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' see LO Te eee oe WEN EEO: emer nme ne eee TOT Tr eM Preeti ee TAPER PH © State of New York—Department of Agriculture ‘Twenty-SEconpD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARDAOF: CONTROL OF THE NEW YORK Agricultural Experiment Station (GENEVA, ONTARIO COUNTY) LOR LEE YreAkrR £903 With Reports of Director and Other Officers TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 15, 1904 ALBANY OLIVER A. QUAYLE SUA 1G iG Sly Avvo Rul IN TR 1904 SrAte or NEW YORK. No. 30. Bx ASSEMBLY, JANUARY I5, 1904. Twenty-Seconp ANNUAL REporRT OF THE Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station SEATE OF NEW YORK: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, January 15, 1904. To the Assembly of the State of New York: I have the honor to herewith submit the Twenty-second Annual Report of the Director and Board of Managers of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., in pursuance of the provisions of the Agricultural Law. I am, respectfully yours, CHARLES A. WIE TING, Commussioner of Agriculture. NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, W. H. Jorpan, Director. GenEvA, N. Y., January 15, 1904. Hon. CHarLes A. WIETING, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, IN es Dear Sir.—I have the honor to transmit herewith the report of the Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1903. Yours respectfully, S. H. HAMMOND, President Board of Control. 1903. ORGANIZATION OF THE STATION. BOARD OF CONTROL. GOVERNOR BENJAMIN B. ODELL, Jr., Albany. StePHEN H. Hammonp, Geneva. FREDERICK C. ScHRAUB, Lowville. Lyman P. Havitanp, Camden. Epcar G. Dusensury, Portville. JENS JENSEN, Binghamton. Tuomas B. Witson, Halls Corners. Mito H. Ottn, Perry. IrvinG Rouse, Rochester. CHARLES W. Warp, Queens. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. WILLIAM O’HANLON, SrteEPHEN H. Hammonp, Secretary and Treasurer. President. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. StEPHEN H. Hammonp, Lyman P. Havivanp, FREDERICK C. SCHRAUB, . : Tuomas B. WILSON. STATION STAFF. Wuitman H. Jorpan, Sc. D., Director. GrorcE W. CHURCHILL, ‘Joun F. "NICHOLSON, 1 Se Agriculturist and Superintendent ‘Martin J. Prucua, Ph. Be of Labor. Assistant Bacteriologists. GrorGE A, SMITH, Dairy Expert. InAmix Jal, IBUNGE, 1B, Sh Editor and Librarian. "Victor H. Lowe, M. S., SPERCIVAL J. Parrott, M. A., Entomologists. Witi1Am P. WHEELER, First Assistant (Animal In- dustry). Frep C. Stewart, M. S., Botanist. Harry J. Eustace, B. S., Assistant Botanist. Lucius L. Van Styxe, Ph. D., Chemist. *EDWIN B. Hanrt, B. S., Associate Chemist. *“WitttAmM H. Anprews, B. S., *CHRISTIAN G. JENTER, Ph. (Gr FREDERICK D. Futter, B. S., "CHARLES W. Munce, 1 Sh ANDREW J. Patten, B. S., **PRANK A. URNER, A. B., Assistant C hemists. Harry A. Harpinc, Dairy Bacter iologist. ‘Assistant Chemist before September I, 1903. *Connected with Fertilizer Control. *Absent on leave. ‘Appointed July 20, 1903. "Resigned July 21, 1903. *Howarp O. WoopwortH, M. S., Assistant Entomologist. Spencer A. BeaAcu, M. S., Horticulturist. Vinton A. Crark, B. S., Assistant Horticulturist. Orrin M. Tavtor, Foreman in Horticulture. *F. Atwoop Sirrine, M. S., Special Agent. Frank E. NEwmTon, JENNIE TERWILLIGER, Clerks and Stenographers. Apin H. Horton, Computer. *Appointed September 14, 1903. "Died August 27, 1903. “Appointed September 15, 1903. *Resigned September 1, 1903. *In Second Judicial Department. epee OF CON TEN IS. PAGE PUPAE Bec OMRE POA ieevene aeatare ete a Sara clever ere tera iS GA Fim e Matas, ais cave wees Wire chOmsenepOnte rine aa See veers tae tactertvee ore Seka eae cue eee ae rata seiner ets 9 Report of the Department of Animal Husbandry: The importance of mineral matter and the value of grit for chicks... 37 Report of the Department of Bacteriology: The role of the lactic acid bacteria in the manufacture and in the Report of the Department of Botany: Combating the black rot of cabbage by the removal of affected leaves. 85 en OndecavcroimStored sappl CSiyactsras cic sesterastate rotate rele train cis ker oven syeeceelsys 108 RotatormorayincexpenimentS MLO. ycs-lnciceiec sec ei seis ae ee etal 117 Report of the Chemical Department: The relation of carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of Chteddaichveeseteucrey versace oP eee Ie oes ies te areata atorionde Sie constMme nt Suave cei epee 165 Rennet enzyme as'a factor+in cheeSe-ripening. .....4-.....-ce. eee 188 Experiments in curing cheese at different temperatures............. 218 Conditions affecting chemical changes in cheese-ripening........... 243 The status of phosphorus in certain food materials and animal by- PLOCUICES Me rater Ho aie static etsicuenchens lege crake Sia's mate acieohenn atoiabeig ledecstars eA Report of the Horticultural Department: llnaratrara cana p leSteraceatacesrcesrstecvearons re wesicue ream elisnayererccace ciel isl le stale love fayes'e contrat 203 SpLrayeMixtunesrama spray ta Clit ely wares + ese cielere aiateyee lovers or eeeinese 321 Report of Inspection Work: Some facts about commercial fertilizers in New York State........- 389 nspectionolereedimon Stuiionaseucabeiaften croretenes cise ecsea cise eie es wietere stevelsys 407 Appendix: Periodicals neceivedubye the: Station 11 lOOSjs wn «cin syle vi-be.ceerereitic a clive eon eu slaseos a citeietalsiees er, © 456 DRG emma rca cat epee Marana etc vtae et rece A e ltnduaec one tafe Bic crete Bret ts ia er ea IA Bee le ie y ulag: Twenty-Seconp ANNUAL Report OF THE Board of Control of the New York Aericultural Experiment Station. TREASURER’S REPORT. Geneva, N. Y., October 1, 1903. To the Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: As Treasurer of the Board of Control, I respectfully submit the » llowing report for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1903: APPROPRIATIONS, 1902-1903. Receipts. GENERAL EXPENSES. 1902. Oct. Pee ROMMAAIGE Aa. oe scene os ae fa.v.c se cae Sees $4,594 29 To amount received from Caniprollens. pres 5c: $20,000 00 To amount charged in 1902 feport jas “due ~ from Gomptrollers 2a. es 4,000 00 16,000 00 $20,594 29 ks REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE Expenditures. By building and repairs... $2,507 59 By chemical supplies..... 399 09 By contingent expenses... 2,108 76 By siéeding ‘stutts: 2.2. 1,953 12 Bytertilizers.: Sei 2 ogee 25 08 By freight and:express.. .- 557 69 By furniture and fixtures. Ls5S is 20 By heat, light and water... 3,206 83 By. library <2) 5s: eee 692 59 By. live stocke S263}. icc 235 00 By postage and stationery. 863 31 By publications 2%. +y.25s 1,545 00 By scientific apparatus.... 27 55 By seeds, plants and sundry SUpPlIES e.. 5 ae ee Mere 1,400 OI Tools, implements and ma- Chitiehy 3.8 se etn Ga 968 60 By traveling expenses.... 1,079 41 SPRY eDOCS slecihas elev cce-n re teaees $1,887 37 SALARIES, Receipts. To balance. 22. 22h... ene To amount received from Comptroller a5..225 . cae $27,500 00 To amount charged in 1902 report as due from Compttollers7.<2 Sean! 5,500 00 $20,594 29 $5,408 08 1903. Oct. 1902. Oct. 1903. Oct. 1902. Oct. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 3 Expenditures. PveSal ARCS... bier. ssa 0 de $21,410 17 ee VAAN ARCS 65:5 ieee a 9.5.08.» 5,997 91 ——__—_—___—— $27,408 08 LABOR. Receipts. Rena AAC CE arc oes eas acd tans oy aso dvs se, MES) eR $3,436 03 To amount received from Catipitoller ie vier cs ara $15,000 00 To amount charged in 1902 report as due from Comptroller so 60.6.. er 3,000 00 ——_—_—. 12,000 00 $15,436 03 Expenditures. yO os os OEE wise $12,458 97 Leen ALHGE Ss Nett a'c sehele, sates 2,977 06 5 aaa TRIG $15,436 03 SS SSS COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. Receipts. Reet ONENESS -os5' ha ei gecasta Uke a Weta ckk a Sasa, sie $3,677 75 To amount received from Comptroller... ser. 5 $12,500 00 Amount charged as due Comptroller in 1902 re- POTER carck Since, ss MNCs Beare 2,500 OO 10,000 00 $13,677 75 1903. Oct: 1902. Oct. Tr Ti. REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE Expenditures. By chemical supplies..... $237 93 By contingent expenses... 1/05 By freight and express.... 55 21 By furniture and fixtures. . 18 20 By heat, light and water... 603 99 By postage and stationery. 208 78 By publications .ej..4.0- 1,070 40 By salaries ecient ae. 55355 85 By seeds, plants and sundry Supplies it sees see cre 14 90 By tools, implements and Machinery + ./1 ss eeaseas I 00 By traveling expenses..... 994 35 By balances scum ts sees SJEL5 49 : $13,677 75 CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFF INSPECTION. Receipts. WO Wala nce sc. es sta atone, steepest ee eater $309 33 To amount received from Comptroller 2. Pie ane en $2,900 00 To amount charged as due from Comptroller in 1902 RE} 9]0 00 Ee reoreche Se IETS F 400 OO 2,500 00 $2,809 33 Expenditures. By contingent expenses... $0 95 By freight and express.... 75-30 By postage and stationery. 13 99 1903. Oct. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 Vie By seeds, plants and sundry SHpPpHlesu eerste turk oe 71 82 By. publications: .5 23 0".. $365 00 UB puree (STS ar ge 1,140 80 By seeds, plants and sundry SUP PMES puoi Mee eS eens 39 10 By traveling expenses.... 547 92 ist DelleileGs <2." tte creds aoa 626 21 Berea $2,809 33 2D JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. Receipts. Sawant thCGn ts wher ewe wataies oe @ oe ae Bale 2,462 06 To amount received from Comijtroller ePs ss. Bos $6,880 o1 To balance amount appro- PEIATCC Se vn oe Mars a ok 1,129 99 ne 8,000 00 $10,462 06 Expenditures. By chemical supplies...... $56 04 By contingent expenses... 18 07 Bye GEE tIMIZErS 12 cosctee crvee's 55 98 By freight and express.... 24 49 By heat, light and water... B27 Dy labotper. ss 55.05 bak aks 120 20 By postage and stationery. 4 09 By publications ss6%:5 so L742 Dy SalabICs ves. pe ee ete nS 3,848 20 By scientific apparatus... . 10 00 6 REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE By tools, implements and iMAGHINELY Ss: eee $35 40 By traveling expenses.... 786 77 Bi Tentsvin. cs bees 124 18 1903. Oct. 1. sy balance... cas eet eee 3,582 05 APPROPRIATION IQOI-1902. REPAIRS TO OFFICE BUILDING. Receipts. To amount received from Comptroller... 2. 0... Expenditures. By -CONSEMUCHON fy sis. aa sane eae et ore $7,907 75 By equipment... cipnpiseos 2: sai aae wae 327 00 INSURANCE MONEY. 1902. Oct. L. Lo balance: 232 Jceerteeeian co ee ee Expenditures. By buildings and repairs... $6,294 63 By. Ivesstock i: a. ss .ccrers 385 00 By seeds, plants and sundry SUPPLIES. oon eam eect cere 73 50 By tools, implements and 1903. Machinery ~.ises sass ae 680 00 Oct. 1. By Balances esse te ee 1,108 07 FERTILIZER LICENSE, 1902-1903. Receipts. To amount received for fertilizer license........... $10,462 06 $8,234 75 8,234 75 $8,541 20 $8,541 20 $13,220 00 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 7 Expenditures. By amount remitted to the Treasurer State of New FEEDING STUFF LICENSE, 1902-1903. Receipts. To amount received for feeding stuff license....... Expenditures. By amount remitted to the Treasurer State of New $3,675 00 All expenditures are supported by vouchers approved by the Audit- ing Committee of the Board of Control and have been forwarded to the Comptroller of the State of New York. UNITED STATES APPROPRIATION, 1902-1903. Receipts. To receipts from the Treasurer of the United States as per appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, as per act of Congress, approved March 2, TSR A Ee oo SN 5 Pa A BRI oti a i a ee Expenditures. Rea, WN athens he pe he ee es $120 00 PVA TRUNICAMONS:. 32 cca. cas ves be nse 549 90 Ey postage and’ stationery) /.... 2... 284 35 By heat, light, water and power...... 125 00 Dy cuemical suppliés 225.2%. . Sate ass 4I 95 By seeds, plants and sundry supplies. . 47 50 $1,500 00 rah iby ; es. Brkt 2 ae ee et Ue ae af , al ona - he ae ae F Rae ise to) ae ie hrs ; hey Pipa) _ REPORT OF THE TREASURER, ; he By fertilizers\e- 4 sc12. st): Pee at: if By feeding studisis Jos 2 os cee aet lay (live? stock... vir, bane i ee By contingent expenses............. — Witiiam O’H : DIRECTOR’S REPORT FOR 1903.* To the Honorable Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: Gentlemen.—I have the honor to submit herewith my report as Director for the year 1903. It is a pleasure to report that the year has been one of general prosperity in the affairs of the Station, al- though some conditions have been embarrassing, chiefly those occa- sioned by the disastrous fire of the previous year. Broadly speaking, experiment stations in their organization and work are, I believe, approaching each year more nearly their true function and the rela- tion of helpfulness which they should sustain to the art of agricul- ture. In this respect the New York Station is, I trust, not an excep- tion. It is certainly true that each year brings to it a closer relation- ship to agricultural practice and a greater number of increasingly complex problems for solution. In what follows I have endeavored to set forth the present status of the institution, the changes and results for the year that is past and the more pressing needs for the future. CHANGES IN THE STATION STAFF. The frequency of changes in the Station staff noted for the year 1902 have continued, through various causes, during 1903. Other institutions seem disposed to forage on us when they are in need of men, and while from one point of view this is a matter for congratu- lation, it is no less embarrassing at times. It is with unspeakable regret that I must record here the death of Victor H. Lowe, M.S., Entomologist to the Station, which *A reprint of Bulletin No. 244. 10 DrreEctTor’s REPORT OF THE occurred at Fort Collins, Colorado, on Aug. 27th. Mr. Lowe be- came connected with the Station in 1894, being first located at the branch office at Jamaica, L. I. In 1896 he was transferred to Geneva and was placed in charge of the entomological work of the institu- tion. Judged by the character of his work and by the personal and social relations which he easily established, Mr. Lowe met with un- usual success. He combined in a rare manner the ability to accom- plish results which secured the approval both of his professional associates who were looking for well established scientific data and of the men of practice who were seeking for aid on the farm and in the orchard. He developed, moreover, into a most _ popular platform speaker in the presentation of the results of his investigations. Mr. Lowe’s influence as a station official was greatly strengthened by his personality which not only inspired confidence in the integrity of all his purposes but drew to him a large circle of friends. His death creates a deep sense of personal loss in all who knew him intimately, for he was a devoted friend and a faithful and loyal co-worker. Mr. Percival J. Parrott, M.A., was appointed to succeed Mr. Lowe as Entomologist to the Station and entered upon his duties Oct. Ist. Mr. Parrott was formerly a member of the Station staff as Assistant Entomologist. ‘This position he resigned to become Entomologist to the Ohio Experiment Station, at which institution he was meeting with marked success when asked to return to New York. Mr. E. B. Hart, Assistant Chemist, in view of the ability which he has shown in the field of chemical research, has been promoted to the rank of Associate Chemist. Mr. John F. Nicholson, B.S., Assistant Bacteriologist, resigned to accept a similar position at the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. Mr. Martin Prucha, Ph.B., a recent graduate of Wesleyan Uni- versity, where he specialized in bacteriology, was appointed to fill the vacancy occasioned by Mr. Nicholson’s resignation. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. II Mr. Frank A. Urner, A.B., a graduate of Cornell University, where he specialized in chemical studies, was appointed to a vacancy occasioned by the resignation of Mr. J. Arthur LeClere in 1got. Mr. Howard O. Woodworth, M.S., resigned his position as As- sistant Entomologist and accepted a position in California. No one has, as yet, been appointed to succeed him. It is to be regretted that the assistants in the various departments of the Station are being called to other institutions at higher salaries after comparatively short periods of service with us. While this indicates that worthy and desirable men are selected for appoint- ment to this staff, it is obvious that such frequent changes can but result in injury to our work. It is extremely desirable that such arrangements shall be made in the future with reference to the term of service of our assistants, under conditions which they shall con- sider desirable, that changes shall be less frequent. THE FUNCTION OF THE STATION. The institutional efforts now put forth in the interest of agricul- ture involve three general and distinct functions: (1) Research, which, broadly speaking, includes the discovery of new principles and facts and the application of these principles and facts to the processes of the farm; (2) instruction in known facts, which includes the teaching of students at a school or college and the spreading of information in a popular way among the agricultural people; (3) the protection of the people by law against fraud and against the spread of pests and other untoward conditions. The institutions created by law which exercise these various func- tions are the experiment station, the college, the school, the farmers’ institute, the fair, and state departments charged with duties of a purely administrative or executive character. Each institution or department is equipped with men and means adapted to its work. While the several functions enumerated have to some extent been 12 DrrEcTor’s REPORT OF THE exercised by the same institution, experience has shown that the same group of men cannot combine, with the largest degree of success, duties so unlike in character as those here enumerated. As a rule the teacher, under the conditions prevailing in the United States, whether in the academic or in the popular field, finds little time for investigation; and neither the investigator nor the teacher should be greatly burdened with duties of an administrative character, be- cause such consume time and are antagonistic to a studious or re- flective state of mind. The present tendency is certainly towards the differentiation of institutions along the line of functions. The peculiar function of the experiment station is investigation and experimentation. The New York Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion is organized and managed in a way that is consistent with this function and its work neither duplicates the work of any other state institution nor is it an infringement thereof. It teaches no students, it engages in inspection work only in those lines which seem to re- quire close association with scientific laboratories and with profes- sional knowledge, and it engages in popular instruction at institutes only to the extent necessary to spread a knowledge of its work and results and to place its staff in touch with the problems that confront farmers. There is in New York an inter-relation between the sta- tion, the college, the Department of Agriculture and the farmers’ institutes which is helpful, but which constitutes neither duplication nor interference. The work of the Station is more fertile of useful results because the members of its staff are able to devote themselves with singleness of purpose to the discovery and application of truths that are important to the farmers’ art. THE GROWTH OF THE STATION AND ITS SUPPORT. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station was organized over 21 years ago. During this period its activities have become greatly enlarged, with a corresponding increase in income and equip- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 13 ment. It is hardly to be expected that this growth has ceased. The scope and relations of experiment station work are steadily broaden- ing. Agricultural practice is coming to rely more and more, as time passes, on the expert information and processes that so largely originate in scientific investigations and experiments, so that the experiment station is now an increasingly essential factor in agri- cultural affairs. While the time has come when such a view of the experiment station work is so evidently correct as scarcely to need a supporting argument, it is wise to summarize occasionally the facts which justify a continuance, or even an increase, of the public support given to the Station in New York; and thus to present a concise expression of facts which are seen in their full significance only by those who are entirely familiar with the growth of the Sta-. tion and its activities during its history. Establishment of the Station—The New York Agricultural Ex- periment Station was established in 1880 by an act of the legislature passed June 26th, constituting Chap. 592, laws of 1880. Geneva was selected as its location and the first director took possession of the Station property on March rst, 1882. The equip- ment then consisted of 125 acres of land with the usual farm build- ings, fruit orchards of reasonable size, and a scientific and clerical staff of five persons. Scientific laboratories and apparatus were entirely wanting. The sum of $20,000 was made available annually for the support of the Station. Increase in buildings and other equipment.—The buildings acquired with the Station property were a mansion-house and the usual outbuildings. The following are the buildings now situated on the Station grounds: A thoroughly equipped Chemical Building containing four laboratories, accommodating a large force of chemists necessary to the research and inspection work carried on by the Station; a Bio- 14 DrrEcTOR’S REPORT OF THE logical and Dairy Building in which are located the departments of bacteriology, botany, entomology, horticulture and dairying, together with five well-equipped laboratories; an Administration Building which is devoted wholly to administrative offices and the library; forcing houses with 6,500 feet of glass; poultry houses built for ex- perimental work; a fine cattle barn; a horse stable in process of construction ; six dwelling houses and various small buildings. This increase in buildings has nearly all been effected since 1890, more than half of it having been secured since 1896. It has brought with it a corresponding increased expense for care, heating and repairs. The farm has been improved from a somewhat run down condi- tion to a satisfactory state of fertility. On it has been developed one of the finest collections of living fruits, large and small, to be found in the world, and nearly all of the land is used for strictly experimental purposes. The cost of maintaining such a farm can scarcely be appreciated by those who have had no experience in such matters. Increase of staff and employees.—Since 1882 the scientific staff has increased from four members to twenty-one. Eight members have been added since 1896. The clerical force has increased from one person to four. - The addition to the buildings and laboratories, as well as the large increase of experimental work, both in the laboratories and in the field, have rendered necessary a corresponding increase in the num- ber of employees such as laboratory helpers, janitors, forcing house assistants, herdsmen, teamsters and common laborers. Increase in work.—Since 1875 control of a scientific basis has in- vaded every department of agricultural activity. The agricultural practitioner now relies upon the experiment station for advice along certain lines where expert processes are important. This is especially true of this State, 56 per ct. of whose products are those which are New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 15 especially susceptible to scientific aid. This is shown, for instance, by the present relations of the Station to the control of commercial dairying, the use of spraying mixtures and other means for control- ling injurious insects and fungi, the study of fertility and feeding problems, the investigation of horticultural problems and aid given in the purchase of fertilizers and feeding stuffs. It is further shown by the fact that experiments have been carried on or are planned in 29 localities outside the Station laboratories and farm during the past two years. These experiments have included the use of cover crops, systems of managing apple orchards, the relative value of certain stocks for grape production, the commercial value of dwarf apple orchards, studies of the fertility of grapes, profits from shading strawberries, value of foreign varieties of chest- nuts, financial results from spraying potatoes, prevention of certain cabbage diseases, prevention of red spot or rust in cheese, control of the San José scale and studies of certain troubles in canning peas. Moreover, cooperative work in several lines has been carried on with the United States Department of Agriculture, notably in ascer- taining the possibilities of producing high grade sugar beet seed in this State, in testing new forage crops, in studying the value of a large number of varieties of apples for cold storage purposes and in ascertaining the financial outcome of cold storage of cheese com- bined with the paraffining process. The financial value of experiment station work.—lIt is not easy to express this value in exact terms. That it is far greater than the cost of the Station can easily be made evident, however. There are 226,000 farms in New York. If the Station makes possible one dollar more profit yearly on each farm, the institution is a profitable investment. That intelligent farmers are helped many times this amount cannot be successfully questioned. We should consider, for instance, what our condition would be if there was no systematic study of the great problems of fertility and of plant and animal life, if we had no defence against the diseases and insects that 16 Director’s REPORT OF THE infest farm crops and fruits, if no remedies were found for the troubles that afflict the dairyman, if science had lent no aid in prevent- ing frauds that directly affect the farmer’s pocketbook, and if we were still in the days of tradition and superstition concerning Nature’s ways. If specific instances of station work need to be cited to make its value clear, mention may be made of the spraying of potatoes with a possible saving of millions of dollars yearly, of the study and control of the San José scale that threatened our fruit interests with their annual income of not less than $15,000,000, of the saving of the pickle industry on Long Island against the ravages of a fungus pest, of the means provided for controlling troubles affecting value of cheese and of information ‘gathered by Station activity showing that this State is adapted to the production of sugar beets of the highest grade. THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND NEEDS OF THE STATION. Past expenditures——It should be freely acknowledged that the State has been reasonably generous towards its experiment station. The annual income for the maintenance of all its work was at first $20,000 and Oct. Ist, 1904, it had become $69,500 in accordance with the following items: Hots niaintenasice fundis.4 a2 cect eat ee $50, 000 For outside horticultural investigations................. 8,000 For enforcing provisions of the fertilizer law.......... 10,000 From United States Government.:.< 0. ..5.00-0-c0se0 I, 500 Total’ sce sales ve sone ee et ee ee $69, 500 This continued to be the annual maintenance income of the Station until the fiscal year 1899-1900. The legislature of 1899 amended the fertilizer law so as to require the payment annually of a license fee on the various brands of ferti- lizers, the same to be used in administering the law, and also passed New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 17 a law requiring the inspection of cattle foods by the Station, the expense of this to be met also from license fees. From 1899 to Oct. Ist, 1903, the receipts of the Station for the maintenance of its various lines of work where as follows: MIE NAMEE TUNG) sac. ceive vs vaso chases ee 6 $50, 000 For outside horticultural investigations ......... 8, 000 Eotaleralseduibwe taal VOM... of. cawercey ae 'seleeauslerae Sle $58, 000 Enforcement of Fertilizer Law, from license EEG ss GAs DOO PARR ARNE Gt Se $10,000 Enforcement of Feeding Stuff Law, from license FEES EON rae care Sane Sia ae cath als Sha SS 2,500 shataletnomelicensestee Senate setae orci cis eiclete. ole 12, 500 From United States Government.....................- 1,500 Total annual income of Station for period stated... $72,000 The amount hitherto given for outside horticultural investigations was not appropriated for the fiscal year 1903-4, so that, for the coming year, the revenue of the Station will be $8,000 less than for many years previous, the total income from the State being $62,500. Of this, only $50,000 is raised by taxation, a sum $18,000 less than was appropriated annually for five years previous to 1899 when the expense of inspection work was met directly by the State, instead of indirectly, by license fees, as is the case at present. This is the financial situation notwithstanding the growth of the institution. For the fiscal year 1894-5 the cost of maintaining the work of the Experiment Station, exclusive of inspection, was approximately $6,200 for each member of the scientific staff. For the fiscal year 1902-3 the cost of maintaining the institution, exclusive of inspection, averaged only $3,600 for each member of the scientific staff. It is not intended by this comparison to imply that in the earlier days of the Station there was any extravagance or unwisdom in the use of funds but simply to show that through careful management the Station has been able to increase its work and activities without causing added expense to the state. 18 Drrector’s REPORT OF THE Increase in buildings and other equipment.—The legislature of 1903 made appropriations for additional buildings and equipment as follows: For horse stable and carriage house................+2> $5,000 _For fire protection: System. cron cess op remminas center 5,000 The horse stable and carriage house are well advanced in construc- tion. The fire protection system is nearly installed. It will consist of a steel tower 100 ft. high surmounted by a tank holding 15,000 gallons of water. This tank is connected by a six inch pipe with hydrants so distributed as to be available to all the Station buildings of any considerable size. A Holloway chemical engine, with two 30-gallon cylinders, has been purchased, also three hose carts with one thousand feet of 2% inch hose. The Station is now for the first time well equipped to combat fire. Buildings and equipment needed.—The disastrous fire of May 7th, 1902, left the Station without any building for the storage of farm machinery and other materials which should not be located either in a cattle barn or horse stable. Such a building is imperatively needed and if so built as to accommodate grain storage in vermin proof bins should cost not less than $4,500 at the present very. high prices for labor and building materials. The appropriations asked for 1904-5.—The following are the ap- propriations needed for the fiscal year 1904-5: For salaries of scientific and clerical staff...... $27,500 For wages of the labor class, including engineer, janitors, laboratory helpers, employees in forc- ing house and orchards, herdsmen, teamsters and icommorn abon nM ers Sis Oa a Iz 9° it vat /§oj|| CNPAE | AS Poe MSO R at | 74 ve | Be | OP | Cu | O'S Ve || GeO 7 che ¢ val POP WS || FAA ao SPAR I OP | A Wy SPT PL | Ore vz ye e VI ‘HSV JO JOVINGOWAd WNIGAN HLIM GNV G00d IVWINV LOOHLIM NOILVa *) anowy—JA LOT xAod SHOIHD ° (COA 2eu | Zo (aerate iS CHC eile eal ince sh eat: Ate || Pal vz neat mit |) Al GO rar Ori (6-6-1910: S Vie Wap e ever ese led Sogo N7Se se be 6° 6 al Por Oamieeo deli: ie lapiOwa |e yO ell Or ON ANGE Tee A doe EAS) bz g: Z PI COOP het Ie rao: To We eee NO Roel eOic mat, Opes eae ve ae S$ v1 VOMNOL eae ZR aWe Z| ori |r 42 | OF ite lee Gon | Seo ve v- € VI “S42 | S20 | “S20 "SZO SZQ | ‘*SzO0 szQ | *S20 | “S20 SZ, "SZO “SZO "sQT | SY2944 Aep : feeas)| Gaul E one yoo1 ‘pols ? sad | poos] “S59 || att, | oos | 253° | Par? 1901 | -eyrey uioo_| “z aan |], -ad 30 | 0 Suu | nod PooF! 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RESULTS FOR EACH GROUE- GROUP A. The grains and blood meal fed to lots I and II gave a ration rather low in mineral matter. About 2 per ct. of the total dry matter was ash during the first four weeks. It was somewhat more afterward. The average for the whole time was about 2.2 per ct. With the addition of Florida rock the amount of mineral matter was 10.3 per ct. of the total dry matter in the food for lot I. About 30 per ct. of the protein in the ration came from animal food. This percentage was slightly higher during the first four weeks than afterward. On the average for the ten weeks lot I made a pound gain in weight for every 2.7 pounds of dry matter in the food, exclu- sive of Florida rock; and lot II one pound gain for every 3.0 pounds of dry matter. The cost of food, including that of rock, (the rock cost about 22 per ct. as much as the animal food) per pound gain was 3.7 cents for lot I and 4.1 cents for lot II. The average weight attained was greater for lot I. GROUP B. The ration, similar to that for group A, fed to lots III and IV sup- plied ash constituents amounting to 2.1 per ct. of the total dry matter during the first four weeks and about 2.4 per ct. afterward. Nearly 30 per ct. of the protein was derived from animal food. The total mineral matter with addition of the ground rock formed 10.1 per ct.of the dry matter in the food, and with addition of ground shell 4.6 per ct. The smaller amount of ground oyster shell was used to avoid the ill effects which usually followed the feeding of a large amount. The amount of dry matter in the food, exclusive of the added mineral matter, for each pound gain in weight was 3.6 pounds New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 55 with lot III and 3.8 pounds with lot IV. The food cost of gain including cost of rock and shell was 5.2 cents for lot III and 5.1 cents for lot IV. More food was eaten by lot III, growth was faster, and greater average weight was attained. GROUP C, The percentage of ash constituents supplied by the food to this group was not unusually high nor very low, being about 3.1 per ct. of the dry matter. With the Florida rock added about 9.8 per ct. of the total dry matter in the food for lot V was mineral. By this lot about 4.7 pounds of total dry matter, exclusive of rock, was required for each pound gain in weight and 5.5 pounds was required by lot VI having sand and no rock. The food cost (including rock) for lot V was 5.8 cents per pound gain and for lot VI 7.1 cents. Somewhat less food was consumed by lot V and a greater growth made. GROUP D. In the rations for lots VI, VII, VIII and IX the ash consti- tuted from 3.1 to 3.3 per ct. of the total dry matter, not a low percentage for a grain ration. With the ground rock added for lot IX the mineral matter was 12.7 per ct. and with the bone ash and shell for lot X the mineral matter was 12.9 per ct. of the total dry matter. The results favored lot IX having the Florida rock. The net gain in weight was greatest and the least amount of food was required for each pound gained. The weight per fowl at the end was considerably greater than for lots VII and VIII. In the average weight attained lot X was not surpassed. This lot, how- ever, was alone favored by a larger proportion of male chicks. More checks died in lot X than in any other (many of the chicks lost from these lots were killed by rats). The results from lot VIII having sand added to the food were better than from lot VII having rone; and the net results were better than from lot X 56 Report OF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE because of lower mortality, although the average growth of sur- viving chicks was better in lot X. On the average for the whole period the amount of dry matter in the food, exclusive of added mineral matter, for each pound gain in weight was 5.0 pounds for lot VII, 4.5 pounds for lot VIII, 4.0 pounds for lot IX and 4.6 pounds for lot X. The food cost, including added mineral matter, per pound gain was 6.2 cents for lot VII, 5.4 cents for lot VIII, 4.9 cents for lot IX and 7.4 cents for lot X. GROUP E. The lots XI, XII and XIII of this group had food rich in mineral matter, about 85 per ct. of which came from animal meal containing much bone. About 44 per ct. of the protein in the ration came from animal food. The ash constituents represented about 11.8 per ct. of the total dry matter in the food. With the added oyster shell for lot XI they represented nearly 21 per ct. The best results came from lot XII having sand mixed in their food. The advantage over those having none (lot XIII) seemed greatest during the first four weeks. Although the average growth made was no greater, less food was required for it, the mortality was lower and the net results were better. The dry matter in the food consumed, exclusive of oyster shell, for each pound gain in weight was 3.8 pounds for lot XI, 3.4 pounds for lot XII and 3.7 pounds for lot XIII. The food cost per pound gained was 5.7 cents for lot XI, 4.1 cents for lot XIT and 4.9 cents for lot XIII. GROUP F. The supply of mineral matter in the food for lots XIV and XV was somewhat greater than is usual in an entire grain ration. The ash constituted about 3.9 per ct. of the total dry matter. With the added oyster shell for the one lot the total mineral mat- ter was raised to 12.1 per ct., and with the Florida rock for the other to 11.8 per ct. of the total dry matter. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 5 There was practically no difference in the relation of food to increase in weight for the two lots. By both a pound gain was made for every 3.9 pounds of dry matter in the food. The aver- age growth was greater for the lot having Florida rock and the food cost of net gain was less, being about 5.1 cents and 4.8 respectively. GROUP G. Practically the same basal ration fed to the chicks of this group that was fed to the former group supplied ash constituents to the extent of 4 per ct. of the dry matter. The amount of mineral matter was raised to 12.1 per ct. by the addition of oyster shell for lot XVII and to 12.2 per ct. of the total dry matter for lot XVIII by the addi- tion of Florida rock, and to the same proportion for lot XIX by bone ash and oyster shell. The most rapid growth was made by the lot having bone ash and shell mixed with the food and less food was required per * pound gain. The lot having Florida rock made a better growth than those having sand and a slightly better use of the food, although there was not great difference between these two lots. Poorer results accompanied the use of oyster shell in the food. More food was required by this lot per pound gain, and more chicks died. The equally large loss in pen XIX was not in so large part from disease. The dry matter in the food, exclusive of added mineral matter, for each pound gain was 5.3 pounds for lot XVII, 4.7 pounds for lot XVI, 4.6 pounds for lot XVIII and 4.2 pounds for lot XIX. The total food cost per pound gain was 6.8 cents for lot XVII, 5.8 cents for lot XIX and 5.6 cents for lots XVI and XVIII. IN CONCLUSION. In earlier feeding experiments with chicks, the addition of bone ash to rations not rich in mineral matter proved beneficial. By supplying the lack of mineral matter in this way, rations wholly of vegetable origin, arranged with due regard to palatability, 58 Report oF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE were made equal in efficiency to rations containing much animal food, although these latter had proved superior to ordinary grain rations. In the experiments here reported a mixture of bone ash and oyster shell was used less profitably owing to the injurious effect of the ground shell though growth was increased by the addition of the mineral matter. Compared with the use of an equal amount of sand in rations without animal food the mixture of ash and shell in two trials resulted in considerably more rapid growth. In one the use of food was much more efficient and in the other nearly as efficient ; although the losses attributed to the use of shell made the feeding less profitable. A ration without animal food and a ration including consider- able animal food were rendered less efficient and less healthful by the admixture of powdered oyster shell than they were when mixed with an equal amount of sand. Two rations without animal food and one ration having con- siderable with a little sand, gave much better growth, which was made on the whole with less food, when mixed with Florida rock phosphate than when mixed with ground oyster shell. The mixing of ground rock phosphate in two rations without animal food resulted in more efficient use of food and more rapid growth than the mixing of sand alone. The addition of the rock phosphate and sand to a ration con- taining considerable animal food, low in ash and to another ration without animal food resulted in better growth and more efficient use of food than the addition of sand alone. The sand was mixed with the food, both in a ration without animal food and one containing animal food with bone; more efficient use of food resulted than when no sand was used. Not much greater average weight was attained but the chicks were healthier. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 59 COMMENTS. While these experiments show that there is often an advantage in feeding inorganic phosphates, even from such unusual material as ground rock, with rations containing sometimes more than the average amount of mineral matter, they are not quoted as recom- mending the general use of bone ash and Florida rock for feeding. Their chief value is in helping to better plan and interpret other experiments. Fine raw or cooked bone is better material for sup- plying a lack of phosphorus and lime, and more profitable to use, in part because of the associated organic matter. The mixing of finely ground oyster shell in the food of chicks except in very small quantity has always resulted in an unthrifty condition and sometimes disease and death. At other times the use of a small amount of coarser material has not appeared in- jurious and it seems sometimes of benefit. It seems probable that injury comes from too rapid or too nearly complete neutraliza- tion of necessary acids in some digestive fluids. The fact that the mixing of sand in the food proved an advan- tage, even for chicks running all day over sand, emphasizes the importance of looking after the supply of grit. But it is not profit- able to buy poultry foods in which sand has been mixed. Sand or other grit can be obtained more cheaply. ele ONE OF THE Department of Bacteriology. H. A. Harpine, Dairy Bacteriologist. 1], F. Nicuotson, Assistant Bacteriologist. 2M. J. Prucua, Assistant Bacteriologist. Taste oF Contents. I. The role of the lactic-acid bacteria in the manufacture and in the early stages of ripening of cheddar cheese. II. At what temperature should peas be processed ? 1 Resigned July 21, 1903. 2 Appointed September 14, 1903. REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. Powe OF ENE EACTIC-ACID BACTERIA PENSE MANUEAC TURE AND: IN THE Pave veo SCE S OF RIPENING OF Crue DAK CilEboE.* H. A. HARDING. SUMMARY. 1. Lactic-acid bacteria are always present in factory milk. 2. These lactic-acid bacteria check the growth of other forms by breaking up the sugar into acid and finally make up more than ninety per ct. of the total number of germs present in the milk and cheese. 3. The acid formed by these bacteria hastens the curdling action of the rennet. 4. This acid combines with paracasein to form at least two different compounds—paracasein monolactate and paracasein dilactate. The paracasein monolactate is normally formed in large quantities. 5. This formation of acid is necessary to the activity of the rennet pepsin. *A reprint of Bulletin No. 237. 64 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE INTRODUCTION. As soon as American cheddar cheese and its method of manu- facture were studied from a biological standpoint it was found that acid-forming bacteria thrive in the curd to such an ex- tent as to make up more than go per ct. of the total flora of the cheese. It was natural to assume that the growth of this large number of bacteria, amounting to some millions in each gram of the curd, could not fail to have an influence upon the final result which we speak of as ripened cheese. Students of the problem have even gone so far as to hold that the lactic-acid bacteria are the principal, if not the only, cause of cheese ripening. Scientific opinion is by no means unanimous as to the causes which bring about the ripening of cheese. Two other theories aside from the one just mentioned are supported by considerable evidence. According to certain students the ripening is brought about by a different class of bacteria characterized by the elabora- tion of enzymes capable of attacking and dissolving the coagulated casein. A third explanation assumes that the breaking down cf the casein is largely due to the activity of enzymes secreted by the cow with the milk. These wide differences of opinion concerning a problem whicn has been so long an object of study are the result of our inability to follow the changes going on within the cheese mass. While the problem is essentially one of applied biology, an exact knowledge of physiological chemistry,coupled with a proper ap- preciation of commercial quality is necessary for its solution. Since a sufficient knowledge of these three lines of human effort was not possessed by one man the study of the cause of the ripen- ing of cheese was assigned by the Station Director to the coopera- tive activity of the Dairy Expert, the Chemist and the Bacteri- ologist. As a result of this codperative effort a considerable advance has been made in our understanding of the problem of cheese ripening and results on a number of points have already New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 65 been published! In this bulletin, while the author accepts the responsibility for all conclusions drawn from the data, he takes pleasure in acknowledging the important activities of his col- leagues in planning and executing the experiments. Recognition should be given to the work of Mr. L. A. Rogers who, as Assistant Bacteriologist during a portion of the investiga- tion, had charge of the routine bacteriological examinations. Since his transfer to the Department of Agriculture at Washing- ton his part of the investigation has been carried on by his suc- cessor, Mr. J. F. Nicholson. ROLE OF LACTIC-ACID BACTERIA. LACTIC-ACID BACTERIA ARE CONSTANTLY PRESENT IN FACTORY MILK. Everyone knows that fresh milk left in a warm room sours rapidly and nearly everyone knows that this souring is due to the formation of acid by bacteria. Since milk drawn with certain precautions does not undergo this rapid souring it is plain that these bacteria find their way into the milk after it is drawn. Because the acid formed during this souring process is prin- cipally lactic these various acid-forming species were early spoken of collectively as the lactic-acid bacteria. Without knowing ex- actly why, it was found that the formation of acid by these germs was a necessary part of the manufacture of cheddar cheese and in order to insure the presence and activity of the most desirable kinds it has long been the custom to begin the process of manu- facture by adding considerable quantities of so-called “ starter.” 1Van Slyke, L. L., Harding, H. A., & Hart, E. B. A Study of Enzymes in Cheese. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 203. (1901.) Van Slyke, L. L., & Hart, E. B. A Study of Some of the Salts Formed by Casein and Paracasein with Acids. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 214. (1902. ) Van Slyke, L. L., & Hart, E. B. Methods for the Estimation of Proteolytic Compounds Contained in Cheese and Milk. N.Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 215. (1902.) Van Slyke, L. L., & Hart, E. B. Some of the Compounds Present in Amer- ican Cheddar Cheese. N.Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 219. (1902.) Van Slyke, L. L., & Hart, E. B. Relation of Carbon Dioxide to Proteolysis in the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 231, (1903.) . Van Slyke, L. L., Harding, H. A., & Hart, E. B. Rennet-Enzyme as a Fac- tor in Cheese-Ripening. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Station Bul. 233. (1903.) Van Slyke, L. L., & Hart, E. B. Conditions Affecting Chemical Changes in Cheese-Ripening. N. Y. Agr, Exp, Station Bul, 236. (1903.) / 66 ReEporRT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE This starter is simply milk containing rapidly multiplying acid- forming bacteria, and while the small amount of acid already formed is useful in quickening the action of the rennet the princi- pal effect of a starter lies in the increased activity of the germs. Thus, partly as the result of natural causes and partly because of the action of the maker, the milk from which cheese is made is normally well seeded with these lactic-acid bacteria. As these germs are present in the factory milk in such large numbers it is but natural that they should pass over into the cheese. THE GROWTH OF LACTIC-ACID BACTERIA CHECKS THAT OF OTHER FORMS IN THE MILK. Conn & Esten? recently published the results of a careful study of the bacteria present in fresh milk and the rate at which the various kinds develop as the milk becomes older. Up to the time the milk is sour practically all the species of bacteria present in it continue to multiply, although as the latter stage is ap- proached the germs other than the lactic-acid group increase more and more slowly. Very few lactic-acid bacteria are found in the fresh milk but they increase rapidly and in 12 to 18 hours at 20° C. (68° F.) they usually outnumber all those of the other kinds. At the higher temperature to which the milk is commonly exposed during the warmer portions of the summer the growth of all the bacteria is accelerated, and consequently at such times the lactic-acid bacteria more quickly make their presence felt. At the time of souring the acid bacteria commonly make up more than 95 per ct. of the total number. While this problem has never before been so carefully studied from the biological standpoint the fact that an abundant growth of lactic-acid bacteria in milk checks the activity of other forms has long been known and utilized in cheese-making. It is a matter of common experience that the effect upon the cheese of various objectionable fermentations in the milk can be modified and often removed by the addition of liberal amounts of a vigor- ous lactic-acid starter in the cheese vat. 2Conn & Esten. Ann. Rept. Storrs Exp. Station, 14:13. (1901.) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 67 THIS CHECKING IS DUE TO THE CHANGE OF SUGAR INTO ACID. The ability to form acid, as the name implies, is the point of similarity upon which the classification of the lactic-acid group is based. Shirokich* has shown that when representatives of this group were grown in milk the nitrogenous portion was not at- tacked to a measurable extent. Chodat & Hoffman-Bang* analyzed milk cultures of five lactic-acid organisms and found that at the end of five weeks the milk sugar had decreased 1 to 1.25 per ct. A considerable portion of this sugar was converted into acid. While the larger part of this acid was believed to be lactic they determined the presence of small quantities of formic, valeric and acetic acids. The destruction of this amount of sugar does not measure the limit of the ability of the germs to attack the sugar but rather shows the limit of the ability of the compounds present to dispose of the acid as formed. In similar milk cultures to which chalk had been added to combine with the excess of acid as formed, all of the 5.77 per ct. of sugar had disappeared in four of the five flasks at the end of five weeks. The majority of organisms aside from this group prefer a neutral or even faintly alkaline reaction, while the lactic-acid organisms grow best in a slightly acid reaction. As soon, there- fore, as they break up an appreciable quantity of sugar into acid they place their competitors in the milk at a disadvantage and this disadvantage increases with the increased formation of acid. THE EFFECT OF THIS ACID UPON THE CURDLING ACTION OF THE RENNET. The direct relation between the extent of acid formation and the rate of rennet action is well known. This fact is taken ad- vantage of in practical cheese-making by the addition of partially soured starters to sweet milk in order to quicken the rate of co- agulation. The effect of these starters is twofold. They have an immediate effect due to the acid which has already been formed and a later effect due to the increased rate at which the sugar of the milk is changed to acid. 3Schirokich. Ann, Past., 12:400. (1898.) * Chodat & Hoffman-Bang. Ann, Past., 15:37. (1901.) 68 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE The effect of acid formation upon the action of the rennet may be directly observed by adding measured amounts of acid to milk and noting the decrease in the time required to curdle portions of the same with rennet. In the following experiment 123 litres (25 pounds) of milk was used. The time required for the action of the rennet according to the Monrad rennet test was determined at the beginning of the experiment and after the addition of successive portions of acid, 100 cc. (34 oz.) of the milk being used in each rennet test. Be- fore each test, after the first, 2.5 cc. (1-12 oz.) of chemically pure lactic acid diluted with 100 cc. of water was added to the milk. TABLE I.—EFFECT OF ACID UPON THE CURDLING ACTION OF THE RENNET. Acid added. Total acid added. Monrad test. Shortening of test. Ge: Gas Seconds. Seconds. oO oO 22 25 205 122 103 2.5 5.0 78 44 25 7.5 63 16 25 10.0 47 15 2.5 12.5 43 4 From this it is clearly seen that the addition of acid quickens the rate of curdling by rennet since the addition of 12.5 cc. of acid (about 0.1 per ct.) shortened the time of curdling from 3 minutes 45 seconds to 43 seconds. In other words the addition of 0.1 per ct. of acid to fairly sweet milk changed it as much as is allowable for milk intended for cheese-making. This should help to emphasize the importance of delivering milk intended for cheese-making before the bacteria in it form any considerable quantities of acid. It is also interesting to observe how much more noticeable is the effect from the, first addition of acid. Here the time of cur- dling was shortened 1 minute 43 seconds, while the addition of an equal amount of acid at the close of the experiment shortened the time of curdling but 4 seconds. This is quite in accord with factory experience where the addition of sour milk has an imme- diate effect upon the rate of rennet action although the acid added amounts to only a very insignificant proportion. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 69 THIS ACID COMBINES WITH THE CASEIN IN A DEFINITE WAY. In the experiment by Chodat & Hoffman-Bang already referred to, which was a modification of an earlier experiment by von Freudenreich,* it was shown that,in the presence of chalk to com- bine with the acid, these germs were able to break down all the sugar. That a similar fixation of acid takes place during the manufacture and ripening of cheese is rendered probable by the rapidity with which the sugar is broken down during the process. Sugar determinations made by Hart showed that in one in- stance shortly after the curd was cut the whey contained 4.75 per ct. of sugar while the whey obtained at the time the curd was ready for the press contained but 1.83 per ct. The destruction of the sugar which is left in the curd continues steadily and the sugar disappears from the cheese after a few days at ordinary curing temperatures. In spite of this destruction of sugar with its accompanying formation of acid the presence of free lactic acid in cheese has never been satisfactorily demonstrated. In connection with this work upon cheese ripening Van Slyke and Hart have studied two compounds of acid with casein (or paracasein) and have described their chemical properties in Bulletin No. 214 of this Station. The more important of these two compounds from the stand- point of our present knowledge of cheese ripening is an un- saturated combination of paracasein and acid calied paracasein monolactate. This compound can be formed from paracasein in large quantities in the presence of dilute acid and is a compound constantly present during the process of cheese-making and ripen- ing. This compound is insoluble in water but is soluble in dilute solutions of common salt (NaCl). Prepared ina fairly pure com- dition this compound draws out in fine threads when applied to a hot iron. It seems that this well known ‘‘hot iron” test of the progress of acid formation has thus received a satisfactory explanation. 5yvon Freudenreich. Cent. f. Bakt., 11 Abt. 3:231. (1897.) 70 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE A second salt of paracasein and acid called paracasein dilactate is formed from the monolactate by treating the latter with more acid. This compound is insoluble both in water and in dilute salt solutions and as yet little is known as to either its chemical properties or the part which it plays in cheese-ripening. PARACASEIN MONOLACTATE IS FORMED IN CHEESE CURD BY LACTIC-ACID BACTERIA. In order to determine whether paracasein monolactate could be formed in cheese through the activity of lactic acid organisms the following experiment was carried out. Fresh milk was curdled by rennet in the presence of ether to prevent acid formation and after the moisture had been satisfac- torily expelled from the curd the whey was drawn and the curd washed in three changes of warm water to remove the major part of the sugar and the water soluble compounds. The resulting mass contained 0.3 per ct. of sugar and about 4 per ct. of salt- soluble compounds. Two series of flasks were prepared, each flask containing 50 ce. of water and 25 grams of curd ground with sand (922 mgs. nitrogen). These flasks were sterilized in steam for ro min- utes at 120° C. After cooling, Series I received an inocula- tion from a pure culture of an acid-forming bacillus agreeing closely with the description of Bacillus lactis aerogenes. Series II received an inoculation from the same organism and in addition o.5 grams of sterile lactose in each flask. A similar sterile flask received neither sugar nor organism but 0.5 cc. of chemically pure lactic acid. Two flasks of each series were taken at each analysis. Bacteriological examinations of the flasks at the time they were taken for analysis indicated that they were free from contamination. The amount of nitrogen insoluble in water but soluble in a 5 per ct. solution of sodium chloride at the end of various intervals expressed in percent- age of the total nitrogen is given in the following table. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 7h TaBLE II.—PARACASEIN MONOLACTATE FORMED IN CHEESE CURD BY BACTERIA AND BY ACID. Lactic-acid bacteria. Sterile. Date. No lactose. -5 gm, lactose. -5 cc. lactic acid. Per ct. [ Per ct. Per ct. Feb. 21—Initial.....-- 3-90 3-90 3-90 4-34 4 34 4-34 Manche 244 te ciowe sae e i= Base 40.65 44.72 4.07 28.46 Mayr 2 20a cn sie aissce 2.71 20.87 2.98 17-89 Jie, TUS! SEER Semoc sere 2.98 8.94 Di 8 94 It is seen from this table that in the presence of cheese curd containing but a trace of sugar this organism was not able to form measurable quantities of salt-soluble material. On the other hand the addition of lactose to similar flasks re- sulted in the formation of considerable amounts of the salt- soluble compound. That the formation of this monolactate is really due to the transformation of sugar into acid is rendered probable by the action of the corresponding amount of lactic acid upon the sterile curd. THE AMOUNT OF PARACASEIN MONOLACTATE IN MILK AND CHEESE. While it is supposed that compounds of acid and casein are formed in the milk their measurement in this medium is beset with difficulties. However, the presence and amount of mon- osalt in cheese curd can be determined in a fairly satisfactory manner. In connection with the determination of sugar at different stages in the cheese-making process previously mentioned the amount of paracasein monolactate in the curd was estimated. Shortly after the cutting of the curd,when the milk sugar in the whey amounted to 4.75 per ct.,there was but 5 per ct. of this salt- soluble compound in the curd; while at the time the curd was ready for the press, when the sugar in the whey had fallen to 1.83 per ct., the salt-soluble material in the curd had risen to 31.7 per ct. In normal cheddar cheese from one-half to three-fourths of 72 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE the nitrogen is found in the form of paracasein monolactate dur- ing the first week after the cheese is made. From the table on page 71 it is seen that in the breaking down of 4 gram of lactose about one-third of the nitro- gen in the 25 grams of curd was changed into the monosalt. This indicates that the breaking down, by bacteria, of sugar amounting to more than two per ct. of the fresh curd is neces- sary in order to account for the formation of the usual amount of monosalt in cheese. RESULT OF TOO GREAT FORMATION OF ACID. Flasks containing 50 cc. of water and 25 grams of the same cheese curd used in the preceding experiment were sterilized in steam at 120° C. Each ofa series of these flasks received I gram of sterile lactose and was inoculated with the same culture of lactic- acid bacteria which had been used in the preceding experiment. Additional sterile flasks received I cc., 1.5 cc., and 2 cc. of chemi- cally pure lactic acid but were not inoculated with bacteria. Bac- teriological examinations made in connection with each analysis showed that the lactose series contained but the single species of bacteria with which it had been inoculated while the sterile flasks to which acid had been added remained sterile. The amount of nitrogen insoluble in water but soluble in a 5 per ct. solution of sodium chloride at the end of various intervals expressed in per- cents of the total nitrogen is given in the following table. TABLE III.—PARACASEIN MONOLACTATE FORMED IN CHEESE CURD BY BACTERIA AND BY ACID. Lactic-acid _|| Sterile flasks and chemically pure bacteria lactic acid Date. 1 gm. lactose. || r cc. Tesicc: 2 cc. ap Per ct. Per ct. Per Cb. dat AA February 21—Initial....-. 3.90 3-90 3-90 3-90 4.34 4-34 4.34 4-34 March: 10 sous cee ce sae 23.31 20.60 Marchi24 vss coatoese cece 9.76 IBC BAB abbots 1.62 Miayi22 cist eee a caeenees B52 Rios Dar 2.16 AMOUSE TTR yalctsiciets ee ae siete 2.25 3-52 | 2.93, | eweeee ------ 1.95 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 73 From the above results it would seem that 1 cc. or more of lactic acid to 25 grams of curd (or 4 per ct.) was too great an amount for the existence of paracasein monolactate. In the flasks containing the bacteria and 1 gram of lactose we are able to follow in some detail the results of the gradual forma- tion of a large amount of acid. On March 10 a considerable por- tion of the sugar in these flasks was yet untouched and about $ of the nitrogen was present as the monosalt. Two weeks later the sugar had nearly disappeared and less than 1-10 of the nitrogen remained in the salt-soluble form. By May 22 all the sugar had disappeared and the amount of monolactate had fallen to a very low figure where it remained August 15. From these two experiments it seems fair to conclude that in forming the amount of monolactate ordinarily present in cheese the bacteria use up an amount of sugar equal to more than 2 per ct. and less than 4 per ct. of the cheese mass. THE PRACTICAL OBJECTION TO TOO MUCH ACID. The formation of acid is an unavoidable and apparently a necessary step in our present method of making cheddar cheese. However,the amount of acid which is really needed is small and is very easily exceeded to the detriment of the product. The exact extent to which the development of acid is desirable varies con- siderably, depending upon the temperature of curing and the market for which the cheese is intended,but in general the forma- tion of acid is carried to the point where there is a decided mel- lowing of the curd. Whenever the formation of acid is carried much beyond this point the curd rapidly becomes plastic and refuses to part with the whey still contained within it. Put to press in this condition the sugar contained in the excess of whey is broken down to acid, changing the curd from the plas- tic condition into a tough, resistant mass with a distinct acid odor. With this change in consistency the whey is set free and runs out upon the shelves. The ripening processes of such cheese are commonly retarded and the resulting flavor is bad. LACTIC-ACID BACTERIA ARE NUMEROUS AND ACTIVE IN CHEESE. It is but natural that very many of the lactic-acid bacteria which are present in the factory milk should pass over into the 74 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE cheese curd. Here the presence of the acid reaction resulting from the breaking up of sugar gives them an advantage over their competitors and this advantage is increased by the continued breaking down of the sugar contained in the curd. The earliest attempt at determining the number of bacteria of different kinds present in ripening cheese by Adametz® showed that in both emmenthaler and backstein the lactic acid group in- cluded by far the larger part of the individuals. The work of von Freudenreich? on emmenthaler cheese has emphasized the fact that during the ripening period of this cheese there are few but lactic bacteria present. Russell & Weinzirl® showed that while a considerable number of liquefying bacteria was present in the milk at the time the rennet was added this group suffered a marked decline during the curing, while the lactic-acid germs flourished, especially during the first few weeks of the life of a cheddar cheese. In a recent article Babcock, Russell, Vivian & Hastings’ have demonstrated in detail that the ability of lactic-acid bacteria to displace the other forms in cheese depends primarily upon the action of these germs upon the milk sugar. When the milk sugar was largely removed from the fresh curd by repeatedly washing it with warm water the liquefying bacteria were abundant in the resulting cheese and this cheese differed markedly from the nor- mal in its physical and chemical properties. In a duplicate por- tion of this washed curd in which the sugar was artificially re- placed, this increase in the number of liquefying germs was prevented and this cheese did not differ widely from the normal in its flora or in its physical or chemical properties. The most evi- dent difference between the normal cheese and that made from washed curd with the subsequent addition of sugar lay in the failure of the latter to reproduce exactly the normal cheese flavor. When considering the flora of cheese, interest is commonly so centered upon this striking increase in the lactic forms that the 6 Adametz. Land. Jahrb., 18:227. (1889.) Tvon Freudenreich. Cent. f. Bakt., 11 Abt., 1:168. (1895.) 8 Russell & Weinzirl. Cent. f. Bakt., II Abt., 3:456. (1897.) peor Russell, Vivian & Hastings. Ann. Rept. Wis. Station, 18:162 190I.) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 75 presence of other organisms is usually overlooked. It should not be forgotten that while the number of liquefiers rarely amounts to more than one per ct. of the total during the early history of the cheddar cheese, even under these circumstances their number is considerable. It is also not unreasonable to sup- pose that an enzyme formed by this class of organisms will con- tinue to act in the cheese even after the disappearance of the liv- ing cells. The long-continued presence of this small number of liquefying organisms in the case of a 28-pound cheddar cheese is well illustrated by the following determinations made by Nicholson. TABLE IV.—BACTERIA PER GRAM IN A RIPENING CHEDDAR CHEESE. Age in days. .. , 2. 4. 6. 21. 30. Total number -.| 13,582,000 | 18,990,000 | 17,387,000 | 12,846,000 | 19,500,000 ieiquefiers 22. --- 1,200 *920 *840 4,100 13,250 * Spores determined by heating to OH (C. Age in days. ... 49- 57- 62. 68. 79. Total number --| 3,730,000 | 3,285 000 60, 300 67,460 24,500 Wiguetierswe-=a-- 9,500 2,000 2,000 400 te) At the end of 62 days this cheese was pronounced ripened and of fine quality from the commercial standpoint. These results are quite in accord with the determinations which we have made upon a considerable number of cheddar cheeses. During the early period of its life history when the cheese is rapidly passing through the ripening changes the flora consists very largely of lactic-acid organisms with a small proportion of liquefying bacteria. EFFECT OF ACID UPON THE DIGESTIVE ACTION OF THE RENNET. It has been known for many years that the use of larger quan- tities of rennet would quicken the rate of ripening in cheese and cheese-makers use this knowledge in hastening the ripening 76 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE of their product. However it was not until 1900! that experi- mental proof was brought forth to show that this quickening of the ripening process was due to the digestive action of a peptic enzyme in the rennet. The part taken by the rennet enzyme in the ripening of cheese has been discussed at length in Bulletin No. 233 of this Station and the reader is referred to that bulletin for a detailed treat- ment of the subject. In the present connection it will be sufficient to point out that under normal conditions the change of sugar into acid is necessary in order that the peptic enzyme of the rennet may play its important part in the breaking down of the cheese casein. As illustrative of this point there is given below a summary of the chemical changes observed in :wo of a series of cheeses made for the purpose of studying chis relation. In order to measure the digestive action of the rennet it was necessary to remove the other factors which might assist in the breaking down of the casein. It has beenshown in Bulletin No. 233 thata momentary heating to 85° C. will destroy the enzymes in the milk itself and the milk used in making these cheeses was heated above 95° C. for this purpose. In order to prevent bac- terial action 2 to 3 per ct. of chloroform by volume was added to the milk shortly after the above heating. The milk was made into cheese in the usual manner except that calcium chloride was added to the milk to assist the curdling actionoftherennet. In cheese 6.171V a total of .2 per ct. lactic acid was added in small diluted portions at intervals during the process of manufacture to simulate the formation of the same by bacteria under normal conditions. In 6.17V this acid was omitted. 10 Babcock, Russell & Vivian. Ann. Rept. Wis. Station, 17:102. (1900.) Also Cent. f. Bakt., 11 Abt., 6:817. (1900.) Jensen. Landw. Jahrb. d. Schweiz., 14:197. (1900). Also Cent. f. Baki, II Abt. 6:734. (1900.) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. a7, TABLE V.—EFFECT oF ACID COMPOUNDS UPON THE DIGESTIVE ACTION OF THE RENNET, Percentage of nitrogen of total nitrogen in cheese. _ Age 6.17 IV (acid). 6.17 V (no acid). in months. Salt-soluble. Water-soluble. Salt-soluble. Water-soluble. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Initial. 26.62 5.40 2.90 3.67 3 28.52 11.66 | 2012 5.78 6 19.06 18.90 3.03 8.81 9 19.94 1717 2.47 5.99 12 11.97 18.50 3.46 6.41 From the above results it is clearly seen that in the presence of the salt-soluble compound the rennet enzyme was able to change considerable quantities of nitrogen into a water-soluble form while under similar conditions except for the action of the acid the rennet enzyme did very little work. From this we con- clude that the activity of the lactic-acid bacteria in changing sugar into acid is a necessary preliminary to the digestive action of the rennet in cheese under normal conditions. CONCLUSION: In the preceding pages the attempt has been made to follow the process of cheese-making and the first steps of cheese-ripening and to trace in outline the part played by the acid - forming bacteria. It has been shown that all of the observed changes up to the point where the digestion by the rennet leaves off are either the direct result of the action of these bacteria or are largely in- fluenced by bacterial action. A discussion of the early stages of cheese-ripening would be incomplete unless consideration was given to the part played by the enzymes of the milk itself. However, the effect of these en- zymes is not confined to the first stages of the ripening, and as the subject will be later treated in a separate bulletin it will not be further discussed at this time. Under the conditions which exist in normal cheddar cheese the action of the rennet enzymes probably extends but little beyond 78 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. the formation of peptones, while a ripened cheese is characterized by the presence of large quantities of the simpler nitrogenous compounds. Since the flavors, which lend greatest value to cheese, are probably associated with the formation of these simpler compounds, this unexplained portion of cheese-ripen- ing is of the greatest practical interest and the influence of bacteria upon this formation as well as the part taken in the same by the enzymes of the milk are at present the subject of investigation. AT WHAT TEMPERATURE SHOULD PEAS Bin r ROCHSSE DT H. A. HARDING AND J. F. NICHOLSON. Our attention has been called to the losses which occur due to the swelling of canned peas. The cause of this trouble has been found and a temperature at which the trouble can be controlled has been determined. Before making final recommendations it is desired to test a number of temperatures upon cans of fresh peas to find the effect upon their commercial value. This circular is a report of work done and is intended for those engaged in the canning industry with the hope that it may be of some use to them during the present season. We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to the canners for their suggestions and cooperation and especially request information upon the effect of various temperatures upon the commercial quality. Cause of the swelling —The swelling is due to gas produced by bacteria growing within the cans. It is quite possible that different species of bacteria might cause this swelling but thus far we have found but a single form that seems to be responsible for this trouble on a commercial scale. The spore-forming bacillus is hard to kill because it forms unusually resistant spores. These spores are so resistant that any treatment which will destroy them will probably suffice for any other forms which may be present. Source of the bacilli—The source of the gas-forming baccilli, whether from the factory or the pea vines, has not been determined. They do not seem to be always present in either, since during some *A reprint of Circular No. 3, new series. 80 REpoRT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY OF THE seasons peas are successfully handled at a temperature below that necessary to destroy these germs. How to detect quickly.—The bacillus grows rapidly at about blood heat. If alive in the processed cans the fact will be shown in a few days by holding samples of each day’s pack at this temperature. How controlled.—The simplest method of control lies in raising the temperature or extending the time of processing. “The following data give the results of processing two-pound cans of peas at different temperatures and for different lengths of time. In all cases cans which have been previously sterilized were inoculated with large - numbers of the spores of the gas-forming bacillus shortly before being heated. Two Pounp Cans or Peas HEATED TO 230° F. AT LABORATORY. Sine Hit PIMITINICES cree eins teehee ee wh ere eee 20 | 25 30 35 O Nios wcans shieatedac beam. aie cae. Lee ee eee 6 6 6 OF Alas iINomcanseswelleds srk ches. astern eas 5 6 I (0) O Rercentagcenswelleda-pemesetea neice | 83 100 16 oO (a) The number of cans used in this experiment was too small to give more than a general idea of the effect of processing at 230° F. for various lengths of time. The temperature of 230° F. for 30 minutes had been tried on a large scale at a factory where the gas- forming bacillus was present. The loss was approximately 90 per cent. Two Pounp Cans or PrEAs HEATED TO 236° F. aT LABORATORY. Mimean minutes ssc. see e eer 15 | 20 | 25 30 35 40 | 45 No scans heated: ss. -ereeneee 10 10 34 34 76 48 2 INomcans iswelledin ase 10 6 : 3 7, 8 2 Percentage swelled........... 100 60 23 | ) 9 16 8 This table is the combination of the results of four separate trials. The irregularities in the results obtained by processing at 236° F, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. SI would indicate that this temperature marked about the limit of re- sistance on the part of the germ. Variations in the age of the peas, in the density of the same in the cans, and other like factors would then show their maximum influence on the results of the heating. It should also be remembered that in the experimental cans the amount of infection was much greater than would be expected in nature, and the chance of an unusually resistant spore surviving was correspond- ingly increased. In the same factory where the heating at 230° F. for 30 minutes had failed so completely a heating at 238° F. for 35 minutes gave good results, the loss being no greater than that ordinarily attributed to leaks in the cans. Two Pounp Cans oF PEAS HEATED TO 240° F, AT LABORATORY. MINNIE eIOMTALILES\ sy cyapeve ta cieistela otese.e eerecet-* eae | 15 | 20 25 30 INOwm Gane Gate diy rrccten scents cchare stheske See 12 12 12 36 INOmrCatis: Swiellecdirasmisessrastsy a creates a cicrtesters (a) (a) 0 (a) BeLcentacem Swellednnsceiacccws calcein 4s | O | oO (a) | (a) The results at 240° F. are very uniform. This uniformity is more striking from the fact that cans were tested at this temperature on the same days, inoculted with portions of the same culture as that used in three of the tests at 236° F. where the results were so irregular. It would seem that 240° F. quickly destroys the germs but the num- ber of cans is so small that it would not be safe, on the basis of these figures, to risk processing at this temperature for less than 20-25 minutes. The effect upon the commercial quality of a short exposure to 240° F’, has not been accurately determined and there seems to be a dif- ference of opinion upon this point among canners. It is probable that at least within some grades of peas this is very close to the limit of the heating compatible with a first-class product. 82 REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY. Conclusions.—In processing two-pound cans of peas, 230° F. for 30 minutes is not sufficient when the gas-forming bacillus is present. It appears that 236° F. for 30 minutes is about the minimum exposure | which should be used and 238° F. for 35 minutes has been found successful in practice. The use of 240° F. for 20-25 minutes will probably sterilize the peas but its effect upon the commercial quality has not been satisfactorily settled. REPORT OF THE Department of Botany. F. C. Stewart, Botanist. H. J. Eustace, Assistant Botamist. F, A. Strrine, Special Agent. H. A. Harpine, Dairy Bacteriologist. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Combating the black rot of cabbage by the removal of affected leaves. II. Two decays of stored apples. III. Potato spraying experiments in 1903. REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY. COMBATING THE BLACK ROT OF CABBAGE [EVM aE SECO AON Sable Ut aid abd Ca SelB) ERAV ES F. C. STEWART AND H. A. HARDING. SUMMARY. Black rot is destructive to cabbage and cauliflower in New York. It is a bacterial disease the chief diagnostic character of which is the appearance of black streaks in the woody portion of the stem and in the leaf-stalks. As a preventive of the disease, other investigators have recom- mended the leaf-pulling treatment which consists in removing all affected leaves at frequent intervals. During the past four years the writers have made practical field tests of this treatment and found it to be worthless. Each season the experiment field was one acre in extent, one-half being treated and the other half used as a check. During the first three seasons there was not enough black rot to give the treatment a fair trial; but in 1902 there was a moderate attack of the disease. All diseased leaves were carefully removed once a week from July 22 to September 16. The treatment not only failed to check the disease but reduced the yield by 5,285 Ibs. on one-half acre, or at the rate of 5% tons per acre. *A reprint of Bulletin No. 232. 86 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE The treatment fails for the following reasons: (1) The removal of so many leaves checks the growth of the plants. In a supple- mentary experiment made in 1900 the removal of 10 leaves (one or two each week) from each plant reduced the yield by 42.8 per ct., or at the rate of three tons per acre (page 106) ; (2) Infection occurs through the roots as well as by the way of the leaves; (3) Infection may occur at the base of the leaf close to the stem and get into the stem unobserved; (4) The germs of the disease are so widely and so abundantly distributed that it is useless to try to stamp out the disease by the removal of diseased material. No successful method of combating the disease is known. Further experiments on treatment are in progress; also, investigations on the mode of infection and dissemination, as it is believed that these fundamental problems must be solved before much progress can be made toward the control of the disease. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 87 INTRODUCTION. The principal object of this bulletin is to give an account of some recent field experiments on the treatment of the black rot? of cabbage by the prompt removal of affected leaves. This line of treatment, having been wholly unsuccessful, will hereafter be abandoned; but experiments on the treatment of the disease, on both cabbage and cauliflower, will be continued along other lines. There are in progress also, supplementary investigations on the disease itself and on a soft rot? frequently associated with it. Inasmuch as other and more exhaustive publications on black rot are contemplated by the writers only a brief account of the disease will be given at this time. Those wishing a more com- plete account should consult Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 65, A Bac- terial Rot of Cabbage and Allied Plants; and U.S. Dep’t of Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 68, The Black Rot of the Cabbage. PE DISEASE: ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN NEW YORK. An epidemic of black rot on cabbage and cauliflower occurred on Long Island in 1895-6 and in 1898 the cabbage raising sec- tions in the central and western portions of the State were swept by this trouble. In some cases entire fields were totally destroyed by this disease and the loss throughout the State amounted to many thousands of dollars. Since 1898, while the damage has been less universal, there have been each year isolated fields where the loss was considerable. The financial loss upon cabbage occurs principally upon the later varieties, the Danish being especially subject to attack. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. This disease of cabbage and cauliflower was first reported by Garman” in 1890, was studied by one of us on Long Island in 1 Pseudomonas campestris (Pam.) Smith. 2A preliminary report of the investigations on soft rot was published in Science, N.S., 16: 314-315. Aug. 22, 1902. #a Garman, H. A Bacterial Disease of Cabbage. Ky. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1890: 43. 88 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE 1895, was described by H. L. Russell at the Springfield meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in August, 1895, and later was studied extensively at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station and at the Department of Agri- culture at Washington. Extended accounts of the disease and its cause were published by E. F. Smith in the Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, 11 Abteilung, Vol. 3, and in Farmer’s Bulletin 68 of the Department of Agriculture, as well as by Russell & Hard- ing in Bulletin 65 of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. APPEARANCE OF AFFECTED PLANTS. The first evidence of disease usually appears in the latter part of July when the more advanced plants of late cabbage are beginning to form heads. The first symptoms of an outbreak are easily recognized on a hot, dry afternoon when a number of the plants will appear wilted and lighter green in color. A cross section of the stem of these plants near the ground shows that many of the water-carrying fibro-vascular bundles are black; and on splitting the stem these black lines can be followed down to the withered extremity of the tap root. A diseased condition of any considerable number of these bundles curtails the water supply and when atmospheric conditions are favorable for rapid evaporation from the leaves the latter quickly wilt. The upward movement of the water carries the disease along the bundles out into the leaves. As soon as the bundles supply- ing any considerable portion of a leaf become diseased that part of the leaf dies for lack of water. The blade of the leaf becomes light brown and has a texture like parchment. It is semi-trans- parent and when closely examined the network of fine veinlets which have been turned black by the disease stands out sharply in the brown background. Early in August the disease commonly manifests itself in another form. Brown spots appear at the margin of many of the leaves (see Plate I) especially of those which come in contact with the soil. These brown areas spread toward the center of the leaf and a close examination shows the fine veins to be blackened. In from one to three weeks, depending on circumstances, the PLatTEe I.—Cappace LEAF AFFECTED WITH BLACK Rot, WATER Pore INFECTIONS. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 89 disease usually reaches the stem of the plant. The progress of the disease from this point is identical with that brought about by infection through the root. In either form of infection the most reliable diagnostic char- acter of the disease is the blackening of the fibro-vascular bun- dles. These bundles may be readily inspected by cutting across the leaf petiole or the stem. The failure to supply sufficient water checks growth and often results in the death of the plant. The fibro-vascular bundles do not branch freely in the stem and in cases where the disease gains a foothold only on one side of the plant the growth on that side is retarded so as to produce a marked curvature. The lower leaves turn brown and drop off, but when the plant succeeds in forming a head the upper leaves are held in place and often turn black and decay thus destroying the commercial value of the head. The extreme variation in the activity of this disease in different years depends largely upon weather conditions. A combination of abundant moisture with high temperature during August and September is favorable for an epidemic. CAUSED BY BACTERIA. The blackening of the fibro-vascular bundles and the accom- panying decrease in the water flow is due to the growth in the tissue of a bacterium known: as Pseudomonas campestris (Pam.) Smith. This is the fact in connection with the disease which has been most carefully established. The tissue of healthy plants is free from germ life, but large numbers of Pseudomonas campes- tris are constantly found in these blackened bundies. Germs obtained in this way from diseased plants at such widely separated points as Wisconsin, New York and Switzerland were carefully studied and found to be of this species. When pure cultures of P. campestris were introduced into the stem of healthy plants under circumstances which prevented the entrance of other forms the characteristic phenomena of the disease were reproduced. 3Harding, H. A., Die schwarze Faulnis des Kohls und verwandter Pflanzen, eine in Europa weit verbreitete bakterielle Pflanzenkrankheit, Centralb/. f. Bake, If Abt., 6; 305. 1900. go REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE From blackened bundles resulting from these artificial inocula- tions and at considerable distances from the point of infection, in tissue which had been formed subsequent to the inoculation, pure cultures of P. campestris were obtained. This completes the proof considered necessary to establish the causal relation of an organism to a given disease. MODE OF INFECTION. There are at least three avenues through which these germs may gain access to the plants: (1) At the time of transplanting into the field some of the roots are broken, exposing the ends of the fibro-vascular bundles to the attack of P. campestris in the soil. The plants which wilt badly within a few weeks often have many black fibro-vascular bundles in the stem when there is no evidence of the disease in the leaves. (See page 103.) This mode of infection seems to be most active during the early life of the plants. (2) Insects, by eating the leaf tissue, expose the cut ends of the fibro-vascular bundles and either infect these directly by their jaws or leave the surfaces in condition to be infected from other sources. This avenue of infection appears to be more important with cauliflower than with cabbage, but in either case is of sec- ondary importance. (3) Under favorable atmospheric conditions the water pores at the margin of the leaves exude liquid. Any germs which find their way into these drops after swimming back through the opening of the water pore find themselves at the termination of a fibro-vascular bundle. A great majority of the infections occurring during the month of August can be traced to this source. Sometimes as many as a hundred cases of this form of infection may be seen on a single large plant. MODE OF DISSEMINATION. The natural habitat of P. campestris and the ways in which it is distributed from plant to plant have not been satisfactorily worked out. Observations made in connection with root infec- tion makes it probable that P. campestris is able to live in the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ot soil in competition with the other forms found there. However, several attempts to isolate this organism from soil supposed to be infected have failed. On account of the large number of other forms present in soil a small number of P. campestris would be easily overlooked. The first leaf infections take place in the outer leaves, which often come in contact with the soil. Later, infection occurs on the more centrak leaves which could hardly have been directly infected in this way. In the latter case the germs must have been carried to the water pores either by insects or air currents. In either case the germs would have been exposed to a consider- able amount of dessication, something which they seem to be little fitted to withstand. So far as is definitely known the transfer of the disease from one field to another is connected with the transfer of portions of diseased plants. The wind carries parts of diseased leaves for considerable distances. Along water courses in times of freshets the water deposits both soil and plant remains. By feeding to animals or otherwise disposing of rubbish, parts of diseased plants are often carried out upon new fields. The disease sometimes appears in fields where none of the cabbage family has been cultivated for many years and where no known mode of infection is active. EXPERIMENTS ON PREVENTION BY THE REMOVAL OF AFFECTED LEAVES. WHY UNDERTAKEN. Black rot being so destructive in New York in the season of 1898, there was an urgent demand from farmers for information concerning methods of combating it; and it became imperative that the Station should undertake some experiments on the treat- ment of the disease. Both Russell and Smith® had suggested the removal of affected leaves as being a promising line of treatment. They made some 4 Russell, H. L. A Bacterial Rot of Cabbage and Allied Plants. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul, 65 : 38, 39. 5Smith, Erwin F. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. U, S. Dep’t of Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 68: 14. Q2 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE experiments, the results of which indicated that the disease might be controlled in this way. Russell® says: On the horticultural grounds at the University, cauliflower was planted on soil that had borne a similar crop the previous year, and one which was somewhat affected with the rot. ‘This field was allowed to develop in the usual manner until September of this year. By the first of the month, the patch began to show evi- dence that the disease was pretty generally distributed. At this date it was divided into four sections and from alternate sections the attempt was made to stop the disease by removing the affected leaves. The other two sections were left under natural conditions and no attempt was made to check the spread of the malady. The result of this experiment was that the disease was held completely in check. Several plants became infected subsequent to the removal of the diseased leaves, but by removing all of these later the further progress of the disease was brought to a standstill. The continued spread of the disease in the uncontrolled sections showed that the disease organism was being thoroughly distributed and therefore the failure to spread was not due to absence of disease virus. Another experiment was also carried out on a larger scale under commercial con- ditions. A field of about three acres of cabbage near Berryville, Wis., was noted that had been planted on new ground that had never had cabbage on it before. When first observed on September Ist, of this year, the cabbage rot was just beginning to make its appearance. In some cases where the plants were small the disease had established itself in the stem, but in the majority of cases only individual leaves were affected. At our suggestion, the owner decided to remove all diseased leaves and badly affected plants in order to see whether the progress of the trouble might not be retarded. The result of this was that the repressive measures used kept the disease well in check. The patch was only fifteen rods distant from another field that was very severely affected, and of course the seeds of the disease were continually being distributed by means of the wind. The disease made but slow headway as the season was unusually dry. Yet under the same atmospheric and soil conditions, in another large patch in which no repressive measures were attempted the disease developed severely. Smith’ says: This method was tried by the writer in August, 1897, on about four hundred plants, with very satisfactory results, four-fifths of the heads being free from the disease when harvested in November. The one-fifth may have been diseased in the stem at the time the leaves were broken off, or may have subsequently con- tracted the disease through other leaves. These experiments were all faulty in that no account was taken of the all-important factor of yield. In Smith’s experiment no check is mentioned and Russell’s cabbage experiment was also without a proper check. 6 Russell, H. L. Loc. cit. 7Smith, Erwin F. Loc. cit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 93 However, the results appeared encouraging and _ from theoretical considerations it seemed reasonable to expect that the leaf-pulling treatment might be successful. Moreover, it was, at that time, the only lire of treatment which had been suggested. Accordingly, the writers set out to test it thoroughly and deter- mine definitely whether it is a preventive of the disease, and also whether it is a profitable operation under commercial conditions. METHOD OF TREATMENT DESCRIBED. In general, the method of treatment is as follows: The plants are carefully watched for the first appearance of the disease, which usually occurs about August 1. Thereafter, the field is gone over, row by row, once a week, and every leaf showing signs of the disease is broken off and carried out of the field. Whenever there is found a plant in which the disease has already gotten into the stem, as shown by the presence of black streaks in the basal portion of the leaf stalks, such plant is promptly: removed from the field. It has been the practice of the writers to carry a large market basket into which the diseased leaves are placed as fast as gathered. When the basket is filled it is carried to the margin of the field and emptied. It may be stated here that in the experiments described in this bulletin the work of removing the diseased: leaves was not en- trusted to laborers. Most of it was done by the writers them- selves and the remainder by Messrs. F. M. Rolfs and H. J. Eustace, assistants in the Botanical Department, and L. A. Rogers and J. F. Nicholson, assistants in the Bacteriological Department. The writers wish to thank these gentlemen for their efficient assistance. THEORY OF THE TREATMENT. In many cases the disease starts at the margin of the leaf (see Plate I); sometimes, also, in leaf wounds made by insects, and then passes downward along the fibro-vascular bundles (veins) into the stem of the plant. As a rule, several days are required for the disease to reach the stem, Once the disease is within the stem it is beyond con- 94 REportT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE trol and the plant is likely to be ruined; but if the affected leaf were removed before the disease had reached the stem the plant would be saved. Moreover, the diseased leaves, if not removed, become a source of infection to neighboring plants, particularly when the affected plant dies and decays. Hence, the seeming importance of carrying all affected leaves and plants from the field. Briefly stated, the treatment aims at two things: (1) To save plants already slightly affected; and (2) To prevent the spread of the disease by the removal of the causal organism. EXPERIMENTS PRIOR TO 1902. In 1899.—The field selected for the experiment was one on which the cabbage crop had been practically ruined by black rot the preceding season. It contained exactly one acre, was trape- zoidal in shape and about twice as long as wide. It lay on river bottom land near Phelps, N. Y., on the farm of Mr. David White. The soil was a sandy loam well adapted to the growth of cabbage. The plants were of the variety Danish Ball Head, set June 15, 33 inches apart each way. They were carefully watched in the seed bed and showed no signs of black rot at the time of trans- planting. The field was divided crosswise into two equal parts each con- taining one-half acre. On one half-acre all affected leaves were to be removed once a week throughout the season, while the other half acre was to serve as a check. On the half-acre to be treated one affected leaf was found July 20 and by July 28 there were about 20 leaves with one or more small brown marginal areas of uncertain origin; but the first real outbreak of black rot was noted August 4, on which date the first treatment was made. For each treatment a record was kept of the time consumed, the number of leaves removed, the number of points of infection and the number of plants removed because of disease in the stem. These data are shown in the following table: New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 95 TABLE I.—DaTA OF THE CABBAGE RoT EXPERIMENT IN 1899. Fe ; Time Diseased Points Whole ines Gee OCS ene) infection, reared. fTrs. No. No. No. August Al amoe Gano ESOC 1% 181 408 fo) ee NG! Ssee cber ard | 1% | 195 | 299 | te) z eee iene ee | GB ee DE ze ee Bo vt 25 ------------ | 1% | Aa eal 75 | Uae rs “ ee ae See ect gats aS LORD TY] 7 September 9 .sssl-cs-2-- | yan | 46 | 54 | 17 a 15 ------ +--+. | I | 36 | 46 | 7 ee 2. sab ORO OIE | I | 18 | 25 | 7 Motalsise se cee ace oe: | 11 | 634 ro47 | 40 In addition to the 634 affected leaves there were removed a considerable number of leaves showing brown marginal areas which, upon close examination, were found to be due to causes other than black rot. In four seasons’ experience the writers have found that in order to be on the safe side it is always neces- sary to remove a good many leaves which may not be really affected with black rot but which present symptoms so similar that a close examination is required for a correct diagnosis. The principal part of the crop was harvested and marketed on November 4 and 6; but some immature heads were allowed to stand until November 21. For each half acre a record was kept of the number of marketable heads and their weight; also of the number of heads showing well defined symptoms of black rot, those showing traces of black rot and those with soft rot in the stem. These data are given in the following table: TABLE I].—REsuULTS OF CABBAGE Rot EXPERIMENT IN 1899. Treated half-acre. Check half-acre. Quality, Heads. Weight. Heads. Weight. : No. Lés. No. Lbs Marketable (Ist cutting).-......... 2,200 13,710 1,835 9,750 us (2dicutting) e222 a-sie- 200 200 503 500 He (total) aero. seen sees 2,400 13,910 2,338 10,250 Showing black rot, definitely... .... Paani | = ar Eee fia Re ce iC far cll TRACES « sin ciccie'e 6 6 6c Soff rot iInjstemmes saeeeces 5 6 96 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE The treated half-acre yielded 2,660 Ibs. more than the check. This is at the rate of 5,320 Ibs. or over 24 tons per acre. How- ever, this difference can not have been the result of the treat- ment. Close observation led to the conclusion that neither the check nor the treated half-acre was materially injured by the disease. The plants on the check, which was next the river, were considerably injured by muskrats and it is believed that the dam- age was sufficient to account for the difference in yield. Because of the small amount of disease this experiment teaches very little as to the value of the treatment; but it does show that it is possible to secure a fair crop of cabbage (12 tons per acre) on land on which the disease has been previously destructive. In 1900.—The field used for the experiment in 1900 was the same as that used in 1899. The variety of cabbage, Danish Ball Head, was also the same. Previous to planting, the seed was soaked for 15 minutes in a I-1000 corrosive sublimate solution.® The seedlings were inspected June 19 and seemed to be whoily free from black rot. They were transplanted July 3 and 4. As in 1899, the field was divided crosswise into two equal parts—one part to be treated and the other part to be used for a check. The first treatment was made on August 9 and repeated once a week thereafter until September 19. In all, seven treatments were made. At each treatment all leaves showing any indication of the disease whatever were removed and placed in a pile at the margin of the field. Afterward, they were counted and carefully examined for evidences of black rot. A record was kept of the number of leaves showing definite signs of black rot; also of the number of whole plants which it was necessary to remove because of the disease having gained access to the stem: All these data are given in the following table: 8 The seed was treated with corrosive sublimate as a precaution against possible infection by germs on the seed. In experiments made by the writers cabbage seed soaked for one hour in a I-1000 solution of corrosive sublimate and afterward rinsed with distilled water has germinated quite as well as untreated seed. It is safe to say that a 15-minute treatment of this kind will result in no injury to the seed. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 97 TABLE IIJI.—DaATA OF THE CABBAGE Rot EXPERIMENT IN 1900. Leaves removed. D f treatment u ie ale oi treatment. F N ff d plants re- Total. Aer eee Sat black : eves x rot. No. | No. | No. No. August OQserese jesecee 150 71 79 6 a 15----2-- ------ | nS 124 | Ar 4 ef Data aciiseebe | 512 j 206 | 306 | 10 a ZOe sees ae. 205 87 | 118 | 3 eptember hase e eece ces | 454 | 150 | 304 | II ge 12a: SoS ase | 747 | 143 | 604. | II 2 19. -------- ----| 243 | 1430 TOG ee 5 Motalsre sa ce cmeeess be BLU | 924 | 1.552 | 50 The crop was harvested November 12. A record was kept of the number of marketable heads and their weight; also, of the number of heads too small for market, but no account was taken of plants which failed to head. All heads, both marketable and small, were examined for evidences of black rot. These data are fully shown in the following table: TABLE [V.—RESULTS OF CABBAGE RoT EXPERIMENT IN I9QOO. Treated half-acre. Check half-acre. Quality. Heads. Weight. Heads, Weight. No. Lés. No. Lbs. Marketable seen = scecte. OO 2 Besa Om waite ce P16. 0. Rome, Beauty :scesscscceeesccces|) Me ees eee | Om aeeeee a CCS1Q-2n | QLINCess MLOUISer ase cscieeaciesee ee S61202- 0 Que Cmaeas - S195. Heopns Spivenlexe Saeees Secercwasl, alt) Y2Oe eal nor ome eee < EO6IQ sal HUltS xsecereeee eoaene weeees SScDa¢ Cone 20 Ca Tee tens Ce (6 FIO = cn)| AMASSING ee ees crc ee ie eeetioce Ue ap orse ces || SH Or sa as (EI OE. 5)| tar puUCKc. ccs cic cists ceroaoe wanercece LOG 205 eel hele reer sf 19: 6c) StAyMAaN’ «cose sotewen coe ate cleceleh ee ZO kes 5 PO moumenes we £65192.) bumpkiny Sweetacses acess ss SOOO Sal SOU saa & fi T9. < 3|2Coonwed assess cone cee meeoceisi. (OTE 2O aces) eS dwecpmencte ee st 10..23]/ Le hornteneseg. oases Sal eae eeeee AS26522 5 |e phen ene aee a $0 2194 2\| Dickinson ts. suceeees a= cose mee eee 66" 9205-2 15) ee oho ae S620 Suc HINGISON:, oss trceck cobnee caceceieeee CO] Sere pA te meats of ‘¢ 20...| Jones Seedling...... Seer ogee 2 pe) eed eee Le ste 20.22 oben sDaviSee seas \case Pr ac OO ED 7 See LG ee eeine = $6. \goseralGreenvillessss cesses eee CET ea WO Sone ei a (60) 205 55|UOntaridgescceeaceeeeeceaseacer SL See a eee ss fOms205-2) MOyerabnizes scaisecaie teense Sees SI ey pa ea nC Se fe t¢ ~20..--|.) Moore2Sweetisacre cacs soe e Au RO As in 1902, the sprayed potatoes yielded more tubers to the hill and the larger average size than the unsprayed; but in chemical composition the difference was so slight as to appear unimportant. SOME BUSINESS EXPERIMENTS. OBJECT OF THE EXPERIMENTS. There are many persons who question the reliability of the results obtained in experiments like the Station ten-year experiments de- scribed in this bulletin. _They doubt that such results can be ob- tained in ordinary farm practice. The objections to the experiments are: (1) They are on too small a scale (three-tenths of an acre) ; (2) the spraying is done more thoroughly than farmers would do it ; (3) it is impossible to determine accurately the expense of the spray- ing; (4) the idea is prevalent that the Station potatoes are given extra good care in order that large yields may be obtained. These objections were quite fully discussed in Bulletin 221. pages 257-261; but in order to settle the matter and determine the actual profit in spraying potatoes under ordinary farm conditions the follow- ing business experiments were made. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS. In the spring of 1903 the Station arranged with five farmers in different parts of the State to keep an account of their spraying operations on potatoes. An accurate record was kept of all the ex- pense of the spraying including labor, chemicals and wear on ma- chinery. One or more rows were left unsprayed except that they 134 Report OF THE BorANIST OF THE were treated with poison to protect them against “bugs.” In the fall the tubers on such rows were carefully weighed and the yield compared with that of the same number of adjacent sprayed rows. The spraying and all work connected therewith was done by the Js . farmers themselves and in such manner as they thought best. That is to say, these were farmers’ business experiments. ' THE JAGGER EXPERIMENT. This experiment was made by H. A. Jagger, Southampton, Long Island. Thirteen acres of potatoes were sprayed four times at a total expense of $50.91 and the yield was thereby increased by 702 bushels which were sold for $351. The net profit on the operation was $300.09, which is at the rate of $23.08 per acre. The spraying was done with an outfit consisting of an Eclipse No, 2 spray pump mounted in a 100-gallon tank on a two-wheeled cart hauled by one horse (Plate XI). At each passage five rows were sprayed with two nozzles per row. One man did both the pumping and the driving. The original cost of the spraying outfit was $42: Cart, $15; tank, $9; pump, $10; tubing and nozzles about $8. Bordeaux mixture (1-to-8% formula) was applied four times— June 15, 27, July 15 and 21—at the rate of about 47 gallons per acre at each spraying. In the first three sprayings paris green was added to the bordeaux at the rate of two pounds to 50 gallons. The thirteen acres consisted of two fields—one containing eight acres and the other five acres. Both fields were on the same kind of soil, sandy loam, fertilized and cultivated in the same way and planted with the same variety, Carman No. 1, which is the most popular variety in that section. The five-acre field was about 80 rods from the water supply but the eight-acre field was nearer. In the five-acre field one row 453 feet long was left unsprayed. On this row paris green was applied twice with a Leggett powder New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 135 gun to prevent injury from “ bugs.” The yield of marketable tubers on the unsprayed row was 514 pounds which is at the rate of 274 bushels per acre. The adjacent sprayed row yielded 615 pounds which is at the rate of 328 bushels per acre. Thus the increase in yield due to spraying was 54 bushels per acre or a total of 702 bushels on the 13 acres. The items of expense for spraying 13 acres four times are as follows: PODS mCOp pet Sulip nates: at GGrtc. cis cinc, cake — —-| Sprayed once. Fe SN ire Ws ewe aks Darul mi ee on, a mR eee Bi tS tae oe Not sprayed. 6 — —_— — — — — — — Sprayed once. 7 a , 8 : ad Sprayed 5 times. 9 = ) Since Row 5 was the only one which had not been sprayed at all, its yield should be taken as representing what the yield of the field would have been had there been no spraying done. Rows 4 and 6, although badly blighted, were evidently somewhat benefited by the one spraying they received and remained green a little longer than Row 5. Rows 3 and 7 appeared to suffer a little from being next to the badly blighted Rows 4 and 6. For this reason it was thought unfair to use them as representatives of the sprayed portion of the field. Accordingly, one-half the combined yield of Rows 2 and 8 was decided upon as being the proper basis for comparison with the _ yield of the unsprayed Row 5 for the correct determination of the increase in yield due to spraying. . Row 2 yielded 793 pounds and Row 8, 773 pounds, the average being 783 pounds; while Row 5 yielded only 466 pounds. Thus the increase in yield due to spraying was 317 pounds per row which is at the rate of 6214 bushels per acre. The yield of the sprayed rows “The yields .were as follows: Rows I and 3, combined, 1542 lbs. marketable, 43 lbs. culls. Ee 793 rece Rows 4 and 6, combined, 1056 “ e 67 = 5 Row 5 466 “ 7 Zee Ae Rows 7 and 9, combined, 1434 “ Ain ee Row 8 7) a i Rie - Number of rows required to make an acre, 11.872. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 139 was 154 bushels and 55 pounds per acre and of the unsprayed row © 92 bushels and 12 pounds. In order to determine how much Rows 4 and 6 had been benefited by the single spraying given them, the combined yield of these rows was taken and found to be 1056 pounds or 518 pounds each which is greater than the yield of Row 5 by 62 pounds or at the rate of 12 bushels per acre. In order to determine how much Rows 3 and 7 had been injured by the adjacent blighted Rows 4 and 6 the combined yield of Rows I and 3 was compared with the yield of Row 2; and the combined yield of Rows 7 and 9 compared with the yield of Row 8. The com- bined yield of Rows 1 and 3 was 1542 pounds. Assuming that Row 1 yielded the same as Row 2 the yield of Row 3 must have been 749 pounds or 44 pounds less than the yield of Row 2. Hence, the dam- age to Row 3 was at the rate of 824 bushels per acre. Likewise, assuming that the yield of Row 9 was the same as that of Row 8 the yield of Row 7 must have been 661 pounds or 112 pounds less than the yield of Row 8. Hence the damage to Row 7 was at the rate of 22 bushels per acre. These figures are of considerable interest be- cause they show the unfairness of comparing the yield of an un- sprayed row with that of an adjacent sprayed row. Such a com- parison makes the increase in yield due to spraying appear to be considerably less than it really is.@ “a Some have expressed the opinion that when a single fow in a field is left unsprayed “bugs” and flea-beetles leave the sprayed rows and attack the unsprayed row more severely than they would if no spraying were done. Perhaps this sometimes happens, but we have seen no evidence of it. On the contrary, in four of the business experiments it was very noticeable that the unsprayed rows lived longer and suffered less from blight than did the unsprayed fields in the same neighborhood. Consequently, we believe that the actual gain from spraying was greater than the figures here given show it to be. 140 REpPoRT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE The total expense of spraying ten acres five times was $40.07 the items being as follows: 345 Ibs“ copper istlphate. ‘at OeN 7s eee Oe ce oc ee ee eee eeee $20 70 5 bae-wlimes tat B5er ate oils ie fhe BOCES Ae ee EL TELE ee ene 175 LoUlbs. white arsenic wat .SUZC.n2 0. nae mae eel cle ee OR eeeee 55 200, hours labor for man. cat 1760-0 See ee eee 5 33 25 thours labor. fon man tat 5 Csr tie ees elec oto esetere oe aiertuene cree cy emits EweAs 28'4 hours» labor for steam at: 17loGre = acer ieee a eele eis neers Praictteeoe 4 99 Wear om “Sprayer cat fxs e's cae ide aces eletlctuele + lorekapele Loeb stem tocome tele fo) Ce Rape 3 00 cc) OR Ante ah Deere ee ea re RL hee dtm ek Als am fcha es KG ctr $40 07 The cost of spraying per acre for each application was 8o cents. The increase in yield due to spraying was 62% bushels per acre or 625 bushels on ten acres. At the time the potatoes were dug they could have been sold in Phelps at 50 cents per bushel. That is to say, the 625 bushels were worth $312.50. Deducting from this sum the expense of spraying, $40.07, there is left $272.43, which is the net profit on ten acres. This is at the rate of $27.24 per acre. SALISBURY EXPERIMENT NO. 2. This experiment, also, was conducted by J. V. Salisbury & Sons, Phelps, N. Y. Fourteen acres of potatoes on sandy soil were sprayed five times with the same outfit and in practically the same way” as in the preceding experiment. Seven rows 800 feet long were left unsprayed. The dates! of spraying were as follows: July 23, August 5, 18, September 2 and 8. Poison was used only in the first spraying. The “The only differences worth noting are the following: The work was all done by one man. The water used for making the bordeaux was taken from a spring at one side of the field. Sufficient of the arsenite-of-lime paste (see footnote, page 136) to contain about three-fourths pound of white arsenic was used with 50 gallons of bordeaux. 13The dates given are those on which bordeaux was applied to the rows next the unsprayed rows. The spraying of the whole field was not always completed on these dates. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION I4I unsprayed rows received an application of paris green in lime water at about the same time. Although a little late blight (Phytophthora) was found on the un- sprayed rows on August 27 it was not until September 9g that it began to affect seriously the growth of the plants. By that time it had become thoroughly established throughout the whole length of the unsprayed rows, but was much worse in some places than in others. About one-third the distance across the field from the south end the unsprayed rows ran across a strip of soil which was some- what different from the rest of the field, being moister, darker in color and less sandy. It was here that the vines grew largest and the blight was most destructive. After crossing this strip of black soil the rows ran up a hillside where the soil was light in color and quite sandy. In this region blight never made rapid progress al- though it worked steadily among the plants and did them much damage. However, the contrast between the sprayed and unsprayed rows became very marked here, The unsprayed rows took on a sickly, yellowish color. This condition was quite noticeable Septem- ber 9 and continued to be prominent throughout the season, being most conspicuous about September 15. A great many leaves were quite yellow. No doubt this yellowing was partly the result of blight, but it could not have been wholly due to that cause. Many of the yellow leaves showed no blemish whatever. Moreover, where the unsprayed rows ran across the black, moist soil there was scarcely any yellow foliage although it was here that blight was most virulent. But, whatever the cause, spraying corrected the trouble. On Sep- tember 15 when the unsprayed rows were decidedly yellow the sprayed rows adjacent were dark green with scarcely a yellow leaf to be seen. The contrast was very striking. We have frequently observed that the foliage of sprayed plants is darker green than that of unsprayed plants, but have never before seen the difference so marked. We consider this an exceptionally good example of the stimulating effect which bordeaux mixture is believed to have on 142 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE potato foliage. Later in the season there was a little yellow foliage among the sprayed plants. In this field, spraying kept the blight almost completely under control, except on the strip of heavier soil above mentioned and in two other places where a few rows were skipped in one spraying. An examination of this field at any time during the last half of Sep- tember should have convinced even the most skeptical that spraying, properly managed, will prevent blight. The unsprayed rows were dead and dry while on both sides the sprayed rows were in almost perfect foliage. (Plate XIII.) The sprayed plants remained green so long that it was feared their growth would be cut short by frost, but, fortunately, frost held off unusually late. On October 9 it was estimated that on the average about one-half the foliage on the sprayed plants was still green. This late growth was, doubtless, partly the consequence of the late planting, June 16 to 20, but other fields in the neighborhood planted equally late died nearly a month earlier. The potatoes were of two varieties, Carman No. 3 and Rural New Yorker No. 2, mixed. There was no early blight, no damage done by flea-beetles, and “ bugs ” were thoroughly controlled. There was only an occasional rotten tuber even on the unsprayed rows. The yield of the seven unsprayed rows was 1921 pounds of merchantable tubers which is at the rate of 83 bushels per acre. Seven sprayed rows adjacent yielded 3403 pounds of merchantable tubers or at the rate of 147 bushels per acre. Thus the increase in yield was 64 bushels per acre or 77 per ct. Considering that there was no loss from rot this is a remarkably large increase. The total expense of spraying the fourteen acres five times was $55.70, the items being as follows :— 504/lbs.‘copper Sulphateat.6c*..<- 29-2 eee eee Cee eee $30 24 8 ‘bushels: lime, aiteg5e. Wied: a talks cree eee eee ee eeEOR woe te 2 80 12 Tbs.: white arsenic; at. 5 6¢.c:esas one ee eee 66 55 hours‘ labor ‘for man, at E7408 ee es ee eee 9 63 47hours, labor ‘for team; at: 172202..<404 6b .d: eet ee eee 8 23 Wear * on, Sprayer... 25s. $<.4s eee Sa eer cone eee 4 20 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 143 The cost of spraying per acre, for each application, was 80 cents. Since the increase in yield was at the rate of 64 bushels per acre, the total gain due to spraying 14 acres must have been about 896 bushels of potatoes worth $448. Deducting from this sum the ex- pense of spraying, $55.76, there is left $392.24 which is the net profit on 14 acres. This is at the rate of $28.01 per acre. From the first of September on, these two Salisbury experiments were visited by the writers every three or four days and full notes on them taken. We regard these experiments as the most instruc- tive ones of the whole series. The conditions under which they were made are fairly representative of the conditions prevailing in the potato growing sections of central and western New York. The yield, 92 and 83 bushels per acre (for the unsprayed rows), are average yields. The sprayer used is one which is upon the market and can be operated by any man of average intelligence. The rate of increase in yield was determined in such a manner that there can be no doubt as to its accuracy and there is good reason to believe that the same rate prevailed througout the whole field in both experi- ments. The writers, themselves, measured the test rows and super- intended the digging and weighing. Mr. Salisbury’s statement of the amount of the expense of the spraying is, likewise, to be relied upon. If it is thought that any proof is needed it is found in the fact that he sprayed potatoes for some of his neighbors at 80 cents per acre and furnished everything. THE WELCH EXPERIMENT. This experiment was made by Ed. Welch, Phelps, N. Y. A field of 3% acres of potatoes was sprayed five times with an old two-horse, six-row power sprayer of the same make as that used in the Salis- bury experiments. It was bought second hand in 1902 for $10. One row 1235 feet long was left unsprayed. The dates of spraying were: August 1, 8, 21, September 3 and 11. As “bugs” were at no time sufficiently numerous to do damage no poison was used, not even on the unsprayed row. The bordeaux was of the I-to-8 144 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE formula and the water used in its preparation was obtained from a well about 20 rods distant. Traces of blight appeared in all parts of the field about September 2. Thereafter it made steady progress among both the sprayed and unsprayed plants, being most destructive to the latter. After about September 15 the unsprayed row was noticeably inferior to the rest of the field and could be readily located even at a considerable distance, but the contrast was never as striking as in either of the Salisbury experiments. This may have been because there was but a single unsprayed row, and the ‘plants on the sprayed rows being large somewhat obscured it. Although the spraying did not by any means wholly prevent the blight it held it in check to such an extent that the life of the plants was prolonged far beyond that of plants in unsprayed fields. Over the central portion of the field the plants still had one-third to one-half their foliage on October 3. The increase in yield was determined in the same manner as in the Salisbury Experiment No. 1; that is, the yield of the unspraved row was compared with one-half the combined yield of two sprayed rows, the second row on either side of the unsprayed row. This will be better understood by an examination of the accompanying diagram. DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OF DETERMINING THE INCREASE IN YIELD IN WELCH EXPERIMENT. Row 1 Yield 1028 Ibs. Culls 86 Ibs. ) ‘“ 2 Not weighed. | ‘« 3 Yield 1006 Ibs. Culls 74 Ibs. sprayed: 4 Not weighed. J 5 Yield 640 Ibs. Culls 137 Ibs. Unsprayed. ‘ 6 Not weighed. “7 Yield 980 Ibs. Culls 82 lbs. | “8 Not weighed. rer 9 Yield 1003 lbs. Culls 71 Ibs. Pirate XI.—Outrir Usrep IN THE JAGGER EXPERIMENT. ‘ . \ Oagats . a ; 4 ‘ Wa ; ; i * » Lai Kylee 1 X mt a a Wee a é 4 ] 7 2 7 ele Cees ? f : ey) - — a oh : 7 3 Wee a @ «¢ es : ; —— ; x , t We } aS. %, 5 ‘ » 7 1 : i _ v \ a ' = ae ; ‘ ’ ’ ‘ < ¥ a ; ‘ wa. 4 : : : 2 (> ' ave ” . ' » 2 ‘2 ‘ON INAWIGdXY AUNASIIVS NI SHOLVLOg ONIAVAdS—][X ALvId (£399 peydeisojoyg) ‘% ‘ON INAWINadXY AYNESIIVS—T]I[X AWVIg “ - a eS eT 7 yu ; ‘ ay ‘ee 1 - - Pirate XIV.—Outrit Usep IN THE MARTIN EXPERIMENT. INANTUIXY NOSdO( AHL NI SHOLVIOg ONIAVYAS— AX ALVIg a Pirate XVI—A Banpty BiicHrep Potato PLANT. PLaTE XVII.—Uwnober Surrace or Potato Lear ATTACKED BY LATE BLIGHT. New. YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 145 One-half the combined yield of Rows 3 and 7 equals 993 pounds which makes the yield of the sprayed rows at the rate of 194 bushels and 37 pounds of marketable tubers per acre; while the yield of the unsprayed row was only 640 pounds or at the rate of 118 bushels and 27 pounds per acre. Hence, the increase in yield was at the rate of 76 bushels per acre. We wished to obtain the yield of Row 4 for comparison with that of Row 3; also the yield of Row 6 for comparison with Row 7. In this way it could have been determined how much Rows 4 and 6 suffered because of their proximity to the blighted Row 5. But Mr. Welch misunderstood our instructions and took the yield of Rows I and 9 instead. It is interesting to note that had these rows been selected to represent the sprayed portion of the field the increase in yield would have been 81% bushels per acre. The total expense of spraying these 3% acres five times was $13.43, the items being as follows :— ‘ ouminc: (copper sulphate? at G/oe. ce c's ook ys cas seieth cee sistas gone saad + SOLE PROS LUMen tReet Chen wine eae Lat crew ee hes otek k yh ANTS 32 PeeROUES JAbOt tat aitd iteaMl. was. nc. ocak he Gs oes hs ee bas Seana kod 6 00 EMC GEN HURL y ctersl 20a s WareeN, Se dhe thf, Peeaaty glscuel 9 0. watehe lees ht Wid iad meters 40 Materestiom myestment, (PlO:at 696) £0 bk kon oli gaeiacebeeake 60 BIRG Callen Ray ede RANG Ch CRE ee ye mle BEER a rete DF Ba ey $13 43 The cost of spraying per acre for each application was 77 cents. As the increase in yield was at the rate of 76 bushels per acre, the total gain due to spraying 3% acres must have been 266 bushels of potatoes worth $133. Deducting the expense of spraying, $13.43, there is left $119.57 which is the net profit on 3% acres. This is at the rate of $34.16 per acre. The soil in the field was a gravelly clay loam. The variety of potato was Carman No. 3. 146 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE THE MARTIN EXPERIMENT. This experiment was made by T. E. Martin, West Rush, Monroe Co., N. Y., about 13 miles south of Rochester. Mr. Martin believes in light applications made frequently. He sprayed 1574 acres 16 times and left 2% acres unsprayed. The unsprayed 2% acres yielded 425 bushels or at the rate of 182 bushels per acre. An exact acre (18 rows) of sprayed plants on either side of the unsprayed yielded 260 bushels, while the total yield of the 1524 acres sprayed was 4293 bushels, which is at the rate of 274 bushels per acre. The increase in yield was, therefore, 78 bushels per acre or a total of 1222 bushels on 15% acres. The total expense of the spraying was $96.32, the items being as follows :-— 7oOoalbSs, copper.-sulphate; vateSiec: seca acas cece ae meee eee ee $38 50 Gubu dlime tat: S80. Feta. sone c se ees fee cies mies eel ee eee I 50 64 ibs. sparis green; atoE4c.;. 2685. soo cies See oe ele aera 9 12 10: days labor for anani-at SU-60. s .. = o>.ce creeks oes eee 24 00 16:days labor. tor HOTSe, aL pls coats cease ee ere eee ee ete 16 00 Wiear Omesprayer cccccmas ca os clecente hare starcist acters einle telet eter suekne ic taenenete 7 20 Totaled kes De eee ee eae ee Te Oe se $96 32 Deducting the expense of spraying, $96.32, from the value of the increase in yield, $611, there is left $514.68 net profit on 1574 acres or $32.85 per acre. The sprayer used (Plate XIV) was a one-horse, home-made power sprayer made by overhauling an old Peppler sprayer, using the wheels, axle, thills and barrel and adding the following items: Rumsey double acting force pump, $25; sprocket wheels and chains, $10; steam gauge, $1; relief valve, $1.25; six bordeaux nozzles, $3 ; gas pipe, fittings, etc., $10; labor, $10; making a total of $60.25. “The bulk of the crop was sold direct from the field at 40 and 45 cents per bushel. In December the price rose to 60 cents per bushel. In order to facilitate comparison the potatoes in the Martin experiment have been valued at 50 cents per bushel as in the other experiments. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 147 At each passage six rows were sprayed, with one nozzle per row, applying bordeaux mixture at the rate of about 22 gallons per acre. “In successive sprayings the rows were gone over in opposite direc- tions and the nozzles adjusted so as to spray the plants from both sides and on top. The bordeaux was of the 1-to-8% formula. In the first four sprayings paris green was used with the bordeaux at the rate of four pounds to 50 gallons; but in only one of these spray- ings, the second, was the entire 1524 acres gone over. On the un- sprayed 2% acres paris green was applied twice, July 8 and 13. The potatoes were of the variety Sir Walter Raleigh. Water for making the bordeaux was obtained from a well Ioo rods distant. The cost per acre for each spraying was 39 cents. This experiment is of special interest because of the large number of sprayings and because the area left unsprayed is unusually large, 2% acres. It ought to satisfy those persons who hold that field experiments should be made on acres instead of on plats. The ex- ' periment was carried through entirely by Mr. Martin and the figures are given solely on his authority, but the writers have every reason to believe that the facts are correctly stated. Mr. Martin informs us that he has carried on similar experiments for several years past, always with profitable results. THE DOBSON EXPERIMENT. This experiment was made by Dobson Bros., Charlotte, N. Y., seven miles north of Rochester. The field contained five acres and was planted with three varieties ; namely, Michigan Snowflake, Rural New Yorker No. 2 and American Wonder. Two rows, 451 feet long, of each variety were left unsprayed. The first spraying was made July 21 with bordeaux mixture (1-to- 11 formula) and paris green (14 pound to 45 gallons). As some of the “bugs” were not killed, a second spraying with bordeaux and paris green was made a few days later. This time, bordeaux of the 1-to-7% formula was used and paris green added at the rate of one pound to 45 gallons. The “bugs” were then all killed and 148 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE there was no further trouble from them. The unsprayed rows were treated with paris green in water, July 22, and the “ bugs ”’ all killed. On September 4 a third spraying with bordeaux alone was given to six rows on either side of the two unsprayed rows of each variety. Thus the field as a whole had but two sprayings while a few rows next the unsprayed rows were sprayed three times. The sprayings was done with a “ Planet’ double-acting pump at- tached to a 50-gallon barrel mounted on a home-made, two-wheeled cart hauled by one horse (Plate XV). A boy did the driving and pumping while two men held each a nozzle at the end of a lead of hose. The cost of this outfit was about $17. Water was obtained from a well about 60 rods distant. Strange to say there was scarcely any blight (Phytophthora) in this field until at the very close of the season. In fact, but few fields in the vicinity were affected to any extent. The soil was a rich, sandy loam. There was a rank growth of vines which completely covered the ground although the hills were three feet apart each way. As late as September 24 the plants still had three-fourths of their foliage and it was impossible to distinguish the unsprayed rows. There was no difference whatever between the sprayed and unsprayed plants. However, Dobson Bros. report that just before the plants died there was a marked difference which could be seen at a long distance. Under these conditions no marked increase in yield could be ex- pected. The yields are given in the following table: TasLeE VIII—YIELDS IN THE DoBsON EXPERIMENT. Sprayed. Unsprayed. Gain per Variety. acre due to Yield of Yield per | Yieldof | Yield per spraying. 2 rows. acre. 2 rows. acre. Se as Lbs. Bu. lbs. Lbs. Bu. lbs. Bu. lbs. Michigan Snowflake...... 1063 300 44 ; I0I5 287 9 ieee et Reirall News Vorkers eee g8I 277 ane 975 27550 I 2 American Wonder........ 1059 299 36 1037 202eo8 6b a18 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 149 The average yield of the three varieties was 292 bushels and 37 pounds per acre for the sprayed rows and 285 bushels’ and 27 pounds for the unsprayed rows, making the increase in yield 7 bushels per acre or 35 bushels on the five acres. In the first spraying bordeaux was applied at the rate of 81 gallons per acre and in the second spraying 108 gallons per acre. Assuming that the whole field had been sprayed three times and that the cost of the third spraying was the same as for the second the expense account would stand as follows :— MS OM SCOP De tarsttl piace dtp 7, Cars a ere dee eise.s 2 48 MGR? arora SOAR ISU) Oe Aigeneres RUD Sar net ORS PRC ooe LE ete ace eee ae BE Pf ARGUE cet ols db attod CIC OAS S BibIS OO Cronos CIEE IRAE SIA e ee eee $40 00 Since the total gain due to spraying was only 35 bushels of pota- toes worth $17.50, there was a loss of $22.50 which is at the rate of $4.50 per acre. It should be observed, however, that the expense of spraying was unusually large; namely, $2.67 per acre for each application. In the other business experiments reported in this bul- letin the cost per acre for each spraying ranged from 39 to 98 cents. With a reasonably large expense for spraying the Dobson field would have paid expenses. In the Dobson experiment the spraying was done in a business-like manner, but the trouble lies with the method. It is too slow and requires too much man labor. However, had there been a severe attack of blight it is likely that the very thorough spraying would have given results which would have compared very favorably with those obtained in the other experiments. “Owing to portions of the field being damaged by heavy rains early in the season this average was not maintained throughout the field. The total yield of the five acres was about 1,200 bushels. 150 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE THE EXPENSE OF APPLYING PARIS GREEN TO POTATOES. In some parts of the State, particularly on Long Island, many farmers apply paris green to their potatoes in dry form by means of the Leggett Powder Gun."6 Desiring to learn how much it costs to apply poison in this way the Station made arrangements with W. A. Fleet, Cutchogue, Long Island, to keep an account of the expense on his farm. It should be stated that Mr. Fleet is a successful potato grower and one who does all of his work in a thorough, business-like manner. He has used the Leggett Powder Gun several years and understands its use thoroughly. These statements are made in order that it may be understood that the test reported below is a fair one. In the season of 1903 Mr. Fleet treated 18 acres of potatoes, eleven acres of early potatoes and seven acres of late ones, with “ Green Arsenoid,’” for “ bugs.” The poison was applied in dry form, un- diluted, at the rate of about two pounds per acre with a Leggett Powder Gun. On the early potatoes two applications were sufficient. They were made: Ist June 16-25; 2d July 1-8. On the late potatoes a third application was required; namely, on July 15-20. As to the effectiveness of the treatment Mr. Fleet reports as follows :—‘‘ The treatment was not thoroughly effective. ‘ Bugs’ were kept in check so they did not eat the vines much, but were not all killed at any one of the three applications.” The expense account is as follows :— O4 pounds | GreensArsenoid=) at 1340s eee eae ee te eee $11 34 65 houses’ laboryat TS .is0 Wes samc ae eecitiees ae mt oioca es eats tereeer 975 Totallt:.< Snore Ril easier Ee Oe L Ee enee $2I 09 The expense per acre for each application was 49 cents. * Manufactured by Leggett & Bro., 301 Pearl St., New York, N. Y. * “Green Arsenoid” is a substitute for paris green. Manufactured by the Adler Color & Chemical Works, 100 William St. New York, N. Y. For its chemical analysis see Bulletin 190 of this Station, page 289. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, I51 Although “Green Arsenoid ” instead of paris green was used in the experiment the results may be accepted as applying equally well to paris green. In poisoning properties “ Green Arsenoid ” is about equal to paris green and the cost of it is but a little less. At the time of making the arrangements with Mr. Fleet to keep the record we understood that he would use paris green. Mr. Fleet makes no report as to the effect on the foliage. We feel confident that “ Green Arsenoid ”’ applied at the rate of two pounds per acre must have in- jured the foliage. The danger of injuring the foliage is greater with “Green Arsenoid” than with paris green. SUMMARY OF THE BUSINESS EXPERIMENTS. The principal features of the six business experiments are shown in the following table :— Taste I[X.—SnHowinc RESULTS OF BUSINESS EXPERIMENTS. In- Total ; re _crease | Total | Cost per Net Total Experiment, ce: in wor poe Sh ie of spray- Dipak pes nat aeaee acre. By : A, Bu. Bu. | te mentee eet eens. oe 13 54 | 702 $0.98 | $50.91 | $23.08 | $300.09 Salisptry, Tess os = 10 2%| 62 1800) A007 lr 272A |i 27248 Salisbtitys2-s ase. 14 64 806 IGOM te 5 5a70 |) 2o500 392. 2: WWielichtnn is ccc.ce 3% 76 266 SGig 13.43 | 34.16 119.57 IW IE rob Gem actooenceec 15% 78 1222 On eerQOL 32) || 9.32205. 1\2 2504106 IDG DSOMpcrs eeyaavece +c 5 Fi | 35 2.67 | 40.00 | —4.50 | —22.50 Total area sprayed, 61% acres. Total increase in yield, 3,746 bushels. Average increase in yield per acre, 61.24+ bushels. Total expense of spraying, $269.40. Average expense of spraying per acre, $4.84+. Total net profit, $1,576.51. Average net profit per acre, $25.77+. SPRAYING AS CROP INSURANCE. It is sometimes stated that spraying is, in effect, crop insurance ; and since blight is not destructive every season many farmers doubt that it pays to insure in this way. With this idea in mind it is in- structive to make calculations like the following: 152 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE If, in the Jagger experiment, we subtract from the total expense of the spraying, $50.91, the amount of the probable expense neces- sary to control “ bugs; namely, $18.90, there is left $32.01 which is the actual extra expense of using bordeaux 4 times. Now, if we divide the total net profit, $300.09 by $32.01 we get as a quotient 9+ which is the number of years Mr. Jagger can spray the same area in potatoes without incurring loss even though no increase in yield is obtained during that time. In the same manner it can be shown that in the Salisbury experi- ment No. 1 enough clear money was made to insure against loss dur- ing the next 7+ years; in the Salisbury experiment No. 2, 7+ vears; in the next 7+ years; in the Salisbury experiment No. 2, 7+ years; in the Welch experiment, 8+ years; and in the Martin experiment, 6+ years. CAUSES OF WATE GRE: Because of the heavy loss from blight in 1902 an unusually large number of farmers sprayed their potatoes in 1903. Some were suc- cessful while others failed. Naturally, those who failed wish to know why they failed in order that they may be more successful another season. No doubt many are discouraged and have reached the conclusion that potato spraying is a failure. There are two common causes of failure: (1) The spraying is not done at the proper time; or (2) it is not done thoroughly. During the past season the blight appeared so suddenly that many were taken unawares and, before they could spray, the plants had already become infected. Some made one or two applications in July when bugs were prevalent and then neglected further spraying until the blight appeared during the last week in August. In most cases where this was done there appeared to be. but little benefit from the spraying. An interesting example came under our own observation. Two small fields of potatoes on the Station farm were sprayed twice early in the season with bordeaux and paris green and then neglected until New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 153 the blight had made its appearance on a few leaves here and there all through both fields. On September 1, alternate strips of six rows in both fields were very thoroughly sprayed with bordeaux mixture. As there was at that time fully nine-tenths of the foliage in perfect condition it was thought that the blight could surely be checked by spraying. How- ever, such was not the case. By September 7 from two-thirds to three-fourths of all the leaflets on the sprayed plants were more or less affected and the unsprayed plants were but a trifle worse. A week later the difference was a little greater, but at no time was it of any importance. When the potatoes were dug it was found that in one field the yield of the sprayed and unsprayed rows was the same; namely, at the rate of 63 bushels per acre. While in the other field sprayed rows yielded 72 bushels per acre and the unsprayed 73. The area of each field was about two-thirds of an acre, about one-half being sprayed in each case. In this experiment spraying was a flat failure. The explanation seems to be as follows: For a week preceding the date of spraying the weather had been exceptionally favorable to the spread of blight (Phytophthora). Spores from the affected leaves had been freely scattered over the healthy leaves, germinated and pushed their germ tubes into the tissues of the leaves. Thus at the time of spraying the fungus was already within the leaves out of reach of the fungicide but had not yet made sufficient growth to kill the tissue and cause the appearance of dead, brown spots. In spite of the spraying the fungus continued to spread within the leaves soon killing them. Had the spraying been made a week earlier it is likely that the results would have been much more satis- factory. As a rule, it is\unsafe to postpone spraying until the appearance of blight. Usually the blight becomes thoroughly established in a field before it is observed. In any case it is necessary to act very 154 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE promptly and there are likely to be unforeseen hindrances such as lack of materials or the sprayer being out of order. Then, too, it often happens, as in 1903, that the outbreak of blight occurs during a period of wet weather when it is almost impossible to get into the field to spray. The only sure way to avoid such difficulty is to com- mence early and spray regularly at intervals of ten to fourteen days as directed on page 161. Sometimes, this method may result in slight loss. It appears that over the greater part of the State during the past season there was but little done, so far as the prevention of blight is concerned, by any spraying made before Aug. 1.'8 The important sprayings were those made during the last two weeks in August. However, one or two, and sometimes three, applications of poison for “bugs” must be made anyway and the extra expense of applying bordeaux with the poison is but a trifle which is generally more than repaid by the in- creased efficiency of the poison for “ bugs,” partial protection against flea-beetle injury, protection against early blight and paris green injury and by stimulation of the plants. Spraying often results in a marked increase in yield in seasons when there is no late blight. When late blight is prevalent the spraying should be done very thoroughly. During damp, muggy weather in August there is little danger in over-doing spraying. Many fail because they are too sav- ing of time and materials at such times. Besides the two common causes of failure already mentioned there is another which sometimes leads farmers to believe that spraying does not prevent blight. We refer to the stem blight, an obscure disease found on Long Island and in the lower Hudson Valley.’ The leaves of affected plants roll inward and upward exposing the under surface. Soon after, the whole plant begins to dry up slowly and finally dies prematurely. The stem is discolored at the surface “This does not apply to Long Island. “For a more complete account of stem blight see Bulletin ror of this Station, pp. 83-84. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 155 of the soil and the tubers show brown streaks in the flesh at the stem end but do not rot. Stem blight is not prevented by spraying. The cause is unknown. Failure to get results in potato spraying is sometimes attributed to the alleged imperfection of bordeaux mixture as a fungicide. Occa- sionally such erroneous views get in print.°? To be sure, an easier and more effective method of preventing the ravages of potato blight is to be desired, but the urgent need at the present time is not for a better fungicide. The real need is that farmers shall learn to use bordeaux mixture properly.24. For spraying potatoes, at least, bordeaux mixture is all right and it 7s a practical remedy for the *Curtis, F. C. Give us a better fungicide. Rural New Yorker 62: 775. Oct. 31, 1903. This article was ably answered on page 818 of a later issue of the same paper. “Notwithstanding all that has been said and written about the prepara- tion and use of bordeaux mixture there is still extant a vast amount of ignorance concerning it. The truth of this is shown by the following letter ‘received at the Station during the past season :— , N. Y., June 29, 1903. “W. H. Jordan, > Geneva, N. Y.: “Dear Sir:—If all farmers have the same trouble with bordeaux mixture I have I don’t blame them for being reluctant about its use. “Last Friday I had the nicest potatoes in my garden of any I have seen. Today they look as though I had sprinkled them with a pail of water and a pound of paris green. “Friday morning I sprinkled them with a flower sprinkler, as a sprayer was not at hand, with bordeaux mixture which I have made as follows: In an old milk can I placed 15 gallons of water. In a cloth flour sack I placed 4 lbs. of quick lime and then put 6 lbs. of blue vitriol on top of that. Then I placed the sack in the water and left it about a week, shaking and stir- ring when I came near it. The solution looks like the ink I am writing with or soot water. “For every quart of solution I used two quarts of water when I sprinkled. The vines seem to be burnt as if I had used an over-dose of paris green. “Any information as to where I made a mistake will be sincerely received. “Very respectfully yours, ” The only comment we care to make is, that people who will not follow directions have only themselves to blame if they get into trouble. 150 ReEporT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE average farmer. This is shown by the results of the business experi- ments recorded in this bulletin and also by the experience of thou- sands of practical farmers scattered over those portions of the United States in which late blight is destructive. Much of the agitation for a better fungicide than bordeaux mix- ture for spraying potatoes comes from people who have some sub- stitute for it to sell. We wish here to state that while there are upon the market several patented fungicides or insecticides and fungicides combined which are recommended for use on potatoes, none of them, so far as we know, is equal to the ordinary, home-made bordeaux mixture and paris green as a preventive of blight and insect attacks. CONDITION OF THE POTATO CROP IN NEW YORK IN 1903. The severe spring drought, ending about June 7, delayed planting and made the crop unusually late. In many cases the potatoes did not come up well. However, a subsequent abundance of rain and cool weather soon put the crop in good condition. Except on Long Island there was little trouble from flea-beetles; and “ bugs,” too, were rather less troublesome than usual. Early blight (Alternaria solant) did no damage anywhere in the State. On Long Island the late blight (Phytophthora infestans) seems to have first come to notice about July 10 to 15 and continued active during the remainder of the season, being most virulent about August 7 to 15. In the eastern part of Long Island, particularly, most fields were nearly done growing before the epidemic of August 7 to 15 and consequently the yield was not greatly shortened by the premature death of the plants. Some farmers who dug and marketed their crop before August 15 got good yields and lost but little from rot. During the following week rot set in to such an extent that most buyers refused to take any potatoes for several days. Thus, on the later part of the crop there was much loss from rot, variously estimated at from 5 to 75 per ct. in different fields. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 157 Throughout the State late blight was general. Only a few locali- ties escaped its ravages. In most places it was exceedingly virulent, being most destructive to the later planted potatoes. There was some of the disease among early potatoes, but not so much as in 1902. Up to about August 24 there was but little if any damage done to the late potatoes and the prospect for a fair crop was good. Then there came a period of rainy weather and late blight suddenly became ex- ceedingly virulent. Early planted fields were attacked first, but in the end the late planted ones suffered the worst. All through the central and western portions of the State potato fields which should have remained green until October 1 were entirely dead by September ro or earlier. In many cases the blight was followed by rot which caused still further loss. After making a thorough survey of the situation the writers esti- mate that the loss from late blight (Phytophthora infestans) in New York State in the season of 1903 was fifty bushels per acre on an - average. Since the area devoted to potatoes in the State is about 396,000 acres” and the average price at the digging time was 50 cents per bushel, the total loss sustained by our farmers is almost $10,000,000. A large part of this loss might have been prevented by spraying. THE NATURE OF POTATO BLIGHT. Farmers use the word blight to indicate almost any injury which causes potato foliage to turn brown and die. Hence, blight may be early blight, stem blight, late blight, flea-beetle injury, paris-green injury, the effects of drought, etc. Lack of space prevents a full discussion of the various forms of blight at the present time. How- ever, a few words on the nature of late blight seem absolutely neces- sary to a proper understanding of the subject of potato spraying. It is late blight which is chiefly responsible for the heavy losses on the potato crop in New York during the past two years. Late blight * 395,040 acres in 1899, according to U. S. census. 158 ReEporT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE appears during damp, muggy weather in August and September. It first appears on the leaves (usually the lower ones) in the form of small brown spots which rapidly enlarge. In moist weather the mar- gins of the diseased spots are covered, on the under surface, with a fine, frost-like mildew (Plate XVII). In dry weather, this mildew may be difficult to detect. In the later stages of the disease affected plants frequently have the appearance shown in Plate XVI. Under favorable weather conditions a field of potatoes may be almost com- pletely ruined within a few days after the first appearance of the disease. . Contrary to popular opinion, this form of blight is not caused by wet weather. The real cause is a parasitic fungus. Without the fungus there could be no blight of this kind, no matter what the weather conditions might be. Blight is most virulent in wet weather because the blight fungus thrive best and spreads most rapidly in wet weather. In Plate XVIII the potato blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans, is illustrated. Figure 1 is a cross section of a blighted potato leaf. The branching, tree-like affairs hanging down from the undersurface are the spore-stalks of the fungus. It is these which make up the frosty mildew on the undersurface of affected spots. The egg shaped bodies at the ends of the branches are the spores. When one of these spores falls upon a healthy potato leaf in a drop of water it germi- nates within a few hours (after the manner shown in Fig. 5) and forces a slender, colorless tube into the tissue of the leaf. Once within the leaf the colorless tube branches and penetrates the leaf in all directions (See Fig. 1), absorbing nourishment from the cells of the leaf and later killing them. As the leaf tissues dies the fungus forms spore-stalks bearing new spores and the life cycle is complete. Usually about four or five days elapse between the germination of the spore and the production of a new crop of spores. The rot of the tubers which frequently follows an attack of blight New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 159 is caused by spores which fall upon the ground and are washed down to the tubers by the rain. In some cases the fungus may pass down the stem and the tubers become infected in that way ; but this method is the exception rather than the rule. So far as known, the potato blight fungus has no spores which live over winter. It is believed that the fungus survives the winter in slightly affected tubers. Hence it is advisable to avoid planting tubers which show any signs of disease. The philosophy of spraying as a preventive of blight and rot in potatoes is this:—The leaves are coated with a substance (bordeaux mixture) which either prevents the germination of the spores or else kills their delicate germ tubes before they can penetrate the leaf tissue. Consequently, the fungus is unable to establish itself in the leaves and there are no spores to fall upon the ground and cause rot. CONCERNING THE USE OF POISON WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE IN SPRAYING POTATOES. In Bulletin 221 the writers advised against the use of paris green alone for “ bugs,’’ and recommended the use of bordeaux mixture containing paris green whenever it is necessary to fight insects. The experience of the past season tends to confirm us in this opinion. The extra expense of using bordeaux with the poison is slight and the benefits are likely to be considerable. (See Bulletin 221, pages 261-262.) In the Fleet experiment (Page 150) the expense of ap- plying “ Green Arsenoid ” with a Leggett powder gun was 49 cents per acre for each application, while in the Jagger experiment (Page 134) the expense of applying bordeaux and paris green was only 98 cents per acre for each application. About the same quantity of poison per acre (two pounds) was used in both cases and the “ Green Arsenoid”’ cost 4% cents per pound less than the paris green. Hence, the actual extra expense of using the bordeaux was only 40 160 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST OF THE ‘ cents per acre. When the poison is applied with a sprayer the dif- ference is merely the cost of the copper sulphate and a little extra labor in preparing the bordeaux. Our recommendation to use paris green with bordeaux at the rate of one-half to three-fourth of a pound to 50 gallons of bordeaux has been criticised by some farmers who say the quantity of poison is too “small. They cannot kill the “bugs.” At the Station we have had b no difficulty in controlling “ bugs” with the amount of paris green named, but our success is due to two things: (1) The application of bordeaux and poison has heen made promptly upon the appearance of the “bugs.” This is important, ” bacause a young “ bug” is much more easily poisoned than the full grown beetle. The younger the “bugs” the more easily they are poisoned. (2) At the Station spraying is usually done very thoroughly, using 100 gallons or more per acre; while farmers mostly use 25 to 50 gal- lons per acre. In using 100 gallons per acre the paris green would be applied at the rate of one pound per acre; while farmers using the same formula, and applying 25 gallons per acre would make a pound of paris green cover four acres. That is the difficulty. The important point to decide is not how much poison to use with 50 gallons of bordeaux, but, rather, how much poison to apply per acre. Accord- ingly, the directions for the use of poison have been changed (See page 161). In this connection it may be mentioned that we think very highly of white arsenic as a poison for “bugs’”’ provided it is used with bordeaux. Its chief advantage is its cheapness. A pound of white arsenic is equal to about two pounds of paris green in poisoning prop- erties and costs only about one-third as much. Hence, it is about one-sixth as expensive as paris green. It is prepared for use as follows:—Dissolve one pound of white arsenic and four pounds of salsoda (washing soda) in one gallon of New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 161 water by boiling 15 or 20 minutes. This makes the stock solution which can be bottled and kept until desired for use. For spraying potatoes add two quarts of the stock solution (one-half pound white arsenic) to the quantity of bordeaux required to cover an acre. This is equivalent to an application of one pound of paris green per acre. In using the white arsenic stock solution with bordeaux mixture prepared by the potassium ferrocyanide test it is always advisable to add lime a little in excess of the amount required to satisfy the test in order to prevent the possibility of injuring the foliage. In our experience it has not injured the foliage in the least when used with bordeaux. If used in lime water there must be plenty of lime or the foliage will be injured. White arsenic was used with entire satisfac- tion in both of the Salisbury experiments at Phelps and in the Sta- tion experiments at Geneva and Riverhead. DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING; In general commence spraying when the plants are six to eight inches high and repeat the treatment at intervals of 10 to 14 days in order to keep the plants well covered with bordeaux throughout the season. During epidemics of blight it may be necessary to spray as often as once a week. Usually six applications will be required. The bordeaux should contain six pounds of copper sulphate to each 50 3) gallons. Whenever “bugs” or flea-beetles are plentiful add one pound of paris green or two quarts of white arsenic stock solution (See p. 160) to the quantity of bordeaux required to spray an acre. Thoroughness of application is to be desired at all times, but is especially important when flea-beetles are numerous or the weather favorable to blight. Using the same quantity of bordeaux, frequent light applications are likely to be more effective than heavier applica- tions made at long intervals; e. g., when a horse sprayer having but a single nozzle per row is used, it is better to go over the plants once a week than to make a double spraying once in two weeks. 162 REporRT OF THE BOTANIST. Those who wish to get along with three sprayings should postpone the first one until there is danger of injury from “ bugs” or flea- beetles, and then spray thoroughly with bordeaux and poison. The other two sprayings should likewise be thorough and applied at such times as to keep the foliage protected as much as possible during the remainder of the season. Very satisfactory results can be obtained from three thorough sprayings. A single spraying is better than none and will usually be profitable, but more are better. It is unsafe to postpone spraying until blight appears. Except, perhaps, on small areas, it does not pay to apply poison alone for “ bugs.’’ When it is necessary to fight insects use bordeaux mixture and paris green together. REPORT OF THE Chemical Department. L. L. VAN SLYKE, Chemist. 1K. B. Hart, Associate Chemist. °C. G. JENTER, Assistant Chemist. W. H. AnprREwsS, Assistant Chemist. F. D. FULLER, Assistant Chemist. C. W. MupncgE, Assistant Chemist. A. J. PATTEN, Assistant Chemist. 3h. A. URNER, Assistant Chemist. H. A. Harpine, Dairy Bacteriologist. G. A. SmituH, Dairy Expert. TaspLeE oF Contents. I. The relation of carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of cheddar cheese. II. Rennet-enzyme as a factor in cheese-ripening. III. Experiments in curing cheese at different temperatures. IV. Conditions affecting chemical changes in cheese-ripening. VY. The status of phosphorus in certain food materials and animal by-products. ‘Assistant chemist before September 1, 1903. “Absent on leave after November 1, 1902. *Appointed July 20, 1903. REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. ie REE AON, OF CARBON “DIOXIDE. TO PROTEOLYs!S, IN-FHE-RIPENING OF CHE DDAK CHE BSE.* L. L. VAN SLYKE snp E. B. HART. SUMMARY. 1. The object of the work described in this bulletin was to ascer- tain the extent to which carbon dioxide is formed in American cheddar cheese during long periods of time in the process of ripen- ing, and also to learn the nature of the chemical changes that give rise to the production of this gas. 2. Two cheeses were used for this study. One was entirely normal; the other was made from milk containing chloroform and kept under antiseptic conditions. The investigation was continued 32 weeks, when a chemical study was made of the proteolytic end- products. 3. In the normal cheese, carbon dioxide was given off continu- ously, though in decreasing quantities after about 20 weeks, and had not ceased at the end of 32 weeks. The total amount thus produced was 15.099 grams, equal to 0.5 per ct. of the fresh cheese. In the chloroformed cheese, the total amount of carbon dioxide produced Was 0.205 gram, practically none being found after three weeks. 4. In the normal cheese, the following end-products of proteolysis *Reprint of Bulletin No. 231. 166 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE were found: Tyrosine, oxyphenylethylamine, arginine in traces, histidine, lysine, guanidine, putrescine in traces, and ammonia. In the chloroformed cheese were found the same compounds, except oxyphenylethylamine, guanidine, putrescine, and ammonia; but arginine was found in marked quantities for the first time in cheese. 5. A consideration of the possible sources of carbon dioxide in the two cheeses indicates that, in the case of the chloroformed cheese, the carbon dioxide came from that present originally in the milk and that formed in the milk from the decomposition of milk-sugar before treatment with chloroform. In the case’of the normal cheese, the carbon dioxide given off in its early age came largely from the de- composition of milk-sugar by lactic acid organisms, while a small amount was probably due to the carbon dioxide present in the milk and to the respiration of living organisms present in the cheese. The carbon dioxide produced after the first few weeks came ap- parently from reactions taking place in some of the amido com- pounds, among which we were able to identify the change of tyrosine and arginine into derived products with simultaneous formation of carbon dioxide. 6. In the chloroformed cheese, the only active proteolytic agents were lactic acid, galactase and rennet-pepsin. Under the conditions of our experiment, these agents were able to form neither ammonia nor secondary amido compounds with production of carbon dioxide. The presence of chloroform could not account for this lack of action. These results suggest that, in the normal cheese, there must have been some agent at work not present in the chloroformed cheese and that this extra factor was of a biological character. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 167 INTRODUCTION. In 1880 Babcock! carried on some experiments in cheese- curing, in which he attempted to measure the amount of carbon dioxide formed by cheese in ripening; but his study of each cheese was limited to short periods of time and the source of the carbon dioxide formed was not ascertained by him. The in- vestigation described in this bulletin was undertaken primarily to learn to what extent carbon dioxide is given off by American cheddar cheese during long periods of time in the process of ripening. It was hoped that by such study we should be able also to learn the sources of the carbon dioxide thus formed and add to our knowledge in regard to some of the deep-seated chemical changes occurring in the ripening of cheddar cheese. As material for use in carrying on the investigation, we made two cheeses. One was normal in every respect; the other was made from milk containing chloroform and was kept under anti- septic conditions, thus enabling us to suppress factors of biolo- gical activity. The study was continued for 32 weeks, at the end of which time we completed the work by making a study of the end-products in each cheese, including, more particularly, diamido compounds and their secondary cleavage products and tyrosine. EXPERIMENTAL PART. PREPARATION OF CHEESE. For each cheese we used about 20 kgs. (45 pounds) of milk that had been drawn from the cows’ udders not more than three hours. One cheese was made in the usual manner, being normal in every respect. In making the other cheese, we added to the milk at the start 4 per ct. by volume of chloroform and then enough lactic acid to equal 0.2 per ct. of the milk by weight. The rest of the process of cheese-making was carried on in the usual way. In both cases salt was added at the rate of 1 part for 400 parts of milk used. The normal cheese weighed 6 pounds and 10 ounces (3000 grams); the cheese containing chloroform weighed 7 pounds and 1 ounce (3203 grams), owing to the retention of chloroform and more water. 1 Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. Report, pp. 9-27 (1879-80). 168 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ARRANGEMENTS FOR COLLECTING GAS EVOLVED BY CHEESE. On April 1, 1902, each cheese was placed by itself under a bell-jar, each bell-jar being connected with its own apparatus. for the absorption of carbon dioxide. During the entire period of the investigation, the cheeses were kept at a temperature of 60° F. (15.5° C.) Through the bell-jars, made tight by mercury joints, were passed daily about 8 liters of air, previously purified by passage through several wash-bottles containing potassium hydroxide. The air from the bell-jar containing the normal cheese was passed through a drying-train of strong sulphuric acid and calcium chloride and then through two Liebig bulbs, in order to absorb any carbon dioxide present. A water-bottle holding 84 liters was used as an aspirator. The aspirator was started each morning at about 8 o'clock and stopped at 5 p. m. Over night, a stop-cock, separating the bell-jar from the wash- bottles containing potassium hydroxide and used for washing the inflowing air, was closed to prevent backward diffusion and consequent loss of carbon dioxide. The bulbs were weighed daily in the early period of the experiment, but only weekly dur- ing the later period. In the case of the cheese containing chloroform and kept in an atmosphere of chloroform, the air from the bell-jar was passed through sulphuric acid and then through silver nitrate solution, in order to absorb any hydrochloric acid formed by decompo- sition of chloroform; the air was then passed through three flasks containing decinormal solution of barium hydroxide, to absorb the carbon dioxide, and finally through a potassium hydroxide guard. The same precaution against backward diffusion was observed as in the case of the other cheese. Liebig absorption bulbs and direct weighing could not be employed, since the air coming from the bell-jar was constantly laden with vapor of chloroform. To replace the loss of chloroform caused by aspira- tion, fresh portions of chloroform were added from time to time through a separatory funnel passing through the top of the bell- jar. A small dish placed on the top of the cheese inside the bell-jar received the chloroform. Once a week the barium car- bonate formed was filtered through a weighed Gooch crucible, washed with dilute ammonia, dried and weighed. From the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 169 amount of barium carbonate thus found, the amount of carbon dioxide was calculated. On April 1 this cheese contained 12 per ct. of chloroform, and on Nov. 28th, at the close of the in- vestigation, it contained 10.5 per ct. The normal cheese, before being placed under the bell-jar, was completely covered on the outside by a mixture of vaseline and creosote, in order to prevent as far as possible the growth of any molds on the surface of the cheese. This was done at the suggestion of the Station bacteriologist, Mr. H. A. Harding. In a similar experiment, when no special precautions were used, Babcock? found it impossible to prevent the growth of molds on the surface of cheese contained in a moist atmosphere under a bell-jar. He calls attention to the fact that the growth of mold was responsible for the formation of large quantities of carbon dioxide. It was absolutely essential, therefore, that in our work we should eliminate this source of carbon dioxide, if we were to learn anything definite about other sources of carbon dioxide formation within the cheese. PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN NORMAL CHEESE. On the first day, we found the normal cheese had given off 0.044 gram of carbon dioxide; on the second day, 0.0978 gram; on the third day, 0.118 gram; and on the fourth day, 0.139 gram. On the eleventh day, the maximum daily record up to that time was made, 0.146 gram. During the first week, we found 0.735 gram of carbon dioxide. This amount gradually decreased until the fourth week, when the amount was 0.364 gram. At this time the bell-jar was opened and samples taken for chemical analysis. Before open- ing the bell-jar, the aspiration was quickened somewhat in order to reduce the carbon dioxide in the bell-jar to the lowest amount possible. From the fourth to the ninth week, the amount of carbon produced increased gradually, reaching 0.644 gram for the ninth week. At this time a small patch of blue mold, cover- ing about a square inch of surface, was observed. This was scraped off and more creosote applied. At the end of the eleventh week, another small patch of blue mold was noticed 2Cornell Univ. Exp, Sta. Report, p. 21 (1879 80). 170 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE and the amount of carbon dioxide formed had again risen. Again, at the end of the thirteenth week, another small patch of mold was found and the amount of carbon dioxide produced during this week was equal to that found during the first week of the experiment, 0.735 gram, the maximum weekly yield during the investigation. The whole outer surface of the cheese was then treated anew with the mixture of vaseline and creosote and afterwards no further trouble was experienced from the presence of molds. It was very noticeable that the presence of mold was quickly revealed by a sudden and marked increase in the amount of carbon dioxide formed. From the end of the thir- teenth week to the close of the investigation at the end of the thirty-second week, the amount of carbon dioxide gradually de- creased, being only 0.224 gram during the last week. During the entire period of 32 weeks, the total amount of carbon dioxide produced was 15.099 grams. This is equal to 0.5 per ct. of the fresh cheese and represents a loss of solids equal to one-half pound for 100 pounds of fresh cheese. Undoubtedly other gases or volatile compounds are formed in small quantities, as shown by the blackening of the sulphuric acid in the drying- train. ‘We hope to make later a more detailed study of the other gases formed in cheese during the ripening process. In the table following, we present the detailed results of our work week by week: TasLe I. Amount oF CARBON DIOXIDE FORMED IN NORMAL CHEDDAR CHEESE DURING EACH WEEK OF INVESTIGATION. No. of week. Grae O2 No. of week. Cc Grams oF No. of week. Cc lg eh ety I 0.735 12 0.406 23 0.462 2 0.672 13 0.735" 24 0.357 3 0.420 14 0.476 25 0.343 4 0.364 15 0.441 26 0.427 5 0.476 16 0.434 27 0.400 6 0.574 17 0.539 28 0.366 7 0.525 18 0.469 29 0.340 8 0.574 19 0.448 30 0.300 9 0.644* 20 0.497 31 0.260 10 0.539 21 0.539 32 0.224 II 0.651" 22 0.462 * Increase due to presence of small amount of mold. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I7I PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN CHEESE CONTAINING CHLOROFORM. In the cheese containing chloroform, we planned to suppress all biological activity. In order to ascertain how com- pletely we succeeded in this respect, Mr. John Nicholson, the assistant bacteriolo- gist of the Station, made bacteriological examinations from time to time. His re- sults showed that the cheese was prac- tically sterile throughout the entire period of the investigation. The quantity of carbon dioxide pro- duced by this cheese amounted only to about 0.019 gram a day during the first week, after which it fell off rapidly, the amount during the third week being less than 0.003 gram a day. At the end of three weeks, carbon dioxide practically ceased to be formed. The total amount of carbon dioxide produced by this cheese was 0.205 gram, about three- fourths of which was given off during the first nine days. In the accompanying diagram, we show in graphic form the amounts of carbon dioxide produced by the two cheeses during) the period of investiga- tion. PROTEOLYTIC END-PRODUCTS IN THE NORMAL CHEESE. At the end of 32 weeks, the normal cheese was taken from the bell-jar, the covering of vaseline and creosote re- moved, and also the entire outer rind of the cheese to the thickness of about one- half an inch. The remainder of the cheese was cut into small pieces and dried at 140° F. (60° C.) for several days. It was then broken into finer particles by “ 47 Best Ae ee Ebates wt “2 ‘3 é Ce. eye é o Mae eee Seer se seer Bele go a (7 fei ale aE Na eel a pa) aeealea ale ees ey mas ta yo ee Vad boo va 172 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE rubbing and again dried, after which it was extracted with ether to remove fat and then reduced to a finely powdered white mass. This mass was extracted with several portions of water at 122° F, (50° C.), until about 12 liters were collected, the water-soluble contents of the mass having been thoroughly extracted by this treatment. This extract was precipitated with tannin and filtered; the tannin in the filtrate was removed by lead acetate. The result- ing precipitate of lead tannate was filtered and washed three times by suspension in water and refiltering. The excess of lead was re- moved by sulphuric acid and the last traces by hydrogen sulphide. The filtrate was then carefully concentrated at 55° C. to about 4 liters, made acid with 5 per ct. of sulphuric acid and precipitated with phosphotungstic acid. The precipitate was washed with dilute sulphuric acid. The filtrate from the phosphotungstic acid precipitate was examined for tyrosine and the precipitate for oxyphenylethylamine and the hexon bases. Tyrosine.—The filtrate from the precipitate by phosphotungs- tic acid was treated with barium oxide to remove the phospho- tungstic acid and the barium hydroxide in the filtrate carefully removed by sulphuric acid. This filtrate was concentrated to a small volume. On standing, crystals separated from the solution having much the appearance of tyrosine. These were filtered, redissolved in water, recrystallized several times from water after concentration of solution and finally washed with alcohol and dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo. A nitrogen determina- tion by the Kjeldahl process gave the following results: Calculated for tyrosine. Found. (Coe SN Os) N 7.68 per ct. 7-73 (pect, The substance gave the color reactions that are characteristic of tyrosine and was undoubtedly tyrosine. The separation of other monoamido compounds was not attempted. Oxyphenylethylamine—About one-fourth of the phosphotung- stic acid precipitate, obtained in the manner previously described, was decomposed by barium oxide and filtered. The excess of barium hydroxide was removed from, the filtrate by means of carbon dioxide. The clear filtrate was concentrated at a low New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 173 temperature and then treated with benzoyl chloride in dilute alkaline solution according to the Schotten-Baumann method. This method has been employed by Langstein* in the separation of oxyphenylethylamine formed by an intense peptic digestion of egg-albumin. An abundant precipitate separated, which was filtered and washed with cold water. It was then dissolved in hot alcohol and evaporated to small bulk. On_ standing, an abundant crop of crystals separated, which were filtered, washed with ether and dried over sulphuric acid im vacuo. This product had a melting-point of 169° C. (uncorrected), agreeing exactly with the oxyphenylethylamine obtained by Langstein. The following results were obtained by determining the nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method and the carbon and hydro- gen by combustion. Calculated for benzoylderivative of oxyphenylethylamine. Found. Grr NOG TCO): € 76.50 76.19 H 5.54 5-44 N 4.06 4.10 This product was undoubtedly oxyphenylethylamine formed, as we shall point out later, from tyrosine with the accompani- ment of carbon dioxide as a by-product. Hexon bases—The remainder of the phosphotungstic acid precipitate, obtained in the manner previously described, was decomposed by barium oxide and the excess of barium hydroxide was removed by careful addition of sulphuric acid. The resulting filtrate was worked for the hexon bases accord- ing to the Kossel-Kutscher® method. (1) Arginine—After separating histidine from the solution, which should contain only arginine and histidine, a determina- tion was made of the nitrogen in this solution containing only arginine. The amount of arginine, thus determined, equivalent to the nitrogen found, was only 0.364 gram, an amount too small to obtain in the form of crystals. 3 Ber, d. chem. Ges., 17: 2545 (1884) and 19: 3218 (1886). 4 Beit. z. Chem. Physiol. und Pathol., 2: 229 (1902). 5 Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 31: 165 (1900). 174, REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE (2) Histidine—This substance was separated as the di-chloride, of which we obtained 0.850 gram. An analysis gave the follow- ing results: Calculated for histidine hydrochloride. Found. (COA SRR Oi ale) N 18.42 18.15 Cl ie Gk 30.98 (3) Lysine-—We separated about 2 grams of lysine in the form of picrate, which gave the following results on analysis: Calculated for lysine picrate. Found. (C.H,, NO, C,H; N,O,) N 18.66 18.80 CG 38.40 38.44 H 4.53 4.56 (4) Guanidine—The mother-liquor from the lysine precipitate was extracted by a mixture of alcohol and ether and then treated with gold chloride in very dilute hydrochloric acid solution, fol- lowing the method of Winterstein and Thony.® On standing, a crystalline substance soon separated from the solution, behaving like a guanidine gold salt, yielding about 0.300 gram, which on analysis gave the following results: Calculated for guanidine gold chloride. Found. (CHEN, HCl Awet) Au 49-79 49-63 So small an amount of this substance was obtained that we were unable to make other determinations to establish its identity with greater certainty, but it is highly probable that the substance is guanidine. (5) Putrescine—We expected to separate the other cleavage product of arginine, putrescine. The lysine solution had a strong odor of putrescine and it was unquestionably present but we failed in our efforts to isolate this base. It appears probable that the cleavage of arginine had only progressed as far as the formation of guanidine and ornithine, and that the latter com- pound had been decomposed only to a small extent, forming 6 Ztschr. physial, Chem., 86: 28 (1902). * New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 175 merely traces of putrescine. The fact that the cheese was of good flavor, except for a slight taste of creosote, indicates that putrescine could not have been present in considerable quantities. PROTEOLYTIC END-PRODUCTS IN THE CHEESE CONTAINING CHLOROFORM. The cheese containing chloroform was, at the end of 32 weeks, treated, preparatory to extraction, in the manner described above in the case of the normal cheese. It was extracted with several portions of water at 122° F. (50° C.) until about 12 liters of extract were obtained, the mass having been completely extracted by this treatment. The water extract was treated with tannin and filtered; the tannin was removed by lead acetate; the precipitate was filtered and well washed. The excess of lead was removed by sulphuric acid and the last traces by hydrogen sul- phide. The filtrate was concentrated at a low temperature, never above 131° F. (55° C.), to a small volume. It was then precipitated by phosphotungstic acid, filtered and well washed with dilute sulphuric acid. Tyrosine—After removing the phosphotungstic acid by barium oxide and then the barium hydroxide by careful treat- ment with sulphuric acid, the solution was concentrated to a small volume and set aside for crystallization. After standing several days, there separated from the solution a mixed crys- talline and gummy mass. This precipitate was filtered, dissolved in a small volume of water poured into cold 95 per ct. alcohol and allowed to stand several days. A crystalline precipitate formed at the bottom of the solution. The precipitate was filtered, redissolved in water, decolorized with charcoal and fil- tered. On concentration, this filtrate deposited a copious crys- talline precipitate, greatly resembling tyrosine in appearance. These crystals were washed with ether and dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo. A determination gave 7.70 per ct. of nitrogen, as compared with 7.73 calculated for tyrosine. ‘We were unable to find in this cheese any trace of oxyphenylethylamine. 176 Report OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE FHexon bases——The phosphotungstic acid precipitate was de- composed by barium oxide, the barium hydroxide was removed from the filtrate by sulphuric acid and then arginine and histidine were precipitated by silver sulphate in barium hydrate solution in the usual way. (1) Arginine——After the separation of histidine from arginine, a determination of nitrogen in the remaining solution indicated the presence of about 1.5 grams of arginine, which is by far the largest amount we have ever succeeded in separating from any cheddar cheese with which we have worked. The solution was evaporated, dilute nitric acid added and then set aside for crystallization. After standing about a week, the solution had partly crystallized. These crystals were removed by filtration, washed with absolute alcohol and ether and dried over sulphuric acid im vacuo. Analysis gave the following result: Calculated for arginine nitrate. Found. (C,H,, N,O, HNO; $H,O) N 28.45 28:22 To the mother-liquor was added silver nitrate with 2 or 3 drops of dilute nitric acid and the solution was allowed to evaporate m vacuo. Crystals soon separated and after a few days the entire mass was crystalline. The crystals were washed with alcohol and ether and dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo. A silver determina- tion gave the following results: Calculated for arginine silver nitrate. Found. (C, Hy, N, O, AgNo, HNO,) Ag 26.54 26.49 We believe we are justified in regarding this substance beyond question as arginine. So far as we are able to learn, this is the first time arginine has been separated from a ripening cheese; and, in this case, we succeeded only when all biological factors had been eliminated. (2) Histidine-—This base was separated as a_ di-chloride. Analysis gave the following results: Calculated for histidine hydrochloride. Found. (C, H, N, O, 2HCI) Cl Zier 31.08 N 18.42 18.59 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 177 (3) Lysine-—This substance was easily separated as picrate and analyzed as follows: Calculated for lysine picrate Found. (CMH Ny OE, hs NO) N 18.66 18.78 H 4.53 4.38 c 38.40 38.51 We were unable’ to separate guanidine from the mother- liquor of the lysine precipitate and we believe that it was not present. We were unable, also to detect any of the other possible cleavage products of arginine. The solution containing lysine had no such odor as the corresponding solution obtained from the normal cheese and was, indeed, conspicuously free from the putrescine odor that was so characteristic of the lysine solutions obtained from normal cheese ripened at about 60° F. (15.5° C.) ANALYSIS OF CHEESES. At intervals determinations were made of the moisture, total nitrogen, water-soluble nitrogen and nitrogen in the form of unsaturated paracasin lactate, of amido compounds and_ of ammonia. The results are given in the subjoined table: TABLE II.—RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF CHEESES. Nitrogen expressed as percentage of so} < : ‘ : = v 2 total nitrogen in cheese, in form cal vo v Of— = Vv v 3 a a a - nt ' q SI om) fo} ue) i aD a & 2 a o a 3) vo S foe) ome) ro] ne | u oO aa ov c ao 2 te bo ro ; og ° os 2 e 25 m5 g ge bo 8 a) 25 bn ga I a § q A A = . < < c= Per .ct Per ct Per ct Per ct. Per ct Per ct Normal cheese. | Fresh 36.53 54 6.78 Da52 oO 58.47 3 I mo. 35.983 Bh led 34 84 3-92 | 25.50] 17.86 1.78 33 42 4 Cheese contain- ing chloroform.| Fresh 46.23 2.45 9.80 3.67 Co) 35-92 I mo 45-77 25 On p20" SO) || HanTs20 fo) 22.40 - 44-38 | 2.51 | 27.90] 14.74] 0 17-93 Sue 44-37 2.73 | 40-30 | 23.10 o 7-33 178 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE If we compare the two cheeses in question with reference to the data contained in the preceding table, we notice: (1st) In respect to the water-soluble compounds of nitrogen, the two cheeses did not differ greatly, the slight difference being in the favor of the chloroformed cheese. Ordinarily we should expect the normal cheese to form soluble nitrogen compounds with somewhat greater rapidity than the cheese containing chloroform. Two conditions that were present furnish an ex- planation of these unexpected results. In the first place, some of the creosote used in coating the normal cheese diffused into the body of the cheese and exerted some antiseptic influence, retarding enzyme and bacterial activity and giving proteolytic results lower than we commonly find in :ase of normal cheese. In the second place, the chloroformed cheese contained about 1G per ct. more water than the normal cheese. We have in our unpublished records numerous data which establish the fact that increase of moisture in cheese very noticeably increases the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds formed in a given time. The difference in results of the last analyses was made more favorable to the chloroformed cheese, since it was a month older. (2nd) After the first month, the amount of amido compounds formed in the normal cheese was greater than in the chloro- formed cheese. (3rd) In the normal cheese, ammonia was formed, though somewhat less in amount than under conditions entirely normal; while in the chloroformed cheese no trace of ammonia was formed. (4th) We have previously’ pointed out that the formation of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese-ripening appears to take place at the expense of the paracasein monolactate (soluble in dilute solution of sodium chloride). The figures in the pre- ceding table furnish confirmatory evidence of this, since the paracasein monolactate diminishes at the same time the water- soluble nitrogen increases. ™N. Y. Agr, Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 214, p. 60 (1902) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 179 (sth) The amount of water-soluble proteolytic compounds formed in cheese can not safely be used as the sole basis of comparison in respect to the extent of chemical changes taking place in ripening cheese. In the two cheeses investigated, the amounts of water-soluble nitrogen did not greatly differ, but an examination of the end-products of proteolysis showed changes much more complete in the case of the cheese containing the smaller amount of water-soluble nitrogen. The true measure of cheese-ripening must be found in the character and amount of-the individual products fornied rather than in the total amount of water-soluble nitrogen. GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS. We now bring together, in a form allowing ready comparison, the results that have been presented in detail in the foregoing pages. In Cheese Containing Chloro- In Normal Cheese. g form. (1) Production of carbon diox- (1) Production of carbon diox- ide. ide. (a) Total in 32. weeks, (a) Total, 0.205 gram. 15.099 grams. (b) Weekly variation from (b) Ceased entirely after 0.735 gram in first, three weeks. to 0.224 gram in last, week. (2) Proteolytic end-products (2) Proteolytic | end-products formed. formed. (a) Tyrosine in _— small (a) Tyrosine. amounts. (b) Oxyphenylethylamine. (b) No oxyphenylethyla- | mine. (c) Arginine in traces. (c) Arginine in marked quantity. (d) Histidine. (d) Histidine. (e) Lysine. (e) Lysine. (f) Guanidine. (f) No guanidine. 180 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE (¢) Traces of putrescine. (g¢) No putrescine. (3) Analysis of cheese. (3) Analysis of cheese. (a) Ammonia formed. (a) No ammonia formed. (b) Amido compounds (b) Amido compounds less more abundant. abundant. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. We have seen above that results varying in a most marked manner were obtained from the two cheeses used in our investi- gation. We will now consider some of these differences with a view to finding some satisfactory explanation of the facts pre- sented. THE SOURCES OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN CHEESE. What was the source of the carbon dioxide produced in each cheese? Why did the normal cheese produce relatively so large quantities of carbon dioxide over so long a period of time and why did the chloroformed cheese produce so small quantities and for so brief a period? As possible sources of carbon dioxide in cheese, we have (1) the milk used in making cheese, (2) the decomposition of milk- sugar in the formation of lactic acid, (3) the respiration of living cells present in the cheese and (4) the chemical decomposition oi compounds present in the cheese. We will consider these separately. (1) Milk as a source of carbon dioxide in cheese —According to Marshall,® fresh milk, before exposure to air, contains on an average about 4 per ct. of free carbon dioxide by volume and this is reduced one-half by aeration. In the amount of milk used by us in making each cheese, we should have about 0.800 gram of carbon dioxide. Some of this is of necessity lost in the process of cheese-making, but we could expect to retain in the cheese 0.200 to 0.300 gram of the carbon dioxide originally present in the milk. (2) The decomposition of muilk-sugar as a source of carbon dioxide in checse-—E. Kayser® has shown that certain lactic acid bacteria produce, as the result of their action on milk-sugar, not 8 Special Bull. No. 16, Mich. State Agr. Coll. Exp. Sta. (1902). 9 Ann, Past., 8: 779 (1894). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 181 only lactic acid but also certain by-products, among which is carbon dioxide. The milk-sugar is undergoing decomposition all through the normal process of cheese-making, and the carbon dioxide thus formed becomes incorporated in the cheese-curd to some extent. In our normal cheese, the milk-sugar actually present before the cheese was placed under the bell-jar amounted to 0.3 per ct. of the cheese. This was changed into lactic acid with the accompanying formation of carbon dioxide in the early period of ripening and the carbon dioxide thus formed, together with that occluded in the cheese mass, can readily account for the relatively large amount of carbon dioxide found during the first week in the normal cheese. In the case of the chloroformed cheese, a certain amount of the milk-sugar had undergone fer- mentation before chloroform was added, as shown by a deter- mination of the sugar in the curd the day after the cheese was made. The amount found was low compared with the amount present in perfectly fresh curd. Such fermentation would pro- duce small amounts of carbon dioxide, which would be absorbed by the milk and pass into the cheese mass. Carbon dioxide thus enclosed in a cheese would again be given out into an atmos- phere such as was present in the bell-jar, that is, one free from carbon dioxide. (3) Respiration of living cells present in cheese as a source of carbon dioxide——It is well known that living cells give off carbon dioxide as the result of respiration processes. It is also known that in a fresh normal cheese of the cheddar type the number of micro-organisms, generally lactic acid formers, in- creases rapidly for about 10 days and then after about 25 days falls very rapidly for a period of 10 days to a relatively small number, as shown by Russell and Weinzirl.1° In any case, we can not look to the respiration processes of living cells in cheese as the source of the carbon dioxide formed after the first few weeks. As regards this possible source of carbon dioxide during the early age of a cheese, when the micro-organisms are present in enormous numbers, we should be justified in expecting that at this time the amount of carbon dioxide produced would be very 10 Ninteenth Ann. Rept. Wis. Exp. Sta., p. 95 (1896). 182 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE much greater than that formed later, when the lactic acid organ- isms have largely disappeared, if their respiration is the source of any appreciable amount of carbon dioxide. The results secured by us with our normal cheese do not show that there was any such comparatively large amount of carbon dioxide produced at the time the lactic acid organisms were most abundant. The somewhat larger amount of carbon dioxide produced during the first two weeks is undoubtedly due mostly to the decomposition of milk-sugar and not to the respiration process of the living cells present in the cheese. In the case of our chloroformed cheese, we inhibited the activity of living organisms and this source of carbon dioxide did not therefore exist in the cheese. (4) Chemical decomposition of compounds present in the cheese.— Emerson" has lately shown that tyrosine, through the action of the enzymes of the pancreas, can be converted into oxypheny- lethylamine with simultaneous cleavage of carbon dioxide,) in accordance with the following representation of the reaction: HO'C,H, CH, CH(NH,) COOH = HO. C;H, ‘CH, CH, (NH,):CO, Langstein’ has also shown the same reaction in the case of a long-continued peptic digestion of the coagulated portion of the blood-serum of a horse. Ellinger!? has shown the formation of putrescine from ornith- ine and of cadaverine from lysine, with the splitting off of car- bon dioxide, by the action of bacterial ferments. The following equations represent these reactions: CH,(NH,) CH, CH, CH(NH,)COOH — CH,(NH,) CH, CH, CH,(NH,)+CO,. CH,(NH,) (CH,), CH(NH,) COOH = CH,(NH,) (CH,), CH,(NH,)+CO,. Lawrow"™ found the same reaction taking place in an intense peptic auto-digestion of the stomach. ll Beit. 2. chem. Physiol. und Pathol., 1: 501 (1902). 12 Tbid. 507 13 Ber, d. chem. Ces., 31: 3183 (1898). ld Zischr. Physiol. Chem., 33 : 312 (1901). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 183 The work of Nencki and of Spiro! has shown that phenylethyl- amine can be formed from phenylalanine with separation of carbon dioxide. Of these different reactions furnishing carbon dioxide, we find in the normal cheese under investigation evidence that tyrosine has changed into oxyphenyethylamine and that the decomposi- tion of arginine has resulted in the formation of its simpler pro- ducts. We cannot say whether Nencki’s reaction occurred, by which phenylalanine was changed into phenylethylamine, since we did not examine the cheese for these compounds. It is easily conceivable that such a change may take place, since E. Fischer’® has shown the presence of phenylalanine among the cleavage products of casein. There probably await discovery other sim1- lar reactions, now unknown, bearing on the formation of carbon dioxide in proteolytic changes. It appears to us that the carbon dioxide formed after the first few weeks of ripening, in the case of the normal cheese, must have come very largely from the decomposition of such com- pounds as tyrosine and arginine. In the case of the different normal cheddar cheeses that we have previously investigated, the arginine and tyrosine commence to undergo proteolytic change quite early in the ripening process. Reviewing briefly our discussion about the sources of carbon dioxide in cheese, we. believe, from the evidence furnished, that the carbon dioxide given off in the early age of the normal cheese came largely from the decomposition of milk-sugar by lactic acid organisms, while a small amount was probably due to the carbon dioxide present in the milk and to the respiration of living organ- isms present in the cheese. The carbon dioxide produced after the first few weeks could apparently come onty from the decom- position of some compounds present in the cheese, among which ‘we were able to identify the change of tyrosine and arginine into derived products with simultaneous formation of carbon dioxide. In the case of the chloroformed cheese, none of the carbon dioxide could have come from the respiration of living cells or 5 Beit, 2. chem. Physiol. und Pathol., 1: 347 (1901). 16 Zisch. Physiol, Chem., 33: 151 (1901). 184 ReEpoRT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE the decomposition of compounds like arginine and tyrosine. The amount of carbon dioxide originally present in the milk com- bined with that formed in the milk from the decomposition of milk-sugar before treatment with chloroform was sufficient to furnish the small amount that was given off by this cheese. CAUSE OF DIFFERENCE IN BEHAVIOR OF NORMAL CHEESE AND CHLOROFORMED CHEESE. We have seen that, in the chloroformed cheese, only an in- significant amount of carbon dioxide was present and after 3 weeks practically none was found. In the normal cheese, car- bon dioxide was found in relatively large quantities and, even at the end of 32 weeks, more carbon dioxide was being formed in one week than the total amount produced in the other cheese. Why should there have been so marked a difference? The answer to this question involves a consideration of the causes that produce the proteolytic changes observed in the normal cheese-ripening process. The agencies sharing in this work are the following, so far as our present knowledge goes: (1) Some acid, (2) enzymes present in the milk before it is made into cheese, chief of which is galactase, (3) pepsin and pseudo- pepsin, added with the rennet in the process of cheese-making and (4) micro-organisms, chiefly bacteria. In the case of our chloroformed cheese, we had present of these different agencies, acid, galactase and rennet-pepsin. These agencies, under the conditions of our experiment, were unable to split carbon dioxide from tyrosine with the formation of oxyphenylethylamine or change arginine into those of its pro- ducts that we have commonly found in cheese ripening normally. As previously stated, this is the first instance in our knowl- edge in which arginine has been found in ripening cheese and we were able to find it only because we had inhibited the action of living organisms. These facts suggest strongly that the active cause in our normal cheese that was responsible for the deep- seated proteolysis, accompanied by production of carbon droxide, was a biological factor. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 185 It may be thought that our results fail to agree with those of Lawrow, cited above, in which he succeeded by an auto-digestion of a stomach in obtaining putrescine and cadaverine, probably with formation of carbon dioxide. It must be kept in mind, however, that in his work the conditions were favorable to a much more intense reaction, because he ‘not only had a highly concentrated pepsin solution but he also kept the acid content of his digesting solution high, conditions that are not present in cheddar cheese. It may be thought, again, that the activity of the enzymes, galactase and rennet-pepsin, in our one cheese was checked by the chloroform and that we should, under the circumstances, expect just the results we obtained. In Bulletin No. 203 of this Station, we have furnished evidence showing that chloroform does not inhibit the activity of galactase; and we shall later publish results, secured in co-operation with the bacterio- logical department, confirming our previous work. Lawrow’s work showed that chloroform did not inhibit the activity of a concentrated pepsin solution. In view of the evidence at hand, it appears to us quite improbable that, if chloroform has any inhibiting influence on galactase and rennet-pepsin, we should find these two enzymes, under the conditions of the experiment, able to furnish such end-products as arginine, lysine and tyrosine, but unable to produce compounds resulting from further proteo- lysis such as putrescine, guanidine and ammonia. If chloro- form interfered with the work of these enzymes, we should expect either that there would be no proteolysis or that we should find the same compounds that are formed in the absence of chloro- form but in much smaller quantities. As a matter of fact, we find these enzymes quite as active in the chloroformed cheese as in the normal cheese in forming certain compounds but they stop short in their work, appearing unable to produce the further cleavage that results in the production of carbon dioxide. This failure to furnish products beyond a certain point seems to us to depend upon other conditions than the presence of chloroform. The only logical conclusion suggested by the results of our work appears to us to be that the enzymes, galactase and pepsin are able to furnish such end-products as arginine, lysine and 186 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE tyrosine under the conditions existing in cheddar cheese but are not able to split these compounds into simpler ones with simul- taneous formation of carbon dioxide. If this is true, then we must look to some other source as the active agency in decom- posing primary into secondary proteolytic cleavage products with production of carbon dioxide. The only cause that can be sug- gested is a biological factor. Several investigators have made a study of the gases in cheese, especially in connection with the formation of holes in emmenthaler cheese and the so-called “huffing” common to hard cheeses; and they have without ex- ception attributed the formation of gases to micro-organisms. Thus, Baumann™ found the gas in cheese examined by him to consist of 63 per ct. of carbon dioxide. In this particular case he assigned Bacillus diatrypticus casei as the cause. Later von Klecki'® in a similar investigation found gas produced in an inoculated milk containing 31.76 per ct. of carbon dioxide and he attributed its formation to Bacillus saccharobutyricus. Adametz, Freudenreich and Weigmann have assigned other organisms. Jensen! suggests that the gas that causes holes in cheese is mostly carbon dioxide and that this comes from the action of lactic acid bacteria upon the nitrogen compounds of the cheese. While no one has probably yet solved the problem as to what specific organism or organisms are responsible for the deep seated chemical changes occurring in cheese, the general tendency has been to look to some biological source as a prominent factor in cheese-ripening. From the consideration of quite different data, we have pre- viously”® arrived at the conclusion that there is a biological factor at work in normal cheese-ripening. In the results presented in this paper and also in the case of a large number of results not yet published, we always find that in a chloroformed cheese, where galactase and rennet-pepsin are the only proteolytic agents present, we never have ammonia formed, while we always find Vi Landw. Versuchsta., 42: 181 (1892). 18 Centr, Bl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk , I] Abt., 2: 21 (1896). 19 Centr, Bl. f. Bakteriol, u. Parasitenk., 11 Abt,, 4: 217 (1898). 20N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 203, p 244 (1901). eT New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 187 it early in normal cheese. In these cases, the only difference appears to be the presence or absence of a biological agent. What specific organism or combination of organisms may con- stitute this biological factor in cheese-ripening, we are not now able to say. In co-operation with the bacteriological depart- ment of this Station, we have work in progress by which we hope definitely to establish whether these deep-seated chemical changes in cheese-ripening, which can not be attributed to galactase or rennet-pepsin, are due to lactic acid organisms or to liquefying bacteria and their enzymes or to some combination of these. RENNET-ENZYME AS A. FACTOR: IW CHEESE-RIPENING.* L. L. VAN SLYKE, BH. A. HARDING Anp E. 3B. HART: SUMMARY. I. The object of the work described in this bulletin was to ascer- tain to what extent the formation of soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese-ripening is due to the rennet-extract used in cheese-making. In the case of the work previously done here and elsewhere, the effect of rennet-enzyme has not been studied apart from the action of other factors that are present in cheese-ripening. It was our pur- pose to study its action by itself, apart from other proteolytic agents. Il. The action of rennet-extract was first studied in cheese con- taining rennet-enzyme as the only proteolytic factor, with and with- out acid, and also with and without salt. In these experiments (44 to 51), all milk-enzymes were destroyed by heating the milk at 95°C. to 98°C. (203°F. to 208°F.), the coagulable property of the. milk- casein was restored by the addition of either calcium chloride or carbon dioxide gas, and all organisms were rendered inactive by chloroform. Acid, when present, was furnished by addition of pure lactic“acid: Ill. The action of fresh rennet-extract on casein in milk, with and without acid, was studied in comparison with old rennet-extract, and also in comparison with commercial pepsin. In these experi- ments, the milk-enzymes were destroyed by heat and all organisms were rendered inactive by chloroform. *A reprint of Bulletin No. 233. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 189 IV. The action of rennet-extract in cheese was studied in com- parison with commercial pepsin. In these experiments (55 to 57), the milk-enzymes were destroyed by heat and commercial pepsin was added in different amounts. No chloroform was used and there were present, therefore, such organisms’as were introduced during the process of making cheese. Acid was furnished by addition of hydrochloric acid. V. The action of rennet-extract on paracasein dilactate was studied in comparison with commercial pepsin. In these experiments, rennet- enzyme and commercial pepsin, sterilized by formaldehyde, were allowed to act upon sterile paracasein dilactate. VI. The action of rennet-extract was studied in cheese containing acid-forming and some proteolytic organisms. In these experiments (52 and 53), the milk-enzymes were destroyed by heat, acid was furnished by a lactic-acid “ starter,” but no chloroform was used. We thus had as our only proteolytic agents rennet-enzyme in the presence of acid and such organisms as were introduced in the , “starter” or that got into the milk or curd during the operation of cheese-making. VII. Special work was done to show that all milk-enzymes were destroyed by heat. Bacteriological examinations were made of the cheese and milk. VIII. In the case of every experiment made, there was little or no digesting action by either rennet-enzyme or commercial pepsin in the absence of acid, while the action was marked in the presence of acid. IX. In the absence of acid in cheese, no paracasein lactate is found and little or no proteolysis occurs; in the presence of acid in the cheese, paracasein monolactate is formed and digestion takes place, the rennet-ferment being the active agent. The ability of rennet- enzyme to convert paracasein into soluble nitrogen compounds ap- 190 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE pears to depend upon the presence of acid, resulting in the formation of paracasein monolactate. X. Rennet-enzyme and commercial pepsin act essentially alike in forming soluble nitrogen compounds, when compared with each other in the case of cheese, milk and paracasein dilactate. XI. In the case of both rennet-enzyme and commercial pepsin, the chemical work performed by the ferments is confined mainly to the formation of the paranuclein, caseoses and peptones, while only small amounts of amides are formed, and no ammonia. XII. Rennet-enzyme is really a peptic ferment. XIII. Salt, in the proportions found in normal cheese, appears to have little effect upon the action of rennet-enzyme in cheese-ripening. The experiments on this point are, however, not regarded as con- clusive. XIV. The abnormal conditions present in many of the experi- ments, such as pasteurized milk, calcium chloride and chloroform, would tend, if they had any effect at all, to decrease the digestive action of rennet-enzyme. Our results, therefore, may properly be regarded as representing the minimum effect of rennet-enzyme in cheese-ripening. XV. The digestive action of rennet-enzyme does not appear to extend to the formation of compounds that produce the flavor of cheese. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. _ IQI INTRODUCTION. In Bulletin No. 203 of this Station, we published the results of some preliminary work, in which we made a study of the relation of the enzymes contained in milk to the ripening process of cheese. We aimed to exclude bacterial action in cheese and thus limit our study to the results produced by the enzymes present in the milk when made into cheese, including rennet- enzyme. In our previous work, we made no attempt to dis- tinguish between the different enzymes in respect to their indi- vidual action in cheese-ripening. The object of the work described in this bulletin was, primarily, to ascertain to what extent the proteolytic phenomena of cheese-ripening are due to the action of an enzyme contained in the rennet-extract used in cheese-making. It has been quite generally believed that the rennet-extracts used in the manufacture of cheese contain not less than two enzymes or ferments, called rennin and pepsin, one ferment coagulating milk-casein and the other converting milk-casein and paracasein, under favorable conditions, into soluble forms of nitrogen compounds. The present tendency, however, is in the direction of the belief that both kinds of action are due to the presence of only one enzyme. The presence of a proteolytic ferment in rennet-extract is readily understood, when we con- sider its source, which is the stomach of a suckling calf. For years the weight of opinion was against the belief that rennet has any other function in cheese-making than simply to coagulate milk-casein. In Bulletin No. 54, page 267, the results of some experiments made at this Station in 1892 are given, and it was shown that cheese made with larger amounts of rennet furnished greater quantities of soluble nitrogen com- pounds than did cheese made with smaller amounts of rennet. In 1899 some additional work was done, confirming the results previously obtained. Babcock, Russell and Vivian! have made a very thorough investigation of this subject, showing that, in the case of normal cheese, increased use of rennet resulted in a more rapid increase of soluble nitrogen compounds, especially 1 Annual Report. Wis. Exp. Sta., 1'7 : 102 (1900). 192 Report OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE of those nitrogen compounds grouped under the names of caseoses and peptones They also made cheese from milk to which purified commercial pepsin had been added and found similar chemical changes taking place in the cheese thus made. They concluded from these experiments with normal cheese that rennet exerts a digestive influence on casein, due to the presence of peptic enzymes contained in rennet-extracts, the action of which is intensified by the development of acid in the cheese- curd. Jensen,? working independently and along quite different lines, reached the same conclusions at the same time. In the case of the work previously done here and elsewhere, the effect of rennet-ferment has not been studied apart from the action of other factors that are present in normal cheese-ripening. So far as our present knowledge goes, the different agencies taking part in the normal process of cheese-ripening are the following: (1) Some acid, usually lactic; (2) enzymes present in the milk before it is made into cheese; (3) an enzyme con- tained in the rennet-extract added to milk in the cheese-making process; and (4) micro-organisms, chiefly bacteria. In previous studies of the effect of rennet-ferment on cheese-ripening, some or all of these factors have been present, so that the specific action of rennet has had to be inferred rather than been clearly proved. It has been the special aim of our work to study the action of the rennet-ferment as far as possible apart from the other agencies of cheese-ripening. Under these conditions, we have studied the action of rennet-extracts in cheese-ripening,— (1) without acid, (2) in the presence of acid, (3) without salt, and (4) with salt. In addition, we have studied the action of rennet-extracts of different ages upon the casein of milk, and also the proteolytic action of commercial pepsin on milk-casein and in the process of cheese-ripening. We have also studied the action of rennet-enzyme and pepsin on paracasein dilactate. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK: DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN THE WORK. In order to destroy all enzymes present in milk, our general plan of procedure has been to heat the milk to a temperature 2 Landw, Jarhb. d. Schweiz., 14:197 (1900). New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 193 varying in different cases from 85° C. to 98° C. (185° F. to 208° F.). Then, in order to prevent possible contamination by the entrance of enzyme-producing organisms, the milk, after being heated and cooled, has been treated with 3 to 5 per ct. of chloroform by volume, previous to being made into cheese. The heating of milk to the temperature stated diminishes the readiness and completeness with which it is coagulated by rennet- extract, but the power of prompt coagulation by rennet can be restored by the addition of calcium chloride or carbon dioxide or any ordinary acid. In thus eliminating other factors of cheese-ripening than rennet-enzyme, we necessarily produce con- ditions that do not exist in normal cheese-making, such as (1) heated milk, (2) absence of milk-enzymes, (3) the use of calcium chloride or carbon dioxide, and (4) absence of enzyme-forming and acid-forming organisms. In a study carried on under such conditions, we cannot expect our results to be entirely com- parable with results obtained under normal conditions; but we can secure data that enable us to determine the ability of the rennet-enzyme to cause proteolytic changes under the conditions of experiment employed. Later, we will inquire as to whether the introduction of such unusual conditions seriously affected the value of the results obtained, in their application to the process of normal cheese-ripening. GENERAL OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK. For each cheese made, we used from 40 to 75 pounds of normal milk, making a cheese adapted in size to the most con- venient conditions of our work. Chloroform, when used, was introduced into the milk as soon as the milk had been heated foreG 8. to Oar C. (185° F. to 208° F.)- and cooled to’ 29° :C. (84° F.). The process of making cheese was then carried out in the usual manner. At the time of adding chloroform, samples of milk were taken out and carefully kept for chemical and bacteriological examinations, in order to ascertain whether any proteolytic enzymes remained active. In experiments 44 to 47, calcium chloride was added to the milk to restore its coagulable power with rennet. In doing this, a solution was made containing 200 grams of pure calcium 194 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE chloride in 500 cc. of water, and we used 2.5 cc. of chis solution for each kilogram of milk. Carbon dioxide was used in place of calcium chloride in experiments 48 to 51. In using this, we passed a vigorous stream of the gas through the milk for about 30 minutes previous to adding rennet. After several trials, we found that calcium chloride and carbon dioxide, used in the manner described, enabled the rennet-extract to coagulate the milk completely in 20 to 30 minutes. Hansen’s rennet-extract was used at the rate of 2.5 liquid ounces for 1,000 pounds of milk (about I part of rennet-extract to 600 parts of milk by weight). In those experiments in which we compared the effect of the presence and absence of salt, a double portion of milk was generally used and the operation of cheese-making was carried on as usual to the point of salting, when the curd was divided into two approximately equal parts, one portion not being salted and the other portion receiving salt at the rate of 2 pounds of salt for 1,000 pounds of milk. The cheeses were taken from the press and at once put under air-tight vessels in an atmosphere of chloroform, where they were kept during the period covered by our study. For addi- tional details regarding the use of chloroform in cheese-making and cheese-ripening, see Bulletin No. 203, page 327. The first series of experiments included 44 to 47. In these calcium chloride was used to restore the coagulability of the milk. Lactic acid was added in 45 and 46 and omitted in the others. Salt was added in 46 and 47 and omitted in 44 and 45. In all cases the milk was heated and treated with chloroform. After a month, it was noticed that there was little indication of proteolytic change, and it was thought possible that the presence of calcium chloride might retard the action of the rennet-enzyme. It was then decided to repeat the experiments, using carbon dioxide in place of calcium chloride, and this second series included experiments 48 to 51. In experiments 52 and 53, the milk was pasteurized at 85° C. (185° F.), carbon dioxide was added and the acid was furnished by a “starter,” as in normal cheese-making. No chloroform was used. In 53 salt was used and omitted in 52. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 195 In experiments 55, 56 and 57, the milk was pasteurized at 85° C. (185° F.) and cheese made with and without the use of com- mercial pepsin. The details of the conditions of the individual experiments and of the results of chemical analysis are fully given in the Appendix. THE RELATION OF RENNET-ENZYME TO CHEESE-RIPENING IN THE ABSENCE OF ACID. In experiments 44, 47, 49 and 50, no acid was added and the conditions of experiment prevented the formation of acid, except possibly in minute quantities before the milk was heated. While the conditions of these experiments differ in some details, they were all as nearly alike as possible in respect to the absence of acid. Table I contains the results of chemical analysis when the cheese was fresh from press and when 12 months old. TABLE I.—SHOWING EFFECT OF RENNET-ENZYME IN CHEESE-RIPENING IN ABSENCE OF ACID. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in heese, in f f— Se aylAae eerste cheese, in form o periment when ana- : lyzed. Water-soluble Paracasein Paranuclein, ‘ cease aouclectace, | ees Se |, Ausidee Fresh pi Per ai Perak. WPETAGEn 43 resh. 4.67 2.4 3122 1.45 43 12 mos. 9-70 Bes3) 5-61 4-09 44 Fresh. 1.93 2.44 1.93 fo) 44 12 mos. 6.25 2 pps 2.96 3-29 47 Fresh. 3.67 2.90 3.67 fo) 47 12 mos. 6.41 3.46 3.08 BE33 49 Fresh. 10.95 5-24 9.92 1.03 49 I2 mos. 10 34 4-27 5-16 5-18 50 Fresh, 10.12 eye 8.57 1.55 50 12 mos, 9.67 3.02 5-74 S202 If we compare the amount of water-soluble nitrogen com- pounds found in the fresh cheese and at the end of one year, we see readily that there was little or no advance in the proteolysis taking place in this period of time. It is also significant that there was little, if any, paracasein monolactate formed. The results of these experiments indicate that the rennet-ferment, in 190 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE the absence of acid, does little or no work in the formation of soluble nitrogen compounds in the process of cheese-ripening. In passing, it may be well to speak of the sources of the soluble nitrogen compounds found in fresh cheese, that is, cheese about 24 hours old. The milk-albumin is a fairly constant source of soluble nitrogen. This is retained in cheese as a con- stituent of the whey, and the quantity retained depends largely upon the amount of whey held in the cheese. In ordinary normal cheese, the amount varies from 1.2 to 1.5 per ct. of the nitrogen in the cheese, but in e€xtreme ‘Cases may exceed 2 per Ce am addition to milk-albumin, we have, as a source of soluble nitrogen compounds in fresh cheese, slight amounts of proteolytic products formed from casein and paracasein during the operation of cheese-making. The amount from this source varies with the conditions of manufacture. It is probable that paracasein and paracasein monolactate are slightly soluble in water and may contribute small amounts to the soluble nitrogen compounds of the fresh cheese. 3 In the cheeses used in most of the experiments described in this bulletin, excessive amounts of whey were unavoidably retained in the cheese, and the soluble nitrogen compounds found in the fresh cheese are therefore larger than in cheese holding less moisture. ACTION OF RENNET-ENZYME IN THE PRESENCE OF ACIDS IN CHEESE-RIPENING. In experiments 45, 46, 48 and 51, we added to the milk enough lactic acid to equal about 0.2 per ct. of the milk by weight. We thus had only two factors that could act as proteolytic agents in the cheese, the rennet-enzyme and the acid. The results of these experiments are given in Table II. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 197 TABLE II.—SHOWING THE EFFECT OF RENNET-ENZYME IN THE PRESENCE OF ACID IN CHEESE-RIPENING. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of — Mintaro ee of cheese is a when ana- Perument lyzed. Water-soluble| paracasein | Paranuclein, nitrogen monolactate. | C#S8eoses and Amides. compounds, ae F peptones, Per ck. PEF CEs Per ct. Pere che 45 Fresh 4.65 27.88 4.65 ) 45 I2 mos, 18.50 9.80 14-38 4-12 46 Fresh 5-40 26 62 3.96 1.44 46 12 mos. 18.50 11.97 14.02 4.48 48 Fresh 4.26 29.80 3-41 0.85 48 I5 mos, 47 06 11.76 40.00 7.00 51 Fresh 3-89 22.92 3.10 0.79 51 I5 mos, 19.32 12.83 15.06 4-26 , In studying the data contained in Table II, we notice the fol- lowing results: (1) In every instance there was an increase of water-soluble nitrogen compounds. In most of the cases the increase was about one-third or one-fourth of what we find in a normal cheese, excepting No. 48, in which the amount was much nearer the results given by normal cheese, The increase in this case was probably due in part to the fact that during the first few weeks of ripening, this cheese was placed in a temperature of 21° C. (70° F.), while the others were kept at 15.5° C. (60° F.). It was probably still more due to the larger amount of moisture carried by 48, which was Io to 15 per ct. greater than in 51. (2) The increase of soluble nitrogen compounds was confined largely to the paranuclein, caseoses and peptones, the amount of amides remaining small. In normal cheese-ripening, we find these relations reversed, that is, the amides form a considerably larger part of the soluble nitrogen compounds than do the higher groups. (3) In all of the cheeses, when fresh, we had a considerable and fairly uniform amount of paracasein monolactate, which compound was practically absent in the cheese containing no acid, (4) The results embodied in Tables I and II may properly be interpreted as showing that the proteolytic action of the rennet- 198 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE enzyme in cheese-ripening is dependent upon the presence of acid. ACTION OF RENNET-EXTRACTS OF DIFFERENT AGES AND OF COMMERCIAL PEPSIN ON MILK-CASEIN. In considering the results obtained in cheese-ripening by the use of rennet-extract, the question may arise as to whether the observed proteolytic changes were due to rennet-enzyme alone or whether the rennet may not have contained some proteolytic bacterial enzymes produced in the rennet-extract previous to its use. In order to answer this question, we tried the effect of two samples of rennet-extract upon milk-casein, using one extract known to be in good condition and one known to be old and apparently in the first stages of putrefaction. These experiments were carried out in the following manner: We heated 8.6 liters of milk for 15 minutes at 85° C. (185° F.), and after cooling added 2 per ct. of chloroform by volume. Of this milk, we placed in each of several bottles 100 cc. In one case, we added to the neutral milk 0.22 cc. of Hansen’s fresh rennet-extract, and in another the same amount of old rennet-extract. In other bottles, we added, in addition to the rennet-extract, 0.5 cc. of pure concentrated lactic acid. For comparison, we placed in other bottles, with and without acid, the same amount of milk and 0.06 gram of Parke, Davis & Co.’s aseptic scale pepsin for each 7 grams of proteid contained in the milk. Duplicates were used in all cases. The contents of these bottles were kept at 15.5° C. (60° F.) and were examined at intervals both chemically and bacteriologically. With the exception of a single determination in the case of one bottle, the germ content was below 50 per cc., which undoubtedly represented spore forms. The results of chemical analysis are given in the subjoined table. The determinations of nitrogen in the form of amides were made by the use of phosphotungstic acid, since it has been shown? that, in the case of peptic digestion, phosphotungstic acid is a more satisfactory reagent than tannic acid, especially in solutions having an acid reaction. The amount of nitrogen originally in the milk was 0.561 per ct. 3 New York Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 215, pp. 90 and 98 (1902) New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 199 TABLE III].—SHOWING THE ACTION OF RENNET-EXTRACTS OF DIFFERENT AGES ON MILK-CASEIN. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of Kind of AWiER Ob ecor anitc nitrogen in milk, in form of — rennet extract without when i used, lactic acid. | analyzed. ee Se ore Menta compounds. peptones, f Per ct. Per ct. Per ct eee iiocic kc! || ottwas caves Fresh 9.98 eens aS Soe ee ees Hreshiee.ses)). Without. 2) Imo, 32.22. 11.35 6.00 5-35 Beer sors o)s)|( WAC omcses ait eee 29.80 22 22 7.58 Oldmesse:22... Withoutesee? oo fate oe 12257) 4.99 7.58 SO SORBED ECE With 2.322: She me Nais eis 25.23 18.55 6.68 Breslin qe see eels Withoutaceel | 3 Sos ean 15.86 eilay, 8 69 : Seema Wath sso: OO eee 41.89 Bie 73 10.16 @ldie 3 ss52% 5 Wirth omtsce 5 |i See Sie ee ae 17.02 8 95 8 07 Oi eae Waithyseen se feet see cise 36.45 26.29 10.16 imreshe eee ss Without: .o.. | 60°" —soeccs 17.49 14.82 2.67 Lear Wathy.2--- (eae 47-15 Aleut 7 5 98 Oldiieecencte. Wathouteseceoewcers semices 14.40 10.65 BES SO erie s aise With’. 2% HOS eeieeee 40 83 35-74 5 09 Wreshieasece se Without ....| 9 ‘* -..-.-. 18.98 13.63 5-35 (C aeee eee With ...---. OO anne 53.57 45.64 7 93 Oldwe Ss oas.2- Wathout: sacs latoe Sears case 7AO3 1213 4.90 I sears ate Sicrasic _With esas Seri oee 47.96 39-67 8.29 Commercial pepsin ss=-- Waithoutyse.|( To ce Sccicce 8 91 2.22 6.69 bs With ...---. ieee ee 33 51 25-93 7-58 Be Without =2-| Far cee aye 2.42 9.00 eS Withers eco len ee a er 44-47 34.22 1022500 wu Wathontes: | ton 10.34 6.60 3.74 a6 Wiithye :2cce. Ta CES ey eget 48.76 44.74. 4.02 a Withouteoses| Oc! s.ceecs 10.08 6.51 257 a Vid Bley cre ery nae PS eee 56.96 48.05 8 OI The data embodied in Table III appear to be quite definite in respect to the following points: (1) At any given time, the fresh rennet-extract had, in most cases, formed a larger amount of soluble nitrogen compounds than had the old extract. This was particularly true in acid solution. This result does not indicate that we had bacterial enzymes in the old rennet in addition to rennet-enzyme. The difference in actiom of the two rennet-extracts is not marked in the class of amido compounds. If the old extract contained bacterial enzymes, we should expect it to produce larger amounts of amido compounds, These results fail to show that the old 200 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE rennet-extract contained any proteolytic bacterial enzymes, as compared with the fresh extract. (2) If we compare the results secured by the use of the purest commercial pepsin with those given by the rennet-extracts, we find that, in the presence of acid, there are formed soluole nitrogen compounds quite close in amount to those formed by rennet-extract. The amount of soluble nitrogen compounds formed in neutral solution was fairly stationary during the 9 months, while, in the case of the rennet-extracts, there was a slow increase. The amount of amido compounds was surpris- ingly uniform in the case of the pepsin and the rennet-extracts, in both neutral and acid reaction. These results suggest that the pepsin was able to account for all the changes observed in the case of the rennet-extracts in the presence of acid. If there had been proteolytic enzymes of bacterial origin in the rennet- extracts, we should have expected a larger amount of digestion of milk-casein, and particularly in the class of amido compounds. (3) In the case of the rennet-extracts in neutral solution, we notice that there was a small, but noticeable increase of water- soluble nitrogen compounds not observed in the case of pure pepsin. This increase was confined mostly to the caseoses and peptones. This increase may be due to the presence of some proteolytic enzyme, able to act in neutral solution, present in the rennet-extracts besides the rennet-enzyme proper. Granting that there is regularly present such an extra enzyme in rennet- extract, it could have very little to da with cheese-ripening, since in our experiments with milk we had much larger proportions of rennet-extract than are used in cheese-making. We added to the milk about 14 times as much rennet-extract as we com- monly use in cheese-making; and this amount remained in’ the milk all the time, while in cheese-making some of the rennet- ferment passes into the whey. (4) The increased activity of rennet-extract as well as of pepsin in the presence of acid is very marked. EXPERIMENTS IN THE USE OF .COMMERCIAL PEPSIN IN CHEESE- RIPENING. In experiments 55, 56 and 57, the cheeses were made without New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 201 chloroform in the normal way, except that the milk was pasteur- ized at 85° C. (185° F.) and hydrochloric acid was used in the place of lactic acid or a “starter.” In 55, rennet-extract alone was used at the usual rate of 2.5 ounces for 1,000 pounds of milk. In 56, in addition to rennet-extract, we added 1 gram of Parke, Davis & Co.’s aseptic scale pepsin dissolved in water, and in 57, we used 15 grams of the pepsin and the usual amount of rennet- extract. We began to add the hydrochloric acid when the milk was at 29.5° C. (85° F.), the additions being made in quantities of 5 cc. to 20 cc. at intervals, until the milk coagulated in 30 seconds by the Monrad test. After the curd was cut, we added portions of 20 cc. of hydrochloric acid at intervals of 5 to 15 minutes. being guided by the general behavior of the curd. No salt was added to the curd. In other respects, the method of manu- facture was normal. The cheeses were ripened at 15.5° C. (60° F.), and were analyzed at intervals. The detailed results of the chemical work can be found in the Appendix. In Table IV, we give the analytical results found im the fresh cheese and at the time of the last analysis. TABLE IV.—SHOWING EFFECT OF COMMERCIAL PEPSIN IN CHEESE-RIPENING. ma rn Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, No. of cheese sa orm et experi-| when Bary Wat lubl Pp jel ment. ana- 2 ater-soluble . aranuclein P Paracasein ; : Ammo- lyzed. nitrogen caseoses and | Amides. : y compounds. monolactate. peptones. nia. remiars Per ct. Per ct. Peri Che Per Gbe 55 Fresh | p ennet 4-76 65.45 2.41 2.36 ) extract. 55 | 6mos. 28.37 17.14 15.87 6.35 2.00 56 | Fresh} Rennet 6 97 36.76 AAT 2.86 to) and I gr. 56 | 6mos,| pepsin. 29.80 17.04 16.47 7E1O 1.91 57 | Fresh} Rennet 25.00 59-53 22.80 2.20 Co) and 15 gr. 57 |3mos.| pepsin. 46 67 11.61 41.00 5-68 0.49 In studying the results contained in Table IV, we notice: (1) The use of 1 gram of commercial pepsin in addition to 202 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE rennet-extract slightly increased the proteolytic results in the cheese. This cheese contained considerably less moisture than 55 Or a7. (2) The use of 15 grams of commercial pepsin along with rennet-extract produced very marked results. This is strikingly evident in the fresh cheese, where we have 25 per ct. of the nitrogen in the cheese present in the form of water-soluble com- pounds, while in the case of experiment 55, in which rennet- extract only was used, the amount of soluble nitrogen com- pounds is less than 5 per ct. At the end of 3 months, we still have much more of the soluble nitrogen compounds in 57, the pepsin cheese, than we have in 55, the rennet-extract cheese, at the end of 6 months. (3) In comparing the proteolytic factors in experiments 55 and 57, the conditions of work were such that the chief essential difference was the presence of pepsin in the latter, though 57 contained more moisture than 55. The observed difference in the chemical results could, therefore, be due only to pepsin, and this would be particularly true of the results obtained in the fresh cheese. ACTION OF RENNET-ENZYME AND COMMERCIAL PEPSIN ON PARA- CASEIN DILACTATE. We have already given the results of our study relating to the action of rennet-enzyme and of commercial pepsin on casein in milk and on casein monolactate, in the presence of chloroform. We have studied the action of these two enzymes also on the proteids of cheese made from pasteurized milk. We will now present the results of some work done in studying the action of these same enzymes on paracasein dilactate. Paracasein mono- lactate was extracted from several pounds of cheese by a Io per ct. solution of sodium chloride and this was treated with acid, precipitating paracasein dilactate. Of this compound washed free from salt, we placed 25 grams, suspended in water, in each of several flasks and sterilized by heat. We then sterilized some solution of pepsin and rennet-extract by treating with 0.5 per ct. of formalin, containing 0.2 per ct. of formaldehyde. Accord- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 203 ing to Bliss and Novy,' pepsin is not affected by a 1 per ct. solution of formaldehyde nor rennet by a 4 per ct. solu- tion. In one set of flasks, we added to each 0.06 gram of the sterilized pepsin, and in each of the other set of flasks 0.5 cc. of the sterilized rennet-extract. Duplicates were used in all cases. These were examined bacteriologically and chemically at intervals for 3 months. The formalin was very effective in destroying bacterial forms. In some cases a few molds were found, but not in sufficient number to affect the work. The nitrogen in the material was 4.35 per ct. TABLE V.—SHOWING EFFECT OF RENNET-ENZYME AND COMMERCIAL PEPSIN ON PARACASEIN DILACTATE. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in mixture, in form of— “Enzymes Age when used. analyzed. | wrater-solu- . | Paranuclein ble nitrogen peo easy caseoses and; Amides. Ammonia. compounds. “| peptones, Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Perict. Per ct. Pepsin 2 weeks 33 68 BESO) el ase ee ee lacie eeie bes fo) Rennet Sia: 34-95 Ze 30Nsl |S oS eee eS oem aeteloee fe) Pepsin I mo. ATZOV oy eeeeieeioe 37.87 3.74 (a) Rennet foe Apt Odre: | acaeetectes |i. + 40.00 3.68 fo) Pepsin Bes BO a7 llesosc hoes 40.55 9.20 (a) Rennet whee V(aeS leseeacreese 49.53 TT. te) From the data contained in Table V, we can see that the results of our work indicate that: (1) Both pepsin and rennet-enzyme exerted a marked proteo- lytic effect upom the paracasein dilactate, digesting about one- third of it in 2 weeks and considerably over one-half in 3 months. While the rennet-enzyme appears somewhat more active in form- ing water-soluble nitrogen compounds, the actual difference is sraall. (2) Both enzymes formed amides in small quantities, but neither produced any ammonia. (3) If we compare the results in Table V with those in Table III, we find that at the end of 1 and 3 months, more proteolysis occurred in this experiment than in the presence of chloroform. This is true of both enzymes. This suggests that the chloroform 4 Jour. Experimental Med., 4; No. 1 (1899) 204 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE may exert a retarding influence upon the action of pepsin and rennet. Malfitano® makes the statement that the action of pepsin is considerably diminished by chloroform. The difference noted in our work may be due to the greater amount of acid present in the experiment in Table V. However, both sets of experi- ments practically agree in showing small formation of amides and entire absence of ammonia. EXPERIMENTS IN MAKING CHEESE FROM PASTEURIZED MILK WITH STARTER For the purpose of comparison, it was regarded as desirable to have some cheeses made from pasteurized milk. The cheeses in experiments 52 and 53 were made for this purpose. We pasteurized 135 pounds of milk at 85° C. (185° F.), cooled it to 29° C. (84° F.), passed carbon dioxide gas through it for half an hour, introduced 4.5 pounds of a specially prepared lactic acid “‘ starter,’ added Hansen’s rennet-extract at the rate of 2.5 ounces for 1,000 pounds of milk, and then carried on the opera- tion of cheese-making in the usual way. The curd was divided into two equal parts and one part, unsalted, was made into cheese No. 52, while the other portion, salted at the usual rate, was made into No. 53. Both cheeses were ripened at a tempera- Pibe Or 155° "C0607 eb As factors active in causing proteolytic changes, we had in the cheeses made in these two experiments (1) acid, (2) rennet- enzyme and (3) such micro-organisms as happened to be intro- duced with the “starter” and from the air of the room.” As compared with a normal cheese, there were no milk-enzymes present and the biological factor would be expected to be con- siderably less marked. In comparison with the cheeses made in experiments 44 to 51, we had in 52 and 53 no chloroform, a difference that meant absence of a biological factor in the former case. In 52 and 53 the acid was furnished by a “ starter,”’ while in the other experiments artificial acid was added. In Table VI we give the results of chemical analysis made when the cheese was fresh from press and when g months old. The detailed analyses are given in the Appendix. 5 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 16: 853 (1902). New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 205 TABLE VI.—SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CHEESE MADE FROM PASTEURIZED MILK. Nitrogen, expressed in percentage of nitrogen in A f cheese, in form of — No. of ge or cheese : when say a analyzed. Water-soluble | paracasein |Paranuclein, Am- nitrogen monolactate, |C25eoses and| Amides. oni compounds. i peptones, onla 52 Fresh 2.92 12.83 2.92 ) Oo 52 9 mos. 28.87 ety) 13.20 Stop || dhag¥ 53 Fresh. Se33 9.88 3533 fo) oO 53 9 mos. 22.20 4-71 12.38 9.82 1.18 In studying these results, we notice: (1) There was an increase in all the different classes of water- soluble compounds during the 9 months of ripening. (2) The amount of amido compounds was considerably in excess of the amounts found in cheese made with chloroform. (3) Ammonia was formed in 52 and 53, while none was present in experiments 44 to 51. (4) The increased amount of amido compounds and of ammonia observed in experiments 52 and 53, as compared with experiments 44 to 51, must be ascribed to the presence in the former of an active biological factor. THE DESTRUCTION OF MILK-ENZYMES BY HEAT. In our experiments in using pasteurized milk for studying the proteolytic action of rennet-enzyme in cheese and milk, we have stated that no enzyme was present in the milk when made into cheese except that added in the rennet-extract. It is well known that milk contains a proteolytic enzyme, as shown first by Bab- cock and Russell and confirmed by our own work and that of others. In studying the action of rennet-enzyme, it is essential that all other enzymes previously existing in the milk shall be rendered inactive. It is commonly held that these enzymes are destroyed at 85° C. (185° F.). After pasteurizing the milk used in our various experiments, we took the precaution to keep samples of the milk for examination. These samples were treated with 3.5 per ct. of chloroform by volume and determinations of the soluble nitrogen compounds were made at intervals. The results of this work are given in the accompanying table. 206 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE VII— SHOWING EFFECT OF HEAT ON PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES IN MILK. ; Temberahire dt Age of milk | Soluble nitrogen expressed No. of experiment. yeaa ee ee in percentaee nitrogen | Degrees Months Per ct. General test go0°C.(194°F.) "3 4.26 ee fe 85°C.(185°F.) 10.8 bal bc 85°C. (185°F. ) 7 9-7 45 and 46 95°C. (203°F .) 15 5-52 47 95°C. (203°F.) 16 BS 51 98°C. (208°F .) 14 TLS We have found that the percentage of soluble nitrogen in nearly fresh milk is often as high as 10 per ct. of the nitrogen in the milk. These results show that, during the long period of time indicated, no proteolysis had occurred and that we are justified in saying the milk was enzyme-free after heating. EFFECT OF COMMON’ SALT ON ACTION OF RENNET IN CHEESE- RIPENING. In Bulletin No. 203, page 241, we gave results showing that salt, in the proportion of about I per ct., the amount usually present in cheese, exerts a rather marked repressing influence upon the proteolytic action of those enzymes that are present in milk when made into cheese. We have also found that, in normal cheese, the addition of increased quantities of salt decreases the rapidity of proteolytic action. Some of our experiments were planned with a view to study the action of salt on cheese-ripening when rennet-enzyme is the only proteolytic factor present. In experiments 44 and 47, the results were negative because, in the absence of acid, no ripening change of any kind occurred. In experiments 45 and 46, the amount of soluble nitrogen was the same with and without salt, but was rather small in both cases, compared with normal cheese. In experiments 48 and 51, larger amounts of soluble nitrogen compounds were formed in the presence of salt. This may have been in part due to the fact that cheese 48 contained much moisture and was kept at a little higher temperature for the first few weeks.- In experiments 52 and 53, the formation of soluble nitrogen compounds was less when salt was added; but, in these cases, we had present biological New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 207 factors not found in the other experiments. So far as these re- sults go, they appear to indicate that, in cheese-ripening, salt, in the proportions commonly used, has little or no influence upon the action of rennet-enzyme, and that the retarding action ob- served in normal cheese, due to salt, comes from its influence upon other proteolytic agents. The results appear to us to call for additional work, before this point can be regarded as defi- nitely settled. It may be mentioned in this connection that Chittenden and Allen® have shown that the action of pepsin in digesting blood-fibrin is diminished by the presence of common salt. EFFECT OF ABNORMAL CONDITIONS PRESENT IN EXPERIMENTS. We have already called attention to the difference of conditions present in the experiments described in this bulletin and those found in normal cheese. We will now consider these in more detail. These abnormal conditions found in our experiments, but not present in normal cheese, are the following: (1) Milk heated tove5°C, to 08° C., (185° F. to 208° F.) to destroy: all enzymes originally existing in milk; (2) the use of calcium chlo- ride or carbon dioxide gas to restore the coagulating property of milk-casein by rennet-extract; and (3) the use of chloroform to suppress all activity of organisms. The question naturally arises as to whether the introduction of these unustial conditions seri- ously affected the results obtained and, if so, in what manner and to what extent. : Does the pasteurizing of milk affect the proteolytic action of rennet- extract in relation to cheese-ripening?—A study of the data em- bodied in Tables I, II and III indicates that when the conditions were favorable for the action of rennet-enzyme or pepsin, we found more or less proteolysis taking place in cheese made from milk that had been heated as high as 98° C. (208° F.). In ex- periments 44, 47, 49 and 50, our results were negative, not be- cause the milk had been heated, but because no acid was present, a condition that is essential for the action of rennet-ferment. In experiments 45, 46, 48 and 51, varying degrees of proteolysis were found but in these experiments acid was present, the milk 6 Studies in Physiol. Chem. Yale Univ. 1:92 (1884-85). 208 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE having been heated as in the other cases. While we are unable, from any data known to us, to say whether rennet-enzyme would act any more vigorously in the case of cheese made from milk that had not been heated, we can say that the heating of milk does not prevent proteolysis, though possibly it may retard it some- what, a point upon which we have no positive evidence. The fact that heating milk above a certain temperature weakens the action of rennet-enzyme in coagulating milk-casein may or may not be suggestive that the proteolytic function of rennet-ferment is also affected unfavorably. The vigorous digesting action of rennet-extract and of commercial pepsin on the casein of milk heated to 85° C. (185° F.) suggests that heat does not seriously affect the proteolytic action of rennet-enzyme; but the results of this experiment are not strictly applicable to results obtained with cheese, because we had much larger quantities of rennet- enzyme working in the milk than we had in the case of cheese. Effect of calcium chloride and of carbon dioxide gas on the proteolytic action of rennet-extract in cheese-ripening.—In making a study of the series of experiments in which calcium chloride was used (44 to 47), we found that little or no digestion was taking place. It occurred to us that possibly this salt might have some repressing influence upon enzyme action. We then made a parallel series of experiments (48 to 51), in which the use of calcium chloride was replaced by carbon: dioxide gas. In study- ing our results, we are unable to reach any definite conclusion in regard to the action of calcium chloride. Additional work is needed to settle this point definitely. The use of calcium chloride is more convenient than that of carbon dioxide gas, but the latter is preferable in the following respects: (1) We obtain a curd more nearly normal in its general physical properties when carbon dioxide is used; (2) any excess of carbon dioxide is easily removed; (3) carbon dioxide is less likely to introduce permanently any abnormal chemical and biological conditions than is calcium chloride. So far as our results indicate, carbon dioxide. by itself has no power to form with paracasein any salt-soluble compounds. This is shown particularly by experiment 49, Table I, in which neither acid nor salt was used and in which there was found increase of neither water-soluble nor salt-soluble compounds. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 209 Effect of chloroform on the action of rennet-enzyme in cheese- ripening.—We have already called attention to the point that a comparison of the results contained in Tables III and V suggests that chloroform may exert some retarding influence upon the action of rennet-enzyme in cheese-ripening. In Bulletin No. 203, page 224, we published some results which appeared to indicate that chloroform has little or no effect upon galactase, but those results do not necessarily apply to any other enzyme. The work _ of Malfitano, already referred to, indicates that the action of a peptic ferment is retarded by chloroform. DISEUSSION OF RESULTS: In the work described in the preceding pages, we have studied the proteolytic action of rennet-enzyme under the following conditions: (1) In cheese containing rennet-enzyme as the only proteolytic agent, with and without acid, and also with and without salt——In these experiments (44 to 51), all milk-enzymes were destroyed by heating at 95° C. to 98° C. (203° F. to 208° F.), the coagu- lable property of the milk-casein was restored by the addition of either calcium chloride or carbon dioxide gas, and all organisms were rendered inactive by chloroform. Acid, when present, was furnished by addition of pure lactic acid. (2) In cheese containing rennet-enzyme together with acid-fornung and some proteolytic organisms.—In these experiments (52 and 53), the milk enzymes were destroyed by heating, acid was furnished by a lactic-acid “ starter,” but no chloroform was used. We thus had, as our only proteolytic agents, rennet-enzyme in the presence of acid and some liquefying organisms that were introduced in the “ starter”’ or that got into the milk or curd during the opera- tion of cheese-making. (3) In cheese containing commercial pepsin in addition to rennet- enzyme, together with hydrochloric acid and such organisms as were imtroduced during the process of making cheese-—In these experi- ments (55 to 57), the milk enzymes were destroyed by heat and commercial pepsin added in different amounts. (4) In comparison with commercial pepsin on casein in milk, with and without acid.—In these experiments, the milk-enzymes were 210 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE destroyed by heat and all organisms were rendered inactive by chloroform. (5) Jn comparison with commercial pepsin on paracasein dilactate. —In these experiments, rennet-enzyme and commercial pepsin, sterilized by formaldehyde, were allowed to act upon sterile para- casein dilactate. The results of these experiments appear to us to justify the following statements: (1) In the case of every experiment made, whether with cheese or milk, there was little or no proteolytic action of either rennet- enzyme or commercial pepsin in the absence of acid; while there was marked action, though in varying degrees, in the presence of acid. (2) In the absence of acid in cheese, no paracasein lactate is formed and little or no proteolysis occurs; in the presence of acid in cheese, or more strictly in the milk and curd, paracasein mono- lactate is formed and proteolysis takes place, with the rennet- ferment as the active agent. The ability of rennet-enzyme to convert paracasein into soluble nitrogen compounds appears to depend upon the presence of paracasin lactate. In cheese-mak- ing, therefore, the primary function of acid appears to be the formation of a chemical compound with paracasein, commonly paracasein monolactate but, in excess of acid, paracasein dilactate. The conversion of parcasein monolactate by rennet-enzyme into soluble nitrogen compounds is strongly suggested by the fact that, when the soluble nitrogen compounds increase, the para- casein monolactate decreases. (3) In comparing rennet-enzyme and commercial pepsin in the case of cheese, milk and paracasein dilactate, the experiments that were strictly parallel have shown about the same extent of proteolytic action. (4) In the case of both rennet-enzyme and commercial pepsin, the chemical work performed by the ferments is confined mainly to the formation of paranuclein, caseoses and peptones, while only small amounts of amides are formed, and no ammonia. (5) Rennet-enzyme is a peptic ferment, as shown by the follow- ing characteristics: (a) neither rennet-enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, proteolytic change, except with the help of acid; (b) the quantitative results of proteolysis furnished by rennet- New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 2II enzyme and pepsin agree closely when working on the same material under comparable conditions; (c) the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzymes are the same both qualitatively and quantitatively; (d) neither enzyme forms any considerable amount of amido compounds, and neither pro- duces any ammonia; (¢) the soluble nitrogen compounds formed by either enzyme are chiefly confined to the groups of com- pounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. (6) The experiments made to determine the influence of salt on the proteolytic action of rennet-enzyme, while not conclusive, suggest that salt has little or no effect upon the action of rennet- enzyme in cheese-ripening. (7) In obtaining our results relating to the study of the func- tion of rennet-enzyme in cheese-ripening, we were necessarily compelled to work under conditions more or less abnormal as compared with the conditions commonly present in cheese- making. The effect of such unusual conditions would tend, if they had influence at all, to diminish the proteolytic action of rennet-enzyme. We are, therefore, justified in believing that our results represent the minimum effect of rennet-enzyme in cheese- ripening and that, under normal conditions, it takes, if anything, a larger part than that indicated by our experiments. (8) In some experiments, we eliminated all milk-enzymes and all active forms of organisms contained in the milk before making it into cheese. In some cases, we had rennet-enzyme in the presence of acid as the only proteolytic agent in the cheese; in others, we had the same conditions and, in addition, such pro- teolytic organisms as chanced to get into the milk and curd dur- ing the process of cheese-making. In the latter case (52 and 53), larger amounts of amides were formed, and some ammonia; while, in the presence of rennet-enzyme alone, no ammonia was formed and only small amounts of amido compounds. When we com- pare normal cheese with cheese containing only rennet-enzyme, we find the same difference, except that it is more pronounced, as we should expect. Hence, the special work done by the rennet-enzyme as a factor in cheese-ripening is that of a peptic digestion, forming groups of water-soluble nitrogen compounds, intermediate in complexity of structure between paracasein and the amido compounds, viz., paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. 212 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE In normal cheese, we find an accumulation of amides and ammonia, as the cheese grows older and a corresponding diminu- tion of the compounds previously formed. The formation of all the ammonia and of a large proportion of the amides found in ripened cheese must be due to some agency other than rennet- enzyme, and the only other agents present, besides milk-enzymes, that can do this work appear to be organisms or their enzymes. The first stage in normal cheese-ripening is essentially a peptic digestion of paracasein monolactate. Gradually amides are formed and later ammonia. It is probable that the first chemical work done in normal cheese-ripening is the conversion of para- casein monolactate by rennet-enzyme into paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. The question naturally arises as to whether these compounds must be formed before other agents can take part in the work and carry it along farther, producing amides and am- monia. We are at present engaged in studying this phase of the problem. 9. When rennet-enzyme was the only digesting agent in cheese, we were unable in any case to find the slightest traces of cheese flavor. Apparently, we must look to other sources for this im- portant product of cheese-ripening. APPENDIX. It has been considered desirable to present in greater detail the data relating to the conditions of the experiments and to the analytical results, in order that those who are especially inter- ested in the work may have access to these details. CONDITIONS OF EXPERIMENTS IN CHEESE-MAKING. In experiments 44 to 53 and 55 to 57, rennet was used at the uniform rate of 2.5 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk, and salt, when added, was used at the rate of 2 pounds for 1000 pounds of milk. In all experiments, the usual conditions of manufacture were fol- lowed as closely as possible. Chloroform, when used, was added in quantities to equal 3 to 5 per ct. of the milk by volume. The cheeses were in most cases cured at 15.5° C. (60° F.). We give in the following table the other details. The + sign shows that a certain condition was present, while the 0 sign shows that the condition in question was not present. 213 New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. suivis SI wes I ooon oco0o00 0 0 oooo++++++000 ++++0°09000000 *pasn ulsdog ‘pasn 2PIXxOrp uoqie) *‘pesn oplzoryo uintoye) 2. 086 fueay *paqeoy ATI d1IOTYIOIpA FT fo) o oto YIo.apA Fy fo) e) a0, yIoI1pA FT f°) 2 19}I181S ale 2 J9}IBIS f°) o o198'T o a2 re) “iP a O oO ala o10e8'T ale ate fo) ale ae o0e'T ate als o1108'T te) st oO oO ar . *peqyes “*posn pasn ploe jo puly meee wo 01049 pipe ke oy ae be) “ii epialsaisis ny UA! a Neco ibe Peo g ? oc BO OIOCT £016) ta Serige se omens Searcrr ape ete cee Soe ipaeaee ef Pe 9) ‘2% Ae TAR Fes ote he BO SENIOD OS (ole mci | ue) “AON, ‘gs9049 SUIYEU Jo 9}eq ‘SHSHHH,) IVINGWIYGdXY FO WHOLOVEONV], HO SNOILIGNO)) “JuoUur -l1adx9 JO "ON 214 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE DETAILS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES. The methods of analysis employed are those fully described in Bulletin No. 215 of this Station. Even with the exercise of extreme precaution, it is difficult always to secure from the same cheese samples that will give uniform analytical results, since different portions of a cheese may vary in composition. Such inconsistencies as appear in different analyses of the same cheese are to be attributed largely to variations of different samples. At the same time, it should be remembered that our methods of separation are far from. perfect. In some cases, we give the results secured for amido compounds with both reagents, phos- photungstic acid and tannic acid. In peptic digestions, we re- gard the determination of amides by phosphotungstic acid as being much nearer the actual truth. EXPERIMENT 44. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of — Per ct.| Per ct. ara of of Total | Para- | Amides Age of cheese : chloro-| nitro- water-| nu- by Amides when analyzed. wiaiee form gen aie soluble clein, | phos- by | Ameaee pheccel| eae in| mono- | Bitro- | caseo-| pho- | tannic |” pia *| cheese.| cheese. gen |ses and] tung- | acid : lactate. - com- | pep- stic pounds.} tones. | acid. | Per ct. | Per ct.\ Per ct.\ Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. ; ; BAO) ie Sel kal 2-445 ied O2 iar Ofe eeemes fo) oO Tuweelkiisecwese Aq Our O.f 3.18 | 92352) AsA Ons ia a peeyatee 1.26 Co) Da Se nS AGO) (5 -Ole)|egelt e225 ||' 25a4n a2 oa eee 0.96 o TeMOnth gases A6370)| 10 Sr (23508) 92.4 Syl Ale ye eee fo) o 7 de Seen SE ren 44.00'| (813) i S524" | 25720 22778 ea a7 Tales Ce) (a) (a emp taae 47.50] 6.4 | 3-30] 3.39 | 7-39 | 3 46 |-----. 3:94 | 0 Oller arse cisaae 46:50)|| 72 | #35304) 2.360) (6.3845 S20718 args aaa o Lo eM cocina 45.20) 17.0 {| 3.68. |.2572) | 6-259" 2:00) | 3-20 n\es20 fe) EXPERIMENT 45. Breshi Usiee.sats see AT.65| 10.6: |! 3:02) )h272 801 \erA O5n (nesta 7) eee 1.28-| *o 1) Weeks. tou 42.00) 1014353718), 27101 3S 30103263) eeeee oO oO TMontheecees 42.25 9. BNI 25 esa e757 AkOos | eeeeree 2.89 fe) Big SE wis SBS aces 89:25) | -k2-40| 3505 4 16.201) T1szOn TOO 7 eee ae 0:623(m0 Gi eae AY /5O}|| 901.0 4) 43.241)/60S- 00071535) 4et4y| eee 3530.00 Ce eaeaiccer 4O;50%!, 1250) || 3532) 19:04) | TOo05 503074) |) 24th ao | eta De sree Sea 40.00| 12.0 | 3.57 | 9 80] 18.50 | 14.38] 4.12 | 4.90] oO New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. EXPERIMENT 46 215 Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of — Per ct. pene Ret ot ae Age of cheese 2 chloro-| nitro- water- when analyzed. ates form gen | Para- | soluble ne in in casein {| nitro- cneeSe.| cheese.| cheese,| mono-| gen lactate. | com- pounds Per ct, | Per ct. BIKES tee aici ae orci 47.70 | 9.6 | 2.78 | 26.62 | 5.40 teWieekn- === 40:00)! 9:8.) 2:79 (25-09) 3.44 i yond eeeeee 44.40] 9.6 | 2.84 | 22.19] 9.71 Dee a og oc ais 43.90 | 11.6 | 2 89 | 28.52 | 11.66 Uae 46.00 | 10.4 | 2.97 | 19.06 | 18.90 ONS Merrie d weiss 44.00] 10.8 | 3.04 | 19 94 | 17.17 TIDE igs noe) he cate ay lien Sia lfearsioss 3.35 | 1197 | 18.50 EXPERIMENT 47. Breshiiecicece ses 48 50| 98 | 2.62 | 2.90 | 3.67 Me Wweekses ons cce 47.40| 104 | 272 | 2.21 | 3.60 ReMOU Meee 47 40| 10.2 | 2.67 | 2.10 | 4.00 a acias ses ATS Ou esses 27ON | set2a| 5276 Cry Se See eA LOG! etl Ol |h2n77 |e .O2 ano Or Oy eit sees 46.00 | 11.6 | 2 84 | 2.47 | 5.99 12) 908 6. sdosse] Seaeso0) |oosece BuI2 03.40 6:41 EXPERIMENT 48. Heesheesaze 5-271) 53,00; | 8.0172, 35" | 29,80) 4.26 QEWE ES ery et eel (Py LA Olle (2. 0)) 12/7, 40) 13,04) TenOMt hee") 5O2C0)| 9102/7250) 27,09)! 13.95 Sih be inscine ital FO. 5 4ul 12.0% |2ca 1 9 )27822)) 22537 On iy 2S scars 49.20 | 13.2 | 2.48 | 25 41 | 27.99 One Gieny stelvacc cies 49.50 | 13.0 | 2 48 | 2097 | 36 30 Merman se 2 tat [iter a ie ie mt Sec 2 62 | 12.98 | 40.84 Ges es ee Sete cbc > (ae adie 2.55 | 11.76 | 47.06 EXPERIMENT 49. meshes settee 55-00] 66 | 252 | 5.24 | 10.95 2EWEEKS eee see 55eOON) Org e201 4750169243 TeMON thee mee AGZON 5 Ome |e2- O42 e540 5270 Sec, ea esa 5105] 80 | 2.79 | 3.73 | 9.18 (8a Cl eee 49 40| 85 | 3.12 | 2.56 | 1000 Beer seeee | AS OO) EL S.On cl Sagat at secs 7.81 ey Clete ee Aree ene fae Peeters By ons) || A ah || TI). BY Para- ape nu- . clein, phos. Tyas Ane ee aseo- O- . 3 pe aad tung. Sane me pep- stic ; tones. | acid. Per ct, | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. 3206)||(pecees 1,445 )|) 00 3-44 |------ e) ie) SLO esaes aE ||| © WIC 0-8 sae 0.45 | 0 WAN het Zeeji |) 1G is || lols || abs Ie © 1402] 4.48 | 4.48 | o (o) fo) ) Oo ) oO fo) Swill Ikoaooeic 0.85 o AGL) Ae ee 1.13 o M120} yeetsee les (a) PAB ete) || AGOGO 2 49 fe) ZARBGIV hee ne 3 63 Co) PAO is See 3.63 (o) 35.88 | 4.96 | 6.30 oO 40.00 | 7.06 | 9.40 (e) GO) Cyn a ecee 1.03 fo) Sige |eecesc 1.00 ) BW lesoade fe) fo) 5:95 |------ 3-23 o FOE (eescer 2.89 ) 4.61 | 3.20 | 3.90 fo) 516 | 5.18 | 4.57 ) 216 EXPERIMENT 50. REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of — 124 alee . ane Bere ie a : dota pn rae penis A eS loro-| nitro- ter- : é when analyzed. | 3°" |“form | “zen | P89. | Sotuble|UCISI") phos- ARIES) nitro- . o- 5 : cheese. ehecke chee) eae gen pate tung- perks net com- tones stic pounds acid Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct.| Per ct. Hresh; S5ee2c4505 54-50'| O27 | -2.66-1 95.72) 80,12) 1 S57 deo sae. 1.55 o 2DawieeKS.es a: EGEOO)|| NOG ual 5 Sen LOM MOs4 Onl ne 7a5 Gu leeme I 96 oO Tmonth sessse5 52-60") 28.An 2 baa se. O7al O. 35a) vOroamsems oO o er ee as ces 50.30 || 9.6" ||"2.70) /#3-16' |) (9:00) G.30nlen ee: 3 60 fe) Omri eae kas 51-30] “O:0. 3.06. .|sat4), (S275 |\ 0.00 iaaaee 2.94 oO O88 Ss odec6e 5250.) 9:0" |" 3.20 4172.81 Hoo Se) SOVBAY Ser Co) Do ey VP Beacicers eaters cal tae ators 2°30 | 3.02 9.67)) 5:14 4.53 | 5.04 fo) EXPERIMENT 51. { Hines mcechee sie oie 38.1 13:2. 3.20 122.92, B60) sa ile eee see 0.79 fo) 2 weeks... ....| 38.60} 132 | 3.32 | 23.68] 5.66] 5 03]..--.. 0.63 o Temonth: ae gees 37-30 | 160 | 3.10 | 2297! 5.30] 5.30].----- oO oO Bees gees cece 37/20'|) 16/5 || 3-27 p22 02 loll 25) ee. 50pm e Pa as o Oo) hee ausesee 39.00 |). 15.8 | 3.27 |-17 62 |al2 46), 10.05 ea2 oo. 1.53 oO Gy WS cenace 38.70 | 16.0 | 3.48 | 15.23 | 13.22] 10.35 | 2.87 | 3.45 o 20 eee ee oee|paeeellece nes 3.42 | 12.87] 15.50 | 10.53] 4.97 | 4.97 oO WS ane OipomOUT | tasooho| ooDCoC BC OM restore 19.32 | 15.00 | 4.26 | 5.12 o EXPERIMENT 52. Bresh: (to) w=. 42.75 fe) BAS ii2:82 | 2:92) m2iO2zi eee fo) fo) Deweelksmemsiees 39.20 Oe Ps enotsy. || va mofeyy| Viz | 2h} || Goesos 2.72 | 0.54 Fononthes ses Ses On 70 o BESO 28-95) 0kO.O0N| a7.20alemenae 3 69 | 0.68 Bh heats Sesieee = 35.10 fo) 4.O8h|) 9.78 |'L7-20 || (S!2Tileaee = 9 00 | 0 32 OF) Cee Sees 34.55 to) 4.48 | 8.20] 24 11] 15.11 | “9 00 | 1607] 1.00 92 SS fesse sees 30.73 (e) 4.85 | 5-57 | 28.87 | 13.20 | 15 67 | 22.90} 1.44 EXPERIMENT 53. Hreshe ses =n 45-73 o hey) lester | a) ste). | PSE} |aoosoe oO fo) 2 Weeks, Joss) ERE ee Rea ie ane, ISOs es bab. [sah SEO Re TAS CO a a ies SES Oct S24 16G265 5) Se8 | oa, pe Lo SRE MO ae Feb. 13, 1903. . 349 206 e7/ eRe a eS ne ats mS) Apr. 10, 1903... 346.7 - 202 SHS bene Soe Seep Ato eto Sie Janet) m903 2: 342.0 messte vel) fate IRS Clete pe eae a i ol aan RU gE 24. 1902...| 356 212 142 oe SES a ee Feb. 13, 1903...] 355 211 140 PO Ea a i ape Apr. 10, 1903...| 354 ZNOR genlana ake te BE Te ose Came _June 1, 1903..--| 352.8 209 5 PE Tg TD Se ahs yk Reed a eg Pr op AO OE Ae yo ae | ee ed or pa Bete Hone eg A Hepes kOS3 sani piysdu fee essed gee Ptaehon® sare atm tage ok re ECO COR ea Mae (ok [eee | RT aT NA pte ep ang oe eel _June 1, 1903..--| 333.2 seeiei tee We cinee aa “iE Cpa aire eae i Oct. 24, 1902...| 358 208 138 if Se CN ali A I Se US DOOR aes (a7 207 136 pe eer oe Bore 1k Sau Apr. 10, 1903 .. 356 6 20 amr pass eee NOSES prea pane ae Aa June 1,, 1903... . SOL A SeRe sao S ll teen Ree 226 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE III.—SHOWING WEIGHT LosT BY CHEESE. Pounds lost for roo lbs. of Average Age when cheese at— Number of : F Age when ht of laced 2 lot of cheese. Banh heese: lal genres. weighed. 4o° F. so? F. 6° FE. Lés, Lés. Lbs. Lés. ity paces cass 64 9 days...| 20 weeks.} 4.5 4-4 68 Chae PLEN as SLs oot oe oe be Pees 28 be 5 3) 6.0 Bes ‘’ BC ant i > Tee Bs pl 20k “é “e ce Py ge 35 ce 7.0 ates a wens DI Se ssee ee 45 18 days...| 20 weeks.| 2.7 3.7 5.1 a, Rk SE Payne se ‘ be ae 8 (a3 Y " rk. CORAM tS By, A es ‘c CPR a9 ze 6c 33 aS Rea TA see ae 34 g days...| 20 weeks.| 4.2 53s eee ac Gee tne ae. 2 be sé “eé nS dl 28 4é 5 6 Dee eran B. Newer cuss 34 2 days. . ee weeks. 3.0 5-4 8.8 LE Sa eee ee fae|e2 : BAG 4c Uy Sars bee ae be “ c Ke 35 “ce 63 has Ste Bigs tAC re ae ae See 65 8 days...| 20 weeks 4.4 54 753, sé CTs ea Lg Same “é sé CORE ered 28 sé % : ote te “ec bree Sa she ins ce 6c z 35 “ec 3 spel eye ON MES AM ox 12.5 | 8 days...| 20 weeks.| 4.6 8.1 120 Soe SRR Ot Lee ORE | B2 Ounmnos 66 II.I sees ec CS eer. SE v3 iz3 ‘é oe 35 ‘e g.1 Es eek SOE Write Boao wees 36.5 —— | 19 weeks 4.6 66 9.0 SO web eet peice 3 — | 27 “* 5.5 8.3 eee “ “cc “ce ieee EES BO OCr 34 7.2 os: o--- Vila eos? ae 70 7 days...| 17 weeks 2a 2.4 4.2 ‘ CINE ae es ‘ ee ce rik 25 sé Bat 4.0 ears 6c “é oe ins “c“c “e is ciajeise stars S54) 62 4.5 er vies SS AD. ceases se 70 7 days...| 17 weeks.| 0.3 05 1.4 Gah SCBA Silk, 3 te, tree MD ac 6b EON Sere 25 66 06 0.9 fess Ufa!) oe eee dee ieee: “ sie Wane 32 be 0.9 riee ea? DOMIB IY pie eecvareaitts 70 14 days.-.| 17 weeks.| 34 sane Soee sé sé “ sé be be ee “ce Sates ce 73 oc aye 25 ce as ie “ie sotitcs 63Gc ---] 32 a3 aoe Pecin USB Dynecuines cee 70 14 days...| 17 weeks.| 0.3 0.5 lial oe 7 es Ey he be “ec OM ie gee 25 6c 0.4 05 ie oe CAE ioe PES Sep Soy. 73 c ce ce bas 32 be 0.8 abd te 1 hee From the data contained in Table II], we are enabled to make the following statements: (1) The cheese continued to lose water in nearly every case as long as weighings were made. This was true of all temperatures. (2) The loss of weight was least at 40° F. and increased with increase of temperature. At the end of 20 weeks, the cheese in temperature 40° F. had lost on an average 3.8 lbs. per 100; that in 50° F., 4.8 lbs.; and that in 60° F., 7.8 Ibs. The loss at temperature 40° F. was 1 Ib, less than at 50° F. and 4 lbs. less New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 than at 60° F. In other words, the loss at 60° F. as compared with the loss at 50° F. was three times as great as was the loss at 50° F. compared with the loss at 40° F. The loss of weight was proportionally greater at higher temperatures. . (3) If we determine the average weekly loss from the data given in Table III, we find that during the first 20 weeks the loss was at the average rate of 3 ounces a week at 40° F., 3.8 ounces at 50° F. and 6.2 ounces at 60° F. From the 2oth to the 28th week, the average weekly loss was 2.2 ounces at 40° F. and 3.2 ounces at 50° F. The cheese kept at 40° F. appeared to lose more moisture per week from April 10 to June 1 than previously. (4) The size of cheese influences the loss of moisture. Small cheeses, other conditions being the same, lose a larger proportion of moisture in curing than do large cheeses, owing to the greater amount of surface relative to weight in the smaller cheeses. This tendency is shown by the following tabulated statement: Loss IN WEIGHT BY CHEESES OF D1 FFERENT SIZES. Weight lost per roo pounds of cheese in 20 weeks at Average weight of each cheese. Temp. 40° F. Temp. 50° F. Temp. 60° F. Lés. Lbs. Ldés. PORLDSNateee Coa eces coos securesee 25 G(s! 4.2 45 fee a ee Selecta tains ein let le 2.7 Se7 5.1 (ee eee 3-9 5.9 8.5 12 Ce eee Sees ee a ee 4.6 8.1 12.0 It will be noticed that the variation is much less at 40° F. than at the higher temperature. (5) The method of covering cheese with paraffin greatly re- duces the loss of moisture. In VI, An and Bn, the cheeses were in their usual condition, while in VI, Ap and Bp, they were! covered with paraffin, being dipped in melted paraffin when a few days old. The loss of moisture in cheese covered with paraffin was only 0.3 pound per 100 pounds of cheese in 20 weeks at 40° F., 0.5 pound at 50° F. and 1.4 pounds at 60° F. In the same kind of cheese not thus covered the loss of moisture was much greater at all temperatures. By covering cheese with paraffin, 228 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE a saving in loss of moisture can be effected, amounting to 5 or 6 pounds per 100 pounds of cheese at 60° F. and at 50° or below the total loss of moisture can be reduced to less than 1 pound per 100 pounds of cheese. In addition, the use of paraffin pre- vents the growth of molds. In every case, cheeses covered with paraffin were entirely clean, while the others were more or less heavily coated with molds. RESULTS OF COMMERCIAL EXAMINATION OF CHEESE. Arrangements were made to have the cheese examined at inter- vals by commercial experts who were to score the cheeses sepa- rately, the basis of a perfect cheese being 50 for flavor, 25 for texture, 15 for color and 10 for finish. The following well- known experts were selected for this work: C. S. Martin, of J. S. Martin & Co., F. B. Swift, of A. N. Grant & Co., and D. W. Whitmore, of D. W. Whitmore & Co. We give the average of the scores in the following table: TABLE IV.—SHOWING RESULTS OF SCORING OF CHEESE, No. of Date of Boe Flav-| Tex Fin-|Total = ate o ature - - = ne examination. | curing | or. | ture. Color. ich. |score. Remarks. : room, sa Octy Os XOO2 leat 48 | 24 | 15 10 | 97 “¢ __..| Dec. 15, 1902-; 40°F. | 48 | 24 15 10 | 97 esc Pees att 50°F. | 46.5] 23 | 15 | 10 | 94.5 OF ay Ep BO BEE OO OR Ss HAO nee ata 10 | 93 s¢ __..| Feb. 13, 1903:| 40°F. | 46.7 | 33 3 | 15 10 | 95 Ot oiee [tee teen a esc ine IRAs Bh nl a ara eo ie 60 ope EC) Nes GOO: ae Ween. totals TO Neg . |pAprero 19032) (40CF 463 123 147| 10 | 94 |Flavor, not perfectly clean. Sy 6c, he) ee | SOCR. | 44 722-7. 14.6;.10) |[o2— | la vor, stamteds «| June 1, 1903.) 40°F. ! 48 | 24.7/15 | 10197.7;Clean flavor and ~ silky texture. iL: Ose; Gragozn is ee 48 | 24 | 15 “10. | 97. (6) 2, | Dechrs, 902 |) 40CR es 4Shr 23h5 rs 10 | 96 5 es See i age (eS 5OC Bealpas aal23 eee Ls 10 | 90.0 es Oe Cm ao Oolh NAT, 2255 10 | 94.5 “¢ ¢_2_ || Bebs 13% it903) | 400K. | 46) #22 15 10 | 93 (roe Ma 50°F. 145 | 22 | 15 10 | 92 se HNN Eat hae OOS Ea e4 Aen 22 15 10 | OI 6 ....| Apr. 10, 1903.| 40°F. | 45.7 | 22.3 | 15 10 | 93 |Flavor, not perfectly clean. Core ae | ROOF, | 43.7 | 22.3 | 14.7 | 10 | 90.7 |Flavor, tainted. C2 || June “tto90g.| ¢40SP eh AO aelr2a nels 10 | 94 |Flavor, flat ; texture ; smooth and silky. New YorKk AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. TABLE IV.—-( Continued). 229 No. of lot of cheese, “ec D ga of Bae | Fin-| Total f - - -| Tot aca iatibal faieing ee Ae Color. ah. Bote Remarks, room, Octane 7s 19025 |p oo5-- 48 | 24 15 10 | 97 Dec. 15, 1902.| 40°F, | 48.5 | 24 | 15 10 | 97.5 a “6 66 KE Ae 50°F. 48 24 15 10 | 97 sé 66 Comms 60°F, 465 23 15 10 94.5 Feb. 13, 1903.| 40°F. | 47.7 | 23 7| 15 10 | 96.4 |Flavor, clean; text- OF eG TR OR. 477 | 24.0'| 15 10 |967]| ure, wax-like, Peale OOOH,.(45-351'23-3"| 14 8-10 |'94 4 Apr. 10, 1903.| 40°F. | 47.7 | 24 15 10 | 96 7 |Flavor, slightly bit Ub GG = GC SOCR 4007 | 23.71) 05 10 | 95.4] ter. June 1, 1903:| 40°F. |47 | 24 | 15 10 96.0 |Flavor, clean; text- ; ure, smooth and Pu silky, OeirSs 1002: | o5 e. "Ae y | aa) rae 0 'oq.ol|RathersaGd aud of imperfect color, Dec. 15, 1902.| 40°F. | 47.5 | 23.5| 14 | 10 | 95.0 COS NS Snatee OOF, | 46.5 | 22.5 | 13.5] 10 | 92.5 Bn IL a 69°F. | 44.5 | 22 13.5 | 10 | 90.0 Feb. 13, 1903-| 40°F. | 44.7 | 22.7| 13.3] 10 90.7 SOs SUG 360 OOF. | 42.3 | 22 12.3] 10 | 86.6 beds 60°F. | 41.7 | 21.3 | 12 10 | 85.0 Apr. 10, 1903.| 40°F, | 46 | 23 14.7 | 10 | 93 7 |Flavor, acid; ‘ext ure, stiff. peta a, wee SOS E43. ay 22 Ps 10 | 88.3 Flavor, acid and not clean; texture, harsh; color, im- a __ perfect. June 1, 1903.| 40°F. | 46 23 12.7| 10 | 91.7 |Flavor, clean; text- ure, smooth and . silky ; color, light. cE SS) 19088 i124. 48 |23 |15 | 10 | 96.0; Dec, 15, 1902.| 40°F, | 48 Vaiss || Fis 10 | 96.5 SEA EE = 28 BOO He 47.5) 2306. | 15 10 | 96.0 pera EE 60°F, | 46.5 | 22.5 | 15 IO | 94.0 Feb. 13, 1903.| 40°F. | 473 PRG Ais 10 | 96.0 Sopetenee | oS OOF AS F224 WES 10 | 92.0 ETE 60°F. 44 | 22 15 10 | 91.0 Apr. 10, 1903.) 40°F. | 46 3 | 24.3 15 10 | 95.6 ome a 50°F. | 46.3 | 24 | 14.7] 10 | 95.0 June 1, 1903.| 60°F. | 46.7 23.3 | 15 10 | 95.0 | Flavor, clean; text- ure, wax-like. Oct. 13,1902) 2... | 46 23 15 IO | 94 Dec, 15, 1902.! 40°F. | 46.5 | 23.5 15 lo | 95 aa WSO 45 eelaee| Ty || ro l\oa:5 7a ee 200° R. | yor P2o ge! te | 10/1) 86 230 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE IV.—( Concluded). Hoof Date of [Temper Flav-| Tex- | Fin- ; Total sees examination, | curing | or, | ture. Color.| ich. | score Remarks. = room, Werte el eteb ong XO03)4|| AOlRei 45 sy 2k onl Ane ko NO, bee Fae, EO Ne BU Sh OO, lag. ol 20. aml MEAN Re TO mse ag Meenas eo he Oost) OOOH a B30. Oe 1 MA EOn Opa, «© _1..] Apr. 10, 1903.| 40°F. | 45.3 | 22 | 14.7] 10 | 92.0 |Flavor and texture, imperfect. OOS eecaly 28 Oe BOOK Aas) 20.741 143.1010) 00,07 Slighthy bitten mace of weak texture. «© ....| June 1, 1903..| 40°F. | 46 | 22.7/15 | 10 | 93.7 |Flavor, clean; tex- ture, smooth and pasty. VI. An.| Dec. 15, 1902.| 40°F. | 49 |24 | 15 | 10 | 98.0 GG 136 GG. 5G Bie oe 5O0°or. 48.5 PBT 10 | 97.0 EIS 6 i Een TOOL La FAO E232 5885 Io | 96.5 ie fs, 5] Keb. 1g, 19035| Mook )A4d6| 2a eis 10 | 97.0 6c GG 3 6 6c Come 50°F, 48 24 15 10 | 97.0 Ses HCE se se | 660°F. 45-3 | 23 15 10 933, oo; BApresronrooz=)| 940° s "45min 15 10 | 97.0 “cc 73 6c ‘é CS 50°F. 48 24 Len IO | 97.0 «© & \ June 1, 1903--| 40°F. | 47.7 | 24.3} 15 | 10 | 97.0 |Surface covered with a mold. VI. Ap} Feb. 13, 1903-} 40°F. | 48 | 24 | 15 10 | 97.0 “6 cic 6“ 7) Co Ss 50°F. 48 24 15 Io 97.0 «c “< 6“ 6c a3 bs 60°F. 46.3 23.3 I5 10 | 94.3 | spots | Apres TO, TO03.|) 4OOk >| 485324) 5 10 | 97.3 | “ec 6c a3 6é Noe 50°F. 48 24 15 Io 97.0 i (oie. Une st aT OOR ms RAO. sm Ou7aP2Ana els 10 | 98.0 Condition, practi- cally perfect ; sur- face, bright and clean. VI. Bn.} Feb. 13, 1903.| 40°F. | 48 |24 |15 | 10 | 97.0 6s 6c bs “i “6 50°F. 48 24 15 10 | 970 ge LOR eh 03 600 Fe 4a 7, 2207) 0423 1 LOO ley = | Apr. 1; 1903.) ook 460R) ears ins 10 | 97.0 té “ce oe “cc se 50°F. 47 24 15 Io 960 $e Ce MNES, TOOse| FAOC Haze ee AeanleniG 10 |97.0| Surface covered with mold. VI. Bp.; Keb. 13, 1903. 40°F. |48 |24 |15 | 10 | 97.0 a, seep ety heed Me BOC Hao) ae ean 10 | 97.0 “c “ce 6c “c os 60°F. 45-7 23 15 ae) 93.7 oS a *5s| VA preiroyago35|N40°K-s | 4Smmiton 15 IO | 97.0 be “cs ft 46 oe sé 50°F. 47 24 15 Io 96 re) ‘©! June 1, 1903.-| 40°F. | 48.7| 24.3| 15 | 10 | 98.0 |Condition, _ practi- cally perfect ; sur- face, bright and clean. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 231 From the data embodied in the preceding table, we are able to present the following statement as a summary of the results :— (1) Almost without exception the cheese cured at lower tem- peratures was superior in quality to that cured at higher tempera- tures. Cheese cured at 40° F. usually scored higher than that cured at 50° F., and the cheese cured at 50° F. scored higher in every instance than that cured at 60° F. Averaging all our results, we have the following general scores for the different tem- Petatures: At 40> L.O5.75 at 50” I°04,.2: at: 60°- HF, 91.77 “From these figures we see that the cheese deteriorated considerably more at 60° F. as compared with 50° F., than it did at 50° F. as compared with 40° F. The difference of scores is 1.5 in favor of 40° F., as compared with 50° F., and 2.5 in favor of 50° F. as compared with 60° F. In other words, the higher the temperature, the greater is the relative deterioration of cheese in quality for each degree of temperature. (2) The difference in quality fell mostly on the flavor and texture. Averaging all our figures, we have the following results: go°F. 50°F, 60° Fr, lavorssesocovesies 47-4 46 4 44 8 WMextunereeseerae= 23 4 23.0 ZZ Here, also, we see that the difference is greater between 60° F. and 50° F. than between 50° F. and 40° F. in the direction of poorer quality. (3) At any given time the cheese cured at 40° F. was usually better in quality than that at 50° F., and that at 50° F. was better than that at 60° F. The longer the time of curing, the greater was the difference in favor of the lower temperatures. The following tabulated averages of the results illustrate these statements: Age of cheese, Score at 40°F. 5oc 60°F. MOMWECKSeeee rece ec iee iris 96 3 94.7 g2 ZO Me oe S ecto S oa Sess 93-8 gI.5 89 7 DSi Sree aa gaciets 94-2 91 9 “vei 35 6 wwe nee e =e 2 eee 95-3 toe cee The cheeses cured at 60° F. showed such deterioration in quality at the end of 20 weeks that they were sold. While the cheeses cured at 40° F. and 50° F. showed some deterioration in quality at 20 weeks, they scored higher at 28 weeks than at 20 weeks. The cheese kept at 40° F. showed its highest score at 232 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL ‘DEPARTMENT OF THE 35 weeks in several cases. The higher score was always in favor of the lower temperature by several points. (4) The effect of covering cheese with paraffin was in several cases to improve the quality as compared with cheese not so covered. The difference was more marked at 60° F. than at lower temperatures. The cheeses covered with paraffin and cured at 40° F. showed their highest score at the end of 35 weeks. go°F. 50°F, 60°F. Cheese monmal) (Amn) eeoceenecee scenes 20 weeks old, 97 97 93-3 UL es (Bn) cnetas ca eect eeecicews va cos MES as 97 97 QI 7 Cheese covered with paraffin (Ap)----...- Ce ee 97 97 94-3 6c iT iT: 7 (Bp) ecco ‘é ‘“ “ 97 97 93-7 Cheesemormalli(An)peee eee ee eee eee 28 weeks old. 97 97 seae NG WG (C2 BAe Bards Sa sorss ea 2 Le We UC 97 96 neers Cheese covered with paraffin (Ap) ---..... a gs C7235 OF BEBE 6“ 66 66 7 (Epics 6s iT; “ 97 96 ik ae Cheese normal (An and Bn)---..2-...--- 35 weeks old. 97 sierats ines Cheese covered with paraffin (Apand Bp) ‘“ ‘ a 98 SOME PRACTICAL APPIICATLOns: From the data presented in the foregoing pages, we have seen that the use of low temperatures in curing cheese shows two prominent results, (1) reduction of loss of weight and (2) improve- ment of commercial quality. Any reduction of loss of weight or any improvement in quality means an increase in the amount of money that can be realized in the sale of the cheese. It is a matter of practical interest and importance to consider in some detail what specific increased or decreased market values were found for the cheese under the different conditions of experi- ment. ECONOMY IN REDUCING LOSS OF MOISTURE. We have seen that the loss of moisture in curing cheese can be reduced by using a lower temperature or by covering cheese with a thin coating of paraffin or by a combination of these two conditions. Increased amount of cheese resulting from using low tempera- tures.—Taking the longest period of time for which we were able to compare the results at the different temperatures employed, zo weeks, we found that the cheese cured at 40° F. had lost, on an average, 3.8 pounds for 100 pounds of cheese; the cheese at 50° FP, had lost 4.8 pounds; and that at 60° F., 7.8 pounds. For 100 _ New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 233 pounds of cheese originally placed in the curing-rooms at the different temperatures, we had for sale at the end of 20 weeks 96.2 pounds of cheese cured at 40° F., 95.2 pounds at 50° F., and 92.2 pounds at 60° F. Assuming that the cheese sells at a uniform price of Io cents a pound, we should have receipts from our original 100 pounds of each of the different cheeses as follows: @heesesteured! atedocel* Sonu arse $9 62 Cheeses cured at s0° Pi. ies. 2s O952 Gheeses:cuned! at GoltF?.... 0.) 852.855) Q 22 Under these conditions, the receipts from the cheese kept at 40° F. are 10 cents a hundred more than for that kept at 50° F. and 40 cents more than for that kept at 60° F. As we shall point out later, the differences are really greater than this. Increased amount of cheese resulting from covering cheese with a coating of paraftin.—At the end of 17 weeks, cheese covered with paraffin had lost only 0.3 pound for 100 pounds of cheese origi- nally placed in storage at 40° F., 0.5 pound at 50° F. and 1.4 pounds at 60° F. The saving thus effected, based on the uniform price of cheese at 1o cents a pound, would average about 35 cents for roo pounds of cheese cured at 40° F., 43 cents at 50° F., and 64 cents at 60° F.; or, comparing cheese kept at 40° F., covered with paraffin, with cheese kept at 60° F. not so covered, there would be a difference of about 75 cents a hun- dred in favor of the paraffined cheese. The cost of covering cheese with paraffin is slight. Conven- iences for this work can be obtained from manufacturers of dairy supplies. INCREASED MARKET VALUE RESULTING FROM IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF CHEESE CURED AT LOW TEMPERATURES. We have already studied the results of the scores furnished by the experts who examined the cheeses from time to time. They were requested also to place upon the different lots of cheese a commercial valuation, based upon the results of their scoring. Below we present these commercial valuations in tabulated form: 234 TABLE V. — SHOWING MARKET VALUE OF ONE POUND OF CHEESE, Tem- Lot IV. Lot VI. Date of ex- ears Lot | Lot | Lot Te amination, pede I. Il. re V. aon A B An. | Ap Bn. | Bp. 1902. Gis Czsm Gnas OZ50\" Gisoi| (Gtse tess |iGessn| a iOesom mers. Dec. Fite ae 40°F. 13 1 13 A)-mg) | ashe 13°) |) 13> Naisehilas ac) Maenargee UN oda KOo Meir 2 2450s r3 |1214g 13 | 124) 133 | 1334 | 1334 | 1334 S Us ME eee 60°F. | 12% | 1234 | 123f| 12 | 123¢ | 113¢ | 1334 | 1334 | 1334 | 1334 1903. Bebra eeee AOSH EN AUS et ape ao ieeat 2 ans 124% | 14% | 144% | 144% | 14% Sele 50°F. | 1244 | 124% [13° | 1134 | 12% | 12 | 144] 14% 114% | 144 meas oes 60°F. }12 | 12 | 1234] 11% | 12% | 1134 (13% | 1334 | 13% | 1344 LANDIS) Gnoe 40°F, | 1234 |12% | 13 | 1244} 13 «| 1234 | 1434 | 1434 | 1434 | 14% Ch DIE ies 50°F. | 124 | 1244/13 [12 113° | 12% 114% | 1434 | 14% | 1434 yuse vr ees-s AOR | coselisesw | wmcc| sine Iynewen|) cosadlha seul maee | nae mea REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE x. In studying the data embodied in Table V, we notice the following points: (1) In the case of lots I to V, the market value of the cheese cured at 40° F. was greater in most cases than that cured at 50° F. and, in every case, greater than that cured at 60° F. In most cases, the cheese cured at 50° F. had a higher market value than that cured at 60° F. These statements hold good for the 20 weeks during which the cheeses were kept at the three different temperatures. Ifthe cheeses cured at 60° F. had been kept fora longer period, they would have shown serious decrease in value. In the case of Lot VI, the market value was the same for all temperatures on December 15th, when the cheese was about 8 weeks old. Two months later, there was no difference at the temperature of 40° F. and 50° F., but the cheese kept at 60° F. had a lower market value than the cheese kept at the lower temperatures. In April, when the cheese was about 25 weeks old, there was a little difference in favor of the lower temperature. (2) In comparing the cheeses covered with paraffin (Lot VI Ap and Bp) with those left in the usual condition (An and Bn), there was no difference in their market value during the first 17 weeks at the temperatures 40° F. and 50° F. At 60° F. at the end of 17 weeks, the cheeses covered with paraffin were valued a quarter of a cent a pound more than the unparaffined ones. When the cheese kept at 40° F. was 25 and 32 weeks old, there New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 235 was no difference in market value between the paraffined cheeses and those not paraffined; but, in the cheeses kept at 50° F. there was, at the end of 25 weeks, an increased market value of a quarter of a cent a pound in favor of the paraffined cheese. It appears from these results that, in cheese covered with paraffin, the results are more marked at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures in favor of the paraffined cheese, but even then only after the first few months of ripening. The chief value of paraffin- ing cheese appears to be in preventing loss of moisture and in keeping the surface free from molds. (3) If we average the results obtained with the different lots we have the following figures: Date of Temperature Market value examination, of curing. per pound. Weer ns5,) 1902; 40°F. 13.300 cents, 3 wy a3 50°F. 13.175 6c “c 6“ 6c 60°F, 12.950 6e Feb. 13, 1903. 40°F. T3275) ae CS to BOOK. F3-050_) $¢ OG, ib) 6G 60°F. 12.675 ‘6 Apr. 9, 1903. 40°F, 03 525. 66 sé 66 50°F. 13.325 “c At the end of 10 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 124 cents more a hundred pounds than the cheese cured at 50° F., and 35 cents more than that cured at 60° F. The cheese cured at 50° F. was worth 224 cents more than that cured at 60° F. At the end of 20 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 225 cents more a hundred pounds than that cured at 50° F., and 60 cents more than that cured at 60° F., while that cured at 50° F. was worth 374 cents more than that cured at 60° F. At the end of 28 weeks, the cheese cured at 40° F. was worth 20 cents more a hundred pounds than that cured at 50° F. INCREASED RECEIPTS FROM CHEESE CURED AT LOW TEMPERATURE AND COVERED WITH PARAFFIN. We have seen that the curing of cheese at low temperatures has the effect of (1) preventing loss of moisture and (2) increasing the market value of the cheese. Therefore, we not only have more cheese to sell but can sell it at a higher price. Taking cheese 20 weeks old as a basis for comparison, we know how much weight is lost at different temperatures and also the differ- ence in market price. From these figures, we can prepare the following tabulated statement: 236 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ‘Cured cheese equiva- | Market price of Temperature of curing. lent to roo pounds of one pound of Rea en green cheese, cheese. ; Wen Cents. 40°F, 96.2 13.275 $12 77 50°F. 95.2 13.050 12.42 60°F, 92.2 12-675 11.69 These figures indicate that, from too pounds of cheese put into the curing-room, we were able to realize from that cured at 40° F. 35 cents more than from cheese cured at 50° F., and $1.08 more than from that cured at 60° F. From the cheese cured at 50° F., we received 73 cents more a hundred pounds than from that cured at 60° F. If we compare our 1esults obtained with cheese covered with paraffin with those given by cheese not so covered, we have the following tabulated statement: Cured cheese equivalent to| Market price of one : pais ag roo pounds of green cheese. pound of cheese. Receipts from cheese ure oO es ee eee ee curing Not Not Unpara- room, Paraffined, paraffined. Paraffined, paraffined, Paraffined. ined e Lbs. Lés. Cents. Cents. 40°F. 99.7 96.2 14.25 14.25 $14.21 $13.70 50° 99.5 95.2 14 25 14.25 14.19 13-56 (sfejetiiit 98.6 92.2 13275 13.50 13.56 12.45 At 40° F. the difference in favor of the paraffined cheese is 51 cents for 100 pounds of cheese originally placed in the curing- room; at 50° F. the difference in 63 cents; and at 60° F. $1.11. Covering cheese with paraffin results in greater saving at higher than at lower temperatures. Comparing paraffined cheese cured at 40° F. with unparaffined cheese cured at 60° F., we find a difference of $1.76 for 100 pounds of cheese in favor of the paraffined cheese and the lower temperature. ADVANTAGES OF CURING CHEESE AT LOW TEMPERATURES. Briefly summarized, the advantages of curing cheese at low temperatures are the following: New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 237 (1) The loss of moisture is less at low temperatures, and there- fore there is more cheese to sell. (2) The commercial quality of cheese cured at low temperatures is better and this results in giving the cheese a higher market value. (3) Cheese can be held a long time at low temperatures without impairment of quality. (4) By utilizing the combination of paraffining cheese and curing it at low temperatures, the greatest economy can be effected. RESULIS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CHEESE. The analytical data were obtained by the methods published in Bulletin No. 215, except that th. paranuclein, caseoses and pep- tones were not separated from one another, their combined amount being obtained by difference. TABLE VI.—RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of— Lot of | "GpP| Date | Water cheese, | curing analysis cheese, | Paraca- Wevacre Paranu- room. j sein- Sayan clein, case- raid Am- mono- | jitrogen, | OSes and €S. | monia. lactate. gens peptones. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. 1 te cdl (antes oe Octesreas |rsay20 60 42 14.35 9.72 4.63 = AOS. Dec. 23-- 34.56 | 42.53 21.95 12.00 8.37 58 sai) oelae S5|| Seite) 36 88 25.83 14.55 9.33 95 Sa (OOS eee ee 21 34 OL BRIE 30.14 14.73 13.62 aes oor: | Neb.e1S<.||/¢ 3.90 43.82 24.72 17.98 4.94 Speer (SOLE lin wes mene. OrAG 35.78 31.34 17 Ain 11.56 Peres KOO TE aa) SE eNEE 22 1 30:46 BIeo7, 35 92 16.85 15.52 mepes |i FOG Apres t 32 33870 42 70 28.32 16.41 9 44 Seren (GO gions ake ate | aK Og 27.60 36.65 15.68 17.00 OF mal) AOSTA || bbs Snail ey leaks) 18 65 30.57 15.65 11.92 1s ek ae OetenS eee 34°43 40.70 17.47 II. 72 5.06 Se eee 4Ool . | Wer, 234.1 .134 08 35-78 19.56 10.23 7.33 Oe oe SOGE te] ake EES. ae 26 29.26 28.35 17.70 8.10 pias FOOSE | EAE (Balk 28.51 27.86 Ten! 10 31 Sees 4OOH 9 |" HebiyTS.4)032¢40 34.79 22.59 15.68 4 84 OO soll SOON See eI eQIUao 26.02 31 90 20.82 8.37 Spee MOOD E a eens aor 5O 22 52 34.00 19.65 10.82 te tee OCR Api el 3209 31 O05 |e 42.05 22.03 12.78 6.83 SEE BOSE S| oO Oe 1 gw 20.48 32.76 18.75 11.21 “.-1 40°F, | June 5...) 32.09 | 46.07 | 25.13 | 15.97 7 33 NNWNHNNNN OWWWW NH Hee O e baa woo [o) -_ Co oS) 238 Lot of cheese. aes el ice crime tiga sh eee ea ea cl ca eos eal Nie REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE Date of analysis. TABLE VI.— (Continued. ) Water in cheese. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of— Paraca- sein- mono- lactate. 58 13 57-95 50.23 46.30 43 43 37-30 36.69 39.24 50.00 44.98 35-83 34.69 31.46 28.51 Sis) oe) 33 41 39.44 33-78 26.78 42.85 48.19 43-78 42.96 35.04 47-73 26.73 38 98 45.42 37.18 35-49 3 48 Baur 40 62 37-99 35-71 33:33 30.95 39.15 49 05 Water- soluble nitrogen, 13.04 12.93 22.40 21.55 26 95 28.57 31-77 28.70 25 95 25-35 30.61 56 30.18 36.19 29.05 30.96 31 53 31,99 29°34 26°76 2397 20.28 26.49 27.34 25.69 30.51 24.59 22.02 31.18 33 64 38.83 39.47 25-39 24.00 35-90 32.00 27,12 29 37 22.06 24.88 27.98 25.63 32.69 36 99 25 69 37 21 29.10 Paranu- clein, case- oses and peptones. Amides. 3:43 3.93 7.02 7:93 7-35 8.13 8.95 9.19 5.24 4.57 7.48 8.16 10.34 9 65 7.21 8.02 10,00 8.95 8.16 6.37 7:95 7.14 9.55 12.85 7.96 12.25 6.96 4.59 8.78 9 91 17.88 17.00 5.52 8 83 15 24 14.22 6.85 11.64 6.13 8.96 9.09 6.28 9.86 12.41 5.96 14.22 8.20 a WON w ret monn © yo New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 239 TaBLE VI. — ( Concluded.) Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of— Motos Temp. Date Water theese, | curing Sear reece Paraca- | water Paranu- room, 3 sein- ~ |clein, case- : Am- mono- calielalls oses and ASE: monia, lactate, | trogen. peptones, Vel ACS eee on OCtan 2964834). 977 62.08 12.87 9.48 3.39 fo) GC ANOY|| Goons Ce Vee es ay20! ih, OOcr4 15.02 11.21 3.81 ) Se Amy pA 0° bn Decsm 72s 35.05 65.34 15.78 9.50 6 22 ) s ae “ CO ra es OO 50.32 15.30 8.30 5-99 I 00 Pap Aumse ROE ot: Pern eer tal 2A; O2 53-96 22.03 12.66 8.37 1.00 ee AD hoc Semis e Peels 34.37 58 51 25.17 15.65 8.16 I 36 «¢ An.| 60°F. SG 108 ||. Bynb Xo) 51.66 25.39 16 77 7 29 1 33) OSs) a6 Soe ie 24) Sot. 27. OL 28.32 16,81 9 96 155 «¢ An.| 40°F. | Feb. 20..| 35.08 56.76 | 25.90 16.67 7.43 1.80 Sepeupe| SOS als Se 9 60 2a 34-05" | 58.94 | 20:38 14.73 491 | 0.67 ‘Sean: $e CO ee a ACG T 37.67 26.46 16 60 8.07 I 79 See silly yen GS GO S| eee 30.51 32.66 22.46 8 39 1.81 SACs OO oie ee rent eae TOwt 20, 500sl" 34/43 19.39 12.42 2 62 COPA i sa COS taliees 29.112 37.320 |) 37.04 19.69 13.65 3 80 “ An.| 40°F. | Apr. 15--| 35.06 | 44.56 | 25.00 16.09 aly | 1.74 seeps || os fe PB 4e 7 EY Ni 390784 (1 25:94" | 14.29 9.45 |. 2.20 SBR of Cree OnE ee AG ae |e 2702 17 66 7.95 2.21 SESB Del, bcs GO GO | Boe | eyoVols) |] abi 16,67 6.86 1.92 COD ACTIA SOC Bren ice einen AO 36.83 28 58 14,96 10.27 Bai sep AD: | eee Sp emaceear lt 34 02 35.01 31 39 Sse} Tigi)! 2 63 Oe eyay se GE Ge Bae 31.11 32.00 16 44 12 45 nul SOME yal" Cee eee) AeA 2 24.34 32.75 17 04 12.61 3.10 cep Ans| e402 by) || Sune) = 3) .80 6. 26.00 13.50 10.00 259 3 33 40.75 3:5 SAD |e cee ade OO 50.12 25.06 12 41 10.12 2.53 co Bn. of Ae Ie eee eal) 44.70 24 50 13.02 9.18 2.30 COB pnliu are OS NCCE a3 4e40 33.08 28.50 16.79 9 41 2 30 (1) The process of cheese-ripening—When cheese ripens, the most prominent change taking place is in the nitregen com- pounds. The casein of milk is changed by the action of rennet- enzymes into curd, chemically known as paracasein. In the process of cheese-making, lactic acid is formed and this unites with the paracasein, forming a compound known as paracasein monolactate.! It is this compound that imparts to cheese-curd the property of forming fine strings on a hot iron and it is the formation of this paracasein monolactate that accounts for the changes in appearance, plasticity and texture of cheese- curd during the process of cheddaring. Moreover, there is reason to believe that the changes that take place in the process of cheese- (1) Bull. No. 214, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1902.) 240 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ripening start with and are dependent upon the presence of para- casein monolactate or some similar compound. Hence, from a -chemical point of view, cheese-ripening consists mainly of the change of paracasein monolactate into other forms of nitrogen compounds, chief among which in the order of their formation are paranuclein, caseoses, peptones, amido compounds and ammonia. These compounds, formed from paracasein mono- lactate, are readily soluble in water, while paracasein monolactate is not. Hence, in ripening cheese we have larger amounts of substances that are soluble and smaller amounts of substances that are insoluble than in green cheese. Ripening cheese is believed, for this reason, to be more readily digestible than green cheese. The amount of soluble nitrogen compounds is used as a measure of the extent of cheese-ripening. This present investigation offers an opportunity of studying the chemical results of cheese-ripening under different conditions of temperature and with a number of different types of cheddar cheese under commercial conditions. ; (2) Moisture in cheese—Before taking up a study of the nitro- gen compounds of the cheeses under investigation, we will call attention to the amount of moisture in the cheese. In the case of Lots I, II, III and IV, in which the moisture was determined when the cheese was placed in cold storage, we found the moisture content varying from 34.20 to 35.44 per ct.; this may be regarded as a comparatively small variation. In Lots IV and V, the moisture must have been above 40 per ct. at the time the cheese was placed in cold storage, because 10 weeks later, when we made the first analysis, the moisture was about 39 per ct. The results of moisture determination show 4 gradual decrease in moisture as the cheese becomes older, as indicated by the following averages: Percentage of moisture in cheese. When put in cold storage .... 36 50 per ct. At 40°F, AE GOW. At 60°F, After being in storage 10 wks. ...... 36.30 35.70 35 65 “ Gre ““ BOM My bie tateee 35035 34.66 34.26 The decrease of moisture is greater with increase of tempera- ture, a point which has been dwelt upon in connection with loss of weight. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 241 (3) Amount of paracasein monolactate in cheese-—The amount of paracasein monolactate formed in the different cheeses when I and 2 weeks old, varied from 40.70 to 66.14 per ct. of the nitro- gen in the cheese and averaged 57.49 per ct. The amount decreased as the cheese aged, and more rapidly at higher than at lower temperatures, as shown by the following general averages: Percentage of nitrogen in cheese in form of paracasein monolactate. Age of cheese. 40° F, RaoMhe 60° F. I week .-.....----------- 57-49 57.49 57 49 KOSWEEKS ita secia ance woes 47.94 42 08 37.09 20MM Ry (Noe ner toe eee ete 47 10 B5024r a 30.77 Pye ee ae oe 5 pdocensose 40.54 STES2 ey iy | yet senate ise = Bleed Unisteseten Anaiscie oo S(O By ae er eas So ie Me See eee a This diminution of paracasein monolactate is undoubtedly due to its conversion into water-soluble nitrogen compounds. (4) Amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese.— While the amount of water-soluble compounds of nitrogen in cheese is not a guide in respect to the detailed chemical changes taking place in ripening cheese, it serves as a general indication of the extent and rapidity of those changes. The data below, representing averages of our results, show that the amount of water-soluble nitrogen increases with increase of temperature and with lapse of time. Percentage of nitrogen in cheese in form of water-soluble compounds, Age of cheese. 40°F, 50°F. 60°F. MeV eC Kees waee See Paes 1455 14.55 14.55 ROSW EE KSicteeissae een sis os es 20 03 25 18 28 48 2 ae haa Baars Shoe he oe 24.12 31.56 36.24 2 ONS Morenita © se aera I 26.27 SBtOO ne PL eet eC 2 od BSN Nas Sion cute cme as oe ZHONG awe coacceteates Mill gececce: tome (5) Amount of amido compounds in cheese—The amido com- pounds of cheese are of interest because it is possible that among these compounds we are to look for the substance or substances responsible for cheese flavors. Little or no cheese flavor appears in cheese until amido compound are formed. Their amount 242 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. increases with temperature and with lapse of time, as shown by the following averages: Per ct. of nitrogen in form of amido compounds. Age of cheese. 40°F. Bock. 60°F. riweek season eee esos 4.06 4 06 4 06 TOMweekSts-- socnoe Seaeeee 6.92 8.98 9.85 2078 “Se Newstin nie concoct Bee 8.95 13.30 Phot gd A ORES MERE Ae Ae 7.60 12.90:. |) Seecteoces 35 Pcie Gisiccstacieice efeeteses 9:00 = All Sie sea scee ol) aes (6) Amount of ammonia in cheese—The formation of ammonia in cheese may possibly be associated also with the development of cheese flavor. No ammonia is found in fresh cheese. It begins to be formed in appreciable quantities in about 4 weeks and increases with the age of the cheese. Its amount is greater at higher than at lower temperatures. The following averages give a good idea of the amount found in cheese under the con- ditions indicated: Per ct. of nitrogen in cheese in form of ammonia, 40°F. 50°F", 60°F, to ° = o o =~ n ' ' ' : ‘ ’ : ‘ ' ‘ Lol os is) WN = Oo a+ (ee) Gomis WwW Ww fon) CONDITIONS. AFFECTING CHEMICAL CHANGES, IN CHEESE-RIPENING.* Le VAN SLYKE AN DOB. Be EA RIT. SUMMARY. I. Object——This bulletin contains the results of study relating to some of the more prominent conditions that influence the chemical changes taking place in cheese during the ripening process. 2. Influence of Time.—The amount of soluble nitrogen compounds increases as cheese ages. The rate of formation of these compounds is more rapid in the early stages of ripening, about two-thirds being formed during the first 3 months, and over 90 per ct. in the first 9 months, of an 18-month period of study. 3. Effect of Different Temperatures.—Soluble nitrogen compounds increase in cheese-ripening quite closely in proportion to increase of temperature. Between the limits of 32° F. and 70° F., there was an increase of 0.5 per ct. of soluble nitrogen compounds for an in- crease of one degree of temperature. The amido compounds and ammonia were more abundantly formed and they steadily accumu- lated in cheese cured at higher temperatures. 4. Influence of Moisture Content of Cheese.—Cheese containing more moisture, other conditions being uniform, generally contains larger amounts of soluble nitrogen compounds, especially after the early stages of ripening. 5. Influence of Size of Cheese——Cheeses of large size usually form soluble nitrogen compounds more rapidly than smaller cheeses under *A reprint of Bulletin No. 236. 244 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE the same conditions, because large cheeses have a higher water con- tent after the early period of ripening. 6. Effect of Salt—Cheese containing more salt forms soluble nitrogen compounds more slowly than cheese containing less salt. This appears to be due, in part, to the direct action of salt in retard- ing the activity of one or more of the ripening agents, and, in part, to the tendency of the salt to reduce the moisture content of the cheese. 7. Effect of Different Amounts of Rennet—The use of increased amounts of rennet-extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results in producing increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. 8. Influence of Acid.—Acid is necessary for the formation of para- casein monolactate, from which soluble nitrogen compounds appear to be formed in normal cheese-ripening; but the exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes of the ripening process has not yet been fully studied. 9. Transient and Cumulative Products of Cheese-Ripening.— Paracasein, caseoses and peptones usually vary within small limits and do not usually accumulate in cheese in increasing quantities but after a while decrease, while amides and ammonia are found to accumulate continuously during the normal ripening process. Low temperatures favor some accumulation of the transient products, while high temperatures favor the more rapid accumulation of amides and ammonia. 10. Influence of Products of Proteolysis on Cheese-Ripening.— The accumulation of soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese appears to diminish the action of the agents causing the changes, so that cheese ripens less rapidly after the first period. Ir. Why Moisture Affects Cheese-Ripening Process——An in- creased moisture content in cheese favors more active chemical change for two reasons: (1) Moisture in itself favors the activity New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 245 of ripening ferments; (2) the presence of increased amounts of moisture serves to dilute the fermentation products that accumulate. 12. Some Practical Considerations—The conditions of the manu- facture of cheese and of ripening determine the rapidity and extent to which chemical changes take place in the nitrogen compounds during ripening. The following conditions promote more rapid change: (1) Increase of temperature in ripening ; (2) larger amount of rennet; (3) higher moisture content of cheese; (4) decreased amount of salt; (5) large size of cheese; and (6) moderate amount of acid. Cheese made and handled so as to ripen slowly is of higher commercial value. 246 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE INTRODUCTION: The object of this bulletin is to present the results of our study relating to some of the more prominent conditions that influence the chemical changes taking place in the nitrogen compounds of cheese during the ripening process. It is well known that, dur- ing the cheese-making process, chemical changes soon begin in the freshly coagulated curd or paracasein formed when milk- casein is acted upon by rennet. The same cheese examined at intervals is found to show quite marked variations in the charac- ter of its nitrogen compounds. Cheeses made from, the same milk under the same conditions of manufacture and subjected to different conditions during the ripening process show a difference in chemical composition. Cheeses manufactured under different conditions and ripened under uniform conditions may vary in the character of their nitrogen compounds. It has seemed to us desirable that a somewhat comprehensive study should be made of the changes actually found in the nitrogen compounds of cheese, using in the work only cheeses made and ripened under known, controlled conditions. The results presented in this bul- letin by no means exhaust the subject, our intention being to study first only some of the more prominent factors, such as time, temperature, moisture, salt, rennet, acid, etc. The chief proteid of curd, freshly coagulated by rennet, is, under usual conditions, a compound called paracasein, in some respects resembling milk-casein, in other respects differing from itinamarked degree. The exact chemical relation of these two compounds has not yet been learned. In the usual methods of cheese-making, the milk-sugar, acted on by certain organisms, begins to form lactic acid early in the process and this acid, as rapidly as formed, combines chemically with paracasein to form a compound called paracasein monolactate. Many of the peculiar properties of curd are believed to be due to the presence of this paracasein monolactate, such as the ability to form fine strings on a hot iron, the changes in appearance, plasticity and texture and, perhaps, the shrinking. It is also probable that paracasein mono- lactate forms the real starting point of cheese-ripening or, stated New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 247 another way, that we must have paracasein monolactate present before we can have formed such compounds as caseoses, peptones and amides. Starting with the casein of milk, we have in cheese- curd and ripening cheese the following nitrogen compounds formed in something like the following order: paracasein, para- casein monolactate, paranuclein, caseoses, peptones, amido com- pounds and ammonia compounds. The amounts of these differ- ent compounds and classes of compounds and their relations to one another we shall study in some detail in the following pages. In the manufacture of the cheeses used in the work, we had the skilful services of Mr. Geo. A. Smith. The general plan was to follow the usual commercial methods employed in making cheddar cheese. Where there was any departure from normal methods, notice is called to it in connection with the discussion or the analytical tables contained in the Appendix. The cheeses were kept under known conditions during the curing process. From 4 to 8 cheeses were made at a time from each separate lot of milk, the amount of milk varying from 400 to 1200 pounds. The cheeses were made in two sizes, 10 and 30 pounds. The chemical results obtained may be used to some extent as standards of reference, so far as they represent normal cheddar cheese under the conditions given. fie REEATION OF HiME TO-fHE CHEESE-RIPEN- INGE ROCESS: An examination of the detailed analyses given in the Appendix shows, in the case of every individual cheese, under all the con- ditions studied, that there is a progressive change, resulting in an increase of water-soluble nitrogen compounds as the cheese ad- vances in age. As we shall point out later, the effect of time as a factor in cheese-ripening is modified by a variety of conditions. For purpose of illustration, we will here give averages of the results obtained under the various conditions employed. Each analysis represents averages of the results obtained with 24 dif- ferent cheeses, and they exhibit more fully than any other data published within our knowledge the detailed chemical changes that occur in the nitrogen compounds of cheese during the pro- cess of ripening. 248 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE I.—SHOWING EFFECT OF TIME ON CHEESE-RIPENING. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of— Cee OF bs . ee HEESE, aracasein so uble P. Es 4 Am- Sapiro rar tie Ee et Caseoses. |} Peptones. | Amides. Rane pounds Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Pericts 11g 20.18 21.44 2.06 Byitls 3.84 9.88 1.56 3 27.26 30.98 445 4.56 4.65 14.36 2.45 6 27.55 36 15 3-57 4 92 4.22 19.96 | 352 9 24.14 43.45 4.02 4.59 3-56 | 26.53 | 4.74 12 19.04 44.75 3.52 4.16 3.95 28.38 5.41 18 12.65 47.25 3.40 3.88 2.57 30.46 6.62 The data embodied in this table suggest the following state- ments: (1) The total amount of nitrogen in the form of water-soluble compounds increases as the cheese gains in age. ‘This increase is not uniform, since it is more rapid in the early stages of ripen+ ing, gradually decreasing in rate with the increasing age of the cheese. Thus, calculating the average monthly increase of water- soluble nitrogen, we have for the first month and a half an aver- age monthly increase of 15 pounds for 100 pounds of nitrogen in the cheese; for the period extending from 14 to 3 months, an average monthly increase of 6.3 pounds; from 3 to 6 months, 2.1 pounds; from 6 to 9 months, 2.4 pounds; from g to 18 months, 0.3 pound. Stated in another way, of the total amount of water- soluble nitrogen compounds formed in the cheese during 18 months, 45.4 per ct. was formed in the first month and a half; 65.5 per ct. in the first 3 months; 76.5 per ct. in the first 6 months; and 92 per ct. in the first 9 nee or one-half the entire period covered by the study. (2) The nitrogen in the form of paracasein monolactate appears to increase for 6 months and then gradually decrease. However, these data are not calculated to show the variations of this com- pound to advantage, since we have learned from other work of ours that paracasein monolactate commonly appears at its maxi- mum quantity in fresh cheese and is very largely changed into New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 249 other forms in the course of a few weeks, the rapidity of its ap- pearance and disappearance being dependent upon such condi- tions as the acidity of the cheese, the temperature of the curing- room, etc. *(3) The nitrogen in the form of paranuclein reaches its highest quantity in about 3 months and then slowly decreases some but not to a great degree. (4) The nitrogen in the form of caseoses appears to increase from the beginning, reaching its maximum in 3 to 6 months and then gradually decreasing some. (5) The nitrogen in the form of peptones increases from the start, reaching its highest quantity in about 3 months, after which there is a slow decrease until after 12 months, when the decrease is more marked. (6) The amido compounds increase with comparative rapidity during the early stages of ripening. The increase continued dur- ing the whole period of study but at a less rapid rate. Thus, the average monthly increase for the first period was 6.60 pounds for 100 pounds of nitrogen in cheese; for the second, 3 pounds; for the third, 1.87 pounds; for the fourth, 2.2 pounds; for the fifth, 0.62 pound; and for the sixth, 0.35 pound. Of the entire amount of amido compounds formed during 18 months, 87 per ct. was found at the end of 9 months; 65.5 per ct., at the end of 6 months; 47 per ct., at the end of 3 months; and about 33 per ct., at the end of one month and a half. : (7) The ammonia in cheese does not commonly reach an ap- preciable quantity until cheese is about a month old, after which it increases quite regularly. As in the case of the amido com- pounds, but in a much less marked degree, ammonia forms less slowly in the later than in the early stages of ripening. Con- siderably over half the ammonia was formed in the first 6 months, while about 70 per ct. of the entire amount found at the end of 18 months was formed in the first 9 months of ripening. (8) Summarizing the statements made in connection with the data contained in Table I, we find that, other conditions being uniform, (a) the formation of water-soluble nitrogen compounds increases as cheese ages; (b) the rate of formation of water-solu- 250 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ble nitrogen compounds is more rapid in the early stages of ripen- ing, steadily diminishing with age; (c) about two-thirds of these compounds are formed in the first 3 months and over go per ct. in the first 9 months. THE RELATION ©OF TEMPERATURE TO rmtiis CHEESE-RIPENING PROCESS. Instead of presenting all of our detailed results, representing all the different conditions of experiment, we will give, as a basis for our discussion of this topic, averages in which each analysis embodies the analytical results furnished by four different cheeses cured at the same given temperature. Ifa more detailed study is desired, the full tables in the Appendix can be examined. In general, we find in every individual cheese that temperature exerts a marked influence upon the changes taking place in the nitrogen compounds. The effect of temperature is modified by other conditions. In the following table, we consider, along with the temperature, the time factor. In this connection, we will men- tion a fact not included in the table,—in the cheese kept at 32° F. we found in the filtrate after removing paranuclein that, on neu- tralizing and heating, we obtained quite an abundant precipitate, amounting to 3 or 4 per ct. of the nitrogen in the cheese. This body disappeared entirely after 3 months and was not found at all in cheese kept at a higher temperature. We have not yet studied the nature of this substance, but it appears to be some kind of an intermediate product that disappears very quickly at ordinary temperatures and is to be found in appreciable quantities only in cheese kept at low temperatures. TABLE II].—SHOWING EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CHEESE-RIPENING. empers ae Nitrogen expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese. tus oF nitrogen are: compounds, 1% 3 6 9 in 18 months. | months. | months. | months. | months. | months. Degrees F. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Perct. 32 Total water- soluble. ...- 12.80 18.64 23.06 32.66 34 02 36.75 55 + 20.56 | 31.46 | 36.09 | 43.91 | 4509 | 49.40 60 se 23 14 33.69 39.97 40.89 48 62 50.16 70 s 29.24 | 40.13 | 45.50 | 50.34 | 51.25 | 52.67 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 251 TABLE II.—SHOWING EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CHEESE-RIPENING.—(Con.) Tempera- Nitrogen expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese. Form o ae eee aah compounds, 1% 3 | 6 9 ae 18 - months, | months. | months. | months. | months. | months. Degrees F. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Pere: Per ct. Per Gt. 32 Paracasein monolactate,| 20.58 43.14 36 55 43.00 34 48 21.37 55 eS 33 OI 33 66 35.10 25.61 19 26 19 45 60 of 13.89 | 18.81 19.94 | 16.15 12332 9.45 70 ss 13.24 13.45 18 62 11.83 10.10 7 86 32 Paranuclein --| 1.27 4.05 |. 3.44 4.47 415 4.12 55 us --| 2.39 5 34 4.25 4.27 3.64 3 68 60 - eeipnZes4 | )aege 390 | 423 Se eae ay 7° ue Jal) qo Baal 2.68 1 2.45 2.60 32 (CATTOSESS 6Sa5]] — LOS 297 5 24 4.29 417 5.06 55 Ridin sses= 4 08 4 50 5.03 4.76 4.73 427 60 SOs aan 3 44 6 14 6.03 5.07 3 68 3.00 70 ¢ ----| 4.07 | 4.63 3-37 4.24 412 | 320 32 Peptones ade se 2.23 4.53 4.36 4.53 4.17 55 ae -- 3.90 4.95 3.99 3-10 3 72 2 84 60 eet temme | 1S205). (4 5998 0) 4.70" || 35440) 54.03 1.80 70 i ---|_ 681 5 45 3-67 3-33 3-51 1.50 32 Amidesieecn- 4.82 6 36 8.70 TAS 18 73 19.44 55 OF Messe 8.69 14 33 19 55 2705 | 29.00 | 31 66 60 BO Me Bete 12.16 TAS Sun 20.30 wi 26.54) vl) Sie als a3 54 79 eae 13,90° | 22.20 | 30.80) | 32:68 1 34.65 37.19 32 Ammonia ....| 0.61 0.61 20 I OI 2.14 3:98 55 is ----| 1.50 2 42 3.30 4 69 5.57 6.95 60 % ----| 1.67 2.54 3 89 5 43 Q 12 7-35 70 nus neae arava: We waeaze te gr iP siice 4 08 4.50 5 03 4.76 473 427 10 iReptones=as-ee 2eTe 4.09 3.75 Bi lSy/ 3.97 1.95 esol eeeeee 3-90 4.95 } 3-99 3-10 3-72 2.84 10 Amidesieeen-- 7.50 9.79 16,00 21.65 22 89 26.73 30 Oe et eee 8 69 14.33 19.55 27.05 29 00 31.66 10 Ammonia ..... 1.34 2.15 3.04. 4.17 4.53 5.72 30 sf osee-| 1.50 2.42 3-30 4.69 5-57 | 6.95 _ 10 Waters sae oa. 36.40 | 35.27 | 32.41 27.86 | 28.02 | 27.75 30 LO Ome cate Sok 36 31 35.11 33 46 32.29 31.54 28.56 An examination of Table IV shows in brief that the larger theeses contained more moisture after the early stages of ripen- 256 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ing and that there was a more rapid increase in the formation of total water-soluble nitrogen compounds, especially of amides and ammonia, than in the smaller cheeses. THE RELATION ‘OF SALT IN CHEESE 20 CHEE SEs RIPENING. In Bulletin No. 203 of this Station, page 241, attention is called to the fact that salt exerts a retarding influence upon the pro- teolytic action of enzymes in cheese. Since the results given there were secured with cheese made and kept in the presence of chloroform, it was desired to make a study of the influence of salt upon the ripening process in cheese normally made and kept under normal conditions. For the purpose of such a study, 6 different lots of cheese were made under normal conditions as nearly alike as possible. In each lot there were 4 to 8 cheeses, weighing 10 or 30 pounds each and salt was added to these in proportions varying as follows: no salt, 1.5, 2.5, and 5 pounds of salt for 1000 pounds of milk. During the ripening 1 lot was kept at 32° F., 3 at-55° F., 1 at 60° F.-and 1.at-7o°-l“Uherderiied analytical results are given separately for each lot of cheese ‘in the Appendix. In Table V we give the averages of the 4 lots of larger cheeses kept at the different temperatures. Whether we . consider each lot of cheeses by itself or their averages, the results are strikingly concordant in respect to the effect of salt upon the formation of nitrogen compounds in the ripening process. It has been a fact long observed by cheesemakers that increase of salt in cheese delays the rapidity with which the cheese be- comes marketable, but no detailed chemical study has previously been made of the subject in this country. Decker! made a brief study of the influence of varying amounts of salt upon normal cheddar cheese in respect to texture, flavor and moisture, but the study was continued only one month and no attention was given to the products of proteolysis. We are to regard the salt in cheese as being in solution in the whey held. by the cheese, practically forming a dilute brine. In common practice, cheesemakers add from 2 to 24 pounds of salt to the curd made from 1000 pounds of milk. Cheese thus salted contains about 1 per ct. of salt. Such cheese usually contains 1 Ann. Rept. Wis. Exp. Sta. 11: 220 (1894). NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 257 about 35 to 37 per ct. of water. Consequently, under such con- ditions we should have approximately a 3 per ct. brine. It is evident that in proportion as a cheese loses moisture by evapora- tion, the salt brine remaining becomes more concentrated with the advancing age of the cheese. TABLE V.—SHOWING EFFECT OF SALT ON CHEESE-RIPENING. Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese. pom Form of oo WOU 1% 3 6 9 12 18 of milk. pounds. months. | months. | months. | months. | months. | months. Lés. EP ek Gi Per ct. Pen cb Per ct. ets xe PREG Total water o solublers22=|e923242))- 34-26") 40.52.| 49.10} 58-391 53.96 1% ier eer= ee2te sO! |e, 32210) | 937267, | 44.13) | P4500 | Son7g 2M st aee-| 21.67 | 29.92 | 34-73 | 42-93 | 43-52 | 44.65 5 ue a eee SAN e 2 oO 13070" |. 37-04) |) 38-19.) 39-62 Paracasein Oo monolactate,|"" 17433) | 27-00.) 23627. \|'' 2r-82i\| 91675") “12256 1% Gt AO) || N78 || AGUS || AAaeiss | Vy/aeys) 12.61 2% oe 21.81 24-47) 28-30) «23654. || TOvO4- IF 3274 5 a ZO 730 29-02) ||) 32-40) | 2828n |) 123-4 iii Paranuclein .. 1.85 4-44 3.80 4.66 3-83 3-44 1% ce =e Melanin d=Age | me Se52) | i401 ||) 93.272) le hos. 89 26 Ui ei 4-55 3-51 3.80 3-30 3-34 5 ae B99) 2 4-35 ue 3.42 |i 3.931) 302351) 2896 Oo CAseosesseae= 3 41 4-94 4-94 5.60 4-95 3.87 1% v3 ---| 324] 5.02] 5-17] 4.53 | 3-69] 4.04 2% Ot sisnis BZ) 42145) 164-98) 42104) 3.97 1) 3 84 5 OE 25 (Se eA ts) toe 4500| nA OS) | a AN Obi I esega oO IRE ptoness eee 4.86 5-02 4 84 3-47 4-13 2.69 1% aN aed 3-50] 5-16] 4.29] 354] 4-87] 3-40 2% a See) 4220 4.02 4 02 397 3-98 2.07 5 ees 2298 ee AeA 3 74e le 3ee5 I 2ST ee ear o INOS oo Soe TON2 2) ESE SON |Ee2eT Ge P2Se8on | s2n To) me 3509 1% ve Bod 10 46 TA eee On Zea 20233) \a2330 2% SS gest Gaze | t3-O90))) 1-20), | 26272 F276) |) (201157 5 ay Pee 8.82 12.97 yieeye || Reon 24.40 | 24.81 (0) Ammonia .... 1.67 2.96 4.64 6.54 Teil 8.89 3 pee BO7s on 22536 (F 9 3-O0h | 4-60 |" 530° 7-04 2h ees elle at Se 2.36] §3-13| 4:30] 4-54] 5.83 5 gs uss 1.41 2 03 2.64 3-43 3.61 4.70 fo) Per ct. water in cheese..| 39.27 | 38-22 | 35-60 | 35-22 | 34-09 | 30.96 14 a Bill e36R667 1535 GOR |h 33-500) 32-62) || 30-65. |) . 28580 2hs ¢ --| 35-69 | 34-43 | 32-31 | 31-54 | 30-99 | 27-68 5 a E 33.03) |) 32-62! | +2952) | 29-88>| 28.61.) 20797 (0) Per ct. salt in Gheesereees oO fo) (o) fo) oO G 144 es 0.59 0.70 0.84 0.94 0292) |\aaeeee 2% BO eee 0.82 1.20 1.15 1.26 Dr 27i | sacisieoe 5 iOS aun 1.29 1.50 1.62 1.87 Te 83) jhiceeces 5 258 Report OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE A study of the data contained in Table V enables us to make - the following statements: (1) The amount of salt retained in cheese is not proportional to the amount of salt added to the curd. While salt was added to the different cheeses in the ratio of 1: 1.67: 3.33, the salt re- tained in the cheese was in the ratio of I: 1.40: 2.20. Of neces- sity, a considerable proportion of the salt added to cheese curd passes into the whey. Moreover, we have found by examining different portions of the same cheese that the salt is not com- monly distributed with perfect uniformity through the cheese mass. (2) An increase of salt in cheese-curd results in decreasing the amount of moisture held in cheese. This fact is very strikingly shown by the figures in Table V. The cheese containing no salt retained most moisture, and increasing additions of salt decreased the amount of moisture held in the cheese. The same general relation held true throughout the whole period of investigation. (3) An increase of salt in cheese was accompanied by a de- crease in the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds and this was true through the whole 18 months of the investigation. While this influence of salt is more noticeable in the case of the amido compounds and ammonia, it is clearly evident in the case of the paranuclein, caseoses, and peptones. (4) The paracasein monolactate disappears less rapidly in the cheeses containing more salt. It is readily seen from the results embodied in Table V that the rapidity of formation of water-soluble nitrogen compounds is de- creased in the presence of increased amounts of salt in cheese. The question arises whether this is due directly to a retarding action of salt upon the agencies that cause cheese-ripening or whether it is due to the effect of salt in decreasing the amount of moisture held in cheese. It is true that some of the observed differences in proteolysis can be accounted for by the difference in moisture content noticed in the various cheeses. While this set of experiments does not clearly demonstrate that salt has 1n itself a direct retarding effect upon the cheese-ripening process, we have some results obtained with another experiment which indicate that salt has a retarding effect upon proteolysis in cheese. In some New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 259 experiments made in another line of work, one (A) cheese was unsalted and another (B) salted at the rate of 24 pounds for 1000 pounds of milk. The amount of moisture in the two cheeses was nearly the same, the salted cheese containing a little more than the unsalted, owing to the conditions of manufacture. At the end of 12 months, the amount of water-soluble nitrogen was 40.47 per ct. of the nitrogen in the unsalted cheese, while, in the salted cheese, it was 32.83 per ct. In this case salt clearly exerted a retarding influence upon the formation of water-soluble nitrogen compounds. Then, again, some work carried on with milk, where there was no difference of water-content, indicates the same retarding action of salt. We shall give the subject further experimental study under conditions that more completely elimi- nate wide differences of moisture content in the cheese. Tie RELATION OF VARYING AMOUNTS OF RENNET TO CHEPSE-RIPENING: In Bulletin No. 54, page 267, are given the results of some experiments made in 1892 at this Station, when a comparison was made of the amount of water-soluble nitrogen formed in cheeses made with 3 and g ounces of rennet-extract per 1000 pounds of milk. Considerably larger amounts of soluble nitrogen were found when the larger amount of rennet was used. In 1899 some further experiments were made, using 3 and 6 ounces of Hansen’s rennet-extract for 1000 pounds of milk. The cheeses were so made as to contain about the same amount of moisture. In each case, one cheese was covered with paraffin in order to delay the evaporation of moisture, and the other cheese was left in the usual condition. The results of analysis are given below. 260 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE VI.—SHOWING EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RENNET UPON CHEESE- RIPENING. Amount of Nitrogen expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese in form of— rennet-extract Condition Wa : meee i used for of chee Water- Paranu- 1,009 pounds cheese. salubl clein, cas- Annies Ammo- of milk. S002 tin} in |genin| Para- | water Amides ana- | CM&ESC-| cheese.| cheese.| casein | Soluble] Para- | Caseo-| Pep- by Am- lyzed. mono- | ltro- |nuclein.| ses tones, | tannic | monia, lactate: S¢2 acid com- pounds Months \Per ct.| Per ct.\ Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct.| Per ct Per ct | Per ct. Per c1:)) erick, WZ | 1-44 (-33/66"( 3.64" (19-78) | 13. 74ale 2420) 0.7 loroon|) oun! 0,66 3 | 1-66 | 32.93 | 3.74 | 36.10 | 21.93 | 4-49 | 439 | 337] 8-02] 160 6 2209) 29100"|) 3.98 ||. 32516 W255 0s cls Asn) a) Ov aie 2eAlg eo OM meezan 9 222252530) A256) |k25.50 ae s2.7i A=24\| 3077 P2007 3) TORO 3 29 12 2.33 | 26,38" 4.52 | 26.77 | 20:21 | 3.32 |, 9.54 1° Zar s), Kore2 3.10 18 seer 25:45 | 4-09) || 10.23 1134-400) 32804 4.004) 205m 2m 7 a2 Kept AT 60° F.:—Cheese 38-A. Unsalted. 1% |° | 39.54| 3-46 | 10.98 | 2544 | 2.43 | 347 | 4-51 | 13-30] 1-73 3 fo) 39/66)|) 3552 |PT6548 | 972225, ras) 6 oan w7COn legos 2 87 6 fo) B71) Z.68 1015. 70" A5O5e |) 4esde i) 5,00 ||) On2Oml2anoe 5.16 9 |0o 36.59 | 4.02 | 13.43 | 53.24 | 4.48 | 6.47 | 2.59 | 32-09 | 7.71 12 oO 35.06 | 4.13 | 8 48 | 58.11 A212" |) 3904|) 32035 syeo 9.20 18 o 31.68) 4. 74| 9:49 | 56:96 | 3-17 || 2:53 ||| 168) || 30-24 | 1014 Cheese 38-B. 11% lbs. sait for 1,000 lbs. milk. 1% | 0.36 | 37-17| 3°55 | 19 44 | 23.44 | 2 54 | 3.49 | 220] 13 50| 1.69 3 0.65 | 36.02] 3.58 | 17.60 | 35.48 | 4 58 | 626] 6.20 | 15.81 2.63 6 0.91 | 34.04] 3 69 | 20.07 | 41.46 | 4.62 | 6.67 | 4 34 | 22.23 4.C7 9 0.95 | 33.17| 4.00 | 14.25 | 47.75 | 4 60 | 4.60 | 2.70 | 30.50 5 50 12 OLOI 45322504] 64222 4 TO;005| 4oug7el Ba7On) Be7Onl teers neo 6.64 18 <-=- | 30:00 | 4.61 | 10.00 | 53:30°| 3 €9 || 282") 217) 37-10 8.03 Cheese 38-C. 2% lbs. salt for 1,000 lbs. milk. 1% | 0.60 | 35.79 | 3 61 | 14.13 | 22.66 | 2.49 | 3.99 || 3-44 | IF-08 1.66 3 1-05 | 35.631] 3:70.| 195197) 32516) Aeo7" | 6.164) Al35 | i4zee2 2 54 6 1.18 | 32.82 | 3 80 | 24.74 | 38.43 | 3-69 | 5.79 | 4.63 | 2095 | 353 9 1.40 | 32.06} 4.01 | 18.46 | 45.64 | 3.99 | 4.49 | 4.29 | 28.18 4.74 12 1.33 | 30.60] 4.43 | 14.22 | 45.83 | 3-16 | 4.06 | 474 | 29-35 | 451 18 ese 27577 \ 4.78 2) 10040 | ASIGAS |e gral 2 O32 em Son|) ator 6.28 ‘ Cheese 38-D. 5 lbs. salt for 1,000 lbs. milk. 16 W133) 1133:78) 832 lero2m| fa r02 a peesoo mime son maaan mony s 1.61 3 1-73) | 332343) 3675 5), 21290 | 20/9005) 4 S07 youl h o2nnraees 2.12 6 1.53 | 30.26] 3.96 | 19.19 | 34.34 | 3-43 | 606 | 3.64 | 18.44 2.78 9 2.10 | 30.25] 4.23 | 18.44 | 4091 | 3.83 | 4.73 | 4.16 | 24.59 3.78 12 1.79 | 28.80 | 4.59 | 15.69 | 40.75 | 3-27 | 3.49 | 349] 26-15 | 4.14 18 sacs || 26.38] 4.844) 8.26 4] fan 33 4280 j 8.729), Bab a aeoeDs 4.75 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. TasLe VII.—Givine Detaits oF ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL CHEESES—(Concluded). Kept AT 70° F.:—Cheese 40-A. Unsalted. 273 Nitrogen, expressed as percentage of nitrogen in cheese, in form of— Age of Cie Salt in | Water | Nitro- Total when | cheese. in genin| Para- ete Amides ana- cheese.| cheese.! casein | S°:U?©| Para- | Caseo-| Pep- by Am- lyzed. TON OS Cee eellntieleine: ses. tones, | tannic | monia. lactate.| 8" acid com- pounds. Months| Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct. | Per a Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct 1% /|0o 2OR1G) || SeOT PN S-3 1) |) 32:20 1.88 | 4 43 | 870 | 14.68 249 | 2 37.23 | 3 61 | 1025 | 46.54 | 4 43 | 543 | 5-98 | 25 21 | 5.54 6 Co) BD sel 4190) | P28 [95 5.50.) 3228: 3.23 1323 \.34- 36 7 80 9 |,0 32.66 | 418 | 10.05 | 57 42 | 3-83 | 479 | 383] 35-40] 957 12 fo) 31-05)| 4.43 || S.13 |50.02 || 2-93 | 4 74 | 293 | 30-57 | 10.84 15 o ZRSONC4 75a 15 COn! 59137 No 274 3.30 | 1.68°| 48-27 1); 10153 Cheese 40-B. 11% lbs. salt for 1,000 lbs. milk. 114 { 0.45 | 36.18 { 3°66 { 12.02 | 2967 | 2.19 | 4.15 | 694 | 13.66 2.73 3 0.77 | 34.64] 3.70 | 11.89 | 4108 | 4.00] 4.86 | 5 24 | 22.71 4.32 6 0.68 | 30 91 | 3.96 | 1768 | 46 73 | 2.27 | 3.08 | 4.42 | 31.31 6 06 9 OLOLY || BiieaVL || ALAS NOLS |) Sieh ll eee Maciel ete |) Zee res: 7 06 12 0.95 | 29.87] 4.44 | 9 69 | 52.03 | 2 48]! 4.05 | 5.18 | 36 94 7.66 15 ---- | 26.75} 4.61 | 8.24 | 5640] 3-47} 325 | 1.74 | 3904 | 8-89 Cheese 40-C, 2% lbs, salt for 1,000 lbs. milk. Lg oesGn P3547 (36532 (hr2i85 "20.72" (2 23° 1358") 7 15) | 1425 2.51 3 1.15 | 33.17] 3.78 | 12.97 | 3837 | 3.02 | 3.92 | 6.19 | 21 43 | 3.97 6 1.08 | 30.60] 4.00 | 20 36 | 4350] 2-25 | 3.60 | 3.45 | 29.25 5 00 o Wes 520.4 eA a2On mierda 50.00) | 2atOnls 404g 2.336 aoc 6.10 12 Teg 228.45 447) | TOrGOs| 50.50.) 224") |) 12780) || 2.60) |934200 6 71 15 ---- | 25.571 4 95 | 8.69 | 4950 | 2-43 | 3-03 | 1.21 | 35-56 | 727 Cheese 40-D. 5 lbs. salt for 1,000 lbs. milk. 1b | 1-51 | 33-47} 3-74 | 19 79 | 25.35 | 1-82 | 4.12 | 444 | 12 84( 214 3 1.62 | 31.93] 3 91 | 18.67 | 3453 | 3-38 | 4.30 | 440] 19 44 | 307 6 | 1.68 | 26.99] 3 13 | 25 18 | 3995 | 2-90 | 358 | 358] 25.90 | 3.97 9 1.94 | 29.12] 4.48 | 14.29 | 42.86 | 2.77] 3 80 | 2.68 | 28.57 4.91 12 1.92 | 27 30| 4.64 | 11.64 | 4440 | 2.16] 3.88] 3 23 | 30.18 4.74 15 ese 25a ON Seles OOL AL 45.4 L 9h) |) Bey UM Mae) Byaatsks) 6.07 THE STATUS OF PHOSPHORUS. IM -CEER TAIN FOOD MATERIALS AND. ANIMAL BY-PRODUCTS, WIPH ; SPECIAL? REE R ENCE TO THE PRESENCE OF INORGANIC FORMS:* E. B. HART AND W. H. ANDREWS. SUMMARY. (1) Our commercial feeding stuffs of vegetable origin do not contain appreciable quantities of phosphorus in inorganic combi- nation. (2) The animal feeding materials, such as liver meal and dried blood, when representative, are also approximately free from this form of phosphorus. Commercial meat meal, liable to carry varying quantities of bone, does contain inorganic phosphorus dependent, of course, on the amount of bone present. The feces of a cow which were examined were also free from inorganic phosphorus. (3) Germinated grains are rich in forms of soluble organic phosphorus. (4) Germination, extending over a period of two weeks, of oats, corn and wheat, did not transform organic phosphorus into inor- ganic forms. *A reprint of Bulletin No. 238. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 275 INTRODUCTION. The following research forms part of, and is preliminary to, an extended investigation to be carried on at this Station under the direction of Dr. W. H. Jordan, on the metabolism of phos- phorus and sulphur in the animal body. It is quite generally believed that phosphorus exists in plant substances, partly in organic combinations as nucleo-proteids, nucleins and lecithins and partly in inorganic forms, such as cal- cium, magnesium ™ and potassium phosphates. It is not difficult to understand how this view of the occurrence of phosphorus in vegetable tissue originated, since inorganic combinations form the basis of supply to the growing plant and since it is in the ash that we have chiefly studied the kinds and proportions of the inorganic plant constituents. Starting with the assumption that a consider- able proportion of the phosphorus in animal and human vegetable foods is inorganic in form, our efforts have been directed towards the elaboration of a method for separating and quantitatively esti- mating, at least approximately, this form of phosphorus in vege- table and animal feeding stuffs. It was also thought that, should the ratio of organic to inor- ganic phosphorus vary greatly in the different vegetable products, this fact might be made the basis of investigations as to the rela- tive nutritive value of these products for specific purposes. Such investigations could be undertaken, however, only after the evolution of a fairly safe method for the separation of inor- ganic from organic phosphorus. DETAILS OF INVESTIGATION. TOTAL PHOSPHORUS. Before taking up the experimental details of the estimations of inorganic phosphorus, determinations of total phosphorus were made on a number of vegetable and animal products by both the magnesium nitrate and the Neumann methods. The Neumann method was tried particularly because it is convenient for use on large volumes of liquids—a condition which must be met in the separations involved in this inquiry. Magnesium nitrate method.—This method is essentially the same as that used by the Association of Official Agricultural Chem (1) Sherman. U.S, Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas., Bul. 121. 276 RepoRT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ists: 5 grams of material was well mixed ina platinum dish with 2-4 cc. of a solution of magnesium nitrate and incinerated at a low heat. In most cases a perfectly white ash was obtained. This residue was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, and made up to 200 cc., an aliquot being taken for the estimation of total phosphorus. Neumann method.—This is the method described by Neumann ®) and already used by Sherman:® 5 grams of material was placed in a Kjeldahl flask, 10-15 cc. concentrated sulphuric acid was added and the mixture was heated over a low flame until well charred. When partly cooled 5-10 grams of ammonium nitrate was added and the digestion continued. Further additions of am- monium nitrate were made from time to time to entirely oxidize and decolorize the mixture. On cooling, the residue was rinsed into a 200 cc. flask, diluted to the mark and an aliquot was taken for the determination of total phosphorus by the molybdate- magnesia method. The large amount of ammonium sulphate formed on neutralizing with ammonia seems to impede the pre- cipitation of ammonium phospho-molybdate and only when a generous excess of ammonium molybdate was added—150 cc.— did we get a rapid separation of the “ yellow ” precipitate. TABLE J.—COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHORUS. Percentage of phosphorus found in air-dry material, Substance. Magnesium nitrate | N : ened Neumann method, Per ct. Per ct. Cormacnes BapassoeacenccsosSoscsee 53g) -310 OalSae cosas see secee mesrece ee eceeee -355 -339 Wiheat’bran cece ocoeccce eee ee See 1.548 elsaiy/ Maltsprouts oe: ccmictejoad teers wis -677 -670 BRE WETS POT AIS Sects amet eam ieee -421 -419 WistillersWonains aces eee ies oaeieeeee - 307 -303 inseedimealiensceomes aac ck eamoseee -789 - 787 @atistraweeoeee sacnies oc mtccmeetes cece -135 -129 Alfalfa: elds gil: ea Ceci Be . 260 -267 Meat meals aoe hatec ne terce eet eee 4-073 3-971 Diverimeal': 22% sescees cet ees eeen eae 1.034 1.029 Dried jbloodie ss ae5,.c seca cee eee e123 -126 Cow feces soc 5 oeceekceso casero eee - 344 -353 (1) U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bul. 46, rev. ed. (?) Du Bots-Reymona’s Archiv. (Physiol. Abth.), 1897, pp. 552-553. (3) Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 24: 1100 (1902). New York ‘AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 277 The two methods yield practically the same results. SEPARATION OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS. Iwanow™ has lately studied the changes occurring in the organic phosphorus combinations during the germination of vetch (Vicia sativa) and has reached the conclusion that there is a gradual decrease of organic phosphorus with corresponding in- crease of the inorganic forms as germination proceeds. The seeds were germinated in the dark. The method of separation used by Iwanow was as follows: 5-7 grams of the material was warmed on the water bath 10-15 minutes with 100-150 cc. of I per ct. acetic acid. After cooling, the precipitated proteid matter was separated by filtration through a small flannel filter and washed with water until about 500 cc. filtrate had been collected. For the determina- tion of the inorganic phosphorus an aliquot from the 500 cc. was taken and precipitated directly with molybdate solution. Zaleski,” working independently and on the same problem, evolved an almost identical method. This investigator recom- mends the use of either a I per ct. acetic acid or 0.2 per ct. hydro- chloric acid solution, as the extracting reagent. As will be shown later in both of these methods, the cleavage action on soluble nucleins of the nitric acid contained in the molybdate solution is not sufficiently taken into account. It is true that Zaleski recom- mends that no extra nitric acid ‘be added, he himself using only the ordinary molybdate solution. Kossel ® working on muscle extracts has used a mixture of tannin and 5 per ct. hydrochloric acid as the precipitant of proteids containing phosphorus. Araki™ has recently used this method, somewhat modified, in his studies of the decomposition of nucleic acids by enzymes. The method of Araki was as follows: 2 grams of a salt of nucleic acid was dissolved in 40 cc. of water and to this the enzyme was added. This solution was then diluted with an equal volume of water, 4 grams of sodium acetate added and tannin so long as a precipitate continued to be formed. The filtrate from this precipi- (1) Ber. deut. bot. Gesell., 20: 366 (1902). (2) Ber. deut. bot. Gesell., 20: 426 (1902). (3) Zeit. f. physiol. Chem., "7: 9 (1883). (4) Zeit. f. physiol. Chem., 38: 84 (1903). 278 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE tate, according to Araki, should contain any free phosphoric acid split off by the action of the enzyme. In our hands, as we shall show later, tannic acid in dilute mineral acid solution and tannic acid with sodium acetate both fail to precipitate completely the soluble nucleins contained in certain of our feeding materials. We do not assume to deny the accuracy of the results of these authors, recognizing the important fact that the constitution and consequent reaction of the nucleic acids with which these investi- gators worked may be entirely different from those that occurred in our materials. Our preliminary work was done on whole oats, ground and air- dried. Five-gram samples were treated with 125 cc. of the ex- tracting reagent for varying lengths of time with occasional vigor- ous shakings. The mixtures were then allowed to settle and the supernatant liquid was decanted through dry filters into 500 ce. flasks. The residue was washed by decantation with several por- tions of.water until 500 cc. of filtrate had been collected. To 200 cc. of this filtrate 10 grams of ammonium nitrate was first added, and after heating the solution to 65° C. 50 cc. of ordinary ammonium molybdate solution was added, the whole kept at 65° C. for 15 minutes, then removed from the bath and allowed to stand for 1 hour. The precipitate was then filtered off, washed with a small quantity of water and the phosphorus estimated as magnesium pyrophosphate. This was supposed to be the inor- ganic phosphorus. The total soluble phosphorus was determined in another aliquot of 200 cc. by the Neumann method. The phosphorus in the insoluble residue, representing a mixture of nucleo-proteids, nucleins and lecithins, was also determined and designated as insoluble organic phosphorus. Tannin, with acetic and hydrochloric acids, under the conditions shown in the table below, was also tried. The molybdate solution used was one pre- pared according to the method adopted by the Official Agricul- tural Chemists.” (1) U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 46, rev. ed. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 279 TasBLE IJ].—Comparison OF METHODS FOR SEPARATION OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORUS. Percentage of phos- phorus in air-dry material, Total Sub- t : Treatment. phos- | Insol- ape phorus.) yble |Soluble| Mor fellate phos- Sea phos- |phorus. 4 io phorus. pAoEus : i Per ct.| Per ct.\ Per ct.| Per ct. arses aly paceteenamingo5 oC sscen asec en coalesce 5 a5 550 H2LOn a t42) ORS Se Ss OOm) tents 24 NOUS = se oe)e ee eo eee eae AO. TOF | one es es ae emer AO Mrs timate stiixs arae crate cin eee E22 7e a3 Or | aO82 6c 6c be oc e Broce syateiaie a eiceies lise ere 2521 ealO) Olu7 .2% hydrochloric, room tem. 4ohrs -........|..--.. p25 One O02) CO he aaydrochlonics ro mina 5500Caseaae seecee leet ee. #14. | =17E | O14 muneacebic. room/temis 17 hrss tanninee.: 2-2 sec soo. -094 | .244 = .2% hydrochloric, room tem. 17 hrs_tannin...|...... -206 | .126 | @ 5p my JAcehie no mineyS5° Ca tanning ses =. eee lee coe SOWAS |) seta WG) fh Sh, 227, hydrochloric, Tomine 550°C. tannin... ...-|¢0.-2- E223) ee TOO) eee These results show how decided a variation may occur in the quantities of the different forms of phosphorus as estimated under varying conditions of manipulation. They also show in certain instances an apparent inorganic content appreciably large, whi‘e in others practically none was found, indicating again the influ- ence of certain varying factors in the method of separation. That tannin fails to remove a large proportion of soluble organic forms is also very evident. We next made the same separations with a number of mate- rials, using, as the extracting reagents, 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric and I per ct. acetic acid soiutions for forty hours at room temperature. The inorganic phosphorus was estimated by the same method as that used in the case of oats. 280 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE TABLE III.—CompartIson OF ACETIC AND Hyprocutoric ACIDS FOR SEPARATION OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORUS. Percentage of phosphorus in air-dry material. ; Total Substance. Acid used. phosphorus. oe. organic Soluble Inorganic phosphorus. phosphorus.| phosphorus, Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Wheat bran...-... SPACERIC) Soeeeec 1.548 arn 1.422 1.230 Elydrochloricalse-ec-ee- -428 TS uP -120 Malt sprouts...... INCE CRs .677 -176 479 -389 Eiydrochloricye2-s2. 25." 2212 -477 -350 Brewers’ grains....| Acetic ....... -421 -382 -042 005 Hydrochloric?) os.- > --<< -395 -032 -006 Distillers? erains=._ |) Acetic =~... 2307 -229 -082 -022 Elydrochloric3|\225- 25 ---= -244 -075 -022 Come aeneetreece NCELIC a. sn Behie -155 -163 O17 ydrochlorics|pase= se -159 =153 O15 Allfallfatelee ee scene |) AACeLC my saerose .266 -057 -205 -174 Efydrochlories|\- sa. ss sees -084 - 189 -136 Winseed mealeoeee- INGANG saa or . 789 -470 2327, - 166 Eydrochloricsiveeees ese -564- -195 . 102 Wuiver meat meal__-| Acetic...--... 1.034 . 488 -618 -347 Elydrochlonrics | eee ees . 486 585 - 380 Driedsbloodess- eee NGA AS See coe 133 .099 -020 o19 Elydrochloric:|=2-5 20 see 080 .042 -045 (Cowstecese=eeee ee INCELIC Meme see -344 -193 -159 -O9I iy drochlorics|Poes asses -199 -14I -084 It will be noticed from these results that whenever there is a large amount of total soluble phosphorus there is also a corre- sponding increase in the amount of inorganic phosphorus. In but one instance—that of the hydrochloric acid extract of bran— did this fail to hold true. In all cases the character of the inor- ganic precipitate was greatly different from that of an ammonium phospho-molybdate precipitate. It was invariably of a flocculent, proteid-like nature and only on standing did the characteristic yellow precipitate begin to separate. This certainly indicated a slow cleavage of the organic phosphorus in the solution which was brought about by the excess of nitric acid in the molybdate reagent. In the case of the acetic acid extract from bran this cleavage was especially marked. Such conditions of manipula- tion certainly lead to results altogether too high for inorganic phosphorus. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 281 To determine more definitely the point as to whether certain nucleic acids are so easily split up as our results indicated, we made preparations of these bodies from wheat bran and fresh corn germ meal. That from wheat bran was separated by Osborne’s method and gave a product extremely low in phosphorus,—less than 1 per ct—and high in proteid matter. The filtrate from the pepsin digestion—a part of the Osborne method—showed an abundance of an easily cleavable organic phosphorus combina- tion. This is in harmony with our other results, that the nucleins or salts of nucleic acid of wheat bran are extremely soluble in dilute acid solutions. By Levene’s method ® we separated from wheat bran a nucleic acid carrying 7.59 per ct. of phosphorus and from fresh germ meal one containing 6.83 per ct. Both these products were soluble in water, yielding pale yellow solutions. When dissolved in water and tested as in the above method for the estimation of inorganic phosphorus, that is, with 50 cc. molybdic solution at 65° C. in the presence of ammonium nitrate, a flocculent precipi- tate first separates. This soon takes on a yellow color and the ammonium phospho-molybdate settles out. It became apparent that a method estimating, at least approxi- mately, the amount of inorganic phosphorus in our feeding mate- rials and animal by-products, must take into account the amount of free acid in the precipitating reagent. With this point in view we first established the amount of nitric acid necessary to separate quantitatively ammonium phospho-molybdate when neutral am- monium molybdate was added to a neutral solution of inorganic phosphorus. We found that 2 cc. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) in 225 cc. of solution would cause quantitative separation in water extracts and in extracts made with 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric and neutralized with ammonia. In the 1 per ct. acetic acid extracts, neutralized with ammonia 4 cc. of 1.20 nitric acid is necessary because of the retarding action of the ammonium acetate on the separate of ammonium phospho-molybdate. 10 grams of am- monium nitrate was added to the above volume. Neutral am- (*) Annual Report Conn. Agr. Exp. Station, 1901. (2) Jour. Amer. Chem, Soc. 22: 239 (1900). 282 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE monium molybdaie was prepared by addition of ammonia to the ordinary molybdic solution, using litmus as an indicator. Preliminary estimations showed that forty hours’ extraction was entirely unnecessary. Three hours, the time required to thor- oughly wash the residue, gave nearly as high total soluble phos- phorus as forty hours. In the next table are presented results secured by the following methods: 5 grams of the sample was vigorously shaken with 125 cc. of the extracting reagent for 15 minutes; the mixture was then allowed to settle, was decanted through a filter paper into a 500 cc. flask and the residue washed with water until about 500 cc. of filtrate had been collected. 200 cc. of the filtrate was next neutralized with ammonia, using litmus as indicator, and 10 grams of ammonium nitrate added. The solution was then warmed to 65° C. and, in the case of the water and hydrochloric acid extracts, 2 cc. of 1.20 nitric acid and 25 cc. neutral ammonium molybdate were added. To the acetic extracts 4 cc. 1.20 nitric acid were added. The extracts were allowed to stand fifteen minutes at 65°, were then removed from the bath and after one hour were filtered. The phosphorus was estimated as the magnesium salt. TABLE IV.—SEPARATION OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORUS USING MINIMUM AMOUNTS OF NITRIC ACID. Percentage of phosphorus in air-dry material. Seat Total Substance, phosphorus, Total F Inorganic Si ear Perch. Per ct. Per ct. QaES AOE a Ba? fe Water, isi. za55 .180 .00 Acetic’ «45. stiles ste srt 114 00 Ptydrochloric 2. ett cee 096 00 Bran (wheat) ........ 3 | \Viatetaent. js asia 1.548 356 .143 Acetic ..).. SEY Ger sta. 1.100 -055 Liydrochioric =. ees oe .O5I .036 Malt sprotts hire. fe cer Waters sae .677 .548 391 INGCEY. cat tainela dienes Sh . 480 .270 Etvdrochloricen|te crn ase .477 .O17 Brewers’ grains........ Water eect .421 .142 .007 AIGETICHEE A. saul tebe see .039 .007 Eydrochilonic-akec ase .040 .009 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 283 TasLE IV.—SEPARATION OF Forms oF PHOSPHORUS USING MINIMUM Amounts oF Nitric Acip—(Continued). Percentage of phosphorus in air-dry material. Substance. onheseonis a otal Inorganic Eva Wea phosphorus. er ct. Per ct. Perieh Distillers! eeraims sas. - WWiaketzemirs cre ae 307 .079 .O12 EN COE Can tft otiia! gauche eaters . 104 .005 lelkyGhaorel alkersKe allo cannaeeoc .069 .007 Gonnsss Se ee et Wiattettn sss B22 .276 .O14 INCCLIC sae te teriel | Sietenan tors iets 203 .00 laigyalinerel Morne obllasaceeaucc Sly) .00 GNUFallitaios Ahan ets eth ha soe aes SE AWWiatenyt. abcess . 206 . 196 .004 UENCE DIC Meet tron tk. oe ai oc .182 .079 leilyiclintoxe) mI KoygKOe ell ooeie . 180 .079 ieinseed ymiealttyigaecee JNCCHIG cae = .789 sB2y, .085 Elydrochlonicw.|s asc. 0c6 : -195 .088 ate Stiawa Asda et een PXCEMCE <8 focs aS .095 .028 Ely drochlonrich.||-js+. nse .086 009 \IWIIGEIE Rae or eae aoe NVR Pee Ieee Ree - 390 .125 .028 PNCCUICHA Serer Ace ck ree .174 .040 Ely drochilorichy | necacr en .172 .008 BOOM Ment test arses hs Wiateneenqs serie. nize .029 .005 INCE LICH Seater bicncare le .028 .O10 Ely drochlonemaltes so sae .054 .00 Meats mealie 4 asses. Hydrochloric .. 4.073 1.387 .098 Liver meat meal........ Hydrochloric .. 1.034 .486 .005 (Gowelecesteay wei ate Hydrochloric . -344 .148 .004 These results clearly show that where the amount of nitric acid used in the determination of inorganic phosphorus was reduced to the minimum, there was a marked decrease in the amount of this form of phosphorus apparently present. This decrease is especially noticeable in the hydrochloric acid extracts. In fact the estimations by the use of hydrochloric acid, with the excep- tions of alfalfa and linseed meal, we regard as indicating the ab- sence of inorganic phosphates. The water and acetic acid exiracts on bran and malt sprouts show considerably higher figures for inorganic phosphorus than the hydrochloric acid ex- tracts. It will be observed that both these materials are’rich in easily soluble organic combinations. That these combinations are more easily split up into inorganic forms by water alone and a I per ct. acetic acid than by 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid seems a possible explanation of the results secured. Even when bran has been extracted with a I per ct. solution of hydrochloric 284 REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE acid for forty hours the inorganic estimation showed but 0.088 per ct., while the total soluble phosphorus was 1.26 per ct. We found it impossible to filter extracts of linseed meal and consequently could only prepare such _ extracts by decantation. This of course gave us a distinctly turbid solu- tion. On precipitating with molybdate solution an unusually large flocculent precipitate resulted, difficult to filter and wash. It redissolved readily in ammonia. Also in the case of alfalfa a very large flocculent precipitate was formed on adding the molybdate solution. Later, working with sprouted grains, we estimated in one case as inorganic phosphorus 0.0118 gram magnesium pyro- phosphate. This precipitate after ignition was unusually white. On dissolving it in dilute nitric acid and reestimating the phos- phorus we weighed but .0017 gram of magnesium pyrophos- phate. This is an extreme case, but it indicated that where we have a large flocculent proteid precipitate with our molybdic acid, soluble again in ammonia, there can be formed on the addition of magnesia mixture insoluble proteid-magnesia combinations convertible to magnesium oxide on ignition and weighed as mag- nesium pyrophosphate. With this precaution in mind we rede- termined the inorganic phosphorus in alfalfa and linseed meal. On the first weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate they showed respectively .0072 gram and .o107 gram. On dissolving in dilute nitric acid we weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate .ooo6 gram and .o005 gram respectively. These figures are equivalent to .008 per ct. inorganic phosphorus in alfalfa and .oo7 per ct. in linseed meal, figures we still believe due to errors of manipulation. EXPERIMENTS WITH THE USE OF TANNIN AND SODIUM ACETATE, Since Araki has used this method as a means of separating nucleic acids from solutions containing organic and inorganic phosphorus, it was thought that it might be applied to our work. Extracts were made with 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric and 1 per ct. acetic in the usual way. To 200 cc. of the extract neutralized with ammonia, 12 grams of sodium acetate was added and then a solution of tannin until no further precipitate was formed. The mixture was then diluted to 250 cc., filtered through a dry filter and in 200 cc. the total phosphorus (supposedly inorganic) deter- New York AcGricutturAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 285 mined by the Neumann method. The reagents used were phos- phorus free. Below we give the results in percentages of air-dried material. TABLE V.—SEPARATION OF FORMS OF PHOSPHORUS WITH TANNIN AND Sop1ium ACETATE. ~ Percentage of phosphorus in air-dry material. Substance. + Total Inorganic phosphorus. phosphorus. Per ct. Per ct. Wihteats sacs 2 cece WEG aacq66de Reece sas -390 -087 INCE HI Cys seten tne cetem carepaicisio sis | Wigeter Sarees SaaS -147 ely drochloricis ye seree-=642 = a calametcietae a Ay Sra ete ohn tee ensae Widteraeeetceoee ace emciareias 1.548 -398 IAN CONG! Sinn cfeiat-t apa aeyeeisiei= see lem ores aces, ce 1.026 by drochloricesceacs-seree os eseeeec cee = - 783 Distillers erainsaee||p Waterss ssseteeciats= > 2 -307 -080 PAIGE LICH ee See ere ne are etal laa oa ince - 092 Elydrochlonicisecse see s5- co |= sare ee ce cee -063 Malt sprouts. ...... Water tac 8) 5-25) 67-7|| 2-50) 32-3]| 7-75|| 1-75] 0-25} 9-75 e se 9| 7-50) 71-4|| 3-00] 28.6)|10.50]| 1.50] 0.50] 12.50 ota seneesotellacce' (EO. 00) 16026] 7e75) 40.26 -7eill) 495], 225i) sra7e Greening.| Unthinned} 10} 0.75} 75.0/| 0.25] 25.0|| 1.00|] 0.00] Few.| 1.00 a a DUAN OO 7 Zar e5Ol 27 Sie Sa5Oll ete 25 On SO 7225 f ee 12] 6.00] 72.8]| 2.25] 27.2/| 8.25]| 1-50] 0.75] 10.50 otal. Foccse scar loses: LOL 75 7229||) 4200) 272 Ulla 75 |||) Zaye bees |) 1o475 304. Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE The unthinned Greening trees having less of a crop than those which were thinned produced just as fine fruit as did the thinned trees. The Baldwins of both lots bore much heavier crops than did the Greenings. The thinned Baldwins gave fruit clearly superior in grade, average color and quality to that borne by the unthinned Baldwins, but the total yield was less. Whether the gain in the size, appearance and quality of the thinned fruit would counterbalance in market value the loss in yield from thinning was not decided. It is not easy to determine this definitely where only such small amounts of fruit can be offered to the wholesale trade. Record for 1899.—Neither the Baldwin nor the Greening trees upon which the experiment of thinning the fruit to four inches apart was being tried bore enough in 1899 to give a chance for thinning the fruit. From other trees in the orchard of the same kinds and of the same age, four each of the Baldwin and the Greening which were carrying good crops of fruit were selected for carrying on this part of the experiment. The Baldwins were given numbers 20, 21, 22 and 23 and the Greenings 24, 25, 26 and 27. Nos. 21, 22, 24 and 26 were thinned and the others were left unthinned for comparison. The thinning was done June 12th and 13th. The largest fruits at this time had a diam- eter of about three-fourths of an inch. A statement of the time required for thinning follows: No: 21 dBaldwim. tva.% 64.joa. seu 5 hours. Wo-22 "Baldwin. 0 eke cic chee 34 hours. No 24nGeeenine na tac Sails ik 2. hours, ING 26 Greenies a1.) eect aes 23 hours. When the crop was gathered it was sorted as usual by putting into No. 1 grade nothing under two and one-half inches in diam- eter. The following table shows the yield by grades: New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 305 TABLE VI.—FRu:T THINNED To Four INCHES—DEFECTIVE AND INFERIOR SPECIMENS REMOVED. YIELD OF BARREL FRUIT PER TREE, 1899. Fruit. Tree Name. Treatment. Noe Quality. Total No. x. No. 2. aikitiple: Bu. \Perct.| Bu. | Per ct. Bu. Baldwin..| Thinned ...| 21] 9.75] 72-2] 3.75] 27-8} 13-5 |Good. CO Seal 22 TONS Min 7aeo\n3) 75|e26rdl) e142 25|Greatly improved. 20.25) 73 | 7-5 | 27 27-75 Baldwin..| Not thinned] 23] 7.92] 53.7| 6.75] 46.3 rl ealnat good. se se 20] 8.25] 64.7] 4-5 | 35-3) 12-75|Not good. 16.17} 58.9|11.25| 41-1] 27 41 Greening.|/Thinned ... 2A\O a 75 inles 25 12. |Fair. “ sles 26} 10.5] 82.4] 2.25] 17.6 12.75|Very fine. 19.5] 78.8] 5-25 ital 24-75 Greening.| Not thinned) 25] 15 | 83.3] 3 16.7} 18.00|Fair. fe ss 27| 9 | 80.0] 2.25] 20.0) 11.25)Just fair. 24 | 82.0] 5.25| 18.0] 29.25 There was not much difference in the quality of the different lots of Greening, except that on one of the trees which had the fruit thinned the apples were of exceptionally fine quality. The quality of the thinned Baldwin fruit was clearly better than that of the corresponding unthinned fruit and the No. 1’s especially were clearly superior to the unthinned No. 1 in color, size and general appearance. SUMMARY FOR SECOND METHOD. The results under the second method for the years 1896, 1897, 1898 are tabulated below. The yield is stated in bushels. That portion of the yield which was marketed in barrels is divided into grades 1 and 2 and the percentage is given of barrel fruit in each grade. 306 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE The crop was so light that no thinning was done in 1899 on trees I, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, which should have been thinned. The crop was likewise light on the corresponding trees which were not to’ be thinned. The yield of trees 1-12 for 1899 was not recorded, and so does not appear in the table. TaBLE VII.—BALDWIN FRUIT THINNED TO Four INCHES; DEFECTIVE AND INFERIOR SPECIMENS REMOVED. YIELD PER TREE IN BUSHELS—1896-1899. Barrel fruit. All Tree.| Treatment. | Year. eee ae Culls!| Drops: sorts No. x. No. 2. Total. yield. Bu. | Per ct.|| Bu. | Per ct. Bu Bu Bu Bu I at Thinned ....| 1896 ||16.67| 80.7 AewelOesi| 20.07. |leae "e whe 3 wy “cc pps 1897 q q q q _16 * * * s¢ CO ee | 1S9S)|| 1225) 78.14 92] 2822) | 7a42 41 7o'on en oag aleetery Motaleeee= |eece =||29207)) 70-201 8202) 235) || 35225 4 | Not thinned] 1896 ||15.41/ 59 10.67] 41 2620S 5a uA li 6 66 “c c 1897 q q q q 53% * * * i ef | 1898 || 14.5} 63.7 || 7-83] 36 3 || 21-92 || 2-92) 2 33 | 27-7 flotalleee see ats 2O shi emecies 18.5 Gosses 48.33 oe Thinned....| 1899 ||10.12] 72.9 || 3-75] 27-1 || 13-83 . - . oa Not thinned) 1899 |} 8.07] 58.9 || 5.63] 41-1 || 13.69 4 3! ‘ * Not recorded. q Not graded because the yield was insignificant, ** The drops in each case were relatively greater where no thinning had been done, but the exact yield of culls and drops was not recorded in 1896, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 307 TaBLE VIII.—GREENING. FRUIT THINNED To Four INCHES, DEFECTIVE AND INFERIOR SPECIMENS REMOVED. YIELD PER TREE IN BUSHELS—1896-18099. Barrel fruit. All Tree! breatmentses |) Wears ||| eee ee ee ee ee ES | Curls: | Drops; eTotal No, 1. No, 2. Total. yield. 7 Bu. | Perct.| Bu. \ Per ct. Bu Bu Bu Bu a Thinned....] 1896)|14.67; 88 | 2 12 LORO7||e ie * 9 ss TO escics|| Ute Atatekey| steals aeo7d| eels 2216) |5 4% * t. se eee TSOS| 0 70 |2.58| 30 8.58] 1.58} 42] 10.58 Total. ....]-....||22.54| 82.3] 4.86) 17.7 27-40 10 mt Not thinned! 1896)|12.5 | 78-5]|3.25} 21-5 Heys | [ia a a * 12 pemees | 2. teOUll-Gng3\n S3-Sir.25) 1625 7-58] * ’ : Si oie ios eh Fogel SahSim 7a NTs sal) 27 4-92|} .92| 42) 6.25 Motals=2es||eocee|222421 7924)|5-83|) 2026 28.25 ] 22 Thinned....| 1899|| 9.75] 78-8] 2-63) 21-2]/ 12.38) * * * oo Not thinned} 1899}|12 S2 e122 03) ee L769 14.63| * Me ‘ * Not recorded. ** The drops were relatively greater where no thinning had been done, but the exact yield of culls and drops was not recorded. THIRD METHOD. Record for 1896.—The third method, in which all inferior speci- mens were removed and all others thinned to not less than six inches apart, was tried with Hubbardston (trees 15, 16) and with Greening (trees 19, 194). One tree of each kind was thinned while a corresponding tree was left unthinned for comparison The Hubbardston was under experiment from 1896 to 1899 and the Greening from 1897 to 1899. In 1896 25 per ct. less of No. t and No. 2 fruit combined was borne by the thinned than by the unthinned tree, but about 17 per ct. more of it graded No. 1. 308 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE The unthinned tree gave about three times as many culls as the thinned tree. The superior color and quality of the thinned fruit were especially noticeable. The yield for 1896 is given in the table below. Record for 1897.—About 21 per ct. more of the crop of the thinned Hubbardston graded No. 1 than was the case with the unthinned Hubbardston, although the total yield of marketable fruit where it was thinned was six bushels less than where it was unthinned. The thinned was the better fruit both of No. 1 and No. 2 apples and was also clearly superior in color and quality. In 1897 Greening was added to the experiment with the third method of thinning. On the thinned Greening tree the yield of marketable fruit was equal to that on the unthinned tree. The fruit from the two trees showed no difference in color, but the thinned fruit was distinctly superior in size. The yield for 1897 is given in the table below. Record for 1898.—In July, 1898, the fruit was thinned accord- ing to the plan adopted. When the fruit ripened it was evident that the thinned Hubbardston tree was bearing better fruit and had a smaller amount of windfalls than the unthinned tree. The thinned fruit averaged large and well colored, while the unthinned averaged medium size and only fair in color. The yield is shown in the Summary. Neither of the Greening trees bore any fruit. Record for 1899.—None of the trees under the experiment with the third method of treatment bore enough in 1899 to afford suitable opportunity for thinning the fruit. SUMMARY FOR THIRD METHOD. The yield for the trees under the third method of thinning is given in the following table, except for 1899, when the crop was so light that no thinning was done on the trees which were to be thinned. The crop was likewise light in 1899 on the corre- sponding trees which were not to be thinned. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. S08) TABLE IX.—FRuItT THINNED TO SIx INCHES; DEFECTIVE AND INFERIOR SPECIMENS REMOVED. Tree. YIELD PER TREE IN BUSHELS—1896-1898. “ce “6 —~_— Barrel fruit. All Variety. Treatment. 5 a a erode Si No. x. No. 2. |Total. 5 A yield Per Per Biba a \Gran |b teen | Ges Bu Bu. | Bu Bu. 15 |Hubbardston|Thinned -..|1896|15 |71.4) 6 |28.6\21 ee |e i 6é “ be 6c pets 1897 15 83.3 3 16.7 18 * * * eke ¢ .--|1898]|12.75]74 | 4-5/26 |17-25]| 2.5) -75] 20.75 Rota ys sacs 42075 |e eee kSc 5228 | 50-25 16 |Hubbardston|Not thinned|1896|/14.25/54.3/12 |45-7|26.25|| ** | ** is Petes Ves r 1897||15 [62.5/ 9 |37-5/24 als Sila che eS . 1898)18 [75 25 |24 4-5]6 | 34.5 Veen lees all scoala Wecos| ha as 7 7 ae | ieee x * * 19 |Greening .../Thinned -.-|1897|| 7-5 79 | 2 |21 | 9.5 “i 66 we 6“ . .. |1898]| 0 | fe) 0 Motalles | Eee o7e5 be 2 1946 |Greening ...|Not thinned!1897|| 6 |63 | 3.5137 | 9-5 el 33 OO : a 1898|| o fe) te) Total. BScol|| © Nar a5 * Not recorded. ** The drops were relatively greater where no thinning had been done, but the exact yield of drops and culls in 1896 was not recorded. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Now that an account of the experiment of thinning apples has been given, it will be interesting to examine the results and learn what effect thinning apples has had upon: W . The color of the fruit. Za bhe}size-or the; ira 3. The market value of the fruit. 4. The amount and regularity of fruit production. 310 REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE It would also be well to ask 5. Which method of thinning gives best results? 6. Is it profitable to thin apples? In these experiments no tests of the keeping qualities of the = thinned as compared with the unthinned fruit was made. It appears to be the general opinion of those who have had experi- ence in keeping apples that very large or overgrown specimens of apples do not keep so well as those of normal size and firmer texture. This is a subject which is worthy of careful investiga- tion. As arule consumers show a preference for the larger fruit. Each of the subjects above mentioned will now be considered. I. DOES THINNING AFFECT THE COLOR OF THE FRUIT? With Baldwin under the first method the thinned fruit in 1896 was higher colored than the corresponding unthinned fruit. (See p. 298.) In 1898 it was again better colored than the unthinned Baldwins. (See p. 298.) Baldwin and Greening under the second method of thinning produced fruit of distinctly superior color in 1896. (See p. 300.) Again in 1898 similar re- sults were seen with Baldwin, but not with Greening, because the Greenings bore a very light crop. (See p. 304.) In 1899 similar results were seen (p. 305). With Hubbardston under the third method the superior color of the thinned fruit in 1896 was especially noticeable (p. 308). In 1897 it was likewise clearly superior in color (p. 308). Again in 1898 the thinned fruit was well colored, while the color of the unthinned fruit was only fair (p. 308). With Greening under the third method but one crop was obtained, viz., that of 1897. The crop was comparatively light and no clear distinction could be made in the color of the two lots of fruit (p. 308). In general whenever the trees were well loaded with fruit it was found that thinning improved the color of the fruit. Both red and yellow hues were heightened and tended to be more brilliant when the fruit was harvested than they were on the cor- responding unthinned fruit. Where the fruit was borne sparsely and really required little thinning, or none at all, the thinning had practically no appreciable influence on the color of the fruit. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 311 2. DOES THINNING AFFECT THE SIZE OF THE FRUIT? Baldwin fruit in 1896 under the first method averaged much better in size where it was thinned. Of the total fruit fit for barreling it showed 70.3 per ct. No. 1, as compared with 60.5 per ct. of No. 1 where unthinned, and the No. 2 grade showed 29.7 per ct. of thinned fruit as compared with 39.5 per ct. un- thinned. There were about three times as many culls of unthinned as of thinned fruit. Besides this it should be noticed that each grade of thinned fruit averaged larger than the corre- sponding grade of unthinned fruit. (See pp. 297, 298.) In 1898 the thinned Baldwin fruit averaged much larger than the un- thinned. The unthinned fruit showed 100 per ct. more culls and 50 per ct. more drops than the thinned. Of the total thinned fruit fit for barreling 85 per ct. graded No. 1 and but 15 per ct. No. 2, while with the unthinned fruit 76.9 per ct. graded No. I and 23.1 per ct. No. 2. The thinned fruit also averaged larger in each grade than the unthinned did. (See pp. 298, 299.) With the second method in 1896 22 per ct. more of the barrel fruit graded No. 1 with the thinned Baldwin than with the un- thinned (p. 300). In 1808 the thinned fruit averaged medium size, the unthinned small to medium size. Of the total thinned fruit which was fit for barreling 71.7 per ct. graded No. 1, while of that which was not thinned only 64.2 per ct. graded No. I (p. 303). In 1899 the thinned fruit which was fit for barreling graded 73 per ct. No. 1, while the corresponding unthinned fruit graded but 58.9 per ct. No. 1 (p. 305). Greenings under test with the second method were only fairly well loaded in 1896, consequently even the unthinned fruit was fine. Of the thinned fruit which was fit for barreling 88 per ct. graded No. 1, while of the corresponding unthinned fruit only 78.5 per ct. graded No. 1 (p. 300). The thinned fruit also aver- aged larger in each grade than did the unthinned fruit. In 1897 the Greenings did not mature a good crop and the size of the fruit was but little improved by thinning. The thinned fruit showed only about 5 per ct. more in grade No. 1 than the un- thinned fruit did. Again in 1898 the Greenings bore but a mod- 312 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE erate crop and the thinning did not bring about any increase in size of the fruit. Of the fruit fit for barreling, that which was thinned showed 69.9 per ct. in No. 1 grade, while the unthinned fruit graded 72.9 per ct. No. 1 (p. 303). Similar results were obtained in 1899 (p. 305). The only method tried with Hubbardston was the third, by which the fruit was thinned to at least six inches apart. In 1896 under this method 71.4 per ct. of the barrel fruit graded No. 1, while only 54.3 per ct. of the corresponding unthinned fruit eraded No. 1. Of the total barrel fruit in 1898 from the thinned Hubbardston 74 per ct. graded No. 1, while the unthinned graded 75 per ct. No. 1. The thinned fruit on the average was certainly superior in size and made better grades than the un- thinned fruit did. Moreover, the unthinned fruit showed over 60 per ct. more culls and eight times as many drops as did the thinned fruit (pp. 308, 309). With Greening in 1897 under the third method 79 per ct. of the barrel fruit graded No. 1, while only 63 per ct. of the corre- sponding unthinned fruit graded No. 1. The thinned fruit was distinctly superior in size, although the crop of both thinned and unthinned fruit was light (pp. 308, 309). In these tests whenever the trees had a good crop the thinning has had the effect of increasing the size of the fruit. This occurred most often with Baldwin and Hubbardston and not cften with Greening. The Greening has a tendency to bear more regularly than the Baldwin and does not usually carry so heavy crops, consequently shows on the average less improvement from thinning than does Baldwin. 3. DOES THINNING APPLES AFFECT THE MARKET VALUE? So far as the intrinsic value of the fruit influences its market value this question must be answered in the affirmative. The thinned fruit produced in these experiments was generally superior to the corresponding unthinned fruit in size, color and general attractiveness. It was much better adapted than the un- thinned fruit for making fancy grades, packing in boxes, etc., and where such methods of marketing can be used to advantage New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 313 — would undoubtedly sell for a greater advance in price over the unthinned fruit than it would when sold in barrels in the ordinary way. But even when put upon the ordinary market in barrels there are doubtless times when the superior fruit would bring more than the ordinary ruling prices. This would be more apt to occur if the superior fruit could be furnished in large quan- tities. v This suggests the question whether local associations of apple growers might not be formed for the purpose of grading and marketing their fruit. Well grown, thinned and sprayed apples might be uniformly graded and given the brand of the associa- tion. Under good management it would seem that a good repu- tation might be established for certain superior grades of fruit which could be supplied in quantities sufficiently large to com- mand enough of an advance over ordinary prices to make the enterprise profitable notwithstanding the extra expense of pro- ducing such fruit. The question whether thinning apples may be profitable or not involves other considerations besides the market value of the fruit, and it will be considered separately. 4. HAS THINNING INFLUENCED THE REGULARITY OR THE AMOUNT OF FRUIT PRODUCTION? When the trees under experiment were paired for comparison those were chosen for each pair which appeared to be about equally productive; but before proceeding to make comparisons as to productiveness it may be well to call attention to the fact that no two trees, even though they be of the same age, same vari- ety, and growing in the same orchard, are exactly alike in respect to regularity and extent of productiveness. These may be modi- fied by the stock upon which the tree is grown, by methods of training, management, etc., but they are also influenced by en- vironment, and no two trees have the same environment. To a certain extent the degree of productiveness is a variety charac- teristic, but it also seems to be a permanent characteristic of the individual tree, as determined by the various factors above men- 314 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE tioned._ This is well illustrated in the following account of the individual records of yields of six Greening trees for a period of ten years. Three of these six trees received annual applications of wood ashes, while the other three did not. In all other respects they were all similarly treated. The trees are all of the same age and are located in one of the Station orchards. They were planted in 1850. These trees all bore a full crop in 1896, in which year they showed considerable differences in yield. It is a remarkable fact that they retained practically the same rela- tive rank in productiveness throughout the period of ten years which they showed in 1896. TABLE X.—RECORD OF YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL GREENING TREES FOR Tren YEARS. BUSHELS PER ANNUM. 3 ® 1893. | 1894. | 1895.| 1896. | 1897.| 1898. 1899.| Igo00. |1901.| 1g02. Tele 4 & I 10.125] 3.67 2.33 17.44,0-78| 6.28 |o 13.75 |4-47| 23-41 | 72.255 I 2/4.50 | 5-75 4-607 31-96,0.86] 12.94 |o 27.20 |O 37-62 | 125.500 I} 3|1.67 | 2.25 6.17 27.25|0.54| 7-27 |0.93} 19.04 |o 20.46| 85.580 kar oe Rk 2 ie Sheen Paes 6 86 jo II.99 |O 27.87] 64980 2 5,1.125| 4.50 5.83 26.32,.0.28) 8.43 |o 16.36 |o 21.74) 84.585 2! 65.50 |12.50 2.83 31.400.44| 12.12 |o 21.76 |o 34-45 | 121.000 ae bes Seagal es ----|(13-17) |0 (23.65) 0 (37-44) | (126 930) In 18098 tree 6 lost about 8 per ct. of its bearing wood. Its record from 1898 to 1902 should be correspondingly raised to make it comparable with the other trees for those years. The corrected statements appear in parentheses. Using the figures showing the actual yields, the percentages in the following table are obtained. The first column shows for 1896 the percentage which the yield of each tree formed of the total yield of the six trees. The second column in a similar way shows for the ten- year period the percentage which the yield of each tree formed of the total yield of the six trees. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 315 TABLE XI.—SHOWING RELATIVE POSITION OF THE SIX TREES AS TO YIELD IN 1896 AND DuRING THE TEN-YEAR PERIOD. Percentage of total yield. Tree No. _ 5 1896. Bee to-year period. Relative DA cwieaciveweranawionionsig Selsicce 12 2 13 2 Ae Sh AA SS Nan Spl egy Gere ea eee Oe?) 6 22 6 6 Beaesistc essa co uo nontoesoncs 18 4 15 4 4 2 ee HRS Se Pats Peet are ee II I 12 I eter dccens envecs eoEE oe osee 17 3 15/2 3 Onto SECO ESOC OCH SOBE Eomeer 20.8 5 21.8 5 Turn again to the question whether in these tests thinning the fruit has to any considerable degree influenced either the amount or the regularity of the crops produced and examine the results from this standpoint. Baldwin under the first method, in which fruits were thinned to one in a cluster, bore no fruit in 1897 and too light a crop in 1899 to offer opportunity for thinning. It was very productive in 1896 and moderately so in 1898, thus showing its natural ten- dency towards biennial crops. The thinning did not seem to modify this tendency. Of the total yield which was fit for the barrel in 1896 the thinned fruit formed 46 per ct. and the un- thinned 54 per ct. In 1898 the record showed 43 per ct. and 57 per ct. respectively. It appears, therefore, that during the four years of this test thinning the fruit did mot cause the Bald- win to bear more regularly nor more abundantly. Baldwin under the second method, in which fruits were thinned to at least four inches apart, gave but very little fruit either in 1897 or 1899 on the trees which were under experiment in 18096, viz., trees 1 to 6 (p. 306). It bore well in 1896 and nearly as well in 1898, again showing its natural tendency towards biennial bearing. Of the total fruit fit to barrel the thinned apples in 1896 formed 44 per ct. and the unthinned 56 per ct. In 1898 the figures stood 47 per ct. and 53 per ct. respectively. The rela- tive increase in productiveness of the thinned over the unthinned trees which appears in 1898 under the second method is equaled by the relative decrease which appears under the first method. Under the circumstances neither can be held to be very signifi- cant. 316 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE The two lots of Greening trees which were placed under the second method of the experiment in 1896 show for the period of three years, 1896, 1897, 1898, practically the same amount of fruit fit for barreling, and in the following year their yields, though not recorded in bushels, were observed to be very light (p. 306). In 1896 the thinned trees produced about a bushel more per tree of the first and second grades combined than the unthinned trees did; in 1897 the unthinned trees averaged nearly five bushels per tree more than the thinned; in 1898 the thinned trees again took the lead, exceeding in yield the unthinned trees by about four bushels per tree; so that for the three years the total yield of first and second grade fruit was very nearly the same for the two lots of trees. As was the case with the Bald- win, these results do not signify that the practice of thinning materially changed either the regularity or the amount of fruit production. In the Hubbardston we have to deal with a variety which has a tendency to bear more regularly than Baldwin and more abundantly than Greening. Considering only first and second grade fruit, we find that the total yield where the fruit was thinned was 56} bushels for the years 1896 to 1898 and 74+ bushels for the unthinned fruit. In the following year neither the thinned nor the unthinned tree bore enough fruit to give opportunity for thinning, and their yields were not recorded (p. 308). In this pair of trees one was constantly more productive than the other. In order then to learn whether thinning tended to make the yield greater or more regular the amount of the thinned product should be compared year by year with the amount from the unthinned tree. Disregarding the drops and culls, the percentage which each tree bore of the combined yield ot both trees, 1 and 2, is shown for each year in the following statement: TABLE X!J.—PERCENTAGE OF THINNED VS. UNTHINNED HUBBARDSTON. Percentage of total yield for the year. Tree. Treatment. y 1896. 1897. 188. i Per ct Per ct Per ct 15 whinnied (ise Boe nas ae eceeee 44 43 42 16 INotithinned 222-2 eer eee eee 56 eee 74 58 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 317 These results with Hubbardston are in line with those previ- ously noted with Baldwin and Greening in that the practice of thinning the fruit did not appear to cause any material change in either the amount or the regularity of fruit production. 5. WHICH METHOD OF THINNING GIVES BEST RESULTS? It will be remembered that the original plan called for a com- parison of three ways of thinning the apples. In each of these methods all wormy, knotty or otherwise undesirable specimens were removed and all clusters thinned to one fruit. The follow- ing statement shows the further requirements, if any, which dis- tinguished the methods: First method, none. Second method, no two fruits left less than four inches part. Third method, no two fruits left less than six inches apart. Eventually, because some of the work which was planned faiied for lack of suitable crops to work with, only one variety, the Baldwin, was tested sufficiently to offer opportunity for compar- ing one method with another. The following table brings together the records of Baldwin under the first and second methods: TABLE XIII.—RESULTS WITH FIRST AND SECOND METHODS OF THINNING BALDWIN. No. 1 fruit. No. 2 fruit. Total yield per tree. Method. | Trees. | Year. : Thinned. | 4,054, || Thinned.| 024 | Thinned.| jercg. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Bu. Bu. First -...] 13-14 | 1896 70.3 60.5 2007 2025) en 2775 22825 Second ..| 1- 6 ot 80.7 59 19 3 41 20.67 26.08 First .-..| 13-14 | 1897 e) (a) fo) to) (a) fo) Second..| 1- 6 se q q q q 0.17 0.33 First --..| 13-14 | 1898 85 76.9 15 23-1 15 19-5 Second ..| 1- 6 fe 71.8 63-7 28.2 36 3 17.4 21.9 Second ..| 20-23 | 1899 72.9 58-9 27.1 41-1 13.9 137 q The fruit was not graded because the yield was insignificant. The record for 1896 when there was a full crop indicates that the results with the second method were better than were 318 Report oF THE HortrcuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE obtained with the first method. In 1898 with a moderate crop the first method gave the larger amount of No. 1 fruit, but since the crop was lighter than that borne by the trees upon which the second method was tried the fruit was consequently less thickly distributed over the tree and much of it really set thinner than did the fruit on the trees treated by the second method. | The fact then that in this instance the fruit grown nominally under the first method was superior in size to that produced under t. e second method is really in line with the results of the previous season’s test, for although the fruit under the first method aver- aged the larger there was really a less amount of it on the tree than there was on the trees under the second method. It appears, too, that when the fruit is thinned to six inches greater improvement in grade is seen than when it is thinned to four inches. No mathematically exact method can be followed in thinning fruit because the amount of fruit which sets, the distribu- tion of it on the tree and the ability of the tree to bring fruit to perfection vary with the same tree from season to season, as well as with different trees in the same season. 6. IS IT PROFITABLE TO THIN APPLES? It has been shown that under certain conditions, at least, the size and general quality of apples may be improved by thinning. Whether or not this may be done with profit is a question which cannot be given a definite general answer. In the experiments under consideration where the size and quality of the fruit have been improved by thinning the quantity of marketable fruit has been reduced. If the fruit must be offered on the general mar- ket, under existing conditions it is probable that the returns from a thinned crop in many cases would not equal the returns which the crop from the same trees would bring if unthinned. On the other hand when a tree is overloaded and conditions are such that it could not be expected to bring its fruit up to good marketable size it would certainly be good economy to thin the fruit enough to secure good average size. ‘In these experiments the differences in value between the thinned and the unthinned fruit were not demonstrated accurately New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 319 because of the comparatively small amount of fruit under experi- ment. With the crop of 1896 men of experience in marketing apples estimated that if the thinned fruit could have been furnished in barrels: in car lots it would have commanded from Io per ct. to 15 per ct. higher price than the corresponding grades of the unthinned fruit. But for the practical orchardist who owns his orchard there is another important consideration, namely, the welfare of the trees. Young trees, and with some varieties mature trees also, may be injured by allowing them to bear too heavy a crop of fruit. This may render them more liable to injury from unfavorable climatic conditions, or it may so weaken their vitality that they will not recover normal vigor and productiveness for several years, if they do at all. Then, too, overburdened apple trees are apt to suffer permanent injury from the breaking of large limbs under the excessive weight of fruit. The whole question as to whether it pays under existing conditions to thin fruit in the commercial orchards of western New York is well summed up by Mr. Wilson, in whose orchard these tests were made. In reply to this question he writes: ‘“ When there is a general crop of apples and the crop, or set, is very full, so that the chance for small fruit is very great and wide- spread over the country, I think it would pay to thin to such an extent as to insure good-sized fruit. Aside from this I do not think it would pay, only for the protection of the tree.” METHOD AND TIME FOR THINNING APPLES. A word may be said as to the opinion of the writer concerning the best method and the best time in the season for thinning apples. No method of jarring or raking off the fruit in thinning is advised because by such methods good, bad and indifferent fruit is indiscriminately taken off. It is best to do the work by hand because intelligent selection can then be made and only the best specimens allowed to remain on the tree. As to the best time in the season for thinning it may be said that best results seem to be obtained by early thinning. The work should be begun within three or four weeks after the fruit sets, without waiting for the second drop to be completed. 320 REPORT OF THE HortTiIcuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE GOST :OF > THINNED-“AS! ‘COMPARE DW litt UNTHINNED EP RUTE: In these experiments it has taken from one-half hour to, five hours to thin a tree. The time required varies with the size of the tree and the amount of the crop. Usually the thinning to- gether with the gathering of the ripe fruit has taken about twice as much time as it has to gather the corresponding unthinned fruit when ripe. Doubtless many fruit growers have an idea that thinning apples is a more expensive operation than it really is. No time is taken up with handling the fruit when thinning as it is when the ripe fruit is gathered. The fruit which is taken off in thinning is allowed to drop to the ground, whereas the ripe fruit must be put into baskets or other receptacles and carried away. The cost of thinning mature, well-loaded trees ought not to exceed fifty cents per tree and probably would average less than that. The cost of producing thinned as compared with unthinned apples includes another factor not yet mentioned, and that is the expense of grading the fruit. The thinned apples as a rule can be graded more easily and rapidly than can corresponding un- thinned apples. Besides this thinned apples have proportionately less of drops and culls, which increase the cost of handling the crop and which are the least profitable grades of the fruit. SPRAY ME Beaume)".”. 2)! tt e.nn oe eeeeee een one 3 pints. SOAPS Aisi een eat ec rel go iy Rr aent Ea eee I pound. Wickets si ocn.5'sict ase site aieials Sota Seta s els ewe ct see 2 gallons. Boil until the arsenic is all dissolved, which will take about fifteen minutes. Replace the water that has been lost in boiling as other- wise some of the material will crystallize upon cooling; then place in an earthen vessel where it can be kept as a stock solution. One pint of this stock solution is equivalent to four ounces of paris green and is used in the same way; that is, one pint of the stock solution, two pounds of freshly slaked lime and 45 gallons of water, or one pint of the stock solution to 45 gallons of bordeaux mixture. It must not be used alone, but lime must be added. It then forms arsenite of lime. 338 Report oF THE HortIcuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE It is very important that the vessels that are used in making or storing this and the preceding poison be plainly labeled and never used for any other purpose. ARSENATE OF LEAD. (1) Acetate of lead. Friese ean teen ter natte tan ne ene II ounces. Arsenate of Sodas. cy one sede ce meres ne ARIE eae RO UN CeSs Walter es eae heres Sioco tie uate, cae ie eee 50 gallons. Dissolve the acetate of lead in 2 quarts of water and the arsenate of soda separately in another 2 quarts. Pour the solutions together into the spraying tank containing the required amount of water. There is formed a white precipitate of arsenate of lead. To make one pound of arsenate of lead, there are required twenty-four ounces of acetate of lead and ten ounces of arsenate of soda. In preparing this poison purchase only first class chemicals. High-grade crystal- lized acetate of lead contains about 58.8 per ct. available lead oxide. Arsenate of soda should not have more than two or three per ct. of chloride. Arsenate of lead is less liable to injure the foliage than is paris green and on account of its color it shows plainly where it has been applied. It remains in suspension well and there is no difficulty in applying it at uniform strength. Arsenate of lead is also handled in trade as a proprietary article under the name of Disparene. In considerable quantities it can be prepared more cheaply than it can be purchased, but in small lots the ready-made material is the cheaper. The following formula may also be used: Nitrate. (of Weadicncrucic cscs totic seteit aare eer er ate ei leeks IO ounces. Arsenate soda® . ¢ j.c ons cok eke ta reeihadetecre ete esentene 5 ounces. Wraten.i4.s.d tsa conk chad obec ere eeiete ier 50 gallons. This is prepared in the same manner as preceding formula. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 339 ARSENITE OF LEAD. EU CtatesOn Medd ar mame ies vite or aie foes Cove eek cae 4 pounds. ENG CIMECN OAS) Cie s aise ka casas snes sie ancients oe deiwe aE OUNCES: AI EINES 52 tn Siete at ange ene See Sa GS 50 gallons. This is prepared in the same manner as arsenate of lead. WHALE OIL SOAP. This is a rather inexpensive spray for elongated scales, plant lice and other soft-bodied insects. It may be used on foliage at the rate of I pound in 7 gallons of water. It is an expensive remedy for San José scale but is convenient for the treatment of a few trees. For this purpose use during the dormant season at the rate of 2 pounds in one gallon of water. Use only best quality of soap. RESIN-LIME SOAP. EUhvetie Calan Ctn ete me ati es Se Fit: cradles « Sul te’ oe 5 pounds. Wome metabe aye tie mene Gets Srv ae. § Mclean ets No ore I pound. Fish oil, or any cheap animal oil except tallow.......... I pint. IEICE Ss curtis o£ oe She ET oe te ee at 5 gallons. Place oil, resin and a gallon of water in an iron kettle and heat until resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap; stir thoroughly ; add remainder of water and boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear, amber- colored liquid. If the mixture has boiled away too much, add suffi- cient boiling water to make 5 gallons. For use, 1 gallon of this stock solution is diluted with 16 gallons of water and afterward 3 gallons of milk of lime or whitewash added. The resin mixture is in reality a liquid soap and the addition of the lime turns it to a hard soap which remains suspended in the water in minute particles. The poison, % pound of paris green or other arsenite, is then added, and the particles of poison adhere to the finely divided soap particles and are thus distributed throughout the mixture in minute and uniform quantities. The soap solution is very adhesive and thus a thin film of poison is made to stick to 340 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE every part of the leaf which is touched by the spray. Upon cabbage and cauliflower the use of this mixture requires a strongly made pump of considerable power. The nozzles must be guided by hand to cover thoroughly all parts of the plants. ° This material can no doubt be used to advantage in combination with bordeaux mixture for use on plants that have leaves not easily wetted. LIME-SULPHUR-SALT WASH. TETTMO < aarae ees oe Gate ciel aS oe archers ae Lee Saat ele oe ere 15 pounds. Salpiats ssc assess te) siarecah Seed lel pelos ee Wee Siete eee 15 pounds. Salts. spice Fac .ta eee tae tee ei pades a ee ote tee tee seaman I5 pounds. Water cc sace seco miciinns Oe cet os erent 50 gallons. Boil one hour. A detailed account of methods of preparing and applying this wash and of some results obtained will be published by this Station early in the spring of 1904. LIME-SULPHUR-SODA WASH. Quateklime: 2. i. pavy ti seers. tiaanpistele ene tare icra eeateke 30 pounds. Sulpltir> ground. .i.;.k ee cane wes cous coker eeeemn emer 15 pounds. Catstie Sodas stinn wis 2051 sole eee ene ee eee 4 to 6 pounds. WiBtel SoS isie-owa'sleboe cate tres sal enokn cig Sie apo ieee eee 50 gallons. Experiments in making a lime-sulphur wash by using caustic soda to avoid the necessity of boiling have given some promising results. This wash is intended to take the place of the ordinary lime sulphur- salt wash. Methods of preparing and applying this wash will be published by this Station early in the spring of 1904. KEROSENE EMULSION. KKeLOS@NEG wes.ui of ud ahd coe treriae 5 Glo OUTO ont tasrstoheeroeite 2 gallons. Whale oilsoapi' tS tA ere eee eee W% pound. Aichi s een Ree eEAD Soro ser Me cick ora cdcuco adgoe I gallon. Heat the soap and water together, and when boiling hot remove from near the fire and add two gallons of kerosene. The whole is now thoroughly mixed by pumping continuously through a small force pump for about five minutes. Mix until the ingredients form New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 341 a creamy mass that becomes thick when cool and from which the oil does not separate. For summer use dilute with 15 to 20 parts of water for plant lice and soft-bodied insects; for plant bugs, larve and beetles dilute 1 part with 7 to 9 parts of water. Some venture to use it as strong as I to 5. When used as a winter treatment it may be applied as strong as one part of the mixture to four parts of water. After the stock emulsion becomes cold it hardens so that it is necessary to melt it before it can be successfully diluted. It takes fire very readily, so it is always best to have the fire out of doors when making the emulsion. Do not apply the mixture with pumps that have rubber balls for valves. Replace the balls with marbles as the kerosene soon destroys rubber. There is a large amount of whale oil soap of poor quality on the market which accounts for trouble that some people experience in forming the emulsion. Only the better grades of whale oil soap should be used. CRUDE PETROLEUM AND KEROSENE. Crude petroleum and kerosene may be applied clear or emulsified at the rate of 40 per ct. oil and 60 per ct. water. They are con- venient but dangerous sprays and should be used only by experienced sprayers. They may be applied to apple, pear and plum trees but not to peach trees. Experiments with them are recorded in Bulletins 194, 202 and 213 of this Station. HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS. Fused cyanide of potassium....... SORE bee gene I ounce. Solphumicsacidsh: 5 isos wees RES RAG See ahe DA alais cacs ale aie one I ounce. NEAT Tere Sete Re a Sma Mine naly a aa lat, Fats Mista we £5 3 Ounces. This gas must be confined in a gas-tight room or other receptacle, both to secure efficiency against insects and to prevent injury to other forms of life. It is exceedingly poisonous. Pour the water into a glass or glazed earthenware dish and add 342 Report or THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE the sulphuric acid. After having placed the receptacle in proper position add the cyanide. This amount is sufficient for 150 cubic feet of space. The operator should take great care not to inhale any of the fumes. The treatment is efficient. It is especially adapted for greenhouse and nursery fumigation. For further details see Bulletin 202 of this Station. TOBACCO. RO RACCOLSHEMS, An nccitcccnee tone Sapo caie cee erties seein meets I pound. IWWiaikGie. = cictenchi ar aysieiat ote, suse lel talaversen rete ta Suchen eutered money ieee 2 gallons. Boil the stems and strain the liquid. Add water to make the decoction up to 2 gallons. The efficiency of tobacco water may be increased by stirring in I pound of whale-oil soap to each 50 gallons. Tobacco is valuable against plant lice and woolly aphis. PYRETHRUM. For use as spray: ByrethirWin jis dc heres de a eosthe re oibsciel etn mere oe eeees olepeicrom rene I ounce. Widtertse scat cetera acl Menahem d sold inc cit ete kate eee 3 gallons. For use in dry form: PySethruim 3.5 vse ick ccas s crekas ote sine ered ot nutter eee Ieee L pant. PNOUG Fhe sl Rees Reems aoe okt oe che eee 2 to 3 parts. This is a powerful contact poison, especially adapted for fighting lice and many small insects. It is not poisonous to the higher animals or to man. CARBON BISULPHIDE. This is used against root-inhabiting insects, such as plant lice, woolly aphis and ants, and against wire-worms, beetles, weevils, etc., affecting stored grains. The fumes destroy the insects, and should be confined to secure best results. For bin pests use 1 pound of carbon bisulphide for each 1,000 cubic feet of space. Remember that the fumes are explosive. Do not bring fire near them. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 343 COMMERCIAL INSECTICIDES. Some commercial substitutes for the standard poisons are: Para- grene, Green Arsenoid, Green Arsenite, Pink Arsenoid, Laurel Green, Arsenate of Lead and Disparene. These are sometimes used in preference to the poisons previously mentioned. But before adopting any one of them for exclusive use, it is advised that a competent chemist be consulted. Among the proprietary contact poisons are Slug Shot, Derror’s Fluid, etc. These are comparatively costly. They possess no ad- vantage over standard remedies. WHAT IS THE MOST DESIRABLE SPRAY AND HOW OBTAINED? In applying bordeaux mixture or other fungicide to any foliage it is evident that perfect work is done when the spray covers the leaf surface most completely and permanently. The same is true of spraying with arsenical insecticides or other insecticides which are applied to the leaf for the purpose of killing insects by poisoning their food. Experience shows that with liquid preparations this may be best accomplished when the liquid is broken into so fine a spray that it will rest upon the leaf in mist-like particles and dry in that position. In practical operations, before every leaf becomes covered in this way the liquid will often drip from some of the leaves. Never- theless, the aim should be to cover every leaf in the manner described and in so doing to avoid as much as possible making any of the foliage so wet that it will drip. Any portion of the leaf surface which is not covered with the spray mixture evidently remains un- protected from the attacks of the fungi. Not only may a much better spray be applied with a perfect mist than with a coarse spray but it may also be applied with less expense of time and of material. It is beyond question that a pressure of from 100 to 120 pounds gives a finer mist than can be obtained with the same apparatus under 344 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE a pressure of from 70 pounds to 80 pounds. Herein lies one advan- tage of so-called “ power” sprayers. With these a greater pressure may easily be maintained than it is practicable to keep up with any hand pump. The character of the spray is determined not only by the amount of pressure but also by the kind of nozzle. No form of nozzle has been devised which gives a better spray than those constructed on the principle of the Vermorel. With such nozzles a fair spray may be had with even 50 pounds pressure. Much profitable spraying has been done with them with no higher pressure than from 50 to 60 pounds. Nevertheless with double that pressure a much better spray is obtained. There are other forms of nozzles with which a spray may be thrown to a greater distance than can be done with nozzles of the Vermorel type. On this account they may sometimes be used to advantage but generally speaking it is not good economy to use them. It is better to use a nozzle made on the same principle as the Vermorel and to devise some way of getting it close to the foliage which is to be reached by the spray. This may be done by exten- sion pipes or rods or by putting towers on the spraying rig from which the high tree tops may be reached, or by a combination of both methods. For further discussion on these points see under Nozzles, Exten- sion Rods and Towers. SPRAY, MACHINERY. TRADE CATALOGUES CONSULTED. In preparing this bulletin we desired to have before us accounts of the most recent devices in spraying apparatus and therefore sent requests to many manufacturers for information concerning their New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 345 lines of spraying apparatus. In return printed matter was received from the firms named below: E. C. Brown & Co., Rochester, N. Y. Dust Sprayer Mfg. Co., 510 Broadway, Kansas City, Mo. Deming Co., Salem, O. W. & B. Douglas, Middletown, Conn. Field Force Pump Co., Elmira, N. Y. Friend Mfg. Co., Gasport, N. Y. J. F. Gaylord, Catskill, N. Y. Goulds Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. Hardie Spray Pump Mfg. Co., Detroit, Mich. H. W. Henry, LaPorte, Ind. Hillis Dust Spray Mfg. Co., McFall, Mo. Leggett & Bros., New York. J. J. Kiser, Stanberry, Mo. Morrill & Morley, Benton Harbor, Mich. F. E. Myers & Bro., Ashland, O. Niagara Spraying Co., Middleport, N. Y. Pierce-Loop Sprayer Co., Northeast, Pa. Rochester Machine Tool Works, Ltd., Rochester, N. Y. Rippley Hardware Co., Grafton, Ill. DB. Smith S.Co,,-Utica, N.. Y. Spramotor Co., London, Ont., and Buffalo, N. Y. Wm. Stahl, Quincy, Il. Wallace Machinery Co., Champaign, III. R. B. Williamson, Clifton Springs, N. Y. THE ELEMENTS OF A SPRAYING OUTFIT. In discussing the subject of spraying outfits it will be convenient to consider the elements.of which such outfits may consist under the separate headings of pumps, nozzles, agitators, extension rods, hose, strainers or “ separators,’ crop-sprayer attachments, towers, trucks and tanks. PUMPS. A spray pump has certain peculiarities which distinguish it from pumps in general. The most important one is that the working parts should be entirely of brass or certain kinds of bronze or some othe substance which the spray liquids do not corrode, or should at least be covered with such metal, since bordeaux mixture attacks the more 346 Report or THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE commonly used metals of ordinary pumps. Neither should leather or rubber valves be used. This is important. The valve used in the better class of spray pumps is a brass valve ground to fit its seat perfectly. Some pumps are made with removable brass lining, per- mitting the quick replacing of a worn lining with a new one. In order to facilitate taking a pump apart and cleaning it, the working parts should be readily accessible. Single-acting pumps.—The simplest single-acting pumps have but one set of ports or valves. The cylinder 1s emptied and at the same time filled by the upward, or backward, stroke of the plunger; it remains filled during the return stroke, the plunger passing through the liquid, as in the common pitcher pump, and is again emptied and filled at the next upward, or backward stroke. The typical double- acting pump, on the other hand, is provided with at least two sets of ports or valves. The cylinder is filled from one end at one stroke and emptied at the return stroke of the plunger, filling at the same time from the other end. Some single-acting pumps have the cylinder submerged in the liquid while others have the cylinder placed on the outside of the tank or barrel. The latter are too well known to need description. Among pumps having the cylinder on the outside of the barrel are several made by W. and B. Douglas (one of them is shown in Fig. 19), the Deming Co’s. Gem, Simplex (Fig. 20) and Peerless, and the Field Force Pump Co’s. Empire Queen, Empire King (Fig. 21) and Empire Junior. Pumps of the submerged cylinder class, that is, pumps which are near the bottom of the barrel or tank and sub- merged in the liquid, have certain peculiar merits. From their loca- tion they can use simpler valves, they never need priming as the valves are always flooded and there are no projecting parts to catch on limbs. Most of the pumps of this class are made with short cylinders, but a few have long cylinders. Among such are the De- fender (Fig. 22) and the Little Giant of J. F. Gaylord; andthe Myers brass barrel pump. To the class of inside pumps with short cylinders belong Morrill and Morley’s Eclipse (Fig. 23), the Myers Improved brass barrel pumps (Fig. 24). Goulds’ Pomona (Fig. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 347 25), Savelot and Fruitall, and the Deming Century. A variation of this form is found in the Hardie (Fig. 26) and the Spramotor (Fig. 27), in which the pump is supported in the middle of the barrel on a foot piece. So-called double-acting pumps——Some.hand pumps are desig- nated as double-acting, meaning in this case that a part of the con- tents of the cylinder is discharged through the port with the for- ward stroke of the lever and the rest with the return stroke. These pumps maintain a continuous and uniform discharge at the nozzles with a small air chamber or even with none at all. Goulds’ Standard (Fig. 28) is an example. True double-acting pumps.—rThe true double-acting pump is one in which a certain quantity of liquid is taken in and also a like quantity discharged at both the forward and the return strokes of the lever. Pumps of this type used for spraying purposes are usually horizontal pumps. They are of large capacity and are generally used with a tank outfit, though Brown’s Siphonette is regularly used also with a barrel outfit. They of course require more expenditure of power than do single acting pumps of the same cylinder dimen- sions. Goulds’ Sentinel Jr., Douglas’ horizontal double-acting, the Friend, Brown’s Siphonette (Fig. 29) and Deming’s Planet (Fig. 31) are examples of this class. Two-cylinder pumps.—A two-cylinder pump is described by its name. It consists of two independent cylinders operated by a com- mon lever. These pumps have great capacity and are used on tank outfits. To this class belong Goulds’ Monarch (Fig. 32), Brown’s Hydraplex and the Friend Horizontal (Fig. 33). | Rotary or “clock” pumps.—The rotary or clock pump is theo- retically one of the best adapted to spraying purposes, but practically quite otherwise. These pumps have good capacity and are easier of operation than others here mentioned, but from the nature of their operation, which is that of two metal surfaces in contact with each other, they are short-lived. These working parts are made of brass and this soft metal is very soon worn. A pump of this type is shown in Fig. 30. . 348 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE Hydraulic pumps.—A hydraulic spray pump consists of a pump and a larger air chamber into which the spray liquid is pumped under pressure. The power that immediately expels the liquid is derived from the cushion of compressed air which has been formed. With pressure once up a spray may be thrown for several minutes without operating the pump. The pump is attached to an air chamber hav- ing a capacity of from 10 to 12 gallons. A pipe extends downward from the top of the air chamber to a point near the bottom, the upper end being connected with the discharge pipe. The liquid is pumped into the air chamber through check valves, and is forced by the com- pressed air through the discharge pipe. This type of pumps presents certain peculiar and undesirable features. Sediment is likely to settle on the valves unless there is provision for agitating the liquid other than the stream as it enters the chamber. Special care must be taken in packing these pumps and all joints must be extra strong on account of the great pressure which must be withstood. The air chamber should be provided with a pressure gauge. To this class belong the Field Force Pump Co’s. Niagara and the Myers Hydraulic Pump (Fig. 34). Special features—The air chamber of a spray pump may be painted with asphaultum to prevent bordeaux mixture attacking the iron and thus causing flakes to fall into the spray mixture. A per- fect coating should be applied as corrosive action may begin through the smallest break in the covering. Pumps with porcelain-lined cylinders have been made. They have proved unsatisfactory, how- ever, because it is almost impracticable to get all lumps out of the lime used in making the porcelain and these soon wear the plunger. We have had no opportunity of testing these pumps. NOZZLES. The subject of spray nozzles and their efficiency was investigated by Professor N. O. Booth while at the Missouri Experiment Station and the results are reported in Bulletin 50 of that Station. The matter given under this subhead is abstracted in large part from that bulletin. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 349 Classification of spray nozzles—Professor Booth classifies nozzles according to their manner of forming the spray. “Crpass I.—The first class both in simplicity and date of manu- facture is the solid, more or less round, stream. Here the water emerges in the form of a solid stream and the spray is formed by the action of the air upon this stream. No nozzles are now on the market in which this is the sole method of forming the spray, but it is one adjustment of several of the variable stream nozzles. A high pressure is necessary in using such nozzles in order to secure the velocity required to break the stream into a spray. These are all long distance nozzles designed for the tops of trees, etc. The fault with sprays formed in this manner is that they are not homo- geneous throughout. The air acts upon the outside of the stream first and when this is well broken up the center is still composed of very large drops if not wholly inact. The following nozzles utilize this method of forming a spray: Excelsior, Niagara, Seneca, Masson, Calla, Bordeaux and Lewis’ Patent. “Crass II.—The second class embraces those nozzles in which the spray is more or less broken directly by the action of the margin of the outlet. In all sprays the disintegrating action of the air is a factor but in this and the succeeding classes, owing to the fact that the air has equal access to all parts of the stream its action is more uniform than in the first class. Nozzles belonging to this class are: Niagara, Pilter Bourdil, Seneca, Masson, and Bordeaux. “Crass III.—The third class includes those nozzles in which the stream, having passed the outlet proper, is broken into a spray by striking against projecting parts of the nozzle. To this class belongs Bemis cratenitc: = tse “Crass [V.—Nozzles in which a rotary motion is given to the liquid in a chamber adjacent to the outlet and in consequence of this motion the stream emerges in the form of a conical spray. In some cases this rotary motion is given by the direction of the channel lead- ing to the chamber, and in others it is produced after introduction into the chamber by spirals in a spindle inside the chamber. To this class belong all the Vermorels, Australian and Cyclone. 350 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE “Crass V.—Nozzles in which the liquid escapes in the form of two converging streams the force of which, acting upon each other at the point of contact, breaks the liquid into a spray. This spray is fan-shaped and lies in a plare at right angles to the plane of the two converging streams. To this class belong Excelsior, Calla and McGowen. ~ “The classes I and III blend together so that some nozzles may be placed in one of the other according to the judgment of the person making the classification. Most of the variable spray nozzles fall into different classes as the adjustment is changed.” Among recent introductions not mentioned by Professor Booth aires Brown’s Universal Vermorel, Classes I and IV. Field Force Pump Co’s. Dewey, Class IV. Spramotor, Class IV. Goulds’ Mistry and Large Mistry, Class IV. Illustrations of the different classes are shown in Figs. 4 to 13, as follows: Class I. Deming’s Bordeaux, Fig. 4; Calla, Fig. 5, Lewis, Patent, Fig. 6. Class II. Deming’s. Bordeaux, Fig. 4. Class III. Lewis’ Patent, Fig. 6. Class IV. Vermorels, Dewey, Cyclones, Figs. 7 to 13. Class V..,.Calla; _——_._¥ RB “a ss 5, lt Hem) [ole "i te tee \ Mi PTL Ss i Bs | ——— mm "9 | a ¥ \ Y "iy ; | | j " ii : ‘\ 3 Nea nay He Ue i 7 | \\ hin, : = I = | \) | Nay X a : H ‘Naaman ig il PLaTteE XXV.—BarREL OUTFITS AND AGITATORS. MECHANICAL ||| | AGITATOR “jj PLATE XXVI.—BARREL OUTFITS. PLrateE XX VII.—PumMes. Pirate XXVIII.—Row SPRAYERS. PLATE XXIX.—FIELp-Crop SPRAYERS. s PLATE XXX.—STEAM-POWER SPRAYERS. * Wir 1, Sams ich PLATE XXXI.—STEAM-POWER OUTFIT AND VERTICAL GASOLINE ENGINE. PLATE XXXII.—HorizonNTAL GASOLINE ENGINE AND GASOLINE-POWER OUTFIT. PLate XX XIII.—Compressep-AIR OUTFITS AND STAND-PIPES. "SUHAVUUG WAMOG-SVN— ATXXX VIG le ol i ee 52 53 PLateE XXXV.—KeErosENE ATTACHMENTS, Dust Sprayers AND Nursery RIG. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. TGs Fic. Fic. Fic. Fic. ire: Fic. Fic. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 353 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXIX TO XXXV. PLATE XXIX. 37.—The Field Force Pump Co.’s Field-crop Sprayer “Aroostook.” 38.—J. S. Armstrong’s Home-made Potato Sprayer. PLATE XXX. 39.—Albert Wood & Son's Steam Power Sprayer; showing also bed pieces, bolsters; hose tied to bamboo fish poles; also use of high hind wheels on wagon; half-round horizontal tank. 40.—J. B. Collamer’s Steam Power Outfit; showing also bamboo exten-~ sion rods; also half-round horizontal tank with top of same used for platform; also engine hung from rear axle; also truck built without bed-pieces. PLATE XXXI. 41.—T. B. Wilson’s Steam Power Outfit; showing also use of top of tank as spray platform. 42.—The Goulds Mfg. Co.’s Gasoline Power Spraying Outfit. PLateE XXXII. 43.—Lunt, Moss & Co.'s Gasoline Engine and Power Spray Pump. 44.—The Geneva Experiment Station's Gasoline Power Spray Outfit; showing. engine and pump enclosed by canvas, half-round tank and removable tower. PLATE XX XIII. 45.—The Pierce-Loop Sprayer Co.’s Compressed-air Spraying Outfit. Showing also the Owen standard. 46.—The Loop Standpipe, used with Pierce-Loop Compressed-air Sprayer. PLATE XXXIV. 47.—The Niagara Spraying Mfg. Co.’s Two-horse Outfit; showing the tall, narrow tube containing liquified carbonic acid gas. 48.—The Niagara Spraying Mfg. Co.’s Orchard Outfit; showing steel tower; also wagon with platform raised in front. PLATE XXXV. 49.—Goulds Mfg. Co.’s “ Kerowater” Barrel Outfit for spraying mechani- cal mixtures of kerosene and water. 50.—Spramotor Co.’s Barrel Outfit for spraying mechanical mixtures of kerosene and water. 51.—Leggett & Bro.’s Jumbo Duster. 52—Dust Sprayer Mfg. Co.’s Cyclone Dust Sprayer. 53.—E. C. Brown & Co.’s Nursery Rig. 354 Report oF THE HortTICcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE “A great many nozzles, owing either to faulty construction or to wear, dribble. In new nozzles this is seldom serious but in old and worn nozzles it frequently gets to be a regular stream. This is not only a waste of liquid but also a great annoyance to the operator as all or part of this waste usually runs down the pole or extension rod on to his hands and arms. It is particularly disagreeable if the mix- ture be caustic. Nozzles will dribble worse with thicker liquids than with those of thinner nature. * * * Many otherwise good — nozzles are deficient in this respect.” Tests showed that none of the Vermorels dribble, but most of them have a stuffing box at the end of the spindle which may leak if not kept packed. fan-shaped sprays in a number of nozzles dribbled. The best nozzle-——The experiment Station often receives inquiries as to which is the best kind of nozzle to use in spraying. This ques- tion is discussed under the heading of “ The Most Desirable Spray,” P. 343. Vermorel nozzles.—In the opinion of the writers the best nozzles for use in fruit plantations are those of the Vermorel type. Manu- facturers have devised several modifications of the Vermorel nozzle. One recently introduced makes it possible to change from a solid stream to a fine spray. The modifications adopted in the Spramotor, Goulds’ Mistry and Goulds’ Large Mistry give a very broad cone- shaped spray and the spray is very fine. The Goulds Mistry throws a finer spray with a low pressure than does the common Vermorel. It is supplied with a cleanout by which solid substances may be re- moved from the piping or from the stem of the nozzle. Goulds’ Large Mistry is capable of covering a considerably larger area than do the common Vermorels. It is made with a swivel which permits of throwing the spray in any direction. When two of these nozzles are mounted on a Y the most varied directions may be given to the spray by changing the adjustment of the individual nozzles. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 355 Cyclone nozzles.—The cyclone nozzle is the prototype of the Ver- morel. It discharges the spray at right angles to the axis of the pipe which leads to the nozzle. Stahl’s cyclone is shown in Fig. 12 and Myers’ Hop Nozzle, a cluster cyclone, in Fig. 13. By some these nozzles with side discharge are considered specially desirable for spraying low plants and the under sides of foliage, but as a matter of fact they are not superior to the Vermorel. Cluster nozzles —A group of nozzles supplied by one lead of hose is called a “ cluster.” By means of suitable attachments these clusters may include two or more nozzles. Other things being equal this in- crease in the number of nozzlés attached to one lead of hose increases the area which may be covered by one workman in a given period of time. Some of the best and most experienced managers of spray- ing outfits hold the opinion that with good apparatus and good pres- sure it is not economical to include more than two Vermorel nozzles in a cluster. A double Vermorel is shown in Fig. 8 and triple and quadruple forms in Figs. 9 and 10. In some clusters Vermorel nozzles are used to give a very fine spray carrying but a short dis- tance while adjustable nozzles at the same time throw a coarser and farther reaching spray. Nozzle accessories —Various kinds of nozzle attachments are offered, as Y’s, strainers or separators, shut-off discharge connec- tions and devices by which the spray may be driven at any angle to reach any surface. The Loop separator.—This is a strainer which is attached to the discharge pipe of the tank for the purpose of separating from the liquid any particles which might clog the nozzle. See Fig 14. It consists of a brass cup separated into two chambers by a disc of wire cloth. The liquid enters the lower chamber, passes through the wire cloth to the upper chamber from which it is discharged into the hose leading to the nozzle. In the bottom of the cup is an orifice which may be opened at will for cleaning the chamber of sediment. This 350 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE device has but recently been put upon the market. It appears to be a good one. We have not yet seen it tested. AGITATORS. Agitators are of either (1) the mechanical or (2) the jet type. The former have the greater variety of forms, the wider use and in most cases the greater efficiency. Mechanical agitators are of the dasher type or of the whirling paddle type. In barrel outfits the dasher type is most frequently used but with large tanks the whirling paddle type prevails. Dasher agitators.—The dasher forms work up and down or side- ways or both ways. Those which work up and down are used in the larger number of barrel outfits. They are attached to the pump handle and operate in close proximity to the end of the suction pipe. An objection to them is that they do not keep the liquid equally well mixed throughout the barrel. Of this type are Goulds’ Standard, Spramotor (Fig. 27), Hardie (Fig. 26), Defender (Fig. 22) and Myers’ barrel agitator. Similar in principle and attachment are some of the dasher forms which work sideways. These are Goulds’ Fruitall, Pomona (fig. 25) and Savelot, the Field Force Pump Co.’s barrel agitator (Fig. 21), and the agitators used in some of the horizontal half-round tanks. Up and down and sideways actions are combined in the Eclipse (Fig. 23) and Deming agitators. The Eclipse agitator is a brass spoon-like paddle. The Deming (Fig. 20) is simply three separate paddles actuated by a common rod, one paddle working up and down and the other two sideways. Among the dasher agitators this last class is the most efficient. P Whirling paddle agitators——One form of the whirling paddle type is illustrated by the independent revolving agitator (Fig. 15), which was devised by Mr. C. K. Scoon of Geneva, and first brought to the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 357 attention of the public by this: Station (see Bulletin 121). As the paddles revolve the liquid is carried both around and upward in the barrel, giving thorough agitation. With fixed tanks this device may be fitted with chain and sprocket so as to be driven by the wagon wheel. This has been done by Maxwell Bros., of Geneva, who have a power outfit with unright cylindrical tank, the agitator of which consists of two banks of whirling tilted paddles, one at the bottom of the tank and one at about the middle. The mechanism is geared to one hind wheel. The agitator in the steam power outfit made by the Rochester Machine Tool Works consists of a bronze shaft, connected with the engine by a flexible coupling. On the shaft are two small blades similar to propeller-wheel blades, which revolve near the bottom of the cask. The speed can be varied at the pleasure of the operator. Agitators built after the screw-propeller model which are used with some large tanks are geared to a wagon wheel by sprocket and chain attachment. In the outfit of A. Wood & Son of Carlton Station the agitator is built like the fan of a fanning mill on a horizontal shaft. It is driven by means of chain and sprockets attached to one of the wagon wheels. This device is frequently found in use with large tanks. It gives good satisfaction. Morrill and Morley make a horizontal, half-round, self-agitating tank. It is divided into three compartments by bulkheads extend- ing to within 6 inches of the bottom, with a view to forcing the mixture along the bottom, and upwards against the bulkheads and ends of the tank. The whirling paddle type of agitator thus far has generally proved the most efficient in use. These agitators continually throw the liquid upward and outward from the whole bottom of the tank, giving a thorough agitation. Most agitators of this type are independent of the pump and this is an advantage. The operations of pumping 358 Report of THE HortrIcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE and of agitating require very different kinds of strokes to get the best results. Pumping requires a slow, steady stroke, while a quick, sharp motion is best for agitation. The fact of being independent also permits of agitation before pumping begins, a time when the spray mixture is especially liable to be lacking in uniformity. This is not practicable in most outfits in which agitators and pump are actuated by a common lever. But in a few cases the plunger of the pump can be readily detached from the lever by simply withdraw- ing a pin, and the mixture can receive a preliminary agitation. In the case of jet agitators of course the preliminary agitation can be given by pumping back into the tank. Jet agitators.—Jet agitators operate by returning a small stream of liquid under pressure from the pump to the bottom of the tank. Two are shown in Figs. 19 and 24. Jet agitators have been almost wholly discarded in practical work with hand pumps because it is impossible in pumping by hand to keep up pressure enough to sup- port the best kind of a spray even when none of it is used for return- ing a stream into the tank. While jet agitators in general as used in hand outfits, rank below the mechanical agitators in efficiency, as used in power outfits with excess of power they may be made very efficient. With them it is possible to agitate the liquid before spray- ing begins, which is a decided advantage. Moreover,.when made of brass they do not offer a surface on which sediment can collect, to dry when the tank is not in use and to scale off later with resulting lia- bility to clog the nozzles. EXTENSION RODS. Extension rods are used in connection with discharge hose for such purposes as reaching the higher branches of trees. By their use the spray can be put where wanted, whether into the interior of the tree or on the outermost branches. Extension rods are of two kinds, pipes supported by a rod ef wood and pipes with no support. The former usually consist of a length of New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 359 one-fourth or three-eighths inch brass or iron pipe fitted inside a bam- boo rod. See Fig.40. The length is commonly 8 feet but varies from 6 to 12 feet. Frequently three-eighths inch hose is used instead of an extension rod. In such cases the hose is usually tied to common stiff bamboo fish poles (as shown in Fig. 39) for reaching distant points. Very good extension rods may be made by fitting a brass pipe into a groove in a suitable piece of light pine. Extension pipes are similar to bamboo extension rods with the omission of the bamboo itself. They are not so stiff or durable but are cheaper. Their smallness is against them, because they cramp the hands when used for a considerable length of time. They are made in iron or brass, generally in 6 or 8 foot lengths. Drip guards are devices for protecting the hands of the operator from the drip from the nozzles. They may be attached at the middle of the rod or just under the nozzle or just above the hand of the - operator. A home-made shield may be made of any stiff leather. HOSE. Spraying outfits should be supplied with hose capable of withstand- ing a pressure of at least 125 pounds to the square inch. Three ply and four ply are most used but some prefer five ply or six ply. One- half inch hose is most commonly used but some prefer a three-eighths inch hose. There is much complaint of hose wearing out rapidly under the strain of power pumps. To meet this difficulty some use the less expensive three ply hose and buy a new supply each season. Others buy stronger, more expensive hose. We are in doubt as to which is the more economical course in the long run. As to the length of. hose required in orchard spraying, from 20 to 50 feet is used if the operator stands on the grourd and 8 to 12 feet if he stands on a tower. TOWERS. If the trees are so high that the tops cannot be sprayed from the ground or the wagon, it is necessary to provide a more elevated posi- 360 REPORT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE tion from which the highest branches may be reached. In some cases the workmen stand or sit on the top of the spray tank. See Figs. 40 and 41. In others an elevated platform is built, which is provided with a railing to prevent the workmen from being thrown off. See Fig. 44. Towers are simple in construction and require no further description. TRUCKS. High wheels behind, 60 to 70 inches in diameter, give a decided advantage in driving over soft ground. See Fig. 39. It is almost necessary however to have the front wheels low enough to cut under the platform for convenience in turning short. With heavy outfits it is best to use wide tires ; on soft ground they are almost a necessity. Those 5 or 6 inches in width are most often used, but some use 7- inch tires. Bolster springs are a desirable addition to heavy outfits. They make the load easier on both horses and wagon. See Fig. 39. STRAINERS. The nozzles are less liable to become clogged when all mixtures are strained into the tank. For this purpose brass wire cloth of about 20 meshes to the inch is best. Burlap is unsatisfactory because the lint from it clogs the nozzles. A strainer should also be attached to the end of the suction pipe. It is well to have this in the shape of a hood two or three times the diameter of the pipe. The Loop separator.—This is an attachment for straining the liquid as it enters the hose. It is described on p. 355. TANKS. The best tanks are constructed of cypress, pine or cedar, the first named being the most durable. Their durability may be increased by applying a coat of paint on the inside. This application has the further advantage of preventing the wood from becoming water New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 361 soaked and adding to the dead weight of the outfit. The capacity varies from 50 to 250 gallons, the latter being as much as a pair of horses can ordinarily draw. They are generally locally made, as the cost of shipping them any great distance is considerable. But there are numerous exceptions to this statement. Spraying tanks are commonly distinguished as horizontal and up- right cylindrical. The horizontal tanks are subdivided into those with flat and with half-round bottoms (see Figs. 39, 40, 44), the former being only occasionally met with. The bed pieces in the hori- zontal half-round form consist commonly of two heavy pieces of hardwood timber resting on the edges of the wagon bolsters on each side. See Fig. 39. Some outfits do not use bed pieces but have sim- ply semi-circular false bolsters for the tank to sit in, as in Fig. 4o. This gives an advantage in turning around, since the wheel can be cramped closer to the tank, but with steam outfits there is an at- tendant disadvantage, in that the boiler must be hung from the rear axle. KINDS OF SPRAYING OUTFITS. BUCKET OUTFITS. A bucket-pump outfit consists essentially of a common force pump set in a pail or bucket, and such the simplest forms of these outfits are. In this case a pail is used with a pump held in place by the foot. A step forward was taken in the development of the apparatus when the pump was firmly attached to the pail, thus relieving the operator of the task of holding it. Then the bucket was made larger to hold five or eight gallons, or as much as a man could conveniently carry. Galvanized iron was used in its manufacture instead of wood and a lid was added to keep the liquid from slopping out. Some outfits have added a smaller vessel or can inside or outside the larger to contain oil. For this purpose an appropriate modification of the pump is necessary. 362 Report of THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE The bucket outfits are very useful in small gardens or for treating trees, shrubs, etc., about the dooryard. KNAPSACK OUTFITS. The knapsack outfit is well adapted for use in small plantations such as gardens and greenhouses, and in those that are inaccessible to outfits on wheels. The pump of a knapsack sprayer is generally readily detachable from the tank for convenience in cleaning. The point at which the plunger leaves the tank should be guarded by some device for pre- venting the liquid which will be drawn up from running down on the back of the operator. The handle may be operated only from one side, or may be reversible. If reversible it may be changed by the mere act of turning or it may be necessary to change a link or pin. Theoretically the knapsack sprayer does not need an agitator as the motion of the body of the operator would be expected to keep the mixture sufficiently mixed; but in practice the use of an agitator gives better results with mixtures having heavy ingredients such as bordeaux mixture and paris green. For this purpose either the jet or the swing form is used. : The Hardie knapsack apparatus, a peculiar form of the knapsack sprayer in which the pump is separate from the tank, is shown in Fig. 16. HAND CARTS. Hand carts are adapted for commercial work only in a small way. They are principally recommended for use in gardens and in places inaccessible to wagons. Their capacity is generally about 30 gallons, but may be 50 and in the wheelbarrow outfits is only 10 gallons. The construction of these outfits is sufficiently well understood by refer- ence to the illustrations. A wheelbarrow outfit made by the Hardie Co. is shown in Fig. 17 and a two-wheeled truck and barrel sprayer put out by the Field Force Pump Co. in Fig. 18. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 363 BARREL OUTFITS. Barrel outfits differ from barrel carts only in the matter of mount- ing. The latter are permanently mounted on a truck while the former are carried about in a common wagon or cart or on a stoneboat. The barrels are made to stand on end or to lie on the side, more commonly the former. In the latter case the barrel is generally mounted in a frame work to keep it from rolling. Some barrels have handles attached for convenience in moving. For one reason it is more advantageous to place the barrel on its side. This is because of better agitation. The sediment settles into a smaller space in the middle and there are no corners for it to lodge in and no sides to in- terfere with agitation. In spite of these facts it is more common to stand the barrel on end because this position is more convenient in using the pump. Some manufacturers are offering barrel outfits in which the pump can be withdrawn from the barrel simply by loosening a catch, thumb- screw or similar device. Barrel outfits are generally supplied without the barrel and are so listed. If the barrel is supplied and fitted an extra charge of $1.00 to $4.00 is made, the latter charge including the cost of a frame or sup- port in those cases in which the barrel is laid on the side. Barrel outfits may be grouped according to the position of the pump in relation to the barrel. Some have the pump inside and some out- side, the former having the advantages of being cleaner so far as leaking is concerned, of making, in general, a more steady outfit and of avoiding the liability of limbs catching on the pump in driving under trees. On the other hand some of the pumps which are mounted on the outside of the barrel have the advantage of having the working parts always accessible. The advantages of submerged pumps have already been mentioned in discussing pumps. See p. 346. If the pump is inside the barrel it may rest on a very short base at the bottom of the barrel or upon a longer upright base so that it 304 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE does not take up so much sediment. The various devices used with barrel outfits for agitating the liquid are described under “‘ Agitators,” p. 350, and the various pumps under “ Pumps,” p. 346. The following barrel outfits are shown in Figs. 19 to 30: W. & B. Douglas’ single-acting barrel pump outfit (Fig. 19), The Deming Co.’s Simplex (Fig. 20), The Field Force Pump Co.’s Empire King (Fig. 21), J. F. Gaylord’s Defender (Fig. 22), Morrill and Morley’s Eclipse (Fig. 23), F. E. Myers & Bro.’s Improved Barrel Spray Pump (Fig. 24), The Goulds Mfg. Co.’s Pomona (Fig. 25), The Hardie Spray Pump Mfg. Co.’s barrel outfit (Fig. 26), Spramotor (Fig. 27), The Goulds Mfg. Co.’s Standard (Fig. 28), E. C. Brown & Co.’s Shiphonette (Fig. 29) and Wm. Stahl’s Excelsior outfit No. 13 (Fig. 30). TANK OUTFITS WITH HAND PUMPS. These differ from barrel outfits in principle only in their greater capacity and usually in the permanent mounting of the tank. They are generally provided with the more powerful double-acting or double-cylinder pumps. One advantage that they have is that they may be readily equipped with a mechanical agitator driven by sprocket gear attached to one of the wagon wheels. Those with large capacity should be supplied with trucks having wide tires. HORSE-POWER OUTFITS. Horse-power outfits differ in principle from the hand-power tank sprayers only in the fact that the power for working the pump is secured by gearing the pump to a sprocket wheel attached to a wheel of the rig or to the axle. There are several forms of horse-power sprayers on the market. Those which are designed for field crops or for vineyards will be discussed under separate headings, as also will those operated by compressed air. The horse-power outfits designed for the orchard do good work with comparatively small trees, but when the tree is so large that it New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 365 cannot be thoroughly sprayed while the outfit is passing it they are not so satisfactory, because the pressure begins to go down as soon as the rig stops. Moreover, the pressure required for doing the best work on large trees cannot easily be maintained with horse-power outfits even when no stops are made. The Deming Co. makes an outfit (see Fig. 35) especially designed for spraying field crops, as potatoes. It has a steel channel frame mounted on two large steel wheels. The pump is geared to a sprocket wheel on the axle, to which also the agitator is independently geared. There is a clutch to throw the pump out of gear. The pump may also be operated by hand for use in orchards. The crop-spraying appara- tus behind consists of a horizontal piece of tubular iron from which a pipe descends backward to each of the three nozzle holders, which are mounted on little wheels with a cross bar, each carrying two noz- zles. These are adjustable to throw the spray upward according to the height of the plants. Any or all of the nozzles can be cut off by stop cocks and the whole crop-spraying attachment is raised by a lever. Z E. C. Brown & Co. make an outfit especially for potatoes, put together on much the same principle as the Deming outfit, but the tank used is a square box and the crop sprayer has only one jet to each row. The capacity of the tank is sixty gallons. The same company makes a two-horse, five-row potato sprayer (Fig. 36) with a double-cylinder pump and a tank capacity of 100 gallons. This outfit has direct pitman connection and positive drive from both wheels. In both of these outfits the nozzle carrier exten- sions are so constructed that they fold to an upright position when going to and from the field or turning at the end of the row. A simi- lar outfit designed especially for vineyard work has a capacity of 60 gallons, and a larger one has a capacity of 100 gallons. The same company also makes a one-horse outfit (Fig. 53) espe- cially suitable for narrow row plantations, such as nursery stock, 366 Report OF THE HorticULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE berries, etc. The tank is in the form of a drum and rolls like a roller. Its width is 19 inches and its capacity 65 gallons. The extreme width of the outfit is 32 inches, thus allowing it to be drawn between rows of high plants in the field. The round tank itself rolls, dispensing with wheels or wagon. The rolling necessarily affords agitation. The outfit is supplied with pump, nozzles, etc. The Field Force Pump Co. manufactures three patterns of two- wheeled outfits similar in principle to the Brown outfits but having upright circular tanks. One of these is shown in Fig. 37. Both these and the Brown outfits are adapted for spraying either potatoes or grapes except in the case of the Field Force Pump outfit which is arranged for low crops alone. A larger Field Force Pump outfit has a tank with a capacity of 150 gallons and is mounted on a four- wheeled truck. The pump is connected with a chamber on the wagon of twelve gallons capacity. In driving from tree to tree the pressure in this cylinder is pumped up. The chamber also has a hand pump connected with it for use if the pressure should run out too soon. The Wellhouse spraying machine is made by William Stahl. The tank is three and a half feet wide, four feet two inches long and fifteen inches deep. The pump is of the rotary type and is geared toa sprocket wheel on one side of the rig. The power is thrown on and off by levers. FIELD-CROP SPRAYERS. Field-crop sprayers are made for spraying low plants such as pota- toes, cabbage, asparagus, currants, gooseberries, etc. The simplest form is the atomizer. This is used to a considerable extent in apply- ing paris green and water to potato vines. The reservoir holds from one to two quarts. Lime should be added to the water to avoid the danger of burning the foliage by the poison. This apparatus is not suitable when there is any considerable area to cover as the work progresses slowly and it is difficult to cover all the leaf surface with the mixture. New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 367 Sometimes barrel or tank sprinklers are used. These may be mounted on a two-wheeled cart and connected at the rear with pipes having one or more nozzles for each row. No pump is used, the liquid being distributed only by force of gravity. They are compara- tively inefficient since the force is not sufficient to make the most de- sirable kind of spray. A modification of this type of apparatus consists of the substitu- tion of a geared disk for the nozzles. The force of gravity causes the spray mixture to flow through a nozzle against the rapidly revolving disk where it is thrown outward by centrifugal force. There is scarcely any machinery to get out of order and clogging is almost impossible, even with unstrained materials ; but much of the liquid is wasted, the plants are not prefectly or evenly sprayed and, if the wind is high and from the rear, the driver is liable to be thoroughly drenched. Another kind of sprayer consists of the ordinary barrel and pump mounted on a two-wheeled cart. The driver does the pumping, Sta- tionary nozzles attached behind spray two or more rows. In other cases the driver does the pumping while one or two men follow be- tween the rows directing a nozzle with each hand. In this case it is convenient to have the lead of hose divided by a Y and have short lines of hose leading from the Y to the nozzles. The one who is spraying may carry the Y conveniently over his shoulder and hold a hose in each hand. A better spray may be maintained with a horse-power outfit. Sev- eral large potato growers are using home-made sprayers of this kind, constructed from old potato diggers or from two-wheeled machines suitable for the purpose. In some cases it is necessary to shorten the axle to accommodate the wheels to the width of the rows. The first of these outfits was made by Mr. J. S. Armstrong of Oakfield, N. Y. His outfit (Fig. 38) consists of a barrel and pump mounted on a two- wheeled truck with an attachment behind for spraying three rows, 308 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE two nozzles to the row. It is drawn by two horses. The wheels and seat were taken from an old potato digger. To one of the wheels a sprocket wheel is attached. This is connected with an eccentric which works an upright shaft which in turn works the handle of the pump. The pump handle has several holes drilled in it, permitting different lengths of stroke. The crop sprayer attachment is of iron pipes fitted with brass nozzles. A corroded part can be cheaply replaced. The nozzles can be tilted upward when not in use, thus preventing sedi- ment from settling into and clogging them. In general it may be said that the spray cannot be so well directed from stationary nozzles as by hand. : Nearly all of the spray-pump manufacturers are now making potato-sprayer attachments which may be connected to the ordinary spray outfit. They are also making the complete field-crop power sprayer of the type just described. In the case of wagon outfits the apparatus is generally attached at the back of the truck and has one or more nozzles for each row. They are adjustable to accommodate different widths of row. Some have special devices for throwing the liquid sideways or upward into the plants from below. ‘They are made to spray from two to six rows ata time. By means of a folding device the crop-sprayer attachment can be turned up when going through a gate or turning at the end of a row. VINEYARD SPRAYERS. ' For vineyard use the ordinary barrel outfit is often mounted on a stoneboat or on a two-wheeled cart or wagon. It is sometimes neces- sary to shorten the axle of the wagon to avoid striking posts and vines. Power sprayers are also used which are very similar in princi- ple to the field-crop power sprayers already described. The nozzles if stationary are directed so as to spray sideways, or in some cases are elevated directly over the row and spray downwards. The spray as already stated cannot be so well directed from stationary nozzles as by hand. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 369 STEAM-POWER OUTFITS. The information in this section of the bulletin is based partly on notes taken by Professor N.O. Booth, formerly of the Station, on outfits owned by the following parties, to whom the Station is under obligations for information given and courtesies rendered: Messrs. S. W. Smith, H. E. Newing, and B. F. Morgan, of Albion; Albert Wood and George Callard of Carlton Station; J. B. Collamer and W. Smith of Hilton; A. B. Hull of the Friend Manufacturing Co., and Wm. Bugbee of Gasport; and Mr. Chapman of the Field Force Pump Co., Elmira. Steam-power outfits are of two kinds, steam-engine outfits and steam-pump outfits. The steam-pump outfit differs from the steam- engine outfit, in that the engine is done away with and the steam power is applied directly to the piston of the pump. The outfit of Mr. T. B. Wilson (see p. 374 and Fig. 41), is an example of a steam- engine outfit and that of Albert Wood & Son (see p. 373 and Fig. 39) of a steam-pump outfit. The engine is heavier than the steam pump but has the advantage that it can be detached and used elsewhere on the farm when not m use for spraying. Both are efficient and reliable. The standing objec- tion to them is their great weight. More skill is required to operate them satisfactorily than is needed in operating the outfits previously described. In the opinion of many who have used them, it pays to have a power outfit if the area to be sprayed is over ten acres. Hori-_ zontal tanks are more commonly used with steam outfits. They are generally equipped with two leads of hose having one to four nozzles to each lead. There is an increasing tendency among purchasers of steam outfits to have the parts assembled by some experienced party. Engines for spraying outfits are built to use either coal, wood or petroleum for fuel. The cost of the fuel used is generally regarded as too small to be taken into account. One orchardist estimates it at perhaps a peck of soft coal per tank of 250 gallons. Another esti- 370 ~=9REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE mates it at from one to one and a half bushels a day according to the man who does the firing. The capacity of boilers most commonly used at present is one and one-half horse-power, but a number of persons recommend two horse- power as better. One reason is, that with this power the pump runs steadier and requires less attention, and having a surplus of power there is less variation in pressure if the fire gets down a little or if cold water is taken into the boiler. The difference in weight is be- tween the two boilers is little, and the difference in cost in the case of one make commonly used is only $5. It may be remarked incidentally that the size of the air chamber appears to be of less practical importance in the case of the steam pump than it is in hand pumps, for in steam pumps the working of the machine is constant and steady, while in the case of hand appara- tus there are frequent stops and great irregularity in the pressure. Both brass-lined steam pumps and those that are bronze throughout are in use, and there is considerable diversity of opinion as to which is better. Some persons report that they have used the bronze pumps for several years without their wearing to such an extent as to dam- age them. But in the case of the brass-lined pump a worn cylinder can be supplied with a new lining at little expense. On the other hand brass-lined pumps have the defect that the orifices in and out of the cylinder are not lined with brass and the liquid is likely to attack the iron at these points, causing flakes to scale off and fall into the spray mixture thence getting into the nozzle and clogging it. On the whole, the bronze pumps are to be preferred. CARE OF STEAM SPRAYING APPARATUS. Certain practical difficulties in the operation of steam spraying out- fits are met with. Some of these will now be considered. Piston packing.—Complaint is made that the packing on the piston rod of the pump has to be replaced frequently, one man specifying . , ee ee ee a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 371 every three weeks. This is also true, of course, of hand pumps, but in this case the wearing does not proceed nearly as rapidly. This wearing may be prevented to a great extent by care in placing the packing, in selecting the quality used and also in selecting the lubri- cant. In our experience braided hemp packing thoroughly filled with tallow and graphite has given the best service on the piston rod. The gland nut on the piston rod should not be screwed up too tight at first, as the heat generated by friction causes the packing to ex- pand. We have not yet found any satisfactory material for packing the piston itself. Manufacturers have sent out a leather packed piston which it is thought will do much to remedy the trouble of wearing. But so far as we know, this piston has not yet been sufficiently tested in practical work to permit of passing on its merits. Oil cups.—There is frequent complaint also of trouble with oil cups. In fact some persons who have operated steam outfits declare they have more trouble with oil cups than with any other part of the outfit. This is a rather surprising experience. Of course, an oil cup needs reasonably skillful handling and the oil must be of good quality. Oil cups sometimes become clogged with thick matter in the oil or with particles of waste used in wiping. All dirt should be kept out of the cup.- But nevertheless if it is rather cold the oil will get thick and not flow readily. In this case it should be warmed. Cleaning boilers——Most of the boilers used in spraying outfits are of the upright type and as such require peculiar management. Sedi- ment and scale form in them quickly, and if not promptly removed, serious injury is likely to result. Flues where exposed to fire should be cleaned of soot every once or twice a week, and oftener if soft coal is used as fuel. A quarter of an inch of soot reduces efficiency nearly one-fourth. The tubes should be cleaned of sediment and lime as often as is necessary. When using some kinds of water a small quan- tity of soda ash is useful as a solvent for lime incrustations; with 372 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE other kinds of water, kerosene or a good boiler compound gives better results. These should be fed in small quantities at a time in the water supplied to the boiler. In cleaning the flues from sediment and lime incrustations the hand-hole plate should be removed and the settlings raked out. Then thoroughly rinse out with a stream of clean water from hose. Care should be taken when putting the hand- hole plate back in place to see that the gasket is properly fitted or serious leakage and loss of time may ensue. It is a good plan when the boiler has not been working for some time and the fire is low, as after the noon hour, to blow out about a gauge of water. By so doing much scale is prevented. Low water.—If the water in the boiler gets low the sheets and flues are liable to be injured by overheating and the boiler itself may explode when taking in more water. Injectors do not always work at the pressure designated by the manufacturer, but may require con- siderably higher pressure to start. The inexperienced operator should not become frightened if the injector does not start at the pressure assigned to it by the manufacturer. After starting it may run ona lower pressure. In case of low water and failure of injector to work, it is better not to rake out the fire, but to smother it with earth or wet ashes, since stirring bituminous coal fire gives it more draft and makes the fire hotter for the time being. General suggestions.—Try to carry a regular steam pressure, i. ¢., if carrying 50 lbs. keep it near 50 lbs. all of the time. Keep water level as nearly even as possible. See that all of the appliances, such as safety valves, blow-off valves, fusible plugs, if any, are always in good working order and free from leakage. Never blow a boiler off suddenly or with a fire in it. Never allow a leak along a seam or around flues. When such occurs have a competent boiler-maker re- pair it immediately. Keep all valves well packed and all connections tight. Keep the ash box free from ashes, or burning and warping of the grate will follow. New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 373 INDIVIDUAL STEAM POWER OUTFITS. Notes will now be given on a few steam spray outfits that are in actual use in the field. Mr. S. W. Smith of Albion has an outfit which consists of a tank and steam pump. His boiler is of two horse-power. He says that some with whom he is acquainted have one-and-one-half horse-power boilers, and they give equally good satisfaction, but require more frequent firing. The cost of different parts of Mr. Smith’s outfit was as follows: Wagon $37 without the bed, bed-piece $3, tank and agitator $15, boiler $43, pump $34, fittings about $10. The tank holds 250 gallons and the agitator is geared to the wheels. Mr. Smith uses two leads of hose and four Vermorel nozzels at the end of each lead. Mr. H. E. Newing of Albion, who has had much experience in assembling various spraying outfits, uses the Electric Wheel Co.’s trucks, the Little Giant boiler and the Union steam pump. Mr. Newing estimates the cost of the fittings for an outfit at $18. The tank holds 230 gallons. It takes a good team to pull one of these outfits when full, and on soft ground there is danger of getting stalled. Mr. Newing advises the use of five- or six-inch tires. Albert Wood & Son of Carlton Station have a rather heavy but very strong and good outfit. See Fig. 39. The trucks have high wheels behind and low ones in front, weigh 1000 pounds and cost $33. The bed pieces are connected by iron rods costing $5. The boiler and pump weigh 575 pounds. The tank holds 250 gallons. The steam pump is the Union bronze and the boiler the Little Giant. The mounting of the boiler is unique in that it is hung by castings from the bed pieces, instead of resting on a platform. This arrangement serves for two purposes. In the first place it makes the mounting more solid and in the second place the outfit is relieved of the weight of a heavy platform. Brass fittings are used through- out. These are more expensive but they are undoubtedly more 374 Report OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE serviceable than any other material that can be used. They have to be handled with greater care however, in being taken apart, be- cause of the softness of the metal. Outfits similar to this one are put out by Collard & Newing, Albion, IN ek Mr. J. B. Collamer of Hilton, N. Y., has an outfit (Fig. 40) having a common wagon truck with high wheels both before and behind and broad tires. The tank holds about 270 gallons and cost $22. The agitator is a screw agitator geared to the wheel. The outfit is not set on bed pieces but has semi-circular bolsters for the tank to rest in. This is required by the fact that the wheels are high and the outfit could not be turned readily if there were bed pieces close to the wheels. The pump is the Union steam pump and the boiler the Little Giant. The latter is set on a platform swung from the hind axle. The outfit weighs 2100 pounds and three horses are used on it. Mr. W. I. Smith of Hilton has a one-and-one-half horse-power water-tube boiler, which is an unusual type for use in spraying out- fits. In this type the water is in the tubes and the fire is on top of and around them. The boiler weighs only 206 pounds. It was made originally for an automobile and cost $50. It can be fired up very rapidly, a pressure of 50 to 100 pounds being obtainable in eight minutes. But the pressure goes down equally quick and the boiler has to be fired every five minutes. It also cost more than do other boilers. Mr. T. B. Wilson of Halls Corners, N. Y., has an outfit (Fig. 41) consisting of a large upright cylindrical tank with a steam engine just in front of it, both mounted on a common farm wagon. Two lines of hose are used. Instead of a tower it is furnished with a seat fixed on top of the tank for the two men who handle the nozzles. The power spraying apparatus is from the Rochester Machine Tool Works. It consists of a one-horse power engine with one-and-a-half horse-power boiler, together with a small steam pump having a New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 375 capacity for delivering 300 gallons per hour under a pressure of 70 pounds. The agitator consists of two small blades similar to a pro- peller-wheel blade mounted on a bronze shaft connected with the en- gine by a flexible coupling. The speed can be varied at the pleasure of the operator. The price of this outfit complete is $250. GASOLINE-POWER OUTFITS. Gasoline possesses two advantages over steam as a source of power in a spraying outfit. These lie in the lightness of the outfits and the little attention they require while in operation. The objec- tion to them is that their adaptation to spraying purposes has not yet been perfected, that is, they have not yet passed the experimental stage. They are, however, being rapidly perfected for spraying pur- poses by a number of competent manufacturers. In the opinion of users, gasolene outfits require somewhat more skill and ability to run them than do steam outfits, but this is not a serious objection. The power in a gasoline engine is derived from the explosion of gas formed by mixing gasoline and air in proper proportions in the form of vapor. This vapor is drawn through a mixing valve into the combustion chamber by a forward movement of the piston. The re- turn stroke of the piston compresses the gases thus drawn into the cylinder, and they are ignited at the proper time by an electric spark. The force of this explosion drives the piston forward again and the return stroke opens an exhaust valve and drives out the burned gases. Gasoline engines are of two types, the upright and the horizontal. The upright engines offered for spraying purposes, so far as we have seen, are usually built on the general principle of the marine engine and are generally, though not always, operated on the two-cycle plan. They are generally run without governors, trusting to the work performed by the pump to keep the speed under control rather than to the friction of a paddle wheel in water. Of this type is the 376 Report OF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE Fairbanks-Morse engine used in the Goulds’ gasoline outfit and shown in Fig. 42. As an example of the horizontal engine the one used in the Lunt- Moss outfit may be instanced. (See Fig. 43.) This one is fed by pumping the gasoline from the base to the mixing chamber and has a governor to regulate the speed when the load varies. It is built on the four-cycle plan. One of these engines has been in use in an out- fit at the Geneva Experiment Station this past summer. (See Fig. 44.) The engine is mounted behind a horizontal tank and on the same platform. It is entirely enclosed on sides and top—in the case of our outfit with canvas—to prevent any of the spray mixture falling on the engine. In our outfit the flaps of canvas are held down with snaps, admitting of ready access to the engine. The tank has a capacity of 250 gallons. The tower is readily removable by with- drawing four bolts, making the outfit handier for use among low trees. With the tower removed the top of the tank itself may be used as a spraying platform. The Friend Mfg. Co. is putting out a gravity-feed horizontal engine regulated by sparking. It has direct connection with a Friend hori- zontal pump. Engine and pump are on a common base. Our present opinion is that engines equipped with governors to regulate speed and fed by pumping from base to mixing chamber are probably better adapted to spraying purposes than those without governors and with gravity feed. There has been so little practical field experience with gasoline engines in spraying operations that it is not practicable to make statements as to the relative merits of different makes. The follow- ing list includes all the manufacturers we know of who offer gasoline engines especially for use in spraying operations : E. C. Brown & Co., Rochester, N. Y. The Deming Co., Salem, Ohio. Field Force Pump Co., Elmira, N. Y. New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 377 Friend Mfg. Co., Gasport, N. Y. Fuller & Cooper, Williamson, N. Y. Goulds Mig. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. Hardie Spray Pump Mfg. Co., Detroit, Mich. Lunt-Moss Co., Boston, Mass. Phelps Mfg. Co., Phelps, N. Y. Spramotor Co., Buffalo and Toronto. CARE OF GASOLINE ENGINES: In running gasoline engines unlooked for difficulties are liable to come up at any time. Some of these are noticed below. Heating of the bearings is usually caused either by lack of oil or by too tight adjustments, when the remedy is apparent. Be sure that all oil cups feed. Quite often these become clogged from thick matter in the oil or ffom waste used in wiping. The valves which admit the air and gas are usually constructed on the poppet type and are liable to become loosened or even to break. See that these are tight and all right. If the engine does not work right, first test the battery to see whether there is a strong enough electric current to ignite the gas. A weak current will not do that. Even when there is strong enough battery to furnish a good force of.-electricity there is sometimes trouble with the ignition which is usually occa- sioned by defective wiring or by crossed wires, or by sparking plug not making contact. In the last named case make the terminals clean and bright. If the spark is furnished by the hammer-break device, possibly the points may be out of adjustment and consequently do not make con- tact, or the spring may have become weakened so that the sparking points are not snapped apart. The remedy for any of these is evident. If the current is all right see whether the gasoline is being fed properly ; then see that the sparker is not furred up, that is to say, 378 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE not gummed up. It should be kept clean else the spark will not be strong enough to ignite the gasoline. Be sure that the gasoline has no water in it. Even a few drops of water will stop the engine. Then if the engine is being properly fed and the current is strong enough to ignite the gas, there must be an explosion in the cylinder and the engine must go unless something is wrong with it other than the feed. Back-firing may take place, in which case it is accompanied by sharp explosion and jet of flame from air inlet, which results from the charge igniting before entering the cylinder. This is usually caused by bad mixture of air and gas. oe eed, Cream, Buffalo, 419 Protein. Fat. 'Crude| Price fiber per Found.| S985, [Found] Guar; found | fon Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct. \Ferct. $053 913225-37.511 9-1 15-5-0.5] $32.00 32.3 132-5-37-5] 8.9 5.58.5 35.00 31.4 |32.0-36.0| 6.9 |5.0-7.0 35.3 |32.0-36.0] 7.0 |5.0-7.0 30.00 34.6 |32.0-36.0] 6.5 |5.0-7.0] 28.00 39.2 |37.5-40.0| 2.2 |1.0-3.0) 30.00 36.9 |37.5-40.0] 2.1 |I.0-3.0 29.00 35-3 |32.0-36.0| 7.3 |5.0-7.0 35.00 33.1 |32.0-36.0| 6.9 |5.0-7.0 35.00 33.3 |32.0-36.0] 7.3 |5.0-7.0 27.00 34.1 |32.0-30.0] 7.2 |5.0-7.0 260.50 33.0 |32.0-36.0| 7.7 |5.0-7.0 26.50 29.9 Fa 35.00 33-5 |37-82 EG Vieise| 40.00 34.0 |37.82 TOM SA! 32.00 34.4 135-94 10.0 |5.04 30.00 33-3 |35-94 13-4 |5.04 27 .00 34.8 |30.7 8.2 17.83 38.00 BoEsEs5els Fag? Nes 40.00 35.8 |35.15 TRON AOS 34.00 31.8 |32.0-36.0| 6.7 |5.0-7.0 30.00 31.4 |32.0-36.0| 7.3 |5.0-7.0 35.00 33.6 |22.09 6.6 |6.32 26.00 33.9 |38.0 3.0 |4.0 28.00 41.2 |38.0-40.0| 0.55|2.5-3.0 32.00 25.9 4.0 24.00 27.6 |28.0 4.5 |4.0 25.00 27.4 |28.0 2.5 |4.0 25.00 24.8 |28.0 2.8 |4.0 25.00 27.9 |28.0 BSt] Wie lo 24.00 27.6 |28.0 Pye) Wal 0) 26.00 27.6 |28.0 2EO|4e 0 27.00 27.9 |28.0 2.6 |4.0 24.50 26.2 |28.0 4.2 |4.0 22.50 28.2 |28.0 2.8 |4.0 26.00 24.6 |28.0 2.9 |4.0 27.50 Zee BES 24.00 Ns ote) 2G) 5 9 Bate): es 26.00 2A ONI27 07, BeAa aS 25.00 2BVAW 2a mosses 26.00 22 JA N27 AT As Geis BART 2720 3.0 |3.38 26.00 26.8 |27.0 2.5 13-38 26.00 25.4 |27.0 SING) eho: 24.00 27.8 |27.0 2.9 13.38 25.00 iO), Res Drees \\eta/ II.2 | 20.00 12.4 114.0 3.4 '4.0 20.00 NI Ov ON N aay Ke) REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Curtis, GaiCo- Buittalo: Dole, F. A., Buffalo, Heinhold, J. G., Buffalo, Kam Malting Co., Buffalo, Voltz, J: S.; & Go, Buffalo, Wheinhold, Geo., Buffalo, Acme Food Co., Chicago, IIl., Barwell, J. W., Waukegan, III, | International Food Co., Minneapolis, Minn., American Cereal Co., Chicago, II1., “ee “ “ oe oe “ce “cc “ce “ “ee Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl., “ce “ce ce “ce ve ee | H-O Company, Buffalo, “ec “ “c | Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, ce “ce “ce “ee | H-O Company, Buffalo, Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta, Douglass, C. H. & H. N., Batavia, Cameron Mills, Cameron Mills, Chambers MacKay Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Wellman, H. & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Woodworth, E. S., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Imperial Milling Co., Duluth, Minn., Ansted & Burke, Springfield, O., Bacon, David, Westfield, Banner Milling Co., Buffalo, Chapin & Co., St. Louis, Mo., Commercial Milling Co., Cleveland, O., Combs, W. A., Co., Coldwater, Mich., Sampled at Buffalo, C. G. Curtis Co., Buffalo, F. A. Dole, Lancaster, P. P. Mook, Buffalo, Henry & Missert, Buffalo, Kam Malting Co., Buffalo, J. S. Voltz & Co., Lancaster, Adolf Bros., Olean, Olean Supply Co., Homer, W. H. Darby, Waterville, Hubbard & King, Otego, Oneonta Milling Co., Batavia, E. J. Salway, Salamanca, C. F. Buckmaster, Homer, W. H. Darby, Attica, J. P. Frey, Oxford, French & Mead, Oneida, E. J. Buyea, Lockport, W. E. & H. K. Wicker Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Phoenix, A. C. Parker, Batavia, C.H. & H. N. Douglass Jamestown, B. R. Welton, Hamburg, A. N. Conger, Dunkirk, J. W. O’Brien & Co., Buffalo, H-O Co., Buftalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Syracuse, Jacob Amos, Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Utica, Ogden & Clark, Oneonta, Morris Bros., Batavia, E. J. Salway, Hamburg, A. N. Conger, Buftalo, H-O Co., Unadilla, S. H. Chapin, Batavia, C. H. & H. N. Douglass Hornellsville, S. Holland, Sherman, Wilk’n, Gaddis & Co., Westfield, H. V. Herrick, Buffalo, Husted Mill. & El. Co. Buffalo, A. A. Engle, Fredonia, Colburn Bros., Westfield, J. H. Waterman, Bliss, Bliss Milling Co., Sherman, Wilk’n, Gaddis & Co., Mayville, Chau. Lake Mills., Salamanca, C. F. Buckmaster, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 421 Protein. Fat. Col- Crude | Price pee Name of feed. fiber per No. Found. parvo Found. pout found. | ton. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 1058 | Malt sprouts, 28.4 | 25.0 DO || ¥20 $14.00 BOSS. (iss se 24.9 180 14.00 907 is “ 2a 1.4 16.00 1046 e f 270 1.4 16.00 1061 > es 27.9 1.6 12.00 1060 5 e 28.6 1.8 15.00 O05,,| 1“ ic 270 hs 15.00 824 | § Acme stock food, 19.8 Ges 120.00 601 | Blatchford’s calf meal, 25.0 | 26.0 AO || FLO 70.00 635 se <6 25.0 | 26.0 4.8 | 5.0 70.00 670 gc « 25,0))|) 2020 At ie S© 70.00 740 co ss 25.4 | 26.0 ERO 45 0 80.00 872 | Blatchford’s sugar and flaxseed, 27-0) | 26-25 SiOEON ER 25 80.00 602 | + Shepard’s lamb food, 23.9 4.7 70.00 766 | § International stock food, reel 3.0 300.00 623 | Dairy feed, Quaker, 1423) | 14.0 Ba WES) | aSsOul 4 200 708 s a 15.1 | 14.0 Buon 305 16.8 | 18.00 983 = = fe 14. T-| 14.0 376083507 | dor4hl a conco 1029 ‘ ‘" i ieilaZl |) ial Ao) Ate | AO) | TOS | 122N0@ ‘5O1 ee cee Daisye Oil || as | Bi Wee” being |i indo) 754 a se 7-8 |MI2e25 5/0 eei@. 13.2. | 2352) eT seOo OTe oe ie 7 OA\ND2 2250) We 14322); | 20.0%), 2on00 gor 5 40» NeOy OM ESeO ARAN 485. ~|: £3231) (26800 923 ¥ a 16-2) |) LouG BAO) |) 45 | 13-25) = 2onue 1002 a a s 18.4 | 18.0 A.2 || 455 14-3 | 26.00 1030 | Creamery feed, 23.3 82050 Oo Sa5. 11.0%) . 24eo0 551 | Horse feed, 126),|| 1250 Ao) | 425 Vn) Ad CO 1026 ‘ ry Ted: | 120 Ang | 4.5. | 10:2 | 4 24200 583 is CIB ECOF i2-1 || 12:0 ees dinars 9.6 | 29.00 660 i “3 . Iigterey || 30200 Ang \4-5 O=2!1| 27800 739 . ie ts : We | 112200) AGP || hal 9.5 | 28.00 goo & ~ aR 1233) IA) abseil 4g 9.4 | 26.00 999 4 ] es Tits ie|Gre 0 MexR S 9.0 | 26.50 665 | + “ “Monarch, 14.9 | 13.0 mB) 5-75) |) Os2e| +20.80 749 | + Horse and cattle feed, Boss, Fey || a2 DAT |) Glos I UO 17.50 866 | Middlings, buckwheat, 24.3 * | 20.00 952 | Flour, Red Dog, 20.5 6.0 23.00 936 : er Ka 19.8 Bae 26.00 904 Ser 19.8 4.9 23.00 1054 173 “ “ 18 O 3.8 22.00 930 | Middlings, wheat, 16.6 4.2 24.00 QAI % 9 18.6 6.1 25.00 8oI iG 2 17.0 4.1 25.00 054 ss a 16.4 3.6 21.00 950 fe ce Mew, 4.7 24.00 870 Hi x 1es3 3.6 24.00 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Ewart & Lake, Groveland Station, Freeman Milling Co., Duluth, Minn., Goshen Milling Co., Goshen, Ind., Heinhold, J. G., Buffalo, Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, Humboldt Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Hydraulic Mill Co., Buffalo, Listman Mill Co., LaCrosse, Wis., Northwestern Mill & Elev. Co., Toledo, O., Poland Roller Mills, Kennedy, Rankin, M. G., Milwaukee, Wis., Rex Mill Co., Kansas City, Mo., Roberts Bros., Warsaw, Sheffield, King Co., Faribault, Minn., Stocks Milling Co., Buffalo, Thompson Milling Co., Lockport, Toledo Grain & Milling Co., Toledo, O., Urban Mill Co., Buffalo, Washburn, Crosby & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., West Avenue Mill Co., Attica, : Woodworth, E. S., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Thornton & Chester, Buffalo, Pillsbury & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Urban Mills, Buffalo, Colquhoun & Waldruff, Batavia, Diamon Mills, Buffalo, Hunter, O. L., & Co., Chicago, IIl., Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, Stafford Mill & Elevator Co., Stafford, Kas., Tanner, A., Little Falls, Minn., Bundy Milling Co., Angola, Acme Milling Co., Indianapolis, Ind. Ankeny, W. S., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Bennett, Craft & Kauffman Milling Co., St. Louis, Mo., Belmore Mills, Belmore, O., Blish Milling Co., Seymour, Ind., ce “ “ ce “ce ce ce ce “ “ce Chapin & Co., Buffalo, “ee ce ia3 “ce “ “ce Fertig, H. G., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., Sampled at Attica, B. F. Bennett, Hornellsville, S. Holland, Jamestown, Jackson Bros., Jamestown, C. P. Carlson, Salamanca, Henry Neff, Batavia, E. F. Ballard, Bliss) 2. Ee Bueke Jamestown, Jackson Bros., Olean, Acme Milling Co., Kennedy, Poland Roller Mills, Wellsville, Scoville Brown& Co. Lancaster, P. P. Mook, Warsaw, D. E. Keeney & Son, Wellsville, J. B. Tompk’s & Son Cattaraugus, A. T. Benson, Batavia, E. J. Salway, Little Valley, Wes Mattoon, Attica, Attica Mills, Hamburg, J. Schoefflin, Perry, J. J. Martin, Salamanca, E. J. Sow], Attica,’ J. PB. Frey; Olean, Olean Mills, Wellsville, J. B. Tompk’s & Son Buffalo, C. E. Pollard, Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Buffalo, Urban Mills, Batavia, Colquhoun & Waldruff Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Cattaraugus, A. T. Benson, Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Wellsville, J. W. Gollman & Co. Belmont, Hood & Bradley, Angola, Bundy Milling Co., Middleburg, W. C. West, Marathon, Marathon Roll. Mills Fredonia, O. M. & J. R. Hall, | Syracuse, F. P. Williamson, Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Sherburne, S. W. Lobbell, Marathon, J. H. Seeber & Son, Mayville, Chau. Lake Mills, Hornellsville, S. Holland, | Angola, Bundy Milling Co., Sherman, Wilk’n, Gaddis & Co., Walton, John Wright, Brocton, V. Mathews, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 423 Protein. Fat. Col- Crude} Price He Name of feed, Beds | fees es Found. .atced,| Found. | Par | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. 770 | Middlings, wheat, 16.1 ea a $24.50 864 s 3 15.8 cae 24.00 966 af a3 15.9 Aer 1 24.00 1073 3 ss 14.2 2.0 5.8 20.50 876 ee BS 17.4 3.6 21.00 748 rf : 18.3 ad 8.5 23.00 803 = re 15.9 Awe 24.00 967 a Ye 20.0 5.6 24.00 818 7 bi 18.1 3.9 21.50 977 ms - 16.8 5.0 21.00 838 ss ss 20.8 Pil 4.5 22.00 909 e zo 18.9 4.5 22.00 789 oe = sys 5) 4.3 24.00 845 & flour, 19.5 eG 740 25.00 888 re wheat, je 4.5 5.4 20.00 737 5 ‘3 16.3 4.5 24.00 884 es Nos: Seal (sii 5.8 23.00 885 $ “ white, 15.1 Soil 2.9 25.00 Tai os : 16.9 4.9 20.00 806 os oy 16.8 4.9 19.00 796 sé 3 16.1 4.8 24.00 880 ss ¢ 17.8 4.9 On! 22.00 757 4 ce 17.9 5.9 22.00 SII - # 18.9 el 24.00 848 : Snow’s cream, 19.4 5.0 25.00 1055 ie blended, 16.4 4.8 19.00 IOIQ es spring wheat, 18.3 Bae 20.00 1051 “ “ “ 16.1 Tee. 19.00 743 4 winter wheat, 15.8 4.9 23.00 1022 S iy fs Tsoi 4.8 19.00 887 oe fs 19.0 5.4 20.00 1042 be oat, 17.4 7.8 Boil 20.00 833 | Shorts, 19.2 BNO 23550 853 ss 18) 5.2 5.6 24.00 919 | + Middlings and hominy feed, 13.9 Ai Bag 23.00 685 | Mixed feed, Acme, 17.4 4.4 FA 23.00 720 es ss 18.8 4.6 6.6 22.00 934 . “bran and middlings, TGs, | L2075 |) Algal 2490") “O27 21.00 562 es E2sO ie Ze aa | 2200"! 1350 20.00 IOI5 ¢ sg ile Deg) 15.5 28.30 631 a fe 1G ApS Sam 21.00 723 « os Wns Jala 7.6 21.00 949 ne ss 17-3 | 4-5 7-3 22.00 861 4 =) Kane: 17.8 Aes 6.5 22.00 918 rs spring: 16.4 4.8 8.5 20.00 953 7. “Erie winter, 17.9 4.3 Fe 20.00 645 i “ Monogram, 17.6 5.2 7-1 22-00 043 “ “ 18.9 3.9 Fis 20.00 424 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE Col eer Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Sampled at No: | 996 | Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co. 689 ts % P Richm’dville, M. W. Harroway, 651 | . 4 iu Delhi, Codperative Store, 690 | ere : Richm’dville, M. W. Harroway, 628 Imperial Mills, Duluth, Minn., Oxford, Fletcher & Corbin, 672 | Kehler Bros., St: Louis, Mo., Otego, P. R. Jennings, 696 4 aoe % Worcester, P. H. Platts, 886 | Kentucky Milling Co., Henderson, Ky., Cattaraugus, A. T. Benson, 679 | Lawrenceburg, Roller Mill. Co., Law’b’g,Ind.,) Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co., OD) a eo ‘ ~ | Rome, Hughes & Wilkenson, 541 Listman, Wm., Milling-Co., Superior, Wis., | Kingston, Wilson & Wolven, 932 | Moore, R. P., Princeton, Ind., Fredonia, O. M. & J. R. Hall, 938 nt i i Westfield, H. V. Herrick, 694 Morris Bros., Oneonta, Richmondville, Fox Bros., 640 | Noblesville Milling Co., Noblesville, Ind., Sidney, A. J. Ives, 699 | ‘ “ me Richfield Springs, W. B. Ward, y2i ‘| Plant, Go'P.,.c Co:, st Lotise Mo. Marathon, Marathon Roll. Mills 715 | Rex Milling Co., Kansas City, Mo., Cazenovia, L. M. Woodworth, B3aa) si aes ‘ Wellsville, J. W. Gollman & Co. O08.) © : ‘ : Lancaster, P. P. Mook, 632 “ rT “ “ Waterville, Hubbard & King, 671 | Russell, Henry, Albany, Otego, P. R. Jennings, 29 | Stott, David, Detroit, Mich., De Ruyter, C. S. Church, 592 | Waller, A., & Co., Henderson, Ky,., Phoenix, A. C. Parker, 67 é: ¥ . Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co., 707 | * sh a Rome, G. Oster & Son, 543. Washburn-Pillsbury Co., Minneapolis, Minn.,| Saugerties, F. G. Phelps, 687 | = ao > Re Schoharie, E. L. Auchampaugh, 756 | West Avenue Mill Co., Attica, Attica, J.-P. Frey; 650 Woodworth, E. S., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn., | Delhi, Cooperative Store, 710 Evans, Geo. T., Indianapolis, Ind., N. Woodst’k, E. E. Hatch & Co. 725 | A \ iP r Marathon, J. H. Seeber & Son, 52 | * ‘ ie Fs Belmont, Hood & Bradley, 1067 | Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., Buffalo, Cutter & Bailey, 606 | American Cereal Co., Chicago, III., Cortland, C. M. Jennings, 624 si i nS i Oxford, French & Mead, 727 | i 4 : ‘ De Ruyter, J. W. West, 839 | " 4 4 - Wellsville, C. B. Hyslip, 781 | Moulton, W. E., & Co., Alexander, Alexander, W.E. Moulton & Co., 655 | Star & Crescent Milling Co., Chicago, III. Walton, A. A. Haverly, 700 | Thornton & Chester, Buffalo, Rome, Hughes & Wilkenson, 831 | : - . Wellsville, Wethersby & Keller, 1010 | a ih i se Buffalo, Thornton & Chester, 734 | Albion Milling Co., Albion, Mich., Batavia, Rob’t Adams, 744 | Colquhoun & Waldruff, Batavia, Batavia, Colquhoun & Waldruff, g62 | Combs, W. A., & Co., Coldwater, Mich., Jamestown, F. A. Smiley & Co., 969 < a ie Jamestown, Hayward & Co., 775 | Ewart & Lake, Groveland Station, Attica, B. F. Bennett, 960 | Firth Roller Mills, Firth, Neb., Jamestown, F. A. Smiley & Co., New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Protein. Fat. . eee ee eet 2 ee eee Os Crude Name of feed. j fiber Found.) ,G¥25; | Founa,| Guar; | found. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Mixed feed, bran and middlings, yao) 4.4 Tia z sf - NG)git 4.2 GfaP> f “Sunshine, 18.3 4.4 7.6 n es iy 18.0 4.2 6.7 “Boston, F751 4.8 8.5 te W758) 4.4 7.0 Bs ‘6 18.2 4.2 GP: “Jersey, P2AQrIV TEGO | Pa sOldl Ss - OSM tag He “Snowflake, Wei! 4.3 RE e « s Tes 4.2 6.8 os eo nawatha, 18.3 4.2 6.6 Sy “King, bran and mid’s, 18.2 4.5 6.9 “ “ 6 “ 18.0 4.4 7.2 oe “Delaware, le Aas 6.8 4 on NIviNGors: 16.8 4.5 7.0 “ “c 13 17.4 4.5 71 s x 16.8 4.5 he Ss ff 18.9 4.4 70) ve s 18.1 4.4 758, “ S 18.7 | AMS 7.6 S S 17.0 4.9 Wes * zi ya 5163 7.8 ia Pe STOLS: 17.0 4.8 8.4 “Blue Grass, Il.4 [sp Vie Gop Sn es ee 9d ea Cee i - i D238) [e1S 260 WBS) 9/3210.) 1373 4 s 3 TIL | SPANcgu) U2. sh ale Seto T6s6 if “ Pillsbury’s Fancy, 18.4 S20 5.8 “ce “ “cc “ce 18.6 5nd. 7.6 ae “bran and middlings, Iie Bal 8.3 i Snows: efi ant 8.4 Mixed mill feed, Hoosier, 77) 4.4 oe “c ‘“ “ lier e 4.3 7.2 “c “ “ 173 4.3 7.0 ee S NGA 4.6 7.4 Wheat feed, Buckeye, MGSO Oa 7a7e a, ede Bit Ak Fold Suenos nf TO=0) OT. 75a aes" edn |, OF ion ek: 4 HS Werle 75a AO ula a7 Moz 5 iY 2 Sf 16.6) 1775) AeA da 7 Fie f = .erounds 10.7 eau Tas ef “Star & Crescent gr’nd, | 17.7 es 7.4 ‘ Do), amixeds 17.0 5.4 SHY e i 17.8 5-3 8.6 “c “ec «“ i oh ui 8.2 Bran, winter wheat, 16.8 4.0 8.4 . 14.8 3.6 g.1I iy 16.8 3.9 8.1 ‘ 16.8 4.7 8.5 “~~ (mostly middlings), 14.8 Bee Do) “winter wheat, choice, 16.1 253 lp LON in| boy dy bo mx O°O to NWOW RH NW COM AO) OF N Noe HN ND bo b& b&w NwHHNHHN HN i) OOM OW do eb b&b by e999 0 900 ho to REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE Dur nN UNI CoO NI Our Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Sampled at Fuller, Page & Co., Syracuse, Goshen Milling Co., Goshen, Ind., Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, Harter, Isaac, Co., Toledo, O., Heinhold, J. G., Buffalo, Houk, P., Sons, Tonawanda, Humbolt Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., Hydraulic Mill Co., Buffalo, Listman Mill Co., LaCrosse, Wis., Moore, R. P., Princeton, Ind., National Milling Co., Toledo, O., Northwestern Minneapolis, Minn., Northwestern Minneapolis, Minn., Northwestern Minneapolis, Minn., Pillsbury Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Robberts Bros., Warsaw, Thornton & Chester, Buffalo, Thompson Milling Co., Lockport, Urban Mills, Buffalo, Voight Milling Co., Grand Rapids, Mich., Washburn, Crosby Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, Dewey, W. A., Tully, Gollman, J. W., Wellsville, Amos, Jacob, Syracuse, Denick, E. D., Syracuse, Harding, J. B., Syracuse, Holland, Stephen, Hornellsville, Russ, A. E., Phoenix, Simmons & Howell, Hornellsville, Terry, Eugene, Hornellsville, Clark & Mercer, Baldwinsville, Farrington Bros., Syracuse, Frier, Henry, Syracuse, Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, Hart, C. E., Baldwinsville, McCarthy & Smith, Syracuse, Meager Bros., Syracuse, Parker, A. C., Phoenix, Patterson, L. L., & Co., Syracuse, Porter Bros., Syracuse, Consolidated Milling Co. | Consolidated Milling Co.,, Consolidated Milling Co., Cuba, S. R. Law Sherman, Wilk'n, "Gaddis & Co., | Jamestown, Alonzo Martin, | Jamestown, C. P. Carlson, | Cattaraugus, True & Young, | Salamanca, Henry Neff, Attica, Attica Mills, | Batavia, E. F. Ballard, Cattaraugus, True & Young, Bliss, E. E. Buck, Batavia, Robert Adams, Fredonia, O. M. & J. R. Hall, Buftalo, Diamond Mills, Batavia, C. H.& H. N. Douglass Perry, Geo. Tomlinson & Son, _ Angola, Bundy Milling Co., | Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Warsaw, D. E. Keeney & Son, | Wellsville, Wetherby & Keller, | Biattalow GB sPollard Batavia, E. J. Solway, Attica, J. P. Frey, Buffalo, Urban Mills, Olean, Acme Milling’ Cas Batavia, (Galella Il. Douglass | Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Tully, W. A. Dewey, | Wellsville, J. W. Gollman, Liverpool, Ludwig Scheidt, Syracuse, E. D. Denick, Syracuse, J. B. Harding, Hornellsville, S. Holland, | Phoenix, A. E. Russ, | H’nellsville, Simmons & Howell Hornellsville, E. Terry, Baldwinsville, Clark & Mercer, | Syracuse, Farrington Bros., | Syracuse, H. Frier, | Jamestown, W. J. Heath, | Baldswinville, C. E. Hart, | Syracuse, McCarthy & Smith, Syracuse, Meager Bros., Phoenix, A. C. Parker, Syracuse, L. L. Patterson & Co. Syracuse, Porter Bros., New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 427 Protein. Fat tol: Crude} Price tion Name of feed. eee eee papee Pa ca Found. anteed. Found. anteed. Per ct.|\ Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.\ Perct. 827 | Bran, fancy, 15.6 4.8 8.5 | $20.00 956 © 16.1 4.4 Fate 19.00 TOZOO| tees 14.0 3.8 13.4 O20 le fies 12.6 Be 14.3 18.50 892 “ 16.1 207 8.8 20.00 877 Ms 15.6 P= az 10.1 18.00 772 16.5 4.8 Tit al 17.00 747 “spring wheat, 16.1 Ae 10.5 18.00 893 - 15.9 37 735 19.00 804 s§ 15.6 ee} 10.9 20.00 735 zs = = 16.3 5.0 Teo 20.00 933 = 16.3 4.1 8.6 20.00 1020 “winter wheat, iG ST y 4.4 657. 21.00 751 ce 75 4.8 Toler 20.00 792 wv 17.4 52) 11.8 18.00 | O17 * 16.4 | Sol 10.2 1024 “spring wheat, 15.0 4.8 Tale 19.00 788 . 14.8 ARS 9.4 20.00 830 i150) 4.9 9.6 20.00 1050 “blended, 15.4 Aaa a 9.4 19.00 736 “spring wheat, 15.8 4.9 II.0 18.00 758 ae cOatse: 15.6 5.0 Tea 18.00 FO2e\ °5"° -< fine, 15.8 4.6 10.6 19.00 1050 “spring wheat, 14.9 | 4.9 10.4 19.00 819 = winter: i 16.3 4.0 8.8 19.50 752 ee 9/53} 4.9 TP sat 20.00 1041 me oat 13.6 ee) 17.8 10.00 600 | + “barley meal and hominy, 16.3 5e7 10.2 Cia 836 | + “ meal and Manhattan gluten, ThsyaK0) * 24.00 589 “corn meal and middlings, Tat 7. re: 4.2 27.00 565 cs Sa e 13.6 3.6 10.5 23.00 564 oe s Soy pe y Abi 4.8 4.8 24.00 860 | “ec “ec “ “e “ No. 2, TSO 4. I 5 aT 505 “c ‘c “ “ “ 15.4 aA 5.6 24.00 857 | “ “ce “ “cc “ No. 2, 13.9 Rol 5.8 24.00 855 “ce “ec cc “ec “ 14.6 Avy eg) 24.00 576 | Bran and corn meal, iauay| T2s80ss Baume 83-5 23.00 571 fie Os < e See AGO Ne |B als 6.1 24.00 Oe wR ee KS < 14.4 4.8 (0,2 23.00 1074 Se ag es cs oe On7 oe One IQ.00 578 i aie & « nee 4.0 5.4 23.00 558 ee arg “ 3 13.8 4.6 5.0 25.00 568 Se ye ee eC 41 RAO Ages ee 4.9 26.00 593 are = < gail 4.1 9.8 23.00 555 “ ‘ “cc “c 13.8 4.5 5.4 22.00 559 ee ans oe 5 125 4.1 8.2 24.00 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Sampled at | Waterman, J. | Payne, | Suffern, Hunt & Gor Rosenbloom, J., Syracuse, Tomlison, Geo., & Son, Perry, Tompkins, J. B., & Son, Wellsville, Wetherby & Keller, Wellsville, Martin, J. J., Perry, Meager Bros., Syracuse, Moulton, W. E., & Co., Alexander, Tomlison, Geo., & Son, Perry, Porter Bros, Syracuse, Brooks Elevator Co., Minneapolis, Minn., Urban Mill Co., Buffalo, West Avenue Mill Co., Attica, Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, L., Westfield, American Hominy Co., Chicago, IIL, | “ee “c oe “oe “ce ce e oe “ce ee “ee “ce “cc Chapin & Co., Buffalo, Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., “ce “ “ “e Patent Cereals Co., Geneva, W. H., & Son, New York, Shellabarger Mill & Elev. Co., Decatur, IL, Decatur, Ml, ce ce “ee ce “ “ce ce “ec “ce “ee Toledo Elevator Co., The, Toledo, O., U. S. Frumentum Co., Detroit, Mich., Cerealine Mfg. Co., Indianapolis, Ind., Adams, Robert, Batavia, Attica Mills, Attica, Syracuse, J. Rosenbloom, Perry, G. Tomlison & Son, Wellsville, W. Carpenter & Co., Wellsville, Wetherby & Keller, Perry, J. J. Martin, Syracuse, Meager Bros., Alexander, W. E. Moulton & Co. Perry, G. Tomlison & Son, Syracuse, Porter Bros., Buffalo, Heathfield & Washburn Attica, Attica Mills, Attica, J. P. Frey, Jamestown, D. H. Grandin, Westfield, J. L. Waterman, Kingston, Wilson & Wolven, Saugerties, F. G. Phelps, Hudson, Downing & Bogardus, Attica, J. P. Frey, Hamburg, O. N. Conger, Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co., Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Syracuse, Jacob Amos, Oneonta, Morris Bros., Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Homer, Newton & Co., Richfield Springs, W. B. Ward, Olean, Olean Mills, Olean, Acme Milling Co., East Aurora, Griggs & Ball, Binghamton, Emp. G. & E. Con Norwich, Bushley & McNitt, Cazenovia, Atwell & Son, New York, W. H. Payne & Son Delhi, Gleason & Kiff, Tully, W. A. Dewey, Norwich, H. O. Hale, Marathon, Marathon Roll. Mills Olean, Empire Mills, Binghamton, G. Q. Moon & Co., Oneonta, Morris Bros., Buffalo, Hydraulic Mill Co., Oxford, French & Mead, Sidney, Sidney F. & F. Co., Batavia, R. Adams, | Attica, Attica Mills, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. * Col- Protein. Fat. Mees Name of feed. ion No. Found| Cust; | Founa.| Guess Per ct.\ Per ct. | Per c#.| Per ct 570 | Bran and meal, 15.6 O52 791 a 11.6 4.3 843 “ec “ec 10.5 * 832 ic ik 10.7 BE, 704 “corn and oats, 11.8 4.4 560 “ “ ‘ ““ 10.9 4.4 a ne 0-4 2 700 II.0 el 561 D” Aradl OR iISY 14.6 4.3 1065 | Screenings, wheat, 14.4 Bok 773 Z s 14.1 4.7 759 15.9 4.6 964° u and wheat feed, 12.8 1.8 939 | Wheat, rye and oat feed, 10.4 a 540 | Hominy feed, Tees el ONS, DAW | Go 7 544 i = 10.9 | 10.22 Oe i G/eG2 545 ee EEE Be | LOLAAL NV HOM Gib Hse 704 : es Higa) Moat || “Ox 972 902 ; e lp ie LORS OME A7A72 992 : ey OL Gels LOe24u wOe2 yz 72 1023 : se NOLOs |p LOL2AeOEON|! 7472 550 . The OMS Oss |) SoS 673 . . Li Ae |eLOns OF sos 1027 “white, 6.0) |) UO. 5 Fas || oles 1038 < “yellow, NOs ty ORS act ell Meio 605 S “Green diamond, Oeik |} WE FO) ||) Bo) 697 5 HOB |) Uo) Bait MRO 810 : 2) a Na sth || Wi 8.9 | 8.0 817 ? : " ; 10:6. | 1.0 Bh 5) 1) tee) 913 : 3 , * MO gil! THO) 355 |) teoO) 617 pe i. tab |): ao || 10). WFO) 639 re TEL One| ease OS | Oya eae 7.0 719 A | it 10). |) ~ O59 1) Ooo 525 i [OLO }elE 240ch 16-3 [020 652 ; “ Shellabarger’s, its |) Wes | Oss) ||-Oez 5090 Ss ~ LES ele NT AO2 uO. Sel) 7004: 620 s § ity || i O2 |) SOY | 7 ert 722 ve ‘ TOA |) wt O22) 357 |) Heew 806 ie z TOM2))|) WLO2 Nee Onan O4: 615 + OZ || Wo) 08 ete || Os 664 y ve 10324) 10). | Hos 7k 1069 “a ay Ov7 |e OZ aie 7-39 o00 626 | 7 Cerealine food, No. 2, 2.6) | 10.82) 10.3 «|| 8:03 641 | Tf ss 3 Ag |! TOKS2 || wOG! || Kaos 733 | Corn meal, 9.4 BE6 769 “ce 77 On 7 4.0 Crude fiber found. on oy ON OM CADAAY)Y Ph NODCOMUMNIO Wo? Ww HRONUMAAMNAWHREUNINUYORWARWWABREREDL DONMU RHR ADNWHYBRWOW OB COOH OWRD DOO CO. ON Oo Ow wb bo bw bd ty b&b bb WHA NNN OL ord bt bw OO REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. Crouch Bros. Co., Erie, Pa., Diamond Mills, Buffalo, Empire Mills, Olean, Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, Husted Mill’g & Elevator Co., Buffalo, Hydraulic Milling Co., Buffalo, Moulton, W. E., & Co., Alexander, American Cereal Co., Chicago, Il. Toledo Grain & Milling Co., Toledo, O., | Attica Mills, Attica, | Bliss Milling Co., Bliss, Diamond Mills, Buffalo, Engle, A. A., Buffalo, Husted Mills & Elevator Co., Buffalo, Martin, J. J., Perry, Urban Mills, Buffalo, Barber & Bennett, Albany, Chapman, T. J., Skaneateles, | Clark & Allen, New York, Clark & Mercer, Baldwinsville, Darby, W. H., Homer, Globe Milling Co., Camillus, Hart, C. E., Baldwinsville, Head, G. W., & Co., Utica, Healey, C. W., New Hartford, | Haverly, A. A., Walton, | Kilts, W. J., Cobleskill, McLoughlin Bros., Utica, Newton & Co., Homer, | Ogden & Clark, Utica, | Patterson, L. L., & Co., Syracuse, | Smith, €. ©; Cortland) | Southwell, D., Mottville, Webster & Son, Cortland, Wright, John, Walton, Chautauqua Lake Mills, Mayville, Crouch Bros. Co., Erie, Pa., Diamond Mills, Buffalo, | Grandin, D. H., Jamestown, Harter, I., Co., Toledo, O., | Hood & Bradley, Belmont, Howard, C. J., Gowanda, Husted Mill’g & Elevator Co., Buffalo, “e “ee “ce “ce “ec “ce ifs “ “ Sampled at | Dunkirk, W. Rueckert, Warsaw, Montgomery Bros., Olean, L. J. Miller & Son, Jamestown, A. J. Martin, Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co., Salamanca, E. J. Sowl, Bliss, E. E. Buck, Alexander, W. E. Moulton & Co. Wellsville, C. B. Hyslip, Little Valley, G. W. Griffith, Attica, Attica Mills, Bliss, Bliss Milling Co., Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Buffalo, A. A. Engle, Attica, J. P. Frey, Perry, J. J. Martin, Buffalo, Urban Mills, Albany, Barber & Bennett, Skaneateles, T. J. Chapman, New York, Clark & Allen, | Baldwinsville, Clark-& Mercer, Homer, W. H. Darby, Camillus, Globe Milling Co., | Baldswinsville, C. E. Hart, | Utica, G. W. Head & Co., | New Hartford, C. W. Healy, Walton, A. A. Haverly, Cobleskill, W. J. Kilts, Utica, McLoughlin Bros., Homer, Newton & Co., Utica, Ogden & Clark, Syracuse, L. L. Patterson & Co. Cortland, C. O. Smith, Mottville, D. Southwell, Cortland, Webster & Son, Walton, J. Wright, Mayville, Chautauqua L. Mills, Dunkirk, Wm. Rueckert, Dunkirk, Frank May & Co., Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Jamestown, Axel Swanson, Brocton, C. P. Lawson, Belmont, Hood & Bradley, Gowanda, C. J. Howard, | Syracuse, Porter Bros., Syracuse, J. C. Surbeck, Norwich, Bushley & McNitt, Cazenovia, L. M. Woodworth, ' DeRuyter, J. W. West, oa ‘New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Name of feed. Corn meal, a 66 oc ! e “ee “ce “ “e “ee 6é “ce A, B, “ce “ce it “e Feed meal, corn, S “ordinary, Oats, ground, o“ “ee ee “ce “ce ce a3 “ce “ee ‘ “ee ee “cc “ec ee oe “ “ ‘ “ee “ce “ec “ee “ce “ce ee “ce “ “ee “ce “ce ‘ ec “ee “ “ “e “ec “ce ee “ec “ce “ee ‘ oc ce ‘ “ee “ee ‘ “ “ce “ec ‘ “ec “ce ‘ “ce “cc oe “ it3 Las “ce “ce “ec “e ce “ee “e ce ci oe “ee “ce “ec “ec “ee “ce “e No I “ce “e “ee “cc “e “ce ve “ec “ce ee “ee 6 oe “ce “ec “cc “e “ec “ce “ “ee ce coal on == oo”) | Ou a ONS oe Io = -— = OHRHOOO © OP WNINTU QO HR BR OW OHN AN HYOR HHH ODRH DAEDOOH NON HUAROODONDANS Protein. Guar- Found. anteed. Guar- anteed. Per ct. 8.31 9.44 NODOR GON, COE CS Cormac Omir Ch Gn ENO Gl le calle co cu HON ReT a WWww hb er ct, 3.6 .78 SoH Oo Mx WN COOL iol WW DAW AAA ANAL OWwWw AO OMWHHMOHHOHNANADOBAOAHAHORODA YO NN wm Re Coo 0 ON So MhNwn REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WorRK OF THE Samples at Husted Mill’g & Elevator Co., Buffalo, “ec “ce “ee “ “ “ ‘ “ce “ee Imperial Grain & Milling Co., Toledo, O., awit os kes Guba. Olean Mills, Olean, Strait, J. H., Mill Co., Canisteo, Toledo Grain & Mill Co., Toledo, O., Tompkins, J. B., & Son, Wellsville, Wilkenson, Gaddis & Co., Sherman, | Acme Milling Co., Olean, American Cereal Co., Chicago, II1., ee “ce “ee “ce oe ce ee “ “ee “ce “ee a3 “ee “ce “ee “cc Ballard, E. F., Batavia, Benson, A. T., Cattaraugus, Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, o “ce ia3 “ Diamond Mills, Buffalo, “ “e “ “ “ac “cc Godfrey, E. E., East Aurora, Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, III., “ee oe “ee “ee ce oe “ “ec “ce ce “e “ee “ce | Griggs & Ball, East Aurora, Hunter Bros., St. Louis, Mo., “ ia) oe “ “ “ce “ce “ee H-O Company, Buffalo, Holland, Stephen, Hornellsville, Husted Mill & Elevator, Buffalo, Illinois Cereal Co., Lockport, IIl., | Martin, Jy; Perry: | Morgan, Thos., Long Island City, Attica, J. P. Frey, Hamburg, T. H. Gressman, Hamburg, A. N. Conger, Lancaster, Adolf Bros., Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co., Syracuse, Meager Bros., Cuba, S. R. Lawn, Olean, Olean Mills, Hornellsville, Eugene Terry, Little Valley, G. W. Griffith, Brocton, W. A. Miles & Son, Wellsville, J. B. Tompk’s & Son Sherman, Wilk’n, Gaddis & Son Olean, Acme Milling Co., Syracuse, Jacob Amos, Oxford, Fletcher & Corbin, Oneonta, Ford & Rowe, Worcester, P. H. Platts, Canastota, I. T. Benjamin, Olean, Olean Supply Co., Wellsville, C. B. Hyslip, Batavia, E. F. Ballard, Cattaraugus, A. T. Benson, Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., “c “ce “ee “ Syracuse, F. P. Williamson, Cazenovia, L. M. Woodworth, * Warsaw, Montgomery Bros., East Aurora, E. E. Godfrey, Syracuse, E. S. Beard, Attica, B. F. Bennett, Jamestown, B. R. Welton, Phoenix, A. C. Parker, Oneida, E. J. Buyea, Kingston, Wilson & Wolven, Salamanca, C. F. Buckmaster, East Aurora, Griggs & Ball, Utica, Ogden & Clark, Norwich, R. A. Weed, Marathon, J. H. Seeber & Son, Buffalo, H-O Co., Hornellsville, S. Holland, Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co. Peekskill, G. F. Cooley, H’nellsville, Simmons & Howell Perry, J. J. Martin, L. I. City, Thos. Morgan, NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Name of feed. Corn and oat chop, Monarch, “ce “c “ce “ce “ee “ce oe “cc “ee ce ce ee “ “ee “cc e “ ce 6e “ce oe ee e “ce “ce ce “ce its “ce “ce ce “ is3 ce oe “ce oe “ce “ee “ee “ce “ “ce “ee “ce “ce “ e “ce “ce “ce “ee its “ec “ec “c “ce “ce “ oF cc “ce 66 its “ ! 7 ce ce e “ce ce < “ee “ ‘ “ “ec “ “ce ce ‘ “ “ee ‘ ce “ec ‘ “ee “ee oe “ce “ce ee No. I, special, A, Keystone, special, Victor, Banner, special No. Boss, iT “ce Durham, “ce Excelsior, ae Ned, ~ (a3 De-Fi, Nol Anchor, cc CG 433 Protein. ats Crude]! Price fiber per Found our Taya rast found. ton. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.\ Per ci. 9.6 | 10.4 BASE a 27. 8.3 |$23.00 8.8 | 10.4 3 eOUN S27. | L020" 1).23008 8.8 | 10.4 Bote le Sige 8.5 | 19.00 8.4 ie 22.00 7.4 | 10.4 PIED. ecleeaoll Vist s(Oy |) 11683600) OEM e oeale7n || 4005, 933)511) Ole) 20h 00 8.6 4.4: | 8.6 | 26.00 9.0] 8.58 2 lv CO 28.00 on Sian 10.7 | 26.00 8.7 al 25.00 Q.1 Buc al FAP 25800 WPT Once Sas, i e7eh ile Gee) | aoaelo Q.1 3-0" | 5.9 | 26.00 9-4 3-9 | 5-3 | 24.00 10.4 4.0 | 4.4 | 25.00 8.8 9.0 4.2 | 4.0 II.2 | 21.00 Ony 9.0 4.4 | 4.0 igs} || Al)C10) O52) {| OsO 4.1 | 4.0 10.8 | 21.00 ‘Shs || )a@) An2 ATO 10.8 | 19.00 GeO) || Ono) Aes lO 9.8 | 23.00 g.1 g.0 ALON e470 11.6 | 30.00 ONG) ||) Os08 463-140". | 12. al eae Bei a | 25.00 9.6 BT | 8.2 | 22.00 Seon OMS SEO) ues W775 eN |), F10)(00) 8.2 Secs Alaa SO 137 120200 Fico) ||P Xedos 4.8 | 4.5 12 ON SSO Sel ORAAS ea Ole eer Sn | Uninc e0o 9.3 9.44 | 4.5 | 4.78 9.3 | 22.00 S.2 Ongar. s. 1|4n78"|, 12.0) | 26.00 9.0 Soar 26.00 ORG lose SeOME Se O4 ml alle ae 25200 8.4 627 I lait i SECnU ies |) A0.0o) ee |\ (eee Nh Axle) | SAM czas} || 220.0) (3 || OeAG || 54 A GEOo | sions) BAe cGy HOA) |) Ales Oe) Wy) a6) |) Zoseo O-Oul S22 See edesSah ll -2n 225500 OxGr |< 28220 |i-Axo 4-58: e229 3) 19200 9.2 3.6 5.8 | 28.00 Ol Ono Ca aseO Wee 7A || Ry sOl0) SHO) Ik @)eo) SO e520 R32 2OR 00 O23 || Os© Sane Sie Ol 115s Oli eel OROO 10.1 8.3 BES) alata) Gas) || Ale So) LOl2 aaa 26.00 10.9 | co we 23.00 OP2Re OES BrleuaO tite 22.00 9.4 9.5 200 \e4=O 132) 423.00 9.8 x 29 .00 9.4 BaF 2 ET 2700 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE 434 Col a Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. No. 681 | Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta, 825 | Phelps & Sibley, Cuba, 21 |.Saunders, G. P., Dunkirk, 895 | Schoefflin, J., Hamburg, 856 | Simmons & Howell, Hornellsville,. 871 | Toledo Grain & Milling Co., Toledo, O. 22 ee Adams, Robert, Batavia, 667 | Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta, 66 is oe o a3 as | American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl., 704 . a a 846 i 1004 is% “ “e “ce 1034 Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, 1035 E 2 677 Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, IIL, 5 ‘ oe “ce “e a Diamond Mills, Buffalo, 786 r % rs 1016 { c “ oe 649 | Chester Mills, New York, 659 ¥ “ “ - 90 leet ts tt ede vac Nea 998 ce “e 997 | Strong, Lefferts Co., New York, 581 | American Cereal Co., Chicago, III, 621 i . “ _ 837 ce : ce “ce 842 | “ce oe ‘ ‘ 968 % ‘ oe ‘ 874 “ ce ce ce 738 | Salway, E. J., Batavia, 594 | Pierce & Pendergast, Phoenix, 732 | Adams, Robert, Batavia, 574 | Beard, E. S., Syracuse, 742 | Colquhoun & Waldruff, Batavia, 614 | Doolittle, Luke, Binghamton, 906 | Mook, P. P., Lancaster, 688 | Rickard, A. S., Schoharie, 774 | Attica Mills, Attica, 868 | Morris & Seeber, Hornellsville, 942 | Mathews, Vernon, Brocton, 750 | Douglass, C. H. & H. N., Batavia, 814 | Acme Milling Co., Olean, 548 | Amos, Jacob, Syracuse, 684 | Becker & Co., Central Bridge, Cooley, G. F., Peekskill, Sampled at Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co., Cuba, Phelps & Sibley, Dunkirk, G. P. Saunders, Hamburg, J. Schoefflin, H’nellsville, Simmons & Howell Salamanca, C. F. Buckmaster, Dunkirk, J. W. O’Brien, Batavia, Robert Adams, Unadilla, S. H. Chapin, Otego, Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co., Camden, Orr & Gardner, Wellsville, J. B. Tompk’s & Son Buffalo, Lack. Mill & Elev. Co. Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co., Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co. Cazenovia, L. M. Woodworth, Warsaw, D. E. Keeney & Son, Buffalo, Diamond Mills, Delhi, Codperative Store, Oneonta, Ford & Rowe, Middleburg, W. C. West, Buffalo, Husted M. & Elev. Co. Utica, G. W. Head & Co., Norwich, R. D. Eaton, Wellsville, Scov., Brown & Co. Wellsville, C. B. Hyslip, Jamestown, Hayward & Co., Salamanca, E. J. Sowl, Batavia, E. J. Salway, Phoenix, Pierce & Pendergast, Batavia, Robert Adams, Syracuse, E. S. Beard, Batavia, Colquhoun & Waldruff Binghamton, Luke Doolittle,. Lancaster, P. P. Mook, Schoharie, A. S. Rickard, Attica, Attica Mills, Hornellsville, Morris & Seeber,. Brocton, V. Mathews, Batavia, C. H.& H. N. Douglass. Olean, Acme Milling Co., | Syracuse, Jacob Amos, Central Bridge, Becker & Co., Peekskill, G. F. Cooley, oe New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Protein. Fat. Col- Pee Re ee ee ee Ree Ae EE Crude a Name of feed. fiber No. : Found. ee Found. pevesrd found. Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 681 Corn and oat feed, Arrow, 8.6] 9.0 SEF Ne Sigs O20 825 | pure, 9.9 ai) baie 921 Sita rotapesaee | 10.0 4.0 4.3 805 NEL os eRe aca | 10.6 4.0 4.6 856 2 Gein. Bees ONT a: [oa 3.0 7.6 871 6é ‘“ 6“ “é | 8.9 a8 Ane Q22 iss “ce “e “ce 9.0 * 731 % : 3 * provender, 9.9 Ris) B56) 667 cetuatn pe oe choice, al Over SINE YEN IN DNs ic oh RI a LL 8 669 s Noes tack s PEO Ah hor eati? 30.) \ 2.5 9.9 676 | Oat feed, Vim, Or Ae lar75 Dee || BE A Alo). 1 704 See tes eS ROE 75 tl: Seoul Bare | 22.8 846 ew feet Aa Fes ZO 26754) 9280 1004 ee ay ons se Oats | G5 256. 2.75) | 25ea 1034 pean Otandard: ZAG 70 BOn| ss) I e7iks 1035 Z * special,- mOne AR) 13.9 677 pees SC ECAR, OF O20 mn halla D: ae thane a 995 fe ROY cle WpOe soln 7. 53 5iete- 2.03 103 | 2baG 718 | Empire State cow feed, 3-8) |' 1406]. 3.7/|°3-48 | 00.1 786 € ‘ Soiree HALES! |LTASOO|93 Ay) 9.48) 156 1016 oh e tears |p Arie ta OO: 9255") 2.487 | Toa 649 | f Chester stock food, Ge OF SG eG | SA ena AG Q.2 659 | + |. @sir 9.5 Bits || wba 10.1 686 | 7 a ss | TO. 18 | Ons 5-0 | 4.0 7.8 CS 4 53 eect leOAs S-2 Ae 0%, |s107 997 | Lenox stock food, pes. On lseguss | 3-0] 3.27) 8.2 581 | Schumacher’s stock food, (ede el ae Onin Sept pe Cea l220 621 sf - o ele. 2oS Ope Se Hci Sul | TOTO 837 oy v ie WALI | AO: sts) | VE Oh. NIKO} 9/ 842 eS 3 oy WA) || WEiA(0) Aa) || 50) 9.6 968 a es a LO Ze (elsG Ie Aedes | TOR , 874 | Corn, oats and barley feed, | tei | Be) ART W5e0 OME 2a 738 | | 10.4 | 2.9 Boel WAS 504 | Oats and wheat ground, | 10.9 BES FeO) eee oe 732 | rye, 10.3 2.8 | 5.1 25 574 “rye and corn, | DEE 3-4 | 3). Ae 27s Glen. \PNY a a i if 10.1 3.8 | SEOn se2zes 614 | Ss oe iy aaa LOE T lenoes Abo) | iS}. 906 | ‘“ “ “ “ 10.1 * | 28. So a 13.0 H255 lp Se |e 774 +. © ,eorm-and-batley, 9.8 | 4.0 6245 | aoe 865) - “- “ ‘and barley; | 9.6 4.1 9.3 27. 942 s corn and corn bran, 10.2 eS 26. Ou iiee: “~ Boss horse and cattle | feed, he os@ 3 2 | LOn 7 ape2se 814 | Acme feed: hominy, corn and oat | hulls, PenQhka | S25 GP AM Plots Tt O)ae 20% 548 | Ground feed, engud B05 Hey oe 684 | Mixed feed: corn, oats, rye, barley | and buckwheat, 10.1 203 Sail 26. 538 | + Special order: corn, oats, hominy and barley meal, | 10.4 ey NO)s3) |] aR Oui Or 00un1 62 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WorRK OF THE Name and address of manufacturer or jobber. | Bowker Fertilizer Co., “ “ oe Empire Mills, Olean, Phelps & Sibley, Cuba, Buffalo Cereal ee Buffalo, Tompkins, J. B. & Son, Wellsville, Oneonta Milling o., Oneonta, Dasrison, J. 5. Lockport, West Avenue Mili Co., Attica, Curtis, C. G., Buffalo, Kam Malting Co., Buffalo, American Cereal Co, Chicago, Il, “ee “ee oe “ce “ce “ee ce ee ae iad “ee se Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo, H-O Company, Buffalo, Midland Feed (Coy, ce “ce “ “ce Kansas City, Mo., “ “cc “cc oe Cypher Incubator Co., Buffalo, Harding, G. L., Binghamton, Star Incubator & Brooder (Coy H-O Company, Buffalo, New York, “ce oe “ Mosley & Motley Milling Co., Barwell, J. W., Waukegan, IIl., Rochester, “ee “ce “ce oe New York, « «ce F « Romaine, DeWitt, New York, & & “ Armour & Co., Chicago, III., Harding, G. L., Binghamton, oe iss “ce Swift & Co., Chicago, IIL., Darling & Co., Chicago, Ti Finn’s, H., Sons, Syracuse, iss “ [a3 | Harding, G. L., Binghamton, | Harvey Seed Co., | McCallom & Co., Buffalo, Dayton, O., Armour & Co., Chicago, Ill. Sampled at Olean, Empire Mills, | Olean, L. J. Miller & Son, | Cuba, Phelps & Sibley, Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., | Wellsville, J. B. Tompk’s & Son Syracuse, Jacob Amos, Lockport, J. S. Darrison, Attica, J. P. Frey, | Buffalo, C. G. Curtis Co., | Buffalo, Kam Malting Co., | Oxford, French & Mead, Oneonta, Morris Bros., ' Camden, Orr & Gardner, ' Olean, Olean Supply Co., Lockport, J. R. Regnal, Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co., - Oneonta, Morris Bros., Buffalo, H-O Co., INIYS Exe’r W. & 12) Sup. Co., | Buffalo, Cypher Incubator Co., Binghamton, G. L. Harding, N.Y. Star Incu. & Brooder Com Oneonta, Morris Bros., | Buffalo, H-O Co: “cc New York, Clark & Allen, | Hornellsville, Richfield Springs, W. B. Ward, Westfield, H. V. Herrick, Brocton, V. Mathews, Unadilla, J. W. Van Cott & Son S. Holland, | Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co., Waterville, Hubbard & King, | N. Woodstock, E.E. Hatch & Co. ' Salamanca, C. F. Buckmaster, Lockport, J. O. Rignal, Binghamton, G. L. “Harding, Buffalo, DesMoine Incub’r Co., Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co., Lockport, John Young, Cortland, C. M. Jennings, Waterville, Hubbard & King, | Binghamton, G. L. Harding, Attica, J. P. Frey, Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co., ' Lockport, J. R. Rignal, New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 437 P in. Fat. eer ae si Crude Price ion Name of feed. ee Bad vider per No. Found. anteed: Found. eRtecal oun ; Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. 805 | Empire feed: corn and oats, PU Nazgs03| 2-0 | 2.07 | there S20100 820 ss “fff Saas ° Sn | FOR BLO 1) Bsr ||. woo 28.00 829 | Vanity fair: screenings, Tly.-7, 2.8 9.3 1043 | Oat hulls, ground, 2.9 10 BON 7s aLOROG: 850 | Buckwheat feed: corn, hulls and screenings, iat 2n3 17.5 10.00 552 | Rye flour, T7at 3.0 0.9 30.00 980 “feed, 9.9 7 2E2 23.00 765 e . Tit gz 2.6 B52 25.00 1059 | Barley skimmings, m3i43 Bale 11.4 24.00 1062 - 13.6 Bats II.0 625 | Poultry food, American, 14.3 | 14.0 O-O) |) “8 4.6 30.00 663 ‘ & ie 14.4 |14.0 6.0 | 4.5 4.7 2.00 703 o eS - 14.1 | 14.0 5.8} 4.5 4.5 36.00 823 © e 14.1 | 14.0 OnOnl Aras Bil $18.00 986 o3 4 a 14.6 | 14.0 eg lel 4.8 30.00 1031 4 iy THES -||,1€7/ 30) ARO) 550 4.0 30.00 661 ae erate ©) 18.0 | 17.0 Rit || Bok 4.7 37.00 1000 we we f 16.6 | 17.0 A.Q | 565 4.9 2.00 533 TEgg & feather producing food, No.4) 17.5 | 20.3 ALG ale4a 2 | One 50.25 535 | tGrenadier meal, 16.9 | 16.0 8.8 | 6.4 2.4 87.50 nee NOs food, growing, No. 2, em 2OROR) ler eAnt le 12 On Oh mas Ore 534 nursery, No. I, ated ie Soil si Giot! 214) 50.25 1008 ie * —_Cypher’s, 9.0 es | 40.00 (CY fe eas ee Raby 1405, 1 1520 FT Ba G77 5% eS ie SOROO 536 sf > Star. Specific, No: 7, II.4 2Ra 2.9 70.00 662 Scratching feed, H-O, ie 3e At 0 BedalleseO 2.6 40.00 1003 a Oe % 0) Dol NOB SO | 34.00 1004 | Pidgeon feed, i 11.8 3.4 35.00 531 | Duck feed, low grade flour, 16.4 2.9 28.00 698 | § Poultry meats, Blatchford’s, ZO Gil3320 8.1 |10.0 70.00 037 x . XY ASLO) |B a0 Fi stey fMIOhs() 80.00 9044 “ § ne 29.6 | 33.0 6.3 |10.0 100.00 668 | Animal meal, Be Onl OMOMEEZOE S| SO 863 « “ 2G {6) || FOO) || tals |) Fo© 50.00 1007 s e 34.5 | 30.0 FAO) || Spel) | NAS OO: 636 | Boiled beef and bone, 40-0 45.0° || £50 15-0 | 40.00 711 i ons e a BOaA AS. On LOn Ss 5.0 | 50.00 873 <. os. 2.) oar. a chaees rs Baltimore. Weekly, ‘Sun .dctoce t-te atte es oe BeetSuear Gazettes oes one amare ae piepeene hier eae Fe Beitrage zur Chemischen Physiologie und Patholo- oe An Eee NRE as Or rene Sees PNAS. a Subscription. 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SUN OMAGIIETS Cit. dc rae oes c) «RRS eee RTO eS alas the Complimentary. 454 PERIODICALS RECEIVED BY THE Ohio: Poultry; Journal, 7). eens Subscription. Pacific Coast Datryaman’. <5. donee ee eee sf Pacific ‘Coast. Fanciers”, Montlilyes aes --2 setae eres ke Pacihe Print Worlds, 5-5 5s oe is potted, «deo re eee Complimentary. Pacific Rural: Presse: Cok «c ageenc ae 2. eee Subscription. Photo-Mintature 206 xroise0 a a = e = a ry i= eS iS D Ke) o 5 . @ * ® =< = 8. g E et : © 1B : a < ‘061 YOT SGYOOAN TVOIDOTONOALANWN ‘ZQBI AONIS SHINO] Ad NOILVLIaIOaIg 457 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ¢ "39 \2°89 ¥°85 |9°O2 [1°99 |Z°€S Igo |g°0S |6-ob | ‘oF Qg'bh Igo LE OOF |E1€ |Z'bz \€-gz |g:oz |h-zz — e Ee Sa A (EN . eele eoeleeceee “£9 71816) “QV eee Suwa cmt oe “9S “oS “Re ee . o- mss ‘Va one SUS Osim SOE eRe. | a100 egy *|-0g) | og "I@) J) Aan ee Paniz | CWS oo : Giotan |tnc calm Oce AS “69 7{S(6) 0) ole) c:o¢ ‘Or LL SO4 “So “Iv AS: “of . CEO Oh ONCE ONC Ci ‘bY Or Ar ‘OV SEO wae Wes OZ e404) G7 OZ Zh. “68 | he = Cod yy ceQu| OV aia Ob «| nralleOe TOO G | oplcm elOn ele Gee ZalesOO.! YO.) Tolle eh |r COV ae DMC ale OP yar Or le Ler Ini en Oe "aZ | “2 | “29 S29 | "19 | “45 | -€f | “So | -ge |S-bS | gh |G-c¢ | -Sb | -ob | Ze | -be | <1¢ | «be SSO) || 2S) | Peto) NS Pe COON er a Gy S05 1 GE) G6 CEN CEN Gea Ge see ope) pe “QI “¥Q | £9 | “g5 | “2g |S°SS | “oS | :oS | “oS | || Ue Ipc seo AOe eZee eos {Ove GAS [ere Be | Aas |i aij, Nato | ahs | Gos We eteis a Gabon || AetaGyl Alas) Syl 19h Be || Bis Bro || 200 |r Boa |) Bie || S05 1) Ces IAs GOs Ieee 265 || Ts |i xo || BA |) SO. || Sis | Bes Wie I) Ole Westets I Gos, G3 io || aio |Z Wo: |) Boe | Sieslases il Cole Ase NGS G6 |) Gece Site 80 || 2029) 452-120 | 5455) Ars | (005 13351-7951), 55251075. ||/-S0- AAG lesan O2951 BOP 422). 3255175. 6 3724] Gore | 5Sr 4 75. 475 Asta 30% 3 (O22). Oa Hal, |) YBa |) ae | Fe || (Cae AOza23" AAs AD. (sds I Soe. | OAs: | Ais. || tkesG)) Sei Be ekOr CyAH ell Ske I Bees 65. | 35 1827) 3627) 1027| SE-1 33.6 50.3] 35-4] 75- | 4527) 74-3] 52-1 460 METEOROLOGICAL RECORD OF THE READING OF MaximuM AND MINIMUM THERMOMETERS—(Concluded). Jury. AucGusT. SEPTEMBER, | OCTOBER, NovemBer. | DECEMBER. 71903 5 p.m.|s5 p.m./5 p.m./5 p.m./5 p.m.|5 p.m. /5 p.m.|5 p.m./5 p.M./5 p.m. 5p. m.|5 p. m. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max.]| Min. ie SSIES \ 90% 672 | G25) 522-1 77.857 73s 1 SaanOOe4| AON seem Pao OMS | 902") 73e%| 7624-46. “> Box SO rg) 60.94) 5A CAM) 28m paermeese BR Rec | S40] 50.7) 78s) 872.183 hel Soin) 60. Wk 45.09) C891 AGms) sae anes Asi aiase 82.08), 500 J 73. OLS | So OMAN 71s 2) 55-0 | 70. a Aaa Seca ieBicteieitte 1808) 50.2 60.1] 5829! S220) 5o28) 72:51 26050 OR 2185. sae eyes oiaeay: | Bree) 6254) B73 s|Or ss (b68 el 46s) OON5), 4720s 8085) 27eelesaas mes TinOTAS 85. | 62.°| 6825! 55. | 66: | 49.) 725] 6125) 34.51 2725) San aiee Oseeeck go. | 60.5) 71.5] 45- | 64.5, 49. | 60. | 49.°| 5I 285 9|-34h alee Ose econ Nog alwOAe | FAs s6t 765 | 58%) 5225] 4820) 58. 19342 3. geen TOMI ee | 2.5 Zea | Zone Sie sl ese G4 aS. Nolen (M6 |store ||) Ae. |) 22 Tipe ee | 88.5 6220 F Or GOPN S25 a SSe 5780 Abe sae 4ean eee 17 1s og ool ect 61.5) 72i-4-S62 | B2ssis2e 1562)" |: 4021-505 es2-9 eaeeneee ie ere ae | mas 56.0) 7i>| 4ozee) 88s | 6624 64. | 4625) 482 | 35 eas ame LAA apa 71 52.01. 985)| 452-002." 65:3) 60.5! 45: 4 45 \gaeeyame 5 TG hee 68 sal SOs le 7Seu) SOna B725" 05.1.1 (022 1 AOss tat 2Q)e | eh5 o5in lee Hes a GE 75-5| 55- | 79-5] 54-5] 83.5) 05. | 67. | 52. | 47- | 33. | 23. | 12 Warde hors 8 £5) SAS |e Bont} 52. |S0se| O62. 1/632 | Sou Saami iar: ee 12 (toys Gi. See 765 O02) BS 261 SStea| O83 eal 43Al SOc edhe ogee 25 1nene 5) TOeAe Sues FOS S82) CS sa eG2s5|\ vO) Aen, O2 sea mat 29. | 2257) ik Naa 20ers ee |-778 | GOR)" 77502 nO al) ae OAs LAS Posy) elit 25 PR eee | Sond) SO 1 eo le 4a) Veet Wl Socal Some: 19205) 30 28 BOM ar 81 6304) Bae G21) BSsa\iG 72M OF al BAe ca4 alee ae 17 2Rtre MeN! 58 £1|-62.'5| 7924) GO| 83=.)! Sisae|sOr 42.5| 41 Be « || Zh II Pil tetas 7 O40 Zo ee) GOZO S| AG Sel 4S 951 (SS cue| at 2 40. | 32 Dow kaa BREE S70 Soa ah sone O44 ease 280 al) 24 |\eO25| m4 One A Oveoucka Sas 66015) 740) S821 So. qe aloo ar ST 2095 size 2 2 27 later Foe BAS) | Ope Ml 52s Al Cope me /ee Weer estoy) U5 |) 2 I 2 ie tao 926) 40.01 6624) 502025 | 43-91 4055) 48a0) S224) 10 | sare U fe ZOE IS ace Bash O4s | SOnt 55-2) 50-4) 35- 4/65...) 33...) Sh ol 2025/6252 Gh 308euraate BASs 60721-6524 502) 4, 73.51. 38.51 00.. | 52.0 338 (ote: | 21. | 14. Liege S2nelebARl -72 Om ilanccnualtve: Der \etivie | e 25 I5. Average.| 81.3] 60.4] 75.4] 55.6] 76.4) 52.5) 61. | 44. | 43.9 28.4| 30.8] 15.8 New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 461 SumMMARY oF Maximum, Minimum AND STANDARD AIR THERMOMETERS FOR 1903. Standard. Maximum, | Minimum. 7a.m. 12m. 5 p.m. Average, | Average. | Average. | Average. | Average. ERODE TAY Motaoe tre SBecicecO eee ao 32 18.7 22a 26.8 26.3 ic bBulaliey; fs weraaia escie crorelcistare ioneke 30.7 19.5 24.5 3183 30.6 WiatGhiee a nicry xe So err se etapa ener oe Sits Ben6 37.6 44.6 46. INGO ON Stearn ORR Be ERG Ae Hee 56.3 35.4 40.9 50.6 50.8 Digester svene).s io Moke Bde aueks eh oncte Marer af 75 45-7 See, 68.1 70.6 LEN ONSS 5 Bethe Prone Bia CaO AI ITE 74.3 Ail 58.4 68.2 68.5 pitlivatarat rte g ene tems ea, be aiciaren ce 81.3 60.4 66.8 74.3 HO 1 JANTOTEABISOCs cheek Bite SO aOR OTROS 75.4 55.6 60.8 70.9 70.9 Septemibenrsrvces fossa se soe: 76.4 2.5 50.9 70.1 69.8 Weta Deer sock ae toe ot Aes « 61.0 44.0 47.7 55-9 54.6 INTOWEnn DENS Gane ones ooomed ae 43-9 28.4 Bil gO) 30.5 30.5 Wecentbens. rch ae sek es oe at 30.8 | 15.8 21.4 ANSE: 24.6 METEOROLOGICAL RECORD. 462 z°0z Tee ars Suing Sale zoe ¢:ce v'1z LAMNS £°6z g' Lz ee 9 4z ole Chez *Iaquiasaq z'gf €° ov ave I'v 6°ge 6°LE £°6€ 6°eb g' 6¢ o0°9f z'Qt 6°Se gt g° Ze €'ov bv 6¢ g°Ze 8° 9f £°6£ S*9f 1°6€ *1I9qUIZAON *loquiaydasg S°69 tTOMrRO}ODN INO DO 1NO O OOOdO ROW S‘oV - ON OM Mm QAO O10 TMO OO DADO TM OO INT A MO AWM NN WONT NAMVHMAAMAMAAMANA i) ie.) N MOMTFANDW HAMAD ADHHO TOMA NOHAMAWMOMMOOUO TOWOOAVDA ANHAWAHMAANAAAHANANAAAAHA HOODOO AtTHAATMNG roy ~ WwW N OO NNAAN N STANHOHA HIM MAHA MO ND NONNRANAN NmwmNmOo OOO eRe NR Ne ‘tady [pHosBIN *Azeniqayq | ‘Arenue{ ‘ZQQI AONIS FWNLVAAIWAL ATHINOJ FOVAIAY INDEX. A. PAGE Abnormal conditions, effect on cheese ripening.........:.........-p-<- 207 Acid free cheese, action of rennet enzyme in ripening.................. 185 EXCCSSMITIMCHTCESEMEHECE Ole reine cust tae s siaie is ciel siete. ceiehs eyes res sis! elec ernie 72 Excessiveci@ Cheese, ODJECtIONADIE 2. Si. eclae aie aes ecule nes oe mete 73 ROU SE CMEC. codec ofoo~DboT doadace dn obs ann on oud Semcon” On 67 laeticn ange Caseitl, | COMINATION.).)./sccc'e 2. - cx 6 serepe.e 6 woe bole oss cis 69 elke CERMIpONPACHONUOh Telnet eters eee) oor nseios 67, 75 PuospaatewCost Gr platit: TOOUNIM en atm sane oe clam « orelsistay sates etetein = 307 Rel ne tOwc Heese TAPE In s,.4cre alee iels seine eiciats dvs eu sie avaisl oo avavers 265 INcidspanducheeses hipenings relation ryt cle cieile erie ciate teers oiereioiels 28, 63 HCE Cal seSavASe LN OHA Thm CMKSAS iohoesevbavers So oancdoodac candeadaue 196 PNecltcltGl iste COSC GIP UO ee ss afc myaleereisia’ aia nts, oiste cielicle's lc’ Sele: 0) « eiaiatslelalmveseielese,a/orcle 350 PME NGe Se CHEESES) IMAGE DY. ala ce cscs co ... ... ss... --,.<0 on oe eee 10 FESIONAGON | ss odie Gyesemhes sn bal cnet ee eee 10 Department of) feport >... eu. eaune se eee Sintes oaaee 63 Bacteriology, report of work. 2. ... .-- 8.4... 327 formula. 2. cecccose Wee oe Sone in Ce ee ee 326 function ‘of ‘lime “ins... 26-0 2. es oe 6 2) eae ee 324 mixing “tanks for.i.5 ¢. see: #6 cs et ce one gare eee 328 preparation 62.Uioic se... + 0s auete eee ae eee 323 and application in potato experiments..... 121 strength... noosa Moorman nado aiio0 56 ¢ 325 SOA - sare oie (oievcle re akovsialekous. atc. slerere pase certs es ca meteteveterale sere feltelorelateraetens 329 Litre Se slchete pore tare tere oss c/a. w oh orotic evan oot cettst steve Mel aeetet chev eee Ese tekee te centteda 329 Botany, Department of, Feport.a0).06v cee ecies vase eelage se ashlee een 85 SimmMary OL WOLK so. oc em mtena ee eects ieee crane 26 Bucket spraying Outfits. ......-.2.ccccccceccserectnseccccserecssessensi 361 Buildings and equipment, increase in... ........-- esse ee ee ee ee ee eee 13, 18 MCCUE 's-% Sateisscniseiee te wie tie eniete Rete eiateeeteer eters 18 Bulletin: No. 230, reprints j..2jsc1s si welche ciate nts) on fo Sieh me ecetete eee ee ete eee 389 231, TEPTint.. er%< siae wis ware seyeepaw ners sides sete eras ree 165 PAGE Bee i INO Sone TED GM sentye ott f--ate 4s hoyek hae Fy cislels ejaidie ea sig viele aieidie's wee. ale ees 85 PAIGE Mitel eet pelt al a) ose a es «yak ash. eats aso ctons vayeajxong le.’ viaualonsl gia eters 188 PPS AMEE LO EMME PRT) shale ts loiute's Sie dived ic > oveis oe ejclale’S ite dal auvgtac see's 218 DOE REMI fe 8 Croisier ais ahs 2 4)< dbalaaand le AMOR Oa OSES & 108 SIOMEC HEIR M « bs saya herd tesa. caw were saealee Desig eel tees 243 Pee PELE oc ons Soko rare Sect tee Mba gh Ae Sha steed a gale ees 63 PE SETHE TER TILES ice SECA PRO tA SE eT ee IR ay 274 2QO MAGE PAT Lepeeee tacts jhe) aver cvtes eee wd es exuieonapeiel ia) eneuee hey ohae sate uote sons ots 293 DA MLC PENG mes cos as, bila ss aii tepniayere od cle 1 gs Homann ce Getter 407 DAML CP TGlINe epee the sisi) acto sete cttars) eeaany es soya ite soToats ve ci cies eee 117 Ailey, SES PU aaa seh Te ORT Dee eR IEC cere ero, GOO. 37 DASUNTEP Tl tee ete Pel «fs eile" cen atarpss suave tacagte Crave Wevavans send s4sv rae ORS 321 AAP GOD TAIL tate eee eet eiaiens o ads ahs ds Soc Sha teins ailerayd cNensus’s Siversliarede eens 9 Pe etinisadistribmbeds mim bens 44/50 Grsrda lo avn's, eterna aiwie vt ayoratene $0.3 Say amya/ele tone 19 PUTTS Em SEseys 52: ort hehe. Jn apne ne CEE eicte hs ches dea: wie Rete Oe Shee 32 C. Gapbace: black, LOty COMPAL hah Ak tise lac Ne ale wile lereis oles Slela'a. se ae Som aciare 85 eirectrot removal.of leaves. ici esiecle olds acsesetines seesaw ees 105 ROMANS METTIMAIyyAlOLe WOT Kcape ts renee raced siete ataler oehetel ole) cfereva)cfelevelevel el sielals) are Zee, Calcium chloride, effect on action of rennet in cheese ripening........... 508 archon, disulphide: as) al imSeCHCIdes a5 gu 524 J i40 es tin cie ss Walciels Sa 0's os are sere 342 dioxide and proteolysis in cheese ripening....................-- 165 effect on action of rennet in cheese ripening.............. 208 iNVCHEESE: FSOULCES LEG ice se eee aes She eee Sse SOE 180 Tin cima s is Saal PERC eee Vaca wee aE SRE ac aad She eS 180 from-decomposition of millkesugars..cteiiiga. 020s. 180 PROehA ator yal TNOVToVEMl INASSS. oo ng dgcconeconduansoeconods 169 from respiration from living cells in cheese.............. I81 SOURCESMIN Cheese TAPENING Set. cos ees aie etree kes ae, LO Bases nes Cheesesiliade: DY. Lc beans feels Poreele crea ea ae san anaes sees esas 221 Casein, action of rennet extracts and commerical pepsin on............. 198 and lactic acid, definite combination. .......:.........0.000s000- 69 Casler, E. T., assistance on bulletin... ...... 0... eee ee ee ee eee cece coon 321 Cauiiilower roercummuary: Of WOLD on cot oe de dat waldo oo dlsls los valsie clans 227, Cephalothecium roseum, decay similar to, due to Hypochnus...........-- I19Q Cheese, advantages of cold storage. ........ 0.00 cee en ee cece ce ccicoecs 232, 236 AMitG OLCOMAPOUNAS) MMe eects 240 PURE ARLIOULTI GE ns ais resets wee betatanie Sitio’ Foust ate eh tedster ehelt rheke: ints 227. (232 OnuMankwe tevalittenpes ttle ces) oie eA tede pies ole S202 <2 cicin fs sais aw tae tie hare eee mere oe iete ee eee 14 End ‘products, proteolytic; in normal cheeses¢ 2:2 o.5. «a -. eo oak oe Entomologist, -appointment?.:53 5.2 Sosiuies a00s cas el cen eee ee reece 10 assistant, resignation Of5. 200 of) oo. 24.25 5. cee eee se eee II death Of ..58 25 aes ck Seas eek aia < alain eke tals elon Seteore A Fe: Entomology, summary ‘of WOrk 41st." .iacstahow alates ato eieo rel ee eee 30 Enzyme, rennet,: in cheese ‘ripening’. .5. 2: 32252 bs sn'e oe nen ee ee 188 Enzymes, milk, destruction by heat..................- ioe Ee Rae 205 Equipment. and: buildisigs needed 4.2 222.0 os tac seen oles eee one ee 18 Establishment: of “Stationia: sass stirs cee ote co antetee Seolnlersiche) ete eilearare aye ae Eustace, H.J., bulletin bys. 2.ce.5 pee so one ne oe ae aera eee 108 Eustace, H. J., F.C. Stewart and FE. A. Sirrine; bulletin by. 2 s1se-ee..e 117 Expenditures, past, (of “Stationers sc ..c. 5 ws aa nie tote wee ee eae ee eile 16 Experiment station) work; financial/ivaluevotece sac oe eee ee nee ae ee 15 Extension rods; description® <. 21322). = stake ciel pects cistate Ooreteete Soe erorrromiee 358 F. Failure in: potato spraying, causes... 0. cites came eae nh cies oe eee 152 Feeding » stuffs, “analyses7~ 05.02 cass Gs os ie ck ea coils welnretaie sis >) et oeo eens 416 fratid: dines. oi.7 co eae ee ceca eees Sete eee eects ee nee 442 INSPECHON ve xin wie seis ean Setoaate eaielsianete bial ee ee eee 407 COMM EMES OMe va seeio esiey er nee eee oredr fedsr remotes 23 SuUMMAry Of. 3. 5.05 ae eee lee late eieeito ieierietetene 22 law, “vidlation(.'2.-<0%.2. Saas steep aacgen eine teke oe a: tee 444 licensed: in “1903s scl es ok coe alee re Teneo ne crete eee erates 409 use’ “OL. inferior -matenialSo.e%< eee. c+ .05 <. 6c occa 440 Ferrocyanide of potassium “teSt® 2.5. ake sceietee = «oes. ons se eee Cee 327 Fertilizer inspection, defect in law...... Be Rees au ccbictelainete Che Se ee -20 Fertilizers, classification. by grades: << <2. «2.041.001 dese ajesteeins bie aoe eee 392 commercial) facts abouts o- .a-0. «1c eae toto nieteiete eee 3890 comparative cost of different grades. -.:......2<...0-5-- 00-5 GO4 COMIPOSILION OL. cfc cise 2.2 2 cs oto eeb oe eke Ree ae ae 21 home mixing...... ES ik RPS ons ieae tachanivic casino ee 8 B.C 401 inspection, Summary Of Work. « ...: acidic ren @ ok Gio cle eee 20 summary of five years’ coe ae ss aya eral save ce a folate avengstade tyson teeters 404 valuation’ and selling “price of. .. sires tebe aed ae oe Fueld\ crop sprayers.')... 0. o< ss sabe) crucdiolave) oieusrenebonealore Sroleen Roe taeteree ae Ee 366 Financial support and needs of Station 2 Totemmanate beneaeeaioreae Lietsie bit Ae eee 16 value of experiment ‘station “work/.nic sesso: eee ee ee 15 Flavor in cheese, relation of conditions of ripening to.................. 267 INDEX. 471 PAGE Poadematerials. Status) OF PMOSPNOLUS IM... 2... slew ce cesses ace tweed 274 acetal ce SOs ROME ea eis ree oes hate aisle aie Evel «idle Wis ei S laren cia ce aos 333 Serene eet enat Tee ITS AS UNITES ue ioe 31d <0, oo. 0s 2,3 oc dois dia ciSa, 6 steers ole ED ae ble Be 442 Pigler vhs and oWeelts Jasco, bulletin Dy: ..- 055. .8ue biel vemos sence 407 PCE Obs SEAMOI, 4 SiatemmMed tal A: secs. oeais casks dle ae oe eine sd Sele ew cla II Bim everd es St panel ESCM EMO Ss c.6 cic va, zio.sg ne clei cd ole leleve's oles eng aiele 323, 334 G. Gaines ENSUES NEAR CO rerio io 5 215.5 4.0 «5 div soiretaardy vie wsreardaaleayelad'ss aces <5 377 OWE Pa Sian iSO ELI US fy riot Sots wien. aetna Sie Hakccke Mamseve men SOLE 375 PaCS TS * Sia Sears eenserors oto ewan Seater ls sekgrenee 376 Gitiis eCenmINateG: sPHOSPNOTUS wAll, 5.c55 o/. 6 oie, 9: Seis 2 os Sleleieeees oo eistele's duels 286 Green arsenite of copper. (See Scheele’s green.) re temavel Me tOe CICK Pe eet endelss ciate creas © soo - sna aiele oiciciele 8 «oer *m wn Beles wears ee ae 203 Pimchielture: Summary OF WORKGAMS «. .). <6. - cece ce eee caese ese dee ewinces 31 ReISAMCSCESp Elias oi tym etaicl trates 2)afs.e'o.s'se(aviviaie s o/c aw sivic.cjels sisvne ane 359 eMpetalic! PLHP Saee biaicts atoisleieisleie are i eoisle => 6c cies oisichbelerels His 41> se icieie cin sisi 348 Eiydrecyanic acid. gaseas) ami insecticides... 2... 2... 2 ae een tie cle memati as 341 Hypochnus, cause of decay in stored apples............-.0- essen eens 108, I10 WO UNG Parasite ce cree ately tee ses enn, ose «ain wisin ave sieleinieye eels 113 1 Siresease an buildings and equipment. 220. 222 c st ee ois eieinle oo ollelelerals 13, 18 Sa rites WOT ees eisai ee ee eae age oS os oh ofeneiatene lec Stee atetss ose 14 State ans eInployeese se -- ./. ath ch edocrws setae erele dtsictalereinherst ale ie/oie 14 MISE CHictdesetCOMMMIeECIalle a. ..1s)s- + vite ante aeeemeeaeias cleewe Soe eleva eluates « -\eipinlsls 343 hiSte atida GESCHIp MOMs. A) 2k eae ier yectatel cans ajela eee seve» les 323, 334 472 INDEX. PAGE Inspection of feeding stuffs. 2. <.2../..5 Pe. aoe meee tis eae ele ehe oie ete eine 22, 407 fertilizers, summary of works. fod. 30.4 Glrinie orl a eee 20 WOLK, ICOMIMENES HONG :0 1 eestor tatters acs)ers,7< 5 take ie aaa or eee eae 20 TEPOLES). OMe. yavszso'ete 2h Mevateys, ah oho) «eh elela Slots abet Srabeier aie aratcesre eee 380 Iron ‘sulphate and sulphuric acid solutions... )o si. 202. tte soe eee 333 J. Jagger, H. A., cooperation in potato spraying experiments.............. 134 Jordan; WE sreporteassdinectomyencsdee: soon ae an eee eee 9 and F. D; Fuller, bulletin’by. 22 45 See eee 407 K. Kerosene asian ‘insecticide: 2.'ts i. Sccs asec fo ce ee ae ce tee 341 emulsion; ‘formulas: tis. 02 wads See Seco os coe oe eee 340 SPEAVELS: oie c Ub Se oa beea eioe wae eeke Oe ee eee ene oer Cee 383 Kriapsack spraying outhts? 2. 2 ooo lea: Seo eacce tee. oe tae oe eee 362 L. Lactic. acid- and casein, definite’ combination. 2-0... .-1-5- +1: a- 22. eee bacteria, effect on other forms in milk. ./.. ).22..<.c... coe in CHEESE s/h. «caw re 3 is io sete aren eae, Cero ae ee 73 efiéct om action oi/rennet., 2. 2. ost.csans cee ck aNee eee 67, 75 Law, feeding stuffs, violation. 05:2...» cs.. antes een eens eto 444 fertilizer, detect itis: sytere mo) scien seins Chee were tare 20 Lime, function in’ Bordeatx mixture. sos,.0e0 #26 sce 2 ee ae nee 324 DASE, SEOCKE: Vids. 3,.%2 ayera cre susie ooh eRe det oie ae aa Otero me nce ee 327 sulphur-salt wash; tormiula. «2%. c. 522 cso eeees ooas eee nee 340 soda wash; “formulac.s. .Ates cet oscoe fence eee oo eee 340 List: of bulletins’ published \:n..09. 2 Sece oc ocs ls feo eaic nie sete eee ee London purple, use-as an: insecticide. <3 .).. 0. .- ae. sss ee 236 Loop~ Separators. 2 ty ccw ic rene ve ae hace ak Pere ele OSE ENS 355 Lowe, Victor HH deatiny 22 Se ocacs dose alecoet lee 5a ee tei eerie 9 Lysine «in chlorotorm® cheeses. 2. 2cs-ecaiee eee tae oraais - oe 177 norinal CHEESE). 5.6.0.4. 2... 5 gee Hak ae teenie ea ss «1g kis 174 M. Mailing: list,” names:on.< on -a2aees ccc an oo oe oe eee eine ae Dee 19 Manufacturers of spray machinery ho. 2%. ...%. =e oes = anes ieneeeeeeeeee 345 Market: value of apples, effectsof thinning 2.155.006 aoses olecene eee 312 cheese; eftect/ of parafiining. ion... ...-604 em sone cee imcreased by. ‘cold ‘storage-.)....2-n-n5 see eee Martin; JS. cheeses: furnished ibys ee oe eects ieee ieienel ie eevee 222 T. E., cooperation in potato spraying experiment................ 146 Merchants’ Refrigerating Co., assistance in cheese curing experiment.... 224 Meteorological’ records aes. csscins ie eicine sieie ok ohenereen en RE eee 456 Milkcarbon: dioxide aitsie cays soc cpoicie = eevee era ieieis roe eee ae 186 enzymes, destruction: by, heatise. & sise eee ocioese tie Pie eee eats 205 lactic acid bacteria:1m.2sd.ce nc ae +c. ee ac alot cron ether 65 INDEX. 473 PAGE Milksipasteurized.smakinercheese inond.saaac. <2 f. cob. ccas ce gsce ones celees 204 sugar, decomposition produces carbon dioxide..................... 180 Mineral smatter, amportancertote Chicks: ....c6. veces sks cis acts sltlo dere de 22a 37 Missin. tanks ton bordeatscmarxtiires £05.20. Wes i. cc Seg Daas con ve See en 328 Mioisturesin cheese, eiectroimeold) Storage Olle... sees sche ass. secs ss cone swe 240 INHMENCeMMNCMEESE IM EMING . As/ycGe we cece ee Gado sg vace osc eevetianeces 264 Tela tlOnestOuCneesemGlpenine xe skis ss1cccowlaly okie tieseetecn ge Barware 253 Mittniate eCcOSt Ole DOtashmitutt a reraractie as sataeie cee ste ae dwleclel batewrecentaline 309 N. Nich lsomiponnees esipiiatiOme css ak falc ese Gk as sce Pele ves aes Gore Role 10 ander Aeselandine scirculat Dyscseeses ae his aes ae SSE 79 iMiitererotssodas COSt OL MthOReN Nor. 22. cca. oc. Be a eesie es deb osseoeec er QOe MTThOCeHe COMPOUNGS IM CHEESES: 2 Ses cob Ts wale ceals Goa tia seen ee cheeee ss 17y waters solubles im icheeSemea se tine cose Sees cence CAL COSERINIE IEG DLOOG anne ace Sats Soke oo bie ee Wawa 6 See eee ee 300 AICO MOLES O Cats eeaetrs moe a honavere is, siskers hates ai ele aie bie eke erors 308 Nozzle, best for spraying. . SE SAE RET AE ice ete. Nozzles, classification and diggcepiran,. Meee efaithrn, Asie aia ea es I ESN sigc0 048 Cllopxentakee seuncel Clin nlbinse Koo5 bob aon babe pogo dounch oo O0cD ob od bo Dae SE Oo. OAtagion.. William, report-as theastirer. 1 G0 Soi. veces. ccdassaceeeee I (Onl CURDS bic. aerardkdetho Gita eee GAC en Sie ORS eet at eG OE: AEE an Hee sige eae ES 371 ©xyphenylethylamine: in mormalscheeses-- =. . 42. ceco sab cele oe eo ele 172 P. PCAN OO PASEO MIE sper s Se ene tereteteero okie aera are el epee are coterie lowe erekesuotalars spe arene 370 Paracasein dilactate, action of rennet enzyme and commercial pepsin on.. 202 monolactate, amount im cold stored cheese...:...:......--.- 241 Aucnvoleiale sha) iaullllke Ayal) Gren saaccncgeassdoogeoeas 7 formed inucheese: by bactetiace eriree tase oa ZO iRaraiiine senecti om WSe Ol CHEESE: sous cesses ae nice eer sian an cai: 227, 232 Paratininevetteck onimatket valtie Of Cheese. .o.1os..4...00c64+ enor ce sae 235 Cheese PSUMIN AV ROL EXPETIMeENtS st 1 eae nes ieieeen cetera ks 29 ariGuareensrUSemaseanmimnSeCHeides dackccdacs oc nl ass dace e Moa sme ica sola < 335 AGEOtts LeeLeLValy Jesmap POMMummienltete c ccle ciews sels «cals ors! aval sicia'es sietoteseleve ebalavate 10 assistance on bulletin. . sors Rat grekay ae SSE Ge Pasteurization, effect on action of rennet in elieece MINAWIN A osogaswousoan ZOy/ ea canning. proper temperature, £OF) wa) ee cf is oe on cede eis wee wo Sects cae ZO Peache snout beetle, comments Ons.-..-c se. --- 2. =.) A A AT MAA. Ss 31 Peas) canned, fermentation of, summary of wotk.....5..5..0+..-2..-s-5 25 Pepsin, commercial, action on paracasein dilactate...............--.-... 202 MISE MMICHEESEs HIPEMiM Ga nays clave oa Weis aee Mauerelestaeveetere 200 Pemouicalse received y bya Statlollan ae cusactcrsiere ie eicicin clo reicietelorolcioielsneketsict 449 aerate es cheesesy made Dy 2). m aie rcctebe ccotasictsrelsts stavals) Sat jstahie shaeieieteistes aula 6 223 Phosphorus: in- Senminated eralns =. ea aac epeyebn eichel efoto eve evarcleltelstete sie) oe 286 MethodswoL GdetenminatiOMspeiase nee eee oe oes Hees Sere sree 275 Separation Of. Organic and inOFsaMiCs 2. =. aj s< 6+. 2s ss asses « 277 Statasein LOOG) materials). alae tts pte sel wie «a sie’ s «cls ele oes 209 274 474 INDEX. PAGE Phytophthora infestans, cause of late blight in potatoes................ 158 Pink ‘rot, decay similae toch 5.5, eciereaarreecer oat eee eee eae sists. LOO Piston, packings 3... hoes\salod eieles eure a Reber cr nvs ae cee ee ee 370 Plant food, cost in acid nhosanate Pa i Been > ss Sete kha eee ae 307 bone’ mealies Sos tah eee sic ae ee oe eee eee 308 different grades of ‘fertilizer. ..82 ci: 5iaitae one eee 305 purchase / Of... «5 .4.ss soap et pemetine:s ¢---2 rie eee 67 Sulphur sprays for: San Jose scales: << -Gemerem ss. - oa terpenes eee 30 Support of . Station. .oc.050 oi tines ae SORE enee ak ost oe na pate aera 12. 7: Tank ‘spraying outhts' with hand’ punip: ..')< cian. «moron ii ee ee 364 - Tanks,” ‘\desctiptiony..\s:.\octsetteware tere oars coors oe Sabie see ae eens 360 Taylor; O..M:, S.A. Beachvand V-"A. (Clark: bulletin by... Ao ee eee 321 Temperature, average monthly for i syeats see a> eeiiae elec rar 462 relation to cheese ripenine<. 0... steep eerinn oo a eee 250 Tempetatures, summary fOr LOGS: soon jectocc alates risialete eee 461 Texture in cheese, relation of conditions of ripening to...............-. 268 Thermometers, maximum and minimum, reading...............--- 459, 460 standard ain readings <> coor ae teen cree eee 457, 458 INDEX. 477 PAGE Thinning ‘apples, bulletin on..........-.- ee eee eee ett eee eee ete ees 203 ORE oo OR EE CE OPTS cae TTS 320 FITC CHIORGM OTE ccs oo cser oon wale noo ai are dw iatetenne emvertsve eee 319 RIE OT COTES Ate eno MOD OND CaO CIC oC Orn 310 AIATIKCEY Viahlles et eka on ho eiae Oeialine oiste-dofenetelsteysy oe 312 Chia RO oe eIAC Fara chee Ercan DewROreTee oS OU. ca 3II PLOAUCHON sos 50. 62's 2 elm ainieelnin= om irfowinls wire ale 313 MEENOUS welds sooo sues edo oomon soos 297, 299, 307, 317 PEOHEADICNESS fin. sic ve theele ego sate tates asia eoyeemies enim 318 Summary Of work. ........ 00 2e2 cee ce ene ccee oe etna ses 31 Time, relation to cheese ripening..........-- +++. eee e eee e terete tees 247 Tobacco aS ami insecticide. ...... 05.0.0. eee ee eee eect ene eee eee nane 242 Diewerss GCeSCEiptlony: = tics - cage sie e fe mye eisai een ee nie oxo eee emcee 359 Transient products in cheese ripening......-..-...-+ eee eee etter eee eee 262 MePeASTIREE SOLEPOUE esti te +n fas ae ee ainieie@ oe Sines = ote nls fae Pais + nels wie clare I Genel) Gescriptiom + - 2.000% -- cclec ees ec ccn navies tess os cee er ne es ciecene 360 Tyrosine in chloroform cheese.......--+-..+eeeeee reece e rte e test eeeees 175 PAGIRTTHIL WehVeC dig we Ab le acineetn cond so deoU oT Gane east oD DoD 172 iis United States Department of Agriculture, cooperation in cheese curing. . 220 Urner, Frank A., appointment as assistant Gori itosapasseoeluadooocas II Wi Van Slyke, LU. 1, bulletin by...< 2.2.2. 2-202. esses eee eee tet ese cena 380 and E. B. Hart, bulletins by.............----:-- 165, 243 E. B. Hart and H. A. Harding, bulletin by........... 188 G. A. Smith and E. B. Hart, bulletin by.............. 218 Van Valkenburgh, B. F., supervision of cheese curing experiment...... 220 Wamey anda Sprayers. cme oes oe cence sie oae =~ eineleg Samciee now wm esis cae aie 368 Ww. Weight lost by cheese in cold storage.........--s2--s seer reste et eees 225 different sized cheeseS.......-.. 222 cee eee cr eee tee ceeee 227 Welch, Ed., cooperation in potato spraying CXPEFIMENES icp a ote ie 143 Whale-oil soap, use as an insecticide. ......-.. 6 see ee cee eee ete e es 339 Wieeler. WP bulletin Dy ots ssac 5s. oe ie ale 2 eine oie ese ane ne wis io ieee a7, Woodworth, Howard O., resignation as assistant entomologist.........- II Work, experiment station, financial value of.......----++e+ seers esse ee 15 station, increaSe in .......5.. ese e eee eee eee entre rete einee ee eees 14 Ties oe me * . | ea eee gt) oa Pe Aa ‘ : Hain cia a — yey ees ees a On LEW STs A Pre} Nodalela! ole ee verueee fBSAARAABAS ovr ves Oe vie ey ve ews ye VS UH N SUS eveveneve vee yN VEU OOO Pee Oe rT Tes Peers eve ote ene eer yee reveveer yy es ‘vere se verve sees views veers ee ys yevvegeye wus . vey weed evey re EVE VS OVS vecwy ers et +3 A ho as py ee ed Uae ‘re vevee rere ere een eevee e+ sad ve sere nes ver, Vere ervey tre ey POAT CER Te ee ee we Bl ON Ad BOCs é CA ea vyiete ’ vey ey eee : Ne tad RN ratte weve heyy ve eevee Vee ney ery y ae erate eta ROE ey Pee ye ve yy Sever ry ee NY TH VS aes ay vevevry eS reuery ys Yves er ey ; " ves PO RAI ted eae COOP TE TSENG were eee ere eee é sewer ey , vers , Bee 3 wiv ee 088 01271 1792 39 ee a ted Verran e® i eee verre ve vree tev sy vy vee ad eer rerrr reer eee Vevey every SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES WAU ETIM aad Ce A yurvr yee . eee wre ooey , eevee view ve ry vvrewe revere r ee ve? 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