Department of State, Brussels, 17th- America. Washington, D.C, Century Tapestry. HOE eee oe oe ee Harpignies22—2-- 32 Landscape. gmat seas het ee Beker eases ace Portrait of a Lady. Que nee See oe Benbridge.——- =-—- - Portrait of a Man. Phe see Soe ta PS Beslew sab nts George Washington. 1D Queen ern ene Ramboine ses 2a Abraham Lincoln. 1b fee ese ee Romne yes. 2 oe: Sir Archibald Campbell. Virginia Museum of Art, Stuart......-__-___-_. Mrs. Richard Yates. Richmond, Va. The White House, Wash- Hassam__--------- Allies Day, May 1917. ington, D.C. 5D fs Ba Wek Seer een oe Auddbonss5o21 2202 Farmyard Fowls. igus = ak eet Bardess ssw ses Steamer St. Lawrence. Di ie a Pie pa ek Unknown__._------ Flowers and Fruit. PN Gi ee ee ne a Winterhalter_____-_- Queen Victoria. Dg ae ee eae: RACK Aye. eon Catherine Brower. ige eso See VoOlkai aie ase ae Abraham Lincoln. 1D Yo eee 8 SRS oe Sere eS Senrage= oo eee Solitude (engraving). 1D fo es ie SEE See ene Marini (22 225122. 32 Cavalier Rouge (colored lithograph). Woodlawn Plantation, Mt. Polk...-.--------- General . Washington at Vernon, Va. Princeton. 198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 EXHIBITIONS The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of Art during the fiscal year 1961: Prints by Toulouse-Lautrec. From the Rosenwald Collection. Continued from previous fiscal year through August 15, 1960. French 18th-Century Prints and Drawings. From the Widener Collection. Con- tinued from previous fiscal year through September 14, 1960. Prints by Hogarth. From the Rosenwald Collection. August 16, 1960, through December 1, 1960. Exhibitions of recent accessions. Paintings from the Timken Collection, Au- gust 80, 1960, through September 30, 1960; “Madame Henriot” by Renoir, Feb- ruary 26, 1961, through March 15, 1961; “‘Squire Musters” by Reynolds, ‘“Master John Heathcote” by Gainsborough, and “The Dogana and Santa Maria della Salute, Venice’ by Turner, May 6, 1961, through June 4, 1961. Italian Drawings from Five Centuries. Lent by Italian Museums. October 9, 1960, through November 6, 1960. Italian Prints. From the Rosenwald Collection. October 9, 1960, through No- vember 6. 1960. Manuscript Illuminations, XIth-XVth Century. From the Rosenwald Collec- tion. October 9, 1960, through February 2, 1961. The Splendid Century: French Art of the Seventeenth Century. Sponsored by the Government of France and arranged by the Direction Générale des Affaires Culturelles and the Association Francaise d’Action Artistique. November 10, 1960, through December 15, 1960. Christmas Prints. From various donors. December 2, 1960, through March 5, 1961. The Civil War, A Centennial Haxhibition of Eyewitness Drawings. From 18 collections and private lenders. January 8 through February 12, 1961. Rembrandt Htchings. From various donors. February 3 through March 21, 1961. The Marie and Averell Harriman Collection. From the collection of the Honor- able and Mrs. W. Averell Harriman. April 16 through May 14, 1961. Chinese Art Treasures. Sponsored by the Government of the Republic of China. May 28, 1961, to continue into the next fiscal year. Early American Lighting Devices. From the Index of American Design. March 5, 1961, to continue into the next fiscal year. TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS Rosenwald Collection—Special exhibitions of prints, drawings, and sculpture from the Rosenwald Collection were circulated during the fiscal year to 30 museums, universities, schools, and art centers in the United States. Index of American Design.—During the fiscal year 1961, 22 travel- ing exhibitions (753 plates and 60 lithographs) were circulated in this country to 15 States and the District of Columbia. CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES Under the direction of Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the cura- torial department accessioned 43 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 1961. Advice was given regarding 670 works of art brought Secretary's Report, 1961 ‘uolepunoy Jon ayi Aq Jay[ny \f, UeATY JouJeAOD Jo ATOWOW UI UAT) “WV jo Alayeg JeuoneN ‘ooo veZY uYyo[ JoisepYy :Ysnoroqsuley °7 ‘uoMepunogy Ja[[nN yf ayi Aq Joy ‘J, UBATY JOUIOAOD) Jo ATOWINUI UL UDAID) “WV jo PLATE 10 Z {Jo]eVH) [RuONeNY “Sloqysnyy 2 inbg :spjoudsay “| PEAGES 1 Secretary's Report, 1961 ‘UOIepuUnoT Jo][NyF ay3 Aq s9][NV] +7, Secretary's Report, 1961] PEAGE 2 sates) uoT[PTV “M MoO1IPUuV ‘puny oseyoind JV jo Ala][eH [euonen “Apiue y Lapdog syy, :Ae~doa | PIP AgiES aS: Secretary's Report, 1961 . Levy Fund, Inc. ift of the Adele R yorArt. G ional Galler Nat Renoir: Madame Henriot. Secretary's Report, 1961 PEATE 14 1. Renoir: Girl with a Basket of Fish. 2. Renoir: Girl with a Basket of Oranges. National Gallery of Art. Gift of William National Gallery of Art. Gift of William Robertson Coe. Robertson Coe. SECRETARY’S REPORT 199 to the Gallery for expert opinion and 25 visits to collections were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts. About 3,700 inquiries, many of them requiring research, were answered verbally and by letter. Dr. Cott addressed the North Carolina State Art Society on the occasion of the opening of the Samuel H. Kress Collection in the North Carolina Museum of Art at Raleigh. Miss Elizabeth Mongan, curator of graphic arts, lectured on Graphic Arts at Notre Dame University; the Renaissance Society, Cambridge, Mass.; and the Art Institute of Chicago. Dr. H. Lester Cooke, curator of painting, lectured at the Smith- sonian Institution and at Georgetown University. Dr. Katherine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, served again as secretary of the Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute of America. She gave a graduate course in Ancient Sculp- ture the first semester and a graduate course in Ancient Painting the second semester, at Catholic University. John Pancoast, registrar, gave a graduate seminar in Italian Ren- aissance Sculpture at Catholic University. The Richter Archives received and cataloged over 180 photographs on exchange from museums here and abroad, 2,178 photographs were purchased, and about 5,000 reproductions have been added to the Richter Archives. RESTORATION Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular and systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery and periodically removed dust and bloom as required. He relined 12 paintings and gave special treatment to 36. Sixteen paintings were X-rayed as an aid in research. Mr. Sullivan supervised the construc- tion of a vacuum hot-table and used it as an adjunct in the relining of paintings. Experiments were continued with the application of 27H and other synthetic varnishes developed by the National Gallery of Art Fellowship at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Proofs of all color reproductions of Gallery paint- ings were checked and approved, and technical advice on the conserva- tion of paintings was furnished to the public upon request. PUBLICATIONS William P. Campbell, assistant chief curator, wrote the introduc- tion and catalog notes for the catalog of the exhibition The Civil War, A Centennial Exhibition of Eyewitness Drawings. Miss Elizabeth Mongan, curator of graphic arts, wrote introduc- tions for two exhibition catalogs. 6253256214 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Dr. H. Lester Cooke, curator of painting, wrote an article entitled “Great Masters of Impressionist Art: the Dale Collection,” National Geographic Magazine, May 1961. He was also coauthor of “Roman Drawings at Windsor Castle,” Phaidon Press, 1960, and wrote articles for America Illustrated. Dr. Katharine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, reviewed a book for the American Journal of Archaeology, April 1961. Miss Anna M. Voris, museum curator, wrote an article on “Art Galleries” for the American Oxford Encyclopedia. During the fiscal year 1961 the Publications Fund published the remaining two in a series of ten booklets, Schools of Painting in the National Gallery of Art, and began the sale of boxed sets in slipcases. Two new catalogs were published, Zhe Civil War and Exhibition of the Marie and Averell Harriman Collection, as well as a new edition of Twentieth Century Painting from the Chester Dale Collection. New material placed on sale by the Publications Fund included “Horace Walpole” by Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis, the 1960 A. W. Mellon Lecturer in the Fine Arts; “The Revolution,” a recording by Richard Bales of the Gallery staff; “Ratapoil,” a sculpture reproduction of a work by Daumier in the Rosenwald Collection; “Roman Drawings at Windsor Castle” by Hereward Lester Cooke of the Gallery staff and Sir Anthony Blunt; and two new collotype reproductions of portraits by Roberti in the Kress Collection. Five new color and eight new monotone postcards and an 11 x 14’’ reproduction of the Chalice of the Abbot Suger of Saint-Denis were published. The Christmas card selection included seven new color and four new black-and-white subjects. In connection with the exhibition of Chinese Art Treasures, a special sales area was set up in the central lobby at which fifty 2 x 2” slides published by the Fund were sold, as well as postcards, small and large prints, scrolls, books, and the exhibition catalog. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM The program of the Educational Office was carried out under the direction of Dr. Raymond S. Stites, curator in charge of educational work, and his staff. The staff lectured and conducted tours on the works of art in the Gallery’s collection. Attendance for the General Tours, Tours of the Week, and Picture of the Week talks, totaled 38,839, and that of the auditorium lectures on Sunday afternoons totaled 12,433 persons. Special lectures, tours, and conferences were arranged for 376 groups and individuals, and the total number of persons served in this man- ner was 14,088. These included groups of visitors from Government agencies, club and study groups, foreign students, religious organiza- SECRETARY’S REPORT 201 tions, convention groups, and women’s organizations. These special services were also given to school groups from all over the country. The program of training volunteer docents continued and instruc- tion was given to approximately 100 volunteers. By special arrange- ment with the school systems of the District of Columbia and the surrounding counties of Maryland and Virginia these volunteers con- ducted tours for 1,724 classes with a total of 51,920 children, an in- crease of 5,336 children over last year’s total. The staff of the Educational Office delivered 10 lectures in the auditorium on Sunday afternoons, and 30 lectures were given by guest lecturers. André Grabar delivered the Tenth Annual Series of the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, beginning April 16, 1961, and continuing for six consecutive Sundays. His subject was “Christian Iconography and the Christian Religion in Antiquity.” The slide library of the Educational Office has a total of 41,989 slides in its permanent and lending collections. During the year 1,368 slides were added to the collections; 285 persons borrowed a total of 11,613 slides from the collections. Members of the staff participated in activities outside the Gallery. Dr. Stites gave a total of 54 lectures in various cities throughout the country and in Washington, D.C., and wrote four magazine articles. Dr. Margaret Bouton, associate curator, gave a night course in the history of art at the American University, and Marcel Franciscono, docent, gave a night course in the history of art at George Washing- ton University. The staff members prepared material for use by the volunteer docents and kept up the program of editing this material regularly. This material is also lent to slide borrowers and is sold with slide sets and photographs through the Publications Fund. A printed calendar of events was prepared and distributed monthly to a mailing list of 7,553 names. Twenty-one new 13-minute radio talks were prepared and recorded by members of the staff for use during intermission of the broadcasts of the Gallery’s Sunday evening concerts. EXTENSION SERVICE The Extension Service was separated from the Educational Office and placed under the supervision of Dr. Grose Evans, curator of the Index of American Design. This service circulates to the public the traveling exhibits, Gallery films, and slide lecture sets. There are 17 traveling exhibits in circulation, lent free of charge except for trans- portation charges. The exhibits were circulated 95 times and seen by approximately 46,000 viewers. There are three Gallery films in circulation; these have been lent 45 times during the year and seen by 12,200 persons. A total of 622 slide sets with texts on a variety of objects in the collection were lent 1,563 times and seen by 93,780 viewers. 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 This year the Extension Service reached approximately 151,980 viewers. Last year’s estimated total was 67,480. LIBRARY During the year the library, under the supervision of Miss Ruth E. Carlson, acquisitioned 827 books and 655 pamphlets; 266 books, 40 pamphlets, 45 subscriptions to periodicals, and 2,178 photographs were purchased from private funds; Government funds were used to purchase 16 books and 24 subscriptions to periodicais, and for the binding of 114 volumes of periodicals. Gifts to the library included 460 books, and 407 pamphlets. The library acquired through exchange 85 books, 208 pamphlets, 1,572 periodicals, and 180 photographs. The library cataloged and classified 1,348 publications, recorded 2,497 periodicals, filed 5,570 catalog cards, routed charges for 7,169 periodicals, and filed 3,012 book charges. This year the library sold 213 duplicate books, and 578 periodicals were sent to the U.S. Book Exchange. The library borrowed 1,409 books on interlibrary loan, 1,287 of these from the Library of Congress. The library is the depository for black-and-white photographs of works of art in the Gallery’s collections. These are maintained for use in research by the staff, for exchange with other institutions, and for sale to the public. Approximately 8,191 photographs were stocked in the library during the year and 1,452 orders for 6,407 photographs were filled. There were 307 permits for reproduction of 767 subjects processed in the Library. INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN The work of the Index of American Design during the year was carried on under the direction of Dr. Grose Evans, curator. In all, 55 sets of color slides (2,750 slides) were circulated throughout the United States. The photographic files were increased by 51 negatives and 231 prints, and these photographs were used for exhibits as well as for study and to fill requests for publication. Twenty-seven permits to reproduce 121 subjects were issued. Approximately 429 visitors used Index material for purposes of research, publication, and design. The curator continued to participate in the orientation program of the U.S.LA. personnel, and also delivered lectures to club and school groups. Expert opinions were rendered to 10 persons. He also at- tended sessions of the Williamsburg Forum and the Alexandria Forum, and traveled to New England and three other cities to study American architecture and furnishings. In addition, Dr. Evans has been conducting a course for George Washington University, “The Story of Painting,” on television, WTOP, since June 12, 1961, cover- ing painting from the Cave Age to the present. The lectures are SECRETARY’S REPORT 203 divided into 45 sessions of one-half an hour, presented Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 6:30 a.m. MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS The Gallery building, the mechanical equipment, and the grounds have been maintained at the established standards throughout the year. The renewal program of all solid portions of the roof was completed. The Phantasia marble borders in the East and West Garden Courts, which had raised and broken, were removed and replaced with a domestic marble, “Compania Rose.” This does not require reinforce- ment by steel rods which were the primary cause of the failure of the Phantasia marble. One of the elevators in the north lobby was converted from manual to automatic. The Gallery greenhouse was operated to full capacity in providing flowering plants for the decoration of the Gallery throughout the year. Fourteen hundred Gallery-grown landscape-size azaleas were re- planted in redesigned beds on the grounds as substitutes for over- grown and nematode-infested small-leaf hollies and euonymous. The azaleas are effective as foliage plants throughout the year and give the landscaping additional color in spring and early summer. Spreading Japanese yews were substituted for the nematode- damaged, small-leaf hollies on the south side of the building. The experimental planting of various zoysia grasses continued in the Madison Drive and Seventh Street parkings and other exposed lawn areas. LECTOUR The Gallery’s electronic guide system, Lectour, continued to be an effective tool for art education purposes. During the fiscal year 1961 Lectour was available in 20 different exhibition areas and was used by 74,487 visitors. It has been installed in 10 additional gallery rooms and broadcasts will be available to the public during the ensuing fiscal year. Lectour broadcasts were prepared for special exhibitions of Civil War paintings, Italian drawings, and Chinese art treasures. OTHER ACTIVITIES Thirty-seven Sunday evening concerts were given in the East Gar- den Court. The National Gallery orchestra conducted by Richard Bales played 10 of these concerts. Two of the 10 concerts were made possible by the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation of Musicians. In addition, a string orchestra conducted 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 by Richard Bales furnished music during the opening of the new Print Room and the Widener Rooms on October 8, 1960, and at the open- ing of the Civil War Exhibition on January 7, 1961. The concert on Sunday evening, October 23, 1960, was dedicated to United Nations Day and four Sunday evening concerts during May 1961 were devoted to the National Gallery of Art’s 18th American Music Festival. All concerts were broadcast in their entirety in stereophonic sound by station WGMS, AM and FM. Intermission talks during these broad- casts were given by members of the Gallery’s Educational Office. During the year 8,059 copies of 16 press releases were approved and issued in connection with the various exhibitions and Gallery activities. A total of 138 permits to copy and 81 photographic permits were issued. In response to requests 2,275 copies of the pamphlet “A Cordial Invi- tation from the Director,” and 1,650 copies of the Gallery’s Informa- tion Booklet were sent to members of the House and Senate for distribution to their constituents; and 26,225 copies of the pamphlet “A Cordial Invitation from the Director,” and 2,655 copies of the Information Booklet were sent to various organizations holding conventions in Washington. A total of 95 publications on the Gallery’s collections and exhibi- tions were sent to various museums in accordance with the Exchange Program. Henry B. Beville, the Gallery’s photographer, and his staff proc- essed 22,124 prints, 17,142 color slides, 570 black-and-white slides, 8,510 negatives, 558 color transparencies, 146 sets of color separation negatives, 5 infrared photographs, and 3 ultraviolet photographs during the fiscal year. AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public accountants, and the certificate of that company on its examination of the accounting records maintained for such funds will be forwarded to the Gallery. Respectfully submitted, Hountineron Carrns, Secretary. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on the Library Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ- ities of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961: As in the past the emphasis of the library has been on the providing of the literature and library services necessary for the promotion of the Smithsonian’s various programs. The number of items received by the library during the year was 67,275, including books, journals, pamphlets, microfilms, maps, photo- stats, and atlases. Of this total, 2,178 books were purchased, and subscriptions were placed for 675 scientific and technical journals. The balance of the materials came by exchange and gifts. The l- brary’s active exchange program, on a worldwide basis, continued to supply the journals, proceedings, and memoirs of scientific and learned societies which form the backbone of many of the library’s collections. New exchanges established totaled 289, and 1,867 pieces were specifi- cally requested to supply items missing from sets. A concentrated effort was made to bring the files of Russian journals up to date. Duplicate or ephemeral materials forwarded to other libraries amounted to 45,765 items including 41,159 sent to the Library of Congress. Gifts from interested donors, many of them rare or out-of-print items, contributed to the library’s resources. Some of the outstanding ones include: A collection of 91 books and papers on pipes and smoking, from Dr. Leo Stoor, Cleveland, Ohio. The Tatler, 1709-1711; the Lucubrations, vols. 1-4, by Isaac Bickerstaffe, Esq., London, 1749, from Mrs. Edward N. Townsend, Long Island, N.Y. Atlas nouveau, by Sanson-Nicolas, Paris, 1692, from President John F. Kennedy. Trees, Shrubs and Woody Vines of the Southwest, by Robert A. Vines. From the author, Texas University, Austin, Texas. 150 catalogs of medical instruments and apparatus, donated by the S. S. White Dental Co., Philadelphia, Pa. American Heritage Picture History of the Civil War, 2 vols., donated by J. W. Eardesley, Washington, D.C. Commemorative Biographical Record of New Haven County, Connecticut, J. H. Beers & Co., 1902. Donated by Claude Pearce, Arlington, Va. Great Moments in News Photography, by John Faber. From Mr. Faber, Mountain Lakes, N.J. Photochronograph and its Application, 1894, donated by Fr. Hayden of George- town College Observatory, Washington, D.C. The Birds of California, by W. L. Dawson, 4 vols., donated by C. U. 8S. Roose- velt, Washington, D.C. 500 pieces of philatelic materials donated by Mrs. F. J. Shippen, Detroit, Mich. 14 volumes on American history, from Mrs. Arnold Miles, Washington, D.C. 205 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The catalog section cataloged 7,983 volumes, recataloged 750 vol. umes, transferred 859 items, and checked in 31,443 periodicals. New procedures were adopted for the recording of serials in the serial record (formerly the periodical record). Because of more efficient methods of handling and processing, the recording of serials is on a current basis. The complete revamping of the serial record will result in still less time being required for checking of bibliographic data and for the recording of serials. This long-range project, which has had an excellent beginning, is one of the major steps in putting the library on an effective operating basis. In cooperation with the Library of Congress the staff checked the library’s serial holdings, which will be recorded in the third edition of the Union List of Serials. This bibliographic tool of national importance is used constantly by our staff. The skilled hand binders repaired and restored 3,431 volumes of materials that required expert care and treatment, while 6,200 volumes of books and journals were prepared for binding or rebinding by a commercial binder. The continued program of weeding and discard- ing unused or duplicate materials from the collections resulted in 10,658 items being withdrawn. The reference section answered a total of 32,094 reference and bibliographical requests, handled 2,840 pieces of correspondence that asked for specific types of information, and circulated 28,822 items. No record is kept of the circulation of books and journals assigned to the divisional libraries where they circulate freely within the division. Through interlibrary loans, 5,235 items were borrowed from other libraries, chiefly the Library of Congress; in addition, 935 pieces were lent. The facilities of the reading rooms in the main and branch libraries were used by 14,520 visitors, including many scholars and scientists. Floor plans were drawn by members of the staff for the library’s expanded space which will ease the severely crowded stack and work areas. The book collection that serves the staff of the Museum of History and Technology continued on a very active basis. Progress was seen in the growth and development of the collections and in the service provided. The staff answered 11,765 reference questions, replied to 894 letters, lent 12,599 publications, and assisted 3,982 persons coming to the library seeking specific types of information. One of the most significant achievements was the organization of 2,297 trade catalogs according to a special cataloging and classification scheme. With the addition of two temporary library assistants, good progress was made toward shaping the collection into a live, workable library. The shifting of the old card catalog into a new one and the cataloging of the collection of books on the history of medicine were completed. The preparation and distribution of a bimonthly accession list has SECRETARY’S REPORT 207 fulfilled a long-felt need to inform members of the Museum staff of new library acquisitions. The library for the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory began operation on a full-time basis this past year. New equipment has been installed and an active acquisitions program is under way to supply library materials. Many problems are to be resolved before this library can become fully effective. The library staff continued to translate into English miscellaneous items in foreign languages which were referred to the library for translation. The Institution’s participation in the National Science Foundation Russian translation program has resulted in the publish- ing of one volume: “Musk Deer and Deer,” by K. K. Flerov. Members of the staff continued active membership and participation in the Special Libraries Association and the American Library Associ- ation, with representation at the annual conventions of both organiza- tions. The librarian continued as the Smithsonian representative on the U.S. Book Exchange. During the year, members of the staff visited the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory library, Cam- bridge, Mass., the Harvard University libraries, and the Canal Zone Biological Area library at Barro Colorado Island. Librarians from other research organizations and museums both in the United States and in other countries visited the library, the publi- cations distribution section, and the International Exchange Service for the exchange of professional knowledge and publications. In spite of difficulties, the library has had a fruitful year. The ad- dition of temporary staff eased the flow of work in some areas. SUMMARIZED STATISTICS ACCESSIONS Volumes | Total recorded volumes, 1961 Smithsonian main library (including the Natural History LETTE Tay Ee Oe a ee Sener ete ye ene 2, 671 Museum of History snd Technology — 5. ~- = 2=-222---..=-- 8, 241 ! ae Astrophysical Observatory (including Smithsonian Astro- physical Observatory, Cambridge, Mass.)_------------- 212 13, 612 Radiation and Organisms (formerly counted with the maropley sical Opseryatory) <2 2) 3. e252 2 eee 82 1, 869 Bureau of American, Ethnology. —.2--2==-----=.--=-=—--= 629 38, 891 Pinar AY Wi tiseuribes 212 Sa eye Sa ee 107 816 NavionaleCollection of Hine Artss.- esse ee soe see eee 68 14, 305 Manondl: Zoological Parks - i). -2 sc s-235 5-502 22 Stee 3 4, 296 Sua 7 ES eS Re ee Se ee a 12, 013 414, 138 Unbound volumes of periodicals and reprints and separates from serial publica- tions, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in these totals. 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 EXCHANGES Newiexchancesiarranced sees ae ee 289 Specially requested publications received---_------------------------- 1, 867 CATALOGING Molumes catalored e282 ee ee ee 12, 763 Catalog cards DCCs ee ee eee a 59, 795 PERIODICALS lerverecorobyerul gopinesh Gyavweree(i ee ee ee 81, 443 CIRCULATION MORNSIOL DOOKS) ANG PeriOG ical se ee 28, 822 Circulation in the divisional libraries is not counted except in the Division of Insects. BINDING AND REPAIR Wolumes Sentebost le linG Ols yore ree ees 6, 200 Wolkrscsres) ieyopeibiversl sire, (aves Vii oper SEE 3, 431 Respectfully submitted. Rots E. Buancuarn, Librarian. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Report on Publications Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the year ended June 30, 1961: The publications of the Smithsonian Institution are issued partly from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publi- cations of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow- ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of the Freer Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Insti- tution also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art the series Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint im- print of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. In addition, the Smithsonian publishes a guidebook, a picture pam- phlet, postcards and a postcard folder, a color-picture album, color slides, a filmstrip on Smithsonian exhibits, a coloring book for chil- dren, and popular publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its important exhibits and collections for sale to visitors. Through its publication program the Smithsonian endeavors to carry out its founder’s expressed desire for the diffusion of knowledge. During the year the Institution published 10 Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections papers; 1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents and separates of 24 articles in the General Appendix; 1 Annual Re- port of the Secretary ; 4 special publications; and reprints of 3 special publications and 2 popular publications. The U.S. National Museum issued 1 Annual Report, 4 bulletins, 1 paper in the series Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium, 7 papers in the series Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, and 21 Proceedings papers. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued 1 Annual Report and 2 Bulletins. The Astrophysical Observatory issued 8 papers in the series Smith- sonian Contributions to Astrophysics. The National Collection of Fine Arts published 1 catalog, and the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service, under the National Col- lection of Fine Arts, published 4 catalogs and 3 folders. The Freer Gallery of Art issued one brochure and volume 4 of Ars Orientalis. 209 210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 DISTRIBUTION In all, 774,444 copies of publications and miscellaneous items were distributed. Publications: 141 Contributions to Knowledge, 28,606 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 7,838 Annual Report vol- umes and 22,795 pamphlet copies of Report separates, 44,307 spe- cial publications, 87 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition; 66,722 publications of the National Museum; 29,845 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology; 18,424 publications of the Na- tional Collection of Fine Arts; 150 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art;1 15,145 publications of the Astrophysical Observatory; 384 War Background Studies; 1,582 reports of the American Historical Association; and 6,231 publications not issued by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous: 7 sets of North American Wild Flowers and 45 North American Wild Flower prints, 2 Pitcher Plant volumes, 56,666 Guide Books, 18,663 picture pamphlets, 336,199 postcards and postcard folders, 19,963 color slides, 97,740 information leaflets, 10 New Museum of History and Technology pamphlets, 443 statuettes, 2,379 Viewmaster reels, and 1 filmstrip. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS In this series, under the immediate editorship of Miss Ruth B. MacManus, there were issued 10 papers as follows: Volume 189 No. 10. Water transparency observations along the east coast of North America, by Jerome Williams, E. R. Fenimore Johnson, and Albert C. Dyer. 181 pp., 2 pls., 13 maps. (Publ. 4391.) Oct. 26, 1960. ($2.50.) Volume 140 No. 2. Pleistocene birds in Bermuda, by Alexander Wetmore. 11 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 4423.) July 7,1960. (40 cents.) No. 8. Doctor Langley’s paradox: Two letters suggesting the development of rockets, by Russell J. Parkinson. 4 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 4424.) Aug. 31, 1960. (50 cents.) No. 4. The cephalic nervous system of the centipede Arenophilus bipuncticeps (Wood) (Chilopoda. Geophilomorpha, Geophilidae), by Michael A. Lorenzo. 43 pp., 5 pls., 5 figs. (Publ. 4425.) Nov. 8,1960. (75 cents.) No. 5. A revision of the Ordovician bryozoan genera Batostoma, Anaphragma, and Amplexopora, by Richard S. Boardman. 28 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 4426.) Dec. 15, 1960. (75 cents.) Volume 141 The biotic associations of cockroaches, by Louis M. Roth and Edwin R. Willis. 470 pp., 37 pls., 7 figs. (Publ. 4422) Dec.2,1960. ($7.50.) 1In addition to those distributed by the Gallery itself. SECRETARY’S REPORT 211 Volume 142 No. 1. Facts and theories concerning the insect head, by R. E. Snodgrass. 66 pp., 21 figs. (Publ. 4427.) Nov. 4, 1960. (75 cents.) No. 3. Some osteological features of modern lower teleostean fishes, by William A. Gosline. 42 pp., 8 figs. 4 diagrams. (Publ. 4458.) June 12, 1961. (50 cents.) Volume 1438 No. 1. Some locomotor mechanisms of birds, by Frank A. Hartman. 91 pp., 7 figs. (Publ. 4460.) June 15, 1961. ($2.00.) No. 2. Sixteen-day weather forecasts from satellite observations, by C. G, Abbot. 6 pp. (Publ. 4462.) May 26,1961. (25 cents.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS REPORT FOR 1959 The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1959 was received from the printer on December 22, 1960: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ended June 30, 1959. x-+ 693 pp., 86 pls., 125 figs., 1 map. (Publ. 4892.) The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4393-4416) : The transuranium elements, by Glenn T. Seaborg. The IGY in retrospect, by Elliott B. Roberts. Astronomy from artificial satellites, by Leo Goldberg. Solar radio astronomy, by Alan Maxwell. The new uses of the abstract, by George A. W. Boehm. Mirages, by James H. Gordon. Lessons from the history of flight, by Grover Loening. The use of oceanography, by G. H. R. Deacon. Ambergris—Neptune’s treasure, by C. P. Idyll. The rhythmic nature of animals and plants, by Frank A. Brown, Jr. The survival of animals in hot deserts, by H. B. Edney. Amphibians, pioneers of terrestrial breeding habits, by Coleman J. Goin. A study of saturniid moths in the Canal Zone Biological Area, by A. D. Blest. Evolution of knowledge concerning the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, by Benjamin Schwartz. The protection of fauna in the U.S.S.R., by G. P. Dementiev. Reconstructing the ancestor of corn, by Paul C. Mangelsdorf. The need to classify, by Roger L. Batten. Current advances and concepts in virology, by staff members of Lilly Research Laboratories. In search of a home: From the Mutiny to Pitcairn Island (1789-1790), by H. BE. Maude. The Chinook sign of freedom: A study of the skull of the famous chief Com- comly, by T. D. Stewart. The Muldbjerg dwelling place: An early Neolithic archeological site in the Aamosen Bog, West Zealand, Denmark, by J. Troels-Smith. Three adult Neanderthal skeletons from Shanidar Cave, northern Iraq, by Ralph S. Solecki. Sumerian technology, by Ida Bobula. Brandywine: An early flour-milling center, by Peter C. Welsh. 212 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 REPORT FOR 1960 The Report of the Secretary, which will form part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents, was issued January 15, 1961: Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1960. x-+225 pp., 10 pls., 1 map. (Publ. 4429.) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Lichen handbook, by Mason E. Hale. 178 pp., 20 pls., 58 figs. (Publ. 4434.) [June] 1961. ($4.00.) The Victorian American. Lithographs from the Harry T. Peters America on Stone collection, by Anthony N. B. Garvan and Peter C. Welsh. 30 pp., 21 pls. (Publ. 4466.) [May] 1961. ($1.00.) Uniform regulations for the Army of the United States (1861), by Edgar M. Howell. 61 pp., incl. 36 pls. (Publ. 4467.) [June] 1961. ($1.00.) REPRINTS The Smithsonian Institution. (Revised.) 49 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4145.) [April] 1961. (50 cents.) Masters of the air. (Revised.) 31 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4183.) [June] 1961. (50 cents.) The world of the dinosaurs, by David H. Dunkle. 22 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4296.) [November] 1960, and [April] 1961. (50 cents.) Anthropology as a career, by William C. Sturtevant. (Revised.) 20 pp. (Publ. 4343.) [October] 1960, and [January] 1961. (20 cents.) Brief guide to the Smithsonian Institution. (Revised.) 82 pp., illustr. [March] 1961. (25 cents.) Trees and shrubs of Mexico (including reprints of Parts 1-8 and 5 of volume 25, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium). In 2 parts. 1: pp. xviii-+-1-170, xxxvii+171-515, xxviii+517-848, 2: pp. 1313-1721. (Publ. 4461.) Apr. 28,1961. ($20.00.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The editorial work of the National Museum continued during the year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of the division. The following publications were issued : REPORT The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 1960. Pp. vi+175, illus., January 13, 1961. BULLETINS 219. The national watercraft collection, by Howard I. Chapelle. Pp. xi+327, 204 figs. Nov. 23, 1960. 220. Type specimens of reptiles and amphibians in the U.S. National Museum, by Doris M. Cochran. Pp. xv+291. Apr. 4, 1961. 221. Type specimens of birds in the United States National Museum, by Herbert G. Deignan. Pp. x+718. Mar. 17, 1961. 223. The parasitic weaverbirds, by Herbert Friedmann. Pp. viii+196, 3 figs., 16 pls. (4 color), Dec. 30, 1960. 225. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Papers 12-16, by members of the staff and others: SECRETARY’S REPORT 213 Paper 12. Hermann Stieffel, soldier-artist of the West, by Edgar M. Howell. Pp. 1-16, 11 figs. July 8, 1960. Paper 13. North Devon pottery and its export to America in the 17th cen- tury, by C. Maleolm Watkins. Pp. 17-60, 36 figs. (1 color). Dec. 30, 1960. Paper 14. Tea drinking in 18th-century America: Its etiquette and equipage, by Rodris Roth. Pp. 61-91, 22 figs., 1 color pl. Jan. 30, 1961. Paper 15. Italian harpsichord-building in the 16th and 17th centuries, by John D. Shortridge. Pp. 93-107, 12 figs. Dec. 15, 1960. Paper 16. Drug supplies in the American Revolution, by George B. Grif- fenhagen. Pp. 109-133, 4 figs. Mar. 9, 1961. 228. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Papers 19 and 20, by members of the staff and others. Paper 19. Elevator systems of the Eiffel Tower, 1889, by Robert M. Vogel. Pp. 1-40, 41 figs. Feb. 21, 1961. Paper 20. John Ericsson and the age of caloric, by Eugene S. Ferguson. Pp. 41-60, 11 figs. Jan. 25, 1961. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM Volume 35 Part 2. A taxonomic revision of the Humiriaceae, by José Cuatrecasas. Pp. iii+ 25-214, 38 figs., 24 pls. Apr. 14, 1961. PROCEEDINGS Volume 110 Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-iii, 599-619, August 19, 1960. Volume 111 No. 3429. A revision of the genus Ogcodes Latreille with particular reference to species of the Western Hemisphere, by Evert I. Schlinger. Pp. 227-3836, 9 figs., 13 pls. Sept. 9, 1960. No. 3430. Cydnidae of the Western Hemisphere, by Richard C. Froeschner. Pp. 337-680, 13 pls. Oct. 25, 1960. Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-iv, 681-692. Mar. 15, 1961. Volume 112 No. 3431. Lace-bug genera of the world (Hemiptera: Tingidae), by Carl J. Drake and Florence A. Ruhoff. Pp. 1-105, 5 figs., 9 pls. July 7, 1960. No. 3486. Revision of the milliped genus Cherokia (Polydesmida: Xystodes- midae), by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. 227-264, 7 figs.,1 pl. Oct. 12, 1960. No. 3487. Reexamination of species of Protura described by H. BE. Ewing, by ¥. Bonet and S. L. Tuxen. Pp. 265-305, 103 figs. Oct. 13, 1960. No. 3438. Studies in neotropical Mallophaga, XVII: A new family (Troch- iliphagidae) and a new genus of the lice of hummingbirds, by M. A. Carriker, Jr. Pp. 307-342, 12 figs. Oct. 13, 1960. No. 3489. The pelagic amphipod genus Parathemisto (Hyperiidea: Hyperiidae) in the North Pacific and adjacent Arctic Ocean, by Thomas BE. Bowman. Pp. 343-392, 19 figs. Oct. 13, 1960. No. 3440. Assassin bugs of the genus Ghilianella in the Americas (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Emesinae), by J. Maldonado-Capriles. Pp. 393-450, 146 figs. Sept. 9, 1960. 214 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 No. 3441. Welcome Mound and the effigy pipes of the Adena people, by Frank M. Setzler. Pp. 451-458, 1 fig., 4 pls. Sept. 9, 1960. No. 3442. Descriptions of new bats from Panama, by Charles O. Handley, Jr. Pp. 459-479. Oct. 6, 1960. No. 3443. Cultural sequences in Hokkaido, Japan, by Lt. Col. Howard A. MacCord. Pp. 481-5038, 5 figs.,14 pls. Dec. 5, 1960. No. 3444. Noctuid moths of the Scopulepes group of Hemeroplanis Hiibner, by BH. L. Todd. Pp. 505-515, 6 figs., 1 pl. Sept. 13, 1960. No. 3445. Lithoglyptes spinatus, a burrowing barnacle from Jamaica, by Jack T. Tomlinson and William A. Newman. Pp. 517-526, 10 figs. Dee. 20, 1960. No. 3446. Notes on Mysidacean crustaceans of the genus Lophogasier in the U.S. National Museum, by O. S. Tattersall. Pp. 527-547, 7 figs. Dec. 20, 1960. No. 3447. The fairy shrimp Brachinecta campestris from Northwestern United States (Crustacea: Phyllopoda), by James H. Lynch. Pp. 549-561, 5 figs. Dec. 5, 1960. No. 3448. Stargazer fishes from the western North Atlantic (family Uranos- copidae), by Frederick H. Berry and William W. Anderson. Pp. 563-586, 1 fig., 4 pls. Apr. 12, 1961. Volume 113 No. 3450. Paraconger, a new genus with three new species of eels (family Congridae), by Robert H. Kanazawa. Pp. 1-14, 3 figs.,2 pls. Jan. 26, 1961. No. 3451. Revision of the milliped genus Deltotaria (Polydesmida: Xystodes- midae), by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp. 15-35,4 figs. Mar. 17, 1961. No. 3452. Four new species of Pseudocyclops (Copepoda: Calanoida), from Puerto Rico, by Thomas E. Bowman and Juan G. Gonzalez. Pp. 37-59, 11 figs. Mar. 20, 1961. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the Bureau continued under the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following publications were issued during the year: ANNUAL REPORT Seventy-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1959-60. ii+35 pp., 2 pls. 1961. BULLLETINS Bulletin 176. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 15-20, Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., editor. ix-+337 pp., 65 pls., 25 figs. 1960. No. 15. Historie sites archeology on the Upper Missouri, by Merrill J. Mattes. No. 16. Historie sites archeology in the Fort Randall Reservoir, South Dakota, by John EK. Mills. No. 17. The excavation and investigation of Fort Lookout Trading Post II (39LM57) in the Fort Randall Reservoir, South Dakota, by Carl F. Miller. No. 18. Fort Pierre II (89S8T217), a historic trading post in the Oahe Dam area, South Dakota, by G. Hubert Smith. No. 19. Archeological investigations at the site of Fort Stevenson (32ML1), Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota, by G. Hubert Smith. With an intro- duction by Robert L. Stephenson and an appendix by Carlyle S. Smith. No. 20. The archeology of a small trading post (Kipp’s Post, 32MN1) in the Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota, by Alan R. Woolworth and W. Raymond Wood. SECRETARY'S REPORT 215 Bulletin 180. Symposium on Cherokee and Iroquois culture, edited by William N. Fenton and John Gulick. vi+292 pp. 1961. No. 1. Foreword by the editors. No. 2. Iroquois-Cherokee linguistic relations, by Floyd G. Lounsbury. No. 3. Comment on Floyd G. Lounsbury’s “Iroquois-Cherokee Linguistic Relations,” by Mary R. Haas. No. 4. Iroquois archeology and settlement patterns, by William A. Ritchie. No. 5. First comment on William A. Ritchie’s “Iroquois Archeology and Settlement Patterns,” by William H. Sears. No. 6. Second comment on William A. Ritchie’s “Iroquois Archeology and Settlement Patterns,” by Douglas S. Byers. No.7. Cherokee archeology, by Joffre L. Coe. No. 8. Comment on Joffre L. Coe’s “Cherokee Archeology,” by Charles H. Fairbanks. No. 9. Eastern Woodlands community typology and acculturation, by John Witthoft. No. 10. Comment on John Witthoft’s “Hastern Woodlands Community Typology and Acculturation,” by John M. Goggin. No. 11. Cherokee economic cooperatives: the Gadugi, by Raymond D. Fogelson and Paul Kutsche. No. 12. The rise of the Cherokee state as an instance in a class: The “\Wesopotamian” career to statehood, by Fred O. Gearing. No. 13. Comment on Fred O. Gearing’s “The Rise of the Cherokee State as an Instance in a Class: The ‘Mesopotamian’ Career to Statehood,” by Annemarie Shimony. No. 14. Cultural composition of the Handsome Lake Religion, by Anthony F. C. Wallace. No. 15. Comment on Anthony F. C. Wallace’s “Cultural Composition of the Handsome Lake Religion,” by Wallace L. Chafe. No. 16. The Redbird Smith Movement, by Robert K. Thomas. No. 17. Comment on Robert K. Thomas’s “The Redbird Smith Movement,” by Fred W. Voget. No. 18. Effects of environment on Cherokee-Iroquois ceremonialism, music, and dance, by Gertrude P. Kurath. No. 19. Comment on Gertrude P. Kurath’s “Effects of Environment on Cherokee-Iroquois Ceremonialism, Music, and Dance,’ by William C. Sturtevant. No. 20. The Iroquois fortunetellers and their conservative influence, by Annemarie Shimony. No. 21. Change, persistence, and accommodation in Cherokee medico-magical beliefs, by Raymond D. Fogelson. No. 22. Some observations on the persistence of aboriginal Cherokee personality traits, by Charles H. Holzinger. No. 23. First comment on Charles H. Holzinger’s “Some Observations on the Persistence of Aboriginal Cherokee Personality Traits,” by David Landy. No. 24. Second comment on Charles H. Holzinger’s ‘Some Observations on the Persistence of Aboriginal Cherokee Personality Traits, by John Gulick. No. 25. Iroquoian culture history: A general evaluation, by William N. Fenton. 625325—62 15 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The editorial work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory continued under the immediate direction of Ernest E. Biebighauser. The year’s publications in the series Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics are as follows: Volume 4 No. 2. Orbital elements of photographic meteors, by Richard E. McCrosky and Annette Posen. Pp. 15-84, 19 figs. 1961. No. 8. Orbital elements of meteors, by Gerald 8S. Hawkins and Richard B. Southworth. Pp. 85-95. 1961. No. 4. Precision orbits of 413 photographic meteors, by Luigi G. Jacchia and Fred L. Whipple. Pp. 97-129, 6 figs. 1961. Volume 5 No. 4. Observations of simulated meteors, by Richard E. McCrosky. Pp. 29-387, 3 figs. 1961. No. 5. On the motion of satellites with critical inclination: Libration of an earth satellite with critical inclination, by Yusuke Hagihara, pp. 39-51, 3 figs. ; Motion of a particle with critical inclination in the gravitational field of a spheroid, by Yoshihide Kozai, pp. 53-58, 1 fig. 1961. No. 6. Gaps in the distribution of asteroids, by Yusuke Hagihara. Pp. 59-67, 2 figs. 1961. No. 7. Major flares and geomagnetic activity, by Barbara Bell. Pp. 69-83, 13 figs. 1961. No. 8. An annotated bibliography of interplanetary dust, by Paul W. Hodge, Frances W. Wright, and Dorrit Hoffleit. Pp. 85-111. 1961. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS Art and archeology of Viet Nam, Asian crossroad of cultures. 68 pp., illustr. 1960, (Publ. 4480.) ($1.00.) Italian drawings. 78 pp., 42 ills. 1960. Trish architecture of the Georgian period. 17 pp., illustr. 1960. The world of Werner Bischof. 12 pp., 48 ills. 1961. Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibitions. 1961-1962 catalog. 40 pp. Three folders: Sardinian crafts, New exhibitions, and Architectural exhibitions. PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART Ars Orientalis, vol. IV. (17 articles by various authors, 5 notes, 21 book re- views, 2 obituaries, 1 bibliography.) 462 pp., 143 pls., 61 text figs. [June] 1961. Second presentation of the Charles Lang Freer Medal. (A brochure issued in connection with the presentation of the medal to Prof. Ernst Kiihnel, May 8, 1961.) REPORTS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in SECRETARY'S REPORT 27 the act of incorporation of the Association. The following report was issued during the year: Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1959. Vol. 1. Pro- ceedings. 1960. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION In accordance with law, the manuscript of the sixty-third annual report of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolu- tion, was transmitted to Congress on March 13, 1961. OTHER ACTIVITIES The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian Institution on the board of trustees of the Greater Washington Edu- cational Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a member. He also represented the Institution at the annual meeting of the Association of American University Presses held early in May at Oklahoma City and Norman, Okla. Paut H. Oruser, Chief, Editorial and Publications Division. Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Other Activities LECTURES In 1931 the Institution received a bequest from James Arthur, of New York City, a part of the income from which was to be used to endow an annual lecture on some aspect of the sun. The 27th Arthur lecture was delivered in the auditorium of the Natural History Build- ing on the evening of February 2, 1961, by Dr. Herbert Friedman, Superintendent of the Atmosphere and Astrophysics Division of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. This lecture will be published in full in the general appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1961. Dr. Erik Sjoqvist, of the Department of Art and Archaeology of Princeton University, delivered a lecture on “Morgantina, an Un- known Greek City in Sicily” in the auditorium of the Natural History Building on the evening of January 24, 1961. This was sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian and the Archaeological Institute of America. Alfred Friendly, managing editor of the Washington Post, lectured on “Bushman Paintings” in the Freer Gallery of Art auditorium on the evening of May 10,1961. Several lectures were sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these bureaus. Many other lectures on technical subjects were given at the In- stitution during the year. SCIENCE INFORMATION EXCHANGE The Science Information Exchange, an agency operated within the Smithsonian Institution, is a clearinghouse for current scientific re- search in process. The basic purpose of the Exchange is to foster and facilitate effective planning and management of scientific research activities supported by United States agencies and institutions by pro- moting the exchange among participating agencies of administrative data about all types of current research. Thus the Exchange provides a means of communication concerning on-going research which pre- cedes publication of research findings, and which prevents unknowing duplication. Abstracts of research-in-process have been for some years regis- tered by investigators engaged in biological, medical, and psycho- 218 SECRETARY'S REPORT 219 logical research and in limited aspects of research in the social sciences. Through an extensive system of subject indexing, these abstracts are provided upon request and without charge to research institutions. For granting agencies and properly constituted com- mittees it prepares extensive surveys of research in broad areas. In September 1960 the Governing Board of the Bio-Sciences Infor- mation Exchange (the name of the agency as originally organized in 1950) was reconstituted as the Governing Board, Science Information Exchange, to reflect the inclusion of the physical sciences in the scope of the operation. Dr. Orr E. Reynolds, of the Department of Defense, was elected chairman. An ad hoc committee for the physical sciences was established under the chairmanship of Dr. Urner Liddel, and recruitment for professional staff in the physical sciences began. The volume of registration and of use of the Exchange in the field of the life sciences has continued to grow, and it is believed that similar volume and use for the physical sciences will develop. It is expected that the actual scope of coverage and service, by subject matter and by types of research projects, will evolve and expand gradually. A systems survey by Booz, Allen, and Hamilton was begun in No- vember 1960 and completed in May 1961. Consultant services by the Computer Usage Corporation have assisted in the orderly conversion to magnetic tape and in formulating plans for expanded activities. An associate director for the life sciences, Dr. David Hersey, was selected but will not enter on duty until the next fiscal year. SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE The Smithsonian Museum Service, through appropriate educational media, interprets to museum visitors and to the general public the objects, specimens, and exhibits in the several Smithsonian museums and develops interpretative and educational material relating to the work of the Institution in the fields of science, natural history, art, and history. The Museum Service also cooperates with the volunteer docents of the Junior League of Washington, D.C. A more complete report of this activity, directed by G. Carroll Lindsay, curator, is carried in the Report of the United States National Museum. The Museum Service provided assistance to professional and sub- professional groups and individuals visiting the museums of the In- stitution or planning to do so. Assistance in the form of lectures, answers to inquiries, and special tours of certain museum areas was rendered to college and university groups visiting the Institution and to other groups and individuals from the United States and abroad, visiting or planning to visit the Smithsonian in a professional capac- ity. Arrangements were made through the Museum Service for Smithsonian participation in the Workshop on Community Resources 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 sponsored by the University of Maryland. Through the facilities of this workshop, a five-day program outlining the history of the Insti- tution and the work of the various Smithsonian museum and research bureaus was presented to 40 graduate students from the University cf Maryland. This workshop has, since its inception in 1958, provided an opportunity for more than 150 local school teachers and university faculty members to become acquainted with cultural resources of the Institution of value in school curricula. The Museum Service cooperated with the Greater Washington Ed- ucational Television Association in the preparation of a half-hour educational television presentation based on the early musical instru- ment collection of the Smithsonian. Through the Museum Service distribution of certain duplicate spec- imens and objects from the United States National Museum was made to the Overbrook School for the Blind for use in that school’s training of blind children. Special “touch” exhibits and demonstrations were arranged for visiting groups of children from the Columbia Light- house for the Blind. The program for visitor orientation to Smithsonian museums and exhibits was continued through the installation of another elec- tronically controlled slide lecture device in the Lobby of the Museum of Natural History. Floor diagrams showing exhibit locations and listings of exhibits and location of each were installed in the Museum of Natural History. Arrangements for various Smithsonian public functions and events including lectures, films, and the opening of new halls and exhibits were made by the Museum Service. More complete information about these activities will be found under appropriate headings elsewhere in the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Mailing lists for announcements of these events were maintained and kept current. The Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a listing of spe- cial events of the Institution was prepared and distributed monthly. Report of the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution For the Year Ended June 30, 1961 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PARENT FUND The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s 6d— $508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay- ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld during the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount of $550,000. The gift of James Smithson was “lent to the United States Treas- ury, at 6 per centum per annum interest” (20 USC. 54) and by the Act of March 12, 1894 (20 USC. 55) the Secretary of the Treasury was “authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, from time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest the sum of $1,000,000.” The maximum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached on January 11, 1917 by the deposit of $2,000. Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited in the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest: Unrestricted funds Income 1961 Peete G SOM. 2s. uo ee ee Sa $727,640 $438, 658. 40 OBE ee ee se ee 14, 000 840. 00 brearar: eereree ree OES) Ede A eee Se oe Bee ek 500 30. 00 LBIGWOaW NNW ais 5 AN Se are a ee oc ee Ly eae Sapa Saini 2, 500 150. 00 PRT IS (COMOTAL) EDS Se Leet et pa 116, 000 6, 960. 00 “Ta TE hl lla SUE OR Ue en a 26, 670 1, 600. 20 TRAINS OS iil Sey SV SY oe BEI nd 590 35. 40 oF LUIGT HG de a UR 3 ae Se ng 1, 100 66. 00 LEO PET Ui Ses pk Say =a et a IE J 889, 000 53, 340. 00 221 222 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Restricted funds Income 1961 Hlodeline (Speciiic)s 222 28 = sa ses eee eee $100,000 $6, 000. 00 Redback! sose5 Se PRE ORO e ee Fe SE eae 11, 000 660. 00 Totalaate 24-42 tose oe SE 2 See set eee 111, 000 6, 660. 00 Grand totals <2 esate eet ae ee oe ee 1, 000, 000 60, 000. 00 In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum of $3,871,350.59 which has been invested. Of this sum, $3,784,- 473.88 is carried on the books of the Institution as the Consolidated Fund, a policy approved by the Regents at their meeting on Decem- ber 14, 1916. The balance is made up of several small funds. CONSOLIDATED FUND (Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) Fund Investment 1961 Income 1961 Alp bottiWe tus,(Special a 2e2-2 20 -be- e $21, 344. 95 $1, 100. 60 *Avery, Robert S., and Lydia._...---.-.-_-.- 56, 590. 75 2, 917. 95 Gifts, royalties, gain on sale of securities-_- --- 395, 583. 11 20, 397. 09 Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline_-_____--- 5, 761. 97 297. 09 Seamiltonwamedsoe see oe eee ee 578. 35 29. 84 Hart, iGustavars stig: ees sce 2 oe ee 697. 84 36. 00 Henry! Carolines. 235.06 sae. income ease 1, 732. 75 89. 37 Henry, Joseph, and’ Marriet, Ac. - 2-22-25) 22222 70, 231. 84 3,021, 31 *Hodgkins, Thomas G. (General)_------------ 43, 399. 98 DA, DEV Th NOrrow sO WwiehtiwWic coe see See ne eee 110, 789. 10 5, 712. 49 Olimeted MilielentAu 22 2.1 Pe twee be eS ee 1, 148. 62 59, 21 *Poore, Lucy T. and George W-_-------------- 233, 177. 42 12; 023.11 Porter, ‘Henry irke. osee 28 soe ee oe ee 410, 317. 07 21, 156. 85 *“Rhees! Wiliam Jones... cease te eo oe 677. 83 34. 94 *Sanford, George eee oe we ee See ee 1, 275. 36 65. 74 Smithson aMieds sae ee Ae a ee cs - 1, 749. 06 90. 16 Taggart, Gansen. 225 b 2. oy Loney vas’ ees 2 512. 44 22. 14 Witherspoon, Thomas: An=. 2). stse4sHee es S- 184, 890. 65 9, 533. 36 LU nt Ure ahr on SR CIR crete ie ede mee eh 1, 540, 459. 09 79, 425. 04 *In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. CONSOLIDATED FUND (Income restricted to specific use) Fund Investment 1961 Income 1961 Abbott, William L., for investigations in POLO See Se Dok dee ee ee eee rae $149, 362. 74 $7, 675. 50 Armstrong, Edwin James, for use of Depart- ment of Invertebrate Paleontology when principal amounts to $5,000.00_.----------- 1 72.0, 21 70. 78 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 223 CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued Fund Investment 1961 Income 1961 Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the sun and annual lecture on same_--_----- $57, 298. 65 $2, 954. 43 Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholar- ship to investigate fauna of countries other than whe: United. States=---2--5 aa-eeeee ee 71, 779. 58 3, 701. 12 Baird, Luey H., for creating a memorial to Bearerery bard. 2.0222. 25 2. 2oneeld ett 34, 495. 02 1, 778. 64 Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and pastels and for encouragement of Amer- icamartistic endeavors -=-6--2 44 eee Se 41, 092. 28 2, 118. 80 Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals fon woolopieal Park... 2-2 -ba6 3 Es seer 1, 432. 35 73. 86 Canfield collection, for increase and care of the Canfield collection of minerals___------ 54, 796. 73 2, 825. 45 Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey collection and promotion of re- searches relating to Coleoptera_-_---------- 17, 958. 19 925. 96 Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and promotion of Isaac Lea Collection of gems gndmmollusks#22 22-22 2552 = sea es 40, 345. 65 2, 080. 30 Dykes, Charles, for support in financial re- SELES C) © Se NOS FA Saat 1 te ne ee 61, 682. 94 3, 180. 48 Hickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preserva- tion and exhibition of the photographic collection of Rudolph Hickemeyer, Jr__----- 15, 572. 70 802. 97 Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, for some scientific work of the Institution, preferably in chemistry or medicine-_------- 12, 736. 57 656. 74 Higbee, Harry, income for general use of the Smithsonian Institution after June 11, 1967_ 26. 69 . 48 Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer collection of lighting objects_------- 9, 415. 97 485. 49 Hitchcock, Albert S., for care of the Hitchcock Mierostological Labrary. 2222-2 s22<.2.55=- 2, 260. 72 116. 55 Hrdlitka, AleS and Marie, to further re- searches in physical anthropology and publication in connection therewith- ------- 68, 539. 55 3, 360. 75 Hughes, Bruce, to found Hughes alcove- ----- 27, 423. 90 1, 414. 05 Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in cherexacy sciencess= sles le ia sek ee eee 124, 864. 24 6, 438. 27 Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and preservation of Long collection of embroide- TICAIACES; ANG. textiles!s- same see Ute Be See 777. 91 40. 09 Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of Maxwellkcollection=] 22220222522 sn-6 ose = 28, 101. 35 1, 448. 94 Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first- class works of art for use and benefit of the National Collection of Fine Arts_._-------- 28, 939. 20 1, 492. 16 Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological BULICIC Sty ate ete eins SPs ee ee 31, 861. 40 1, 642. 86 224 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued Fund Investment 1961 Income 1961 Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the collection of dolls placed in the U.S. National Museum through the interest of Mir:-and) Mirs, Noyes S5- st ee ee a, $1, 376. 47 $70. 99 Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred Duane Pell collection_____________- 10, 619. 83 547. 57 Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petro- celli collection of photographic prints and for the enlargement and development of the section of photography of the U.S. National MINIS UT oe ie st sen oan ol een ee er 10, 621. 07 574. 62 Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S. National Museum containing Crustacea____ 15, 238. 20 785. 72 *Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, IMBIMEMOnyROh ASher wl uUniS= = =e ee ene 25, 483. 68 1, 314. 01 Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling collection of min- CL Shae ee ee ee eee ee oe eter see rineye 172, 910. 49 8, 915. 65 Roebling Solar Research): “2.202 352ew ey ees 33, 028. 76 1, 703. 02 Rollins, Miriam and William, for investiga- tions in physics and chemistry______._-_--- 198, 652. 57 9, 985. 51 Smithsonian employees’ retirement______-__-_- 33, 099. 55 1, 766. 50 Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer collection and library_____._-_--__- 25, 692. 44 1, 324. 74 Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Collectionnot Hines ATts a eee 14, 324. 85 738. 62 Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for de- velopment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing results of same-_-_-_- 685, 644. 88 35, 318. 99 Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publications in botany cssse a cece en eee ee ean 82, 932. 44 4, 276. 19 Younger, Helen Walcott, held in trust________ NOEL Se 27 5, 122. 45 Zerbee, Francis Brinckle, for endowment of EVO TUMEH ay es an Nos ke sh et epee Sas a a 1, 359. 02 70. 09 mROtall229 i335 5 ee Bea ea ite 2, 298, 586. 56 117, 772. 34 *In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whistler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endow- REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 229 ment fund for the operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $9,721,210.13. SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS Invested endowment for general purposes__---~--~-------~-- $2, 429, 459. 09 Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer TELE Oe eT LS 1 Ie EO ee el ee eee ee 2, 441, 891. 50 Total invested endowment other than Freer___-------_-_ 4, 871, 350. 59 Freer invested endowment for specific purposes_______------- 9, 721, 210. 13 Total invested endowment for all purposes__-------~--~ $14, 592, 560. 72 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS Deposited in the U.S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as authorized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591___---_-__ $1, 000, 000. 00 Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : IS ON GS hee ee ee ee $1, 530, 633. 40 Stocks... Be cE aries SP ete 2, 295, 685. 77 Real estate and mortgages___--———__~_- 28, 756. 00 WUninvested!Seapital==2===--— = See 16, 275. 42 3, 871, 350. 59 Total investments other than Freer endowment__-----_- $4, 871, 350. 59 Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market value at date acquired) : i000 Cl) a a eee $4, 993, 135. 06 SOCKS ee es ee ee ee eee 4, 724, 660. 49 Umnimnvesteds capital222. —- —_ > > es eee 3, 414. 58 9, 721, 210. 18 PROtAI SAN VEStIMeN LS een ee ee ee eee $14, 592, 560. 72 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 EXHIBIT A BALANCE SHEET OF PRIVATE FUNDS June 30, 1961 ASSETS Current funds: General: Cash: United States Treasury current account_____--___---_- 1 rave) ofswaw ecfts ways Yeo 0) C211 01 0 Wee apes ss es Me Me 9s La aly es ess uminvesteduend owMents. ee =o aes oa eee eee ‘Bravel angvouher advan Cees ae eee cen ee ee eed ‘Total generalifunds. => see. 42232 eee = ae es hae Restricted: Cash—United States Treasury current AC COUMG a ae eee eee $1, 738, 733. 99 Investments—United States Treasury INO FEB ets ain rere Sha fees tne re ye ph ie ben Wea 1, 635, 712. 56 PRGUAILCMEPETG NUDIOS ops 2s ee ee ee Endowment funds and funds functioning as en- dowment: Investments: Freer Gallery of Art: Cagis: So yen mee, te ney tne $3, 414. 58 DLOCKS ANGUDONGS= =. ose een ee 9, 717, 795. 55 O21 210s Consolidated: Gashtere shen soe seo $15, 709. 70 Stocks and bonds_-_---- 3, 718, 764. 18 3, 734, 473. 88 Loan to United States Treasury~— Se me 000, 000. 00 Other stocks and bonds___--%, 107, 554. 99 ( GES) wae a os per aR 565. 72 Real estate at book value__- 28,756.00 4, 871, 350. 59 Total endowment funds and funds function- $510, 434. 04 355, 166. 47 865, 600. 51 19, 690. 00 845, 910. 51 12, 724. 00 858, 634. 51 3, 374, 446. 55 4, 233, 081. 06 14, 592, 560. 72 18, 825, 641. 78 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2a FUND BALANCES Current funds: General: Unexpended funds—unrestricted_.....2.----L.-.-22.--- $858, 634. 51 PEQUAM Pe Neral HUNG gee ae eel ee eet Se ee 858, 634. 51 Restricted (Exhibit C): Unexpended income from endowment_-_-- $1, 084, 076. 28 Funds for special purposes (gifts, grants, SLAC) | Bs ae SE SS se Ee 2, 290, 370. 27 MOcAl TT esbricheGyilndscr oot Sat ta bee ee 3, 474, 446. 55 Ecwaletrrent fangse ss.) 425 2 a ol eS 4, 233, 081. 06 Endowment funds and funds functioning'as en- dowment (Exhibit D): Breemcaliony Of Art. 24 li Vor ds soe $9, 721, 210. 13 Other: Restricted 2-224. 3.222 $2, 441, 891. 50 Generales 22) ers 2,429, 459.09 4, 871, 350. 59 Total endowment funds and funds functioning as endow- AN CT UR ae a wee se te ee Soe iy tee Cabeeen ld 5S Be 14, 592, 560. 72 POMPE 2 eR sa Ne ee ae eS 18, 825, 641. 78 PiSCOSSS6l 1 lea ee eee eee oa ane UWO01}99]]09 10J asvyoINg OGL ASG iG: S-lteeme ae VGESGOROGES TA wey cm ogi aceite eee ce nee SOBs [BIO], Ee ee aie gi a | ge ee ee COMIC GEE lle || Meo a eee tint Se Sy eae we wr mag cere ee oe I9YIO © DE PGLESGI eG, Glie a =) COB GP ONC Cae |p ioe c eoanen ap roe a ae ene ice Dae Yoivesoyy Si Uae 8 SE ial a fa cy as GER ES alent cx eee owe ae ee Scape eAl}Bays!UTWPY = SSOLIRTEG é :seinqipuedxe quelling ee BH es SI €16 ‘22 ‘SG 80 St0 ‘06 GSR COS OO Gna Ite sage cae ep ee Oe ae s}dlede1 JUAIING [80 J, ee su iS cae ei riigem Soares |g Poe CSE OCG Mes Pa xa roe a a a ae punj JueuMopuse wodj poyerdoiddy Ao Je wee ------ Gg 8g (OLGA CONS Gis eo [ar Gag eae ge eat a ea SNOIUBI][OOST J Pata. 2 6 i eee eS SS G0 DOL OG: axel Se ee See ee Sa ree se sydvisojoyd puv suonroyqng 5 SE GIGELYG GS |S ae RERCOO GONG Meigen a8 ca aie Grn rai ga eae aie S}UBIS PUB SIJID CMe ee eb heme ie 2 ce Nees o eae REGS AS) Ge a | ecg ag ee ee ee QUOI JUSTIYSSAUT Z ppm vega a ose POR S OL Ci Ae aaa ar See er cee ree aaa ee pee Pe}0l19s010/) i ND reo gegen oe ce ee Se COrOSOR Ge ie apa Sees ae ee ee Ce Spunj pe dl1jsel Jay4O S Be ce en eae SaaS aine ete sie = Se QURGUG1OGG =| aiete se =o Stee 5 ean ee ee qty jo Aralyey 19081 q 5 >9WOOU! JUsUIMOpPU = 3s}die0ed JUaTING fo) Ay fe SJUuvId PU SIIH suoljeol[qndg suolqvi9dO 4 < 1961 “O€ PUN pepus ivax Z SAONVIVE GNQNG IVYENGDS LNAYUND NI SAONVHO GNV SLNAWASHNASIG GNV SLldIXOATU GNOA TWHANAD LNAYNND AO LNAWALYLS 228 SANNA ALVATYd @ LiGinxad 229 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE SSE PTAC, Oa 0 aa |e tc at Nn lati pene alge gd el al ee ie a Ieak JO pua 4v oouLleg WRG OS eaOee Nt na aes a a see eee ee ee Se ee Eo eee ss ee Ieak Jo Suruulseq ye a0uR|eg OPAOU Ore at kee ce Meee lll ee gee ee gee AE ee, ee ee ee dae oe ge a oe Ge age 1840], (OOR00S) Gaetan tote ats iaetg as eS ge eo a puny Wessey, uosueg—yedjourd yuowMOpus 04 Jojsuvsy, ORO See b= oe GO ‘102d ‘ee CE 668 ‘20% ~“soinjipuedxe yuedind J9AO sydyodeI JuadIND JO ssadxA BI ‘E16 ‘LbZ ‘G €0 ‘PFS ‘9G VOQO0 GOles Blan ia cee ae? gees soinjIpuedxe yUOLIND [eyOy, 7 E> aie i ie aaa ie” ea ies 19 ‘6G2 ‘LP 86 9ZI ‘FSG ~~~ 777777777 SurTpyoyyyM veso;dwa ssoryT (SEO KOH (Qo a Es sjuowAed surpjoyqyia sooXodugy 2 a) Eee SC Te OLS ipaeez Toros eseeceocos---=-ydeiselo} pus suoydaey ‘eduysog Sea es ee coe aaa ga > Sena ee 80 ‘8g (7 oS = 56> 57-75 -> S-> > solddns sono pug ArouoeyS eee ae et ees eS €9 “€00 ‘F MO a a es ake Ne ey ee LST i 25> bho oes Gee ee 68 ‘9F6 ‘OL > 35. -- = = = ssu0ljonpoidoer pus si arisojoug EN pa agape cir Ui cea a ie ea 10 ‘80F ‘€ hap td eee eee eee ea a ae SCE Reni cpa meme Sp earig a CL ‘PSP ‘OT By EP TST SI AEs On ae Baa aS IIT xe [eloeds -SoUljoo yA] :sesuedxa pur saijddng adidas Sake Se | ae a ma ee LI ‘OFZ ‘FZ “TTT Tess ==—-s9aj [B99] PUB UBIPO}SNI—sodIAJos [BNYIVIJUOD Maen hoe mig pS ae GGmlGyeat Sd iaaa oo | eee Peer as ORR OUGT eon Ued ey ot Soe Ses ee ae ue ¥G ‘9G2 ‘T DUTT spor sree ese se====-90UBUoJUIGU SPpUNOIs Pu’ ZINOH iat ae at & aie oie 9€ ‘68S ‘TT Toon eeecerccwccsececes"""--su0ljel[eqsul pue ssurpiing :spunois puv quouldinbea ‘ssurping ce Pena eben €& ‘Zh ‘OG GI ‘T&6 ‘OS ETRE IE OS Se SSS ae SY ABIZOTO YR pus .uopeorqng GOseel- GrUrceisl = ey aos CG Ste leet: Moe ee ee oe pee Se ae 19q1O Eset Dee Me. CE aE ae es ee ame 69 ‘1b0 ‘F Saree SS Saugaps 2 Se oP Sok eA OOS) LU GeO anno rn Re ee ee er ay ty IT ‘$96 ‘GT a S60 C2 Pe Se ee ge ae, CERNE, :sosuaodxo OATYVIYSIUIWIPS poyejol pus uoNviojdxo pue soyoivasey 230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 EXHIBIT C PRIVATE FUNDS STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN CURRENT RESTRICTED FUND BALANCE Year ended June 30, 1961 Unexpended income Balance at beginning of year____|$1, 127, 115. Add: Income from restricted en- dowment: Freer Gallery of Art___-_~- Other restricted funds-_--_-_ Less custodial costs__._--~- 7 ' Net income from re- stricted endowment-__-_- Sale of publications_____--_- Giltarand( pranise-2 2 soe 2|0 emo e sour Deduct: Transfer to current income: Freer Gallery of Art_____-- Other restricted funds---_-- Unrestricteds 2222 — a= Income added to principal, Returns to National Science Houndations.- =a) 22 aoe ele ee Transfer to endowment funds_ Balance at end of year..-_----- 436, 006. 258, 908. 694, 914. 37, 170. 657, 744. 17, 599. 1, 805, 494. 525, 806. 50, 291. 132, 765. 708, 863. OF E16: 721, 418. 1, 084, 076. Funds for special purposes Gifts, grants, etc. Total 28 |$1, 331, 791. 41 1$2, 458, 906. 69 OS} Pee Bae ae eee 436, 006. 08 (Gite Cane 258, 908. 76 (ld eee D8 Se Ihe he 694, 914. 84 Vd Deere rey ee 37, 170. 41 A Soi) Mew Ba ee 657, 744. 43 03 1, 674. 38 19, 273. 41 6, 127, 382. 33 | 6, 127, 382. 33 70| 169,394.08] 172, 429. 78 44 | 7, 630, 242. 20 | 9, 435, 736. 64 1a] ae BU es 525, 806. 14 84 | 5, 247, 913. 18 | 5, 298, 205. 02 04 42,068.49 | 174, 833. 53 02 | 5, 289, 981. 67 | 5, 998, 844. 69 10 eae 9, 116. 16 51, 729. 57 51, 729. 57 31 @. e303 yh Loe eee iy a ae, cane Oe Be 1, 599. 67 16 | 5,339, 871. 93 | 6, 061, 290. 09 28 | 2, 290, 370. 27 | 3, 374, 446. 55 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 251 EXHIBIT D PRIVATE FUNDS STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN PRINCIPAL OF ENDOWMENT FUNDS AND FUNDS FUNCTIONING AS ENDOWMENT Year ended June 30, 1961 Ealenee at begining. of year... -----.-- -.=--.-+--_--_---- $13, 771, 652. 40 Add: Gifts and bequests (including transfer of Ganson Taggart Fund)----------- $30, 849. 67 Income added to principal as prescribed Rig aGNOr =! 22 AY ea Fe ee ae 9, 116. 16 Net gain on investments_------------- 781, 499. 31 821, 465. 14 SUPTEDT SR NS SIGE S A eipches heay e y Ae r 14, 593, 117. 54 Deduct amounts appropriated to current funds tor reurement payments. ——_~ 22 = 2. <=. an 556. 82 14, 592, 560. 72 Balance at year end consisting of: . Ummestricteds soe. = eee ee ae $2, 429, 459. 09 Restricted for: Freer Gallery of Art_......------. 9° 721, 210) 13 Other collections and research_--_--- 2, 441, 891. 50 14, 592, 560. 72 The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during the past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $12,593.72. Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks, and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United States Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed by the Secretary of the Institution and drawn on the United States Treasury. The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from the following: Academic Press Co., contribution to the Rathbun Memorial Fund. Edward D. Adler, contribution to the Smithsonian Institution. American Cocoa Research, grant to help defray costs of art work in connection with the publication of a Taxonomic Monograph of the Genus Theobroma by Dr. Jose Cuatrecasas. American Petroleum Institute, grant-in-aid toward the establishment of a per- manent exhibit and animated petroleum map in the United States National Museum. American Petroleum Institute, grant to cover expenses of Dr. G. Arthur Cooper in connection with his participation in the Geology Domain Committee Symposium to be held in Houston, Texas. 625325—62——_16 232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Atomic Energy Commission, additional grant for support of research and study of the biochemical effects of ionizing and nonionizing radiation on plant metabolism during development. Atomic Energy Commission, additional grant for support of research entitled “Systematic Zoological Research on the Marine Fauna of the Tropical Pacific Area.” Bernice P. Bishop Museum, grant to assist in defraying expenses of Dr. Bernard R. Feinstein in connection with field work in Viet Nam and neighboring countries. Bredin Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled “Ocean Food Chain Cycle.” Mrs. John S. Burdette, contribution for the restoration of a platform rocker given by her to the Smithsonian Institution. Alan C. Collins, grant for a research expedition to Tibesti Mountains of Libya. Curtiss-Wright Corporation, gift for the construction of a replica of the first naval aircraft, the Curtiss A-1. Department of the Air Force, additional grant for research entitled “Study of Atmospheric Entry and Impact of High Velocity Meteorites.” Department of the Air Force, additional grant for upper atmosphere stellar image study. Department of the Air Force, additional grant for support of research entitled “The Accretion of Interplanetary Matter by the Earth.” Department of the Air Force, additional grant for research directed toward the study of stellar scintillation. Department of the Air Force, grant for the support of research entitled “The Reduction of Satellite Observations to Determine Atmospheric Density.” Department of the Army, Ordnance Corps, additional grants for research entitled “Procurement of Satellite Tracking and Orbit.” Department of the Army, Quartermaster Corps, grant for support of a report on “The Biotic Associations of the Blattaria’” by Roth and Willis. Eastern Federation of Mineralogical and Lapidary Societies, grant to defray expenses of Paul E. Desautels while attending the 1960 convention in Ashe- ville, North Carolina. Felix and Helen Juda Foundation, gift to the Freer Gallery of Art Publication Fund. Mr. Reuben H. Fleet, gift for the purchase of a scale model of Consolidated NY-1 Aircraft for the National Air Museum. Alex. Gordon 3d, contribution to the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. E. P. Henderson, gift for the Meteorite Fund. Mr. Stewart Huston, gift for the restoration of an 18th Century Chaise. Institute of Andean Research, grant for Archeological Research in Ecuador on Project J of the Institute of Andean Research Program, “Interrelationships of New World Cultures.” International Association for Plant Taxonomy, gift to cover expenses of Dr. A. C. Smith in connection with travel to Brussels while attending the meeting of the Editorial Committee of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Jersey Production Research Corporation, additional grant for support of a re- search project on Hchinoid Spines. Jewitt Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled “Ecology and Morphology of the Hoatzin.” REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Da Edwin A. Link, additional gift for the support of the Marine Archeological Project. Link Foundation, additional gift for the support of special publications dealing with aviation and the Smithsonian Institution Collections. McDermott Foundation, gift to purchase a telescope which will be loaned in- definitely to the Dallas Moonwatch Team. Metropolitan Broadcasting Corporation, grant to cover expenses relating to the shipment of the White Tigress from India to the National Zoological Park. Mitch Miller Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled “Ecology and Morphology of the Hoatzin.” Mrs. George Maurice Morris, gift to establish the Miriam H. Morris Fund. National Academy of Sciences, travel grants for J. F. Gates Clarke, William Stern, S. H. Reisenberg, and H. G. Diegnan to attend the Tenth Pacific Science congress. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, additional grants for the sup- port of the Satellite Tracking Program. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, additional grants for the support of astronomical research studies. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, additional grant for the acquisi- tion of the “Beyer Tektite Collection.” National Geographic Society, grant for Paleo-Indian investigations at Agate Basin, Eastern Wyoming. National Institute of Health, grant toward the purchase of the Melander Collec- tion of Diptera. National Science Foundation: Grant for research entitled “Obsidian Dating.” Additional grant for research entitled ‘Oldest Fossil Bryozoa of the United States.” Additional grant for research entitled “Comparative Analysis of Behavior in Tropical Birds.” Additional grant for research entitled “Morphology and Paleoecology of Permian Brachiopods.” Additional grant for research entitled “Endocrine Basis of Parasitic Breeding in Birds.” Additional grant for research entitled “Metabolic Aspects of the Digestion of Wax.” Additional grant for research entitled “Taxonomic Study of the Phanerogams of Colombia.” Grant for research entitled ‘Permo-Triassic Reptiles of South Africa.” Grant for partial support for the “Preparation and Publication of Supple- ment to Annotated Bibliography of Termites, 1955-1960.” Grant for research entitled “A Revision of the Beetles of the Genus Neobrotica Jacoby.” Additional grant for research entitled “Systematics of Chilopoda and Diplopoda.” Additional grant for research entitled “Revisionary Study of the Blattoidea.” Additional grant for research entitled “Systematic Studies of South American Microlepidoptera.” Additional grant for research entitled “Early Tertiary Mammals of North America.” Grant for research entitled “Construction of Highly Sensitive Mass Spectro- meter for analyzing Rare Gases in Meteorites.” Grant for research entitled “Culture History of South Arabia.” 234 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 National Science Foundation—Continued Grant for research entitled “Foreign Cambrian Trilobites with American Affinities.” Grant for research entitled “Systematic Significance of Hchinoid Spines.” Grant for research entitled ‘Botanical Exploration of Southern Brazil.” Grant for research entitled “Research on Stellar Atmosphere.” Grant for research entitled “Extensive Studies, over a long period of time, in the worldwide Order Hemiptera.” Additional grant for research entitled “Taxonomy of the Bamboo.” Grant for research entitled ‘Settlement pattern in the Missouri Valley.” Grant for research entitled “Caddo Language Study.” Grant for research entitled “A Late Pleistocene Fauna and Possible Human Associations near Littleton, Colorado.” New York Academy of Sciences, gift to defray expenses of Dr. M. T. Newman while attending the conference on “Genetic Perspectives in Disease Resistance and Susceptibility.” Office of Naval Research, additional grant to provide expert consultants to advise the Navy Advisory Committee. Office of Naval Research, additional grant to perform psychological research studies. Office of Naval Research, additional grant for support of research entitled “In- formation on Shark Distribution and the Distribution of Shark Attack all over the World.” Office of Naval Research, additional grant for study concerning the development of a proposal for an institute or laboratory of human performance standards. Office of Naval Research, additional grant for research in connection with studies on the marine fauna of the South Pacific Ocean. Office of Naval Research, additional grant to perform aeronautical research studies. Mrs. John B. Oliver, gift to the Historic Dresses Fund. Pan American Union, grant for travel expenses of Dr. Clifford Evans and Dr. Betty Meggers to Barranquilla, Colombia, to attend the conference on Methodology. Mr. B. T. Rocea, gift to the Smithsonian Institution. Rancho Santa Ana Botanie Garden, grant for joint botanical collecting ex- pedition to the Hawaiian Islands. St. Petersburg Shell Club, grant to defray expenses of Dr. Harald Rehder to St. Petersburg to attend the annual Shell Show. Dr. Jeanne S. Schwengel, gift to defray travel expenses of Dr. Harald A. Rehder from Washington to Honolulu in connection with his trip to Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Shell Companies Foundation, gift to purchase 180 volumes of ‘Collection of Pilots and Engine Handbooks.” Texas Gulf Sulphur Co., grant for the construction of two Frasch Models. U.S. Department of Agriculture, grant for the support of research in the Order Diptera. Wenner-Gren Foundation, grant to defray travel expenses of Dr. T. Dale Stewart while attending the Wenner-Gren Foundation Symposium Number 16. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, grant to cover travel expenses of Dr. Richard Cifelli to participate in Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution re- search cruises in the North Atlantic. Yale University, gift to defray travel expenses of Dr. William L. Stern in connec- tion with a trip to New Haven, Connecticut. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2o0 For support of the Science Information Exchange: Atomic Energy Commission Department of Defense Department of the Navy Federal Aviation Agency National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Institute of Health National Science Foundation Veterans’ Administration Included in the above list of gifts and contributions are reimburs- able contracts. The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Institution. The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1961: Salariessand Hx pensess=s.25. = 25.552 S ee ea cence $8, 114, 000. 00 ING TONSA EA00 | O21CAls bats. eee ee ee ee ee eee 1, 304, 000. 00 The appropriation made to the National Gallery of Art (which is a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution) was $1,920,000.00. In addition, funds were transferred from other Government agencies for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution as follows: Working Funds, transferred from the National Park Service, Interior Department, for archeological investigations in river pasine throughout, the: United States=—--=2- === $123, 895. 00 The Institution also administers a trust fund for partial support of the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island in the Canal Zone. AUDIT The report of the audit of the Smithsonian Private Funds follows: THE BOARD OF REGENTS, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. We have examined the balance sheet of private funds of Smithsonian Institu- tion as of June 30, 1961 and the related statement of current general private funds receipts and disbursements and the several statements of changes in funds for the year then ended. Our examination was made in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of the accounting records and such other auditing procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. Land, building, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other speci- mens and certain sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Institution; likewise, the accompanying statements do not include the Na- tional Gallery of Art and other departments, bureaus and operations admin- 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 istered by the Institution under Federal appropriations. The accounts of the Institution are maintained on the basis of cash receipts and disbursements, with the result that the accompanying statements do not reflect income earned but not collected or expenses incurred but not paid. In our opinion, subject to the matters referred to in the preceding paragraph, the accompanying statement of private funds presents fairly the assets and funds principal of Smithsonian Institution at June 30, 1961; further, the accom- panying statement of current general private funds receipts and disbursements and several statements of changes in funds, which have been prepared on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year, present fairly the cash transactions of the private funds for the year then ended. PEAT, Marwick, MITCHELL & Co. WASHINGTON, D.C. September 11, 1961 Respectfully submitted. (s) CLARENCE CANNON, (s) Caryn P. Haskins, (s) Roserr V. Fiemina, Executive Committee. GENERAL APPENDIX to the SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1961 237 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the GrnrraL Aprenpix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a gen- eral character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 380 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1961. Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be obtained, as Jong as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington 25, D.C. Some Astronomical Aspects of Life in the Universe’ By Su-Suu Huane Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J.2 [With 3 plates] Turee different ways by which matter interacts are gravitational, nuclear, and chemical. As our knowledge now stands, it appears that the behavior of all matter in the universe—from shining stars to exuberant life on the earth—may eventually be explained in terms of these interactions. Indeed, the emergence of life in general, and on earth in particular, is a net result of all three. All forms of life must rely for maintenance on a stellar source of energy. Therefore, the nature and evolution of a star control the emergence and development of life. There is no doubt now that stars condense from gas and dust in the interstellar clouds, a newly formed star’s temperature being very low because the interstellar gas is quite cool. As the star contracts, its temperature increases, and it moves from the lower right-hand corner of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram toward the left side. Figure 1 shows the early evolutionary tracks of stars of different masses, which can be roughly represented by straight lines. Gravitational contraction stops when the internal temperature be- comes high enough for thermonuclear reactions to begin to convert hydrogen into helium. These reactions supply energy equal to that radiated by the star, which therefore maintains an equilibrium con- dition with constant luminosity for along time. Sucha state of affairs corresponds to a star on the main sequence. The time of contraction to the main sequence depends on the mass, as shown in table 1. The time scales given here are longer than usu- 1 Reprinted by permission from Sky and Telescope, vol. 21, No. 6, June 1961. 2On leave from Goddard Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Admin- - aah detailed description of a star of solar mass contracting to the main sequence, see “Early Solar Evolution,’ Robert R. Brownlee and Arthur N. Cox, Sky and Telescope, May 1961, p. 252.—Hd. 239 240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 LOGARITHM OF SURFACE TEMPERATURE 4.2 aca 3.8 3.6 1000 MASS (Sun=1) 6.3 100 LUMINOSITY RELATIVE TO SUN ° B85 AO FO GO KO SPECTRAL ThViRE, Figure 1.—A contracting newborn star evolves leftward in this diagram to the main sequence, where a long stay should favor development of life on any planets the star may have. ally cited because we have taken into account the change in lumi- nosity of the star during its contraction. A star of a certain mass will arrive at the main sequence with a definite spectral type and luminosity, and its character changes only slightly during the long period in which the hydrogen in its core is being consumed. Once the central hydrogen is exhausted, the star evolves quite rapidly toward the right, to become a giant or super- giant—very different in size and surface brightness from before. It is obvious from the table that time scales on the main sequence are much longer than those of contraction. This explains why about 90 percent of observed stars are to be found on the main sequence. The stay of a more massive star on the main sequence is shorter than that of a less massive star, as it dissipates its energy much faster. Thus, an O star remains in this state for only a few million years, compared toan M star’s 100 billion. From this brief look at stellar life histories, it is clear that gravita- tion holds a star together while nuclear interactions release the energy it radiates. The third kind of reaction, chemical, does not play a LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE—HUANG 241 significant role in shaping a star, yet chemical action is responsible for the emergence and evolution of living organisms. And although we can predict that in about 10 billion years or less our sun will become a white dwarf, there is no way of telling how man will evolve in even 10 million years. What is the reason for this? Gravitational interaction is very simple and is described by Newton’s law of gravitation. The number of possible nuclear interactions is very large indeed, since there are hundreds of different atomic nuclei; nevertheless, we could still list all conceivable reactions. Hence we can compute them and even predict the evolution of stars by the law of gravitation and our knowledge of nuclear physics. But how big is the total number of chemical reactions—both in- organic and organic—that one may conceive? Unable to estimate such a number, I am probably safe in saying that it is larger than any astro- nomical figure we can find in our textbooks. It is this wealth of chemi- eal activity that makes a prediction of the emergence and evolution of living organisms difficult, if not permanently elusive. If we cannot compute the time scale of biological evolution, we must find it out empirically. Here on earth it took about 3 billion years for humans to evolve from atoms. I have suggested earlier that since biological evolution occurs through the random processes of muta- tion and selection, its average time scale is probably of the same order of magnitude—a few billion years. On this basis, for successful bio- logical evolution on a planet, the luminosity of its parent star must TABLE 1 Time scales in billions Characteristics on main sequence of years Mass (sun=1) Gravitational} Main- Spectral Radius | Luminosity contraction | sequence type (sun=1) (sun=1) stage aes. 20220 0. 00012 ON00SshB0 22S ees 9.0 29, 060 . 0011 . 08 1515 espe pee Oe 4.2 980 2 ee . 0041 .4 7A) ee Se 2.8 100 a . 022 2 Al ey Se ae igeasil 12. 0 ea . 042 4 ) if Co sere ac lit Az 4.8 ager ee . 056 6 pi 1. 24 207 Per ees 2 YE . 094 11 Goze 1. 02 15:2 1) el 13 G2 (sun)__-- 1. 00 1.0 1 oe ee .14 17 (Cee ee . 92 12 of 2 a a See . 20 28 Y <<| ) aa haliaaees . 74 Oo (154 bo eae . 60 70 fis Speen BEAD . 54 510 ee eee ee ee eee eee 242 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 be constant for at least this long. Thus we see from the table that only those main-sequence stars at and below spectral type / can sup- port life. Others evolve too fast and do not maintain constant lumi- nosities long enough. A second limitation on the development of life on a planet is its star’s ability to warm up a large space around it. Stars are fireplaces in the cold and dark of space, each having a region of propitious temperature in which life may develop and survive. It is evident, for example, that the habitable zones of cool stars of spectral type J/ are much smaller than that of the sun. Therefore, the chance of finding a planet revolving permanently inside the habitable zone of an J/ star is less than for somewhat hotter stars. However, J/-type dwarfs are far more numerous than any other single spectral type, and the total number of them supporting life may be appreciable. Combining the previous two arguments, we conclude that intelligent life has the highest chance of being found in the vicinities of stars of medium temperature, like the sun. 6CO, Hi 6H.O, LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE—HUANG 243 which supplies most of the body’s needs for energy, yields about 700 kilogram-calories of free energy per mole. On the other hand, in a reducing atmosphere the free energy has to be derived from fermenta- tion of glucose to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, according to C.H,20.<—2C. H OH a 2CO., which amounts to only about 60 kilogram-calories per mole. Consequently, under reducing conditions a living being has to consume more than 10 times as much food as in an oxidizing environ- ment in order to derive the same amount of free energy. Therefore, it is doubtful that a mind such as man’s would appear through evolu- tion in a reducing atmosphere, because living beings would be too preoccupied with seeking food. If hydrogen must first escape from the air before a high form of life emerges, the planet must not be too large. Plausible values for the radius would be between 1,000 and 20,000 kilometers, which in- cludes the moon and Mercury. The former could hold air if its density were high, and the latter would have a suitable atmosphere if its distance from the sun were greater. The problem of life on other worlds is ultimately related to the formation of the complex molecules that are essential to life processes. Life on the earth, as we all know, depends upon carbon-containing molecules and on water. The fundamental question of bioastronomy is whether living beings elsewhere must also depend on the carbon bond, with water as a solvent. Although a definite answer cannot be provided, I have several arguments in favor of an affirmative one. From what other element can complex molecules be built? A glance at the periodic table shows silicon, located directly below carbon, to be a likely candidate. Indeed, silicon is largely responsible for the great variety of molecules found in the earth’s crust. How- ever, silicon appears to have a higher affinity for fluorine and other halogens than for hydrogen. While its cosmic abundance is as much as one-fifth that of carbon, the percentage of halogens in the cosmos is negligible compared with hydrogen. As a result, complex com- pounds of silicon have much less chance to form than do those in- volving carbon. There are several empirical results favoring carbon as an essential life constituent. M. Calvin and his associates made the first successful experiment in prebiological chemistry when they obtained formalde- hyde and formic acid in a cyclotron from a mixture of carbon dioxide and water. In 1953, S. L. Miller found that the amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—are formed, together with other organic compounds, when an electric discharge is passed through a mixture of methane, ammonia, and water vapor, in concentrations approximately 244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 MAJOR EVENTS OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ON EARTH First men Culmination of mammals; spread of apes Many modern mammals Expansion of mammals AGO Last dinosaurs; great expansion of angiosperms First mammals and birds 200 First dinosaurs Appearance of abundant Great expansion of primitive reptiles morige riuvertetisics | First reptiles; great coal forests 300 First amphibians; first insects 3 First known fossils MILLIONS OF YEARS First land plants BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO Earliest known fishes : Formation of the earth Appearance of abundant marine invertebrates Ficure 2.—Right: The author’s chart of the major events in the evolution of life on our planet. ‘The compressed scale (inset) shows some very early events in the earth’s history. equal to those given by H. C. Urey for the primitive atmosphere of the earth. Calvin also discovered organic compounds in meteorites. Very recently B. Nagy, D. J. Hennessy, and W. G. Meinschein detected paraflinic hydrocarbons, closely akin to those found on earth in living matter, in a fragment of a stony meteorite that fell in France nearly a century ago. They believe this to be the first empirical evidence for the existence of life beyond our own planet. Such an interpretation has not been unanimously accepted by authorities on this subject. However, if the meteorite’s hydrocarbons are not due to contamination, they indicate definitely that the formation of organic compounds is not limited to the surface of the earth, although the mechanism of forma- tion may be debated for a long time to come. SS LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE—HUANG 245 All these results suggest that complex compounds of carbon can be formed easily from inorganic substances when conditions are suit- able. We may not be seriously wrong if we assume that life every- where in the universe depends on carbon compounds. The question of life elsewhere in the solar system is no longer as speculative as it was even a decade ago, and in 10 years we may have definite proof concerning the present existence of living beings on other planets. But if no life is found, it does not prove that none ever appeared—such proof requires actual excavation of a planet’s surface, which may take a few decades to achieve. Mars is most frequently mentioned as a possible former or present abode of life. Despite its small gravitational attraction (with only 10 percent of the earth’s mass), its surface gravity is 37 percent of ours and it retains an atmosphere. There is no hydrogen or helium; none is expected. Spectroscopic observations show carbon dioxide is pres- ent, but the search for oxygen has been negative. Mars’ atmosphere contains less than 1/1,000 as much oxygen as the earth’s, yet there is doubtless much nitrogen. Although spectroscopic observations have failed to detect water vapor on Mars, its presence may be indicated by the seasonal variations of the polar caps. However, the physical nature of the polar caps is still debatable. Some observers consider them to be made of ice, but others, like C. C. Mess and his collaborators (Sky and Telescope, June 1960, p. 469), explain the caps as solid nitrogen tetroxide. The temperature of Mars’ equatorial region can reach a maximum of about 30° C., but in general is lower than on earth. Since not much water exists in the Martian atmosphere to keep heat from radiating away into space at night, the temperature probably reaches as low as —100° C. Whether life can be maintained under these con- ditions has interested astronomers for a long time. Dark green areas in the equatorial regions suggest that plant life of some form is present on Mars. The color and shade of these markings change with the seasons in a way that indicates the growth and decay of vegetation (darker in spring and lighter in autumn). Because of the very severe climate, no higher terrestrial plants could survive. However, special kinds, such as lichens, might live. A lichen is a symbiotic plant composed of two different organisms: fungus and alga. These can flourish together under conditions that would be fatal if either had to meet them alone. The fungus, which does not perform photosynthesis, derives food from the alga, which does. But the fungus helps maintain the water supply necessary for growth of the alga. Consequently, this symbiotic plant occurs all over the earth, enduring many kinds of extreme climate, from burning deserts to freezing mountaintops. However, it 246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 is not necessarily lichens themselves that we observe in the dark-green areas of Mars. Rather, we wish to emphasize here that the severe climate on Mars does not exclude the possibility of the maintenance of life there. In- deed, observations by W. M. Sinton strongly imply that an infrared absorption band characteristic of many organic compounds is present in the Martian spectrum, which strengthens the belief in some form of vegetation on that planet. Because Mars lacks oxygen, most astronomers agree that we should not expect to find a high form of life there, and I personally believe this conclusion is probably right. But there is the unlikely possibility that intelligent beings might have existed, or still survive, on Mars. This view does not need the support of the canals, whose interpretation has aroused much controversy. But since Mars’ gravity is smaller than the earth’s, it was easier for hydrogen to dissipate, and biological evolution could have started earlier on the red planet than here. It is not inconceivable that intelligent beings emerged on Mars millions of years ago. One might object that the rate of evolution would be slower because chemical reactions would occur less rapidly at the low Martian temperature. On the other hand, the development of the human brain may have been completed during the glacial ages here on earth. The other neighbor of the earth is Venus. Carbon dioxide is abundant in its atmosphere, and water vapor has recently been estab- lished by John Strong, but oxygen has never been detected. There are extensive clouds that prevent us from seeing the planet’s actual sur- face, and we can only measure the composition of the upper atmos- phere. The clouds themselves probably consist of water droplets or ice particles. Microwave observations of Venus by C. H. Mayer and his coworkers yield a temperature of more than 300° C. As Carl Sagan has pointed out, the high temperature of the planet is consistent with an abundance of carbon dioxide and water vapor below the clouds. Both these sub- stances produce a very efficient greenhouse effect, letting visible sun- light pass through but preventing infrared radiation from going out. Hence Venus’ surface temperature probably reaches such a high value that life is impossible there. The existence of life on other bodies in our solar system cannot be categorically denied. However, because of their chemically reducing atmospheres and low temperatures (or very high, for Mercury’s sunlit side), life must be very primitive, if present at all. Elsewhere in the universe, the fundamental problem is the existence of planets. Are stars always accompanied by some smaller bodies? We don’t have a definite answer, because of observational difficulties. No earthbound telescope could detect a planet of Jupiter’s size even if oft] jo spoqe ue SB peqins |]! 4 Sox] eu 91njeisdwisy 9OvFINS ysry $,SnUud A “y.uoUl SUIMOT|! f yy jO YI9 yic 10 ‘CH6I 1G Je le fen ey @) uo Pe psoso1 2M. (4J9]) JUIISIID MOIICU eu L *Q0UPI a ul AIO]BAIOSGG Ip W np JI 1¥ adoos Yyoul-¢] e UYIM Joyortue-) ‘"H Aq udy ey sydevisojoyd 9soY} ul uMOYS ][o™“ o1e snud A qouryjd pel \OO-p fC oy uO MOIA PLATE 1 ]2 24 ) ssuly1eul AYSI 2) I} PIT[IpP IU] bo 5 o 3 T so a a ra ° a. o x 5 & ra ° 3 Ss c= £ PLATE 2 Huang 1961. Smithsonian Report AJOYAIISG(C [MOT ‘t9ydys *O “y Aq ydessojoyg 6f6l “NogvI1IYy SoseO PUP S[RPUBD JY} JO Yyisual}s ey) ul pue SNIeT SIJOS JO WIOf puke Y8ZIS 9Y} UT sosueyy 9761 TT61 PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 196].—Huang "939/09 d1OWYWRMG JO AIOJAIOSqG, [noIdg wor ydevisojoyg ‘“SuOIssiusues] OIpel [Blqsoiiayexe yojap 0} 4dule}1e BUWIZQ, yeforg 941 ul AuIyNJos [eloads JO} poJIJasS JOM sIvIs OM1 9dSoTL], ‘ysixo ABUL Of] JUasT][oIUT soy sjourjd Suiavy Ayqissod 10} vito z1I9 sdoyine ayy Ajsiqes YyoIyM luepliy uojisdyy pur Wad ney, sulpnpoul ‘sIvqS I]QISIA ¢¢G o1e d1oY4} s1Oqgysiou Ie]jeqs essay SuoW “Area St yey ay Je 1ejs odie] oy, “uoruvduos jieMp -dUIYM Si YIM ‘sng oyI] “uMoYs ‘uoAd0Ig Si 19}U99 dAOGP 1YSII 9} OT, *ysaZ1v] 947 (19]U99 MOjeq JYSII) sng yam ‘sivjzs 94} Juesoida1 0} pasn aie spreq uspooA, “svad-jysI] sod YOUT JUO SI d[BdS BdDURISIP dy} pur “19,9 -UIvIp UI sayoul g¢ st a1oyds se[sixayd ayy, “1oqU99 oy] 3v SI YOIYM ‘uns ayy JO sivoA-]YSI] QT UIYIIM aI] 0} UMOUY sivqs oy} []e JO sovds url JUsWasUPIIe ayi smoys ooulddry veT yeieg Aq apeul japour AIOVPAIasq¢ [nods sty], pi N f yr te ie Ti) LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE—HUANG 247 Phenomenon. |-~-~ /+—— “H1,9-YEAR REVOLUTION ——4 _ Maximum Effect |» Eclipse. oS a ia days fe Figure 3.—Three kinds of observational tests are presented for the detection of a planet similar to Jupiter revolving around a solar-type star 32 light-years distant from us. Even at best, the maximum effects (right) are very minute. it were associated with the nearest star, for the planet would be lost in the glare of the star’s light. However, as Nancy G. Roman has sug- gested, a telescope installed in an artificial satellite would suffer much less from scattering of starlight in the earth’s atmosphere and might be used for such a search. What theoretical reasoning can be applied to this problem? Some 30 years ago astronomers felt that our solar system was formed when the sun encountered another star. Since the average distance between two neighboring stars is very large, a close encounter of this kind is a very rare event, producing only one planetary system among many millions of stars. But it has since been shown that the collision theory of planet formation is untenable. Astronomers are now convinced that planets form from dust and gas that is either the remnant in the process of star formation or that has been acquired from the interstellar medium. If the cloud is massive enough, another star could be formed instead of planets. Thus, binary and planetary systems have apparently the same origin, and they have other properties in common. According to G. P. Kuiper, the average separation of all com- ponents in binary systems that have been studied is about 20 astro- nomical units, roughly the mean distance of the major planets from the sun. Also, there is wide range in the ratio of masses of binary star com- ponents, with a few as small as 10 times the ratio of Jupiter’s mass to the sun’s. Unseen companions with masses about 0.01 that of the sun have been found by K. A. Strand (61 Cygni) and Sarah Lee Lip- pincott (Lalande 21185). Since binary stars are very numerous, planetary systems should also occur frequently. 625325—62—17 248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 We can also make, heuristically, a prediction regarding the stars that have a good chance of possessing planets. Years ago Otto Struve pointed out that the rapid rotation of early-type main-sequence stars did not occur in classes later than #5. In other words, the average angular momentum per unit mass of main-sequence stars suffers a conspicuous discontinuity at this spectral subdivision. A reasonable possibility to explain this is that planetary systems are formed around stars of later spectral types, the unobservable planets absorbing the excess angular momentum in each case. The available evidence, therefore, suggests that most single stars on the main sequence between /’5 and perhaps 45 have a good chance of supporting life of an advanced form on their planets. Only a few percent of all stars fall in this range. Within 16.3 light-years (5 parsecs) of the sun, there are 58 other individual stars, 5 of which are unseen companions. Of 26 single stars in this group, only 2 be- sides the sun fall within our limitations for supporting life: Epsilon Eridani, a A2 dwarf, and Tau Ceti, a @4 dwarf. Of course, the actual chance of intelligent life appearing is less than a few percent. Even if the size of a planet revolving within a habitable zone is right, its surface topography might not be. If the entire surface were water covered, for instance, a civilization like ours could not develop. Taking everything into consideration, I venture to state that no more than 1 to 2 percent of stars may have at one time or another supported intelligent life. On this basis, there are within 1,000 light-years a few thousand stars around which life of this nature could appear. For us on earth, a most interesting question is whether or not intelligent life exists elsewhere right now. What is the chance of finding extraterrestrial contemporaries? No one dares guess how long our civilization will endure. Granted that man does not destroy himself, he still has to face natural calamities, such as a recurrence of the ice ages. Will man’s tendency to overspecialization bring about his downfall? I incline to believe that the lifetime of a technological civilization occupies only a very small fraction of the entire period of biological evolution. If so, two such civilizations in different worlds would scarcely be simultaneous. An interstellar journey will not be within our means for a long time to come. At the speed of artificial satellites that we have launched so far, it would take hundreds of thousands of years to cover the 10 light-years of distance to Epsilon Eridani or Tau Ceti. This leaves us with only radio communication as a possible means of contacting other intelligent beings. This problem has been treated in detail in an article on Project Ozma, by Frank D. Drake of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, in Sky and Telescope for January 1960 LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE—HUANG 249 (p. 140). So far, Project Ozma observations have given negative results. It is generally agreed among radio scientists that the best frequency to employ is that of the 21-cm. neutral hydrogen line. It has been suggested that the value of pi, or the fine structure constant, or any other dimensionless constant, be transmitted in order to distinguish our signal from natural sources of radio noise. I personally think a great effort of this kind inadvisable, however fundamental the con- stant might be. Instead, I suggest using simple numbers: 1, 2, 3, each represented by the corresponding number of dots. They are as good a sign of intelligence as any physical or biological constant. Then we could proceed to introduce the concept of equality and other algebraic sym- bols (as P. Morrison has also proposed). This can be done by coding such symbols and repeating a large number of examples, just as arithmetic is taught to children. At this stage the binary, decimal, or some other number system may be introduced, and finally the a, y concept of locating a point on a plane. Once this is established, a means for interchanging information follows easily. While the chances of success in receiving intelligible signals from outer space are extremely small, even during a long search with larger and larger radio telescopes, it is worth trying because of its funda- mental importance in understanding the nature of living beings and its impact on our philosophical beliefs. ' “aha aie tae’ Me it ven MHA ae ‘ . uy ry ae chi bis Weare pee aren y ies | 3 ee isuntb baal Gel pane' i Bite wi nisbrigh wide oe altt 1 gai : TE ‘peter uy Lkall murat rein ae nd eat negbinr ab lig Ttiiccd tigger lige! RON AES Lata Myer a ‘yep. AR st tag Ener Be tke ie ae si yiceanteniond ii ca ‘ahd aint Snaedar ia a) ms Bh! td cae ae LAN ae 4 nan atid te ig rte Sh ae ot mate or HAE sik eva aA iy be an at Wigieinte Ved Din " te oes yon i ink Nie abiahth Pde’ vs Ay hy mat ye wheat: Bea Yat wh the. ng ae a wpe uhird eH nh int inst Mmeis pen a) oe me eth Baa fo SEL ie rhe ae as QD Dan a Naa fe UND, eae Sanat, gona itd ‘ i arate Par de ie VS he ea tA wt a Hh eae dag Lip: a ener ath tk ARR MARA Niue A Nae A 4 re Hea, I Mahi mY teen SGaimnr a une Pik let the dist iy eG rks: Mie Ga dn dive 1, ne CL An Lh Oe eh mt oben na ues diiait nig Wa, oh Ayigys hi ap i nt | iq i 0K a a Hh ee - sik fad nia aii inn } PO MTEC ME a eer A ie toes if Ay At dish AL en Lae ee a tay ARES, es eon Gin nea ya ua adh Ip: iach ) ue v se Bie is) pik rt Te Oh inc ny ais ty iat Sieaihcalie than ape? ; Pitted ei alah ual Ne Daas a bl 1: a xe a the co ee y sa nil NY cea s VRP UM te. far na «on Qa at we 1 Art vi me Perv it s Cee, et phe Nee hand Sane rf abhi 18h; MMe si ie ny Tit h, ak a 4 ern vy reine hie Bs ih Hite Sais! * : iy ‘Hakone ma ay Anal Mi ig, Wiis, in me ec oe a ia sh a X-rays From the Sun' By HERBERT FRIEDMAN U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Onty A few decades ago solar X-ray emission was unknown. The sun was viewed as a glowing sphere of hot gas radiating at a tem- perature of 6,000° K. and incapable of producing any significant flux of X-rays. Today, with information gained from experiments carried in rockets and satellites, we know that solar X-rays shape some of the major features of the ionosphere. Sporadic, explosive outbursts of X-rays are synchronized with solar flares and linked directly with radio fadeouts. More modest eruptions are associated with active prominences and coronal condensations. The stormy character of solar X-ray emission far exceeds that of any portion of the ultra- violet or visible spectrum, and is matched only by the violent outbursts observed at radio frequencies. At the time of a solar eclipse, a corona of faintly luminescent gas is visible above the disk. This thin white halo, with a slightly greenish cast, reaches millions of miles into space. The source of solar X-ray emission lies within the corona very near its base where the tempera- ture is of the order of a million degrees Kelvin. How the corona reaches this remarkably high temperature when the visible surface of the sun is only 6,000° K. is explainable in terms of the dissipation of shock-wave energy. Immediately below the surface of the sun, energy is transported outward by the violent convection of hydrogen gas. Starting as sound waves generated by turbulence within the hydrogen convection zone, they propagate outward, increasing in amplitude as the density decreases until shock waves develop. Energy is thus transferred from the interior to the corona. Because the corona is so thin, it radiates poorly and only a small fraction of the sun’s energy need be dissipated in the corona to achieve very high temperatures. In the 25th annual James Arthur lecture on the sun,? Dr. Leo Gold- berg described the earth’s atmosphere as a barrier to astronomical 1The 27th annual James Arthur lecture on the sun, giyen under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution on Feb. 2, 1961. 2See Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959, p. 285. 251 252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 research in the ultraviolet and X-ray regions of the spectrum. Very soft X-rays (10 to 100 A.) cannot penetrate to less than 100 km. above the ground. Harder X-rays (1 to 10 A.) reach progressively deeper levels down to the bottommost fringe of the ionosphere. At still shorter wavelengths, X-rays are sufficiently penetrating to be observed with balloon-borne apparatus. The history of solar X-ray measurements begins with the use of German V-2 rockets brought to White Sands immediately after World War II. One of the primary objectives of the rocket astronomy pro- gram initiated at that time was the study of the solar spectrum beyond the atmospheric barrier in the near ultraviolet, beginning at about 3,000 A. It soon became evident that the spectral energy distribution declined so rapidly toward shorter wavelengths that photographic spectroscopy would experience great difficulty. X-ray measurements were therefore attempted with sensitive detectors such as Geiger counters and ionization chambers coupled with filters that provided spectral resolution in comparatively narrow wavelength intervals, for example, 2 to 8 A., 8 to 18 A., and 44 to 60 A. Although spectroscopy of the ultraviolet range has made tremen- dous strides in the past dozen years, our knowledge of the X-ray region is as yet confined to only the broad features. High-resolution spectra still remain to be achieved, but the goal no longer appears very far off and may be well within the reach of the first orbiting solar obser- vatories soon to be launched. X-ray photometry from rockets has been carried on by the author and his colleagues at the Naval Research Laboratory for more than a full sunspot cycle, beginning in 1949. In a typical experiment, the detector is mounted against an aperture in the skin of the rocket looking outward. Its view of space during the course of the flight depends entirely on the spin and yaw motion of the rocket. As the rocket traverses the upper atmosphere, signals are telemetered con- tinuously via a radio transmitter in the rocket to a receiver on the ground. When the spinning rocket reaches altitudes to which solar X-rays can penetrate, modulated signals appear in the record with a roll frequency maximizing whenever the detector looks closest to the direction to the sun. Essential to such an experiment is a visible photocell measurement, which permits the calculation of the aspect of the rocket at all times during the flight and therefrom the appro- priate correction for the dependence of X-ray signals on the angle of incidence of the radiation. Near sunspot minimum, in 1953 and 1954, the rocket measurements indicated a marked reduction in X-ray emission below 20 A. In some experiments no emission at all was detected below 10 A. With the approach to solar maximum, the over-all X-ray flux increased, but X-RAYS FROM THE SUN—FRIEDMAN 253 especially at the shorter wavelengths. In the 2 to 8 A. band, the mini- mum-to-maximum variation was a factor of several hundred; from 8 to 20 A., at least a factor of 45; in the 44 to 60 A. band, the variation was approximately sevenfold. Assuming that the X-ray spectrum had a gray body distribution, it was not possible to fit the measure- ments in these three wavelength intervals by a single temperature. The longer wavelength emission could be adequately described by a temperature between 0.5 and 1X 10° degrees K., but the shorter wave- length range, below 20 A., required a temperature closer to 210° degrees K. At the higher temperature, the gray body emission needed to supply the observed counting rate at 8 to 20 A. contained only 1 percent of the flux deduced for the 20 to 100 A. range from the longer wavelength measurements. It was concluded, therefore, that the shortest wavelength X-ray emission was associated with local, hotter regions occupying no more than 1 percent of the volume of the corona, in which the temperature was of the order of 2 million degrees K. These hotter regions were presumably distributed within a corona whose general temperature did not exceed 1 million degrees K. Fig- ure 1 is a plot of the solar spectral energy distribution illustrating the results of these measurements. The curve marked “A-16” is for 1953 and “A-48” for 1956. They represent the minimum and maxi- mum fluxes observed during the past sunspot cycle. The shaded region added to the A-16 curve is the increment of flux measured be- low 20 A. and attributed to localized hot spots at 2 million degrees K. Practically all our knowledge of the ionosphere before direct rocket measurements were available was based on radio soundings. A pulse of radio waves entering a cloud of electrons is reflected when the density of the electrons reaches a critical value proportional to the square of the frequency. The time required for the pulse to travel to the ionosphere and back to ground is a measure of the height of the reflecting region. At certain critical frequencies there appear abrupt discontinuities in reflection heights as though the electron density were distributed in several well-defined layers. These layers are named “I,” “Fy,” and “F,.” In the lowest region of the iono- sphere, named “D,” the electron density is too small to reflect mega- cycle-per-second frequencies. The lower ionosphere normally acts as an absorbing region for these short waves and a good reflector for very long waves, such as the static generated by thunderstorms. The variation of intensity with altitude showed that solar X-rays were absorbed in the E-region of the ionosphere between 100 and 140 km. Furthermore, the X-ray energy absorbed there appeared adequate to account for a major portion of the ionization. A direct check on the relationship between X-rays absorbed in the E-region and the resulting electron density there can be obtained by comparing 254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 10-7 / / i / / Ix / / } 2 / As me s/ nel, | a / ae ° / Hell 0" 625 102 ~ BA \ “| e oh A-|6 s : 7 @) >. - \ chat 71 NeTE \ 10 hi SG fan ‘. Hell ib 10" SS NE ~\, | Ll | 100 1000 ANGSTROMS Ficure 1.—Solar spectral energy distribution below 2,000 A. Solid lines represent rocket measurements. Dashed curves labeled with temperatures represent black-body dis- tributions. Dot-dash curve is Elwert’s (1960) theoretical continuum. X-ray fluxes with the observed variation in critical frequency of the E-region. According to the theory of the formation of an iono- spheric layer, the critical frequency is proportional to the fourth root of the intensity of ionizing radiation. The observed sevenfold varia- tion in total flux from minimum to maximum would therefore produce a factor of 71/4, or 1.6 in the critical frequency for E-region if X-rays were the sole source. Using values of the critical frequency corre- sponding to the times of rocket flights, the variations were from about 2.7 me./sec. to 4.1 me./sec., a factor of 1.5, in good agreement with the variation expected from the X-ray observations. Actually, there is an important contribution to the ionization of E-region by solar ultraviolet radiation, and it is theoretically difficult to evaluate the relative importance of X-ray and ultraviolet contributions. How- ever, an analysis based on the best information available at the pres- ent time indicates that the X-ray influence is predominant. X-RAYS FROM THE SUN—FRIEDMAN 255 Observations over more than two sunspot cycles have clearly estab- lished correlations between the fluxes of ionizing radiation and active centers on the sun. If the ionizing radiation were uniformly dis- tributed over the face of the sun, an eclipse would lead to a smooth decline in the ionospheric electron density to a minimum value at totality, followed by a smooth recovery to normal in very much the same fashion, followed by the visible light curve. Instead, an irregu- lar course of ionospheric electron-density changes has been noted in almost all observations conducted during eclipses. Monthly averages of critical frequencies show detailed agreement with the pattern fol- lowed by monthly values of sunspot numbers, indicating that at least part of the ionizing flux emanates from the vicinity of sunspots. Prior to 1958, however, no direct identification of localized sources of X-ray emission in the corona had been made. The eclipse of October 12, 1958, offered an opportunity to launch rockets bearing ultraviolet and X-ray detectors to observe the dis- tribution of emission sources over the disk and to determine whether any residual emission of X-rays or ultraviolet radiation was detectable at totality. During the totality phase of an eclipse, the E-region of the ionosphere does not disappear completely as would be expected if the source of the ionizing radiation were totally obscured and recombination were very fast. The residual ionization could be at- tributed to a sluggishness of the recombination process or to a portion of the ionizing radiation originating at sufficient height in the corona to bypass the edge of the moon. The rocket experiment was carried out from shipboard near the Danger Islands of the South Pacific. Solid-propellant rockets were mounted on the helicopter deck of the U.S.S. Point Defiance and were launched at the appropriate times and in such a direction as to carry them through the eclipse shadow at E-region altitudes. Each rocket was equipped with X-ray detectors sensitive to two wavelength bands, 8 to 18 A. and 44 to 60 A., and a Lyman-e ionization chamber. Signals from these detectors and from aspect indicators were telemetered to the ground station aboard ship throughout the flight. Two rockets were launched during totality and indicated about 0.05 percent residual Lyman-a flux and from 10 to 18 percent residual X-ray flux. A second objective of the experiment was to identify localized sources of emission over the disk. Figure 2 shows the optical dis- tribution of active regions on the day of the rocket eclipse experiment. The area of the disk near the east limb contained a number of active regions identified by plages, whereas an equivalent area bordering the west limb was almost free of activity. Rockets were fired so as to observe exposed crescents on the east and west limbs before second contact and after third contact, as marked by the curves NN8.59F 256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 and NN8.62F in the figure. The east limb crescent, containing the plage areas, was observed to be six times as bright in X-ray emission as the west limb crescent, which was almost clear of plage activity (making allowance for the relative disk areas exposed). In principle, X-ray image-forming devices of high light-gathering power can be achieved in the form of a grazing incidence reflection telescope or a zone plate, but no such devices have yet been perfected for use in rockets. Calculations, based on the intensity measured with X-ray photometers and the evidence of concentrated sources derived from the rocket eclipse experiment, indicated that a simple pinhole camera could produce an X-ray image with a resolution of about a tenth of a solar diameter during the flight time of an Aerobee-Hi rocket if the camera were mounted on a pointing control to aim it continuously at the sun. The first photograph of the sun in its X-ray emission was obtained in this manner on April 19, 1960. The camera was 6 inches long, with a pinhole of 0.005 inch in diameter. To ex- clude visible and ultraviolet light, the pinhole was covered by a plastic film of Parlodion, which was overcoated with an evaporated film of aluminum. This combination transmitted much of the X-ray spec- trum below 50 A. The X-ray photograph is reproduced in the upper left-hand portion of figure 3. The biaxial pointing contro] which carried the camera did not compensate for rotation about the sun-camera axis, with the result that the precession of the rocket caused the image to rotate and discrete features to be drawn into extended arcs. Furthermore, the sense of rotation varied during the course of the flight so that the image was first turned about 20° clockwise and then returned counter- clockwise to complete the full arc of 160° extent. In spite of the smearing thereby produced, a clear correlation could be observed be- tween the X-ray emission regions and the visible plage regions on the sun. By direct measurement of the image, the mean diameter of the X-ray outline of the sun was found to be 5 percent greater than the diameter of the optical disk. The maximum diameter was 6 percent greater. Thus, within the limited definition of the camera, the X-ray emission was observed to extend to about 0.06 solar radii (48,000 km.) above the visible limb. All the measured X-ray regions in the photo- graph were about the size of the resolution circle when allowance was made for the smearing effect of the camera rotation. It appears that the regions of strong X-ray emission are smaller than the correspond- ing visible plage regions. From the fact that the sizes of the X-ray regions on the limb were nearly the same as those near the center of the disk, it would seem that the X-ray sources have a radial extension comparable to the surface projection. X-RAYS FROM THE SUN—FRIEDMAN 257 N NNS.S9F - << f a NN@.6OF NNG.62F POE, gen : a S NN&. GIF LEGEND oes CORONAL GREEN LINE OBSERVATIONS ereeccscesese CORONAL RED LINE OBSERVATIONS memmessas CORONAL YELLOW LINE OBSERVATIONS Cc =—— PLAGE REGION essSNgssss INTENSE PLAGE REGION zyme DARK FILAMENT _SmS, PROMINENCES ON SUN'S LIMB Ficure 2.—Solar-activity map on day of rocket eclipse experiment, October 12, 1958. A strong correlation is known to exist between visible plage regions and the regions of origin of the slowly varying component of radio microwave emission. Solar radio emissions in the decimeter wave- length range also correlate closely with variations in E-region elec- tron density. The lower right-hand portion of figure 3 contains a radioheliograph of the sun at a wavelength of 9.1 cm., obtained at Stanford University with a microsteradian, pencil-beam interferom- eter, having a resolution of 3.5 minutes of arc. It is interesting to compare the radioheliograph with the X-ray disk photograph be- 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 cause both types of radiation require million-degree sources and vary in intensity with the square of the electron density. To compare the radio map with the X-ray picture, it was photographed while rotated about its center to match the motion of the X-ray camera during the rocket flight. The resulting smeared radio image is shown in the lower left corner of figure 3. Its major features closely resemble the smeared features of the X-ray photograph. In order to enhance the similarity, the contrast of the radioheliograph was heightened by eliminating the two lowest isophote intervals of the original map. In fact, one of the more important differences is the much greater contrast between active regions and background in the X-ray picture than in the radio picture. The bright, nearly central, region of the X-ray image is about 80 times as intense as the quiet background when allowance is made for the effect of smearing, and at least four-fifths of the emission is concentrated in the active areas. In comparison, the integrated radio emission from active areas is roughly equal to the background emission. The X-ray photograph also matches fairly well with a 21-cm. radioheliograph, but the detailed correspondence is not as clear as the 9.1-cm. map. Studies of the relationship between K-layer ionization and the solar decimeter wave flux show that a good correlation exists between 3 cm. and 30cm. Ona short time scale, the best correlation seems to occur in the range 10 to 15 cm. The X-ray emission and the microwave emission are both asso- ciated with regions of greater than normal density in the corona above sunspot groups. These coronal condensations are optically brighter in proportion to the electron density. They appear to have semi- spherical or elliptical forms without any resolvable internal structure. So-called permanent condensations measure 1 to 2 minutes in are, range in density from 10° to 10° particles per cc., and persist for several days. Sporadic condensations may form out of the permanent condensations. The diameter of a sporadic condensation is typically about 0.5 minute of arc; its lifetime may be minutes to hours; and it is accompanied by the formation of loop prominences and the emis- sion of bursts of centimeter wave emission and solar flares. Originally, the condensations were thought to be at very elevated temperatures, as high as 6 or 7X10° degrees K., but they are now believed to be at near normal coronal temperatures in the range 1.6X 10° to 0.06 X 10° degrees K. The association of X-ray emission with the coronal condensations implies an upper limit of the order of 2X 10° degrees K. for the temperature of a condensation. It has been argued that thermal conductivity in a condensation is so high that it cannot maintain a high temperature relative to its surroundings. If a condensation were at a temperature of 6X 10° degrees, as origi- nally proposed, it would lose all its energy to the neighboring corona SOLAR X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH DENSITY CONTOUR MAP OF NRL, APRIL 19, 1960 SOLAR X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH RAD!OHELIOGRAPH ROTATED RADIOHEL!OGRAPH 9.1 CM (STANFORD UNIV) Figure 3—Comparison of X-ray solar-disk photograph with radioheliograph. Lower left image was produced by photographing radioheliograph while it was being rotated in manner analogous to rotation of rocket camera during its exposure. ae P i A ee X-RAYS FROM THE SUN—FRIEDMAN 259 in less than 20 minutes. On the other hand, if a permanent condensa- tion were actually slightly cooler than the normal corona, the excess energy radiated because of its higher density could readily be replaced by heat conduction from the surrounding corona. To help us under- stand such details of the structure of the corona, we may look for- ward to the achievement of X-ray photographs of much higher resolution. Satellites will offer the possibility of mapping such fine detail because of the longer observing times available. Superposed on the slowly varying X-ray emission associated with plages are short-lived, transient outbursts synchronized with flare activity. Flares have only very rarely been observed in white light. When viewed in the red light of hydrogen H-a, a flare appears to de- velop with great speed. In a matter of minutes an area of the order of one-thousandth of the solar disk may increase tenfold in brightness. Intense radio noise is generated and shortwave radio communications are instantaneously blacked out until the flare disappears. Flares cover a tremendous spectrum in size from those just barely detectable, so-called microflares, to the most catastrophic explosions. These latter are accompanied by streams of particles of cosmic-ray energies which arrive within a matter of minutes at the earth and streams of slower moving plasma that may require a day or two to reach the earth where they are manifested by magnetic storms and auroral displays. The earliest attempts to detect flare X-rays were made in the summer of 1956 with the Rockoon, a combination of a small, solid-propellant rocket, carried aloft on a Skyhook balloon. The procedure was to Jaunch a Rockoon in the morning from a ship at sea and permit it to float at 80,000 feet. When a flare was detected optically or indi- rectly indicated by a shortwave fadeout, the rocket was fired by radio command. It was unfortunately necessary to fire the rocket at the end of the day even if a flare did not occur. Although this approach to the problem was not efficient, it succeeded in measuring the emission of one small flare during the course of the expedition and clearly re- vealed the importance of the accompanying X-ray flux. The result of that particular measurement is included in figure 1 and identified as the portion of the X-ray spectrum associated with a Class 1 flare. In 1957 two-stage, rail-launched, solid-propellant rockets capable of transporting substantial payloads to ionospheric altitudes became available. Experiments were conducted with the Nike-Deacon and the Nike-Asp during the IGY. The latter rocket had the capability of carrying a 50-pound payload to about 150 miles. Instrumented rockets could be kept in constant readiness, requiring only the push of a button to Jaunch them when a flare was observed. With this ap- proach, a number of measurements of X-ray and ultraviolet emission were obtained during solar flares. At the peak of a moderately large 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 flare, the entire X-ray spectrum was observed to brighten to many times its normal intensity. At the shortest wavelengths, the increases were orders of magnitude greater, although the energy content was only a small portion of the total X-ray output. X-ray quanta with energies up to 125,000 electron volts appeared, whereas the normal short-wavelength limit was of the order of a few thousand electron volts. From the spectral distribution of the observed X-ray emission, it is possible to speculate about the mechanism involved in its produc- tion. If itis assumed that the enhanced X-ray emission resulted from a heating of the coronal gas, a temperature as high as 10° degrees K. would be required. Alternatively, the spectrum could have been pro- duced by streams of suprathermal electrons injected into cooler gas at a temperature not exceeding 10% degrees K. To choose between such widely divergent models will require much more detailed spectral information than has been obtained thus far. The energy radiated as X-rays represents a major portion of the total energy output of a solar flare and is entirely adequate to explain the accompanying ion- ospheric disturbances, such as the shortwave fadeout and sudden phase anomaly. During the year 1960, a major step forward in the study of X-ray emission from solar flares was accomplished by the launching of the first satellite observatory by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. The satellite, called Solar Radiation I (1960 Eta 2), carried two ionization chambers to measure solar Lyman-a (1216 A.) and X-rays (2-8 A.). These detectors were mounted on the equator of the spher- ical satellite, to which was imparted a high spin rate upon separation from the launching vehicle. Each detector viewed the sun once per revolution, giving a spin-modulated signal which was transmitted continuously. Figure 4 illustrates a sample record obtained during the passage of the satellite over Blossom Point, Md., on August 6, 1960, almost simul- taneously with the start of a Class 1 flare, which lasted 18 minutes. Lyman-a signals are indicated by upward deflections from the mid- scale zero level. X-ray signals deflect downward. On the pass illus- trated by the first strip of telemetered signals, the sun was quiet. A steady Lyman-« signal is indicated, but only the barest trace of X-ray intensity. As the satellite returned one orbit later, telemetry recep- tion began almost in coincidence with the eruption of the flare at 1506 UT. At 1509 UT, the X-ray emission began to increase. Ion- ospheric observations and cosmic-noise measurements showed simul- taneous starts of various ionospheric disturbances. Between 1510 and 1511 UT, while 2 microwave outburst occurred, the X-ray flux in- creased rapidly to full scale and remained at that level until flare | maximum in H-« was reached at 1514 UT. Shortly afterward, the 261 X-RAYS FROM THE SUN—FRIEDMAN ‘a1eYe [ sse[D 3ulnp ‘O96 1M 21S) OW 0082 in ossi vas in eesi JMSS in oesi vNOS ‘ g IsNBNY UO J UONLIPYY, IvjOg wrOIJ posdjJoWwo} s[eusis v-uvUIAT puv AvI-X—'f AUNOL] paar - aN ver “= ae LT0A oy z he cin a a er a 0 oy ene, SSE= 3: I 7 we . | WNOS oe suaamanly soit ‘i iy if O1Si OW 0062 in 60s) VNOS in 2osi vas in 20s) IMSS in 90s! auv = Ae wea a a ne Eee 1 a ao a el He Bane AUTO A Lk A WO Le egueeica eeetoncarand Hit i na i ER bates ans a naa 4 . aaa 3uvTy O96! ‘9 LSNONY WONd SAVY-X yV10S 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 satellite passed out of range of the ground station. On the next pass, the sun was again quiet. At 1701 UT, the record showed only the faintest trace of X-ray emission. Throughout the entire sequence of events the Lyman-« flux remained unchanged. Many observations are available from the records of Solar Radiation I covering the beginning and ending phases of flares. The enhanced X-ray emission started with the visible flare in every instance and terminated with the decay of the flare. In every case where the X-ray flux exceeded 5X10-° erg cm.-? s* in the 2 to 8 A. bandwidth of the X-ray ion chamber, a shortwave fadeout was observed. On July 24, 1960, there occurred a sudden disappearance of a large prominence seen above the limb between 0900 UT and 1200 UT. As this event progressed, enhanced X-ray emission was observed on six successive telemetered records, the mean flux reaching 5 X 10-* erg cm.-? s* at 1020 UT. There were no flares visible on the disk at that time. More sophisticated solar X-ray observatories wil] undoubtedly be placed in orbit in the near future. It will be extremely interesting to study the detailed correlations between the radio-noise spectra ac- companying these flares and X-ray spectra. As was described by Dr. Alan Maxwell in the 26th James Arthur lecture,’ the radio emission takes a variety of forms associated with thermal excitation, plasma oscillations, and synchrotron emission. Thus far, the closest associa- tion appears to exist between X-ray emission and the centimeter-wave radiation which results from thermal excitation. 2 See Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1959, p. 299. The Challenge of Space Exploration’ By Ropert C. SEAMANS, Jr. Associate Administrator National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ir 1s here proposed to discuss the program of the National Aero- nautics and Space Administration (NASA) for space exploration—a program designed around the concept that men must participate di- rectly in this exploration. Let me say at the outset that there is no dichotomy between manned and unmanned spaceflight in NASA’s thinking and planning. Each of these approaches contributes im- portant information, techniques, and developments to the other. We are convinced that concurrent advancement of both unmanned and manned spaceflight will pay off in a total science and technology of far-reaching, even revolutionary, importance to mankind. WHY WE MUST ACCELERATE OUR SPACE PROGRAM I will first review the major reasons behind the President’s decision to accelerate our space program, including the landing of a team of United States astronauts on the moon in this decade. The United States must make this effort for urgent scientific, technological, politi- cal, and economic reasons. In his May 25, 1961, state of the Union message, President Kennedy said: Now is the time to act, to take longer strides—time for a great new American enterprise—time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achieve- ment... I believe that the nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, pefore the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth. Four major reasons underlie the national decision to marshal the resources required for leadership in space: 1, the quest for scientific knowledge; 2, direct and immediate application of satellites into oper- ational systems; 3, the risk of delay in our space competition with Communism; and 4, the technological advances and stimulus to our economy that will emerge from the space eifort. 1 Address before the 1961 Air Force/Aerospace Corporation Symposium on Ballistic Missile and Aerospace Technology, Los Angeles, Calif., Aug. 29, 1961. The original presentation has here been somewhat updated. 625325—62——_18 263 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Space research is a vigorously expanding field, whose growth is comparable to the development of nuclear physics after World War II. It is a field which cuts across the established areas of astronomy and physics and the earth sciences, and draws together scientists of varied backgrounds. The close interaction and exchange of ideas among scientists from many different fields have proved to be highly stimulating. One of the goals of the NASA scientific program involves lunar exploration, manned and unmanned. From the scientific standpoint, exploration of the moon is of great importance. The moon may hold the answers to some of the key questions in science. How was the solar system created? How did it develop and change? Where did life originate? The moon is devoid of atmosphere in the ter- restrial sense. Having neither winds nor rains, its surface is almost changeless. Thus the moon offers scientists a chance to study the very early matter of the solar system in practically the form in which it existed billions of years ago. The great volume of United States research in the space sciences demonstrates the intense interest of American scientists. Data flow- ing into astronomy and the earth sciences from United States space experiments are providing significantly new ideas and concepts to these traditional disciplines. DIRECT APPLICATIONS Space itself, when instrumented by man, will provide system capa- bilities not previously possible. Early returns from NASA experi- ments are already leading to early implementation of communications and meteorological satellite systems. In 1960 NASA’s Echo I passive communications satellite appealed to the world’s imagination. The huge aluminized plastic sphere has been seen by people in many countries. Echo proved that it is pos- sible to communicate between distant areas on the earth by reflecting radio signals from a satellite. Private companies have shown interest both in the Echo concept and in “repeater” satellites that can receive messages at one point over the earth’s surface and retransmit them to ground receiving sta- tions thousands of miles distant. Satellite communications will make worldwide telephone and television services realities and will accom- modate growth of global communications. ‘This enhanced communi- cation could well be a bond drawing people of the world closer together. NASA’s Tiros series of satellites has demonstrated the possibilities of vastly more accurate and longer-range weather forecasting. ‘Tiros SPACE EXPLORATION—SEAMANS 265 I transmitted nearly 23,000 television pictures of the earth’s cloud patterns. Txros IT, launched in November 1960, has transmitted more than 40,000 pictures and has reported important information about the atmosphere and the radiation of solar heat back from the earth. The Weather Bureau made use in 1961 of Tiros III pictures of storm Eliza in the Pacific and hurricane Anna in the Atlantic. NASA also used Tiros III for weather support of Astronaut Gris- som’s July 21, 1961, Mercury suborbital flight. Twice a day as the satellite passed over the Caribbean, one of its two TV cameras was triggered to report weather conditions in the area of the flight. Also, when Major Grissom was briefed just prior to his flight, he was shown TV pictures obtained from Tiros for visual comparison during the actual flight. According to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, “An improvement of only 10 percent in accuracy [of weather fore- casting] could result in savings totaling hundreds of millions of dol- lars annually to farmers, builders, airlines, shipping, the tourist trade, and many other enterprises.” RISK OF DELAY It is not my place to discuss military missions, but there is an important interchange of components and vehicles between the NASA and the Department of Defense programs. United States mastery of space is essential insurance against finding ourselves with a tech- nology inferior to that the Communists will develop as they press forward on the space frontier. If we allow them to surpass us, their space technology in its military aspects could jeopardize our security. In addition to potential direct military conflicts, the free societies are in deadly competition with the Communists for the support of the uncommitted peoples of the world. Space activity has great emotional appeal, and we cannot afford the risk of being passed or appearing to be passed. ‘Today, prestige is one of the most important elements of international relations. Essential is the belief of other nations that we have capability and determination to carry out what- ever we declare seriously that we intend to do. In the minds of millions, dramatic space achievements have become today’s symbol of tomorrow’s scientific and technical supremacy. There is, without a doubt, a tendency to equate space and the future. Therefore, space is one of the fronts upon which President Kennedy and his administration have chosen to act broadly, vigorously, and with continuous purpose. No other single field offers us the oppor- tunity to gain more of what we need abroad and at the same time to achieve such a wealth of both practical and scientific results at home. 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 STIMULUS TO ECONOMY Our Nation needs the stimulus, the knowledge, and the products that will evolve as we carry out our program of space exploration. The influence of the technical progress that will come into being through the integrating force and drive of a major space effort will be felt throughout the economy. Many of the instruments, equipment, power sources, and techniques that we devise to make space expeditions possible will be adaptable to other uses. The result will be substantial scientific advances and a variety of new consumer goods and indus- trial processes that will return tremendous benefits to us in practi- cally every profession and activity. Two decades ago the theme of the Temporary National Economic Committee hearings was that America’s frontiers had closed and that this was what had caused the stagnation of the thirties. All frontiers then seemed to have been passed, all new territories explored, with very little left for inquiring intelligence beyond applying and de- veloping what has already been discovered. Psychologists and philos- ophers have recognized the need of man’s mind for new frontiers to cross. In this connection, manned and unmanned exploration of space is already stimulating basic and applied research throughout our educational, governmental, and industrial systems. The concept of an eternally shut-in human race has been proved superficial. The prospect of exploring space is providing the catalyst and tonic for new adventures of the mind and spirit. UNMANNED SPACE FLIGHT Since January 21, 1958, this country has successfully launched 46 earth satellites, 2 solar satellites, and 2 deep space probes. A recent one is Explorer XII which is making simultaneous measurements of many aspects of the space environment between altitudes of about 200 and 50,000 miles from the earth. The early years of space ex- ploration have provided scientific knowledge important to direct ap- plication of satellites in operational systems for communication and weather forecasting, and have contributed to the technology needed for more advanced manned and unmanned spacecraft to come. Some of the scientific findings are: Discovery of two intense radiation zones trapped around the earth— the Van Allen belts. Determination that the earth is slightly pear shaped with the stem at the North Pole. New data regarding the makeup of the fields of magnetism in space. For example, Explorer X, a 78-pound NASA satellite, transmitted highly meaningful data on solar-terrestrial relationships—such as magnetic fields and solar winds. SPACE EXPLORATION—SEAMANS 267 Discovery that sunlight exerts appreciable physical pressure on objects in space. This pressure is shifting the orbit of the Vanguard I satellite about a mile per year and has affected the orbit of the 100- foot-diameter Echo I satellite at a rate 300 times greater. Among our most successful experiments to date has been the Pioneer series of space probes. Pioneer V, for example—launched into solar orbit on March 11, 1960—was tracked into space to a distance of 22.5 million miles, still the greatest distance any manmade object has been tracked. Pioneer V sent back scientific data on conditions in space until communication contact was lost on June 26, 1960. This space probe gave us new and valuable information about cosmic rays, the earth’s magnetic field, and solar “storms” and evidence of the existence of a large “ring current” circulating around the earth at altitudes of about 30,000 to 60,000 miles. Advanced launch vehicles are becoming available for both scientific missions and operational systems. They will have greatly improved load-carrying capability for unmanned space experiments. For ex- ample, detailed plans have been made and work has begun on an Orbiting Geophysical Observatory, based on the use of the Agena. This observatory will be one of our first standardized satellites, with a stock-model structure, basic power supply, attitude control, teleme- try, and a command system. Its modular compartments are capable of carrying 50 different geophysical experiments on a single mission. The observatory itself will be about 6 feet long by 3 feet square. The two solar “paddles” which collect energy from the sun will be about 6 feet square. The satellite will weigh 1,000 pounds and will include 150 pounds of scientific equipment. NASA/’s plans for extending unmanned space exploration to the moon and beyond are maturing. Ranger spacecraft—successors to the one flown in a test on August 23, 1961—will land instruments on the moon. These instruments will determine the nature and extent of tremors and measure the force of gravity on the lunar surface. Following Ranger will come Surveyor, a spacecraft that will be able to make a so-called “soft landing” on the moon. More delicate scientific instruments than those in Ranger can thus be employed. Surveyor will have aboard scientific instruments, including drills and tapes, to analyze the lunar surface and to determine its makeup. At the same time, high-resolution television cameras will transmit to earth pictures of the lunar terrain. Also underway is a spacecraft that will fly close to Venus and Mars, and later perhaps other, more distant planets. This spacecraft, called Mariner, will carry instruments to measure planetary atmos- phere, surface temperatures, rotation rates, magnetic fields, and sur- rounding radiation regions. 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The NASA experimental program for developing operational sys- tems includes, as already stated, communication and meteorological satellite projects. Our communications satellite program encom- passes a coordination of passive experiments as well as investigations with active repeaters at medium altitudes—2,000 to 4,000 miles—and at synchronous altitude. NASA has arranged for two experimental projects at medium altitudes, one under Government contract and one financed by private industry. Both experiment satellites will include, in addition to the communication payload, instruments for measuring the effects of radiation on performance and life expectancy of the payload. Ground stations in this country, Europe, and South Amer- ica will be employed for both projects. A synchronous orbit system may provide world coverage, with fewer satellites, thus avoiding large costs and complexities of tracking and switching. We face technical difficulties, however, in placing and maintaining satellites in such orbits for long periods. NASA is initiating a series of experiments that will employ 40- or 50-pound pay- loads in synchronous orbits. The ground facilities which the Army has been developing for its Project Advent have been made available to NASA for the synchronous satellite experiment. The Tiros series of meteorological experiments will be followed by a series using an earth-stabilized spacecraft—called Nimbus—in polar orbit. The Weather Bureau of the Department of Commerce, the responsible organization for United States weather-forecasting activi- ties, is following through on an operational meteorological satellite system based on Nimbus. As agent for the Weather Bureau, NASA will specify the launch vehicles and spacecraft, conduct the launch operations, and control the satellites in space. MANNED SPACEFLIGHT IS ESSENTIAL Frequently I have been asked why we are preparing to send men on hazardous spaceflights when instrumented satellites and probes have proved so versatile and have returned such quantities of infor- mation on the near-space environment of the earth and on conditions in the vast reaches of deep space. First, integration of a human pilot into an onboard spacecraft sys- tem greatly improves reliability. The man can make not only in- flight tests but also in-flight repairs. We have striking examples of this in missions of NASA’s X-15 rocket airplane which has been flying to the fringes of space and has achieved a speed of over 4,000 miles per hour. In at least 8 out of 38 X-15 flights to date, flights would have failed without a pilot in the cockpit to correct malfunctions of equipment, instruments, or powerplant. In at least as many other cases, 1f X-15 missions had been unmanned, we would have obtained SPACE EXPLORATION—-SEAMANS 269 no information because either instruments or telemetry failed. The X-15 pilot, however, was able to land with valuable flight information recorded by his own senses. Second, while instruments can perform many tasks of sensing and measuring better than men, the statistical information gathered and transmitted to earth by these devices constitutes only a part of the basic research necessary for understanding the larger realities of space. The most advanced apparatus can perform only as it is pro- gramed to do. Instruments have no flexibility to meet unforeseen situations. Scientific data acquired in space mechanically must be balanced by on-the-spot human senses, human reasoning, and by the power of judgment compounded of these human elements. A man’s capacity for storing information is enormous. He requires a minimum of programing. He can change his mind without elab- orate and time-consuming reprograming. His mind is an excellent filter, discarding redundant data with great speed. Man also far out- strips any computer in the ability to make decisions. In this connec- tien, I should like to quote what Dr. Carl Sagan, of the Department _of Astronomy, University of California, recently wrote to Senator Paul Douglas of Lllinois, to emphasize scientific reasons for manned spaceflight. The scientific value [of spaceflight] comes when the men perform scientific tasks. There are large numbers of mineralogical, microbiological, and astro- nomical questions which trained scientific personnel on the moon will be able to answer far more reliably than any presently conceived automatic instruments.... I feel strongly that, while an enormous amount of very significant scientific information can be obtained by unmanned vehicles, there are certain problems of the greatest significance which may well elude any unmanned system. If indigenous life exists on the planet Mars—and the bulk of contemporary evidence suggests that this is indeed the case—any but the most preliminary investiga- tions will require a human experimenter. It is very difficult to imagine a sophisticated experimental program on the biochemistry, morphology, physiology, genetics, ecology, or behavior of even simple extraterrestrial organisms carried out by a preprogramed instrumented package. If the extraterrestrial organisms are very different from familiar life- forms—and with 5 billion years of independent evolution, this may well be true—it is possible that an instrumented landing vehicle will not even be able to identify them as alive. A human scientist who can draw conclusions... on the spot is an enormous asset in all aspects of lunar and planetary exploration. ... Third, we must recognize that manned flight in space has a much greater impact on the world’s populace than unmanned flight. The United States has congratulated the Soviet Union on the orbital flights of Cosmonauts Gagarin and Titov. These achievements did not surprise us. We had been expecting them. Because the Russians have a significant Jead on large boosters, we should be prepared for other Soviet “firsts” in space in the immediate future. This serves to 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 underline the urgency of President Kennedy’s decision to accelerate our own manned space program. Finally, it must be realized that in the long run man cannot, by his very nature, be kept out of space. The same drive that led Colum- bus to explore the outer reaches of the known world will induce modern man to explore the deeps of the solar system. MANNED SPACE FLIGHT The historic flights of American Astronauts Alan Shepard and Virgil Grissom on May 5 and July 21, 1961, respectively, were so completely reported that I shall not repeat the details. As you know, these flights were important steps in Project Mercury, which is the first phase in the United States program for manned spaceflight. The spaceflights of Astronauts Shepard and Grissom were made to test the man and the Mercury spacecraft, and to determine the quality of the vehicle and its systems and man’s ability to handle them in space. In other words, the flights were made to learn how the astro- naut, his capsule, and his equipment can best function together, as preliminary steps to putting an astronaut in orbit around the earth. The value of these preliminary flights is attested by the success of Astronaut John Glenn’s orbital flight on February 20, 1962, in which the initial objective of Project Mercury was achieved. Fur- ther three-orbit 41%4-hour flights are planned in Project Mercury. Then late this year or early in 1963 we will begin flights with a Mercury spacecraft modified so that it has the capability of remaining in orbit up to 24 hours. To follow Mercury, we are developing the two-man spacecraft Gemini, in which we will conduct orbital flights up to a week in dura- tion, and test out techniques of maneuvering and joining spacecraft in orbit about the earth. The third phase of our manned spaceflight program is called Project Apollo. The Apollo spacecraft will be large enough for liv- ing and working quarters to accommodate three men who will be able to operate in a “shirt-sleeves environment.” The Apollo spacecraft will be injected into earth orbit by the Saturn launch vehicle which has an eight-cluster first stage with a thrust of 1,500,000 pounds, compared to the Russian booster with about 750,000 pounds of thrust, the Atlas with 360,000 pounds, and the Redstone with 78,000. The Redstone was used for the Shepard and Grissom flights, and the Atlas will be the booster for Mercury orbital flights. The Apollo-Saturn combination will provide a manned earth satel- lite, in which the three-man team can perform a great variety of scien- tific experiments while training for sustained spaceflight. Next will come voyages deeper into space including a three-man voyage around SPACE EXPLORATION—SEAMANS Ze the moon and return to earth, and finally an actual moon landing and return, planned late in this decade. The Saturn launch vehicle which is now under development will not provide the capability for circumlunar flight and lunar landing. In the near future, we will commence the development of larger launch vehicles. Implementation of this program will result in the investment of large sums for research, development, and capital equip- ment. We must select the vehicle configurations wisely in order to fulfill our immediate objectives and to maximize our capabilities for other possible missions involving large payloads. The design of the Apollo spacecraft itself must be kept as flexible as possible to meet the requirements of an orbiting laboratory, as well as circumlunar and lunar-landing flights. To achieve this flexibility, the so-called “modular concept” will be employed. In other words, various building blocks or units of the vehicle systems will be used for different phases of missions. The first component, which we call the “command center module,” will house the crew during launching and entry. It will also serve asa flight control center for the remainder of missions. The second module is a propulsion unit. In earth-orbital flights, this unit will return the craft to earth under either normal or emer- gency conditions. It will also be used for maneuvering in orbit and for orbital rendezvous with other satellites. For circumlunar flights, the propulsion module will return the spacecraft to earth safely from any point along the lunar trajectory and will provide midcourse and terminal guidance corrections. In addition, the propulsion module will inject the Apollo spacecraft into an orbit around the moon and eject it from that orbit toward earth. For the lunar landing mission, the propulsion unit will serve as the takeoff stage. The third module is a propulsion stage that will decelerate the spacecraft as it approaches the moon, and will gently lower it to the moon’s surface. For the earth-orbital laboratory an additional module may be added to the spacecraft to provide capacity for scientific instrumentation and for life support during a reasonably long-lived orbit. It is important to note that the command center module for lunar flights will have to be designed to permit entry into the atmosphere at 25,000 miles per hour, or at nearly one and one-half times the speed of a satellite returning from orbit. Developing protection against entry heating will be one of our most difficult problems. The spacecraft must have a moderate amount of maneuverability within the atmos- phere to control the flight path and to allow landing at a preselected site. All designs being considered must be capable of surviving either ground or water landings. 272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Among requirements for the Apollo system are the following: 1. A life support system to provide a suitable environment for periods of several weeks. 2. Radiation shielding to give sufficient protection during passage to and from the moon as well as on the lunar surface. 3. A navigation system which will give position fixes, and which will compute the amount and direction of thrust for course correction when required. 4, An attitude stabilization system to be used throughout the flight. This system will permit orientation of the spacecraft for thrust con- trol as well as for lunar landing and reentry through the atmosphere. 5. Communications for all phases of the flight. Feasibility studies for Project Apollo were underway for many months. Initial studies were carried out in NASA’s research and de- velopment centers and by industry. On July 18-20, 1961, more than 1,200 representatives of firms in the aerospace industry attended a NASA-Industry Technical Conference in Washington, where they were briefed on Apollo requirements. In mid-August, proposals were solicited from a number of industry teams for design and fabri- cation of the Apollo spacecraft system. THE CHALLENGE TO THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRIES Of the $1,671,750,000 NASA budget for fiscal year 1962, $206,750,000 was for salaries and personnel expenses of the NASA organization. Contract effort provided for the construction of new facilities and the support of the research and development activities. The fiscal year 1962 budget included $245 million for construction of new and sup- porting facilities and $1,220 million for research and development. This research and development encompassed propulsion systems, pro- pellants, power supplies, structures and materials, guidance and con- trol, instrumentation and telemetry, and aerodynamics, as well as launch vehicles and the satellite program. The 1962 program was approximately twice the 1961 program. Funding requirements will increase still further in 1963 if we are to meet the goals recommended by President Kennedy. NASA, other Government agencies, universities, and industry all have important responsibilities in the conduct of this rapidly expanding effort. We feel that the NASA staff should be kept at a level necessary to plan the space exploration program and to organize, contract for, and oversee it, while conducting enough in-house work to maintain the caliber of our scientific and technical personnel. However, contract participation by universities and industry currently amounts to more than 85 percent of NASA budget dollars. This percentage will increase. SPACE EXPLORATION—-SEAMANS Via The special responsibilities of the aerospace industries in this pro- digious undertaking involve the following important areas that de- serve special attention: Working with universities, to educate greatly increased numbers of scientists, engineers, and technicians for roles in space exploration but broadly trained for other major technological developments of future importance to this country. Utilizing technical personnel effectively, thereby minimizing the time spent by these specially trained people on routine effort. Organizing teams of technical and administrative personnel in imaginative ways, both within the corporate structure and between corporations working toward common objectives. Providing technical and administrative competence in new geo- graphic areas when special site locations are required for fabrication, testing, and tracking. Improving the reliability of newly developed equipment by greatly increased emphasis on sound engineering, individual workmanship, and extensive testing. Initiating research programs aimed at enhancing our space effort and modernizing facilities for fabrication and testing of components. Utilizing the technology developed for the space program in other fields to build our economy. CONCLUSION I would like to conclude with thoughts that concern all who are working in the national space effort. The first is from Dr. Guyford Stever of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has said: We aerospace engineers have a tremendous responsibility to everyone. We are the ones entrusted with the future of mankind in this field. We have a need for broader, more balanced people in the aerospace professions, those with a social awareness and an understanding of nontechnical, as well as technical subjects. The aerospace engineer must get the most out of the field and fit it into the needs of society. He believes that aerospace scientists and engineers will bring an in- credible revolution in medicine, communications, and materials—to mention only three. A month ago the National Science Foundation issued a study called “Investing in Scientific Progress,” from which I should like to quote a few lines: From the time of Franklin and Jefferson the people of the United States have had faith in both the intellectual and the material benefits that science can bring. We have continually expanded our scientific knowledge of the physical universe, of living things, and of social organization. Our past investment in science has brought us double reward: a highly developed technology which has helped to 274 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 keep us free, and a continuing enlargement of our understanding which has helped to enrich our freedom. Today, far more than in the past, scientific progress determines the character of tomorrow’s Civilization. Space exploration in general, and manned spaceflight in particular, offers us the chance for unparalleled progress. JI am firmly convinced that, as a nation, we shall respond boldly and with determination to the call President Kennedy issued in his inaugural address when he urged the world— To invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors ... to explore the stars, to conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths and encour- age the arts and commerce. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. The Smithsonian’s Satellite-tracking Program: Its History and Organization’ By E. NELtson Hayes Technical Writer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory [With 4 plates] For centuries poets have imagined voyages to the moon and planets,? and since the late 19th century scientists have been slowly evolving the means by which those dreams might become realities.* Robert Goddard of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., outlined in 1919 a method for reaching extreme altitudes and later, supported in part by grants from the Smithsonian Institution, conducted a series of limited experiments to demonstrate the practicability of his ideas. Thereafter both in the United States and in Europe increasing at- tention was paid to the development of rockets for military use and for the probing of the upper atmosphere and the exploration of outer space. The fundamental idea was that rockets of limited thrust could penetrate the upper atmosphere and bring back valuable scientific data. Later, manned rockets of greater power would reach outer space and eventually journey throughout the solar system. BEGINNING DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPT The concept of an artificial satellite orbiting the earth was a fairly late development, because such a vehicle would be of little scientific value unless it could signal information back to the earth 1The present article takes the development of the satellite-tracking program up to October 1957. It is expected that a later Smithsonian Report will contain a further article embodying results after that date. 2See Marjorie Nicholson, ‘““Voyages to the Moon,’’ Macmillan, 1948. 3In the 1890’s the father of Russian rocketry, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, in his famous novel “Beyond the Planet Earth” (translated by Kenneth Syers: Pergamon, 1960), de- fined for the first time in scientific terms the feasibility of interplanetary travel. A dec- ade later he published “‘The Probing of Space by Means of Jet Devices.” 275 276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 or could be tracked by optical or other means. The idea had to await the invention of suitable telemetry and tracking techniques. In the decade following World War II a number of suggestions for artificial earth satellites were made. At the Rand Corporation, a nonprofit research group sponsored by Douglas Aircraft Co., one project in 1946 investigated a number of the problems that would be encountered in the development of a scientific space pro- gram. As one aspect of his work on that project, Dr. Fred L. Whip- ple of the Harvard College Observatory wrote the now famous paper “Possible Hazards to a Satellite Vehicle from Meteorites,” 1946, in which he proposed a “meteor bumper” of thin metal surrounding the skin of the space vessel. Meanwhile, at White Sands, N. Mex., the U.S. Army was modify- ing and using the V-2 rocket, developed by Germany in World War II, to explore the upper atmosphere. Later flights of White Sands rockets were photographed with a camera-telescope developed by the Harvard Meteor Project, and from Dr. Whipple’s study of those films evolved the technique of photographing earth satellites in orbit. By 1951 the number of scientists involved in various space re- searches was such that they felt the need of an opportunity to ex- change ideas. In the fall of that year a symposium on the physics and medicine of the upper atmosphere was held in San Antonio, Tex., under the sponsorship of the Air University School of Aviation Medicine of Randolph Field. Dr. James Van Allen, chairman of the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, speculated on the na- ture and intensity of the cosmic radiation. Dr. Joseph Kaplan, chair- man of an Air Force panel on geophysical research, discussed the physics of the upper atmosphere. Dr. Wernher von Braun, technical director of the guided missile development group at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Ala., considered means of returning a winged rocket vehicle from a satellite orbit to the earth. Dr. Whipple spoke on meteoritic phenomena and meteorites. Their papers and more than 30 others were published in 1952 under the title “Physics and Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere: A Study of the Aeropause.” At the second International Congress of Astronautics, held in Lon- don, England, during September 1951, three British scientists, K. W. Gatland, A. M. Kunesch, and A. E. Dixon, presented a paper on “Minimum Satellite Vehicles.” At the next meeting of the Congress in Zurich, Switzerland, the following year, there were more extensive discussions and proposals, including “MOUSE,” or a Minimum Or- bital Unmanned Satellite of the Earth, a 100-pound object to orbit over both geographic poles. One expression of this early work appeared as a series of articles in Collier’s magazine in 1952 and as “Across the Space Frontier” SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES yr ed published by Viking Press the same year. Gathered and edited by Cornelius Ryan of the Collier’s staff and written for a popular au- dience, the papers included “The Heavens Open,” by Whipple; “Prel- ude to Space Travel,” by von Braun; “This Side of Infinity,” by Kaplan; and “A Station in Space,” by Willy Ley. The last described in some considerable detail a manned, wheel-shaped satellite 250 feet in diameter, circling the earth every 2 hours at a mean altitude of 1,075 miles. The station would serve as “a superb observation post” from which technicians could inspect every ocean, continent, country, and city on earth, and study the universe without the optical and radio interference of the atmosphere. Interestingly enough, no mention was made of the possibility of tracking the station from ground observa- tories. Indeed, the idea was quite the opposite: observers in the space station would “track” the earth and would determine, for example, the shape of the earth by precise photographs of the edge of moonlight as it passed across the face of our planet. Dr. Whipple did, however, include in his chapter the following: Predicting the position and motion of the space station itself will be one of the most difficult problems ever encountered in celestial mechanics, or the science of predicting the positions of astronomical objects. The earth’s doorknob shape, with a bulge of several miles at the equator, combines with the changing direction of the moon’s attraction to alter slightly but continuously the nearly circular orbit of the space station. Until recently, the calculation of such an orbit would have taken a good computer a considerable number of hours. But the orbit of the space station will change by an infinitesimal amount in the short period of each 2-hour swing. Therefore, unless the computer can calculate this new orbit in less than the 2 hours necessary for the space station to make one journey around the earth, it is obvious that his calculations can never keep abreast of the space station, let alone predict its position in the future. The answer to the computing problem lies, of course, in the huge “electronic brain” calculation machines which we have today. Their use on the ground will be absolutely essential in plotting the motion of the space station. Following this man-made island in the sky continuously and precisely, these electronic machines will be able to make exact calculations with much greater rapidity than the speed of the space station in its 2-hour journeys around the earth. While this space-station project, although feasible, could not have been completed in less than 15 years, its specifications were based on research that was to help make possible the launching of our first satellite, Explorer I, in 1958. PROJECT ORBITER In June 1957 what was to become known as Project Orbiter was defined by a group of scientists assembled in Washington. Attending this meeting were Comdr. George W. Hoover, Office of Naval Re- search; Wernher von Braun; Frederick C. Durant, president of the International Astronautical Federation; Fred Singer of the Univer- sity of Maryland; Fred L. Whipple of Harvard; David Young of the 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Aerojet-General Corporation; and several others. Von Braun was already supervising the making of Redstone missiles; he suggested that several of these be allocated to the project and that a cluster of small solid rockets be attached to the end of each in order to stabilize its flight. The launch would be made eastward at the Equator. The hope was that a 6-pound ball would be placed in orbit. Included in this proposal was an optical tracking system of which Dr. Whipple was to have charge. He planned to borrow theodolites from various units of the Armed Services and set up three observing stations around the Equator. The Air Force was to transport material to the proposed sites. THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR—IGY Meanwhile, the United States had become an active participant in the IGY.* In 1952 the International Council of Scientific Unions proposed to the nations of the world that an International Geophysical Year be organized to conduct an extensive scientific study of the earth. A year later a Special Committee (to become known as the CSAGI) of the International Council scheduled the 18 months from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958, as the IGY. Of the nations invited to participate, 67 responded favorably. One of the 14 fields of investigation of the IGY was rockets and satellites, the coordinator (or reporter) for which was Dr. Lloyd VY. Berkner of Associated Universities, a complex of research facilities, including Brookhaven National Laboratories. The program outlined for this field in 1954 specified exploration of the high atmosphere by small earth satellites as one project. Each participating country organized a national committee for the IGY. Chairman of the U.S. committee was Dr. Joseph Kaplan of the University of California at Los Angeles. In October 1954 the committee first gave serious consideration to launching an instrumented satellite as one phase of its program. On January 22 of the following year the Technical Panel on Rocketry of the U.S. National Com- mittee resolved that a study group, called the LPR (Long Playing Rocket) committee, be set up under the chairmanship of Dr. Fred Whipple. Its purpose was to report on geophysical possibilities, technical feasibility, budget, controls, motor, manpower, timing, cost estimates, desired orbit, and possibly other subjects related to the launching of an artificial earth satellite. 4For accounts of the IGY, including something about the first two International Polar Years from which the IGY evolved, the reader is referred to: Sydney Chapman, “IGY: Year of Discovery,” University of Michigan Press, 1959; J. Tuzo Wilson, “IGY: The Year of the New Moons,” Knopf, 1961; and Walter Sullivan, ‘Assault on the Unknown,” McGraw-Hill, 1961. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 279 At a special meeting of the LPR committee in Washington three possible approaches to placing a small payload in orbit around the earth were outlined. The committee defined some of the technical and scientific aspects of orbiting a 10-pound object; they suggested that it should be approximately 20 inches in diameter and be painted white or have an otherwise highly reflecting surface. Such an object could be observed visually from the ground at twilight, when it would be the equivalent of a star of the sixth magnitude. Dr. Whipple stated firmly that it could be found optically with binoculars or with Askania-type cameras, and he discussed the techniques for acquiring the object once it was in orbit. The committee concluded that a satellite for payloads of up to 10 pounds could be realized within 2 or 3 years, provided sufficient funds and manpower were available. On March 10, 1955, the U.S. National Committee adopted a resolution favoring the launching of instrumented satellites. Several months later Kaplan wrote to Dr. Alan T. Waterman, Director of the National Science Foundation, summarizing the views and proposals of the U.S. National Committee concerning the LPR project. The executive committee had already acted favorably upon a budget of approximately 10 million dollars for the launching of IGY satellites. The budget included provisions for 10 “birds” and 5 observation stations, including the necessary scientific instrumentation, related equipment, and a minimum civilian scientific staff. The report described the provisions for the five ground stations, one each in equatorial Pacific, South America, the Atlantic Ocean, Africa, and the Philippines, and defined some of the simplest and most direct experiments that could be performed through the instrumented satel- lite: precise geodetic measurements; the determination of upper-air densities; measurement of solar radiation; measurement of particle radiation ; determination of current flows in the ionosphere associated with magnetic storms and radio blackouts; and the determination of hydrogen in interplanetary space. The major question next to be resolved was whether Project Orbiter or some alternative was to be the official IGY satellite program of the United States. Project Orbiter had been proposed to Donald A. Quarles, the Assistant Secretary of Defense; however, the Naval Re- _ search Laboratory, under the Office of Naval Research, had been developing its own program. Both proposals were presented for decision to a special committee appointed by President Eisenhower. On July 29, 1955, President Eisenhower announced to the world that the U.S. would launch a small instrumented earth-circling satellite _ as part of its IGY effort, and several weeks later the Secretary of _ Defense, Charles E. Wilson, added that the Department of Defense _ would participate in this phase of the IGY program. In his press 625325—62——_19 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 release Wilson repeated that it would perhaps be possible under ideal conditions of weather and illumination to see the satellite with the naked eye. However, he continued, the principal means of observation and tracking would be by scientific instruments, including telescopes, theodolites, and electronic devices. Predictions of the position and path of the satellite were to be determined by electronic computers, and these data would be disseminated to all participating scientists. On October 6, 1955, the Department of Defense announced that work had begun on Project Vanguard, the name assigned to the rocket-satellite package of the Naval Research Laboratory. The Russians had also announced that they would launch satellites during the IGY, and a number of nations, including the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Australia, and Canada, planned to include rocket launchings in their IGY programs. THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The Smithsonian had had wide experience in research and fieldwork. The Institution is and always has been much more than a collection of museums. The first Secretary of the Institution, Joseph Henry, was, in the words of the astronomer Simon Newcomb, “the first American after Franklin to reach high eminence as an original in- vestigator in physical science.” > He set the pattern and tradition of scientific investigation that has continued fruitfully for more than a century. From its very beginning the Smithsonian has maintained a staff of research scientists who have devoted themselves to a great variety of projects. One of the earliest plans presented to the Institution was that for making weather observations on a systematic, scientific basis. The program got underway in 1847, and 2 years later the then recently perfected telegraph system was used to transmit meteorological data. Most of the observers were unpaid amateurs, a precedent for the estab- lishment of the Moonwatch program. Also, the Smithsonian had a paternal interest in the development of rocketry in this country, for it had sponsored the work of Robert Goddard, had helped provide financial support for his early experi- ments, and in 1919 had published his now famous pamphlet, “A Method for Reaching Extreme Altitudes.” Alone of all Government agencies, it had glimpsed the significance and feasibility of Goddard’s proposal that rockets could be used to explore the upper atmosphere. The U.S. satellite program of the IGY was a logical and inevitable result of the experiments of Robert Goddard. In 1954, virtually on the eve of the IGY program, the retirement of L. B. Aldrich, Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa- 5 Quoted by Paul H. Oehser in “Sous of Science,” p. 28, Henry Schuman, 1949. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 281 tory, required the choice of a successor. Two main divisions of re- search constituted the activities of the Observatory at that time: one on radiation and organisms, devoted to studies of the effect of non- lonizing and ionizing radiant energy on plants and animals; the other on astrophysical investigations proper, primarily of solar radiation, for which two field stations (at Montezuma, Chile, and Table Moun- tain, Calif.) were maintained to accumulate data. Both divisions owed their origin to the prophetic imagination of Samuel P. Langley, third Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and founder of its Astrophysical Observatory. As early as 1888 he had expressed in the Annual Report his cherished hope “of erecting and equipping an observatory for astrophysical research,” where he might pursue his work on solar radiation in accordance with his concept of what he called “the new astronomy,” concerned not with the formerly prime objective of finding positions of the heavenly bodies, but of learning “what they are in themselves and in relation to our- selves.” In 1891 he received from the National Government his first appropriation of funds for this research. Early in his career Langley had been associated with the Harvard Astronomy Department and had come to the Smithsonian from the observatory at Allegheny University. He was therefore strongly con- vinced that there should be close connections between a research estab- lishment of the sort he envisaged and the scientists in universities both here and abroad. In addition, as President Gilman of Johns Hop- kins observed at the Langley Memorial exercises held in Washington on December 3, 1906, he had proved during his Secretaryship that one “of the most remarkable characteristics of the Smithsonian has been its power of adaptation to changing circumstances ... shown [among other ways] by expansion of other work. It has always been ready to enlarge its domain and sustain the burden of fresh responsibilities.” With such traditions in mind, Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary of the Smithsonian since 1953 and formerly president of Tufts Col- lege, sought as a new Director a scientist capable of broadening sig- nificantly the research program of the Observatory to include the major fields of current astrophysics. He chose Dr. Whipple both for his eminence as an astronomer and for his experience as leader of the radar “window project” during the war and as a participant in the Harvard Meteor Project. Both Drs. Whipple and Carmichael intended the former’s appoint- ment to open the way to close and beneficial cooperation between the Astrophysical Observatory and the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Mass. Both institutions were to be distinct in all admin- istrative and financial matters, but it was recognized that the Astro- 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 physical Observatory of the Smithsonian would gain much by being put in the academic atmosphere of Cambridge. Although Dr. Whipple’s appointment did not become effective until July 1, 1955, he began working part time for the Smithsonian in April, and a provisional budget was drafted for the program to track the satellite of Project Orbiter. The Astrophysical Observatory was officially transferred to the grounds of the Harvard College Observatory on July 1. The pro- fessional staff consisted of Dr. Whipple and Dr. John S. Rinehart, half of whose time was to be devoted to scientific research and half to assisting Dr. Whipple in the administration of the Observatory. Dr. Whipple now enlarged the scope of the program of the Observa- tory to “embrace not only research in solar activity and its effects upon the earth, but also meteoritic studies and studies of the high atmos- phere.” He conceived the optical tracking of satellites as “a new and startling tool of remarkable power in the study of solar-system and geophysical phenomena.” That summer Dr. Whipple went to Europe, still believing in the strong possibility that some modification of von Braun’s Orbiter proj- ect would be adopted. When he returned and learned otherwise, he immediately began to adapt his proposals for tracking Orbiter to re- quirements of the Vanguard satellite, which at that time was planned to weigh approximately 20 pounds and be 30 inches in diameter. Making some a priori assumptions about the satellite itself and the orbit it would follow, he calculated that the object would be as bright as visual magnitude 5 to 7, that is, near the limit of naked-eye visi- bility, but certainly easily observable under good atmospheric condi- tions by means of binoculars or wide-field optical equipment. For this new tracking program he proposed that only the most rapid, large-aperture Schmidt optical system would be suitable for observing the satellite and that the telescope might be mechanized so that the motion of the instrument would follow the apparent motion of the satellite itself. He also outlined the value of teams of amateur visual observers (later to be named “Moonwatch”) for acquiring the satellite in its first few orbits. In addition, he made provisions for a computa- tions center to receive observational data and to prepare predictions of satellite passages, and a communications network to and from the various observing stations and teams and the suggested headquarters in Cambridge. With imaginative foresight he envisaged what was to become the optical tracking program of the Smithsonian Astro- physical Observatory. His proposal for the Smithsonian to provide optical tracking of the IGY satellites also involved at least two unrealistic factors that were to have a crucial bearing on the events of the next few years. First, SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 283 the program was geared for 18 months, that is, for the period of the IGY; no one made specific plans for the program to continue after December 31, 1958. This meant that equipment contracted for by the Observatory did not need to be designed and built to function efficiently beyond that date. It is a tribute to the skillful planning of the scientists and technicians and to the manufacturing abilities of the firms involved that most of the instruments and buildings are still in good working condition as this is written. Second, the program was geared to track only one or two satellites on the assumption that of the six “earnest tries” made by Vanguard not more than two would succeed. Few seem to have taken seriously the possibility that Russia would also launch several satellites during the IGY and that the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory might have the responsi- bility for tracking them optically. THE IGY AND THE SMITHSONIAN Late in 1955 the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation, acting for the U.S. National Committee of the IGY, assigned to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, through the Institution in Washington, the responsibility for the optical track- ing of U.S. artificial earth satellites launched during the period from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. It had been evident from the first that the tracking of satellites was a job for astronomers. It must never be lost sight of that a satellite, once launched, is neither a missile nor a rocket, but an object basically similar to the kind that astronomers have for centuries been observing and studying. The satellite is, as far as the optical tracker is con- cerned, a point of light on the celestial sphere. It requires the kind of accurate positioning and clocking for which, through their parallax, double-star, and other programs, astronomers had worked out the optical techniques. No other group was capable of this type of work. Although Dr. Whipple was convinced that optical tracking of satellites was possible, he had only the precedent of the Harvard Meteor Project to guide him, as well as, of course, his profound knowl- edge of astronomy. Virtually all phases of the satellite-tracking program were fundamentally new. No one could say with certainty that some redesign of the super-Schmidt camera would be able to photograph an orbiting satellite. No one could say with surety that an organization of amateur astronomers would show the diligence and dedication required to make “Moonwatch” a success. No one could define precisely the qualifications of the observers needed at the Baker-Nunn camera stations; and no one knew the exact means by which mathematicians and astronomers would determine the orbit of a satellite and prepare predictions. 284. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 This meant that the optical satellite-tracking program was to be not only a field operation but also a program of scientific research. In turn, this meant that the project needed a certain margin for error, an opportunity to fail and to profit by the failure. The scientist is accustomed to such failure. He will undertake a research project, may carry it part or all the way through, and then realize that he has been on the wrong track. If possible, he then starts all over again. His essential task is to find the truth, and the route to that truth may be roundabout. These problems were not unique to the satellite-tracking program. Other scientific groups entering this field of space research with great enthusiasm in 1955 tended not only to underestimate the cost, time, and personnel required, but also to slight the fundamental nature of research in their proposals to and demands of the Government. With all the hustle and bustle of the U.S. National Committee and its subcommittees, many phases of the IGY program seem to have been on an ad hoc basis, perhaps necessarily so. The result was much improvisation, much shifting and changing, and much need of ex- planation that sometimes appeared to be mere rationalization. On the other hand, many factors worked in favor of the space pro- gram, and especially that of the Smithsonian. The IGY was, in the words of Dr. Berkner, “perhaps the most ambitious and at the same time the most successful cooperative enterprise ever undertaken by man.”® As such, not only did it command the dedicated effort of thousands of scientists throughout the world, it also aroused a remark- able enthusiasm among the peoples of many countries. Millions saw in it an example of international goodwill and cooperation such as they had only too rarely known. The IGY, particularly its space projects, fired the imagination of people who, when called upon to do so, gave to it their fullest cooperation. As we shall see, hard- headed businessmen were willing to sacrifice time and money to help the Smithsonian establish its satellite-tracking program. The success of that program, despite its many headaches and heartaches, resulted in no small measure from the zealous interest and willing support of the public, as well as from the determined efforts of research scientists, field personnel, and management to work together harmoniously and productively. PLANNING IGY GRANT The first IGY grant to the Smithsonian became effective January 1, 1956, and continued to the end of June of the same year. Its purpose ®6From his Foreword to “IGY: The Year of the New Moons,” by J. Tuzo Wilson, p. vii, Knopf, 1961. | } } SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 285 was to initiate the optical satellite-tracking program by determining the design of the optics and the camera, estimating the cost of long lead-time equipment, negotiating the establishment of camera stations here and in foreign countries, outlining the Moonwatch organization, and defining the many other aspects of what was to become a very complex project. THE HARVARD METEOR PROGRAM The tracking plans that Dr. Whipple developed had in consid- erable measure evolved from his experiences with the Harvard Meteor Project. That project had been set up before World War II and then in 1947 vitalized by him with the assistance of Harlan Smith and Richard E. McCrosky. In 1948 the field program was trans- ferred to New Mexico preparatory to the delivery of the super- Schmidt cameras, which had been specially designed for the project. The first intention had been to set up a fairly complex field opera- tion, with even the possibility of moving the cameras from southern New Mexico in winter to northern New Mexico in summer in order to take advantage of the best weather conditions. However, with a very limited budget, supported primarily by Government funds, the fieldwork was gradually simplified. Two stations, 50 miles apart, were established: one at Sacramento Peak and the other at Organ Pass. The stations were simultaneously to photograph a meteor, a technique that would enable the astronomers to determine its height, velocity, deceleration, and direction. Since no suitable camera-telescope was available, Dr. Whipple and his staff sketched the idea of a new type to do the job. Dr. Whipple insisted that the optics of the camera should use glass transparent to the ultraviolet; he felt certain that that glass could be molded into the hemisphere required by the optical design they had in mind. He asked Dr. James G. Baker, who at that time was a consultant to the Perkin-Elmer Corporation of Norwalk, Conn., to work out the design of the camera, and Perkin-Elmer was to manufacture it. Meanwhile, the National Bureau of Standards in Washington agreed to mold the hemispheres. The super-Schmidt’ that this team created proved a notable success and became the prototype of the Baker-Nunn satellite-tracking camera. 7™The super-Schmidt is an f/.65 instrument with an aperture of 12.25 inches and a focal length of 8 inches; the angular diameter of the field of view is 52°. The mirror is 23.5 inches in diameter. The corrector plate has an aspheric surface. The equatorial mounting of the camera permits it to track the stars. A rotating shutter chops the meteor trail on the photographic plate into discrete segments. The film on which the meteor is photographed is molded into a hemisphere to match the design of the optical system. This was the first time that photographic film was manufactured in this form, another achievement of the Harvard Meteor Project. 286 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 SPOT 8 In November of 1955 Dr. Whipple mentioned to Dr. J. Allen Hynek, professor of physics and astronomy at Ohio State University and director of McMillin Observatory there, the strong possibility that the Smithsonian would receive the satellite-tracking grant from the IGY, and suggested that perhaps Dr. Hynek would be interested in becoming the Observatory’s associate director in charge of the pro- gram. Quick to appreciate the challenge of setting up such a pro- gram, and excited by the prospect of tracking satellites, Dr. Hynek took leave of absence at Ohio State and came to Cambridge early in January 1956. By late winter Whipple and Hynek had clearly outlined the means by which the goal of the optical tracking program could be achieved. The goal was to determine with sufficient accuracy the position and time of a satellite on the celestial sphere during the evening and morning twilight periods. The means were: 1. A relatively simple super-Schmidt camera that would use a continuous roll of film and two types of shutters: one a gross shutter operating once during each film transport cycle, and the other a rotat- ing barrel-type shutter with a period of 5 percent of the total film transport cycle; the latter, which would interrupt the exposure for periods of about one-hundredth of a second, would be synchronized with a stroboscopic presentation of the crystal clock face that would be photographed directly on the film strip. 2. A crystal clock accurate to within 1 millisecond. 3. A network of 10 to 12 camera stations throughout the world. 4. Scores of teams of amateur astronomers to make preliminary observations of the satellite. 5. An orbit calculation and prediction section and a communications center at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge. The task now was to make these means realities. THE OPTICAL TRACKING PROGRAM It was inevitable that Dr. Baker should be asked to design the optical system of the camera. He had created the super-Schmidt camera and was considered to be the world’s foremost authority on optical systems for astronomical cameras. In the summer of 1955 Dr. Whipple had gone over the various possibilities with him, and together they settled tentatively on a classical Schmidt system of approximately 16-inch clear aperture at f/1 and a field of view of 8 The program is often referred to as SPOT (Smithsonian Precision Optical Tracking). Mrs. Kathryn C. Norris provided a prize for the winner of a contest to pick a suitable name, and this one by Mrs. Hileen C. Cavanaugh, was chosen from among the many entries. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 287 perhaps 20°. Dr. Baker had then suggested that the film in the camera could be mounted to wind across a curved focal surface (the back-up plate); he had earlier used this method for a 6-inch f/1 Schmidt camera, one of his wartime projects. In February of the following year, having formally accepted from the Observatory the assignment to design the optical system, Dr. Baker ran a family of rays through a classical Schmidt system on an IBM computer as a preliminary step toward determining possible improvements. The over-all problem was a formidable one. An f/1 Schmidt system had never been built for an aperture greater than 8 inches, and the classical Schmidt system has only one corrector plate. This new camera might require complex plates with strong aspheric optical powers and would have a much larger aperture. To complicate matters, in the spring the Navy announced that the diameter of the Vanguard satellite had been lowered from 30 to 20 inches. This was a most critical decision. It meant that even closer attention would have to be given to the optical performance of the camera and that the factor of safety, already so narrow in the original choice, had now vanished. In addition, it became apparent that the camera had to track the satellite, rather than remain stationary and permit the satellite to record itself on the exposed film. At this point Whipple, Hynek, and Baker decided upon a larger instrument. To restore the desired factor of safety for recording the faint image of the satellite, they found it necessary to increase the aperture to 20 inches, to hold the speed to f/1, and to seek an image diameter no larger than 20 microns. (A human hair has a diameter of about 75 microns.) At the same time they increased the desired field of view to 30° to guarantee that, despite the uncertainties of initial positions, the faint satellite image could be detected against the background of stars. They recognized that the cost of the camera would be substantially greater than had been considered before and that the classical Schmidt system was inadequate to do the job. No one, however, was fully aware then that the trail toward the goal - of a satisfactory camera would be long and difficult. The next step was to design the mechanical elements of the camera. In February Whipple and Hynek discussed the problem with Joseph Nunn of South Pasadena, Calif., who was known and highly recom- mended to them. 'The essential question was precisely whether, and if so how, the camera was to move. There were three possibilities: the first, which already seemed doubtful, was to have the camera remain stationary and let the satellite make a track on the filmi; the second was simply to have the camera track the satellite, wth the stars appearing on the film as chopped trailed images, and the satellite as a “point”; the third was a rather complicated oscillating movement, 288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 whereby the camera would alternate between remaining stationary and tracking the satellite. After many discussions, they chose the third method because it offered both greater flexibility of tracking technique and an extra margin of safety, ensuring that the camera could record a faint satellite as well as the star background. Mr. Nunn made a set of preliminary drawings and sent them on to Cambridge. To indicate the real size of the device, an isometric presentation showed a 6-foot man standing next to the camera, which was approximately 12 feet high and about 12 feet long at its greatest horizontal dimension. The shoulders of the operator shown at one end of the camera came about level with the normal pivot point of the camera itself. It would be, then, a fairly large instrument. The third requirement of the system was some means of timing the satellite observations. In the spring of the previous year Robert Davis, a graduate student at Harvard, had worked with Dr. Whipple in planning a timing system for Project Orbiter and in outlining techniques for tracking satellites. They had determined that they would need a position accuracy of about 1 or 2 seconds of are with a reasonable but versatile camera, and this would in turn demand an accuracy of approximately 1 millisecond in the timing of the observa- tions. After some investigation Mr. Davis ordered a model 110 frequency time standard from Norrman Laboratories in Williams Bay, Wis. In February 1956 the Norrman time standard arrived in Cambridge. Packed in a cardboard box for shipping, it had been handled so roughly in transit that four of the control knobs had been broken and some other damage done. Nevertheless, when plugged in, it worked, giving Mr. Davis a certain confidence in its ruggedness and reliability. In the weeks that followed he tested the clock to prove that, in Cambridge at least, it would keep time to within a millisecond, although its performance in the field was an uncertainty. The next question was, where should the Baker-Nunn camera sta- tions be located? The Vanguard satellites were planned for low inclinations in respect to the Equator, and the stations had therefore to be in a broad band defined roughly by the 30th parallels north and south. To this requirement was added the concept of a north-south line of stations in the Western Hemisphere. Furthermore, the loca- tions had to be where there was a minimum of cloud cover and where the landscape would permit observations of satellites reasonably near the horizon. Finally, the overseas sites had to be in countries with which it would be possible to make agreements for the establishment and maintenance of the stations. Since astronomers form a closely knit international fraternity, Hynek’s plan was simply to correspond with astronomers he knew SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 289 throughout the world, enlist their cooperation, and thus arrange for sites. The U.S. National Committee, however, thought that all inter- national arrangements should be made through the State Department. While undoubtedly Hynek’s procedure would have resulted in much faster selection of the sites, the IGY approach ensured a maximum of cooperation from the local governments. Another, though slight, delay came from the attempt to locate to- gether the Baker-Nunn and the Minitrack stations for electronic tracking, on the assumption that this arrangement would save a good deal of time, effort, and money. It soon became apparent, however, that for technical reasons Minitrack needed large, flat areas on which antennas could be set up; they did not require clear skies, but did want their stations to be free of radio interference. The actual choice of sites did not begin until after the IGY Bar- celona meeting of September 1956. Meanwhile, however, the physical needs of the stations were clearly defined, and some preliminary ne- gotiations were undertaken through the U.S. National Committee and the State Department. At the same time much thought was given to the materiel that each station would need. By the middle of 1956 tentative lists had been drawn up, including photographic and darkroom equipment, power supplies, and such miscellaneous items as binoculars, flashlights, shovels, fire extinguishers, picks, and even rifles. What became in- creasingly apparent was that each station would need to be a relatively self-sustaining scientific laboratory located in an as yet unspecified region with unknown problems of communication and transportation. THE VISUAL TRACKING PROGRAM Before precise predictions could be sent to the Baker-Nunn stations so that they could make optical observations, preliminary orbital data had to be obtained. The Smithsonian needed, therefore, to have widely scattered around the globe many teams of visual observers who could, using very approximate predictions, find the object and de- termine its position to an accuracy within 1 degree of arc, and the time to an accuracy within 1 second. From these data, predictions precise enough for the Baker-Nunn stations could be derived. Dr. Whipple knew that amateur astronomers could be depended upon to take an interest in this kind of observing and do it satisfac- torily. Since 1911 the American Association of Variable Star Ob- servers had been contributing data requiring the skills that would be needed to make preliminary observations of satellites. Members of the Astronomical League and the Western Amateur Astronomers were among other amateurs who had been doing comparable observing tasks for many years. Dr. Whipple suggested that individuals drawn from 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 these and similar organizations might be willing to participate in the satellite program. When the problem was presented to Miss Grace C. Scholz (now Mrs. Armand Spitz) of the League, she helped organ- ize a committee to recruit observers and work out techniques and instrumentation. In February 1956 the Smithsonian appointed Dr. Armand N. Spitz, director of the Spitz Laboratories in Yorklyn, Del., and inventor of the Spitz Planetarium, to coordinate these activities. By that time the basic work of the teams had been fairly well specified: using only standard binoculars or simple monoculars and stopwatches, they were to locate and clock man’s first efforts to conquer space. In the months to follow more sophisticated instrumentation was gradually developed. The Astronomical League circulated among the amateur astrono- mers a plea for volunteers to participate in the visual observing pro- gram. Because this was perhaps the first opportunity for amateur scientists to take part in the IGY and contribute to it data of signifi- cant value, the response was immediate. Although the program was to be operated on a volunteer basis, each individual member had to be selected for his skill and his willing- ness to accept responsibility and to undertake what would prove to be a fairly arduous and time-consuming job. His only reward was the knowledge that his work would be of unquestioned scientific value and that without his effort and that of hundreds like him the satellites might become lost for scientific observation. Dr. Spitz lectured to interested groups throughout the country, not only to recruit individuals for the visual observing program, but also to tell the general public something about the U.S. satellite program and to enlist the support of industry. People craved in- formation about space exploration, which was now moving out of the realm of science fiction into the arena of everyday reality. To his efforts were added those of Whipple and Hynek, who used every opportunity during their many journeys across the United States to inform the public of plans for and progress toward the launching and tracking of IGY satellites. In a sense, these three and other members of the Smithsonian staff served as liaison officers between the scientific community and the general public, preparing them to accept, understand, and appreciate the events that were to begin so suddenly and dramatically on October 4, 1957, with the successful orbiting of the Russian satellite Sputnik I. COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATIONS There remained two other important phases of the program to be considered: computations and communications. Computations for operational purposes involved devising means of deriving from ob- SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 291 servations a mathematical description of the orbit of the satellite so that predictions of its future passages over specified places could be made. Communications would send the predictions to the Moon- watch teams and the Baker-Nunn camera stations and receive from them their observations. A communications network could not, of course, be set up until the sites of the Baker-Nunn camera stations and of the Moonwatch teams had been determined. During the period of the first IGY grant, Prof. Leland Cunning- ham of the University of California at Berkeley was employed as a consultant. He spent a good part of the summer of 1956 in Cam- bridge developing a theory to deal with perturbations of the satellite’s orbit caused by the earth’s gravity. This he was able to do with considerable success, and later one of the primary responsibilities of the computations section of the Observatory would be to program his theory for orbital calculations on the IBM-704 electronic com- puter. Also, Robert Davis made several preliminary studies of the perturbations that would occur in the orbit of a satellite. DEVELOPMENT OF OBJECTIVES FOR USE OF DATA Much thought was being given to the scientific uses that could be made of the Moonwatch and Baker-Nunn observations. There gradu- ally evolved an understanding of how these data could later provide the basis for a more detailed and more precise knowledge of: 1. The effects on the earth and the ionosphere of solar ultraviolet light, cosmic and solar X-rays, and other radiations. 2. The physics of the upper atmosphere as it related to more ac- curate long- and short-range weather forecasting. 3. The points in the upper atmosphere at which energy is either absorbed or radiated, and the problem of energy balance and dy- namics of the upper atmosphere. 4, The disturbances in the atmosphere that result from solar flares and solar radiation. 5. The relation between conditions in the upper atmosphere and the weather at lower levels. 6. The variations of density and temperature at different levels of the upper atmosphere. 7. The nature and cause of the aurora. 8. The forces that produce the changes and fluctuations in the earth’s magnetic field. 9. The variations in composition and thickness of the earth’s crust. 10. The size and exact shape of the earth. 11. The sizes and relative positions of the land masses of the earth. These objectives were to become the responsibility of the research and analysis section of the Observatory, a unit established late in 1957. 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 PEOPLE ? Finally, something should be said about the people who came to work on the program during these months and the months to follow. Dr. Hynek had done first things first. Instead of setting up a large and complex organization, he started out by seeing to the design of absolutely essential equipment. He had found people to initiate this work before he employed anyone else except his secretary. In the months that followed Dr. Hynek hired people with a sense of adventure, individuals who could think and act for themselves as pioneers on a new scientific frontier. Through hunt and luck, he gathered about him a group of men with talent. These included not only scientists, engineers, and technicians, but also some who, though perhaps short on professional background, showed an infectious en- thusiasm and willingness and ability to get things done. BUILDING FUNDING At the end of June 1956 the original IGY grant ended. Effective July 1 the Smithsonian received a group of new grants, totaling ap- proximately 3 million dollars, to carry the tracking program through to the end of the IGY on December 31, 1958. The budget would later pose some problems. Difficulty stemmed from the fact that money could not readily be transferred from one phase of the program to another according to need, nor was there any contingency fund. ®Drs. Theodore EH. Sterne, Charles A. Whitney, and Luigi G. Jacchia joined the program as physicists of the satellite-tracking program in July 1956. Dr. Don A. Lautman joined the staff in August of the same year as computing analyst, and a month later was ap- pointed a mathematician. Dr. Max Krook was appointed astrophysicist in August 1956. Jack Slowey came to Cambridge in September of 1956 as a physicist and was ap- pointed astronomer to the program in 1959. Dr. Karl G. Henize was appointed astron- omer in charge of Baker-Nunn camera stations in September of 1956 and the following year became senior astronomer. James Knight joined the program as an engineer in September of the same year. Aubrey J. Stinnett joined the staff as a technologist in September 1956. Dr. George A. Van Biesbroeck was appointed astronomer in September of the same year and became a consultant in February 1957. Leon Campbell, Jr., joined the Observatory as a consultant in October of 1956, and the next January became super- visor of station operations for Moonwatch. Robert H. Briggs was appointed mathema- tician in October of 1956. Dr. Gerhard F. Schilling came to the Observatory as a con- sultant in December 1956, a month later was appointed atmospheric physicist, and in 1958 became a specialist as assistant to the Director. Samuel B. Whidden became a station observer in February of 1957; in May of 1959 he was appointed station coordi- nator for Moonwatch. Stefan Sydor joined the program in May 1957 as a consultant and a few weeks later was appointed optical advisor. Kenneth H. Drummond became a consultant in May of 1957, administrative officer in September of that year, and executive officer in December. ©. Stuart Fergusson came to Cambridge in the summer of 1957 as @ consultant; in September he became executive officer of the satellite-tracking program. Charles M. Peterson joined the staff as communications specialist in August 1957; the next summer he was appointed chief of communications. Dr. John White joined the Observatory as a senior observer in September 1957, but served as a public information specialist after October 4 of that year. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 293 THE BAKER OPTICS During the spring months of 1956 Dr. Baker made further calcula- tions on modified Schmidt systems. Such a system might, for example, consist of a cemented doublet correcting plate and an aspheric mirror. It became quite clear, however, that the difficulties of the problem had increased faster than simple modifications of the classical Schmidt could accommodate. Dr. Baker brought this situation to Dr. Whip- ple’s attention and requested financial support to conduct a searching examination of more involved optical systems. Authorization to proceed was obtained in June. Dr. Baker then began detailed calculations of systems of increasing complexity to find the simplest that would meet the new requirements. Before arriving at the final solution, he analyzed exhaustively three other simpler systems and various intermediate systems, and rejected them 2 Nevertheless, with the completion of calculation for the third system, Dr. Baker knew that he had “cracked” the problem. It was now largely a question of finding more suitable glass types. The design of the corrector cell itself represented a compromise; if the air spaces between the lenses of the cell are too large, the aspheric powers, even though weak, lead to unacceptable astigmatism in the outer field. If the air spaces are too small, the aspheric powers be- come too great for practical manufacture. Therefore, in applying the concept of the three-lens corrector cell, he had to interpolate more or less along a curve to reach a point that represented as small an air space as would be practicable for a system that could actually be manufac- tured. A larger air space than was decided upon would have simplified the manufacturing problem, but the astigmatism in the outer field would have made for unhappy results well outside the 20-micron 10 The first of these, already mentioned, was an achromatized classical Schmidt system modified to include an aspheric primary mirror. The second system made use of two air- spaced corrector elements and an aspheric mirror. The performance of this second sys- tem was appreciably superior to that of the standard classical Schmidt but otherwise was discouraging because of residual higher-order coma, or “halo” around the image. He was forced to go to a more complicated system. Drawing on more than 20 years’ ex- perience, and choosing ordinary types of optical glass selected after much computing, he designed his third optical system, which met the monochromatic requirements; its per- formance was, in fact, more or less identical to that of the present satellite camera in the optimum region of the spectrum. The chromatic aberrations, or color blur, of this combination of ordinary glass types turned out, however, to be well beyond the assigned tolerances. At the extremes of the spectral range, the image formed by this system would have been 5 times larger in diameter and 25 times larger in area than the specified 20-micron spot size. The monochromatic characteristics of the system did prove the value of the three-plate corrector cell. It would not, however, have been at all safe to adopt the design, inasmuch as the effect of the color blur would have been rendered all the more disastrous because the aperture of the camera would be necessarily much obscured by the presence of film and shutter in the light beam. These shadowing effects would have been present in the enlarged star images and would have made precision measurement most difficult. 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 tolerance. Clearly, this same curve was also a curve of dollars, and it was necessary to be most careful to strike an acceptable balance between cost and performance. The choice of suitable glasses for the corrector cell necessitated finding a combination of types that would remove or satisfactorily reduce the so-called secondary spectrum that had been the remaining dominant aberration of system No. 3. The catalog of Schott, the well- known German manufacturer of optical glass, listed only a few types providing negative dispersive characteristics of the proper trend throughout the spectrum. Of these only KzFS-2 seemed to be at all acceptable. Although listed as greenish in coloration, it was considerably whiter than the KzF series and, if kept thin, would provide adequate transmission in the ultraviolet. Unfortunately, this glass was also described as sensitive to acid staining and “soluble” in distilled water, though to a less degree than KzFS-3. Nevertheless, there was no way to solve the optical problem except to adopt KzFS-2 for the outermost pair of elements in the correcting trio of elements. The sensitivity of KzFS-2 to moisture and to atmospheric acid staining has continued to plague operators of the Baker-Nunn cameras, yet by no means to the degree earlier anticipated. Although the fact is perhaps not obvious, the transmitted light actually used in taking satellite pictures is far less affected by the staining of the KzFS-2 surfaces than the reflected light, not otherwise used, would indicate. The central element of the corrector cell had to be matched to KzFS-2. Dr. Baker finally chose SK-14, a glass of fairly high index compared to KzFS-2 but known to have very good transmission. An important but unlooked-for bonus in the choice of these two glasses was that they have very little thermal expansion, at least com- pared with that of many other optical glasses. In this respect they were unusually well matched, a fact that simplified the design of the means by which the elements of the corrector cell would be held in accurate alignment. This three-element corrector cell as finally designed would provide, then, an image with a minimum of color aberration and a minimum of coma. It was now matched to a mirror 30 inches in diameter, the best glass for which was Pyrex, made by the Corning Glass Works in Corning, N.Y. Dr. Baker completed the optical design of the camera by the end of July 1956. Already it was a much more complicated system than either he or the staff of the Observatory had ever anticipated. As the months went by, it proved to be considerably more expensive to manu- facture and involved a larger, heavier camera than any of them had originally thought. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hayes PEATE 1 Norrman frequency- time standard, Model Wahl NSN & Chivens plant, South Pasadena, C 1. Final assembly of the first Baker-Nunn camer: Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hayes PLATE 2 Ure. 1. A model of the Baker-Nunn camera. 9 Loading the gimbal ring of a Baker-Nunn camera on a MATS plane. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hayes PLATE 3 1. One type of Moonwatch monoscope. 2. Moonwatch team at Kashiwabara, Japan. PLATE 4 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hayes oe 3 , N. Mex. 1. Moonwatch team at Alamagordo child and parent. . Moonwatch team of Fort Worth, Tex. Pairs: 2 SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 295 um LIGHT SHIELD So QABBes= aly THREE - ELEMENT CORRECTING SYSTEM (1 da aae 22 SS AAAASSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS [e ReSiite ote (2 $i) VZZZ ZL 7} (Bir che TENSIONING WHEEL MIRROR CELL AND SUPPORT SYSTEM Ficure 1.—Simplified cross-section view of the Baker-Nunn camera. Looking back on those months of arduous work and of crucial de- cisions and on the periods of discouragement that preceded discovery, Dr. Baker even now sees no practical alternative to the system that was designed.” Although probably only Dr. Baker could have designed the optical system of the camera, it seemed that a number of firms might be able to manufacture the lenses and mirrors once Schott and Corning had delivered the glass. However, the Perkin-Elmer Corporation, a large company with varied experience in the manufacture of optics, was the only firm that bid for the contract and had the personnel and machines to back up their bid. On November 16, 1956, a contract for the manufacture of the optics was signed by them and the Observatory. 11 At best, he would now add a zero power plane-parallel hard-crown optical plate in front of the corrector cell simply in order to protect the KzFS-—2 lens; while in a sense this would have been a fourth corrector, it actually would have presented no difficulties of design or manufacture and could even now be added at any time. Otherwise, called upon to do the same job today, he would still do it in precisely the same way. He would make a plea, however, to those using the cameras to think of them as highly specialized tools that need much care, periodic maintenance, and occasional renovation. 625325—62 20 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 In the months that followed, numerous but not unexpected prob- lems developed at Perkin-Elmer. Their responsibility certainly transcended in difficulty almost any other that had been attempted in the fabrication of aspheric optics. The outer plates of KzFS-2 had been designed to be thin in order to keep ultraviolet transmission to a maximum, a fact that complicated the work because of the intri- cate problem of supporting the thin plate. The task was all the more difficult because the system involved four surfaces of very strong individual powers on the same optical axis; as Dr. Baker later re- marked, “It was a monumental accomplishment to make the four of these work properly together.” Finally, four of the six surfaces of the corrector cell were strongly aspheric, presenting a real challenge to the manufacturer. Perkin-Elmer felt originally that they could generate the curves with a Meinel grinder. The surfaces were, how- ever, too complex to be ground by machine, a fact that was to result in some further delays. Meanwhile, the order for the mirror blanks had been placed with Corning. In May 1957 Stefan Sydor, an expert in the manufacture of optical materials, came to the Observatory. His first assignment was to go directly to Corning and advise in the production of the blanks. During the months that followed, he spent a good deal of his time there supervising their fabrication. The Schott firm in Germany had received contracts for manufactur- ing the glasses for the corrector cell and for the aspheric-surface back-up plates against which the photographic film would be ten- sioned to lie in the focal surface. They did a magnificent job on both assignments. By June 1957 a sufficient number of the three types of glass blanks had been received from Schott and from Corning to assure uninter- rupted production during the remainder of the year. Military Air Transport Service (MATS) had already flown 40 of the 48 large glass disks for the corrector-plate assembly from Germany to Con- necticut, and transported another 5 during thesummer. This was one of the many ways in which the Air Force cooperated with the Observa- tory and facilitated the work of the program. Perkin-Elmer erected a new optical shop for fine grinding and polishing of the optical parts of the camera, and by the summer of 1957 were grinding and polishing the test optics. Rough grinding of the spheric surface of the corrector optics was done on a machine especially built by Frank Cooke of North Brookfield, Mass. The rough grinding of the primary mirrors was done at the main plant. During these months Sydor spent much of his time at the Perkin- Elmer plant, working 10, 12, even 14 hours a day to complete, if pos- sible, the first set of optics by late summer. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 297 THE NUNN CAMERA Joseph Nunn continued to work on the design of the camera. By September 1956 he had prepared a series of pictorial drawings that indicated the general construction, and by late fall he had prepared the first blueprints indicating the details, including the optical features. Here it will be best to describe the camera as it is now used at the photographic tracking stations. The camera must follow the path of the satellite as it moves across thesky. A special mount is required for this purpose. Like a star, a satellite rises into the sky from the horizon, culmi- nates, and then sets. Here the similarity in their paths ends. Satel- lite culmination is not limited to the observer’s meridian. Further- more, its path on the celestial sphere is not necessarily restricted to a semicircle, nor is it symmetrical about culmination. Consequently, the angular velocity of the satellite as observed from a point on the surface of the earth may change greatly between horizon and culmination. For these reasons the traditional telescope mount that is designed to track stars would be most inadequate to track satellites. On the other hand, a mount that would follow exactly every possible path of the satellite would be so complex as to be wholly unsuitable in the field. The mount designed is a simple yet effective compromise be- tween these two extremes. Set in a gimbal ring, the camera can be turned on its triaxial mounting at predetermined speeds to match the predicted motion of a satellite. This speed can be continuously varied from zero to 7,000 seconds of are per second of time. This latter speed is equivalent to traversing the sky from horizon to horizon in 93 seconds. The gimbal ring and the drive mechanism are fitted into the yoke of an orthodox altitude-azimuth mount. By making the necessary settings for azimuth, altitude, and track angle, the operator can direct the camera to any point in the sky above 15° elevation in such a way that the camera will be driven through that point in the same direction as that taken by the satellite during its passage. The actual point for tracking is usually about culmination, the highest elevation of the satellite as seen by the observer. The camera photographs on a 55-mm. film. The field of view of the camera is 30° along the track of the satellite, and 5° perpendicular to that track. The camera photographs at rates ranging from one frame every 2 seconds to one frame every 32 seconds. The path swept out by the camera is a great circular arc 130° long. In regions away from culmination, there is necessarily a divergence 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 between the path of the camera and the path of the satellite; however, the image of the satellite does remain long enough within the field of the camera to enable the operator to obtain a sequence of photographs that define its path. The camera mount also incorporates an oscillating mechanism that permits the operator to photograph alternately at different angular velocities. When the optimum combination of satellite image and reference star field is required, the camera can be set to photograph alternately at the angular velocity of the satellite and at the component of sidereal motion along the path of the satellite. At the first of these velocities the satellite image is stationary and well defined on the frame, while the star images are trailed into lines about 1 mm. in length. At the second velocity the star images are short and well exposed, while the satellite image is trailed. Negotiations were now under way for awarding the contract for the construction of the camera. While a number of firms were considered, including Perkin-Elmer, who wanted to build the camera as well as to fabricate the optics, the contract was given to the Boller & Chivens Co. of South Pasadena, Calif. A small machine manufactory employing at that time probably 25 persons, the Boller & Chivens organization had in the past worked very successfully with Joseph Nunn in the production of instruments designed by him. The con- tract arrangements with Boller & Chivens” were completed on October 4, 1956, exactly one year before Sputnik I was sent into orbit. Manufacturing the optics on the East Coast and the mechanical elements on the West Coast not only presented some difficult logistics but also complicated the fabrication of the camera itself. There was no opportunity of fitting the optics until after the corrector cell and the mirror had been made and delivered to South Pasadena, at which time, of course, the mechanical elements of the camera would be virtually completed. This made it necessary for the work to be done with extreme care so that there would be no last-minute delay because parts did not fit. The optical components of the camera were extremely large and complex; in fact, the corrector cell optics were and still are the largest aspheric refractor lenses ever built. While the problem of mounting a 30-inch mirror had many times been solved for individual telescopes, it had not been solved for the mass production of 12 cameras. The 12'This decision to award the contract to them was based in part on the possibility of Nunn and Boller & Chivens working closely together in the production of the camera, and in part, of course, on the proved ability of the firm to turn out work of high quality and on schedule. Whipple and Hynek, who had wide contacts throughout the rather special- ized field of optical instrumentation, were convinced through their dealings with Joseph Nunn that Boller & Chivens would be the best firm to manufacture the camera. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 299 various components had to be mounted in such a manner that they would maintain the proper position relative to each other and relative to the rest of the camera. At a number of conferences, Mr. Nunn, representatives of Perkin-Elmer, and the Observatory staff developed the details of the design of a series of holding rings for the corrector- cell optics and the method for mounting the mirror. Early in 1957 a scale model of the camera was built and painted in the brilliant colors that Nunn and Stinnett had decided upon. It was a beautiful piece of equipment; Whipple and Hynek showed it proudly to groups they addressed, and certainly it did much to dramatize to the public the U.S. satellite-tracking program. — The manufacture of the camera was one of the finest achievements of American industry. Of entirely new design and of complex structure, 12 of them had to be built without the construction of a prototype, and without the testing of the individual components of the system. The cameras were built almost concurrently, and the first one completed had to work. And once the large components were put into production, there was no opportunity to change any of the details. By June of 1957 Boller & Chivens were devoting more than 50 percent of their manufacturing facilities to the production of the camera parts. Subcontractors in the Los Angeles area were simul- taneously fabricating the frame and tube sections and machining the castings for the corrector cells. Meanwhile, contracts had been placed for the manufacture of the necessary electronic equipment for the operation of the camera and the Norrman clock, including the frequency control unit for the camera drive and the automatic transfer switches for emergency power. The Observatory had by then also determined the type of film that was needed for the camera. After a series of experiments at the Agassiz Station of Harvard Observatory, the staff chose the famous ID-2 emulsion, which is still used today for about half of the satellite-tracking work. It provided the spectral distribution that the Observatory needed, that is, reflected sunlight, and was a faster film than any of the other emulsions then available. Some 40,000 feet of this film was ordered from Eastman-Kodak and put in storage for tests of the camera in South Pasadena and at the New Mexico field station in the fall. THE NORRMAN CLOCK By the summer of 1956 the details of the clock to time the photo- graphs taken by the Baker-Nunn camera had been fairly well defined. To replace the mechanical presentation of time in the Norrman clock model 110, Robert Davis had developed an electronic sweep, in 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 which an electron beam pulses on and off in synchronism with the time. This beam is presented on an oscilloscope somewhat similar to the picture tube in a television set. The clock with the oscil- loscope and the electronic sweep was installed in the dome of the 15-inch telescope at the Harvard Observatory, and the following weeks were spent developing a usable system of time presentation on the oscilloscope. The next step was to find a radio receiver that would give reliable, consistent reception of the WWYV time signals from Beltsville, Md. Davis chose a fixed-frequency receiver so that station personnel could not use the set for listening to anything except WWV! It was then necessary to arrange for some emergency power supply, since the stations would be located in areas where the local power would not be especially reliable. Following specifications drawn up by Davis, an electrical firm in Cambridge built an emergency system similar to that used for railroad signals. It worked exactly as required but used a rather expensive type of battery. Since the cost was prohibitive, the 12 camera stations were actually supplied with emergency power systems using ordinary automotive batteries, which were to prove inadequate. By the end of June 1956 the timing system pieced together from various components was functioning satisfactorily at the Harvard Observatory. The staff then began to think seriously of how the time presentation could be photographed inside the Baker-Nunn camera. Dr. Hynek obtained from Edward Halbach of the Mil- waukee Astronomical Society a photographic slave clock that was compatible with the modified Norrman Time Standard and that illuminated whirling dials by means of an electronic photographic strobe lamp. After preliminary testing, Hynek and Davis deter- mined that this slave clock was essentially what they would need, once an oscilloscope presentation was added to it. Now they had a complete prototype slave clock that, properly reduced in size and made to fit mechanically inside the Baker-Nunn camera, would give the time presentation required. In July Mr. Norrman came to Cambridge and was shown the assembly. This led to his building the model 111, which was bas- ically a model 110 with the oscilloscope, the auxiliary circuits for an electronic presentation of microtime, and other accretions. Mean- while, Davis completed the assembly of a prototype time station and successfully tested it in August. Davis then went to California to discuss with Joseph Nunn and with Boller & Chivens the integration of the clock and the camera. A firm decision was made that all the synchronous motors in the camera would be driven from the accurate 60-cycle current of the SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 301 Norrman clock. In addition, they decided that Boller & Chivens would build the mechanical parts of the slave clock, but that the contract for the electronic components would be placed elsewhere. By spring of the following year the first model 111 clock arrived in Cambridge. It turned out to be somewhat less reliable than had been hoped, although it did maintain the same accuracy as model 110. Furthermore, since the clock was subject to rather complex break- downs difficult to repair, it required constant and careful maintenance that would prove to be yet another responsibility on the overburdened shoulders of the early observers. The addition of the oscilloscope and other components to model 110 had taxed to the limit the capac- ity and the performance of the original Norrman clock. Meanwhile, Shapiro & Edwards of Pasadena, Calif., were awarded the contract for engineering and building the time-presentation system within the camera itself; and yagi antennas for the reception of WWYV signals at 10, 15, and 20 megacycles were ordered, as well as the cable for connecting the crystal clock and camera. Early in the summer of 1957 the model 111 was found to be capable of time interpolation during a 6-hour interval to an accuracy of 1 ten-thousandth of a second; during this test the device was continu- ously compared with the WWYV signals from the time service station of the National Bureau of Standards. The model 111 was put into production at the Norrman Labora- tories, and in September a clock was shipped to South Pasadena, Calif., for testing with the camera itself. FIELD ORGANIZATION THE BAKER-NUNN CAMERA STATIONS At the IGY conference in Barcelona, Spain, in September 1956 members of the Observatory staff held lengthy discussions with rep- resentatives from other countries for the establishment and operation of the Baker-Nunn camera stations. Sites were being considered in South Africa, Spain, Iran, India, Australia, Japan, Hawaii, the Netherlands West Indies, Argentina, and Peru, in addition to two in the United States. There were also discussions of the possibility of establishing stations in Egypt, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and Ethiopia. Agreements for the maintenance of the stations were to be for a 2-year period, with the further stipulation that the contracts could be extended indefinitely upon approval of the parties concerned. The 13Tests proved that the model 111 would not only operate the slave clock but would also provide precise voltage for the frequency controlled generator that would supply the motors of the camera. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN IN STITUTION, 1961 302 “Suoneys BlouIYD UUNN-Jayvg ay Jo sayig—7 aunorg VE3W00M a Vitwuisny dvovuno M a \ myn se y3Lignr SQNVTSI NVIIVMVA SS¥d NYOHO * Salvis dalinoa SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES ; 303 Smithsonian was to provide the scientific equipment for all the sta- tions, as well as other materials and services as needed. Diplomatic and exchange problems would involve not only the arrangement of contracts, but also visas, import regulations, customs duties, personal income taxes, exchange of currency, and special import restrictions. In large measure, these questions were to be resolved through the U.S. Department of State. Early in 1957 members of the Observatory toured a number of countries to inspect suggested sites. Dr. Whipple visited proposed sites in Florida and Spain. Dr. Hynek went to Argentina, Peru, and the Netherlands West Indies, and made preliminary arrangements for the establishment of stations there. Dr. Henize undertook similar missions in Spain and the Union of South Africa (now the Republic of South Africa). Meanwhile, Japan and Australia, as part of their participation in the IGY program, agreed to equip the stations in their countries, except for camera, clock, and accessories, and to provide the observers. In most of the countries cooperation was immediately forthcoming, and arrangements proceeded smoothly. The 12 Baker-Nunn camera stations are the following: Organ Pass, VN. Mex—On the slope of St. Augustin Mountain overlooking the White Sands Proving Ground and the White Sands National Monument, this site is used cooperatively by the Smithsonian satellite-tracking program and the Harvard Meteor Program. The Smithsonian expanded the Harvard building to house both projects. In September 1957 material and equipment for this first Baker-Nunn camera station were received. Olifantsfontein, South Africa—In August of 1956 Dr. Menzel of the Harvard College Observatory and Dr. Whipple approached C. G. Hide of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of South Africa to arrange for the establishment of a station in that country. The site selected was Olifantsfontein, which means literally the ele- phant’s fountain or the elephant’s drinking pool, a small town halfway between Pretoria and Johannesburg, on an almost flat, bleak veldt plateau broken by occasional scrub and timber. The South African National Committee for the IGY provided the buildings, which were completed by November 1957. Except for the camera house, these are prefabricated rondavels, circular in struc- ture, with conical roofs of 14-foot diameter; they provide an unusual combination of native architecture and 20th-century scientific tech- nology. Around the station are the antennas of a large broadcasting station, part of the communications system of the South African Government. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Woomera, Australia—The Weapons Research Establishment, a branch of the Department of Supply, Commonwealth of Australia, operates the station independently but in close cooperation with the Smithsonian. The site was completed by the Establishment on Oc- tober 1, 1957. At this huge Woomera complex of scientific projects, the Establishment also maintains with the U.S. Naval Research Lab- oratory a Minitrack station, the only one that is operated jointly with a Baker-Nunn observatory. The nearby village has about 3,000 people. The altitude varies from about 350 to 450 feet above sea level, with gentle undulations. The surface is mostly rock and clay. Ten inches of rain marks a good year. The Baker-Nunn camera house differs considerably from the Smith- sonian plans in that it was built to withstand very dusty storm con- ditions and to provide satisfactory housing for precision equipment in a climate where the temperature rises in the summer to 120° F. in the shade. The joint operation here of the Minitrack and the Baker-Nunn in the one set of buildings including communications, computations room, and stores, has proved the value of running one large station instead of two small ones. San Fernando, Spain.°—The station is near the sea and close to the Spanish Naval Observatory, in the town of San Fernando, popu- lation 40,000, about 50 miles northwest of Gibraltar. Arrangements were initiated in mid-1956 with M. C. Herero of the Battelle Institute in Madrid, and early in 1957 with Admiral de la Puente, director of the Spanish Naval Observatory.%* Construc- tion of the buildings was completed in February 1958. The station is unique in that it is an urban establishment, but the layout and buildings could be called typical of most of the other Baker-Nunn stations built by the Smithsonian. These buildings were among those that in late 1961 were showing signs of real deterioration ; they had, of course, been intended to last only the 18 months of the TG Mitaka, Japan—tThe station in Japan was established through the cooperation of Dr. Takesi Nagata, Secretary of the Japanese National Committee for the IGY, and Dr. Masasi Miyadi, coordinator for 14The Weapons Research Establishment itself tests and develops new weapons for the British and the Australian Governments. It has the world’s largest overland rocket range, running 1,200 miles across the country, and maintains large laboratories and work- shops at Salisbury near Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. Some 300 miles from Adelaide, Woomera is the field-testing station and the range head. 15 Before this site was chosen, Almeria was rejected because of heavy cloud cover, and Izana in the Canary Islands because of gravity anomalies. 16The Spanish Naval Observatory has played a distinguished role in European as- tronomy ; it was one of 14 observatories that undertook the Carte du Ciel at the turn of this century. The tradition of cooperative work is thus well established. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 305 the IGY in that country and director of the Tokyo Astronomical Observatory. The Tokyo Observatory, which operates the station, is in Mitaka, a town of 1,000 people, about 40 miles outside Tokyo. Construction of the buildings on the Observatory grounds was com- pleted in January of 1958. The region around Mitaka is on the fringe of the monsoon area; in the summer, observing is limited by clouds and rain. Naini Tal, India—The station in India was established through the cooperation of the Uttar Pradesh Observatory at Naini Tal, and the program was coordinated by Dr. M. K. Vainu Bappu, its chief astronomer. Some 150 miles north of New Delhi, the station is about 8 miles from Naini Tal, a town of 12,000 people. Naini Tal was the first of the hill stations of India, where the European administrators in the days of the British rule used to go to escape from the extreme conditions im summer on the plains of India. The Baker-Nunn camera was the first instrument installed at Manora Peak, the newly selected site for the Observatory. Here also the monsoon season interferes considerably with the ob- serving program. There is some difliculty in transportation—with no airport nearby, materials must come by rail or road from New Delhi. Arequipa, Peru—Arrangements for the station in Peru were made through the chairman of its National IGY Committee, Dr. J.A. Broggi, and through Fernando L. de Romana of Arequipa. Con- struction of the station was begun in December of 1957. Arequipa, with a population of 95,000, the second largest city in Peru, had at one time been the location of a Harvard observing sta- tion that for 5 years had been directed by Leon Campbell, Sr. The site for the Baker-Nunn station, about 3 miles outside the city, was provided under contract agreement by the National University of San Agustin, which operates a seismic station nearby. Arequipa and the village where the station is actually located are in an elevated valley some 8,000 feet above sea level in very moun- tainous country with peaks up to 20,000 feet high. It rarely rains there, although the skies are often cloudy. Shiraz, Iran—Arrangements for the Shiraz station were coordi- nated by Dr. H. K. Afshar, a member of the faculty of science of the University of Teheran. The universities of Teheran and Shiraz as- sumed the construction cost of the building and arranged for the lease of land. Shiraz, in southwest Iran, has a population of 130,000. The city itself is in a fairly flat, green valley. Quite arid mountains surround it, and the station is in the foothills of these mountains on the prop- erty of the Nemazee hospital about 4 miles outside the city. 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Shiraz is right on the edge of the monsoon belt, which has an ad- verse effect on observing conditions, as do also haze and dust. Trans- portation into the city is by air, even heavy equipment now being sent in by plane because there is no convenient seaport entry. Curagao, Netherlands West Indies—Arrangements for this station were made through Dr. P. C. Henriquez, secretary of the Develop- ment Authority of the Netherlands Antilles Government. The De- partment of Public Works of the island administration provided drawings, contract arrangements, and supervision of the construction of the buildings, and some materials. Curacao is about 40 miles from the Venezuela coast. Together with the adjacent island of Aruba, it is the world’s largest oil-refining complex. Willemstad, the capital of the island, is one of the world’s major ports in terms of tonnage handled each year. The temperature on Curacao is about 80° F., day and night, winter and summer. Rain is infrequent, and the whole island is extremely dry. The station is about 4 miles from Willemstad, toward the center of the island, on the Santa Barbara estate owned by the Newport Mining Co. Jupiter, Fla.—Originally, Cocoa Beach was considered as the sta- tion site, but the Observatory finally decided on Jupiter because it was away from sea spray and had what little elevation could be found in Florida. The station, some 15 miles north of Palm Beach, is located in Jonathan-Dickinson State Park, site of Fort Murphy, a U.S. military training post during World War II. By February of 1958 the camera house had been completed, and the U.S. Air Force made avail- able to the station personnel a large administration building. Villa Dolores, Argentina.—An agreement was drawn up between the Smithsonian and the Observatorio Nacional Argentino for the estab- lishment of the station near Villa Dolores in the general region of Cordoba. Land was provided through the Astronomical Observatory of the University of Cordoba. Villa Dolores is in central Argentina, over the high sierras from Cordoba 100 miles away. It is a large rural town with a population of about 30,000. The station is about 5 miles from Villa Dolores in flat, open farming country. The climate is good, but there is con- siderable rain. Mount Haleakala, Hawaii—The station is located within 50 feet of the top of Haleakala Mountain, the largest dormant volcanic crater in the world.1”7 The University of Hawaii supervised the construction, and the Geophysical Institute of the University through the work of 17 Originally, the Smithsonian had considered establishing the station at the Mauna Loa Observatory ; however, the possibility of volcanic eruption and the logistics problems pre- sented by 50 miles of bad roads resulted in the rejection of that site. SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 307 ADMINISTRATIVE pane: +— RADIO ANTENNA AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLY cA Figure 3.—Typical layout of a Baker-Nunn camera station. Dr. Walter Steiger contributed much to the success of the satellite- tracking program there. From the farming centers and cane towns of Maui, 22 miles of extremely winding road lead up the mountain to the station. Most of the observers live in a small village about 12 miles by road from the top. On Maui there is almost every kind of climate. One side of the mountain is completely arid, the other side is a tropical rain forest. The station is about 10,000 feet in altitude, above almost all clouds; if there are clouds, they are seen as fog. Cinder dust in a strong wind is a problem, although not a serious one. Even before these sites were actually chosen, realistic plans had to be made for constructing, equipping, and supporting the stations. Usually, the establishing of an astronomical observatory requires three to five years. Now, 12 had to be built in less than a year and a half. Furthermore, the staff of the Smithsonian had to decide what would be needed to make the stations reasonably self-contained and self-sufficient before they knew where the stations would be located. The layout of each station and the design of the buildings were the responsibility of Elwyn Balch, who served as a construction consultant to the Observatory and who worked closely with local authorities in planning and constructing the facilities at each site. The general layout consisted of a building to house the Baker-Nunn camera, an administration building, a powerhouse, a tool and fuel shed, and possibly a separate unit for developing film. The design for the camera house included provisions for a sliding roof that would ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 308 Z9T FFG ‘T TS9 ‘T (s19840U1) epnynty 1/0 ‘9E,ZF 006 /& “80,99 ol — 119 9T,100L6 ¥ 0E,S006T 1G OF 806% 118 CG/LE9T —h 1G CELE 06S 19 “EG/OFoGE 118 OF /L6098 12 90/900TE — wh PE LLSE— iL 9E/SToCE apnyyey lL TEPFoE0G 11% ‘8T/ES 066 118 T1/E906L6 110 ‘9F,60016% ih “EE TESS 1/9 (06,08 0886 W& SS LE6L 1/6 ‘90,68 .681 WG TE LVEGE 1/6 VS/9F9ET ul TSP 8S 118 TS/9GoESS epnyisu0T et ae oe eS ee ie eer TS Wemey Mey |--~----"-"- -ZT06 Be SS Se ak os er Sa ee euljyuediy ‘SolOjOg BI[IA |~~~~-~~----"T106 oS ae ee Se a ee Se ero eee Bia. Jevdn p= vs. ea, a OL0G Be ae 2 Se ee Se Se eS SoIpUuy Ye SpuvpIoyyoN ‘ovseinyg |------------g006 ee te te ee ae Sete ee as Ba UGLp ZU else ween aoe OG Ape OMe eae ee ai gig ek Lg poeta Sake oie peng ri NiO ee GMM SCLVal |S ane a mn ()(G PS eet eee 8 ee ee BIpuy TL MeN | 7>-~"-~ "==" 9006 a ae nar tig aha a tl ata edie a UGG OA Osa eames oe ee GOOG Sy gee oe gin 7 ee re eS uredg “opuvuieg ueg |------------F006 a ae ae ae Re pepe ge Tes ae See eyerysny “elaul0oo\, |~~~-~~-------e006 oe Seer eS a a ee oe ae eollyy Yynog ‘uleyuojsyuBJIO |-~~~-~------Z006 Sr Ree a a sae tee RET ee ee XOPT “N ‘Sseq wesiQ |----------- "1006 U01}B00'T SUONDIS DLBUDI UUNAT-LaYDY—'| ATAV I, ‘ON TOIYRIG SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 309 permit the camera to operate down to within 15° of the horizon; the roof would protect the camera during hours when it was not in use and during inclement weather, an especially important provision because of the KzFS-2 glass used in the corrector cell. Arrangements were made to obtain small prefabricated buildings from the Air Force to house the power facilities, fuel, and maintenance tools. James Knight and Aubrey Stinnett were assigned the actual selec- tion of the innumerable items required for the successful operation of the stations. These included not only the beam antennas and numerous items of electronic equipment, but also dozens of household necessities, tools, and other essential supplies. By late spring of 1957 approximately 95 percent of all the material required for the independent operation of the 12 satellite-tracking stations had been received, cataloged, crated, and stored, and was ready for shipment. By June all material and equipment except the camera and the clock had been received at the Australia and Spain stations, and from then on each station was in its turn set up for operations preliminary to the arrival of the camera and clock. Probably as much as 10 tons of equipment was sent to each station, all without the loss of any important item, and even without any serious mishaps. There was a fire aboard a ship carrying equipment to Japan, but it did very little damage. A truck was “lost” in Iran for several months. The selection of the observers for the Baker-Nunn camera stations presented as many and as difficult problems as the selection of the sites and the acquisition of material. Drs. Whipple, Hynek, Henize, and several other members of the Smithsonian staff, as well as Drs. Frances Wright and Richard McCrosky of the Harvard Meteor Pro- gram, all took part in the selection of the first observers. In fact, at times there were more interviewers than interviewees. The first task was to define precisely the kind of personality needed for the operation of a station, and the skills required to make a success of the optical observing program. There were as many different opinions as there were interviewers. It turned out that neither edu- cation nor past experience was the best criterion. The Harvard people already knew that movie writers, artists, plumbers—in fact, almost any type of person—might serve brilliantly as an observer if he had the proper attitude and a certain basic intelligence and mechanical aptitude. What was needed was a person who had eagerness, en- thusiasm, a spirit of adventure, and especially a sense of responsi- bility—one who could impart to the interviewers the feeling that what he most wanted to do was to photograph satellites. The first observers were essentially romantics, men who had a common interest in this new age of satellites and an intense curiosity 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 about science and the world. They were also men of considerable versatility and strong character, as indeed they had to be, for they were about to undertake a kind of do-it-yourself project, often a one- man project until assistant observers could be obtained. They were men who could not only operate the Baker-Nunn camera but also drive nails, who could not only work cooperatively and efficiently with scientists but also deal with strangers in strange lands. With these characteristics went another that was to create some difficulties. They were not organization men. Chosen for their ability to make decisions, they frequently proceeded to make them in contradiction to and sometimes in defiance of orders from Cambridge. Chosen for their sense of responsibility, they often felt themselves to be more responsible to the station than to the over-all operation of the Satellite-tracking Program. Chosen for their ability to improvise, they sometimes improvised in ways that lessened the scientific value of their observations. In other words, they were pioneers, with all the strengths and weaknesses of the pioneer type. The first observer to be hired was Samuel Whidden who had had several years as an observer on the Harvard Meteor Program. While he was to assist in the details of station establishment, the preparation for station operations, and the selection and training of other observers, it is perhaps characteristic of the program that his versatility was put to work on the choice of film for the Baker-Nunn camera. By the summer of 1957 classes for the observers had been started. Courses in basic electronics and in the maintenance of the Norrman time standard were given by Andrew B. Ledwith. Classes in spherical astronomy, photography, and the reduction of observations were pre- sented by other members of the staff. Plans then called for the first group of observers to go to Organ Pass, N. Mex., for final training as soon as the first Baker-Nunn camera had been received there. THE MOONWATCH PROGRAM During the summer and early fall of 1956, the appeal of the Ob- servatory for Moonwatch teams was heard and heeded throughout the world. That summer the Observatory issued the first Bulletin for Visual Observers of Satellites, in which the code word Moonwatch was adopted officially. Incidentally, another code name had been a strong contender—SEESAW, for “I see it, I saw it”; fortunately, it lost. In that first Bulletin appeared a brief outline of the objectives, or- ganization, qualifications for observers, and operational procedures of Moonwatch. Each team was to set up a “fence” of observers. When an observer watching one “picket” of the fence saw the satellite, he was to signal to the timekeeper and then obtain a precise fix of the object SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES SWE | MIRROR CLAMP TOP VIEW (all Wie END BRACKET ici RROR ACHROMATIC _CROSS-SECTION VIEW_ b. 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The structures are linked by a variety of laws: thus A. atb=b+a a+ (b+c)=(at+b) +e ab=ba a(bc) =(ab)e a(b+c)=ab+ac There is an element 0, such that a+0=a for alla. For any a there is an element —a, such that a+ (—a) =0. B. There is an element 1 such that a.1=a for all a. C. For each a=0 there is an element 6 such that ab=1. In addition, the real numbers have a topological structure, which is what is involved whenever we talk about such matters as limits, con- vergence and so on. The typical relationship which describes the topology of the real numbers is that of neighborhood: A neighborhood of a real number a is any set which includes an interval with a as midpoint. If we consider geometry, again, we are once more dealing with a complex structure. The structures involved in geometry are mostly algebraic: they involve finite sets of objects, in relations such as inci- dence—a point being on a plane, a plane passing through a line. It is only when we come to consider differential properties—tangency, curvature of curves and surfaces—that topological structures are brought in. The characteristic differences between classical mathematics—say that of a century ago—and that of modern mathematics is that classical mathematics dealt preeminently with complex structures, modern mathematics with less complex ones. The reason for this is very practical. If we discuss a complex struc- ture that structure may be so tightly specified by the numerous rela- tions which define it that, roughly speaking, only one example of the structure exists: or, to be more exact, if we have two sets of objects which both have that structure, then they are exact pictures of one another, as one Euclidean plane is an exact picture of the other: the objects in the two sets can be made to correspond univocally so that all the relations are transferred by the correspondence. For instance, anything which obeys the sets of laws A, B, C, and in addition has the order structure of the real numbers is an exact picture, in this sense, of the real numbers. On the other hand, a less complex structure may have as examples vastly different things. Thus, any set of objects which obeys the laws A and B is called a commutative ring with unit. Any deductions we make which are based exclusively on A and B will hold for any such ring. Now, the polynomials form such a ring: so do the functions of a real variable; and consequently if we restrict our- selves to the axioms for a ring, our conclusions will be valid for a wide variety of mathematical objects, whereas conclusions based on the en- MAIN LINES OF MATHEMATICS—COOPER 3300 tire set of axioms for the real numbers cannot be guaranteed to hold for any structures other than the real numbers. An effect of this tendency to deal with structures which, because they are simpler in the logical sense, are therefore less narrowly de- fined, is that some important mathematical terms have come to have their meanings extended from the original sphere of reference to cover things having some structure in common with the original notion. A good example is the word “space.” The use of this word has been extended to any set of elements which shares the algebraic properties of displacements in Euclidean space—namely, the possibility of being added together and of being multiplied by a number; this gives us the notion of a vector space. On the other hand, the word is used for any set of objects with a topological structure. These two ideas com- bine very fruitfully in the theory of topological vector spaces, and, more specifically, the theory of linear function spaces. By these are meant sets of functions: the “points” of the space are functions, f(a), g(a), of some variable x; functions can be added or multiplied by numbers to give other functions. Moreover, we can define the distance between functions, in various ways: for instance we might take the “distance” from f(z) to g(#) to be the maximum value of |f(@) —g(«x)| if we are dealing with continuous functions. Alterna- tively, we can define it, for the same, or a wider space of functions, by “distance from f(a) to g(#)”={f|f(x) —g(a)|*da} A space of functions with this last definition of distance has prop- erties very similar to those of Euclidean space; it differs in having an infinite number of dimensions, but properties like the theorems on parallels, on the sum of the angles of a triangle, Pythagoras’s theorem, are as in ordinary Euclidean space; we can for instance say that two functions are “perpendicular” to one another if f f(a) g(a) dx=0. We can transfer notions derived from Euclidean spaces to these spaces; and this has proved helpful in a number of problems both of pure mathematics and of mathematical physics. For example, when we are considering a vibrating system, such as a stretched string or a bell, the possible forms of displacement of the system are “points” in a function space, in which the “distance” above is connected with the energy of the displacement. The mechanical properties of the system enable us to define a sort of “ellipsoid” in this space; and the principal axes of the “ellipsoid” are connected with the pure, simple harmonic vibrations of the mechanical system. The method of transferring ideas from the examples of mathe- matical structures which we encounter in ordinary mathematical ex- perience to more general examples of these structures is both fruitful and dangerous—dangerous because we may be misled by arguments 334 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 based solely on analogy. It is therefore necessary to make sure that our arguments are based solely on our axioms, and that we do not introduce tacitly assumptions brought over from Euclidean space. Rigor of argument is therefore highly important in this sort of mathematics; its role is to ensure that anything which we assert to follow from the axioms of a structure holds for all structures obeying those axioms and not merely for those familiar to our intuition. I would like to illustrate the variety of things which can share a mathematical structure by discussing the example of a Boolean ring. Now a ring means any set of objects which obeys the axioms A, B. A Boolean ring is one which in addition satisfies the axioms: at+a=0, a’=a, for all elements a The simplest structure which obeys the laws of a Boolean ring con- sists of just two objects, 0 and 1, with the usual law of multiplication and the usual law of addition save that 1+1=0. An example of such a ring is got by taking 0 to mean the set of all even numbers, 1 to mean the set of all odd numbers: then 1+1=0 means that the sum of any two odd numbers iseven. More complicated examples are: (1) Propositional logic—The symbols of the algebra stand for propositions, that is statements which are either true or false. If a is a proposition, a=0 means that a is false, a=1 that a is true. If @ and 6 are two propositions, ad is the proposition which says that both a and 0 are true, a+b says that one but not both of a+b are true. Then 1+a says that @ is false: for 1 is true, and not both of 1 and a are true. a+a is always false: for either, neither, or both of a and a are true; aa is the same as a. We have then, a+a=0, a?=a; and the other axioms of ring theory can be verified relatively easily. (2) Subsets of a set—The symbols of the algebra stand for subsets of a set, which is denoted by 1; 0 stands for the empty set. If a and 6 are two sets, ab is the set of objects common to a and 6, a+b the set of objects lying in just one of a,b. Again it is easy to verify the axioms. (3) Electrical switching circuits—The symbols of the algebra stand for electrical circuits which involve switches. a@=0 means that the circuit a is always broken, a=1 that it is always connected. If two circuits are so arranged that they are always made or broken to- gether, they are denoted by the same symbol; if the one is always made when the other is broken, one is denoted by a symbol a, say the other by 1+a. If aand 6 are two circuits in series, the circuit they form to- gether is denoted by ab; if they are in parallel, the joint circuit is a+b+ab. The laws of Boolean algebra are obeyed; and the symbols for a circuit give a means of working out how the circuit behaves. To sum up: The role of mathematics is to discover and investigate structures which arise in our theoretical treatment of physical experi- MAIN LINES OF MATHEMATICS—COOPER gon ence and in mathematics itself. Mathematical training should be directed to building up an ability to form an intuitive grasp of such structures—intuitions of geometric space, of number, of algebraic re- lations, and so on; the mechanical side of mathematics, the purely linguistic side, that is the ability to read notation, are important, but should not be stressed at the expense of understanding. cr ee Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. Karly Experiments in Instrument Flying’ By James H. Doo.irt te, Lt. Gen., USAF (RET.) Chairman, Space Technology Laboratories, Inc. [With 2 plates] THE DEVELOPMENT of flight has been a gradual evolutionary process. There are, however, certain landmarks along the route, and we may consider that there are roughly defined areas of progress between these landmarks. In the very early days of flying, a slight breeze could cancel or delay a flight. I recall seeing my first air show in the winter of 1909-10 at Dominquez Field near Los Angeles. In those early days it was customary for a pilot to wet his finger in his mouth and hold it up. If there was enough air movement to cause uneven evaporation, thus making one side cooler than the other, then there was too much wind to fly. Soon, however, a modest wind was not a deterrent to flight, and a good breeze was considered desirable because it shortened takeoff and landing distance. Next came the period when a pilot was happy only as long as he could see the horizon. He might fly in or through clouds, but he wanted clear air and a visible horizon when he came back through them. This paper will deal with the next era, at the end of which a visible horizon was not required and during which it became possible to fly, and even land, without seeing outside an instrumented cockpit. Today aircraft fly safely and reliably in all but the most inclement weather, and I look forward to the not very distant future when the airplane— or its successor—will fly absolutely regardless of weather and will then become not only the fastest, but the most reliable form of transportation. 1The third Lester Gardner lecture given at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Apr. 28, 1961; somewhat modified for publication. A repeat of the lecture was given at the Smithsonian Institution on Sept. 28, 1961, by permission of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 337 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 BEGINNINGS OF INSTRUMENT FLYING Whenever pilots got together for meditation and discussion in the immediate post-World War I era, the subject of “flying instinct” or flying “by the seat of the pants” was likely to come up. Views were divided. Some pilots believed that they could fly indefinitely without reference to the visible horizon—because they had done so. Others agreed that they had but claimed it was the inherent stability of their aircraft which made it possible and not pilot skill. In the early twenties the navigational instruments most commonly used were the magnetic compass, the altimeter, and the airspeed indi- cator. It was customary on cross-country flights to follow railroads, or less frequently, highways, and the maps generally used were the standard Rand McNally maps of the individual States. These State maps were each about the same size and so, unfortunately, were usually not to the same scale. The personal experiences in the pages that follow are related to illustrate conditions which affected all fliers of the era. On Sep- tember 4-5, 1922, I flew a DH-4 airplane, in which additional gasoline and oil tanks had been installed, from Pablo Beach, Fla., to Rockwell Field at San Diego, Calif., with one intermediate stop for fuel at Kelly Field, San Antonio, Tex. The elapsed time was 22 hours 35 minutes. It was the first time the North American Continent had been crossed in less than 24 hours. It was also the first airplane in which I had used a bank-and-turn indicator. To obtain the instrument it was necessary to go to the Army Air Service Engineering Base at old McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio, and “promote” an experimental model through the help of cooperative technical friends. This instrument, invented in 1917 by Elmer Sperry, Sr., built by Elmer Sperry, Jr., and first flight-tested by Lawrence Sperry with Elmer, Jr., as passenger, was not yet in common usage or generally available. I took off just after dark, having chosen a moonlight night to facili- tate night flying, but about 4 hours out I ran into solid overcast and then severe thunderstorms. For a while the lightning flashes were almost constant and, in the otherwise black night, so intense as to light up the ground clearly for a considerable area. Some flashes were so close that their familiar ozone odor could be detected, but although it seemed that one could reach out and touch them, none struck the plane. The air was extremely turbulent and the airplane was violently thrown about its axes as well as up and down and, despite its excel- lent stability characteristics, was held on a relatively even keel only with great concentration and effort. After the lightning died away, the turbulence appeared to intensify, and there was about an hour in EARLY INSTRUMENT FLYING—DOOLITTLE 339 the jetblack darkness when no ground reference point could be seen and it would have been quite impossible to maintain proper attitude and course without the blessed bank and turn indicator. Although I had been flying for almost 5 years “by the seat of my pants” and considered that I had achieved some skill at it, this particular flight made me a firm believer in proper instrumentation for bad weather flying. In 1925 I wrote a thesis at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology for a doctor of science degree in aeronautics. At first I had hoped to study, through carefully controlled flight tests, the pos- sibility—or impossibility—of a specially trained pilot orienting him- self without flight instruments and determining certain phenomena, such as wind direction, without reference to a visible horizon or point on the ground. But this subject was not sufficiently abstract for the doctorate and was changed to an analysis of “The Effect of the Wind- Velocity Gradient,” employing flight tests, wind tunnel data, and mathematical analyses. The thesis begins: There has long been an uncertainty in the minds of aviators regarding the effect of the wind on the flying qualities of an airplane. Some pilots claim that it is much easier to turn into the wind than with it, and that at any altitude they can tell the wind direction by the feel of the ship in a turn, and this even though in a dense cloud which would preclude the possibility of obtaining their relative motion from any stationary object. Other pilots maintain that, regardless of the wind velocity or the proximity of the ground, there is no difference in the feel of the plane when turning into the wind and when turning with it. They claim that any apparent difference is due wholly to the psychological effect on the pilot, resulting from the difference in groundspeed in the two cases, and if there is any difference in the ship’s perform- ance, from a time-altitude standpoint, it is because the pilot handled the controls differently. In other words, if the pilot were blindfolded he could not tell the wind direction when turning, and a turn made into the wind would be identical with a turn made with the wind. This is, of course, considering the turn in relation to the medium in which it is being executed and not in relation to the curves traced out on the ground. There is a similar difference of opinion regarding the effect of a strong wind on the rate of climb. Experienced pilots are about evenly divided, half feeling that a plane climbs better into the wind, and the other half feeling that the wind makes absolutely no difference. Seven of the leading pilots of the day were questioned regarding the effect of wind on flying performance. The answers given were far from consistent, as might be expected from such a group of individual- ists. There was, therefore, still considerable confusion—and contro- versy—among the experts. The conclusions from the thesis, somewhat oversimplified, were that in airplane flight— 1. There is no measurable effect in level flight, at altitude, due to wind direction as long as the wind is steady. 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 2. There is no effect on climb due to wind except very near the ground, and there the wind-velocity gradient increases the rate of climb slightly when flying into the wind and decreases it slightly when flying with the wind. 3. A steady wind has no effect on turning except very near the ground, when the wind-velocity gradient causes a slight tendency to settle when turning away from a headwind and a slight tendency to climb when turning into it. This is most noticeable in strong winds and when flying at a large angle of attack or at minimum power. Summing up: A steady wind exercises no measurable effect on air- plane performance at altitude—except, of course, on groundspeed and direction of flight. Very near the ground, however, the effect of wind-velocity gradient can be serious, particularly in the case of a heavily loaded airplane. The danger is increased by a strong tendency on the part of the pilot to pull the nose up or in beyond the most efficient angle of attack. This increases any tendency to settle and may even cause the airplane to stall and spin in. In the early and middle 1920’s the Jones-Barany revolving chair test was given to all military pilots asa part of their periodic physical examination for flying. Normally this test was given with the pilot’s eyes open, and the flight surgeon looked for variations in times and amount of the rhythmic side-to-side movement of the eyes called nystagmus. In early 1926, Capt.—later Col—David A. Myers, an outstanding Air Corps flight surgeon, decided to augment the routine test by giv- ing an additional test consisting of several rotations of the chair with the pilot’s eyes closed. After the rate of rotation became steady, a normal pilot, with eyes closed, could not tell which way he was turn- ing. If the rate of rotation was slowed down and stabilized at a somewhat lower speed, the pilot thought the rotation had been stopped, and when the rotation actually was stopped he thought he was turning in the opposite direction. The explanation is that man normally maintains his equilibrium by sight, touch, hearing, muscle, and vestibular sense. ‘Touch and hear- ing are not important in flight orientation. By using the three re- maining senses he can usually ascertain and maintain his position, accurately sense the rate and direction of his motion, and generally orient himself with relation to the earth. Sight is by far the most reliable of these three senses, and when sight is lost, we must get our sense of balance and motion from the muscles and from the fluid movement sensors in the vestibular canals. If an individual is merely displaced, the fluid motions return to zero very rapidly, but if one is rotated, it may take from 5 to 25 seconds for the fluid motions to stop. During this period an individual can experience a false sense of mo- | EARLY INSTRUMENT FLYING—DOOLITTLE 341 tion called vertigo. This, of course, explains why early-day pilots flying in dense fog or clouds frequently become confused and occa- sionally spun in and crashed. Capt.—later Col—William C. Ocker, an early and extremely com- petent Army Air Corps pilot and flight researcher, had long been interested in instrument flying and in 1918 had tested the then new bank-and-turn indicator. In mid-1926 he took Captain Myers’ new “blindfold test.” His first reaction was that Captain Myers had played a trick on him or, if not, that his senses had failed him. After further consideration he decided that here was proof positive that no normal pilot could consistently fly “blind” without instruments. Ocker, who had had considerable experience flying with the bank- and-turn indicator—he frequently carried one, a quickly attachable unit complete with venturi, in his flight baggage—believed this instru- ment could correct the pilot’s faulty senses. He designed a lightproof “black box” which contained a bank-and-turn indicator and a mag- netic compass. This box was mounted on the front of the Jones- Barany chair. The pilot sealed his face against the opening in the box and observed the bank-and-turn indicator and compass. With this piece of equipment he could correctly identify the direction and rate of his rotation. After the rotation stopped and the compass settled down, he could then determine heading. Myers and Ocker continued their experiments, and the arrange- ment of black box and revolving chair were patented and subsequently used in the training of pilots. Later some pilots were to learn to fly by instruments alone before they learned to fly under normal visual conditions. In the late 1920’s and early 1930’s, Captain Ocker and 1st Lt.—later Col.—Carl J. Crane collaborated in the study of instrument flying techniques and developed, among other things, a unitary arrangement of instruments which would give the pilot a maximum of useful in- formation with a minimum of effort and fatigue. They referred to this as a “Flight Integrator.” In 1932 Major Ocker and Lieutenant Crane wrote, and the Naylor Printing Co. published, a book entitled: “Blind Flight in Theory and Practice.” This book gave an excellent analysis of the problems inherent in instrument flying and their solution. It was for many years the standard reference book on instrument flying. DANIEL GUGGENHEIM FUND FOR THE PROMOTION OF AERONAUTICS Daniel Guggenheim was one of the great industrialists, philan- thropists, and citizens of the 20th century. He was interested in everything that could lead to a fuller life and a better world. One of his many great contributions was the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for 342 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 the Promotion of Aeronautics. It was established for the purpose of promoting the advance of the art, science, and business of aviation. It proved to be a very effective medium in the accomplishment of that purpose. The fund was established in January 1926 with a grant of $2,500,- 000; although $500,000 had been given the previous year to New York University for the purpose of starting aeronautical education. The fund, in cooperation with the Government, was to be administered by a board of trustees composed of men of “eminence and competence.” Harry Guggenheim, gifted son of Daniel and a World War I naval aviator, was chosen president of the fund. In the initial stages of its organization, Rear Adm. H. I. Cone, an outstanding naval officer, was vice president; he was succeeded by Capt.—later Vice Adm.— Emory 8. Land of the Construction Corps of the U.S. Navy, who served until the fund’s work was completed. The strength of char- acter, sound judgment, organizational ability, understanding, and capacity for cooperation of Harry Guggenheim and Capt. “Jerry” Land were, in large part, the cement which held the fund together, enabled it to function efficiently, and made possible its considerable contributions. The general purposes of the fund were defined as follows: 1. To promote aeronautical education both in institutions of learn- ing and among the general public. 2. To assist in the extension of fundamental aeronautical science. 3. To assist in the development of commercial aircraft and aircraft equipment. 4. To further the application of aircraft to business, industry, and other economic and social activities of the Nation. The basic concept of the fund was “to maintain a simple, inex- pensive directing organization depending on established outside agencies, whenever possible, to carry out the aims of the fund.” It was to be a primer—a sparkplug—to stimulate interest and promote action. From the first it was understood that flight safety and reliability were important considerations and that one phase of the fund’s work might certainly be to study means of assuring safe and reliable flight despite weather conditions. With this in mind, a special committee of experts was organized to define the problem and a directive was prepared which authorized study regarding— 1. The dissipation of fog. 2. The development of means whereby flying fields may be located from the air regardless of fog. 3. The development of instruments to show accurately the height of airplanes above the ground, to replace barometric instruments now in general use showing height above sea level. PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Doolittle ‘FZ Joquiaqydag *S[O1JUOD 947 YINo J Jou pip nq qidya05 u aqajduio YsIY,, 9d 10} pepooy SVM Yorum yidya09 IPol ee gene Bs ay aptsoq ado quod} oY Ul 9pol Ads]ayy udg ‘VT SuIpurys JoyINe o9yy YqIM ouv[diie “6761 «LYST JUOWINALSUT 7T-AN poveplfosuo,) nba peplarp S]UIUWIBAS DIV. [re 1oy} OM Lime ‘p> ‘xoiddy ‘eryeaos ~OUIIZ) JO SxIO1 UBLINIIS WwOd} Sid SDL l JO uC JOT IXS! XO DSOUTC Is MUL |! Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Whittington PLATE 4 1. Enrolled exoskeleton of Ordovician genus Flexicalymene is seen from the side. Cup- shaped structure at top is eye, with suture line running to side. 3.5, 2. From front, Flexicalymene shows the three-lobed form that prompted the name “Trilobita” for these animals. The shell splits on suture line at molting. 3.5. PLATE 5 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Whittington *slizy Arosues Aq paidnss0 *sapaiaqny Jé » sdo} uo sjods » IIIM JOU [oe > 19 SMOL 6x ) Jey. sjeuRd jo ssutuodo 94} 91e 9S9U J, {s peeoy IUIUM (]p91X2}J IYI JO UONDESPI| * C [re > 1 [|" > C us “oy e > ‘piso oyrKig pue sjuowsas peZlio JOBIB YO DIOR IC Yd Udd INO PLATE 6 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Whittington aS SK ‘xoiddy *SJIOSUI pure SUBIDPISNID Arerodw94uo0s r Q ¢ Cdn - ul esoyy jo JUDISIUTWOT S]II PI X9AUOD yjeurs YAM PelaA0d SI potiod UBIUOAICT WoOd} SEOIDY J jo doef INs ey.@) 1Y3IYy = * saa %: Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Whittington PLATE 7 1. Fossil tracks, called Dimorphichnus, probably were made by trilobite. Tracks may have been made in the manner pictured below (figure 2). View is from beneath. 0.4. (From A. Seilacher, 1955.) Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Whittington PLATE 8 He ~ a Z Isotelus, one of the first trilobites described from the New World, in 1824. A specimen discovered in New York State by Walcott. 4.5. TRILOBITES—WHITTINGTON 407 series have also been obtained from limestones in Utah and Nevada, where they are preserved also by silicification. From other areas and countries, in shales and siltstones, have come size series of articu- lated exoskeletons, a notable example being those described from Czechoslovakia more than a hundred years ago by J. Barrande. It is extremely rare to find parts of a trilobite preserved other than the exoskeleton. This is presumably because the exoskeleton was strengthened by secretion of mineral matter, but the covering of the antennules and other appendages was not so reinforced. From a few localities, the most important being in North America, remains of appendages are known. An early discovery, announced in 1876, was made by Charles D. Walcott (later the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution) in a limestone bed near Trenton Falls, N.Y. Spurred on by his memory of the enthusiasm of Louis Agassiz, Walcott obtained over 3,500 entire trilobites, in a few of which the appendages were preserved. Walcott cut thin sections of these specimens, and demon- strated clearly that trilobites possessed jointed appendages. A few years later, W. S. Valiant, then curator of the museum at Rutgers College, picked up a loose piece of rock near Rome, N.Y., which contained a trilobite with appendages preserved by having been infilled with pyrite. A patient 8-year search resulted in the discovery in 1892 of the dark shale layer, less than 1 centimeter thick, from which Valiant’s loose specimen had come. The formation contained hun- dreds of similar specimens. Delicate excavations of these fossils were made by Prof. C. E. Beecher of Yale University, but he died while still working on a drawing of one of his remarkable prepara- tions. His student, Perey E. Raymond, took up the work and wrote an epic monograph concerned with the nature of trilobite appendages. Long before this monograph was completed, Walcott had made another sensational discovery, this time in the Burgess Shale—a formation of Middle Cambrian age—near Field, British Columbia. A great variety of arthropods are preserved in these shales, including trilobites with the appendages actually visible as a thin silvery film extending out beyond the margins of the exoskeleton (pl. 2). No finds of comparable richness have been made since these early days, and advances in our knowledge have come from the applica- tion of more refined techniques. An example of such an investigation is that made by Prof. Leif St¢érmer of the University of Oslo, who came to the United States in 1931 and worked with fragments of Wal- cott’s original material from Trenton Falls. Stgrmer ground a series of sections, parallel to each other and a small distance apart, through an enrolled specimen. An enlarged drawing of each section was made, and each drawing was traced on a sheet of wax. The thick- ness of the wax sheets was proportional to the enlargement of the 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 = 5 y BFS . a Ficure 1.—Partial pattern of the way in which the appendages are attached to trilobite’s body is shown in view of the animal’s underside from restoration by Stgrmer. Approx. xe drawing and to the distance between successive sections. Each outlined wax sheet was then cut out and the sheets put together to form an enlarged model of the original specimen. The reconstruction (fig. 1) based on these models gives an idea of the great amount of detailed information provided by Stgrmer’s work. This new knowledge, com- bined with a restudy of all previously discovered material, has resulted in a major advance in our understanding of trilobites. The reconstruction of the underside of the body shows the large plate (or hypostome) which lay underneath the middle region of the head. On the head, beside and behind the hypostome, are shown four pairs of appendages; in front of them are the long, jointed antennules. Most students of trilobites today believe that the animal’s mouth lay just inside the posterior edge of the hypostome, and that the stomach and other organs were enclosed in the capsule formed by the hypostome and the middle part of the head. The alimentary canal TRILOBITES—WHITTINGTON 409 60 Number of subfamilies I in each series: 50 A, I O—O new 5 ene zs I+: --+ dying out 40 & 1 IL E30 5 Oia, + S ie. w : ni bibs Stages m [ety tte ey Le [emul ORD. SIL. DEV. CARB. '! FER. Ficure 2.—Evolutionary history of trilobites portrayed in the rise and fall of subfamily groups in time. (From C. J. Stubblefield, 1959.) m CAMB. then extended back beneath the middle part of the body, terminating in an anus at the posterior tip. Stgrmer’s reconstruction of the under- side of the body shows an enclosing membrane and a pair of similar appendages on each segment. Each appendage consists of a jointed walking leg with bristles at the tip. From near the base of the ap- pendage rises a jointed branch that bears many fine filaments. All investigations have shown that the trilobite’s appendages were similar on each segment, and that none bore a claw or pincer for grasp- ing and tearing food and passing it tothe mouth. Trilobites probably fed, therefore, on minute organic particles suspended in the water or enclosed in the sediment of the sea bottom, this material being brought to the mouth by currents of water. The filament-bearing branches of the appendages may have been the main instruments in producing these currents. They probably also functioned as gills, and constant movement of the branches would have kept the gills bathed with fresh water. The trilobite’s appendages were attached by muscles to the convex middle region of the exoskeleton. Deep furrows in this region on the head, thorax, and tail formed projections on the inside of the shell for such attachments. Trilobites with smooth shells may show dark patches, which are believed to be corresponding areas of muscle at- tachment. The animal must also have possessed longitudinal muscles to effect its characteristic enrollment: these were probably situated in the middle region of the body. It had been argued that trilobites like Zsotelus (pl. 8), with its wide middle region and its relatively large tail, may have used a downward and forward stroke of the tail in swimming, as does the modern lob- ster. The bodies of these two animals are not comparable, however: 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 the space for powerful muscles in the thorax and tail of this species of trilobite was not so great as that in the lobster tail. Rigidity and strength must have been important requirements of the trilobite exoskeleton, since it was the framework upon which the muscular system operated. On the outside of the shell are ridges and grooves, pits, tubercles, and raised lines, incorrectly called “ornament.” These served to make the shell rigid, as do sheet-iron corrugations. In well-preserved specimens, many minute openings have been cb- served at the tips of short spines and tubercles (pl. 5, fig. 2). These are the ends of exoskeletal canals that led to sensory hairs or from glands beneath the exoskeleton. Such canals are also to be found disposed around the margins of the exoskeleton. The main supply of the organic particles on which trilobites fed must have been close to the surface of, or within, the sediments of the sea bottom. We may reasonably conclude, then, that trilobites lived largely in this bottom region, swimming by means of to-and-fro move- ments of their appendages, and also walking on, and digging or raking in, the bottom sediments. The antennules extended forward, explor- ing the region immediately ahead, and the eyes, with their many small facets (pl. 6), were well adapted to detecting movements in such surroundings. Gradually, then, a picture of the life of these animals begins to emerge from a study of their anatomy. Trilobites must have made impressions in the soft mud of the ancient sea bottom as they searched for food. If such impressions were later filled in by sand or silt, they might be preserved as fossil casts, projecting from the underside of a layer of silt or sand, now converted into rock. Just such tracks and trails are found in Paleozoic rocks: one sort of trail, called Rusophy- cus, 1s known from many continents. It is bilobed, with a prominent median longitudinal ridge. On each lobe are obliquely directed ridges and grooves. In one example, clear impressions are believed to be those of an animal’s jointed appendages. These trails are commensurate with trilobites. They may be shal- low, or deep and pocketlike, or more or less continuous. Inward and backward movements of the walking limbs of the animal could have scraped out the hollows, pushing out the material in the midline be- hind them. Impressions in the sides of some of the deep hollows are believed to have been made by the edges of the trilobite head and by spines on its thoracic segments. The trails are thus interpreted as shallow excavations, or perhaps even tunnels, made by trilobites in the bottom sediment as they passed through it in search of food. Some of the deep pockets have been thought of as excavations made for the deposit of eggs, such as the horseshoe crab Limulus makes today. TRILOBITES—WHITTINGTON 411 One might expect that, occasionally, a dead individual trilobite would be found associated with such a trail—the remains of an animal that had died, or of one that was overwhelmed by a sudden inrush of sediments or some other catastrophe. Yet, so far, no such dramatic proof of this scientific detection seems to have been found. Thus, the interpretation of these trails, although reasonable, is not positive. In almost all cases, fossils are the remains of animals that possessed hard parts (skeletons impregnated with mineral matter) that could be preserved. Yet in these ancient seas there were, in all probability, many inhabitants that lacked such hard parts. Conceivably, some of these fossil trails are the enigmatic traces of just such soft and now vanished animals. A different type of track, from Lower Cambrian rocks of Pakistan, has recently been described by Dr. A. Seilacher, University of Géot- tingen, Germany. This track, Dimorphichnus, is abundant on the surfaces of the sandstone layers in which the remains of trilobite shells are rare. Nevertheless, the size and nature of the track make it probable that it was made by the tips of the appendages of a trilo- bite (pl. 7). Dr. Seilacher considers that the animal held itself diag- onally to its direction of progression, and that it dug in the walking legs on one side to make deep, short scars, while raking over the sur- face with the legs on the other side to form longer scraping marks. Thus, compilation of all available knowledge of the trilobite body, combined with interpretations of the tracks and trails, affords a picture of how some trilobites may have lived. Those like /sotelus, smooth- shelled, and with the tail similar to the head in size, or like Dipleura, which had a narrower body and more thoracic segments, are pre- sumed—hbecause of their smooth, elongate form—to have burrowed into the sediments. There does not seem to be any obvious correlation between the type of exoskeleton and the habit of raking the surface of the sediments or making shallow excavations in it. Such a mode of life seems reasonable for such different trilobites as Ptychoparia, Flexicalymene, Cryptolithus, or Cordania. The broad, pitted fringe around the head of Cryptolithus and the long, backwardly directed spines may have served to prop the animal up on the sea floor with its thorax extended above it, so that its appendages could have stirred up the mud. The broad border around and behind the head of Cor- dania may have supported the animal in a similar way. Despite this possible similarity in habit, Cordania, which had eyes, facial sutures, and many more thoracic segments, can be only very distantly related to Cryptolithus. Such spinose trilobites as Ceratocephala (fig. 3) and Miraspis (pl. 3, fig. 1) can hardly have burrowed or dug into the sea bottom. They may, however, have rested the level front and side edges of the head 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 on the surface of the sediment, with thorax stretched out and limbs stirring up the mud in search of food. The large head plate—hypostome—of many trilobites was firmly braced against the remainder of the head, thus affording both protec- tion for the main organs and points of attachment for muscles. The posterior edge of the hypostome was sharply folded, and in some species it bore spines, so that these trilobites could have dug in the mud with their hypostomes by walking backward. However, evidences of this behavior, in the form of trails produced by such activity, have not yet been recognized by paleontologists. Trilobites of a particular body form, or of an otherwise related group, are in most cases not found exclusively in any one type of sedi- mentary rock. Smooth-shelled forms like /sotelus, for example, are found in reef limestone, shale, siltstone, and sandstone, but so is the spiny Ceratocephala. Some of these occurrences may result from the burial of the animal’s shell in a sediment that was laid down in an environment quite different from the one in which the living animal resided. If the trilobite exoskeleton is not disarticulated and is well preserved, however, we may presume that it probably was buried close to where it lived. Thus, clues to the ancient environment may properly be sought from the enclosing rock. Many cases in which this procedure has been followed suggest that particular species of trilobites possessed a wide tolerance for such environmental variables as depth of water, amount of light, temperature, and type of bottom sediment. Other species or groups of species seem to have favored one environment, although they were not confined to it. The Upper Cambrian ancestors of Triarthrus, for example, are abundant in dark shales, deposited in stagnant waters that were probably deficient in oxygen. Again, Dipleura and its close relatives are found commonly, but not exclu- sively, in sandy sediments in which they probably dug. Trilobite remains are abundant in Middle Paleozoic reef rocks, and it has been claimed that one smooth-shelled form inhabited the rough- water zone of a particular reef, clinging to rock surfaces like a modern chiton. Other examples are known of related but distinct species that are abundant in reef rocks of different ages and wide geographic separation. Thus there is evidence that certain trilobites were adapted to life in particular ecological niches in the ancient seas, but little evidence that most were adapted to a restricted environment. The possession of large eyes (in Remopleurides, for example) or absence of eyes (in Oryptolithus) has been held to suggest a life spent in muddy or deep, dimly lighted waters. Analogy with living arthropods, however, does not point to any positive conclusions. TRILOBITES—WHITTINGTON 413 The nature of the rocks that contain trilobite fossils suggests deposi- tion in waters not more than a few hundred feet deep. ‘Thus we have no direct evidence that trilobites inhabited deep oceanic waters. Yet, extremely similar genera (Ptychagnostus (pl. 3, fig. 2) and Dicranu- rus, for example) have been shown to have a worldwide distribution. Does this mean that these and other kinds of trilobites inhabited the surface waters of the oceans, feeding on the microscopic floating plants or animals that constituted the Paleozoic plankton? Did they browse > amid floating mats of seaweed, like those of the Sargasso today? If we assume this mode of life, the molts and dead bodies of such animals might have come to rest in widely separated localities, and have been included, in consequence, in very different types of sediments. We know, however, that newly hatched trilobites formed their first shells when they were half a millimeter or so in length. These tiny creatures probably floated, like the larvae of today’s crustaceans. The young may have existed in this stage for days or weeks and, in that time, could have drifted far from the point where the eggs were laid. At a size of less than 1 centimeter in length in most species, trilobites became bottom dwellers in shallow water, and probably spent the remainder of their lives within a limited area. Thus, the wide geographical dispersion of particular trilobites may be explained as taking place during the larval stages, the adults dwelling on the sea bottom—not drifting in the ocean’s surface water. It has been said that spiny trilobites like Ceratocephala and Miraspis were floating forms even in the adult stage, the spines inhibiting their sinking. However, we know nothing of the append- ages of these trilobites and, as mentioned, the possession of a spiny exoskeleton does not preclude the possibility of bottom dwelling. Some modern arthropod species exhibit sexual dimorphism—that is, male and female forms that differ in size or in other characters. More than a hundred years ago, Barrande (in that great study of trilobites from Czechoslovakia already mentioned) observed a broad and a narrow form in certain species. Today, we consider these differences to be the result of distortion that the fossils suffered when the rocks enclosing them were subjected to various stresses. Other such exam- ples among fossils are well known. Not all the cases of two closely similar forms coming from the same rocks can be so explained, how- ever, and it may be that sexual dimorphism did occur in trilobites. If so, however, it was not universal: the cases are equivocal. Although during the 100-million-year period of the Cambrian, trilo- bites were the dominant animals of the shallow seas in kinds, numbers, and sizes, they did not have these seas to themselves. There were other aquatic arthropods in existence—types that, unlike the trilobites, were armed with pincers. However, the rarity of these arthropods as fossils 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Ficure 3.—Ceratocephala, an Ordovician to Devonian trilobite, restored to show the antennules and sensory hairs. x 4. (From Whittington and Evitt, 1954.) suggests that they were not formidable enemies of the trilobites. From the earliest Cambrian onward, a succession of new genera and families of trilobites appeared, though the rate of extinction of trilobite groups was also high (fig. 2). On balance, the picture is one of great evolutionary activity, of adap- tation to a great variety of environments, expressed in a multiplicity of genera and species. At the end of the Cambrian and during the Ordovician period, this picture begins to change. New kinds of ani- mals appeared. Previously existing ones became more numerous, and these animals must have competed with the trilobites for the food supply on and in the sea floor. Among these forms were the bivalved brachiopods and clams, and the snails. The nautiloids, molluscan ancestors of the modern Vautilus, were not only numerous and larger than trilobites, but probably had grasping tentacles and a powerful jaw. Such predators could have seized and eaten trilobites. But the capacity for enrollment may have afforded the trilobites some protec- tion, and their spines must have made them an awkward mouthful. They may have lain partly buried in the bottom sediment, the pro- jecting or stalked eyes of some species enabling them to detect nearby movement. Vegetation, clusters of marine animals such as sea lilies or corals, and crannies in reefs would also have afforded the trilobites places of concealment. | TRILOBITES—WHITTINGTON 415 The evolution of many new kinds of trilobites in the Ordovician perhaps reflects adaptation to new environments in response to chang- ing conditions. Yet it may beseen (fig. 2) that, toward the end of this period, the rate of extinction became greater than the rate of evolution of new forms. This is a pattern that continued through the animals’ remaining history. Only a single group persisted through the Car- boniferous and into the Permian. This decline—and the ultimate total extinction of trilobites—cannot readily be explained. One of the mysteries of the evolutionary process is why such a fate should overtake a group of animals that, for millions of years, were well adapted to their surroundings and continued to evolve new species until near the close of the Paleozoic era. Phrases that imply “over- specialization” or “the senescence of the trilobite race” are neither apt nor meaningful. Ceratocephala has been regarded as a highly “spe- cialized” trilobite, yet its exoskeleton is known from rocks ranging from Ordovician to Devonian age—a period of some 100 million years. This is clear evidence that types of animals well adapted to a par- ticular environment may exist for an extremely long time without significant morphological change. The competition with other groups for food may have played a part in the trilobites’ demise. In addition, the Devonian fishes—among which jaws evolved for the first time—may have become trilobite predators. At present, however, there is no acceptable theory that explains the reasons for extinction of the trilobites. New kinds of trilobites are constantly being found on all continents (although new information on trails and on appendages collects much more slowly). As the store of knowledge from new discoveries and improved techniques of investigation accumulates, we should be able to outline more precisely the natural history of these remarkable arthropods. For the present, we may agree with the late Prof. Percy Raymond that perhaps the greatest contribution that trilobites have made to our world “is the aesthetic pleasure the contemplation of their elegant shells has given to countless collectors and students of fossils.” But paleontology is a science that does more than enjoy its raw ma- terial: it also tries to bring extinct animals back to life. To me, it is far more exciting to try to visualize these “elegant shells” as parts of living animals, inhabiting their particular niche in nature at a time so long ago that the vertebrate animals had yet to evolve. §25325—62—_28 eor(h BP enisencets “| tid Pais Fate KT. pron 4 st domed » moot am io be 1 HK i fiawot tnd (s i (aoe ad vac ja X meruniove Magia nifh sulfite last andypod cers Te Sen y att bol POM ri eGR ia eee Aytetivce tats eiatine. 8 eal): Res vest a ATL Abs \ eon AMET OAT GUE: Bs ee aa wal out yea alae jeieapid Pe aa nel sith Gl fos seems ft oO Ceatinlies Sr ono athe ieee pacha Giana ye Vs: Che tedeuty onl) Sep arts ; ’ ‘ it, “ ‘ : “i ‘ t = oat yey Las ee i PRILD. St AES | irre Aft oO SO ‘4 * ; 1 oy Teeth teek) aed} . . - } ' * 7 ae | ; “ ,] be eh Wi j sry mye Py me # ye 2 7 a pee vi + efiliiped stared Ra. Vou -aes and Qe periays evatang ¢ ! s ? r b! 1 pes } Sfodfaut a pe at * aatt f cree > Fi vedy is Poke Mary EE oe LES | feat? MOE eS SCF. o, s Ot. oid DAE TE re Zid ie ‘ ; : ; 4 isi =f iol: XO Pode SEa tte if aa f beg? ' y Ty | eA SaaMert ss Baer ate, S i i eats un ' : a tere 4 Ave: - i i's tat eis 4 ble A Y - ‘ ay Re baum . *, 76) rf cy mi 5 | ie , / : ‘ Ae Cok ae M i roy VS Awe ALS - , : eign" F ‘ : 722 ea 8 Fee: “ih > ou & ty , ; ny ‘ = ‘ : es ; ina OH Le gy f ; ; aE ¥ 6! ‘ . i j } ij 4 SD a ae teet f ‘ Pinter vi 4 f Y ; Je oy nye H ¥ J va ” ( . ’ ' iy } £G c= , es ‘ fey. fi, - ? a f Lp ae tere ‘ aus Wie hes ci 8 agua 1 ‘ hs Sama OSES 42 : : } ‘o het \ : ’ ? y RON ED OF ad 13.92 LI CRREES We ee eee A " dogs “a ‘ : " if 4, V ' | i +} . } . : Chromosomes and the Theory of Heredity’ By C. D. Daruineton, F.R.S. Botany School, Oxford University, Oxford, England ~ MORGAN’S DISCOVERY Tue crisis of the struggle in the scientific world over the chromosome theory of heredity was reached in the 1920’s when T. H. Morgan’s views became the subject of dispute. Morgan, with his collaborators at Columbia University, had carried out breeding experiments with the fly Drosophila [1].2_ He claimed that by these experiments he could show that heredity, as long suspected, was indeed carried entirely by the chromosomes. It followed that these minute bodies in the cell nucleus were to be held responsible for the whole character of every living thing, plant or animal, man or microbe; and the course of evo- Jution from the beginning had been determined by changes in these chromosomes. It was a complete scheme of determinism on Omar Khayyam lines. This theory aroused misgiving and contradiction in many countries, especially among older men who might know the fly but certainly did not know its chromosomes. Before we look at their arguments, let us see what Morgan, and Mendel before him, had done. Mendel had found that if he crossed two races of peas differing in two respects, as it might be AB Xabd, the hybrid gave germ cells of four kinds in equal numbers: AB, Ab, aB, and ab. Free assortment, _ random recombination, independent segregation were the explanations given for this behavior. Assortment of what? Assortment of certain “elements” carried in all cells and passed to the germ cells. Morgan, the germ cells were of the new types, Ab and aB. The proportion was characteristic of the particular pair of elements. Assortment was not | | | however, beginning in 1910, found that in the fly often less than half _ free. The elements were linked; and, if the hybrid fly happened to | be a male, the linkage was complete: the elements were held together _ in one block. 1Substance of a Royal Society Tercentenary Lecture delivered on July 20, 1960. Re- printed by permission from Nature, vol. 187, No. 4741, pp. 892-895, Sept. 10, 1960. 3 Numbers in brackets refer to list of references at end of article. | 417 | 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 At this point Morgan recalled that the previous year the cytologist Janssens [2] at Louvain had made a general proposal about chromo- some behavior. He had noticed that after the pairing of maternal and paternal chromosomes in germ cell formation they fell apart but re- mained touching or attached at various points which he called “chi- asmata.” At these points, Janssens suggested, the mating chromosomes might exchange parts by breakage and reunion. Such behavior would give a statistical association or linkage of elements in the same chro- mosome of a kind already to be suspected from Bateson’s breeding experiments. Conversely it would lead to the formation of new chromosomes by a recombination of parts. Taking Janssens’s hint, Morgan and his collaborators proceeded to make crosses between pairs of flies differing in many pairs of respects. They found that hundreds of elements could on this assumption be fitted into the four observed pairs of chromosomes of Drosophila. Moreover, if the proportion of regrouping or crossing-over was itself assumed to be related to the distance apart of the elements along each chromosome, they found that the whole assembly fitted into fixed linear orders. Thus the elements of heredity, or, using Janssens’s word, the genes, could be put on a map which, like other maps, showed one how to find one’s way about. It soon seemed reasonable to advance from these direct inferences to more general principles. Morgan argued that all heredity in all organisms was carried by chromosomes as it was in Drosophila. Further, all chromosomes were composed of units of crossing-over or mutation which might be known as genes. Hence, he appeared to argue, the genes would add up to give the whole of heredity; and the differences between them would add up to give the whole of variation and of evolution. THE OPPOSITION Morgan’s “Theory of the Gene” appeared in 1926; its reception in England could scarcely have been more unfavorable. Seven men might have been willing to assert their belief in the chromosome theory and give their reasons for it. But against this view there were seven hundred who held a contrary opinion. The supporters felt liberated by the new theory, its opponents felt confined and oppressed by it. The grounds they gave for their opposition were both general and specific [8]. The general objections were that the theory was naive and mechani- ical and yet self-contradictory. For it was both statistical and deter- ministic. It left too much room to chance yet no room to free will. In evolution, moreover, its hard particulate basis shut out the hope of — CHROMOSOMES AND HEREDITY—DARLINGTON 419 any soft Lamarckian adaptation. The Lamarckian principle, we must remember, was at that time generally maintained by naturalists and physiologists and assumed by medical and social scientists. Even phi- losophers had their opinions, and they were on the Lamarckian side. Yet there was no room in this picture for the Lamarckian emblems, the giraffe, the salamander, or the midwife toad. The more specific objections to the chromosome theory were also very various. The assumption that the chromosomes were alone responsible for heredity left a gap in our theory of development. Is not heredity merely a repetition of development? Yet this theory of heredity almost ignored development, and it was based on a single organism— a fly with a most disorderly development of its own. The chromosome theory also left a gap where the cytoplasm should be—where indeed European workers had found evidence of determination. Loeb, with his unfortunate idea that the cytoplasm carried the solid basis of heredity while the nucleus bore only a few frills, provided a line of defense for weaker opponents of the chromosome theory. Again it was pointed out, quite rightly, that the gene mutations of Drosophila could not be representative of natural variation for they were in their effects both disadvantageous and discontinuous. In the first respect they contradicted the helpful mutations of the evening primrose, Oenothera. In the second respect they failed to explain the universal property of continuous variation. As for the chromo- somes themselves, did they not at the end of every cell division dis- solve and disappear into that bag of fluid, the nucleus? As for crossing-over, the foundation of Morgan’s interpretation, it was sup- posed to happen only in one sex and not in the other. But who had ever seen it happen anywhere? Crossing-over, like the genes them- selves, was a stroke of fancy, a mathematical artifact invented to salvage a broken hypothesis. With regard to these chromosomes, it was true, there were a variety of accounts of what they did [4]. The two cell divisions known as meiosis, when the germ cells were formed, were especially disputable. Some believed that there were general rules; others that there were many kinds of meiosis in different groups of plants and animals. Most believed that, if there was a rule, it was that the corresponding chromosomes from the two parents paired as threads side-by-side. But a few stoutly maintained that chromosomes in the nucleus were in an endless chain which split up crosswise into segments to give 2a single chromosomes at mitosis, v double chromosomes at meiosis, and, by a freak of nature, 4a chromosomes at mitosis making a new tetra- ploid [5]. Clearly this view was of no help to those who believed that the chromosomes made heredity and were differentiated in linear structure; but it was a help to those who did not think anything of 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 the kind. Such differences of opinion—which were described in textbooks, taught in universities, and expounded in theses—created a verbal and literary jungle which had to be cleared before any general theory could be discussed. Finally, there was one specific objection which no one seemed to make. It was that genes were inferred to exist from breeding experi- ments with “characters”; or more precisely, from studying the in- heritance of differences of character when different parents were crossed. Yet the whole of heredity, of the genotype, was supposed to be made up of genes added together. There was a concealed gap be- tween the analytical or differential gene and the integral genotype. In looking at the chromosomes one could see that they added up to make the nucleus. But their differences, their variations, were visibly of many kinds and degrees. The gap was revealed. How could it be bridged? Not, as it seemed to me, by pretending that it did not exist. It was necessary to work out a system of understanding life in terms of chromosomes, a system independent of experimental breeding, a system which would stand on its own feet. In this view I was strengthened by one man’s opinion. “Cytology,” Karl Belar said to me in 1928, “should not be the ancilla of genetics.” That was just what I thought. CROSSING-OVER AND THE CHIASMA Belar had shown that mitosis and the chromosomes themselves had a universal character, a character which must underlie the uniformity of development of plants and animals and protista [6]. Here was a great and necessary step forward. In genetics, as in geology a cen- tury earlier, uniformity was bound up with evolution. Cytologists and geneticists too, so far as they took the chromosomes seriously, therefore liked to think that the same such universal character was true also of meiosis and underlay some uniformity in heredity. But Drosophila itself, with crossing-over at meiosis in the female but not in the male, faced us with the gravest objection to this view. It was possible to evade the issue for the time being. It was possible to begin with the simplest material offering experimental tests by purely chromosome criteria. For this purpose polyploid plants with large chromosomes, tulips and hyacinths, were admirably fitted. They re- vealed several unexpected principles. The important ones, in the present connection, concern the chiasma [7]. At a certain stage in the beginning or “prophase” of meiosis, like chromosomes come together as threads side-by-side in pairs. ‘The association is limited to likes: it is chemically specific; and it was, I found, limited to pairs even when there are three or four of a kind. At a later stage the paired chromosomes reproduce, forming double CHROMOSOMES AND HEREDITY—DARLINGTON 421 threads, and at the same time fall apart. But when they do so they stick at certain points, as Janssens had said, the chiasmata. Why do they fall apart, in one sense, and stick together, in another? Their structure gave the answer. Contrary to Janssens’s view, the chiasmata always had the same structure: they were exchanges of partner between hali-chromosome threads, chromatids as we call them. Further, these exchanges could be shown, on internal, cellular, micro- scopic, evidence to be invariably connected with a previous crossing- over between chromatids of the partner chromosomes. On the simplest assumption, therefore, chiasmata were determined by such crossing-over. ‘The arrangement of four chromatids could be shown in a diagram that was at once genetic and cytological in its implica- tions. With capital and small letters in sequence for the pairing chromosomes, an asterisk for the mechanical center, and dots for the points of breakage, the diagram would be as follows: * Homix ieee B B ie *s FF 6 = yey es y Sr ee b b | | a a Nou Thus from two chromosomes, ABCDEF and abcdef, two new chromatids, ABcdef and abCDEF, had been formed, and the four chromatids would pass as chromosomes into the four germ cells formed by meiosis. The existence of these four cells would, as Janssens had put it, be justified by each of them being a unique com- bination of available genes different from the rest. One could not of course prove that this principle was universally true (in those days most biologists believed that propositions ought to be “proved”) ; one could merely hope to render it increasingly prob- able. This hope was gradually realized. The critical configurations of several chromosomes united by, or interlocked with, successive chiasmata, the comparisons of frequencies and distributions of chiasmata and crossing-over in different organisms, in polyploids, in hybrids, with inversions and interchanges of segments of chromosome, in plants with defects of chromosome pairing and of sexual reproduc- 422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 tion, these all helped to carry conviction. Even in Oenothera the occurrence of chiasmata, the inference of crossing-over, could be used to explain the modes of inheritance and the origins and kinds of muta- tions [8]. The solution of the problem of crossing-over was, however, ob- structed by another, to me, unexpected but inseparable development. The study I had made of meiosis, and my interpretation of what a hundred others had seen in a great variety of plants and animals, made it clear that the chiasma had consequences which were as important as its causes [9]. People had supposed that the chromosomes were paired at the first metaphase of meiosis because they were, in a mysteri- ous sense, attracted to one another. This was, they thought, the climax of the sexual process. What could be more natural? But I had found that, after pairing as single threads, the chromosomes fall apart as double threads. They do not attract, they repel one another after they become double; and they are held together only by chiasmata, by the exchanges of partner between their chromatids, after crossing- over. When pairs of chromosomes fail to form chiasmata, whatever the cause, the consequence is that they lie on the spindle, unconnected and unorientated. They then fail to pass to opposite poles. With- out chiasmata meiosis itself, with Mendelian segregation, the reduction of chromosome number and the alternation of haploid and diploid in the sexual cycle, all these fail to ensue. Thus there was, in my view, a universal causal sequence: crossing- over—chiasmata—chromosome pairing—segregation and _ reduc- tion—sexual reproduction. . ‘This reversal of the mechanical interpretation of meiosis made it possible to describe meiosis in the same physicochemical terms as mitosis. But what mattered first were its genetic implications. The new principle seemed to be true of all plants and animals (except male Drosophila). It therefore meant that meiosis and crossing- over had come in together, at one step. Crossing-over from its origin must have been coextensive with sexual reproduction. What Morgan had hoped to imply I was now forced to assert. The reason why the chromosomes were divisible into units or genes was that everywhere their division into such units was a condition of meiosis and hence of sexual reproduction. This, of course, made sense in terms of selec- tion, adaptation, and the evolution of sexual reproduction itself. For if the chromosome were not divisible into genes, if it were not capable of crossing-over, it would be inherited as a block and no genes could be revealed either to the geneticist by his experiments or to nature by her selection. The original system would never have survived. CHROMOSOMES AND HEREDITY—DARLINGTON A933 EVOLUTION AND THE CELL It will be seen here that an evolutionary point of view was begin- ning to force itself into my argument. There were several reasons why this should have happened to the student of chromosomes, by no stretch of the imagination but by hard necessity. While the experimental breeder could sort out linkage in one species, the chromosomes could reveal chiasmata in a hundred species and in every group of plants and animals. While the experi- mental breeder himself decided how his plants or animals should breed, the chromosome man had to pick up his cells and discover how nature had bred them, and why, and with what effect. These were two reasons. But a third was even larger. It was that through the chromosomes there is continuity between successive generations. To the naturalist and to the experimental breeder the organism is an independent discontinuous entity. To the cytologist it is part of a continuous process. Cell division is always a step between the past and future: it is always adapted to meet conditions which do not yet exist, to produce progeny which are irrelevant to their parent’s success. Oenothera first brought this home tome. In its evolution there had been interchanges between different chromosomes, each of which succeeded by virtue of its selective advantage over its predecessors. But success depended on whether plants were inbred or outbred. Thus the hereditary mechanism and the sexual mechanism, the means of distributing and recombining differences and the means of bringing them together, must be bound up together in one system, a genetic system. Ina genetic system crossing-over of chromosomes is no good without crossing of germ cells, without outbreeding. ‘The two proc- esses must be adjusted to one another. They must also be adjusted to the needs, not of the individual, but of the breeding group and, more particularly, of its posterity. A second example was in the male Drosophila, with its suppression of crossing-over. In these flies the male, I found, had contrived an anomalous kind of meiosis without crossing-over [10]. The chromo- somes paired and separated without needing to form chiasmata. The breeding and the chromosome observations thus agreed. But how had an otherwise universal rule come to break down—and break down in the very species of organism in which the rule was first brought to light ? The reason is obvious as soon as it is pointed out. In the verte- brates or flowering plants the genes in the chromosomes are recombined once in every sexual generation. This may be once in 10 months or 10 years. But in the short-lived flies it happens once in 10 days. That is why from the whole animal kingdom Morgan chose to work 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 with them. But to recombine genes so often does not give any com- bination a chance of being properly tested. Far better to let the genes recombine in one sex and pass unrecombined through the other sex, down the other line. It is an admirable solution: new things can be made, but good things can be kept. In the evolution of the flies it was not therefore surprising that a new type of meiosis had been developed in one sex—it had to be the heterozygous sex—in which crossing-over was suppressed. The genetic system would benefit from this modification. The original type of meiosis, on the other hand, was the common ancestral type still found in all species of plants, animals, and protista, a type of nuclear divi- sion which had arisen at the origin of sexual reproduction, a type with a uniform physicochemical character. At the time this speculative conclusion seemed to be rash. Today, however, we can clearly go further. The brilliant work that is now being used to reveal the genetic structure of fungi, bacteria, bacteri- ophages, and other viruses makes it indeed necessary to go further. We have to say now that crossing-over of gene sequences, or nucleotide sequences, is the original property of all systems capable of evolution; and we may add that sexual reproduction, as we ordinarily under- stand it, is the structure built around crossing-over which has made the higher organisms possible [11]. This view turned genetics upside down. In the short term one could still see fertilization as the focus of life’s processes. For it is at this moment in the higher plants and animals that the individual is created. But in the long term the focus was shifted to the act of crossing-over and the origin of the chiasma. For this is the moment when, we may say, the gene is created. On this event all the processes of evolution converge and from it they all diverge. DETERMINATION AND UNCERTAINTY At an early stage in the discussion of crossing-over, the opponents of the chromosome theory objected that there was no visual or direct evidence that chromosomes did or could cross over at meiosis. When this evidence was provided they objected that there was no reason why it should happen. Fortunately the mechanical reasons were by this time only too evident. Chromosomes which pair as threads al- ways coil around one another. Just as pairs of textile fibers spun under torsion release a part of their torsion by coiling around one another, so do the chromosomes. The part of their torsion released is in equilibrium with the rest which is stored; it is available to break the chromatids and to untwist them to a position where their broken ends can recombine in new combinations. The specificity in pairing of genes and of parts of chromosomes and the observed release of tor- CHROMOSOMES AND HEREDITY—DARLINGTON 425 sion at the chiasma provide for the time, place, and action of the event inferred in Drosophila and of the result seen in the chiasma [12]. Experiments with nucleic acid starvation later indicated that the nucleic acid component of the chromosomes was the means of develop- ing their torsion. I therefore assumed it to have the structure not of a straight column but of a spiral staircase [13], an assumption which has been vindicated with beautiful precision by Watson and Crick [14]. How the molecular spiral works in detail, however, is a question we must ask later, when we have a more elaborate molecular model of the paired chromosomes. What must be discussed now is the fact that this breakage, this crossing-over, can occur at hundreds or thousands of different places along the chromosome—indeed by one definition between any pair of genes in the whole sequence. But in a particular pair in a particular cell it occurs at only a few points, from one to a dozen; and there are conditions, even in Drosophila itself, where it seems to be almost fixed. This situation, in our experience of the statistics of causal relations, seemed to be unique and significant. Its mere mechanics was easily understood. The frequency and distribution of crossing-over are char- acteristic of the organism. It can be regulated by the organism, by its heredity. If the chromosomes that are going to pair are regularly placed side by side in the nucleus, which sometimes happens, the amount of twisting they develop is regularly distributed and hence the crossing-over. If the chromosomes are irregularly placed, as they usually are, the crossing-over will be irregular and uncertain, as it usually is. Thus the irregularity of crossing-over, which gives the character- istic variety of progeny in sexually reproducing organisms, is some- thing controlled. Like the weather it shows uncertainty. But, like the weather also, we can predict it so far as we can expect to predict it. Its failure, as well as its normal conditions, show that it is a deter- mined uncertainty. Indeed in asexual reproduction all uncertainty can be removed, and frequently is removed. Its general survival throughout the plant and animal world therefore shows that the un- certainty of crossing-over is original, is organized, and is of adaptive value. Through it, indeed, meiosis acts as a means of generating uncertainty [15]. To put the matter in another way: it is a paradox that the gene which is an organ of determinacy in life exists by virtue of a process of apparent indeterminacy. But when we examine it we find that the indeterminacy is spurious. It has been put there (if I may diverge from the present argument) by natural selection and for natural selection. It has been put there as a necessary complement of the un- certainty of the gene’s mutation; together they produce adaptive variation. 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The discovery of how crossing-over happens had long-range conse- quences beyond the previous limits of genetics, for it enabled us to split up the processes of life into two parts. First there are those con- cerned with determining the character of individuals. These are processes of physiology in which the greatest certainty of determina- tion, the strictest predictability in reaction with the environment, a chemical determinism, is achieved; and second there are the processes of meiosis. These, reinforced by the chances of fertilization which are derived from them, determine the differences in character of indi- viduals. They are the processes of classical genetics in which the greatest uncertainty of determination is organized and achieved. This contrast, as I believe, between two kinds of process—the one deterministic, the other spuriously nondeterministic—also provides one of the several ways of splitting genetics into two. It means that instead of speaking of the laws of heredity, as the early Mendelians were fond of doing (making biology echo the physics of the time), we should speak rather of the “paradoxes” of genetics. For heredity is a relation between parent and offspring which is variably compounded of the certain and the uncertain elements, according to how like the parents or grandparents may have been; indeed, according to the effects of their system of breeding. THE CONTINUING ISSUE I have given an eye-witness account of a battle. I believe it is a battle that we won. The pursuit of the enemy has, to be sure, taken us far away from the original site of the conflict; and it could have taken us much farther with the elasticity of the gene, the organization of the chromosome, or the physiology of the nucleus. But the site of the struggle matters less than its purpose. The enemy, although de- feated and dispersed, has not been destroyed. They will, in my opinion, have to be fought many times again. For mankind, if it hap- pens to take note of the argument, will not willingly admit that its destiny can be revealed by the breeding of flies or the counting of chiasmata. REFERENCES 1. Morean, T. H. Random segregation versus coupling in Mendelian inherit- ance. Science, n.s., vol. 34, p. 384, 1911. Morean, T. H. The theory of the gene. New Haven, 1926. 2. JANSSENS, F. A. La théorie dela chiasmatypie. Cellule, vol. 25, pp. 387-411, 1909. 3. MacBring, E. W., et al. The relation of chromosomes to heredity. Nature, vol. 96, pp. 424-425, 1915. MacBripg, BE. W. The present position of the Darwinian theory. Science Progress, vol. 18, pp. 76-96, 1923. 14. 15. CHROMOSOMES AND HEREDITY—DARLINGTON 427 MacBripg, E. W. Further evidence for the Lamarckian theory. Nature, vol. 143, p. 205, 1939. MacBripz, EH. W. Prof. E. B. Wilson: obituray notice. Nature, vol. 1438, p. 547, 1939. . Wirtson, E. B. The cell in development and heredity (38d ed.). New York, 1925. . FARMER, J. B., and Dicsy, L. On the dimensions of chromosomes considered in relation to phylogeny. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. 205, 1914. . BELAR, K. Der Formwechsel der Protistenkerne. Jena, 1926. -. DaruinetTon, C. D. Polyploids and polyploidy. Nature, vol. 124, pp. 62-64, 98-100, 1929. . DartineTon, C. D. The cytological theory of inheritance in Oenothera. Journ. Genet., vol. 24, pp. 405-474, 1931. . DARLINGTON, C. D. Meiosis. Biol. Rev., vol. 6, pp. 221-264, 1931. . DaRLInGTon, C. D. Anomalous chromosome pairing in the male Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics, vol. 19, pp. 95-118, 1934. - Daruineton, C. D. The evolution of genetic systems. Cambridge, 1939. 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1958. . DaRLINGTON, C. D. The time, place and action of crossing-over. Journ. Genet., vol. 31, pp. 185-212, 1935. (In Russian, Uspexi sovremennoi Biologii, vol. 5, pp. 848-870.) . DaruinetTon, C. D. The chemical basis of heredity and development. Dis- covery, vol. 6, pp. 79-86, 1945. Watson, J. D., and Crick, F. H. C. The structure of DNA. C.S.H. Symp. Quant. Biol., vol. 18, pp. 128-131, 1953. Daruineton, C. D. The facts of life. London and New York, 1953. Tropical Climates and Biology’ By G.S. CARTER Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England [With 4 plates] Forry years ago, when I was young, our elders often told us that a zoologist’s education was not complete until he had visited the Tropics and worked on a tropical fauna. The richness and variety of animal life in the Tropics are so great that they felt that a man who had not experienced tropical zoology could have no more than a very incom- plete idea of the animal world and its distribution. It is my thesis in this address that work in the Tropics is still of great value to zoolo- gists, though not for exactly the reasons that led our predecessors to think so. Today, zoologists are not interested so much in describing new forms and recording their morphology and distribution; most of us are more interested in the general biology of animals—in trying to under- stand the interactions between animals and their environments, physi- cal and biological, how they manage to live in face of the often antagonistic conditions of their environments, what controls their distribution and evolution, and so on. If we do not go outside tem- perate climates such as our own, we tend to think that the conditions we find here are general, or at any rate normal, for animal life, and to neglect the fact that elsewhere in the world animals live in very different conditions. More than this, the range of conditions in a tem- perate climate is midway between the extremes of heat and cold to which life is exposed in other countries, and knowledge of the means by which animals survive in conditions nearer the extremes of the viable range often helps toward understanding their life in our own climate. In some ways study of arctic faunas shares these advantages with tropical biology, but in cold regions the fauna is so restricted, and investigation is so difficult, that I cannot believe that arctic biol- ogy can ever rival that of the Tropics in value to the biologist. 1 Address delivered to Section D (Zoology) on Sept. 1, 1960, at the Cardiff Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted by permission from The Advancement of Science (London), September 1960. 429 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 I shall give some examples in which work in the Tropics has given results that seem to me of interest to the general biologist, choosing examples in which the results are not such as might be expected from knowledge of the biology of temperate climates. I shall not deal with the economic importance of tropical biology, which is being discussed elsewhere at this meeting. Any economic use of a fauna or flora must be based on knowledge of the general biology; we need not fear, I think, that our results will be valueless even from the economic point of view. . Before I go on to my examples of tropical biology I must sum- marize the climatic conditions in which tropical and temperate en- vironments differ, insofar as they seem to be biologically important, for it is necessary to realize the nature of these differences if we are to discuss their effects on the animals. I shall speak only of ter- restrial and fresh-water environments, saying nothing of the sea where the differences are of kinds other than those I shall be de- scribing. They would need a separate discussion. Ultimately, most of the climatic differences between tropical and temperate regions derive from the greater altitude of the sun at mid- day in the Tropics and from the world distribution of temperature and pressure, which is itself due partly to differences of solar heat at different latitudes and partly to rotational effects. How these ulti- mate causes produce their effects is the concern of meteorology and we need not go into it; we need only to know what the effects are. On the Equator the altitude of the sun at midday is never more than 2314° from the vertical. It declines to this angle at the solstices in June and December, and is vertical at the equinoxes. In the equa- torial region, therefore, any seasonal change there may be is double, as the sun passes north and south from the vertical. In temperature, however, the seasonal changes are very small, since, with the sun never far from the vertical, the amount of solar heat received does not vary by more than 8 percent, and the variation in the length of the day is insignificant. At the Tropics (23814° N. and S.) the seasonal changes are greater, for the sun at the winter solstice is at a height of only 48°, giving a variation of solar heat of about 27 per- cent, and the length of day varies by about 2 hours. In our country [England] sunlight is about twice as powerful in June as in Decem- ber, and the difference in heat received is greatly increased by the much longer daylight in summer. As the result of these conditions, the seasonal change in mean tem- perature on the Equator is not usually greater than 1° to 2° C. and is much less than the diurnal range which is often 10° C. In equa- torial regions, however, temperatures are never very high. The an- nual mean is usually between 25° and 30° C., being prevented from TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 431 rising higher by the humidity, cloudiness, and other conditions. Ex- tremes of heat are characteristic not of the equatorial regions but of the deserts in subtropical latitudes. Though in fact the sun passes north and south of the vertical every- where within the Tropics, the double seasonal change is practically restricted to latitudes within 10° of the Equator. Farther from the Equator than this, the sun does not pass far enough from the vertical at the summer solstice to produce a noticeable effect. But the range of seasonal temperature change increases as we pass away from the Equator and may be as high as 8° C. at the Tropics. It is, however, still less than in our latitude, where it may be as much as 15° C. Rainfall is more important than the temperature in determining the differences between tropical environments. Equatorial regions are in general characterized by fairly high rainfall, because they lie where, between the north and south trade winds, rising currents of air are cooled and their moisture precipitated—the region known at sea as the doldrums, also a region of relatively high rainfall. As the sun passes north and south, this area of high rainfall follows it, and near the Equator the rainfall decreases. The result is that, although the seasonal change on the Equator is small in temperature, in rainfall it is considerable. It is unusual in an equatorial climate for any month to be entirely without rain, but the difference between the driest and wettest months may be great. Baker and Harrisson [1] ? com- pared tropical climates in this respect and find that the rain of the wettest month is more than 2.5 times that of the driest in all but 3 percent. The farther we go from the Equator the difference increases, the dry season following the sun with a lag of 1 to2 months. Total rainfall also becomes less, especially beyond 15° N. and S. where the subtropical dry belt is approached. The character of the rain as well as its amount is very important in controlling environmental conditions in the Tropics. All over the Tropics cyclones with large variations of atmospheric pressure, such as we know here, do not normally occur. The rain is almost always convectional—owing to upward movement of currents of air—but its frequency is very different from one region to another. In the rain forests there is often rain on almost every day—there are on the aver- age 249 rainy days a year at Para near the mouth of the Amazon— and the rain usually falls as a storm of an hour or two’s length, often with thunder. In some deserts the intervals between storms may be more than a year on the average. It is the frequency of rain more than any other feature of the cli- mate that controls the nature of environments in the Tropics. Where rain is frequent, the environment is unable to dry between storms, “Figures in brackets refer to list of references at end of article. 625325—62 29 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 and the relative humidity is high. It is usually above 90 percent in rain forests where fog is frequent at dawn. Much of the water flows off the land into the large rivers that are characteristic of rain-forest regions. In doing so it leaches the land and the surface soil becomes denuded of salts. Forest waters are for this reason among the softest in the world; they may have a salt content only two or three times that of rainwater. More accurately, it may be said that the nature of the environment is controlled by the proportion (//g) of the gain of water to the en- vironment in rain to its loss, not only in evaporation from open water surfaces but in transpiration from the vegetation and percolation into the soil. Where the rain is less than would be lost in these ways if the water were there, the environment will be a dry one and no water will flow off the land; where the gain is more than the loss, the en- vironment will be humid. In the rain forests the value of //g is of the order of 0.2, so that much water flows off the land and the environment is humid. In deserts 7/g may be as high as 200, and in tropical grass- land and savannas it is probably often near unity. Many other conditions in tropical environments are controlled by the value of 7/g. Small diurnal and annual ranges of temperature are characteristic of humid environments, that is to say of those with a low J/g, not only in equatorial regions but generally in the Tropics; in deserts the annual range may be as high as 40° to 50° C. and the diurnal range 25° or 30° C. Ultraviolet ght is less in the more humid environments, cloudiness is greater, and the hours of sunshine less (5 to 6 hours a day in rain forests) . This account of tropical climates is very summary and incomplete; the few data I have given are almost wholly confined to the two ex- tremes of climate, the rainforests and the deserts. But I hope that it will serve to bring out some of the biologically important differences between tropical and temperate climates. The clearest of these are, besides the obvious difference in temperature, the much smaller sea- sonal differences in tropical and especially equatorial climates, and the greater part that water supply plays in controlling the environ- mental conditions. It is in fact true that in many tropical environ- ments the effective rhythmical change of climate is not that of the seasons but that between rainstorms. I have myself found this to be clearly true in a country, the Paraguayan Chaco, where rain fell at intervals of about a fortnight. Pools and other small bodies of water would fill when the rain fell and dry before the next rain. Much of the smaller fauna of these pools—such, for instance, as the branchio- pod Crustacea, e.g., ’stheria—passed through their whole life history in the few days that the pools were full, hatching at the time of rain and laying eggs before the pool dried. TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 433 Between the two extremes of climate that I have discussed there is, of course, a very wide range of intermediate tropical environments. These extend from woodland of many types to grassland and savanna, and to arid scrub where desert conditions are approached. In their general distribution this series of environments follows the reduction of rainfall as one goes north or south from the Equator, but every- where conditions are greatly modified by the local geography. Near the sea, and especially where trade winds blow onto the land, rain is more plentiful than farther inland; the monsoon modifies climate in some countries; mountains may precipitate rain on their windward sides and produce deserts in their lee; and many still more local fea- tures of the geography, such as the nature of the subsoil and the amount of percolation it allows, or the efficiency of the surface drain- age, will modify the environment in smaller areas. As a first example of work on tropical biology that has given results not to be expected from our knowledge of the biology of temperate regions, I will take work on the conditions of life in shallow and stagnant fresh waters. Such environments are very widely distributed in the Tropics. Mangrove swamps are found near the banks of many of the rivers, and papyrus swamps are widespread in Africa not only bordering the rivers and Jakes but also filling shallow valleys far from the lakes. (In parts of Uganda 30 percent of the land is said to be under papyrus.) In rainforests large areas may be permanently flooded along the banks of the rivers, stretching many miles into the forest, and, besides all these, swamps of many kinds are found in open country. Some of the features of these swamps are common to most of them. Almost always the water lies under thick growths of aerial vegeta- tion—trees in the mangrove swamps and forest, papyrus which may grow to 12 to 15 feet high, and in the swamps of open country, grasses and other plants almost equally high. The water is often highly colored—it may have the color of weak tea—and is almost or quite stagnant even in the mangrove and papyrus swamps on the borders of rivers and lakes. In temperate countries undisturbed by man swamps may be equally widespread, but the conditions of life in their water are, as we shall see, very different from those in tropical swamps. (My own interest in these environments has centered in the fact that they are of great interest for the study of evolution. It was al- most certainly from swamps of this kind that vertebrates and probably many other terrestrial animals emerged from the water. But I shall not have space to discuss these matters in this paper.) I take as a first example of tropical swamps some in the Paraguayan Chaco in South America, in which Professor Beadle and I worked [2]. 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 These lie in the almost flat grassy plains to the west of the Paraguay River, which are in fact an extension northward of the pampas. Their latitude is near the southern Tropic and the climate is therefore sub- tropical rather than typically tropical; it has a seasonal change of mean temperature of 8° C. (27° to 19° C.). But in the hotter weather the characters of the environment are typical of those in true tropical swamps. The climate is moderately humid with an annual mean rainfall of 55 inches. The rain falls at intervals of about a fortnight, more frequently in the hot season. Between the storms the tempera- ture gradually rises until the next storm comes. The swamps occupy depressions in the plains only a few feet below the general level. They drain very slowly toward the river so that their water is for all practical purposes stagnant though its level varies in dry and wet periods by 2 feet or more. In the deepest parts of the swamp, which hardly ever dry, the water is at most 5 or 6 feet deep. The substratum is a black mud full of marsh gas (methane), consolidating in its deeper layers and passing gradually downward into a stiff and impervious clay. The shallower parts of the swamp (pl. 1, fig. 1) near its edges are occasionally dry, and the water is covered by a floating blanket of aerial plants of many species, among which the swamp-lettuce (P%stia) and the swamp-hyacinth (Z%chhornia) are dominant. Between these plants the blanket is completed by the smaller fronds of the water- ferns Salvinia and Azolla (pl. 1, fig. 2). There may also be open pools where the blanket is missing. The more central parts of the swamp are filled with large clumps of a flowering plant (Thalia) reaching 10 feet or so above the water and of the bulrush (7ypha). Between these clumps the water is clear without vegetation and highly colored (pl. 2, fig. 1). Investigation of the conditions in the waters of these swamps shows first that the content of nutrient salts is high. Phosphates, for in- stance, are present in concentrations of 2 to 4 mg. per liter, whereas in temperate waters concentrations around 0.1 mg. per liter are usual. Many other conditions such as the pH (6.2-6.8) and the bicarbonate content are suitable for the growth of phytoplankton, which we should therefore at first sight expect to be plentiful. In fact, in all parts of the swamp the water contains only a sparse plankton, both animal and plant, and in the central part there is almost none. One probable explanation of this anomaly lies in the heavy shading of the water by the vegetation above its surface and the shallow penetration of the light into the highly colored water even if it is not shaded. In other similar tropical waters it has been found that the amount of light in the water may be below the compensation point for plants within a few inches of the surface. This is so in spite of the strength of the tropical sunlight. TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 435 Measurement of the dissolved oxygen content of the water shows an even more striking contrast with the conditions in similar waters in temperate countries. In the tropical swamps the oxygen is every- where far from saturation even within an inch of the surface. It is in fact astonishing that in these and similar tropical waters one can often take a sample as close to the surface as is practicable—within at the most an inch—and find in it no measurable quantity of dis- solved oxygen. In the central parts of the Chaco swamps even the surface water hardly ever in hot weather contained a measurable quantity of oxygen, and certainly less than 5 percent saturation. In the outer region under the floating blanket the water was also almost always without measurable oxygen. Pools free of the fioat- ing blanket sometimes contained at midday 2 to 3 cc. of oxygen per liter (about 50 percent saturation) at the surface, but the lower water, even here, was often without oxygen continuously for many days in hot weather. How is this lack of oxygen in the swamp waters brought about? I believe that it is the result of several conditions which are all pres- ent in these waters and not normally present in otherwise similar temperate waters. Oxygen can be introduced into a body of water © by diffusion from the air, and produced in it by photosynthesis. It will be removed by the respiration of plants and animals and by the chemical and biological oxidations of decay. In the tropical swamps little oxygen is produced by photosynthesis owing to the weak light- ing of the water, and decay, rapid at the high temperature, will ac- tively remove any oxygen that gets into the water. Oxygen can reach the water only by diffusion from the air above it. Entry of oxygen from the air must always take place, but in liquids diffusion, though rapid over a distance of a small fraction of a mil- limeter, is negligibly slow over greater distances. A thin oxygenated film at the surface will always be produced, but practically no oxygen can reach the lower layers of the water by unaided diffusion. It can reach the lower layers only if it is carried down by vortical disturb- ance, which may be due either to wind and current—and in the flowing water of rivers and streams all layers of the water are usually well oxygenated—or to convection due to the surface being sufficiently cooled at night to cause overturn of the layers of the water. ‘These waters are stagnant, and the thick vegetation above them prevents any disturbance in them by wind. Thus, overturn is the only means by which oxygen could reach the lower water. But in these tropical waters, exposed to hot sunlight during the day, there is set up at mid- day a very steep gradient of temperature from the surface downward (often 8° to 10° C. in a column of water 12 or 18 inches high), and in most nights no overturn occurs, so that the water is permanently 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 stratified and the lower layers receive no oxygen. That this is the correct explanation is confirmed by the observation that in open pools in the outer parts of the Chaco swamps some oxygen—up to 20 percent saturation—was present in the lower water after unusually cool and rainy days or cold nights. The deoxygenation of the water was paralleled by a high content of free carbon dioxide—up to 40 cc. per liter in the water of the outer parts and 70 cc. per liter in the central parts. ‘This was clearly due to its inability to escape to the air by diffusion. For animals breathing aquatically by gills these waters are therefore a very difficult environment, and this of itself is enough to explain the poverty of the zooplankton, even though, as was shown to be the case, the plankton is adapted to live at a low concentration of oxygen (5 percent saturation). All the fauna shows adaptation to life in a deoxygenated habitat. These swamps are a well-known habitat of the air-breathing lungfish Lepidostren, and many of the teleost fishes have evolved accessory air-breathing organs. Some of the smaller fishes, however, do not breathe air. They succeed in main- taining their aquatic respiration by living near the surface and using the thin oxygenated surface film, nibbling at it but not breaking the surface. The invertebrates also show many adaptations. A small oligochaete (Aulophorus) lives in the surface film of the outer region of theswamp. Being an oligochaete it needs a tube, and this it makes for itself from the spores of the waterferns. It carries this tube about with it. Another oligochaete (Drilocrius) lives in very shallow water at the edge of the swamp making burrows in the mud. From time to time it extends from its burrow to the surface of the water where it captures a bubble of air in a modified part of its tail which is specialized for respiration. With this it retreats into its burrow. The large aquatic snail Ampullaria has a lung for air-breathing and lays its eggs in masses on the stalks of plants above the water. Some of the fishes make nests which float at the surface of the water and have below them a foam of air bubbles which the young use for their respi- ration. Others lay their eggs in the mud of the outer part of the swamp, but during the wet season when the lower water may contain some oxygen. Lepidosiren lays its eggs in an L-shaped burrow in the mud guarded by the male, which is said to aerate the nest with air brought from the surface and excreted from the vascular filaments which it bears on its pelvic fins during the breeding season. I have worked on similar stagnant waters in two other parts of the Tropics—in the forests of British Guiana and in Uganda [3, 4]. In the Guiana forests the swamps (pl. 2, fig. 2) were shaded and protected from the wind by the trees above them. They were often as completely deoxygenated as the Chaco swamps but in them complete deoxygena- TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 437 tion did not usually last for more than a few days at a time whereas in the Chaco swamps it might be unbroken for weeks. I believe that the reason for this difference is the greater frequency of rain in Guiana and the less heating of the surface by day. The African swamps (pls. 3 and 4) were thickly covered with papyrus and the deoxygenation in them was again extreme. Everywhere, except in lakeside swamps near the open water of the lake, even the surface water contained no measurable oxygen and the content of carbon dioxide was high. In these swamps the plankton was as sparse as in the Chaco swamps and the larger fauna mostly air-breathing. The African lungfish Protop- terus and several air-breathing teleost fishes live in these swamps. Thus, it appears that deoxygenation is a general condition in shallow and stagnant tropical waters, and this is borne out by the fact that air-breathing adaptations are found in the teleost fishes of similar habitats in many other tropical regions. In temperate countries deoxygenation does occur in shallow and stagnant waters occasionally during long periods of hot summer weather, but it is unusual. In the lake of the botanic gardens at Cambridge all the fish died some years ago in a hot spell; I believe that they were killed by stratification and consequent deoxygenation of the water, which is muddy and nearly stagnant. Normally in temperate climates, heating of the surface in the daytime is not strong enough to prevent overturn at night. But we have very few examples of work on such waters even in temperate countries, and still fewer on tropical waters. It seems to me that more accurate knowledge of the conditions in which overturn occurs in natural waters would be valuable. It might be expected that at high altitudes in the Tropics, where the temperature is lower, condi- tions more like those in temperate waters would be found, and Beadle [5] has found that in some papyrus swamps on the shore of Lake Naivasha in Kenya at about 6,000 feet the water was 50 percent satu- rated with oxygen. On the other hand, I have found in an open pool at Kigezi in Uganda at a similar altitude (5,579 feet) apparently permanent stratification and complete deoxygenation of the lower water. The reason for the difference is not apparent. Clearly more work is needed, and this should be both theoretical and in the field. Equally unexpected results have been given by work on the sulfur content of tropical fresh waters in Africa. Beauchamp [6] pointed out that the sulfur content of many African fresh waters is very low; in several lakes it is not above 3 parts per million (mg. per liter). He suggested that lack of sulfur is a limiting factor in the growth of the aquatic fauna. The subject was further investigated by Hesse [7], working on Lake Victoria. He found that the lake water contained 0.5 to 2 p.p.m. total sulfur and less than 0.5 p.p.m. sulfate. In contrast the aquatic vegetation contained a normal sulfur content (average 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 0.1 percent), so that sulfur can be a limiting factor only for the plankton-feeding and not for plant-eating fish. When Hesse analyzed the mud from the bottom of the lake, aston- ishing results were obtained. The sulfur content of the mud was extremely high at all depths down to 13 meters below its surface, but in all the samples far the greater part of the sulfur—in most samples more than 90 percent—was in organic form. Inorganic sulfur is present but in relatively low concentration, sulfides often below the limit for estimation. Clearly, the sulfur is not held in the mud by precipitation as sul- fide, and this is confirmed by the fact that the water over the mud is often well oxygenated and the mud itself not in a highly reducing state. What apparently happens is that the sulfur is absorbed from the water of the lake by the planktonic fauna and flora and carried down to the mud in their dead bodies, so that the water becomes denuded of sulfur. In the mud the organic sulfur compounds in the bodies of the planktonic organisms are preserved without break- down even for the several thousand years required for the deposition of 10 to 15 meters of mud. Plants growing in the water, if their roots penetrate the mud, are able to absorb sulfur from this store, and this is apparently the only means by which the sulfur can be carried back from the mud to the water. Soils around the lake were also found to have a low sulfur content except where they were covered with forest, being leached by water draining toward the lake. The same shortage of sulfur is found in many soils in other parts of Uganda, and Simpson and Butters [8] have found experimentally that addition of lake mud to such soil improves the growth of plants growing on the soil. The organic sulfur compounds in the mud break down if the mud is dried, boiled, or autoclaved. After being so treated it has been found to improve the fertility of fish ponds. T now turn from work on fresh waters to a quite different branch of tropical biology, investigation of the control of seasonal rhythms of reproduction and migration in tropical animals. This again raises problems different from those met in temperate regions. In many tropical environments, especially in regions at considerable distances from the Equator, there may be, as we have seen, fairly large seasonal changes in the environment, and there is then no difficulty in showing that seasonal changes in the behavior of the fauna are controlled by the environmental changes, as they usually are in temperate coun- tries. In the Paraguayan Chaco, for instance, many of the amphi- bians and fishes breed after the first heavy rains of the summer season and it is easy to show that the stimulus for breeding is in at least some Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Carter PLATE 1 ar eer marin BP AS * cathe 2. The floating blanket of the outer part of the Chaco swamps. The larger plants are Pistia, and the smaller frons between them Salvinia and Azolla. PLATE 2 Smithsonian Report, 196!.—Carter "UOIRIISIA SULABIOP YIM pel[y st yf souls ‘ydeisoqoyd siy} ul queptaa A[piey SI sty2 ynq ‘1a]7vM JUvUBRIS JO Joo} Z 0} [ YIM paloroo SI punoIs oY, “yse10} vURINE) 9y] UI uolqejeseA dweMmsg ‘98pa Jo NO sii wolf dwieMs oovyD ¥ JO Jed [eUsd 9} JO UONeIDS0A OY], "TI Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Carter PLATE 3 1. Aerial photograph of papyrus swamps on the shore of Lake Victoria. n 2. A valley in Uganda filled with papyrus swamp, down the center of which a stream flows. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Carter PLATE 4 Vegetation of a papyrus swamp seen from its edge. TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 439 species cooling of the water by the rain. In the laboratory the easiest way to induce many of the frogs and fishes to lay eggs is to sprinkle the aquarium with cool water. It is far less easy to see how biological rhythms are controlled in parts of the Tropics where seasonal changes of the climate are slight. We have seen that in equatorial regions the only large seasonal change is in rainfall, but it does not seem likely that variations in rainfall are the effective control of the rhythms, for there is rain in every month of the year, the humidity is always high and not significantly variable, and, though food may for some animals differ from month to month, it is always plentiful. Yet the fact is that most species have well-defined seasonal rhythms even in these environments, though a few breed all the year round and some others have double breeding seasons associated with the double seasonal change. Baker and his coworkers. found [9], for instance, that in the rain forests at Noumea in the New Hebrides, a highly invariable climate though the latitude is 15° S., all the species he worked on were seasonal in their breeding, the birds and mammals at least as markedly seasonal as in temperate countries. A lizard (Z’moia sp.) had a less clearly de- fined breeding season, though even it showed a seasonal rhythm of gonad growth. A bat (Jfiniopterus sp.), which spent the day in caves where the climate was even more invariable than in the forest outside the caves, was the most markedly seasonal of all, breeding on only a few days at the beginning of September. The breeding seasons were often not the same as those general in temperate regions, and in the case of a passerine bird, Pachycephala pectoralis, differed from its breeding times in places at the same latitude in Australia. He had evidence that the times of breeding persisted at the same dates from yeartoyear. He was not able to find any seasonal climatic change that could control the periodicity of the animals. Owing to the latitude the length of day at Noumea varies by 134 hours, but he concluded that this was not the effective cause. A large majority of species are seasonal in other invariable environ- ments both in breeding and migration. Marshall and Williams found [10] that at Entebbe in Uganda on the Equator the yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava), which “winters” in Africa and spends the summer in Europe, was seasonal in the development of its gonad during its time in Uganda (December to April). They were unable to find any climatic change during this time to account for the periodicity. It is certainly not controlled by the length of day, for this does not vary significantly at Entebbe between December and April. For some species details of their habits and biology provide the answer. Birds that nest on islands in rivers, or on river banks near the water, may be able to breed only in the drier months when their 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ) breeding sites are uncovered; and Marshall and Roberts [11], find that the cormorants (Phalacrocoraz spp.) on Lake Victoria at 0°20’ N. are seasonal, breeding from May to December, and they come to the conclusion that the determining cause is the greater frequency of high winds between January and April, which destroy their flimsy nests. Such reasons will not account for the general occurrence of periodicity in equatorial animals. If no explanation can be found in environmental changes, it may be suggested that the control lies in the animals themselves, in endogenous rhythms. But, if the breed- ing or migration is at the same date from year to year—and it seems to be so in most species—it is hardly possible, as Baker points out, for the control to be wholly by endogenous rhythm, for the period of the rhythm would have to agree very exactly with the annual cycle; any difference, however small, would mean that the time of breeding or migration altered from year to year. I know of only one instance in which the periodicity of a tropical animal is wholly due to an endogenous rhythm. This is the case of the wide-awake or sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), which nests on Ascension Island (8° S.). In this bird the interval between nesting times is not a year but 9 to 10 months [12]. No environmental stimulus could give this result. Though the whole cause of the periodicity cannot be endogenous, this does not mean that endogenous rhythms play no part in its causation. It may be that in many species the rhythm is at base endogenous and is kept adjusted to the annual cycle by some external stimulus of which we are at present ignorant. Such a stimulus might be of almost any kind; it would probably differ from species to species and need not always be physical. Marshall and Williams, for in- stance, suggest that the northward migration of the yellow wagtails in Uganda is stimulated by the passage of birds of the same species from farther south where they have been stimulated to migrate by environmental stimuli. The rhythm of gonad growth in Uganda would be endogenous and the birds would only respond to the stimula- tion when the gonads were in the appropriate condition. Another explanation of this example would seem to be that their migration southward is determined by environmental stimulation in Europe and the time of the northward migration by an endogenous rhythm of gonad growth starting from the time of their arrival in Africa. In the many species that live all the year round in apparently in- variable environments but yet are seasonal, it seems that there must be some environmental stimulus, physical or other, that controls their periodicity. For almost all of them we cannot say what the stimulus is and we can only admit our ignorance. Clearly this is a subject on which further work is needed. TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 44] Lastly, I will take an example from physiology, and from an en- vironment very different from the swamps and equatorial regions we have so far considered. My example is the problem how small mam- mals are able to satisfy their needs for water in desert conditions. This has been studied by B. and K. Schmidt-Neilsen [13]. It has always been difficult to understand how such animals as jerboas and desert rats can survive without drinking in deserts where the temperature may rise to 130° F. (54° C.) at midday. There are, however, some characters of the desert environment and the animals’ biology that go part of the way to help us to understand their ability to do so. First, the most striking characteristic of a desert climate is the large diurnal range of temperature, very hot at midday but cool and even near the freezing point at dawn. Dew is frequent in many desert climates, and Buxton [14] showed that grass blowing about on the surface of a desert and apparently entirely dry contained water to 50 percent of its weight at midday, presumably derived from the dew of the previous morning. Secondly, these animals are largely nocturnal; they avoid the extremes of midday heat in burrows. They may obtain some water by eating the grass or from dew and may reduce their water loss by sheltering, but it seems unlikely that they can wholly maintain their water balance in these ways. The only other supply of water available to them is the metabolic water formed in the oxidation of their food; 1 g. fat yields 1.07 g. water in its oxidation, 1 g. carbohydrate 0.56 g., and 1 g. protein 0.40 g. Schmidt- Neilsen set out to determine whether this was a sufficient supply. It should be noted that, as we should expect, desert animals are adapted in several ways to economy of water. They do not control their body temperature by sweating. Their sweat glands are reduced, and control of temperature by sweat is in fact impossible for small animals in desert conditions, for the amount of water loss required is far too large in proportion to their body weight. Schmidt-Neilsen finds that for a man of 70 kg. in the temperatures of a desert in day- time 1.47 percent of his body weight must be evaporated per hour, for the kangaroo rat (Dipodomys, 0.1 kg.) 12.8 percent, and for a mouse (0.02 kg.) 21.5 percent. Then, again, their urine is more concentrated than that of other mammals. Comparable results are given in the following table. Concentration in urine Electrolytes N. Urea M. Ps a Sg cl 0.87 (2.2%) 1.0 (6%) BemeriCins NOFOCGICUS) U2 fei oe austell ss 0.6 (3.5%) 2.55 (15%) ILO SIS © Sei 2 355 eA Th tee 8 lees Fe 12 (7%) 3.5 (23%) Also, very little water is lost in the feces. The feces of Dipodomys have a water content only one-quarter of that of the rat’s feces. 442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 - oor -- -- - - - Oxidation H,0 g H,O per 100 Cal. of pearied bariey metabolized % vel. hum. 20% m 0 5 mg 10 mg 15 mg 20 mg , Miter air Ficure 1.—The water balance of Dipodomys. (After B. and K. Schmidt-Neilsen.) Putting these facts together Schmidt-Neilsen draws the diagram given in figure 1 for the water balance of Dipodomys eating pearl barley without any supply of water beyond that present in the barley as preformed water and that produced in the metabolism (oxidation water). It shows that the water balance is positive at all relative humidities greater than 10 percent. Remembering that the animals spend most of the daytime in burrows, we may conclude that they are sufficiently adapted to live permanently in a desert climate without drinking. The rat is not quite in balance at a relative humidity of 100 percent. It is of interest to note that a similar balance was worked out by Krogh [15] for the seal (Phoca) living in the sea, which is for amammal a “dry” environment since the osmotic pressure of sea water is greater than that of mammalian tissues and water must leave the body by diffusion. Krogh found that the seal was also in balance, but in neither case is any allowance made for water loss by the female when she is giving milk. I hope that these examples will have shown that tropical biology offers us many problems that repay investigation, and that the results are often not those that we should expect from our knowledge of TROPICAL CLIMATES AND BIOLOGY—CARTER 443 temperate biology. There are many advantages besides these for the zoologist in tropical work, especially for the young zoologist. Perhaps the most important is that tropical biology is at a much less advanced stage than that of temperate countries. It is much easier in the Tropics to find promising lines of work, and less likely to find that the work one is doing is in competition with that of others, or has already been done—the field, in fact, is much less crowded. It is also true that one lives closer to nature in the Tropics, and has greater opportunities to study animals in their natural lives. I know that it is for most of us impossible to get to the Tropics for a visit of a year or longer— and a shorter stay is hardly likely to lead to worthwhile results—but the fact is also true that when posts in tropical laboratories are adver- tised it is not by any means always easy to find people to fill them. I think that one reason for this is that the advantages of work in the Tropics are not sufliciently realized. REFERENCES 1. Baxrr, J. R., and Harrisson, T. H. Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. 39, p. 443, 1936. 2. CARTER, G. S., and Brave, L. C. Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. 37, pp. 197, 327, 1930-81. 8. CARTER, G. 8. Journ. Linn. Soe. (Zool.), vol. 39, pp. 147-219, 1934-35. 4, Carrer, G.S. The papyrus swamps of Uganda. 1955. 5. Brapbe, L. C. Journ. Linn. Soe. (Zool.), vol. 38, p. 135, 1932. 6. BEAUCHAMP, R.S. A. Nature, vol. 171, p. 769, 1953. 7. Hessz, P.R. Hydrobiologia, vol. 11, p. 1, 1957. 8. Srurpson, J. R., and Burtrers, B. East African Fish. Res. Org. Ann. Rep., p. 43, 1958. 9. BAKER, J. R., ET AL. Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. 39, p. 507; vol. 40, pp. 123, 148; vol. 41, pp. 50, 243, 248. 10. MarsHatt, A. J., and Wi11aMs, M. C. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 132, p. 313, 1959. 11. MarsHatt, A. J., and Roperts, J. D. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 182, p. 617, 1959. 12. CHapin, J.P. Auk, vol. 71, p. 1, 1954. 18. Scumipt-NEILSEN, B. and K. Biology of deserts, pp. 173, 182. Institute of Biology, London, 1954. 14, Buxton, P. A. Animal life in deserts. London, 1923. 15. Kroen, A. Osmotic regulation in aquatic animals. Cambridge, 1939. oes a inh nN hs sth Tandon sb Oa oF Hit 8 bby paler taster t si absense atte a Ket “ed a baaaletsal ae Gay oe iY nits dott wea olxietil wial paar) sacra sh 25a sarntalrsere be balk af ag i sal toe Fee daily aCe, seid aes oi ato a . ) mh dai Sat Beh eagles at tow at sbfoi} cist age ip «eros eared baw (Bongern Sale A agen Of Toate eT ae Baba GO af St Aen amet, Sap tear ied) ‘al abarittem yin RL Ts rwatd me Ts Satie eet eae ey Laie ot hora ae: wilbpaqaune . See hit Mi tretonie of Lat al Gstt. be ft es vi hy Th #: ; es Sis) CTCL OH | tte Netzery ny eee Sine, Tet oe ak ge tek . Mn iY OP alee Told wh oi Se LA Gale ua inva re a fs toe 4, ES tei at ore Ag aeaataeron ach UROL e Rel bons sete and igor Nal beta SHH AO eel OE 70 ee Dow) eee iY eee ne Res, Fe Rl ONY: Rae ceva. ep SA one es 4 0% Baa OR Few 4 oe) De Yu hire MY’ Prue, Dds: pe es v inte A A ree ie lack line ee A “want Longe Saat heee , Rie y Outdoor Aerobiology’ By P. H. GREcoryY Head, Department of Plant Pathology Rothamsted Experimental Station Harpenden, England [With 2 plates] To rue sufferer from hay fever there will be nothing novel in the idea that outdoor air contains the pollen of many different kinds of flowering plants. But the air also contains many other particles of biological origin, such as the spores of cryptogams, fungi, bacteria, and yeasts, and also protozoan cysts, some of which may also cause allergies. Some species in all the major taxonomic groups of plants have evolved means of introducing their spores into the turbulent layers of the atmosphere [6].2 Other organisms, however, are adapted to other dispersal routes, such as water or animal transport, and their spores seldom get into the air. The systematic study of the microbiology of the atmosphere started about a century ago, in the expectation of finding the source of epi- demic diseases such as cholera and typhoid. It is now clear, however, that outdoor air is not a serious source of human infection and it has been acquitted of complicity in the worst human and animal diseases, though recent American work shows that the agents of histoplasmosis and other fungus diseases of man are windborne. Outdoor air also conveys pollen, a major nuisance to hay-fever victims, and also in- fective spores of many important crop pathogens, such as the rusts and smuts of cereals. In effect, aerobiology began at the Observatoire Montsouris in Paris with the work of the bacteriologist Pierre Miquel (1850-1922), who elaborated techniques that enabled him, throughout the last quarter of the 19th century, to analyze daily the microbial content of outdoor air. However, the first to attempt consciously to develop aerobiology as an individual branch of science was a plant pathologist, Fred C. Meier (1893-1938). Unfortunately he was lost on a flight over the Pacific after publishing no more than a few preliminary papers; these 1 Reprinted by permission from Endeavour, vol. 19, No. 76, October 1960. # Numbers in brackets indicate references at end of text. 445 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 papers served, however, to kindle an interest in the subject in the United States. Also noteworthy in the history of aerobiology was a thesis published in 1935 by K. M. Stepanov of Leningrad [9]. From research based on the work of these and others during three genera- tions it is possible—though our information is still meager—to picture the circulation of plant spores and other microbes in the atmosphere, and to assess its bearing on medicine, agriculture, and the biological sciences [4]. TECHNIQUES OF AEROBIOLOGY Much has been learned about the microbial flora of the atmosphere (here termed the “air-spora” and taken to include the pollen of flower- ing plants) by examining deposits on sticky-surface traps exposed tothe wind. But results obtained by this method are difficult to inter- pret quantitatively, because the catches depend on factors that vary greatly. For quantitative information about the air-spora it is neces- sary to use apparatus that removes spores efficiently from a measured volume of air. Such apparatus requires a means of drawing a meas- ured volume of air through a filter, or of accelerating the air so that particles carried in it adhere to a sticky surface or are trapped in liquid. Suction to draw a measured volume of air through the filter medium is required by sampling devices such as Pasteur’s aspirated plug filter and the newer membrane filters. Another series of devices act by forcing the air through a narrow jet and directing it toward a sticky surface. The General Electric electrostatic air sampler applies the dust-collection principle worked out by Oliver Lodge. Each of these sampling devices has its virtues and limitations, but can give quanti- tative data if properly used. In outdoor work, high accuracy is not usually required at present, as results already obtained show that the spore content of the air differs enormously with place and time. The results of sampling by different methods are difficult to com- pare. Some samplers deposit particles directly onto a microscope slide, where totals of the larger spores and pollen grains can be counted visually and classified. Others allow bacterial and yeast colonies, fungus mycelia, or whole moss plants to develop in culture, and identi- fication of the cultivable fraction of the air-spora can then be more precise. This gain in precision of identification over the visual method is, however, balanced by loss of information about the total number of organisms, some of which may not be viable. A few workers have used both kinds of sampler simultaneously. THE AIR-SPORA NEAR GROUND LEVEL Most abundant in numbers near ground level are bacteria and fungus spores. When some abundant species of plant is in flower, PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Gregory ‘OSE X «“Wnidodsopvjy pjow ayq jo sasods ‘sinoy QQ'OT ‘9T ounf ‘Zz ‘OSTX ‘sassvis puv (sovs ue omy yam) ourd jo uarjod ‘sinoy OO'ZI “ST cunt ‘T "SS6 JO totus ‘arysysog ‘Tpysuruung ‘UOIqeIS PPM 2a][0D [euoduy qe ‘wreas v episeq “[aAv] punoIs dAoqe J9joW $0 3 Are ur sarods sndunj pur uayjod Suneysnyyl sydeiso191W0,0Yg PEATE:2 ‘000° X “saa mojcgcacd s ysvoA JOLITUI ay} jo saiods ‘sinoy 00'FO “61 sunt ‘z “OSEX ‘UNIOUDIEED DULIPOUDL) SNBUNF JoYoeIG 9y4 yo sarods ‘sunoy Q¢*ZQ ‘g[ eun[ ‘*] “Sc6] Jo Jowruns ‘omysysog Trysuluunsg ‘uoneyg Plea ea][O_D [euedwy jv ‘urvoiqs v apisoq ‘JaAo] punois dvaoqe JoJoW ¢'(¢) Ww IIe ul sorods sn3unj puv uojod Sunvsysnqyjt sydeasors1w0joy4g Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Gregory OUTDOOR AEROBIOLOGY—GREGORY 447 pollen may overshadow bacteria and fungi for a time in mass, but even then not usually in number of particles. About 90 percent of the species of flowering plants are usually insect-pollinated, but only about 10 percent are adapted for wind pollination and habitually shed their pollen into the air. However, these wind-pollinated species are numerically exceedingly abundant and in the aggregate shed large quantities of pollen, with the result that the unfortunate sufferer from hay fever who is allergic to certain species of pollen finds his respira- tory tract a reliable indicator of flowering dates. In temperate coun- tries there are three main seasons for airborne pollen. The “tree pollens” in spring begin with the opening of the catkins of deciduous trees and end with the conifers; fortunately, sensitivity to tree pollen, and especially to pine, is rare. In early summer the grass-pollen season brings the greatest number of hay-fever victims. Late sum- mer brings a mixture generally grouped as “weed pollens.” These include nettle in Europe and the highly potent pollen of ragweed (Ambrosia spp.) in North America; freedom from airborne ragweed pollen may be as valuable to an American health resort as a high figure for sunshine is in Britain. Airborne bacteria can be enumerated only by cultural methods, and because of the technical problems of culture we have no idea how many such bacteria elude detection. It is therefore impossible accurately to compare total numbers of bacteria and fungi in the air. However, it is clear that the numbers of cultivable molds usually much exceed the numbers of bacteria, and Miquel was clearly embarrassed by the immense numbers of airborne molds. His early work suggested 700 bacteria and 30,000 mold spores per cubic meter; his long-term aver- ages of about 300 bacteria and 200 mold spores per cubic meter at the Observatoire Montsouris were obtained only after he changed over to using sugar-free culture media so as to discourage mold growth, a practice that has been followed by many later workers. The bacteria of the air include many micrococci and bacilli, but also a surprisingly large proportion of kinds that do not form spores. Visual examination of the fungus spores deposited on a microscope slide during continuous sampling with the Hirst trap in an arable field at Rothamsted Experimental Station [5] shows that the predominant organisms in outdoor air during the day in the warmer months are spores of Cladosporium, a genus of saprophytic molds found on decaying vegetation; the average was 5,800 per cubic meter of air near ground level during June to October 1952. This dominance of Clado- sporium is also true of many other parts of the world, and it is fully confirmed by cultural methods and examination of dust deposits. More study is needed to find out how Cladosporium becomes airborne. Second most abundant in the air-spora at Rothamsted were spores of the type known as ballistospores. The sources of these include the 6253256230 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 mirror yeasts (sporobolomycetes) that flourish on the surfaces of living and aging leaves, mushrooms, and toadstools, averaging 4,400 per cubic meter and predominating at night. Recognition of ballisto- spores as numerically important components of the air-spora was long delayed by two causes. First, these very small spores were inefficiently collected by the sticky-surface traps used in much early aerobiological work, and, second, most microbiologists were not familiar with the spores of the higher fungi. Spores of various plant-pathogenic fungi such as the rusts, smuts, and mildews are often present in the air in large numbers, but their occurrence, like that of the pollen of flower- ing plants, is highly seasonal. The figures given above are for average frequencies over a period of many weeks of continuous recording. Hourly means are often much higher or lower; for example, Cladosporium may reach 100,000 and Sporobolomyces about 1 million per cubic meter. There is evidence that shorter-term fluctuation may be still greater: ragweed pollen in spot tests lasting a couple of minutes has given concentrations of over 10 million per cubic meter [2]. Protozoan “eggs” in the air were estimated by Miquel at 0.1 per cubic meter, but later work by Puschkarew, based on fewer tests, suggests 10 times that figure. Blue and blue-green algae may average 1 to 10 per cubic meter, but spores of myxomycetes are probably less abundant. Spores of ferns and mosses are sometimes plentiful for short periods. Concentrations of the few organisms that have been studied in detail fluctuate with a characteristic diurnal periodicity, as also does grass pollen. Miquel found two maxima and two minima in the daily cycle of bacterial numbers when sampling hourly at Montsouris for over a year. Nothing similar has been attempted with bacteria since 1884, however, and the work needs extending and repeating. Spores of fungi show various diurnal periodicities, but normally any one type has only a single daily maximum and minimum. For example, in England spores of Phytophthora infestans, the fungus causing potato blight, are most abundant shortly before noon, whereas ihe numbers of spores of Cladosporium and of some rust fungi reach a maximum in the afternoon. Spores of Sporobolomyces, and basidio- spores of mushrooms, toadstools, and bracket fungi are all most abundant during the night. Little is yet known about differences in these cycles in various parts of the world. These diurnal cycles are clearly determined largely by the effect of meteorological factors on spore liberation and dispersal in ways understood for only a few species of fungi. Some, such as two important crop pathogens, Ophiobolus graminis and Venturia inaequalis (causing take-all of wheat and apple scab respectively), depend for spore liberation on OUTDOOR AEROBIOLOGY—GREGORY 449 the wetting of the substrate by rain or dew; they occur in the air in large numbers only after rain. THE ORIGIN OF THE AIR-SPORA Despite claims to the contrary, there is little doubt that most of the air-spora comes from ground sources on the surface, such as plants and vegetable debris, rather than from the soil itself. Only the sources of the protozoa, bacteria, and yeasts (other than the “mirror yeasts”) remain in doubt. The air-spora is not rich in typical soil inhabitants but represents mainly organisms growing above the sur- face. Soil and surface dust raised by wind may possibly be the source of most atmospheric bacteria and yeasts, and the seasonal maximum numbers of bacteria in the air of temperate regions seems to be associated with the tilling of bare ground in spring or with strong winds. Splash droplets from marine and fresh water, and from wet soil, evidently help to make surface organisms airborne. THE AIR-SPORA OVER THE OCEAN Samples taken on ships show that, with an offshore wind, the in- fluence of the land-spora often extends to several hundred miles from shore, but that in midocean the air is nearly free from microbial con- tamination. The proportion of airborne bacteria requiring sodium chloride for growth is stated to increase in proximity to the ocean. Pollen can sometimes be found in quantity for some miles out to sea, but its concentration usually decreases faster as the land recedes than does the concentration of molds or bacteria. However, even in mid- ocean, on the coasts of Greenland, and on remote oceanic islands, tree pollen falls regularly in small but measurable quantities after being transported for hundreds or thousands of miles by the wind. THE UPPER TROPOSPHERE The presence of pollen and microbes in air layers above ground has been confirmed by catches on kites, balloons, and airplanes. Theo- retical considerations suggest that spore concentration should de- crease logarithmically with height, on the assumption that spores coming into suspension from the ground reach an equilibrium resulting from the rival actions of stirring up by atmospheric turbulence and sedimentation under gravity. In practice, concentration does at first usually decrease with height above ground level. On some occasions, and more often when several occasions are averaged, the decrease fol- lows approximately the logarithmic law up to a height of several thousands of meters. However, a decrease in concentration according to the logarithmic law is an ideal condition seldom attained in the 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 atmosphere, and in practice a zone of increased concentration often occurs at a height of perhaps 2,000 or 3,000 meters. This fact has led to speculation about a so-called “biotic zone” in the upper air, but the explanation probably lies partly in the different histories of air masses at different heights, and partly in the washing of the lower layers of air by rain. Microbial concentration is sometimes high in the bases of clouds, and spores may perhaps become concentrated there by being collected in droplets poised on ascending convection currents In cumu- lus clouds. The effect of these processes would be particularly notice- able over the ocean, where the air-spora is not constantly being re- newed from the surface. Systematic measurements of spore concentrations at different heights over the oceans have still to be made, but observations made by different methods on ships and from aircraft suggest that the gradient may be the reverse of that over land. Far out to sea, the surface air appears to contain exceptionally few microbes, whereas several thousand meters up, the concentrations of bacteria, fungus spores, and pollens may be considerably greater. Studies by S. M. Pady and coworkers [7, 8], for example, indicate fungus-spore and pollen concentrations of tens to hundreds per cubic meter at 3,000 meters above the North Atlantic, whereas G. Erdtmann [3], sampling on board ship, found values only a tenth or a hundredth of these. We thus have a picture of air masses carrying over the ocean the spore load they acquired during passage over land, and of the lower layers of air being gradually cleared in passage over the sea both by deposi- tion and by scrubbing by rain showers. It is remarkable that the microbial content of the atmosphere above the troposphere still remains almost uninvestigated. Samples were taken in the stratosphere by the balloon Haplorer /7 in 1935, but there seem to have been no later attempts to sample the stratosphere. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AERIAL DISTRIBUTION PROCESS The atmospheric concentrations reported in earlier paragraphs result from many spore sources. We must now turn to consider the problem of spatial distribution of spores liberated into the air from a single source. Common experience leads us to expect a decrease in contamination of air or of the ground as the horizontal distance from the source increases. This expectation is abundantly borne out in practice [10] and is a phenomenon exploited widely in isolating healthy from diseased crops, hay-fever patients from pollen sources, and seed crops from foreign windborne pollen which could cause genetic contamination. Plotted on a linear scale, a graph of the de- crease of contamination downwind from a point source of spores at ground level typically gives an exponential-type curve. The mecha- OUTDOOR AEROBIOLOGY—GREGORY 451 nisms underlying this characteristic “infection gradient” are probably, in order of importance: (1) turbulent three-dimensional dilution of the spore- or pollen-laden air mass by spore-free air as the impure air travels downwind; (2) appreciable loss of particles from the spore cloud by deposition on the ground, vegetation, or other surfaces, especially in the early stages of travel when the cloud is concentrated near ground level; and (3) loss of viability, which may or may not affect the result. In reality, the source is not a point, and its magni- tude and shape also affect the dispersal gradient; concentration is higher, and falls off less rapidly, if the source is a sizable area rather than a point. As would also be expected, raising the source above ground decreases loss from deposition near the origin. Prediction of the concentration of the spore cloud after a given distance of travel presupposes both an adequate theoretical treatment of the very difficult problems of atmospheric turbulence and also an adequate quantitative theory of deposition. Different theories now current predict different concentrations at a given distance, but agree generally with observation and experiment in predicting a rapid decrease in concentration with increasing distance from source. For instance, there is evidence that 90 percent of spores of the wheat bunt fungus 7illetia tritici and the clubmoss Lycopodium, when liberated just above ground level, are deposited within 100 meters of the source. Theory suggests that smaller particles than these would be deposited less rapidly, but there is little experimental evidence to support this. A paradox is apparent here. With such a high rate of deposition near the source, the effect of a point source at distances greater than a few hundred meters must be negligible, yet in spite of this the con- centration of micro-organisms in the upper air and for some distance out to sea is substantial. The paradox is probably to be explained by the fact that although the distant tail of the distribution from a single point source is indeed negligible, the quantity in the upper air over the ocean is the sum of the tails of the distributions of all the point sources present on the continent from which the wind has traveled. The pattern of windborne dispersal differs from a Gaussian fre- quency distribution around a point source by having increased concen- trations both very close to the origin and at great distances, balanced by smaller concentrations at intermediate distances [1]. TERMINATION OF THE DISPERSAL PROCESS Infection gradients of some plant pathogens have been traced over distances of tens or hundreds of kilometers. Spores of some of the cereal-rust fungi migrate annually for many hundreds of miles in India and in the Soviet Union, and over the North American Conti- 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 nent a northward migration of wheat-rust spores in early summer is followed by a return migration in autumn. Yet the distribution of the species and races of the rust fungi is not worldwide: oceans and large tracts of mountain and desert seem to present almost uncross- able barriers. Apart from death by desiccation or irradiation while airborne, the flight of a microbe ends either by dry deposition on the ground or by washing out of the air by rain, snow, or hail. The phenomenon of washout has never been systematically investigated, and sound tech- niques have still to be worked out. Results from examining hail are particularly unambiguous, because the surfaces of hailstones can be sterilized to eliminate possible contamination from the ground. Fall- ing raindrops sweep up a substantial proportion of the suspended microbes in their path, and all precipitated water brings down from the sky a rich flora of bacteria, algae, spores of fungi and mosses, and pollen. Precipitated water is not sterile, whether collected over the land, the ocean, or the polar regions. Although a spore is most likely to be deposited dry by sedimentation to ground or by impact with a surface within a few hundred meters of takeoff, most spores that escape into the free air probably have their flight ended by rain. Conditions in outer space beyond our atmosphere, as far as they are known, would appear to offer a highly uncongenial environment to unprotected micro-organisms. If attempts are made to detect viable spores in interplanetary space, special techniques will be required that owe little to the methods of aerobiology. However, experience gained in sampling our own atmosphere can be applied to some of the prob- lems of sampling in the atmospheres of other planets. Conventional methods of sampling aerosols of single bacterial cells indoors are de- fective when applied to taking samples of large spores from moving air, and we need to develop better sampling methods, especially for continuous sampling in culture. The glimpses we now have of the circulation of minute organisms in the atmosphere of our planet with all the implications in agriculture, medicine, and theoretical biology tantalize us by their incompleteness. It is unfortunate that exploration of our atmosphere has scarcely be- gun, and that we are not yet adequately equipped with technical meth- ods for the task, at a time when the opportunity of probing the atmos- pheres of other planets is hastening upon us. REFERENCES 1. BaTeMAN, A. J. Heredity, vol. 4, p. 353, 1950. 2. DurHAM, O.C. Journ. Allergy, vol. 18, p. 231, 1947. 3. ERpDTMANN, G. An introduction of pollen analysis. Chronica Botanica, Waltham, Mass., 1943. ~ OM yD NH 10. OUTDOOR AEROBIOLOGY—GREGORY 453 . GREGORY, P. H. The microbiology of the atmosphere. London and New York, 1961. . GReGcorY, P. H., and Hirst, J. M. Journ. Gen. Microbiol., vol. 17, p. 185, 1957. . INeotp, C.T. Endeavour, vol. 16, p. 78, 1957. . Papy, 8S. M., and Karica, L. Mycologia, vol. 47, p. 35, 1955. . Papy, S. M., and Kerry, C. D. Canadian Journ. Bot., vol. 32, p. 202, 1954. . Stepanov, K. M.Tpya. 3am. Pact. Jiexunrpag (Cep. 2, DutTonat.), vol. 8, p. 1, 1935. WOLFENBARGER, D.O. Lioydia, vol. 22, p. 1, 1959. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. 7 i _ iy ry af) : ales f » ies sia ae ser aa 7 hihete oF or iy {Sona Trot ne be er a byt ays way J PWet, spe ty xt pe arve ye v4 St we u i a eg? Ror rt hae a cig’ f “ie 5 Mata Af ne aa wees act ut Te a z ny eg a aaa % ' Pike of nie a eae wf Ke 7- le 3 aa ; WORE, Sie Mas! (iat oyy ( aelibehg's Fb! il a oe EL SL as ae Aue , i : » y »' fi 5 7 ee: Di we ti We, ).3\) ha i: i im rT. ie ha rome : j ; ; 4 AR cd aE a "s ' tuotarl eialy al eoeies eng f TAY wed in MIyVitG9 ancient bac (adic iit ‘adr oF bmexerh be ieoupen in) eid coe i ) AT 2S notgeites W aon teal nalevyhe tani : : . owe ; mal ai f f is ‘a The Detection and Evasion of Bats by Moths’ By KENNETH D. ROEDER Tufts University and ASHER E. TREAT City College of New York - [With 6 plates] A CENTRAL objective of a large segment of biological and psycho- logical research is to provide a physiological basis for behavior. The first step toward this objective is analytic, and consists of determining the structure and function of neural components after they have been isolated from their connections with the rest of the nervous system. There has been much progress in this direction, and it is now possible to describe in terms of input and output performance the operation of many isolated sense cells, neurons, and muscle fibers, even though the principles of their internal operation are mostly not understood. The next step, the synthetic process of assembling this information on isolated neural components and relating it to the behavior of the intact animal, is hampered by two kinds of difficulty. The first appears to be methodological, but is somewhat hard to define. When one re- gards the evergrowing literature on the unit performance of sense cells, nerve cells, and muscle fibers, it is to experience that sense of dismay first encountered at a tender age when the springs, gears, and screws of one’s first watch were strewn upon the table. The modus operandi of analysis or taking apart seems to come naturally, and the problems encountered are essentially technical in nature. Synthesis or the der- ivation of a system from its components seems to lack the a priori logic of analysis. The second general difficulty is technical, and stems from the fact that even the simplest behavior of the higher animals and man is ac- 1 Reprinted from American Scientist, vol. 49, No. 2, June 1961. Copyrighted 1961, by The Society of the Sigma Xi and reprinted by permission of the copyright owner. Much of the experimental work reported in this paper was made possible by Grant E—947 from the U.S. Public Health Service. 455 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 companied by the simultaneous activity of millions of sense cells, nerve cells, muscle fibers, and glands. Even if it were possible to register the traffic of nervous and chemical information generated and received by each and all of these neural elements during the behavior, it is doubtful whether the record would provide a meaningful description of the action. Even though these problems cannot be solved directly at the present time, they become less formidable if the behavior selected for study is simple and stereotyped, and only a small number of nerve cells are concerned in its execution. These conditions are partly fulfilled by the sensory mechanisms whereby certain nocturnal moths detect the ap- proach of insectivorous bats. ECHOLOCATION AND COUNTERMEASURE Bats detect obstacles in complete darkness by emitting a sequence of high-pitched cries or chirps and locating the source of the echoes. As Griffin (1958) and others have shown, this form of sonar is unbeliev- ably precise. By means of it, insectivorous bats locate and track flying moths, mosquitoes, and small flies (Griffin et al., 1960). North Ameri- can bats, such as Myotis lucifugus and H'ptesicus fuscus, emit chirps about 10 times a second when they are cruising in the open. Each chirp lasts from 10 to 15 milliseconds (msec.) with an initial frequency of 80 kilocycles (ke.) dropping about one octave in pitch toward its end (see pl. 3, fig. 2). The frequencies in these chirps are ultrasonic, that is, inaudible to human ears, which cannot detect tones much above 15 to 18 ke. The higher frequencies used by bats make possible more discrete echoes from smaller objects. The chirps can be rendered audible by detecting them with a special microphone and rectifying the ultrasonic com- ponent. They then can be heard through headphones as a series of clicks. These clicks fuse into what Griffin has called a “buzz” when the bat is chasing an insect or avoiding an obstacle. Several families of moths (in particular the owlet moths or Noctui- dae) have evolved countermeasures enabling them to detect the chirps of bats. A pair of ultrasonic ears is found near the “waist” of the moth between thorax and abdomen (pl. 1, fig. 1). An extremely thin eardrum or tympanic membrane is directed obliquely backward and outward into the recess (dark area) found at this point (pl. 1, fig. 2). Internal to the eardrum is an air-filled cavity that is spanned by a thin strand of tissue running from the center of the eardrum to a skeletal support (pl. 2, fig. 1). This tissue contains the sound- detecting apparatus, consisting of two acoustic sense cells (A cells). A single nerve fiber arises from each A cell and passes close to the EVASION OF BATS BY MOTHS-——-ROEDER AND TREAT 457 skeletal support, where the pair is joined by a third nerve fiber arising from a large cell (B cell) in the membranes covering the support. The three fibers continue their course to the central nervous system of the moth as the tympanic nerve. The traffic of nerve impulses passing over the three fibers from A cells and B cell to the nervous system of the moth can be followed if a fine metal electrode is placed under the tympanic nerve. Another electrode is placed in inactive tissue nearby. As each impulse passes the site of the active electrode it can be detected as a small action potential lasting about 1 msec. Since the tympanic nerve contains only three nerve fibers, it is not difficult to distinguish and to read out the respective reports to the nervous system from the pair of A cells and the B cell. A similar experiment in a mammal is practically meaningless since the auditory nerve contains about 50,000 nerve fibers. This method of detection shows that the A cells transmit organized patterns of impulses over their fibers only when the ear is exposed to sound (Roeder and Treat, 1957). The B cell transmits a regular and continuous succession of impulses that can usually be distinguished from the A impulses by their greater height. The B impulses are completely unaffected by acoustic stimulation, and change in fre- quency only when the skeletal framework and membranes lining the ear are subjected to steady mechanical distortion (‘Treat and Roeder, 1959). The B cell behaves in a manner similar to receptors found in other parts of the body that convey information about mechanical stress on joints, muscles, and skeleton. The role of such a receptor in the ear of a moth is unknown. In the absence of sound, the A cells discharge irregularly spaced and relatively infrequent impulses (pl. 2, fig. 2, A). A continuous pure tone of low intensity elicits a more regular succession of more frequent impulses in one of the A fibers (pl. 2, fig. 2, B). The other fiber is not yet affected. Any slight increase in the intensity of the tone causes a corresponding increase in the impulse frequency of the active fiber. When the intensity of the tone is increased to about tenfold that producing a detectable response in the more sensitive A fiber, the second A fiber begins to respond in like manner. Its action potentials are superimposed on those of the first (pl. 2, fig. 2, C and D) by the method of recording, but actually reach the central nervous system over their own pathway. This experiment reveals two of the ways in which the moth ear codes sound intensity. It is like an instrument having a graded fine adjustment (the intensity-frequency relation) and a coarse adjustment of two steps (the pair of A cells). Other ways of coding intensity will appear later. 458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The moth ear responds in this manner to tones from 3 ke. to well over 100 ke., but there is no evidence that it is capable of discriminat- ing between tones of different frequency. It is most sensitive near the middle of its range, that is, to frequencies such as those contained in bat chirps. In plate 2, figure 2, it will be noticed that, in each of the recordings, the intervals between the successive impulses increase as the pure tone stimulus continues. In terms of the nerve code outlined above, the A cells report that the sound is declining in intensity with time, although in fact it was kept constant. This adaptation to a constant stimulus occurs in most receptors registering changes in the outside world. In terms of our own experience, the impact of our sur- roundings would be shocking and unbearable if it were not distorted in this manner by sense organs. The brilliance of a lighted room entered after dark would continue to be blinding and the noise of a jet engine would remain unbearable. However, the A cells of the moth’s ear adapt very rapidly to a continuous tone, and their full effectiveness as pulse detectors is revealed only when they are exposed to short tone pulses similar to bat chirps. In the experiment illustrated in plate 3, figure 1, a tone pulse of 3 msec. duration was generated at regular intervals. It is similar toa bat chirp except for its regularity and the absence of frequency modulation. A microphone (upper trace) and moth ear (lower trace) were placed within range, and the intensity of the stimulus pulse was adjusted so that it just produced a detectable response in the most sensitive A fiber (0 db). The intensity was then increased by 5 decibel? (db) steps as each recording was made. It will be seen that the microphone begins to detect the sound pulse when it is about 10 db above the threshold of the most sensitive A cell in the moth’sear. As before, the increase in frequency of A impulses is evident if the 5 and 10 db records are compared, and a response of the less sensitive A cell appears first in the 25 db record where the extra peaks of its action potentials overlap those of the more sensitive A unit. In addition to these two ways of coding intensity, two more can now be recognized. If the interval between detection of the sound by the microphone and by the moth ear is compared at different sound intensities, 1t will be’ noticed that the tympanic nerve response occurs earlier and earlier on the horizontal time axis. In other words, the latency of the response decreases with increasing loudness. Also, the sense cells are seen to discharge impulses for some time after the sound has ceased, and this after-discharge becomes longer with increasing sound intensity. 2The decibel (db) notation expresses relative sound pressures. An intensity of 20 db is tenfold that of the reference level (0 db), a 40-db sound is a hundredfold the reference level. EVASION OF BATS BY MOTHS—ROEDER AND TREAT 459 THE DETECTION OF BATS These experiments with artificial sounds suggest how the moth ear might be expected to respond to a bat cry. A few laboratory ob- servations were made with captured bats. In one of these experiments, in collaboration with Dr. Fred Webster, the cries of a flying bat were picked up simultaneously by a moth ear and a microphone, and recorded on high-speed magnetic tape (pl. 3, fig. 2). Interesting though they were, these experiments served mainly to show that the full potentialities of the moth ear as a bat detector could not be realized within the confines of a laboratory, and efforts were made to transport the necessary equipment to a spot where bats were flying and feeding under natural conditions. Finally, about 300 pounds of equipment was uprooted from the laboratory and reassembled at dusk of a July evening on a quiet hill- side in the Berkshires of western Massachusetts. Moths attracted toa light provided experimental material. The insect subject was pinned on cork so that one of its ears had an unrestricted sound field, and with the help of a microscope its tympanic nerve was exposed and placed on electrodes. After amplification, the action potentials were dis- played on an oscilloscope. They were made audible as a series of clicks by means of headphones connected to the amplifier and were stored on magnetic tape for later study. It was dark before all was ready, but bats immediately revealed their presence to the moth ear by short trains of nerve impulses that recurred about 10 times a second (pl. 4, A). The approach of a cruising bat from maximum range was coded as a progressive increase in the number and frequency of impulses in each train, first from one and then from both A fibers. It was not long before we learned to read something of the movements of the bats from these neural signals. Long trains, sometimes with two frequency peaks, suggested the chirps of nearby bats that echoed from the wall of a neighboring house (pl. 4, B). An increase in the repetition rate of the trains coupled with a decrease in the number of impulses in each train sig- nified a “buzz” as the bat attacked some flying insect in the darkness (pl. 4, C). All this was inaudible and invisible to our unaided senses. With a powerful floodlight near the nerve preparation we were able to see bats flying within a radius of 20 feet, and some attacks on flying insects could then be both seen and also “heard” through the “buzz” as coded by the moth’s tympanic nerve. However, most of the sounds detected by the moth ear were made by bats maneuvering well out of range of the light. A rough measure of the sensitivity of the moth ear to bat chirps was obtained at dusk on another occasion when the bats could still be seen. The A cells first detected an approaching bat flying at 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 an altitude of more than 20 feet and at a horizontal distance of over 100 feet from the moth—a performance that betters that of the most sensitive microphones. DIRECTION Since differences in sound intensity are coded by the tympanic nerve in at least four different ways, the horizontal bearing of a bat might be derived from a comparison of the nerve responses to the same chirp in the right and left ears. A difference in right and left responses might be expected only if each ear had directional properties, that is, a lower threshold to sounds coming from a particular direction relative to the moth’s axis. Directional sensitivity was measured in an open area where echoes were minimal. A source of clicks of constant intensity was placed on radii to the moth at 45° intervals. The source was moved in and out on each radius until a standard tympanic nerve response was ob- tained, and the distance from the moth noted. Horizontal distances along eight radii were combined to make a polar plot of sensitivity (Roeder and Treat, 1961). The plot showed that, although there was little difference in sensitivity fore and aft, a click on the side nearest the ear at about 90° relative to the moth’s longitudinal axis was audible at about twice the distance of a similarly placed click on the far side. This led to further field experiments in the presence of flying bats. The tympanic nerve responses from both ears of a moth were recorded simultaneously on separate tracks of a stereophonic magnetic tape. The tape was subsequently replayed into a two-channel oscilloscope and the traces photographed (pl.5). In the upper record (A) the in- crease in number of impulses in each succeeding train suggests the approach of a bat. When the signals from right and left ears are compared, it is evident that the greatest difference exists when the sig- nal is faintest, the first response of the series occurring in one ear only. When both ears respond, the differential nature of the binaural re- sponse can be seen first as a difference in the number of spikes gener- ated in right and left ears, second in the differential spike frequency, and third in the latency of the response, which is greater on that side generating fewer spikes. It is also evident that, as the sound intensity increases (presumably due to the approach of the bat), the differential becomes less until the responses of right and left ears become almost identical. In another experiment, it was found that the tympanic nerve response saturates, i.e., becomes maximal, when the sound inten- sity is about 40 db (hundredfold) above threshold. From this it can be concluded that the moth’s nervous system receives information that would enable it to determine whether a distant bat was to the right or left, but if the bat was at close quarters this information would not be EVASION OF BATS BY MOTHS—ROEDER AND TREAT 461 available. In plate 5, C, the “buzz” was picked up by one ear only, presumably because during this part of its performance the chirps of a bat are much less intense. It is tempting to estimate just how close the bat must be before the moth fails to get information on its location. If it is assumed that a bat is first detected at 100 feet and approaches on a straight path at right angles to the moth’s course while making chirps of constant loudness, the differential tympanic nerve response would diminish throughout the approach and disappear completely when the bat was 15 to 20 feet away. However, we have not yet determined how much of the information that we are able to read out of its auditory mecha- nism is actually utilized by the moth in its normal behavior. THE EVASIVE BEHAVIOR OF MOTHS Although the evasive behavior of moths in the presence of bats must have been witnessed hundreds of times, it is hard to find an adequate account of the maneuvers of either party. The contest normally takes place in darkness, and, even when it is illuminated by a floodlight, the action is too fast and complex to be appreciated by the eye. The flight path of the bat and its ability to intercept and capture its prey have been studied by Griffin (1958) and his students. More recently, Web- ster (in press) has shown by means of high-speed sound motion pictures that bats become adept at using echoes to plot an interception course with an object moving in a simple ballistic trajectory. Many people have noted the seemingly erratic dives and turns made by moths when bats are near, and similar behavior has been described when moths are exposed to artificial sources of ultrasound (Schaller and Timm, 1950; Treat, 1955). In an effort to learn more about the behavior of moths under field conditions their flight was tracked photographically as they reacted to a series of ultrasonic pulses simulating bat cries. The sounds were gen- erated by the equipment used in the experiment shown in plate 3, figure 1. The pulses were similar in form to those shown, although longer in duration (6 msec.). Each pulse ranged from 50 to 70 ke. with a rise and fall time of about 1 msec. Pulse sequences up to 50 per second could be released on closure of a switch. The sounds were emitted by a plane-surfaced condenser loudspeaker mounted so as to project a fairly directional beam over an open area of lawn and shrubs illumi- nated by a 250-watt floodlight. The observer sat behind the sound generator and floodlight, holding in one hand the cable release of a 35 mm. camera set on “bulb,” and in the other the switch controlling the onset of the sound-pulse sequence. Many moths and other insects flew out of the darkness into this flood- light arena. A number were attracted directly to the light and were 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 disregarded. Many others moved across the arena at various angles but without marked deviation toward the light. When one of these appeared to be in line with the loudspeaker the camera shutter was opened and the sound pulses turned on. Some of the tracks registered by the camera as the illuminated moths moved against the night sky are shown in plate 6. Many insects, including some moths, showed no change in flight pattern when they encountered the sound. In others, the changes in flight path were dramatic in their abruptness and bewildering in their variety. The simplest, and also one of the commonest reactions was a sharp power dive into the grass (pl. 6, A, B). Sometimes the dive was not com- pleted and the insect flew off at high speed close to the ground. Almost as frequently the dive was prefaced or combined with a series of tight turns, climbs, and loops (pl. 6, C, D). It is not known whether these maneuvers are selected in some random manner from the repertoire of individual moths, or whether they are characteristics of different species. However, Webster (in press) has shown that bats soon learn to plot an interception course with food propelled through the air in a simple ballistic trajectory. The random behavior elicited by simulated bat cries in the natural moth population seems to be a natural answer to this predictive ability in bats, while the sharpness of the turns must certainly tax the maneuverability of the heavier predator. The reacting moths shown in plate 6 were mostly within 25 feet of the camera and sound source, and were exposed to an unknown but probably high sound intensity. Under these circumstances, the evasive behavior appeared to be completely unorientated relative to the sound source, as might be predicted from the binaural tympanic nerve record- ings. In some instances, moths flying at a greater distance or only on the edge of the sound beam appeared to turn away from the area and fly off at high speed. This must be checked in future experiments. THE SURVIVAL VALUE OF EVASION In spite of the evidence that the moth ear is an excellent bat detector, and that acoustic stimulation releases erratic flight patterns, one may well ask whether this behavior really protects moths from attack by bats. This question has been answered (Roeder and Treat, in press) by observing with a floodlight 402 field encounters between moths and feeding bats. In each encounter we recorded the presence or absence of evasive maneuvers by the moth, and the outcome, that is, whether it was captured by the bat or managed to escape. From the pooled data we determined the ratio of the percentage of nonreactors surviving attack to the ratio of reactors surviving attack. Thus computed, the PLATE 1 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Roeder and Treat “WunIpivs JusIedsursy a4) YsnoIy? prosyy oYM v se Q[GISIA SI puv ‘Voie d}IYM 94} JO J9}U99 9) UI yods yor|q oy} ‘ds 1B payoriye si sjjeo Wy 94 SUIUIvJUOD ONSSI} OJ, pidajsvdqy JO auviquisu s1uvdurA} ay} jo dn-asoj) ae "Yasues] Ul youl Wis jnNoqe st YOU 9yy fo Apoq ayy, “Mole MO[9q AVA 9yt OjUl pteM{no pure plemyorq Ajanbijqo so 2) ey ay} JO dd¥JINS [vUIO}XO OUT, "wopisd & S1J045P Ul vd YS 9yy ouviquow s1uedwAy JO sutuedo [eusloixy ‘| Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Roeder and Treat PLATE 2 1. Diagram of the tympanic organ of a noctuid moth. ‘The sensillum (S) contains the pair of acoustic receptors or A cells. The A nerve fibers are joined by that of the B cell (BAx) to form the tympanic nerve (JJ7NIb). TAS, tympanic air sac; B and SP, skeletal supports; 7M, tympanic membrane. (After Treat and Roeder, 1959.) Tait MTA) Ht LEE WAY AAA ww Wi 2. Tympanic nerve response in Prodenia eridania to a pure tone of 40 kc. The occasional large spikes originate in the B cell. (4) Response to a sound intensity close to the threshold of the sensitive A cell. (B) Intensity 7 db above that in (4). (C) Intensity 15 db above that in (4). (D) Intensity 23 db above that in (4). The less sensitive A cell discharges occasionally in (C), and frequently in (D), as indicated by the double peaks. Time line 100 msec. (From Roeder, 1959.) Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Roeder and Treat PLATE 3 ee ade 5 cad | ead keer 1. Tympanic nerve responses (lower traces) of Noctua (= Amathes) c-nigrum to a 70-ke. sound pulse recorded simultaneously by a Granith microphone (upper traces). The numbers indicate the intensity of the sound pulse in decibels above a reference level (0). The threshold of the sensitive A cell lies between O and 5 db. The large spikes appearing in some of the records are from the B cell. ‘The less sensitive A cell responds in the 25 db recording. Vertical lines, 4 msec. apart. 2. The cry of a flying bat (Myotis) recorded by a Granith microphone (upper trace) and the A cells (lower trace) of a noctuid moth (Agroperina dubitans). The A spikes shown in the lower trace have been distorted in form by the recording technique. ‘Time line, 10 msec. Made in collaboration with Dr. Fred Webster in his laboratory. PLATE 4 Roeder and Treat Smithsonian Report, 1961. oul], « 220q,, V ()) CL96I “Yeoly, pure IIPIORT WO sf ) “DISUI OOT “ouly “Aqivou Sulsinto Jeq Ve Aq 9peul OUII Syl pue AIO jeul 10 94} OF asuodsoal dtuedutrs J, (J) *puosa9s Jod Ol ynoqe 12 sasnd Suijztue yeq Sulsinio ve Jo yovoidde ayy, (WV) “pley ay} ul Buty sieq jo solid ayy 01 wnssiU-9 (sayjoup =) vnjION JO sasuodsar Stuedura | PLATE 5 (F) 2 YOU Prete If re) o o rs ee w a 1 o iso] o to) ~ Smithsonian Report, 1961. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Roeder and Treat PLATE 6 ns Flight tracks registered by various moths just before, and immediately following, exposure to a series of simulated bat cries. The dotted appearance of the tracks is due to the individual wingbeats of the moth. The beginning of each track appears in each photo- graph, and the moth finally flies out of the field. EVASION OF BATS BY MOTHS—ROEDER AND TREAT 463 selective advantage of evasive action was 40 percent, meaning that for every 100 reacting moths that survived, there were only 60 surviving nonreactors. This figure is very high when compared with similar estimates of survival value for other biological characteristics. It seems more than adequate to account for the evolution of the moth’s ear through natural selection even if the detection of bats turns out to be its only function. CONCLUSION As with most investigations, this work raises more questions than it has answered. The role of the B cell remains completely obscure. There is no evidence to connect it with the auditory function even though it is located in the ear, and its regular impulse discharge is a characteristic feature of the tympanic nerve activity of many species of moth (Treat and Roeder, 1959. See also pl. 5). The manner in which the A cells transduce sound waves recurring 100,000 times a second into the much slower succession of nerve impulses remains a mystery, and the synaptic mechanisms whereby information from the A fibers is translated into action by the nervous system of the moth, await investigation. During the field experiments it was noticed that many other natural sounds initiated impulses in the A fibers. These included the rustling of leaves, the chirp of tree and field crickets, and, in one instance, ultra- sonic components in the wingbeat sounds made by another moth. Occasionally, the A fibers discharged regularly as if detecting a rhythmic sound, though none was audible to the observers and its source (if any) remains a mystery. There is no evidence that these identified and unidentified sounds are important in the life of a moth, yet it must be said that a moth can detect them, and a careful study of moth behavior in their presence would be of value. Several families of moths lack ears and show no response to ultra- sonic stimuli. Some of these, such as the sphinx or hawk moths and the larger saturniid moths, are probably too much of a mouthful for the average bat, and might find no survival advantage in a warning device. Others are of the same size and general habits as the noctuids and might be expected to suffer attacks by bats. Included in this group are some common pests such as the tent caterpillar. It will be inter- esting to learn whether these forms owe their success in survival to some structural or behavioral countermeasure that compensates for the lack of a tympanic organ. In spite of these unanswered questions, we believe that some progress has been made in putting together the sensory information received by an animal, and relating this to what the animal does. That this has been possible in moths is only because of the small number of channels 6253256231 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 through which acoustic information reaches the nervous system in these insects. Further examples of this favorable situation have been described in other insects, and still others are waiting to be explored. REFERENCES GRIFFIN, DONALD R. 1958. Listening in the dark. Yale University Press, New Haven. GRIFFIN, D. R.; WEBSTER, F. A.; and MICHAEL, C. R. 1960. The echolocation of flying insects by bats. Animal Behaviour, vol. 8, pp. 141-154. RoebDER, K. D. 1959. A physiological approach to the relation between prey and predator. In Studies in Invertebrate Morphology, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 137, pp. 287-3806. Roeper, K. D., and Treat, A. BE. 1957. Ultrasonic reception by the tympanic organ of noctuid moths. Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. 134, pp. 127-158. 1961. The detection of bat cries by moths. Jn Sensory Communication, ed. by W. Rosenblith. M.1.T. Technology Press, Cambridge, Mass. —— The acoustic detection of bats by moths. Proc. XI (1960) Internat. Entomol. Congr. (In press.) ScHALLER, F., and Trim, C. 1950. Das Horvermégen der Nachtschmetterlinge. Zeitschr. Vergl. Physiol., vol. 32, pp. 468-481. TREAT, A. HB. 1955. The response to sound of certain Lepidoptera. Ann. Hntomol. Soe. America, vol. 48, pp. 272-284. Treat, A. B., and Roeper, K. D. 1959. A nervous element of unknown function in the tympanic organs of moths. Journ. Insect Physiol., vol. 3, pp. 262-270. The Honey Bee By James I. HAMBLETON Collaborator, U.S. Department of Agriculture [With 4 plates] Or Aut the insects in the world probably no one species is more widely distributed than the honey bee. Its present habitat includes the whole of the earth wherever flowering plants occur—from the polar regions to the Equator. Honey bees are not indigenous to all continents of the world, but they have become introduced and established essen- tially in all parts occupied by man. If the statement seems too strong that the honey bee is more widely distributed than any other of our common insects, it can be said con- servatively that the product of the bee is the most widely produced of man’s food. Even such common foods as wheat and milk are not so universally known. Honey bees were busily engaged in making honey and beeswax be- fore the advent of man. Honey and wax of the bee were waiting in readiness for our earliest ancestors at the beginning of their evolu- tionary climb. In time they learned of the sweetness of honey and that wax could be employed for many purposes. For centuries honey was the only sweet, and it and beeswax were regarded so highly by the ancients that they wove into their religious ceremonies in one way or another frequent references to honey, wax, and bees. Symbols repre- senting various phases of bee husbandry are found in the earliest recorded histories. Man throughout his existence has been closely associated with the honey bee. Honey and beeswax were used in the payment of taxes and as indemnity. Conquered tribes and peoples paid off reparations in the form of honey and wax. To the present day beeswax plays an impor- tant part in the rites of the church. A beehive forms the central mo- tive of the great seal of the State of Utah. 1 This article in its original form, under the title “The Indispensable Honeybee,” first appeared in the Smithsonian Annual Report for 1945, pp. 293-304, illus. In the inter- vening years the paper has proved so popular and useful that Mr. Hambleton welcomed the opportunity to bring it up to date, expand it along certain lines, and provide fresh illustrations, for a new generation of readers. The present version is the result.— EDITOR. 465 466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 In spite of this close association, which goes back untold centuries, the honey bee has not acquiesced to man’s influence in the same manner as have the domestic animals of our present day. In truthfulness it can be said that there are no domesticated honey bees. The life and the habits of the honey bee are the same today as when man first dis- covered that the product of these well-armed insects was worth risking life and limb. The social life of the bee with its complex division of labor and its various sexual forms have largely defied all effort to change its nature better to adapt it to man’s use. The free nature of the bee and its insistence on mating in the wide open spaces have been the chief stumbling blocks in efforts to improve or to domesticate the honey bee. The sexual development and mating habits of bees are different from those of domestic animals. As an illustration of this difference, the male bees, the drones, are produced parthenogenetically ; that is, the drone has no father but he can boast of a grandfather. Unmated queens can lay eggs that produce male bees and, even when they are mated, the mating has no effect on the male offspring. Following many attempts to control mating, it is now possible to report that important progress in this direction is being made. Bee scientists, through the use of anesthesia and delicate instruments, can impregnate a virgin queen with the semen from a given drone. The parentage of the resulting offspring is thus definitely known. Inas- much as colonies or strains of bees vary widely in temperament, color, ability to store honey, and to pollinate flowers, hardiness, and resist- ance to disease, controlled mating and careful selection should result in the development of superior bee stock. Research workers have delved into the early records of man and written volumes on the antiquity of beekeeping; but, since the intent of this article is to acquaint readers with some facts of man’s current dependence on bees and how they are handled, it will be necessary to leave the romantic past in favor of the equally romantic true story of today. There is more to beekeeping than meets the eye. To the average person it has to do with the production of honey and beeswax. Other than those who have had actual experience in keeping bees, most per- sons have little conception of how they can be handled and made to work for their owners. There is little mystery about the production of most of our common foods. There is no mystery about the source of milk, butter, and eggs, and the production of fruits and vegetables and their route to the ultimate consumer are matters of everyday knowledge. On the other hand how can bees—wild, undomesticated insects—be directed to produce honey and beeswax? How are these products taken from the bees? Is it necessary to put honey through a manufacturing process before it is ready for consumption ? THE HONEY BEE—-HAMBLETON 467 There was a time when beekeeping was thought of simply in terms of honey produced, but times have changed. Beekeeping now has a much more important part to play. The value of bees as agents of cross-pollination far outweighs the monetary value of the annual out- put of honey and beeswax. Why do we hear so much about pollination these days? Is it a new fad or fancy, or is there some basic reason for emphasizing this subject? In grandfather’s day and before his time this subject was seldom mentioned. The land was rich; there was little soil erosion, and for the most part the production of farm crops was satisfactory. As demands for agricultural products increased, farming operations enlarged, and with this came many new problems, one of which was pollination. Sex plays as important a part in the plant kingdom as it does in the animal kingdom, but in a less obvious manner. Many plants contain both the male and the female elements on the same plant. This is true of all the grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, rye, oats, Kentucky bluegrass, and other grasses all belong to the great grass family. Pollen from the male part of the plant must come in contact with the female ele- ment if seed is to result. The corn tassel bears the male element which is the source of millions of tiny pollen grains. The long fine silks which protrude from the ends of an ear of corn area part of the female element, one silk being attached to each newly formed grain. For this to develop to full size it is essential that a grain of pollen come in con- tact with the end of each silk. When this happens, the pollen germi- nates and sends a long tube down throughout the length of the silk through which the male germ migrates and eventually unites with the female cell. Without this union the ear of corn would be abortive and produce only a misshapen naked cob. Because of the extraordinary number of pollen grains, it has been estimated that an acre of corn will produce in the neighborhood of 300 pounds of pollen. There is more than enough to go around, so that each strand of silk is assured its grain of pollen. Grass pollen is light in weight, easily blown about and carried by wind currents. All grasses are wind pollinated. Let us look at another kind of plant—one with a more conspicuous flower than is usually found in the grasses—an apple tree for example. Each apple blossom contains both the male and the female element. For an apple to become fully developed and symmetrical in shape, enough pollen grains must be deposited on the stigmas of the flower to ensure the normal growth of the full complement of embryonic seeds. When insect damage is not a factor, insufficient pollination re- sults in a misshapen and lopsided fruit. Most varieties of apple, however, like many other flowering plants, will not produce seed or 468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 fruit with its own pollen. The blossom of a Jonathan apple must receive pollen from an entirely different variety of apple. This in- troduces an interesting complication. Apple pollen is heavy and sticky; it cannot be carried by the wind. How then is pollen from one tree brought to another which may be many yards away? There is only one answer—through the medium of insects which live on nectar and pollen. One has only to look into the branches of an apple tree at full bloom to realize that honey bees are the predominating flower visitors and are the agents that put on a set of fruit. The mode of reproduction, that is, seed or fruit formation, is slightly different from that of the apple in plants belonging to the cucumber family. Plants such as watermelon, cantaloupe, pumpkin, and cu- cumber, instead of having both sexual elements in the same blossom, contain two kinds of blossoms; one is all female and the other is all male. Here again pollen must be carried from the male flower to the female. A small number of hermaphroditic flowers also occur in this family of plants. Here again, since pollen from these plants is sticky and not wind-borne, the indispensable service of pollen-carrying insects is apparent. Crooked cucumbers and flat-sided melons are the result of insufficient pollen coming in contact with the female flowers. A pollen grain is needed for the development of each seed. A _ well- formed cantaloupe may contain up to 600 seeds, the more seeds the larger and sweeter the melon. How many of us credit the honey bee when we cut into a luscious breakfast melon ? There are still other types of plants in which a single plant pro- duces only male flowers, while another plant of the same species bears only female flowers. The wild persimmon and holly are good illus- trations of this type. Since the wind cannot be depended upon to disperse the pollen adequately, insects again come into the picture. There are approximately 50 cultivated crops grown in the United States that require insect pollination. In addition to those already mentioned, there are many other important plants—for example, alfalfa, sweetclover, red clover, alsike clover, white Dutch clover— which must have each tiny flower visited by an insect in order to produce seed and thus perpetuate themselves. Pollinating insects are either essential or highly desirable in the production of seeds of many vegetables, such as carrot, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, and brussels sprouts, to name only a few. Insect pollination is a “must” in our present-day agriculture, but why is it more important today than it was 30 or 40 years ago? There was a time in the history of agriculture, and not so many years ago either, when it was not uncommon to hull 6 to 10 bushels of red clover or alfalfa seed per acre. It is only rarely that such produc- THE HONEY BEE—HAMBLETON 469 tion is experienced today—in fact, the average yield of both these crops for the United States is slightly under 1 bushel per acre. Yet alfalfa and red clover grow just as well and blossom as profusely as in bygone days. But why has seed production fallen so low? Could inadequate pollination be one of the contributing factors? There was at one time in this country an adequate population of native insects to take care of all pollination needs. These are insects that maintain themselves and raise their young largely on pollen and nectar. Their whole livelihood depends upon their flower-visiting habits. As farming operations expanded, the nesting sites of many of these insects were destroyed. Where the population of native in- sects could adequately pollinate a 10-acre field of clover or alfalfa, the same number of insects fall woefully short when the acreage jumped to several hundred acres. Since most plants have blooming periods of short duration, it is only logical that the numbers of pol- linating insects be stepped up in proportion to the increase in acreage if seed yields are to be adequate and profitable. We have gone ahead increasing acreages manyfold but have made no effort to provide a proportionate increase in the number of pollinators. Many factors have contributed to the decline of native pollinating insects. The plowing and clean cultivation of large tracts of land deprive these insects, many of which build their nests in the ground, of their natural nesting sites. Rail fences which were so difficult to keep clean of vegetation, afforded ideal places for these insects to nest. The picturesque rail fences have been replaced largely by well- kept wire fences, thus driving the pollinating insects farther and far- ther away from the crops which the farmer can grow profitably only when these insects are within flying range of his fields. Forest and brush fires have further decimated our population of beneficial insects. The tremendous increase in the use of pesticides is taking a huge toll of native bees. Honey bees are also subject to destruction by these chemicals. No way is known to conserve or to encourage the propagation of many of our native pollinators, while honey bees, in the hand of man, can be given some degree of protection from poison- ing. Honey bees are the only pollinators that can be moved from crop to crop in the numbers required for the pollination of these crops. The honey bee, the most numerous of all pollinating insects, is not native to the United States. It was brought to this country by the early settlers and became known to the Indians as the “white man’s fly.” It is now thoroughly at home in its new habitat. Swarms that escape from commercial apiaries make their way very nicely in the protection of a hollow tree or in the hollow pillars of our front porches, a place, incidentally, where they are not always welcome. The honey bee, being exclusively a flower-visiting insect, does its share in pollination. It is estimated that honey bees are responsible 470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 for over 80 percent of all pollination effected. When swarms of bees escape and go to the woods they are subject to the same hazards as the native bees. Consequently their population in a wild or native state is not building up. This leaves the only stable source of pollinat- ing insects in the hands of beekeepers. The decline in seed and fruit production has been a matter of much concern in those crops that require insect pollination. Utah at one time was our leading alfalfa-seed-growing State. In its best year, 1925, Utah produced close to 25 million pounds of alfalfa seed. Over the years this figure fell to a low of less than 4 million pounds. There has been, however, an upward trend in production in recent years. Can it be that the grower of alfalfa seed is beginning to realize that Providence does not always bless the land with a sufficient number of pollinators? The grower must make a conscious effort to provide pollinators, usually colonies of honey bees, if he is to realize maximum seed possibilities. What value can be placed on the honey bee’s contribution to agri- culture, over and above the bee industry’s production of honey and beeswax? The agricultural statistics for 1959 give a total farm value of over $500 million for the following crops, all of which depend heavily on honey-bee pollination for seed and fruit: apples, pears, plums, sweet cherries, almonds, cucumbers, watermelons, cantaloupes, as well as seed of alfalfa, alsike, and white clover. In addition to these, there are many others to which bees contribute their service as pollinators. The growing of seed and fruit involves many operations. To name only a few—use of viable seed and high producing varieties, cultiva- tion, control of insect pests and diseases, pruning, soil enrichment and, of course, pollination. Even if all the crops listed above were given perfect growing conditions, there would be no production if pollinators were excluded. In some areas, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and places in the Intermountain States, certain species of native bees are highly eflicient pollinators. Bee for bee they can outperform the honey bee. However, their numbers are too small to affect significantly the pollination picture. Taking the country as a whole, honey bees account for 80 percent or more of all insect pollination. Only 11 of the primary insect-pollinated crops with a farm value of over $500 million are mentioned. Altogether, some 50 crops are benefited by bee visitation. Through the legerdemain of statistics we could say that honey bees, since they account for about 80 percent of all insect pollination, enrich agriculture to the extent of $400 million (80 percent of $500 million) annually not to mention the millions they add to other crops. To goa step further, since bees are a “must” in alfalfa and clover seed production and since the production of meat, Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hambleton PLATE 1 al een en tenet 1. The worker honey bee. Gathering pollen to feed the brood is facilitated by the many finely branched hairs which cover her body. ‘The same hairs serve as a brush to transfer pollen from flower to flower. ie . ‘“;* ~ 2. The apiarist examines a frame of comb taken from the center of the brood nest. It contains brood in various stages of development, honey, pollen, and adhering bees. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hambleton PEATE 2 ea 1. Worker bee on alfalfa blossom. This bee has ‘‘tripped”’ the flower for the purpose of collecting pollen. Note the pellet of pollen on the hind leg. q Ber 2. Bee on apple blossom. In working over the sexual organs of a flower a bee may gather nectar or pollen or both and at the same time transfer pollen to effect fertilization. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hambleton PLATE 3 1. Stages of worker bee from egg to full-grown larva. In a period of five days the newly hatched larva increases in weight 1,500 times. 2. Stages of worker bee from full-grown larva to adult. Twenty-one days are required from the time an egg is laid until the new adult emerges from the cell. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Hambleton PLATE 4 1. An apiary of a commercial breeder of queen bees. Small hives are utilized for this pur- pose. A newly emerged queen bee remains in the hive for a few days. At the proper age she flies forth to mate with a drone. The queen bee is then ready to be mailed to a customer. bo The installation of a new apiary. Package bees, as they are known in the trade, consist of two or three pounds of worker bees and a mated queen bee. Such packages are sufficient to start a new colony. THE HONEY BEE—HAMBLETON 471 milk, butter, and eggs depends heavily on clover-rich pastures and alfalfa, we might give some credit to the bees for these commodities. Further, we should not lose sight of the many indigenous, insect- pollinated plants that play such an important part in soil and water conservation. However, it is evident that a prejudiced person could place an absurd value on honey bees. It is equally apparent how diffi- cult it would be to arrive at a monetary evaluation of their worth to agriculture. It may suffice to say that without honey bees American agriculture would be in a sad way to the extent, certainly, of several times the value of the annual crop of honey and beeswax. Pollinating insects have certain human characteristics. They will not fly farther for food than they have to and always select the richest and most easily obtainable. Sweetclover is a favorite source of nectar and pollen for honey bees and for many other pollinating insects. In the case of most flowers, bees readily and, of course, accidentally trans- fer pollen to the stigmas irrespective of whether the primary purpose of the visit is to obtain nectar or pollen. An alfalfa flower is an exception to this general rule in that the pollen is not exposed until a pollen-seeking bee “trips” the flower. When alfalfa and sweetclover, to name only two plants competing for bee visitation, are growing within the flight range of honey bees, the preference of the latter for sweetclover is conspicuous. Under such circumstances the chances for a crop of alfalfa seed are slim. The alfalfa flower not only has to be tripped by insects—it also has to receive pollen from another alfalfa plant. By and large, insect pollination has been taken as a matter of course—something that nature ordinarily provides. In the event of crop failure it is seldom that insufficient insect activity is thought of asareason. Neither farmers nor agricultural experts have paid much attention to how the proximity of one crop affects the pollination of another. When the natural flora is more attractive to bees than the planted crops, meager seed and fruit production can be expected. As fields of single crops grow larger, adequate pollination becomes more and more critical. In our modern agriculture, pollination must be consciously provided. Since for most localities the number of pollinators is limited, attention should be given to the sequence in planting crops that compete for the visitation of pollinating insects. Plant breeders could well incorporate factors such as copious nectar secretion to make plants more attractive to pollinators. Protective nesting sites will encourage the propagation of wild pollinating insects. Growers can maintain apiaries of their own or better still they can encourage beekeepers to establish permanent apiaries within flight range of their fields. 32 625325— 62 472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The State of Washington enjoys the highest average per-acre pro- duction of alfalfa seed, often exceeding 400 pounds per acre. There are 200,000 alfalfa seeds per pound. At this rate 1 acre produces 80 million seeds. What a tremendous pollination job to obtain this! With thousands of acres devoted to alfalfa seed it is not strange that there are not enough wild bees to take care of this one crop alone. If a pollinator fails to feed at an alfalfa flower, the blossom holds on hopefully for about 10 days then, barren, it withers and falls off the plant. Much the same story applies to red clover and other legumes. A good stand of red clover has enough blossoms to produce 10 or 11 bushels of seed per acre. The average annual per-acre yield is around 1 bushel. To what extent is inadequate pollination responsible for this low yield? Bumble bees are among the most efficient of all pollinating insects. With their long tongues, considerably longer than those of honey bees, they are especially valuable in the pollination of red clover, which has a deep corolla from which honey bees can obtain nectar only with difli- culty. Bumble bees are not so plentiful as they once were. The use of insecticides and other farming practices threatens to extinguish these useful insects. It is still the favorite sport of farm boys to fight bumble bees and rob their nests of a few thimblefuls of hard- earned honey. Why must the farmer continue to destroy one of his best allies—one which can contribute so significantly to bumper crops of clover seed, fruit, and melons? The most immediate remedy for inadequate pollination is through intelligent use of honey bees. This is the only pollinating insect that can be moved from place to place and installed in fields when and where they are needed. Unfortunately, most farmers do not want hives of bees on their premises. Once in a while a farm animal or hired hand is stung or the owner himself may be the victim, with the consequence that bees are ordered off the place. What a sad state of affairs it is that beekeepers actually have to pay rental to farmers for small out-of-the-way pieces of land upon which to place their beehives. This is one reason why apiaries are not a common sight as one drives through the country. The beekeeper has to place his hives far from the farm buildings and from good roads. In such locations the hives are subject to pilfering, and it is costly for the beekeeper to manage them properly. If farmers understood the part that bees play in more bountiful fruit and seed crops, surely they would welcome beekeepers with open arms. That day must come! At the moment the important agricultural job of providing polli- nation, inadequate though it may be, is dependent on the market price of honey. Queer relationship indeed! In volume of business done the THE HONEY BEE—-HAMBLETON 473 production of honey cannot compare in importance with most branches of agriculture. Beekeeping is widely scattered. Almost every county numbers a few beekeepers. Because of the cost of transportation over so wide a territory, it is difficult to concentrate large quantities of honey for commercial distribution. The color, flavor, and con- sistency of honey vary depending upon where and from what it is produced. Buckwheat honey of our Eastern States has a strong flavor and is almost black; that from fireweed in the Pacific Northwest is water-white and mild in flavor. This great variation imposes a problem to food packers who like to maintain uniform and standard packs of whatever they merchandise. Asa consequence, much honey— 30 to 40 percent of the crop—is sold by producers directly to local con- sumers. Another reason why commercial processors of food may not be interested in honey is that it requires little or no processing. Honey can be made no better than it is when it comes from the beehive. For these and other reasons, this very delicious food is not advertised nationally. The price of honey is not stabilized or backed by large financial corporations. The vagaries of the market seem always to hound the beekeeper, and on top of it all his product has to compete with highly advertised manufactured foods, such as jams, jellies, and sirups. Whenever the price of honey falls, there is a lag in en- thusiasm for beekeeping and the number of colonies is reduced. While this results in less honey per capita, perhaps not too serious a matter, what is more important is that fewer honey bees are available for pollination. Consequently, the production of many crops seemingly far removed from beekeeping is adversely affected. Growers of orchard fruits have learned that bees are necessary for a full set of fruits, and many of them rent colonies from beekeepers to place in the orchard during blossoming. One would suppose that such an arrangement was as beneficial to the beekeeper as to the fruit grower, but this is not necessarily the case. Apple-blossom honey is almost unheard of. Colonies of honey bees shortly out of winter quar- ters are not populous enough early in the spring to make honey from - apple blossoms. Colonies have to be strong and populous before they can make more honey than the bees require for their immediate needs. Fruit blossom is good for the bees to build up on, but they seldom if ever make honey from it. Also many bees are poisoned through spraying operations and so more and more beekeepers are reluctant to move bees to the orchards even when paid for it. Growers of seed crops such as onion, carrot, and the various legumes are just beginning to realize that colonies of bees placed close to such crops pay big dividends. The bee industry as a whole receives rela- tively little rental for bees. For the most part, the services of the honey bee as a pollinator is free to those who most benefit from it. 474. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 This free service to agriculture is possible mainly for two reasons: (1) Bee culture is a fascinating study and many persons keep bees as a hobby or part-time activity, and (2) consumers of honey maintain the commercial beekeeper, precarious though his livelihood may be. The pollination of various crops is thus a distinct gamble and one which may persist pending the time the public develops a greater taste than it now has for honey. Better honey markets and better returns to the beekeeper will be good insurance toward having depend- able insect pollination year after year. Although no accurate counts have been made of persons keeping bees, it is estimated that some 500,000 persons consider themselves as keepers of the bees. Of this number, not over 3,000 depend on bee- keeping as a principal means of livelihood. An apiary of 500 colonies is considered about the maximum number for a full-time, one-man outfit. Larger operations may involve 10,000 or more colonies. The bulk of the fraternity are amateurs, backlot enthusiasts who keep from one or two to several hundred colonies. The production in 1960 from the 5,480,000 colonies estimated to be in the United States by the Department of Agriculture was 260,128,000 pounds of honey and 4,728,000 pounds of beeswax, with a total value of over $48 million. Almost every State has an active beekeepers’ association, and in many places the beekeepers are organized on a county basis. In addi- tion, there are numerous bee clubs of one kind or another. A wide- awake group of city beekeepers meets monthly in the heart of New York City. A beginner will find many kindred spirits and persons with whom to compare notes. To be successful with bees, one must like to work with them; capital and equipment alone are not sufficient to insure success. Partnerships in which one party furnishes the finances and the other the knowledge are rarely successful. Beekeeping on a commercial scale is mostly a one-owner business. A successful, full-time beekeeper is a person to be envied. He is his own boss. During summer he works as hard as anyone, but after the harvest he can relax. Even at the height of the active season it is possible for him to attend a beekeepers meeting or go fishing. The bees do not require the daily attention that other types of livestock demand. The per-colony production of honey in the United States averages between 40 and 50 pounds. For individual operators, a hundred pounds per colony is not at all unusual. In favored localities and under good management, 200 to 400 pounds is possible. On the less rosy side, there can be complete failure in the honey crops, a failure so serious as to require feeding the bees sugar sirup to keep them alive. It is essential that the colonies be kept in proximity to an abundant THE HONEY BEE—-HAMBLETON 475 source of nectar. This may be one-quarter mile to 1 mile away from where the colonies are actually situated. Acres of nectar-secreting flora should be within the flight range of the bees. It is mostly a waste to plant a crop for your own bees. Bees from neighboring apiaries will help themselves and they may outnumber and outwork your own bees. While there may be literally hundreds of species of flowers upon which the bees work for nectar or pollen or both, in any given locality there are usually not more than two or three plant sources from which the bees can make more honey than they require for their own keep. Thus there are in the United States, perhaps, some three dozen or so species from which 90 percent of the commercial honey is derived. The clovers, including alfalfa, stand high in the list of principal honey plants. Red clover is an exception in that it seldom furnishes the beekeeper with extra honey. Other important sources are orange, tupelo, buckwheat, basswood, cotton, fireweed, star-thistle, sourwood, gallberry, and mesquite. Within limited areas, there may be other plant sources of a local nature that enable the beekeeper to obtain a surplus of honey. Since beekeeping is so unlike gardening or taking care of livestock with which most of us at one time or another have had limited ex- perience, a person who contemplates a career as a beekeeper, on either a large or a small scale, should start with not more than two or three colonies. This will keep the investment in bees and equipment low and still gives the beginner plenty of experience. There are some 250 beekeepers scattered through the Southern States and California who specialize in furnishing bees to beginners or to established beekeepers who wish to enlarge their operations. Two or three pounds of bees and a queen are shipped by express or mail in wire-screen cages. The cost for a 3-pound package with a laying queen is approximately $5 to $6, and contains suflicient bees, from 11,000 to 12,000, to constitute a nucleus of a colony. If the new unit is established early, that is during fruit bloom, it may develop into a sufficiently strong colony to produce a worthwhile crop of honey the first season. The beginner, however, should feel satisfied if he gets his new pets in shape to produce a crop the second year. The hive equipment will run from $15 to $25 per colony, depending upon the type of hive and the amount of extra equipment purchased. A study of the catalogs of manufacturers of bee supplies will help in making a proper selection. The beginner should wear a veil when learning to handle bees. A timid or nervous person will find assurance in a pair of bee gloves. It is seldom that bees sting through clothing and so no special equip- ment is needed to protect the body. It is advisable to tie string around 476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 the trouser legs, and a lady might feel greater freedom from fear if she wears slacks. The beginner should take precautions to avoid stings until he becomes familiar with the behavior of his bees and how to handle them. Within a few weeks, and no doubt after a few stings, he will become so fascinated by their behavior, industry, and social organization that the occasional sting will not even dampen his en- thusiasm. Even so the veil should always be worn. All beekeepers, no matter how skillful they are in handling bees, re- ceive occasional stings. To the inexperienced, the reaction may at first be rather severe with considerable swelling and itching, but a season’s work with bees usually results in the development of some im- munity against the venom. In a short time one should learn to handle bees with confidence and seldom receive a sting. The beginner soon learns that bees are cross and irritable on cold and cloudy days, and that it is best to open the hive when the weather is warm and the bees are busily engaged in the fields. Each colony has its own individuality. One may be quiet and gentle, while its next-door neighbor may be of a hot temperament. The gentlest bees are not always best for honey production, but on the other hand there is little pleasure in working with a colony that is ever ready to sting—no matter how much honey it produces. It must be kept in mind that bees are wild and untamed. The aver- age life of a worker bee during the active season of flight is only about 6 weeks, so that little or nothing can be done to train them to do what their owner wishes. By the same token there is no chance for the bees to learn who their master is. An expert beekeeper can go into a strange apiary and handle the bees with as much assurance and confidence and as good results as can the owner himself. It is essential, therefore, to learn a few of the fundamental principles that govern the reaction of bees. There are books and magazines galore de- voted exclusively to the subject of helping the beekeeper master the principal manipulations. Beekeeping is not all sweetness and honey. Like other types of live- stock bees are subject to several kinds of diseases. Some of these are confined to brood (the young unemerged bees), and there are other diseases that affect only the adult bees. Since some of the diseases are contagious, careful check should always be kept of the colonies to see that they are healthy. Each colony contains but one queen—the mother of all the bees; her importance to the welfare of the colony cannot be overemphasized. If the queen should fail because of old age—and a queen may live 2 or 3 years—or because of illness, the population of the colony goes down rapidly and may become so weak as to perish. The same persons who THE HONEY BEE—HAMBLETON 477 sell bees also sell queens, so that a new queen may be obtained in short order to replace a failing one. The greatest mistake that beginners make is in not giving the bees sufficient hive space in which to work. Often the beginner, in an effort to keep his investment low, will try to maintain the bees in a single-story hive. A good queen that can lay 1,500 eggs a day and maintain this rate for days at a time requires at least two hive bodies. These should be considered the sacred property of the bees themselves from which the beekeeper is not to remove any honey. During rainy spells and periods when it is too cold for the bees to fly, they still must have their daily food. Large reserves of honey should be on hand at all times. Honey that the bees make in addition to that stored in the two hive bodies the beekeeper can claim for himself. The nectar as brought by the bees into the hive may contain upward of 80 percent water, whereas honey contains only about 18 percent. This excess water has to be removed by the bees. For this purpose, comb space is required, so that the watery nectar may be spread over as large a surface as possible to hasten evaporation; thus more combs are necessary to make the crop than are required to hold the ripened, finished honey. A colony of bees should never be allowed to fill the hive completely while the honey crop is being made. Shortly before every comb is filled with brood, pollen, or honey, a colony, sensing the end of its job, makes preparation to swarm. In this preparation there is a de- cided let-down in the storage of honey. Swarming is objectionable from this standpoint. Reproduction, the natural dividing of a colony into two or more parts, is one of the involvements in the complex phenomenon of swarming. Perhaps the most obvious cause for a colony to swarm is that its living quarters are overly crowded. The colony has finished its job—part of the bees move on to new and more commodious quar- ters. Another colony isborn. The old queen and the majority of bees old enough to fly leave the hive. If the swarm is not captured, the bees light off to the woods, find a hollow tree or a cavity in the wall of a dwelling and build a new home. In the parent hive will be left all the young bees, brood, and a number of queen cells from which one or more new queens will emerge. One of these will eventually head the newly formed colony. The bees that fly to the fields for nectar and pollen do not deposit the nectar in the cells of the hive. They turn the nectar over to young house bees—bees too young to fly—and it is these house bees that do all the work from that point on in converting the nectar into full mel- low-ripe honey. The combination of the young and old bees is es- sential to produce a crop of honey. When a colony swarms, this very 478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 essential teamwork is destroyed. For best honey production every effort should be made to control swarming. There are other pitfalls in beekeeping beside diseases and swarm- ing. A weakened colony of bees, like a weakened animal, is preyed on by enemies. A colony that is not strong enough to keep its house clean becomes infested with wax moths which, if not tended to, will destroy the combs. A colony too weak effectively to guard its entrance to the hive is subject to attack by bees from stronger colonies. Not only will the robbers carry away the honey, but they will leave in their wake many bees killed in the last defense of their home. Colonies are often weak because they lack sufficient food. Honey bees do not hibernate as do most other insects. They are in a semiactive state within the hive throughout the long winter, and food in the form of honey must be available to them at all times. In spite of these drawbacks, there is much on the credit side of the ledger. It is not necessary to give bees daily attention. There are periods of weeks or months at a time when they require no looking after. ‘Three or four hours to a colony throughout the year is ample to do all the work necessary. In the spring, and when the honey crop is in the making, a few minutes at the right time does more good than working with the colony for hours at the wrong time. This applies especially to heading off preparations for swarming. Beekeeping is a challenge to one’s ingenuity as well as nerve. Col- onies are individualistic, and this has to be taken into consideration in managing them. A person who keeps bees always has an eye to the weather, knowing how sensitive these creatures are to changes in tem- perature, sunshine, and wind velocity. One’s interest in the plant world is immediately stimulated by watching the blossoms upon which bees work. Taking honey from the hive is not the least joy of working with the bees. No honey tastes so good as that produced by one’s own effort. There is also the satisfaction in knowing that through your efforts and patience the fruit trees of your neighbors bear more bountifully and that as the busy bees wing their way to surrounding pastures, gardens, fields, and orchards they are enriching the entire countryside. They provide a function for which there is no substitute and give their keeper a food which man with all his skills has not been able to duplicate. Australopithecines and the Origin of Man’ By J.T. Ropinson Transvaal Museum Pretoria, South Africa INTRODUCTION THE First australopithecine specimen came into scientific hands 37 years ago—the story of this and later discoveries has been told often and will not be repeated here.? For roughly 30 of those years, con- siderable controversy existed as to the nature of these creatures. In the last few years fairly general agreement has been reached that the australopithecines truly belong with the family of man and not with that of the apes. Emphasis has now shifted to attempts to evaluate the nature of the relationship with true man, and from the early majority view that they were nothing but apes, the pendulum has now swung almost to the other extreme with the rapidly growing tendency to regard them as the earliest true men. The view here presented is less extreme than either of these. THE MAJOR PREHOMININE FEATURES The australopithecines are roughly intermediate in grade of organi- zation between the small-brained pongids and the large-brained, bipedal homines. They were erect walking, but had small brains. Well over 300 specimens, representing nearly a hundred individuals, are now known from South Africa. A small amount of material is known from East Africa and the Far East. Paleontologically speak- ing, this is a good sample and has provided much information about variation and other population characteristics. This is important since it is not individuals that evolve, but populations, and it is the business of the paleontologist to try to get back from the bits of in- dividuals that comprise his material to the characteristics of the popu- lations to which those individuals belonged. 1 Reprinted, in expanded form, by permission from the South African Journal of Science, January 1961. 2For an account of the South African discoveries pertaining to ancient man, see the article by Raymond A. Dart entitled “Cultural Status of the South African Man-apes” in the Smithsonian Report for 1955, p. 317. 479 480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 The evidence for erect posture in the prehominines is good. The pelvis is known from one almost complete specimen as well as a number of incomplete ones, and it differs markedly, in structure and function, from the pongid or monkey type but only insignificantly from the hominine type. The lumbar region of the spinal column, the proximal and distal ends of the femur, and the nature and orienta- tion of the occiput all add to the evidence which shows that the aus- tralopithecines were structurally and functionally well adapted to erect posture and locomotion. The dentition provides considerable evidence of hominid affinity. The anterior teeth are small, compact, and built closely on the homi- nine pattern. Even the canines are within the size range of homi- nines. Other teeth that are especially diagnostic are the first lower premolar (P3), first lower deciduous molar (dm,), and lower deciduous canine (de). In pongids the first two are semisectorial teeth usually having one prominent cusp, though a second may be partially devel- oped. In the prehominines and hominines P; is bicuspid and dm, well molarized, having five cusps as in the permanent molars. Sophis- ticated statistical analysis of the lower deciduous canines has shown that the prehominine teeth are easily and sharply distinguished from the pongid form while they closely resemble, and in some cases are indistinguishable from, the modern hominine form (Bronowski and Long, 1952). These and other telling morphological features clearly indicate close affinity with hominines, but the small brain indicates a more primitive condition. The endocranial volume appears to be about 500 cm.* only—I know of no sound evidence at present indicating a brain significantly larger than this. The range was evidently about 450 to 550 cm.* and therefore well below the pongid maximum of 750 cm.* found by Schultz. The early hominines appear to have had endocranial volumes averaging about 900 to 1,100 cm.’, although estimated volumes as low as 755 cm.*® have been given. Along with this small endocranial volume in the prehominines, the braincase is relatively small and the face relatively prognathous. It is therefore evident that an important feature of hominines—the enlarged brain and the modifications of skull architecture conse- quent upon this—was not yet significantly developed in the known prehominines. TAXONOMIC DIFFERENTIATION WITHIN THE PREHOMININES The prehominines are at present commonly regarded as comprising a morphologically variable group without any significant taxonomic differentiation within it (e.g., Le Gros Clark, 1955). A considerable volume of evidence exists which shows that this is not the case—so AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 481 much in fact that it is my opinion that there is a far more fundamental split within the australopithecine group than there is between one of these subgroups (Australopithecus) and the hominines. That is to say, that if one has to divide the known hominids into two groups only, there is a good case for putting part of the australopithecine group (Australopithecus) with the hominines as one group and leaving the other australopithecine subgroup (Paranthropus) as the second group. Two different forms of australopithecine are known in South Africa at present. Australopithecus occurs at Taung, Sterkfontein, and Makapansgat Limeworks, while Paranthropus has been found at Kromdraai and Swartkrans. It is important to realize that the largest Paranthropus sample (160 specimens from Swartkrans) occurs less than a mile from Sterkfontein, which yielded the largest sample of Australopithecus (108 specimens). Geographic variation can there- fore be disregarded as an explanation of differences between the groups. Apparently the time difference between these two sites is not great, and since Paranthropus apparently occurs both much earlier and later in time without any significant difference in its morphology, one can virtually eliminate the effect of time differences as well as of geographical differences. One is thus in an exceptionally favorable position to assess the nature of the differences between the two popu- lation samples. Australopithecus has a dolichocephalic skull with a good hominine shape. A distinct low forehead is present, and the vertex rises well above the level of the brow ridges. The latter are poorly developed, and the postorbital constriction is moderately developed. The face is fairly wide, the nasal region is slightly raised above the surrounding level of the face, which is distinctly prognathous. The skull is gracile without any heavy bone or strong development of ridges or crests. The mandible is robust with a moderately high ramus and an almost vertical chin region. The dentition is morphologically very similar to that of the early hominines. Molars and premolars are very well developed, and the canines are fairly large but do not protrude because they are recessed into the jaw to a greater extent than the other teeth. The proportions along the tooth row are typical of early hominines. Paranthropus is very different. Although the endocranial volume appears to differ insignificantly from that of Awstralopithecus, the skull architecture is markedly dissimilar. The skull is brachycephalic with no trace of a forehead; the frontal passes straight back from the well-developed supraorbital torus in a manner reminiscent of the condition in the gorilla. The vertex rises very little above the upper level of the orbits. Le Gros Clark (1955) devised an index to measure 482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Ficure 1.—Facial and top views of female skulls of Australopithecus (left) and Paranthropus (right). The former is represented by Sts. 5 from Sterkfontein while the Paranthropus illustrations are based mainly on Sk. 48 from Swartkrans. this feature in primate skulls; it places Paranthropus right in the middle of the pongid range while Australopithecus is well outside this position and very near to that of modern man. In all known adults with the appropriate area preserved, a sagittal crest is present occupying roughly the middle third of the distance from glabella to inion. The degree of postorbital construction is relatively greater than in Australopithecus, and the zygomatic arches stand out well away from the braincase. The face is massive and wide. The enor- mously robust cheek bones actually project farther forward than does the nose, which is completely flat. The face is appreciably less prognathous than that of Australopithecus. The mandible is very massive with a very high and vertical ramus. A most unusual situ- ——————— AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 483 CMSs Feb Ficure 2.—Side views of skulls of Australopithecus (top) and Paranthropus (bottom). ation exists in the dentition; the postcanine teeth are massive, being distinctly more robust than those of Australopithecus, but the canines and incisors are distinctly smaller than in the latter form. There is consequently a sharp change in proportion between the anterior and the postcanine teeth—a unique feature in hominoids. Paranthropus thus has a very robust skull with strong development of bone and a curiously spheroidal braincase with strong development of rugosities and crests, a wide, dished face, and a dentition specialized quite differently from that of Australopithecus. These descriptions are based on female skulls in both cases, but sexual dimorphism does appear to be well developed. Paranthropus was a heavily built, mus- cular animal which probably stood over 5 feet in height and weighed a few hundred pounds. Avwstralopithecus clearly was very small and slenderly built; females apparently were no more than about 4 feet in height and weighed some 40 to 50 pounds. Besides these differences, which are obvious enough, there are other important dental differences. The first deciduous lower molar in 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Australopithecus is of the same type as is found in all known homi- nines, having a characteristic specialization of the anterior half of the crown. Paranthropus is unique in the primates in having a com- pletely molarized deciduous first lower molar without any trace of the specialization seen in Australopithecus and all hominines. The decid- uous lower canines also differ considerably in the two forms. The differences in skull architecture can be explained primarily in terms of differences of dental and dietary specialization. Paranthro- pus has very heavy crushing and grinding cheek teeth, but the an- terior teeth were clearly less important since they not only are much reduced in size, but also wear less rapidly than the cheek teeth in spite of their smaller size. Strong reliance on crushing and grinding implies a vegetarian diet in which considerable bulk is required to provide the necessary nutritive value. Much chewing is necessary to comminute the often tough plant material. Enlargement of the cheek teeth with specialization for crushing and grinding are common features of creatures adapted to vegetarian diet. Paranthropus ap- parently also ate roots and bulbs, since there is clear evidence of grit in the diet, in the form of small chips and flakes of enamel which have broken off from the occlusal margins of the crowns through strong pressure being applied over a small area. The powerful chewing forces which must have been generated in this robust masticatory mechanism have resulted in substantial thickening of the bone in which the cheek teeth are set and along the avenues through which the chewing forces are dissipated. These include the palate, cheek bones and jugal arches, lateral parts of the supraorbital tori, and the pterygoids. The heavy jaws needed powerful muscles; hence there is further robustness in such areas as the origin and insertion of the masseter and pterygoid muscles. The relation of large temporal muscles to relatively small braincase was such that even females ap- parently normally had a sagittal crest. On the other hand, the very smal] anterior teeth resulted in a face which did not protrude forward at all markedly. Australopithecus, on the other hand, has none of these extreme modi- fications. Both skull shape and structure and especially dental mor- phology, are closely comparable to the early hominine condition. It therefore seems reasonable to conclude that the diet of this form was basically the same as that of early hominines; i.e., they were omnivores eating both flesh and vegetable matter. This was probably the sort of diet still found in hunters and food gatherers of today. The adaptive difference between these two forms is thus consider- able. Their ecological requirements and direction of evolution were quite different. The degree of difference between them in these respects was of a distinctly greater order than between any two of AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 485 12 par aus lel = yw sin = 2 aus ab = esk 1.0 > ro) =| Ficure 3.—Size comparison of some mandibular teeth in five hominids. par, Paranthropus; aus, Australopithecus; sin, Pekin man; aus ab, Australian aborigine; and esk, Eskimo (East Greenland). This demonstrates very clearly the aberrant nature of the Paran- thropus dentition in which a marked change in proportion between the anterior and post- canine teeth occurs between the canine and P3. the living pongids. This is precisely the sort of difference that modern mammalian systematists regard as excellent grounds for generic sepa- ration. It is interesting to note that good evidence exists indicating that the vegetarian Paranthropus was present in the Sterkfontein Valley in times when the climate was apparently significantly wetter than when the more carnivorous Australopithecus lived there. In 1959 Leakey found a fine australopithecine skull in Bed I at Olduvai, Tanganyika, and gave it the new generic name “Zinjanthro- pus” (Leakey, 1959). He regarded it as being more advanced than either of the australopithecines already dealt with. However, it is very clear that while some differences may be found between it and Paranthropus from South Africa, the pattern of structure and func- tion already described for the latter is very clearly developed. The same sort of modification of the skull architecture as a consequence of a specialized vegetarian diet is very obvious. No valid grounds appear to exist for regarding this form as anything other than a typical Paranthropus (Robinson, 1960). Some mandibular fragments from Sangiran in Java, which have been called “Meganthropus” and regarded as members of the “Pithe- canthropus” group (e.g., Le Gros Clark, 1955), seem to me manifestly to belong also to the genus Paranthropus (Robinson, 1953, 1955, and 1961). They agree very closely with the equivalent parts of Paran- 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Ficure 4.—Basic cusp and fissure patterns in mandibular first deciduous molars of Paranthropus, Australopithecus, and modern Bush (from left to right). Upper row illustrates actual specimens drawn under a camera lucida to the same scale; lower row illustrates diagrammatically the basic cusp and fissure patterns of the teeth in the upper row. ‘The anterior half of the crown in Australopithecus and modern man is highly asymmetric but quite symmetric in Paranthropus. thropus from South Africa. In almost every feature the morphology is identical with that of the latter form, up to and including the greatly reduced anterior teeth coupled with very large cheek teeth. Paranthropus therefore appears to have been spread across the width of the Old World with little modification. If the new potas- sium-argon dates for parts of Olduvai (Leakey, Evernden, and Curtis, 1961) turn out to be valid, it will mean that the timespan represented by the various Paranthropus specimens is rather more than a million years in length. In other words, this genus would be one with a wide geographical range and a long history. Australopithecus is not as yet known from quite so far afield. It is known from Kast Africa near Lake Eyassi (Remane, 1951; Robinson, 1953 and 1955), and the juvenile jaw from Bed I, Olduvai, a little below the “Zinjanthropus” level (Leakey, 1961a and 1961b) certainly does not belong to the latter type but bears a close resemblance to Australopithecus. Some apparently large parietal bones were asso- ciated with the jaw, which may mean either that Australopithecus and another larger-brained hominid were contemporaneously present, or perhaps that the form to which the jaw belonged had a larger brain than had Australopithecus and therefore represents a more progressive member of the same stock. The evidence is not yet clear, and more finds are needed to clarify the situation. AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 487 “TELANTHROPUS” From among the large number of Paranthropus remains which have come from Swartkrans, I found a fragmentary upper and lower jaw, apparently of the same individual, another almost complete mandible along with a few other fragments of what is clearly a different type of hominid. Later an incomplete metacarpal came to light which probably belongs to the same form (Napier, 1959). This form was called Telanthropus capensis (Broom and Robinson, 1949),-but sub- sequently this name was sunk in favor of Homo erectus (Robinson, 1961). The teeth are distinctly smaller than those of either australopithe- cine and agree very closely in size with those of the hominine from Java and Pekin now generally known as Pithecanthropus. From the space available in the mandible and maxilla, it would seem that the canine crowns must have been of about the size of those of Paranthro- pus, but the roots were reduced compared to those of either of the australopithecines. Besides these there are some important characters found only among hominines but not among australopithecines. These are: (1) the structure of the nasal cavity floor and the subnasal surface of the maxilla, (2) the wide U-shape of the internal mandib- fy ff A A A D Figure 5.—Mandibular body contours in A, Australopithecus; B, Paranthropus; C, ‘“Telan- thropus”; and D, Homo sapiens (American white). Both australopithecines have narrow interramal distance anteriorly; “Telanthropus” has the hominine condition in | this respect. 625825—62——33 488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ular contour with wide interramal distance, (3) the small distance between the occlusal plane and the mandibular articulation with the skull, and (4) the slender construction of the mandible. None of these features can be matched in the australopithecines. In some respects “Telanthropus” is actually more advanced in the direction of modern man than is Pekin man. On the other hand, in no known feature is “Telanthropus” less advanced than either of the austra- lopithecines. If the science of comparative morphology means any- thing, then surely “Telanthropus” must be classed with that group with which it shows closest and most fundamental resemblance. On the basis of the available evidence, that group is clearly the hominines. “Telanthropus” is often passed over lightly on the grounds that so few specimens are known that its affinities cannot be determined. It should be remembered, however, that these few specimens occur right among the two largest australopithecine samples known and therefore in the best possible situation for determining whether this form is an australopithecine or not. Here again geographic differences do not enter into the matter and time differences are in one case entirely absent and in the other at worst very slight. Furthermore, although not much is known about variation in “Telanthropus,” a great deal is known about that of both australopithecines from that locality. STONE TOOLS ASSOCIATED WITH AUSTRALOPITHECINES The cultural level attained by the australopithecines is of great interest and importance. Dart has argued that much evidence points to the australopithecines having used bones, teeth, and horns as imple- ments and weapons. One may, it seems to me, accept this in principle, but with the reservations that (a) the case should not be carried be- yond the legitimate evidence, and (6) the evidence so far available is largely concerned with Australopithecus and does not necessarily apply equally to Paranthropus. Tool using is well known among some nonprimate animals mani- - festly less advanced than australopithecines about which there is now debate as to whether they should be classified as men rather than asnear-men. In view also of the fact that the australopithecines were erect bipeds, it would be surprising indeed if they never used natural objects as tools. These considerations, coupled with the evidence provided by Dart (e.g., 1957a, 1957b, 1960), make it reasonable to conclude that at least Australopithecus, and possibly also Paranthro- pus, were tool users. The distinction between tool using and tool making can sometimes be rather fine, and I do not exclude from the former a limited amount of constructive modification to natural ob- jects used as tools. If such modification is a regular and normal part of the situation, then one is dealing with toolmaking. AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 489 In 1956 Brain found evidence of a stone industry in breccia lying loose on the surface at Sterkfontein, and in 1957 and 1958, in two seasons of excavation in that site, I was able to demonstrate for the first time the direct association of an australopithecine (Australopi- thecus) and a true stone industry. As a consequence most students accepted the idea that Australopithecus must have been a stone-tool maker. The discovery by Dr. and Mrs. Leakey of a stone industry with the Olduvai Paranthropus seems to have clinched the matter in the minds of most workers, who are now convinced that the austra- lopithecines were stone-tool makers and say so without reservation. However, it seems to me, as I have pointed out elsewhere (Robinson, 1958, and in Robinson and Mason, 1957), that this is far too facile a view of the situation. At Sterkfontein there is a considerable depth of deposit, which has yielded a hundred specimens of Australopithecus and not a trace of stone artifacts or even unworked foreign stone. Un- conformably overlying this is breccia which is demonstrably more recent by both faunal and lithological evidence. This breccia still contains Australopithecus but also a genuine stone industry, chiefly consisting of rock foreign to the immediate neighborhood of the exca- vation. This industry, it should be noted, is not of extreme primitive- ness; it is not the very beginnings of toolmaking. In the opinion of Dr. R. Mason, of the Archeological Survey, Johannesburg, the indus- try belongs to the early levels of the Chelles-Acheul culture (Robinson and Mason, 1957; Mason, 1961). Even if the most conservative esti- mate is employed, it must be regarded as late Oldowan; perhaps it is most reasonable to regard the industry as being more or less transitional between Oldowan and Chelles-Acheul. This means that at Sterk- fontein a large deposit of breccia has yielded the largest known sample of Australopithecus but no evidence of a stone industry, while a breccia immediately overlying it, and only a little later in time, has yielded a well-established stone industry. This time gap appears to correspond closely in age with the Australopithecus deposit at Maka- pan Limeworks, where tons of breccia have so far yielded no such stone industry as that at Sterkfontein. That is to say, roughly 96 percent of the known South African material of Australopithecus is not associated with a stone industry, but suddenly a stone industry representing a stage near the beginnings of the Chelles-Acheul cul- ture appears in reasonable quantity toward the end of Sterkfontein time. Where did it come from? The only reasonable conclusion seems to be that a toolmaker invaded the Sterkfontein Valley during the time represented by the unconformity—and that invader could not have been Australopithecus as he had already been there for a long time. It seems anything but coincidence that the stone industry appears 490, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 4 : : : es) x 2 > x — ral 4 3 > a = 4 = 4 bs -_~ = wo Ss) = 2 m Rs x t a 2) ’ =r AUSTRALOPITHECUS : S “ PARANTHROPUS ¢-——TELANTHROPUS” 4) =~ = ® Li STONE IMPLEMENTS Ficure 6.—Climatic curve for Sterkfontein, Makapan (Limeworks), Sterkfontein Exten- sion and Swartkrans sites, modified after Brain. The curve is based on porosity, reflecting degree of rounding of the sand grains in the breccia from these sites. Central line indicates present rainfall conditions, The distribution of Australopithecus, Paran- thropus, and ‘‘Telanthropus” is shown along with that of stone implements. in the Sterkfontein Valley at just about the time that the remains of “Telanthropus” also appear there. As has been pointed out, “Telanthropus” has some major features which can be matched only among toolmaking hominines but not among the australopithecines. What could be more logical than that it was the invading toolmaker? It is of interest to note that at Sangiran in Java the hominine “Pithe- canthropus” occurs side by side with Paranthropus (in the form of “Meganthropus”) and, apparently, over quite a long period of time (Robinson, 1962). At Swartkrans the hominine “Telanthropus” occurs side by side with Paranthropus. In North Africa at Terni- fine, “Atlanthropus,” evidently a member of the “Pithecanthropus” group, occurs along with a slightly more advanced form of the same sort of culture as that found at Sterkfontein. This is the opinion of Dr. Mason, who has examined both industries. What then of the Olduvai Paranthropus and the stone artifacts found with it? The most favorable migration route south into South Africa is down the eastern side of the continent. Olduvai and East Africa in general—evidently an important area in primate evolution—lie almost directly north of the Sterkfontein Valley and right on the route. It is therefore difficult to conceive of “Telanthro- pus” at Sterkfontein without its having been present at some stage in East Africa also. If this was not so, then “Telanthropus” must represent an independent evolutionary development of a hominine in South Africa and this is unlikely. The newer Olduvai finds just below the Paranthropus level may have very direct relevance here. The mandible is quite clearly not of AUSTRALOPITHECINES—ROBINSON 491 Paranthropus type (Leakey, 1961a and 1961b). This I can confirm after having examined the originals through the kind courtesy of Dr. and Mrs. Leakey. In the opinion of Leakey, it is also not of Australopithecus type, but to me it appears to bear very close re- semblance to the latter. The two parietal bones are of considerable interest in that they appear to be too large for either Paranthropus or Australopithecus. If this is in fact the case, then the implication is that a hominid with a larger braincase than that of either form of australopithecine was present at the site. If the parietals and the mandible belong to the same type of creature, then this would be a form closely related to Australopithecus. It has long been my opin- ion (e.g., Robinson, 1956, p. 171) that “Telanthropus” is a more advanced descendant of an earlier level of Australopithecus than that at present known. Therefore an early Australopithecus-like form with a relatively large brain could easily represent an early form of “Telanthropus”—on the new K—A dating of Olduvai (Leakey, Evern- den, and Curtis, 1961) the Bed I form would appear to be approxi- mately half a million years earlier than “Telanthropus” from the Sterkfontein Valley. However, these are very tentative ideas which must await confirmation of (a) the presence of a relatively large- brained hominid in the lower levels of Bed I, and (6) the fact that the creature represented by the parietals and that by the mandible are the same. —Maiwidthin. -22_ 2 -= GOROT) Gino) Obsae eee os kao ba et Minimum width of ascending ramus-__-_-_-- aA) 500 44. Om 40) 0 (4255)" (36528 (4210) 643.0 Height of symphysis__-. 37.0 37.0 (42.0) 42.5 365 —_-- 36. 0 BMeighy of ramus. ay Ma 340° 984. 0. “S89 80.5) 34.5 2222 ess 2 On left; 42.0 on right. > On right; 35.0 on left. Plate 7, figures 1 and 2, show the inner side of the lower jaws of Shanidar IT and I, respectively. Obviously, the basic morphological pattern is the same for both specimens. AI] the elements that Keith stressed in connection with the Mount Carmel jaws (McCown and Keith, 1939, p. 226, fig. 161) are well developed here, and especially what he called the lingual supramarginal sulcus. In Shanidar I this sulcus is so deep that the external surface of the ascending ramus becomes convex. The contrary is the case in Shanidar IT. Visible in these views also is the form of the mylohyoid canal. Although it is open in Shanidar I and is visible for a distance of 23 mm. below the mandibular foramen, in Shanidar II it enters a 5-mm.-long tunnel about 11 mm. below the foramen. Whether in Shanidar II this canal was symmetrical on the two sides, as in Shanidar I, cannot, of course, be determined. The differing shapes of the lingula, the bone flange shielding the medial side of the mandi- bular foramen, is also apparent. Just as important as the differences between these lower jaws are the differences between their two sides; in other words, their asymmetries. Lacking numerous specimens from the same strati- graphic level for comparison, we gain some insight into individual variation from whatever asymmetries exist. From what remains of the jaw of Shanidar II, and this means mainly external surfaces, it seems clear that the ascending rami were fairly symmetrical, the main difference between the two sides being a greater external concavity on the right. The coronoid processes and sigmoid notches are very much alike in this specimen. By contrast, the jaw of Shanidar I is quite asymmetrical posteriorly. The supramarginal sulcus noted on the inner side of the right ramus as being extraordinarily deep is represented on the left side by one that is shallow. Correspondingly, whereas the external surface of the ascending ramus is convex on the right, it is concave on the left. Perhaps these morphological differ- ences explain the far greater development of marginal tubercles in this 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 area on the right side, as compared with the left. The differences in the coronoid processes have already been mentioned. Several features cannot be compared in detail owing to the location of breakage in Shanidar II. For instance, almost complete loss of bone in the symphyseal area makes it impossible to determine whether the same cross-sectional shape existed as in Shanidar I (fig. 2). AUSTRALIAN SHANIDAR £ SHHTL TAGUN I Ficure 2.—Outline of sagittal section through mandibular symphysis of Shanidar I com- pared with the same section of three other specimens supplied by McCown and Keith (1939, figs. 143, 144, 148). However, the small piece of symphyseal base that is preserved shows sculpturing (digastric fossa) comparable to that of Shanidar I. Nor is it certain that lateral infracondylar tubercles existed in Shanidar II, although the conformation of the remaining part of the right condyle would suggest it. On the other hand, breakage has just spared most, if not all, of the mental foramina. It is positive, therefore, that whereas Shanidar I has a single large foramen on each side, Shanidar IT, like many Neanderthalers, has multiple foramina: at least two on the right and three on the left. UPPER FACE Damage to the midline of the face at the time of discovery, as already explained, together with the crushing that took place in ancient times, greatly restricted the possibilities of reconstruction in this area. Nevertheless, very fortunately it has been possible to learn a great deal about the original form. In general, there can be little doubt that it was a Neanderthal face like that of Shanidar I, but with certain differences. From several unconnected pieces of the supraorbital ridges, these structures appear to be every bit as heavy as those of Shanidar I, and likely of much the same form. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PLATE 1 ’ Right side of skull of Shanidar II after initial cleaning in 1957. Note cervical and upper thoracic vertebrae extending along base and at occiput meeting left scapula protruding from left side. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PLATE 2 Right side of occiput of the Shanidar IT skull after initial cleaning in 1957. PLATE 3 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart ‘0961 ul IPIQIIOA jo [PAOUWI Toye [[my4s II Jeplueys 94} jo Ivot He] Oy peyorqye vindvos jo souviveddy Loe | *juoredde jou si v ul SUIUvOIIS jeutut Tole [[™{s I] 48 jndeos 1¥y1 9I0N *LS6T prueys out jo det Jo opis Yo, at Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PLATE 4 SHANIDAR SHAN/DAR // 1. Stereographic drawings of the right side of the lower jaws of Shanidar I (simplified) and Shanidar II. In the case of Shanidar I the coronoid process is shown as restored origi- nally (immediately above dotted line) and as restored to match that of Shanidar II (fine stippling). Coarse stippling indicates missing bone. 2. Stereographic drawing of the left side of the lower jaw of Shanidar II. Stippling indicates missing bone. PLATE 5 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart “Mel oules JO apts ie] “143d 430] {J Jeplurys jo Mel IOMO| po1ojsaI ayi Jo opis yyst -7fa7 4ad¢d Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PLATE 6 1. Superior aspect of the restored lower jaw of Shanidar II. 2. Stereographic drawings of the superior aspect of the lower jaws of Shanidar I (right half simplified) and Shanidar II, arranged according to the scheme of McCown and Keith (1939, fig. 164). Stippling indicates missing bone. Note that drawing of Shanidar II has been adjusted to improve on the actual restoration. Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PEATE 7. CM. tee 1. Inner aspect of right side of restored lower jaw of Shanidar II. 2. Inner aspect of right side of restored lower jaw of Shanidar I. PLATE 8 Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart ‘ainqiode [esvu ay2 JO Yor souljsep 100} [eseu IY} yey VION “"[euULD SAISIOUI oY} YSnoIyy ‘[] aeprueys passed useq sey oJIA\ “[] Jeprueys ul JO MOA °Z (mojeq) ajejed ayy jo uonsod Jolejur *sopis YIOq JO YJae} Ivjour ay} aAcqe UISIVU Iv[OIAle Joddn Suoje sasoysoxe ay} JO pur (eAoqr) AAR [eseu 94} fo uor410d IOIIOIUP JAMO] 9Y} JO MIA Ivay “T Smithsonian Report, 1961.—Stewart PLATE 9 1. View of a temporary restoration of the upper jaw of Shanidar II showing identification of damaged anterior teeth. 2. a, Radiograph of right upper molar teeth of Shanidar II made in 1957. 5, Same for Shanidar I. c, Radiograph of the right lower molar teeth of Shanidar II made in 1957. d, Same for Shanidar I. (Courtesy of Radiological Institute, Baghdad.) SKULL OF SHANIDAR II—STEWART a7 Orbital shape and size are indicated from the preserved lateral bor- der on the right (fig. 3) and the medial border on the left (fig. 4). In both areas the likeness to Shanidar I is strong. Sis aN d) j C Ny gene fir“ sa APY SHANIDAR @ SHANIOAR Ficure 3.—Stereographic drawing of a fragment of the right side of the face of Shanidar Il compared with a stereographic drawing of the same area in Shanidar I. 2 ° fy ° e ¥ ° o ° ¢ Jee oe H 2 ° °° ° feos : wade ° f : : e ° e ° q $ . 2 + AOU °o, . ieee ~, : ay %, ie ze Kiet e E44 e f ‘ s . j e a 4 2. %e, Py ° * Senc “ 5 & °? Ficure 4.—Stereographic drawing of a fragment of the midface of Shanidar II. Note “inflation” of area between orbit and nose indicated by line of dashes. ‘This line is the shortest surface distance between its terminal points. By laying the fragment on its side this line can be made to coincide with the horizontal plane. 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Nasal shape and size are indicated by a fragment of the left side extending from the nasofrontal suture to the midportion of the nasal aperture (fig. 4). A convincing orientation of this fragment can be made around a nasal aperture of the same size and shape as that of Shanidar I. In this connection it is important to note that the region between the lower medial corner of the left orbit and the upper left margin of the nasal aperture is preserved and shows the “inflated” form so typical of these primitive faces and so unlike the troughlike form seen here in modern man. Furthermore, it was possible to work out the form of the floor of the nasal cavity (pl. 8, fig. 1, and text fig. 5) and to discover that this floor is depressed just as in Shanidar I. Ficure 5.—Stereographic drawing of fragment shown in plate 8, figure 1, showing how the latter would appear in sagittal section with an incisor tooth in place. Likely, also, the lower margin of the nasal aperture was fairly dis- tinct as in Shanidar I; in other words, a nasal gutter is absent. Turning now to the side of the face (fig. 3), we see some differences between Shanidar II and Shanidar I. The orbital process of the malar bone is broad and heavy looking in Shanidar II, slender and gracile in Shanidar I. The temporal border of the malar is indented at an acute angle in Shanidar I, at nearly a right angle in Shanidar IT. The whole zygomatic arch is heavier in Shanidar II. Added to all this is a difference in the form of the body of the malar in the two specimens: In Shanidar II this part is rounded and prominent, in Shanidar I it is flat. Less obvious in figure 3 is the fact that the infratemporal surface of the maxilla is curved from side to side in Shanidar II, but flattened in Shanidar I. These variations probably compensate for one another insofar as the size of the maxillary sinus is concerned. In both specimens this sinus is immense. Figure 3 shows one other marked difference, namely, the presence of large alveolar exostoses in Shanidar IJ and their absence in Shani- dar I. Plate 8, figure 2, shows how symmetrical the exostoses are on the two sides. It would seem that such exostoses bear no relationship to the process of mastication, since the teeth of Shanidar II are much SKULL OF SHANIDAR II—STEWART 529 less worn than those of Shanidar I and the latter lacks exostoses of this sort. In any case, as far as I know at present, this is the earliest example of alveolar exostoses to come to light. DENTITION As explained at the beginning, all the lower teeth with the exception of the right central incisor were recovered. Three of the upper teeth are missing: a canine (left?), a lateral incisor (left?), and a central incisor (right?).° The uncertainty about the position of these upper teeth is due to the difficulty of identifying some of the front teeth that were recovered. The damage to the midface at the time of discovery reduced some of the teeth to fragments and all the pieces were not recovered. Plate 9, figure 1, shows the occlusal surfaces of the upper teeth according to the best identification that could be made under the circumstances. By comparison with the corresponding view of the lower teeth (pl. 6, fig. 1) it is evident that in both jaws tooth wear increases from the third molars forward to the incisors. Also, in the upper jaw wear is greatest on the lingual cusps, whereas in the lower jaw it is greatest on the buccal cusps. The teeth of the two sides appear to be worn about equally. The teeth of Shanidar II can be compared with those of Shanidar I only in a general way, because of the difference in wear. So worn are all the teeth of Shanidar I that the exposure of dentine is com- plete in all cases and in a few (first molars, canines, incisors) little or no enamel remains. A notable fact, however, is the rather uniform size of the lower molars in both specimens. The upper molars are shorter and broader, and the upper third molars have undergone slight reduction in the proximo-distal diameter. This is shown by the following measurements (in millimeters) of the Shanidar IT molars: Prozimo-distal diameter Bucco-lingual diameter ef E RS [EES EES AL (EG [ERE (ERE LES Bh wef EO a mo ae Even more remarkable is the size of the lower incisors in both Shani- dar specimens; they are very large bucco-lingually as compared with corresponding modern teeth. The lower lateral incisors of Shanidar 6 After this paper was completed, I accidentally discovered three loose upper anterior teeth among some postcranial fragments of Shanidar I. It seems likely that these are the missing teeth of Shanidar II, but more study is needed to settle this point. 530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 II have their greatest bucco-lingual diameter below the enamel and it amounts to 9 mm. The figure is only a little less in the case of Shanidar I (8.0-8.2 mm.). A selection of the radiographs made in 1957 are given in plate 9, figure 2, a-d. These show moderately large pulp cavities in the only slightly worn molars of Shanidar I and greatly reduced pulp cavities in the much worn molars of Shanidar I. Neanderthals are no longer regarded as being unusual in their tendency to taurodontism (large pulp cavities). SKULL VAULT Relative to size the skull vault yielded less information than the lower jaw and face. This was to be expected, bécause so little of the vault is characterized by surface relief. Fortunately, the one area that does have surface relief, the occiput, is preserved in its right half. The intact fragment (fig. 6) includes, among other things, half of the lambdoid suture, the mastoid process, and half of the foramen mag- num. Viewed from the outside, the moderately intricate pattern of the lambdoid suture stands out boldly, showing no signs of closure; but on the inside there is no such pattern, only a fissure, or more likely a postmortem crack. I conclude, therefore, that endocranial suture closure has taken place in this area. As so often is the case, the ex- ternal part of this suture is made up of serrations of bone from the occipital overlapping the parietal elements. It is noteworthy, also, that the suture takes a fairly direct course from the midline to the point of juncture with the temporal bone. This is very different from the curving course of the suture in Shanidar I (fig. 6) and may denote more dolichocrany. enenee '@'96e8bgaa: SHANIDAR I SHAHIDAR | Figure 6.—Stereographic drawing of right occipitotemporal fragment of Shanidar II compared with a stereographic drawing of the same area in Shanidar 1. Both specimens oriented with the sagittal axis of the foramen magnum horizontal. SKULL OF SHANIDAR II—STEWART 531 The mastoid process of Shanidar II is much larger than that of Shanidar I; indeed the tip of the process extends lower than that of the occipitomastoid crest, which is the reverse of the situation in Shanidar I. Such a large mastoid process is unusual in Neanderthals. However, the occipitomastoid crest still is larger than in modern man. (Cf. Stewart, 1961). The occipitomastoid suture is still open. The foramen magnum must have had a long oval shape just as in Shanidar I. Probably in both cases the length was around 41 to 42 mm. and the width around 26 to 28 mm. The right occipital condyle of Shanidar II and both condyles of Shanidar I impress me as being small in proportion to the size of the foramen. The posterior border of the right condyle of Shanidar II is not well defined owing to the presence here of an arthritic area. This is the reason for the question mark in the following list of measurements of the occipital condyles: Shanidar 16 Ti 5 0? Maximumlengti (mim:) 2-2-2 =- = Sse 2S . a ial Maxintom width (mim) 4-262 sees ees 4 aed ey The occipital torus has about equal prominence in the two specimens, but is shorter in Shanidar II in conformity with the generally nar- rowed upper part of the occipital squama in this specimen. As for the rest of the vault, only a few additional facts could be gleaned. The sagittal suture is gone entirely. A good part of the area of the left half of the coronal suture is present. Unlike the external lambdoid suture, the external coronal does not stand out boldly and has disappeared lateral to the temporal line. Loss of inner table here makes it impossible to determine the status of the suture internally. The original thickness of the skull vault could not be investigated in many places, but it was noted that the midright parietal reached a maximum thickness of 11 mm. at one point. The surrounding area did not exceed 8 to 9 mm. in thickness. Much the same thing was observed in Shanidar I. Thus, these skulls would not be considered primitive on the basis of vault thickness. In view of the fact that Shanidar I has ear exostoses, the remains of the right auditory meatus of Shanidar II were explored and a loose nodule of bone resembling an exostosis recovered. This finding obviously contains the elements of wishful thinking and therefore does not deserve to be accepted as proof of the existence of ear ex- ostoses in this case. DISCUSSION The reason for comparing the second skull found in Shanidar cave mainly with the first skull is their differing antiquity. Shanidar IT 532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 was found 81% feet lower in the cave deposit than Shanidar I (and some distance to the west) and on this basis is judged to be 10,000 to 15,000 years older (Solecki, 1960a and b). One no longer expects to discover an evolutionary change in skull form in such a short period of time, so interest now centers on learning more about individual vari- ability in those ancient times (in this case up to about 60,000 years ago). The roughly contemporaneous Mount Carmel Neanderthals of Palestine were found by McCown and Keith (1939) to be so vari- able that these authors considered them to be in “the throes of evolu- tionary change.” The writer, on the other hand, has argued (1960) that the Mount Carmel remains represent two very different isolates, one of which was present at Shanidar. This is based mostly on a peculiarity of the pubic bone, a part unfortunately not recovered in the case of Shanidar II. In view of these diverse opinions, and con- sidering that Shanidar cave is located in a mountainous area (virtually a refuge area), it is of current interest to know whether or not Shanidar presents a parallel to Mount Carmel in individual variability. The results of my present investigation lead me to conclude that the first two Shanidar skulls are remarkably alike in features unaf- fected by age changes. Both appear to be almost classic Neander- thals; also, both possess a curious feature—depression of the nasal fioor—which thus far appears to be unique to the inhabitants of this cave. I am immensely impressed that this unique feature occurs in two skulls from the same place but so widely separated in time. I am much less impressed by the accompanying variations in such things as mastoid size, face flatness, etc. Variations of the latter sort, like differences in stature, occur in every population and are too often given undue emphasis when observed in isolated ancient specimens. The Fourth Shanidar Expedition discovered remains of other Nean- derthals from both levels before this report was completed. This new material should add more to our knowledge of the variability of the local population at each time period. Unfortunately, however, experience shows that much time and effort will have to be expended on restoration and study before the information from this source will be forthcoming. For the present, therefore, the evidence indicates that the Shanidar Neanderthals retained an almost classic skull form from about 60,000 years ago until about 45,000 years ago, when the Mousterian cultural period ended and, as far as we know, the type disappeared. LITERATURE CITED McCown, THEOoporE D., and KEITH, Str ARTHUR. 1939. The stone age of Mount Carmel. The fossil human remains from the Lavalloiso-Mousterian, vol. 2, xxiv-+390 pp., pls. 1-28, Oxford. SKULL OF SHANIDAR II—STEWART 533 SOLECKI, RALPH §. 1957. Shanidar cave. Sci. Amer., vol. 197, No. 5, pp. 58-64. 1960a. Neanderthal men in the heart-land of human evolution: Discoveries at Shanidar cave, in northern Irag. Illus. London News, May 7, pp. 772-775. 1960b. Three adult Neanderthal skeletons from Shanidar cave, northern Iraq. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1959, pp. 603-635. STEWART, T. D. 1958. First views of the restored Shanidar I skull. Sumer, vol. 14, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 90-95. Reprinted in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1958, pp. 473-480, 1959. 1960. Form of the pubic bone in Neanderthal man. Science, vol. 181, May 13, pp. 1487-1488. 1961. A neglected primitive feature of the Swanscombe skull. Jn Homenaje a Pablo Martinez del Rio en el xxv aniversario de la edicién de Los Origenes Americanos, pp. 207-217. Mexico. 1962. Neanderthal cervical vertebrae, with special attention to the Shanidar Neanderthals from Iraq. Bibl. Primat, vol. 1 (Adolph H. Schultz anniversary volume). 7 ie . i ar es I phe (abs. Pa ence | Florian! if - nie eh or naan opr errneta eee heey | da ae od Tihtandeutiven “he Nt a. inate dl thes A INURE Mea (eBid ANH dane ala Ny Ewes oh Mi af. NN iis 7. Pixs adc an OUHOR hin WM aes igs Gin ict Wicks a can eee) Ree) A teamed) BL) Le Wt cc Oy ee ; a eRe ConA We awe ie haa AO in LR Mia cea bh tna he inte Sige im eae Ue vi i RS: Geis arene Yegite PAGE TE ORES Mave RR HMR LY hen i tate AN Nah aie o LARA ARIK AACN et USAR. seal gatas TAREE ia a aie ae hits ; fen WP Ry CRM THY Rea me EU 1 Mercia 10k sb lahis ihe: ry i a, wie COMO eo MPR Ute eee (hae ir 4 ‘ +h 1S Phas AN HS se eve SS Oe) 8 Weis Merkel ty Mk Wey AV Ea idling ona A aks eel Ae oe Poh in | miprh Mek iapheks by no Menai olivia yihekee h iie aia Ve Pe a VON Ha aes Lapalg: LAWLEY: Pn ALTA PUI. ih atm " ae hie Wik, iy ay aly : ty 4 i OW UAT AG ea : ye ~~ 15 mY us as cus KF Ta hs Cae bee ou en EN TES eM ord WR NTS SERRA. 6 Hh My fan be retake iia \ jot clion ida WT Soya eas, Ph cote aa mae el RPT teeth sah ots hee Aw I PEL NEY |, RD Se {ene “tra ce TRATED ah uh ected aes Out Hei ished ine oa J ei ce ee OTT eT! oat raat yeh, LAR. hie ta lade wreak fb ey ) yh PRAIA aS Tg CAPT PPAF lea eg deals ede fs NN % ‘ Ha ty ane ee 5 , bA ome ip eS . ie ‘an 7 Nua ‘5 va Thee Tein Oot ae Oe ce in Cm, ees ee PE a Peau ie nihil dbdled ae YHA Gent fod pests cto ‘ ‘ 4 i) / Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Theory and Its Relation to Ethnobotany By F.P. JoONKER Professor of Special Botany University of Utrecht, Netherlands Ir 1s well known that in the year 1947 an expedition conducted by the Norwegian biologist and ethnologist Thor Heyerdahl crossed the eastern Pacific by balsa raft. The voyage started in Peru and after 101 days reached the Polynesian island of Raroia. Inspiring this voyage was Heyerdahl’s theory that the Polynesian islands had been populated not from a western direction, i.e., from the Malaysian area by way of Micronesia or Melanesia, but that Polynesia had been reached by two successive waves of immigrants from America. Ac- cording to this concept, the first immigrants reached Polynesia by balsa raft about A.D. 500 from South America; the second wave arrived more than 500 years later by double canoes, perhaps from Asia but using British Columbia as a temporary steppingstone. This theory, consequently, assumes that the first wave of immigrants, iden- tified by Heyerdahl with a pre-Inca population of Peru, crossed the eastern Pacific. To support this concept, he utilized arguments from mythology, language, and culture, referring especially to buildings and to such monoliths (megaliths) as statues representing human figures. The principal objection originally expressed against this theory was that these Peruvian Indians were no navigators. They possessed boats made of totora reed (Scirpus totara (Nees et Meyen) Kunth), in which they sailed on Lake Titicaca, and rafts of the very light balsa wood, Ochroma lagopus Sw., by which they navigated the coasts. It was commonly believed, however, that these rafts would 1 Slightly modified and translated by the author from his ‘“Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Theorie en de Ethnobotanie,” delivered as his inaugural address as professor of special botany at the University of Utrecht, Netherlands, on Nov. 21, 1960; the original Dutch version was separately printed in Amsterdam as of that date. 625325—62 36 535 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 not be seaworthy and that they would by no means be suitable craft on which to cross the ocean. Heyerdahl then decided to make a faith- ful copy of an old Peruvian balsa raft, and on this, with five com- panions, he attempted to cross the eastern Pacific driven by wind and by currents. As mentioned above, this daring voyage succeeded and the raft and its passengers arrived in good condition on the reef of Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands. The raft was equipped as it might have been 1,500 years ago with the exception of a wireless set and certain other modern inventions. In addition to fruits and tubers which they took along, the travelers obtained from the sea sufficient food for the voyage. Such a journey had great appeal to the general public, and Heyerdahl’s popular account became a bestseller and was translated into many languages. But when we ask ourselves what was proved by this adventurous expedition, we must answer that the voyage established only that it is possible to cross this part of the Pacific Ocean from east to west by means of a balsa raft pro- vided with sails. The trip did not prove that the pre-Incas or any other South American inhabitants left Peru in that way and formed the original population of Polynesia. To be fair to Heyerdahl, one must add that he never made such a claim. The popular book de- scribing this voyage, “The Kon-Tiki Expedition” (1948), provided its author with enough income so that he was able to fit out another expedition, this time to Easter Island, where he collected more data to support his theory. In 1952 Heyerdahl published a detailed voluminous work, “Amer- ican Indians in the Pacific,” in which he collected all the arguments in favor of his theory. In the present review I omit the arguments borrowed from language, cultures, mythology, anthropology, zoology, and other disciplines. I wish only to remark here that the author gives evidence of his wide knowledge of both western South America and Polynesia, but on the other hand he appears to be not very familiar with Indonesia. In the following pages I restrict myself to a discus- sion of his botanical documentation, especially in the field of ethno- botany. Such documentation we find assembled in a special chapter of his book. Before Heyerdahl’s study appeared, the occurrence and use of the sweet potato, Jpomoea batatas (L.) Lam., in Polynesia had already been amply discussed in the ethnobotanical literature. In a publica- tion by Dixon (1932, p. 40), we find the problem summarized in the following words: If we accept the present conclusions of the botanists that the sweet potato is a plant of undoubted Central or South American origin, then the fact of its widespread occurence in Polynesia in the eighteenth century, as reported by the HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 537 great explorers of the period, can be explained only in one of three ways. Wither the plant had been introduced by the Spanish from South America in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries when the earliest European discoveries in the Pacific were being made, or it was of pre-Columbian introduction accomplished either by Polynesians who visited South America and brought the new food plant back with them, or by Peruvian or other American Indian navigators who carried it with them in exploring voyages to the west. The first possibility may be rejected for sound historical reasons: the first European travelers reported the occurrence of extensive plan- tations of sweet potatoes in the islands visited. The second possibility is frequently accepted. The third alternative is the one emphasized by Heyerdahl, who argued that the crop is known in Polynesia by its Peruvian name “kumara,” and also that, according to old myths, the ancestors of the Polynesians originated from the country where the “kumara” grew. Riesenfeld (1951), on the other hand, states that according to old Polynesian myths the native country of the Polynesians was situated somewhere in the west. Also, Sir Peter H. Buck, the distinguished former director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu and a recognized authority in the field of Poly- nesian myths and legends, nowhere in his most readable book “Vikings of the Sunrise” (1937) mentions tales to the effect that the Polynesians came from the east. It was Buck’s belief that a Polynesian canoe expedition in pre-Columbian times left the Marquesas and, sailing in an easterly direction, reached Peru. After disembarking on the continent, the travelers returned after a short stay in fear of conflicts with the natives, first laying in a supply of sweet potatoes, perhaps among other foods. Harold St. John (1953, 1954), an authority on the vegetation of Polynesia, considered Buck’s theory the most likely explanation of the early occurrence of Jpomoea batatas in the Poly- nesian archipelago. E. D. Merrill, a leading student of the Aus- tralasian tropical flora and a decided opponent of Heyerdahl’s theory, at first (1937) considered the sweet potato of American origin and the single American plant among the species mentioned by Heyerdahl. However, in one of his last publications (1954) Merrill stated that it is now admitted that J. batatas may have originated outside of America, possibly in Africa, by hybridization. In that case it could have been carried across the Atlantic to America a few centuries before Columbus reached the West Indies, and perhaps even earlier by way of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands to Malaysia, Papuasia, and Polynesia, and even to the west coast of South America. Certainly an investigation of the African species of /pomoea is needed in order to clarify this hypothesis, and such an investigation may give the prob- lem quite another aspect. According to Merrill, moreover, it is also 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 possible that the vernacular name “kumara” is of Polynesian origin and reached Peru together with the plant.? A second plant grown in pre-Columbian times both on the Ameri- can Continent and in the Pacific islands is the bottle gourd, Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. Asa food crop this species was unimportant, but as a supplier of containers for water and other liquids it was and still is an extremely significant plant in tropical countries. Without doubt this species is of African origin. It was found in the Egyptian royal graves dating from 3000 B.C., and Captain Cook reported it as grown in Polynesia on his first voyage in 1769. The use of the bottle gourd spread from Africa over the Old World, and Eames and St. John (1948) believed that the distribution both on the American mainland and in the Pacific could be explained, as in the case of the sweet potato, by a hypothetical canoe expedition from Polynesia to Peru as suggested by Buck (1937). The Polynesian travelers would have taken the bottle gourd to South America with them and on the return voyage they would have brought back the sweet potato. How- ever, more recently discovered data have made this hypothesis unten- able, because archeological investigations in Peru have indicated that bottle gourd remains were, according to radiocarbon dating, 3,000 to 5,000 years old. This means that the species had been used in Peru long before the Polynesians lived in the Pacific islands. It is of course possible that Polynesian canoe expeditions fetched bottle gourds from Peru rather than having introduced them into that coun- try. Heyerdahl believes that the bottle gourd reached South America at that early date through navigators from Africa, and that from Peru, together with the sweet potato, it reached Polynesia when those islands were populated by Peruvian pre-Incas. Therefore the history of the distribution of the bottle gourd all over the Tropics is still unknown. In addition to the distribution by migrating pre-Incas, as suggested by Heyerdahl, the possibilities exist either that the gourd was taken home by a Polynesian canoe expedi- tion that visited South America, or that it was introduced into Poly- 2¥For a discussion of the sweet potato problem, see also Hornell (1946). Very interesting comments on the sweet potato were made at the recent 10th Pacific Science Congress, in Honolulu, at a symposium entitled “Plants and the Migrations of Pacific Peoples,” con- vened by Dr. Jacques Barrau on Aug. 28, 1961. At this symposium Dr. Douglas BH. Yen expressed the opinion that Ipomoea batatas, a hexaploid and heterozygous species, was of hybrid origin in America, where the greatest morphological variability of the cultivated plant is seen. He pointed out that the species frequently produces seeds, each of which has the potential of developing into a distinct race, and that transportation could con- ceivably have been by nonhuman agencies. Dr. Ichizo Nishiyama indicated the probability that J. batatas was derived from the American Ipomoea trifida (H.B.K.) Don, also a hexaploid. In the same symposium Dr. Harold C. Conklin presented linguistic evidence to indicate that the sweet potato in Africa, Indonesia, and adjacent regions was almost certainly a European introduction. This symposium, which one hopes may be published in full, reached no conclusion as to the identity of the humans who may have first transported the sweet potato across the eastern Pacific. HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 539 nesia from Melanesia or from Micronesia—to say nothing of the pos- sibility that the Polynesians reached their present living area by one of these latter routes. The oldest known finds in southeastern Asia indicate the occurrence of the bottle gourd in China sometime before the beginning of our era. For the sake of completeness, I must also add that Heyerdah] further adduces evidence that both in Peru and in some Polynesian islands gourds were used to make flutes. Merrill (1954) believed it most probable that bottle gourds reached the South American coast from Africa in a floating state. He men- tioned floating experiments showing that these gourds could stand floating in salt water for nearly 2 years and still contain viable seeds. He also was unable to provide any other explanation. A third very important crop occurring already in pre-Columbian times both on the American mainland and on the Pacific islands, and in fact in nearly all tropical regions, is the coconut, Cocos nucifera L. Formerly this distribution was ascribed to the ability of the coconut to float for a long period. However, floating experiments have shown that coconuts drifting in sea water rather quickly lose their powers of germination, and that fruits floating more than 110 days are no longer viable. Heyerdahl’s voyage on the Kon-Tiki raft supplied an important contribution, as the crossing lasted 101 days; but of course smaller objects drift somewhat more slowly. It seems out of the ques- tion, consequently, that drifting coconuts can cross this part of the Pacific within the critical period of 110 days. Moreover, the coconuts that floated on the raft in sea water decayed, and then the pelagic fauna rapidly completed their deterioration. However, the other coco- nuts on the raft that were not subjected to the sea water maintained their viability. I agree with Heyerdahl in concluding that the dis- tribution of Cocos in pre-Columbian times was possible only with the help of man. But there is no unanimity among botanists concerning the region of the origin of the species. A number of botanists regard South America as such, and especially either Colombia or Panama, since related genera and species occur in those countries. Also, old travel stories reported rich coconut vegetation in regions not previously visited by European travelers. Other competent botanists, e.g., Merrill (1937, 1954), are convinced, following Alphonse de Candolle (1883), that the species originated in the Old World Tropics. It is not neces- sary in this paper to review Merrill’s arguments, but I shall only remark that his mention of fossil species, probably belonging to the genus Cocos, in both New Zealand and in India, in my opinion is irrelevant. Distribution by man must be connected with the recent area of distribution of the species. A large number of genera and species in Tertiary times occupied an area covering two or three con- 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 tinents, whereas these same groups in recent times are restricted to a part of one continent only. We must conclude that the distribution of Cocos nucifera does not establish anything in favor of Heyerdahl’s theories, since no certainty exists as to its original area. Heyerdahl also agrees with this conclusion. Buck (1937) cited a Polynesian myth in which the coconut is said to have originated from the head of the demigod Tuna after he was beaten and killed; the nut still shows the mouth and eyes of Funa. This story of course does not cast any light on the situation. Riesenfeld (1951) has called atten- tion to the fact that archeological investigations in Peru have never brought to light the remains of coconuts. Up to the present, only the three useful plants discussed above can cast doubt upon the final conclusions of Alphonse de Candolle (1883) in his classical work “Origine des plantes cultivées.” De Candolle, in that work (English translation of 1885, pp. 461, 462) wrote: “In the history of cultivated plants I did not find any indication as to contact between the populations of the Old World and of the New World before the discovery of America by Columbus.” And he added, “Between America and Asia perhaps two transports of useful plants took place: one by man [sweetpotato], the other either by man or by currents [coconut ].” Much dependence is placed upon cotton by Heyerdahl. In Poly- nesia some wild species occur (Gossypium taitense Parl. and G. tomen- tosum Nutt.), and Heyerdahl here refers to the investigations of J. B. Hutchinson, R. A. Silow, and S. G. Stephens (1947). These investi- gators found that the Old World species of cotton possess a haploid number of 13 large chromosomes, the wild American species of cotton have 18 small chromosomes, and the cultivated American cotton has 26 chromosomes: i.e., 13 large and 13 small ones. This means, according to them, that the cultivated American cotton is allopolyploid and originated by hybridization of Asiatic and American cotton. Since the cultivated cotton was known in America in pre-Columbian times, they assumed that the old, civilized, American populations introduced cotton on their voyages from Old World countries, and then developed the hybrids. Heyerdahl agrees with this conclusion and thinks it probable that this cotton reached America by the south- ern Atlantic. Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens, moreover, stated that the wild Polynesian Gossypium species, considered to be endemics, had 26 chromosomes as in the American-cultivated cotton, and they also argued that Gossypiwm taitense was not a distinct species but a mere form of the American @. hirsutum var. punctatum (Schum.) J. B. Hutchinson et al. According to Heyerdahl we can thus arrive at only one conclusion: the migrating Peruvian population brought with them, from Peru, the cultivated cotton. In Polynesia, later on, the custom of cotton spinning was lost and the Polynesians took up the HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 541 use of bark for cloth. The distribution of cotton, in his opinion, is a still more obvious proof of his theory than that of the sweet potato and the bottle gourd. These plants, he believes, must have been taken to Polynesia by migrating South American Indians and not intro- duced by Polynesians from a return voyage to Peru. Why should Polynesians introduce cotton? They were unaware of its use and did not know how to spin. In the tetraploid cotton theory of Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens, however, one weak point exists. Their theory is based on the direct introduction by man of Asiatic cotton into America followed by its hybridization with some native American cotton. This hybrid- ization happened only there. But these facts have never been proved and it is doubtful if they can be proved. Therefore, it is quite under- standable that there are different opinions to explain such a situation. Harland (1935, 1939) believes that the tetraploid cotton species origi- nated in Polynesia during Cretaceous or early Tertiary times. Ac- cording to him, Asiatic and American diploid species could have come into contact by a land bridge over a portion of the Pacific of which the Polynesian Islands formed a part. Stebbins (1947) agrees with this theory as to the age, but rejects the land-bridge hypothesis. Ac- cording to him, the subtropical Eocene flora of North America con- sisted of a mixture of Asiatic and American elements and here the allopolyploids originated. From this center of origin they spread to South America and Polynesia, and after the deterioration of the climate they disappeared from North America. Merrill (1954) strongly disagreed with the theory of Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens. To him a rather recent introduction of Asiatic species of Gossypium into tropical America seemed more reasonable. He re- jected the idea that civilized inhabitants of India traveled to America and took with them only cotton, remarking (p. 338) : “In claiming and inferring that early civilized man did introduce an Asiatic cotton species to America, the simple fact that not a single Asiatic cultivated food plant made the journey is overlooked; and food was infinitely more important 2,000 to 3,000 years ago than cotton!” Merrill also disagreed with the concept that the central Polynesian species Gos- sypium taitense could be identical with the American G. hirsutwm var. punctatum. Carica papaya L. is another cultivated plant mentioned by Heyer- dahl, and according to him introduced into Polynesia before the arrival of the Europeans. Its fruits are eaten by man and its juice is used to heal wounds. Consequently, it is a species that could support Heyerdahl’s theory. In connection with this, Heyerdahl is quoting from F. B. H. Brown (1935), asserted by him to be a leading author- ity. On the other hand, Merrill (1954), in reference to Brown’s work states: “What he claims is, in general, most acceptable to those who 542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 argue for American origins, but unfortunately, his claims are almost all without foundation. . . . I note so many extraordinary conclusions in his Flora of S.E. Polynesia that I think it is regrettable that no critical review of his work has ever appeared” (p. 250). Merrill points out that almost certainly Carica papaya was not established in Polynesia previous to the arrival of the Europeans. What is said of the papaya here is also true of the pineapple. Again Heyerdahl cites F. B. H. Brown (1935) in claiming the occur- rence of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. in Polynesia before the arrival of the European navigators. These navigators, however, thoroughly recorded which plants they imported into the islands visited. And according to Merrill (1954), the earliest Polynesian record indicates that Captain Cook planted pineapple seeds in Tahiti in 1769. If Quiros, who sailed in 1595 from Peru to Polynesia, introduced either pineapples or papayas into the Marquesas Islands, he did not record this fact and we do not possess any statement of their occurrence there. Furthermore, Heyerdahl published a list of American plants, for the greater part weeds, which according to him occurred in early times in Hawaii. This list is borrowed from G. F. Carter, whose publica- tion (1950) is called by Merrill (1954, p. 252) an “extraordinary paper,” which he further states contains many gross and inexcusable errors. Carter’s list indeed is a strange one. It contains species related only to American species and even a number which are not American at all but of European origin. Heyerdahl, not professing to be a botanist, here uncritically accepts botanical assertions from a paper written by one who also is not a professional botanist, since they support his theory. Finally I wish to mention two species of plants which also are highly valued by Heyerdahl. The first of these is a species of the well-known genus Argemone, of which the best-known species, A. mexicana \.., was introduced long ago from its native region, Mexico, into other tropical countries and also into Europe, especially as an ornamental. The species of this genus all occur in America except one, Argemone glauca (Nutt. ex Prain) Degener, which is endemic in Hawaii and which was collected there as early as the second voyage of Captain Cook in 1779. Heyerdahl refers to works by Fedde and Prain, who stated that A. glauca is only a variety of the North American A. alba Lestib., and who considered its proper name to be A. alba var. glauca Nutt. ex Prain. In Fedde’s opinion, the plant is probably a hybrid of A. albaand A. mewicana. Since Heyerdahl holds the view that seeds of Argemone cannot cross the ocean without human help, he concurs with Carter’s opinion (1950) that the natives intro- duced this plant into Polynesia because of its medicinal properties, together with the sweet potato and the tetraploid cotton. Merrill HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 543 (1954, pp. 220, 259), on the other hand, states that still unpublished morphological and cytogenetic studies show that A. glauca is not related either to A. mexicana or A. alba. In his opinion, it is a Hawaiian endemic and an American element in the Hawaiian flora, not man introduced and not identical with any American representa- tive of the genus. He states (p. 259): “. . . the American progeni- tor of this Hawaiian species reached Hawaii by natural means long before man appeared,” and: “How long a period of isolation is required to develop specific differentiation within this genus we do not know.” The other species deserving some attention is Heliconia bihai L. (Musaceae), a well-known component of the tropical American pri- meval and secondary forest. In pre-Columbian times the leaves of this plant were already used as roofing, to make walls, hats, mats, and for basket weaving. Here Heyerdahl refers to O. F. Cook (1904), who was of the opinion that the species for this reason was introduced into Polynesia in prehistoric times. It maintained itself in the moun- tains of Samoa and in some other islands, and became extinct elsewhere in the region as its use by man died out, perhaps because Pandanus leaves appeared to be more serviceable. Merrill (1954), on the other hand, is of the opinion that the genus Heliconia has an originally Antarctic distribution. Asa matter of fact, the Heliconiae occurring in the Moluccas, New Guinea, and some of the Polynesian islands do not, as indicated by Schumann (1900) in his monograph of the family, belong to H. bihai. They represent other species as recorded by Backer, Bakhuizen van den Brink, Sr., and other botanists working in the former Dutch East Indies. Moreover, as Merrill (1954, p. 306) states: “Feliconia [bihai], once introduced and established in the tropics, is one of those groups of plants that simply do not ‘die out,’ unless there be a very radical change in climatic conditions.” Asa matter of fact, the group that has been passing as H. bzhai in botanical literature is actually composed of numerous species, some of them very narrow endemics. Furthermore the leaves of these species are frequently utilized by the natives of Polynesia and Melanesia in their construc- tion of temporary shelters. An ethnobotanical argument which Heyerdahl does not discuss in his chapter on botany, but rather in his historical observations on old navigators, is based on stories indicating that these early navigators knew of a plant of which the leaves when chewed had the power to quench thirst and to make sea water potable. This property might point to cocaine, and it is known that the early Peruvian Indians chewed the leaves of coca (Lrythroxylum coca Lam.) against weari- ness, thirst, and hunger. The old Polynesian legends also speak of the addition of lime, and this might point to a parallel with the chewing 544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 of sirih (Piper betle L.) as well. But the use of Piper betle would in- dicate an introduction of the practice from a direction contrary to that hypothesized by Heyerdahl.? Another habit mentioned by Heyerdahl is the drinking of kava on special occasions in Polynesia. The drink in early days was made by women, who chewed the roots of Piper methysticum Forst. f. for that purpose. This practice Heyerdahl compares with the preparation and drinking of chicha in Andean South America. This latter drink originally was made only by women, who chewed corn; molasses is added to the mixture and is followed by fermentation of the juice. The result is a vile-smelling, milky suspension which is drunk to ex- cess by certain classes of the population. In my opinion, the parallel between kava and kasiri drinking, such as takes place among the In- dians in the interior of Surinam, where the drink is made from fer- mented chewed cassava (Manthot esculenta Crantz), is still stronger. Here also the chewing is usually done by women. But this custom, which occurs not only in Surinam but in many parts of the Amazon Basin, is apparently not known to Heyerdahl. Merrill does not men- tion Heyerdahl’s arguments based on cocaine and kava. Apparently these items escaped him since they are not found in the botanical chapter of Heyerdahl’s voluminous work. Having discussed the plant species regarded by a number of au- thors as introduced into Polynesia from America and for that reason mentioned by Heyerdahl in support of his theory, we should now concern ourselves with the absence of certain American-cultivated plants in the Polynesian area. It would have been very strange if the migrating pre-Incas had brought of their crops only sweet pota- toes and perhaps coconuts, and not corn (Zea mays L.), the most im- portant food plant of pre-Columbian America. That this species originated in America has been adequately demonstrated by the in- vestigations of Mangelsdorf and his collaborators. The hypothesis of Stonor and Anderson (1949) to the effect that corn was cultivated in India before the arrival of Europeans is rejected by Mangelsdorf and Oliver (1951), who stated that there is no proof of the use of corn in Asia in pre-Columbian times. As to its use and popularity, they compare maize in Asia with potatoes in Ireland. Merrill (1950, 1954) is convinced that corn reached India by the Portuguese trade route from Brazil to Goa by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Heyer- dahl, also convinced of the American origin of maize, has accordingly some difficulties in explaining the established lack of corn in Polynesia before the arrival of Europeans. He suggests the possibilities that either the stock of corn was lost during the disembarkation of the % Actually, Piper betle is nowhere used in Polynesia by the Polynesians themselves. Its use extends from India east to the Solomons. The only Polynesians who use it are the Polynesian “outliers” within Melanesia. HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 545 immigrating Peruvian Indians, or that the growing of the imported maize failed. At least he does not permit the absence of maize to upset his theory, illustrating the point with the following parallel: If a burglar had somewhere lost his gloves with incriminating finger- prints, he cannot very well be excused on the basis that he did not also leave his coat, hat, and shoes behind him. In my opinion the absence of maize in Polynesia may also be ad- duced as evidence against the canoe expedition by Polynesians to Peru as suggested by Buck, St. John, and others; it is assumed that they carried home the sweet potato, which they also used as food during the voyage. Similarly, corn is easy to carry along and to put under cul- tivation, and the same also holds for the originally American beans belonging to the genus Phaseolus. It is known, however, that Spanish missionaries from Peru grew beans in Tahiti soon after Captain Cook’s first voyage. These beans, however, were not accepted as a popular food by the natives. In Merrill’s opinion (1950, 1954), the explanation lies in the probability that the Polynesians in those days were not a seed- or grain-eating people. For that reason, according to Buck’s concept, they did bring back sweetpotatoes from their expedi- tions to Peru but neither corn nor beans. From the discussions above, it appears that Heyerdahl’s arguments borrowed from the botanical evidence are not particularly strong. When we except the coconut, which, because of its early pantropical distribution and the fact that its area of origin is unknown, must be regarded as unsuitable evidence, only a single food plant remains— that is, the sweet potato. And even if this is to be considered an originally American plant, a hypothesis that is open to doubt, it is merely an indication of a pre-Columbian contact between South America and Polynesia. This plant does not offer any conclusive proof as to the direction in which the contact took place. The bottle gourd may have reached Polynesia in pre-Columbian times by quite another route and consequently its present distribution does not support Heyerdahl’s theories. The Polynesian species of cotton appear to be autochthonous and endemic. Other botanical arguments brought forward by Heyerdahl are based on the opinions of a comparatively small number of authors, occasionally by a single author. These opinions are not shared by specialists in the field of tropical American or Polynesian vegetation and ethnobotany. Some- times these opinions have been founded on incorrect or doubtful data. Consequently, we must conclude that Heyerdahl’s botanical evidence can hardly stand. It does not offer his theory any real support. In particular, the absence of nearly all the originally South American food plants in Polynesia before the arrival of the European navigators is significant. The food plants observed during the first voyage of 546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 Captain Cook in 1769, with the exception of the sweet potato, were all Malaysian and therefore presumably introduced from the west. Among such plants may be mentioned the taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) as well as the related Alocasia macrorrhiza (I.) Schott and some other aroids, three species of yam (Dioscorea), some ba- nanas (species of Afusa), and the breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkins.) Fosb.). Accordingly it is not surprising that two well- known specialists on the flora of Polynesia, Merrill and St. John, were outspoken opponents of Heyerdahl’s theory. Similarly in ethnological circles the Kon-Tiki theory has been criti- cized and censured. I may briefly mention here the critical review by de Josselin de Jong (1953), professor of ethnology at the Uni- versity of Leiden, the Netherlands. De Josselin de Jong wisely did not comment too strongly on Heyerdahl’s ethnobotanical ideas, but he definitely rejected the manner in which Heyerdahl in his botanical chapter adduced arguments in support of his theory. T also wish to mention here a critical review by the Viennese ethnolo- gist Heine-Geldern (1952), who similarly concluded that Heyerdahl failed to prove the American origin of the Polynesians. He pointed out, however, that we must not lose sight of Heyerdahl’s real contri- bution, because he proved that a voyage—for instance a voyage home- ward of Polynesians who had managed to reach the South American coast—might be possible even if their food supply had become ex- hausted. Heine-Geldern amply reviewed Heyerdahl’s botanical chapter. Of the mentioned species of plants, he discussed the coconut, rejecting an American origin for this plant; he stated that as early as a century before our era, coconuts were grown in India. The sweet potato, in his opinion, was brought to Polynesia from America by Polynesians. Finally he gives a detailed review of the cotton problem. He is firmly convinced that American cotton has been introduced into Polynesia, basing this conclusion upon the chromosome pattern of the American species. As to why this introduction was made, Heine-Geldern cites Miss Teuira Henry (“Ancient Tahiti,” Bishop Mus. Press), who stated that in Tahiti cotton was formerly cultivated and was used to embalm the dead. By this expression we may pre- sumably understand that the body was filled with raw cotton. A somewhat similar custom occurred in Peru, but the practice may have been imported from Peru by Polynesians and not necessarily carried to Polynesia by Americans. Heine-Geldern’s hypothesis is that the originally imported species of cotton became extinct, and afterward another species was brought into Polynesia which did become a sub- spontaneous weed, whereas the practice of “embalming” died out. However, every trace of proof is lacking. Heyerdahl (1951-1952), countering Heine-Geldern’s critical review, stated that it referred HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 547 to his popular account and was published before the appearance of his principal work, “American Indians in the Pacific.” This coun- terargument, however, did not disclose any new aspects. In 1955 a doctor’s thesis of the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, appeared, in which the author, Mrs. Heeren-Palm, tried to prove that the origin of Polynesian civilization was principally Indonesian. She dated the migration of the Polynesians out of Indonesia before the introduction of textile art and rice-growing in that region, and also before the influence of metal-working was notice- able. According to her, by the time the first European navigators reached Polynesia, relations and connections with the Indonesian countries were no longer maintained. Mrs. Heeren also paid atten- tion to the cultivated plants. She included a list of 30 such plants grown in Polynesia before the arrival of the Europeans. The greater part (14 species) of this list was borrowed from Forster (1777), and of the 30, only 3, according to Mrs. Heeren, are of American origin. As such she regarded the sweet potato (7pomoea batatas), the cotton (two species of Gossypium), and the so-called large gourd. The last, however, was identified by Eames and St. John (1943) asa true gourd, ie., a form of Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl., and not as a squash, Cucurbita maxima Duch., as had been previously believed by Mrs. Heeren, among others. All the known species of Cucurbita are Ameri- can, but, as discussed above, the genus Zagenaria in all probability is of African origin and was widely distributed in the Tropics of both hemispheres as early as pre-Columbian times. The large gourd is an extreme form presumably developed by the Hawaiians. Mrs. Heeren amply discussed the plant species that she listed and showed their tropical Asiatic origin, but unfortunately a discussion of the sweet-potato problem is missing. She thinks it possible, because of Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki voyage and excavations in the Galapagos Islands, that American Indians reached Polynesia on their balsa rafts, but she absolutely rejects the hypothesis of an American origin of the Polynesians. In 1955 and 1956 Heyerdahl visited Easter Island, and in his popular account of this trip, “Aku-Aku, the Secret of Easter Island” (1958), he adds two botanical arguments to his Kon-Tiki theory—the occur- rence of both the sweet potato and the totora reed (Scirpus totara) before the arrival of the first explorers. The former has been dis- cussed above. The latter species is also found in large quantities in Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia. It is there used as a material for building houses and other shelters, and also for rafts and boats which are called “balsas,” in which the natives have sailed on the lake from pre-Columbian times until the present. Easter Island, however, is considerably nearer the coast of South America than the 548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 other Polynesian islands. In connection with the distribution of this plant, I consider it wiser to wait until the scientific report of the investigations of Heyerdahl and his collaborators on Easter Island is published. At that time we shall know what conclusions he draws from the distribution of this particular plant. It is my surmise that this problem also is more complicated than it appears to be at first sight, since the occurrence of Scirpus totara is not restricted to Peru and Easter Island only. Merrill (1954) was, in my opinion, often too outspoken in opposing Heyerdahl’s views, but nevertheless one must agree with him that these views were not entirely justified, perhaps because Heyerdahl too frequently depended upon the works of spe- cialists who were not entirely qualified to express detailed opinions in such an area. One must agree with Merrill’s statement that “One can see little or no basis for the Heyerdahl claims that the Polynesians came from America, or that the American Indians ever peopled Polynesia proper.” Merrill continues: “There seems to be no doubt that they did reach the Galépagos Islands, but these islands are not Polynesian, and they may accidentally have reached certain Pacific islands nearest to the west coast of America.” REFERENCES Brown, F. B. H. 1935. Flora of southeastern Polynesia III. Dicotyledons. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 130, pp. 1-386. : Buck, P. H. [Tr Ranet Hiro]. 1937. Vikings of the sunrise. 335 pp. New York. CANDOLLE, ALPHONSE DE. 1883. Origine des plantes cultivées. 377 pp. Paris. CaRTER, G. F. 1950. Plant evidence of early contacts with America. Southwest. Journ. Anthrop., vol. 6, pp. 161-182. Cook, O. F. ‘ 1904. Food plants of ancient America. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1903, pp. 481-497. Drxon, R. B. 1932. The problem of the sweet potato in Polynesia. Amer. Anthropologist, n.s., vol. 34, pp. 40-66. Eames, A. J., and St. JoHNn, H. 1943. The botanical identity of the Hawaiian Ipu Nui or large gourd. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 30, pp. 255-259. Forster, J. R. 1777. A voyage round the world in H.M.S. Resolution, commanded by Capt. Cook during . .. 1772-1775. London. (Also translated into German: Reise um die Welt. 1778-1783. Berlin.) HARLAND, S. C. 1935. The genetics of cotton. XII. Homologous genes for anthocyanin pig- mentation in New and Old World cottons. Journ. Genetics, vol. 30, pp. 465-476. 1939. The genetics of cotton. 193 pp. London. HEYERDAHL’S KON-TIKI THEORY—JONKER 549 HEEREN-PALM, C. H. M. 1955. Polynesische Migraties. Thesis, Univ. Amsterdam, 189 pp. HEINE-GELDERN, R. 1952. Some problems of migration in the Pacific. Kultur and Sprache. Wiener Beitrige zur Kulturgeschichte und Linguistik, vol. 9, pp. 311-362. HEYERDAHL, TH. 1948. The Kon-Tiki Expedition. London, Chicago. 1951-1952. Some problems of aboriginal migration in the Pacific. Beiheft 1 zu Archiv. f. Vélkerkunde. vols. 6/7, pp. 1-8. 1952. American Indians in the Pacific. The theory behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition. 820 pp. Stockholm, London, Oslo. 1958. Aku-Aku, the secret of Easter Island. (Originally published in Norwegian. ) HORNELL, J. 1946. How did the sweet potato reach Polynesia? Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., vol. 53, pp. 41-62. HurcuHinson, J. B.; Strow, R. A.; and STEPHENS, S. G. 1947. The evolution of Gossypium and the differentiation of cultivated cot- tons. 160 pp. Oxford University Press. London, New York, Toronto. JOSSELIN DE JONG, P. EH. DE. 1953. The “Kontiki” theory of Pacific migrations. Bijdr. tot de Taal-, Land- en volkenkunde, vol. 109, pp. 1-22. MANGELSDORF, P. C., and OLIvErR, D. L. 1951. Whence came maize to Asia? Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harvard Univ., vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 263-291. MERRILL, H. D. 1937. On the significance of certain oriental plant names in relation to introduced species: the coconut. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 78, pp. 112-146. (Reprinted in Merrilliana. A selection from the gen- eral writings of Elmer Drew Merrill. Chronica Botanica, vol. 10, No. 3/4, pp. 295-815, 1946.) 1941. Man’s influence on the vegetation of Polynesia, with special reference to introduced species. Proc. 6th Pacific Sci. Congr. (1940), vol. 4, pp. 629-639. (Reprinted in Merrilliana. A selection from the general writings of Elmer Drew Merrill. Chronica Botanica, vol. 10, No. 3/4, pp. 334-345, 1946.) 1950. Observations on cultivated plants with reference to certain American problems. Ceiba, vol. 1, pp. 3-386. 1954. The botany of Cook’s voyages. Chronica Botanica, vol. 14, No. 5/6, pp. 161-384. RIESENFELD, A. 1951. Kon-Tiki and Pacific migration. Natural History, vol. 60, pp. 50, 96. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. St. Joun, H. 1953. Origin of the sustenance plants of the Polynesians. Proc. 7th Int. Bot. Congr., Stockholm, 1950, pp. 152-154. 1954. The vegetation of Hawaii at the time of Capt. James Cook in 1778- 79 and a comparison with its present status. Huitiéme Congrés Int. Botanique, Paris, 1954. Rapp. et Comm., aux sect. 21 4 27, pp. 176-177. And Compt. Rend. des Séances et Rapp. et Comm. déposés lors du Congr. dans les sect. 21 4 27, pp. 125-126. 550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ScHUMANN, K. 1900. Musaceae. In A. Engler, Das Pflanzenreich IV, vol. 45, p. 36. STEBBINS, G. L. 1947. Evidences on rates of evolution from the distribution of existing and fossil plant species. Ecol. Monogr., vol. 17, pp. 149-158. Stowor, C. R., and ANDERSON, E. 1949. Maize among the hill peoples of Assam. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden, vol. 36, pp. 355-404. Reprints of the various articles in this Report may be obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. Minerals in Art and Archeology By RUTHERFORD J. GETTENS Head Curator, Freer Gallery Laboratory Freer Gallery of Art Smithsonian Institution [With 8 plates] “From EARTH come stones, including the more precious kinds, and also the types of earth that are unusual because of their color, smooth- ness, density, or any other quality.” Thus wrote Theophrastus in the fourth century B.C. at the beginning of his treatise “On Stones.” The Greek philosopher realized the full importance to man of the mineral products of the earth. Since the dawn of civilization, man has tried to create useful and beautiful things for his living and creature comfort; he has sought unusual materials for personal adornment, for ceremonial and religious purposes, and for the expres- sion of ideas, both concrete and abstract. Man and art have developed side by side. The materials for art and invention have had to come from the three grand divisions into which formerly all natural objects were classified: animal, vegetable, and mineral. We might debate which of the three classes is the most important, but there is little doubt that the art materials chosen from the mineral kingdom are the most durable over long periods of time; hence, from them we have learned indirectly most of what we know about the art and ideas of antiquity. Let us, therefore, take a special look at products of the mineral kingdom which have long served the artist well and will continue to serve him in the future. In this article we will use the term “mineral” in its narrower mean- ing to indicate natural inorganic species of earth substance of more or less constant composition ; we will not deal with “rocks,” which are heterogeneous aggregates of two or more mineral species. Many mineral substances have been employed by the artist and artisan directly as they came from the earth, and with little preparation or manipulation, except for shaping and modeling as in sculpture, or by grinding to a powder for use as paint pigments. There are other minerals, however, which only indirectly and after a considerable amount of modification, either physical or chemical, can serve the 6253256237 551 552 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 artist’s needs. A few of these occur widely and plentifully, hence are inexpensive, while others are rare and are sought for in distant places, hence are costly and precious. MINERALS IN SCULPTURE Several of the massive minerals have long been used to produce sculpture, including statuary and elements for the ornamentation of buildings, tombs, and monuments. The first among these is marble, which is the crystalline metamorphosed form of limestone, or calcium carbonate. Marble is more extensively used today by sculptors than is any other form of stone. It is softer than granite and similar igneous rocks. Because it is denser and not so porous, it is more durable than limestone and other sedimentary formations [1].1_ The important role played by marble in the plastic arts of Greece and Rome is well known. White marble from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus served the great artist Phidias for the ornamentation of the Parthenon; the Greek island of Paros produced a coarser grained but pure-white marble of incomparable beauty, which was modeled by many of the famous Greek sculptors. The white marble of the quarries at Carrara in Italy was the favorite sculpture medium of Michelangelo, who carved it into figures of beauty and dignity such as the Madonna and Child in the Church of Notre Dame in Bruges (pl. 1, fig. 1). Variegated marbles have been widely used for table- tops and fireplaces and interior paneling. Polished black marble, especially “Belgian black,” is highly regarded by modern sculptors. Alabaster is a mineral name with a double meaning. It is probably derived from the Greek word alabastron (Li. alabastrum), which is the name for the small stone flasks or vases used by the Egyptians for oils, ointments, and perfumes, having a flattened top with narrow orifice and a body usually rounded at the bottom, and without handle. Many are artistically conceived. Those alabastrums made in Egypt are usually cut from a hard compact form of calcite, somewhat trans- lucent and sometimes quite beautifully banded, which is nearly iden- tical with onyx (onyxlike) marble. The Egyptians also used calcite alabaster for making those strange “canopic jars” in which they pre- served the viscera of the deceased, usually for burial with the mummy. They bear on their covers carved heads, representative of the four genii of the dead called Amenti. Among objects in the exhibition of “Tutankhamun Treasures” recently circulated among American museums are several that are made from creamy alabaster. An especially fine piece is an alabaster lid from one of the compartments of the “canopic” chest which is in the form of the king’s head [2]. To Egyptologists the term “alabaster” always refers to calcite. 1Numbers in brackets indicate references at end of text. MINERALS IN ART AND ARCHEOLOGY—GETTENS 553 The close relationship of calcite alabaster to onyx marble has been mentioned. Onyx marble is a banded calcite from shelf deposits formed about the orifices of hot springs. It is often beautifully tinted by metallic impurities and, because of its translucency and color, was used by the pre-Columbian inhabitants of Mexico for carving masks for religious purposes. A fine example of a pale green onyx marble mask is shown as frontispiece in the catalog of the Robert Woods Bliss collection of pre-Columbian art [3]. In Europe including England alabaster is the name given to a mas- sive and compact form of gypsum, calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO: 2H,0), of fine texture which is usually white and translucent. It is nearly as soft and as easy to work as soapstone and has been used especially in Italy since Roman times for carving vases and statuary. It is too soft and too easily weathered for general sculpture purposes, but was used extensively in England for the carving of tomb figures and for interior architectural ornamentation [4]. The gypsum was quarried in the Middle Ages near Tutbury in Staffordshire and near Derby. Many of the English alabaster sculptures were painted and gilded; a fine example is the painted alabaster figure of Saint George and the Dragon in the National Gallery of Art, Washington (pl. 1, fig.2). The Hildburgh collection of English alabasters at the Victo- ria and Albert Museum, London, has many religious images and narra- tive panels in gypsum alabaster [5]. The so-called “Mosul Marble” used by the Assyrians is gypsum grading into anhydrite. Good ex- amples are the winged human-headed lions from the palace of Sar- gon II at Khorsabad which now stand in the entrance to the Assyrian Galleries in the British Museum [6]. Gypsum has long been em- ployed in Italy and in other areas for the production of ornamental vases, statuettes, and small stele for indoor use. The anhydrous form of calcium sulphate called anhydrite (CaSQO,), although plentiful, had more limited use as a sculpture medium, but at both the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Brooklyn Museum (pl. 2, fig. 1), one can see attractive bowls, vases, and figurines cut by the ancient Egyptians from a pale bluish variety of anhydrite. Both gypsum and anhydrite had another important use in art, which was for making plaster for wall construction and for casting pur- poses, but those uses will be discussed later. The sedimentary rocks, limestone, sandstone, and slate, and the igneous rocks of composite minerals like granite, porphyry, and di- orite have been transformed into beautiful and transportable objects by the sculptor’s hammer, but these more common and massive forms of mineral and rock are not within the scope of this essay. We think of them mainly as architectural media. There is a group of minerals, however, sometimes called semipre- cious stones, which have been used since prehistoric times for minia- 554 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 ture sculptures, ornamental inlays, and jewelry. Most of them have special appeal because they are hard and have a pleasing appearance, luster, and color. Many of these stones are inherently beautiful and require no modeling—only polishing—to bring out their artistic quali- ties. Perhaps first among these are two minerals which are collectively known as jade. One of them is a hard mineral made of the sodium aluminum silicate, a member of the pyroxene group now called by its scientific name “jadeite.” It was employed by the aborigines of Guatemala and other parts of Central America for carving and orna- mental purposes. The Spanish conquistadores called it piedra de tjada, or “stone of the side,” because when worn on the loins it was supposed to cure kidney ailments. In the collection of the Honorable Robert Woods Bliss, now on loan to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, one can see many fine examples of worked jadeite from Central America, including small images, ceremonial weapons, and inlays which vary in color from yellowish green to gray to black [7]. Perhaps the most familiar type of jadeite is that which comes mainly from Burma and is colored or mottled a bright emerald green from impurities of chromium, A selected variety of green jadeite called “imperial jade” is highly prized in the lapidary trade. The name “jade” is also given, by modern lapidarists, to a tough, hard stone which was valued by the ancient Chinese who called it yw. It is nephrite, a variety of amphibole or calcium magnesium silicate which is translucent white when pure, but there are colored varieties ranging through pale green, spinach green, and yellowish brown to black. Quantities of exquisitely worked nephrite have come from Chinese tombs of the first and second millenniums B.C. These are mostly ceremonial objects, small ornaments, figurines, and inlays [8]. The Freer Gallery of Art has a collection of nearly 500 nephrite objects from early Chinese tombs, among them many masterpieces of fine and delicate workmanship. It is believed that the main source of this nephrite was Chinese Turkestan in innermost Asia, where the jade was found in boulders in beds of streams which flowed out of the K‘un-lun Mountains in the vicinity of Khotan. A Russian writer, Kretchetova, says that nephrite was a matter of particular importance in the trade from Khotan to China. By order of the Chinese rulers, unwrought pieces of jade by thousands of pounds were brought to China over the great “silk roads” from the west. He adds that the Imperial treasury consisted to a considerable extent of jade and jas- per; the lack of it meant that the treasury was exhausted [9]. Dark green or “spinach jade” came mostly from the Lake Baikal region of Siberia. Many extraordinary pieces of nephrite carving have come out of ancient royal tombs in China dating from the first millennium B.C. Some exceptional nephrite ceremonial axes and blades about 30 inches long, 8 inches wide, and only about a quarter of an inch MINERALS IN ART AND ARCHEOLOGY—GETTENS 555 thick are on exhibition in the Freer Gallery of Art (pl. 2, fig. 2). A number of good examples of “tomb jade” are pictured, many in color, in a recently published work on “Chinese Art” by Daisy Lion- Goldschmidt of Paris [10]. Many of these pieces were obviously made for religious and symbolic purposes, but over the centuries the meaning of the symbols has been lost. In the late 18th century in China, especially under the patronage of the Emperors K‘ang-hsi and Ch‘ien Lung, jade cutting was re- vived and many fine artisans were brought into the service of the Imperial Court. A new style was developed, entirely different in artistic conception from the style of earlier times, which resulted in the production of large and flamboyantly worked vessels, plates, cups, ornamental pieces, and small screens. Many of them were in the shape and style of archaic bronzes. There are many fine examples of this kind of jade in the Vetlesen collection [11] adjoining the gem room in the Mineral Hall in the Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution (pl. 3, fig. 1); also in the Bishop collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and in the Dane collection in the Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard University. Jades of this period, because of their striking form and color, are often shown in catalogs and picture books on Chinese art [12]. Recently from Russia has come a splendidly illustrated book [9] showing unique pieces of Chinese carved stone including much jade of the 17th and 18th centuries in the famous Hermitage Museum in Leningrad. Many of the pieces were collected by the former czars and nobles of Russia. For a long time it was not realized by either Europeans or Chinese that the two kinds of minerals, jadeite and nephrite, are of different composition until this was demonstrated by Damour in 1863. When pure, both varieties are white. Jadeite is an aggregate of small grains and has, when polished, a sort of vitreous luster. Nephrite, on the other hand, is built up of interlocking fibers, and has an oily luster; hence, white nephrite is appropriately called “mutton fat” jade. Jadeite has a hardness of 634 on Mohs scale of 1 to 10; nephrite is slightly less hard—614—but has a peculiar toughness which gives it greater resistance to lapidary tools and to breakage. Neither can be scratched with the point of a pocketknife, whereas some other min- erals used to imitate jade, such as serpentine, prophyllite, and steatite, can be. The two minerals can easily be distinguished and told from imitations by X-ray diffraction analysis. Nevertheless, both varieties of mineral will continue to be called “jade.” Rock crystal or transparent crystalline quartz (silicon dioxide, SiO.) has been almost as important to art as jade. (Pl. 3, fig. 2.) The stonecutters of the Chinese Imperial Court work it much like jade and converted long, stout crystals of clear quartz into vases, jars, and statuettes. The Philadelphia Museum of Art possesses some marvelous 506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 examples of Chinese rock crystal. The production of flawless crystal spheres for crystal gazing was a tour de force enjoyed by Chinese lapi- darists. The crystal ball in the U.S. National Museum, which is 127% inches in diameter and weighs 10634 pounds, is the largest known flaw- less sphere of this kind in the world. The quartz came from Burma and required 18 months labor in China for the cutting and polishing. Two fine crystal bowls of 17th-century Italian workmanship are shown in the Morgan Library, New York, and there are many notable rock crystal pieces in European collections [13]. Amethyst, which is a violet-tinted variety of crystal, was occasionally cut into small vases and dishes, but mostly it was used in antiquity for gems and beads. The hard cryptocrystalline forms of quartz like chalcedony, agate, carnelian, prase, and jasper have also been widely used by lapidarists for carving small figures, ornamental vases, and seals. They differ only in the fineness of their crystalline structure and translucency and in their color, which is caused by impurities—chiefly oxides and sili- cates of iron and manganese. Carnelian was a favorite medium of the cylinder seal makers of Babylon and Assyria. A. Lucas tells us that it occurs abundantly in the eastern desert of Egypt and was much used from predynastic times onward for inlay in jewelry, furniture, and coffins [14]. It was so highly valued that in later times an imitation carnelian con- sisting of translucent quartz set in red cement was often employed to supplement the genuine article as inlay. There are some striking white agate dishes ornamented with orange-red carnelian flowers cut from a single stone in the Bishop collection of the Metropolitan Mu- seum of Art. Carnelian and amethyst were sought after in ancient Egypt for making bead necklaces, although drilling of the holes in the beads must have required nearly inexhaustible patience. Agate, especially banded agate, is another excellent lapidary ma- terial, and even the purely functional agate mortar found in most present-day analytical chemical laboratories can be a work of art. One of the most notable ancient objects in agate is the carved vase once owned by the great painter Peter Paul Rubens, which is now one of the showpieces of the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore (pl. 4, fig. 1). According to Marvin Chauncey Ross, “It is a vessel over seven inches high carved from a single mass of agate, shading from a warm honey color to a milky white. The ornamentation is carved in very high solid relief thus adding some strength to the walls of the vase, which are worked to the thinness and translucence of porcelain.” [15.] Rubens strongly admired the vase which Ross believes dates from the fourth or early fifth century A.D. and is Byzantine in origin. An engraving of it in the Berlin Print Cabinet is made after a drawing in Rubens’ own sketchbook. MINERALS IN ART AND ARCHEOLOGY—GETTENS 557 Flint is another cryptocrystalline variety of quartz and is allied to chalcedony, but it is opaque, usually in gray, brown, or even smoky tones. It was of prime importance to primitive man for tool and implement making because it could so easily be worked by flaking. Because of its dull color it was not much used for art forms, even for small sculpture, but many will agree that a finely worked flint knife or spear point is an artistic creation. Agatized or petrified wood is still another variety of quartz, and when well banded and streaked with red from iron oxide, it can be worked like onyx into attractive book ends and other sculptural forms. Some copper minerals, because of the bright colors, have been em- ployed for small sculptures and inlays. Perhaps the best known is banded malachite or green basic copper carbonate, which the Russians got in considerable quantities from the Ural Mountains and worked into all sorts of shapes. A remarkable pair of large bronze vases clad with Russian malachite and ornamented with gilt bronze fittings is shown mounted on pedestals at the Natural’History Building of the U.S. National Museum. They came from the collection of Prince Demidoff and Princess Mathilde Bonaparte, his wife. Visitors to the Hermitage and museums of Moscow speak of the extraordinary amount of malachite lapidary and inlay work that can be seen there. The banding of alternate layers of dark green and light green seen in botryoidal masses of malachite produces interesting designs in inlay and mosaic. The use of turquoise, which is basic hydrous aluminum phosphate tinted with copper, as a lapidary mineral is well known to those who are familiar with the Indian-made silver jewelry of the American Southwest. An outstanding example is the pre-Columbian turquoise necklace and eardrops found by the Pueblo Bonito expedition in New Mexico now on display at the National Geographic Society in Wash- ington [16]. Turquoise was also employed effectively by Chinese silversmiths and goldsmiths for embellishing elaborately worked brooches and bracelets [17]. The Chinese gold and turquoise scepter in the Freer Gallery collection has been rightfully termed a “royal piece.” Large pieces of carved turquoise are rare, but a Buddha carved from turquoise exhibited in the Harvard University collection of minerals and another in the Natural History Building of the U.S. National Museum are several inches high. A half-dozen bronze cere- monial dagger-axes at the Freer Gallery of Art are lavishly inlaid with small square-cut turquoise chips like the tessarae used in mosaic (pl. 4, fig. 2). Even some of the rarer minerals are used for lapidary purposes. A figure of the Chinese god of longevity, Shou-lao-hsien, carved in an altered form of yellow and black crocidolite called “tiger eye,” was re- cently added to the mineral collection of the U.S. National Museum. 558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 A carved disk of bright red cinnabar in matrix of quartz and agal- matolite is a curiosity in the Freer Gallery collection. In a private collection in New York an unusual and attractive piece is a small, elegantly carved Chinese mask of the translucent green mineral prehn- ite. A prehnite pendant is shown in the Robert Woods Bliss collec- tion of pre-Columbia art [3]. Dr. Foshag says, in the catalog of that collection, that in Mexico carvings in this stone are rare, but beads of prehnite are not uncommon. Bluish and greenish tinted varieties of feldspar were used by the Egyptians for jewelry and small sculptures. An amulet of green feldspar set in gold which represents the funerary god Anubis was found in the mummy wrappings of Tutankhamun [2]. The dark purple massive variety of fluorite or fluorspar known as “Blue John” is found only in Derbyshire, England. Various orna- mental vases of this unique kind of fluorite (calcium fluoride) are shown at the Geological Museum in London. There must be many more carved mineral oddities like these hidden away in collections all over the world. Objects carved from lapis lazuli (ML dazulus from Per. lazhuward; in modern mineralogy, lazurite) are not uncommon. Lapis lazuliisa complex sodium aluminum silicate of the zeolite type, which owes its blue color to loosely attached sodium polysulphide. Some notable ex- amples of lapis carving are cited by Miss Miner and Miss Edelstein of the Walters Art Gallery [18] in their scholarly description of a late Roman lapis-lazuli spread eagle, which was found some years ago near Naples (pl. 5, fig. 1). It probably once served as the finial for a scepter used by a Roman consul as insigne of office. Perhaps one of the most distinguished examples of the use of this mineral is the lapis and gold “Ram in a Thicket” found by the late Charles Leonard Woolley at Ur, and now shown among the many treasure items of the Univer- sity Museum in Philadelphia. A small bust of a Median lion strangler in carved lapis lazuli (734 inches high) is pictured in color on the cover of the February 1961 issue of the Cleveland Museum of Art bulletin [19]. It perhaps represents the hero protecting the sacred flocks of the goddess of fertility. Amber, although organic in origin, is classed as a mineral, and Baltic amber is called succinite. It is fossil resin from a species of fir tree which became extinct millions of years ago. Amber was one of the first substances used by man for carving. In Europe especially it has been employed for making ornaments, crucifixes, and small votive images, and in England it has been in almost continuous use for beadmaking since the Bronze Age. An outstanding collection of ex- amples of the judgment and craftsmanship of Chinese amber workers of the past two centuries was made by Mary Hooper Packard and is shown at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston [20]. Mrs. Packard’s chief interest was amber ornaments made in the Far East, and her MINERALS IN ART AND ARCHEOLOGY—GETTENS 559 discrimination was exercised in the field of color and quality of the substance rather than in variety of use or method of working. Pendants and strings of beads form the major part of the collection. Although steatite, or soapstone (hydrous magnesium silicate) (pl. 5, fig. 2), is not regarded as a great art medium, its softness (No. 1 on Mohs hardness scale) and ease of carving have caused it to be used widely by the Chinese, but, unfortunately, in this century mostly for cheap export ware. A soapstone Hellenistic head of fine quality is exhibited in the Egyptian galleries of the Brooklyn Museum. In the same collection are several other well-modeled Egyptian steatite heads with inlaid eyes. A hard variety of serpentine (Mohs scale 4-5), which is related to steatite, was sometimes employed by the Chinese as a substitute for jade. In fact it is sometimes difficult to distinguish this mineral from jade. Serpentine has waxlike luster and color and can be varie- gated, showing mottling in lighter or darker tones of green. A hand- some mask of serpentine from Mexico is shown in the Robert Woods Bliss collection already mentioned [3]. Some of the finest accom- plishments of Olmec artists are in this stone. The native metals are also minerals, and since they were easy to recognize and to work, they were prized by primitive artists and craftsmen. Chief among these, of course, is gold, which was widely employed by primitive peoples for all kinds of art and ornamental purposes. They fashioned objects by hammering gold nuggets directly into wire, beads, and thin sheets. It was melted and cast in simple molds to form images and ceremonial objects. The Robert Woods Bliss collection has many unusual examples of Middle and South American gold masks, figurines, and ornaments showing all techniques (pl. 6, fig. 1). In Colombia, the aboriginal Americans learned to make an alloy of gold and copper called twmbaga, which they cast into images and other objects by the lost-wax process. Native silver, and even copper, also served the early peoples of Europe and America for making beads, amulets, and hair ornaments. Nearly all the precious gem stones, including diamonds, have been sculptured or engraved. Sapphire heads of Presidents Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and Eisenhower are owned by the Kazanjian Foundation of Los Angeles. The original stone for the Lincoln head (pl. 7, fig. 1), which was shown several years ago at the Smithsonian Institution, was obtained after a year of negotiations with a rancher in Queensland, Australia, where it had been kept for 15 years. The deep blue stone was sculptured by the artist Norman Maness, coun- seled by Merrill Gage, professor of sculpture at the University of Southern California, and the job required almost 2 years. Because of the hardness of the sapphire stone, only diamonds could be used to cut it. The weight is 1,318 carats, approximately 814 ounces. 560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1961 A set of small bowls of American gem stones was recently installed in the Natural History Building of the U.S. National Museum, and there are many small pieces of sculpture made from rare minerals in that collection including chrysocolla, idocrase, rhodonite, variscite, amethyst, and others. ) ; nee eC i) ‘ rep’ 4 cre ery af * se s | 3 | ‘ | A et ff SNCS BY a ia ih f , me ~ ¥ : ea * ae VET Sseci] 4 ™ iH a . Kea rece De —— oe a) Vs ' okt 1) Pe AG et ie ny i, f a ay . J zi 7 a gi ‘ ey 5 : 3 unl ¥ 7) i OG ma’ ee i - . : oe - ar 2 ’ y . a ae Sh f | ot PS es fF’ ae fey! Wet me Ui oad “x m1 oe , MAb ye are ean Bt waiter ply ga Wt SMe ‘ Whi prt xh u Pree ‘ey aa a Aa on } 1 Digsh aera peta el te i r . : ' ty &» | * ye wy ? 7 oO ed ait) les ey re , a Bi nt | 7 iy A, © TTT 3 9088 01 421 7673