State of New York—Department of Agriculture

TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF CONTROL

OF THE

NEW YORK

Agricultural Experiment Station

(GENEVA, ONTARIO COUNTY)
FOR THE YEAR 1904

With Reports of Director and Other Officers.

TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 14, 1905

ALBANY
BRANDOW PRINTING COMPANY
1905

STATE OF NEW YORK.

No. 58.

IN ASSEMBLY,

JANUARY 14, 1905.

TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Board of Control of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station

STATE OF NEW YORK:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
ALBANY, January 14, 1905.
To the Assembly of the State of New York:

I have the honor to herewith submit the Twenty-third Annual
Report of the Director and Board of Managers of the New York
Agricultura] Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., in pursuance of
the provisions of the Agricultural Law.

TI am, respectfully yours,
CHARLES A. WIETING,

Commissioner of Agriculture.

ya i TNS.
ggea wat. o's

NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

W. H. Jorpvan, Director.

Geneva, N. Y., January 14, 1905.

Hon. Cuarues A. WietTinc, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany,
Wa!

Dear Sir.—I have the honor to transmit herewith the report of
the Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station
for the year 1904, in accordance with the provisions of chapter

439, Laws of 1904.
Yours respectfully,

S. H. HAMMOND,
President, Board of Control.

1904.

ORGANIZATION OF THE STATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.

GovERNOR BENJAMIN B. ODELL, JR.,
SrepHen H. Hammonp, Geneva.
Freperick C. Scuraus, Lowville.
Lyman P. Havinanp, Camden.
Epe@ar G. Dusensury, Portville.
JENS JENSEN, Binghamton.

Tuomas B. Wixson, Halls Corners.
Mito H. Outn, Perry.

Albany.

Irvine Rouse, Rochester.
CHarLes W. Warp, Queens.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

SterHEN H. Hammonp,
President.

Witi1am O’HANLON,
Secretary and Treasurer.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

SrerHEN H. Hammonp,
FREDERICK C. SCHRAUB,

Lyman P. HaviLanp,

’

Tuomas B. WILSON.

STATION STAFF.
Wuitman H. Jorpan, Sc. D., Director.

GrorGE W. CHURCHILL,
Agriculturist and Superintendent
of Labor.
Wiii1amM P. WHEELER,
First Assistant (Animal
Industry).
Frep C. Stewart, M. &.,
Botanist.
Harry J. Eustace, B. &.,
Assistant Botanist.
Lucius L. Van Stiyxe, Ph. D.,

Chemist.
Epwin B. Hart, B. &.,
Associate Chemist.

'Wittram H. Anprews, B. §.,
*CHRISTIAN G. JENTER, Ph. C.,
FRrrEepDERIcK D. FuuiEr, Be Sa
1CHARLES W. MuncGe, B. S.,
ANDREW J. PaTTEN, ‘B. S.,
FRANK A. URNER, a
Assistant Chemists.
Harry A. Harpine, M. &.,
Dairy Bacteriologist.
1 Connected with Fertilizer Control.

4 Resigned September 15, 1904.
Department.

? Absent on leave.
5 Appointed October 10, 1904.

MARTIN is Prucna, Ph. B.
Assistant Bacteriologist.
Grorce A. SMITH,
Dairy Expert.
Frank H. Hatt, B. §S.,
Editor and Labrarian.

’ Perctvat J. Parrott, M. A.,

Entomologist.
'Harotp EH. Hopaxiss, B. &.,
Assistant Entomologist.
Spencer A. Bracs, M. §.,
Horticulturist.
4Vinton A. CuarK, B.S.,
5NATHANIEL O, Booru, B. Agr.,
Assistant H citys a
Orrin M. Taytor,
Foreman in Horticulture.
sf, Arwoop SIRRIne, M. &.,
Special Agent.
Frank EK. Newton,
JENNIE TERWILLIGER,
Clerks and Stenographers.
Avin H. Horton,
Computer.

8 Appointed August 15, 1904.
6 In Second Judicial

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE
TRE DSTI S) INS OOTABS ob OOtd be nctaid Owe g Boo Me ROC Sottero cr gorey 1
oo SPE EHTTF IS) REV CTLFG clic eI USOC a ae 9
Report of the Department of Animal Husbandry:
The proportion of animal food in the ration for ducklings............... 31
Report of the Department of Bacteriology:
A swelling of canned peas accompanied by a malodorous decomposition.. 47
Vitality of the cabbage black rot germ on cabbage seed................ 62

Report of the Department of Chemistry:
Chemical changes in the souring of milk and their relations to cottage
Aa oir Oe Sos sac ds inte eTas,s de er eit eha: aie aca Meme Bula LESS atasitok 81
The nature of the principal phosphorus compound in wheat bran........ 114
The composition of commercial whale oil soaps, with reference to spray-

MID Me Re Perce ted ch sPelie etry spore eee caiey oh oi echoes a alicfiatichien © Glyeusbaue, ¢ ap Seley ep srorahewsavers he 122

A study of the composition of home-made cider vinegar................ 133
Report of the Department of Entomology:

The lime-sulphur-soda wash for orchard treatment................... 187

Pall sprayine with sulphur washes: i s.cele Sele ccs we cae eek oe cee els 206

PRR eRe R SV ater a talcrsnesete Dic = aus, tee = au a.e wiuTS wae) vi ooh 'e, ote ape ae eh ate alae ayets 223
Report of the Department of Horticulture:

ATVexperiment IM SHAGiINE StrAWDEITICS 5666 cs se. see cee fea e beet 229

INewaiOrkiap plespiMiStOrae esis <aic «xcs se: ois16,6 0 0) by aleie alecsie sess ooh ee oii 250

Specific gravity as a factor in seed selection................eeceeeeeee 335
Report of Inspection Work:

Aqalyses.et commercial fertilizers, 1908... 0.00.66. ...0:.0.0008 seers BOO

Analyses of commercial fertilizers for the spring of 1904.............. 397

oR pecuion Of TeeM IME SUULS ee aes ciaysiwreisrs a= we acids tere Ke come eee 405
Appendix:

Remodicalsimeceived during! G04 7. 2 sk.. acleciy ss os «ae dcr ss eens aes ee 429

MEP eOrGlOmte al Gata TOL MOU a cetinintale sore snes $5:5 cele hy lca sk Seen 435

TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Board of Control of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station.

TREASURERS, REPORT,

Geneva, N. Y., October 1, 1904.

To the Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station:

As Treasurer of the Board of Control, I respectfully submit
the following report for the fiscal year ending September 30,

1904.
GENERAL EXPENSE.

Receipts.
APPROPRIATION 19038—1904.
1903. Dr.
Oct. Pe OP COS vine Wie. g cia ahs see aud ss WEBLO $1,887 37
To amount received from Comptroller. . 16,000 00

$17,887 37

EHependitures.
Cr.
By, buldine*and-’ repairg. fee en... $3,008 92
By chemical supplies ..4') 20ers, sy. 224 13
By ,contmeent. expenses. ......... 006: 1,952 93
ey MLCCUM PASTS ss 02 ui Ys oe aeeests ea 1,013 10
Heer EC UMIZOUIy as ,! ce ecstere. cha sceca so: are acevac 57 20

By freight-and express «4. ....6. 056.6 553 42

1903.
Oct.

1903.
Oct.

i

ifr

To
I

~
~~

ee

To
To

, furniture

y publications .

y scientific apparatus

y traveling expenses

’ balance

7 salaries .
y balance .

REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE

postage and stationery

, seeds, plants and sundry supplies...
tools, implements and machinery... .

SALARIES.
Receipts.

APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.

balance .

amount received from Comptroller. .

Expenditures.

LABOR.
Receipts.

APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.

balance

amount received from Comptroller. .

and TXCUres.. ..0 eee ee
heat, light and water....... pee i a A
y library

e, 0 1¢ © 6 © © © (6, 6 6)'6) ste 1s (6 sis) rele meren el ©.

, live stock

o © 0 aes p10 ete ee 6 a @ #0 86 senm ler ure
eo) (0: @ so ee jelens, a in
avn) 6) 0 'e, @ [© 9 ©. © o)- 0116 6: © (@) S107 a) (0

eye) @ a) 6 je; o ee de -6 0 © ls

a. ¢0) Telco fel ete) (ene a) ©) 8a he a ie

© 4 6) che 16) ss 0) 640.0) bi Ses ee) & Vl wens

eee er @ (ee. 1 @ [0 je. 0) a) 6) 6 Vvne@ alee lols lols

$27,997 91

ei te fe le Fo, "a: Yome pie) ees tee) elke: 6.88) (616 are, Ae

26 83

$17,887 37

Dr.
$5,997 91
22,000 00

———

Cr.
$26,251 67
1,746 24

$27,997 91

Dr.
$2,977 06
12,000 00

$14,977 06

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 3

1904. Hapenditures. prem
BVO IRBOL- o rnsteitccte SO a oe es $13,358 70
Oct. Ps Pay PAlLATICE + c.niuhitee eee oie Fae te a 1,618 36
$14,977 06

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.

Receipts.
1908. APPROPRIATION 1903—1904. Dr.
Oct. PROT DALAM COs. six 5.3 s5c os Gags s xis sale Mary cra 3 $5,115 49
To amount received from Comptroller. . 10,000 00
$15,115 49
Expenditures. Or.
ymelemical Supplies .........-26225s.- $285 37
By contingent expemses ............-.. 93 16
sy LeCUIMGEUSEUHAEL RAIMI, oo s 50
ny cireieht and OX Press. «. + ses.c5. 5 105 76
ByetULuIpirerang RANTES 0. oo... es 3 50 00
iy hed, Melt aH WALEED. 650... ayes oe 935 29
By postage and stationery............ 19 43
Ey PUDIICATIONS HEH SINS So ooo i sue a 1,887 48
Be ASPET ihe Sho er a ae ee SER SE BAe PRA 5,762 74
VE SCLEMLMIC AP DAE AUS Accra staacrater 9s 3), « : 66 58
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies... 3 64
Ey GraVELING EXPENSES, « voy.ra- by oe oo belt 870 15
1904.
Oct. Te LEA ALOE Wa 1 2 am mgr on 5,035 39
$15,115 49
CONCENTRATED FrepING Sturr INSPECTION.
Receipts.
1903. APPROPRIATION 1903—1904. Dr.
Oct. eae Ta a ie save dae okie sk SA 6, Mab yh waa snare $626 21
__To amount received from Comptroller... 2,500 00

$3,126 21

1903.

To

By

R®PORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE

Expenditures.

7 chemical supplies. .........) «.aeeer =
freight’ and express... ..'. oxieeett.
F Contingent ‘6x PeNseEs sw. cae oe ee
7 postage and. stationery... 20 sce. «
PUbMCATIONS © Mecca Kms eo eee
MALATICN 05, <a n ones coo en 8 ess ee eee
y .Sclentivic apparatus ...cets.eee ewer
y seeds, plants and sundry supplies...
taveling “Expenses sits eotecee cee es =

balante ok. ee Pee ee eee eee

SEcoND JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.
APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.
Receipts.

amount received from Comptroller...

Expenditures.

7 “chemic¢al supplies’ 24sec ice. es eee
F COR tINGENT EX PENSEN = ts. cco cee eas
LERUUINZEES Sie sere nee eee Cle eter oterne ees
7 LTeIeht And Express. .% ses cies tes ee
PAOD s cshiciaw sock eel eer RSP NCG us om nes cree
7 postage and ‘stationery ............
PAPULLICATIONS (sete aetaey wee es ae ae
i RALATICS) <a tieees eek 3 as Sie ove nan
SClentifie Ap PALALOs we. selec. xs aus ee
y seeds, plants and sundry supplies...
¥: LPAVCLING \CXMEMBEN ce che ors vw acetate les
By rents

Ce}

reverted to State treasury ...........

Cr.
$236 68
17 35
60
7 46
762 44
1,320 31
63 53
22 44
352 36

343 04

$3,126 21

Dr:
$3,582 05

59 00
5 90

$3,582 05

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 5

FERTiuIzeR LICHNSB.

1903—1904.
Receipts. ? Dr.
To amount received for fertilizer licenses. $11,870 00
Hapenditures. Cr.
By amount remitted to the Treasurer,
State of New York ..... Sarre ears $11,870 00
Frepine Sturr License.
1903—1904.
Receipts. De
To amount received for feeding stuff
PRIN reso 1a. Gi cic sce Sie ce siete ele atlas $4,075 00
Expenditures. Or.

By amount remitted to the Treasurer,
Sistee On New! OER AY £2. os 28 core nies 4,075 00

FirE PROTECTION.

APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.

Receipts. Dr.
To amount received from Comptroller... $4,863 00
Hependitures. Cr.
ye CUIpPIMENe M2 MISE ek te $1,344 00
Bye CONSHFUCTIONM 2! 22) Gene els 2S. 3,465 00
By furniture and fixtures: +.) 2... 0.055. 54 00
$4,863 00

Repair FUND.
APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.
Receipts. Dr.
To amount received from Comptroller.... $1,190 17

6 Report OF THE TREASURER OF THE

Expenditures.

By: repairs 4.5.00 cee ees eo eee

CARRIAGE House AND HorsE STABLE.

APPROPRIATION 1903—1904.

To amount received from Comptroller...

Hependitures.

By COnStrimehion sxe ote wae ene

INSURANCE MONEY.

1908.
Oct. He No: “balances 5.2 re. aos «hie peek oe he
Expenditures.
By building’ and’ repaits... tr..< << jsys:< ano
By feeding statis’ Waar cs 4. bores eo svete eae
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies....
By tools, implements and machinery....
1904.

Oct. i By: balamees (Site acinar one ke eee

Cr.

$1,190 17

Dr.
. $38,000 00

‘Or.
$3,000 00

$1,108 07

$449 50
101 33

76 50
293 67

187 07

$1,108 07

All expenditures are supported by vouchers approved by the
auditing committee of the Board of Control which have been for-
warded to the Comptroller of the State of New York.

Unirep States APPROPRIATION, 1903—1904.

Receipts.

To receipts from the Treasurer of the
United States as per appropriation for
fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, as
per Act of Congress approved March 2,

DSBT TOOL A LARS Ae Oar tee ae ee

$1,500 00

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ic

Expenditures. CF

IAM MALT coe Ata area to. Siow eraiay ein, We ace aie $120 00
By building and repairs............... 23 03
By postage and stationery....... Poo 46 14
LSS TDC? nin GaP con nreen rok reac rar eae 13 71
By heat, light, water and power........ 212 52
By freight and express...... Ph ei: 6 16
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies... 174 81
Ae POL MTS FOE Terk tee leltss Slataiaie sXe lena)’ 213 66
ves ehlDOTY Ce ark ished ease shee Shetek, ke 3 30
Bye TUPnhure and Ax LUres ye. hho 15 00
Herye Hive PSUOCK 2). CONS LS Eun Saabs diss 175 00
By contingent expemses ............... 103 10
By trayelime expenses 00.000. 0066 ee 207 17
By tools, implements and machinery.... 66 75
PSVOReClenLINncG APPALALUS~)... Oslo. os wel Se 119 65

$1,500 00

WILLIAM O?HANLON,
Treasurer.

“YT [,-",. roy

he
=
-

DIRECTOR'S REPORT FOR“ r904*

Honorable Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Ea-
periment Station:

GmeNTLEMEN.—In accordance with the usual custom, I have the
honor to submit herewith the annual report of the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1904. In the
character and progress of the Station work the report is not
unlike that of previous years. Certain efforts to whiclk the mem-
bers of the Staff have given their time and energy have been pro-
ductive of definite and unquestionably beneficial results, while in
other directions the only report that can be made is that the
problems which it is sought to solve are still being pursued.
This is the usual course of scientific investigation.

It is sometimes discouraging, and to the public is often dis-
appointing, that so few of the unsolved problems that present
themselves to the agricultural practitioner can at any one time
be made the subject of investigation and that progress toward
placing agricultural knowledge upon a surer and safe basis
through scientific effort is necessarily slow.

CHANGES IN THE STATION STAFF.

Fortunately for the Station fewer changes have occurred in
the Station staff than has been the case during some previous
years. Mr. Vinton A. Clark, First Assistant Horticulturist,
after two years of faithful and efficient service, resigned his
position to accept a more prominent one in connection with the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Arizona.
This vacancy has been filled by the appointment of Mr. Nathaniel
O. Booth, who occupied the position previous to the uppointment
of Mr. Clark.

Mr. Harold E. Hodgkiss, B. S., graduate of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College, has been appointed to the position of
Assistant Entomologist.

*A reprint of Bulletin No. 260.

10 Director’s REPORT OF THE

CHANGES IN THE LAWS RELATING TO THE STAT(ON

The Legislature of 1904 enacted considerable legislation which
materially affects the status of this institution. The law, under
which the Station is organized and carries on its work was mnodi-
fied in several particulars, the principal changes be.ug the placing
of the Commissioner of Agriculture on the Board of Control, the
establishing of closer relations-between the Department of Agri-
culture and the Experiment Station and the removal of any
indefiniteness as to the responsibilities of the Board. The relation
of the Station to certain inspection laws was very materially
changed. Heretofore the administrative laws controlling the sale
and inspection of fertilizers and concentrated feeding stuffs have
been in the hands of the Director of the Station, subject to the
regulations of the Board of Control. Under the terms of the new
laws their administration rests with the Commissioner of Agri-
culture, it still being the duty of the Station to analyze the sam-
ples of fertilizers and feeding stuffs which may be selected under
the authority of the Commissioner of Agriculture. It is not un-
dertood, at least it was not so expressed, that this readjustment
of responsibility for the execution of the provisions of the inspec-
tion laws was due to any dissatisfaction with the administration
of the laws by the Station authorities, but it was felt, rather,
that the enforcement of all agricultural laws should be unified
under the control of a single department. Doubtless these changes
will be found to have been wisely conceived. The other important
item of legislation which should be mentioned in this couuection
was the passage of an act giving the Director of this insritution
broad and unquestionable authority to publish “results of
analyses made by him, or under his authority or direction, of any
commodities or substances analyzed in pursuance of v2 under the
provisions of the statutes of this State.” Authority was also
granted to “ publish bulletins containing results of analyses made
of such substances or commodities, which analyses were made
prior to the passage of this act and which have not heretofore
been published.” Such authority wisely used is often essential to
the protection of the best interests of the agricultural public.

APPROPRIATION FOR A NEW BUILDING.

With insurance money received by the Station and with an

appropriation made by the Legislature of 1903, the losses oceca-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ry

sioned by the fire in 1902 have been replaced, with the. excep-
tion of a building for the storage of farm machinery and grain.
Through an appropriation of $4,500, made by the Legislature of
1904, this building is now in process of construction, and when
this is comoleted the Station will be better eqnipped with Luild-.
ings of all kinds than ever before in its history.

GENERAL IMPROVEMENTS.

For some time subsequent to the fire of 1992, the grounds uf
the Station presented a somewhat unattractive appearance, due
in part to the unsightly foundations of the burned buildings and
the clutter attendant upon building operations. Such conditions
no longer exist. The new buildings are in place, old buildings
are removed, a large amount of necessary grading has been done,
all the buildings have been newly painted in more desirable colors
and the appearance of the whole institution is now so attractive
that it is easy to regard the fire as a fortunate occurrence.

HOUSES FOR THE STATION STAFF.

The building equipment of the Station now provides for the
housing of five families belonging to the Station staff. Under
the conditions at present prevailing the homes of the staff are
widely scattered. The married members, other than those pro-
vided for on the Station grounds, live in various ;1ts of the
city in rented houses. There is involved in this arrangement a
ereat deal of uncertainty as to permanence and desirability of
location. It is also often inconvenient and it certain!7 makes
exceedingly difficult and impossible, almost, that soal unity
which should prevail at such an institution and which is a large
factor in its spirit and success. The desirability and attractive-
ness of any salaried position are to a very large degree deter
mined by social relations and by the environment and influences
which surround the home. In view of the fact that there is an
almost continuous effort to draw away from the Station its best
men, sometimes successfully, it would seem to be a good policy
to do /all that is possible to render positions at the Experiment
Station so attractive that efficient and useful men shall not be
drawn away. It is fair to raise the question, therefore, whether,
if it is not inconsistent with the established policy of the State,
several more houses should not be erected on the Station grounds,

12 Digector’s REPORT OF THE

sufficient in number at least to accommodate the heads of depart-
ments and certain minor officials whose presence near the Station
at all times is very essential.

MAINTENANCE FUND.

The various funds that were appropriated by the Legislature of
1904 for the maintenance of the Station during the fiscal year
beginning October 1, 1904, were as follows:

SS AIIGS Ler Ge AS. ts Sea EAM ree chine a tat ate Roe $22,000
WA DORE. (rates Matis gc aisle & eS eta See ea aL eee 13,000
Expenses of various departments of research......... 16,000
General expense, heat, light, water, apparatus,

BED AAPS e OUCH a: o:)® wic aieisic Gate And ae eae EE 4,000
Expenses of horticultural investigation............. 8,000
CP LMIZeY: IS PECE OM” sco ion) 4b )ancy trans aed gnas eit calle bo pie nage 10,000

Feeding Stull, Inspection... «s.40f:20) depose ae seer 3,500

By action of your Board, the Legislature is asked to appro-
priate similar sums for the fiscal year beginning October 1, 1905,
with the exception that the amount! for salaries is recommended
to be $23,000, and the amount for the expenses of the various
departments only $15,000, the total sum asked for remaining
unchanged.

THE MAILING LIST.

During the past year the mailing list has been revised by
removing all names of those deceased and those who have changed
their place of residence without notice to the Station, so that
they were not receiving the bulletins. Although the addition of
new names to the list has been no less than during former years,
there has been an apparent decrease in the number of persons to
whom our publications have been sent in New York.

The number of names now on our records is as follows:

BuLueTin Lists, JANUARY 1, 1905.
Popular Bulletins.
Residents. of (New, YOrk::),.\<,- sls dse omen espe et ie ene 33,641

Residents of others states.2(c4. 4 had aw Arotnteie peel 2,122
NGWAPBDERS! §)4 sieaihs ceed Tov ee tlt es Spe eee woe 772

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STraTION. 13

Experiment stations and their staffs..............-. 917
i MAC NEE TTS ge ah Abie Ri 40 ipabead ease padi eek Silence aerare 131
OL Ses a Oe Ee oe en 37,583

Complete Bulletins.

Experiment stations and their staffs................ of
Pie Rr SGICMIUINERS CLC. 6 sis sic tcs-o's eee vote Sg gee eee ae 169
ape eter IMMER eae ater GV Sich fn dic) s,0'2. 2 6.4 ° #0 2, ¢ ape 6.55 2 Silo 230
REECE TEN erent Were te Wises 4 a ais otis gee 5 bos wa se he Pe
BE ere MI INO E 8s Sia Ga). «06. <2 9006 oye os) se Suey a oie age imines 131

TAD Ra at ges escrat eC. Gab st Pac ents rice a ec oeao 4,218

AN IMPORTANT STATION PUBLICATION.

There is now in press a publication for which the Legislature
of 1904 generously provided, which is to be known as the “Apples
of New York.” This publication is to be issued in two parts.
The first, or the one now in press, will include the late varieties
of apples, and the second part will be devoted to the summer
and fall varieties. It is expected that the two parts w'll present
about 500 pages of printed matter and approximately 300 pl.tes,
nearly half of which will be representations in color of the most
important varieties. This work will present the results of apple
studies which have been carried on at the Station for over 20
years, besides much data collected from practical orchardists
throughout the State. As the number of copies authorized is
limited, every effort should be made to place them in the hands
of those who are directly interested in apple culture either as
orchardists or nursery men.

DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS.

There is a growing tendency in experiment station work
towards carrying on demonstration experiment's in connection
with the commercial operations of the farm and orchard. It is
very evident that no experiment staticn farm can he so organ-
ized as to give opportunities for observations in conuection with
all classes of commercial work. For this reason, it is necessary

14 DirEcTOR’S REPORT OF THE

for a station to make arrangements with farmers and orchardists
to obtain control of certain areas on particu:ar farms where a
good opportunity is offered to conduct destce? experiments.
These experiments are not in the nature of obtect lessons for
the imparting of information already known to be of practical
utility, but are intended to. determine whether certain new
knowledge or methods may be efficiently applied to practice.
The New York Experiment Station is not behind other institu-
tions in utilizing this means of prosecuting its work. During
the past year the Station has either conducted work or arranged
for work in numerous localities in the State. These experiments
may be classified as follows:

TREATMENT OF ASPARAGUS RUST.

AS Sitrine. si. 0.cc ete oka e ee ee ae ee ee Riverhead.

TREATMENT OF RASPBERRY CANE BLIGHT.

Dobson: Bros.< swith oduck ae Selick Baa eee Charlotte.

POTATO SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS.

1. ‘Brainerd and Beaumont :.i3. tae ch eeeen tees Gainesville.
2 ReGuetst =) IN Wis gesy safe tes Fouad ee ae eae et West Henrietta.
BW HasHGOLl } 2 aye ewidc ree Sepeie og Fae Bene Ie tee ee Spencerport.
A A. Eh. CPOtLIT,.4. 5. -grsp lds fon ehonmel biter Heeb Clifton Springs.
Be Fe WE. COOKS aattsdwccanps of bhegt Pete ate BRED = ee Denmark.
6 W.AH Grifith eck ines er eee cent ease Eee Madrid.
Apis SW OLGETic s-cts'< oecenk te spe ae ee | ees y oer ehais « Bin eee Malone.
& Matis AOlark, so). ta Sa eee A AS Ee ee Me os
®) Joh Middleton 4.1; \,.chaem elemue trek xe Diet Sliters.
LO BO., Colyers.n tise acmee arene ae OP Pierce EG Cee Woodbury.
Ui. Eh; Colver.g coc. coon mee Greet oe ee Farmingdale.
12) WE. Sartterly:.\*. 2 <ceact oe, pie eee inn ee Mattituck.
13H. A. Jagger. “cen ee eee Se ae Southampton.
14 LL, Eh. (Downs, 3<,.:. agen, «cies eee eee ee Southampton.
HDF: Au Sirrine, ics aeons ditt kee ee: Riverhead,
EXPERIMENTS WITH GRAPE STOCKS.
PEM A. WIUCOX oui Ds oa se Oech tee Portland.
dB ls Ch ee ener lc Oe wants sediupe naqsol UMAR SDUrS,

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT. STATION. 15

THE ECONOMY OF DWARF ORCHARDS.

ake v Veli las C6 il 0 abe tg Al ape ea la i Carlton Station.
I POINUCVE tice fort ne ees cee ae mece nak ete Fayetteville.
Miner van Aistyne.. 7 Seether k Kinderhook.

SYSTEMS OF ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

ee LEL eae tee es eee SL LS RL yet South Greece.
Deemnia Gre Wt ILCHINGS. ek. ee eee LS TS South Onondaga.

GROWTH OF FOREIGN VARIETIES OF CHESTNUTS.

PPE EST MG SOs cree e ec ees sie ef «si cPnleis osha se) 6 Middlehope.

ape MEDS TU TO ea aa me cece ae iy discs vo o'eie, 6 6 sare a 02% Riverhead.
SN Role an on fo, in a € panei na 0 io Ade oho 4S » du ansieno ¢ Cutchogue.
Ber Va AIS VNC oo ois gags oe mate vs pecd «be eee Kinderhook.

TD) LNT Te TST 0 CR eae ee ag nN ne Centreville.
ee Need UN TG recog gad! ASS E At.) 3) 2 fe a eraesd «foe sible dled Wk a he Riverhead.
PMN OIV PANE] BAT PHA Si NSS kets 8 LD. Sia GH, DRG Bade Queens
DR CE: rts alelns fos cco asc Re Se ehh, A PROU EAL N, Yorktown
Mik meee. Wavtr dn 0 PIR SEY VAAN, PSU a Geneva
Pema OUITY tis ee Rs oe eis ets Oe ee hee ve oR, Geneva.
dul: Mei en oe bass SE oa CM ee bale heir A Soe oe it Geneva.
pre er Wii Rewe RATIO MOTOS. 0 as catch ara cee «5s kee ee te Geneva.
Pemba CIM eens ee iS as aes ec tee’ae G Sak bs + a be Go ewan: Geneva.
ee ene nals ores s Mia ck ses kes soos sae eee Geneva.
OPE SUIS er ecg elite tA a ea a Carlton Station
emer EERE. Prieta eins salsiell che cuaie'g Sel, vise sas Youngstown.
US Tels OO OC 1 ic Re Youngstown.
Jun TB led ADIN 11 Sapaiaeieet see eB a Youngstown.
ai tO be) 8 IW ea ae a De Ee ete ly 5 of ee uits Neate s Youngstown.

CONTROL OF CODLING MOTH.

eo ter RCR center Sara cit ese cele x vcs ge' + aoe ene oc be cela’ Yorktown.
[OATES TES 211 Seg Met tnt end ae ee Youngstown.

Ua avira CP AnG) FOS. 28.212 200%, LOIS OG Sony ds eas Geneva.

16 . Drrecror’s Report OF THE

The Station officials desire to ackaowledge their obligations
to those persons with whom they are cooperating and to express
appreciation of the faithful and efficient service that is being

rendered.
, DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

Results from poultry feeding experiments.—In earlier poultry
feeding experiments at this Station the desirability of sometimes
using animal food with the standard grains has been plainly
shown. For growing ducklings this was especially evident.

Knowing the general character of the food for wild birds it is to
be expected that the young of domestic fowls might subsist to
advantage largely upon fresh animal food; but the animal foods
of commerce have been subjected to various processes for their
separation or preservation and are most convenient for use in the
dried form.

Very few data existed concerning the amount or proportion of
commercial animal food that could be efficiently or profitably
used. To partly supply this lack, feeding experiments have been
made, results from some of which are reported in a recent bul-
let'in.

Rations in which these foods supplied 94 per ct. of the total
dry matter and 98 per ct. of the protein were fed to ducklings
without any apparent ill effects.

During the first few weeks growth was more rapid, and equal
growth made from less food (even at a lower cost for food)
under a ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein was obtained
from animal food than under rations having respectively 20, 40
and 80 per ct. of the protein derived from this source.

Later growth was made at somewhat more economical expendi-
ture of food under the “20 per ct. ration,” but was slower.
Under the rations coutaining larger proportions of animal food,
marketable size was reached about two weeks sooner.

Results on the whole favored the use, for the first few weeks,
of the ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein came from
animal food, and later those containing larger and increasing
proportions of grain foods.

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY.

Fermentation in canned peas.—The canning industry in this
State utilizes over $3,500,000 worth of farm products annually.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. AT

The losses from fermentation of the finished products are often
large and the causes of the same are obscure. The results of a
study of fermentation in canned peas have been reported. The
trouble was caused by a species of bacterium which produced
unusually resistant spores. Heating the canned peas to 240° F.
for 30 minutes was found to be sufficient to prevent the fermen-
tation. This conclusion was tested by canning a ton of peas to
which cultures of the bacillus causing the trouble had been added.
A large factory which had previously suffere1 heavy losses put
our suggestions into practice with entire success.

Black rot of cabbage spread by cabbage seed.—A study of black
rot of cabbage has been carried on for a number of years in con-
nection with the Botanical Department. The agencies by which
the disease spreads are being investigated. Black rot is found
in the seed-bearing plants and the germ causing the disease is
present on the seed from such plants. It has also been found
that the disease germs are able to remain alive on the seed at
least eleven months. This shows that at the time of planting
the seed may carry the disease germs. We have here an expla-
nation for severe outbreaks where the disease had been previously
unknown and there was no appa-ent source of infection.

Soaking the seed for fifteen miautes in a 1:1U0 corrosive sub-
limate solution or in a 0.4 per ct. formalin solution just before
planting is suggested as a cheap and effective means of destroy-
ing the germs upon the seed.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.

Chemical changes in the souring of milk and their relations to
cottage cheese.—This work was undertaken for the purpose of
learning some facts about the chemical changes that occur in
milk when it sours, and also for the purpose of a»plying the
facts to the manufacture of cottage (Dutch) cheese. In aJddi-
tion, a study was made (1) of the chemical changes that take
place in cottage cheese after it is prepared and (2) of the digesti-
bility of fresh cottage cheese as compared with new cheddar
cheese. The action of. lactic acid, formed in milk by the fer-
mentation of milk-sugar, upon the milk-casein was found to take
place in two stages; in the first stage the acid forms a compound
] 2

18 Director’s REPORT OF THE

which in Bulletin 215 was called casein monolactate, but which
by more recent work we have found to be free casein; in the
second stage, after the formation of more acid, the casein unites
with this acid to form a compound which is the familiar solid
substance of sour milk and which constitutes a large part of the
dry matter of cottage cheese. The conditions of temperature
were ascertained for the best yield and quality of cottage cheese.
Success was attained in making good cottage cheese from milk
by direct addition of hydrochloric acid, thus shortening the time
- of manufacture from one or two days to as many hours. It was
found that very slight chemical change occurs in cottage cheese
after it is made, and in this respect the behavior of cottage cheese
is wholly unlike that of cheddar cheese. According to popular
belief, cottage cheese is more readily digested than cheddar cheese,
and this belief was supported by artificial digestions of the two
kinds.

The composition of commercial whale-oil soaps in relation to
spraying.—Many complaints have been received from fruit-grow-
ers in regard to the unsatisfactory results given by con:mercial
whale-oil soaps in spraying fruit trees. In some cases the insects
were not killed, while in other cases the foliage was seriously
injured. In response to inquiries on this subject, an investiga-
tion was undertaken to study the composition of the commercial
whale-oil soaps commonly found in the market. It was found
that these soaps vary greatly in composition. Different lots of
soap from the same factory were found to contain actual soap
varying from 24 to 46 per ct. So great is the variation in com-
position of these soaps that they cannot be relied upon at all
for giving uniform results. Since manufacturers are unwilling
to furnish commercial whale-oil soap of guaranteed composition,
experiments were made resulting in the recommendation of a cer-
tain formula for home-manufacture of fish-oil soap. The home-
made soap destroys plant lice and does not injure foliage; it costs
less and can be relied upon to give uniform results. In addition,
a study was made of the amount of free-alkali in soap that will
do injury to foliage. Soaps containing less than five per cent. of
free alkali did no injury under the conditions employed. Full de-
tails are given for the home-making of fish-oil soap, and addresses
are given of parties who will furnish materials. :

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 19

_ The science and practice of making cider-vinegar.—tIn response
to numerous inquiries made by farmers as to why their home-
made cider-vinegar was so often below the legal standard, an in-
vestigation was begun seven years ago having for its object a
thorough study of the vinegar-making process, starting with ma-
terial known to be normal. Some 36 experiments were made in
the investigation. The composition of apple juice is given for a
large number of different varieties of apples. The chemical
changes of apple juice under different conditions during the alco-
holie and acetic stages of fermentation were studied and a prac-
tical application made to the relations and control of those fer-
mentations in making cider-vinegar. Attention is called to the
fact that good vinegar may loose its acidity on standing.
The causes and remedies are given. Other topics treated
in this work are the behavior of malic acid during fer-
mentations, the solids of apple juice and cider-vinegar, cider-
vinegar in relation to legal standards, conditions commonly pro-
ducing cider-vinegar of poor quality, and directions for home-
manufacture of cider-vinegar.

Study of the principal phosphorus compound of wheat bran.—
As a necessary part of an extended investigation of the meta-
bolism and function of phosphorus compounds in the nutrition of
the milch cow, a study was made of the principal phosphorus com-
pound of wheat bran. It was found to be undoubtedly a pre-
viously known non-nitrogenous body with the formula C, H, P, O,
or anhydro-oxmethelene-diphosphoric acid. Since this body was
identified investigations have been conducted which indicate that
it may occupy a peculiar place in the nutrition of the cow. Fur-
ther observations are planned with reference to the elucidation
of this point.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. a

The lime-sulphur-soda wash for orchard treatment.—The inves-
tigations to determine the value of this spray for orchard treat-
ment have been continued. Applications of the wash for the
control of the scale gave somewhat variable results which indi-
cate that the various preparations were not always equally
destructive to the scale. Some treatments proved very effective,
showing that an efficient spray may be prepared without the use

20 Director’s REPORT OF THE

‘of external heat. As there is a demand for such a wash upon the

part of smaller orchardists further experiments are to be under-
taken to devise methods by which all preparations may be made
equally effective.

In the experiments with apple trees applications of the wash
proved very efficient in preventing injuries by early spring leaf-
eating insect's as the bud moth and case bearer. Such treatment
was of little or no value for the codling moth. Owing to the
absence of apple scab the value of a sulphur wash for this dis-
ease remains undetermined. For the treatment of peaches it has
been shown that one application of a sulphur wash during dor-
mant season will efficiently control both leaf curl and scale.
Future experiments are necessary to determine the value of the
sulphur washes as combined fungicides and insecticides for the
treatment of other varieties of fruit.

Fall use of sulphur sprays.—In this work a study has been
made of the effects of fall applications of sulphur washes upon
fruit and leaf buds, and upon the scale. The experiments were
conducted in three orchards, two near Geneva and one near
Queens, L. I. One of these was a thrifty young orchard of
peaches and plums which had received the best of attention in
every respect and contained no scale. The other orchard at
Geneva, of apples, pears, crab apples, cherries and plums, was
older, was well infested with scale, and had received no treat-
ment for insects or diseases, but had been well cared for in other
respects. The third orchard, at Queens, contained only apples
and peaches, and showed plainly the effects of scale injury. The
sprayed trees in the three orchards numbered 66 large apple trees,
33 pear trees, 257 plum trees, 39 cherry trees, 6 crab apple trees
and 252 peach trees. Applications of the washes were made dur-
ing November. In the orchard which was free of scale the appli-
cations caused a diminution in the amount of bloom and foliage
of peaches and plums which varied according to the sprav
applied, the lime-sulphur proving the least destructive. In
orchard II, which was infested with scale, the plums lost from 10
to 50 per ct. of their blossoms and had slight injuries to the leaf
buds upon the lower branches. Morello cherries suffered a loss of
five per ct. of the blossoms. Apples and pears were affected in
the same degree. Crab apples bore a full crop of fruit and fol-

\

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 21

_iage. In orchard III, which was infested with scale, there was
no apparent reduction in the blossoms and leaves upon the mod-
erately infested trees.

The lime-sulphur wash, the lime-sulphur-salt wash and the
lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash were equally effective as insecti-
cides. Applications of these sprays controlled the scale and with
some slight exceptions insured the production of clean fruit.

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.

Apples in storage.—In Bulletin 248 different varieties of apples
are treated with regard to their season of ripening and keeping
and their adaptability for storage purposes. The bulletin is
based upon material obtained from three distinctly different
sources: First, from storage tests made at this Station with

fruit grown in the Station orchards; second, from men of prac-
tical experience in handling fruit both in cold storage and in

ordinary fruit warehouses; third, from tests made by the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in cooperation with this Station with
numerous varieties of apples from the Station orchards stored in
chemical cold storage. The tests which were made at this Sta-
tion were undertaken with the primary purpose of determining
the ordinary season of ripening and the keeping qualities of the
different varieties which were under test in the Station orchards.
This work brought out some results of general interest concern-
ing the keeping of apples, worthy of publication, but which,
when regarded from the standpoint of the general adaptability
of the varieties to cold storage purposes, were incomplete. In
order that a more complete account of the behavior of different
varieties in storage might be presented than could be derived
from the experiments at the Station, men of practical experience
in storing apples on a large scale under commercial conditions
were consulted and much material of practical importance was
thus obtained:

In 1901-2 this Station furnished over 100 varieties of apples
to be used in cold storage tests at Buffalo under the direction of
Profs. G. Harold Powell and 8. H. Fulton of the U. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. The results of their work were first reported
in Bulletin 48 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Much material which was thus made avail-

22 Director’s REPpoRT OF THE

able has been included in the notes that are published in Bulle-
tin 248. In this bulletin varieties which are included in the’
Station tests are arranged chronologically according to the aver-
age life of the fruit in storage. The experience of fruit storage
men is then given concerning conditions which affect the keep-
ing qualities of apples, the comparative efficiency of different
kinds of storage as applied to different varieties, the tempera-
ture at which different varieties should be held in cold storage,
the relation between seasonal differences and keeping qualities
of apples, the kinds of deterioration that may precede decay in
cold storage and the varieties which are liable to each.

The varieties are then treated in alphabetical order, giving for
each the results of the tests which were made in the natural
temperature storage rooms at this Station, the results of the
tests made in cold storage by the U. 8. Department of Agri-
culture, and lastly a summary of the experience of cold storage
men with the variety.

Selecting seed by specific gravity.—The method of seed selec-
tion by means of salt solutions has long been known to garden-
ing. A simpler form of the method, which consists in floating
off light seed in pure water, is practiced by some in this country,
particularly by growers of lettuce under glass. But the method
appears never to have come into any considerable vogue either
in Europe or America despite the fact that striking results have
repeatedly been obtained by its use and that it has been recom-
mended by several European experimenters. In Bulletin 256 a
variation of the method of seed selection by salt solutions is
described, in which separates are made at much shorter intervals
than in the method as heretofore practiced. This permits of
determining with greater precision the distribution of seeds with
regard to specific gravity. It is found that within the limits of
the variety the lower the specific gravity the greater the propor-
tion of small seeds, and vice versa. The separation of seeds by
the method of salt solutions is, therefore, in part a crude separa-
tion according to size.

A quite definite correlation exists between the specific gravity
of a seed and its germination. Seeds of low specific gravity do
not germinate at all. Those in a range higher germinate scantily
and in many cases produce comparatively weak plants. Seeds of

.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 23

highest specific gravity, or, in case of oil bearing seeds, those of
intermediate specific gravity, give the highest percentage of ger-
mination. To some extent a correlation appears to exist also

between the specific gravity of the seed and the vigor of the

resulting plant.

Differences in specific gravity are due either to differences in
structure or differences in composition. If the differences in
composition are not obscured by differences in structure, which
they often are, the differing specific gravities to which they give
rise are indexes to the quality of the seed. The report in Bul-
letin 256 is based on only one season’s work. The literature on
the subject is reviewed and preliminary observations are pre-
sented. The subject is worthy of further investigation.

Shading strawberries.—In order to study the practical value
of the method of shading strawberries, experiments were carried

on in 1902 and 1903 in three different localities in this State, the
results of which are given in Bulletin 246. The materials used

for shading were two grades of thin cheese cloth stretched about
twenty inches above the plants. The cost of shading was at the
rate of about $350 per acre.

Records are given showing the temperature of the air and of
the soil underneath the cloth and outside, cloudiness, evaporation,
yields of fruit, etc. The temperature of the air and of the soil
underneath the cloth was usually slightly higher than outside.
There was also more moisture in the air and in the soil under-
neath the cloth than outside, the covering diminishing the
evaporation about one-half. Shading proved to be somewhat
beneficial to the blossoms as a protection against frost. The shaded
plants made more rapid growth of foliage and seemed more
vigorous and thrifty, but shading appeared to slightly increase
the susceptibility of the plants to leaf blight and mildew. Pol-
lination appeared to be as complete underneath the covering as
outside.

In regard to yield, there was a considerable increase with the
thinner grade of cloth, but a marked decrease with the heavier
grade. Shading in some cases produced a considerably larger
berry, more attractive in color, but somewhat softer, slightly
less acid than those grown outside, also containing a smaller
percentage of sugar.

24 Drirector’s REPORT OF THE

In no case was the increase in yield sufficient to compensate
for the cost of the shading. It is believed that under certain
conditions the practice of shading may be adapted for the growing
of fancy fruit and is likely to be most useful in localities having
a large amount of sunshine, a light rainfall and considerable
wind. ;

INSPECTION WORK.

Inspection of fertilizers for 1904.—In May of this current year,
an amendment to the fertilizer law of this State was made by
the Legislature, as a result of which the administration of the
law was transferred to the Department of Agriculture. This
Station continues to perform the chemical analyses. The analyses
published in Bulletin 253 represent only samples of fertilizers
collected by this Station previous to the time the law was
amended in May.

During the spring of 1904, the Station’s collecting agents vis-
ited 98 towns between March 26 and May 9, obtaining 468 samples
of commercial fertilizers. These samples represent 371 different
brands, the product of 49 different manufacturers,-each manu-
facturer being represented by from one to 145 brands.

The subjoined tabulated statement indicates the different classes
included in the collection.

Brands con- | Brands con- |
Brands con- | Brands con-| Brands con- taining nitro- | taining phos- | Brands of
taining only | taining only | taining only | gen and phos- | phoric acid and | complete
nitrogen. phosphoric potash, phorie acid potash with- fertilizers.
acid. without potash.| out nitrogen. |
7 22 | 4 16 47 | 275

The following tabulated statement shows the average composi-
tion of the complete fertilizers collected, together with a com-
parison of the guaranteed composition and that found by
analysis:

Per Cr. GUARANTEED, Per Cr. Founp. Average
per ct,
found
above
Average.| guaran-

|

| Lowest. Highest.| Average | Lowest. | Highest.

|

Nitrogen te eee oon 0.50 9.88 2.01 0.54 9.74 2.12 0.11
Available phosphoric acid. 1.50 10.00 7.56 1.26 11.38 8.52 0.96
Insoluble phosphoric acid.| ...... | ...... Peeetee 0.04 6.52 12 S0)s| wetentreres
Potashi3si2 eo. Bo gadoads | 0.50 10.00 4.50 0.16 10.74 4.77 0.27
Water-soluble mitrogens. (il) eves coll snen elec ee 0.00 9.62 OS Mareetetars a

Water-soluble phosphoric
HOU Manretetelele clelseivtee stere libelereteceis soceee | secece 0.04 8.96 5.98 | ....-. :

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 25

COMMERCIAL VALUATION AND SELLING Price or Compietp Frr-

TILIZERS.
ComMERcIAL VALUATION OF , SELLING Price or ONE TON :
£ } ~ |
CoMPLETE FERTILIZER. or CoMPLETE FERTILIZERS. Average increased cost

of mixed materials over
| unmixed materials for
| : one ton.

Average. | Lowest. Highest. | Average.

$19 85 $1700 $457.00 $27 56 $7 71

In the table below we present figures showing the average cost
to the purchaser of one pound of plant-food in different forms
in mixed fertilizers.

AVERAGE Cost oF ONE PouNpD or PLANT-Foop To CONSUMERS IN
MIxep FERTILIZERS.

Milne HN MES TEN MaNts acosader st te? sebtae’ sihe! a cugi e ware Wee wal ors Ete wibier s Soa 24.30 cents.
Phosphoric acid. (available);s.......<.<.c00's os sss )sjs 210 v0 5.90 cents.
PENS ewer eter Cryo tes sect hci cter als) aigivel ieces cs] Seca siskeis auebaveresa poses 6.25 cents.

Feeding stuff inspection for 1904.—Previous to May 3, 1904,
one hundred and four manufacturers or jobbers registered the
required guarantees and paid the license fee on one hundred and
fifty-four brands of feeding stuffs to be placed on sale in New
York State in 1904.

The list of licensed brands are classified as follows:

EroOpnietanysOnemiixed LECOSt clits jac. -ce sie > elains oc.ls “ela r als leeleieie sini 70 brands.
MCE AM OBDONE TCA fete seis «sisi asec wise olsWeicieta aielslele's 3.0) sie elesbse.» Scene 16 brands.
Homumiys feed (or chops. 52.2060. s.. Maueiotarsis terete oe fever ata oi sd sretetats 13 brands.
> (CONGUHSRT TS SYGIETY 5s Sha Bess") ae Reni ee Arr oe ee eaa tee 12 brands.
HeIMA CeO MeN CALS Mee sis kine eicie( preleiace tstsimda ele bi siele sloveieg sblate wie Glee eiels 11 brands.
Mie ater eee raA Tse stor ine ficlch eis: a> a0, cle laie)s eter eel vial Ihc + ole 'ee leslie wel» Se ines 9 brands.
\Caimiarnsteg! Sa) Go. doc6 duds GOD HOMO DOE SDIc Con CRIDER mirennnOo 6 brands.
VME A DLOULSI « slays ell bieiie ole skein ote ago HE-O U6 DRO BMIDOROD UO TOOTEIS oR 0 5 brands.
MOS COTSTIN DSMEUTI lee aorta ese sr onto era eahce esky eich eck yo rake o: sic (ol « 6) «40 9 ia G) exer nla shefele 3 brands.
PNK MISSES TECH Slee levator eetete steicre vere tesla! rer or ehslsi"oteo leis avoha\(s subiaretn) ge 3 brands.
(SUNnWTE THAT as 6 eres Siete ola sip 0 SUSIE COI oie ETOCS RRO OCI INCIOe 2 brands.
Biigies HEE MEMISGUS. ected Ne po tie cl clles fet nieces + ass de cote sees 2 brands,
Wocronsccdatecde meme tres iarnels = cree ehenish te cieaiels apafe sreta ole. sseivtes ors 1 brand.
(hrm Gayl anes: non e's CG Ord OTIb CORSE 0 it Gn GetoIe 6 DIDO Ot oid GD orS oan 1 brand.
Maier ewe tt Baer ER ean ie ral alee ee oceans be Mare mothe alelsie sie Seis ec 154 brands,

26 Director’s REPORT OF THE

-The number of samples collected and analyzed up to May 3d
was 263, representing 203 brands.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLES ANALYZED.

; Number Number

NAME OF FEED. samples. brands.
Cottonseedsotliumeoall 228 seers cinin sto: s eiereicion ee ade oe eee 17 13
ihinseediionl prea £2028 sivciaclare shires ie et Sa onc = he Othe See ote 19 10
HINNOOURCA KEN PTOUNG s. .s/coNe cle escidin Gasraeisisice eee che ene > aieVociee ee tre 3 3

Pniilerpy canbe ect Pisce Come a bor er ee cee ere 12

IRTeWeLS PR URINE eo nie astre Cita tee eee oe ee eee 2 1
BU GSI reife y0) Ns See es Oe a Ree GSS coe teas 28 CES ee Bb ets Oa eee i 6
Giitteminteal ree eee ae eee eae ee eae I RT ERD 1 1
Glutenifeedtiteen lath ees bis edb cei atic te eb eo A 10 Zf
ETM VOM Weal ee chet ore eats Oe oe hel oe ee ee eee 1 il
Germaling ey 2c, co iold an kote ne eis eke ce ee ee 2 1
‘Hominy-teed tor chopivs. 26 oe eet neta ROR ee ee ee | 14 10
Mixed’ feedsi(bran andimiddlings) 22.2. oon. ee eee a 30
Oxnts-andi their by-productsshi..\c ci) Joe Peet tee ee eee 6 5
Compounded feeds, proprietary and otherwise................-+ 96 74
Bonltryicads o vsi2'- Be pat Soe ree eats tens ROLE EL eee 34 29
Miscellaneous Leeds. akc s vic.ed vot omicenterete oe eer ee ee Hs 4 4
BOGE ered ane Cutie OOO acs bois wo aR Sis GPO IO MITT Oe Sele eee 263 203

A study of the figures showing the results of the inspection
up to May 3 reveals the fact that the samples representing quite
a large number of brands contained considerably less protein
than called for by guarantees. In all, at least, fifty-two samples
showed a larger deficit than would be regarded as reasonable.

The deficit occurred as follows:

Cottonseed! meal jai.260. J25 eda se) > oak eases eee 5 samples.
Tanbeed meals. inc. ae casos Beebe? ate adie e busi is Bre caere oho ine Be ee ee 9 samples.
Mistilier’s dried grains. «,..datnk + + font k eek een ee ao ee ee 4 samples.
Gintentfeed ot seeds Seon ea oats oes eee ea tte ates eee 4 samples.
Hominy’ feed fv. e 08 Uk eee were aban Ae sies Senne vig vee eat et eens 6 samples.
Compounded and proprietary feeds........ Boe omen tC okie tbe 18 samples.
Poultry, foods; 5 scietsesseaterepavereiy ool Palg Sthay ales ee ete ae one 6 samples. —
52

One brand, licensed as cottonseed meal, sold by the Husted
Milling and Elevator Co., of Buffalo, N. Y., and recorded as
manufactured by R. W. Biggs & Co., of Memphis, Tenn., was
found to contain only 21.8 per ct. of protein whereas the mini-
mum guarantee was 41 per cent.

The material was evidently cottonseed feed, or cottonseed meal
mixed with ground hulls. Such a feed is fraudulent in its
character.

No.

‘New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 27

. 245.

. 250.

. 252.
. 253.

. 254.

BULLETINS PUBLISHED IN 1904.

February.—Chemical changes in -the souring of milk
and their relations to cottage cheese. L. L. Van
Slyke and E. B. Hart. Pages 36.

February.—An experiment in shading strawberries. 0.
M. Taylor and V. A. Clark. Pages 22, plates 2.
February—The lime-sulphur-soda wash for orchard
treatment. P. J. Parrott, S. A. Beach and H. O.

Woodworth. Pages 21, plates 4.

March.—New York apples in storage. S. A. Beach and
vy. A. Clark. Pages 70, plates 2.

March.—A swelling of canned peas accompanied by a
malodorous decomposition. H. A. Harding and J. F.
Nicholson. Pages 16.

March.—The nature of the principal phosphorus com-
pound in wheat! bran. A. J. Patten and KE. B. Hart.
Pages 8.

October.—Vitality of the cabbage black rot germ on
cabbage seed. H. A. Harding, F. C. Stewart:and M.
J. Prucha. Pages 18, plate 1.

May.—Report of analyses of commercial fertilizers for
the spring and fall of 1903. W. H. Jordan, L. L.
Van Slyke and W. H. Andrews. Pages 78.

August.—Report of analyses of commercial fertilizers
for the spring of 1904. W. H. Jordan, L. L. Van
Slyke and W. H. Andrews. Pages 49.

August.—Fall spraying with sulphur washes. P. J.
Parrott and F. A. Sirrine. Pages 21, plates 6.

September.—Inspection of feeding stuffs. W. H. Jor-
dan and F. D. Fuller. Pages 28.

October.—Seed selection according to specific gravity.
VY. A. Clark. Pages 59, plates 2. .

November.—The composition of commercial soaps in

relation to spraying. L. L. Van Slyke and F. A.
Urner. Pages 12.

Report of New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

. 258. December.—A study of the chemistry of home-made

cider-vinegar. L. L. Van Slyke. Pages 55.

. 259. December.—The proportion of animal food in the ration

for ducklings. W. P. Wheeler. Pages 16.

. 260. December.—Director’s report for 1904. Pages 18.

W. H. JORDAN, .
Director.

New York Agricultural Experiment Station,

Geneva, N, Y., Dec. 15, 1904.

REEOR ST

OF THE

Department of Animal Husbandry

W. H. Jorpan, Director.

W. P. Wuee ter, First Assistant.

TABLE CF CONTENTS.

I. The proportion of animal food in the ration for ducklings.

REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

THE PROPORTION OF ANIMAL FOOD IN THE RATION
FOR DUCKLINGS.*

W. P. WHEELER.

SUMMARY.

For growing ducklings rations which contained animal food
have proved generally much superior to others of vegetable origin
which had, according to the limited methods of estimation com-
monly used, equal nutritive value.

Results here reported were obtained in experiments made to
learn how much animal food, in the prepared forms commonly
found in the market, could be safely and effectively fed.

Rations in which -these foods supplied 94 per ct. of the total
dry matter and 98 per ct. of the protein were fed to ducklings
without any apparent ill effects. :

During the first few weeks, growth was more rapid and equal
growth made for less food (even at a lower cost for food) under
a ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein was obtained from
animal food, than under rations having respectively 20, 40 and
80 per cent. of the protein derived from this source.

Later growth was made at somewhat more economical expendi-
ture of food under the “20 per ct.” ration, but was slower.
Under the rations containing larger proportions of animal food,
marketable size was reached about two weeks sooner.

Results on the whole favored the use for the first few weeks
of the ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein came from animal

* A reprint of Bulletin 259.

82 Report oF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THB

food, and later those containing larger and increasing proportions
of grain foods.
INTRODUCTION.

In earlier experiments it was found that rations containing
animal food gave better results than those consisting largely or
altogether of grain food. With abundance of green forage and
grit the result was the same. The more common grain foods
contain more crude fiber and generally less nitrogenous matter,
fat and mineral matter than the animal foods, and in ordinary
rations disadvantage might come from undue proportions of
these constituents. But when, by using an unusual number of
foods, palatable rations were made to contain nearly equal pro-
portions of these constituents, the advantage was still decidedly
in favor of those containing animal food.

With chicks this advantage did not appear when care was
taken to supply abundant mineral matter to the vegetable food
ration. But with ducklings a ration entirely of vegetable origin
always proved inferior; and it seems necessary with all except
costly or very unusual feeding materials, to use considerable
animal food for satisfactory results. In most of the feeding
experiments referred to, from 35 to 40 per ct. of the protein in
the efficient rations was derived from this source.

To learn how much animal food in the prepared commercial
forms could be used without disadvantage, and what proportion
it is ordinarily desirable to use, supplementary feeding trials
were made. Results from some of these are herein reported.

No injury to the health of ducklings appeared at any time
when different animal foods were moderately or quite freely used,
even under a liberal feeding at one time of some animal meal
that could not be fed to young chicks without disastrous results.

FIRST FEEDING TRIAL.
CONDITIONS.

Records from the feeding of two lots of ducklings of different
uges on rations in which over nine-tenths of the dry matter and
about 98 per ct. of the protein were derived from animal
products follow in tabulated form. Sand was regularly added
to the food, but nothing else except green alfalfa was fed besides

33

Yew York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

ra
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“sLOnadoug IVWINY WOU SVM UALLVY AUC AO SHINAT-ANIN' HOIHMA NI SNOILVY Gay SONITMOAQ(—'] A1avy],

34 Report or DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

the different dried ground animal by-products. These consisted
of “meat meal,” “animal meal,” dried blood, bone meal and
milk “albumen” (a by-product from the milk sugar factories).
The ducklings in both lots were of somewhat inferior and weaker
stock and those of lot “A” also late hatched, but at no time did
any of them seem to suffer at all in health under the unusual
ration.

The foods had the composition shown in the following table:

Taste I1.—Composrrion oF Foops ror Lors A AND B.

Ether

FOOD. Moisture. | Protein. Ash. Fiber. N.-free extract

extract. (fats).

He Perfect. Per ct. Per ct. Perict. (|; cberet. Per ct.
‘| Meat Meg Ree che 7.8 62.7 4.6 7.6 17.3
Animal meal”’...... 5.8 31.4 39.8 2 | 5.7 13.3
Drediblood esas.) 11.0 85.1 3.0 ? .6 3
Milk “‘albumen’’..... 10.0 38.6 30.9 ? 20.0 5
Bonesmesioe yc el oo | 19.9 64.3 ? 4.3 5.9
Green alfalfa......... 77.7 | Baz, 2.0 6.0 | 9.9 ae

| |
RATIONS.

In the rations for both Lot A and Lot B during four weeks of
feeding, 94 per ct. of the dry matter of 98 per ct. of the protein
came from animal foods. During the last month for Lot A and
the last fortnight for Lot B these foods supplied over 90 per ct.
of the dry matter and nearly 97 per ct. of the total protein. In
the ration for Lot A about 24 per ct. of the dry matter was repre-
sented by the ash constituents and in that for Lot B about 29
per ct. The nutritive ratio was excessively narrow.

RESULTS.

The birds in Lot A made a fairly rapid growth during four
weeks without waste of food. During the next month growth
was slower, and unprofitable. Lot B of older birds made good
gains at fair expenditure of food during four weeks. For two
weeks following there was slow increase in weight as is usual
with birds of this age. Profitable growth would hardly be
expected owing to the expensive foods used, but for a month with
each lot the cost was not excessive, although the average cost
of gain in weight was high.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 35

THE EXPERIMENT PROPER.
CONDITIONS.

In another experiment four similar lots of ducklings were fed
rations which differed according to the amount of animal food.
The proportion of the total protein of the ration derived from
this source was approximately 20 per ct. for Lot I, 40 per ct.
for Lot II, 60 per ct. for Lot III and 80 per ct. for Lot IV.
So far as earlier experience went this group seemed to overlap
the limits of most efficient! feeding. Whenever less animal food
is used growth is usually too slow. When larger amounts are
used the cost is excessive. The ducklings were hatched together
and were from the same stock; all conditions except food being
practically identical for the several lots, each of which included
28 birds.

FOODS.

The grain mixtures used were,—one, ‘‘ Z”’ composed of 7 parts
corn meal, 6 parts animal meal, 4 parts wheat middlings and
3 parts wheat bran;—and another “G,’ composed of 2 parts
Chicago gluten meal and one part each of germ gluten meal
and O. P. linseed meal. Salt was added to the extent of five
ounces in every hundred pounds of each mixture. The other
foods were animal meal, corn meal, wheat middlings, green alfalfa
and bone ash. The bone ash was used to prevent any possible
deficiency of total mineral matter in any ration; and to avoid
any great differences in amount of ash, for the animal meal
contained so much bone that rations in which it was freely used
had a high percentage of ash constituents. The bone ash, which
would be unnecessary for ordinary feeding, added considerably to
the cost of the ration.

In the accompanying table is shown the composition of each
food:

Tasie I1J].—Composition or Foops Usep IN EXPERIMENT.

F N.-free pier

Food. Moisture. | Protein. Ash. Fiber. extract extract

, A (fats).

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
1 .bb-qqb bys oey ad eae a . 13.0 20.3 13.8 Sot 44, 5.4
Mactiire: cGy suc vee TSE 33.8 2.6 5.3 | 41.2 6.0
Animal meal..;...... 8.6 39.7 40.0 13 1.4 9.0
Corn meal.... Geetercd sieve 16.6 9.1 1.3 2.0 | 66.9 | 4.1
Wheat middlings..... 15.8 14.5 2.3 3.3 60.0 | 3.5
Green alfalfa......... | 80.2 4.5 1.9 4.7 tate 1.0

36 Report oF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

VALUATIONS OF FOODS.

In estimating the cost of food, valuations were taken which
approximated the market prices at the time of this feeding
experiment. Corn meal was rated at $22.50 per ton, wheat
middlings at $21, wheat bran at $19, animal meal at $35, Chi-
cago gluten meal at $26, cream gluten meal at $29.50, linseed
meal at $29, meat' meal and bone meal at $30, blood meal at $50
per ton, milk “albumen” at 3 cents per pound, bone-ash at 2
cents per pound and green alfalfa at $2 per ton.

The records from feeding and results averaged for periods of
one week are given in the accompanying tables.

RATIONS.

The feeding experiment proper extended over a period of ten
weeks, beginning with ducklings one week old. For the first
three weeks for Lot I 12.8 per ct. of the dry matter in the ration
was supplied by animal food from which 21.4 per ct. of the total
protein in the ration was derived. The ash constituents repre-
sented 21.8 per ct. of the dry matter. For the following seven
weeks 11.5 per ct. of the dry matter was from animal food from
which 19.4 per ct. of the protein was derived. The ash constituted
21.2 per ct. of the dry matter.

For the first three weeks for Lot II 26.5 per ct. of the dry
matter in the ration was supplied by animal food from which
41.9 per ct. of the total protein was derived. The ash constituted
23.7 per ct. of the dry matter, For the following seven weeks .
25.1 per ct. of the dry matter was from animal food from which
40.8 per ct. of the total protein was derived. The ash consti-
tuted 23.8 per ct. of the dry matter.

37

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

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New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 41

For the first three weeks for Lot III 38.5 per ct. of the dry
matter and 59.4 per ect. of the total protein came from animal
food. The ash represented 24.5 per ct. of the dry matter. For
the following seven weeks 38.4 per ct. of the dry matter and 60.0
per ct. of the total protein came from animal food. The ash
constituted 25.8 per ct. of the dry matter.

For the first three weeks for Lot IV 57 per ct. of the dry mat-
ter in the ration came from animal food which supplied 794
per ct. of the total protein. The ash made up 26.2 per ct. of the
dry matter. For the following seven weeks 61.5 per ct. of the
dry matter and 78.9 per ct. of the protein came from animal food.
The ash constituents formed 25.7 per ct. of the dry matter.

The rations were all narrower in nutritive ratio than is neces-
sary. Differences between them in this respect were not great,
nor as much as would exist in other respects if widened to any
extent with foods available, giving for some an undesirable pro-
portion of fat.

RESULTS WITH EACH LOT.

The ducklings in Lot I having the “20 per ct. ration,” (one
in which about 20 per ct. of the protein was derived from animal
food) during the first three weeks made an average gain in
weight of 15.9 ounces, at the rate of one pound for every 2.5
pounds of dry matter in the food—and at a food cost of 3.6 cents
per pound gain. During the remaining seven weeks the average
gain was 55.8 ounces, one pound for every 4.2 pounds of dry
matter in the food, at a cost of 6.0 cents per pound gain. For
the first seven weeks of feeding, up to the age of eight weeks,
the average gain in weight was. 56.3 ounces, one pound for
every 3.0 pounds dry matter in the food, the food cost being
4.2 cents per pound gain. For the entire period covered by the
experiment the total average gain was 71.7 ounces, at the rate
of one pound for every 3.9 pounds of dry matter in the food.
The food cost 5.4 cents per pound gain.

The ducklings in Lot II having the ‘40 per ct. ration,’ made
an average gain of 19.1 ounces during the first three weeks, at
the rate of one pound for every 2.2 pounds of dry matter in the
food; the cost being 3.3 cents per pound gain. For the follow-
ing seven weeks the average gain was 59.7 ounces, one pound
for every 4.6 pounds dry matter in the food and at a food cost

42 Report oF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

of 6.9 cents per pound. During the first seven weeks of feeding
the average gain was 64.2 ounces, one pound for every 3.0
pounds of dry matter in the food, at a food cost of 4.6 cents
per pound gain. For the entire period of experiment the average
gain in weight was 78.8 ounces, at the rate of one pound for
every 4.0 pounds of dry matter in the food. The food cost was
6.0 cents per pound gain.

In Lot III having the “60 per ct. ration” the average gain
during the first three weeks was 22.5 ounces, at the rate of one
pound for every 2.1 pounds of dry matter in the food—the food
cost being 3.3 cents per pound gain. For the following seven
weeks the average gain was 60.3 ounces, at the rate of one pound
for every 4.7 pounds of dry matter in the food—the cost being
7.3 cents per pound. During the first seven weeks of feeding
the average gain was 68.4 ounces, one pound gain for every 3.0
pounds of dry matter in the food at the cost of 4.7 cents per
pound gain. For the entire period the average gain was 82.7
ounces at the rate of one pound for every 4.0 pounds of dry
matter in the food and at the food cost of 6.2 cents per pound.

In Lot IV having the “80 per ct. ration” the average gain
in weight during the first three weeks was 20.8 ounces, at the
rate of one pound for every 2.3 pounds of dry matter in the
food; the food cost being 3.8 cents per pound gain. For the
remaining seven weeks the average gain was 57.9 ounces at the
rate of one pound for every 5.0 ounces of dry matter in the
food, and at a cost of 8.2 cents per pound. During the first
seven weeks of feeding the average gain in weight was 66.2
ounces at the rate of one pound for every 3.1 pounds of dry
matter in the food. The cost was 5.2 cents per pound. For the
entire period the average gain in weight was 78.7 ounces at the
rate of one pound for every 4.2 pounds of dry matter in the food.
The food cost was 7.0 cents per pound gain.

RESULTS IN GENERAL.

On the average for the entire period the ratio of the dry mat- —
ter of the food consumed to the gain in weight was about the
same for the Lots I, II, and III, and somewhat higher for Lot
IV. In relation to the cost of growth the different lots stood in
the same order as to the relative amounts of animal food in the

New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 43

ration. But in rate of growth Lot I, having the least animal
food, was considerably behind the others. The growth made by
Lots II and IV exceeded it by nearly 10 per ct. and that made
by Lot III by over 15 per ct.

For the first three weeks of feeding the advantage lay plainly
with Lot III having the “ 60 per ct. ration.” The food was used
more efficiently, the cost was as low as with any and growth was
fastest, being over 40 per ct. faster than for Lot I, about 18 per ct.
faster than for Lot IJ and 8 per ct. faster than for Lot IV.

For the first seven weeks of feeding, up to the age of eight
weeks, the amount’ of water-free food required per pound gain
was almost exactly the same for three lots and a little higher for
Lot IV. The food cost of growth varied in the same order as did
the rations in relation to amount of animal food, but not in the
same ratio. Growth was most rapid for Lot III and exceeded
that of Lot I by over 20 per ct., the birds averaging at eight
weeks about 4.2 pounds weight to about 3.5 pounds for Lot I,
4.0 pounds for Lot II and 4.1 pounds for Lot IV.

IN CONCLUSION.

After the close of the ten weeks’ feeding under the four rations,
each lot was fed on a more fattening ration, the same for all.
This consisted of about equal amounts of the mixture “Z” and
corn meal, with green alfalfa. During the first week under this
ration the birds of Lot I made a rapid gain at moderate expendi-
ture of food; about one pound increase for every 3.3 pounds of
' dry matter in the food, indicating that, while rapid growth had
been arrested under the experimental ration, attainment of good
size had been delayed rather than prevented. This has been
observed under other rations deficient in either nitrogenous or
mineral matter; although, in general, birds which had suffered
under the disadvantage of inefficient rations for long, failed to
develop afterward as well as others.

At the age of 12 weeks the largest individuals in Lot IV
weighed over 7.2 pounds, exceeding the largest of Lot I, which
weighed about 6.1 pounds, by 18 per cent. The largest in Lots II
and III were intermediate in size, In no lot, however, was
development noticeably uneven,

44 REPORT OF DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

COMMENTS.

Without considering the cost of food the best results accom-
panied the use of the ration in which 60 per ct. of the protein
came from animal food. At the values stated for the several
foods, or at the market prices usually holding, ducklings were
grown more cheaply under the ration containing the least
animal food. The growth was so slow, however, and the advan-
tage of getting birds quickly ready for market is often so decided,
that greater profit would lie with the more costly ration, for in
this case about two weeks’ time was saved in get'ting birds to the
same weight, and from an equal number hatched 15 per ct. more
poultry was produced in the same time. There was ready for
market at the same time about 145 pounds from Lot III and
about 125 pounds from Lot I, equal in number to Lot III.

So far as this one experiment goes, it seems from a study of the
results that it will pay to feed freely of animal food during the
first three to five weeks, and depend after that more or increasing
proportions of the cheaper grain foods. The exact proportions
most profitable to use will vary considerably at different times
according to the food supply and the demand for the product.

REPeRY

OF THE

Department of Bacteriology.

~

H. A. Harpine, Dairy Bacteriologist.

M. J. Prucua, Assistant Bacteriologist.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. A swelling of canned peas accompanied by a malodorous
decomposition.

II. Vitality of the cabbage black rot germ on cabbage seed.

REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
BACTERIOLOGY.

A SWELLING OF CANNED PEAS ACCOMPANIED BY A
MALODOROUS DECOMPOSITION.*

H. A. Harpine ann J. F. NICHOLSON.{

SUMMARY.

1. The value of the peas canned in the State of New York in
1900 was estimated at $1,473,912.

2. Swelling of the canned peas is the occasion of much loss to
the industry.

3d. This swelling is brought about by certain species of bac-
teria, of which the spores have survived the heating process.

4. The spores of the resistant form which was studied were
destroyed on heating 2 Ib. cans of peas at 240° F. (115.,° C.) for
30 minutes.

5. When tested on a large scale at a factory this heating
destroyed the germs without injury to the commercial quality of
the goods.

INTRODUCTION.

With the development of the country there has sprung up a
number of industries which utilize the raw materials of the farm.
Of these the cheese factory and creamery have long been con-
sidered as coming within the field of experiment station activity
and a large amount of work is being annually directed toward
the solution of their problems. At the same time the equally
perplexing problems met with in condensing milk and in pre-

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 249.

jResigned as assistant bacteriologist of this station on June 23, 1903, to accept
similar position at the Oklahoma Agricultural College and Experiment Station.

48 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THR

serving and pickling fruit and vegetables have been very gener-
ally neglected, although in the last analysis all of these indus-
tries stand in essentially the same relation to the farmer and the
consumption of his products.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CANNING IN NEW YORK.

The growth of this industry has been so rapid that any reliable
information is out of date by the time it is available. The most
accurate source of recent information is the census taken in 1900,
but this can only give a general idea of present conditions. g

In 1900 there were reported 511 establishments in the State of
New York engaged in canning fruit and vegetables. This was
a gain of 352 since 1890. These factories used in a year
$5,592,468 worth of materials,and turned out products valued
at $8,975,321. It was estimated that 65 per ct. of the cost of
materials, or $3,635,100 was for farm products. During this
year these canning establishments put up 36,073,696 lbs. of
peas in New York, valued at $1,473,912. In comparison with
the other states New York stood first in the value of canned
peas, second in the value of canned vegetables and third in the
value of canned fruits.

LOSSES IN CANNING.

From the beginning of the canning industry there have been
losses because a portion of the goods failed to keep. There is
always a small loss due to leaky cans, but there are often losses
too large to be accounted for on this basis. These failures are
commonly spoken of by the canners as “swells ” and “ sours.”

Cans are said to be “swelled” or fermented when the
normally depressed ends bulge outward. When such cans
explode or are opened the material contained is usually decom-
posed, vile smelling and worthless as food. There are at least
two classes of exceptions to this description of the contents:
Certain fruits often bulge slightly when held over winter in
storage, but on opening they are found unchanged and fit for
food; and cans which have undergone souring will often swell if
kept fora time in a warm place.

Since it could not be overlooked, swelling has been known as
long as canning has been practiced, and losses of this kind have

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 49

been strong incentives for improving methods. ‘“ Soured” cans
give no external evidence of being abnormal; but when opened
the contents emit a sour smell and have an acid flavor. With
peas, the odor is not disagreeable, the liquor is milky and the
flavor ranges from faint to decidedly acid. Where the acid is
formed after the cans are heated, especially if the goods are
held some time at 70° F. or above, enough gas is formed to
cause the ends to bulge slightly. In such cases the cans are
commonly classed as “swells.” However, in case the acid is
produced before the cans are heated or where the cans have been
held at low temperature no change is apparent until the cans are
opened by the consumer. As long as the public was not edu-
cated to expect fine quality, a considerable amount of sour goods
was undoubtedly consumed without question. Now the con-
Sumers have become more discriminating and the increased pro-
test against sour goods is one of the results.

CAUSE OF THESE LOSSES.

The fact that fermentations in general are so commonly caused
by the lower forms of plant life leads to the widespread belief
that all the difficulty in keeping canned goods can be attributed
to the same cause. While it is probably true that a large pro-
portion of the swelling and souring is due to the growth of
bacteria within the cans undoubtedly exceptions will be found.
It is also true that there are a number of different species of
bacteria which produce swelling or souring of the same i Nps
in different factories.

FACTORS WHICH ASSIST IN KEEPING CANNED GOODS.

There are several factors which combine to make commercial
canning possible. Fresh and clean fruits and vegetables are
desirable because they carry smaller numbers of the germs which
it will be necessary to destroy. This means cleanliness in the
utensils and persons with which the materials come in contact
before entering the cans. Pure air is desirable, especially for the
workmen, but its effect on the product has often been over-esti-
mated.

Where large quantities of sugar are used with fruits the sugar
tends to restrain the growth of germs which may be present.
: 4

50 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

This is the basis of the keeping quality of household preserves.
Maple syrup which weighs 11 lbs. to the gallon contains about
the minimum amount of sugar which will prevent fermentation
under favorable conditions. Even maple syrup kept warm com-
monly ferments. In the quantities used with vegetables the
sugar increases, rather than retards, fermentation.

In their zeal to sell saccharin the agents often claim high
germicidal properties for this substance. As used in peas, the
germicidal property of saccharin, if present, is too slight to be
of practical use. Stress is also laid upon the point that saccharin
does not break up into gas under the influence of bacteria. As
the sugar in the peas themselves will furnish sufficient gas to
explode the cans this item is of little value.

The acid in fruits and certain vegetables increases the effective-
ness of the heating in a marked degree. In practice, pieplant
keeps with far less heating than is required by asparagus. Peas
which had soured after processing for 30 minutes at 236° F. were
heated for a few minutes at 212° F. It was found that in many
cases in the presence of the acid, this slight heating had killed all
the germs.

Antiseptics have held, in the past, a considerable place in the
fight which canners have made against fermentation. They are
still used to a sufficient extent to induce liberal advertising by
the manufacturers of certain proprietary compounds. An
analysis’ of some of the leading compounds of this class has
shown that they are combinations of a few well known chemicals
of which formalin, boracic acid and salicylic acid are the most
common examples. If canners will use these chemicals they would
display business foresight in buying them in pure rather than
in proprietary form since they can be obtained pure for much
less money.

The objection to the use of these substances because of their
effect upon digestion is well known and there is a growing ten-
dency to legislate against their use. It has been maintained that
the use of antiseptics is unavoidable in certain departments of
canning; but the list of substances which have not been success-
fully canned without the use of antiseptics is small. The use of

*Chemical Composition of Food Preservatives. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.
67. 1902.

—_

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 51

such material in many cases is an admission of either carelessness
or ignorance on the part of the canner.

It is a matter of common observation that the absence of a
vacuum means trouble. From this has grown the idea that the
vacuum itself prevents decomposition. Nothing could be farther
from the facts. The souring of peas often progresses to a point
where the peas are worthless before the vacuum is destroyea.
Moreover, cans of peas will keep satisfactorily in free contiect
with the air if, before processing, the opening is provided with
a cotton plug so as to prevent germs from entering.

The vacuum is useful in decreasing the tension in the can in
connection with the heating and its absence indicates a leak
which will allow germs to enter.

Commercial canning depends very largely upon heat as a
means of preventing undesirable changes; and the progress of
the business has been marked by improvements in the means of
heating and in the knowledge of the effects of various degrees
of heat. Beginning with open tanks of water which were lim-
ited to 212° F. there has been developed the closed kettle where
all temperatures up to 250° F. are in use. Prescott and Under-
wood stated? that when working at 236° F. that temperature was
found at the center of a 2 lb. can of standard packed peas in 10
minutes while it took 40 minutes heating at 250° F. to raise
the center of a like can of corn to 236° F.

BACTERIA AND THEIR ACTION.

For convenience members of the plant world are often referred
to by groups. The members of one of these groups, characterized
by their small size and simple form are referred to as bacteria.
Like mould spores and yeast cells the individual bacterium (plural
bacteria) is too small to be seen by the unaided eye but like
both mould and yeast it often grows into a mass which can be
readily seen.

Food can be used by plants only when it is in solution, so that
the germs live, not on the vegetables directly, but upon the sol-
uble material in the cans. . By means of enzymes which they
secrete they are able to soften the solid vegetables. They all

2Paper before Rochester meeting of Canners’s Association. Trade 23:
No. 29, Feb. 22, 1901; alsojCanner and Dried Fruit Packer of same date,

52 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THD

require oxygen in some form and give off carbon dioxide, which
is partly responsible for the bulging of the cans. Sugar in
moderate quantities is especially useful to those growing in canned
goods since it furnishes them with oxygen.

The character of the decomposition depends partly upon the
nature of the original compounds and partly upon the form into
which the particular germ breaks them in extracting the por-
tion desired as food. The germs causing the swelling of peas
break up the sugar in such a way as to produce a large amount
of gas and a small amount of acid. The ones producing souring
in peas break up the sugar so as to leave a large amount of acid
and little or no gas.

BACTERIA ARE OF DIFFERENT KINDS.

In objects which are only about 1-25000 of an inch wide and a
few times longer than broad there is but a limited amount of
information to be derived with a microscope. However some
forms are round like miniature peas while others are rod-like.
The latter differ slightly in plumpness and in the position and
appearance of their spores. The spores are very resistant bodies
formed within the cells and capable of starting growth anew at
some later time. The growing cells are killed by any ordinary
amount of cooking but the spores often survive and cause trouble.

The bacteria which are capable of destroying canned goods are
not only of different species but, what is of more importance to
the canners, the spores of different species are capable of with-
standing different amounts of heating. As a result of this, -
canners who have been processing successfully at a low tempera-
ture for a number of seasons suddenly find themselves in trouble
when a more resistant species gets into the cans.

Until outbreaks of swelling and souring of a given vegetable
have been studied in a number of factories we will not be able to
draw safe general conclusions as to what temperature can be
absolutely relied upon to keep the given vegetable under all con-
ditions. While these facts are being ascertained the safest prac-
tical plan will be to give the cans the amount of heating required
to kill the most resistant species known to trouble the particular
vegetable and as much more as the vegetable will stand without
injury to its commercial quality.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 53

SWELLING OF CANNED PEAS.
Causge DETERMINED.
INTRODUCTORY NOTES...

In peas, acid is lacking, the amount of sugar and nitrogen is
such as to favor fermentation, and heat alone must be relied upon
to prevent decomposition. Add to this the fact that heat pene-
trates the cans rather slowly and it is seen why peas are among
the most difficult vegetables to can satisfactorily.

In 1902 our attention was called to a serious outbreak of swell-
ing in the product of a large factory. In connection with this
work we attempted to determine three point's: (1) The cause of
the trouble, (2) the amount of heating necessary to obviate the
trouble, (3) the limit of heating which was practical without
injury to the commercial quality of the peas.

In order to test these results under commercial conditions and
in order to determine the limit of heating which peas would stand
without injury it was necessary to work with fresh peas at a
factory. The Geneva Preserving Co. very kindly gave us every
facility for carrying out this work at their plant and in this con-
nection we canned a ton of peas, including early and late varie-
ties, under actual factory conditions.

The lively and helpful interest which all members of the force
took in the work was one of its most pleasant features and to them
we return our sincere thanks. We are especially indebted to
Manager Thorne, upon whose experience we have drawn largely
throughout the progress of the work. We are also indebted to
the canners of the State who by furnishing information on vari-
ous points have enabled us to give an additional test to the prac-
ticability of our conclusions.

PREVIOUS STUDY OF THIS PROBLEM.

The swelling of canned peas was, so far as we have been able
to learn, the first trouble of this nature to be successfully attacked
by modern science. In 1895 Russell? studied an outbreak in a
Wisconsin factory. He found that the swelling was the result
of the action of germs which had survived the heating process and

*Gaseous Fermentations in the Canning Industry. Wis. Agr. Exp. Station
12th Ann. Rept., 1895; p. 227.

54 RepPorRT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

that the trouble could be prevented by increasing the temperature
of processing.

While he gave but a hint as to the characteristics of the causal
organism. it would seem to be slightly different from the one
with which we had to deal in the present outbreak.

THE OUTBREAK AT THE FACTORY.

The New York factory where the outbreak occurred had been
processing peas in 2 lb. cans at! 230° F. (110° C.) for 30 minutes *
for a number of seasons with good results. In 1902 they began
on Alaska peas on June 20; and on July 10 swelling was evident
in the stock room.

At this date a portion of the peas had already been shipped
but those remaining in stock and not swelled were reheated at
238° F. (1144° C.) for 35 minutes. After this heating, all cans
where the fermentation had started remained bulged on cooling.
Those where it had not yet started were rendered sterile. The
loss was practically total on all goods which had been shipped
and in those reheated graded down to almost nothing on the
pack of the preceding day. An examination of the reheated
goods showed that they were in good condition except for a
slight cooked taste ’due to the double heating. “During the re-
mainder of the season the peas were processed at 238° F. (1144°
C.) for 35 minutes with very little loss.

THE SWELLED CANS.

Externally the cans presented the usual bulged appearance,
the bulge showing more quickly at blood heat and increasing
with lapse of time. In some cases the side seams gave way, in
others the tops were blown off, widely scattering the contents.
The peas emitted a disagreeable stench tinged with the odor of
hydrogen sulphide. The bodies of the peas were mushy and the
skins inflated with gas, like miniature balloons. The liquor was
darkened and of a greenish tinge due to the small particles of
the ruptured peas.

Occasionally cans were found which did not agree with this
description. These were usually but slightly swelled and the
odor of the contents was acid but not especially disagreeable.
The peas appeared about normal but the liquid was distinctly

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 55

milky and had a sharp, acid taste. A very few cans gave evi-
dence of a mingling of these two forms of decomposition.

BACTERIA IN THE SWELLED CANS.

A microscopical examination of the juice from a swelled can
showed that there were large numbers of bacteria present, while
a like examination of a good can failed to show any bacteria.

Some of the sour cans contained a round or coccus form while
other sour cans contained a rod form. The coccus form was studied
sufficiently to show that it would not only sour cans of peas
when artificially introduced but that when kept at blood heat
these cans would commonly bulge.

The vile-smelling cans which made up more than 99 per ct.
of the trouble all contained a rod form. This was plumper than
those observed in the sour cans and in many cases was distin-
guished by a swelling at one end giving it the appearance oF a
drum stick.

BACTERIA. CAUSE THE SWELLING.

The plump rod form having swollen ends was in many cases
the only form to be found in the swelled cans. From such cans
cultures were prepared at the laboratory and this germ separated
from all other forms. A considerable number of cans of sterile
peas were vented and a part of them received a culture of this
germ. All were now resoldered and kept at blood heat. All of
the inoculated cans swelled within 24 hours. In many cases the
tension became sufficient to burst the cans. The cans which had
been vented and resoldered without inoculation did not swell.
An examination of the inoculated, swelled cans showed only the
single form present.

These facts, then, identify the causal organism: (1) The find-
ing of large numbers of a certain species of bacteria in spoiled
canned goods while satisfactory goods are sterile; (2) the isola-
tion and study of this germ in pure culture; (3) the inoculation
of sound goods with these cultures and the production of the
original trouble; (4) the reisolation of the germ from these goods
and (5) the determination that it is the original species. These
points complete the cycle of proof required to establish the fact
that the original trouble was due to the activity of this germ.

56 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

In this case, we can apply the additional test that when inocu-
lated into sound cans the suspected germ should be able to with-
stand the amount of heating to which the spoiled cans were orig-
inally subjected. Accordingly sterile cans were carefully opened,
inoculated with pure cultures of the rod form from the spoiled
cans and resoldered. The cans were then processed at 230° F. for
different lengths of time.

Two Pounp Cans or Pras Heatep to 230°F. (110°C.) ar

LABORATORY.
BDUNIONIMUTINNUI GES Seek sess sisueSarein forsicieh 6! ein een eee eee 20 25 30 35 40
Nocans heated * Sachisieck aoe cusses an aoe oe ee 6 6 6 6 3
Momcams swelledan ts octocc hake oan oe Eee 5 6 1 0 0
Bercentace swelled ys. sos hc hela othe lacntents 83 100 16 0 0

These cans were not kept under observation after about 10
days since at that time it was evident that this germ was capable
of surviving a processing at 230° F. (110° C.) for 30 minutes.
Had they been observed longer probably other cans would have
swelled, since in later work we found that a considerable number
of experimental cans swelled even after being kept at 80° F.
(268° C.) for two months.

From all this it would seem fair to conclude that the rod-like
spore-bearing form found in the cans which had swelled at the
factory was the cause of the swelling.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM.

Form.— The rods are 4-6 long by 1.5-1.84 wide and usually
occur singly.

Stain.—Rods readily take the ordinary stains but do not take the
Gram stain.

Spores.—The oval spores, one in a cell, are usually near the end
of the rod. The rod swells at the point where the spore is
to appear before the latter is visible. The ripened spore has
a great diameter than the original rod. Spores are formed
so freely that a culture is rarely free from them, new ones
being formed before all of the old ones have sprouted. They
often make up more than 50 per ct. of old cultures.

Motility.—Y oung cultures are actively motile and even the swollen
rods in which the spores are forming sometimes swim about.
Hach rod is provided with several peritrichic flagella.

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New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 57

— Oulture characteristics.—So far as tested this germ failed to grow
in contact with the air. Even where oxygen was excluded
it grew poorly or not at all on the ordinary peptone culture
media. The addition of sugar stimulated the growth. Cane
sugar dextrose and lactose are broken up with the formation
of gas and acid. Growth on lactose agar is scanty, white
and often in discrete colonies. On lactose gelatin, stab
growth is not visible but after a considerable interval circu-
lar liquified areas appear within the body of the gelatin.

Temperature exerts a marked influence upon the rate of growth.
At 22° GC. (71.6° F.) growth on lactose agar slopes appears only
after two to three weeks while at 387° C. (98.6° F.) it is equally
abundant in 2-5 days.

The vigor of growth is closely connected with the nitrogenous
part of the media. The juice from canned peas or broth made
by cooking ordinary white beans gave more vigorous growth than
ordinary lactose bouillon. The fluid became turbid in 2-3 days
at 37° C. (98.6° F.) with later formation of a pale sediment.
There is a rapid and fairly abundant growth at this temperature
of mass cultures upon media made by the addition of agar and
salt to either the pea or the bean juice.

REMEDY” APPLIED.
AT WHAT TEMPERATURE SHOULD PEAS BE PROCESSED.

‘The true cause of this. outbreak having been established the
next step was to determine the amount of heating necessary to
destroy this organism when present in the cans. The use of.
230° F. (110° C.) or any higher temperature would undoubtedly
accomplish this provided the heating was continued a sufficient
length of time.

The function of processing peas is twofold. First it must
insure the preservation of the goods; second it should cook them
just short of the amount required before consumption. Pro-
vided it does not injure the quality of the peas a high tempera-
ture is preferable since it shortens the time required for proces-
ing and thereby relieves the most congested part of the factory.

FACTORY PRACTICE.

In selecting a desirable temperature no more satisfactory guide
could be expected than a summary of the practice of the canners

58 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

of the State, since in many cases this represents the results of
20 years’ practical experience. Accofdingly blanks were sent to
all the canners of the State known to be packing peas. Canners
have been so frequently charged with keeping their methods
secrete that the promptness of the replies came as an agreeable
surprise. With one or two exceptions the desired information was
furnished by every canner and often accompanied by an expression
of interest and an offer of cooperation.

DETAILS OF PRocESsING PEAS, FROM Reports or New York Pra
CaNnneErs, 1902.

TrmME PRocESSED IN MINUTES.
Number of
Temperature. factories.
10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60
Deg. F
230 2 1 2 1
235 3 1 2
236 2 1 1 3 1
238 2 1 1 1 2 1 |
240 2D 5 St et5.sl alia ete 5 1 Lhe 1
244 1 dl
246 2 1 1 Tea Hat thes oo
250 1 1 | |

This table is based upon the replies of 1902 and shows the
situation at a glance. It includes the returns from 39 factories
but really represents a much larger number since the large com-
panies commonly filled out a single sheet to cover their numerous
branches. The common practice is to use a single temperature
and vary the length of exposure according to the condition of the
peas. Since 240° F. (1153° C.) was so commonly used it was
taken as the most desirable temperature for further work.

°

THE EFFECT OF 240° Fr, (115%° C.) ON THE GERMS.

In order to test this matter under satisfactory conditions the
work was carried on at the factory. Each #2n was inoculated
with a large number of spores of the gas-forming germ.

The inoculations were made as the cans came from the filler
and they were treated in the usual manner in other particulars.
They passed to the processing room within an hour and there
their method of treatment differed from the normal only in that
they were heated for special lengths of time. After heating they
were dropped at once into a stream of cold running water and
thoroughly cooled.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 59.

The largest size and smallest size of Alsaka peas were used

and the medium size of Advancers. They were run in batches
of 50 cans of each size at each temperature. The Alaska peas

were run on July 8 and the Advancers July 13. The cans were
removed to the laboratory where they were kept under observa-
tion for 8 months. The temperature of the stureroom was kept
between 80° F. (268° C.) and 90° F. (322° C.) for a number of
months.

Two Pounp Cans or Peas Heaten av 240°F (1153°C.) ar Factory.

PUAC ATIVTNIEAULCS 5c ooc 5 Geld teu eee 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
WNotcans heated 5. s)<soracis casas. 150 150 150 150 | 150 150 150 100
INO cans Swelled™. ior ssc ease ne 150 99 73 6 1 0 0 0
Percentage swelled.............. 100 66 49 4 0.6 0 0 0

The above table shows that when this particular organism or
one equally resistant is present it will be unprofitable to process
at 240° F. (1154° C.) for a shorter time than 80 minutes.

These cans differed from the normal only in two particulars.
We made sure that they contained spores of the germ we desired
to test and after the test we held them at a temperature which
would encourage the growth of any germs which might be alive
in the cans.

On examining the spoiled cans it was noted that those heated
but 10 minutes contained a mixture of different forms while
those heated for a longer period were quite uniformly free of all
but this one kind. In view of these results it is hard to under-
stand how factories can sterilize cans under any circumstances
“when processing but 10 minutes at 240° F.

The factory where the outbreak occurred has used 240° F. for
30 minutes through a large part of the season with no loss from
swelling aside from occasional leaks.

LIMITATION OF THESE RESULTS.

It should not be forgotten that while these results and recom-
mendations are believed to be generally applicable to what may
be expected in practice they are strictly reliable only when com-
bating this or a less resistant species. While this germ has
proven to be unusually resistant to heat it is quite possible that
some factory may have trouble with another germ which is even

60 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

more resistant. For this reason it was thought best to study
this germ and describe it in such a way that in future outbreaks
we can determine whether we have to do with the same or a
different germ.

°

EFFECT OF 240° F. (1153° Cc.) ON COMMERCIAL QUALITY.

Some difference of opinion exists regarding the effect of 240° F.
upon the texture of the pea and the clearness of the liquid.

This was brought out in the replies from the canners. Twenty-
nine canners report their experiences with this temperature.
Eighteen have never observed bad effects, while eleven point out
dangers, in different directions. One notes a tendency to scorched
flavor in the smaller sizes and two speak of the bursting of the
tender peas. Seven note that! in the mature peas there is trouble
with the liquor becoming muddy if the heating is too long con-
tinued.

The cans which had been heated at the factory to determine
the death point of the gas-forming germs gave us an excellent
opportunity to judge of the effect of heating for various inter-
vals upon the quality of the product.

The Alaska peas were examined by three competent judges
immediately after cooling with the following results:

(1) The liquor was good and clear but seemed slightly brown
in all cases except those heated but ten minutes. The others
seemed all of the same shade.

(2) The peas were darkened in all cases where heated more
than ten minutes. This darkening increased in all with the length

of exposure but was much more marked in the larger size (No. 4). .

(3) There was a scorched taste in those heated thirty-five, forty
and forty-five minutes which in the two longer intervals was suf-
ficiently marked as to be objectionable in the market. No scorched
taste was distinguishable in those heated thirty minutes or
less.

(5) There was a slightly scorched smell in cans heated thirty-
five minutes or longer but not enough to be objectionable.

At the end of eight months the cans heated but ten minutes
had spoiled but samples of those remaining were submitted
separately to eight men familiar with pea canning, three of whom
were well posted as to the demands of the market. Their opinions

——E——<x

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 61

varied but little, the better posted men being slightly . more
critical; and may be summed up as follows:

Alaska No. 1—All pass without question. Color fine, liquor
slightly darker in those heated thirty-five minutes and longer.
Liquid not muddy in any. No scorched taste except faint
trace in those heated forty and forty-five minutes.

Alaska No. 4.—Color dark in all but not muddy. Possibly due
to short blanch. Those heated thirty minutes or more would
be liable to complaint on color. No scorched taste.

Advancers No. 3.—All pass without question. Color good and
liquor not muddy. Very faint scorched taste in those heated
forty minutes.

There was a noticeable decrease in all objectionable results of
the high heating during the interval between the two examina-
tions except in the case of the color. When first examined the
liquid was but slightly colored while the peas were noticeably
darkened. On standing this discoloration passed from the peas
out into the liquor. It is thought that by lengthening the blanch-
ing process this trouble could be largely overcome.

The decrease in the scorched flavor was especially marked. Im--
mediately after cooking it was very noticeable in certain cases
while at the later examination it was not detected at all by a
number of the judges.

CONCLUSION.

Swelling of canned peas is caused by bacteria which form
such resistant spores as to survive ordinary processing.

In the outbreak studied, 240° F. (1153° C.) for 30 minutes
was found to be sufficient to destroy this germ when present in
the cans in large numbers. This temperature has since been
used by the factory with complete success.

Except under unusual conditions this amount of heating does
not injure the commercial value of the peas.

The aim of this investigation has been to determine a safe
minimum amount of heating. The amount additional, if any,
which should be used in any case to produce the desired cook is
a matter for the judgment of the processor and one in which he
will display his mastery of his art.

62 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

VITALITY OF THE CABBAGE BLACK ROT GERM ON
CABBAGE SEED.

H. A. Harpine, F. C. Stewart AnD M. J. Prucwa.

SUMMARY.

Black rot of cabbage is a destructive bacterial disease caused
by Pseudomonas campestris (Pam.) Smith. No satisfactory
method of controlling the disease in the field: has yet been found.
Concerning the ability of the disease germs to survive the winter
on the seed, there has been a difference of opinion. The present
bulletin gives an account of some investigations bearing on this
point.

The conclusion is that much of the cabbage seed on the market
is contaminated with germs of the black rot disease and that some
of these germs may survive the winter and become a source or
infection to the young cabbage plants.

As a precautionary measure, it is advised that all cabbage
seed be disinfected before sowing, by soaking for fifteen minutes
in a 1-1000 corrosive sublimate solution or in formalin, one pound
to thirty gallons. It is not expected that this treatment will
prevent either leaf or root infection in infected soils; but it may
be safely relied upon to prevent all danger from infected seed.
It will not injure the germination.

INTRODUCTION.

Black rot in cabbage is primarily a trouble of the fibro-vascular
bundles. During the progress of the disease these bundles become
dark brown or black. On cutting across the petiole of a dis-
eased leaf the affected bundles are seen as dark points. When so
many of the bundles are affected as to cut off the supply of
water to a leaf the blade dries up and resembles a piece of brown

1A preliminary note on this investigation was published in Science, N. 8S. 20:
55. July 8, 1904. A reprint of Bulletin No. 251.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 63

parchment, the blackened veinlets standing out sharply against
the brown background. As the leaves in the head become affected
they decay, producing a dark, vile-smelling mass.

This trouble was brought to the attention of pathologists at
the time of an epidemic when the loss in infected fields was
often total and consequently an exaggerated idea of the average
fatality of the disease arose. Study extended over a number of
seasons has shown that the true epidemic aspect appears only
under unusual combinations of several factors, prominent among
which are high temperature and abundant moisture. Under usual
conditions a majority of the plants in a field may be infected and
yet mature a considerable crop although a smaller one than
would have been otherwise produced. In the latter case the dis-
ease.may pass unnoticed except by those familiar with its appear-
ance.

The black rot of cabbage is caused by Pseudomonas campestris
(Pam.) Smith, a species of bacterium which attacks several spe-
cies of the Crucifere. This germ is widespread in the United
States east of the Mississippi river; and in September, 1902, Prof.
W. Paddock sent us a diseased cabbage from Colorado affected
with what he believed to be black rot. In a letter accompanying
the specimens he stated that this disease had been destructive in
Colorado in 1901 and 1902. We established the correctness of his
diagnosis by isolating P. campestris and determining its patho-
genicity upon young cabbages in the greenhouse. While the pres-
ence of P. campestris in Europe? was not reported until 1899, the
promptness with which this report has been confirmed by observers
in England,’? Holland,t Denmark,’ Austria® and Switzerland’ sug-
gests that it is there widespread and of long standing.

*Harding, H. A. Die schwarze Fiulnis des Kohls und verwandter Pflanzen,
eine in Europa weit verbreitete bakterielle Pflaiizenkrankheit. Cent. 7. Bakt.,
etc., II. Abt., 6: 305-313. 1900.

3Potter, M. C. On the Brown Rot of the Swedish Turnip. Jour. Board of
Agr., 10: 314. 1903.

4van Hall, C. J. J. Twee Bacteriénziekten. Tijdsch. over Plantenziekten, 6:
169-177. 1900.

®Rostrup, E. 17. Oversight over Landbrugsplanternes Sygdomme i 1900.
Sep-Abr aus Tidsskrift for Landbrugets Planteavl, 8: 109-128. Kjébenhavn,
1901. (Ref. Zeit. 7. Pflanzenkr., 12: 293. 1902.]

‘Hecke, Ludwig. Eine Bakteriose des Kohlrabi. Zeitschrift fiir das land-
wirthschajtliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, 1901. 8.469. ~[Ref. Zeit. f. Pflan-
zenkr., 11: 273. 1901.

7Brenner, W. Die Schwarzfiiule des Kohls. Cent. f. Bakt., ete., 1. Abt., 12:
275-735. 1904.

64 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

As we have noted in an earlier bulletin® the germs causing the
disease sometimes gain an entrance through the broken roots,
at the time of transplanting. This avenue of infection is most
used during the early life of the plants. Later the germs com-
monly enter through the water pores at the margins of the leaves.
Accordingly, the regular removal of the diseased leaves has been
recommended by different writers as a method of prevention but
we have carefully tested this method and found it to be a com-
plete failure.®

Since the disease is annually the cause of considerable loss to
the cabbage growers of the State it has been thought best to con-
tinue our study of the disease in the hopes of finding successful
means of controlling it. This publication deals with the vitality
of the disease germs in a dry condition, as well as their ability to
survive upon cabbage seed, together with some suggestions as to
protection against this danger.

A belief in the transmission of the disease by means of the
seed has been held by many large growers and the subject has
been mentioned by other writers, but so far as we can learn this
is the first attempt to determine experimentally the correctness
of this view. While we believe that the facts to be presented
have been established in a reliable manner there are so many
more related points of interest and importance which have not
yet been solved that we had not intended to present the subject
until the latter had been studied. However, the facts which
we have determined seem to have such a practical bearing that
we have presented them in this preliminary bulletin trusting to
enlarge upon their relation to the whole problem in a later
publication.

BLACK ROT IN FIELDS OF SEED CABBAGE.

SOURCE OF CABBAGE SEED.

At the beginning of the last century, Holland and Denmark
furnished the bulk of our cabbage seed. The production at home
has increased steadily and now the seed imported represents a
small fraction of the total supply and that largely of the cheaper
grade.

® New York Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 232: 60-61. 1903.
* Loe. cit., pp. 49-62.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 65

Considerable cabbage seed is now produced around Puget
Sound, but for more than a quarter of a century Long Island -
has been an important source of supply. The soil and climate of
portions of the island seem admirably adapted to this crop.
While many market gardeners at the western end of the island
produce seed in limited quantities, the commercial phase of the
industry is most developed at the eastern end in the region about
Cutchogue. Here, cabbage seed fields of several acres are common
and cabbage seed is one of the staple crops.

METHOD OF SEED GROWING.

On Long Island, stock seed of the desired variety is grown
under the immediate supervision of the large seedsmen. This
is furnished to the farmers who produce the commercial seed
under cont'ract. The seed is sown so that the plants are ready
to transplant early in August and do not reach maturity until
cold weather. Early in November they are buried in shallow
trenches to be set out again the following April. The flowers
appear in May and the seed is ripe in July. It was formerly
threshed by hand but a small threshing machine is now ysed by
the larger growers.

DISEASES OF THE PLANTS.

While growing in the field the first season, the plants are sub-
ject to all of the ordinary cabbage diseases and in some seasons
black rot has been so destructive as to make the crop praciically
a failure. While in the trenches in the winter a variable number
of the plants rot. This is in small part the result of the black
rot but is more largely due to soft rot caused by an entirely dif-
ferent organism identical with or closely related to B. caroto-
vorous Jones.*° A prominent seedsman who has been in the busi-
ness extensively on the Island for over a quarter of a century
estimates the annual loss, from rot, at t'wenty-five per ct. of the
crop. In some cases the crop is a total loss.

This soft rot occurring in the trenches or appearing after the
plants have been reset has been under observation for a number
of years and we hope to present some of the results of our
observations in a later bulletin.
| 4]

66 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

BLACK ROT GHRMS PASS THH WINTER IN CABBAGE PLANTS.

As has been stated, cabbages intended for raising seed the
following season are placed in shallow trenches at the approach
of freezing weather and covered with six to twelve inches of soil.
Here they are frozen in and remain until spring.

At the time of opening the trenches in the spring we have on
a number of occasions collected plants showing black bundles and
taken them to the laboratory for study. From these plants by
culture methods we have obtained P. campestris, it often being
the only organism present in the darkened bundles. In order
to avoid possible errors in recognizing the germ, cultures have
been inoculated into healthy young cabbage and cauliflower
plants with all precautions necessary to prevent contamination.
After such inoculation black rot has appeared in two to three
weeks. Check plants treated in the same manner except that
they were punctured with a sterile needle have always remained
healthy.

From this it is evident that the black rot germs are present in
some of the plants at the time they are set out in the spring and
that they are in condition to continue their attack upon the
plants:

OBSERVATIONS IN THE FIELD.

May 26, 1899, six fields of seed cabbage just in bloom near
Cutchogue were examined. In all the fields many plants showed
the characteristic blackening of the fine veins of the leaves and
in some cases so many of the bundles in the stem were affected
as to cause the plant to wilt. Soft rot was sometimes present
in the plants suffering from black rot.

Although it is possible to recognize the disease in the field
with great certainty, in order to settle the matter beyond question
plants were taken to the laboratory and cultures made from
the blackened bundles. P. campestris was isolated from four
such plants and the identity of the cultures was further strength-
ened by ioculating in each case into healthy cabbage plants.
Each culture produced the characteristic black rot when thus
inoculated into healthy cabbage plants while other healthy plants

grown along side and treated as controls did not take the
disease.

‘0 Harding, H. A. & Stewart, F.C. A Bacterial Soft Rot of Certain Cruci-
ferous Plants and Amorphophallus simlense. Science, N. 8., 16: 314-315. Aug.
22, 1902.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 67

Accordingly the fact that P. campestris, the cause of black rot,
was present in these seed cabbage plants at blooming time is
settled beyond question. The observations of each succeeding
season show that while the amount of black rot present varies
considerably with different seasons the disease is never absent
from any considerable area.

DISEASE GERMS ON THE SEED.
ISOLATION OF GERM FROM SEED PLANTS.

In June, 1900, we selected and marked four seed-bearing plants
in the fields near Cutchogue, which were affected with black rot.
When the seed was ripe the plants were collected by W. A. Fleet,
inclosed separately in large paper bags and expressed to us.
Each plant was threshed separately and a small portion of the
seed soaked in sterile water. Cultures were made from this
water and small portions of it were also injected into young
healthy cabbage plants in the greenhouse with the usual pre-
cautions to prevent the entrance of germs from other souces.
The amount of water which it is possible to inject into growing
tissue is small and the production of disease in six out of twelve
experimental plants is surprising. These results demonstrated
the presence of P. campestris on the seed of three of the four
seed plants examined.

The cultures made from the same water which was used in the
direct inoculation of the young plants showed the presence of
P. campestris in the case of three of the seed plants. That the
colonies were really P. campestris was settled by inoculation with
all necessary precaution into healthy young plants in the green-
house. Black rot was produced by the use of pure cultures derived
from the seed of these three different seed plants. :

On comparing the results from these two methods of testing
the infectiousness of the seed it was seen that the germs had been
isolated by cultures from the seed of the plant which had failed
to show results from the direct inoculation. Accordingly, we have
a complete demonstration that the germs of black rot were present
on the seed of all four of these diseased cabbage seed plants
at the time of harvesting.

INTERPRETATION OF THESE RESULTS.
Concerning any experimental work it is always proper to
consider in how far the conditions of the experiment have deviated

68 Report’ OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

from the normal and in how far the results represent actual
conditions.

In 1900, up to the time of our visit in June, the conditions had
not been favorable for an epidemic of black rot and the fields
around Cutchogue were unusually free from evidence of this
disease. All of the plants marked were later shipped us, indica-
ting that there was little destruction after that date. The plants
were fairly well developed in spite of the disease and undoubtedly
would have been harvested under ordinary conditions. The plants
themselves were, then, a normal part of the harvest except that
their chance of carrying the disease was above the average of all
the plants in the field. !

The threshing operations differed somewhat from the normal.
In the ordinary method the seed from a large number of plants
is pounded out by hand until a heap of seed, pods and fine
branches is accumulated, or the whole plant is run through a
threshing machine which reduces the dry. branches almost to chaff.
In either case the slightly oily seeds are exposed to the dust from
the crushed diseased bundles which are fairly sure to be present
in considerable numbers.

The seed plants we examined were held until they were
thoroughly dry, when they were threshed and the seed from each
plant cleaned separately with the least possible breaking of
branches or exposure to dust. In this particular they were
exposed to less chance of contamination than is the seed from
healthy plants under ordinary conditions.

After a careful study of the conditions attending the growth
and harvesting of seed cabbage there can be no doubt that there
is at least a small number of P. campestris on practically all the
seed produced on Long Island. :

While this is in some respects an undesirable state of affairs it
should not be forgotten that it is one for which neither the
erower nor the seedsman can be justly held responsible. For
financial reasons most growers do reject, at the time of resetting,
all plants evidently affected with black rot since they have foun”
that such plants often fail to produce seed. However, from the
nature of the disease they are not able to detect the less advanced
cases nor can they prevent infection occurring during the second
season. ,

The remedy does not lie in obtaining seed from other sources
since there is every reason to believe that the other sources of

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 69

seed are equally affected. It lies rather, as will be later shown
(page 76), within the control of the individual purchaser.

VITALITY OF GERMS ON SEED.

Even though large numbers of P. campestris are attached to
the seed at the time of harvest it does not necessarily follow
that they will survive long enough to affect the succeeding crop.

P. campestris does not form spores and consequently is not well
fitted to withstand adverse conditions for a long period. Upon
the surface of the smooth, hard, cabbage seed, food is scarce;
and moisture, which is so necessary to the life of the germs, is
reduced to a minimum. The close dependence of P. campestris
upon moisture is shown by its rapid destruction when exposed
to dessication.

EFFECT OF DESSICATION oF P. campestris.

This point was previously tested by one of us (H) at the Wis-
consin Station’? by allowing a small drop of fresh bouillon cul-
ture of the organism to dry upon sterile cover slips, which were
kept in darkness at room temperature.

In the limited number of tests which were made at that time
the germs all died within 45 hours.

After the somewhat surprising results from our tests of the
vitality of P. campestris upon cabbage seed, the tests upon cover
glasses were repeated using the same organism which had _ been
used to infect the seeds and carrying on the test under conditions
which would be closely comparable to those to which the seeds
were exposed.

The cultures used at Wisconsin had been grown in the labora-
tory about a year at the time of the test and the results may be
open to some objections on that score. In order to be sure in
the present instance that the culture was as nearly as possible in
its natural condition it was first inoculated into a cabbage plant.
There it produced the characteristic lesions of black rot. From
these plants the culture was isolated and its purity determined.

The growth upon agar slope, two to three days old, was then
rubbed up in sterile water as thoroughly as possible and the
emulsion filtered through paper. This gave a faintly milky solu-
tion containing a very great number of individuals but free from
lumps and large masses of germs.

"Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65:19, 1898.

70 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THB

Small drops of this liquid were transferred to sterile cover
slips placed in sterile Petri dishes. These drops dried up within
a few minutes leaving a film of germs upon each cover slip. The
Petri dishes each containing five cover slips, were then wrapped in
paper and placed in a closed drawer at a temperature of about
Me Be 212 GC.)

Each day five coverslips were transferred each to a sterile Petri
dish and melted agar added. At the end of several days transfers
were made from the resulting colonies to sterile potato upon
which P. campestris produces most characteristic growth. Pure
cultures were also preserved for further identification.

The results of three such tests may be summarized as follows:
During the first two days a large part of the germs are destroyed
and by the end of the third day few survive. From the third to
the tenth day an occasional germ is found alive but we have not
found one alive after ten days. In many cases they were all
dead on a coverslip before the end of the third day.

PLAN OF TEST ON CABBAGE SEED.

In view of the above results it seemed hardly probable that the
germs on the seed would survive long enough to be a source of
danger. To settle this point it was decided to infect some seed
heavily and observe the length of time that the germs would
survive. .

In the test of April 29, 1903, a vigorous growth of P. campestris
two days old on agar slope was covered with ten cubic centi-
meters of water and thoroughly stirred into the water. This
emulsion was filtered through paper to remove the larger solid
particles and 5 ce. of the filtrate poured over 260 cabbage seeds
(var. Early Jersey Wakefield). After the seeds had soaked in
the germ-impregnated water for a few minutes they were spread
out to dry for about four hours. hey were then thoroughly
dry. Five seeds were placed in each of 52 sterile test tubes
plugged with cotton. Twenty-six tubes were left in this condi-
tion while the other twenty-six were sealed by paraffining the
cotton plugs. The whole 52 tubes were then put into covered
pasteboard boxes and stored in a room which was kept at a tem-
perature ranging from 60°-70° F. (16-21° ©.). The object of
paraffining a portion of the tubes was to prevent excessive drying.
By treating the seeds in these different ways it was hoped to

“J

=

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. (ae

approximate the conditions at the outside and at the interior of
commercial packages of seed held in storage.

SOURCE AND PATHOGENICITY OF CULTURE.

The culture of P. campestris which was used in this test was
isolated in March, 1902, from a Long Island seed cabbage which
had already passed the winter in the trenches.

To be certain that neither its exposure to low temperatures
during the winter nor its subsequent long cultivation in the

_laboratory had destroyed its pathogenicity it was inoculated with

proper precautions into two young healthy cabbage plants in
the greenhouse, April 6, 1903. Ten days later the first signs of
black rot were showing and within a few days both plants
developed unmistakable evidence of this disease. The check plants
remained healthy.

EXAMINATION OF THE SEED.

Tubes containing 5 seeds each were examined at intervals of
about a month. One to two ce. of sterile water was added to each
tube and allowed to stand over night. On the following morning
the water and seeds were distributed among three lactose agar
plates. From these plates the resulting colonies were removed
and studied.

A detailed statement of the dates and results of the various
examinations is given in the accompanying table.

TaBLy [EXAMINATION OF TUBES CONTAINING ARTIFICIALLY

INFECTED CABBAGE SEED.

|
| Tusres CONTAINING
TuBEs EXAMINED. P. campestris.
DATE. Interval.
| |
| Not | Not
| Paraffined. paraffined. | Paraflined. paraffined.
; Months. No. | No. No. No.
A aia!! AIDS ae ots B16 ofa eRe oe Or COD Dine Reread ek tae nt aD Aol eee eicreeeac a rnieie aee
MIDIS #2 Sh, Siocate ether niahs 1 | 3 3 2 2
Ugh ees ah ce erteteie wisn 2 3 4) 1 2
PAUSE RRO sis cccnvos¢ 3 1 1 0 | 0
September 4.......... 4 | 3 3 1 | 1
October Bee 5G jaws 5 | 3 3 2 | 3
November 7.......... 6 | 3 3 3 | 3
December oe athe 7 | 3 3 } 2 2
January 14., bey) earl 84 | 1 1 | 0 0
MANUAL: O85 oie eae, ae 9 1 1 0 0
February 26.....5..:.06 10 3 3 2 3
AS aia 7 RO eee 11 2 2 1 if
PLLA GeaLee EN foie eieser -$ stays! aaa oye 26 26 14 | 17

*Experiment started.

72 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

Attention should be called to the fact that in these tests we did
not determine the number of germs which survived in any case
but merely the fact that P. campestris was alive in certain tubes.
A quantitative determination would have been desirable but in
the nature of the case was difficult. The germs became so closely
attached to the seeds in the long drying that when the seeds were
placed directly into the agar the germs could not be dislodged
by shaking and later produced a confused growth around the
imbedded seeds. Grinding of the seeds was attempted but their
texture was such that they were not reduced to sufficiently fine
particles and the resulting growth was largely in clumps sur-
rounding the fragments of seeds.

We did not think it desirable to sterilize the seeds before apply-
ing the cultures of P. campestris as such treatment would
probably leave the surface of the seed in an abnormal condition
and vitiate the experiment. Accordingly, the growths around
the seeds were often a mixture in which P. campestris was com-
pelled to struggle for existence and from which it must be isolated
by sub-cultures. An earlier attempt to determine the vitality of
P. campestris on cabbage seed failed because we added the seed
to be tested to the agar without previous soaking.

A positive result in this experiment indicates with certainty
that P. campestris was alive upon the seed but a negative result
does not make it certain that they were all dead. On practically
all of the seeds there were gerins present other than P. campestris.
In some cases these germs found the watery solution to which
they were exposed some hours so satisfactory that they developed
rapidly and overran the resulting cultures so completely that a
recognition of P. campestris would have been impossible even
though it had been present in moderate numbers.

PATHOGENICITY OF GERMS ISOLATED FROM CABBAGE SEED.

The ability to produce disease is a function of germs which is
most readily affected by unfavorable conditions. It would not
have been surprising if the P. campestris which had remained
over winter on the dry cabbage seed were so weakened by this
exposure as to be incapable of attacking the tissue of healthy
cabbage plants.

Cultures of the germs which had been found on the seed at the
various examinations were preserved and on March 25, 1904, the

® ca

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 73

pathogenicity of a number of these cultures was tested by inocu-
lating healthy cabbage plants. These plants were grown in the
greenhouse and were inoculated with all precautions necessary
to prevent the entrance of other germs. Several check plants
were treated in the same way in all respects except that they
were pierced with a sterile needle instead of one dipped into
a bacterial culture. Two plants were inoculated with each culture
and eight cultures were tested representing two tubes from the
November, three tubes from the December, and three tubes from
the February examination. Two cultures were from tubes which
had been paraffined and six from unparaffined tubes.

April 15, the characteristic symptoms of black rot were show-
ing in fourteen of the sixteen inoculated plants. May 7, the dis-
ease was very evident in all of the inoculated plants. In order
to complete the proof that the diseased condition of the plants
was really due to the germ inoculated, cultures were made from
the diseased tissue in three plants representing a like number of
the original eight cultures and P. campestris found in pure cul-
ture. The check plants which had grown beside the inoculated
ones all remained healthy.

April 26, each of the two cultures obtained from the examina-
tions of April 4, was inoculated into two young cabbage plants
in the greenhouse with all necessary precautions. The plants
were growing rapidly and the temperature in the greenhouse
was high. May 3, the disease was showing in two of the inoculated
plants and May 7, it was evident in all four of them. Cultures
were made from the tissue of these plants and P. campestris
obtained. The two control plants remained healthy. The accom-
panying plate (Plate I) shows one of these control plants as well
as one inoculated with the culture of P. campestris. A number
of leaves have already been destroyed with the characteristic
lesions of black rot. The photograph was taken one month after
the inoculation.

REPETITION OF THE TEST ON CABBAGE SEED.

Oct. 17, 1903, a second lot of cabbage seed was infected as
nearly as possible in the same manner as in the first test using
the same strain of P. campestris. In this test ten seeds were
placed in each test tube,

74 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

We were unfortunate in this case in selecting cabbage seed
which was infected with a resistant and rapid growing bacillus.
When the examination of this seed was begun at the eighth
month the abundant growth of this form covered the plates so
completely that no P. campestris could be found. The method of
examination was later changed so as to leave the seeds in the
water only a few hours. With this modification we have obtained
P. campestris at the end of 814 and 914 months respectively and
the examination will be continued at later intervals.

SEED DISINFECTION.

From what has already been shown concerning the prevalence
of black rot in the seed cabbage fields, the presence of the dis-
ease germs on the seed and their ability to remain alive there, it is
seen that the commercial seed is a factor in the spread of the dis-
ease germs. A simple and effective method of destroying these
germs is much to be desired.

SOAKING A SATISFACTORY METHOD.

Soaking seed potatoes, cats, wheat and barley in disinfecting
solutions to free them from disease spores is common agricultural
practice. When small quantities of seed are to be treated, as is
the case with cabbage, soaking for a short time in a solution com-
bines simplicity with thoroughness in a satisfactory manner.

In this work, the destruction of the disease germs without
injury to the germination of the seed is the point to be attained.
Furtunately P. campestris does not form spores and is quickly
killed by weak solutions of common disinfectants, a 0.5 per cent.
solution of lysol’* destroying it in one minute. Since the time
for sowing cabbage seed is about the same as that for planting
potatoes we have tested the solutions of corrosive sublimate and
formalin commonly used upon potatoes with regard to their
effects upon the germination of cabbage seed.

EFFECT OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE ON GERMINATION.

It was first attempted to determine what strength of corrosive
sublimate solution can be borne by cabbage seeds without injury
to their germination. Three lots of seeds, one hundred seeds

2 Wis, Agr, Exp. Sta.{Bul, 65:19, 7J1898,

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 75

each, were placed for five minutes in corrosive sublimate solutions
having a strength of 1-500, 1-1000, and 1-2000. A fourth lot
of one hundred seeds was soaked in distilled water for five min-
utes as a control. The seeds were sown in pots in the green-
house on April 7 and covered with soil to a depth of three-eighths
of an inch. On April 17 the number of plants showing above
ground was as follows: Control, 75; corrosive sublimate 1-500,
74; corrosive sublimate 1-1000, 80; corrosive sublimate 1-2000,
70. The treated seed gave seedlings as vigorous as those from
the control. Apparently, there was no injury in any case.

As 1-1000 is the strength of corrosive sublimate used on seed
potatoes it was next undertaken to determine the length of time
that cabbage seed may be exposed to it without injury. April
22 one hundred cabbage seeds were placed in 1-1000 solutions of
corrosive sublimate for periods of 15, 30 and 60 minutes. The
same number of seeds were soaked one hour in distilled water.
After treatment, the seeds were planted as before.

May 3 the seedlings were counted with the following result:
Control, 69; corrosive sublimate 15 minutes, 73; corrosive sub-
limate 30 minutes, 82; corrosive sublimate 1 hour, 71. In
this experiment the plants from untreated seed seemed a trifle
more vigorous than those from treated seed. However, in view
of the fact that the percentage of germination was not lowered
in any case it seems likely that the greater vigor of the control
plants was due to some other cause than the treatment. —

Later, a pound of cabbage seed was soaked for fifteen minutes
in 1-1000 corrosive sublimate solution apparently without injury.
The seed germinated satisfactorily and the plants grew thriftily.

EFFECT OF FORMALIN ON GERMINATION.

In order to determine whether cabbage seed may be disinfected
with formalin without injury to the germination the following
experiment was made: Ten cubic centimeters of formalin (40
per ct. formaldehyde) was mixed with 2400 cubic centimeters of
water. In this solution eight lots of cabbage seed, 100 seeds in
each lot, were soaked for different lengths of time; two lots, 15
minutes; two lots, 30 minutes; two lots, one hour; two lots,
two hours. Two other lots were left untreated for a check. As
soon as the treated seeds were dried they were sown in boxes

76 ReEeporT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

in the greenhouse. This was done September 28. On October
10 the plants from each lot of seed were counted. The seed
treated fifteen minutes gave an average germination of 388 per
ct.; 30 minutes, 32.05 per ct.; one hour, 24.5 per ct.; two hours,
14 per ct.; untreated, 34 per ct. The seedlings appeared equally
vigorous in all lot's except those treated for two hours. It seems
likely that the two-hour treatment was somewhat injurious, but
the experiment must be repeated before a positive statement to
that effect can be made. The 15-minute treatment appeared to do
no harm.

The strength of the formalin solution used in this experiment |

was the same as that generally recommended for use in treating
potatoes to prevent scab, namely, one pint or pound to thirty
gallons of water.

DIRECTIONS FOR SEED DISINFECTION.

Cabbage and cauliflower seed may be disinfected either with
corrosive sublimate or with formalin.

If corrosive sublimate is used, the strength of the solution

should be one part of corrosive sublimate to one thousand parts
of water. The most convenient method of preparing this solu-
tion is to use the Corrosive sublimate tablets sold by druggists for
making disinfecting solutions. One tablet, costing one cent, is
sufficient to make a pint of solution which is about the quantity
required to treat one pound of cabbage seed. The seed should
be soaked in this solution for fifteen minutes and then spread out
to dry. z

If formalin is used the strength of the solution should be one
part of formalin (40 per ct. formaldehyde) to 240 parts of water
and the seed soaked fifteen minutes.

With both corrosive sublimate and formalin the strength of
solution recommended is approximately the same as is generally
used in treating seed potatoes to prevent scab; namely, two and
one-fourth ounces of corrosive sublimate to fifteen gallons of
water or one pint of formalin in thirty gallons of water. Since
the usual time of sowing cabbage seed is about the same as that
for planting potatoes it may often happen that the solution re-
quired for disinfecting the cabbage seed may be taken from that
prepared for treating potatoes, thus avoiding the bother of prepar-
ing a small quantity especially for the cabbage seed.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. vat

While it appears that cabbage seed is not injured by soaking
for one hour in either solution, fifteen minutes is undoubtedly
sufficient to accomplish the disinfection and there is no necessity
for taking any risk on a longer treatment.

In using the corrosive sublimate solution it should be borne
in mind that it is a strong poison; also, that it readily corrodes
metal, hence should not be used in metal vessels. The formalin
solution is much less poisonous and does not corrode metal.

A convenient method of treating the seed is to place it ina
small bag made of any loose cloth readily penetrated by water
’ and suspend the bag in the disinfecting solution for the required
length of time. The seed should be dried without delay. If
artificial heat is used in drying great care should be taken to
avoid over heating as the germination may be thereby injured.
Probably drying the seed in the sun should be avoided as it is
believed by some seedsmen that exposure to sunlight injures the
germination of cabbage seed.

THE RELATION OF INFECTION ON THE SEED TO
OUTBREAKS OF BLACK ROT.

On accepting the truth of the facts here presented regarding
the danger of spreading P. campestris by means of the seed the
reader should not conclude that a treatment of the seed before
planting will insure total immunity from an outbreak of black
rot. Neither should the absence of an outbreak in untreated
seed be taken as a proof of the absence of disease germs. The
presence of P. campestris is absolutely necessary, but it is only
one of several factors concerned in such an outbreak. In addi-
tion to the presence of the disease germ there must be an avail-
able avenue of entrance to the host plant and the host plant itself
must be in a favorable condition to succumb before the outbreak
will occur.

Outbreaks of black rot in the seed beds are not frequent. In
our own observations we have found diseased plants there only
occasionally. However, by the time the disease appears in the
field the seed beds are usually destroyed and our observations on
this point have been correspondingly limited. From the early
history of the fields which we have seen and from the observa-
tions of large growers of cabbage it seems probable that in

78 Report OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST.

exceptional cases many of the plants in a seed bed are infected
with P. campestris. In the absence of more direct observation, a
discussion of the method of entrance of the germs to the plants
in the seed bed has little value.

A second danger which probably is more important lies in the
infection of the soil. By the act of transplanting, many of the
plant roots are broken, exposing the cut ends of the fibro-vascu-
lar bundles. Some growers regularly break the ends from the tap
roots when they are not accidentally removed. At this time if
P. campestris is in the soil either of the seed bed or the field it has
an opportunity to enter these broken bundles. Field observa-
tions have shown that infection through the roots is not infre-
quent. If the conditions are such as to favor an outbreak these
root-infected plants quickly become a total loss and act as cen-
ters for spreading the disease in the field.

The disinfection of cabbage seed, like the treatment of seed
potatoes, is intended to prevent the spread of the disease organ-
isms. When such treated seed is planted or the plants set in
infected soil the treatment will have little value.

It is not expected that seed disinfection will give complete pro-
tection against black rot. In many cases the benefit may be very
small. But as the treatment costs nothing except a little bother,
and no other remedy is known, it is certainly advisable to disin-
fect the seed and thereby avoid unnecessary risk.

meee iy

OF THB

Chemical Department.

L. L. VAN SLYKE, Chemist.

EK. B. Harr, Associate Chemist.

1C. G. Jenter, Assistant Chemist.
W. H. AnbrREws, Assistant Chemist.
F. D. Fuuuer, Assistant Chemist.

C. W. Munce, Assistant Chemist.

A. J. Parren, Assistant Chemist.

F. A. Urner, Assistant Chemist.

TABLE oF CONTENTs.

I. Chemical changes in the souring of milk and their relations
to cottage cheese.

II. The nature of the principal phosphorus compound in wheat
bran.

III. The composition of commercial whale-oil soaps, with refer-
ence to spraying.

IV. A study of the composition of home-made cider vinegar.

‘Absent on leave,

Boer Meck

A & eee” Tay

Dy

REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE SOURING OF MILK AND
PEER RELA IONS 10; COTTAGE, CHRESE.*

L. L. VAN SuyKeE AND E. B. Hart.

SUMMARY.

1. Purpose of the Work.—The purpose of the wark discussed
in this bulletin was to learn the amounts of casein monolactate
and casein dilactate that are formed in the ordinary souring of
milk, and to consider the results in some of their practical appli-
cations to the manufacture, ripening and digestibility of cottage,
or Dutch, cheese.

2. Chemical Changes in Sowring of Milk.—(1) Decrease of
milk-sugar. The loss of milk-sugar increased quite rapidly for
32 hours at room temperature (65° to 80° F., 18° to 27° C.), after
which the change was small and in 72 to 96 hours ceased, when
the maximum loss of milk-sugar was reached, 1.50 per ct.,
equivalent to about 28 per ct. of the sugar originally present
in the milk. (2) Amount of lactic acid formed. The maximum
amount of lactic acid formed was about 0.90 per ct., which is
equivalent to about 62 per ct. of the milk-sugar that disap-
peared. (3) Coagulation of milk in relation to acid. , At the
temperatures used, the milk coagulated in 24 to 2914 hours, when
the percentage of total acid shown by titration had reached 0.6
to 0.7. (4) Formation of casein monolactate and casein dilactate.
When the milk was first visibly coagulated, 18 to 14 per ct. of
the casein was in the form of monolactate and 86 to 87 per ct.
was in the form of dilactate. With further increase of acid in
the milk, the monolactate passes into the dilactate.

* Reprint a Bulletin No, 245,
6

82 RePorRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

3. Yield and Composition of Cottage Cheese.—(1) Yield of
cheese from 20.5 pounds of milk varied from 3.56 to 4.63 pounds
under the conditions tried. (2) Moisture in cheese varied from
below 70 to over 80 per ct. The variation in moisture accounts
largely for the variation in yield. The amount of moisture in
cheese is dependent upon the temperature used in curdling the
milk and in heating the curd to expel moisture and also on the
length of time the curd is heated. Cottage cheese of the best tex-
ture should contain 70 to 75 per ct. of moisture. Best success
was attained when milk was soured and curdled not much above
70° F. (21° C.) and the subsequent heating was not carried above
90° F. (82° ©.) (8) Milk-sugar in the cheese varied from 3.28 to
4.08 per ct., which is equivalent to 10 to 16 per ct. of the sugar
originally present in the milk. Of the sugar in the milk, 23 to 27
per ct. was decomposed in the souring. (4) Nitrogen in cheese
is mostly in the form of casein dilactate, equivalent to 2 to 2.5
per ct. of nitrogen.

4. Manufacture of Cottage Cheese by Direct Addition of an
Artificial Acid to Milk.—Milk was coagulated by addition of
lactic acid and hydrochloric acid and the curd made into cottage
cheese. Satisfactory results in every respect were secured. For
example, hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20), diluted with 10 times
its volume of water, was added to milk in the proportion of 8
ounces for 100 pounds of milk at 75° F. (24° C.) and stirred
vigorously. The curd separated at once in flocculent form and was
strained from the whey without further heating. Any absence
of sour-milk flavor can be supplied by mixing with the cheese
some ripened cream. Cheese made in this way contains more
milk-sugar and more nitrogen than cheese made by the ordinary
method of souring milk.

5. Slight Change of Insoluble into Soluble Nitrogen Compounds
in Cottage Cheese. Cottage cheeses were made by ordinary sour-
ing method from whole milk and from pasteurized and unpasteur-
ized skim-milk, with and without rennet, and were examined at
intervals to ascertain to what extent insoluble nitrogen com-
pounds change into soluble ones, as in the case of cheddar cheese.
Such proteolytic changes as occurred in 2 to 3 weeks were in-
Significant.

Nuw YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 83

6. Artificial Digestion of Some Compounds of Casein and Para-
casein contained in Cottage Cheese.—According to popular belief,
fresh cottage cheese is more readily digested than cheddar cheese.
To test this by laboratory methods, we have subjected to pepsin
digestion, without hydrochloric acid and with hydrochloric acid
in varying proportions, fresh cottage and cheddar cheese, in which
we had one or more of the following substances: Paracasein,
paracasein monolactate in cheddar cheese, paracasein dilactate,
casein monolactate, casein dilactate (cottage cheese) prepared by
normal souring of milk and also by direct addition of lactic acid
to milk, and casein dihydrochloride. (1) In the absence of acid,
paracasein fails to be digested by pepsin, while paracasein mono-
lactate (the chief nitrogen compound of fresh cheddar cheese),
paracasein dilactate, casein monolactate and casein dilactate
(cottage, or Dutch, cheese) are partially digested. Paracasein
monolactate and casein monolactate, in the absence of acid, are
digested more than are paracasein dilactate and casein dilactate.
(2) In the presence of 0.4 per ct. of hydrochloric acid, para-
casein dilactate is digested by pepsin more than is paracasein
monolactate. Paracasein monolactate and dilactate and casein
monolactate and dilactate and casein dihydrochloride digest more
readily and completely in the presence of free hydrochloric acid
than in its absence. (38) Casein dilactate and casein dihydro-
chloride do not differ in the rapidity and extent to which they are
converted into soluble compounds by pepsin. (4) The addition
of acid after the beginning of the digestion increases the amount
of proteid digested, whether we use cottage cheese or cheddar
cheese. (5) Cottage cheese made from whole milk digests more
rapidly than that made from skim-milk, owing to the loose tex-
ture of the former. Fat in such cases does not impede digestion.
(6) The rapidity of digestion is dependent in part upon the fine-
ness of division of the material to be digested. Cottage cheese
as ordinarily consumed is in a state of finer division than cheddar
cheese. (7) Cottage cheese may be properly regarded as more
readily digestible than new cheddar cheese for two reasons :—
First, the casein dilactate, the chief constituent of cottage cheese,
is more digestible by pepsin in the presence of free hydrochloric
acid than is paracasein monolactate, the principal nitrogenous

84 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

constituent of cheddar cheese. Second, cottage cheese is in such
a mechanical condition that it admits of easier attack by diges-
tive agents than does new cheddar cheese.

7. Description of methods used in the manufacture of Cottage,
or Dutch, Cheese.—Under this head are described (1) the material
to use, (2) the preparation of a “starter,” (3) the manufacture
of cottage cheese (a) by ordinary souring of milk, (b) when a
starter is used, (c) when rennet is used together with a starter,
and (d) by direct addition of hydrochloric acid.

8. Qualities of Cottage Cheese.—Flavor and texture are chief
importance in determining the commercial value of cottage cheese.
The flavor should be that of mildly soured or properly: ripened
cream. The texture should be smooth and free from harshness.

INTRODUCTION.

In the ordinary souring of milk, two phenomena are familiar,
first, the formation of acid resulting in giving to milk a sour
taste and, second, the curdling or coagulation of the milk-casein.
The formation of lactic ackl in the souring of milk from milk-
sugar by means of acid-forming organisms has been well known
for years, but the character of the action causing coagulation of
milk-casein has not been satisfactorily understood, though ex-
plained in various ways.

Among the explanations that have been offered to indicate
what takes place when an acid precipitates milk-casein, we will
call attention to two. The first explanation was offered by Scheele
in 1780, who was the pioneer in the study of lactic acid. He
expressed the view that the precipitate formed by treating milk
with an acid is a compound produced by the union of the acid
with milk-casein. In 1865 Millon and Commaille’ carried on
some experiments which led them to the same view. In 18938

Timpe*? made a study of the souring of milk and stated that a
given amount of casein unites with a definite quantity of lactic

acid to form a definite compound.

The second explanation offered appears to have originated with
Hammarsten. In 1848 Rochleder had made the statement that
the precipitation of milk-casein by an acid did not result in form-

1Compt. rend., 59: 301 (1865).
2Arch. hyg., 18: 1 (1893).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 85

ing a definite chemical compound. Owing to the variation in
views expressed by different workers, Hammarsten® took up the
question and concluded as a result of his work that there was no
ground for believing that a chemical combination takes place
between casein and the acid used to precipitate it. He based his
statement on the fact that by rubbing for several days in a mor-
tar with different portions of water a precipitate formed by casein
with an acid, he was able to remove the acid so completely that
the remaining precipitate gave no test for acid. With the more
recent knowledge we have of the looser forms of chemical com-
bination common to proteids and the tendency of such compounds
to dissociate under conditions less severe than those used by
Hammarsten, his work can not be regarded as settling the ques-
tion in such an absolute manner as he indicates. According to
Hammarsten,* milk-casein contains calcium phosphate in combin-
ation, and the treatment with acid removes the calcium phos-
phate, which results in precipitating casein. This view in some-
what modified forms has been held by Eugling,® Schaffer® and
Sdldner.?

In Bulletin No. 214 of this Station, pp. 67-71 (1902), we
ealled attention in a preliminary way to the fact that we had
isolated two different compounds formed by casein when treated
with lactic acid, one of which we called casein monolactate and
the other casein dilactate. Both compounds are insoluble in
water. The monolactate is completely soluble at about 130° F.
(55° C.) in a 5 per ct. solution of sodium choride, while the
dilactate is practically insoluble. It appears that Hammarsten
really prepared these compounds but did not recognize what they
were or their relations to each other. He says:3 “ When we care-
fully precipitate a very dilute solution of casein with a very
dilute acid, there is formed a loose precipitate, which dissolves
completely in sodium chloride to an opalescent liquid.” He adds
that when too much acid is used, a precipitate is formed that
is insoluble in sodium chloride solution.

’Maly Jahresber. d. Thierchem., '7: 160 (1877).

‘Maly Jahresber. d. Thierchem., 4: 135 (1874).

‘Landw. Versuchs.-Stat., 31: 392 (1885).

*Landw. Jahrb. d. Schweiz, 1: 33 (1887).

‘Landw. Versuchs.-Stat., 35: 351 (1889).
*Maly Jahresber. d. Thierchem., 7: 163 (1877).

.

86 ‘Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

We are still engaged in a more complete study of the chemical
relations of acids to casein, the final results of which will be
published later. By our further study we have been able to pre-
pare these compounds under more complete control. It is our
purpose in this bulletin to present the results of some work done
to show the amounts of the mono- and di-compounds of casein
formed in the usual souring of milk, and also to consider these
results in some of their practical applications.

The manufacture of cottage, or Dutch, cheese is extensively
carried on both on a large scale in connection with creameries
and also on a small scale in private families. As this is a pro-
duct of the souring of milk, it seemed to us desirable to make
a careful study of the details of the process of making cottage
cheese. We have paid attention in our work to the following
points:

(1) What compound of casein, the monolactate or dilactate,
is most largely present in cottage cheese?

(2) What conditions are most favorable for the production
of the best cottage cheese?

(3) Can cottage cheese be made successfully by the direct
addition to milk of artificial acids?

(4) Does ripening take place in cottage cheese, such as occurs
in cheddar cheese?

(5) What is the digestibility of cottage cheese in compari-
son with cheddar cheese, as shown by artificial peptic digestion?

EXPERIMENTAL PART.
THE CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE ORDINARY SOURING OF MILK.

We desired to study the relation existing between the dis-
appearance of milk-sugar in the usual souring of milk and the
formation of lactic acid, together with the resulting formation of
casein monolactate and casein dilactate. In one set of experi-
ments made for this purpose, we placed some fresh separator
skim-milk in an Erlenmeyer flask, stoppered with a plug of: cot-
ton. This was allowed to stand at room temperature and samples
were taken from this flask for examination from time to time.
In the first experiment, the room temperature varied from 65°

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 87

to 75° F. (18° to 24° C.); in the second, from 70° to 80° F.
(21° to 27° C.). In another ‘set of experiments, we used 3000
cc. of pasteurized separator skim-milk, to which had been added
50 ce. of a sour-milk starter. We placed in each of 14 cotton-
stoppered flasks 100 cc. of this milk and allowed one lot (3) to
stand at a temperature of 60° to 70° F. (15.5° to 21° C.) and
another lot (4) at a temperature of 70° to 80° F. (21° to 27° C.).
In this second set of experiments, we used the contents of one
flask for making an analysis at each stated period of time, no
flask being opened until its contents were used. The results of
these experiments are given in the table below:

TABLE I—SHOWING CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE SOURING OF MILK.

| Percent- | Percent-
No. Age of |Amount) Amount | Amount} Propor- age of age of
of milk of milk-| of milk- | of lactic} tion of nitrogen | caseinin | Coagu-
ex- when sugar in sugar acid in | sugar in | in milk in form of | lated.
peri- | analyzed. milk. changed. milk. milk soluble mono-
ment | changed. form. lactate. |
Hours. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
1 Fresh. SU) |) ————$_——= = | |
2 Fresh. 5.58 |
3 Fresh. 5.08 | 0.187
4 Fresh. 5.08 0.187
1 8 4.53 0.62 | 12.04 |
2 8 5.25 0.33 5.91
3 8 4.53 0.55 | 0.011* 10.83
4 | 8 4.32 0.76 | 0.081 14.96
| 24 4.25 0.90 ree oe ee ee Serie
2 24 4,42 | 1.16 20.-.80 21.19 12.70 | ) lated.
13 24 4.00 1.08 | 0.506* 21.26 | ———— | —— | { coagu-
4 24 3.79 1.29 .776* 25.40 | ————— | ———— | ) lated.
3 26 3.92 1.16 | 0.596* PAE 03) | | I iE
1 294 3.88 1.27 24.66 17.44 14.43 | | lated.
1 32 sega 1.44 | —— — 28.00 22.61 | 13.18
2 32 4.20 1.38 24.73 22.68 | 11.50
3 32 3.86 1.22 | 0.740* 24.00
4 32 3.76 | 1.32 | 0.848* 26.00 |
et 48 3.70 | 1.45 Wa Sta 22.80 10.20
2 48 4.18 | 1.40 25.10 21.19 8.61
3 48 3.79 |} 1.29 | 0.821* | 25.40
4 48 3.76 | 1.32 | 0.848 | 26.00
| |
1 | 72 it 3166 1.50 29.13 24.14 | 8.00
2 | 72 4.13 1.45 | 26.00 21.38 8.61
3 | 72 SEG at 1.32 | 0.839% | 26.00 |
4 72 3.02 | 1.36 | 0.857* 26.77
1 96 3.66 1.49 | 28.93 23.95 | 6.70
2 96 4.07 | 1 aii! | 27.06 22.87 | 6.00
3 | 96 3.70 1.38 | 0.875* | 27.16
4 96 3.69 1.39 | 0.884* | 27.36
|
2 120 4.07 oil | 27.06 22.68 5.74 |
3 120 3.62 1.46 | 0.893* | 28.74
4 120 3.64 | 1.44 | 0.884 * 28.35
| | |

*Amount of lactic acid less the amount of acid in the fresh milk.

88 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

We will consider the data contained in Table I under the head-
ings given below.

(1) Decrease of milk-sugar.—In all cases the loss of milk-sugar
increases quite rapidly for 32 hours, after which additional change
is slow and small. In 72 to 120 hours, the maximum loss is
reached; in experiment No. 1, no further change of milk-sugar
occurred after 72 hours; in No. 2, none after 96 hours. Of course,
at temperatures somewhat higher, less time would be required
for the transformation of the same amount of milk-sugar. Averag-
ing our results, we find that about 11 per ct. of the sugar present
in the milk at the start had disappeared in 8 hours; 21 per ct.,
in 24 hours; 25.5 per ct., in 32 hours; 26 per ct., in 48 hours;
27 per ct., in 72 hours; and 27.6 per ct. in 96 hours.

(2) Amount of lactic acid formed.—The maximum amount of
acid, calculated as lactic acid, was about 0.90 per ct., which is
equivalent to about 62 per ct. of the milk-sugar that disap-
peared. It is customary to represent in the following man-
ner the reaction by which milk-sugar is converted into lactic
acid:

Milk-sugar. Tactie acid.

OC; H,, 0 +H, 0O=26, Hos

According to this expression, all the milk-sugar is converted
into lactic acid, weight for weight. While this equation expresses
the most prominent chemical action that occurs, it certainly
fails to give anything like a complete or accurate statement of
the entire chemical action. In detail, our average results are as
follows: In 24 hours, 40 per ct. of the milk-sugar that had disap-
peared formed acid, lactic largely; in 32 hours, 58.5 per et.; in
48 hours, 64 per ct.; in 72 hours, 63.3 per ct.; in 96 hours, 63.5
per ct.; in 120 hours, 61.3 per ct.

As shown by Kayser,’ there may be present in addition to
lactic acid, as the products of the decomposition of milk-sugar
by lactic-acid forming organisms, carbon dioxide gas, formic acid,
acetic acid, acetone and alcohol. Mayer® has found that under the
most favorable conditions, we may possibly be able to get as much
as 83.9 parts of lactic acid from 100 parts of milk-sugar. The pres-

8Ann. Past., 8:737 (1894).
*Centralbl. Bakt., 12:99 (1892).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 89

ence of alcohol, volatile fatty acids and gases among the lactic
acid fermentation products has also been shown by Leichmann,’°
and acetone by Jacksch.1! The quantity of lactic acid formed
is dependent, according to Emmerling,’® upon a variety of condi-
tions, among which the following may be mentioned: The kind
of organism; the reaction of the material, a neutral reaction being
favorable; the presence or absence of air, the presence of air fav-
oring the formation of more of the volatile acids; the conditions of
nutrition, of temperature and of the presence or absence of certain
substances. ;

According to Timpe,'? for example, one of the lactic acid organ-
isms mentioned by him is checked in its growth by .04 per
ct. of free lactic acid. However, the growth is not checked, so
long as there are substances present with which the acid can
unite. We have such substances in milk. Using as a basis the
figures given by Soldner,“ the inorganic compounds in 100 grams
of milk would unite with 0.3938 gram of lactic acid. Timpe
found that 100 grams of milk-casein neutralize 8.415 grams of
lactic acid; the milk-casein in 100 grams of milk containing 2.5
per ct. of casein would therefore neutralize 0.2104 gram of
lactic acid. Thus the total amount of lactic acid neutralized by
100 grams of ordinary milk would be 0.604 per ct., and this
was about the amount of acid found by him in milk that had
soured in the usual way. In his experience, the maximum amount
of acid is reached in about 50 hours at ordinary temperatures.
Our results are somewhat higher than those of Timpe. We find
as our maximum more lactic acid, which is nearly all formed in
48 to 72 hours. There will, of course, be a variation in different
milks dependent upon the amount of casein and inorganic salts,
other conditions being uniform. Richet'® reports finding 1.6 per
cent. of lactic acid in sour milk, but this figure appears too
high and is probably due to some error in determination. Hueppe’®

Centralbl. Bakt., 16:826 (1894).
UBerl. Ber., 19:781.
“Die Zersetzung Stickstofffreien Organischen Substanzen durch Bakterien,
p. 34.
Arch, hyg., 18:1 (1893).
4Tandw. Versuchs.-Stat., 35:351 (1889).
Compt. rend, 86:550 (1878).
WM ittheil a. d. Gesundh., 2:309 (1884).

90 ReEeporT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

reports finding 0.8 per ct. of lactic acid in sour milk, a figure
that is quite close to the results of our work.

(3) Relation of coagulation of milk to amount of acid.—In the
case of experiment No. 3, the milk was found completely coagu-
lated, that is, solidfied in a mass, in 26 hours, when the amount
of tot'al acid had reached 0.783 per ct. In experiment No. 4,
the time of coagulation was 24 hours and the percentage of total
acid was 0.963. The milk in No. 2 had just coagulated when
the acidity of the whey was determined and it had the charac-
teristic odor of sour milk. A microscopic examination showed
the presence of a precipitate, but no free acid was indicated by
the calcium picrate test.17 In the case of experiments No. 1,
and No. 4 the milk coagulated in the night and our observation
was made in the morning, just how long after coagulation we do
not know. Under the ordinary conditions of souring, we can
expect, according to these results, that milk will coagulate when
the total acid reaches about 0.8 to 0.9 per ect. as indicated by
titration with standard alkali and phenolphthalein as indicator.
Deducting the amount of the original titration of the fresh milk,
and calling the rest lactic acid, we have coagulation taking place
when the lactic acid reaches 0.6 to 0.7 per ct. In producing
this amount of lactic acid, about 1.3 per ct. of milk-sugar dis-
appears, which is about 25 per ct. of the sugar originally present
in the milk used.

(4) Soluble nitrogen compounds.—The soluble nitrogen com-
pounds amounted to about 22 per ct. of the nitrogen in the milk.
This is practically all accounted for by the milk-albumin. The
constancy of the amount of soluble nitrogen also suggests that
it was present mostly if not entirely, as milk-albumin.

(5) Formation of casein monolactate and casein dilactate in
milk coagulated by ordinary souring.—When the milk was first
visibly coagulated, the amount of casein in the form of mono-
lactate was 13 to 14 per ct. of the casein in the milk and the
amount of casein dilactate was'86 to 87 per ct. of the casein
in the milk. As the milk grew more acid, the monolactate grad-
ually passed into the dilactate. The minute amount of mono-
lactate apparently present at the time the experiment was stopped
is due to a slight solubility of dilactate in a 5 per ct. salt
solution. When milk coagulates by souring in the usual way,

“Rohrer. Archiv. f. Physiol., 90:368 (1902).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 91

the casein is nearly all in the form of dilactate at the time the
milk has set in a solid mass.

It was desired to determine the amount of casein monolactate
in milk before the milk visibly coagulates. For studying this
point, some milk was set aside one day at 5 p. m., and the next
forenoon was warmed to about 104° F. (40° C.), when casein
monolactate separated from the milk. In this case, 65 per ct.
of the casein was in the form of monolactate, while no dilactate
was present.

The method employed by us in separating casein, casein mono-
lactate and casein dilactate, when they occur together in milk,
is as follows: The milk is heated to 104° F. (40° C.) and the mono-
lactate and dilactate separate as a precipitate. When only casein
and casein monolactate are present, filtration serves to separate
them. When the two lactates are present in the coagulum formed
after heating, they are removed from other milk constituents by
filtration and the monolactate is dissolved in a 5 per ct. solution
of sodium chloride at about 130° F. (55° C.), when the two com-
pounds are separated by filtration.

CONDITIONS OF MANUFACTURE IN RELATION TO THE YIELD AND COM-
POSITION OF COTTAGE, OR DUTCH, CHEESE.

The names, cottage cheese and Dutch cheese, are applied to the
product made by allowing milk to stand until it coagulates by
ordinary souring, the curd being drained to allow the escape
of much of the whey, after which it is salted, pressed into the
form of balls, and is then ready for consumption. The souring
is often hastened by adding a little sour milk or other “ starter.”
In commercial manufacture on a large scale, a “ starter ” is used
and also a small amount of rennet extract is added to the partially
soured milk in order to hasten its coagulation and save time in
the process of manufacture. Skim-milk is commonly employed
in making cottage cheese. When whole milk is used, so much of
the fat is lost in. the whey that the process is a very wasteful
one. It is good economy to use separator skim-milk and then
to mix cream with the cheese when it is salted, if it is desired
to have fat in the cheese. In this way, the fat can be more
economically incorporated and its amount in the cheese kept
under better control.

92 ReEPoRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THB

The directions commonly given for the manufacture of cottage
cheese vary greatly in their details as stated by different writers,
but in general there is a serious lack of specific details in the
various steps of the operation. Thus, a great variation is found
in the temperature employed for souring the milk and a still
greater variation in that used for heating the coagulated mass in
order to expel the whey. After presenting the results of our work,
we will discuss the best conditions to be observed in making
Dutch cheese.

We will first consider the results of work done when the coagu-
lation occurred at different temperatures and the milk was al-
lowed to sour by the lactic acid formed in the decomposition of
the sugar in the milk. In each of the following experiments, we
used 20 pounds of pasteurized separator skim-milk and added to
it one-half of a pound of sour milk as a “starter.” In experi-
ments 2, 8 and 4, portions of the same milk were used. The milk
was kept at temperatures varying from 40° to 80° F. (5° to
27° ©.) in different experiments until fully coagulated, which
required from 24 to 48 hours. After the mass of curd was cut
or broken, it was heated to 85° to 90° F. (29° to 32° C.), until
the whey separated well. It was then allowed to drain as long
as whey continued to come from the mass, usually being suspended
in a muslin bag to facilitate the draining.

Determinations of sugar were made in the milk, whey and
cheese; and a record was kept of the amounts of whey and
cheese. The conditions employed and the results obtained in the
different experiments are given in Table II.

Taste II.—SHowING CONDITIONS AND RESULTS IN MANUFACTURE
oF CoTTaAGE CHEBSE.

|
Tempera- Perot dl
No. of } tureused') pounds |. of moist Per ct. Pounds | Per ct. of | Pounds
experi- | in coagu- | of ira ant of sugar of sugar nitrogen | of nitro-
ment. ae CEES. in in in | gen in
milk.
|
Milk. Degrees F. Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk.

1 70°-72° | 20.5 | ————_ } 5.78 1.19 0.59 | 0.12
2 40°-50° | 20.5 | ——— | 5.69 All Sale 0.56 0.11
3 60° 20.5 5.69 ily led 0.56 0.11
4 80° 20.5 | 5.69 7 0.56 O-n1

Whey. | Whey. | | Whey. Whey. | Whey. Whey.
a —————————— 15.87 | —————— 4.54 0.72 0. 13: | 0.02
2 16.31 4.78 0.78 | 0.14 0.02
3 16.31 4.47 O78.) 0.13 0.02
4 15.31 | 4.35 0.67 | 0.13 | 0.02

|

Cheese. Cheese. | | Cheese. Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese.
2 3.94 | 75.8 4.04 0.16 | 2.41 | 0.10
2 | 3.56 70.9 | 3.28 0.12 | 2.50 0.09
3 | 3.63 71.8 | 3.40 O.g2st 2.43 0.09
4 4.63 83.9 4.08 0.19 | 2.00 0.09

|

“a

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 93

Another set of experiments was planned to test particularly the
influence of the temperature of coagulation and of subsequent
heating upon the amount of moisture retained in the cheese; the
results of this set of experiments gre given in Table III.

In studying the results embodied in this table, we call atten-
tion to the following statements :—

(1) Yield of cheese.—The yield of cheese varied from 3.56 to
4.63 pounds for the 20.5 pounds of milk used. Stated in another
way, it required 4.48 to 5.75 pounds of the milk used to make
one pound of cheese. This difference in yield of cheese was
largely due to the varying amounts of water retained in the
curd.

(2) Moisture in cheese——The moisture in the cheese varied
from 70.9 to 83.9 per ct. This variation is largely dependent
upon the temperature at which the milk is kept during souring
and coagulating and especially upon the temperature and the
length of time employed in expelling the whey from the curd.

(3) Influence of temperature upon moisture of cheese—Special
experiments were made for the purpose of studying the influence
of the temperature of souring and of subsequent heating upon
the amount of moisture held in the cheese. In every case we
used 20 pounds of milk and one-half pound of starter. The results
of this work are given in the following table:

Taste Il] —Suowine INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE OF COAGULA-
TION AND HEATING UPON MOISTURE IN CHEESE.

Time
Tempera- .
Tempera- re te Ae co eee Time IK t
No. of | ture at Taaad WHE raise tem-| highest required Faeraie Tex f
experi-| which heated to | perature | tempera- | for curd | ° 18 pias RY
ment. | milk was | Scnarate | to highest | ture to to drain ah pe MAELSISIEE
coagulated. oie } point removing fully. sy etetectet
poets aie used. curd from
| : : whey.
|
Degrees F. | Degrees F.| Minutes. Minutes. Minutes Per ct.
1 60 80 60 15 135 77.6 | Good.
2 60 90 20 5 145 78.8 | Soft.
3 70 80 30 30 | 150 81.5 | Mushy
4 70 90 40 15 | 10 | 73.5 | Good.
5 80 90 2 10 60 74.9 | Good.
6 80 | 100 35 5 | 50 | 71.8 | Slightly dry.
if 90 | 100 20 0 | 5 | 71.5 | Slightly dry.
8 90 110 30 0 | 5 | 68.1 | Tough, hard.

The data in this table indicate that—(a) when the milk during
souring is kept below 80° F. (27° C.) and not heated above this

94 REPORT OF THH CHEMIST OF THE

temperature after coagulation, the subsequent draining of the
whey from the cheese is slow and incomplete and the cheese is
apt to contain too much moisture (experiments 1 and 3); (b)
when a temperature of 90° F. 432° C.) is employed after coagula-
tion and the mass kept at this temperature for about 15 minutes,
the subsequent draining of the whey from the curd is complete in
a short time (experiments 4 and 5); (c) when a temperature of
80° F. to 90° F. (27° to 32° C.) is used during the souring and
the subsequent heating carried on at or above 90° F. (32° C.)
the rapidity of draining and the dryness of the curd depend upon
the length of time the mass is kept at the higher temperature
(experiments 5, 6, 7 and 8).

Thus, it is seen that between 60° F. and 90° F. (15.5° and 32° C.)
the temperature at which the milk sours and coagulates has less
influence upon the rapidity of draining and the dryness of the
cheese than has the temperature and time employed in heating
the mass after coagulation. The lower the temperature used in
souring and coagulating the milk, the slower will the whey-drain
from the curd, when the degree of temperature and length of time
employed in heating the mass after coagulation are the same.
The higher the temperature employed in heating the mass after
coagulation, the shorter is the time required to effect the separa-
tion of the whey from the curd. The longer or higher the mass
is heated after the coagulation, the more quickly will the whey
drain from the curd. When the curd was heated to 100° F.
(388° C.) or more after coagulating at 90° F. (82° C.) the separa-
tion was completely effected by the time the higher temperature

was reached and it was at once ready to drain, this process re-
quiring only 5 minutes.

According to our experience, good results are obtained Ke
allowing the milk to sour and coagulate at 70° F. to 75° F. (21°
to 24° C.) then heating to 90° F. (82° C.) using 30 to 40 minutes
to raise the temperature, the heating at 90° F. (82° C.) being
continued for about 15 minutes after this temperature has been
reached. If one uses a temperature above 90° F. (32° C.), say
100° F. (88° C.) the curd should be removed from the whey either
at once or within a few minutes after 100° F. (38° C.) has been
reached, unless it is desired to make a cheese containing less

New Yorek AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 95

moisture. By regulating the temperature and length of time
used in heating the curdled mass, one can control the moisture
in the cheese, making it more or less dry at will.

When the souring of milk takes place at a temperature above
90° F. (32° C.) the curd formed is apt to be very soft and mushy,
probably due to some kind of proteolytic action on casein, and
it is often extremely difficult under such conditions to expel the
moisture, except at a temperature that spoils the product.

The amount of moisture retained in cottage cheese is a matter
of much importance in relation to the quality of the cheese. In
our experience, cottage cheese should contain about 70 to 75 per
ct. of moisture in order to have the much-desired smooth con-
sistency or texture that characterizes a well-made cottage cheese.
If it contains much more moisture than this, the cheese is soft,
mushy, uninviting in appearance and difficult to handle. On the
other hand, if cottage cheese contains only 50 or 60 per ct. of
moisture, it is dry, granular and harsh and in the mouth feels like
wet sawdust. It is probable that tastes may vary in respect to
the amount of moisture desired. People who have never eaten
anything but cottage cheese of texture like sawdust may have
acquired a taste for that kind, but most people would not by
preference choose such in place of that having the softer, smoother
texture.

The right amount of mositure is most easily secured when the
milk is kept not much above 70° F. (21° ©.) in the process of
souring and the subsequent heating is not carried above 90° F.
(B2F 6).

(4) Amount of milk-sugar—The amount of milk-sugar de-
composed in the souring varied from 1.23 to 1.42 per ct., which
is equivalent to 22 to 25 per ct. of the sugar present in the milk.
The amount of milk sugar in cheese varied from 3.28 to 4.08 per
ct. Of the amount of milk-sugar present in the milk, from 57.12
to 66.90 per ct. went into the whey, while from 10 to 16.21 per ct.
went into the cheese. The higher the moisture in the cheese, the
greater was the amount of sugar.

(5) Amount of nitrogen.—The nitrogen in Dutch cheese is
mostly in the form of casein dilactate. A little albumin is
retained in the whey of the cheese. The nitrogen in the cheese

96 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

varied from 2 to 2.5 per ct. From 17 to 19 per ct. of the nitro-
gen of the milk went into the whey. Some casein dilactate in
the form of fine particles of curd, is usually lost in the operation
of removing the whey from the curd.

(6) Separation of whey from curd—lt is a matter of impor-
tance in the manufacture of cottage cheese that the whey shall
separate readily from the curd and shall be clear. Milky whey
means loss of solids and usually accompanies a slow separation
of whey. For effecting satisfactorily the separation of whey

from curd, milk is generally heated to a temperature considerably
above that employed in souring the milk. In our experience,
we have found the whey to separate readily and clear when the
souring has been carried on at a temperature of about 70° F.
(21° C.) and after complete coagulation and cutting, the tem-
perature has been gradually raised to 85° to 90° F. (29° to
32° C.), and held at that temperature for not less than fifteen
minutes.

THE MANUFACTURE OF COTTAGE CHEESE BY THE DIRECT ADDITION
OF AN ARTIFICIAL ACID TO MILK.

Since the coagulation of milk-casein can be readily accomplished
by adding any common acid directly to milk, it occurred to us that
some practical application could be made of this fact in the
preparation of cottage cheese. We first used lactic acid, adding it
to milk in the proportions of 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 per ct. by
weight of the milk used. Hydrochloric acid was also used in pro-
portion of 0.25 per ct. The acid was always diluted with 8 to
10 times its volume of water before being added to the milk. The
procedure was to bring the milk to a certain temperature and then
to add the diluted acid to the milk, mixing it through the mass
of milk as quickly and completely as possible. The mixing not
only distributes the acid but prevents the curd forming in a solid
mass or in large lumps. The stirring is continued until the whey
separates clear. The curd separates in flocculent form and does
not need any additional cutting or breaking. When small quan-
tities of milk are used, the whole mass can be put on a strainer
and allowed to drain. In the case of large quantities of milk, the
curd can be allowed to settle in the vat and the whey run off in

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 97

the usual way and the curd allowed to drain. In the experiments
tabulated below, we used in each case 20 pounds of pasteurized
separator skim-milk. After the addition of acid, the curd was
allowed, in several cases, to stand 15 to 45 minutes before remoy-
ing the curd from the whey, but usually there was no advantage
in waiting this length of time.

TaBLE 1V.—MANUFACTURE OF CoTTAGE CHEESE By USE oF ARTT-
FICIAL ACIDS.

Temp. of ° a

No. of milk when Kind and Character of Character of | Moist-
experi- matdaray amount of curd aahe ure in
ment. edded acid used. a we cheese.
Degrees F. Lactic. Per ct.

1 90° 0.4 per et Soft and slimy Sep., slow a

2 90° 0.5 per et Softer than 3 Clear 70.9

3 90° 0.6 per ct Firm and dry Clear 64.7

4 152. 0.6 per ct. | Good Clear 74.6

a 105° 0.6 per ct. | Hard, dry Clear 60.4

6 105° 0.8 per ct. | Tough, dry Clear 62.0

7 105° 1.0 per ct Tough, dry Clear, sour 51.8

Hydrochloric.

8 752 0.25 per et. | Good Clear WSiou

9 Haye 0.25 per ct. | Good Clear 76.4

The following statements summarize the data embodied in

Table IV :—

(1) Amount of acid used.—When less than 0.5 per ct. of
lactic acid was used, the resulting curd was soft and slimy, and
the whey separated slowly and incompletely. When more than
0.6 per ct. of lactic acid was used, the curd was too dry. The
use of 0.25 per ct. of hydrochloric acid gave satisfactory results.
We have previously*® called attention to the fact that mineral
acids are required in smaller amounts than organic acids to pre-
cipitate casein completely.

(2) Effect of temperature——When the milk was at a tempera-
ture of 105° F. (40° C.) at the time the acid was added, the whey
was clear and separated rapidly, but the curd was much too dry
and hard. Good results were obtained at 80° F. (32° C.), when we
used 0.5 per ct. of lactic acid, while with 0.6 per ct. the curd
was too dry. The temperature of 75° F. (24° ©.), with 0.6 per
ct. of lactic acid gave good results in every respect. With 0.25
per ct. of hydrochloric acid, a temperature of 75° F. (24° C.)

Bulletin No. 14, p. 67, (1902).
7

: ce —
We
an

98 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

gave a very satisfactory product in respect to clearness of whey,
rapidity of its separation and texture of curd.

Three special experiments were made to test the action of
different temperatures upon the coagulation of milk-casein by
hydrochloric acid. In each of these experiments we used 20
pounds of separator skim-milk and added 0.25 per ct. of hydro-
chloric acid. The results are given in the following table:—

TABLE V.—SHOWING INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON COAGULATION
OF CASEIN BY HyprocHLoric ACID.

| |
N f Amount of | Tempera- Taeush of }

0. O' | Amount of | hydrochlo- | ture of milk iced for .| . 2iwieon Moisture
ater milk used. |. ric acid when acid q ar poh cheese. in cheese.
see used. | was added. Again |

|
Pounds. | Per ct. | Degrees F. | Hours. Min.} Pounds. Per ct.
1 20 | 0.25 | ; 60° 20 == | 2.9 72.4
2 20 0.25 | 70° 1 =| 3.9 (ouk
3 20 0.25 | 80° — 30 | 3.85 Va.
| |

The data embodied in Table V show that—(a) there was little
difference in the yield of cheese or moisture in the cheese when
the milk was at different temperatures at the time the acid was
added; (b) the time required for the curd to drain free from
whey was greatest when the lowest temperature was used, de-
creasing with increase of temperature. From these figures, it
appears that good results may be obtained at any temperature
between 70° F. and 80° F. (21° C. and 27° C.).

COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF MAKING COTTAGE CHEESE, BY DIFFERENT
METHODS.

In the following table we present the summarized results of .
work done by us in making cottage cheese (1) by natural sour- |
ing of milk with and without the addition of a starter, (2) by
coagulating milk with starter and rennet, (8) by direct addition
of lactic acid, and (4) by direct addition of hydrochloric acid.

The same milk was used in experiments 2, 3, 4 and 5.

*
+

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 99

TABLE VI.—SHOoWING RESULTS OF MAKING CoTTAGE CHEESE BY
DIFFERENT Mrruops.

Per ct. | Per ct. | Pounds | Per ct. | Pounds
No. of Per ct. =
ee : * Pounds of of of of of
experi-| Casein coagu- of acid of ator a . :
. 5 gar sugar nitro- nitro-
ment. : lated by we in in in gen in gen in
Milk. Milk, Milk. | Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk.
1 | Natural souring 20 5.69 | algaly¢ 0.56 0.110
2 | Natural souring 0.20 20 5.28 1.06 0.67 0.134
3 | Starter 0.20 20.5 5.28 1.08 0.67 0.137
4 | Starter and ren-
net 0.20 20.5 5.28 1.08 0.67 0.137
5 | Hydrochloric
acid 0.30 20 5228 | 1.06 0.67 0.134
6 | Hydrochloric | .
acid 0:25. | 20 Sece | 1.04 0.58 0.12
7 | Lactic acid 0.60 | 20 ae ee 1.04 0.58 0.12
|
| | |
Whey. Whey. | Whey. Whey. | Whey. | Whey Whey
1 | Natural souring O65. = 163 4.62 0°75, |" O-130 0.020
2 | Natural souring 0.72 fees 4.10 0.64 0.143 0.022
3 | Starter 0.72 15.9 4.10 | 0.65 0.151 0.024
4 | Starter and ren- |
net 0.70 Lee } 2 3297 Ove2) |) ONlst 0.021
5 | Hydrochloric
acid 0.49 | 16.5 5.24 0.86 0.125 0.021
6 | Hydrochloric
acid eh s oe 5.08 0.82 0.09 0.014
7 | Lactic acid 0.60 | 16.5 -09 | 0.84 0.09 0.014
|
|
Cheese. Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese. | Cheese.
1 | Natural souring | 3.60 Gh | Susan 0.12 2.48 0.090
2 | Natural souring 6.48 4.40 LS 3.91 0.17 2.40 0.106
3 | Starter 7.20 | 4.00 UiPARca (ae AS SY 0.13 2.60 0.104
4 | Starter and ren-| _
net 7256, | * -4..20: 75.6 3.64; 0.15 252 0.106
5 | Hydrochloric
acid 3.78 3.90 72.6 3.90 0.15 PAR 0.112
6 | Hydrochloric
acid Soa 76.4 4.64 0.17 PART A 0.100
7 | Lactic acid —— 3.50 74.6 4.72 0.17 2.94 0.100

(1) Yield of cheese.—The yield of cheese did not vary greatly
in the different processes of manufacture. From the same kind
of milk, we should obtain about the same amount of water-free
cheese. The difference of moisture makes most of the difference
in yield and this can be regulated by the temperatures employed,
other conditions being uniform.

(2) Composition of cheese—The cheese made by acids con-
tains a little more milk-sugar than that made by the natural
souring of milk. This is due to the fact that in the process of
natural souring, the fermentation changes about one-fourth of
the milk-sugar into lactic acid and other compounds, while no
such change occurs in the direct use of acids.

The cheese made with acids also contains a little higher amount
of nitrogen, indicating a somewhat more complete recovery, in
the cheese, of the nitrogen of the milk.

100 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

(3) Advantages of using an artificial acid directly in making
cottage cheese—The following advantages may be mentioned in
favor of making cottage cheese by direct addition of an artificial
acid to milk:

First, there is a marked saving of time and labor.—When milk
is soured in the usual way, it is necessary to wait 24 to 48 hours
and, even when a starter and rennet are used, not much less
than 24 hours is required. In the use of acid, the curd separates
at once. In the usual method of coagulation, the curd has to
be cut or broken up, while in the direct use of an acid the curd
is made to separate at once in flakes by stirring. From the
beginning of the operation to the removal of the whey, only a
few minutes are required by using artificial acid, while by natural
souring the same stage is reached only after 24 to 48 hours.

Second, ordinary room temperature can be used.—In our experi-
ence, a temperature of 70° F. to 80° F. (21° C. to 27° C.) gives
entirely satisfactory results. In normal souring, a considerably
higher temperature is required after souring and coagulation to
make the whey separate rapidly and at the same time clear and
to put the curd into condition to drain readily.

(4) Objections to the use of artificial acids in making cottage
cheese.—The following objections may be suggested against the
direct use of artificial acids in making cottage cheese:

First, cottage cheese made from sweet milk by the direct ad-
dition of an artificial acid does not have the characteristic flavor
of cheese made from milk that sours in the usual way. This
objection may easily be met since the flavor may readily be
secured by mixing with the cheese some sour milk, or preferably,
cream. . ;

Second, the cost of acid adds to the cost of the process of
manufacture. To make 100 pounds of milk into cottage cheese
would require 8 to 10 fluid ounces of hydrochloric acid. This
amount of milk would make about 18 pounds of cheese; and
the acid required would cost between 4 and 5 cents, or at the
rate of about one-quarter of a cent for each pound of cheese.
When the saving of time and of heat is taken into consideration,
it is readily seen that the small additional cost is more than
balanced.

——y a ey

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 101

CHANGE OF INSOLUBLE INTO SOLUBLE NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN COT-
TAGE CHEESE.

In Bulletins 234 and 236 of this station, we have shown to what
extent the insoluble nitrogen compounds of new cheddar cheese
change into soluble forms during the process of ripening. While
Dutch cheese is made to be eaten fresh or within a few days
after its preparation, and is not expected to undergo a period of
ripening like cheddar cheese, we desired to learn to what extent
such digestive changes might occur in cottage cheese. For this
purpose, seven lots of cottage cheese were made under different
conditions. In every case we used 30 pounds of milk and, except
in experiment 1, one-half pound of sour-milk starter. The sam-
ples of cheese were all kept in an atmosphere of chloroform to
prevent the action of organisms, and at a temperature of 60° F.
(15.5° C.). The milk used was separator skim-milk, pasteurized
in experiments 2 and 6 and unpasteurized in exneriments 3 and 7,
and whole milk in experiments 1, 4 and 5. In experiment 1, the
milk, 2 hours old, was coagulated by 0.4 per ct. of lactic acid
in the presence of 3 per ct. of chloroform. In experiments 2, 3
and 4, the milk was allowed to sour naturally at room tempera-
ture except that a starter was added, while in experiments 5, 6
and 7, 0.5 cc. of Hansen’s rennet extract was used in addition to
the starter 8 hours after the starter was added. When rennet
was used the milk was allowed to stand 48 hours, after which
the temperature was raised to about 100° F. (88° C.) for 15
minutes in order to cause separation of whey. From the results
of some of our work, it appears that milk to which rennet has
been added appears to form acid less rapidly. Hence, it is well
to let the formation of acid get well started before adding rennet.
This can be done by waiting about 8 hours before adding rennet.

The special conditions used in preparing the different lots of
cheese are stated in tabular form as follows:

TapLeE VII.—SHowine Conpitions Usep IN PREPARING CHEESE
FoR PROTEOLYTIC SrupDy.

|
= | Temp. at
| Amount} Temp. which
No. of Amount | ofren- | of milk whey Water in
experi- KIND OF MILK USED | of starter | net | while | separated | cheese.
ment. used. extract | souring. from
| used. eurd.
| |
Pounds. Ce. Deg. F. | Deg. F. Per ct
1 Whole. Not pasteurized... 0. 0. 75 71.07
2 Skim. Pasteurized........ OD 0. 7D) 90° | 81.40
3 Skim. Not pasteurized... . 0.5 oO. | | 90° 78.60
4 | Whole. Not pasteurized... 0.5 Oo.) 75 | 10425) fore0
5 Whole. Not pasteurized... 0.5 | ONS rae) 106° | 74.20
6 Skim. Pasteurized........ 0.5 0.5 | 75 98° 72.05
@ Skim. 4 Not pasteurized.... 0.5 0.5 vol 98° 68.00

102 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

The following table gives the results of analyses of these cheeses
at different intervals:

TABLE VIII.—SHowi1ne RESULTS OF PROTEOLYTIC CHANGES IN
CoTTaAGE CHEESE.

| PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN IN CHEESE EX-
PRESSED IN FORM OF
<Ahe SA en | Total Milk-
o.of | Age of cheese nitro- | | sugar
experi- | when analyzed. | gen in Witenes Perepite| Ae in
ment. | cheese. | Casein cali EIEN, Amide 5 cheese.
| = caseo- * nia
| . Tecine nitro- | ses and eae | com-
ae ; gen. pep- | Oe ea pounds
tones
eee | 2 ls Ceeeees as '
1" | :
| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per et.
1 Fresh 2.08 11.54 Sele a he 2.40 0 3.74
1 4 days 2.01 8.96 | 3.28 1.30 2.00 0 3.80
1 | 10 days 1.99 10.05 | S102 0.00 0.00 0 3.72
i) 15 days PeOw 9.18 3.00 2.03 0.97 0 3.72
1 18 days | 1.98 9.60 3.03 2.02 1.01 0 3.68
1 21 days 2.08 9.62 2.89 0.00 2.89 0 3.68
2 Fresh 1.88 2:66 | ‘3.40 1.28 2.13 0 PAS (24
2 5 days 1.90 PA 5.26 0.53. | 4.74 0 2.90
2 8 days 1.92 Bene pete 1.04 | 4.69 0 2.92
2 14 days | 1.90 3.16 yaya?) 1.05 | 4.74 0 2.88
3 Fresh len. ek 4.53 4.53 1.81 2.72 0 2.60
3 5 days | 2.25 Dae 5.30 Sale 2.22 0 2.64
3 8 days 2.14 2.80 | 5.60 1.87 3.74 0 2.68
3 14 days Hr 2218 2.75 6288" | Bare 4,13 0 2.72
4 Fresh 2.22 2.25 | 4.96 0.00 0.00 0. | 3.32
4 5 days Dae 2s: 5.98 | 3.42 2.56 0 3.36
4 8 days | Dae 1.72 5.58 | | 3.86 0 3.32
4 | 14 days 2.40 2.08 5.83 | 2:08: || 3d 0 3.32
5 Fresh 1.98 2.02 505; || lO 2.02 0) 3.48
5 3 days 2:10} 2.38} 5.72 | 2.86} 2.86 0 3122
5 7 days 2.05 1.95 6.34 | 2.93 3.41 0 3.08
5 10 days 1.98 | Doo 7.58 4.04 | 3.54 0 | 3.00
5 14 days 1.90 | 2.64 | 7.90 | 3.26 | 2.64 0 2.84
5 17 days 1.92 | 2.60 | S38 a et 2.60 0 2.80
5 21 days 1.98 | 3.03 8.08 5.56 | 2.52 0 2.80
| : | |
6 Fresh 3.34 2.69 3.29 | 1.80 | 1.49 0 2.80
6 | 3 days 3.49 2.29 4.01 2.58 1.43 0 2.76
6 | 7 days 3.56 2 D3 4.21 2220" | 1.96 0 2.68
6 | 10 days 3.29 Pmt Ib 4.86 2).74 DAT 0 2.68
6 | 14 days 3.28 | 2.44 4.57 3.05 1.52 0 2.60
6 17 days Sco 2.39 5.08 3.28 | 1.80 0 2.60
6 21 days 3.22 | 1.24 5.28 | 3.42 1.86 0 2.64
vf Fresh Sn204 Pep es) 4.91 | Saath 1.54 | 0 2.39
7 4 days 3.44 2.30 4.94 3.49 1.45 | 0 2532
i 7 days Speen ORES: 5.50 3.06 2.44 0 2.36
7 ll days | 3.35 1.79 5.37 Seog me a2ess 0 2.24
7. 14days | 3.36 | 2,08 | 5.95 | 4.47| 1.48 | 0 2.20
a | 18 days | 3.42 | 2.92 | 7.02 4.97 2.05 0 2.38
| | {

A careful study of the results embodied in Table VIII indicates
that the increase of soluble nitrogen compounds was very slight.
In experiments 1 to 4, the only proteolytic enzymes were those
present in the milk, while in experiments 5 to 7 we had rennet-
enzyme in addition. The only case in which the rennet appeared
to have any influence at all was in experiment 5 as compared

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 103

with 4, and the actual difference here was small. In the case of
the cheese made from unpasteurized skim-milk, experiments 3
and 7, we have a little more soluble nitrogen than in cheeses 2
and 6, which were made from pasteurized skim-milk. There was
little or no change in the amount of milk-sugar except in the case
of experiment 5. Taking all our data into consideration, we
are unable to see any marked evidence of proteolytic change.
These results are not unexpected, since we should hardly expect
to find just such changes occurring in cottage cheese as occur in
cheddar cheese, because in one case our proteid is paracasein
monolactate and in the other paracasein dilactate and the reac-
tion is practically neutral in one case and decidedly acid in the
other.

STUDY OF ARTIFICIAL DIGESTION OF SOME COMPOUNDS OF CASEIN AND
PARACASEIN CONTAINED IN COTTAGE CHEESE.

There is a popular belief, which appears to have some founda-
tion in experience, to the effect that fresh cottage cheese is more
readily digestible than cheddar cheese, especially new cheddar
cheese. It seemed desirable to ascertain by artificial digestion
to what extent laboratory experiments are in harmony with this
popular belief. We have worked with the following materials:
Paracasein, paracasein monolactate of cheddar cheese, paracasein
dilactate, casein monolactate, casein dilactate (cottage cheese)
prepared by normal souring of milk and by direct addition of lac-
tie acid to milk, and casein dihydrochloride. These materials
have been treated with varying amounts of pepsin, with and
without hydrochloric acid. Experiments were also made to study
the influence of the fineness of the materials upon the rate of
digestion.

(1) Comparison of digestibility of paracasein and paracasein
monolactate without acid The paracasein used in this experi-
ment was prepared by coagulating fresh milk with rennet-extract
and was carefully washed. Freshly prepared cheddar cheese, in
which over 75 per ct. of the nitrogen existed as paracasein
monolactate, was used as the source of this monolactate. The
samples (25 grams) were ground with sand and in each of
several bottles there was placed material equivalent to 0.694 gram

104 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

of nitrogen with 80 cc. of water. The bottles and contents were
heated to 212° F. (100° C.) for 15 minutes to destroy all enzymes
and organisms. After cooling, there were added to each bottle
3 cc. of chloroform and 20 ce. of pepsin solution containing 0.150
gram of Parke Davis & Co.’s aseptic scale pepsin. The bottles
were kept at 98° F.. (87° C.) and examined at intervals. Enough
bottles were prepared in each case so that one bottle was used for
each examination, no bottle being opened until analyzed. The
analytical results are given in the accompanying table:

TABLE [X.—SHOwING DIGESTION oF PARACASEIN AND PARACASEIN
MoNOLACTATE BY PrEPSIN WitHouT FREE AcIpD.

|
F PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN IN MATERIAL

EXPRESSED IN ForM oF WATER-SOLU-
BLE NITROGEN.

Material Nitrogen | Nitrogen | Nitrogen : | |
containing ‘in 4 in form | in In4 | In8 In 24 | In 48 | In 72
material. | of para- | material | hours. | hours. | hours. | hours. | hours.
casein in solu- |
monolac- | ble form. |
tate.

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. ; Per ct.
Paracasein........ 4.11 2.43 6.62 6.62 7.06 7.64 | 6.62
aracasein |

monolactate.... 3.52 1.27 3.98 | 17.00 | 22.62 | 22.91 | 40.78 45.96

These results show that the paracasein failed to digest, while
the paracasein monolactate digested quite rapidly, when we con-
sider the absence of free acid.

(2) Comparison of digestibility of casein monolactate and
casein dilactate without acid.—The casein monolactate was pre-
pared by treating 20 pounds of milk with 32.6 grams of lactie
acid. On heating at 98° to 104° F. (87° to 40° C.) the monosalt
Separated as a characteristic rubber-like mass. A portion of it
on testing was found to dissolve completely in a 5 per ct. solu-
tion of sodium chloride. The casein dilactate was prepared by
allowing milk to sour in the usual way for making Dutch cheese.
These materials, carefully washed, were prepared for digestion as
described under (1) preceding, except that in each bottle we used
0.200 gram of pepsin in place of 0.150 gram and one per ct. of
chloroform instead of three per ct. The amount of nitrogen in
each bottle was 0.830 gram. No acid was added to the contents of
the bottles. The results are tabulated below:

a

New York AGRICULTURAL HXPERIMENT STATION. 105

TABLE X.—SHOWING DIGESTION oF CASEIN MONOLACTATE AND
CaseEIN Dintacrare By PrEepsIn Wirsuout Aci.

PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN IN MATERIAL, Ex-
PRESSED IN FoRM OF WATER-SOLUBLE NITRO-
GEN.
MATERIAL. Nitrogen Total :
in nitrogen In 4 In 8 In 24 In 48 In 72
material. in each hours hours. hours. hours. hours.
bottle.
: Per ct. Gram. Perict. | Her et, | Beret. |) Per cts |) Pericts
Casein dilactate ...., 2.34 0.830 8.56 11.81 21.69 22.65 23.00
Casein monolactate. . 4.15 0.830 14.34 Lora 23.61 26.63 29.64

The casein monolactate digested in the absence of free acid
somewhat more rapidly than the dilactate. This result we did
not anticipate, since it was expected that the compound contain-
ing the higher amount of acid would be acted upon more quickly
by pepsin. It may be suggested, in explanation of this behavior,
that the acid in the dilactate appears to be in more stable combi-
nation than in the monolactate.

(8) Comparison of the digestibility of paracasein monolactate
and paracasein dilactate with and without acid.—The paracasein
dilactate was prepared by allowing 20 pounds of milk and half a
pound of sour-milk starter to stand eight hours at room tempera-
ture and then adding 0.5 cc. of rennet-extract, after which it was
allowed to remain until quite acid. The monolactate was ob-
tained in the form of new cheddar cheese, in which 66.21 per ct.
of the nitrogen was in the form of monolactate. These materials
were prepared for digestion as described under (1) preceding,
except that we used 0.300 gram of pepsin, and 1 ce. of chloroform,
and in experiments 3 and 4 we used in addition 0.4 per ct. of
hydrochloric acid.

TABLE XI.—SHOWING DIGESTION OF PARACASEIN MONOLACTATE AND
Divactate Witsh AND WirHouTt AcID.

|
| Prercenrace or NuirroGeN IN Materiat,
| EXPRESSED IN ForM OF WATER-SOLUBLE
Hydro- Total NITROGEN.
chloric nitrogen
MATERIAL. acid ineach |
used in bottle. | In4 | In8 In 24 | In48 | In72
digestion. | | hours. hours. hours. hours. hours.
Per ct. Gram. | Perct. | Perct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
1. Paracasein mono-!
lactates..56 hohe h 0. 0.710 23 .66 27.46 | 49.72 51.84 | (oy4 ailal
2. Paracasein dilac- |
GALS R years se suas 0 OL TUG! ie Wasa SAS oT) Nee. Bz 31.83 oo 0e,
3. Paracasein mono- |
ENG ENTS Ben cae Gaaeee 0.4 0.710 | 48.31 | 56.63 AG. Gi \> DLeoo BY f ash)
4, Paracasein dilac-
ULES to) lees mate. se 0.4 0.710 67.75 Tanoo: 70.43 67.89 73.39

106 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

In studying the data embodied in Table XI, we notice the
same fact to which attention has already been called, viz.: that,
in the absence of free acid, the monolactate undergoes pepsin di-
gestion more rapidly than the dilactate. When, however, free acid
is present, the reverse is true, the dilactate digesting more rapidly
than the monolactate. The initial activity of digestion is consid-
erably greater in both cases in the presence of acid. The follow-
ing explanation is suggested to show why, in the presence of free
acid, the dilactate digests more rapidly. The monolactate is first
converted into dilactate and thus uses some of the acid, so that
less acid is left free to take part in the pepsin digestion.

(4) Comparison of digestibility of casein dilactate and casein
dihydrochloride with and without acid.—The casein dilactate and
dihydrochloride were prepared by treating milk with 0.6 per cent.
of lactic acid and 0.2 per cent. of hydrochloric acid. The resulting
products were washed and prepared for digestion as described in
(1) and (8) preceding, except that the materials were not ground
with sand and were not heated. In 1 and 2 no free acid was added
to the digestion bottles, while in 3 and 4 we used 0.4 per ct. of
hydrochloric acid.

TaBLE XII.—SuHowi1Nne DIGESTION oFf- CASEIN DIHYDROCHLORIDE
WitTH AND WitHouT AcIb.

| PprceNnTAGE or NrrROGEN IN MaTERIAL,
EXPRESSED IN FoRM OF WATER-

re Total | Soxnuspie Nirrocen.
MATERIAL acid | Ritrogen |
} used in ne aah |
aes ottle.
digestion. In 4 | fIn’8 | In 24 | In 48 | In 72
hours. | hours. | hours. | hours. | hours.
eae Pore | Mg TTY USS | BESS | Ear | Pao‘
. Casein dilactate........ 8) i , 7.95 4.2 .
3 Sear diny deg nonde:: , . Been ce beeen eolee oops oes
. Casein dilactate........ 3 Ei | 84.9¢ <O . 58 $
4. Casein dihydrochloride. . 0.4 0.730 | 83.56 | 85.90 | 92.20 | 94.94 97.27

The data in Table XII show no essential difference in digesti-
bility between the casein dilactate and casein dihydrochloride.
This is true both in the absence and presence of free acid.
Increased digestion is caused by free acid. The most marked
increase being in the first period (4 hours) of digestion.

(5) Comparison of digestibility of cottage cheese made from
whole milk and from skim-milk.—We desired to test the influence

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 107

of fat in cottage cheese upon its digestibility. The cheese was
prepared in each case by adding 0.2 per ct. of hydrochloric
acid to the milk used. We thus had casein dihydrochloride as
our protein, containing, in one case, 12.65 per ct. of fat! and, in
the other, 0.62 per ct. The materials were prepared for diges-
tion as described in (4) preceding. In the case of the whole milk
about 40 per ct. of the fat was lost in the whey.

Taste XIII.—SuHowinc Dicestion of Corracre CHEESE Mapr From
WHOLE MILK AND SKImM MILK.

Hydro- | PERCENTAGE or NiTRoGEN IN MATERIAL,
z chloric | £XPRESSED IN Form or WATER-
CHEESE MADE FRoM| atin | “acid Sonu Sess:
Se. | used in
digestion. In 4 In8 | In 24 | In 48 | In 72
hours. | hours. hours. | hours. | hours.
a at Sa he oe eee Pe a ae
Per. ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
Wi olG atl 5s eae aeddo Ge 12.65 0.4 | 80.97 87.02 | 88.23 | 93.26 93.95
pistes elle Sean AaaeoOn ee 0.62 0.4 | 68.00 | 80.28 | 89.97 | 93.09 | 92.91

The results in this table indicate that the cheese made from
whole milk digested more quickly than the cheese made from
skim-milk. This could not be accounted for by saying that the
whole milk contained more proteolytic enzyme than the skim-
milk, because milk-enzymes, even when present in different
quantities, do not appear to have the power of producing such
differences in so short a time. The true explanation probably
lies in the fact that the whole-milk cheese was much more por-
ous and loose in texture, owing to the presence of the fat, and
so offered a better mechanical condition for the action of the
digestive agent. The fat in this case not only did not impede
digestion, but indirectly favored it.

(6) Influence of mechanical division upon the digestion of
cheese.—The mechanical condition or fineness of division of food
is known to have a marked influence upon digestion. In testing
this point, we prepared fresh cheddar cheese and fresh cottage
cheese. The cheddar cheese contained 70.4 per ct. of its nitro-
gen as paracasein monolactate. All the bottles contained the
same contents of water and 0.4 per ct. of hydrochloric acid. In
experiment 1 the cottage cheese was made as fine as possible by
grinding with quartz sand, while in 2 the cheese was in the con-
dition in which it is ordinarily consumed. In experiment 8, the

108 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

cheddar cheese was ground with sand, in 4 it was chopped about
as fine as would be made by ordinary chewing, and in 5 it was
cut into cubes about one-quarter of an inch in size. In other
respects, the materials were prepared for tieesiies as described in
(4) preceding.

Taste XIV.—SuHowinc INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL DIVISION OF
CHEESE ON DIGESTION.

PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN IN MATERIAL

Total Hydro- IN ForM oF WATER-SOLUBLE NITROGEN.
nitrogen |chloric acid
MATERIAL. in each used in |

bottle. | digeston. | 7,4 | ing | In24 | In4g | nw
hours. | hours. | hours. | hours. | hours.

Grams. Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
a Popage cheese” ground

See alets Crcvekate. 2 aus fei 0.772 0.4 | 78.11 | 91.20 | 92.49 | 90.81 90.42

28 Gotraxe cheese, not |
fagauevol” PS oY eo aac 0.772 0.4 | 68.27 | 75.39 | 89.90 | 88.86 97.53

3. pee cheese, ground ;

HORS Geet oc ee 0.772 0.4 | 68.08 | 72.80 | 80.32 | 76.04 83.28
4. Cheddar cheese, chop-

tineiee Sern ems a 0.772 0.4 | 34.07 | 55.54 | 65.16 | 78.50 81.87
5: @keddan cheese in one-

fourth inch cubes.. 0.772 0.4 | 18.27 | 29.92 | 50.78 | 64.52 69.17

—

The difference of digestion between the finely ground cottage
cheese and that left in the ordinary condition is not large and
after 24 hours nearly disappears. In the case of the cheddar
cheese the difference is very striking. In the case of the cheese
ground fine, about twice as much is digested in 4 hours as in
case of that chopped fine and about three and one-half times as
much as in case of that cut in one-quarter inch cubes. The cot-
tage cheese that was in its ordinary condition digested more rap-
idly than the cheddar cheese ground fine.

(7) Influence of increasing amounts of acid upon digestion of
cheese.- In normal gastric digestion in animals, the acid used is
secreted graduaily and not all poured into the stomach at the
start. Jn order that the condition of our work might in this
respect more nearly appreximate normal digestion, we prepared
for digestion, as described in (6) preceding, some samples of cot-
tage and cheddar cheese, ground with sand, and added to the
digesting mass hydrochloric acid at intervals, as follows: At
start, 0.4 per ct. of acid; in 2 hours, 0.1 per ct.; in 4 hours, 0.1
per ct.; in 8 hours, 0.1 per ct.; in 24 nei 0.1 per oe in 48 hours,
0.1 per ct.; making in all an addition of 0.9 per ct. of hydroehloric
acid.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 109

The results are given below in comparison with some disges-
tions in which 0.4 per ct. of acid was used at the start and none
added afterwards.

TaBLr XV.—SHOWING INFLUENCE OF INCREASING AMOUNTS OF
. Acip Upon DIGESTION oF CHEESE.

Hyprocutoric | PercenTAGE oF NITROGEN IN MATERIAL

Total ACID USED IN IN ForM oF WATER-SOLUBLE NITROGEN
nitrogen DIGESTION.
MATERIAL. in each

bottle. | added | Added | ina | ing | Ings | Inds | In72

at start. | meres hours. hours. | hours. | hours. | hours,

Grams. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
0.

1. Cottage cheese....) 0.772 CLS arerorete | ZSelds POLS20) | 9249") 90°81 90.44
2. Cottage cheese....| 0.772 | ...... | 0.9 | 86.54 | 93.91 | 94.56 | 91.96 93.26
ee Cheddar cheese....| 0.772 QA: | asi hanvare 63.08 | 72.80 | 80.32 | 76.04 | 83.28

. Cheddar cheese....} 0.772 | ...... 0.9 | 78.10 | 75.91 | 80.97 | 87.95 90.68

The addition of 0.4 per ct. of hydrochloric acid at the begin-
ning of the digestion, followed by an addition of 0.1 per ct. 2
hours after, increased the amount of digested proteid very notice-
ably at the first examination, 4 hours after the digestion ‘began.
This was true in both cottage and cheddar cheese. As in pre-
vious cases, the cottage cheese was more completely digested
than the cheddar cheese.

(8) Summary of results of digestion experiments. (a) In the
absence of acid, paracasein fails to be digested by pepsin, while
paracasein monolactate (the chief nitrogen compound of fresh
cheddar cheese) paracasein dilactate, casein monolactate, and
casein dilactate (cottage, or Dutch, cheése) are partially digested.
Paracasein monolactate and casein monolactate, in the absence
of acid, are digested more than are paracasein dilactate and
casein dilactate.

(b)In the presence of 0.4 per ct. of hydrochloric acid, para-
casein dilactate is digested by pepsin more than is paracasein
monolactate. Paracasein monolactate and dilactate and casein
monolactate and dilactate and casein dihydrochloride digest more
readily and extensively in the presence of free hydrochloric acid
than in its absence.

(c) Casein dilactate and casein dihydrochloride do not differ
in the rapidity and extent to which they are converted into solu- |
ble compounds by pepsin.

(d) The addition of acid after the beginning of the digestion
increases the amount of proteid digested, whether we use cottage
cheese or cheddar cheese.

110 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

(e) Cottage cheese made from whole milk digests more rap-
idly than that made from skim-milk, owing to the looser texture
of the former. Fat in such cases does not impede digestion.

(f) The rapidity of digestion is dependent in part upon the
fineness of division of the material to be digested. Cottage
cheese as ordinarily consumed is in a state of finer division than
cheddar cheese.

(g) Cottage cheese may be properly regarded as more readily
digestible than new cheddar cheese for two reasons: First, the
casein dilactate, the chief constituent of cottage cheese, is more
digestible in the presence of free hydrochloric acid than is para-
casein monolactate, the principal nitrogenous constituent of new
cheddar cheese. Second, cottage cheese is in such a mechanical
condition that it admits of easier attack by digestive agents than
does new cheddar cheese.

DESCRIPTION OF METHODS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF COTTAGE,
: OR DUTCH CHEESE.

We will now give in systematic form the details of the methods
that we have by our work found practicable in the manufacture
of cottage cheese.

(1) Material to use—Skim-milk should be used. While whole
milk can be used, so much fat is lost that there is serious waste
of this valuable constituent.

(2) Preparation of “starter.,—In manufacturing cottage
cheese on a large scale, saving of time is usually effected by using
a starter to hasten the souring of the milk. The character of
the starter used is of much importance. Ferments other than
acid-forming may be present in a starter and cause the formation
of a slimy curd from which the whey can not be separated. It
is essential, therefore, when one uses a starter, to give some at-
tention to its preparation. The following is suggested as a
method that will give good results, if properly carried out:
Separator skim-milk, prepared from clean, fresh milk, is put
into a carefully: cleaned receptacle, well covered and brought to
a temperature of 90° F. (82° C.), after which it is placed where
it will remain at a temperature of 65° F. to 70° F. (18° C. to
21° C.). In 20 to 24 hours, the skim-milk will be found properly
ripened. In using this prepared starter, the upper portion 1

—— ee aes Lee

New York AcricuttuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 111

the depth of one or two inches is removed and thrown away, the
rest is strained through a fine strainer or hair sieve into the milk
and thoroughly mixed. Some of this prepared starter may be
used in preparing a starter for the day following, putting a little
into some skim-milk that has been heated to 180° F. (82° C.) for
thirty minutes and then cooled to 70° F. (21° ©.) and allowed to
stand 24 hours. The starter may thus be propagated frum day
to day. As soon as any unfavorable effect is noticed in curdling,
a new started should be prepared.

There are on the market several different preparations for
souring or ripening milk and cream, consisting of special cultures.
Full directions for methods of use always accompany these special
starters and we do not need to consider them here.

(3) Manufacture of cottage cheese by ordinary souring of milk.
—The milk is kept at a temperature of 70° F. to 75° F. (21° C. to
24° C.) until it is well curdled, which will usually require 24 to
48 hours. The curdled mass is then broken up by hand or cut
by a curd-knife and is heated gradually to 90° F. (82° C.) and is
kept at this temperature until the whey appears clear. When
the heat is so applied as to require 30 or 40 minutes to reach
90° F. (32° C.), then the whey will separate clear in 15 or 20
minutes under normal conditions. The whey is then run from
the curd and the curd is put into muslin bags or placed on racks
and allowed to drain until whey ceases to come from the curd.
The curd is then salted at the rate of about one pound of salt for
one hundred pounds of curd or to taste, shaped into balls and
finally wrapped in oiled paper that may be obtained from any
dairy-supply house. For the finest quality of cheese, the curd
should be mixed with thick cream, preferably ripened cream, at
the rate of one ounce of cream for one pound of cheese, before
being made into balls.

(4) Manufacture of cottage cheese when a starter is used.—The
starter, prepared as described above or by some equally good
method, is added to the milk at the rate of 2 to 3 pounds to 100
pounds of milk and thoroughly mixed through the mass of milk.
The rest of the operation is completed as described above under
(3).

(5) Manufacture of cottage cheese when rennet is used together
with starter.—The starter is added to the milk as described above

112 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

and about 8 hours later rennet extract is added at the rate of
about 1 ounce for 1,000 pounds of milk. The rest of the opera-
tion is completed as described under (3) above.

(6) Manufacture of cottage cheese by direct addition of hydro-
chloric acid.—The milk should be at a temperature between 70°
F. and 80° F. (21° C. and 27° C.). Measure out hydrochloric
acid, of specific gravity 1.20, at the rate of 10 ounces for 100
pounds of milk, dilute this with ten times its bulk of water and
add to the milk gradually, stirring the milk constantly while the
acid is being added. The stirring is continued until the curd
separates fully, leaving a clear whey entirely free from milkiness.
As soon as this is accomplished, the whey is run from the curd and
the rest of the operation completed as described under (3) above.
Some care should be exercise in regard to the quality of the
hydrochloric acid used. The kind usually kept at drug stores is
not pure enough. The right kind of hydrochloric acid can be
obtained from the Baker & Adamson Chemical Co., Easton, Pas
by ordering “hydrochloric acid, ¢. p., sp. gr. 1.20,” and the cost
in 5 pt. bottles is 744 cents net a pound, or in carboys at 7
cents net a pound.

QUALITIES OF COTTAGE CHEESE.

The qualities that determine in the greatest degree the value
of cottage cheese as an article of commerce are flavor and text-
ure. The flavor should be that of mildly soured milk or well-
ripened cream. There should be an entire absence of all
objectionable flavors, such as bitter taste, flavor of stable, ete.
If the cheese tastes too sour, it is probably due to the retention
of too much whey. The use of a good starter will usually
insure the right kind of flavor. The texture of cottage cheese,
as we have already pointed out, is largely dependent on the
amount of moisture retained in the cheese, and this in turn, is
dependent largely upon the temperature at which the curdled
mass of milk is heated and the length of time the heat is
applied. Heating the coagulated mass above 100° F. (38° C.)
for a very short time will make the cheese too dry and the text-
ure crumbly. Heating below 90° F. (32° C.) for too short a
time will make it impossible for the whey to drain from the curd
satisfactorily and the cheese will be soft and mushy. For the

ion of cream bd such cheese may improve it but cannot
overcome the effect of expelling too much moisture from

3

114 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

THE NATURE OF THE PRINCIPAL PHOSPHORUS
COMPOUND IN WHEAT BRAN.*

A. J. Parren AND E. B. Hart.

SUMMARY.

1 Practicably all of the soluble phosphorus of wheat bran is of
an organic nature.

2 The organic compound exists in the bran itself as a mag-
nesium-calcium-potassium salt of a phospho-organic acid.

3 The free acid corresponds to the formula C,H,P,O, and is
probably identical with Posternak’s anhydro-oxymethylene di-
phosphoric acid.

4 The alkali salts of this acid are freely soluble in water.
The calcium and copper salts are slightly soluble while the barium
and strontium salts are but sparingly so. ©

5 The acid and its salts seem to be of wide distribution in the
vegetable kingdom, having already been isolated from the seeds
of red fir, peas, beans, pumpkin, red and yellow lupine, also from
the potato and other tubers and bulbs.

This investigation forms part of the research on the metabolism
of phosphorus and sulphur in the animal body conducted under
the direction of Dr. Jordan. The physiological role of the acid
and its salts in animal metabolism will be made the subject of
future researches.

INTRODUCTION.

From the work reported in Bulletin No. 238 of this Station
and from other work done preliminary to an investigation of the
metabolism of phosphorus in animals, it was found that in many
of our ordinary feeding stuffs a varying percentage of the organic
phosphorus is directly soluble in water and in dilute hydrochloric

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 250.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 115

acid. Data illustrating this point will be found in the following
table :

TasLe J.—So_usLe PuHospHorus IN Oats, Mair Sprouts AND
WuHeat Bran.

Seca Solvent. ouecee mis et total
Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Griges bp tc lie 0.355 Hydrochl Fe OAen 20.0
Malt sprouts...... 0.677 } ue oer 02S oan
Wheat bran....... 1.22 ; Mosc nchlovie oe ee

It will be seen that wheat bran carries a much larger per-
centage of phosphorus than any of the others and that 86.5 per
ct. is soluble in water.

It was at first supposed that the soluble phosphorus was in
combination as nucleins or salts of nucleic acid, but determina-
tions of the amount of soluble nitrogen showed that only about
33 per ct. of the phosphorus could be accounted for in this way.

We were therefore led to the conclusion that by far the greater
part of the soluble phosphorus was linked up in some other
organic combination, since Hart and Andrews’ have shown that
the amount of soluble inorganic phosphorus is exceedingly
small.

INVESTIGATION OF PHOSPHORUS COMPOUND.
ATTEMPT TO ISOLATE.

Two pounds of wheat bran was extracted with six liters of 0.2
per ct. hydrochloric acid for several hours with frequent stir-
ring. The extract was strained through cheese cloth and finally
filtered through paper.

The filtrate was treated with a large volume of 95 per ct.
alcohol which threw down a voluminous, flocculent precipitate.
The precipitate was allowed to settle to the bottom, the superna-
tant liquid syphoned off and the precipitate washed with alcohol
several times by decantation. It was then dissolved in a small
volume of 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid, filtered from an insolu-
_ble residue, reprecipitated by alcohol and washed as before by
decantation.

_ ? Bulletin 238, N. Y. Agr. Expt. Station.

116 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

This process was again repeated, the precipitate finally
brought upon a filter, washed with absolute alcohol and ether
and dried at 110° ©. The resulting product, which weighed 7.2
grams, was a white amorphous powder readily soluble in water.

Its water solution was acid to litmus and it was precipitated
from such solution by solutions of salts of the heavy metals, by
‘the alkali metals and the alkaline earths, also by alcohol and
ether.

Chemical analysis showed it to be an organic phosphorus com-
pound coupled with calcium, magnesium and potassium.

Of this substance,

0.5004 gms. gave 0.0082 gms. CaO and 0.1327 gms. Mg, P, O;
equivalent to 1.18 per ct. Ca and 5.80 per ct. Mg;

0.512 gm. substance gave 0.0834 gm. K, Pt Cl, equivalent to
2.60 per ct. K.

0.2174 gm. substance gave 0.1280 gm. Mg, P, O,, équivanen to
iGo per ‘ct.’ P.

0.2122 gm. substance gave 0.1438 gm. CO, and 0.072 gm. H, O,
equal to 18.52 per ct. C and 3.83 per ct. H.

The substance carried also a small amount of nitrogen (0.37
per ct.) ; but this was considered an impurity and, calculated as
a proteid, would lower the carbon and hydrogen to 17.30 per ct.
and 3.63 per ct. respectively.

COMPOSITION OF ISOLATED PHOSPHORUS COMPOUND.

Per ct Per ct
BIE aha 2 ae ae ie ae ee dy ee | ie WE: pay he AR mer i 1 ake
ite techie. cre re DOD, Geogr se «c's ae 5.80
eerie sauce 5 allergen dae ae te A 16. BS RS ee ere. eee eee 2.60

SIMILAR COMPOUNDS REPORTED BY OTHER WORKERS.
Palladin,? working in Schulze’s laboratory, isolated from the
seeds of black mustard (Sinapis nigra) a highly phosphorized

compound in combination with calcium and magnesium.
The seeds freed from fat were extracted with 10 per ct. sodium
chloride solution, filtered, and the filtrate heated to about 80° C.
A precipitate separated carrying with it all of the proteid. The

°Beitriige zur Kenntniss plfanzlicher Niweisstoffe, Zeitschrift . Biologie,
Jahrgang 1894, p. 199.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ai hy

larger part of the precipitate went into solution again on cooling
leaving the coagulated proteid in suspension, which was sep-
arated by filtration. The filirate was again heated and the result-
ing coagulum collected on a hot water funnel.

Schulze and Winterstein*® continued the investigation started
by Palladin and obtained a compound carrying 9.65 per ct. C
2.83 per ct. H and 16.13 per ct. P. They thought the sub-
stance might be identical with the chief constituent of the globoids
found enclosed in the protein kernel of many plant seeds.
Pfeffer in conjunction with Brandau found that such globoids
consist of a calcium-magnesium salt of an organic body coupled
with phosphoric acid. What the nature of this organic com-
bination was they were unable to say.

Winterstein® isolated a compound from the seeds of black
mustard by extracting with dilute acetic acid. The extract was
freed from proteid by boiling and filtering when cold. The fil-
trate was made slightly alkaline with ammonium hydrate and
boiled, the resulting precipitate collected on a hot water funnel
and washed with hot water until the wash water reacted neutral.
The substance was purified by dissolving in dilute acetic acid and
reprecipitating with ammonium hydrate. On removing the
calcium with oxalic acid, a product was obtained carrying 18.44
per ct. P and 7.88 per ct. Mg. By heating the magnesium salt
in a closed tube with concentrated hydrochloric acid for 50 hours,
at a temperature of 180°—140° he obtained inosite as a cleavage
product.

The compound obtained by us from bran by the alcohol method,
though still impure, is undoubtedly identical with the one
described by these investigators.

Posternak® isolated the compound from the seeds of red fir,
pumpkin, peas, beans, white and yellow lupine and also from the

3Ueber einen phosphorhaltigen Bestandtheil der Plfanzensamen. Zeit. 7.
physiol. Chem., 22: 90.
4W. Pfeffer: Untersuchung ueber die Proteinkoerner und die Bedeutung des
Asparagins beim Keimen der Samen. Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschajtliche Botantk.,
8: 147. (1872).
’ Ueber einen phosphorhaltigen Pflanzenbestandtheil, welcher by der Spaltung
Inosit liefert. Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges., 30: 2299.
® Revue Generale de Botanique. 12: 5 and 65, 1900.
Comptes Rendus, 137: No. 38, (20 Juillet. 1903).
No. 5, (3 Aout 1903).
No. 8, (24 Aout 1903).

118 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

potato. He also isolated and identified the free acid as anhydro-
oxymethylene diphosphoric acid with the following formula:

Weel

Cie eres Ten
td
NOH ANG PD Tony
me
pi 5s

The method adopted by Posternak was the following:

The material was extracted with dilute hydrochloric acid and
filtered, the filtrate was made alkaline with sodium hydrate and
precipitated with calcium chloride. The calcium chloride pre-
cipitate was filtered, washed and finally dissolved in dilute hydro-
chloric acid. Sodium acetate was added to the solution to
replace the free mineral acid by acetic acid, and copper acetate
added in excess. The copper precipitate was filtered, thoroughly
washed with water and decomposed by hydrogen sulphide. _

The copper sulphide was removed by filtration and the excess
of hydrogen sulphide removed by pumping air through the
liquid. It was then evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric acid.

We found it very difficult to remove the last traces of calcium
by this method and have modified it by substituting barium chlo-
ride for calcium chloride. This admits of a very thorough wash-
ing at this stage of the operation as the barium salt is much more
insoluble than the calcium salt and also admits of a complete
removal of the barium as a sulphate.

o

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF FREE ACID.

The method finally adopted by us is as follows:

The bran was extracted with 0.2 per ct. hydrochloric acid,
strained through cheese cloth and filtered through paper. Since
the compound is present in bran as a calcium-magnesium-potas-
sium salt, it was precipitated directly with copper acetate, by
which means we were able to remove the greater part of these
bases. After washing the copper precipitate it was suspended in
water and decomposed by hydrogen sulphide. The filtrate from
copper sulphide was made alkaline with sodium hydrate and pre-

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 119

cipitated with barium chloride. The barium salt was washed until
free from alkali, suspended in water, and dilute sulphuric acid
added in sufficient quantity to decompose the salt and throw
down the barium as a sulphate. After removal of the barium
sulphate by filtration the filtrate was again precipitated in alka-
line solution with barium chloride and treated as before. This
process was repeated a third time and after final removal of the
barium, copper acetate was added in excess. The copper pre-
cipitate was filtered at the pump, thoroughly washed with water
and finally suspended in water and decomposed by hydrogen sul-
phide. The copper sulphide was removed by filtration and the
filtrate evaporated on the water bath to a syrupy consistency.

Analysis of the acid dried at 110° gave the following results:

0.7207 gm. substance gave 0.2811 gm. CO, and 0.2202 gm. H,O
equivalent to 10.63 per ct. C and 3.38 per ct. H.

0.1039 gm. substance gave 0.097 gm. Mg,P,O, equivalent to 25.98
perce. P.

Calenlated for

Found. C2H,P209
Pw Ly Liye Me. Ost ek sy lew Bad 10.63 10.08
PE Sees Sebo. iad. . Bebe ved Shit dirs 3.38 3.96
Peron ee bia dent 47d. hase lsh. 25.98 26.07

DECOMPOSITION OF COMPOUND INTO INOSITE AND PHOSPHORIC ACID.

Heated with concentrated mineral acids it is broken up quan-
titatively into inosite and phosphoric acid, after the following
equation. ;

eH b Ono HO = (CH OH), + 6 H,PO,,

Posternak obtained 97.8 per ct. of the total carbon of the acid
decomposed as inosite. In our investigation an unweighed por-
tion of the acid was heated in a closed tube with 50 c. c. of 30
per ct. sulphuric acid at a temperature of 155°—160° for 5
hours. After cooling, the tube was opened and the contents
washed into a beaker. The sulphuric and phosphoric acids were
removed by barium hydrate and the excess of barium by carbon
dioxide. The filtrate was evaporated nearly to dryness, taken up
with hot water and filtered from remaining barium carbonate.
The filtrate was then treated with absolute alcohol and ether
until a cloudiness was produced, when it was allowed to stand
in the cold. A crystalline precipitate soon separated which was

120 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

obtained pure after once recrystallizing. It gave the reactions
of Scherer and Gallois and melted at 218°—219° (uncor.).
Inosite melts at 218° (uncor.).

Carbon and hydrogen determinations were made on the sub-
stance dried at 110°.

Caleulated for Inosite

Found. CeHi206
Ciclbsicce hi se beeper Matta sdel Mig A en Mltaatehy Sane eal ct dato 39.59 40.00
OR a eae eee ee eee See hh ee es 6.78 6.66

PROPERTIBS OF ANHYDRO-OXYMETHYLENE DIPHOSPHORIC ACID.

The free acid dried slowly over sulphuric acid is a very thick, —

transparent liquid, of a yellowish brown color. It is soluble in
all proportions in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether, benzene,
chloroform and glacial acetic acid. It has a very sharp acid
taste. Heated to 110° it becomes decidedly brown without decom-
position. The alkali salts of the acid are freely soluble in water.
Water solutions of the free acid are precipitated by ferric chlo-
ride, the precipitate being soluble in an excess of the reagent.
Silver nitrate precipitates solutions of the free acid only after a
liberal excess of the reagent has been added. The precipitate is
insoluble in excess of the reagent. The free acid is not pre-
cipitated by the chlorides of magnesium calcium barium or
strontium, due to the liberation of free hydrochloric acid. How-
ever, when solutions of the alkaline salts of the free acid are
treated with the above re-agents, a precipitate is formed.

The magnesium and calcium salts are somewhat soluble in
water, the barium and strontium salts, very sparingly soluble.
The magnesium salt is easily soluble in acetic acid. The calcium
salt less so while the barium and strontium salts are very in-
soluble. All are readily soluble in mineral acids.

The free acid is tetra basic and forms two salts, the one a
normal salt, the other an acid salt. The normal salt reacts
neutral to phenolphthalein while the acid salt reacts neutral to
methylorange which may be shown by the following determina-
tions: 10 c.o. of a solution containing 0.0648 gm. of the acid
titrated in phenolphthalein with deci-normal barium hydrate
required 109 0. c. or 0.0748 gm. barium, 0.0648 gm. of the acid
should require 0.0749 gm. barium to produce the normal salt
(C. H. P. O. Ba.) 10 c.c. of the same solution titrated to

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 121)

methylorange with deci-normal barium hydrate required 5.1 c. e.
of 0.035 gm. barium. 0.0648 em. of the acid should require 0.0343
gm. barium to produce the acid salt (C. H. P. O. Ba.).

QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF THE ACID IN WHEAT BRAN.

We extracted 10 gms. of bran of 500 ¢. c. with 0.2 per ct. hydro-
chloriec acid, made 100 c.c. alkaline with sodium hydrate, pre-
cipitated with barium chloride filtered and washed free from
alkali.

The phosphorus was determined directly in this precipitate:

Peer PNOSpHORIS,, Per CCNt.<. no fo coe tla os ck te case evesawnee 1.25
Ehospkorus in barium precipitate, per cent. .......5.....se2.--s. 0.92
Per cent. of. phosphorus barium precipitate to total phosphorus,

ETACCTU ree Perera ahs, ctterars statis nya ee Ainisteec aCe crcvate ta Mlanercuert nate cic 58.1

Practically all of the phosphorus soluble in 0.2 per ct. hydro-
chlorie acid is in this form as is shown below:

Hcl soluble) phosphorus, | per cents... 2).Js0 sido. we). veh Jeoeaes bc 0.94
Phosphorus in barium precipitate, per cent.............c00eeeeee 0.92

- Per cent. of phosphorus barium precipitate to soluble phosphorus,

DEP GETS cod cs RNa Orotete noe conte Ore ee a ace ate ee ea ae 97.9

122 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

THE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL SOAPS IN
RELATION TO SPRAYING.*

L. L. VAN SLYKE AND F.. A. URNER.

SUMMARY.

1. Object—The object of the work discussed in this bulletin
was to ascertain why commercial whale-oil soaps in some cases
fail to detroy insects and in some cases cause injury of foliage.

2. What a Soap is.—A soap is made by treating a fat or oil

with an alkali, as caustic soda or potash. A soap is a chemical -

compound formed by the union of an alkali and the fatty acid
or acids contained in a fat or oil.

3. Results of Analysis of Convmercial Whale-Oil Soap.—tThe
important constituents of a soap in relation to spraying are (a)
water, (b) actual soap, and (c) free alkali. In the case of nine
samples of commercial whale oil soap, the percentage of water
varied from about 11 to 55 per ct.; of actual soap from about
15 to 60 per ct.; of free alkali from nothing to 1.30 per ct.
Two different lots of soap from the same factory contained 36.79
and 53.13 per ct. of water and 24.06 and 46.28 per ct. of actual
soap.

4. Results of Variation in Composition of Commercial Whale-
Oil Soaps.—In making solutions of different commercial whale-
oil soaps, one can not be sure of having a uniform strength of
solution and this lack of uniformity seriously affects their value
for spraying purposes.

5. Home-manufacture of Fish-Oil Soap.—In order to have a
soap of uniform composition, the following formula may be sug-
gested: Caustic soda, 6 pounds; fish oil, 22 pounds; water, 1144
gallons. This will make 40 pounds of soap. Certain precautions
given in detail in the text of the bulletin should be carefully
observed.

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 257.

ee

re 4 = t
EE Le ET ee Se Se ee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 128

6. Haperiments in using Home-made Soap in Spraying.—The
home-made soap, when used at the rate of one pound in seven
gallons of water, gave entire satisfaction in every way on the
foliage of apple, pear, plum, currant, cherry and peach trees. The
foliage was not injured ana plant lice were destroyed.

7. Experimenis in Spraying with Soap containing Free Alkali.
—Soaps were made so as to contain 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 per
ct. of free alkali. These were used in the same strength of solu-
tion and on the same kinds of foliage as given above. Injury
was done when the free alkali reached 10 per ct. Little injury
was done by the use of soap containing 5 per ct. or less of free
alkali.

8. Cost of Home-made Soap.—Caustic soda. can be purchased
at 414 cents a pound and fish-oil at 26 to 30 cents a gallon. On
the basis of these figures, the cost of the materials used in making
one pound of fish-oil soap is about 234 cents.

9. Advantages of home-made fish-oil soap are (1) greater uni-

-formity of composition, (2) greater reliability, (3) decreased

cost.
INTRODUCTION.

The work embodied in this bulletin was suggested by the com-
plaints that have been made in respect to the unsatisfactory re-
sults frequently experienced in the use of so-called whale-oil soap
when used on orchards for the purpose of destroying certain
forms of insects. The disappointing results reported vary in
character; in some cases the insects are only incompletely des-
troyed; in other cases, the foliage is killed and the trees also.
The uncertainty of the results of applying this remedy has
caused no little uneasiness among fruit growers and numerous
letters have come to this Station asking for information in regard
to the use of whale-oil soap. As a result of this condition, the
Station entomologist, Mr. P. J. Parrott, suggested that we take
up the subject for investigation.

There are on the market many different brands of whale-oil
soap, and it occurred to us that there must be marked variations
in the character of different brands to account for the great differ-
ence reported in the results of their use. There is no known rec-
ognized standard of composition for this class of soaps and, as a
starting point of our investigation, it seemed necessary to obtain

124 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

a more complete knowledge of the composition of the varieties
of whale-oil soap found in the market.

It may be stated here at the outset that many commercial
whale-oil soaps contain no whale-oil proper, but the term “ whale-
oil” is applied to any kind of fish-oil soap, and the oil of such
fish as the menhaden has come to be largely used as a substitute
for more expensive oils.

Before taking up our chemical study of soaps, we will call
attention, in passing, to the reason why fish-oil soaps are used
as extensively as they are. Destructive insects cause injury in
two ways, first by destroying portions of the foliage by direct
biting or cutting out pieces of the leaves, and, second, by suck-
ing the juices of the plant. The insects causing injury in the
first way are readily killed by applying insect poisons to the
foliage. The sucking insects, among which the San José scale
and plant lice are the most common, are not killed by the appli-
cation of ordinary insect poisons. They can be killed only by
what is known as a “contact remedy,” which is either a fluid
that penetrates the spiracles or breathing holes, filling them up
and thus causing death, or is a water-solution of some substance,
which, when the water evaporates, remains as a thin coating
over the insects, thus covering the spiracles and preventing
breathing. Whale-oil soap is a contact remedy of the second
kind and, owing to the rapid spread in recent years of plant
lice and scale, has become most important on account of its very
extended application, being used probably more than any other
contact remedy.

It is supposed by some that whale-oil soaps possess in them-
selves some peculiar value for destroying insects, and this opinion
might appear to be justified by the extreme offensiveness of the
odor, but as a matter of fact any good soap possesses just as
much value for this purpose, the preference shown for fish-oil
soaps being due solely to their relative cheapness.

THE COMPOSITION OF WHALE-OIL SOAPS.

There were collected for analysis nine different brands of com-
mercial whale-oil soap, some being obtained directly from manu-
facturers, Some by private purchases and others from supplies on
hand at the Station.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 125

WHAT SOAPS IN GENERAL ARE.

Before presenting the results of analysis, we will consider
briefly the chemistry of soaps. Soaps are made by treating
fats or oils with a caustic alkali, caustic soda being used in mak-
ing hard soap and caustic potash in making soft soap. A real
chemical combination occurs between the alkali and the fat or
oil. Thus a fat or oil is generally a mixture of several com-
pounds, each of which contains glycerine in chemical combina-
tion with certain acids, most commonly what are known as
“fatty” acids. When a fat or oil is treated with caustic soda,
the sodium takes the place of the glycerine and unites with the
fatty acids, forming a sodium compound of each of the fatty
acids, and the glycerine that was in combination is set free as
glycerine. In some cases, boiling is necessary to cause the
alkali and fatty acid to combine; in other cases, the action takes
place at ordinary temperatures. A soap is, therefore, a chemical
compound formed by the union of an alkali with the fatty acid
or acids of a fat or oil. Other substances are frequently added
to soaps for various purposes, such as resin, water, coloring
matter, perfume, etc.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED IN ANALYSIS OF SOAPS.

The terms commonly used in expressing the results of analy-
sis of a soap, when it is desired to determine its fitness for spray-
ing purposes are the following. (1) Water, (2) fatty acids
expressed as anhydrides, (3) sodium oxide combined as soap, (4)
potassium oxide combined as soap, (5) resin, (6) free acid esti-
mated as oleic acid, (7) free alkali.

(1) Water in soap.—lIt is desirable to know the amount of
moisture in soap in order to know its value for spraying pur-
poses, since the greater the amount of water in the soap, the
more soap will be needed to make a soap solution of a certain
strength.

(2) Fatty acids expressed as anhydrides.—Unéer this heating,
we indicate simply the proportion of fatty acids present in the
soap. :

(3) Sodium oxide combined as soap.—In order to know the
kind and amount of alkali present in a soap, it is necessary to

126 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

determine the amount of sodium, expressed as oxide, that is
actually present in combination in the soap.

(4) Potassium oxide combined as soap—When a soap is
guaranteed to contain potash, it is important to ascertain how
much is present, since potash costs more than caustic soda. In
an ordinary soda soap, it is not important to determine the
potash.

(5) Resin.—To many soaps resin is added apparently for the
purpose of enabling the soap to hold water, making it harder
and of increasing the weight. 4

(6) Free fatty acid—tIn making a soap, more fat or oil may
be used than can combine with the alkali used ‘and then some
uncombined fat or oil will be left over. This is indicated under
the expression “ free fatty acid.” The same condition may occur
when the combination of fat and alkali is incomplete.

(7) Free alkaliimWhen more alkali is used than can combine
with the fat or oil used or when the combination is incomplete,
free alkali is left in the soap. This condition in spraying soaps
may prove injurious to foliage.

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF WHALE-OIL SOAPS.

In the following table, we present the results of analysis of 9
samples of commercial whale-oil soap. Ordinary impurities were
not determined. Potash was estimated only in those advertised
as potash soaps. The amount of actual soap is found by adding
the constituents, anhydrides of fatty acids, soda and potash.

TasLe I—Givine Resuuts or ANALYSIS OF WHALE-OIL SOAPS.

| Fatty acid Soda | Potash | ver Free
No. of | w. Actual | expressed | (Na2.O) | (K2O)com-| alkali as
- Water. ; A : fatty .
sample. soap. as anhy- | combined | bined as | eras soda Resin.
drides. | as soap. | soap. | ; (Na.O)

| Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
1 WIGS |e 59.277, 50.84 | 8.43 | 0 - 11.14 0.00 | 12.65
2 20.38 | 36.66 25.87 | 10.79 0 3.95 0.00 | 51.60
3 28.39 14.90 F8.05 6.85 10) | 0.00 1.30 | 20.58
4 29.4 50.27 39.11 Li 16 0 | 14.66 0.00 | 4.99
5 29.75 19.66 12.07 7.59 0 10.01 0.00 | 33.17
6 | 36.79 | 46.28 35.82 4.88 Hees HD FaT 0:00'} 38.25,
uf 52.74 | 25.80 16.40 2.30 7.07 10.72 0.00 10.57

8 Dolor! 24006 19.12 1.95 2.99 | 17.20 0.00 |
9| 54.85 | 24.11 15.27 | 1.89 6.95 | 9.02 0.00 | 7.98

} | 1

The tabulated data of special interest that enable us best to
estimate the value of a soap for spraying purposes are the follow-

i lh tt es ee

New York AgcricutTuRaAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1 bry

ing: Water, actual soap, free fatty acids and free alkali. What
does this table reveal in regard to the presence of these various
constituents in the different soaps?

(1) Water in the nine samples various from 11.15 to 54.85 per
ct. No. 6 and No. 8 are different lots of the same brand of soap,
but the content of water differs over 16 per ct.

(2) Real soap in the different samples varies from 14.90 to
59.27 per ct., a range of difference even greater than in the case
of the water in these soaps. In samples 6 and 8, which represent
different lots of the same manufacturer’s material, the real soap
is nearly twice in amount in No. 6 what it is in No. 8.

(3) Free fatty acids varied from nothing to 17.20 per ct.
indicating in most cases that the oil was used in amount more
than sufficient to combine with alkali.

(4) Free alkali was generally absent, being found in only one
soap and then not in excessive amount, indicating that not enough
oil was employed to combine fully with the alkali.

It is evident, then, that these whale-oil soaps, which were

actually found offered for general sale in the market, are abso-

lutely unreliable for anything like uniform composition. An
inspection of the data in the preceding table must readily reveal
why a fruit-grower who uses a soap like No. 3, containing less .
than 15 per ct. of soap, will fail to get satisfactory results as
compared with the one who uses No. 1 or No. 4, which contain
over 50 per ct. of actual-soap. A man purchasing No. 6, con-
taining over 46 per ct. of actual soap, and using it with success
might at the next purchase get No. 8, the same brand as No. 6,
but containing only 24 per ct. of soap, and then be puzzled to
know why the soap failed to destroy the insects. Some of these
soaps when used according to the usual directions, give a solu-
tion four times as strong as some of the other soaps. Suppose,
for illustration, one uses No. 1 soap at the rate of one pound to
seven gallons of water; in order to have a solution contain the
same amount of soap, it would be necessary to use four pounds of
No. 8 for seven gallons of water. In the case of No. 6 and No. 8,
the same directions for use accompanied both lots and yet one
contained twice as much actual soap as the other.

The variation of the soaps in water content did not account
for all the differences of actual soap. Thus, No. 3, No. 4 and

128 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

No. 5 contain about the same amount of water but the actual
soap in them varies from 14.90 to 50.27 per ct.

It is a fact that very few makers of commercial whale-oil soaps
are willing to guarantee the composition of their product. It
would, therefore, appear that horticulturists cannot depend upon
the whale-oil soaps in the market as possessing a standard, or
uniform, composition. The question arises as to how one can
know how much commercial whale-oil soap to use under the
circumstances. The only practicable suggestions are either to
make up solutions of different strength and try them in a small
way on foliage, thus ascertaining how much soap to use, or else
to purchase reliable materials and make soap for one’s own use.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE HOME-MANUFACTURE OF FISH-
OIL SOAP.

It was thought desirable under the circumstances to try some
experiments in making fish-oil soap and to find a formula that
could be recommended as giving results in every way satisfactory.
Two formulas were tried. The materials used were common
fish-oil, caustic soda and water. The quantities given are based
on a finished product of 40 pounds of soap. In making the soap,
. the caustic soda is completely dissolved in the given amount of
water and the fish-oil is then added gradually under constant and
vigorous stirring. The combination occurs readily at ordinary
summer temperatures and the operation is soon completed. The
mixing may be done in any receptacle sufficiently large to con-
tain the whole amount of material. It would probably not be
desirable to attempt to make more than 20 to 40 pounds at a
time, since the difficulty of thoroughly stirring a larger mass
would tend to make a complete combination less sure, thus render-
ing liable the presence of too much free alkali. Complete and
thorough stirring is essential to success. Caustic soda should be
handled with precaution, since in concentrated form it easily in-
jures the skin.

NO. 1. FORMULA FOR MAKING 40 POUNDS OF FISH-OIL SOAP.
Caustic Soda... «fei wae ee eae 6 pounds.
Wailer Aoi s bee ikcircne eed hope er lee eae 114 gallons.
Fish-0i1 * 37. S./0 3s ied Aenea aa 22 pounds.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 129

This was found to show on analysis,—

PCa he ses Sum tk whe See ee CN 24.91 per ct.
PMMA SOG eset ce nets che as 61.57 per ct.
RE Ziad NEY ES Le ci ese ae ae 0.74 per ct.

A 20-pound lot made up at another time contained 0.62 per
ct. of free alkali. .

No, 2. Another mixture was made containing twice as much
caustic soda and less fish-oil. This contained,—

es eet oak Meiccy s wteas Asiajeas sToimee ere 23.36 per ct.
POSIT MMSE Pear che 00 «arate «seats Loa Sears. AC.A9- per-et.
CC met eA: Soh re he elas Meese ee hea 5 ¥ 11.22 per ct.

EXPERIMENTS IN USING HOME-MADE SOAPS IN SPRAYING.

Experiment 1.—Action on aphis of willow.—Soap No. 1 was
used in solutions of three different strengths (one pound of soap
in two, five, and seven gallons of water) upon willow leaves
infected with the willow aphis (Lachnus salicicola Uhler). The
insects were completely destroyed by each of the three solutions.
The success of this home-made soap in solution of at least one
pound of soap in seven gallons of water was thus shown in
destroying aphis.

Another point, however, demanded attention, the effect of free
alkali in a soap solution upon the foliage itself. To test this a
series of additional experiments was carried on.

Experiments testing action of home-made soap containing differ-
ent amounts of free alkali upon foliage.—In the following set of
experiments, the solutions used contained one pound of soap in
seven gallons of water. Soap No. 2, containing 11.22 per ct. of
free alkali, was used without any addition of alkali. Soap No. L
was used in its normal condition, containing 0.75 per ct. of free
alkali, and also with added quantities of caustic soda, making
the amount of free alkali in the soap 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 per
ct. of the soap.

(1) June 22, apple, pear, plum and currant leaves were sprayed
with solutions of soap containing 0.75, 1, 2, 5 and 10 per ct.

of free ‘alkali. A fine rain was falling while the trees were being
| sprayed and the results of the experiment must be interpreted

9

130 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

with reference to this condition. The leaves were examined on
the second and third day after spraying. On the second day after
spraying, only the young apple leaves showed signs of burning and
that was by the one solution made from soap containing 10 per
ct. of free alkali. When examined on the third day after spray-
ing, the apple leaves appeared the same as on the previous
day, the plum and currant leaves showed no appreciable harm,
and the pear foliage was unharmed except for a slight burning
at the ends of the leaves by the solution of the soap containing
10 per ct. of free alkali.

(2) June 23, apple, pear, plum and cherry foliage was dipped
in solutions of soap containing 0.75, 2, 5, 10 and 20 per ct.
of free alkali and also in a solution of soap No. 2 containing
11.22 per ct. of free alkali. When examined on the next day, no
harm was shown by any of the leaves except the young leaves
of the apple in the case of the largest amounts of free alkali.
It was noticed that a lady-bird beetle on the foliage was killed by
the solution of the soap that contained 20 per ct. of free alkali.
When examined on the second day after spraying, the following
results were observed :—The apple leaves treated with soap con-
taining 0.75, 2 and 5 per ct. of free alkali were not injured; those
treated with the soap containing 10 and 11.22 per ct. of free
alkali were slightly burned, while the soap containing 20 per ct.
of free alkali caused serious injury.

The pear foliage suffered no injury from soap containing five
per ct. or less of free alkali, while injury was caused by the soap
containing 10 per ct. or more of free alkali, the extent of injury
increasing with the amount of free alkali present.

The plum foliage suffered no injury except very slight burn-
ing in the case of the solution made from the soap containing 20
per ct. of free alkali.

The cherry leaves were injured by solutions made from soap
containing 10 per ct. or more of free alkali.

(3) June 24, apple, pear, plum, currant, cherry, and peach
leaves were treated with a solution made from a soap containing
50 per ct. of free alkali. In every case, the leaves were badly
burned, as might be anticipated.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 181

‘These results are presented below in tabulated form.

Taste II1.—SuHowine ReEsutts or ACTION oF FREE ALKALI IN Soap
ON FOLIAGE.

Extent oF InJury DoNE TO FoLIAGE BY FREE ALKALI IN SOAP.

Kind of | When When Percentage of Free Alkali in Soap from which Solutions

: foliage. | treated. | examined. were made.
0.75 1 2 5 | 10 11.23 20 50
|

Apple June 22)June 24 None None |None |None Some =
Apple June. 22'June 25|'None |None |None |None Some
Pear June 22/June 24\None |None |None |None None =
Pear June 22) June 25,None |None |None |None Slight
Plum June 22 June 24\'Nene None |None |None |None
Plum June 22'June 25|None |None |None |None |None
Currant |June 22|June 24 None |None |None |None |None | —— | ———
Currant |June 22)June 25 None |None |None |None |None

None |None Some |Some |Some
None |None |Some |Some (Serious
None |None ‘None ‘None {Slight
None None Slight |Some ‘Serious
[None |None |None
None |None |None |None (Slight
None |None |None |None |None
None |None |Some Some (Serious

Apple June 23\June 24 None
Apple June 23)June 25) None
Pear June 23\June 24|None
Pear June 23 June 25) None
Plum June 23)June 24|)None
Plam June 23 June 25|None
Cherry j|June 23) June 24|None
Cherry |June 23)June 25 None
Apple June 24|June 27 if
Pear. June 24\June 27 =—

Plum June 24\June 27 —— he

HTH
(INH

Currant |June 24) June 27 = |
Cherry |June 24) June 27| —— == | ==
Peach June 24\June 27; ——

The results of the experiments described. above indicate that
the presence of free alkali to the extent of five per ct. in soap
does not injure foliage when the soap is made into a solution of
one pound of soap in seven gallons of water. Comparatively
little harm is done even when the amount of free alkali in a
soap amounts to 10 per ct., the soap solution being of the same
degree of dilution. It can readily be seen, therefore, that home-
made soap No. 1, containing less than one per ct. of free alkali,
can be safely used on all the varieties of foliage experimented
with and can also be relied upon to destroy plant lice, when used
in the form of a solution of one pound of soap to seven gallons
of water.

COST OF MATERIALS USED IN HOME-MADE SOAP.

Caustic soda of good commercial quality (74 per ct.) can be
purchased from the Penn Chemical Co., 1522 Washington avenue,
Philadelphia, Pa., at about four cents a pound, f. o. b., put up in
50-pound cans. Making liberal allowances for freight and any
incidental expenses, the cost of caustic soda should not exceed

132 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

414 cents a pound. It can be purchased at drug stores for about
6 cents a pound.

We have been at considerable trouble to learn where fish-oil
can be purchased. It can be furnished in barrel lots by the
following parties:

Nehemiah B. Cook, 148 Front Street, New York City.

Swan & Finch Co., 151 Maiden Lane, New York City.

Refined fish-oil can be purchased in barrel quantities at 29 cents”
a gallon f. 0. b. Crude fish-oil can be purchased under the same
conditions at 25 cents a gallon and answers the purposes very
satisfactorily.

From these data, we can estimate the cost of materials used
in making soap according to the formula given, making some
allowance for cost of shipping materials.

6 pounds caustic soda at 414 cents a pound............ . $0.27
22 pounds (about 3 gallons) fish-oil at 29 cents a gallon.. 0.87
Total cost of materials used in making 40 pounds of soap. 1.14
Cost of one pound Of SOAP! cece eine oun |e iss wecinpe | eee Cente

Commercial whale-oil soap costs at retail in small quantities
10 cents a pound; in larger quantities, six cents a pound. In
barrel-lots, amounting to 350 to 400 pounds, whale-oil soap can
be purchased in New York city at 4144 cents a pound, and fish-
oil soap at 31% cents a pound.

It would, therefore, appear that some saving may be effected
in the home-manufacture of fish-oil soap for spraying purposes.
Even if no saving could be made by home-manufacture, an article
of greater uniformity and reliability could be secured and this
would generally result in marked economy in comparison with
using commercial soaps of uncertain and very variable com-
position.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. We

A STUDY OF THE CHEMISTRY OF HOME-MADE
CIDER VINEGAR.*

L. L. Van SLYKE.

SUMMARY.

1. Purpose of Work.—The primary object of the work was to
learn why many home-made cider vinegars fail to reach the legal
standard of 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and 2 per ct. of cider
vinegar solids. The investigation was extended so as to include
(1) the composition of apple juice of different varieties of apples,
(2) the changes in composition that apple juice undergoes during

-alcoholic and acetic fermentations, (3) conditions affecting these
changes and (4) the destructive fermentation of vinegar on long
standing.

2. Composition of Apple Juice—Analyses are given for 122
samples of apple juice representing 83 varieties of apples, all
American-grown. The average composition of these juices is as
follows:

Specific gravity, 1.056

Solids, é 18.28 ‘per. ct.
Reducing sugars, TA1 per ct.
Sucrose, 3.28 per ct.
Ash, 0.29 per ct.

Fixed acid (malic), 0.51 per ct.

Of these constituents, sugar is the most important in relation
to the manufacture of cider vinegar. The quantity of sugar in
apple juice is dependent upon the variety of apple and upon t':
stage of ripeness, unripe or over-ripe apples containing less sugar
than ripe apples.

3. Alcoholic Fermentation of Apple Juice—Apple juice left
exposed to the air is acted upon by yeast cells everywhere present,

*A reprint ofjBulletin No. 258.

134 ReEPoRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

the sugar being changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas.
Theoretically, 100 parts of sugar should yield about 51 parts of
alcohol, but in actual practice losses are experienced, reducing the
actual yield to 45 to 47 parts of alcohol. The fresh apple juice
from sound apples contains no alcohol. When apple juice has
undergone partial or complete alcoholic fermentation, it is com-
merically known as “ cider.”

In carrying on the experiments, apple juice was placed in
casks and also in bottles, and these were kept under different
conditions, some approximating the conditions commonly em-
ployed by farmers in the home-manufacture of cider vinegar.

(1) Relation of time to formation of alcohol_——Under the ordi-
nary conditions of a cellar temperature, most of the sugar is
changed into alcohol in five or six months. (2) Relation of tem-
perature to alcoholic fermentation. In studying the alcoholic
fermentation at temperatures ranging from 45° F. to 85° F., it
was found that the change takes place more rapidly at the higher
temperatures. (3) Adding yeast to apple juice tends to hasten the
alcoholic fermentation.

4, Acetic Fermentation of Cider.—Certain forms of bacteria act
upon the alcohol of cider and convert it into acetic acid, the
presence of which in sufficient quantity is the object of the maker
of vinegar. The conditions most necessary for the acetic fermen-
tation of cider are (a) acetic bacteria, (b) an abundant supply of
air, and (c) a temperature between 65° F. and 85° F. Theoreti-
cally, 100 parts of alcohol yield about 130 parts of acetic acid, but
the actual yield is usually below 120.

(1) Relation of time to formation of acetic acid.—At cellar
temperatures, the acetic fermentation takes place slowly, requir-
ing about 18 months. (2) The relation of temperature to the
acetic fermentation Under the conditions of our work the forma-
tion of acetic acid took place most satisfactorily at temperatures
between 65° F. and 75° F. (3) The addition of vinegar containing
“mother ” to cider after the completion of the alcoholic fermenta-
tion increases the rapidity of the formation of acetic acid. (4)
When the clear portion of cider was separated from the sediment,
the acetic fermentation appeared to be favored, especially at
lower temperatures.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 135

5. Loss of Acetic Acid in Vinegar on Standing.—Several differ-
ent organisms have the power of decomposing dilute acetic acid
and thus destroying the value of vinegar. These organisms work
only in the presence of air. Accordingly, this destructive change
in vinegar can be prevented by excluding air, when once the acetic
acid has been formed. In practice, this can be done by drawing
off the clear vinegar, placing it in a clean barrel, filling it as full
as possible and putting the bung in tight.

6. Variations in Vinegar made under Uniform Conditions.—It
is possible that different barrels of apple juice placed side by side
may show quite different behavior in fermentation.

7. Behavior of Malic Acid of Apple Juice during the Fermenta-
tion Processes of Vinegar-making.—Malic acid was found to
decrease during the vinegar-making process. In most cases, only
small amounts of malic acid, free or combined, were left when the
vinegar had become a commercial product. In decomposed vine-
gars, malic acid had entirely disappeared. Malic acid added to
apple juice also disappeared to a large extent. In sterilized apple
‘juice, the decrease of malic acid was less marked.

8. The Relation of Malic Acid to the Identification of Pure
Cider Vinegar.—The white precipitate formed when lead acetate
is added to vinegar has been attributed to the presence of malic
acid in the vinegar and a vinegar failing to give this test is usually
regarded as not cider vinegar. While all of our vinegars gave a
precipitate with lead acetate, there were several in which no trace
of malic acid was present. Further special study is needed of the
relation of malic acid to cider vinegar.

9. The Solids of Apple Juice and Cider Vinegar—During the
first three months of the alcoholic fermentation at cellar tempera-
ture, the solids decreased rapidly. The loss was not uniform
in different experiments. There is quite generally a decrease of
solids to a point below 2 per ct., but under normal conditions
there is a subsequent increase. In old vinegars, standing with the
bung-hole open, there is evaporation of water and a consequent
increase of solids. In vinegars in which a destructive fermenta-
tion of acetic acid has occurred, there is also a marked loss of
solids. The amount of vinegar solids may be below 2 per ct. when
the acetic acid is above 4.5 per ct.

136 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

10. Cider Vinegar in Relation to Legal Standards.—Legal
standards for cider vinegar are usually based upon the percentage
of acetic acid and cider-vinegar solids. In New York State,
the legal requirement is 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and 2 per ct. of
solids. From our work, it appears that where proper fruit is
used for cider-making and where the conditions of fermentation
are properly controlled, there should be no difficulty in making
cider vinegar that contains above 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid in 18 to
24 months.

In respect to the requirement of 2 per ct. of cider vinegar
solids, something depends upon the method of determining solids,
since there is yet no recognized official method. It would be
wise for the law to fix the method to be used in estimating
solids.

11. Conditions commonly producing Cider Vinegar below
Standard.—The more common causes responsible for the produc-
tion of cider vinegar low in acetic acid are the following :—(1)
Poor apple juice, due to (a) unripe fruit, (b) over ripe fruit, (c)
watering normal apple juice, (d) second pressing of water-treated
pomace, (e) the use of fruit normally poor in sugar. (2) Condi-
tions unfavorable to the necessary fermentation processes, such
as (a) dirty fruit, (b) unclean barrels, (c) too low tempera-
ture, (d) lack of air from filling barrel too full or stopping the
bung-hole. (8) Lack of proper care after the vinegar is made,
by leaving the cider standing at too high a temperature with the
bung open and the barrels only partly filled.

12. Directions for Home-Manufacture of Cider Vinegar.—(1)
Kind of apples to use. Only clean, sound, ripe apples, giving a
juice containing not less than 8.5 per ct. of sugar should be
used. (2) Preparation of apple juice. Cleanliness should be
observed in grinding and pressing. Avoid. the use of juice made
from second pressing of pomace. (3) Putting apple juice in
barrels. The barrels should be carefully cleaned and thoroughly
treated with live steam or boiling water and should be filled about
two-thirds or three-fourths full of apple juice. The bung should
be loosely placed in the hole or preferably the hole loosely plugged
with a stopper of absorbent cotton. (4) Management of alcoholic
fermentation. The barrels of apple juice should be kept at a
temperature of 65° F. to 70° F., if fairly rapid fermentation

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 137

is desired. A further shortening of time may be realized by
adding yeast to the apple juice, using one compressed yeast
cake for five gallons of juice. (5) Management of acetic fermen-
tation. When alcoholic fermentation is complete, draw off clear
portion of liquid, rinse barrel, replace the clear liquid, add 2
to 4 quarts of good vinegar containing some “ mother ” and keep
at a temperature of 65° F. to 75° F. (6) Care of cider vinegar.
When the acetic acid amounts to 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid
or more, then fill the barrels as full as possible and cork tightly.

INTRODUCTION.

Some years ago our attention was called to the fact that cider
vinegar made by farmers was found frequently to fall below the
legal standard of the State, viz., 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and
2 per ct. of cider vinegar solids. It was commonly claimed
that these vinegars were made from pure apple juice. The desire
was expressed that a study should be made to ascertain why the
ider vinegar made by farmers so frequently falls below the
legal standard. The work described in this bulletin was under-
taken primarily to throw some light on this question. Our
original plan was to ascertain what results could be secured in
making vinegar from pure apple juice under those conditions
commonly employed by farmers. No attempt was made to study
the rapid process of making vinegar by the use of so-called
generators, since their use is greatly limited in ordinary farm
practice.

The investigation was extended to the consideration of addi-
tional points of interest, such as (1) the composition of fresh
apple juice obtained from different kinds of apples; (2) the
changes in composition that the constituents of apple juice
undergo (a) during alcoholic fermentation and (b) during acetic
fermentation; (8) the conditions affecting these changes; (4)
the destruction of vinegar on long standing. Somewhat similar
work has been done at the experiment stations of Pennsylvania
and Virginia and by the Bureau of Chemistry of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Up to July, 1901, Dr. J. A. LeClerc, formerly assistant chemist
here, now of the Division of Chemistry, United States Depart-

188 REPorRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

ment of Agriculture, performed most of the routine analytical
work required by the investigation.

In the process of making vinegar from apple juice or “ sweet
cider,” two fermentations are prominent and essential. Through
the agency of the first form of fermentation, the sugars of the
apple juice are converted into alcohol, and the product at this
stage is commonly known as “hard” cider or simply cider. The
alcohol is then converted by another form of fermentation into
acetic acid, the product then being known as vinegar. In con-
sidering the formation of cider-vinegar, we have therefore to study
two distinct processes of fermentation.

THE COMPOSITION OF APPLE JUICE.

Before considering the changes produced in apple juice by the
fermentations that convert it into vinegar, we will study the
composition of the juice freshly prepared from apples. In the
preparation of the samples of apple juice used in our work, we
selected standard varieties of apples; we used only well-ripened,
sound fruit and prepared the samples in October and November.
Before grinding, the apples were washed and then put through
a large-sized hand-mill and press.

The apple juice was filtered before analysis in order to remove
pulp and other suspended matter. The determinations in the
apple juice, cider and vinegar were made as follows :—

The specific gravity was determined by means of a pyknometer.

The solids were found by drying about five grams of material
on sand in a steam oven for six to eight. hours.

The sugars were determined by the volumetric permanganate
method, as described in Bulletin No. 46 of the Division of
Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, p. 38.

The amount of total acid was found by direct titration. The
volatile and fixed acids were determined as follows: About 10
grams of material were evaporated to dryness on a water bath,
then a small quantity (about 5 ee.) of distilled water was added
and the contents evaporated to dryness again. The addition of
water and evaporation to dryness were repeated two or three
times. The residue was then titrated with decinormal sodium
hydroxide and the result calculated as malic acid. This amount

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 139

deducted from the total acid gave the volatile acid, which was
calculated as acetic.

The amounts of alcohol, of ash and of nitrogen were found by
the methods in common use.

Below we give the results of analysis of 13 samples of fresh
apple juice.

Taste I—ANALYSIS OF APPLE JuICcE Usep IN EXPERIMENTS.

Gates Fixed | Vola-
Specific Redue- Su- | Nitro- acid tile
Oo- KInD oF APPLE. gravity. | Solids. ing | crose.| gen. | Ash. as | acid.
2 sugars. | malic.

| Per ct. | Per ct. |Per ct.|Per ct./Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.

1 | Northern Spy..... pe eee OGS lo 24 81008 | 2.69 015 | 0.19 | 0.52 .02
2 | Northern Spy......... 1.065 | 15.49 9.95 | 3.43 .014 | 0.19 | 0.51 .03
SiMe NOLENEENUSDYs. «5s ass 6 1.064 | 15.12 9.73 | 3.12 | .013 | 0.20 | 0.49 .04
4 | Roxbury Russet....... 1.069 | 16.46 S4854| S128 | O21 WhOs23 OFGS 04
5 | Roxbury Russet....... 1.072 | 16.85 9.06 | 5.46 | .020 | 0.20 | 0.66 02
6 | Mixed Russet......... 1.074 | 17.19 9.23 | 5.78-| .023,| 0:28 | 0.62 .05
71) BEYOIG bya 0 Saree eae 1.060 | 14.43 8.507 | 4.37 |) O17 | 0.23) 0.59 .04
8 | Reinette Pippin....... 1.056 | 18.50 9.14 | 2.67 .010 | 0.21 | 0.47 .04
9 | Mixed falland winter...) 1.065 | 15.43 9.33 | 4.26 | .016 | 0.27 | 0.51 .03
10 | Mixed falland winter...| 1.057 | 13.73 9.23 | 3.01 | .014 | 0.18 | 0.41 .03
11 | Mixed fall and winter .. 1.060 | 14.01 7.49 | 4.33 -020 | 0.27 | 0.59 03
17 | Mixed fall and winter...| 1.065 | 15.27 | 10.34 | 2.68 | .021 | 0.31 | 0.41 .00
29 | Mixed fall and winter... 1.062 | 138.97 9.64 | 3.01 .029 | 0.27 | 0.54 .02
Average of all......} 1.064 | 15.11 9:28 | 3.85 | .018 | 0.23 | 0.53 .03

The data in Table I are summarized in the following state-
ment:

(1) Specific gravity.—The specific gravity in the different sam-
ples of apple juice varied from 1.056 to 1.074 and averaged
1.064. ;

(2) Solids.—The percentage of total solids varied from 13.50
to 17.19 and averaged 15.11.

(3) Reducing sugars.—The amount of reducing sugars varied
from 7.49 to 10.34 and averaged 9.28 per cent.

(4) Suerose-—The percentage of sucrose varied from 2.67 to
5.78 and averaged 3.85.

(5) Total sugar.—The total amount of sugar, equivalent to
invert sugar, varied from 11.89 to 15.32 and averaged 13.33 per
cent. .

(6) Nitrogen.—Nitrogen varied in amount from 0.01 to -0.029
per cent. and averaged 0.018 per cent.

(7) Ash.—The percentage of ash varied from 0.18 to 0.31 and
averaged 0.23.

140 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

(8) Fixed acids—The amount of fixed acids, calculated as
malic acid, varied from 0.41 to 0.66 per cent. and averaged 0.53
per cent.

(9) Volatile acids were practically absent.

(10) Variations in composition.—It is noticeable that the com-
position of apple juice varies considerably. The extent of such
variation is still more striking, if we study analyses of apple juice
made elsewhere. In Table II, we give the results of analysis of
apple juice obtained by others from different varieties of Ameri-
can apples. The results presented in the following table are from
work done by C. A. Browne, Jr.,’ at the Pennsylvania State
Agricultural Experiment Station; by J. S. Burd? of the Division
of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; and by
R. J. Davidson,® of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. There is also presented for comparison a summary showing
the average composition of apple juice investigated by the differ-
ent workers.

“ 1Annual Report of the Pennsylvania State College for 1901-1902, p. 120.
2Bulletin No. 136 of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station (1902).
2Bulletin No. 136 and 143 of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,

pp. 94-95 (1902).

‘New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 141

TABLE JJ.—ANALYSES OF APPLE JUICE OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF
AMERICAN APPLES.

Equiva-
lent of
Reduc- total Fixed
VARIETY OF APPLE. Specific | Solids. ing |Sucrose.| .sugar Ash. | acid as| Analyst.
gravity. sugars. in form | malic.
of invert
sugar. |
Per ct.| Per ct.) Per et.| Per ct. Per ct.) Per ct.
Albemarle (Yel. Newtown) Pippin.| 1.062 | 11.48 6.14 3.10 9.40 0.41 | Davidson
Albemarle (Yel. Newtown) Pippin.| 1.056 14.00 6.62 4.25 10.09 | ——| 0.62 | Davidson.
American Summer..............-} 1.062 16.05 8.50 3.74 12.44 | ——| 0.37 | Davidson
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig).| 1.051 12.05 7.00 3.67 10.86 | ——| 0 41 | Davidson
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig).| 1.056 | 14.14 7.90 3.35 | 11.64 ' ——| 0.71] Davidson
UL WHILE eaiaieles! cide os caa'e sie nye 1.072 16.82 7.97 7.05 15.39 0.26 0.67 | Browne
HIGINITINS: ons iss Geass see's 1.055 13.92 5.96 4.91 11.13 | —— 0.69 | Davidson
Beal euratieetics Secersse(sew aclers o ats 1.0614) 13.64 5.40 6.01 11.72 | 0.25 0.62 | Burd
IBANOZD Veer coca ecclec cies cs cineeas 1.046 | 10.76 9-25 3.35 8.76 | ——| 0.64 | Davidson
Faliu bye fectcrce syccioec sce se cl 1.050 | 13.04 6.40 3.42 | 10.00 | ——/ 0.15 Davidson
Belle de Boskoop................ 1.062 | 16.21 6.93 5.29 | 12.50 | ——| . 1.07 | Davidson
TBE eHO Ween cet inaeis odetes scissor 1.061 14.90 8.54 4.07 12.82 0.58 | Browne
enMDaAVISceette te cictet cuss ene 1.052 12.77 6.75 3.66 10.60 | 0.28 0.46 | Browne
(Rene ayis ys cee ates icc cecicessteee 1.046 10.69 5.05 1.60 6.74 | 0.44 | Davidson
IGNOU aoe ote c cat oc cdies 10467) M1e73 5.24 4.22 9.68 | ——) 0.48 | Davidson
Dorrie ssictelctttevcsa aiarcieale astueleters 1.060 14.23 7.72 BeAr WT AINSY. 0.37 | Davidson
OHUMMe Ty heey cr trevclataccsiare.c-alste sia 1.059 14.93 9.46 1.81 11.30 | 0.26 0.52 | Burd
IBUGHINE HAM Netaenis cic doe ee ceca cles 1.045 | 11.01 7.00 2.11 9.22 | 0.48 | Davidson
Bullocks) Pippin. . «fst... os. 05% 1.053 | 14.72 6.25 4.84 | 11.30 | 0.25 0.42 urd
(CHIRON Arp GHOBee RSD aree 1.054 | 14.52 yey) 5.87 | 11.50 | ——| 0.44 | Davidson
Carolinwed Unes Scie. sas 5 esi ws 1.044 | 10.99 4.57 3.15 7.99 \ aera 0.66 | Davidson
WHEMANGO sae cedous oekee sso veel’: 1.050 12.61 6.79 2.26 9.17 | 0.40 | Davidson
PET U MEI ARVES Tote c.¢, so ote ttess Sates « 1.054 13.29 leit 3.47 11.08 | 0.28 0.86 | Browne
Early Strawberry.... welll 2 OF8 11.81 5.22 4.01 9.44 | 0.24 0.74 | Browne
Emperor Alexander.............. 1.060 | 13.7 9.24 1.22 | 10:52 0.63 | Davidson
Emperer Alexander..............| 1.059 15.27 L22 3.71 11.12 | 0.37 0.74 | Burd
inehishi@rapeescs.ccecc cee ce heel) 12053 12.68 6.31 3.14 9.60 | —— 0.42 | Davidson
BinelishGraboc.ciessswe cs accuieses 1.057 14.17 8.60 2.85 VLG) | 0.64 | Davidson
IKEA sarc cccsactne ssc cet 1.057 13.19 7.10 2.76 | 10.00 | ——/ 0.83 | Davidson
BE KaE ere c celts cclss niece a iatsia’ 1.056 14.35 7.16 4.23 11.61 | 0.37 0.93 | Burd
Fallawater (Tulpehocken)........ 1.056 | 13.94 9.17 2.94] 12.26 | 0.24 0.26 | Browne
Wah Orange ee. Pesce. secs see 1.055 13.31 6.62 3.42 10.22 | ——) 0.54] Davidson
HANMBippins teens... c cee oa nieete 1.049 | 12.22 7.14 3.92 | 11.27 | ——| 0.58 } Davidson
LETTE hee ORR EOC ABS EERE ices 1.053 | 12.84 6.78 4,22 | 11.22 | ——| 0.51 | Davidson
WANN VAR cto see hes cited hate aloe 1.042 | 10.97 Denes 2.28 8.12 | 0.24 0.41 | Burd
(Garten ost oe sec cts wie a cestuies 1.046 | 10.16 5.53 2.93 8.60 0.41 | Davidson
GENOMet nates tans caste enn eee 1.056 | 13.92 6.96 4.14} 11.32 | ——| 0.41 | Davidson
Grimes Goldens ess. cnc vn se see 1.070 | 18.81 7.33 6.39 | 14.05 | 0.30 0.74 | Burd
(GrimestGuldenycasc<4.ce08 ab sean 1.063 | 15.39 6.95 Doge dene, 0.60 | Davidson
ipslop Grabs ns. secs meee st cs 1.065 | 14.88 6.80 4.78 | 11.84 | ——| 0.81] Davidson
I GLBOV AS WECbeins s cicieienicine as biereess 1.053 | 13.28 5.61 5.06 | 10.94 | ——| 0.16] Davidson
DOMAIN AN St wlot wane ae roee slows eas 1.050 13.18 6.76 2.63 9.52 | 0.37 0.26 | Burd
Poms inserter cater es covcreys acesetyere 1.056 14.62 7.00 4.37 11.60 | —— 0.32 | Davidson
Kentucky Cider Crab............ 1.066 | 15.42 8.75 3.33 12.25 | ——| 0.71) Davidson
Martktond eee tcctastcis ccise'a esis use 1.051 13.42 7.93 2.07 10.10 | 0.25 0.49 | Burd
Manksord ca. tented kis weeny 1.054 13.35 7.14 3.53 10.86 | ——| 0.56} Davidson
IDE STAIR a a a ae 1.049 11.96 8.05 1.76 9.91 | —— 0.16 | Davidson
UGA WiVET mente Sareisnie ster awreie atereoiis 1.057 14.42 8.10 3.01 11.27 | ——| 0.58 | Davidson
Limber Twig..... ages eres: 1.057 14.11 7.44 3.86 11.50 | —— 0.62 | Davidson
Satara aore te oiche eich oven syaiei ase sis 1.052 11.76 5.43 157, 7.08 | —— 0.51 | Davidson
MaideneBlushte ss: ceases sckraee 1.051 12.70 4.34 3.47 9.99 | —— 0.67 | Davidson
Maiden Blush Crab.............. 1.066 | 16.03 7.85 4.54} 12.63 | ——| 0.45] Davidson
Maiden Blush Crab.............. 1.070 18.56 10.00 4.56 14.78 | —— 0.44 | Davidson
Ian Ise rede cic ois erin: fall qden OO! 14.08 7.43 2.00 10.35 | —— 0.57 | Davidson
Missouri Pippin......... ado 0if ends O49, 12.08 D200 3.99 OU a nOnae 0.60 | Burd
Montreal Beauty Crab........... 1.045 10.90 Seal 2.64 8.09 | —— 0.48 | Davidson
Mother. ec stace es cater en dsb oa 1.060 14.77 ees! 4.16 11.69 | —— 0.37 | Davidson
WWowlinsa SVientes ee, <s:<.csaiseceiee us 1.061 1.00 CEPA 3.54 | 11.00 0.29 | Davidson
Nansemond Beauty...........-..| 1.051 | 13.18 7.15 2.80} 10.09 | 0.38 0.64 | Burd
3 Rapa OIG OF COeBee OHS DCE 1.046 12.00 7.63 1.39 9.09 | 0.24 0.41 | Burd
NOLO ats coh erates os ra viatie eRe 1.046 | 10.61 6.77 1.72 8.58 0.36 | Davidson
Worthern Spyse.csesoananes cclne 1.053 11.73 5.36 3.29 8.82 | —— 0.68 | Davidson
anther Spyesodse socacei etic oe 1.052 | 13.77 6.10 3.50 9.77 | 0.32 0.69 | Burd
Oldentnre teas senclsscccetnes 1.047 11.70 5.60 2.20 7.92 | —— 0.97 | Davidson
Peckwbleasantes seccssae dole crease 6 1.053 14.05 6.18 3.80 10.18 | 0.24 0.48 | Burd
Peck Pleasant...... Slo ctolsynievaiainie’s 1.054 13.63 6.74 3.79 10.73 | —— 0.53 | Davidson
PECK PICABAN Gareiets aoc caterer neteteie ors 1.054 | 12.60 5.32 4.66 | 10.23 | ——! . 0.48 |! Davidson

142 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

TasBLe I1.—Continued.

VARIETY OF APPLE.

TE Tyaran a CG er yeahs yo evelane icy cxeiade
Rorlerae cas etere mai ei apatite ctne =
Queen’s Choice Crab.............
TR aL eeseta 3 etfs i- fe cers stokersyatenssons RG
Red was tric liaitien ce) « n\-terecevnickay ave arts
Red! Siberian Crab ic}. ..<c0.00208
RIG SEMIN peels ocfeie mevisle tie bite
RomevBeautivecs seec testis «mies
ROX DUNG EV USSO bs ats 2/e<:0/eyahera's cates
ROR DUE SRUSSEE «ss agice siete cle w oes
SHALD Eber Ag Barasls Astomisiisne na
SMM tne CRAPS emtel fens o aferapLoveus ts Bhs
STIMIEMOIGAET Ghiaisls bets le, steseicvevsuclah sie ay=
SSMU OTAET EE aS, «0's face sus iece. oc bee
SMGKCHONSE Sak tistics ie ce yet eo
OUDS LOGAVMIME Soese csc fojosesaoiansie eh
OATES fereretstc aye lecsich aes is ohaiehe
PULL rene! Ri Seco Kfececusaatn SS
SUUMUNTED ROSE ay asin a sfericte dt, ably.
Sweet Vandevere

Sweet Bough......
Tolman Sweet...

NWWiesalitnpeice crise vercts cre: /alaiesescn oe here

WIT V274 clo ee birs acelcte Setes ties Sie
Williams Favorite............<..
WWeallesweliwit'= sas). cveutancu: 2 Sys
NWWATRES SYD cote oe ttre iesle eiesasers) sees

GEES ites srcbaciets arcisteclatelete Neeate

Yellow Transparent.............-
Workslmperialicein css se eee

Specific
gravity.

=)
o
=

Equiva-
lent of
Reduc- total
Solids. ing Sucrose., sugar | Ash.
sugars. in form
of invert
sugar.
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. |Per ct
15 7.12 REP yi 10.56
14.15 6.00 3.07 oa ———
15.90 6.45 4.80 11.50 | ——
1312 7.92 2.62 10.68 | ——
12.78 6.53 3.45 10.16 | 0.3
17.34 9.54 2AT 11.83: | —
11.73 4.69 Sati 8.66 | ——
al Pes i 6.22 We 2.47 8.70. | ——
12.87 5.15 5.41 10.84 | 0.25
16.91 6.74 6.14 13.20 | ——
11.96 8.09 1.81 10.00 | ———
forot 8.63 1.24 9.93 | ——
14.44 7.44 3.99 11.64 | ———
13.08 CMe 2.82 10.73 | 0.37
15.65 7.92 4.34 12.49 | ——
12.86 5.42 4.24 9.80 | ——
12.26 5.99 2.86 9.00 | ——
15.05 9.26 3.85 13.31) ——
10.30 Liar 2.76 8.68
12.83 8.39 2.97) 11.51-) 0.28
11.87 7.26 2.93 10.34
12.42 5.98 3.59 9.76 | ———
14.27 7.05 3.62 10.86 | ——
14.60 6.33 BES 10.29 | 0.28
17.09 7.68 4.00 | 11.90 | ——
11.74 7.14 1.21 8.41 | 0.24
10.88 1.50 1.31 8.95 | ———
11.57 7.94 1.18 9.18 | ——
15.26 7.70 3.74 11.64 | ———
10.87 5.50 3.18 8.85 | ——
pers 6.91 3.76 10.86 | 0.28
14.16 8.27 2.96 11.39 | ——
12.89 5.36 4.17 9.75 | ——
12.11 6.87 2.14 9.12 | ——
16.45 7.39 5.65 13.34 | ——
12.37 7.55 2.53 10.21 | 0.24
12.55 6.89 3.28 | 10.34 | 0.26
12.33 6.79 3.05 10.00 | ——
12.46 6.62 2.99 9.77 | ——
13.85 6.48 4.38 11.09 | ——
11.71} 7.66 2.00 9.76 | 0.27
11.91 7.08 2.89 | 10.12 | ——

Fixed
acid as
malic.

WORDT ROOTS So
ONE ROCTIONDOOM

TaBLe II I.—SumMMary or ANALYSES OF APPLE JUICE.

AVERAGE OF Specific
ANALYSES MADE IN | gravity.

New svork. i)". 5... 1.064
Pensylvania....... 1.056
Virginia..... 1.053

Washington, D.C..| 1.054

Average of all...| 1.054

Per ct.

Solids.

Per ct.
15.11
ies al
13.31
13.39

13.52 |

Reduc-
ing
sugars.

9.28
7.67
7.00
6.84

Per ct.

7.28

Sucrose.

Per ct.

3.85
3.61
3.35
3.48

3.45

Analyst.

Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Browne
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Burd
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Burd
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Browne
Browne
Davidson.
Davidson
Burd
Davidson
Burd
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Burd
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Burd
Burd
Davidson
Davidson
Davidson
Browne
Davidson

Equiva-

lent of
total

sugarin | Ash.

form of

invert

sugar.

Per ct. |Per ct.
13.33 | 0.23
11.47 | 0.28
[ra
10.00 | 0.33
10.91 | 0.29

No. of
analyses
of apple

juice.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 143

The constituents of apple juice that are of most interest in
connection with the making of vinegar are the sugars, because
they furnish the original material for the final production of
acetic acid. It is not our purpose to consider in any detail the
chemistry of sugars. Under the term “reducing sugars” used
in our tables we include two sugars, dextrose and levulose, which
occur in varying proportions. Sucrose is ordinary cane sugar
and is present in apple juice in smaller amounts than the reduc-
ing sugars. As we shall see later, the value of apple juice for
vinegar-making is mainly dependent upon the amount of sag
contained in it. In the preceding tables we have seen that the
percentage of sugars varies greatly in apple juice, ranging all
the way from 6.74 to 15.39. These variations are dependent
upon a variety of conditions, among which the following may
be mentinoed as the most prominent: Variety of apple, stage of
ripeness, soil, climate and culture.

Browne* has shown very clearly the changes that occur in the
amount of sugars in apples at different stages of ripeness. We
' give some of his figures :—

TABLE 1V.—SuGaAr IN BALDWIN APPLE AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

Equivalent of
ork total sugar

DATE. ; Condition. in form of

invert sugar.

1899. Per ct
PASEPETTS CARER ACRE oh cli) ole ace ona tee valler ner ena cnsis celeus rate ecaaiacsl.cuclab Very green.... Sell
[SGianisran}oceree St ake eons Mee a Rea et icaeiey aot eaiehepy Sic Lack act pie) D ipatad hcueae Green. wes 00. 10.72
INMETE ETL OMe eee ere ntcena cca evereern el wtejo rele cenlsyal cle) witereltella.ie,sneslenehetiens Jeuiolein oe pee 14.87
ME Cem ere es ae cota chpem ga ame tontteratdde oft euar dela 'o atevaeelay Over-ripe..... 14.35

From these results it can readily be seen that sugar is present
in apples in largest quantity only when they are ripe. The
sugar decreases when apples become over-ripe. Therefore, green
apples and partly decayed apples contain less sugar and produce
less acid in vinegar than apples that are in the proper stage
of ripeness.

It is a matter of interest to notice that sweet apples are not
necessarily richer in sugars than sour apples. The increase of
sweetness, apparent to the taste, is due more to the fact that
sweet apples contain less malic acid than sour apples. For

4Annual Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture for 1899,
p. 541. ;

144 ReEporT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

example, the sample of Red Astrachan apple juice contains 10.16
per ct. of sugars and 1.15 per ct. of malic acid, while Tolman
Sweet and Sweet Bough contain about the same amount of sugar
but only 0.10 to 0.20 per ct. of malic acid. We have noticed
the same fact in studying the composition of other fruits, especi-
ally strawberries.

THE ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION OF APPLE JUICE.

When apple juice is left exposed to the air, it is gradually
changed, losing its sweet taste and giving off bubbles of gas more
or less vigorously. The most prominent change is the conver:
sion of the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas, as
expressed appropriately by the following general equation :—

Sugar Aleohol Carbon Dioxide
CeHi2 Oe=2 C2 He O+2 C Oz

Alcoholic fermentation is caused by a vegetable ferment or
enzym which is produced by ordinary yeast. Cells of the yeast
plant are so widely distributed that they get into the apple juice
abundantly under ordinary conditions.

Theoretically, we should be able to get from 100 parts of sugar
about 15 parts of alcohol and 49 parts of carbon dioxide. In
actual practice we are not able to obtain this amount of alcohol,
because, under the conditions employed, some of the alcohol is
lost by evaporation and some is lost by certain changes that
accompany alcoholic fermentation. Our work was not conducted
in such a way as to determine accurately the amount of alcohol
formed in apple juice from a given amount of sugar; but, accord-
ing to some very satisfactory work on this point done by °"Browne,
we may obtain in the fermentation of apple juice 45 to 47 parts
of alcohol from 100 parts of sugar.

In no case did we find alcohol in freshly expressed apple juice,
when we used only sound fruit.

MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION.

‘After the juice was pressed from the apples, it was, in the case
of our first experiments, including those numbered 1 to 10,
strained through linen cheese-cloth and placed in 10-gallon casks.
The casks were placed in a cellar, where the temperature ran

'Annual Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 1899,
p- 556, and 1901, p. 136.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 145

from 45° to 55° F., and kept there five months, from November
to April. The bung-holes of the casks were loosely stoppered
with cotton. In experiments numbered 11 to 16, the apple juice
was allowed to stand in a large vat for two days to settle and
was then siphoned into 20-gallon casks, loosely stoppered with
cotton. Those numbered 11 to 14 were placed in the cellar,
while those numbered 15 and 16 were placed in a boiler-room,
where the temperature varied from about 70° to 80° F. In
experiments numbered 17 to 28, the apple juice was stored in
quart bottles and kept at 55°, 60°, 65°, 70°, and 85° F. In 22,
23 and 24, malic acid was added to the juice. In experiments
25, 26, 27 and 28 yeast was added to the sterilized apple juice, in
28 malic acid being added.

In experiments 29 and 30, some apple juice was stored in the
cellar in 10-gallon casks while in experiments 31 to 385, some of
the same kind of juice was stored in 5-pint bottles at 55°, 60°,
fiat. io and 80> Fb.

For the details of analytical results obtained in the individual
‘experiments, the reader is referred to the appendix.

The rapidity of the transformation of sugars into alcohol
depends upon several conditions, among which may be mentioned
(1) length of time, (2) temperature and (3) addition of yeast.

Relation of time to formation of alcohol.—The data presented
in the following table represent the averages of results obtained
with the first ten samples of apple juice given in Table I:

TABLE V.—RELATION OF TIME TO ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION OF
APPLE JUICE.

| | |
-| Equivalent
% ae Redes of total ase
Specific educing Q sugar in cohol
Agr, gravity. sugars. | Sucrose, form of | by wt.
| invert
| sugar.
Pew cian) weer ct: Per ct. Per ct.
MERE cries? stars stash nels ine bi 1.0640 9.31 4.01 sie hae 0.00
MB MOMM A. hhc Aye ee he ota Ss 1.0634 9.02 SOU 12.55 OLE
PTROM GUS Soe oe ara reiin oos arora 1.0377 <6 1.06 8.28 2.00
SMA ODDHSOs Mel srs. sce tebalstbkt eh sehew 1.0123 3.97 0.27 4.27 4.68
ABIMOM GIS eon totam ccs tera se 1.0064 yee Wy | 0.12 2.29 5.79
BEMMONGHSEE oN aveie< ciate see: <6 0.9998 0.72 0.05 0.77 6.73
(Sheree Covel ope, eat ect Sager ae ae 0.9990 0.29 0.03 0.32 6.81
Mee MOTUS 6 os ovate: Scpars vey store Rieke te 0.9986 0.20 0.03 | 0.23 6.79

-

146 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

In connection with the data in this table, attention is called
to the following points:

(1) The sucrose disappeared more rapidly than the reducing
sugars. The former had been practically all changed in five
months, while the latter were not completely gone in seven months.
It should be stated here that sucrose as such does not undergo
fermentation but it must first be changed into dextrose and
levulose. This change is affected by an enzym which exists in
yeast. The dextrose and levulose thus formed from sucrose are
readily acted upon by the alcholic-producing ferment of the yeast.

Taking the total amount of sugar in the fresh apple juice, we

find that it disappeared at a rate expressed by the following

figures :
In 1 month, 7.1 per cent. In 5 months 94.3 per cent.
In 2 months, 38.7 per cent. In 6 months, 97.6 per cent.
In 3 months, 68.4 per cent. In 7 months, 98.3 per cent.
In 4 months, < 81.0 per cent.

Thus, we see, a large proportion of the sugar had been ehanged
by fermentation in five months under the given conditions.

(2) The alcohol increased quite rapidly after the first month,
and approximately in proportion to the amount of sugar that
disappeared. The amount of alcohol reached its highest point
at the end of six months, when the sugar had practically all
gone. ;

(8) The specific gravity of the fermenting apple juice decreased
as the amount of sugar decreased and the amount of alcohol
increased, going from 1.064 in the fresh apple juice to 0.9986 at
the end of seven months.

Influence of temperature upon the alcoholic fermentation of
apple juice.—Samples of cider were placed in rooms, the tempera-
ture in each of which is kept practically constant. The tempera-
tures used were 55°, 60°, 65°, 70° and 85° F. (experiments
numbered 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21). In other experiments, casks of
cider were placed in a celler (experiments 11, 12, 18, 14), the
temperatures of which during the time of study varied from about
45° to 55° F. while other casks were placed in a room near a steam
boiler, the temperature here varying from about 70° to 80° F.
(experiments 15 and 16). The following table contains the
results given at the time when the sugar had nearly all disap-
peared in most of the ciders:

ee

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 147

TaBLE VI.—PERCENTAGE OF ALCOHOL FORMED IN APPLE JUICE At
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.

Equivalent
Ace W Specific | Reduci aetna teas 1
GE HEN pecific educing sugar in coho
ANALYZED, Temperature. gravity. sugars. Sucrose. form of by wt.
invert
sugar.
Degree F. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
FEES Perit care eis 1.0654 10.34 2.68 LS.16 0.00
SRUOMUEHS Ss 2/5. oi- +s 55 1.0182 2.40 0.00 2.40 2.24
3,months.......... 60 1.0016 0.24 0.05 |. 0.29 4.82
SPMLOTIURS A a). 65 1.00380 0.27 0.03 0.30 4.53
DPELOM LOS ep yac< is. = 70 0.9978 0.20 | 0.03 0.23 6.41
SIMON CES ha y./8 ste svoiecs 85 0.9972 0.14 0.03 ole 6.66
ERE att ile ee 1.060 7.49 4.33 12.05 0.00
ASTIODENS. 5. «4, =js%-ns Cellar 1.0021 0.49 0.01 5.53
4 months..........| Boiler room... 1.0006 0.24 0.00 —— 5.80

The results embodied in this table indicate that within the
limits of temperature employed, the alcoholic fermentation pro-
ceeds more rapidly at the higher temperatures.

Influence of adding yeast to apple juice upon alcoholic fermen-
tation.—A pure culture of yeast was added to the bottles of steri-
lized apple juice used in experiments 25, 26 and 27 and the bot-
tles were kept at 55°, 70° and 85° F. The following table gives
the results at the different temperatures as compared with
experiments containing no added yeast culture: -

TABLE VII.—PERCENTAGE OF ALCOHOL FORMED IN APPLE JUICE
WHEN YEAST IS ADDED.

; Equivalent
of total
Acre WHEN Yeast Tempera- | Specific | Reducing | Succoue sugar in | Alcohol
ANALYZED. added. ture. gravity. sugars. e form of by wt.
invert
sugar.
Months. Degrees F. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Added....... B52 | b. OLOZ 1.93 0.08 2.01 6.25
1 Not added... 45°-55° | 1.0634 9.02 3.30 12.55 0.11
1 Added) ).2.2« 70° | 1.0011 Ors 0.10 0.41 ((S24D
1 Added. eye 85° | 1.0024 0.38 0.01 0.39 6.86
3 Addedin2c.c: 5° | 1.0006 0.31 0.00 0.31 7.28
3 Not added 45°-55° | 1.0213 3.97 0.27 4.27 4.68
3 Added... 0° | 1.0005 | 0.24 0.00 0.24 6.10
3 Not added 70°-80° | 1.0085 0.40 0.20 0.61 5.78
3 Added....... 85° | 1.0025 0.36 0.00 0.36 6.73

While the results are not strictly comparable in every respect,
owing to variation in some of the details of the experiments, they
serve to show that the addition of yeast resulted in much more

148 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

rapid formation of alcohol. The time of the alcohol fermenta-
tion can readily be reduced one-half or more by the addition of
yeast, especially when the cider is kept at a temperature of 65°
to 70° F. The use of any form of commercial yeast, if sufficiently
fresh, will probably be found to give good results.

THE ACETIC FERMENTATION OF CIDER.

The object of the maker of cider vinegar is the production of
acetic acid, and this is accomplished by means of the fermenta-
tion of alcohol that has been formed from sugar. The organisms
that change alcohol into acetic acid are different from those that
change sugar into alcohol. There are several varieties of acetic
bacteria capable of causing the acetic fermentation of alcohol.
For the effective conversion of cider into vinegar, there are
needed, (1) the acetic bacteria, (2) an abundant supply of air,
(3) a temperature between 65° and 85° F. There is commonly
noticed in vinegar a very elastic, slimy, tough, transparent skin
of a yellowish-white color; this skin is commonly known as
“mother” of vinegar. This appears to be formed by the growth
of the acetic bacteria on the surface of the liquid. When one
skin has formed, it settles sooner or later and in its place another
is formed and this formation and replacement continue as long
as air is supplied under favorable temperature conditions.

The chief chemical change that takes place in the acetic fer-
mentation of alcohol is the combination of oxygen with alcohol,
which may be represented thus, though the real change is more
complicated :—

Aleohol Oxygen Acetic acid Water
C. H.O + 0. =C, H, O; + HzO

Theoretically, we should obtain from 100 parts of alcohol
about 130 parts of acetic acid, but for various reasons the actual
yield is probably nearer 120 or lower.

MANAGEMENT OF ACETIC FERMENTATION.

In our work, we allowed the cider to remain in the casks and
bottles in which the alcoholic fermentation had taken place. We
will first give the general averages of the results obtained with
the first 10 ciders given in Table I. We shall consider the

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 149

influence of various factors upon the acetic fermentation such as
time, temperature, the addition of vinegar and freedom from
_ Sediment.

Relation of time to the acetic fermentation of cider.—Tue
following table gives the average results furnished by 10 ciders
in relation to the formation of acetic acid from alcohol; the
results commence with the eighth month from the time the apple
- juice was pressed from the apples, since at this time sugar had
disappeared and the amount of alcohol was at about its maxi-
mum:

Taste VIII.—Rewation or Time tro Acetic FERMENTATION OF
ALCOHOL IN CIDER.

Specifie Volatile acid | Fixed acid °
AGRE. gravity. Alcohol, aalacatia! awialie: Total acid.

Months Per ct Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
See coticrrs ciara esas aia 0.9979 9 .40 0.13 .53
2)4.3 2 eee Cie Sr 0.9984 6.15 0.59 0.10 0.69
WO ee cra seis ares 2s 0.9993 5.67 0.90 0.06 0.96
NAR Pca e te aa kats ohietels 1.0045 4.22 2.57 0.04 2.61
WM eteleieins o<'se safe 1.0048 4.11 2.59 0.03 2.62
Be S310 Clo EDIE ae Cem 1.0125 2.35 4.99 0.03 5.02
Ara ei alle: cocks. oiCcuntaiar e 1.0185 0.88 7.01 0.03 7.04
DMeterave sah a siete & Sagan als 1.0187 0.64 7.07 0.02 7.09
QONGRE Aone wae cs rt 1.0194 Tod 0.02 7.39
OO eee Riersstws. <2 oie als 1.0252 Gals 8.38 0.02 8.40
Tete niet cosine oes 1.0249 0.00 8.83 0.02 8.85
Deere ayes clopa va sas Byers 3 .00 9.00 0.01 9.01

A study of the data in this table suggests the following state-
ments: (1) The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid took place
slowly during the first three months after the alcohol had reached
its maximum, that is, during the 8th, 9th and 10th months after
the apple juice was pressed from the apples. From the 10th
to the 14th month, the change progressed more rapidly and was
practically completed at the end of 24 months.

(2) Even after the disappearance of alcohol, the acid appeared
to increase for many months. This was due to the evaporation
of water from the vinegar cask, the remaining liquid becoming
more concentrated. We have one instance (experiment 15)
where the vinegar was stored in a warm place, the bung-hole of
the cask being lightly plugged with cotton, and evaporation took
place to such an extent that in about six years the vinegar con-
tained over 20 per ct. of acetic acid.

150 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THB

(3) Our work was not carried on in such a way as to show the
amount of acetic acid formed by the alcohol present in ine hyuid.

As we have previously stated, theoretical considerations call for |

the production of 130 parts of acetic acid from 100 parts of
alcohol, but the yield in actual practice has been found lower,
probably below 120.

(4) The fixed acid, which we have regarded as consisting
chiefly of malic acid, decreased in amount as the cider became
older. To this feature, we shall call special attention later.

' (5) The specific gravity increased as the alcohol was converted
into acetic acid, going from 0.9979 to about 1.02, when the alcohol
had disappeared. A portion of the increase during the later
months of the experiment was due to some evaporation of water.

The influence of temperature upon the acetic fermentation of
cider.—When at the end of about six months the alcoholic fer-
mentation had been completed in experiments numbered 1 to 10,
five of the casks were left in the cellar, and the other five were
transferred to a room where the temperature was considerably
higher. In the cellar the extremes of temperature during the
year were 45° to 65° F., while in the other place the variation
was between 50° to 90° F. The following table gives the aver-
ages of the results secured under these two different conditions
of temperature. It was designed to have the condition of the
casks kept in the cellar approximate as nearly as possible the con-
ditions commonly observed by farmers in making cider vinegar.

TABLE IX.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE UPON FORMATION OF
ACID FROM ALCOHOL.

PERCENTAGE OF ALCOHOL PERCENTAGE OF ToTAL AcID
In Ciper Kept. In CriperR Kept.
AGE. a
At lower At higher At lower At higher
temperature. temperature. temperature. temperature,
Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Med-svateia oak GY ace Whole CMs L cinaetete 6.83 6.74 0.61 0.56
Bistinvereis'w abarshere Byres elses aye 6.46 7 6.52 0.55 0.51
ee or havaiahalorare avorerele Rae ate 6.00 6.30 0.69 0.69
NO Se Sasi iaisyeram te oleseyits/saveas 5.54 5.79 0.79 L.J3
Ue a epee RNA ti F fear si 4.85 S208 |e 1.40 3.82
Pa Ee Al RID AOS OT 3.46 2.24 ART 6 Kheve
DA Rela Eee G te NES roe 1.68 0.33 4.95 9.18
7S ORT NE ESF 1.29 _ 0.00 — —2
OA rare MAMI AAN Rice ate eat 0.00 0.00 5.55 9.23
Bo aeiaic retorts Bes erate raids deece 0.00 0.00 6.48 10.30
SORE Ts AMAL : e 0.00 0.00 6.88 10.84
FE occas tnavacsamtarstniias siacarelaes 0.00 0.00 7.01 11.01

ee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 151

A study of the data in this table indicates that the acetic
fermentation of alcohol was very slow in its action during the
first three months after the alcoholic fermentation was completed.
In these experiments the differences of temperature that existed
did not appear to exert much influence upon the acetic fermenta-
tion for three months. We notice that then alcohol decreases
and acid increases more rapidly at the higher temperature.
Between the 24th and 27th months, the alcohol disappeared
entirely at the higher temperature and this did not occur at the
lower temperature until sometime between the 27th and 29th
months. After the alcohol disappeared, the percentage of acid
continued to increase at both temperatures but more noticeably
at the higher temperature. This was due, not to additional for-
mation of acid, but to concentration of the acid already formed,
as the result of the evaporation of water from the casks, the
bung-holes being open except for a loose plug of cotton.

In another set of experiments, we placed four casks of apple
juice in the same cellar previously referred to and two casks in a
warm boiler room. The results are given in the following table:

TABLE X.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE UPON FORMATION OF
AcIp FROM ALCOHOL.

PERCENTAGE OF ALCOHOL PrercentaGE or Toran Acip
IN Ciper Kept. IN Criper Kept.
AGE. oo
At lower At higher At lower At higher
temperature. temperature. temperature. | temperature.
Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct.
MOM erase ies. cok eieteld se Giess 5.76 5.96 0.53 0.45
UZ Ses Ge EO cit nee aan en 5.80 5.45 0.40 0.85
Mya Meier as siasslikne voce vay 5.60 4.55 0.42 1.95
LET secgche bk Malian aera 5.36 3.66 0.47 | 3.65
MAEM a eRe ones softies eae 4.19 2.03 0.58 5.45
2 Fn Cre teu DI RENAE ROE ae ee 2.95 1.82 1.92 5.92
ee te Fee iehe oe eles iets 1.00 0.97 3.62 | 8.14

These data show a greater difference in the influence of tem-
perature than those in the preceding table, since the difference in
temperatures was considerably greater. The higher temperature
favored the more rapid formation of acid from alcohol.

Another set of experiments was carried on, in which the
apple juice was stored in quart bottles and kept at definite tem-
peratures, as follows :—55°, 60°, 65°, 70°, 85° F. The results

152 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

of this work are given in the following table, only the amounts
of total acid being given:

TABLE XI.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE UPON FORMATION OF

ACID.
Percentage of total acid in cider kept at temperature of
AGE.
bya? Ws 60° F. 65°UH. 70° F. 85° F.
|
Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
es Pres ay ste aa forave PAN bg 1.46 2.29 0.78 0.28
iREa? Cae BApaa Coe Poe 3.63 4.32 7.03 4.99 0.35
LONE rai Re Teen abe coe ae 4.45 4.81 7.67 7.05 3.45
1 SS CR OT 3.03 5.41 6.88 Le7Ge 4.23
ere erence ale ere le 2.73 ez 7.02 sts 4.39
21. 1.43 4.87 6.94 7.79 6.53
60. 0.00 0.00 | 8.86 8.46 | 6.77

A study of the data in Table XI suggests the following state-
ments:

(1) The highest amounts of acetic acid were obtained when
the fermentation was carried on at 65° and 70° F. and this was
true at any given time after the third month.

(2) At 85° F. the fermentation was slowest in starting but
gave a continuously increasing amount of acid for 21 months;
at this time the amount of acid formed was higher than at 55°
or 60° F.

(3) While acetic fermentation started quite promptly at boa ae
it reached its maximum in nine months and this was considerably
lower than the maximum reached at the other temperatures.
After the ninth month, the acid decreased continuously, evidently
undergoing a destructive fermentation, and finally disappeared
altogether. At 60° F. there was something of this loss of acid
put not so marked as at 55° F. during 21 months but later the
acid all disappeared. This loss did not occur at the other tem-
peratures during the 21 months in which the work was continued.

(4) So far as the results furnish evidence we can look for the
most satisfactory results of acetic fermentation, all things con-
sidered, at temperatures between 65° and 75° F.

The influence of adding vinegar to cider wpon the acetic fermen-
tation.—When at the end of eight months the alcoholic fermen-
tation was complete, we added to each of several 10-gallon casks

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 153

of cider one pint of cider vinegar. Three sets of experiments
were made, comparing the addition of vinegar with its omission,
the results of which are given below. In the case of numbers 4,
5, 7 and 8, the temperature was lower than in 9 and 10, the
former being stored in the cellar.

Taste XII.—INFLUENCE or ADDING VINEGAR UPON ACETIC

FERMENTATION.
| |
PERCENTAGE OF AcID. | PERCENTAGE or AciD, | PERCENTAGE OF ACID.
AGE.
(No. 4) | (No. 5) (No. 10) (No. 9) (No. 8) | (No. 7)
no vinegar! vinegar | novinegar| vinegar |novinegar| vinegar
added. | added. added. added. added. added.
Months. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Berets |) eemet. Per ct.
[2 he COE eee 0.45 0.42 0.65 0.64 0.40 0.61
Oe At. see ss 0.37 0.44 0.83 1.19 0.39 | 1.06
A ep ele ote s OS daha 0.39 0.40 1.60 1.86 | 0.64 | 1.38
ieee serie, ES 0.42 0.41 3.59 4.22 1.05 2.68
Pte sd W Peiciars yey ei <2: auld e 0.37 0.69 7.09 7.37 1.04 5.04
Oe kia cdeael Meee 0.80 D)..16 8.53 9.54 3.76 6.66
OME a tere ci ois nd 1.42 6.86 8.80 10.09 5.70 6.83
37835 aoe Ord Cae Gees ere 4.24 7.53 9.96 11.74 6.16 6.90
310), one nee 6.59 7.08 | 10.66 13.25 SEL Ke 7.01

These results indicate in every case that the acetic acid fer-
mentation took place more rapidly when vinegar was added. In
the case of No. 4, where the cider was stored in a cool cellar,
acetic fermentation did not fairly start until the 24th month after
the juice was pressed from the apples, or 16 months after the
alcoholic fermentation ceased; and the cider did not become mar-
ketable vinegar until about ten months later. In the case of No.
5, the parallel experiment, in which vinegar was added, the
acetic fermentation was slow in starting, but was under way 15
months after the addition of vinegar and the product was market-
able within less than three months after, or nearly a year sooner
than in case of No. 4. The acetic fermentation started more
promptly in the other ciders under experiment, but in each case
was hastened by the addition of vinegar. In the case of Nos. 9
and 10, which were kept at a higher temperature, there was less
difference produced by the addition of vinegar than in the case of
the ciders stored in the cool cellar.

The addition of cider vinegar of good quality and not too old
is a practical inoculation of the cider with the organisms of acetic

154 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

fermentation and is comparable to the addition of a sour-milk

“starter ” to cream in order to produce ripening, that is, forma-

tion of lactic acid. The practice of adding “ mother ” of vinegar
to cider is based upon the same explanation. Effort should be
made to have some “ mother” in the vinegar added.

In another experiment (15), vinegar was added when the apple
juice had been fermenting two months, and the alcoholic fer-
mentation was still incomplete. In this case, the acetic ferment
thus added appeared to exercise no influence upon the formation
of acid.

The influence of separating the clear portion of cider from
sediment upon- the acetic fermentation.—In the experiments
numbered 1 to 10, a study was made of the effect of separating
the clear portion of the cider from the sediment after the alco-
holic fermentation was completed and in some cases the clear
liquid was siphoned off and only this clear portion used for the
acetic fermentation. Even though the fresh apple juice was in all
cases carefully strained through linen cheese cloth, much insoluble
matter remained, which settled to the bottom of the cask during
the alcohol fermentation. In the case of the strained and
siphoned ciders the casks were cleaned before replacing the
ciders.

The ciders numbered 1 and 8 were strained, those numbered
2, 4, 5 and 6 were left undisturbed, while in 7, 8, 9 and 10 the
clear portion was siphoned off and this alone used. The results
are presented in the following table:

TaBLE XIII.—PERCENTAGE OF ACID IN CIDER VINEGAR WHEN
STRAINED AND UNSTRAINED.

Srorep IN Coon CELLARS. SroreD In WARM Room.
AGE.

Siphoned. | Strained. | yok a Siphoned ‘| Strained. ely, a:

Months. Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
BNe Sete acct eed pets ee 0.57 0.56 | 0.65 On55 0.55 0.56
(9 te te RA. Ere 0.39 d bee S| 0.37 0.83 0.62 0.38
LOSS Sle Soe le 0.64 TAB 0.39 1.60 1.05 0.70
11S ha A ae 5 Saeercee Canoe yee 1.05 2.36 | 0.42 3.69 4.01 4.45
DM ef She shes eacshe vere sys 3.76 3.95 0.37 7.09 7.03 9.24
A eee serene Ore 5.70 Ost 0.80 8.50 9.08 —-.

Di: isa h oe e ee cine blots 6.05 6.41 1.48 7.08 SS 9.5;
QO RR Streeter 6.16 6.49 1.42 8.80 8.73 —!
SOa cia tou eee ote 5.97 Cpovitel 4.24 9.96 10.00 —
AAT Sa. et hate cere enaaeh 6.15 7.97 | 6.83 10.51 11.05 9.82

a ee a

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 155

While these few results are not at all conclusive, they suggest
that at low temperatures the clear liquids form acid more quickly,
while at higher temperatures there is little practical difference.
In no case did any of these vinegars show signs of deterioration
during the 44 months of the experiment. In these particular
cases, the sediment did not appear to carry forms of living
organisms that prevented the ultimate formation of acid in good
quantities.

LOSS OF ACETIC ACID IN VINEGAR ON STANDING.

Reference has been made to the fact that cider vinegar occa-
sionally suffers deterioration on standing a long time and loses
more or less completely its sourness. Some cases have been
brought to our attention by farmers in which all acetic acid had
disappeared and the liquid was no longer vinegar. This condi-
tion is well illustrated in the experiments numbered 17, 18, 22,
30, 31, 32, 33, 34 and 35. In the set of experiments started in
1900, including those numbered 30 to 35, all lost their acid and
in most cases completely, while in some the reaction was actually
alkaline.

This disappearance of acetic acid in vinegar is due to forms of
fermentation that decompose the acetic acid, changing it into
other substances, largely water and carbon dioxide. Several dif-
ferent organisms are known that decompose dilute acetic acid.
Among these Pasteur showed that the acetic acid bacteria them-
selves, after changing alcohol into acetic acid, attack the acetic
acid found and destroy it, especially when there is a free access
of air to the liquid. Browne® made a study of a sample of deteri-
orated vinegar and found the injurious organism to be Bacterium
cylinum, which, while an acetic-acid-forming bacterium, was
different in this case from the bacteria that had produced the
acetic acid.

Bertrand’ attributes the inoculation of Bacterium xylinum to
the small vinegar flies that are so common in places where fer-
mentation of fruit juices is taking place.

In our work it was noticed in most cases, where the vinegar
had lost its acid, that the “ mother” was black and the liquid
itself abnormally dark in color. In experiments 17, 18 and 22,

6Annual Report of the Pennsylvania State College for 1901-1902, p. 156.
7Comptes Rendus, 122: 900,

156 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THB

the temperature was 55° and 60° F.; in all parallel experiments
of this series (17 to 29) at higher temperatures, little or no loss
was noticed in most cases. In these experiments, the mouth of
the bottle used in each case was closed by the loose. insertion of
a rubber stopper. In the set of experiments numbered 30 to 35,
the mouths of the bottles were quite large and were not closed
at all, practically, simply having a loose plug of cotton inserted,
This condition favored ready access of air and probably accounts
in large part for the general deterioration observed in this set of
experiments.

This destructive change in vinegar can easily be prevented,
when once vinegar has been made. The acetic organisms all
require oxygen for their existence and their activity can be pre-
vented by excluding air. In actual practice, it is advised, when
once the vinegar has reached a sufficient degree of acidity (4.5

per ct. or more of acetic acid) to draw off or filter the vinegar
and then place in a clean barrel, filling it as full as possible and
putting the bung in tight.

VARIATIONS IN VINEGAR MADE UNDER UNIFORM
CONDITIONS.

In experiments 17 to 21 and 25 to 27, the material was stored
in each case in several quart bottles and in experiments 30 to 35
we used five pint bottles in each case. It was noticed quite
early in the work that the material in different bottles kept under
like conditions was not behaving uniformly and the analyses
given represent composite samples taken from the different bot-
tles kept under the same’ conditions. At the close of the work,
analysis was made of the material in each individual bottle and
these are given in full in the appendix. We desire to use some
of these data here to indicate how it is possible for quite differ-
ent results to be obtained from different portions of the same
material kept under the same uniform conditions of temperature
and general treatment. Experiment 17 furnishes the most strik-
ing illustration. In this case there were used four bottles, each
holding a quart. The analyses were made when the vinegar was
about five years old. At the beginning of the experiment portions
of the same apple juice were placed in these bottles and these
stood side by side under the same general conditions.

——

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 157

TABLE XIV.—VARIATIONS IN COMPOSITION OF VINEGAR UNDER
UNIFORM CONDITIONS.

Borrue. Anevnen epenine Solids. Acetic acid. | Fixed acid.
Per ct. Per ct Per ct
Ugieyenietes Gees ocic. cc) 2 O Yeans.....8 1.0139 1.70 ; 5
18 305 oid Gan Hee eae DPYearses le 1.0122 1.58 5.44 0.00
Crete cle se susfaye ais 5 ays, 5 years.....« 1.0095 1.70 2.10 0.00
(6 lhe Rice CHEE Ren 5) Vearss sc ous 1.0029 0.60 | alkaline.... 0.00

In bottles a and b, the differences are only what might ordi-
narily be expected, but in c the acetic acid has dropped to only
about 2 per ct. while in d the solids had been! greatly reduced and
the acetic acid had entirely disappeared, and not that alone, but
the liquid was actually alkaline. The liquid in ec was very dark
colored and the “mother” black, showing evidence of acetic
destroying ferment. These differences are readily explained as
being due to the activity of different ferments in the different
bottles, but in the absence of special study of the organisms, we
are unable to say what specific organisms were present. It is
probable that the stopper in bottle d was so loosely inserted as to
admit air freely.

THE BEHAVIOR OF THE MALIC ACID OF APPLE JUICE
DURING THE FERMENTATION PROCESSES.

Malic acid in the form of free acid or acid salts in the juice of
different varieties of apples varies greatly in amount. In the
analyses published in Table II, it averages a little over 0.5 per
et. varying all the way from 0.1 per ct. in the Sweet Bough to
1.15 per ct. in the Red Astrachan. In the juice of the different
varieties used in our experiments the malic acid varied from 0.41
to 0.66 per ct., averaging 0.53 per ct. A special examination
of the juice of several varieties of apples showed practically no
neutral salts of malic acid. Early in our work we noticed that
the amount of malic acid decreased when the apple juice was
allowed to ferment, and the diminution continued until the
malic acid nearly disappeared. The work of Browne*® shows
similar results. In the following table we present our results in

> detail:

sAnnual Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, 1901, f
pp. 128-9.

158 REpoRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

TABLE X V.—PERCENTAGE OF Frxep Acip as Mauic Acip IN APPLE
Juice AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF FERMENTATION.

Dube. of | Fresh. | 1 mo. | 6 mos.| 7 mos.| 8 mos.| 9 mos.| 10 mos.| 15 mos.| 24 mos.| 72 mos.
Per ct. |Per ct:|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct

1 ra teaPereeucee 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.46 | 0.42 | 0.44 | 0.24 -02 0.02 0.01
7d SoG te Rotor e 0.51 | 0.48 | 0.39 | 0.39 | 0.09 | 0.09 0.04 0.01 0.02 ——
3 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.11 | 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.02 ——
Beer vasie Siaoie 0.63 | 0.63 | 0.41 | 0.41 | 0.18 | 0.09 0.05 0.10 0.07 =
Otte eee 0.66 | 0.65 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.10 | 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.01 —_
(seo are epee 0.62 | 0.62 | 0.47 | 0.47 | 0.07 | 0.09 0.10 0.02 0.03 0.04
Up ae TE 059" O53" 0-387) 170227 | 0.06 | 0206 0.05 0.03 0.01 —
Saeco 0.47 | 0.47 | 0.41 | 0.29 | 0.08 | 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.01 —-
OR ier so shes 0.51 | 0.50 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.05 —
NOR axtae i 6 oe 0.41 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.09 0.03 0.03 —
1 a ahcoee aie [OND SEP et 0) TO) S| || 0.09 0.10 0.02 0.01
DZ rekon 0.59 | —— | 0.41 | —— | —— | — | ——— 0.11 0.02 0.00
Se toareiatte, dicuss oh || OES | | | 0.18 0.14 0.02 0.00
14 0.59 | —— | 0.438 | —— | —— | —— — 0.16 0.05 —
1s See er | 0.59 | —— | 0.41 | —— | —— | —— —- 0.09 0.01 ——
16 |} 0.59 | —— | 0.39 0.16 0.02 0.01 —
dion teiviasone'ste!= | OAT OL | OG 0.13 == SS Ss

|

Average...| 0.55 | 0.53 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.13 | 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.02 —

In studying the data contained in this table, we notice the
following points:

(1) In most cases very little change in the amount of fixed
acid occurs during the first month.

(2) Nearly one-third of the fixed acid disappeared in six
months; between the sixth and seventh months some more malic
acid disappeared, but between the seventh and eighth months, in
most cases, the decrease of fixed acid was very marked.

(8) The period when the malice acid decreased most rapidly
was after the alcoholic fermentation had been completed and
before the acetic fermentation had become very active.

(4) As a rule, when the cider had become good vinegar, there
remained only a trace of fixed acid. In the case of some old
vinegars, all fixed acid disappeared.

The decrease of malic acid under these circumstances is un-
doubtedly the result of the action of some bacterial ferment.
It is? well known that malic acid and some of its salts undergo
destructive fermentation, but, so far as we have been able to
learn, no one has worked out the details of this phenomenon in
relation to cider vinegar. Seifert’? has shown that the decrease

*Emmerling. Die Zersetzung Stickstofffrier organischer Substanzen durch
Bakterein, pp. 128-9 (1902).
10Bied, Centr., 33: 488 (1904).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 159

of acidity in wine is caused by special bacteria, especially Micro-
cocus malolacticus, which converts malice acid into lactic acid and
a very small amount of volatile acids, while other acids such as
lactic and acetic are not attached. In alcoholic solutions, a pro-
duction of acetic acid may take place. When malic acid and
sugar are present, an increase in acidity takes place, more acid
being produced than last. Yeast acts comparatively slightly on
malic acid. Acetic acid bacteria may also decompose malic acid.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING MALIC ACID IN CIDER VINEGAR.

The presence of malic acid or its salts in cider vinegar is a
question of importance in relation to determining its purity and
to this phase we will give attention later.

(1) Effect of fermentation upon malic acid added to apple
juice.—In order to study farther the disappearance of malic acid
in apple juice, some special experiments (22, 23, 24, 28) were
prepared. To some apple juice, containing 0.41 per ct. of
malic acid, we added enough artificial malic acid to bring the
amount to 1.02 per ct. Bottles of this apple juice containing
malic acid were kept at different temperatures along with bottles
of the same apple juice containing only malic acid normally
present. In experiment 28 the apple juice had been sterilized
and yeast added. In the following table we present the results
of these experiments, carried on at 55°, 70° and 85° F.:

TaBLE X VI.—Errect of FERMENTATION UPON Matic Acip ADDED
To APPLE JUICE.

PERCENTAGE OF Maric Acip In APPLE JUICE AND VINEGAR KEPT aT

a 55° F. ADS 85° F. 55° F. (Sterilized)
AGE.
Malic Malic Malic Malic
Normal. acid Normal. acid | Normal.| acid. Normal. acid —
added. added. added. added.

Months. Exp. 17./Exp. 22./Exp. 20./Exp. 23.|Exp. 21./Exp. 24./Exp. 25.| Exp. 28
Al 02 0 cs 41 1.02 4

Blveshisacursiscre 0.4 16 41 1.02 0. 2 0.41 1.02
Ges teno og soog 0.20 0.69 0.08 -46 0.10 0.54 0.47 0.63
Gr rrssiaicitrecan ae 0.16 0.61 0.03 0.36 0.10 0.54 0.44 0.39

nidocoeu 6am pc 0.16 0.49 0.01 0.32 0.05 0.46 0.41 0.31
by Setedoond Boe 0.13 0.30 0.01 0.28 0.01 0.38 0.40 0.28
Niet gake aya ase ss 0.21 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.38 0.26 0.30
OH odes onan aor 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.35 0.17 0.21

160 REporT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

These results show that the added malic acid underwent fermen-
tation to a marked extent. The disappearance of added malic
acid was complete at 55° F., while at. the higher temperatures
it was not complete.

(2) Effect of temperature upon destructive fermentation of
malic acid.—The effect of temperature upon the disappearance
of malic acid can be studied in connection with the data presented
in the preceding and following tables:

TaBLE XVII.—RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO THE DESTRUCTIVE
FERMENTATION OF Matic AcIp.

PERCENTAGE OF Maric Acip In APPLE JUICE AND VINEGAR KEPT aT
AGE. ;
55° F. 60°F. | 65° F. 70° F. 75° F. 80° F.
| |
Months. Exp. 31.:}| Exp. 32. | Exp. 33. Exp. 34. | Exp. 35. Exp. 36.
Hreshss Gis. 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54
ace thee nicotene 0.43 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01
eens ARG eee 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Gane ncete wes 0.32 0.01 | 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
OA emery ccs. « 0.30 0.01 | 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Zh eet Rime ees 3 | 0.00 0.00 | 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
!

The general tendency appears to be a less rapid loss of malic
acid at lower temperatures. At 70° F. and above, the loss was
uniform.

(3) Effect of sterilizing apple juice upon decrease of malic
acid.—In experiments 25, 26 and 27 the apple juice was sterilized.
Parallel experiments with normal material were carried on at
the same time. The tabulated results are given below. The
general tendency, as shown by these results, is a less rapid and
complete destruction of malic acid in sterilized material. In 60
months, malic acid had disappeared entirely in those experi-
ments where there had been no sterilization, but was still present
in marked amounts in the sterilized samples. Sterilization must
have destroyed the organisms responsible for the destruction of
malic acid and apparently after this the conditions were not
favorable for their growth.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 161

TABLE XVIII.—Errect or STERILIZATION UPON DECREASE OF
Mauic AcIp.

PERCENTAGE OF Maxic Acip IN APPLE JUICE AND VINEGAR KEPT AT

AGE. 55° FB. 70° F. 85° F.
Normal. Sterilized. Normal. Sterilized. Normal. Sterilized.

Months. Exp. 17. Exp. 25 Exp. 20 Exp. 26. Exp. 21 Exp. 27
MINES «, patersresc-< 0.41 0.5 0.51 0.
Roreyete aieraiete eres’ 0.20 0.47 0.08 0.44 0.10 0.46
Gales ciereea ones 0.16 0.44 0.03 0.39 0.10 0.45
SJ slaliee telenavaet cts 0.16 0.41 0.01 0.29 0.05 0.43
DUA rcnamcrse das 0.13 0.40 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.438
BSD a sickens « —_— 0.26 0.01 0.23 0.01 0.38

miatslalarevevevsiereie 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.35

THE RELATION OF MALIC ACID TO THE IDENTIFICA-
TION OF PURE CIDER VINEGAR.

A common test for the identification of cider vinegar has been
the formation of a white precipitate on addition of lead acetate.
The formation of the precipitate is based upon the assumed
presence of malic acid or malates in the sample tested. It is
supposed that any vinegar made from apple juice contains malic
acid, and that absence of malic acid, as indicated by no pre-
cipitate with lead acetate, is regarded as a proof that the vinegar
is from sources other than apples. This test has recently been
fully discussed by Leach and Lythgoe,’ together with some
modifications.

In all of the vinegars made by us, we were able to get a white
precipitate with lead acetate, even when no malic acid or malates
was present. We are making a more detailed study of the rela-
tion of malic acid and malates to cider vinegar.

THE SOLIDS OF APPLE JUICE AND CIDER VINEGAR.

The methods employed by us in determining the amount of
solids was to heat about five grams of liquid on about 20 grams of
pure quartz sand in a steam bath for six to eight hours. The re-
sults are given in part in the following table. For full details, see
the appendix:

1 Am. Chem. Soc. 26:378 (1904).
11

{

162 Report oF THe CHEMIST OF THE

TaBLeE XVIII.—Percentaces or Souips IN APPLE JUICE AND
CIDER VINEGAR.

5 to 7 | 9 to12 |15 to 18/21 to 24 44 to 48| 72 to 80
No. Fresh. | 3 mos. SAGE: aires ie hes 33 mos. SHE! 60 mos.|" Thos.
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
1 15.24 OCLe, 2.20 2.15 150 1.58 1.63 1.60
2 15.49 6.19 2.47 2.29 1.74 1.75 1.85 Liste || <<
3 15.12 5.60 2.37 2.20 1.94 2.01 2.01 28) i ———— |
4 16.46 5.19 3.14 2.95 2.53 2.29 Die 8 | <=
5 16.85 8.42 3.20 2.95 2.43 2.42 2.02 pel Me ||
6 17.19 9.11 3.05 bee ie) 2.80 2.87 3.19 3355100) ———— 5.86
Yl 14.43 €205 2.45 2.29 1.81 1.94 1.74 L338) |
8 13.50 (ers 2.54 2.32 1.70 1.65 1.49 105)
9 15.438 3.89 2.69 2.73 2.37 2.86 3.54 3.95 | ———
10 Wie 4.26 2.15 2.06 1.86 2.20 Zoe ARN TN a |
11 14.01 3.64 2.80 2.26 Vo75 1.56 1.47 ——— 2.33
2 14.01 2.86 2.35 2.24 1.65 15 123 1.97
13 14.01 2.91 2.39 1.76 1.64 1.40 West l= || = 2.25
14 14.01 3.30 2.81 2.66 1.68 1250 he | = |
15 14.01 2.92 2.58 2.40 1.68 1.47 2 7.45
16 14.01 2.00 2.36 2.24 ir Gyaile alas 2.14 | —— =
ily¢ 15.27 3.80 3.26 2.84 2.31 2.10 === 0.73
18 15.27 They (F/ 1.61 1.58 1.41 1.45 | —| —— bari |) ===
19 15.27 1.63 Le 5 1.49 Ae: 1.45 | ——— | —— heals) =
20 WB e20 1.66 1.62 1.54 1.58 1.61 | —— | —— Le) |) ———
21 15.27 1.65 1.69 1.78 1.47 W223) = | 2028
22 15.88 Papal 2.21. 2.09 1.84 2.00 | ——— | —— 0.60 SS
23 15.88 2.00 1.97 Li 8v ioul 1.65 | —— | ——;} ey |
24 15.88 2.27 dari | 2.09 1.84 | 2.00 | —— | —— Pai tS | <== ==
25 15.96 2.96 2.92 2.52 2.09 Bee |
26 15.96 2.90 2.83 2.02 2.30 | —-—— | —— | —— Pat Ni
27 15.96 3.29 3.20 2.84 2.64 Se? Wl <—<——
28 16.57 2.12 1.95 1.68 1.86 ET) |
29 13.97 1.89 | —— 1.51 | —— So SL Od
30 13.97 1.85 | —— 1.51 LOS
31 13.97 1.79 IA d ays | Ll: |" ae
32 13.97 1.30 1.29 1.30 | —— |; —— | —— 29 4 eee
33 13.97 1.25 1.34 1.19 | ——— | —— | —— L269) eee
34 13.97 E32 ee 1.21 | —— | —— | —— 0:80 | =——) | Sa
35 13.97 1.29 1.21 aS y | 0276>|, ———— |e
36 13.97 L225 1.18 1.29 | —— | —— | —— 0:74) —— a

In studying the data contained in Table XVIII, we notice the
following points of interest:

(1) During the first three months, the loss of solids was very
marked, though varying in degree in different experiments. The
decrease of solids was move gradual after the third month.

(2) The loss was not uniform in the different experiments
when the apple juice used varied in composition as in experi-
ments 1 to 10; and even when the same apple juice was used,
as in experiments 11 to 16, 17 to 21, 29 to 36, the loss of solids
varied.

(3) In several cases, the amount of solids was below 2 per
ct. when the acetic acid was above 4.5 per ct., as in experi-
ments 4,7, 8, 16, 18, 19, 20,°227 Bi a2) ra oe

(4) In old vinegar standing in a cask with the bung-hole
open, there is evaporation of water and this may be considerable,

——— ee

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 163

when the temperature is 70° or 80° F., and this results in a
proportionate increase of solids. This is readily shown by tbe
following tabulated results:

TABLE XIX.—INCRBASE IN PERCENTAGE OF SOLIDS BY EVAPORATION
ON STANDING.

NUMBER OF 21 months.'33 months./36 Rte d 6 months.|72 months./80 months.
EXPERIMENT.
Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
2.87 3.19 3.28 3.30 5.86
2.86 3.54 3.79 3.95 — =
eo 1.47 — — 2.00 —
1.47 Wee2 —- — 7.45 ——>

(5) In contrast with increase of solids in old vinegar on stand-
ing, we have instances where the reverse process has taken place
and the loss has been very marked. In these cases the loss of
solids was accompanied by a loss of acetic acid as the result of
some form of destructive fermentation, so that the liquids really
ceased to be vinegar. In the following table we give several
instances of this kind:

TABLE X.X.—DECREASE OF Sorips By DeEesrrucTIvVE FERMENTATION
ON STANDING.

NuMBER OF EXPERIMENT. Fresh. 21 months. 60 months.

: Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Mpa aera Pere ei ere stent Gute wits eee eae a 15.27 2.10 0.73
HS TA Parca ee oe stolen orc cuore) ons «he bie loge exe foe 1527 1.45 0.60
MET PIM Paste teen tal ote a iebe meen alek sist ote als 15.88 => 0.60
aE Reese Ne lero iars cro eeate ogc bial oce wteus aoheye se 4 13.97 ——— 1 Lea
RAP ete Rare etel ce citete tila nteda alah svocoaktt eco rahare wake 13.97 SS 0.80
Cr TNs eciece me eireue Diese Sh clave Goa oa-ere 13.97 === 0.77
SSE MP ey oral eieLoy at aa <chvel ie Chorele s/ Sasi sranccelels, Hels 13.97 Sess 0.74

(6). A detailed study of the individual experiments, as given
in the appendix, shows that there is quite generally a decrease
of solids to a point below 2 per ct., but that sooner or later
there is, under normal canditions, a subsequent increase of solids.

CIDER VINEGAR IN RELATION TO LEGAL STANDARDS.

Where a specific legal standard has been established by differ-
ent states, the percentage of acetic acid and of solids is generally
used as the basis of fixing such a standard. In different states,

164 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

the required minimum percentage of acetic acid varies from 4 to
4.5 and that of solids from 1.25 to 2. In New York the standard
is placed at 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid and 2 per et. of cider
vinegar solids. It is a matter of interest to notice how the results
of our experiments harmonize with the established legal standard.

PERCENTAGE OF ACETIC ACID IN NORMAL CIDER VINEGAR.

In the 18 experiments made in casks, approximating to some
extent the conditions normally prevailing in home-made cider
vinegar, the acetic acid equalled or exceeded 4.5 per ct. within
24 months in 11 cases; in 2 cases it required 33 and 56 months
to exceed 4.5 per ct., while in the other cases the amount re-
quired by legal standard was not reached until after 36 months.

In the 18 experiments carried on in bottles, 4.5 per ct. of
acetic acid or more was formed in 3 to 18 months in 11 cases and
in 8 other cases later; while in 4 cases, experiments 17, 22, 34,
36, the acetic acid did not reach 4.5 per ct. at any time. In
experiments 17, 22, 24, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, the acetic acid suffered
loss by destructive fermentation.

In all the materials used in our work, there was an abundance
of sugar present to form an amount of acetic acid well above
4.5 per ct. and this was, for the most part, converted into
alcohol, as far as our work indicated. The loss appeared to occur
in changing alcohol to acetic acid.

Provided proper material is used, that is, pure, undiluted
apple juice of ripe apples, and provided the processes of fer-
mentation are properly managed, there should be no difficulty
in obtaining cider vinegar containing 5 per ct. or more of acetic
acid. The present legal requirement of 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid
in cider vinegar is therefore entirely reasonable.

PERCENTAGE OF SOLIDS IN NORMAL CIDER VINEGAR.

The legal standard: of New York requires 2 per ct. of cider
vinegar solids. In our 18 experiments made in casks, the amount
of solids in the vinegar nearly reached or exceeded 2 per ct.
in 6 cases, when the vinegar was 2 years old; in 12 cases, the
solids were below 2 per ct. but in 7 cases rose to 2 per ct. later.

In the 18 experiments carried on in bottles, the solids were
above 2 per ct. in 5 cases when the vinegar was 18 to 21
months old but dropped below 2 per ct. later; while in 13

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 165

cases the solids were below 2 per ct. but later rose in 3 cases
above 2 per ct. Most of the cases where the solids kept below
2 per ct. had suffered destructive fermentation and were not in
reality vinegar at all.

The method employed by us in estimating solids,—drying about
5 grams 6 to 8 hours on about 20 grams of sand at 212° F., gives
results that are somewhat low as compared with drying for a
‘shorter period of time, and the question naturally arises as to
what method will give correct results. At the time we began
our work, there was no uniform method in general use and we
employed our method because it was in common use with mate-
rials somewhat resembling apple juice and vinegar.

Most of the laws in different States, including New York, use
the expression, “solids on full evaporation over boiling water.”
The question at once suggests itself as to what constitutes “ full
evaporation.” Different methods are employed by different
chemists in determining solids in vinegar. Thus, in Bulletin
No. 65 of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, the provisional method recommended is as follows:

“ Evaporate 10 cc. in a tared platinum dish of 50 mm. diameter
on the steam bath to a sirupy consistency, dry for 214 hours in
the drying oven at the temperature of boiling water.” Leach
and Lythgoe, of the Department of Food and Drug Inspection
of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, use the following
method: “Five grams of vinegar are weighed into a tared,
flat-bottomed platinum dish, subjected for an hour to direct con-
tact with the live steam of a boiling water bath.” That these
different methods give varying results can readily be seen from
the following table; in this work flat-bottomed platinum dishes
of 50 mm. diameter were used:

TaBLE XXI.—RESULTS OF DETERMINATION OF VINEGAR SOLIDS BY
DirFErENt MeErHops.

Drying 1 hr. over boiling Drying to syrup and then drying Drying on sand 8 hrs in
water. 2% hrs. in oven at 212° F. steam oven. ioe
iRers et: Per ct Per ct.
1.58 1.41 I-35
1.65 1.58 1.55
ays 1.54 1.43
1.76 173 70
BYE 1.61 1.58
1.84 1.79 1.75

166 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

TABLE X XI.—Continued.

Drying 1 hr. over boiling | Drying to syrup and then drying Drying on sand 8 hrs. fn
water. 25 hrs. in oven at 212° F. steam oven.
Per ct Per ct Per ct.
1.87 1.81 1.70
1.88 1.78 1.70
1.91 1.86 1.78
1.92 1.88 1.79
1.95 1.88 ey AF
2.00 1.91 1.81
2.04 2.01 1.78
2.10 1.91 eA?)
2.12 2.26 2.20
2.13 2.22 27
CONT 2.20 ly
2.26 1.98
2.28 oe 1.97
EBD) —_—_— 2.08
2.43 - 2.25
2.64 DABS
2.89 2.93 2.65
2.93 2.95 2.87
3.06 2.88 2.80
3.10 SL LS SLO
3.64 Sia iG 3.70
6.50 —- | 5.86
8.59 8.78 7.44

In studying these data, we notice the following points:

(1) In general, the highest results were obtained by drying
one hour on a water bath, and the lowest, by drying on sand eight
hours in a steam oven.

(2) Vinegars containing 2 per ct. of solids as determined by
the first method contained about 1.80 per ct. when determined
by the longer drying on sand.

(5) Vinegars containing 2 per ct. of solids by the method of
drying eight hours contained about 2.25 per ct. when dried one
hour.

Since different methods give such varying results that a vinegar
would be pronounced up to the standard by one method and below
standard by another method, it would seem desirable that the
somewhat vague phrase, “solids on full evaporation over boiling
water,” should be dropped and in its place should be substituted
a specific statement of the conditions of evaporation.

From some of our results (experiments 1, 7, 8, 16, 18, 19, 20,
21, 23, 31, 32, 33, 35), it would seem that a pure cider vinegar
may contain 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid or more and at the same
time contain less than 2 per ct. of solids, by whatever recog-
nized method the amount of solids is determined.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 167

CONDITIONS COMMONLY PRODUCING CIDER VINEGAR
BELOW STANDARD.

Several different conditions may cause the production of cider
vinegar low in acetic acid, among the more common of which
are the following:

1. Poor apple juice.

2. Conditions unfavorable to the necessary fermentation pro-
cesses.

3. Lack of proper care after acid is formed.

POOR APPLE JUICE AS A SOURCE OF POOR VINEGAR.

By poor apple juice we mean apple juice containing less than
a normal amount of sugar, that is, less sugar than would be
sufficient under normal conditions of fermentation to produve
vinegar containing 4.5 per ct. of acetic acid. We should be
able ordinarily to produce about 50 to 55 parts by weight of
acetic acid for each 100 parts of sugar present in the fresh juice.
Hence, to produce cider vinegar with the amount of acetic acid
required by the legal standard, we should need to use apple juice
containing 8.25 to 9 per ct. of sugar.

There are five different conditions under which apple juice
may contain less than the amount of sugar indicated: (1) The
fruit may be unripe; (2) the apple juice, normal at the start,
may be watered; (38) the juice may be made by treating the
pomace with water, allowing to stand and pressing a second
time;, (4) the apples may be badly decayed; (5) apples may be
used which normally contain, even when ripe, an insufficient
amount of sugar. Among such, according to the results given
in Table IJ, are the following: Ben Davis, Gano, Loy and Mon-
treal Beauty Crab. We do not mean to say that these varieties
never contain enough sugar for cider-making, but simply that
the samples analyzed did not.

CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE TO THE NECESSARY FERMENTATION
PROCESSES.

We will mention the following conditions as most common
among those that unfavorably affect the processes of fermanta-
tion: (1) Dirty and decayed fruit, (2) unclean barrels, (3) too

168 REporRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

low temperature, (4) lack of air, due either to filling the barrel
too full or stopping the bung-hole.

(1) Dirty fruit—lIt is quite common that the apples used for
vinegar-making are refuse left lying on the ground until they
become covered with soil and more or less decayed. Under such
conditions, there is serious danger of getting into the apple juice
organisms that will interfere with the regular alcoholic and
acetic fermentations, particularly the latter, either by lessening
the amount of those products or by producing undesirable
flavors.

(2) Unclean barrels.—Barrels or casks are frequently used
for vinegar-making, which are not previously cleaned, no matter
what their previous condition or use. Undesirable organisms
may be brought into contact with the apple juice in this way.

(3) Storing apple juice at too low temperature.—Many, if not
most, farmers place their barrels of apple juice at once in the
coc! temperature of a cellar, where it will usually require 6
months or more to complete the alcoholic fermentation. The
material is left at the same temperature for the acetic fermenta-
tion which takes place with extreme slowness. In some cases,
it may require three years or more before the acetic fermentaiton
is completed under these conditions, and ordinarily the time is
two years or more.

(4) Lack of air.—The acetic fermentation requires the pres-
ence of air, and this may be excluded by filling the barrel too
full or by putting the bung in tight or by doing both at once.
It often happens that the conditions have all been favorable and
that the vinegar is apparently sour enough; the bung is then
tightly stoppered, when an analysis would show less than 4 per
ct. of acid. Before closing the barrel it would be well to have
the amount of acid determined as soon as the vinegar seems suffi-
ciently sour. When the barrel is thus tightly stoppered before
the formation of acid is completed, the fermentation soon ceases
and the amount of acid does not increase further.

LACK OF PROPER CARE AFTER ACID IS FORMED.

When the alcoholic fermentation is completed and the cider
has become commercial cider vinegar of good quality, destruc-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 169

tive fermentation of the acid may be encouraged by leaving the
bung-hole open and the barrel only partially full.

DIRECTIONS FOR HOME-MANUFACTURE OF CIDER
VINEGAR.

KIND OF APPLES TO USE.

_ Only ripe apples should be used, possessing a sugar content of
not less than 8.5 per cent. Most varieties of apples commonly
available possess the requisite amount of sugar when ripe, but
not when green. The apples should not be decayed or over-ripe,
because the amount of sugar is lessened in such apples. The
apples should be clean when gathered and if not, they should be
made so by washing. The objection to dirt in the apple juice
is the danger of introducing forms of fermentation that will inter-
fere with the normal alcoholic and acetic fermentations which
are desired. One objection raised to washing apples is the lia-
bility to remove the germs that cause the desired forms of fer-
mentation. While in our own practice we have not met with
such difficulty, it is preferable that the apples shall, if possible,
be clean when gathered.

PREPARATION OF APPLE JUICE.

In the grinding and pressing of the apples care should be
taken to observe ordinary precautions of cleanliness. In many
cases, it is the practice to add water to the apple pomace after
pressing, let it stand awhile and press again. This treatment
yields an additional amount of juice, which, however, does not
contain the requisite amount of sugar to make good vinegar, pro-
viding the first pressing has been efficient. Avoid the use of
juice made from second pressing.

PUTTING APPLE JUICE IN BARRELS.

When practicable, it is a good plan to store the freshly pressed
apple juice in some large receptacle and allow it to stand a few
days, before putting it into barrels. In this way considerable
solid matter held in suspension will settle before the liquid is
placed in casks. The casks used should be well cleaned,
thoroughly treated with live steam or boiling water, and should
not be over two-thirds or three-fourths filled with apple juice.

170 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

The bung should be left out, but a loose plug of cotton may be
placed in the hole to decrease evaporation and prevent dirt fall-
ing in. The bung should be left out until 4.5 to 5.0 per ct. of
acetic acid has formed.

MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOL FERMENTATION.

When the freshly pressed apple juice is at once placed in ordi-
nary cellars, where the temperature during winter does not go
below 45° or 50° F., the alcoholic fermentation is complete in
about six months, assuming that the work is begun in October or
November; though 80 to 90 per ct. of the alcohol is formed in
lialf this time or less. By having the fermentation take place at
a temperature of 65° or 70° F., the time can be considerably re-
duced ; however it is not desirable to have the alcoholic fermenta-
tion take place much above 70° F., since the loss of alcohol by
evaporation is increased. By the addition of yeast to the fresh
apple juice, the fermentation can be completed in three months or
less, especially if the temperature is near 65° or 70° F. It is
suggested that one Fleischmann’s compressed yeast cake, or an
equivalent, may be used for five gallons of apple juice, if one de-
sires to use yeast. The yeast cake is stirred with a cup of water
and after complete disintegration is mixed with the juice. What-
ever form of yeast is used, it should be fresh. Vinegar or
“mother ” should never be added to apple juice.

MANAGEMENT OF ACETIC FERMENTATION.

When the alcoholic fermentation is completed, it is well to
draw off the clear portion of liquid, rinse out the cask, replace
the clear liquid, add two or four quarts of good vinegar containing
more or less “ mother” and place at a temperature of 65° to 75°
F. The acetic fermentation occupies from 3 to 18 months or
more, according to the conditions under which the fermentation
is carried on. When the apple juice is stored in cool cellars and
left there until it becomes vinegar of legal standard, it requires
from 21 to 24 months or even more. When the alcoholic fermen-
tation is allowed to take place in a cool cellar and the casks then
removed to a warmer place, the time of vinegar formation may
be reduced from that given above to 15 to 18 months. Where

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ie ii

the alcoholic fermentation is hastened by the use of yeast and the
acetic fermentation favored by the proper temperature and addi-
tion of a vinegar “starter,” it is possible to produce good mer-
chantable vinegar in casks in 6 to 12 months. In vinegar facto-
ries the formation of acetic acid is greatly hastened by the use
of “generators,” in which the alcoholic liquid is brought into
intimate contact with a large supply of air. In the hands of
the ordinary farmer, making only a few barrels of cider, these
generators would probably not be found entirely practicable in
every way.
CARE OF CIDER VINEGAR.

When the acetic fermentation has gone far enough to produce
4.5 to 5 per ct. of acetic acid, then the barrels should be made
as full as possible and tightly corked, in order to prevent destruc-
tive fermentation of acetic acid and consequent deterioration of
the vinegar.

APPENDIX.

In the following pages, we give the full details of the analyti-
‘cal results and also the special conditions of experiment in each
of the 36 experiments described in the bulletin.

EXPERIMENT 1.—Juice PRESSED FROM NorTHERN Spy APPLES
Novemeer 10, 1897; Srorep 1n 10-GaLLON CasK IN CELLAR;
STRAINED AT END oF Srx MONTHS AND REPLACED IN CLEANED CASK.

Age Redue Aleohol | Volatile | Fi
. = , ixed
ben ona Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing Sucrose.| by acid as | acid as
lyzed 2 sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Perct. | Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0640 15.24 0.19 0.015 10.08 2.69 0.00 0.02 0.52
1 | 1.0640 15.10 0.19 0.015 10.08 2.48 0.04 0.04 0.50
2 | 1.0363 10.05 0.19 0.009 7.83 0.28 2.84 0.06 0.48
3 | 1.0200 7.12 0.22 0.005 | 4.95 ORT 4.23 0.20 0.46
4 | 1.0079 4.85 0.24 0.004 | Poet ith 0.01 5.52 | 0.16 | 0.46
5 | 0.9985 2.39 0.24 0.003 0.78 0.00 | 6.74 0.16 0.45
6 | 0.9980 2.30 0.25 0.002 0.22 | 6.84 0.10 0.46
7 | 0.9978 2.25 0.25 0.002 0.13 | ——— 6.79 0.17 0.42
8 | 0.9982 2.12 0.24 0.002 — 6.31 0.38 0.44
9 | 0.9988 2.15 0.24 SSS | 5.74 0.84 0.24
i0 | 0.9992 1.98 0.24 oP433 1.01 0.02
14 | 1.0005 6 0.23 — | ———_ 4.10 2.33 0.03
15 | 1.0032 1253: 0.24 —— | ———_ 3.69 2.18 0.02
21 | 1.0081 — _| ——— 2.92 3.93 0.02
24 | 1.0149 1.58 0.26 0.001 | ———— | ———— 1.05 6.14 0.02
27 | 1.0158 1.56 0.29 ——_ | ———_ 0.91 6.39 0.02
29 | 1.0158 1.66 0.26 ——-_ | ———_ 6.47 0.02
33 | 1.0196 1.63 — | ———_- 0.00 C16 0.02
36 | 1.0202 1.58 | ——— ——— | —— That fh 0.01
44 1.60 | —— ————S | o 7.97

172 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

EXPERIMENT 2.—JuICE Pressep FROM NorTHERN Spy APPLES
Novemser 10, 1897; Srorep In 10-GALLON CASK IN CELLAR
FoR Five MontrHs AND THEN PLACED IN A Room oF HIGHER
TEMPERATURE; TRANSFERRED FROM CASK TO STOPPERED BoTTLE

AFTER 83D MonrH.
2s oe Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
ae evit Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing. | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
lyzed y: sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
Mths. Perch. \Pericts ||| ePer ict: Percts | Per ct. \) Perici") Per cha eienices
Fresh | 1.0650 15.48 0.19 0.014 9.95 3.43 0.00 0.03 0.51
1 | 1.0645 15.36 0.16 0.013 9.81 3.16 0.06 0.04 0.48
2 | 1.0306 8.98 0.22 0.005 6.64 0.73 3.45 0.08 0.47
3 | 1.0160 6.19 0.24 0.003 4.00 OVS 4.91 0.21 0.44
4 | 1.0071 4.81 0.26 0.003 2.67 0.06 5.74 0.22 0.38
5 | 0.9990 2.43 0.24 0.003 0.82 0.04 6.89 0.25 0.40
6 | 0.9982 2.60 0.24 0.003 0.27 0.02 7.05 0.25 0.39
7 | 0.9974 2.47 0.24 0.002 ORE, 0.01 6.97 0.26 0.39
8 | 0.9962 2.34 0.25 0.002 0.00 6.79 0.27 0.09
9 | 0.9961 2.29 0.27 6.78 0.29 0.09
10 | 0.9967 2.15 0.24 —_. 6.17 0.58 0.04
14 | 1.0084 2.09 0.26 SSS | OS 3.20 4.44 0.01
15 | 1.0087 1.74 0.26 —— | Sigal 4.60 0.01
16 | 1.0090 1.72 | —— —__ | ———_- 3.07 4.63 0.01
21 | 1.0223 ae a 0.00 9.22 0.02
24 | 1.0228 1.75 | —— 0.003 | ——— | ——— 9.56 0.02
30 | 1.0258 1.86 | —— — | ——— 9.81 0.01
36 | 1.0233 1.72 | -—— —_ _ | —— | —— 9.76 0.02
44 1 a — | ——_ | —— 9.70

EXPERIMENT 3.—JUICE PRESSED FROM NorTHERN Spy APPLES
November 10, 1897; Srormp in 10-GaLLON Cask IN CELLAR
rok Five MonrHs AND THEN PLACED IN A Room oF HIGHER
TEMPERATURE; STRAINED AT THE END oF Srx Monrus AND RE-
PLACED IN CLEANED CASK.

Age R , ?

: educ- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
whee Spee Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
lyzed 8g y- sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
Mths. | | Perret. | Penict:\\ “Persct: Per ct. ;| Pervet.| Persct. "| Perets | Perch
Fresh | 1.0640 | 15.12 0.20 0.013 | 9.73 3212 0.00 0.04 0.49

1 | 1.0620 14.74 0.19 0.012 | 9.55 3.06 0.15 0.06 0.48
2) | Usoz47 | AACE 0.24 0.006 | 5.80 0.49 3.88 0.15 0.47
3 | 1.0130 5.60 0.24 0.002 | 3.64 0.09 4.95 0.25 0.40
4 | 1.0630 | 4.07 0.26 0.003 | 2.50 aay! 0.21 0.37
5 | 0.9990 2251 O23 0.002 | 0.88 | ——— 6.74 0.25 0.37
6 | 0.9976 | 2.43 | 0.25 | 0.002 | 0.27 6.77 0.19 0.63
7 | 0.9973 2337 0.25 | Q.002 | On 0.92 6.76 0.34 0.34
8 | 0.9973 2.29 | 0.24 0.002 | 6.51 0.34 0.11
9 | 0.9969 2.27 0.26 | | 6.27 0.49 0.08
10 | 0.9981 | 2.21 } | 5.65 0.92 0.03
11 | 1.0075 2.02 0.23 | ———_ | —_———__ 3.40 4.00 0.01
12 | 1.0077 1.94 0.25 ood 4.08 0.01
16 | 1.0083 1.83 Sao 4.19 0.01
21 | 1.0168 2.01 — 1.30 7.01 0.02
24 | 1.0225 1.82 0.32 0.002 | ———- | ———- 9.06 0.02
2 | Ls0214! 1.89 0.30 8.80 0.02
29 | 1.0216 1:85 0.30 —_ | —— | ——_ 8.71 0.02
oo) a) 1). 0249 2.01 | —— —_ | ——_ | —— 9.99 0.01
36 | 1.0265 2.06 | —— — | ——_ | ——— 10.23 0.02
44 2.81 | —— — | —— | —— 11.05

a

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 173

EXPERIMENT 4.—JuICE PRESSED FROM Roxpury Russet APPLES
NoveMBeER 10, 1897; Srorep 1n 10-GaLLON CASK IN CELLAR.

Age ;' Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when epedia ©) Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as

ives q Exawaby’. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
Mth. Per ct. | Per ct. Percten| sber ct \\ Fer'ct.. ||| erct. | Penct Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0690 16.46 0 23 0.021 8.85 5.28 0.00 0.04 0.63
1 | 1.0670 16.00 0.20 0.016 8.64 4.19 0.38 0.08 0.63
2 | 0.0195 6.97 0.19 0.008 4.16 0.86 5.13 0.14 0.59
3 | 1.0095 5.19 0.23 0.004 2.52 0.23 6.04 0.17 0.50
4 | 1.0040 3.89 0.24 0.003 1.60 0.12 6.88 0.21 0.44
5 | 1.0000 3.32 0.24 0.002 0.95 7.20 0.28 0.42
6 | 1.0000 3.21 0.25 0.003 0.32 0.03 ieo| 0.24 0.41
7 | 0.9997 3.14 0.25 0.22 0.03 1.32 0.27 0.41
8 | 0.9989 3.01 0.25 7.21 0.27 0.18
9 | 0.9985 2.95 0.26 6.79 0.25 0.09
10 | 0.9982 2.89 0.24 SS == | | 6.47 0.31 0.05
14 | 0.9988 2.65 0.24 —— | ———_- 6.47 0.35 0.07
15 | 0.9990 2.53 0.25 ———— || = 6.44 0.32 0.10
21 | 0.9997 2.29 SSS | |_SSSS S 5.91 0.36 0.07
24 | 1.0014 2.05 0.27 0.002 | ——— | ——— 5.33 0.73 0.07
27 | 1.0034 2.03 028) 4.58 1.43 0.05
29 | 1.0035 2.12 0.28 qe SSS 1.46 0.06
33 | 1.0125 2.12 | ——— ——_ } —— 1.79 4.23 0.01
36 | 1.0205 Ot: | — —— | —— 6.58 0.01
44 763 SS | 6.82 0.01

EXPERIMENT 5.—JUICE PRESSED FROM RoxBuRY Russet APPLES
. NovemMsBer 10, 1897; Srorep IN CELLAR IN 10-GALLON Cask; ONE
Pint oF VINEGAR ADDED AT END or Eiaur Monrus.

Age . °
wren pnedfc Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen. eee j Sucrose. picobel ees aa
ized Eravivy. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
Mths Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0720 16.85 0.20 0.020 9.06 5-46 0.00 0.02 0.66
1 | 1.0710 16.79 0.18 0.017 8.79 4.74 0.05 0.04 0.65
2 | 1.0493 12.82 0.19 0.014 ies 2.22, 2.58 0.18 0.61
oP e025) 8.42 0.25 0.008 5.10 0.60 4.53 0.19 0.56
411.0115 youre 0.26 0.007 2.60 0.26 | 6.13 0.22 0.47
5 | 1.0000 Seal, 0.25 0.004 0.85 0.05 7.36 0.22 0.49
6 | 1.0009 oL20 0.25 0.003 0.30 0.05 eens e) 0.21 0.48
7 | 0.9999 Bina bee 0.26 0.004 0.22 0.04 7.48 0.20 0.49
8 | 0.9993 Bie itil 0.26 0.004 7.50 Ors 0.10
9 | 0.9983 2.95 0.26 7.96 0.31 0.10
10 | 0.9984 2.89 0.25 — — 6.83 0.30 0.08
14 | 0.9986 2200 0.25 | ———— | ——_ | ——— 6.69 0.29 0.07
15 | 0.9988 2.43 0.27 | - ——_ | —— | 6.60 0.31 0.10
21 | 1.0004 2.42 | ——— ——_ | ———_ | 5.78 0.61 0.08
24 | 1.0135 1.96 0.27 0.003 | ———— | ——— 1.95 tse Us) 0.01
2¢ | 1.0179 1.93 0.28 ——_ | ———_- 0.95 6.65 0.01
29 | 1.0186 2.03 0.28 —_ | ———- 6.83 0.02
33 | 1.0213 2.02 | ——— —_——_ | —— 0.00 1.52 0.01
36 | 1.0210 2.00 | ——— —_— | —— 7.05 0.02
44 2.01 SEE ileum? 6.76 0.02

|
|

174

Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

EXPERIMENT 6.—JuICE PRESSED FROM MIxEeD WINTER APPLES
Novemeer 10, 1897; Srorep 1n 10-GALLON CASK IN CELLAR FOR
Five MontTHs AND THEN PLACED IN A Room or HIGHER TEM-

PERATURE.
Age Redue- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when Shag Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing | Sucrose by acid as | acid as
lyse a er ue sugars weight. | acetic. | malic
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0740 17.19 0.28 0.023 9.23 5.78 0.00 0.05 0.62
fi) 20720 17.14 0.20 0.019 8.79 4.69 0.07 0.03 0.62
2 | 1.0616 15.03 0.20 0.016 8.72 3.34 138383 0.08 0.60
ro || 10205 9.11 0.25 0.011 5.18 0.70 4.49 0.18 0.53
4; 1.0119 5.45 0.27 0.010 ZnO 0.34 6.13 Only 0.56
ae OOLo) | 3.64 0.25 0.004 0.63 0.11 706 0.20 0.50
6 | 1.0006 B.00 0.26 0.003 Ones 0.07 (ooo 0.21 0.47
7 | 1.0005 3.46 0.26 0.004 0.26 0.04 7.40 0.21 0.46
8 | 0.9989 Show 0.26 0.004 7.42 0.30 0.07
9 | 0.9991 3.15 0.27 (Heys 0.32 0.09
10 | 0.9992 3.03 0.26 —— | ———. 7.26 0.31 0.10
14 | 1.0067 PHA | 0.26 4.93 2.90 0.03
15 | 1.0070 2.80 | 0.27 — | —— 4.95 2.88 0.02
16 | 1.0070 2.83 —_ | ———_ 4.99 2.89 0.03
21 | 1.0157 2.87 —_ | ——— 2.82 5.59 0.04
24 | 1.0262 2.92 0.32 —_— | ——- 0.34 9.19 0.03
aie) 210263 2.81 0.35 —_ | ———_- 0.00 9.02 0.04
29 | 1.0250 2.83 0.34 8.90 0.03
33 | 1.0286 3.19 9.97 0.03
36 | 1.0390 3.28 | —— 10.23 0.02
44 3.30 | ——— ———— | ————_ | —— 10.81 0.02
80 | 1.04381 5.86 0.67 —_— | ——_ ]} —— 16.98 0.04

EXPERIMENT 7.—JUvUICE PRESSED FROM BALDWIN APPLES NOVEM-

BER 10, 1897; SroreD IN 10-GALLON Cask IN CELLAR; CLEAR Por-
TION SIPHONED OFF AND REPLACED IN CLEANED CASK AT END OF

Srx Monrus.

Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
wifes Snpetic | Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing | Sucrose by acid as | acid as
iseed Eravivy. sugars weight. | acetic. | malic,
Mths. Pench Perce) (Perick Perch) Bericts || eberact. ||) eenice: Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0600 14.43 0.23 0.017 8.57 4.37 0.00 0.04 0.59

1 1.0590 14.14 0.18 0.013 8.33 2.96 0.09 0.10 O°5S
2: | £20529 13.07 0.20 0.014 Whetss2) 2.41 0.63 0.17 0.48
Oo) 130215 7.05 0.25 0.010 4.42 0.40 Sue 0.15 0.45
4 | 1.0028 3.39 0.25 0.007 | 1.46 0.12 5.64 Carles 0.43
5 | 1.0000 2.60 0.25 0.005 0.49 0.10 6.19 0.17 0.44
6 | 0.9992 2.45 0.24 0.005 0.28 0.05 6.29 | 0.20 0:34
7 | 0.9990 Praia | 0.25 0.004 0.21 0.04 6.67 0.26 Ozu
8 | 0.9980 Zak 0.26 0.003 ane 0.30 0.06
9 | 0.9981 2.29 0.27 — | ——— 5.59 0.33 - 0.06
10 | 0.9990 2.20 0.27 —- | ———_ 5.08 0.53 0.05
14 | 1.0020 1.90 0.25 —- | ———_- 4.09 TO” 0.02
15 | 1.0020 1.81 0.26 — | ———_ 3.89 1.01 0.03
7A 1.0109 1.94 —— oe iat) 0.01
24 | 1.0169 1.79 0.28 0.002 | ———— | ———— 0.08 5.69 0.01
27 | 1.0176 1.70 0.30 ——_ | ——— 0.00 6.04 0.01
29 | 1.0179 1.69 0.29 —- | ———_ 6.13 0.02
Sot LOLAy 1.74 —— | ——— 5.95 0.02
36 | 1.0185 1.69 | ———- —_— | ——— | ———_ 5.79 0.02
44 1.88 | ——— —_ | ——_ ] —— 6:23 0.02

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 175

EXPERIMENT 8.—JvUICE PRESSED FROM REINETTE PipPpIN APPLES
Novemeser 11, 1897; Srorep In 10-GALLON Cask IN CELLAR; CLEAR
PortTioN SIPHONED OFF AND REPLACED IN CLEANED CASK AT SIx
MontHs AND ONE Pint oF VINEGAR ADDED AT END or EIGHT
Monrus.

Age | Snecifi Reduc- Alcohol } Volatile | Fixed
when ae © | Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen. ing. | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
BuLBa HELANAUY - | sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed
Mths Periet.)| Perich i berncias|| Peret: \\\ Per ct) Perict.\\ Penat. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0560 13.50 0.21 0.010 9.14 2.67 0.00 0.04 0.47
1 | 1.0555 13.41 0.17 0.007 9.08 2.21 0.08 0.07 0.47
2 | 1.0438 11.18 0.19 0.006 8.75 0.02 1.20 0.10 0.45
3 | 1.0245 7.37 0.22 0.003 5.45 0.16 3.07 0.16 0.44
4 | 1.0140 5.13 0.26 0.003 3.43) 0.12 4.14 0.16 0.44
5 | 1.0010 2.63 0.24 0.003 0.82 0.07 5.68 0.14 0.47
6 | 0.9986 2.54 0.25 0.002 0.29 0.03 5.81 0.20 0.41
7 | 0.9985 2.43 0.25 0.001 0.19 0.03 5.88 0.25 0.29
8 | 0.9979 2.47 0.25 0.001 | 5.49 0.47 0.08
9 | 0.9994 2.32 0.25 4.82 0.93 0.07
10 | 1.0006 2.19 0.25 —— | 4.30 1.18 0.06
14 | 1.0055 1.81 0.25 [S| a 2.98 2.78 0.02
15 | 1.0054 12705) 0.25 SS SS SS 2.72 2.66 0.02
21 | 1.0127 Use) |) = SS al |S a Deny, 5.03 0.01
24 | 1.0173 1.50 0.28 C0 || ——— | = 0.00 6.65 0.02
27 | 1.0179 1.45 0.29 SS | 6.80 0.02
29 | 1.0180 1.50 0.29 See Se 6.81 0.02
33 | 1.0184 1.49 qo eee eo ee 6.88 0.02
36 | 1.0191 1.50 Sree || Se 6.98 0.02
44 3S | = SS 7.30 0.01

EXPERIMENT 9.—JuICcE PRESSED FROM MIXED FALL AND WINTER
APPLES NovEMBER 11, 1897; SrorepD 1n 10-GALLON Cask IN CELLAR
FoR Five MoNTHS AND THEN PLACED IN A Room or HicHer TEM-
PERATURE; AT THE END OF Srx Monrus CLear Portion SiPHONED
OFF AND REPLACED IN CLEAN CASK; ONE PINT OF VINEGAR ADDED
AT END or E1gut MONTHS.

Age 6 Redue- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when } Specific | gojids. | Ash. Nitrogen.| ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed.
Mths. iRenictm | herich. |) eb ericr. Perct) |) Pervet. |) Persct.”|\\ Penict)) | tPerict:
Fresh | 1.0650 15.43 0.27 0.016 was 8! 4.26 0.00 0.03 0.51
1 | 1.0630 15.18 0.20 0.014 8.96 3.53 0.16 0.05 0.50
2 | 1.0303 8.96 0.20 0.010 6.72 0.13 3.69 0.18 0.50
3 | 1.0045 3.89 0.25 0.005 1.81 0.10 6.04 0.17 0.48
4 | 0.9990 2.83 0.26 0.003 0.91 0.09 6.17 0.18 0.43
5 | 0.9995 2.62 | 0.25 0.002 0.49 0.06 6.82 0.18 0.44
6 | 0.9986 2.69 | 0.26 0.002 0.27 0.05 6.83 0.20 0.40
7 | 0.9984 2.76 0.26 0.003 0.20 0.04 6.65 0.23 0.32
8 | 0.9978 2.71 | 0.26] 0.001 6.27 0.47 011
9 | 0.9963 2.73 | 0.27 5.82 0.98 0.09
10 | 1.0015 2.65 | 0.27 5.29 1.61 0.06
14 | 1.0089 Sle | (0) 2 |e | ee ee 3.96 0.05
15 | 1.0095 2.37 | 0.29 3.44 4.04 0.05
16 | 1.0099 | 2.49 | - ee eran ate 0:06
21 | 1.0202 2.86 see ST 1.39 7.33 0.04
24 | 1.0269 2.79 0.39 Ve | S| 0.03 9.49 0.05
27 | 1.0266 Fetal 0.42 SSS OS 9.41 0.06
29 | 1.0286 2.94] 0.44 SS 10.03 0.06
33 | 1.0341 3.54 SSS SSS | SS 11.66 0.08
36 | 1.0404 2) || — eee Se SSS 13.23 0.02
44 3.95 | —— SSS | SS | SS 12.96 0.02

176 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

EXPERIMENT 10.—Jvui1ceE PRESSED FRoM MIXED FALL AND WINTER
AppLes NovEMBER 11, 1897; SrorepD 1N 10-GALLON Cask IN CELLAR
FoR Five MoNTHS AND THEN PLACED IN A Room or HIGHER TEM-

PERATURE.

Age P Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when preane Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.. ing | Sucrose. by acid as | anidiag
Gack, * sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
Mth iPerict= \\-Pericta\> “Peritcr Per ct. | Per ct. | Perct. | Perct. | Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0570 3:73 0.18 0.014 9.23 3.01 0.00 0.03 0.41
Y ) 1.0555 13.38 0.18 0.007 8.97 2'.15 0.06 0.07 0.39
2°) 10278 8.05 0.22 0.006 6.52 0.03 2.95 OF 0.40
3 | 1.0075 4.26 0.23 0.003 2.63 0.04 4.81 0.15 0.38
4 | 0.9997 PAE 0.25 0.002 1.21 0.03 5.81 0.17 0.38
gheme| oe) Pe) tee) oe) Gel Geet
7| 0.9975 | 2.17| 0.24] 0.001] 0.22] 0.01 5.94:| 0184 | OMe
= sean ae fees 0.001 0.00 5.62 0.58 0.06

3 Z a 5.25 0.65 0.07
10 | 1.0007 1.93 0.25 == 4.60 135 0.09
14 | 1.0078 1.95 0.25 SSS |__| 2.93 3.66 0.03
15 | 1.0077 1.86 0.26 Se] | SSS | SS = 2.64 3.56 0.03
16 | 1.0084 1.80 SS 2578 3.82 0.04
OTF) L01sL 2.20) | ——— SSS SS 0.72 7.06 0.03
24 | 1.0224 1.92 0.36 0.002.) ——. |)’ —— 0.00 8.50 0.03
27 | 1.0196 1.95 0.33 SSS SSS 8.55 0.02
29 | 1.0225 1.97 0.37 ———>) SS _ 8.78 0.02
33 | 1.0263 B25 |) === SSS | SS= | SSS _e S 9.93 0.02
36 | 1.0290 2468 ——— SO a 10.64 0.02
44 ee a |) |) |) 10.51 0.02

EXPERIMENT 11.—JuIce PRESSED FROM MIxED FALL AND WINTER
Appies Ocroser 19, 1898; Srorep 1n 20-GALLON CaskKS IN CELLAR;
ONE Quart oF VINEGAR ADDED AT END or Two MONTHS.

Age +f | Reduc- | Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | gojids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing Sucrose. y acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. | | sugars. | | weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed

Mths Per ct. | Per ct Per ct Per ct. | Per ct Per ct Per ct Per ct
Fresh 00 | 03 59

er
0600 14 O01 0.27 | 0.020 7.49 | a
0

on

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or
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10)

DO) Bee eee wsA
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mg

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 177

EXPERIMENT 12——MarTeriAL, TIME AND TREATMENT SAME AS IN
| 11, Except THAT NO VINEGAR WAS ADDED.

a eee Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | SP it Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing Sucrose by acid as | acid as
ana- | Bravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed
Mths. Per'ct. | Bericht, Peret. | Pervct. | Perct. | Perict. | Perret: Per ct.
Fresh 1.0600 14.01 0.27 0.020 7.49 4.33 0.00 0.03 0.59
2 | 1.0250 7.54 0.27 0.016 4.85 0.67 3.71 0.16 0.51
3 | 1.0013 2.86 0.26 0.009 0.50 0.09 5.11 ORLe 0.50
4 | 1.0006 2.65 0.23 0.009 0.28 0.02 5.34 0.22 0.46
5 | 1.0005 24685) |) = 0.009 0.12 5.60 0.20 | 0.41
10 | 1.0006 PsP || ———— 5.67 0.22 0.38
12 | 0.9980 ee | == == 5.81 0.23 0.15
16 | 0.9983 1.65 SSS | SS = 5.51 | 0.380 0.11
18 | 0.9987 1.59 | 0.29 | —— |) = 5.44 0.37 0.10
22 | 1.0011 1.51 SSS SSS 3.93 0.56 0.03
26 | 1.0050 1.24 0.29 SSS | 2.22 1.57 0.01
33 | 1.0109 1285 |) == === | SS | 0.36 3.52 0.01
72 | 1.0176 oe 0.46 SS SS SS §.78 0.00

eet lie vecifie i Reduc- | Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
Wasnt sa Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.}| ing Sucrose. | y acid as | acid as
ana-~ | & Ve sugars. | wieght. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed |
Mths \Pernicha|hercts |) berct Per ct (Pence. | er icba | iceraces Per ct
Fresh | 1.0600 14.01 0.27 0.020 7.49 4.33 0.00 | 0.03 0.59
2 | 1.0300 8.16 0.27 0.015 5.45 0.72 ete) 0.18 0.49
eee COL, 2.91 0.26 0.008 0.49 0.20 4.78 | 0.19 0.50
4 | 1.0008 2.42 0.22 0.009 | 0.31 0.00 5.39 0.24 0.43
5 | 1.0006 2.39 0.007 0.13 5.61 | 0.19 Onoda
10 | 0.9998 2.38 | 5.86 0.30 0.18
12 | 0.9978 1.76 | —— =———= 5.86 0.32 0.15
16 | 0.9983 1.64 | —— —_ | ——_ Dee 0.36 0.14
18 | 0.9987 1.37 | 0.29 0.0035) | - ——— | 525k 0.50 0.09
22 | 1.0005 1.40 | —— ——— | ———_ 4.20 0.63 0.03
26 | 1.0075 1.30 | ——— —_ | ——_. 2.06 2.96 0.01
se | 1.0137 iS ———— —_ | ——_ | —— 0.20 5.02 0.01
72 | 1.0158 SEP) UPAR ee 0.00
EXPERIMENT 14.—SAME AS IN 12 anp 13.
|
5 ee Reduc- | Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when eo Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose.| by | acid as | acid as
ana- | 8t Mc sugars. | weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed | | |
Mth erica enc. Pemcraile enrich. | beret. | Perch. | ert. Wiseriel.
Fresh | 1.0600 1 40N Ss Oe2e 0.010 7.49 4.03 | 0.50
2 | 1.0280 7.78 Onze 0.015 b.22 0.54 | Sea 0.18 | 0.52
3 | 1.0040 3.33 0.27 0.012 0.84 0.19 5.72 0.18 0.49
4 | 1.0032 3.02 0.25 0.010 0.61 0.01 5.78 0.20 0.47
5 | 1.0020 22815 | ———— 0.009 0.17 5.94 0.24 0.43
10 | 1.0007 2.66 | —— 5.86 0.28 0.37
12 | 0.9987 1.93 ———— 5.95 0.34 0.13
16 | 0.9985 1.68 ——__ | —— 5.76 0.31 0.16
18 | 0.9987 1.51 0.28 V.UC8 | = | == 5.42 | 0.35 0.08
22 | 0.9995 1.50 eS SS 4.76 | 0.33 0.06
26 | 1.0029 1.39 | —— S| 3.62 1.61 0.04
33 | 1.0049 1.24 | —— ——_ | —— | —— 2.¢3 | 2.49 | 0.03

a
bo

178 REpPoRT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

EXPERIMENT 15.—SamMe MATERIAL AS IN PRECEDING. AFTER
Two Montus, ONE Quart oF VINEGAR WAS ADDED AND THE CASK
WAS PLACED IN A WARM Room.

Age R 6 2
2 educ- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
ee Share Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
geen am sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
Mths Per ct. | Per ct Per ct. Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0600 14.01 0227 0.020 7.49 4.33 0.00 0.03 0.59
2 | 1.0240 7.14 0.30 0.015 4.64 0.62 3.0L 0.19 0.50
3 | 1.0010 2.92 0.27 0.004 0.41 0.22 5.68 0.34 0.48
« | 1.0009 2.67 | 0526 0.004 0.24 0.00 ay 7Al 0.34 0.47
5 | 1.0009 2558) = 0.003 0.10 LM Tite 0.35 0.41
10 | 0.9996 2,40; |} ——— 5.88 0.39 0.30
12 | 0.9990 1.94 | —— SS 5.60 0.54 0.09
16 | 0.9933 1.68 | ——— — | 4.45 1.87 0.04
18 | 1.0023 aleeeag 0.36 O00 2 3 44 4.20 0.01
22 | 1.0140 ily) = SSS | | 1.58 5.79 0.01
26 | 1.0157 a SS | 1.54 5.91 0.01
aa. |) 150235 ile ———— SSS | OSS SS 0.01 8.95 0.01
72 | 1.0534 7.45 el = 21.00 0.05

EXPERIMENT 16.—Same as 15, Excerpt THAT NO VINEGAR WAS

ADDED.
A | |
Be : Redue- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
ee Spent’ Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ieee & Ye sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
|
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. ‘| Per ct. | Per che |) (Pericte| Pence Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0600 TA O1F | 2 OV 277 | 42001020, 7.49 4.33 -00 -03 0.59
3 | 1.0190 6.10 0.28 | 0.016 3.42 0.79 4.16 0.20 0.48
2 | 1.0007 CATHY 0.26 | 0.004 0.39 0.17 5.87 0.18 0.47
4 | 1.0004 2.55 0.27 0.004 0.24 0.00 5.89 0.18 0.47
i 1 pee seeg —— 0 003 0.10 Maa Cae es
0.998 SSS es .03 0.2 0.1
1a 0 J a —— dee baie 0.06
.000 A — ——_ | —— | ———_ 4.65 1.9 0.02
18 | 1.0023 1.48 0.30 0.002 —— 3.88 3.09 0.01
22 | 1.0119 1 64 2 47 5.12 0.01
26 | 1.0155 1.64 2.10 5.90 0.01
33 | 1.0193 NC = SSS OS SS 1.93 7231 0.01

{XPERIMENT 17.—JuIceE PRESSED FROM MIXED FALL AND WINTER
APPLES OcroBEer 24, 1899; SroreD IN QuaRT BorrueEs at 55° F.

Age q Reduc- Aleohol | Volatile | Fixed
when Specific Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana-~ | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per cin ti, Per. Ce a pera Per ct Fer ct
Fresh | 1.0654 L5t27 0.31 0.021 | 10.34 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.41
3 1.0182 3.80 0.28 0.007 2.40 0.08 2.24 2.57 0.20
6 1.0179 3.26 Lett 1.09 3.47 0.16
9 1.0197 2.84 0.32 0.002 Liz 4.29 0.16
14 1.0167 2.30 1.69 | ——— 2.90 0.13
15 10207 2.31 | -—— ———— 66. ————— a 2.60 0.13
21 | 1.0022 2.10 —— #1.27 | ——— | -—-———- 1.43
60(a)} 1.0038 0.52 8 alkaline 0.
60(b); 1.0035 0.84 0.27 0.00 0.00
60(¢e)| 1.0033 0.84 0.27 SSS 0.00 0.0

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. . 179

EXPERIMENT 18.—Same As 17, Excepr THAT THE TEMPERATURE
was Kerr at 60° F.

Specific | Solids.
gravity.

Per ct.
1.0654 Loa
1.0016 dead
1.0109 1.61
1.0125 1.58
1.0157 1.37
1.0160 1.41
1.0139 1.45
1.0139 1.70
1.0122 1.58
1.0095 1.70
1.0029 0.60

Nitrogen.

Reduc-
ing
sugars.

Per ct.

10.34
0.32
0.24

Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
by acid as | acid as
weight. | acetic. malic.
Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct
0.00 0.00 0.41
4.82 1.41 0.05
ee 4.30 0.02
1933 4.79 0.02
0.08 5.40 0.01
0.04 Sok 0.01
- 4.87 0.01
5.74 0.03
a 5.44. 0.00
—__ ZeL0 0.00
—_ | alkaline 0.00

EXPERIMENT 19.—Same As 17, Excepr THAT THE TEMPERATURE

EXPERIMENT 20.—SameE as 17, Except THAT

|
Sptcifie | Solids.

wAs Kept at 65° F.

: Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed

Specifie | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as

gravity. sugars weight. | acetic. malic.
iPerichs || bene. | Perict Per ct. | Per ct. | Per:ct. | Per ct. Per ct.
1.0654 U2 0.31 0.021 10.34 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.41
1.0030 1.63 Q.25 0.007 0.41 0.03 4.53 Died 0.04
1.0174 il aoe 0.27 0.35 7.02 0.01
1.0187 1.49 0.28 0.003 7.66 0.01
1.0188 1.32 —— 0.00 6.87 0.01
1.0186 il 588) ——— | —— 7.01 0.01
1.0176 1.45 —- | ————_ | ———_ 6.94 0.01
1.0109 55 0.25 —_ _ | ——_ } —— 4.00 0.00
1.0190 1.78 0.25 —_ | ———_ | —— 10.00 0.00
1.0184 a yaa) 0.27 —_- | ——_ | ———_ 8.18 0.00
1.0186 1.79 0.24 ——— | —— _ | —— 8.40 0.00

was Kept at 70° F.

THE TEMPERATURE

Ash. | Nitrogen.

gravity. |

Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.
1.0654 15.27, 0.31 0.021
0.9978 1.66 0.25 0.009
1.0106 1.62 | ———
1.0162 1.54 0.27 0.006
1.0196 1.52 | ———
1.0198 1.58 | ———
1.0191 1.61 | —— a
1.0180 1.81 0.25
1.0188 1.79 0.26
1.0188 Lit7 0.25

Reduc- Aleohol | Volatile | Fixed
ing Sucrose by acid as | acid as
sugars weight. | acetic. malic.
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Perct. Per ct.
10.34 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.41
9225 0.03 6.41 0.70 0.08
0.20 2.73 4.96 0.03
0.74 7.04 0.01
0.03 7.76 0.01
0.00 4 0.01
ae 0
Sr 0
8. 0
8. 0

TTT alll“RRRQRNQORSOQOqeQqweOeweOOOOS=S=<OSS SSS —— — Oe em,0”—_00

180 ReEporT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

EXPERIMENT 21.—Same AS 17, Except THAT THE TEMPERATURE
was Kupr at 85° F.

Age é : } Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana~ | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed.
Mths Per cts ||) Penici\5 -Berscig\| (eer ct.) (Penicts al) terreus leruch. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0654 15.27 0.31 0.021 10.34 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.41
3 0.9972 1.65 0.26 0.009 0.14 0.04 6.66 0.18 0.10
6 0.9979 Loe) | = 0.14 6.08 0.25 0.10
9 1.0068 1.78 0.28 0.009 3.42 3.40 0.05
14 1.0102 in23) | == === 2.17 4.22 0.01
15 1.0113 Le = ——S—== |e 1.79 4.38 0.01
21 1.0169 ges), | == ———— |_ =. |» 6.53 0.01
60 (a)) 1.0188 2.20 0.27 === | > 7.46 0.00
60 (b)| 1.0154 1.70 0.26 —— |_| 5.56 0.01
60 (c)| 1.0189 2.17 0.29 SS = | 7.30 0.00

EXPERIMENT 22.—Same as 17, Excerpt tHat 0.61 Per Cr. or
Matic Acrp was ADDED; Krpr at 55° F.

Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing. | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana~ | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed.
Mths Per ct. || Ber ct. Periet 'Perict: i\ Ber ct | Berict. || Perak Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0654 L5c88)|" (Ocal 0.021 10.34 2.68 0.00 1.02
3 | 1.0040 ee 0.18 0.05 | 0.23 0.69
6 | 1.0024 eral | << 0.12 = On55 0.61
9 | 1.0063 2.09 0-287) ———— SSS 1.08 0.49
14>), P0122 1.90 | -——— ae 1.66 0.33
15.) WeOL1z2 1.84 | -——— I 1.45 0.30
21 | 1.0097 ZOO) —————— | | 0.47 0.21
60 | 1.0024 0.60 | 0.28 | —— | —— | —— | —— | alkaline 0.00

EXPERIMENT 23.—SAME AS 22, Excerpt THAT THE TEMPERATURE
was Kepr at 70° F.

Age | | Reduc- | | Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
anaé | gravity. sugars. | weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed. |
|
Mths | Per ct. | Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0654 15.88 | 0.31 0.021 10.34 | 2.68 0.00 1.02
3 | 1.0003 2.00 0.20 | 0.06 0.51 0.46
6 | 1.0099 ioe =i | 0.04 =—— 3.75 0.36
9 | 1.0145 | 1.87] 0.26 | ——— —— | 5.22 0.32
14 , 1.0170 mh ay Gly | | — = | =a 5.75 0.30
15 | 1.0170 Pete | SN SS 5.67 0.28
21 | 1.0179 11 SG) ae | | | 5.51 0.27
60 | 0.0133 1.78 | 0.24 | | 3.51 0.21
| |

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 181

EXPERIMENT 24.—Same As 22 anp 23, Except THAT THE TEM-.
PERATURH WAS Kept at 85° F.

Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed

when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as

ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.

lyzed
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. || Penr.ct. Perict.«| Pericts | Perset.| ‘Perict: Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0654 15.88 0.31 0.021 10.34 2.68 ——— 0.00 1.02
3 | 0.9996 2.27 -— —--- 0.15 0.05 | ———— 0.23 0.54
6 | 1.0003 2.21 — — 0.12 | | —— 0.25 0.54
9 | 1.0104 2.09 — —- —— ——"| — 3.74 0.46
14 | 1.0153 1.90 — —— —= | —— |} —— 5.04 0.39
15) 120153 1.84 —— —— ———— — | es 4.70 0.38
21 | 1.0176 2.00 — — — —_ | — Nase 0.38
60 | 1.0105 2.15 0.27 — ae -Sss == == 0.57 0.35
|

EXpPerRIMENT 25.—SamMe APPLE Juice USED AS IN 17; STERILIZED
AND AFTER STANDING AT 55° F. ror Two Montrus STERILIZED
AGAIN; YEAst ADDED; STorED IN Quart Borries aT 55° F. First
ANALYSIS GIVEN Mabe at TIME OF SECOND STERILIZATION AND THE
OTHERS DATED FROM THIS.

Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed |
Mths. Perct. | Perict. | Per ct. Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct Per ct.
—— 1.0664 15.96 0.35 0.017 12.34 | 0.44 0.41 0.02 0.51
1 1.0102 4.66 0.37 0.007 1.93 | 0.08 6.25 0.04 0.47
3 1.0006 2.96 0.35 0.006 0.31 | 0.00 7.28 0.05 0.47
of 1.0006 2.92 0.39 0.006 — | — 7.10 0.06 0.44
11 1.0009 2.52 — —— —s —- 6.78 0.09 0.41
12 1.0020 2.42 —- — —- -- 6.78 0.09 0.41
18 1.0116 2200 — — —_—— ——. 2.58 3.24 0.26
60 (a) | 1.0128 2.87 0.37 a —— ~— — 5.96 0.10
60 (b) | 1.0190 oOeLO 0.34 ——— — —— — 5.73 0.21
60 (c) | 1.0179 3.07 0.36 ad -- — —-— 4.65 0.19

EXPERIMENT 26.—SaME As 25, Except THAT TEMPERATURE WAS
Kept at 70° F.

Age | Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose.| by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. | sugars. | weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed
RA a | ee Se

Mths. Perch. | Perict.|) “Perct. || sPerct. || Per ct Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.
—— 1.0664 15.96 0.35 0.017 12.34 0.44 0.41 0.02 0.5]
1 1.0011 SiDil 0.35 0.007 0.31 0.10 UP) 0.06 0.45
3 1.0005 2.90 0.35 0.007 0..24 0.00 6.10 0.07 0.44
7 1.0029 2.83 0.39 0.006 — aa 5.63 0.96 0.39
11 1.0115 Z.o2 —— —_— —— -_— 3.52 Baral 0.29
12 1.0128 2.22 — — ——. ——- 3.10 4.33 0.27
18 1.0202 2.30 — ao —— —- 0.66 6.87 0.23
60 (a) | 1.0238 2.69 0.36 a — —. — 8.66 0.26
60 (b) | 1.0228 2.65 0.37 aa —_—— —. oo 7.81 0.39
60 (c) | 1.0241 2.80 0.36 a aa a od 8.48 0.32
&- i

182 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

“EXPERIMENT 27.—SaME As 25 AND 26, Except tHat TEMPERATURE
was Kepr at 85° F.

Age , Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. \Per ct. Per ct.
1.0664 15.96 0.35 0.017 12.34 0.44 0.41 | 0.02 0.51
1 1.0024 Sys 0.34 0.008 0.38 0.01 | 6.86 0.09 0.48
3 1.0025 3.29 0.35 0.007 0.36 0:00" | — (Gea 0.10 0.46
na 1.0025 Slo 0.37 ao —-— a 6.66 0.10 0.45
11 1.0032 2.84 — —- — — 6.33 0.11 0.43
12 1.0052 2.74 —- — — —— 5.43 0.59 0.43
18 1.0101 2.64 -a a —-- _——— 3.70 213 0.38
60 (a) | 1.0189 3.70 0. —— — —— — 4.72 0.34
60 (b) | 1.0235 BIothCh 0.35 — oe - — 6.03 0.37
60 (c) | 1.0212 3.70 0. —— — a ——- 4.97 0.34

EXPERIMENT 28.—SaME AS 25, Excepr THAT 0.61 PER cT. OF
Mavic Acip was ADDED.

Age Reduc- | Aleohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen.) ing | Sucrose. by | acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed
Mths. Perch Perera bere Per ct. | Perct. | Perct. | Perct. | Per ct.
== 1.0664 16.57 0.35 | 0.017 12.34 | 0.44 0.41 0.02 1.02
To) £0033; | 2.76 | — —— 0.90 0.07 —_ | 0.20 0.63
3 | 1.0028 | 2.12 —— == 0.38 0.00 = 1.47 0.39
7 | 1.0096 | 1.95 0.27 — ——— —— — 3.83 0.31
wi) T0102 Weris — _-— — — ——— 3.78 0.29
12 | 1.0104 1.68 —- — — —- —_—_ 3.87 0.28
18 | 1.0114 1.86 ———— — — ——— —— 4.38 0.30
60 | 1.0173 2.53 0227: — — —- — 6.59 0.21

EXPERIMENT 29.—JuICE PRESSED FROM MIxEeD FALL AND WINTER
APPLES OcTOBER 24, 1900; SrorepD IN 10-GALLON CASK IN CELLAR.

Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing. | Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. | sugars. weight. | acetic. malic,
lyzed. |
Mths. Persct || Per ct. |, Per. ct. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh.| 1.0615 13.97 | 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
1; 1.0040 2.08 ———— 0.009 0.40 0.02 4.89 0.12 0.45
2 | 1.0019 1.81 —_— 0.004 0.23 0.02 4.80 0.31 0.42
3 | 1.0015 1.89 — 0.003 0.16 0.00 4.80 Ops 0.39
9 | 1.0011 L.51 ———— — — — 5.02 0.59 0.07
48 | 1.0194 1.98 0.47 — —-— —- — 6.74 0.01

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 183

EXPERIMENT 30.—DUPLICATE OF 29.

|
Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose.| by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
lyze
Mths. Per eat. | Per ct Per ct. Per ct Per ct ‘Per et. ||| Peniet. Per ct
Tresh | 1.0615 13.97 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
1 | 1.0040 2.08 — 0.009 0.40 0.02 4.89 0.12 0.45
2 | 1.0020 1.82 — 0.005 0.39 0.02 4.76 0.30 0.41
3 | 1.0015 1.85 —- 0.003 0.16 4.78 0.26 0.40
9 | 1.0011 L358 —-— — = —— | 5.02 0.59 0.07
48 | 1.0175 2.08 0.47 —— — —— —- 6.42 0.01

EXPERIMENT 31.—SaME as 29, Excepr Srorep IN Five-Pint Bor-
TLES AT A TEMPERATURE OF 55° F.

|

Age Reduc- Aleohol | Volatile | Fixed

when | Specific! Solids. | Ash. | Nitrogen.! ing Sucrose. by | acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. | | sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed | | |
Mths. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0615 | 13.97 | 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
2 0.9995 eae | 0.020 0.27 0.01 5.70 0.25 0.43
3 1.0061 1.79 === 0.004 a 0.00 15 i/ 2.16 0.34
ki 1.0183 USF ile|\ === 0.005 =a — — 5.96 0.32
9 1.0177 ries Eid — — —- — == 6.21 0.30
48 (a) | 1.0007 1.43 0.30 — == — —— 0.16 0.00
48 (b) | 1.0005 0.80 | 0.27 —_—— —— —- — 0.16 0.00

EXPERIMENT 32.—SaAME AS 31 Excerpt Kept at A TEMPERATURE OF

60° F.

Age : ; Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.

lyzed. .

Mths. Perch. . | Perici. || Per ct iPerichemarieerictan le erich- ale emer: Per ct
Fresh | 1.0615 13.97 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
2 1.0043 1.43 — 0.003 0.39 0.00 3.14 2.28 0.02
3 1.0107 1.30 —— 0.003 _— — 1.20 4.16 0.01
7 1.0152 1:29 ———— 0.003 = == 5.30 0.01
9 1.0142 1.30 — — — —— —- 5.08 0.01

48 (a) | 1.0063 IAS 0.27 —— — —— — 0.08 0.00

48 (b) | 1.0060 1222 0.27 —— —- _— — 0.16 0.00

EXPERIMENT 33.

Same As 31 anv 32, Excerpt Kept at a TEM-
PERATURE OF 65° F.

Age Reduc- Alcohol Volatile | Fixed

when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. sugars. weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0615 13.97 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
2 1.0052 1.24 ——- 0.003 0.39 0.00 3.14 2.40 0.03
3 1.0121 1.25 ——— 0.003 — —— 1.20 4.64 0.01
7 1.0135 1.34 ae 0.003 aa - —— 4.34 0.01
1.0126 1.19 | ——{ —— —— | -—| ——| 4.06 0.01
48 (a) | 1.0043 1.16 0:28 —— a -—— —_— 0.06 0.00
48 (b) | 1.0046 1.16 0.29 —- —- — —_ | 0.10 0.00

184 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

[I.XPERIMENT 34.—SAMB AS 31-83, Except Kept at A TEMPERATURE

or 70° F.
Age Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen.| ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity. | sugars. weight. | acetic. | malic.
lyzed. |
Mths. Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0615 13.97 0.27 0.029 9.64 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.54
1.0032 1.28 — 0.004 0.39 0.00 3.63 1.74 0.01
3 1.0105 1.32 | —— 0.004 a — 25 3.83 0.01
Ff 1.0127 1.27 — 0.004 — —_— — Sale 0.01
9 1.0116 121 — —- — —- — Sioa! 0.01
48 (a) | 1.0030 0.87 | 0.26 a a ee oa 0.00 0.00
48 (b) | 1.0030 Os7Z2e) (0226 - —_—— — — 0.00 0.00

EXPERIMENT 35.—SAmME As 31-34, Excepr Krepr at a TEMPERA-
TURE OF 75° F.

Age Reduc- Aleohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. ing. | Sucrose. y acid as | acid as
ana- | gravity | sugars. | weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed.| |
ne | aL | ace ae aa ae | |

Mths. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct Perici. 4) Pericts | Penick Per ct.
Fresh | 1.0615 PS Ose |e (Oz eal 0.029 9.64 oLOL 0.00 0.02 | 0.54
2 1.0071 | Vo22 — 0.005 0.34 0.00 2.61 2.95 0.01
3 1.0141 1.29 | ———- | 0.004 —_— —— 0.59 5.20 0.01
7 1.0122 1.21 —— | 0.004 —- — — 3.65 0.01
9 1.0107 esa —— —- — —- 2.86 0.01
48 (a) | 1.0040 0.86 | 0.26 — — — — 0.00 0.00
48 (b) | 1.0035 0.67 | 0.28 od — -_— — | alkaline 0.00

EXPERIMENT 36.—SAmME As 31-35, Excepr Kepr av a TEMPERA-
TURE OF 80° F.

|
Age | Reduc- Alcohol | Volatile | Fixed
when | Specific | Solids. Ash. | Nitrogen. | ing Sucrose. by acid as | acid_as
ana- | gravity. | sugars. | weight. | acetic. malic.
lyzed. | | |
Mths. Rerict. || er’ct. |) (Perict. || eract. | Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. Perct-
Fresh | 1.0615 13.97 | 0.27 0.029 | 9.64 | 3.01 | 0.00 0.02 0.54
2 1.0012 W225} 0.005 | 0.32 0.00 | 5.27 0.90 0.01
3 1.0118 | 1.25 — 0.002 | — 0.20 3.64 0.01
7 1.0093 eso 0.002 me ———s 1.60 0.01
9 1.0080 | 1.29 ee | SY EN 5 ris 0.01
48 (a) | 1.0039 | 0.86 | 0.25 | —_ | —_ | — | al 0.00 0.00
48 (b) | 1.0039 | 0.62 0.26 Sahl es al oe se | ee 0.00
| |

——|_—__—

moO TF

Department of Entomology.

P. J. Parrorr, Entomologist.
Harouvp EK. Hopvexiss, Assistant.

F. A. Srrrine, Special Agent.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. The lime-sulphur-soda wash for orchard treatment.

II. Fall spraying with sulphur washes.

REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTO-
MOLOGY.

THE LIME-SULPHUR-SODA WASH FOR ORCHARD
PRE AC MEENT*

P. J. Parrott, 8S. A. Beacu anp H. O. WoopworrTH.

SUMMARY.
This bulletin gives the results of the first year’s experiments
to determine to what extent the lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash

may be used in place of the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures for
~ orchard treatment, and the value of this wash for the control of
the San José scale.

The results are as follows:

Applications of the wash for the treatment of the scale gave-
somewhat variable results, which indicate that the various pre-
parations were not always equally destructive to the scale. Some
treatments gave satisfactory results, which show that an efficient
spray may be prepared in the manner described. For this reason
and because this method of preparing a sulphur wash is especially
adapted to use by smaller orchardists, further experiments are to
be made to test the wash and to devise methods by which all
preparations may be made equally efficient.

In the treatment of apple trees the wash proved very efficient
in preventing injuries by early spring leaf-eating caterpillars,
as the bud moth and case bearer (7’metocera and Coleophora sp.).
An examination of samples of foliage shows that the average
percentage of leaves from treated trees having caterpillar injuries
is 13.9 per ct. and from untreated trees 71.7 per ct., proving
that upon the sprayed trees there were 57.8 per ct. less worm-
eaten leaves because of the treatment.

* Reprint of Bulletin No, 247.

188 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

Comparative tests of the sulphur wash and the bordeaux-
arsenical mixtures for the control of the codling moth demon-
strated that the latter treatment is more effective. The average
percentage of wormy apples from the trees treated with the
bordeaux-arsenical mixtures is 15.3 per ct., and from the trees
spayed with lime-sulphur-soda wash 386.7 per ct., showing that
there were 21.4 per ct. less wormy apples upon the trees sprayed
with the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures. No data were obtained
upon the effects of applications of sulphur wash upon the
hibernating larve.

Because of the absence of peach leaf curl, apple scab and other —
diseases in the experimental orchards no results were obtained
as to the value of the sulphur wash for these diseases. Future
experiments are necessary to determine the value of this treat-
ment for these and other orchard diseases, and to what extent
it may be employed in place of the usual applications of the
bordeaux-arsenical mixtures.

INTRODUCTION.

One of the significant results of the lime-sulphur-salt experi-
ments, conducted in 1902 by this Station, was that the apples
upon the sprayed trees in the Stevenson* orchard were practi-
cally free from scab while those of the checks were badly affected,
The only satisfactory explanation for the superior condition of
the fruit of the former was that the applications of the sulphur
wash during the dormant season had prevented scab attack. In
other experiments it had been conclusively demonstrated that
Similar treatment had efficiently controlled both scale and peach
leaf curl.

From these results it was clearly apparent that the sulphur
sprays have considerable fungicidal value and therefore have a

greater range of usefulness and were more efficient in the East
than had heretofore been suspected. But to what degree these

sprays can be profitably used in eastern orchards, aside from the
treatment of scale and leaf curl, has not been determined.

In view of this fact that it was considered desirable to under-
take investigations to ascertain to what extent treatment with a
sulphur wash during the dormant season could be depended

*Bulletin 228 of this Station, p. 405.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 189

upon to take the place of the usual applications of bordeaux
mixture and arsenical sprays for scab and other diseases, and
early spring leaf-eating insects. It was also desired by Mr. V.
H. Lowe to continue his investigations with his modification of
the lime-sulphur-salt wash, in which caustic soda was substituted
for the salt in the regular formula and used to prepare the wash,
in place of external heat.

Accordingly experiments were planned jointly by Mr. Lowe
and. Prof. S. A. Beach, to determine to what extent the lime-
sulphur-caustic soda wash could be used in place of the common
sprays in orchard treatment, and its value for the control of the

scale.

"The execution of these plans was entrusted to Messrs. H. O.
Woodworth and O. M. Taylor, who superintended the spraying
of the orchards and made frequent observations upon the results
of the treatment. Mr. V. A. Clark made the final examination of
the yields in the Yorktown orchard and reported his results in
- Table 1. Owing to the death of Mr. Lowe the writing of this
bulletin largely devolved upon Mr. P. J. Parrott, his successor,
who has in charge the entomological work of this investigation.

Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. White & Rice of York-
town, and Mr. Albert Wood and Mr. Geo. Callard of Carlton
Station, in whose orchards these experiments were conducted
and who heartily co6perated in this work.

OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT.
THE PLAN.

The experiment as planned consisted of a series of tests to
determine the comparative merits of (1) one application of the
sulphur wash during dormant season, (2) one application of the
sulphur wash during dormant season supplemented with the
remainder of -the regular line of treatment with the bordeaux-
arsenical mixtures, and (3) the usual applications of the bor-
deaux-arsenical mixtures for the treatment of common orchard
pests. By the aid of abundant checks it was expected, by using
this method of treatment, to obtain data upon the following
points: (1) The value of the sulphur wash for scale and other
insects, and for plant diseases; (2) the comparative values of the
sulphur wash and bordeaux-arsenical mixtures for orchard spray-

190 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

ing; and (3) to what extent one application of the sulphur wash
could be depended upon to take the place of one or more applica-
tions of the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures.

In conducting the field work, blocks of bearing apple, peach,
pear and plum, secured for the experiments, were divided into
four sections, the varieties being representative of all. These
sections were treated as follows: Section No. I, sprayed once
with the lime-sulphur-soda wash; Section No. II, sprayed once
with the sulphur wash before the opening of the buds and twice
after the appearance of the leaves with the bordeaux-arsenical
mixtures; Section No. III, check, no treatment; Section No.
IV, sprayed three times with bordeaux mixture containing an
arsenical poison, once before and twice after the appearance of

the leaves.
LOCATION OF ORCHARDS.

To carry out these plans, codperative experiments were ar-
ranged with a number of the fruit-growers of this State. These
experiments were conducted under the direct supervision of a
member of the Station staff, who directed the spraying operations
and kept records of the details of the work and the results of
the treatment.

The orchards in which the experiments were made are situated
in Westchester county, near Yorktown; in Ontario county, near
Geneva; and in Orleans county, near Carlton Station. The num-
ber of trees treated was 1,440, consisting of 451 large apple, 245
plum, 338 pear, 375 peach, 26 quince and 5 cherry.

These orchards, with the exception of No. 1 at Carlton Sta-
tion (which has been somewhat neglected, especially in the treat-
ment for insects and diseases) have received careful attention,
and have been given the usual sprayings with bordeaux mixture
containing an arsenical poison.

The San José scale was present in all of the orchards, with
the exception of No. 2 at Carlton Station. In the Geneva and
Carlton Station No. 1 orchards the scale was not abundant,
except upon a few trees. None of these have ever been treated
for this pest. The Yorktown orchards have been known to be
infested for a number of years, and have been treated in part
with hydrocyanic acid gas and petroleum. The scale was well
distributed among all the varieties. A goodly number of the

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 191

trees were much incrusted with the scale, and many of the
remaining ones were infested to a lesser degree.

The number and variety of the trees and their conditions with
respect to scale furnished an excellent opportunity to work out
the problems in view. In each experiment with each kind of
fruit, abundant checks were reserved. In selecting these the aim
was that the trees should be representative of the varieties and
of similar condition with respect to scale and pest treatment as
those under experiment.

THE PREPARATION OF THE SPRAYS.

The Bordeaux-Arsenical Miature.

MOMMA SIMND NAC N oe ae atin ae oe ee esl e eae gol a: we ae peers be Ib:
SIVLELS TER) Aisin A See ge ra die hia rece Re Cra ac 31 to 5 Ibs.
AAEM RTE ne are en rien tic areal Saeed Maas ie aie nie ae satel 50. gal.
Le SileiSh ARE STG UR a ere er gaa nrg rar eR Se ao 1% |b.

The bordeaux mixture was prepared by the common method.
In the treatment of apple trees the paris green was used in the
amount stated; but for peach, plum and pear, only one-quarter
of a pound of the poison was used for this quantity of spraying
mixture. The paris green was added to the freshly-prepared bor-
deaux mixture.

The Lime-Sulphur-Caustic Soda Wash.

LEER acs 9 hi ey paneer else acon ao praesent ancien Rie mnie pes Fn weir 30 Ib
“TRL TUES TIE a Seeger Rue erat Prt a Sn PRE See re La eb:
WU IMR Gel so pe es oi sos, oe cuss Shae ene gag « #42 » osesoy ish e wae. s4age 4-6 lb.
ee ett ch she Sea laptaais aicb ajc yA S.<.yss ty Ay 2h ceysenieiy es 50 gal.

The formula used in the experiments was essentially as above,
though slight changes in proportions were made in some cases.

In preparing the wash, the lime was started to slake with six
gallons of water; and while it was slaking, the sulphur, which
had just previously been made into a thin paste with hot water,
was added and thoroughly mixed in with the slaking lime. To
prolong the boiling of the wash, the caustic soda was then added,
with water as needed, and the whole mixture was kept thoroughly
stirred. As soon as the chemical action had ceased, the required
amount of water was added, when the mixture was ready for use.

192 Report of THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

Aside from the heating of the water, the cooking of the wash
was done in a tub or half barrel, and took from ten to twenty
minutes. In some preparations, especially when hot water was
used to start the slaking of the lime, not all of the stated amount
of caustic soda was employed, but six pounds was the maximum.

CONDITIONS.

The work of applying the sulphur wash commenced March 25
and continued till April 29. During the early applications the
weather was bright and spring like, with light winds and occa-
sional showers. Towards the last the weather changed and
became cold and cloudy with frequent rains. Much difficulty
was experienced at this time in spraying the larger trees. Rains
occurred March 28, 30, 31 and April 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15,
and 16. Asa whole, the weather during the time of spraying was
a severe test of the wash.

In applying the wash the trees were sprayed once carefully,
and as soon as the application was dry, another was made, the
spray being directed only upon the parts of the trees that had
escaped the first treatment. Vermorel nozzles with fine apertures
were employed in all of the operations.

The weather for the four weeks immediately following the last
spraying with the sulphur wash was very dry. The precipitation
at Geneva for May was .28 inches as compared with an average
of 2.51 inches for the same months in the four preceding years.

In using the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures applications were
made as follows: (1) As the leaf buds commenced to appear
ereen at the tips; (2) just after the blossom fell; and (3) from
ten to fourteen days after the second treatment. As previously
explained, the first application was always omitted in the treat-
ment of Section II in all orchards. In applying the spray the
trees were sprayed once carefully and did not receive further
treatment except as provided for in the regular order of spray-
ing.

GENERAL RESULTS.

In planning these experiments it was the aim to obtain data
upon the relative values of the sprays employed for the treat-
ment of important insect and fungous pests of the orchard.
Results of these sprays upon pests which are controlled by treat-

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 193

ment during the dormant season were especially desired. Owing
to the location of some of the orchards and the peculiar weather
conditions which prevailed during the growing season the num-
ber of pests upon which an opportunity was given to make satis-
factory tests was disappointingly small. This was especially
‘true of the plant diseases, which were very little destructive this
year. Very satisfactory results were obtained upon the San José
scale, the codling moth, the bud moth and case bearers, espe-
cially the two latter, which are discussed under separate headings.

RESULTS ON SCALE.

The Yorktown orchard.—A careful examination of the orchards
at Yorktown was made from September 21 to 23, to determine
the effects of the sulphur wash upon the scale. The results upon
the apple trees indicate that the numbers of the scale had been
greatly reduced. In comparison with the checks the treatment
had apparently destroyed from 60 to 80 per ct. of the scales.
On a number of the twigs and branches of three trees young
live scales were quite abundant. Upon these trees the wash did
not appear to be so efficient. Their condition indicated that the
different preparations of the wash were not always equally
effective. It was quite apparent in the course of inspection
that the trees that were much incrusted with scale and had con-
siderable rough bark were the least affected by the treatment.
While these trees did not differ from others in an appreciable
degree with respect to the condition of the bark, they were among
the worst infested trees of the orchard. Undoubtedly the dense
layers of scale, together with the rough bark, contributed to
these unfavorable results. The fruit upon the sprayed trees was,
as a rule, very clean, although there were individual trees that
had quite a few specimens of fruit spotted with scale. The
records of five trees show that from yields of 1,200 to 4,000 apples
there were respectively from 12 to 30 infested specimens. The
infestation of the foliage was very slight.

Upon the peach, plum, and pear trees the percentage of scales
killed, while varying with individual trees, averaged higher than
upon the apples in the same vicinity. The fruit and foliage of
the peach and plum trees were unaffected while about three to

13

194 REpoRT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

five per ct. of that on the pear trees was marked with scale.
The wash was most effective upon the moderately infested trees,
where a large proportion of the scales was destroyed. The trees
of these varieties were small and possessed smooth bark; and for
these reasons were undoubtedly better treated.

The Geneva and Carlton Station No. 1 orchards—In these
orchards the best results with the wash were obtained. As indi-
cated before, none of these trees were much infested with scale.
The scales as a rule were few and widely distributed, and were
confined to twigs and small branches in the upper parts of the
trees. In no case were the scales upon the large branches where
protection would be furnished by rough bark. In the Geneva
orchard the scales seemed to be entirely destroyed by the treat-
ment. Frequent examinations were made during the summer
by Mr. Taylor who reports that he was unable to find a living
scale upon any of the treated trees. Quite similar results were
obtained in the Carlton Station No. 1 orchard. It should be
stated that in preparing the wash for this orchard steam was
employed for about ten minutes to heat the water to start the
slaking of the lime, and to dissolve the soda. The most satis-
factory demonstration of the insecticidal value of the wash was
shown by the condition of one apple tree, which was the worst
infested one in the orchard. On October 20 this tree was care-
fully examined. After considerable searching a few live scales
were found on a number of branches. The treatment had cleaned
the branches of most of the scales. The scales that still adhered
were for the most part dead, and upon being scraped with a knife
blade fell to the ground as dry, scurfy matter. Out of 7,784
apples gathered from 8 trees sprayed with the wash there were
only 8 infested specimens.

RESULTS ON CODLING MOTH.

The results upon the comparative values of the sulphur wash
and the bordeaux-arsenical mixture upon this insect were obtained
in the Yorktown and Carlton Station orchards. Owing to the
differences in their conditions and past treatment, each orchard
will be considered separately.

Experiments at Yorktown.—This orchard is composed of old
trees, which are of a large size. These have in the past received

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 195

very careful attention with respect to cultivation and spraying.
The leading varieties are Baldwin, Gravenstein, Nonesuch and
Roxbury. For the experiment there were reserved 276 trees
which were treated as follows: 71, Section I, treated with lime-
sulphur-soda wash; 60, Section II, lime-sulphur-soda wash and
bordeaux mixture with arsenical poison; 64, Section III, check;
and 81, Section IV, bordeaux mixture with an arsenical poison.
The treatment was made upon the dates previously given. On
October 12 to 16, the apples from a number of trees were counted
to determine the relative amounts of sound and wormy fruit. As
the Baldwins are greater in numbers and are represented in all
of the treatments, the count was largely confined to this variety.
The records of the yields of eighteen Baldwins are given in the
accompanying table :—

TaBLE No. I.—Y1ieEvpD or Sound, Wormy ANpD DIseAseD APPLES,
Unprr DIrrerENT TREATMENTS, AT YORKTOWN.

YreLp oF Picked APPLEs. YIELD OF WINDFALLS,

NUMBER OF SECTION : : : : : 5

AND TREE. alls 2 q 2 2
n . kK n * (2)
. al al ca} aie : p> al

S| SSeS) log | Seles [esses Bis lee

a Q 3 a q i Q 3 =

yl SS ES ei oe ince | ea a a ieee

CD et a= oN ae | ncaa estore ey ~ Lio pp Sal see Beech gp |» eae es

No. | No. | No. | No. | No. No. | No. | No.| No.| No.

Sec. I. ; TREE 1/1 ,485] 325) 135) 28)1,973/23.3) 577) 57| 385) 26]1,045'42.3
One application of 2)1,862) 670) 384] 33/2,949/35.7| 830) 63) 415] 21/1,329:36.0
the lime-sulphur- 3/2 ,646) 627) 320; 50/3,643/26.0) 400) 29] 261) 14| 704/41.2
soda wash. 4/1 ,663] 272] 241} 96|2,272/22.6|1,410} 93) 330) 40/1,873'22.6

5; 510| 57] 57! 45| 669/17.0|/ 289] 31] 89] 17| 426/298.2
Average per ct. wormy |24.9| Average per ct. wormy {34.1

Sec. II. TREE 1| 723 O| 64 OP aSaeselilp othS 33/118} 2| 171) 9.4
One application of 2|3,598] 25) 151) 20/3,794| 4.6) 423) 30) 190) 17) 660/33.3
sulphur wash and 3/2,667| 19) 130) 88'2,904) 5.1| 740; 12) 56) 21) 829] 8.2
two of bordeaux- 4/1,114; 10) 94] 26)1,244) 8.4) 175 9| 77) 30) 291/29.6
arsenical mixture. 5/3 ,112| 114] 206] 87/8,519) 9.1/1,062| 28] 190) 37/1,318/16.6

Average per ct. wormy | 7.1| Average per ct. wormy |19.4

Sec. III. TREE 1{1,500| 136] 108] 36]1,780)13.7
Check, no _ treat- 2| 266) 38) 32 6| 342)20.5
ment. Si erste 2 Bis 5} 450/13.1

Average per ct. wormy |15.8

Src. IV. TREE 1/1,939 A| 28 7(1,978) 1.6}
Three applications 2| 569 0 Uf Ai) 580} 1.2
of bordeaux- 3} 200 0 4 2} 206] 1.9}
arsenical 4\2,400} 12) 14} 14/2,440) 1.1
mixture, 5/1 ,950 6} 19] 19/1,994) 1.3)

Average per ct. wormy 1.4

In examining this table it will be seen that the average per-
centage of wormy apples (picked) from Section I is 24.9; Section

196 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

II, 7.1; Section III, 15.8; and from Section IV, 1.4. As the
orchard has in the past been carefully sprayed the proportion of
wormy fruit is low, as would be expected. The sound fruit
from trees treated with bordeaux-arsenical mixture averaged 98.6
per ct. as compared with 75.1 per ct. of sound fruit from trees
treated with the sulphur wash. Thus there was, upon the trees
treated with the bordeaux-arsenical mixture, 23.5 per ct. less
wormy apples than upon the trees sprayed with the sulphur
wash. The percentage of wormy apples from trees sprayed with
the sulphur wash is higher than that of the ehecks. This dif-
ference is undoubtedly due to the variation of individual trees
in the amount of infestation, irrespective of the treatment; for
it is clearly evident from the results obtained with the sulphur
wash in this and other orchards that this treatment gives no pro-
tection to the fruit from the codling moth. The same explana-
tion may be given for the results obtained from the trees in Sec-
tion II, which were treated once with the sulphur wash and
twice with the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures, in comparison with
Section III, treated entirely with the bordeaux-arsenical mix-
tures. The difference in the results of these two sections seems
to be due to the variation of individual trees in the amount of
the infestation of the fruit rather than to differences in treat-
ment.

The superior results from the bordeaux-arsenical mixture are
not surprising, when one considers the habits of the codling
moth. If the infestation had been greater, more marked con-
trasts in the results of the two sprays would have been expected.
It seems to be clearly indicated by the experiments that an
arsenical spray must be depended upon for the control of the
codling moth. The effects of applications of a sulphur wash upon
the hibernating larve were not determined.

Experiments at Carlton Station.—This orchard consists almost
entirely of the variety Baldwin. The trees are about thirty years
of age, and have been somewhat neglected with respect to treat-
ment with spraying mixtures. In this experiment 165 trees were
used. With the exception of five trees reserved for checks, this
number was divided evenly for treatment as outlined in the
preceding experiment. On October 20-22 a count was made to
determine the effects of the treatments upon the codling moth.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 197

The examination was confined entirely to the fruit of Section
I, treated with the lime-sulphur-soda wash, and Section IV, treated
with the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures. The results of the examina-
tion are given in the following table:

TaBLE No. I1.—YieLp or SounD, WorMyY AND DISEASED APPLES,
UNvbeErR DIFFERENT TREATMENTS, AT CARLTON STATION, ORCHARD 1.

YIELD or PicKED APPLES. YreLp oF WINDFALLS.
|
NUMBER OF SECTION ene loge chad | S
AND TREE. o| "a E Oo; “a 5
BA} pal s be Sl pel s
=f 3 S) go Ms Ws 2 El og Z° Be 2 : Fe
a a a Q 3 I u 2 Q a 2
SS Vom eet pot ealte tec. | ae | ange
a |e |B | a] ee |e pe les Nese tea el Sy lf ae
No. |No.|No.|No.| No. |_| No. | No. | No. | No.| No.

Sec. I. Tree 1|- 286; 140} 11 0| 437/34.6 39) 112 5) O| 154/74.7
One application of 2 40} 28) 5 0 73\45.2 13} 18 0) 0 31/58 .1
the lime sulphur 3] 198) 262} 42 0; 502/60.6) 81) 136 8| 0] 225/64.0
soda wash. 4 76| 93; O}| O} 169/55.0) 36) 182) 13] O| 231/84.4

Average per ct. wormy 48.8) Average per ct. wormy (70.3
5 10| 68 9 0) 87|88.5 78| 142] 13] O| 233/66.5
6| 862! 312) 42 0}1 ,216/29.1 45} 96] 20 O| 161/72.1
7| 312) 349) 5 0} 666/53 .2 59) 362) 85| 0} 506/88.4
8/1,873| 496} 66' 8|2,443/23.0| 114} 486] 50| 0] 650/82.5

Average per ct. wormy (48.4) Average per ct. wormy |77.3

Sec. IV. TREE 1| 59| 15 4 O| 78|24.4 52| 48 i O| 107)/51.4
Three applications 2\' 412) 161) 23 0} 596/30.9 41) 112) 18 O| 171/76.0
of the bordeaux- 3! 895) 417) 51 2/1 ,365/34.3] 119] 296] 15 0| 430|72.3
arsenical mixture. 4/1,780| 452) 18 0,2,250|20.9| 205) 305| 42) 1} 553/62.8

5| 268) 148 3| 0] 419/36.0] 129] 116] 24| 0| 269/52.1

Average per ct. wormy 2 3\/Average per ct. wormy 62.9

The wormy apples (picked) from Section I averaged 48.6 per ct.
and from Section IV, 29.3 per ct. The sound fruit from trees
treated with the bordeaux-arsenical spray is 70.7 per ct. and from
trees sprayed with the sulphur wash 51.4 per ct. Thus there was
upon the trees sprayed with the bordeaux-arsenical mixture 19.3
per ct. less wormy apples than upon the trees sprayed with the
sulphur wash. The results of this experiment agree very closely
with those obtained in the Yorktown orchard, and further em-
phasize the superiority of the bordeaux-arsenical mixture for
this pest.

RESULTS ON EARLY LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS.

An examination of the Carlton Station (No. 1) orchard on
May 5, showed that there was a marked contrast in the appear-
ance of the foliage of the checks and of the trees treated with the
Sulphur wash. The leaves of the treated trees appeared to be

198 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

more healthy and abundant. Upon close inspection it was found
that the principal cause of this difference was that the early
spring leaf-eating caterpillars had been much more destructive to
the foliage of the check trees.

In the past this orchard had been somewhat neglected, and
these insects seemed to have had full sway as indicated by their
work upon the untreated trees. These results were entirely
unexpected, and were a great surprise to the observers. To
those on the ground there was forced the conclusion that the
treatment with the sulphur wash had greatly reduced the num-
bers of these insects. To cbtain data upon the condition of the
foliage at that time Mr. Taylor collected samples of leaves which
were representative of the sprayed and unsprayed trees, and
after a careful examination reported the results given in the
following table:

Taste No. IIJ.—A ReEcorpD oF THE CONDITIONS OF FOLIAGE UPON
SPRAYED AND UNSPRAYED TREES.

————s

Larvee of
TREATMENT Leaves | Teaves | LVS | Leaves | bud Case
= ‘ Leaves. not oe not pas aes bearers
OF TREES. iajured. injured. ete injured. matey on“leagee
No. No. No. Per ct. | Per ct. No. No.
Spravedernert os rere 96 84 12 refered 12D 0 6
Gheckigtaees nrc ones 120 | 31 89 25.8 74.2 8 35

On June 9, Prof. Beach and Mr. Taylor again visited the
orchards to make further observations. The condition of the
trees was much the same except that the foliage of the unsprayed
trees did not appear to be so completely worm-eaten as before,
because of the appearance of new leaves which at this time were
not much affected by the insects. The uninjured leaves were
as a rule of recent appearance. Representative clusters of leaves
and fruits were gathered from treated and untreated trees and
examined as before. The results of the examination are given
in the accompanying tables:

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

199

TaBLe No. 1V.—A ReEcorRD OF THE, CONDITIONS OF THE FOLIAGE OF
SPRAYED! AND UNSPRAYED? TREES.

Tree Sprayep Wire Lime-SuteHur-SALT WASH.

Leaves in Leaves Leaves
cluster. free. eaten.
No. No. No.

9 7 2

9 9 0

9 9 0

10 10 0

6 6 0

8 8 .0

i 7 0

9 9 0

7 uf 0

9 8 1

6 5 1

6 6 0

9 7 2

6 6 0

5 5 0

iy 5 0

ub 5 2

i i 0

6 6 0

5 2 3

7 6 1

5 4 1

11 8 3
es

Average percentage

eaten.

of leav

Trep Nor SPRAYED.

Proportion |Leaves in|} Leaves | Leaves
eaten. cluster. free. eaten.
Per ct. No. No. No.

22:2 3 0 3
0.0 4 2 2
0.0 5 0 5
0.0 5 3 2
0.0 3 0 3
0.0 6 3 3
0.0 4 4 0
0.0 5 4 1
0.0 6 6 0

Wh aL 7 6 1

16.7 4 1 3
0.1 4 2 2

22.2 6 2 4
0.0 4 1 3
0.0 3 0 3
0.0 6 2 4

28 6 « 1 6
0.0 @ 6 1
0.0 8 1 7

60.0 55 1 4

14.3 8 5 3

20.0 11 1 10

27.3 7 2 5

Average percentage of leaves
9.7 eaten.

Proportion
eaten.

or
o
ROMNOUWNNOONOOWOOCOCOCoCSCoOoO

on
3
@

TaBLeE No. V.m—A ReEcorD OF THE CONDITIONS OF THE FOLIAGE .OF
SprayEep? AND UNSPRAYED* TREES.

TREE SprRAYED Wire Limre-SutpHuUR-Sopa WASH.

Leaves in
cluster.

No.

=
NOOB SINS CIN OONTNI CO CONIDO MOA AN

Leaves Leaves Proportion
free. eaten. eaten.
No. No Per ct.

1
6
6
9
6
8
of
4
7
6
5
2
4
4
7
i
a
4
5
3
6

Average percentage

eaten

FRNOSCCOWHWONEHROOCOOOOn

of leav

J
© ROSSSSSoNna
PB WOSSSSCOOWORWNOCOOOOOOO

1Tree 4, Section I.

2 Tree 3, Section IV.

TREE -NOT SPRAYED.

Leaves in
cluster.

No.

MINTO BT 00 OD 00S NICO MAI IW AIO 00

eaten

Leaves | Leaves | Proportion
free. eaten. eaten.
No. No. Per ct.

RONSHFOWORrWROOWRONOCOHN

6
5
7
3
5
6
6
3
)
7
3
5
8
6
5
7
3
9
6
7
3

Average percentage of leaves

ie)
. . . . . . . . . CS
NY DOOSCSCONSOOMWOSONOKROOWO

3 Tree 6, Section I.

4 Tree 2, Section IV.

200 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

TaBLeE No. VI.—A Record or THE CONDITIONS OF THE FRUIT OF
SPRAYED! AND UNSPRAYED? TREES.

TREE Sprayep WirH Lime-SuLtpHuR-Sopa WASH. TREE NOT SPRAYED.
Fruits in Fruits Fruits Proportion | Fruits in | Fruits Fruits | Proportion
cluster. free. eaten. eaten. cluster. free. eaten. eaten.
No. No. No. Per ct. No. No. No. Per ct.
1 1 0 0.0 2 0 2 100.0
2 2 0 0.0 2 2 0 0.0
4 4 0 0.0 B 2 0 0.0
1 1 0 0.0 3 0 3 100.0
1 1 0 0.0 1 0 1 100.0
3 3 0 0.0 1. 1 0 0.0
2 2 0 | 0.0 4 3 1 25.0
4 4 0 | 0.0 1 1 0 0.0
3 0 3 100.0 4 if 3 75.0
3 3 0 0.0 1 0 1 100.0
1 1 0 0.0 2 il 1 50.0
Average per ct. of fruit eaten 9. Average per ct. of fruit eaten 50.

1 Tree 4, Section I. 2? Tree 3, Section III.

The total number of leaves examined is 802, of which 406 were
from trees treated with the sulphur wash and 396 from untreated
trees. The number of fruits examined is 48, of which 25 were
taken from sprayed and 23 from unsprayed trees. The worm-
injured leaves from the sprayed trees averaged 13.9 per ct. and
from the unsprayed trees 71.7 per ct. The worm-injured fruit
from the sprayed trees averaged 9 per ct. and from unsprayed
trees 50 per ct. Thus of the number examined there was 57.8
per ct. less worm-eaten leaves and 41 per ct. less worm-eaten
apples from the sprayed lot than from the unsprayed. Judging
from the appearance of the foliage at the time of the examinations
it is believed that these figures closely represent the conditions
of the leaves of the sprayed and unsprayed trees.

In the Carlton Station No. 2, orchard which belongs to Mr.
Albert Wood, 74 apple trees, consisting of the varieties Twenty-
Ounce and Roxbury Russet, were used for the experiment. These
trees were old and of a very large size. During the past ten
years they have been thoroughly sprayed for insects and fungous
pests. Because of this careful treatment, the case-bearer and bud-
moth were not numerous enough to be injurious. For this reason
no results were obtained upon the value of the sulphur wash for
these pests. There were no evidences of the work of the codling
moth upon any of the trees. Because of this no count was made

Ce

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 201

of the fruit. The weather conditions prevailing during the grow-
ing season were very unfavorable for the apple scab. For this
reason there was no evidence of this disease in the orchard, and
consequently no opportunity was given to determine the com-
parative values of the sulphur wash and the bordeaux mixture
for the treatment of this trouble.

RESULTS ON PLANT DISEASES.

The season was remarkable for the absence of important fruit
diseases. During the early part of the growing season there was
a protracted drouth, which was succeeded on June 7 by cold, wet
weather. These conditions were unfavorable for the develop-
ment of orchard diseases. For this reason the experiments under-
taken to determine the comparative merits of the sulphur wash
and bordeaux mixture as fungicides gave no satisfactory results.
Apple scab, which was so destructive the year before, was not
sufficiently abundant to give conclusive evidence upon the merits
of the different sprays. Likewise the work undertaken for the
peach leaf curl, sooty blotch, brown rot, etc., gave inconclusive
results. It is intended to continue these experiments until .con-
clusive results are obtained.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS.

The experiments recorded in this bulletin represent the first
season’s work to determine to what extent the lime-sulphur-caus-
tic soda wash may be used in the place of the usual applications
of the bordeaux-arsenical mixture for orchard treatment and its
value for scale control. It will be remembered that extensive
tests conducted by this Station in 1902 demonstrated that the
lime-sulphur-salt wash was a safe and reliable remedy for the
seale. Likewise experiments conducted in this and other states
have shown that this wash may to some degree prevent apple
scab, pear psylla, and peach and pear mites. But its value for
these latter and other important orchard pests has not been suffi-
ciently determined to warrant its recommendation in place of
recognized remedies.

In view of the fact that the scale is becoming more widely dis-
tributed, and sulphur sprays are being more generally used, there
is need of more data as regards to the efficiency of sulphur

202 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

washes for other pests than the scale and its range as a combined
insecticide and fungicide. It was for this purpose that the pres-
ent experiment was planned. In this year’s work considerable
progress has been made in the knowledge of the limits of the
profitable use of sulphur sprays in the East. Because of the
demand for information upon the use of lime-sulphur soda wash,
the present bulletin, which contains the important results of the
investigation and directions for the preparation of sulphur washes
has been published as a preliminary report of the progress of the
work to date.

The conclusions drawn from the year’s work are as follows :—

The experiments with the lime-sulphur-caustic soda wah indi-
cate that the wash prepared in this manner may not give as
uniform results for scale treatment as the common lime-sulphur-
salt wash, prepared by external heat. The difficulty of preparing
an unvarying wash by this method seems to be due to variations
in the quality of lime and caustic soda, and the quantity of water
employed in the slaking of the lime. As some applications have
proven very efficient and as this method of preparing a sulphur
spray is a convenient one for small orchardists, further experi-
ments are to be carried on to test this wash and to devise methods
by which all preparations of it may be uniformly destructive
to the scale.

One application of the lime-sulphur-soda wash to apple trees
during the dormant season greatly reduced injuries by early
spring leaf-eating caterpillars (T’metocera and Coleophora sp.).
Upon the sprayed trees 13.9 per ct. of the leaves and 9 per ct. of
the apples were worm-injured; while upon the unsprayed trees
71.7 per ct. of the leaves and 50.0 per ct. of the fruits were worm-
injured.

In the comparative tests with one application of the sulphur

rash during dormant season and the usual treatment with the
bordeaux-arsenical mixtures for the control of the codling moth
it was shown that the latter treatment was much more effective.
The average percentage of wormy apples from trees sprayed with
the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures is 15.3 and from trees sprayed
with the lime-sulphur-soda wash 36.7. The results indicate that
the sulphur wash has no effect in preventing injuries to the fruit

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 203

by this pest. The effects of the wash upon the hibernating larvee
were not determined.

Owing to the absence of apple scab in the experimental
orchards no opportunity was given to determine the value of

the sulphur wash for this disease. As it is desirable to obtain
more data of the value of this treatment for this disease the

experiment is to be continued until conclusive results are ob-
tained. For the same reason as for the scab the results of the
sulphur wash upon other plant diseases were inconclusive. Aside
from peach leaf curl, the value of surphur sprays for orchard
plant diseases remains undetermined and requires further in-
vestigation.

To what extent it is advisable to use a sulphur spray in place
of the bordeaux-arsenical mixtures remains undetermined. Be-
fore any satisfactory conclusion can be drawn upon the desira-
bility of a change of sprays in the first spring treatment of the
apple, cherry, pear and plum, data are needed upon the value of
the sulphur wash for apple scab, fruit rot and pear scab.

In case of the peach one application of the sulphur wash dur-
ing dormant season may be used in place of the usual treat-
ment with bordeaux mixture for the control of scale and leaf
curl.

THE LIME-SULPHUR-SALT WASH.

The formula and directions for preparing the lime-sulphur-

salt wash are as follows:

FORMULA.

ROSIE NIE ts Ri Eden pr lags qbys chee « ysysid'sm craytia ocheeys 15 pounds.
UML OLAS ACs ASU 0) 0 ee 6 ee 15 pounds.
SM ttt ira d avait tod cata aicig aereriyns bere space 15 pounds.
mee Pact oo Soe leper gts hans Mays cgay wey slok ©. <poreyd oy 50 gallons.

Place the lime in a kettle, or in a vat if steam is used, and
slake it with hot water so that it forms an even white paste.
Now add enough water to reduce the lime paste to a thin white-
wash. The sulphur and salt are then added and should be
thoroughly stirred in. If the mixture is not already boiling, bring
it to this point and allow it to boil for one hour. If the wash is
prepared in an iron kettle it will be necessary to add a bucket of
water now and then to replace that lost in the boiling process, and

904 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

to stir the mixture frequently to prevent the burning and caking
of the materials upon the sides of the vessel. After one hour’s
boiling, enough hot water should be added to make the required
amount of mixture, or if cold water is used the proper propor-
tion should be added and the wash again brought to the boiling
point. The wash is now ready for use. It should then be emptied
into a spraying barrel, being strained through common wire
screening, and if possible, applied while hot to the trees: Applica-
tions should be made during dormant season.

The salt may be omitted. Experiments conducted this past
summer indicate that washes prepared without the salt have given
as satisfactory results as preparations containing it. Some think
that it makes the wash more adhesive, and others believe that
preparations containing it are more likely to injure the buds.
These are points that are not satisfactorily determined. If prepa-
rations without it are equally efficient there seems no necessity
for using the salt. Some orchardists add the dry sulphur and
salt before the slaking of the lime or sift it in dry, or add
it as a paste during the slaking process. The mixture made
by either of these methods seems to give satisfactory results,
but it is believed that prepared as directed above there is less
coarse sediment. Recent experiments indicate that one-half hour’s
boiling is sufficient but till more extensive tests have been made
the full amount of time is advised. The mixture should be
boiled till it is of a brick red color, and when allowed to settle
appears as a brownish or yellowish-green liquid.

Use good fresh stone lime, which when slaked forms an even
paste free from grit and dirt. The Ohio white lump lime makes
a first class wash, and some grades of local lump lime have been
found satisfactory. Flowers of sulphur, and light and heavy
flour of sulphur may be used. The stock salt is the grade used.

THE LIME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC SODA WASH.

FORMULA.

Taimip lime)! 0. tached as Sei ae ke ce ee eee 30 pounds.
Miowers.of silphurs!: 376.400 LAs0 cok ek Seles ee 15 pounds.
Commiertialicaustic sodaisit 5 {Lire ale Pek ei. oe 4-6 pounds.

Waterysi bp 3s1)i iit ned ch 260) ERUL OREO Oo ameter eee 50 gallons.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 205

Place the full quantity of lime in the kettle or barrel, or what-
ever the receptacle may be, and start it to slake with water, using
enough to prevent the lime from being air-slaked, and not enough
to drown it. As soon as the boiling action commences, add the
sulphur, which has just previously been made into a paste with
water. Stir this in thoroughly and pour in water in small quan-
tities, to keep the mixture in the form of a rather thin paste.
After the slaking of the lime, then add the caustic soda, in lots
of about two pounds, at short intervals, and stir till the soda is
dissolved. As soon as the chemical action has ceased, dilute the
mixture with cold water to make the required amount. The
time of cooking will be shortened by using warm water in slaking
the lime, and in making the sulphur into a paste. This wash is
advised for experimental purposes, or when it is not possible to
use the sulphur wash prepared by external heat.

Use the same grades of lime and sulphur, flowers of sulphur
preferably, as for the lime-sulphur-salt wash. For extensive
spraying, purchase from wholesale druggists the commercial caus-
‘tic soda, put up in fifty pound cans. Upon exposure to the air,
the caustic soda absorbs moisture and greatly increases in weight.
Odd amounts of the soda may be kept dry in covered Mason jars.
To prepare small quantities of the wash one may use any of the
common soda lye brands, as sold by grocers.

206 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

FALL SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES.*

P. J. Parrorr anp F. A. SIrRIne.

SUMMARY.

This bulletin contains the details of the first year’s experi-
ment by this Station to determine the effects of fall applications
of various sulphur washes upon fruit and leaf buds, and the
comparative values of these sprays for San José scale treatment.
The tests were made upon standard varieties of fruits in orchards
located at Queens and Geneva. The important results are as
follows:

In Orchard I, which was free of scale, the applications caused
a diminution in the amount of bloom and foliage of peaches and
plums, which varied according to the spray employed, the lime-
sulphur wash proving the least destructive. With the advance
of the summer there was a marked increase in the quantity of
new growth and foliage upon these trees. The unsprayed peaches
produced normal yields of blossoms and leaves. The maturing
of the fruit was accompanied by a decline in the condition of
these unsprayed trees and many of them failed to survive the
summer. The unsprayed plums produced a small crop of fruit
and made an abundant new growth. With the exception of the
fruit yields there was ultimately very little difference in the
appearances of the sprayed and unsprayed plums.

In Orchard II, which was infested with scale, the plums lost
from 10 to 50 per ct. of their blossoms and had slight injuries to
the leaf buds upon the lower branches. Morello cherries suffered a
loss of 5 per ct. of the blossoms. Apples and pears were affected in
the same degree. Crabs bore a full crop of fruit and foliage.
Trees much infested with the scale, especially the plums, were
usually severely injured or killed by the winter.

In Orchard III, which was infested with scale, there was no
apparent reduction in the blossoms and leaves upon the moder-

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 254.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 207

ately incrusted trees by any of the sprays, and subsequent growth
and crop yields were in every respect equal to the checks. Trees
much weakened by scale sustained the usual injuries consequent
to a destructive winter.

The lime-sulphur wash, the lime-sulphur-salt wash and the
lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash were equally effective as insecti-
cides. Applications of these sprays controlled the scale, and with
some slight exceptions insured the production of clean, market-
able fruit.

INTRODUCTION.

With the complete infestation of large orchards, much trouble
is usually experienced by fruit growers, especially when the
sulphur washes are used, in spraying all of the trees satisfactorily
during the dormant season in the spring. To facilitate treatment
it has been frequently suggested in certain quarters that fall
spraying be employed for a portion of the trees. While this has
been seriously considered, orchardists have been deterred from
this practice because little was known as to the results upon
fruit trees and scale likely to attend such treatment.

As the exact effects of sulphur sprays applied at this season
upon fruit and leaf buds and upon the scale had not been deter-
mined, the writer, in the fall of 1902, conducted a preliminary
experiment with two of these washes for the treatment of peaches.
In this work* it was shown that the applications of the lime-
sulphur-salt wash and the lime-sulphur-copper sulphate wash were
not detrimental to Elberta and Crosby peaches of Burbank and
Lombard plums; and in the destruction of the scale compared
favorably with early spring treatments. As it was desirable to as-
certain if these results would hold good upon these and other varie-
ties of fruit under different winter conditions before drawing any
conclusions upon the use of these sulphur sprays for fall treat-
ment the experiment was repeated in 1903 along essentially the
same lines, but with some changes that were suggested by the
previous year’s experience.

In addition to this problem, a test was also made of several
sulphur washes to ascertain their comparative insecticidal quali-
ties. Since its introduction in the East a number of modifica-
tions of the lime-sulphur-salt wash have been proposed, which,

*Ohio Ag. Exp. Sta. Bul. 144; 37th Ann. Rept. Ohio State Hort. Soc.,"p. 57.

208 Report of THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

while promising, needed more extensive testing to determine their
merits in comparison with recognized formule. The details of
these experiments furnish the basis of this bulletin.

For their uniform courtesy and cordial codperation, acknowl-
edgments are due to Messrs. T. C. Maxwell & Bros., Mr. C. W.
Ward, and Mr. Thos. Maney, who permitted the use of a portion
of their orchards, and contributed in many ways to further the
experiments.

OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
DESCRIPTION OF ORCHARDS.

The orchards in which the experiments were conducted are
situated in Ontario county, near Geneva, and in Queens county,
near Queens. Owing to the differences in their conditions and
past treatment, which have an important bearing upon the
results obtained, each orchard is described separately, as
follows:

Orchard I (Messrs. T. C. Maxwell and Bros., Geneva) .—In this
orchard 25 Fitzgerald peaches and 70 Reine Claude plums were
selected for treatment. The trees are about eight years old, and
have received in every respect very careful attention. Both the
varieties at the time of the application of the washes were thrifty
and entirely free from scale.

Orchard II (Thos. Maney, Geneva).—For the purposes of the
experiment 14 Baldwin and Hubbardston apples, 6 crabs, 33 Bart-
lett pears, 39 Morello cherries and 187 plums consisting prin-
cipally of the varieties Abundance, Burbank, Field, Lombard
and Reine Claude were used. These trees had not been pre-
viously treated for insects or fungi, but have in other respects
been given good care. The apples are eighteen years and the
remaining varieties six years old. The scale was discovered in
the orchards in 1900 and was very abundant on many of the trees,
especially the Burbanks and Reine Claudes which showed more
or less injured twigs and branches as a result of the infestation.

Orchard III (C. W. Ward, Queens).—This orchard consists of
65 apples and 227 peach trees, principally of the varieties Elberta,
Champion, Carman, Greensboro, Hiley and Thurber. The
peaches vary from one to three years of age, and all except 91

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 209

_ were more or less infested with the scale. At the time of the treat-
ment several of the adjoining trees had succumbed and a goodly
number of those selected showed considerable dead wood as a
result of injuries by this pest. The peach orchard has never
been sprayed for insects or diseases. A small portion of the trees
at the time of planting were first fumigated with hydrocyanic
acid gas. The apple trees were variously infested with the scurfy
bark louse and the San José scale.

The number of trees treated in this experiment was 666, con-
sisting of 79 large apples, 35 pears, 257 plums, 39 cherries, 6 crabs
and 252 peaches, which was sufficient to give definite results. In
each orchard checks were reserved, which were as nearly repre-
Sentative as possible of the varieties, and of similar condition
with respect to scale and past treatment as those under experi-
ment.

CONDITIONS.

In the experiment at Queens the washes were applied during
November 8 and November 13. The weather was clear with light
- south winds. The precipitation during the two weeks immedi-
ately following the last application was as follows: November 14,
075 inch; November 17, .805; November 23, 105; November 29,
snow flurries.

At Geneva the applications of the washes were made during
November 16 and November 27. The weather during this period
was usually cloudy with light winds. The temperature varied
in the mornings from 18° to 40°, and in the afternoons from 12°
to 47° Fahr. Light snows fell daily between November 18 and
27. For the month following the last applications there was a
gradual decline in the temperature, with light snows occurring
Ge Weeember o, 6, 1..5,.0, 00. to. 14, 15, 16) 17,18. 19, 2122,
24, 25, 26 and 27.

The trees were sprayed once carefully and upon the following
day a second treatment was made to cover the portions of the
trees, which were not well coated by the first application. The
time for the satisfactory spraying of the orchards was very lim-
ited owing to the retention of the foliage upon the trees till late
in the fall and the early appearance of freezing weather whicb
soon followed a cold wet season.

' 14

210 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

THE WASHES AND THEIR PREPARATION. |
The washes used in this experiment were the lime-sulphur-
salt wash, prepared with and without external heat; the lime-
sulphur wash; and the lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash, prepared
with and without external heat. Their formule and methods of
preparation are as follows:

Bortep LIME-SuLPHUR-SALT WASH.

(Formula TI.)

OTE eit viet ws vie Boo Els mar sangen a pe eu aa ee eeeh ee 15 pounds.
STEM PME a8 fei cdonss s, cid is oss shene ales a a UR eet Reo ere ee 15 pounds.
SH) iE cee ee Re ar entrar rr A re TAL 15 pounds.
WVBR releases is esis cin \ie a) ofS sys, ial sus miley Salata nary Cate 50 gallons.

This was prepared in the usual method by first slaking the
lime to a thin whitewash and then adding the sulphur and the
salt. These ingredients were distributed thoroughly in the white-
wash and the mixture boiled from one to two hours.

SevLr-Bortep LiMe-SuLPHUR-SALT WASH.

(Formula IT.)

E101) US ee en eee ROL PRON ERE NE SEE Tey PR era Po PO Sreccsh 40 pounds.
PPL PONE a tc ters oi Jaye sc ¥) Sas ats ins anh, adie as he eee ee 20 pounds.
PSU ie teen itear shad» ekaich Sfallctey pegcnialte ee eee cps toe alae ee 15 pounds.
WV cs 0% Sarare suc, anit a Rio nicre ose’ saekogs) AUS bce wen 60 gallons.

This wash was cooked without the direct use of external heat.
First, the sulphur was made into a paste with hot water and was
then emptied into a barrel containing 40 pounds of lime, which
was started to slake with 12 gallons of boiling water. During
the slaking process, the barrel was covered to prevent the loss
of heat. Occasionally the wash was stirred to secure a more
uniform distribution of the sulphur in the whitewash. In 20
minutes after the time that the lime first commenced to slake,
enough boiling water was, added to make the required 60 gallons
of mixture; after which the salt was added and stirred until
dissolved. The wash was then strained and applied hot.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 211

Lime-SutpHur WASH.
(Formula ITT.)

LE ae IMAI EN i A nO a SP Os 15 pounds.
PIED EAD, SILL sete e oct stove dws Silene es 15 pounds.
Rieucmreteen, tL A Rae. oS IS. elas ole 50 gallons.

This mixture was made in the same manner as the boiled
lime-sulphur-salt wash, except that the salt was omitted.

Sreir-Bortep Limn-SutpHur-Caustic Sopa WASH.
(Formula IV.)

EME or circ. are tenctre) or oh s.n:3e BER ane Oe aaa eis be er 30 pounds.
SULLA Seat hie sic icici iia aici irae ICICI ICI 15 pounds.
BU GCM SOU lane ca cs tie Fe atc ets Sine Sle cae e wee aise os 6 pounds.
Weve Ste 23) Sh by Sg A le bam Bi Ee ace mair Gl erm ete ata 50 gallons.

In preparing this wash the lime was started to slake with six
gallons of water; and, as soon as the slaking commenced the
sulphur, which had just previously been made into a thin paste
with hot water, was added and thoroughly mixed in with the
slaking lime. To prolong the boiling of the wash, the caustic
soda was then used, with water as needed, and the whole mixture
was kept thoroughly stirred. As soon as the chemical action
had ceased the required amount of water was added, when the
mixture was ready for use. The soda used in the preparation
of this wash is a powdered 74 per ct. caustic soda, sold by
the Penn. Chemical Works, 1322 Washington Avenue, Philadel-
phia, Penn. It sells for four cents a pound and is contained in
50 pound cans.

Bortep Lime-SuLpHuR-Caustic Sopa WASH.
(Formula V.)

[LITE Og ebb ei Sad SESE ae ear aaa en ear 30 pounds.
es TO TUIRIER TS ve ems fou oc tikes tuey sVol cys chia sifer meri "el6, obec 0m 8 ... 15 pounds.
CHE TUS TET SCG Re ge PI 6 pounds.
VE UE coe Sr he Se A a A lf AR eR ROR 50 gallons.

This was prepared in the same manner as the self-boiled lime-
sulphur-caustic soda, after which the mixture was boiled for
one to two hours over a fire.

212 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

In each experiment with each variety of fruit the number of
trees was divided as evenly as possible for treatment by the
different sprays. Comparative tests were made of the above
described washes in all of the orchards with the exception that
in Messrs. T. C. Maxwell and Bros.’ orchard the self-boiled lime-
sulphur-salt wash was omitted and in Mr. C. W. Ward’s orchard
the self-boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash and the self-boiled lime-
sulphur-caustic soda wash were omitted.

RESULTS.
ORCHARD I.

On peaches.—These trees were carefully examined during the
early spring to note the effects of the treatments upon the buds.
On May 1 there were evidences of injury upon the sprayed trees
but the extent of the damage was difficult to estimate at this
time. In comparison with the checks the buds of these trees
were less advanced and fewer in number, while much of the
wood of last year’s growth was dead for from six to ten inches
from the tips. On May 9, blossoms and leaves appeared upon the
unsprayed, and on May 12 upon the sprayed trees.

To determine more minutely their conditions at this time a
count was made of the number of blossoms and leaf buds upon
four check trees and upon four trees from each of the different
lots under treatment. The method followed in making this cal-
culation was to ascertain the actual number of blossoms and
leaf buds upon three representative branches of each tree. Upon
these figures a computation was then made of the total number
of blossoms and of leaf buds upon each tree. The results of
this examination are given in the appended table which clearly
shows the conditions of the trees under the various treatments:

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 213

TapLe I.—Errect of Fatt SprRAYING wItH SULPHUR WASHES ON
Peacu Lear Buns, Bossom Bups AND Biossoms. (OrcHarD I.)

Formuta I.
aes of leaf buds to branch.....
Number of blossoms to branch.....
Computed number of leaf buds to

(HHS. SSS I OIA Ob Sind Oe yates

MECC PETE erk ayo oi 8 Reena d eee

Percentage of leaf buds killed...... =
Percentage of blossoms killed...... wee

Formuta III.
Number of leaf buds to branch,.....
Number of blossoms to branch.....
Computed number of leaf buds to

BER eneinie aye iets evn thaers senese coche lee she Ao ¢

UGG. Jala be Coleo..> CREIGUG eIooIO 5 pete
Percentage of leaf buds killed...... aoe
Percentage of blossoms killed...... ae

Formura IV.

GC oat else o oiacs eo Le olsyave bie bie) are, wee Aig

URE. Fae OG Bice DIES G

Percentage of leaf buds killed...... abe
Percentage of blossoms killed...... ae

FormMuLa V.

ERE Peon haba chsrsic<, conte al ty oh opaiie' ice Bistohe At

SEM eile pekecs uch slits cb oReMN ysl. wy meen wuncerietergs wat CtaG

Percentage of leaf buds killed......

Percentage of blossoms killed...... ue

CHECK.
Number of leaf buds to branch.....
Number of blossoms to branch.....
Boaed number of leaf buds to
ree

1

Tree I: Tree II:
Branches. Branches.
2 tie ial! 2 3
25 20| 30| 40 56| 9
0 0; O| O 0; O
650}. 630
0
88.8}. 85.0).
100 100).
103) 118} 71| 29 86/220
1 5; 16) O 24) 16
4,175 3,908
315 467).
28.4 al
93.7 51.4
49 46| 47| 6 56! 30
0 OOO 0} O
710 429
0).
87.8). 89.8
100 =) eLOO}e
4 3| 27) 48 9| 76
1 OWRO 5 0}. 3
eile Millensteleetel| kind Lite
ache aaits 85}.
(228l eas) ail) GOR
GOES ae llepers, node
240) 94)160)259 62|130
147) 132)188) 36 28) 39
15,828]... 3|.- (4,209).
-|5,004)... 961).

Tree III: | TreE IV:

Branches. Branches.

il 2 3} 1 2 3

46 24| 15) 35 40} 20
0 0} O| O 0} O
482|.. 517

0 Ba 0
87.1 ..-| 83.6
100 3|, -L00
90 10,130} 67 23/125
3 0} 7 4 0} 6
2,607 .|1,793
113)... 83
30.0).. 42.9
90.4|.. 95.3

19 29) 41) 13 22). 9
0 0} O| 0 O| 2
326 249
OQ}. 11).
91.2).. 92.1).
100)}.. -| 99.4
30 18} 85) 31 66) 3
5 6; 0 2| 0
-|1,830)...)...|. 96%\>..
UV ON evel eee 19)...
64.3).../...| 69.2)...
90)..6) sales!) (08.9) sar

146 96/131|/150 81| 73

44, 40) 9/108] 35] 26
13,7251. c<hn eB cEAD rare
5 eg h7Stivaahencall eeGheet.

In comparison with the checks the average percentage of leaf
buds killed upon the trees treated with the boiled lime-sulphur-
salt wash is 86.1, of blossoms, 100.0; of leaf buds with the lime-
sulphur wash, 27.1, of blossoms, 82.7; of leaf buds with the self-
boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash, 90.2, of blossoms, 99.8;
leaf buds with the boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash, 68.1, of

blossoms, 95.0.

From May 12 the sprayed trees made a growth which com-

pared favorable with that of the checks.

Owing to the failure

914 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

of the fruit to set, the crop was light. The condition of the
trees on July 8 with respect to the production of fruits and leaves
is shown by the following table:

TasBLe 11—Errect oF FALL SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON
PeacH Fruits AND LEAVES. (ORCHARD I.)

Tree I: Tree II: Tree III: TREE IV:

Branches. Branches. Branches. Branches.

7 BO) Ty gd Lee | A he fs ha a mea |S toi@ak Zale

Formuta I. |
Number of leaves to branch.. .|336) 746 689 392) 611/679|576 659/543 485 664/337
Number of fruits to branch....| 0) 0| O| O 0; 0} 0} 0} Oo}; 0 0; O
Computed number of leaves to

TLES rs vahhece GAS oes ie 2 Ss ote ee PR NQSRBLOl Revailles s [Ses God hace fees PPPS PHU eel Peet AR S38 71 | 566
Computed number of fruits to

EGCG hes ce bec vale: octets mteferiel s we OR ae Osan Olea fevers Oars
Average percentage loss of leaves|}...| 38.5)...|...| 44.8)...]... + SOL See) Tae ee
Average percentage loss of fruits.|... WOO) welts LOO) alate LOO se eres HOO er.

Formuta III

Number of leaves to branch.../751 832/495 /817| 674|543|407 796) 167) 453 871|697
Number of fruits to branch....| 0 bi OV 8 0; o| O ESOT LO
Computed number of leaves to

TECO 2 slats ceeds hele cae Oe eetens Lice [BD4S2O) 6 eles <'|B0, 089] .02 12 62120, 093)0 0.1. 3 | 2ee204) eee
Computed number of fruits to}

ELGEs Ath wo sikiarerbe etre w ore 6 lars Be LZ lhe ell fcest AB taal ots L5)r.stel 8 14)2 4.
Average percentage loss of leaves)... SIO eee cE 26UG|e alae SIO Pees 3.8]...
Average percentage loss of fruits.|...| 95.6).../...| 61.9]...|...| 90.3)...]...] 93.6)...

Formuta IV.

Number of leaves to branch...|...]...... Pe allicnetel| take rsceuaee .. - |465 645|597|386 594/185

Number of fruits to branch....|...|...... Ee ileboeees ters Soe O;20|5 0 0; Oo
Computed number of leaves to :

tree... ak a adamenar falaiaie ta eens ot etary Als sil ayehers Aor | ee te trvortha tee SIZE L742) es |S OZ nae

Computed number of fruits to

ULEOE ostin ous es ena ORNS a wysncteba at Pa lisheta: sic eat ss| Beha ha orer ee aedcailtarare Oli ialetes ides
Average percentage loss of leaves|}...|...... repeiltekede'| teats beeen stall SORE LOSE ISS es babes eee
Average percentage loss of fruits.|...|...... oat Siffererel lite ove, 86 spraltegers LOO) coal a2 LOO} 2.

ForMuta V. |

Number of leaves to branch.. .|396 3| 47 444 494\376|297 465/134 307 559|217
Number of fruits to branch....| 0 Ol 0/40 0; oO} O 0} Oo} 0 or36
Computed number of leaves to

UTOGe. se Sta ts the che tote eat oe OS. 9B 649) 20) 5 LT 4958) 2-2. ALS, PADS aes. [dines ree
Computed number of fruits to

GEGG Se sric.c sete cehi se ei wroboee a ded bake Ol aay Olea slaw Ohsrejetl eS Ol ten
Average percentage loss of leaves|...| 85.3]...|...] 56.9)...]...1 89.8]...]...| 44.8)...
Average percentage loss of fruits.!... POO| 22 ey ett LOO alex LOO Se ee LOO} eae

CHECK. )

Number of leaves to branch.. .|931 793)| 675 697 598| 824/434 505) 621/541 618/846
Number of fruits to branch....| 0 22) 122 4 O| 7% Or es) ee el! 9} 5
Computed number of leaves to

ULER Stet ircte cyeseee Seid oo atone -fe 2 (SOG O04 lleeuel| eres 41 ,674|...|.../21,840|...].../29,407]...
Computed number of fruits to} | .

WEGE GL Ais she sic wn Clete ats ait S84) A als. « ae ee leis 154). 3) se 220) «....

Compared with the checks there were no fruits and 69.7 per
cent. of a crop of fruit upon the trees treated with the boiled
lime-sulphur-salt wash; 14.6 per cent. of a crop of fruit and 88.4
per cent. of a crop of leaves upon trees treated with the lime-
sulphur wash; no fruits and 83.3 per cent. of a crop of leaves

a —_

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 215

upon trees treated with the self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda
wash; no fruits and 43.3 per cent. of a crop of leaves upon trees
treated with the boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash.

Beginning with July 10, there was a very apparent decline in
the condition of many of the checks. The little growth that had
been made upon such trees was commencing to drop its leaves.
The remaining trees were making a good growth and from
external appearances were as thrifty as the sprayed lots. On
August 1, twenty of the checks were dead, and thirty-two were
shedding their fruits and leaves. Likewise two of the trees treated
with the self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash had suc-
cumbed, and one tree in each of the lots sprayed with the boiled
lime-sulphur-salt wash and the boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda
wash respectively had considerable dead wood. The condition
of the remaining sprayed trees appeared to be entirely satis-
factory, with the exception of the fruit. The new growth and the
amount of the foliage was fully equal to if not better than
that of the average check.

The results obtained in this orchard show that there was more
or less injury done by the winter, although the external appear-
ance of the trees did not show such during the spring or the
early summer. In case of the treated trees the effects of the
sprays were apparently to aggravate the evil consequences of a
destructive winter, while the loss of a goodly portion of the
fruit blossoms by the applications served in turn to promote the
recuperation of the trees. The behavior of the checks would
indicate that their attempt to mature a crop of fruit was, for
them in their weakened state, a severe tax, and, in many instances,
a fatal drain upon their depleted vitality.

On plums.—Observations upon these trees during the latter
part of April showed that there were differences in their con-
dition which varied according to the spray applied. The buds of
the treated trees were delayed in opening about the same length
of time as the peaches. At their appearance it was clearly appar-
ent that the blossoms and the leaves upon the sprayed trees were
uniformly less numerous than upon the checks, and that there
was a rather definite relation between their numbers and the
spraying mixture employed. The conditions of the trees at this
date, May 12, are shown by the appended table which was con-

216 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE
structed in the same manner as the preceding ones upon the
peaches:

Tasue [1I.—Errecr or Fatt SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON
Pium Lear Bups, Bossom Bups AND Biossoms. (OrcHARD I.)

Tree I: TREE IT: TREE IIT:

Branches. Branches. Branches.

Formouta I.

Number of leaf buds to branch.............. 43 62} 10) 44) 60, 84! 57 74| 45
Number of blossoms to branch.............- Ne 6} 3) 13} 25] 11] 9| 5] 11
Computed number of leaf buds to tree....... REE DSO Aselisee G27ik golaee PAW ES 8 Te
Computed number of blossoms to tree........ er 20| sel LUGS he sheep Paes
Percentage of leaf buds lost.:.............3. = Ay) | SOAGIE . Shei Gost ere ie reer
Percentage of blossoms killed................ te wif) DOB Hs: 5c] corel De OES eo | etches es sl ees
Formuta III.
Number of leaf buds to branch.............. | 57 70| 43) 81 135 70) 91) 92) 76
Number of blossoms to branch.............. | 51 13] 16) 25 11) 45) 94; 132) 66
Computed number of leaf buds to tree....... aoe S44 eer S58: .ciilepi ls woolen
Computed number of blossoms to tree........ store L6OW sles PALS recep deri uibcr.
Percentage of leaf buds lost................. pencil) Dic licre coil sell #9 beri] eaeewan| easels et aeceeeena eae
Percentage of blossoms killed................ ea GOES. Pee) MSS Liha ee 56a
Formuta IV.
Number of leaf buds to branch.............. eA 6) 29}. 20 24| 19) 21 27| 16
Number of blossoms to branch............... 2 PAREN ony 5} 0] 0 0; 2
Computed number of leaf buds to tree........ ace TOD Cee 252 le lee 235\tNe
Computed number of blossoms to tree........ a. Ua Poo a 3 AS) 2 lige TANG
Percentage of leaf buds lost................. seve] GLCONS. cillere cil SOO er-t=i| orate Sa Odeeaul omens
Percentage of blossoms killed................ | etayall pw eo \dafewane| aeegcime Od Teele 99.4)...
| 1
Formura V. | |
Number of leaf buds to branch.............. 46 63) 53) 32! 41) 42] 26 52| 29
Number of blossoms to branch............... 69} 89 28) 12 6| 12} 21] —_16| 11
Computed number of leaf buds to tree....... te se 540). 4h )eea|- 268 (Fees SZ
Computed number of blossoms to tree....... are G20] E. ciliee oi 7 sere eee 144/...
Percentage of leaf buds lost................. Weal bX ot <Jeko ei) Nearer syo GUM IESS Alfbucgcs}| 9 10273) 1
Percentage of blossoms killed. .....0.¢0- 26. ele...) 64.3): ~«|065 96.6)... .| 27. 87.3
}
CHECK. |
Number of leaf buds to branch.............. 90 98)114| 97) 125) 95) 59 49} 59
Number of blossoms to branch............... |102 97|107| 92) 154/114! 79) 92| 91
Computed number of leaf buds to tree....... Wore alltel. gba aeceail ape] wht Olle ate rararal TLD |e
Computed number of blossoms to tree........ [rae alle Dig MAbs owl e's 01] er OLO ‘alana LS Sheree

In comparison with the checks there was an average loss of
91.4 per ct. of the blossoms and 46.6 per ct. of the leaves upon
the trees treated by the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash; 61.5 per
ct. of the blossoms and 33.1 per ct. of the leaves upon the trees
treated by the lime-sulphur wash; 98.7 per ct. of the blossoms
and 82.3 per ct. of the leaves upon the trees treated by the self-
boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash; and 82.7 per ct. of the
blossoms, and 69.5 per ct. of the leaves upon the trees treated
by the boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash.

With the falling of the blossoms there was a marked improve-
ment in the conditions of the treated trees. The amount of fruit

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 217

set was small upon both the sprayed and unsprayed lots. The
relative abundance of fruits and leaves upon the trees on July
8 under the various treatments is shown by the accompanying
table: 5

TABLE 1V.—Errect oF Fatt SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON
Pium Leaves AND Fruit. (OrcHaArD I.)

Tree I: Tree II: Tree III: TreEE IV:

Branches. Branches. Branches. Branches,

1 Ll selves dl Ga e-file iS

ForMUuLA I.

Number of leaves to branch.. .... 352) 204/132/110) 487)/452/232 254 323 233| 202/186
Number of fruits to branch...... 0 GEO) 0 Ol O10 0} 10st 0} O
Computed number. of leaves to tree.|...|/1,376)...|...|3,463)...|...) 3,775)...).../1,656)...
Computed number of fruits to tree.|... Olena ears Ole ea Ole eereleeeee Bliss
Average percentage loss of leaves..|...| 77.5|...|...| 47.8)...|...| 19.4/..-.|]...| 73.8]...
Average percentage loss of fruits..|...| 100).../...| 100)...|... TOO) Pre) Po| aL OO|Reees

Formuta III.

Number of leaves to branch...... 283) 129/391/396| 272/481/131) 251/212|/274| 328/249
Number of fruits to branch.......| 0 Oo}; oO} O oO} oO} 5 Oe eo 0
Computed number of leaves to tree.|....|/1,606|...|...|3,447|...|...| 2,178)...|...|3,971)...
Computed number of fruits to tree.|... Oleic. OEE eee 242 ee eee ORS
Average percentage loss of leaves..|...| 73.7|..-|...| 48-1]...|...| 53.5/.../...| 37.3)...
Average percentage loss of fruits..|...| 100|...|/...| 100)...|...}+90.9)...|...| 100)...
Formuta IV. \ea| |
Number of leaves to branch...... 145) 106)161)227) 147|211)/207 133/159/224| 173/276
Number of fruits to branch....... Olid: 10), Ole 0 0} 0} 0 0} Oo| O 0 0
Computed number of leaves to tree.|...| 8.24|...|...|2,730)...|...) 2,495)... aliens |BeOSOleee
Computed number of fruits to tree.|...| Olean OSs alle Olea ese Os
Average percentage loss of leaves...|...| 86.5)...|...| 58.9)...|...|..46.7|...|...| 43.3]..<
Average percentage loss of fruits...|...| 100|...)...| 100|...|.../ 100]...}...] 100)...
|
Formu.a V.
Number of leaves to branch...... 330] 249/183/241| 163)/192/296) 209)173'253| 212/248
Number of fruits to branch...... 0 Ihe ECG) So) O00 0; 0; 0} 0, 0
Computed number of leaves to tree.|...|/2,540|...|.../1,788)...|.-.| 2,260]...]...|2,852)...
Computed number of fruits to tree.|... Slagete tate Oye wali Ole ayulhscs Olistee
Average percentage loss of leaves..|...| 58.4|...|...| 73.1|...|...| 51.7|...|...| 54.9]...
Average percentage loss of fruits..|...| 95.2|...|/...| 100|...|... NO siisa ci OU lec
CHECK. |
Number of leaves to branch...... 426| 263/388456) 293)422)304 415|362|308| 439/371
Number of fruits to branch....... 4 Sih $C nal 0) i aa He 4; O} 1 Tie aal
Computed number of leaves to tree.|.../6,103|...|...|6,636)...|...| 4,684)...|...|6,335)...
Computed number of fruits to tree.|... 22 seer iat) Golloce D2) =|) ener Wiser

Comparing the sprayed with the unsprayed trees it will be seen
that there were no fruits and 45.4 per ct. of a crop of leaves upon
trees treated with the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash; 47.8 per
ct. of a crop of fruit and 46.9 per ct. of a crop of leaves upon
trees treated with the lime-sulphur wash; no fruits and 41.2 per
ct. of a crop of leaves upon trees treated with the self-boiled
lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash; and 1.2 per ct. of a crop of fruit
and 40.5 per ct. of a crop of leaves upon the trees treated with
the boiled lime-sulphur-caustie soda wash.

218 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

On August 2, there was very little difference in the appearance
of the trees in the different lots. In comparison with the checks
the sprayed trees as a rule had fewer leaves upon the lower
branches, but on account of the superior rew growth of the latter
the amount of foliage was approximately the same for both. The
relative proportions in the fruit yields did not show any apparent
variations from former observations.

ORCHARD II.

On trees—On May 5, there were marked differences in the
appearances of the trees owing to the effects of the winter upon
those that were much infested with the scale. Such trees were
usually dead or had a scanty crop of blossoms and leaves and
much dead wood. Trees free from scale or only slightly infested
were as a rule entirely healthy and had a large percentage of live
fruit and leaf buds. On May 12, nearly all of the trees were in
full blossom. An examination of the plums, slightly or not at all
infested with the scale, principally of the varieties Reine Claude,
Abundance, Field and Red June to determine the conditions of
the trees gave the following figures:

TapLE V.—Errecr or Fatu SpraAYING witH SULPHUR WASHES ON
Reine CLaupE, ABUNDANCE, FIELD AND Rep JUNE PLUMS.
(OrcHaArD IT.)

No. of | Conditions of sprayed trees compared with

TREATMENT. trees. checks.

Formuta I.
Boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash. 38 Trees have 75 to 80 per et. of a crop of
blossoms and foliage equal to checks. In-
juries more apparent on lowest branches.

Formuta II.
Self-boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash. 36 Trees have 75 to 80 per ct. of a crop of
blossoms and foliage equal to checks. In-
juries more apparent on lowest branches.

Formuta III.
Lime-sulphur wash. 28 Trees have from 80 to 90 per ct. of a crop
of blossoms and foliage equal to checks.
Losses principally upon lowest branches.

Formuta IV.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustice soda 72 Trees have from 50 to 65 per ct. of a crop
wash. of blossoms and foliage equal to checks.
Injuries more apparent upon _ lowest
branches. ke
FormMutLa V.
Boiled lime-sulphur-caustie soda 64 Trees have from 65 to 80 per ct. of a crop
wash. of blossoms and foliage equal to checks.

el

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 219

Owing to the failure of the fruit to set the quantity upon the
trees was very small and did not exceed on August 12 from two to
forty per ct. of a crop according to the variety on either the
checks or treated rows. The new growth and the amount of
foliage of the sprayed trees was equal to that of the checks.
The only apparent difference in the treated and untreated trees
was that upon the lower branches of some of the former the
number of the leaves was somewhat smaller.

The results upon the Burbanks were about the same as with
the above varieties. The conditions of thirty-six trees treated
with the self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash compared with
that of uninfested checks appeared as follows: Trees not infested
with scale had 85 per ct. of a crop of blossoms, and a full amount
of foliage; moderately infested trees had about 70 per ct. of a
crop of blossoms and a full crop of leaves; while the badly in-
fested trees had from 0 to 35 per ct. of a crop of blossoms and
about 65 per ct. of a crop of leaves. Trees of this variety that
were much improved by the winter showed later a remarkable
improvement in their conditions on account of the destruction
of the scale.

Morello cherries lost about five per ct. of the blossoms and a
small number of leaf buds upon the lower branches. Apples
and pears were affected in about the same degree. Crab apples
bore a full crop of fruit and foliage.

Effects on scale with boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash.—On August
12, an examination was made of the fall treated trees to note
their conditions in comparison with those of the checks and
other trees which had received similar treatment in the spring
only. There was no apparent difference in the results upon the
scale by the fall and spring applications. Several pear and plum
fruits exhibited slight markings by the scale, and at the base of
the new growth of some of the trees there were small colonies
of living scales. The incrustation which was composed of the
old scales was lifeless and much weather-worn.

With self-boiled lime-sulphur salt wash.—The results upon the
scale by this formula were essentially the same as with the pre-
ceding wash. While proving satisfactory in the present experi-
ment this wash showed considerable variation in its effects upon
this insect when used for spring treatment, indicating that the

220 Report or tHe DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

various preparations were not always uniform in their com-
position.

With lime-sulphur wash.—This formula was uniformly effec-
tive and gave results which were similar to those attending the
use of boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash.

With lime-sulphur-caustic soda washes.—The applications of
these sprays efficiently controlled the scale, giving results which
were practically the same as those obtained by the boiled lime-
sulphur salt wash. The destruction of the scale upon the apples,
pears and plums with smooth bark seemed complete, but upon
the Burbanks there was a small percentage of the fruits that was
infested.

ORCHARD III.

Results on trees——An examination of this orchard on May 13
showed that there was no apparent difference in the appearance
of the sprayed and unsprayed peach trees, that previous to treat-
ment were free from or only slightly infested with scale. The
blossoms and leaves were normal. Trees weakened by the scale
were usually much injured or killed by the winter. At this date
there were traces of leaf curl upon such varieties as Carman,
Champion, Elberta, Hiley, Greensboro, and Mountain Rose. On
May 30, Mr. Sirrine made a careful examination of the conditions
of the trees with respect to the leaf curl and estimated that
nearly 55 per ct. of the foliage upon the unsprayed and one per
ct. of that of the sprayed trees were affected by this disease. By
July 23 these differences had disappeared, and crop yields and
foliage were apparently the same for the sprayed and unsprayed
trees. The apple leaf buds and fruit buds were unaffected by the
sprays. With the advance of the summer there was a marked
increase in the vigor and healthfulness of the sprayed apple
trees in comparison with that of the checks.

Results on scurfy bark louse——This species was almost entirely
destroyed upon the trees sprayed with a sulphur wash.

Results on San José scale—The lime-sulphur-salt wash, the
lime-sulphur wash, and the lime-sulphur-caustic soda wash were
equally effective. The applications upon the peach trees almost
entirely controlled the scale. Upon a few trees in all of the
different lots small numbers of larve were found, which was
probably due to lack of thoroughness in treatment. Comparing the

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 221

fall-treated with spring-treated trees it is believed that the treat-
ment of the latter was slightly more effective. Upon the upper
parts of the tallest apple trees which were difficult to reach by
the sprays quite a number of the fruits were spotted with the
scale, but on the lower portions where spraying had been thor-
ough the bark and fruit were uniformly clean. :

GENERAL SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

The results obtained in the different orchards by the fall appli-
cations of the sulphur washes show considerable variation in the
effects of the treatments upon leaf and fruit buds. In Orchard
I the spraying was accompanied by a reduction in the amount of
the bloom and foliage. There was an average loss of 71.8 per ct.
of the blossoms and 67.8 per ct. of the leaves upon the peaches,
and 83.5 per ct. of the blossoms and 57.8 per ct. of the leaves
upon the plums sprayed with these washes. The least destruc-
tiveness was shown by the lime-sulphur wash which caused a
loss of 82.7 per ct. of the blossoms and 27.1 per ct. of the leaves
upon the peaches; and 61.5 per ct. of the blossoms and 33.1 per
-et. of the leaves upon the plums. With the dropping of the
blossoms there was a marked improvement in the conditions of
the sprayed trees, which, with the exception of the smaller
yield of fruit, ultimately equalled the checks in appearance.
In Orchard II plum blossoms were reduced by 10 to 50 per ct.
with slight injuries to foliage. The Morello cherries lost 5 per
ct. of their blossoms. Apples and pears were similarly affected,
and crabs sustained no apparent injuries. Trees much infested
with scale were either killed or severely injured by the winter.
In Orchard III the sprayed trees with the exception of those
sustaining injuries by the scale and the winter were unaffected
by the treatments. The sprayed apples showed later in the sea-
son increased vigor and healthfulness as a result of the control
of the scale.

Owing to the variation in the results by the sprays upon fruit
trees which is partly attributable to the severe winter the experi-
ment has given conflicting data. For this reason a further study
of the question under varied conditions is necessary before
the exact effects of fall spraying upon crop yields in average
years can be determined. The work accomplished shows that

922 Report OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

sulphur washes applied in the fall may under certain conditions
cause injuries such as sometimes attend the excessive use of
these sprays‘in the spring. But it is believed to be advisable, when
experience has shown that it is impossible to spray all of the
trees in the spring, that fall spraying be employed for the treat-
ment for the hardier varieties of fruits—as the increased vigor
and usefulness of the trees arising from the control of the scale
will more than compensate for probable losses in fruit yields.

All of the washes tested proved equally effective in the destruc-
tion of the scale. The addition of caustic soda or salt to a
lime-sulphur wash cooked by fire or steam did not add to its effee-
tiveness. While satisfactory in the present experiment later
tests with the lime-sulphur-salt wash prepared without external
heat showed that there may be considerable variation in the vari-
ous preparations which may be largely avoided by using high
grade lime and knack in the cooking operations. The washes
that are well suited to the needs of average orchardists are the
lime-sulphur wash boiled by fire or steam and the lime-sulphur-
caustic soda wash, prepared without external heat.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 223

i PEAR PSYEEA*

P. J. Parrorvt.

The extensive winter-killing of pear trees as a result of the
attacks of the pear psylla last summer has attracted consider-
able attention to this pest. To meet the demand for informa-
tion, this brief account of this destructive insect has been pre-
pared to direct orchardists in the methods by which better pro-
tection may be given their pear trees.

SYMPTOMS OF PSYLLA ATTACK.

The presence of the psylla in injurious numbers upon a tree
is usually indicated by an abundance of a waterish, sticky
' liquid, called honey dew, which may be first detected during the
latter part of May or early in June at the axils of the leaves and
fruits. This liquid later becomes covered with a black mold,
which gives the trees a blackish, unsightly appearance. Certain
ants and flies are very fond of the honey dew, and are often
attracted by it in numbers to infested trees. The presence of
these insects upon a pear tree should arose the suspicions of
a careful observing orchardist and should lead to a close inspec-
tion of the trees if attack by the psylla has not been apprehended.

APPEARANCE AND HABITS OF THE PSYLLA.

The adult is an active four-winged insect, measuring about
one-tenth of an inch in length. It has been compared to a
miniature seventeen year locust. A number of broods are pro-
duced during the summer and the adults which live through the
winter are quite distinct from the summer adults. They appear
early in the spring and deposit their eggs in protected places in
the bark. The eggs hatch in a few days and the little larve or
nymphs at once commence to suck the juices from the young
leaves and twigs. A favorite place for the young nymphs is in

*Reprint of Circular No. 5, New Series.

224 REpPoRT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY OF THE

the axils of the leaves and at the base of the fruit stems. Within
two or three days after hatching they cover themselves with
honey dew which finally becomes so abundant as to disfigure
leaves and fruits. The amount of injury done in this way
varies of course with the number of the nymphs. When the
nymphs are very numerous they take so much nourishment from
the trees that the new growth is seriously checked. The whole
tree assumes a stunted, unhealthy appearance. As a result the
fruit crop is greatly lessened and in some cases trees have been ~
killed. Many trees weakened by the psylla last summer failed
to survive the winter.
TREATMENT.

The young nymphs are the most easily reached. Close watch
for them should be kept when the leaves are unfolding in the
spring. As soon as the nymphs are found spray the trees
thoroughly with kerosene emulsion, diluted with about ten parts
of water or with a solution of whale oil soap, one pound to four
to six gallons of water. The secret of success in fighting this
insect is early and thorough spraying. It may be necessary to
make two or three applications at intervals of three or four days
to successfully control the pest. The orchardist should watch
the results of the treatments to determine if the strength of
the spray is satisfactory. Spraying should not be long delayed
after the appearance of the nymphs, for it is much more difficult
to kill them when once they are protected by the honey dew.

PREPARATION OF SPRAYS.

Kerosene emulsion.—Dissolve 14]b. finely divided common soap
or whale oil soap in one gallon of water, preferably rain water,
and while it is still boiling, remove it from the fire and add two
gallons of kerosene. Then agitate the mixture violently by fore-
ing it through a spray pump, back into the vessel again until
it becomes a creamy mass that will not separate. For use, dilute
as directed.

Whale oil soap.—Whale oil soap may be purchased from the
following’ manufacturers:—The Bowker Chemical Co., Boston,
Mass.; James Good, Nos. 939 and 941 North Front Street, Phila-
delphia, Penn.; Poole & Bailey, No. 357 Canal Street, New York
city; W. H. Owen, Catawba Is., Ohio. tee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 225

Soaps often show considerable variation in their composition.
For this reason the orchardist should watch the results of the
applications and determine what amount may be safely employed
for the destruction of the psylla. One pound of hard soap, such
as Leggett’s Anchor Brand, is commonly used to four gallons of
water.

Sulphur washes.—These are promising remedies for this pest,
and are especially recommended for the treatment during dor-
mant season of trees infested with both the scale and pear psylla.
The experimental orchards treated this spring were remarkably
exempt from the first brood of the psylla, while the checks (un-
treated trees) were much infested. These sprays kill many of
the adults and are apparently destructive to the newly hatched
nymphs. Directions for preparing these washes may be obtained
upon application to the Station, Geneva, N. Y.

15

Re PORL

OF THE

Horticultural Department.

S. A. Beacu, Horticulturist.
*V. A. CLARK, Assistant.
TN. O. Booru, Assistant.

O. M. Taytor, Foreman.

Taste of Conrents.

I. An experiment in shading strawberries.
II. New York apples in storage.
III. Specific gravity as a factor in seed selection.

*Resigned Sept. 15, 1904.
Appointed Oct. 10, 1904.

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REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL
DEPARTMENT.

AN EXPERIMENT IN SHADING STRAWBERRIES.

O. M. Taytor AND V. A. CLARK.

SUMMARY.

An experiment in shading strawberries has been carried on by
this Station for two seasons and in three localities. As managed
in our experiments the practice has not proved profitable in grow-
ing fruit for the general market. Only when a thin cheese-cloth
“was used was any increase in yield obtained, while with a
moderately heavy cheese-cloth there was a marked decrease. In
no case was the increase in yield sufficient to pay for the added
cost of shading, which is estimated to be about $350 per acre.

Shading produces a considerably larger berry and in some cases
one of better general appearance. For these reasons the practice
may be adapted for the growing of fancy and exhibition fruit.

Shading introduces something like hot-house conditions. Aside
from its value as a protection against frost, its beneficial effects
are due in large part to the protection it affords from wind.
Evaporation and transpiration are much reduced, resulting in
great economy of soil moisture. The temperature of air and of
soil is raised somewhat, resulting theoretically in more rapid
growth and increased earliness, provided these results are not
offset by too great diminution of light; but these results have not
been obtained in these experiments, though they have by other
workers. Interference with the access of light is the weak point
in shading. The cover must be of such material as to transmit
the largest possible part of the light. It is noteworthy that the
varieties that have given best results under cover in our tests,

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 246.

230 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Marshall and Brandywine, are two of the varieties known by
experience to be among those best adapted for growing under
glass.

INTRODUCTION.

_ The shading of strawberries is a horticultural practice not gen-
erally introduced or known in commercial strawberry culture.
However some notable results have recently been reported as
obiained through the application of the method.*

The object of the experiments reported herein was to study the
method critically with a view to estimating its value in practice.

OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
GENERAL NOTES.

The experiment was begun by the senior author of this bul-
letin in the spring of 1902, at Shortsville, N. Y., in codperation
with Mr. J. Q. Wells, and at Penn Yan with Mr. E. C. Gillett.
The Station thanks both of these gentlemen for courtesies
extended and assistance rendered. In 1903 the experiment at
Penn Yan was continued and a duplicate experiment inaugurated
on the Station grounds at Geneva. The experiment at Shorts-
ville was discontinued.

The season of 1902 was exceptionally unfavorable for bring-
ing out the merits of the practice on account of the excessive
rains that prevailed; but the extraordinary period of drought
in the spring of 1903 subjected the method to a severe test.

THE PLANTS AND THEIR PROTECTION.

Preparations were made for the experiment at Geneva in the
spring of 1902. Two rows each of Marshall, Brandywine and
Ridgeway, and one row each of Wm. Belt, Hunn and Gandy were
set by the matted row system. The rows were 70 feet long, and
3% feet apart, with the plants 2 feet apart in the row. These
were to be shaded. A duplicate plat adjoining was set for the
check. The row of Gandy in the check was near the cloth cover
and was much affected by it; consequently the results with this
variety are not considered. The plants were uniformly given good
culture according to the practice of good strawberry growers.

*Blacknall, O. W. Growing strawberries under cover. The Strawberry
Specialist, Feb., 1902.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 231

The material used for the cover was thin cheese-cloth known
as “ Bombay,” which cost about 4 cents per yard. The strips
were sewed together into one piece large enough to cover the
ground. for about two feet around the outside of the bed. A
strong cord was hemmed in the margin on the four sides and to
this small rings were sewed at intervals of three feet.

The stakes used to support the cover were placed three feet apart
around the outside of the plat. To the tops of these stakes were
stapled small snaps to which the rings already referred to were
fastened. To support the canvas, stakes were driven 10 feet apart
in every other row. The tops were padded to prevent wearing
holes in the cloth. Over the tops of these stakes wires were
strung lengthwise of the rows for the canvas to rest on. All
stakes except those to which the supporting wires were attached
were two and one-half feet long and were driven down about 10
. inches thus supporting the canvas about 20 inches above the
ground. See Plates XII and XIII. The experimental plat at
Penn Yan (see Plate XII, fig. 2) was laid out in a bearing field,
had an area of 39x50 feet and included 15 rows. A continuation
of the same rows formed the check, but with an interval of two
feet between the plats to avoid influence of the cover on the check.
The cloth in the cover was one commercial grade heavier than
that used at Geneva. The variety grown was Sample, with a
considerable intermixture of other varieties for purposes of cross
pollination.

COST OF SHADING.

A detailed account of the cost of this experiment was not kept.
But the cost of the cloth was about $11.00; the charge for sewing,
including charge for rings sewed into the hem, $4.00; and the
cost of the snaps used was $1.00. The Station already had the
stakes and wire that were used. We estimate that the first cost
of covering an acre in this way would be about $350.

It probably would not be advisable to use single pieces of cloth
more than one-tenth acre in area because the cloth is very heavy
and inconvenient to move and because the larger the piece the
more easily is it torn by high winds. At the Station it was
necessary to mend rents in the material several times after high
winds and at the end of the second season the cover was so much
torn that it had to be thrown away. .

bo

32 Report oF THE HorticuLTuRAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON THE ENVIRONMENT
OF THE PLANT.

The cover affects the growth of plants by modifying their phy-
sical environment in certain respects, the principal changes being
in temperature and moisture content of air and of soil, velocity
of wind and intensity of light. These’ changes in environment
bring about changes in the physiological activities of the plant
and these in turn are the cause of the peculiar behavior and the
gross results observed in practice.

At the Station in 1903 records were made at 7 a. m., and 12 m.
and 6 p. m., of the temperature of the air in the shade at the sur-
face of the soil in both shaded plat and check. The thermometers

were supported about two inches above the ground in a grape
basket set on end, fastened to a stake and opening to the north.

Other thermometers were set in the ground nearby to a depth
of 3% inches to measure soil temperatures. The records of all
these observations are shown, with other data, in Tables I and II,
pages 2338, 235.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR.

The effect of the cover on the temperature of the air under-
neath was to raise it somewhat except on very cloudy days, when
there was no effect. During the period of observation, from May
1 to June 30, there was only one day, May 20, when it did not
appear to be at least a little warmer under the cover than out-
side. This was a cold, cloudy day following a night temperature
close to freezing.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 233

TaBLe I.—RecorD OF TEMPERATURE OF AIR, CLOUDINESS AND

EVAPORATION.
Evapo-
DEGREES ration.
SHADED. UNSHADED. | WARMER WHEN CLoUDINEss.
SHADED. Avg.
DATE. per |
oO 3
a.M.| M. |P.M./A.M.| M. |p. M.|A.M.| M. | Pot A. M M pm. | "3/9
a\lp
Deg.| Deg.| Deg.| Deg.| Deg.| Deg.| Deg. | Deg. | Deg. | Deg. cade
of an
Rey Resets |e F F pathy te in.
Magy 1c. 6) (45) Nee 46) NAT 5 oe Hes), Lita) 48) slisesadesns Clear Clear
LOS sia 42.5/68.5/60 |40 |59.5/59 2.51 19 1 4.2|Clear Clear Clear
Dien ss 46 |69.5/63 |45 |65 |52 1 4.5) 11 5.2\Cloudy _|Clear |\Cloudy
Cae 44 |57 |55 |44 |55 |54 0 2 1 1 |Cloudy Cloudy Clear
Liioemtar 40 |80 |63.5/41 |70 |61 |—1 | 10 2.5) 3.8)Clear Clear Clear
Geen 47 |80.5)74.5)46.5|77.5/73 0.5) 3 1.5) 1.7)/Clear Semi-clear| Clear
eee 52 |65 |51.5/51 |60.5/50.5) 1 DED) 2.5\Cloudy |Cloudy Cloudy
Sack 51 |79 |70 |51 1/73) |68.5) 0 6 1.5) 2.5)Clear Clear Clear
9.....|52 |91.5/83 (52.5/83 |81 |—0.5| 8.5) 2 3.3)Clear Clear Clear
a beepers 61 (99 |90 |63.5)85.5)77.5|\—2.5) 13.5} 2.5) 4.5/Clear tear Semi-clear
iD Ree 58 |91.5)81 |58.5/82.5/78.5|,—0.5| 9 2.5! 3.7\Clear |Clear Clear.
ers esas 55 |93 |83 |56.5/83 |80 |—1.5| 10 3 3.8/Clare \Clear Semi-clear|} 4/ 9
Ibiag sae 58 |95 |85.5/59.5/85 |83 |—1.5] 10 2.5| 3.7|Clear Clear Sermi-clear| 4| 9
14s 56.5/78.5/62 |56.5/72 |60 0 6.5). 2 2.8}Semi-clear|Semi-clear|Semi-clear| 2 4
i aagee 52.5/80 |738 |52.5/75 |71 0 5 2 2.3/Cloudy {Cloudy |Clear 4| 9
16S E..; 56 |95.5/83 [58 |85 |83 |—2 10%5)) 2 3.5/Clear Semi-clear/Semi-clear| 3 | 8
Wieeee 67 |95 |85 -|66 |88 |82 1 7 3 3.7/Clear Semi-clear Clear 4/ 8
ASW: 64.5/92.5/85 |65 |87 |84.5|\—0.5} 5.5) 0.5! 1.8|Clear Semi-clear Clear Sule
GUA Hae 66 |100 |84.5)67 |94 |85 |—1 6 |—0.5) 1.8/Clear Clear Clear 5| 8
P11 erat 72.5|90.5|80.5|76.5|87 |79 |—4 3.5| 0.5} O |Cloudy Cloudy (|Semi-clear) 6 | 10
a eeers 65 |99 |85.5/66 |91 |85 |—1 8 0.5} 2.5)Clear Clear Clear UN Ie
Does: 69 |88 |75.5/69.5)74 |70.5|\—0.5) 9 5 4.5)\Clear Clear Clear 5| 9
BB scree 58 |77 |64 |56 |66 |61 2 11 3} 5.3)Clear Clear |\Clear 4| 9
Danni: 52 |63.5/71 |50 |60 |69 2 Bea 2.5\/Cloudy {Cloudy |Cloudy SIP
DO eraee 538 |89 |79 |55 |76.5|75.5|—2 12.5) 3.5| 4.7)|Clear Clear Clear 6| 9
Os aon 57.5166 |68 (59 165 |66 |—1.5] 1 2 0.5 Semi-clear|Cloudy /Semi-clear *
Od Sse 60.5|83 |76.5/61 |80 |75 |—0.5| 3 1.5) 1.3)Cloudy |Semi-clear| Cloudy *
D8 is 67 |81 |75.5/67 |79.5\76 0 1.5,—0.5| 0.7|Semi-clear)Clear Clear *
Oe 52 |69 |67 |49 |65 |64.5) 3 4 2.5) 3.2/Cloudy (Cloudy (Cloudy *
Se a8 50 |74.5\64 |50 (62 {58 OM 125) 6 6.2|Clear Clear Clear *
Bile ae 50 |77 |67 |49 |67.5/63 1 9.5) 4 4.8|Clear Clear Clear *
Ane eeley acy. 56.5}90 |72 |58 |80 |70 |—1.5) 10 a 3.5\Clear - Clear Cloudy 4] 10
Dh ee 60 |90 |76.5/62 |81.5|73 |—2 8.5] 3.5) 3.3/Clear Clear Clear 5] 8
Sistls 2 61.5/93 |83 |66 |86 |82.5|\—4.5| 7 0.5) 1 |Clear Clear \Clear Tales
Ce, 58.5|84 |76 |58.5/77.5)/73 0 G25\n0s 3.2|Semi-clear|Semi-clear|Semi-clear| 4 | 8
tae 53 |84.5/67.5)/53 |80.5/67.5| 0 4 0 1.3)Semi-clear|Semi-clear|Semi-clear| 3 | 9
Ghee 62 |86 7 {61.5)81 |84 ORS inno 3 2.8|Semi-clear|Semi-clear|Semi-clear
Uinemer 65 {81 |68 |63.5/79.5)/68 15 eee 0 1 (|Semi-clear|\Cloudy {Cloudy
Soe ane 71 #\72 + |68.5/69.5)71 (68.5) 1.5) 1 0 0.8\Cloudy {Cloudy |Cloudy
tC nae 67 |96 |73 |66.5/88 |73 0.5! 8 0 2.8) Semi-clear Clear Cloudy
I) eae 8 |64 (68 |66 |63.5) 2 | 2 0.5} 1.5\Cloudy (|Cloudy |Cloudy
i maint: Be 5/75 160 |59 |71 159 Ozbi4 1 1.8 Semi-clear Clear Cloudy
score 55 |68 |68 |54 |65 |65 1 3 3 2.3\Cloudy j|Cloudy |Cloudy
iv oe DOMM see Ole. 5a 2 Pipa \seerederes|| sane Cloudy Cloudy |.........
i aSae 54.5/70 |71 |54 |66 |71 0.5) 4 0 1.5)Cloudy |Clear Clear
Gives 62 |82 |76 |64 |77 |73 |—2 D 3 2 |Clear Clear Clear
ifn: 61 |60 |61.5/60.5/58 |62 05) 2 |—0.5| 0.7\Cloudy \Cloudy Cloudy
Seer ee: 155 |74 |65.5/56 172 |68 |—1 2 2.5) 1.2|Cloudy |Cloudy Clear
1 | eee GSeeacolee es (Ole ocoal Dh Nese os Sl eeaeredall at bee Cloudy (Cloudy (Clear
DON es BOWSIIGOi olan OORT awn |r| 2S Da Water -i| tetaters Cloudy |Cloudy, |.2.2.2..
Ph aie 68 |71 GOm Obit eee 2 Neal een Cloudy {Cloudy
a B Sears G3 88 |75.5)64 |76 |74 |—1 12 1.5} 4.2)/Clear Clear Cloudy
> eras Se welaercfesiavlecsaleveslecccanfussce|secerlesere Jee ccceceslececeveces(sseseesae
OF Ee 58 (74 |62 |57.5/74 |62 0.5| O 0 0.2/Cloudy Clear Cloudy
DO ois G4) tees oleae (025008 16D Tatil asec iced oaeiee \Clear Cloudy (Cloudy
DO alors See SecOleo! (OOn WT ND lane. 8.5) 4 |.....|Clear. Clear Cloudy
27...../63 |87 |74 |64 |73 |70 |—1 | 14 4 5.7) Clear Clear Clear
Douce. 62 |89 |82 |60.5/75 |77.5) 1.5] 14 4.5) 6.7|Clear Clear Cloudy
QD Fees 64 |72.5)71 |63 |69 |70 1 Gieuy| dl 1.8)Cloudy Gloudiys <2) |'Seetec'2
Motall sists USE FES SE Sel acco allaacacndt.s||\gagcmooud 24) 54
Avgtecs. 0 GRU le a ceilarcineterciare < [ise cterste elevel|nrse sel rele elo} .2e

*Records not taken.

234 Report OF THE HorTICcCULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

The average daily increase varied from 0.2° to 6.7° with an
average increase for the whole period of observation of 2.8°.

The differences in temperature are very unevenly distributed
through the day. The greatest difference, according to the
records, was obtained at noon, when it varied from nothing on a
day of heavy rainfall to 14° on a very bright day, with an average
for the whole period of 6.1°. The least difference was at 7 a. m.,
when it varied from 4.5° cooler to 3° warmer under the cover
than outside. At 6 p. m. the difference in temperature varied
from 0.5° cooler to 11° warmer.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON SOIL TEMPERATURE.

The effect of the cover on the temperature of the soil was
also to raise it. In this case, however, the greatest difference
was in the morning, when the soil underneath the cover averaged
1.4° warmer than that in the check, the differences ranging on
different mornings from 0° to 2°. Through the day the differences
eradually decreased until at night it averaged only 0.1° warmer
under the cover than outside.

The optimum soil temperature for most cultivated crops, ac-
cording to Ebermayer as quoted by King,* is 68° to 70° F. Hence
the increase in soil temperature is advantageous as long as the
soil temperature is below that point and not otherwise. Examin-
ing the records of observed soil temperatures in Table II, we
find that only in occasional instances during the period of obser-
vation did the soil temperature reach the optimum. Hence the
increase in soil temperature may be set down as beneficial to the
plant.

EFFECT OF THE COVER IN CONSERVING SOIL MOISTURE.

Soil moisture determinations were made May 22, which was
after a period of protracted drought, and July 10, which was
after a period of abundant rainfall, to determine the effect of the
cover on the moisture content of the soil. Composite samples
showed the following percentages of moisture:

May 22. | July 10.

Per ct Per ct
Cheek—ITmuinow: 22'< sit. diete ot Se Tike es oe Ona et aren tet ue eens | 11.0 14.4
Gheck—Between! TOWS: jas..:-c)sin siete 2 eh ee eine rece ie tare ere 14.4 |} 16.9
Shaded Tro wis sins ahi sts ae cv nd « oh snacestevaetensieechenere Erato bas ah ec re | eG 14.5
Shaded—Between rows ik .'2 cede ee Ree cle Sees 14.8 | 17.0

*The Soil, p. 220.

= allt Lee ae

New York AcricuLtturRaAL ExpprRIMENT SrarTIon.

235,

These figures show slightly more moisture in the shaded than
in the unshaded plat but the differences are not so great as was

anticipated.
TasBLte II].—SHowine Sor TEMPERATURES AT A Depro or 314
INCHES.
SHADED. UNSHADED. DEGREES WARMER WHEN
SHADED.
— DATE. Avg.
A. M. M. | P. M. | A.M. M. P.M. | A. M. M. P.M. | per
day.
Deg.¥.| Deg.F.| Deg. F.| Deg. F.| Deg. F.| Deg. F.|Deg.F.| Deg.F.| Deg. F.|Deg.F.
INNER an lS Oe che cos ar =c 56 60 63.5 | 54 59 63 2 i! 0.5 A
121 3 eee eee 55.5 | 59 60 54 58 60 1.5 1 0 0.8
WDA sehr ceo: 53.5 | 60 62 52 60 63 1.5 0 —1 0.2
Ge aioe ays ste: 5 53 60 635) 5 60 64.5 2 0 —I 0.3
1 (5% a 56)5) | 63 65 55 64 67 1.5 |—1 —2 —0.5
Beery wuavevd covets 57 64 66 5D 64 67 2 0 —i 0.3
iG hs AA cece 58.5 | 65 66 57 66 67 1.5 |—1 —0.2 | —0.2
PA 00S Ree are 60 65 67 60 66.5 | 69 0 —1.5 |—2 —I1.2
PANS es Ree had he 58 65.5 | 67 57 66 69 1 —0.5 |—2 —0.1
Pe eae 61 66 67 | 61 67 68 0 1 1 One
BER ra rete ets fa 57 63 63 56 63 64 1 0 —Il 0
7 ee eee 55.5 | 57 60 55 56 61 0.5 1 —l 0.2
heretic rete 53 61 64 52 61.5 | 65 1 —0.5 |—1 —0.2
UO ie sree. oo ns6 ise 56 58 60 55 58 60 1 0 0 0.3
DA Oe RRR ORO 57 62 | 64 56 62 64.5 1 0 —(). 5, 0.2
PEN Serta RA 60 65 64.5 | 60 65 65 0 0 —0.5 | —0.2
AU Se a 55.5 | 58 59.5 | 54 58 59. ee 0 0 0.5
S10 )o5 # Aanenie eee ae | 54.5 | 60 61.5 By 61 61 1.5 |/-1 0.5 OFS
steer gaps cre oe, ||: 59 61 50 60 62 2 iI —l 0
Inte eet. s es! | 53 61.5 | 63 51.5 | 63 65 1.5 |—1.5 |—2 —0.7
oF ara 55 65 66 54 64 66 1 1 0 0.7
SIEM cl aeekors aie 8 55 65 67 54 64 69 1 1 —2 0
Be Rie a aneie e016 57.5 | 64.5 | 66 57 63 66 0.5 0.5 0 0.3
2b Soto ae 55 62.5 | 68 54 61 68 1 Je5 0 0.8
Geet cctentns 58 | 63 66.5 | 57 61 66 1 2 0.5 re
FERS oy 60 65 65 58 65 64 2 0 if 1
Slrcts svenoseloce ws 61 66 67 60 66 67 1 | O 0 0.3
OF sre slorote 61 69 68 59 68 68 2 1 0 1
NOM ieee welars 62 65 66 60.5 | 64 | 65 15 1 1 1
i sythetay sie ctsbers 59 64 63 57 62 62 ey 2 1 bley¢
TiS{3 Eater ene eae 56 58. 63 54 | 56 61 2 Peco | | 22,
Lyne 6 ree eae 56 58 foe 54 56 St ds 2 2 SMe lino oe
ER SES og 56 60. 63. 54.5 | 58 67 1.5 | 2.5 |—8.5 0.2
GE aes en 58 65 67 57 63 65 1 2 2 eT
Tero tnesr se Ne 60.5 | 61 61.659 59 60 AL Se5 al bate? i MST.
cio Ree 57 61 63 55 59 60 2} 2 3 2.3
11G)S Sa eese Eso mae 7 ears [ee 56 ae hat tepcheto 2 a, SLE Coors
PLU erg oe nttne 44 he 59 63 ae 57 61 a 2 Z Ve evsnsll\ eee Agee
CANS eC ee Fosce oe 65 epee 60 63 Ae 2 a Maes
7A Stan cote 59 66 68 | 57 64 67 2 2 1 re
Bote ACK TEE NGI |OMee Osu tes. SPP tlt 5G thay | een lipo ase
et A ee ae 59 62.5 | 63 57 61 61 2 1.5 2 1.8
ey a ey as. cera 59 bh, Xoe Al oN 60 61 2 3, Aik Pca ae
04 a ORME Ae sae 64 67 BY 62 65 anes 2 | 7 a eRe ah.
Dilip sists tera clene 61 66 67 59 | 65 66 2 1 2 IE 6
PASTS NS ROS 59 65 68 57 | 62.5 6 2 225 2 2.2
PAD): We eke a en 63 64 65 61 | 62 64 2 2 1 ee
Ota nls os | GL |S 4 26.3
Average....... LA Oa 0.1 0.7

* Record not taken.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON THE HUMIDITY OF THE AIR.

The air underneath the cover appeared to be more humid than
that outside. Systematic observations were not made.

236 Report of tHE HorTicuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON VELOCITY OF WIND.

Measurements were not made of the velocities of the wind
under the cover and outside. There was a very great difference
however. With a stiff breeze blowing outside there was not
wind enough under the cover to move a sheet of paper lying on
the ground. With only a fair breeze outside the air underneath
was calm.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON INTENSITY OF LIGHT.

Measurements also were not made of the intensities of the light
in the two plats. There was a considerable difference in this
respect nevertheless. Shadows were considerably less strong
underneath than outside. Much of the light was in the form of
diffused light.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON EVAPORATION.

The comparative evaporation from the two plats was deter-
mined by direct measurement. A large, shallow dish was set
level on the ground in each plat, filled with water to the brim
and the depth measured with a metal rule. Measurements were
made of the amount of evaporation every morning from May 12
to 25 and June 1 to 5, both inclusive. After each measurement
the dishes were filled to the brim.

The record of these measurements appears in Table I. An
examination of these records shows that the evaporation from an
exposed surface of water in the open varied from 35 inch to 43
inch in 24 hours and under the cover from =, inch to ;4 inch.
The total evaporation in the open for the nineteen days of obser-
vation was 51% inches, or an average of 0.27 inch per day. The
total evaporation from the shaded plat was 214 inches, or 0.13
inch per day. The cover diminished evaporation just about one-
half.

Without the aid of instruments of measurement the greatly
reduced rate of evaporation under the cover was obvious, for
moisture on the leaves under the cover did not evaporate nearly
so rapidly as it did from leaves in the open. So much does the
cover interfere with the drying off of the foliage that Mr. Gil-
lett advises that it be removed after a rain until the leaves have

become dry.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 237

DISCUSSION.

Among the changes in environment advantageous to the plant,
the great decrease in the movement of air appears to be the most
important. The cover acts as a cloud, confining a layer of air
underneath and protecting it in large measure from change by
air currents without. This results in a greatly reduced evapora-
tion—also transpiration as will be seen later—accompanied by
an increase in temperature and in moisture content of air and of
soil. The increase in temperature of the air would of itself
increase evaporation while the increase in moisture content
would diminish it; but far out-weighing either or both of these
is the greatly reduced evaporation due to the diminished move-
ment of the air. This decrease in evaporation accounts in part
at least for the increased temperature of the soil, since evapora-
tion is a cooling process.

The increased temperature of the air is due to the gradual
accumulation of warmth in a relatively slow-changing atmos-
phere and this in spite of the fact that the white cover would
intercept and reflect a part of the sun’s rays. The increased
moisture content of the air would be to some extent instru-
mental in preventing the radiation of the earth’s heat back into
space. At the same time the cover probably retards to some
extent the upward movement of the warmer, lighter air under-
neath. The heat radiated from the earth is also conserved for the
use of the plant in larger part than it is in the open.

EFFECT OF THE CHANGED ENVIRONMENT ON THE
PLANT ITSELF.

The effect of the changed environment on the development of
the plant itself will now be considered. |

EFFECT OF SHADING ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH.

At the Station the cover was placed in position April 30, at
which time the new leaves were just starting. As the season
advanced it was evident that the shaded plants were making the
more rapid growth.

The promoticn of growth by shading showed itself to a less
marked extent in the forwarding of the season of coming into
Lloom, as is shown in the following table:

238 Reporvr of THE HorTiCULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THD

TasLe II]I.—Dartes or BLOOMING OF VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES
SHADED AND NoT SHADED.

CoMING INTO BLoom.
VARIETY. —
Shaded. Not shaded.
bs) NEY UG 05 ea RO RN er IER OR eer RN Ne eG May 13 May 16
BGriGha eC he aod 9020.30 CPD o SIO CIN OED o aieen OCR May 16 May 19
PTO E WU AVicreieiotcletclstale cucie eittersroinieie etavele: are reverence brates ore May 16 May 19
Wirriap Es elitie ss fercecrene mpaus, cyseatay= ravage. a Setears ote ren eves ctere ial May 18 May 19
SIC Rey Pee DISIITRCIeH Tl Ri crcic ea eee cereus May 20 May 22

The foliage and the fruit stems, alike at Penn Yan and at
Geneva, were about two inches taller under the cover than out-
side and the leaf expanse was proportionately greater. That is,
the development was symmetrical. The shaded foliage was softer
and lighter in color but apparently normal. It was in no way
distorted or drawn.

Shading was of marked benefit during the drought of 1903.
In the open some plants were killed and the growth of all was
seriously interfered with. In the shaded plat no plants were
killed by the drought, though here also growth was somewhat
checked, as was evidenced by an increasingly sickly appearance
before the rains came. The plants never entirely recovered from
this set-back. This shaded plat made much the fuller matted
rows for the reasons that the foliage made a heavier growth and
that no plants were killed. Some time before the rains came in
June the growth of new leaves in both plats had ceased; but
when the cessation of growth in both plats had taken place the
number of mature leaves per crown in the open was four in a
large majority of crowns while under the cover it was five. That
is, for the same number of plants there were 25 per ct. more
leaves under the cover than outside. The number of leaf buds
per crown appeared to be about the same in both plats.

SHADING AS A PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

One noteworthy merit of the practice of shading is the pro-
tection it affords against frosts. Observations were made on this
point in the Shortsville experiment in 1902. That year heavy
frosts occurred the nights of May 9 and 10 with light frosts for
two or three nights thereafter. When the frost came the clusters

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 239

of buds were just showing. On May 18 the foliage under the
cloth was of a healthy green and was uninjured by frost while
many leaves in the check were killed and many more injured.
Twelve buds in as many clusters in each of the varieties in the
open were examined and all found to be injured. Under the
cover no Haverland, 5 out of 12 Wilson and 10 out of 12 Jessie
were injured.

At this time the buds had not developed ysl to permit
of making extensive observations on the extent of injury to them.
It was observed, however, that very few of the smaller-sized buds
under the cloth showed any injury while all buds of any size not
shaded were dead.

On May 22 an examination of the blossoms was made to ascer-
tain the extent of the injury by frost. The results are shown
in the following table:

TABLE ITV.—Exrent or Frost INJuryY TO SHADED AND UNSHADED

STRAWBERRIES.
VARIETY Buds Buds Buds nes
examined. injured. uninjured. injured.

Per ct

Wilsonshadedlax. fica Sele obs. 93 8 85 8.6

Wilson, MOUSNAGEO een oc ee cals eee ae 99 79 20 80

Haverland, shaded... Rear ee tee 154 10 144 6.5

Haverland, mottshaded: suet ten ae 142 127 15 89.4

From these data it appears that out of a total of 241 blossoms
examined in the check, 206, or 85 per ct. were injured, while
among 247 under the cover only 18, or 7 per ct. were injured.

Only two observations were made on the effect of shade on
temperature at the time of a frost. On May 14 at 5:10 4. Mca
thermometer in the check registered 30.5° and one under the
cover showed 33°. On the following morning at 4:20 the tem-
perature in the check was 28° andj under the cover 33°.

EFFECT OF SHADING ON DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASE.

At the Station in 1903 no disease appeared on any variety
except Hunn, in either shaded plat or check. Hunn, which is
known to be very susceptible to disease, was much affected by
leaf blight in both plats, but very considerably the more in the
shaded plat. Mr. Gillett reports that in 1902 there was much

240 Report or THE HorricULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

more mildew under the shade than outside. He recommends that
the cover be drawn off after a rain until excess of moisture has
evaporated.

EFFECT OF THE COVER ON POLLINATION.

That the cover did not seriously interfere with pollination if
it did at all, is shown by the yields, whether of perfect or imper-
fect varieties. Immediately after the fruit began to swell, over
200 blossom clusters were examined, both inside and outside.
Those in one plat were found to be swelling as well as those in
the other, proving that pollination had been sufficient and effec-
tive. Bees and other insects were observed working in abun-
dance under the cover. One day when the wind was quite strong,
perhaps twice as many insects were found in the shaded as in
the check plat. The cover appeared to offer them protection.

TABLE V.—SuUMMARY OF YIELDS.

VARIETY. Shaded. | Not shaded. | Depresse by
Oz Oz. Per ct
At GENEVA, 1903:
Rare SIVSU Ears) tors diss; sus aks oustovore/shescuatetaiavee eho ieners 686 301 1281
BRAN YING Eis Ota eta ea ere eee 442 225 961
TRS KG ea a SEP ot Reena ie gL i pee ev 880 849 | 4*
IWirrltace cio: Sealer ee eee ama { 251 261 4
«od BID Vitae, Beetle ERR NRA ie Mert ae In hn rn Jen Oe tat eee 247 294 19
At PENN Yan, 1903:
IMEX GGA VATICUICS |. cPere tcc e aise on slele «ove yoke sce atte SLs | 3583? 13
At Penn Yan, 1902: | }
Warne D CAUtYE tides coc csc ee tien wclclemieic cee 296 351 16
Star seetesiackectais aise eit eee techni heen eaell 99 161 39
Parker Earle 340 483 30
Enormous 144 262 45
Seafor 233 408 43
New York. 70 170 59
Atlantic.... 305 397 23
Clyde.o.... 219 256 14
DAMP Oper, eta yeeete pole Tova tere deer oteiels eee eee eee 332 596 44
Glen Mary | 200 347 43
Bubach 283 513 45
Beverly 330 496 34
Haverland | 271 500 46
STAD US VINE. Mierckioe abn ote see hte tee ee. 119 400 70
(Cniedynll GATARORr ote COUR E Iron ee ccs oe ae mee 299 | 510 \ 41
eee y ‘Bae 249 507 51
Average percentage of loss at Penn Yan in
1 C2 | 0 Res MT 1 SARI art Cate eek ety heed nies Petar HS te od ae 40
At SHORTSVILLE, 1902:
WalSon sc hres cee res se ticle te Re Cee 744 | 568 Sil
EDA VOY LANG see sien oic.0 ohele scone Ee en none 793 469 691
JOSBIC « oSie's 2 pasion eae ee tant oe ee al 514 47

1 Increase. ? Pounds.

EFFECT OF SHADING ON YIELD.

A summary statement of yields in the different experiments is
made in Table V. It will be noticed that at Geneva two varieties,

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 241

Marshall and Brandywine, showed a marked increase in yield as
a result of shading, Ridgeway and Wm. Belt showed little effect
either way and Hunn showed a decrease. Perhaps in the case of
Hunn, however, the decreased yield may be due to the greater
severity with which this variety was attacked by leaf blight under
the cover.

The cover used at Geneva in 1903 was the one used at Shorts-
ville the year previous. At Shortsville two varieties showed an
increased yield under the cover and one showed a decrease. But
it must be borne in mind that the plats in the check were severely
injured by frost while those under the cover were protected.
Perhaps this fact may account for a part or all of the increase
apparently due to shading.

At Penn Yan all varieties showed a loss under the treatment.
This is probably due to interference with access of light, for as
has already been stated, the cover used was a little heavier than
the one used at Shortsville and at Geneva. The loss on different
varieties in 1902 ranged from 14 per ct. to 70 per ct., averag-
ing 40 per ct. for all varieties tested. In 1903 the average loss
was only 18 per ct. the variety being Sample with some admix-
ture of Marshall and other varieties: but in 1902 the loss on a row
of a nearly similar mixture of varieties was 51 per ct. The
season of 1903 was dry; in 1902 moisture was abundant. It
appears then that shading is far more beneficial under conditions
of deficient than of abundant moisture.

TasLeE VI.—StTRAWBERRY YIELDS AT GENEVA, 1903.

shaded plat.

| | ©
| | fa |
| io)
| | | 5
| | | | a |
hinesal | |Si~o | 8
|. eel [Pea frat Mts
w(SP@lBlSlAIN AIA Slojola|@| Bel s
Lee | | 5 Oo
falalaig/e/2/2/2/2/3/5/2/2| g8l§
p2/5)/65/65/5/6)/8/6/5/6)46 S515\/al|<4 1
4 eek | | | us| | ae S| =
oz.| 0z.| oz.| oz.| oz.| oz.| oz.| oz.| oz | oz.| oz.| oz.| 0z.| oz.| oz. | per
SHADED: | ct.
Marshall, 2 TOWS Stee i 4) 5] 22/102) 94/127 151| 80) 46) 37) 8| 686) 343] 128
Brandywine, 2 rows..... 21| 27) 65) 90) 98) 56) 65) 20) |442| 221! 96
Ridgeway, 2 rows....... 1 16} 31/114/187)204|138/139| 42) 9] 880| 440) 4
Wim! Belt, Mrow....ce..- 10} 42) 34] 56) 37| 43) 20) 9) |251 4*
lshtinny Wado edn eis ee 2| 15| 16} 27] 51] 64) 72247 19°
Nor SHApDEpD: | |
Marshall, 2 rows........ 8} 52} 52) 46] 58) 42) 22) 17) 4 301) 150
Bradywine, 2 rows...... 5| 17| 31) 44) 54) 28) 36) 10 225) 112}
Ridgeway, 2 rows....... 13) 31) 57|177/193 142,177 35| 24 |849 424
Wim Beltyiltows.. sees 8} 19) 43 42) 32) 35) 37) 45) __|261
Ein sala we scdteleeice 10 | 13| 37| 63] 63) 77/294
| } |
+ Decrease.

242 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

EFFECT OF SHADING ON EARLIN®SSS.

The effect of shading on earliness in the different tests was vari-
ous but in on case marked. The yield of each variety at Geneva
at each picking is shown in detail in Table VI. A casual examina-
tion of this table might lead to the conclusion that shading had

increased earliness somewhat but such is not the case except with

one variety. For instance 4 oz. of Marshall (30 quarts per acre)
were picked June 4, and 5 oz. (3714 quarts per acre) June 6, both
of which pickings were made before any pickings were made in
the check. Similarly 1 oz. of Ridgeway shaded (or 714 quarts per
acre) were picked before any were ripe in the check; but all of
these amounts are too small to be of practical importance. The
first picking of Marshall commercially important in the open was
on, June 13. Taking into consideration the fact that the yield of
that variety was 128 per ct. greater under the cover than in the
open, and increasing the actual yield in the open up to June 13 in
this proportion, the figure 186 (748 quarts per acre) is obtained,
which is to be set against a total yield of 1338 oz. (731 quarts per
acre) in the shaded plat up to the same time. The difference is
too small to consider. By similar calculations it can be shown
that the ripening of Ridgeway was not hastened.

That the cover had no material influence in either hastening
or retarding the ripening season of any variety in the Geneva
experiment can also be shown by computing the average dates
of ripening of the several varieties. It is thus shown that the
average dates of ripening of Marshall, Brandywine and Ridge-
way were unaffected, while that of Wm. Belt was delayed two
days and that of Hunn was advanced one day. A slightly earlier
maturity of all varieties would have been expected in view of
the fact that the seasons of blossoming had been slightly advanced
(see p. 238). The expectation was not realized, however.

At Shortsville the season of Wilson appeared to be advanced five
days, that of Haverland six days and that of Jessie one day. But
the unequal injury to the shaded and the check plants by frost
must be borne in mind in interpreting these data, (see p. 48),
All of the buds in the open that were the more advanced at the
time of the frost were killed; but none of Haverland under the
cover were found killed. Then, other things being equal, the
shaded plants would be earlier than those in the open by just the

Oe ea ae

New York AGricutTuRAL Experiment Srarion. 243

period of time it would require to bring other buds to the stage
of development reached by those killed by frost. This single con-
sideration appears sufficient to account for the apparent increase .
in earliness in Haverland under the cover.

In addition it must be remembered that the foliage in the open
was much injured by frost while that under the cover was entirely
free from such injury.

Similarly, all of the earlier buds of Wilson in the check plat
were killed but only five-twelfths of them, by estimate, in the
shaded plat. In the case of Jessie, ten-twelfths of the early buds
under the cover are estimated to have been killed and therewith
is found an increase of only one day in apparent earliness.

It is to be concluded, then, that the earlier ripening of shaded
plants at Shortsville is not due to a hastening of the physiological
processes of development but merely to the utterly extraneou:
circumstance that the early shaded buds were protected from
injury by frost while those in the open were not.

At Penn Yan, under the thicker cover, the seasons of some
. varieties were unaffected while those of others were retarded from
one to three days. None was advanced.

EFFECT OF SHADING ON THE SIZE OF BERRY.

With the thicker cloth used at Penn Yan there was no differ-
ence in size between the shaded and the unshaded berries. With
the thinner cloth used at Geneva, shading uniformly increased
the size of the berry, though in very different proportions in
different varieties and at different periods of the ripening season.
These facts are brought out in Table VII, which shows the number
of berries in carefully measured quarts of different lots from the
shaded and the check plats. Thirteen quarts from each plat were
examined. The total number of unshaded berries was 1452 but
of shaded ones 1102 or only three-fourths as many. In every
case it required more unshaded than shaded berries to make a
quart. But the smaller the berries the more they settle togeth«:
in the basket and the greater the actual quantity the grower has to
deliver for a quart and the less he realizes from a given weight of
fruit. Also, the smaller the berry the longer it takes to pick a
quart. At the same time the basket of large berries with its
actually smaller content, brings much the larger price in the

244 Report OF THE HorriICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

market. Thus considering simply effect on size of berry, the
practice of shading is trebly advantageous.

TaBLeE VII.—SHowine NumsBer or Berries Per Quart From
SHADED AND From UNSHADED PLatTs.

JUNE 13. JUNE 16. JUNE 19. JUNE 22. JUNE 25,
| x

ze} ca | cs) ce ce) co) ie we] ce]

a a A A a aa a a A a

wD a 7) wR nD a 7) D 7) a
ne |
Marshall.......... | 56 | 81 | 64 | 88 | 61 | 93 | 92 | 153] 136] 142
Brandywine....... 63 69 82 110 147 165
Ridgeway. A... 5... | 63 72 56 72 85 116 83 121
Wime Belt. te. Ay 51 57 63 its)

EFFECT OF SHADING ON THE COLOR, GENERAL APPEARANCE, TEXTURE,
AND QUALITY OF THE FRUIT.

Except in the first picking of some of the varieties, there was
very little if any difference in the color of the berries from the
two plats. In the case of the first pickings of Marshall and Ridge-
way the berries from the shaded plats were a little brighter
and glossier. But the effect of shading on color was not in an,
case enough to be of importance in practice.

The increased size of the berries under the cover added more
to their general appearance than would at first be thought of
as resulting from size alone. The greater the development of the
receptable the smaller the number of seeds on a given area and
the less is the groundwork of scarlet obscured by the dark-colored
seeds. This effect was conspicuous in the first pickings of Mar-
shall and still more so in Brandywine. In the latter variety
the seeds are borne much exposed on the receptable and at best
give the fruit a very rough appearance. If they are crowded
together on an imperfectly developed receptable the bad appear-
ance of the fruit is exaggerated. In the case of Brandywine the
average buyer would select a box of shade-grown berries in pref-
erence to a box grown in the open. But the berries of this variety
grown in the open at Geneva were of very inferior appearance.

The texture of the berries as far as eating quality is concerned
was not influenced perceptibly except in the case of Marshall. Jn

—————

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 245

this case the shade-grown berries were softer and more melting
in the mouth. As affecting shipping quality, only in the cases
of Marshall and Ridgeway did the texture appear to be affected.
In the case of Marshall the effect would be of little if any practi-
cal importance. But in the case of Ridgeway, naturally a rather
soft berry, the. shade-grown fruit would not stand shipment to
distant markets though it would be all right for local trade.

As to sweetness, the first pickings from all varieties in the check
at Geneva were sweeter than those shaded; but this difference
practically disappeared as the bulk of the crop came on and later.
The first pickings of Brandywine showed perhaps the greatest
difference in this respect. Brandywines from the open were
notably sweet but small. Wm. Belt showed the least difference
in sweetness between the two plats. At Penn Yan no difference
in sweetness between the shaded and the unshaded fruit could
be detected.

Through the courtesy of Dr. L. L. Van Slyke, chemist of this
Station, determinations were made by Mr. F. D. Fuller, assist-
. ant chemist, of acid and sugar in samples of Marshall and Ridge-
way, Shaded and unshaded, of the picking of June 19, 1903, at
Geneva.

TABLE VIII.—Acip AND SuGAarR CoNTENTS OF SHADED AND
UNSHADED STRAWBERRIES.

Acid as malic Sugar as invert
acid. sugar.
Per ct Per ct
Marshall not sade sta. cic die ois ah daniels cftned tebe even niet rs 1.38 6.54
ANVEsarrss asad Mares sa ch Sd Sa: rctesene ss arb? co ey aties:oeilelis ole: loslelle Pole (sen )la 1.27 6.11
TA PE WAN MOU SHAG oeresicn lore ane oles lene miele ever€ opine 1.64 6.85
AE WAVES MAGEE alee ASP Sins caine oven tiovege/'cioveiebeys aveuene 1.59 5.56

These results as regards acid content were surprising. The
shaded berries were much the less sweet; but this was not due
to the presence of more acid but of very much less sugar. There
was actually a less percentage of acid in the shaded than in the
unshaded fruit.

PRACTICAL RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT.

The practical outcome of this experiment is as follows: With
the thinner cover, productiveness has been very considerably

946 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

increased in the case of some varieties but decreased in others;
but in no case was the increase in yield sufficient to offset the
added cost of shading. With the thicker cover the yield was
greatly reduced. Earliness was little affected by the cover. In
the cases of some varieties under the thicker cover, ripening was
retarded. In these tests the great increases, either in earliness or
in yield, reported by some experimenters have not been obtained.
It appears probable that a cover of thinner material, permitting
the passage of more light, would give better results. The most
serious objection to shading strawberries as was done in these ex-
periments is the interference with the access of light to the plants.
We have, however, found that shading with the thinner cover
Improves the size of the fruit and sometimes its general appear-
ance though at the expense of sweetness. In this respect our
experience agrees with that of previous experimenters. The
cover also proved a very excellent protection against frosts and
light freezes, as was expected. Herein shading is a matter of
insurance. But merely in so far as protection from frost is con-
cerned, this can be obtained more cheaply in some other way.

DISCUSSION ON THE EFFECT OF SHADING ON PLANTS
IN GENERAL.

Shading makes three general changes in the environment of the
plant of importance to it: (1) It conserves soil moisture by
lessening evaporation and transpiration; (2) it increases the
temperature of air and of soil, stimulating the plant to more rapid
growth; (3) it diminishes the intensity of the light, promoting
the growth of aerial vegetative parts but interfering Mi the
fruiting function.

The element of the environment that may be most
widely varied by shading and at the same time the one
that produces the most profound changes in both strue-
ture and functioning of the plant is light, interference with
access of which is accompanied by decrease in _ its
tonic effect in retarding growth. The consequence is an exag-
gerated growth of leaves and stems. Interference with
access of light also interferes with assimilation, with resulting
lessened manufacture of non-nitrogenous matter, this resulting
in turn in weak development of cell wall and fibrovascular

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 247

bundles. This latter consideration is of importance in practice,
since it accounts for shaded leaves being more tender for eating.
That shade grown-plants contain a smaller percentage of non-
nitrogenous matter (also of total dry matter) than do normally
erown plants is shown by analyses by Géneau de Lamarliére*
Sachs? and Berthelot® among others.

Again, there is little storage of reserve material in shaded
plants since the most of that manufactured is used up at once
in the metabolism of the plant. As a consequence, storage organs
such as tubers and roots remain undersized, or in the case of
fruits their number is diminished though the size of the indi-
vidual may be increased as in the case of shade-grown oranges.
Fruitfulness is diminished by shading, in part at: least, as a
result of restricting the manufacture of reserve material. That
fruitfulness is not governed by access of light to the fruiting
organs themselves is demonstrated in the common practice of
covering buds to avoid cross-pollination and keeping the fruit
covered to its maturity.

The effect of shading in conserving soil-moisture by diminish-
ing evaporation has already been discussed (p. 254). The gen-
eral effect on transpiration is also greatly to reduce it, thus fur-
ther conserving soil moisture. The factor chiefly concerned in
producing the change is velocity of wind. Wiesner* has shown
that in the case of some species of plants the rate of transpiration
may be increased by a strong wind to twenty times its rate in still
air. In occasional species, however, wind has the effect of check-
ing transpiration. The extreme effect of a given velocity of
wind is obtained when the current of air strikes the transpir-
ing organ at right angles. In shading, losses from excessive
transpiration caused by air currents are reduced to a very low
rate. Their maximum effects are done away with entirely, since
the plants are protected above all from descending currents.

The effect of reducing the intensity of light is also on the
whole to reduce transpiration. In experiments by Fittbogen®

1Compt. Rend., 115: 368 (1892). Abst. in Bied. Centbl., 23: 351 (1894).
2Cited by Vines, S. H. Physiology of Plants, p. 253.

3Compt., Rend., 128: 139 (1899). Abst. in Hap. Sta. Rec., 11: 420 (1899).
‘Der Naturforscher, 21: 225. Abst. in Bied. Centbl., 18: 135 (1889.)

5Cited by Sorauer, Pflanzonkrankheiten; 2 ed., p. 480.

248 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

shaded barley plants transpired less in the same length of time
than did plants grown in the open. But the shaded plants trans-
pired considerably more water per gram of dry matter than did
the check plants. Further, much of the light under the cover
is diffused light, as has been stated already, and plants transpire
less in diffused light than in direct sunlight, as has been shown
by Wiesner.®

GENERAL APPLICABILITY OF SHADING AS A CUL-
TURAL PRACTICE.

The foregoing study of the effects of shading on the environ-
ment of the plant and on the plant itself renders possible general
statements as to the climatic conditions and the kinds of crops to
which the practice is applicable.

Shading as a means of conserving soil moisture is practically
efficacious only within restricted limits. In seasons of abundant
rainfall the more usual and less expensive methods of conserving
soil moisture are sufficient and shading is unnecessary, assuming
that exceptionally large size of the fruit is not a desideratum.
In seasons of exceptional drouth, such as that of 1903 at Geneva,
shading as managed in our experiments does not maintain suffi-
cient moisture in the soil for the normal growth of the plant,
though the practice is helpful to this end. But between these
limits, that is under average climatic conditions, the practice is
of very considerable helpfulness. It is not, however, nearly so
efficacious as irrigation which, where practicable, would usually
be cheaper.

As a means of raising temperatures the practice is best appli-
cable in those seasons and in those localities where there are the
largest number of bright sunshiny days; it is also most efficient
in that part of the day in which the sun’s rays fall most nearly
from the zenith, that is, at mid-day. The practice is of little
value in cloudy weather. It is of more value in the spring and
early summer, when average temperatures are considerably below
the optimum for growth, than in mid-summer, when this opti-
mum is nearly or quite attained in the open.

Shading is chiefly applicable to crops grown for aerial vege-
tative parts. These parts grow much larger and at the same

‘Cited by Vines, 8. H., Physiology of Plants, p.’ 109.

New York AGricuLttTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 249

time are more tender and succulent. Among crops well adapted
for shading are tobacco, rhubarb, celery, lettuce, dandelion,
Swiss chard and asparagus, all of which have been successfully
erown under cover. But shading is not applicable to crops
grown for underground vegetative parts, such as carrots, turnips
and potatoes, whose economic value lies in their stored reserve
material. But radishes have given good results under the treat-
ment. In this case the root is used simply as a condiment. The
practice also is not applicable to crops grown for fruits or seeds.

In conclusion, the climatic conditions to which shading as a
horticultural practice is applicable are, a high percentage of sun-
shine, a rather light rainfall and a considerable wind with a
consequent high rate of evaporation. Such conditions prevail
markedly on the Great Plains and, if there are no other consid-
erations entering in to materially affect results, shading might
be expected to prove an especially beneficial practice there, par-
ticularly in middle Texas, Indian Territory, Oklahoma, Kansas,
Nebraska and, South Dakota.

950 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THB

NEW YORK APPLES IN STORAGE.*

S. A. Beacw AnD V. A. CLARK.

INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin treats of different varieties of apples with
regard to their natural season of ripening and keeping and their
adaptability for storage. The material has been obtained from
three distinctly different sources. First, from tests made at this
Station on fruit which was grown in the Station orchards and
stored in a small warehouse without artificial refrigeration ;
second, from men who have had years of practical experience in
handling fruit, both in cold storage and in ordinary fruit ware-
houses; and third, from tests made by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture in cooperation with this Station on numer-
ous varieties of apples from the Station orchards in chemical
cold storage, the results of which have quite recently become
available.

The primary purpose of the tests which were made at this
Station was to determine the ordinary season of ripening and
the keeping qualities of the different varieties of apples which
were being grown in the Station orchards. These tests brought
out some results of general interest concerning the keeping of
apples which are worthy of publication, but which are quite
incomplete when regarded from the standpoint of the general
adaptability of these varieties to storage purposes.

In order that we might be able to present a still more complete
account of the behavior of different sorts of apples in storage
than could be derived from our experiments it seemed good to
consult on this subject those men who have had experience in
storing apples on a large scale under commercial conditions.
Accordingly, the following list of questions was sent out to a
number of storage men:

WIAD YA Aare aoe bien sa esas sonar tote
(1) How many years’ experience in handling apples?
(2) Under what other names do you know this particular variety?

*A reprint of Bulletin No. 248.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 251

How does it compare with either Hubbardston, Tomkins King, Rhode Island
Greening, Baldwin or Ben Davis, (3) for holding in chemical cold storage, (4)
for holding in ice cold storage, (5) for holding in common and eellar storage?

What peculiarities, if any, does it show in manner of final deterioration
in chemical cold storage, such as (6) scald, (7) loss in quality, (8) color,
(9) firmness before decay sets in, (10) skin becoming bitter, (11) fruit
shriveling or (12) beoming mealy or (13) bursting after becoming mealy?

(14) Does it go down in chemical cold storage gradually or quickly?

(15) At what temperature should it be held?

What is its season in (16) chemical cold storage, (17) ice cold storage,
(18) cellar storage? ;

(19) so what extent does its keeping quality vary in different seasons?

(20) How does this variety stand heat before reaching cold storage?

' The following parties responded to our circular:

J. H. Bahrenburg, Bro. & Co., New York city; 20 years experi-
ence.

W. N. Britton, of W. N. Britton & Co., Rochester, N. Y.; 27
years’ experience in growing and shipping apples.

B. Fenton, of the Erie Preserving Co., Buffalo, N. Y.; over 30
years’ experience in handling apples in common storage.

W. D. Graham, of W. D. Graham & Son, Minneapolis, Minn. ;
40 years’ experience in growing and shipping apples.

W. H. Hart, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; 25 years’ experience.

G. W. Hickox, Batavia, N.. Y.; 20 years’ experience.

Chas. A. Hoag, Lockport, N. Y.; 25 years’ experience in grow-
ing and storing apples.

A. C. Howes, Albion, N. Y.; 30 years’ experience.

Benj. Newhall, of F. Newhall & Sons, Chicago, Il].; 25 years’
experience. The house has 55 years’ experience. |

G. W. Payne, Rochester, N. Y.; 20 years’ experience with apples
in cellar storage.

Phillips Bros., Castile, N. Y.; 20 years’ experience.

D. L. Prisch, Middleport, N. Y.; 15 years’ experience.

J. M. Shuttleworth, Brantford, Ontario, Canada; over 30 years’
experience.

T. B. Wilson, Hall’s Corners, N. Y., who has many years’
experience in growing apples and holding them in common
storage, has read in manuscript the parts of this bulletin based
on the experience of storage men and has made many sugges-
tions.

The summary of the experience of cold storage men (pp. 258
to 277) was read in proof by the following gentlemen, who made

252 Report of THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

many suggestions: D. 8. Beckwith, Albion, N. Y.; A. C. Howes,
Albion, N. Y.; B. Frank Morgan, Albion, N. Y.; Chas A. Hoag,
Lockport, N. Y.

Chas. Shafer, Gasport, N. Y., furnished a number of notes on
the comparative efficiency of ice storage and chemical cold
storage.

The authors acknowledge their obligation to all these gentle-
men who have so generously assisted them by filling out the
circulars or by reading proof.

The recent publication by the United States Department of
Agriculture of results of its tests of varieties in chemical cold
storage in cooperation with this Station gave opportunity for
supplementing the results of the Station’s tests in natural tem-
perature storage with tests of fruit from the same orchards in
cold storage.

In 1901 and 1902 the Station furnished 109 varieties of apples,
picked and packed the same, and consigned them to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Buffalo where the tests were made by
Profs. G. Harold Powell and 8. H. Fulton. The results of their
work are reported in Bulletin 48 of the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, which was issued while this bulletin was being prepared for
the printer and from which the notes on these tests in this
bulletin are taken. Tests with fruit from other localities were
in progress at the same time but only those tests with fruit from
this Station are reported in this bulletin except as otherwise
noted.

THE STATION TESTS.

The Station tests were made during a period of four years
with a large number of varieties (165) of apples which were
stored in the Station fruit house with no artificial refrigeration.
The details of this investigation were carried out by C. P. Close,
then Assistant Horticulturist at this Station. As already stated
the primary purpose of the tests was to find out the season of
ripening of the different varieties and the length of time during
which they would keep in sound condition under natural tem-
perature conditions. The fruit which was used in these tests
was all grown in the Station orchards, as was also that used in
the Department cooperative tests.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 253

THE ORCHARDS.

These orchards are located on the upland about one and one-
half miles west of Seneca Lake at an altitude of about 600 feet
above sea level. The trees from which most of the fruit was
taken have mostly been top-grafted upon young trees of bearing
age. The tops varied in age from 15 to 20 years from the graft.
A few were either young trees or old trees not top-grafted. The
soil is a rather heavy clay loam with heavier clay subsoil. It is
thoroughly tile drained. Thorough tillage was given till mid-
summer after which some cover crop was sown. The trees were
well sprayed and pruned. The fruit usually was not thinned.
No stable manure has been given to the trees at any time
so far as is known except that one orchard of old trees was well
manured in the winter of 1892-3. Acid phosphate and muriate
of potash were applied in moderate amounts in 1896.

The fruit was not all picked at the same time but so far as
possible the different varieties were gathered in succession in the
order in which they ripened or reached suitable condition for
taking from the tree and placing in storage. They were not
allowed to lie in the orchard after being picked but were taken
at once to the fruit house where they were stored in bushel boxes
arranged in compartments which were closed with hinged covers.
(Plate XIV.) There were no covers attached to the boxes. All
fruit in storage at any one period was similarly treated so far as
storage conditions were concerned except as already stated, that
it was not all brought into storage on the same date.

THE FRUIT HOUSE.

The fruit house was designed expressly for storing small quan-
tities of a large number of varieties of apples or pears. It was
built in 1895. The building faces the north. It is of wood,
35x30 feet, one-story with a stone-wall basement having a
southern exposure. The storage room used in these tests is
the natural temperature room on the first floor, opening into a
vestibule with entrance from the north. Adjoining it are a show
room and a room for storing ice. The ice room connects with a
room below and is not concerned in these tests. The studding
of the walls of the building is covered both inside and outside

254 REporRT OF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

with sheathing paper. The inside is covered with matched spruce,
the outside with siding and the space filled with sawdust to the
roof. Next to the sheathing boards inside is set another row of
studs and these are also covered with sheathing paper and
matched stuff. The space in this case is left empty for dead air
space. The walls of the building are thus double, having a layer
of sawdust without and a dead air space within. The floor, ceiling
and interior partitions are constructed on the same principle.
(See Plate XV.)

No artificial refrigeration was used. When the outside atmos-
phere was cooler than that in the room the windows were opened
if cooler temperature was desired. <A record of the temperature
at 7 a. m. and 6 p. m. was kept daily from September 12, 1896,
to July 18, 1897, and from October 23, 1897, to August 14, 1898.
This record shows that the temperature ranged in degrees as
follows:

TapLE I.—SHOWING RANGES AND AVERAGES OF TEMPERATURES IN
NATURAL SrorAGE Room sy Montrus ror Two SEASONS.
Season 1896-7.

Monru. Range. Average, 7 A. M. Average 6 P. M.

1896: Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F.
Sontemberianisscwieietiaie-s etree 42 to 74 58.0 60.2
October? Trey oie hee 37 to 63 46.0 47.6
NOVEMBER. e cic steers ierersvsie ete rousas 29.5 to 61 44.2 45.0
December G. a eieis ceaseless 29.5 to 45 34.4 34.8

1897: + |
UGnirin Ss eqsedeenand 5 Pa anooe 32 to44 | 36.2 35.8
WEDLUALY. aris cic iets as deen eee sre 32 to 43 35.1 34.9
ianelinekintcteoers ce rcie torres its 33 «to 49 Shad 38.7
J. cinta See EERO R oR eMC CR 39 to 59 45.3 46.9
IEDC Res erst over tokens <,axaieiete-stn ors 45 to62 53.8 56.2
GUUME Meera isis ciave sbs-vis Dae eles 50 to 70 60.2 62.7
RCTS a ee ste fos EO Ss oa. ava devlas 66 to 79 71.9 74.4

Srason 1897-8.

MCtODErMaisestencten: gies ts ate oi 38 to 55 45.7 50.6
November Scsteundsieleaersiae ok ons 33 to 52 40.2 41.8
Wecember*. cw seas eee sees 32 to48 36.5 37.0

1898:
JaANUSLy;. sess s ten ee ee sl “to 39 390.5 35.3
IWODTAIATY ayers clucle oer nee eee 33 «to 42 36.0 35.9
Marchese tks are eins ete 32 ‘to 52 41.2 42.3
/- Saver Wie Aa CERRO TO ONGC oz to 52 42.7 44.8
WAVES acts oer epee Lntee sere 42 to 67 54.3 56.6
DUBE aie ne ccteia watered mre iwieye oitegs 55 to 74 65.2 67.6
FA 3h NCR TOTS Seat sets Siemcka & 53 ~=to 80 69.8 72.9
ANIBUBb atch aces gisce.eio ei Steye sere 63 to 78 68.9 71.0

The temperature doubtless fluctuated more slowly in the boxes
where the fruit was kept than it did outside of the closed com-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 255

partments, and therefore the variations in temperature expe-
rienced by the fruit itself must have been somewhat less than
that shown in the records of the temperature of the fruit room.

This storage house gives very satisfactory results. The
efficiency of the natural temperature room is shown exactly in
the table of temperature on page 254. A comparatively low tem-
perature can be maintained in the fall by opening the windows
at night and closing them during the day. In winter a single
large-burner lamp holds the temperature above the freezing
point of fruit in the coldest weather, even with a strong wind
blowing.

METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE TESTS.

About 100 apples of each variety were usually included in the
test where this number of proper specimens could be obtained.
The conditions for the different varieties were similar. At inter-
vals of from three to four weeks the fruit was examined and
those apples which were unsound or had apparently passed
marketable conditions were discarded. In this manner the exact
record was obtained of the length of life of each apple indi- .
vidually. This made it possible to determine the average life in
storage of each variety and the date to which the average period
of life extended under the existing conditions.

VARIETIES IN THE STATION TESTS, ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY
ACCORDING TO AVERAGE LIFE.

In the following lists are shown the varieties used in the Sta-
tion tests. They are arranged in the chronological order of
average lives beginning with the earliest, and for convenience
grouped by half-months except in the case of the few varieties
whose average life fell in October:

Varieties whose average life fell in October:

Gracie, Parry,
Keswick, Strode.
Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of November:
English Pippin, Chenango,
Alexander, Pomona,

Pound Sweet, Stump.

256 Report ofr THE HorricULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of November:

Boskoop,
Elgin,

Pumpkin Russet,

Jersey Sweet,

Krintartar,
Haskell,
Longfield.

. Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of December:

Ohio Pippin,
Heidorn,
Gravenstein,

Longworth,
Tufts.

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of December:

Haas,
Ostrakoff,

St. Lawrence,
Tobias,

Washington Strawberry,

Romna,

Ginnie.

Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of January:

Admirable,
Tobias Pippin,
Magog,

Aucuba,
Gideon,
Disharoon.

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of January:

Jefferis,
McMahon,
Stanard,
Twenty Ounce,
Blenheim,
Mother,

Wolf River,
Fameuse,
Crotts,
Henniker,
Jewett Red,
McIntosh.

Varieties whose average iife fell in the first half of February:

Pomme Grise,
Clarke,
Victoria,
Hurlbut,
Kalkidon,
Rhodes,
Pumpkin Sweet,

Barbel,
Wealthy,
Peter,

Jacobs Sweet,
Flory,
Fall Pippin.

Varieties whose average life co in the last half of February:

Milligen,
Pewaukee,
Northern s py;
Falix,
Brownlee,
Greenville,
Maiden Blush,
Ktowah,

r

Cogswell,
Grimes,

Fall Wine,
Lansberg,
Jonathan Buler,
Celestia,
Dickinson,
Borsdorf.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 257

Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of March:

Sharp,

Peach,
Hubbardston,
Smith Cider,
Milden,

Tompkins King,
Duke of Devonshire,
Reinette Pippin,
Marigold,

Yellow Bellflower,

Tolman Sweet,
Buckingham,
Northwestern Greening,
Swenker,

Melon,

Domine,

Dumelow,

Rambo,

Canada Baldwin,
Ornament.

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of March:

Canada Reinette,
Esopus Spitzenburg,
Farris,

Monmouth,

Moon,

Scott,

Red Russet,

Golden Russet,

Golden Medal,

Peck Pleasant,

Sutton,

Coon,

Rhode Island Greening,
Washington Royal,
Ronk,

Wallace Howard.

Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of April:

White Pippin,
Kansas Greening,
Menagére,
Holland,

Mann,

Jonathan,

Olive,

Swaar,

Caux,

White Doctor,
Ewalt,

Salome,

Streaked Pippin,
Arkansas,
Duncan,
Kittageskee,
Walbridge.

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of April:

Moore Sweet,
Lankford,

Yellow Forest,
Newtown Spitzenburg,
Occident,

Ontario,

Fallawater,
Roxbury,
Rome,

Lady Sweet,
Vanhoy.

Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of May:

Kansas Keeper,
Gideon Sweet,
Cooper Market,
Lawver,
Chase,
Wagener,

LF

York Imperial,
Newman,
Texas,

Large Lady,
Baldwin.

258 REporRT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Varieties whose average life fell in the last half of May:

Jones, Winesap,
Edwards, Ben Davis,
Stark, Zurdel,
Kirtland, Nelson.
Ralls,
Varieties whose average life fell in the first half of June:
Green Newtown, Andrews,
Pifer, Red Canada.

The average life of Schodack extended to July 18.

It is important to remark that the date to which the average
life of the fruit in storage extended does not necessarily coincide
with the date when the fruit of that particular variety was half
gone. Thus 100 specimens of Arkansas were put into storage
October 14, 1897. On November 23, 8 were discarded; on Decem-
ber 20, 4; on February 1, 4; on March 4, 15; on March 22, 5;
on April 4, 14; on April 21, 1; on May 6, 8; on May 24, 9; on
June 11, 28; on June 30, 6. The average life of the fruit from
the time it was put into the storage extended to April 12, but
the fruit was half gone on April 4. Neither does the average life
coincide necessarily with the commercial limit.

EXPERIENCE OF STORAGE MEN.
A summary of the information gained from practical storage
men is presented under the following heads:
Conditions affecting the keeping quality of apples.
Comparative efficiency of different kinds of storage as applied.
to different varieties.
At what temperature should different varieties be held?
Relation between seasonal differences and keeping quality.
Kinds of deterioration that may precede rotting in storage,
and varieties liable to each:
. Seald.
. Loss in quality.
Change in color.
Loss in firmness.
Becoming bitter.
. Shriveling.
. Becoming mealy.
. Bursting.

Se Ee oe

ODADAS

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 259

9. Rapidity of going down.
(a) List of those that go down gradually.
(b) List of those that go down quickly.
10. Endurance of heat after picking and before going
into storage.
(a) List of those enduring heat comparatively well.
(b) List of those not enduring heat well.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING KEEPING QUALITY OF APPLES.

The keeping quality of apples is influenced by many condi-
tions, among which are the ripeness of the fruit, season, manner
of picking, packing and handling, kind of storage, presence of
fungi and temperature at which the fruit is stored. Overgrown
specimens do not keep so well as those of medium size. Morgan
remarks that thick-skinned varieties generally keep better than
thin-skinned ones.

Keeping quality is often correlated with degree of coloring up
of the fruit. To keep best, colored apples should be picked only
after they are well colored but while they are still firm. Accord-
ing to Wilson, this point is reached when the plump seeds are
black. But in order to keep longest in cold storage Rhode Island
Greenings must be picked while they are still very green and hard.
They will then carry through without any scald until very late
in the season. But Rhode Island Greenings appear to hold best
in common storage when they have ripened well on the tree, as
is Wilson’s experience (see p. 319). According to Howes Rhode
Island Greenings are in condition for picking for longest holding
in cold storage when the bloom on the fruit rubs off easily and
leaves the skin rather shiny. This rule is said to apply less
markedly to Baldwins and probably to other varieties.

Methods of harvesting, packing and handling in transporta-
tion have the greatest influence on keeping quality. Handlers
of apples sometimes roll barrels of fruit, allowing them to strike
against other barrels. This rough handling may bruise the fruit
almost to the midde of the barrel. But some varieties are more
easily injured by rough handling than are others. Northern Spy
is one of the easiest to bruise and barrels are often found to go
down in storage early on this account. Tolman Sweet and
Yellow Bellflower are other varieties very sensitive to rough
handing.

260 Report or THE HorriCULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Storage men emphasize and reiterate the point that cold storage
can only be successful when fruit is handled very carefully—
more carefully than fruit is now often handled. At the same time
it is important that only No. 1 fruit be stored. Not only is there
little profit in storing No. 2 fruit, but when it goes on the market
it hurts the sale of No. 1 fruit.

The seasons given in this bulletin for the different varieties are
for fruit carefully picked, packed and otherwise handled accord-
ing to the most approved methods.

Certain differences in the management which the trees receive
result in corresponding differences in the keeping quality of the
fruit. For example, apples grown in sod attain to a higher color
and keep longer than those grown under clean culture.

The soil on which the tree grows makes a difference with the
keeping quality of the fruit. Baldwins grown on sandy or
gravelly soil ripen earlier and must be picked earlier and do not
keep so well as those on clay soils, although they have a higher
color.

The presence of fungi is liable to shorten the life of fruit.
Fameuse and many other varieties when affected by scab keep
very poorly in storage. Fruit affected by certain other fungi
keeps well until it reaches a certain stage of ripeness and then
goes down quickly. Beckwith finds that if Baldwins are very
badly affected by fungus, they hold longest in cold storage if
picked quite green. Fruit affected with fungus keeps best in
a cold dry atmosphere. This point was clearly brought out by
experience in 1902.

But except for retarding the development of fungus, apples
keep best with considerable moisture in the air. Such is the
opinion of many storage men, among them Hoag and Beckwith.
Hoag remarks that Roxburys, especially, keep much better if
they are rather damp.

In recent years cold storage men have generally come to believe
that apples should go into storage as soon as picked. With the
Hubbardston, however, Wilson still believes that it is best to
let the fruit lie on straw on the ground for two or three weeks
for the purpose of adding color to the fruit. This can be done,

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 261

perhaps, with this variety because it is not a good variety for
storing anyway and goes soon into consumption. But cold
storage men are agreed that, although this practice may put the
fruit in better condition for immediate use, it injures its keeping
quality.

Some varieties, as McIntosh, ripen very unevenly. If all the
fruit is picked from a tree of such a variety at one picking, there
results a mixed lot of differing degrees of ripeness, and the season
of the ripest fruits determines the season of the whole lot. The
harvesting of such varieties should be divided between two or
more pickings. In parts of the west, it has become an established
practice to pick some varieties of apples in the same way that
peaches and oranges are picked, going over the trees a number
of times and taking each time only those fruits that have reached
the required degree of ripeness. As a result the different fruits
in any such lot are very uniform in keeping quality and the per-
centage of No. 1 fruit is greatly increased. The small packages
used by Oregon fruit-growers for their apples and the high prices
obtained for the fruit make the practice profitable there.

Some growers have, in the last few years, adopted the practice
of picking early apples, especially Oldenburg, in this way, and
the practice is gaining. In this case the earliness of the season
gives time for several pickings; but when the main crop of
fruit comes on it must be harvested all at once in order to get
through picking in time. Although the desirability of making
two or more pickings is commonly admitted it does not seem to
be generally practicable under present conditions and methods
of apple orcharding in New York State. The practice is for the
grower of early or fancy fruit or of fruit for local markets rather
than for the growers of the ordinary commercial varieties of
winter apples. Yet there is a feeling, especially among dealers,
that this is a coming practice.

It is a matter of common observation that specimens that are
very large for the variety do not keep so well as those of medium
size and firmer texture. This is remarked by several cold storage
men. Such fruit may be produced on young trees or on mature
trees making excessive growth or carrying a light crop.

262 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF STORAGE AS
APPLIED TO DIFFERENT VARIETIES.

The efficiency of the various kinds of storage as applied to
different varieties differs greatly. For instance, according to
Hart, the season of both Fallawater and Grimes in cellar storage
is January; but the season of Fallawater in chemical cold
storage is May, a lengthening of the season by four months, while
the season of Grimes in chemical cold storage is February, a
prolongation of the season of only one month.

Again, the season of Missouri Pippin and York Imperial in
cellar storage is given by Newhall as December; but that of
Missouri Pippin under ice is April, a prolongation of the season
by four months, while the season of York Imperial is extended
only one month or until February.

Nor is there any constant difference for all varieties in their
season in storage under ice and in chemical cold storage. For
instance, Graham gives the season of both Baldwin and Hen-
drick in storage under ice as May 1; but he gives the season of
Baldwin in chemical cold storage as June 15, or an increase of
one and one-half months, while the season of Hendrick is stated
as May 15, or an increase of only one-half month.

As to the difference in season of varieties in cellar and in
chemical cold storage, Howes makes this uniformly 60 days, 7. e.
two months for all varieties. Newhall makes it one month for
five (early fall) varieties, two months for 19 varieties, three
months for 23 varieties, four months for eight varieties and five
months for Northwestern Greening. Graham makes this differ-
ence variously from 3 month to three months. Hart makes this
difference two months in a large majority of cases, with extremes
of one and four months. The seasons of the varieties reported
on by Newhall, Graham or Hart in the different storages, as
given by these parties, is shown in Table IT.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL E}XPERIMENT STATION. 263

TasBLe I1.—SErASONS OF CERTAIN VARIETIES OF APPLES IN VARIOUS

VARIETY.

OI eMee ik earns sen he

Cooper Market.............
Cooper Market. Apes Oops
Cee Pippin. Death ayshete
Domine. . Bees hc Sea
Wome yeh haere siceie hare
English Russet...
English Russet.....
Esopus Spitzenburg. .
Esopus Spitzenburg...
Waa; aber... 3 tes:

Hallawater. < 206 secs. « ee vl

Hallawatena cts.. a cts sce ee
Mal Oram ey Gayle. ocie-as oc
aL PEVO DIM a Ashlee fee baer
JOAIILN Abie See ec, eee
IAMEUSE Pas aie ele clsk oe Fleece

Swe etd. os..

Holland Pippin..
Hubbardston.....
Hubbardston...
Hubbardston...
Jacobs Sweet...
Jonathan 225 -.

Newer seb fo =
Limbertwig........
Maiden Blush......
Maiden Blush.......

Melntosh ne mean. se: =
Miniklere S02 82 oh 6c n co hace
Missourm Psp... cm ee oe

Missouri Pippin...........

iNorthemtSpy.as os ccs e-0.s

As reported by

Graham
Graham

Newhall
Hart

Graham
Hart

Newhall
Graham
Hart

Newhall
Newhall
Newhall
Newhall
Graham
Newhall
Graham
Newhall
Graham
Newhall
Hart

Newhall
Graham
Hart

Graham
Graham

Graham

STORAGES.

Chemieal cold
storage.

Ice storage.

Cellar storage.

Difference
in season
between
et at
g /¢
s B | 3g
Ss | oo | Bs
q go
tala lian
Ro ao sc
aie bs eee
o 3 o
oO i =H 36)
Mt os. | Mos. | M oe
iL 14 24
1 1 1
By 1 3
& $ 1
2 1 3
3 $ é
2 1 3
1 1 2
2 0 2
24 $ 3
3 1 4
2 1 3
% 3 1
3 if 4
2 0 2
1 4 14
2
2 1 3
$ 3 1
4
1 0 1
2 0 2
3 14 2
3 1 4
2 4 24
2 1 3
2 1 3
1 1 2
2
2 0 2
1
1
1 4 14
1 0 1
2 1 3
1
3
il 3
2
1 2
1 2
2
0 2
0 3
0 1
4 2
2
Ne 4
0 4
1 3
1 2m"

264 Report OF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THB

TasBLe IJ.—SrEASONS OF CERTAIN VARIETIES OF APPLES IN VARIOUS

VARIETY.

Northwestern Greening.....
Oldenburg .. oo... visa blew
Peck Pleasant
Peck Pleasant. .
Pernyaktussetas sckic ccs to ciee
IRemwaulkee fcc cele. aic.5 0 00s
Pewaukee..
Pewaukee..
Plumb) Cider. : 0.05...
Pomme Grise........
Pumpkin Sweet
ialligeeeerons se hrancts

Rhode Island Greening..
Rhode dein ICTENO
Ribston..

Riis Fe See ee
Roman Stem..... Ries
Roman Stem...
Ome yes oe

StRr Kener settee tein secctante

Tolman Sweet......... OE ibis
Molmam)Sweeti). 2... seo cee
Tompkins KIMe ... o.% .o% eee
am pkaineKing... 2. 2 snus
‘Twenty Ounce. ..2...0...086%

Winter Banana.) 2 5. oie
Yellow Bellflower..........
Yellow Bellflower..........
Yellow Bellflower..........
Yellow Newtown...........
Yellow Newtown...........
York Impertal.. 25%. 340 68

SroraGces.—Concluded.

As reported by

Newhall

Newhall
Newhall
Newhall

Newhall |

Newhall
Newhall
Hart

Newhall |

Newhall
Newhall
Graham
Newhall

Graham
Hart

Newhall
Hart

Newhall
Hart

Newhall
Newhall
Newhall
Newhall
Newhall

Newhall |
Newhall |

Graham
Hart

Newhall
Graham
Newhall

SrAson IN

aS)

fo} .

25 é

a8 |
“ae

#5 =

on S

a 3)

ie) I
May April
Sept. Sept.
April March
March | Feb.
March Feb.
Feb. Jan.
May 1 | Apr. 15
March
Jan. Dee.
March Feb.
Feb. Jan.
May April
Feb. Jan.
April March
Feb. Feb.
April March
Feb. Dec.
Jan. Dec.
Jan. Jan.
April 15) April 1
May April
July 1
May
May April
Dec. Nov
Dee. Nov.
May April
May April
March Feb.
March | Feb.
April 1
Feb. Jan
March Feb.
April
Feb. Dec.
March Feb.
Jan. Dec.
March Feb.
May April
Jan. Dec.
April April
April March
Jan. Dee.
Feb. 25| Feb. 1
March March
April March
April 1| Feb. 20 |
Feb. Jan.

Cellar storage.

Difference
in season
between
ee af
3s |8
2 1g | 2g
Bs | So | BE
q
aa |e | Se
#3 | #3 | sa]
oO n 2 n o o
oO i ié)
Mos. | Mos. | Mos.
4 1 5
2 1
1 1
3 1
2 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
2 1
if 1
2 0
1 1
1 2
2 1
2 0
2 1

me RO RPWNNNNRREN RR NER bro

et Oe ee)

WNWNW NWPRNWHOWNNHRWNDY WNWNWNWHE W NWHWONNNWH NW WRNwW

As to the relative efficiency of cellar and ice storage as applied
to different varieties, Newhall reports that the season of 19
varieties is prolonged by ice storage one month beyond their sea-
son in cellar storage, 28 varieties two months, and eight varieties

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMEN? STATION. 265
three months and two varieties four months. Graham gives the
prolongation of season as from, 4 month to 214 months for differ-
ent varieties. Hart reports this difference as one month for
seven out of nine varieties.

As to the relative efficiency of storage under ice and of chemical
cold storage, Newhall assigns the same season in either storage to
14 varieties. In the case of 40 varieties Newhall finds that
chemical cold storage lengthens the season by one month as com-
pared with storage under ice and in the case of two varieties the
season is lengthened two months. Hart reports 7 varieties as
keeping one month longer in chemical than in ice storage. Gra-
ham assigns to one-half of the varieties he reports on a lengthen-
ing of the season by 14 month in chemical storage, but in other
cases this difference varies from 4 month to 114 month.

Shafer estimates the life of fruit in chemical cold storage as
60 days longer than the same varieties under ice, though in very
cool seasons such as that of 1903 there is, he says, hardly any
difference in the keeping quality of the fruit in the two storages.

Ice storages have several disadvantages. After warm fruit is
put in, it takes some time to get it cooled off and in the mean-
time the ripening process is going on. The temperature can-
not be held so low as it can with mechanical refrigeration, 38° to
40° being about the temperature in an ice storage, which how-
ever is held quite even at this temperature. Then about one-
third of the air space in the building is occupied by the ice
storage. So far as large commercial operations are concerned,
ice storage is a thing of the past. It is a significant fact that
no new ice storages are being put in.

AT WHAT TEMPERATURE SHOULD DIFFERENT VARIETIES BE HELD ?.

Some correspondents appear to hold all varieties at about the
same temperature, while others vary the temperature according
to the variety. While practices differ in individual cases a
general principle can be detected running through and guiding
practice in general. It is, that varieties that keep long and go
down slowly are held at about 31° to 32°, while early ripening
varieties and those that do not keep so well are held one or two
degrees higher, that is, at 33° to 34°. In a few cases shorter

266 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

lived varieties are held at lower temperature than the long lived
ones, that is, at a little under 32°.

The early apple, when held at a low temperature, loses in
quality when it comes out of storage it goes down quicker
than if held at the higher temperature. Moreover, some fruit
as, for instance, that of the ordinary Twenty Ounce, freezes at a
higher temperature than dces other fruit like the ordinary Bald-
win, and for this reason aside from others must be held higher.

It is well known that very large specimens of a given variety
do not keep so well as medium sized or small ones. Newhall
makes practical aj ylication of this fact in that he holds average
sized Rhode Island Greenings at 32° but large ones at 33°; also
in that while he commonly holds Hubbardstons at 33°, if the
fruit is under size it is he'd at 32°. On the contrary, Morgan
and others hold sll fruit of the same variety at the same temper-
ature irrespective of size.

Howes holds all varieties reported on at 32°. Similarly Hart
holds all varieties *sr which this question is answered at 30° to
32° except Hubbardston which is held at 30°. Graham holds
most varieties at 32° but a few at 33°. Newhall holds most
varieties at 32° or 33°, but summer and early fall varieties as
high as 34° or even 35°. Phillips Bros. hold at various temper-
atures, ranging from 380° to 35°. The varieties on which each
of these parties reported on temperature are shown in Table IIT
with the respective temperatures reported. Fenton reports on
Baldwin, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening,
Tompkins King and Twenty Ounce, recommending that each be
held close around 32°. Beckwith agrees with the recommenda-
tions of temperatures for all varieties in Newhall’s list with
which he has had experiences and to that list adds Baldwin, Ben
Davis, Black Gilliflower and Roxbury, all to be held at 32°,

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 267

Taste JII].—TEMPERATURES AT WHICH VARIETIES ARE HELD BY
GraHaAM, Hart, Howes, NEwHALL AND PHILLIPS.

W.D aye
ete | a WW. EL AC: F. Newhall | Phillips
eeebar Hart. | Howes. & Sons. Bros.
Deg. F. | Deg. F. | Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F.
PAT ester ler eaneere cia syavete anche cicrersra A eerecie 33-34
PEF Woe eiele ero’ ese alels oc owl eps onmanieiaveteuel's 32 32
pal Cpe eis is. « «cleo elcin a ereinebare cron 32 30-32 32 30-32
idicray IDEA TESS pcre cient 0 5 DOC Deo ceo 32 30-82 32
BlsekyGmiower...)... 2.016 oe etlee neeleele + 32 32 32
BINERREarMAlN= . ccc 522 cere ce oe ee oe 32
ES GICOME EPs Gis c: c\.0.0 wavdis eielottninceeieaie & aisie 32
Canada Bal Gwin: ciciscets cede alae ake 32
NODE MAEKEE sic. cas oc wlereretictene se cee « 32 32 32 32
GranberryeRippin.< «stesso sate n resis oa * 32!
LD yaiviae) 556 SO eee ee) Se ee eS ae 32-33 33
Bap ishyEGUSSOb ce fs cle seine hee c aoeions @ ele 32 33
ISGUUS IS DUCE0UTG. a. dalenlebe «acieemes 32 32 31
Hau A ALCIS Fa oua <, cxsiciewiois\cascslecyecxeteeerse 32 32-33 32
AIR OTaAM ee so (oer s'staia cits bea ote Gish ceeieee 34-35?
HIM artic ere cicloist toe cieters!o ccnpeseltase: 34?
STEW O82, etc tareieo Nin cie ayo wis tole ve eiepetercla.eye 34-35
INDICT EU EOE ea iMRI G CE OOO cee 32-33 33
GAO eae cette Shcasin's, aisle. t: tj laa aim at eporsianalle 32 30-32 32
Gideonm ee hieawtecce wrekh ee ticle whet 34
Golden Russet......... Sra sees aleieis elses eeiere 32 32
Gravenstein......... aefettiele wiaiabenie ss 33 32 32-33
GQTIMES 565.0.) <10:8 ici COICO te IO OIE 33 32
B28) pie. By EN aehchoicpels Sar CAE Gace eee EE 33
tem amie Kecspsciels abScyete Minis os: s.@reieis are see 32
loll ard W Par pints nietchie tre «e.4) ec Bias oe 32 342 31-32
ims bamdsbormlre a crpeichscsis aresncis. odie wcoreree .e 33 30 323 334
ROUEN eter hss vic inicistel éscne 6 ove" 32
GR WAGKGas arse cals ses DR iib ec ete aces 34
Dady..... AOR EG OO RDO OBC Rae 32
MERWE Soe ccc bile Cena Ae At ae Se 32
Weir Orb WIE ee eicro ie sinloe aieeinree,cieyers guniowes 32
IMardentpltishi sere set tdci cisdcs ciolgurevesteiae 33° SZ 33°
May Seek-no-farther.......... eietoleresieiste 32
Mikel erence tarate elexs’o\sk aie 22s cieieha aesiaitevere’ ds 32
WEISSOUTIET DE se rictienic re thot Sociales eal 328 32
J. OHA REHM STON ado Sone eC Be metre Cerne 30-32 32 32
Northwestern Greening..........0+0200+ 32
(Odie cial ee AS IES Eiken, SeaiblG ae ae onic ee 32 34?
IRE CIPENCASANE AS o 18a taforereia ts, ol tvalsPovere oe f 32 32
MREEGVREUIISSE Gareieracciorayc: sts: apeue aster cae, siwidoice 33
IE WAUIKGE tone krchsiettcia Siokavejee dete as dnvets $28 33
Pee eanya hy C1 Obs 2 oat ecapeiaie oieitove aveusy ciese revels 33
ROMMEL GrIsG jcc etter sia cele Cate wie ane 33
MAUS KANIS OWEOE se c1sieic)s.0\ os.c.0 616 eisvsreceeeiele 33
Rta tee esate le stetyat are Nees wialel oofeie hav 32
LREITA SOS. cele SEES Eee eee 32 33
1e-eyol. (Of nero Ee Ais Srey o Gia ern eR LO eecone oles 32
Rhode Island Greening.........+...20+: 30-32 327 328
Iai 1a}s((0)0 1 es SORE ao oO ce tent meer 32-33
Rize wreeire tororcse Hh. cooraciv cone sates 33
Roman) Stenw. «oi. 5,seiotoecis ae vere @ Sere Sars 32 33
ROME sere oh) deo: soaks ab conte sce ieee 32 32
EVO MEO UIE sy lores sis 6/15) <) sual ees stole eiayeleve eeetere.ore 32 32-34
SAlOMEA ts Oe ae Ge he ne Rank Bae 329
SS Geple a WETLCE:, o..cyevavaneyejelareiccegeceresoretel rel evake 82 339
DTA NVASSEO RE coir yssciae lo tar cd cicieie eben etate 33-3
NSHavide: (COC ea nts ASME cit aac cance 32
SUGid eat Ne Soe Sree wer rer eis 32
S WHALE ae we oa ner ehis cia ree See cea 32 30-32 32 32 32
AiGliniary Sieeber tarsus cre. gio s cretaueroroiedartievarske 32 32 33-35
ponmpkuns) Kang a3 94s. coh totes othe 30-32 32 33 32
EM went yO Uni Gals at. stecersia trslsioiesieiersiewie ae 3210 34 30-32
WIASENER VE Sie aiycle-as Sercke ontoie chatelsl eishs on 32
IVNEEUL LCL Gta Straits weno Icio en eeeicintoe 32
RWie alist fas cisrsuycie cae cis faye canoe 33

1 “Tf of average size, 33° if large.” 2“*Tf held at all.”’ 3 Should be held even
4 **32° if under medium size.” 5 ** Usually.” 6 **Ags nearly as possible.’’ 7 “*Should
be held even.” 8“ Tf of average size, 33° if large.” °‘‘If held at all.” 19 ‘‘For short
Season.”’ °

268 ReEporT oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Taste ITI—(Concluded).

W.D. | w.H. | A.C. | F. Newhall | Phillips

acne Hart. | Howes. & Sons. Bros.

Deg. F. | Deg. F. | Deg. F. Deg. F. oe. F.

Westfield Seek-no-further..........+-+4+
RVVANLGHS De os aie cidte, crass miehte cra ale sfoseeee excte 32

WanttertBanawary em.) 5h soc steicroiieechetcere 32

Mellow; Bellflower’. ssc e.n cee ute selene 32 32 33-32 32
Mellow INeEwtowmn...6. <6 oc das « «cloonteca 32-33 32

Work Imperial. y sle sb oe eee oleae aes 32-31

RELATION BETWEEN SEASONAL DIFFERENCES AND KEEPING QUALITY.

It is well known that apples vary much in keeping quality in
different seasons. It is also a common observation that they
keep much better if the month of October is cool than if it is
warm. This fact is often remarked, especially by Fenton, Howes
and Graham. Fenton remarks that Baldwins keep four to six
weeks longer in cellar storage if the month of October is
cool than if it is warm. Similarly Northern Spy keeps a month
longer.

Howes remarks that apples keep better after a dry season
than a wet one. “But,” he continues, “the season of 1902
was a wet one and still apples kept as well as any season. This
of course refers only to apples not affected by any disease.”

Beckwith remarks that the best growing season for apples is
a rather cool summer with plenty of rain the first part of the
season and dry, even weather the latter part, as in 1903. Apples
grown such seasons keep best.

Some varieties, such as Hubbardston, Northern Spy and
Twenty Ounce do not color up well some seasons and Russets
may not become well russeted. In both cases the result is the
Same as when fruit is picked too green and put into storage.
Its keeping quality is very much lessened. But Morgan
remarks that highly colored Hubbardstons go to pieces in stor-
age quicker than those not so highly colored; and Beckwith
observes that, contrary to general experience, Roxburys were as
good in quality in 1903 as usual though they were very green.

Some varieties, as Maiden Blush, vary greatly in time of matur-
ing in different seasons. The earlier the fruit matures, the less
satisfactory it is as a keeper. (Howes.)

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 269

Various fungous diseases are much worse some seasons than
others. Fruit affected by fungus cannot be expected to keep
like clean fruit. ‘“ Baldwins affected by fungus will hold as put
in storage until they reach a certain degree of maturity and
then begin to rot.” (Howes.)

The quicker fruit is put into refrigeration the less bitter rot,
pinkrot and other diseases can develop.

The following varieties are reported by Howes as being com-
paratively little affected by differences of season:

Cooper Market, Tompkins King,
Roxbury, Yellow Bellflower.
Tolman Sweet,

Graham mentions Missouri Pippin as being in this category.

The following varieties are reported by Howes as being more
affected in keeping quality by differences in season than are most
varieties :

Holland Pippin, or Rhode Island Greening,
Hubbardston, St. Lawrence,
Maiden Blush, Twenty Ounce.

Northern Spy,

In this category Hart mentions Swaar and Graham mentions
Fameuse.

KINDS OF DETERIORATION THAT MAY PRECEDE DECAY IN COLD STORAGE,
AND VARIETIES LIABLE TO EACH.

Under the following sub-heads are given lists of varieties
reported as showing certain peculiarities of behavior in deteriora-
tion in chemical cold storage.

In examining these lists it should be borne in mind that varie-
ties often differ greatly in their manner of deterioration in differ-
ent kinds of storage and under different conditions. These lists
by no means indicate the unanimous experience of our corres-
pondents. Not infrequently experiences run entirely counter to
each other.

VARIETIES LIABLE TO SCALD IN STORAGE.

But few apples will scald if left on the tree until they get their
color, remarks Graham, though any variety will scald if picked

270 REPORT OF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

earlier. This of course does not apply to green fruit such as
Rhode Island Greenings. But in the case of Baldwin, Wilson’s
experience is that it is less liable to scald if picked early, that is
as soon as the plump seeds are black, than if it is left on the
tree longer to get a deeper color. - On the other hand “ late
picked Rhode Island Greenings withstand scald much longer
in dry storage than do those early picked.” (Wilson.) But as
has been already noted (p.259), in order to keep best in chemical
cold storage Rhode Island Greenings should be picked quite
green.

Scald appears on the shaded side of the apples first. Suscepti-
bility to scald increases with the progress of the ripening process
in cold storage. Contrary to a popular impression, the inyesti-
gations of the United States Department of Agriculture have
shown that scald develops more freely in a temperature of 36°
to 38° than in one of 32°.

Graham remarks that Baldwins will scald after May 1 unless
put into storage immediately after picking.

The following varieties are reported as scalding, sometimes
early, sometimes only late in their season, and in same cases but

little:

Baldwin,

Ben Davis,
Canada Baldwin,
Cooper Market,
Fallawater,
Gano,

Gilpin,

Grimes,
Hubbardston,
Lady,

Maiden Blush,
Mann,

May Seek-no-farther,
Minkler,
Missouri Pippin,
Northern Spy,
Peck Pleasant,

Pewaukee,

Rhode Island Greening,
Ridge,

Rome,

Smith Cider,
Stark,

Swaar,

Tolman Sweet,
Tompkins King,
Twenty Ounce,
Wagener,
Walbridge,
Winesap,

Winter Banana,
Yellow Bellflower,
York Imperial.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 271

VARIETIES ESPECIALLY LIABLE TO LOSE IN QUALITY IN GOING DOWN
IN COLD STORAGE.
Most varieties lose in quality before decay sets in. The follow-
ing have been particularly mentioned as doing so:

Alexander,

Black Gilliflower,
Blue Pearmain,
Boiken,

Canada Baldwin,
Cranberry Pippin,

Pewaukee,
Plumb Cider,
Pomme Grise,
Pumpkin Sweet,
Rambo,

Rhode Island Greening,

Domine, Ribston,
Fallawater, Ridge,

Fall Pippin, Rome,

Fall Wine, Salome,
Fameuse, Shiawassee,
Gideon, St. Lawrence,
Grimes, Smith Cider,
Haas, Stark,

Holland Pippin, Swaar,
Hubbardston, Tolman Sweet,
Jonathan, Tompkins King,
Keswick, Twenty Ounce,
Lady, Wagener,
Maiden Blush, Walbridge,
Minkler, Wealthy,
Northwestern Greening, Winter Banana,
Oldenburg, Wolf River,

Peck Pleasant, Yellow Bellflower.

Perry Russet,

CHANGE IN COLOR IN STORAGE.

Many varieties change in color in common storage, especially
by turning from green to yellow. Holland Pippin, Swaar, Tol-
man Sweet and Yellow Bellflower impove in color. Apples in
which the prevailing colors are shades of red and the ground color
green or yellow may be brightened in color by the development
of the yellow tints, which also makes the red brighter by contrast.
Thus, Cooper Market turns from its autumn color of dark red to
an attractive bright red in May in cellar storage but not in
chemical cold storage. (Britton.) On the other hand both greens
and yellows may become pale and faded. “St. Lawrence, unless

272 Report oF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

well colored on the tree, fades in the barrel to a distinctly gray
color, materially lessening its market value.” (Britton.)

The following varieties are reported as either eventually liable
to lose in color in storage, or to lack the improvement in color
when kept in cold storage which they commonly show in cellar
storage:

Canada Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Cooper Market, Ridge,

Gano, Rome,

Grimes, St. Lawrence,
Hubbardston, Smith Cider,

Lady, Wagener,

Maiden Blush, Walbridge,

Minkler, Winesap,

Missouri Pippin, Winter Banana,

Peck Pleasant, York Imperial.

VARIETIES LOSING IN FIRMNESS IN GOING. DOWN IN STORAGE.

Most varieties lose in firmness before going down in storage.
The following have been particularly mentioned as having this
fault:

Black Gilliflower, Peck Pleasant,
Blue Pearmain, | Perry Russet,
Canada Baldwin, Pewaukee,
Domine, Plumb Cider,
Esopus Spitzenburg, Pumpkin Sweet,
Fallawater, Rambo,

Fall Orange, Ridge,

Fall Wine, Rome,

Gano, Roxbury,
Gideon, St. Lawrence,
Gravenstein, Shiawassee,
Grimes, ° Smith Cider,
Haas, Stark,
Hubbardston, Wagener,
Jacobs Sweet, Walbridge,
Keswick, Wealthy,

Lady, Winter Banana,
Lady Sweet, Wolf River,
Minkler, Yellow Bellflower.

Missouri Pippin,

\
New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 273

VARIETIES LIABLE TO BECOME BITTER IN SKIN IN GOING DOWN IN

The following varieties are reported to be liable to become bit-

ter in skin in going down in storage:

Alexander,
Baldwin,

Boiken,
Cranberry Pippin,
Esopus Spitzenburg,
Gano,

Gilpin,

Haas,

Lady,

Minkler,

Perry Russet,
Pewaukee,

Pomme Grise,
Ralls,

Rhode Island Greening,
Ridge,

Rome,

St. Lawrence,
Smith Cider,
Stark,

Swaar,
Tolman Sweet,
York Imperial.

VARIETIES LIABLE TO SHRIVEL IN GOING DOWN IN STORAGE.

The varieties named below have been reported as normally
liable to shrivel in going down in storage or before. Many other

varieties shrivel if picked too green.

Blue Pearmain,
Boiken,
English Russet,
Esopus Spitzenburg,
Fallawater,
Golden Russet,
Haas,
Hubbardston,
Jonathan,
Lady Sweet,
McIntosh,

Peck Pleasant,
Perry Russet,
Pewaukee,
Pumpkin Sweet,
Ralls,

Rambo,
Roxbury,

St. Lawrence,
Swaar,

Tolman Sweet,
Westfield Seek-no-further.

VARIETIES LIABLE TO BECOME MEALY IN GOING DOWN IN STORAGE.

Many varieties become mealy in storage but only a few enough

so to hurt their value in the markets.

A large Baldwin is liable

to become mealy but not an average sized one. The following
varieties are particularly reported as becoming mealy in going

down in storage:

Baldwin,
Ben Davis,
Black Gilliflower,

18

Blue Pearmain,
Cranberry Pippin,
Domine,

274 Report or -THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Esopus Spitzenburg,
Fall Orange,
Fameuse,

Gano,

Gideon,

Grimes,

Haas,
Hendrick,
Holland Pippin,
Hubbardston,
Maiden Blush,
Oldenburg,
Perry Russet,
Pewaukee,
Pomme Grise,
Pumpkin Sweet,

Ralls,

Rambo,

Rhode Island Greening,
Ridge,

Rome,

Roxbury,

St. Lawrence,
Smith Cider,
Stark,

Tolman Sweet,
Tompkins King,
Twenty Ounce,
Wagener,
Wealthy,

Yellow Bellflower.

VARIETIES LIABLE TO BURST IN STORAGE BEFORE DECAYING.

Any apple that will scald is liable to burst, says Howes. A
large fruit of any variety is more liable to burst than a medium
sized one. The following varieties are reported as being liable to
burst as the fruit goes down in storage:

Baldwin,

Black Gilliflower,
Domine,

Fall Orange,
Fameuse,
Gideon,

Haas,
Hendrick,
Holland Pippin,
Hubbardston,
Maiden Blush,
Oldenburg,
Plumb Cider,

Pomme Grise,
Pumpkin Sweet,
Ralls,

Rambo,

Rhode Island Greening,
Ridge,

Roman Stem,

St. Lawrence,
Smith Cider,
Stark,

Wagener,

Yellow Bellflower.

SUDDENNESS OF GOING DOWN IN STORAGE.

The varieties named below are reported as going down grad-
ually in storage. It will be noticed that most of the varieties in
this list are late or mid-winter varieties: .

Baldwin,

Black Gilliflower,
Blue Pearmain,
Boiken,

Canada Baldwin,
Cooper Market,
Cranberry Pippin,
Domine,

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 2

English Russet,

=]

or

Red Canada,

Fallawater, Rhode Island Greening,
Gano, Ridge,

Gilpin, Roman Stem,
Grimes, Rome,
Hendrick, Roxbury,
Jonathan, Salome,

Lady Sweet, Shiawassee,
Lawver, Smith Cider,
Limbertwig, Stark,

Maiden Blush, Sutton,

Mann, Swaar,

Minkler, Tolman Sweet,
Missouri Pippin, Tompkins King,
Northwestern Greening, Walbridge,
Peck Pleasant, Winesap,

Pewaukee, Winter Banana,
Pomme Grise, Yellow Bellflower,
Ralls, Yellow Newtown.
Rambo,

The varieties in the following list are reported as going down
quickly. It will be noticed that they are nearly all fall or early
winter varieties. In general, the earlier the season of the variety
the more rapidly does it go down after final deterioration has
set in. Some of these varieties are named also in the preceding
list of varieties that go down gradually. This repetition simply
expresses the differing experiences or judgments of different
correspondents :

Alexander, Hubbardston,
Bailey, Jacobs Sweet,
Black Gilliflower, Keswick,
Domine, Lady,

Esopus Spitzenburg,
Fall Orange,
Fall Pippin,

Maiden Blush,
Northern Spy,
Oldenburg,

Fall Wine, Perry Russet,
Fameuse, Pewaukee,
Gideon, ele Plumb Cider,
Golden Russet, Pomme Grise,
Gravenstein, Pumpkin Sweet,
Grimes, Rambo,

Haas, Ribston,

Holland Pippin, Ridge,

276 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

St. Lawrence, Wealthy,
Tompkins King, Wolf River,
Twenty Ounce, Yellow Bellflower,
Wagener, York Imperial.

ENDURANCE OF HBAT BY DIFFERENT VARI®TIES AFTER HAVING BEEN
PICKED AND BEFORE GOING INTO STORAGE.

‘Varieties differ greatly in endurance of heat after having been
picked and before going into storage. Summer and early fall
varieties are most affected in this respect and late-keeping varie-
ties least. In order to keep longest in cold storage apples should
be exposed to heat for as short a time as possible after having
been picked.

Varieties listed below are reported as standing heat compara-
tively well before going into storage. Those which stand heat
best are among the latest.

Baldwin,

Ben Davis,

Black Gilliflower,
Blue Pearmain,
Boiken,

Canada Baldwin,
Cooper Market,
Cranberry Pippin,
Domine,

Esopus Spitzenburg,
Fallawater,
Fameuse,

Gano,

Gilpin,

Golden Russet,
Green Newtown,
Hendick,
Jonathan,

Lady Sweet,
Lawver,
Limbertwig,
Mann,

Minkler,

Missouri Pippin,
Ontario,

Plumb Cider,
Pomme Grise,
Pumpkin Sweet,
Ralls,

Rambo,

Red Canada,
Roman Stem,
Rome,

Roxbury,
Salome,

Smith Cider,
Stark,

Sutton,

Swaar,

Tolman Sweet,
Tompkins King,
Walbridge,
Westfield Seek-no-further,
Winesap,
Winter Banana.

_ a

In the next list are shown the varieties which are reported as

being much affected by heat.

This list includes all the summer

and early fall apples concerning which reports on this point were

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Aw

made, and most of the late fall and early winter apples. But
some winter apples are also comparatively sensitive to heat, as
Rhode Island Greenings and Northern Spy. In the case of some
varieties heat induces scald or sweat spot.

Alexander, Northwestern Greening,
Bailey, Oldenburg,

Blenheim, Peck Pleasant,

Fall Orange, Perry Russet,

Fall Pippin, Pewaukee, |

Fall Wine, Rhode Island Greening,
Gideon, Ribston,

Gravenstein, Ridge,

Grimes, St. Lawrence,

Haas, Shawassee,

Holland Pippin, Twenty Ounce,
Hubbardston, Wealthy,

Jacob Sweet, Wagener,

seswick, Wolf River,

Lady, Yellow Bellflower,
Maiden Blush, Yellow Newtown,
McIntosh, York Imperial.
Northern Spy, s¥

NOTES ON VARIETIES.

In preparing these notes on varieties the plan has been to give
in one paragraph the results of the tests of the keeping quality
of apples in the natural temperature storage at this Station made
in the seasons of 1895-6 to 1898-9, inclusive; in the next para-
graph are the results of the tests of the keeping qualities of
varieties grown at this Station, made in a cold storage warehouse
in Buffalo by the Unites States Department of Agriculture; and
in the last paragraph is a summary of the experience of cold
storage men with the respective varieties. In some cases a gen-
eral estimate of the variety for storage purposes is made in a
preliminary paragraph.

Referring to results obtained at this Station, the term “Com-
mercial limit,” means, unless otherwise specified, the time to
which dealers may safely hold a given variety in natural tem-
perature warehouses under conditions similar to those which
obtained in these tests. Referring to results of tests in cold
storage, the term means similarly the time to which the variety
may be held in such storage.

278 Report of THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

In the notes on tests at the Station are given the seasons in
which each variety was tested, the number of fruits stored, their -
average life for all seasons tested and the mean date of deteri-
oration of last fruits of the variety. These results, as already
stated, are obtained with fruit grown in the Station orchards
and may not apply exactly to fruit from other localities.

ADMIRABLE (Small Admirable). In the Station tests fruit was
stored in 1895, ’96, ’97 and ’98. The mean dates were September
27 for storing; January 1 for average life; May 4 when last
apples went out. The crop of 1897 kept much the best, otherwise
results were fairly uniform indicating that under the existing
conditions the season for this variety is November and December.

ALEXANDER (Wolf River incorrectly). This is an early fall
apple and is not often put into storage.

In Station tests 60 apples were stored September 9, 1897. The
average life extended to November 4, the last fruit being thrown
out January 12.

In the experience of storage men its season in cellar storage is
until October and in chemical cold storage until November. It
goes down quickly and does not stand heat well before going into
storage. It should be shipped the day it is picked and under ice.

American Blush (of some; see HUBBARDSTON).

AMERICAN BiusH. Hart reports that this variety as dissem-
inated by C. A. Green of Rochester is entirely distinct from Hub-
bardston. Season about the same as Baldwin. It is a little
inclined to scald. See note on Hubbardston. |

Amos (Amos Jackson). In the Department cold storage tests
small, hard and green fruit from this Station, stored September
27, was still firm and free from scald or rot May 1.

Amos Jackson (see Amos).

ANpDREWS (Andrews Winter). In the Station tests fruit from
the crops of 1895, 796 and ’97 was stored. The average number
tested was 83. The mean dates were October 19 for storing;
June 8 for average life; August 16 when the last apples went out.
The results were pretty uniform indicating that the season may
extend to the middle of May or sometimes into June. With two
crops a considerable portion of the fruit remained sound till the
middle of June.

Andrews Winter (see ANDREWS).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 279

iRKANSAS (Blacktwig, Mammoth Blacktwig). In the Station
tests this fruit was stored October 14, 1897; average life extended
to April 12; last fruit went out June 30.

AucuBa (Aucuba-leaf Reinette). In the Station tests fruit
borne in 1895, ’96, and ’97 was stored. The mean dates were
September 25 for storing, January 8 for average life and May 5
when last fruit went out. Results were fairly uniform, indicating
that the season extends to December or possibly to January.

In the Department cold storage tests bright, well-colored fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, kept sound and in good
condition until February 1.

Aucuba-leaf Reinette (see Aucuba).

Aunt Ginnie (see GINNIE).

Batuey (Bailey Sweet). A poor keeper and does not stand heat
well.

Baker (Scott). In the Department cold storage tests hard,
greenish fruit from this Station, stored September 29, kept firm
and sound in cold storage until March 14, after which it softened.

Baupwin. A leading variety for cold storage purposes, ranking
in season between Rhode Island Greening and Ben Davis.

In the Station tests fruit of 1895, ’96, ’97 and ’98 was stored.
The mean dates were October 13 for storing; May 10 for average
life; June 29 when last fruits went out. Results variable but indi-
cate that under the conditions of the tests the season may extend
through April. With two crops a considerable portion of the
fruit remained sound till early June.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, light-colored, small
fruit from this Station, stored October 15, was still hard and
sound May 1.

According to storage men its season in cellar storage is until
March or April, varying from February 15 in unfavorable seasons
(Fenton) to June 1 in favorable seasons (Payne). Season in
chemical cold storage until May or June. Graham states that the
fruit will hold until June if well colored on the tree, but only until
April if colored on the ground. It goes down gradually with some
liability to scald late in the season, Phillips Bros. specifying
March and later in common storage and Graham May 1 and later
in chemical cold storage “unless stored immediately after pick-
ing.” Wilson says Baldwin is less liable to scald if picked as

280 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

soon as the plump seeds are black than if left on the tree until it
get its full color. Moreover in the latter case much of the crop
would be lost besides putting off picking until very late in the fall.
Beckwith remarks that a gray Baldwin grown on the heavy soil
of the Lake Ontario shore keeps longer than any other Baldwin.
The higher-colored Baldwins grown on sandy or gravelly land are
said to scald earlier. Large specimens are liable to become mealy
(Howes) and scald and burst (Wilson, Morgan) but those of
medium size only rarely.

Bareset (Sugar Barbel). In the Station tests fruits from the
crops of 1895 and ’96 were tested, the average number under
observation each season being 77. The mean date of storing was
October 1, of average life February 7 and of decay of last fruits
June 12. Decay began in November and proceeded gradually
through the season.

Belle de Boskoop (see BosKoop).

Bellflower (see YELLOW BELLFLOWER).

BEN Davis. This variety holds well in any storage and its value
for storage purposes is enhanced by the facts that it retains its
fine appearance and stands handling well after coming out of stor-
age. New York-grown Ben Davis hold considerably later in the
season than do Ben Davis from warmer latitudes.

In the Station tests fruit grown in 1895, ’96, ’97 and ’98 was
stored. The mean dates were October 20 for storing; May 29 for
average life; August 8 when last apples went out. The results were
quite uniform indicating that the season may extend into May.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, small, light-colored
fruit from this Station, stored November 12, was still semifirm
and free from scald and decay May 1.

Storage men report its season in common storage as extending
to April and in chemical cold storage until July 1. It stands heat
fairly well before going into storage and goes down slowly, becom-
ing mealy and scalding slightly at the last, according to some
correspondents. Fenton reports that it shrivels late in the season
in common storage. Graham remarks, “Some persons claim this
variety should be held at 31° but we have had best results at 32°.”

In the Department cold storage tests fruit from this Station,
stored September 27, was firm and free from decay May 1, but
slightly scalded. Commercial limit April 1.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 281

Burnueim (Blenheim Pippin, Blenheim Orange). “Harlier
than Hubbardston or Tompkins King. Heat ripens it quickly,
but in a moderately cool season it ranks high in its class as a
shipper.” (Shuttleworth. )

In the Station tests apples grown in 1898 and ’97 were stored.
The average number tested was 52. The mean dates were October
7 for storing; January 21 for average life; and June 12 when the
last fruit went out. Season early winter extending possibly as
late as middle of January.

Buack GILLIFLOWER (Gilliflower). Storage men report its sea-
son in cellar storage as extending to February 1 (Howes, Graham)
or April (Payne) and in chemical cold storage till March 1. It
stands heat before going into storage quite well. After having
become decidedly mealy it goes down slowly according to some,
while others say quickly. Howes adds that it loses in quality and
firmness and often bursts.

Blacktwig (see ARKANSAS).

BLUE PEARMAIN (Prolific Beauty incorrectly). Keeps in cold
storage about with Rhode Island Greening. It is an old variety,
but not much grown in this State except in the northern counties.

Newhall gives its season in cellar storage as February, and in
chemical cold-storage as May, while Graham gives these dates as
November 20 and December 15, respectively. It stands heat fairly
well, and goes down in storage gradually after having lost in
firmness. Newhall states that it also loses in quality and becomes
mealy but does not shrivel, all-of which is contrary to the experi-
ence of Graham and others.

Borken. Storage men report its season in cellar storage as
extending until February and in chemical cold storage until May.
It stands heat before going into storage very well. It goes down
gradually, losing in quality, the skin becoming bitter and the
fruit shriveling.

Borsporr. German name Borsporrer. In the Station tests 104
apples were stored October 9, 1897. The average life extended to
February 28 and the last fruit went out June 11.

In the Department cold storage tests fruit from this Station,
stored September 27, was soft and badly decayed March 14.

Bosxoor (Belle de Boskoop). In the Station tests, September
20, 1895, 50 apples and September 30, 1896, 40 apples went into

282 REPORT OF THE HortriICcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

storage. The mean date for the average life was November 17
and the mean date when the last apples went out was January
20 indicating that the season extends into October or under fav-
orable conditions into November. It sometimes keeps till April.

BrowN_ere (Brownlee Russet). In the Station tests fruit was
stored in 1896 and ’97. The mean dates were October 19 for.
storing; February 19 for average life; and June 9 when last fruit
went out. The results indicate that the season extends into
January or possibly into February.

BuckincHam. In the Station tests 104 apples were stored
October 5, 1896. The average life extended to March 9, and the
last fruit went out July 12.

CABASHEA (Cabashaw; Twenty Ounce Pippin of some). A
large coarse apple, season of Tompkins King.

Canapa Batpwin. Ranks about with the New York Baldwin
in keeping quality. .

In the Station tests apples of the crops of 1896 and ’97 were
stored. The mean dates were October 8 for storing; March 14 for
average life; and June 3 when last fruit went out. The results
were very similar in both years indicating that the season may
extend through February.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
March and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands heat com-
paratively well before going into storage and goes down gradually
after having scalded and lost in quality and color and having
softened.

Canada Pippin (see WHITE PipPIN).

Canada Red (see Rep CANADA).

CaNapDA RetneTte. At the Station, fruit of the seasons of 1896
and ’97 was tested. The mean dates were October 20 for storing;
March 17 for average life; and June 27 when last fruits went out.
The figures for the two seasons vary greatly but indicate that
under favorable conditions the fruit may be held until March.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station, stored October 19, was mellow and free from decay, but
slightly scalded May 1. Best commercial limit April 1.

Caux (Reinette de Caux). At the Station, fruit of the seasons
of 1896, 97 and ’98 was tested. The mean dates were October
17 for storing; April 8 for average life; and June 24 when last

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 2838

fruits went out. Averages for the different years differ greatly.
The average life in 1896 and ’97 extended only till about the
middle of March while in ’98 it extended till the latter part of
May. The indications are that this variety usually may be held
till March. ;

Cayuga Red Streak (see Twenty OUNCE).

CeestiA. In the Station tests 61 apples were stored October

1, 1896, and 104 apples October 8, 1897. The mean date for
. average life was February 25 and for the discarding of the last
fruit was June 3. There was much difference in the keeping qual-
ity of the fruit in these two years, indicating that its season may
vary greatly. It may be expected to extend into January; it may
possibly extend through the winter.

Chase (see Hypr KIna.)

CHENANGO (Chenango Strawberry, Sherwood Favorite). In the
Station tests 105 apples were stored September 2, 1896. The
average life extended to November 8. This variety ripens uney-
enly on the tree and therefore two or nfore pickings should be
' made of fruit intended for storing. The latest ripening fruit may
be kept till November. After that it deteriorates much in quality
even when the fruit is apparently sound.

Christmas Apple (see Lapy).

CuarRKE. In the Station tests 30 apples were stored October 5,
1896, and 105 apples October 9, 1897. The mean dates were Feb-
ruary 2 for average life, and April 11 when the last fruit went
out.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station, stored October 21, was mellow and free from scald but
slightly decayed February 1; commercial limit December 1. Flesh
grows soft and mealy and discolors at end of commercial life.

Codlin (see KEswIck).

CogswELL. In the Station tests 48 apples were stored October
1, 1896. The average life extended to February 22. The last
apples went out June 30. About 20 per ct. of the fruit went out
during the first month of storage. The remainder kept well till
the first of February after which it went out gradually.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station, stored October 11, was firm and free from scald and
decay May 1.

‘

284 Report or THE HorricuULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Cooper Marker. This is one of the latest-keeping varieties
grown but is otherwise valuable principally on account of its
productiveness and bright color late in the season. Some consider
this one of the best commercial kinds to SED BS, the trade after
the Baldwin season.

In the Station tests apples of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97
were stored. The mean dates were October 20 for storing, May
2 for average life and August 6 when last fruit went out. Com-
paratively little fruit went out before the middle of May after
which it went down pretty rapidly although in one instance some
specimens were kept till the first of September. The results were
pretty uniform and in conformity with the known late keeping
qualities of this variety.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station, stored October 21, was still hard and sound May 1.

Coid storage men report its season in cellar storage variously
as extending to April 1 or July 1 and in chemical cold storage to
May 1, July 1 or the year around.

It stands heat before going into storage as well as any variety
and goes down gradually without developing any undesirable
qualities unless scald. Britton remarks, ‘““No other variety I have
ever seen improves so much in color while in the barrel as Cooper
Market.” Its natural color as picked is dark red but in common
storage it takes on a bright red in May. In cold_storage this
change does not take place but the fruit remains dark red.

Cox Pomona (see Pomona).

CRANBERRY Pippin. This variety as grown in western New York
sometimes keeps through the winter but ranks rather below Bald-
win in keeping quality. As grown in the Hudson Valley its season
is one month to six weeks earlier than Hubbardston and Tompkins
King.

Season in cellar storage until December or January and in chem-
ical cold storage until April. It stands heat fairly well before
going into storage and goes down gradually after having lost in
quality, softened, become mealy and the skin having become
bitter.

Crorrs. In the Station tests 104 apples were stored October 16,
1897. The average life extended to January 28 and the last fruit
was discarded June 30. It kept well till the first of February

a ee

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 285

and then went down pretty rapidly till the last of March, after
which the remaining fruit went out gradually.

In the Department cold storage tests fruit from this Station,
stored October 21, was firm and free from decay March 14, but
badly scalded.

Deacon Jones. In the Department cold storage tests fruit
grown at this Station, stored October 11, was mellow but free from
rot and scald May 1. Commercial limit for barrel storage about
March 1.

Dickinson. This variety appears to be quite variable in keeping
quality.

In the Station tests fruit from the crops of 1895, 96 and ’97 was
stored. The mean dates were October 8 for storing; February 27
for average life; and June 11 when the last fruit went out. The
fruit of 1895 and ’96 showed a rather high rate of loss from the
middle of November throughout the winter; but the fruit of 1897
showed but small percentage of loss before the first of February.
Through February, March and April it went out rather slowly
and after that went down rapidly. It appears that ordinarily it
would be best not to hold it much later than the first of January.

In the Department cold storage tests bright, No. 1 fruit from
this Station, stored September 27, was overripe and badly decayed
May 1. Commercial limit in 1901-2, March 1; in 1902-3, Febru-
ary 1.

DisHaroon. In the Station tests 50 specimens were put in
storage September 17, 1896, and 69 specimens September 29, 1897.
The mean dates were September 23 for storing; January 11 for
average life; and May 12 when last fruit was. discarded. The
results were similar in both years. There was a gradual loss of
fruit from November till the close of the season. For commercial
purposes it appears that the fruit should not be kept later than
December.

In the Department cold storage tests, sound, No. 1 fruit from
this Station, stored September 27, was sound and free from scald
and decay April 1 but beginning to turn mellow.

Doctor (Coon,.Coon Red). Fruit attractive bright red. Appar-
ently well adapted for storage.

In the Station tests fruit from the crops of 1896, ’97 and ’98
was stored. An average of 84 specimens was put under test. The

286 Report oF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

mean dates were October 10 for storing; March 26 for average life ;
and June 9 when the last fruit went out. The results were pretty
uniform. The fruit kept till about March 1 with comparatively
little loss, after which it went down gradually.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station stored September 28 was semifirm and free from decay,
but slightly scalded May 1. Commercial limit March 15.

Domine (English Redstreak, Wells). In the Station tests fruit
grown in 1896 and ’97 was tested. The mean dates were October
13 for storing; March 13 for average life; and June 8 when last
apples went out. The results of both tests were similar. The
fruit kept till February with but small loss. After the middle of
February it went down more rapidly, indicating that here its
commercial season would not extend beyond February.

Two reports were received from storage men on this variety and
they are widely at variance with each other. Graham reports
that it stores very well; season in cellar storage February 1, and
in chemical cold storage March 1. Newhall reports that it is
inferior to Hubbardston in keeping quality, seasons October and
January in the respective storages. Graham reports that it stands
heat before going into storage very well and goes down in storage
gradually without having previously lost in quality, become soft
or mealy or having burst, all of which is contrary to Newhall’s
experience. Tests of the keeping quality of this fruit at this Sta-
tion rather agree with Graham’s experience, for its average life
extended to March 9 and 16, respectively, two seasons.

Duke or Drvonsuire. In the Station tests fruit was stored
from the crops of 1896 and ’98. The mean dates were October 1
for storing; March 5 for average life; and May 1 when last fruit
went out. The results of both tests were similar. The fruit kept
well till about the first of February and then went out rapidly,
although a few straggling specimens remained till March and in
one instance till June. The commercial limit appears to be about
February 1.

DumMELow (Wellington). In the Station tests 107 specimens
were stored October 28, 1896. The average life extended to March
13 and the last fruit was discarded July 12. By the middle of
February about 25 per ct. of the fruit had gone out. About 35
per ct. remained till after the first of May.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 287

Duncan. In the Station tests fruit from the crops of 1895, 796
and ’97 was stored. The mean dates were October 17 for storing;
April 18 for average life; and July 4 when the last apples went
out. The crop of 1895 did not keep well. But that of 1896 and
97 sustained the reputation of this variety for excellent keeping
qualities. In these years the rate of loss was low till the first of
May, after which the fruit went out rather fast. Thirty-five per
ct. of the crop of 1895 was gone by January 1, yet 37 per ct. of
it remained sound till the first of April. It appears that the
commercial limit would ordinarily extend till the first of May.

Edgar Red Streak (see WALBRIDGE.)

Epwarps. In the Station tests fruit from the crops of 1895, ’96
and ’97 was stored. The mean dates were October 19 for storing;
May 19 for average life; and August 24 when the last fruit went
out. Previous to the first of May the rate of loss was low. After
that it rose rapidly. Some specimens may often be kept till apples
come again.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, green fruit from this
Station, stored September 27, was quite mellow but free from
scald or rot March 14.

Een (Elgin Pippin). In the Station tests apples from the
crops of 1896 and ’97 were stored. The mean dates were Septem-
ber 8 for storing; November 18 for average life; and January 26
when last fruit went out. Both tests gave similar results. The
commercial season evidently closes before November.

ENcuisH Pippin. In the Station tests 105 apples went into
storage September 1, 1896. The average life extended to November
8 and the last fruit went out January 12. Commercial limit
October.

EncuisH Russet (Golden Russet incorrectly). This is one of
the longest keeping apples grown commercially.

Season in cellar storage April and in chemical cold storage
June to July. It stands heat before going into storage extra well,
and goes down very slowly after having shriveled. Newhall
reports on a fall apple under this name which may be the English
Russet of Warder.

Esopus Spitzenburg (Spitzenburg). Ranks between Rhode
Island Greening and Baldwin as a keeper. It is quite variable in
keeping quality in different seasons and different localities.

988 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

In the Station tests apples from all four crops were stored. The
average number that went into storage was 128. The mean dates
were October 11 for storing; March 21 for average life; and June
19 when last fruit went out. The crop of ’95 kept exceptionally
poorly while that of ’98 kept exceptionally well. The commercial
limit varied with the different seasons from January to April.

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1 fruit from this Sta-
tion, stored October 27, was semifirm and free from decay and
seald May 1. In barrels should be sold April 1.

Cold storage men report its season as extending in cellar stor-
age until February and in chemical cold storage until March
(Hart) or June 15 (Graham). Some report it as going down
quickly in storage after having become soft, shriveled and some-
times mealy and the skin bitter, all of which is contrary to the
experience of other correspondents.

ErowaH. In the Station tests 105 apples went into storage
October 8, 1897. The average life extended to February 22, and
the last fruit went out June 3. After the first of December there
was a low rate of loss till the first of March when the fruit went
on very rapidly.

Ewatr. In the Station tests 51, specimens were put in storage
September 30, 1896, and October 11, 1897, 102 specimens. The
mean dates were April 10 for average life and July 6 when last
fruit was discarded. For the crop of 1897 the rate of loss was low
and gradual from the last of November till the middle of May
after which the fruit went out very rapidly. The commercial limit
appears to vary from the first of March to the first of May.

In the Department tests well-colored, No. 1 fruit from this Sta-
tion, stored October 11, was beginning to mellow March 14 with
slight decay but no scald. Commercial limit in barrels Feb. 1.

Faurx. In the Station tests 86 specimens were put into storage
October 14, 1897. The average life extended to February 17, and
the last fruit was discarded June 11. From the middle of Novem-
ber till the middle of March the rate of loss was pretty uniform
and rather high, indicating that it would not be well to hold this
variety much later than the first of January.

Fanvawater (J'ulpehocken). Ranks sometimes with Hubbard-
ston and sometimes with Rhode Island Greening in keeping qual-
ity. It is quite variable in this respect.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 289

In the Station tests fruit of all four crops was tested. Average
number under test 84. The mean dates were October 12 for stor-
ing; April 26 for average life; and July 15 when last fruit was dis-
carded. Occasionally the fruit keeps pretty well through the
winter with but little loss as did the crop of 1897. But as a rule
there is a continuous loss at a rather low rate from about the mid-
dle of November to the middle or last of March after which the
fruit goes out very rapidly, as was the case with the crops of 1895
and 796. eh

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1, but very green,
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was semifirm, and tree
from decay or scald May 1.

According to cold storage men its season in cellar storage

extends to January or to March 1 and in chemical cold storage to
April 1 or May. It stands heat quite well before going into stor-
age and goes down gradually after having scalded, softened and
shriveled according to some correspondents but not in Graham’s
experience.
_ Fatt Oranee. This is an early fall variety and should not be
put into storage. Cars should be iced. In cellar storage speci-
mens are sometimes kept in quite good condition until mid-
winter.

Fatt Pippin. This is a fall variety and should not go into
storage.

At the Station this variety was under observation all four sea-
sons. The mean date of storing was September 25; of average
life February 13; and of going out of last specimens May 8. The
crop does not ripen uniformly. Some of the fruit is ripe, well-
colored and ready for immediate use in September while at
the same time a considerable portion of the crop is still hard and
green. In these tests, of course, the early-matured fruit was not
stored. With that which was stored the results were quite vari-
able in the different seasons. The highest loss before December 1
was 21 per ct. With different crops from 22 per ct. to 46 per
ct. went down before February 1. Even carefully selected fruit
cannot be relied upon to hold to December 1 without consider-
able loss.

In the Department cold storage tests bright, No. 1 fruit from

this Station, stored September 29, 1902, had commenced to soften
19

290 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

January 27. Fruit picked in 1901 kept in good condition until
January 10. May be held in boxes until February 1.

Season in cellar storage is given by storage men as September
to October and in chemical cold storage as October and Novem-
ber. It goes down quickly. Cars should be iced. |

Fall Queen (see Haas).

Fatu WINE (Autumn Strawberry). This is a fall variety and
should be handled direct to the consumer.

In the Station tests fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was
put in storage. The mean date of storing was September 18; of
average life February 23; and of discarding the last specimen
June 7. With the crop of 1895 the average life extended only
till January 4, but in the case of the crop of ’97 till April 4. The
fruit usually kept well through October but in one case did not,
There was always a heavy loss in November and with one excep-
tion in December also, after which it was less but constant till the
end. Commercial season September and October.

Fameuse (Snow). This is a fall and early winter one but
some report that it will keep in cold dry storage, if free from
scab, as long as Rhode Island Greening.

At the Station, fruit of the crops of 1885 and ’96 was under
observation. The mean date of storing was October 3, of average
life of the fruit January 28, and of decay of the last specimen
April 29; but there was a great difference in the keeping quality
of the fruit in the two seasons, the average life of the crop of
1896 being three months longer than the crop of 1895, according
to our records. The larger part of the fruit of 1895 decayed before
January 1, but the crop of 1896 kept fairly well till the middle of
January then went down more rapidly. In both cases there was
considerable loss in November. Commercial season November.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, bright, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was mellow, but free from
decay or scald January 31. It was still sound though very ripe
March 14.

Cold storage men report that it stands heat very well before
going into storage and that it goes down gradually, not scalding
until late but becoming mealy and bursting.

Farris. Fruit grown in 1895 and ’96 was tested at the Station.
For 1895 the average life of the fruit was February 7, and the

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 291

last specimens were thrown out May 28. For 1896, however, the
average life was May 1, and the last specimens were not thrown
out till June 30. In 1895 decay began early in the fall and pro-
ceeded moderately through the year. With the crop of 1896 it
set in in January and proceeded very moderately till April, when
it proceeded very rapidly. The season for this variety appears to
be variable but may extend to February or March.

FIsHKILL. In the Department cold storage tests, large, sound,
well-colored fruit from this Station, stored October 11, began to
decay internally, while still firm outside, after January 1 or 15.

Friory. Observations were made at the Station on the crops of
1895, ’96 and ’97. The average date of storing was September
30, of life of the fruit February 138, and of decay of the last
specimens July 18. The averages for all the years are quite
uniform. Its season may be said to extend to February. The
fruit goes down very slowly at first but rather rapidly toward
the latter part of the season.

Gano. This variety is reported by storage men to be practically
' identical with Ben Davis so far as keeping qualities in storage are
concerned.

In the Department cold storage tests, small, hard, half-colored
fruit from this Station, stored October 1, was semifirm but some-
what decayed May 1. Commercial limit April 1.

Newhall reports its season in cellar storage as extending until
January and in chemical cold storage until May. It stands heat
well before going into storage and goes down gradually. It scalds,
loses in color and firmness in deteriorating, becomes mealy and the
skin sometimes becomes bitter.

Genet (see RAs).

GIDEON (Gideon White). Inferior to Hubbardston in keeping
quality. After this variety reaches maturity the flesh character-
istically begins to discolor at the core.

Observations were made at the Station on the crops of 1895,
796 and ’97. The mean date of storing was September 17; of
average life January 11; and of decay of last specimens May 18.
This variety differed widely in keeping quality in the different
seasons. In season October to December but may sometimes
keep till February. The variety usually goes down rather mod-
erately.

292 Report oF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
October or November and in chemical cold storage until November
to February. They report that it stands heat poorly before going
into storage and that it goes down quickly after having lost in
quality, softened, become mealy and having burst.

GIDEON Sweet. Fruit stored October 5, 1896, at the Station, ~

showed an average life extending to May 1, the last fruits being
thrown out July 12. The fruit went down gradually.

Gilliflower (see BLACK GILLIFLOWER).

GILPIN (Little Red Romanite). “A very late keeper, keeping
well in any kind of storage. Some bury it in the ground like
potatoes and take it out in the spring.” (Graham.)

GINNIE (Aunt Ginnie). Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97
was tested at the Station. The average number of specimens
under test was 68. The mean dates were September 24 for stor-
ing; December 28 for average life; and May 11 when last fruit
went out. There was a high rate of loss during October,
November and December, after which the apples then remain-
ing went out gradually. Commercial season September to Novem-
ber.

GoLDEN MepaL. Fruit of the crops of 1896 and ’97 was tested
at the Station. The mean dates were October 8 for storing; March
24 for average life; and July 22 for discarding the last specimens.
The crop of 1896 showed a high percentage of loss in November
and December, after which it went out gradually. But the crop
of 1897 did not show a high rate of loss before the middle of May.
It then went down rapidly.

FOLDEN Russet (of Western New York). This variety was
formerly much sought after for the latest use; but since the intro-
duction of cold storage and of highly-colored late keeping varie-
ties such as Ben Davis its value has been much lessened.

Fruit from all of our crops was tested at the Station. The
average number of apples stored was 165. The mean dates were
October 15 for storing; March 23 for average life; and July 2 for
discarding the last fruit. The results were variable with the
different tests. The crops of 1895 and ’98 lost a comparatively
high percentage of fruit before the first of January after which
the rate of loss was low till May when it again became high. The
crops of 1896 and ’97 on the contrary, showed a comparatively low

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 293

rate of loss through the winter and in one case kept remarkably
well till after the first of May.

In the Department cold storage tests hat d, greenish russet, No.
1 fruit from this Station, stored November 15, was in prime com-
mercial condition and free from decay May 1. June 1, the fruit
was mellow and decay was setting in.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage
variously to March 1, or to June and in chemical cold storage to
May or to August. It stands heat very well before going into
storage according to most of our correspondents. It is said to
shrivel and go down quickly when once decay has begun. Wilson
remarks that the less the russeting, the shorter lived the fruit.

GRAcIE. September 1, 1896, 99 apples were put in storage at
the Station. The average life extended to October 6 and the last
fruits went out November 14, indicating September as the com-
mercial season for this variety.

GRAVENSTEIN. A fall and early winter apple, inferior in keeping
quality to Hubbardston. But taking it in its class it stands up
well in good dry cold storage.

August 31, 1896, 104 apples were put in storage at the Station.
The average life extended to December 6. The last apples went
out April 6. There was a high rate of loss up to the first week
in December, a low rate of loss from that time till the first week
in February after which the loss again became high. Commercial
season September to November. A considerable percentage of the
fruit remains sound much later than this but such fruit loses very
much of its original flavor, quality and bright color.

In the Department cold storage tests No. 1, highly-colored fruit
from this Station, stored, September 27, reached its commercial
limit December 1, after which it softened but showed no scald.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
October or to December and in chemical storage variously until
November or February. It is said to stand heat before going into
storage as well as any variety of its season but cars should be iced.
Some say it goes down gradually, some say quickly.

Greasy Pippin (see LOWELL).

_ Greening (see RuopeE IsLaANpD Greening).

GREEN Newtown (Green Newtown Pippin, Newtown Pippin).

A late keeper, coming into its prime in March.

294 ReEporT OF THE HortICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

In the Station tests apples of the crops of 1896 and ’97 were
stored. The mean dates were October 21 for storing; June 1 for
average life; and July 28 when the last fruit went out. The
results were quite uniform for both tests. There was no loss till
toward spring and the rate of loss did not rise very high before
May. On the first of May there remained 65 per cent. of sound
fruit in one case and in the other over 75 per cent.

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1 fruit from this
Station, stored October 21, was too green for use in March; May 1
it was still hard and free from decay but slightly scalded.

Storage men doubtless sometimes fail to distinguish between
this and the Yellow Newtown for they report its season in cellar
storage as extending variously until December or February and
in chemical cold storage until March or April. The true Green
Newtown keeps longer than the Yellow Newtown. It is reported
to stand heat well before going into storage and to go down
gradually with liability to scald.

GREENVILLE (Downing Winter Maiden Blush). At the Station,
apples from the crops of 1885, ’96 and ’97 were tested. The
average number under test was 78. The mean dates were October
3 for storing; for average life February 19; and for discarding
last fruit May 19. There is a moderate rate of loss through the
early part of the winter. About the first of February the rate of
loss begins to increase quite rapidly. Apparently the commercial
limit is January.

In the Department cold storage tests, large, finely colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was in excellent com-
mercial condition till February 1 when scald began to develop.
The fruit was one-third scalded March 14.

Grimes (Grimes Golden). Ranks about with Hubbardston as
a keeper.

At the Station apples from the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97
were stored. The average number tested was 80. The mean
dates were October 6 for storing; February 23 for average life;
and May 25 when the last fruit went out. The rate of loss was
high in November, low in December and January and high through
the remainder of the season, except that the crop of ’97 showed
only a very low rate of loss before the first of February. Com-
mercial season extends to December or January.

a

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 295

In the Department tests, No. 1, fairly well-colored fruit from
this Station, stored October 11, was in good condition com-
mercially till February 1, when scald began to develop. May 1,
all the fruit was scalded but was still semifirm.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as extending
variously to November or January and in chemical storage to
January or February. The fruit should be kept cool before going
into storage. In deteriorating it is liable to scald, lose in quality,
color and firmness and according to Newhall, to shrivel and
become mealy. It goes down quickly.

Haas (Fall Queen). This variety should not go into storage
ordinarily.

At the Station fruit of all four crops was tested. The aver-
age number put under test was 86. The mean dates were Septem-
ber 27 for storing; December 16 for average life; and March 15
when the last apples went out. The results were pretty uniform,
showing that the commercial limit is November or possibly in
some seasons December.

In the Department cold storage tests fairly well-colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station was stored September 27. After December
1 the flesh began to mellow, grow mealy and decay.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
November or December and in chemical storage to January 15.
It does not stand heat well before going into storage and the cars
should be iced. It goes down gradually.

Haskewu (Haskell Sweet). In the Station tests September 21,
1895, 49 apples and September 8, 1896, 105 apples were stored.
The average life extended to November 28. The mean date for
throwing out the last fruit was February 21. The results were
uniform for both tests and indicate that the commercial limit
is early November for this variety.

In the Department cold storage tests the commercial limit of
No. 1 fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was January 15,
after which the fruit began to soften. There was no scald.

Heiorn. In the Station tests 30 apples were stored September
30, 1897. The average life extended to December 5. The last
fruit went out January 12.

Henvrick (Hendrick Sweet; Bailey Sweet incorrectly). Stor-
age men report the season of this variety as extending in cellar

296 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

storage to April 1, and in chemical cold storage to May 15. It
stands heat well before going into storage and goes down grad-
ually, becoming mealy and bursting.

HENNIKER (Lady Henniker). In the Station tests 104 apples
were stored September 16, 1896. The average life extended to
January 28. The last fruit went out June 8.

In the Department cold storage tests well-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station was stored September 27. After December 1
the flesh began to mellow. There was no scald.

HotiaNnp Prepin (of Downing and of Eastern New York; Fall
Pippin incorrectly).

Resembles Fall Pippin closely but begins to ripen earlier. Sea-
son in cellar storage according to storage men extends to Decem--
ber 1 and in chemical cold storage to December 15. It does not
stand heat at all well, and goes down quickly after becoming
mealy and bursting. It varies greatly in keeping quality in
different seasons some years keeping well until late. The crop
also ripens unevenly. Some of the apples ripen early and are cor-
respondingly short lived while others ripen later and keep cor-
respondingly later.

Hotutann Winter. (Holland Pippin of Hogg, Langley and
Miller, and of Western New York. Not the Holland Pippin of
Downing and Eastern New York, which is a fall apple.) This
is much less liable to scald than is Rhode Island Greening and
some other varieties of green apples.

In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1895 and ’97. The mean
dates were October 6 for storing; April 5 for average life; and
May 26 when the last fruit went out. The rate of loss was low
through the fall and winter but after the first of March it rose
rapidly and remained high till the close of the season. The results
of both tests were similar, and indicate that the commercial limit
for this variety is February or possible early March.

In the Department cold storage tests large, well-colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station was stored October 21. After February 1
the fruit began to soften. There was no scald till long after its
commercial season.

Hupparpston (Hubbardston Nonsuch, Nonsuch, American
Blush, Orleans). Many consider Hubbardston, American Blush

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 297

and Orleans to be identical varieties while others hold that they
are distinct. But Hart has fruited an American Blush which is
distinct from Hubbardston. See note on American Blush. Hub-
bardston is one of the most variable varieties of apples.

It is a very uncertain keeper and should go out early. Morgan
remarks that it is thick-skinned and as such would be expected
to keep well, but it does not.

In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1896, ’97 and ’98. The

mean dates were October 2 for storing; March 3 for average life;
and June 9 when last fruit went out. The rate of loss was com-
paratively low till the first of January after which it increased
rapidly and remained high. Although at the first of March a
considerable percentage of the fruit remained sound it had lost
much of its original high flavor and quality. The results of the
tests were pretty uniform indicating that the commercial limit
of this variety is December or possibly early January.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, immature
fruit, stored October 11, was in prime condition May 1. The
results of this test were exceptional. This variety from five other
localities, including two in this State, was also tested, but in
no other case did it keep nearly so well.

According to storage men the season of this variety extends in
cellar storage to December and in chemical cold storage to Janu-
ary. It is not so much affected by heat as some varieties but
should nevertheless be kept cool. It goes down quickly. A major-
ity of our correspondents report variously that the inside of the
fruit becomes discolored before final decay, that it loses in color
and firmness, shrivels, becomes mealy and bursts. But experi-
ences differ greatly on these points, that of Graham especially
being unlike the majority of the others. Howes reports that if
the fruit is of good color it does not vary much in keeping quality,
taken one season with another ; but some seasons it is off color and
such seasons it soon deteriorates. But Morgan remarks that
highly-colored specimens go down quicker than those not so
highly colored. Wilson says the keeping quality of this variety
depends more on size than on color. If there is only a medium
crop on the tree the fruit is large and goes down quicker than
if the crop is heavy and the individual fruits smaller and firmer.

298 ReporvT oF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Wilson also believes that this variety should not be picked and put
into the barrel at once. The fruit should first lay on straw on the
ground for two or three weeks to color.

HuntsMAN. Holds in cold storage well, season until Febru-
Atyicl.

Hurieutr. Fruit was stored in 1896, ’97 and 798. The mean
dates were September 30 for storing; February 3 for average
life; and April 4 for discarding last fruit. The results were quite
variable with the different tests. The crop of ’98 showed a rather
low rate of loss till after the first of April when the fruit began
to go down very rapidly. The crop of 1897 went down at a rapid
rate from the time it was put into storage. Two-thirds of it went
out before the first of December. The crop of ’96 showed a pretty
high rate of loss before the first of December, a low rate through
December and January and a high rate again in February and
succeeding months.

In the Department cold storage tests hard fruit, not well-
colored, stored September 27, was firm till April 1, after which
it softened.

Hype Kine (Hyde’s King of the West, Chase, Western
Beauty of our previous records and of U. 8S. Dept. Agr., B. P. I.
Bull. 48.) Apparently well adapted for holding in cold storage.

In the Station tests 66 apples were stored October 17, 1896, and
102 apples October 15, 1897. The mean dates were May 4 for
average life, and July 28 when last fruit went out. The year
1896 was decidedly unfavorable to the development of good keep-
ing quality in apples. For the crop of 1896 the average life
extended only till March 22, but for that of 1897 it extended to
June 15. Ordinarily the fruit may be expected to keep till March
or later.

In the Department cold storage tests this variety from this
Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from rot or scald
May 1.

JacoBs Sweer. Nota good keeper. It is said to crack and rot
on the tree as well as in storage.

In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1895, ’96 and ’97. The
mean dates were October 7 for storing; February 12 for average
life; and June 30 when the last fruit went out. All crops showed
a pretty high rate of loss through the fall and early winter indi-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 299

cating that the commercial limit for this variety is November and
December, although a considerable percentage of the fruit may
remain sound till February or later.

In the Department cold storage tests green, No. 1 fruit stored
September 27, 1901, remained firm till March 1, and in good con-
dition in boxes till April 1; no scald. The crop of 1902 began to
mellow February 1, but held in god condition in boxes till April 1.
mellow February 1, but keld in good condition in boxes till
April 1.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as extending
variously to October to December and in chemical cold storage
variously to January or March. It does not stand heat well and
goes down quickly after having lost in firmness.

Janet (see Rais).

JEFFERIS. In the Station tests 104 apples were stored October
18, 1896. The average life extended to January 18 and the last
fruit went out February 9. The rate of loss was low in October
but high in November and later, indicating that October is the
commercial limit for this variety.

Jenniton (see RALLs).

JERSEY Sweer. At the Station fruit was stored in 1895, ’96 and
97. The mean dates were September 23 for storing; November 19
for average life; and January 18 when the last fruit went out.
The results of the tests were pretty uniform and indicate that
this variety should not be handled commercially later than Sep-
tember or possibly early October.

JeEwETT Red (Jewett Fine Red, Nodhead). In the Station
tests 104 apples were stored September 29, 1896. The average
life extended to January 29 and the last fruit went out May 4.
The rate of loss was high in November and early December,
rather low from then to the middle of March when it again became
high. Owr experience with this variety leads us to look upon it
as a late fall and early winter sort when grown here. For this
locality the commercial limit appears to be October or November.

JONATHAN. This variety does not attain to its greatest size in
New York State. Its season is about the same as that of Tomp-
kins King.

In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1895, 96 and ’97. The
mean dates were October 8 for storing; April 6 for average life;

300 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

and August 1 when last fruit was discarded. The crops of ’95
and ’96 showed a moderate rate of loss in November and Decem-
ber, while that of ’97 showed but little loss in November and
none in December. In each test a large percentage of the fruit
kept till March or later but after the first of January the skin
began to show dark spots which detracted much from the com-
mercial value of the fruit. On this account the commercial limit
appears to be December or early January.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard fruit from
this Station, stored October 27, was in prime commercial con-
dition May 1, hard and free from rot.

Storage men report the season of this variety in cellar storage
as extending to December or January and in chemical cold storage
variously to January or March. In deteriorating the fruit is
reported to shrivel and to go down gradually.

JONATHAN Buter (Buler). In the Station tests 106 apples
were stored October 8, 1897. The average life extended to Feb-
ruary 24 and the last fruit went out May 6.

In the Department tests the commercial limit of this variety
from this Station was found to be February 1 in cold storage.
After this date the fruit scalded badly but remained firm until
April 1.

Jones (Jones Seedling). In the Station tests 62 specimens
were stored October 16, 1896. The average life extended to May
18 and the last fruit was discarded July 12. The rate of loss
was low from January to May, after which it became high.

Juicy Krimtartar (see KRImMTARTAR).

KauLKIpon (Khalkidonskoe). In the Station tests 45 apples
were stored September 28, 1896. The average life extended to
February 4 and the last fruit went out May 25. There was a
gradual loss of fruit from early in November till the first of
March, after which the loss became high.

KANSAS GREENING. In the Station tests 106 specimens were
stored October 17, 1896. The average life extended to April 2
and the last fruit was discarded June.30. The rate of loss was
low from the first of November till the middle of January after
which the fruit went out rapidly.

KANSAS Kepper. In the Station tests, fruit was stored in 1896
and 97. The mean dates were October 10 for storing; May 1 for

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 301

average life; and July 15 when the last fruit went out. The
fruit kept well till about the first of February, after which there
was a moderate rate of loss till May and then the remaining fruit
went out rapidly. Commercial limit appears to be February or
March.

In the Department cold storage tests, very hard, immature
fruit, stored October 21, was still hard and free from scald or
decay June 1.

Keswick (Keswick Codlin). This is a fall variety and should
not go into storage.

In the Station tests, fruit was stored in 1895 and ’96. The
mean dates were September 6 for storing; October 22 for average
life; and November 19 for discarding the last fruit. The results
are quite similar for the two tests, indicating September and early
October as the commercial limit for this variety.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as August and
September and in chemical cold storage until November. It does
not stand heat well and goes down quickly.

Khalkidonskoe (see KALKIDON).

King of Tompkins County (see TompKins Kin@).

KirrLtAnn. In the Station tests 105 specimens were stored Octo-
ber 13, 1897. The average life extended to May 23 and the last
fruit was discarded August 12. The rate of loss in December is
low, increasing gradually to a moderate rate in May after which
it is rapid.

In the Department coid storage tests, dark red, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was in prime commercial
condition throughout the storage season; no scald or decay.

KITTAGESKEE. In the Station tests, fruit was stored in 1895,
96 and ’97. The mean date for storing was October 6; for average
life April 14; and for going out July 12. The rate of
loss is low or moderate up to the middle of May, after which it
is high.

KriIMTartTarR (Juicy Krimtartar). In the Station tests 103
apples were stored September 18, 1897. The average life extended
to November 26 and the last fruit went out April 4. About 60
per ct. of the fruit \ ent out in October and 23 per ct. in Novem-
ber. The commercial season appears to be September, although
a few specimens may keep through the winter.

302 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Lavy (Christmas Apple). While this variety is a late keeper
it is usually sold at the Christmas season, and seldom held late,
as there is little call for it after the holidays. It stands heat well
before going into storage.

Lady Henniker (see HENNIKER).

Lavy Sweer (Pommeroy, Lady’s Sweeting). Ranks hardly
with Baldwin as a keeper.

In the Station tests, 29 specimens were stored October 17, 1898.
The average life extended to April 30 and the last fruit went out
June 12.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, half-green, imma-
ture fruit from this Station, stored October 27, remained hard and
sound throughout the storage season.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage
to March or April, and in chemical cold storage to May or June.
It stands heat well before going into storage and goes down
gradually, sometimes after having become soft or shriveled.

LanKForp (Langford, Bickers). This variety is one of the
worst varieties to scald after mid-winter.

In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1895, ’96 and ’97. The
mean dates were for storing October 17; for average life April
22; and for discarding of last fruit July 15. The rate of loss
through the fall and winter is usually low, increasing in March
and becoming high in May.

In the Department cold storage tests medium sized, very hard,
half-colored fruit from this Station was stored October 21. It
began scalding in January but remained hard through the storage
season.

Lanpspere (Landsberger Reinette). In the Station tests 51
apples were stored September 25, 1895, and 105 apples October
16, 1897. The mean date for storing was October 6; for average
life February 23; and for discarding the last fruit July 21. The
loss was rather high in November, moderate through the winter
and high again from about March 1 till the close of the season.

In the Department cold storage tests bright No. 1 fruit from
this Station, stored October 21, reached its commercial limit
January 15, after which the flesh mellowed; no scald.

Larce Lapy. In the Station tests 105 apples were stored Octo-
ber 8, 1898. Average life extended to May 10 and the last fruit

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 303

went out July 5. During the fall and winter the loss varied from
low to moderate. It became high early in May and continued so
till the close of the season. The fruit kept till the first of May
with but comparatively little loss.

Lawver (Delaware Red Winter). In the Station tests fruit
was stored in 1895, 96 and 97. Average number stored 73. The
mean date for storing was October 13; for average life May 4;
and for discarding the last fruit July 25. The rate of loss was
low till May 1, after which the fruit went out gradually in one
case and in the other two tests pretty rapidly. Commercial limit
of the variety appears to be March or possibly April.

Storage men give the season of this variety as extending to
February or March in cellar storage and to April in chemical cold
storage. It stands heat well before going into storage and goes
down gradually.

Limpertwic. Season in cellar storage until February and in
chemical cold storage until May (Newhall) or July 1 (Graham).
It stands heat well before going into storage and goes down
gradually.

LoneFietp. In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1895, 796
and ’97. The average number stored was 89. The mean date for
storing was September 24; for average life November 30; and for
going out February 15. The results of the different tests are
pretty uniform, showing a high percentage of loss throughout the
fall and in fact till the close of the season. The variety does not
appear well adapted for holding outside of cold storage. Com-
mercial season September or possibly later.

In the Department cold storage tests clear, well-colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, in semifirm condition,
reached its commercial limit December 1, after which its flesh
grew mealy.

LonewortH (Longworth Red Winter). In the Station tests
103 apples were stored October 2, 1896, and 65 apples October 16,
1897. The mean date for storing was October 9; for average life
December 14; and for going out February 9. The results were
not uniform. In 1896, 90 per ct. of the crop was gone by the
last of December but in 1897 the rate of loss was moderate up
to the middle of January, after which the fruit went down very
rapidly. Our experience with the variety leads us to regard the

304 REPORT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

limit of its season at Geneva as November for commercial
purposes.

LowELu (Greasy Pippin, Tallow Pippin). In the Department
cold storage tests, No. 1 fruit, stored September 38, reached its
commercial limit October 15, after which it softened and lost
quality.

McIntosu (McIntosh Red). This variety is rather earlier than
Hubbardston. Its keeping quality is unfavorably affected by the
fact that it ripens its fruit very unevenly. Two or three pickings
should be made. ;

At the Station, fruit was stored in 1895, ’96 and ’97. The mean
date for storing was October 1; for average life January 30; and
for going out May 12. The results were quite uniform. They
showed a high rate of loss from November throughout the season.
It cannot be expected to keep much later than October in ordinary
storage without considerable loss.

In the Department cold storage tests, well-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, 1901, remained firm till
January 15 and in good condition in the boxes till March 1. In
1902-3 the fruit was firm a month longer.

Sold storage men report its season as extending in cellar stor-
age until November and in chemical cold storage until December
or January. It does not stand heat well before going into storage
and shrivels like Westfield Seek-no-further.

McMauon (McMahon White). This variety ripens unevenly.

Fruit was stored at the Station in 1895, ’96 and 797. The mean
date for storing was September 19; for average life January 19;
and for discarding of last fruit April 21. The rate of loss was
high from early in October throughout the season. It does not
appear well adapted for common storage.

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1, unevenly-colored
fruit from this Station was stored October 21 and reached its
commercial limit December 1.

Macoe (Magog Red Streak). September 30, 1896, 51 apples,
and October 11, 1897, 78 apples were stored for testing at the
Station. The mean date for storing was October 6; for average
life January 7; and for discarding last fruit April 14. The results
were not uniform in the two tests. In 1896 a large percentage of
fruit went out in November and after that the apples went down

New YorRK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 305

slowly; but in 1897 the apples began to go down in October, and
the loss continued at a rather high rate till the close of the
season. The commercial limit appears to be October. Ordinary
season for family use October to January or possibly later.

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1 fruit from this
Station was stored September 27 and reached its commercial limit
January 15, after which the flesh softened; no scald.

Marpen BuusH (Lady Blush). Fruit of all four seasons was
tested at the Station. The mean date for storing was September
20; for average life February 20; and for going out May 3. The
results were pretty uniform in that the loss was light through the
fall but in December it began to increase and continued at a
rather high rate till the fruit was gone. The commercial limit
appears to be November or early December. Later than this,
although the fruit may appear sound, it is deficient in quality.

In the Department cold storage tests, well-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station was stored October 21. After December 15 the
flesh softened; no scald.

Storage men report its season as extending to October in cellar
storage and to November or December in chemical cold storage.
It does not stand heat well before going into storage and cars.
should be iced. It goes down quickly. Newhall reports that in
deteriorating it scalds, loses quality, color and firmness, softens,
becomes mealy and bursts, while Howes and Graham report that
it does none of these things. Prisch also remarks that it scalds
very easily. Howes remarks that it varies greatly in time of
maturing in different seasons and that the earlier it matures
the less satisfactory it is as a keeper. Morgan remarks that this
variety is peculiar in its manner of scalding in that one-half of
the apple turns almost black.

Mammoth Blacktwig (see ARKANSAS or PARAGON).

Mancuester. In the Department cold storage tests small.
hard, very immature fruit from this Station, stored September
27, was still hard and immature May 1, and free from scald and
rot.

Mann. This is one of the late keeping varieties, ranking about
with Ben Davis in season.

In the Station tests 97 specimens were put in storage October
18, 1895. The average life extended to April 6; and the last fruit

20

3806 Report oF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

was discarded July 24. From November to April the rate of
loss was moderate; after that it was high, indicating that the
commercial limit is March or April for this variety.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, grassy green
fruit from this Station, stored October 11, was still hard and
green and free from rot or scald May 1. In a test of this variety
at the same time from W. T. Mann, Niagara county, fruit grown
on clay soil was greener and less attractive at the end of the
season than fruit grown on sandy soil.

Cold storage men report the season of this variety as extending
in cellar storage to February or March and in chemical cold
storage to March or May. According to Hart it stands heat
about like the average variety, but Shuttleworth says it is one
of the best in this respect. It goes down gradually, scalding
somewhat.

Manwarine. In the Department cold storage tests, No 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 1, reached its commercial limit
January 15, after which it decayed badly.

Maricoutp. At the Station 54 apples were put in storage Octo-
ber 13, 1897. The average life extended to March 6 and the last
fruit was discarded June 11. The rate of loss was rather high
in November and became high again in January, indicating
November or December as the commercial limit for this variety.

In the department cold storage tests, immature small fruit from
this Station, stored October 11, was still very hard and free from
decay but slightly scalded May 1.

May Srex-No-FarTHER (Big Romanite of some). An old variety
not now generally cultivated. Season in cellar storage, accord-
ing to Graham, until March 1, and in chemical storage May 1. It
goes down gradually and does not scald badly but the skin
becomes slightly bitter.

Meton (Norton Melon). Fruit was stored in 1896 and ’97 at
the Station. The mean date for storing was October 5; for average
life March 13; and June 21 when last fruit went out. The results
are not uniform for the two tests. In 1896 nearly 50 per ct. of
the fruit had gone by the last of December; the remaining fruit
went out at a uniformly moderate rate. The crop of 1897 kept till
the first of February with only 12 per ct. of loss, after which the
rate of loss was uniform and moderately high until June. Ordi-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 307

nary limit of season December or January. Later than this the
fruit deteriorates in quality even though apparently perfect.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, green fruit from
this Station, stored October 21, 1901, was still hard and green
and free from scald or rot May 1, 1902. In 1902-3 the fruit _
softened after February 1 and decayed considerably.

Menacere. In the Station tests 32 specimens were stored Sep-
tember 17, 1896. The average life extended till April 4 and the
last fruit went out July 12. Deterioration proceeded at a uni-
formly low rate from November to the close of the season.

Mivpen (Milding). October 1, 1895, 26 apples and October 12,
1897, 106 apples were stored at the Station. The mean date for
storing was October 7; for average life March 4; and for discard-
ing the last fruit May 25. The results of the two tests are pretty
uniform. The loss of fruit started at a moderate rate in Novem-
ber and continued at an increasing rate till the close of the
season.

Mixuicen. September 30, 1896, 103 apples and October 12, -
1897, 104 apples were stored at the Station. The mean date for
storing was October 6; for average life February 16; and for dis-
carding of last fruits June 21. The results of both tests are
pretty uniform in showing a rather high rate of loss beginning in
November and continuing till the close of the season, indicating
that the commercial limit for this variety is October.

In the Department cold storage tests firm, No. 1 fruit from this
Station, stored October 11, appeared scalded after January 15,
though the fruit was firm and only slightly scalded until March
15.

MINKLER. This variety does not hold perhaps quite so well as
Baldwin in storage but is nevertheless a late keeper. -

Various storage men report its season as extending in cellar
storage to November or to January and in chemical cold storage
to December or May. It stands heat well before going into storage
and goes down rather gradually, scalding as it does so and losing
in quality, color and firmness and the skin becoming bitter.

Missouri Pippin. Ranks with Baldwin as a keeper. Season
in cellar storage till December (Newhall) or April 1 (Graham)
and in chemical cold storage till April (Newhall) or July 1
(Graham). It stands heat well before going into storage and

308 Report OF THE HoRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THB

goes down gradually. It scalds and softens according to Newhall
but not so according to Graham.

MonmoutH (Monmouth Pippin). This variety was tested in
all four seasons at the Station. The average number of fruits
stored was 84. The mean date for storing was October 18; for
average life March 22; and for discarding the last fruit July 14.
The results were not uniform as to the rate of deterioration in
early winter. The crops of 1895, ’96 and ’98 showed a rather
high percentage of loss before the first of January, whereas the
crop of ’97 did not show much loss before March. The records
indicate that the commercial limit for the variety as grown here
is usually November.

In the Department cold storage tests bright, green, No. 1 fruit,
stored October 21, was in prime commercial condition May 1,
firm and free from rot or scald. Commercial limit in this test
about June 1.

Moon. In the Station tests October 2, 1896, 107 apples and
‘October 8, 1897, 50 apples were stored. The mean date for the
average life was March 22 and discarding of last fruits June 30.
The results of the two tests agree in showing a pretty high per-
centage of loss in November and a low rate of loss through the
latter part of December and the fore part of January, after which
the fruit went out rather rapidly. On account of the loss of fruit
early in the season this appears to be an unsatisfactory variety
for storing, notwithstanding the fact that a considerable per-
centage of the fruit may keep in good condition till February or
later.

Moore Sweer. At the Station fruit from the crops of 1896
and ’97 was tested. The average number of fruits stored was 60.
The mean date of storing was October 15; of average life April
21; and of deterioration of last fruits July 11. The figures for
the two seasons are fairly uniform and indicate that the com-
mercial limit of this variety is April. Deterioration was very
gradual throughout the winter.

In the Department cold storage tests No. 1, immature fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from decay
or seald till April 15, after which it softened.

Moruer. At the Station, fruit! from the crops of 1896, ’97 and
°98 was tested. The average number of fruits stored was 86. The

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 309

mean date of storing was September 18; of average life January
24; and of deterioration of last fruits June 11. The results of
the different seasons were quite variable. Deterioration pro-
ceeded very rapidly the first part of the season, 40 per ct. or
more of the fruit going down by December 10. Later the fruit
was deficient in quality although it went down very gradually
through the winter. These results indicate that this variety is
poorly adapted for holding in storage. Commercial limit, Novem-
ber.

In the Department cold storage tests firm, poorly-colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored September 27, was firm till March
15 and semifirm and in good condition in boxes till May 1; no
decay or scald.

Munson (Munson Sweet). In the Department cold storage
tests fair colored, No. 1 fruit, stored September 29, was in good
condition till January 1, after which it softened; no scald. or
decay.

Nexson. Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was tested at
the Station. The average number of fruits stored was 105. The
mean date of storing was October 13; of average life May 31;
and of deterioration of last fruits July 2. In 1896 and ’97 the
fruit was stored in the latter part of October and the average
life of the fruit extended both years until about the middle of
June; but in 1895 the fruit was stored October 2 and its average
life extended only until May 3.

This variety kept with practically no loss until April and very
inconsiderable loss until May, after which the fruit went down
suddenly. Commercial limit, April or May.

NewMan. Station tests were made all four seasons. The
average number of fruits stored was 76. The mean date of storing
was October 12; of average life May 6; and of going down of
last fruits July 10. This variety held well until January, then
suffered a low rate of loss till March or April, after which it went
down rather rapidly. Commercial limit, March or later.

In the Department tests, No. 1 fruit from this Station, stored
October 21, was firm and in prime commercial condition May 1;
no decay or scald.

NEWTOWN SpirzeNsurG. Station tests were made all four sea-
sons. The average number of fruits stored was 90. The mean

310 REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

date of putting the fruit into storage was October 18; of average
life April 25; and of decay of last specimens June 8. The fruit
kept well till February except that of the crop of 1895 which
showed a high rate of loss in December. The results with this
exception were pretty uniform indicating that the usual com-
mercial limit here would be February or sometimes March.

New Water. In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, remained firm until
January 15, and in good condition till March 1; no decay or scald.

Nodhead (see JEwrETT Red).

Norton Melon (see MEton).

NortTHerN Spy. “This variety is variable in storage behavior.
It is particularly susceptible to decay from blue mold, especially
if bruised or delayed in reaching storage. If well-colored, picked,
packed, and handled with great care, and stored soon after pick-
ing, it may be carried in storage as long as most winter varieties.”
(Powell and Fulton.)

“Tf carefully packed will keep about the same length of time
as Rhode Island Greening. Its thin skin and abundant juice
render careful handling absolutely necessary.” (Howes.)

This variety was under observation at the Station all four
seasons. The mean of the dates of storing was October 22; of the
average life February 16; and of the discarding of the last speci-
mens June 8. The results with this variety were variable. There
was always some loss of fruit as early as November. Sometimes
the rate of loss in November rose pretty high. It was usually
high also in December. From January to May the results were
more variable, but usually the loss was moderately low in Janu-
ary, after which it increased gradually. Well-developed and well-
colored fruit retains its high quality till late in the season.

In the Department cold storage tests, well-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, 1901, was firm and in good

commercial condition May 1, 1902. Light-colored fruit stored
November 15, 1902, was in good condition till March 1, 1903,

after which it decayed considerably.

According to storage men its season in cellar extends to
November or February (Howes, Hart) or March or April (Payne).
Fenton remarks that it can be kept in common cellars by regulat-
ing the temperature very carefully until May 1. In chemical cold

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 311

storage its season is given as until April. It stands heat fairly
well but should go into storage as soon as possible after being
picked. Some report it as going down gradually, others quickly.
The variety in nearly all cases reported as being free from objec-
tionable features preceding decay, but only when the fruit is well-
colored. This variety is one of the easiest to be bruised and there
is much shrinkage in handling it.

NORTHWESTERN Greening. Observations were made at the Sta-
tion on the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97. The average number of
fruits stored was 103. The mean of the dates of storing was
October 7; of average life March 11; and of going out June 29.
The results were quite uniform in that there was little or no loss
in October, a high rate of loss in November and sometimes in
December, a moderate rate through mid-winter and a rate vary-
ing from high to very high in the closing weeks of the season.
On account of the high rate of loss early in the season and con-
tinuous loss later it does not promise to be a very satisfactory
variety for ordinary storage, yet it is a late keeper. A large part
of the fruit does not reach prime condition before January, and
much of it remains sound at the close of winter.

In the Department cold storage tests medium-sized, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was hard and free from
scald or decay May 1 and in good commercial condition till June
1, when it began to soften.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage
to December and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands heat
well before going into storage and goes down gradually with loss
of quality.

OAKLAND (Oakland Seek-no-further). In our experience with
the fruit grown at this Station its season in cellar storage begins
late in November or early in December and continues till mid-
winter or later.

In the Department cold storage tests bright, hard, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was firm till March 1, and
Semifirm and in good condition in boxes till April 15; no decay or
scald.

OccipeNT. Trials were made at the Station in 1895, ’96 and
97. The average number of fruits stored was 106. The mean
dates were October 21 for storing the fruit; April 25 for its aver-

312 Report oF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

age life; and June 29 for going out of last specimens. In 1895 the
keeping quality was exceptionally poor for this variety, the aver-
age life extending only to March 12; but in the other years the
variety maintained its reputation for excellent late keeping quali-
ties, showing but a very low rate of loss before the middle of
March. Ordinary commercial limit March or April; season Jan-
uary to May.

Onto Pippin. In a trial at the Station in 1896 fruits were
stored September 2. The average life was December 1 and the
last specimen was discarded April 19. Three-fourths of the crop
went down by November 15, the rest going out gradually through
the winter. Commercial limit probably October, although the
season of this variety is October to January.

Ouive. Fruit was stored at the Station in 1896 and ’97. The
mean date of storing was October 9, of average life April 6 and of
going out of last fruits June 30. The fruit kept well until mid-
winter when it suddenly showed considerable deterioration for a
short time, after which deterioration proceeded gradually till
spring opened. On account of very considerable loss in January
and February the safe commercial limit appears to be December ;
yet much of the fruit remains sound till March or April.

OLDENBURG (Duchess of Oldenburg). This variety is too early
to go into storage. Its season in cellar storage is given by storage
men as August and September. Newhall reports that it loses in
quality and firmness if stored, shrivels and becomes mealy and
bursts. It does not stand heat and goes down quickly.

Onrarto. In the Station tests fruit was stored in 1896 and ’98.
The average number of fruits stored was 98. The mean dates
were October 19 for storing, April 26 for average life and July 9
when last fruits went out. There was a difference of nearly two
months in the average life of this variety in the two years. In
1896 the fruit kept well until December, after which it went down
at an even and moderate rate through the winter. In 1898 it kept
well until April 1, the loss being only 9 per ct. up to that time.
It maintained but little further loss till May 1, after which the
fruit deteriorated rapidly.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, green, No. 1 fruit,
stored October 11, was firm and free from decay or scald March 14,
but soft and worthless May 1.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ole

ORNAMENT (Ornament de Table). At the Station fruit was
stored from the crops of 1896 and ’97. The average number of
fruits stored was 101. The mean dates were October 10 for stor-
ing, March 15 for average life and June 22 when last fruits went
out. Results both seasons were very similar. The loss was mod-
erately high though variable from November to March, after which
it became high. Commercial limit early winter. Season Novem-
ber to May.

In the Department cold storage tests, small, light-colored fruit
from this Station, stored September 27, was firm and free from
scald but was slightly decayed May 1.

Ostrakorr. At the Station fruit was stored from the crops of
1896 and ’97. The average number of fruits stored was 104. The
mean date of storing was September 23, of average life December
22 and of going out of last specimens April 17. But the average
life of the crop of 1896 was considerably more than double that
of the crop of 1897. Moreover specimens kept until June 30 in
1896, but only until February 2 in 1897, a difference of nearly 4
months. Both seasons considerable decay appeared in October.
In 1896 sixty per ct. of the fruit went out by February 1. In
1898 over one-half went out in October. Evidently this variety
would be very unsatisfactory in ordinary storage.

Paracon (Mammoth Blacktwig). In the Department cold
storage tests hard, green, No. 1 fruit from this Station, stored
October 21, was firm but badly scalded March 14. May 1 it was
nearly all scalded but still firm and free from decay.

Parry WuHite. Fruit of the crops of 1895 and ’96 was tested
at the Station. The average number of fruits stored was 81. The
mean date of storing was September 10, of average life October
25 and of decay of last specimens November 6. Results both
seasons were quite similar. The test specimens were all or nearly
all spoiled by October 31. Season September and early October.

Preacu. At the Station, October 1, 1897, 85 specimens were put
in storage. Their average life extended to March 2 and the last
specimens were discarded June 30. The rate of loss was rather
high in Novernaber and December but moderate through the rest
of the winter, becoming high again in spring.

Peck Pleasant. Fruit from the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was
stored at the Station. The average number of fruits stored was

314 ReEporT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

115. The mean date of storing was October 19, of average life
March 26, and of discarding of last specimens July 6. The fruit
of 1895 kept poorly. The loss began late in November and con-
tinued at a high rate till the close of the season. But the other
crops showed but a low rate of loss till March; the fruit then
deteriorated more rapidly. In ordinary seasons the commercial
limit would be February, but the season of the fruit is October
to March.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard and green fruit
from this Station, stored October 11, was firm and free from
decay, but was slightly scalded May 1.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as extending
to October to January, or according to Howes, to March 1; season
in chemical cold storage till April. It is said not to stand heat
before going into storage because heat makes it scald. If not
affected by scald it goes down gradually. It is very liable to scald
and in deteriorating loses in quality but improves in color in
holding.

Perry Russet. This variety is not favorably regarded by New-
hall for storage purposes. Its season in cellar storage is given as
November, in chemical cold storage as March. It does not stand
heat before going in and it goes down quickly. In going down it
loses in quality and firmness, the skin becomes bitter and the
fruit often shrivels and becomes mealy.

Perer. Similar to Wealthy in season as well as in fruit.

Fruit was stored at the Station from the crops of 1895 and ’97.
The average number of fruits stored was 84. The mean date of
storing was September 24, of average life February 10 and of
decay of last specimens May 10. This variety was in season about
a month longer in 1895 than in 1897. Deterioration set in in
October and continued at a pretty high rate through the winter.
Commercial season September and October.

Pewauker. This variety was under test at the Station all four
seasons. The average number of fruits stored was 82. The mean
date of storing was October 15, of average life February 16 and of
decay of last specimens May 10. The average life varied from
December 6 in 1895 to April 10 for the crop of 1898, or an extreme
variation of 4 months, thus indicating that the keeping qualities
vary much in different seasons. Commercial limit for ordinary

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 315

storage varies with different seasons from November to January
or possibly February. Deterioration is often high in November
and lower after that till midwinter when it rises again.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard fruit from
this Station, stored October 11, was hard and green and free from
rot May 1.

Cold storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage
variously to November or March and in chemical cold storage to
February or March or May 1.

According to Newhall it does not stand heat well and goes down
rather quickly, with which Graham does not agree. It is variously
reported as scalding somewhat in going down, losing in quality
and firmness, skin becoming bitter and fruit shriveling and becom-
ing mealy.

Pirer (Pfeifer). Fruit of the crops of 1896 and ’97 was stored
at the Station. The average number was 102. The average life
in 1896 was May 5 and in 1897, July 10, a difference of over two
months. The mean date when the last specimens were discarded
was July 28. In 1896 this variety kept with little loss until the
middle of April when it went down rapidly, but in 1897 it suffered
practically no loss before the first of June.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, green, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was hard and free from
scald or decay May 1.

Pippin. This name is attached to many different varieties.
When used alone very commonly in Eastern New York it means
either the Green Newtown or the Yellow Newtown, but may refer
to Fall Pippin or to Holland Winter; but in Western New York
it is commonly understood to refer to the Fall Pippin.

Prumep Ciper. Inferior in keeping quality to Hubbardston,
cold storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
October, and in chemical cold storage to January. It does not
stand heat before going into storage and goes down rather quickly
with loss in quality and firmness and sometimes with bursting
of the fruit.

Pomme Grise (French Russet). Fruit from the crops of 1896
and ’97 was stored at the Station. The average number was 103.
The mean date of storing was October 20, of average life February
I and of decay of last specimens March 17. But there was a

316 REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

difference of over two months in the season of the fruit the two
years. The 1897 crop kept quite well until February but the 1896
crop began going down rapidly in November and the last speci-
mens went out February 9. |

Cold storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending
to January and in chemical cold storage to March. It stands
heat before going into storage fairly well and goes down rather
gradually. In going down it loses in quality in storage and the
skin becomes bitter and the fruit becomes decidedly mealy and
bursts.

Pommeroy (see Lavy Sweer).

Pomona (Cox Pomona). Fruit from the crops of 1895, ’96
and ’97 was tested at the Station. The average number stored
was 51. The mean date of storing was September 23, of average
life November 10 and of going out of last specimens January 30.
The fruits had nearly all spoiled by the middle of November.
Commercial limit October.

Pound Sweet of Central and Western New York. (See Pump-
KIN Sweet.) This fruit is large, globular, green, marbled with
yellow and with spots or streaks of whitish scarf skin.

PounD Sweet (Red Pound Sweet; not Pumpkin Sweet). Fruit
of the crops of 1895 and ’96 was under observation at this Station.
The average number stored was 77. The mean date of storing was
September 9, of average life November 5 and of going out of last
specimens January 7. Results both seasons were quite similar.
Season October. Deterioration set in early and proceeded rapidly.

PuMPKIN Russert. Fruit of the crops of 1895 and ’96 was tested
at the Station. The average number stored was 84. The mean
date of storing was September 9, of average life November 18
and of going out of last specimens March 25. The average life of
the fruit was almost the same both seasons. Deterioration began
in September and by November the fruit was nearly all spoiled.
Season September and October.

In the Department cold storage tests, No. 1 fruit from this
Station, stored September 27, was a little past commercial con-
dition and commencing to soften January 6.

PuMPKIN Sweer (Lyman Pumpkin Sweet, Pound Sweet of
Central and Western New York).

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 317

Fruit was tested at the Station in 1895, ’96 and ’97. The aver-
age number stored was 104. The mean date of storing was Sep-
tember 26, of average life February 7 and of going out of last
fruits May 18. This variety differed greatly in the length of its
season with different crops. The rate of loss is usually high dur-
ing the fall and its season closes in December or January, although
some years a considerable portion of the fruit may remain sound
till midwinter or later.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
November 30, and in chemical cold storage to February. It
stands heat before going into storage only moderately well and
goes down rather quickly, losing in quality and firmness, shrivel-
ing and becoming mealy and bursting.

Ratis (Ralls Genet, Gennetting, Janet, Jenniton). Graham
remarks that this is a late keeper, and that it would be a strictly
No. 1 commercial apple except for the fact that it cracks and
bursts on the tree before picking, a fault which we ourselves have
not yet observed.

Fruit from the crops of 1896 and ’98 was tested at the Station.
The number stored was 96. The mean date of storing was Octo-
ber 20, of average life May 23 and of going out of last specimens
July 9. Results for both seasons are almost identical. The fruit
kept well until the last of April or early in May when the rate of
loss rose gradually, becoming very high in June. Commercial
limit April.

According to Newhall its season in cellar storage extends to
February and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands heat
well before going into storage, and goes down gradually, the skin
sometimes becoming bitter and the fruit shriveling, becoming
mealy and bursting. This variety is but little grown in New
York but as grown here its season is December to May.

Ramso. Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was under
observation at the Station. The average number of fruits stored
was 103. The mean date of storing was October 18, of average
life March 14 and of discarding last specimens June 13. Results
in the different seasons were variable, especially as to rate of
loss in late fall and early winter. The loss may be low or high
in early November but usually is high in late November and

318 REporRT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

December, becomes moderate in midwinter, then rises again. Com-
mercial limit November, though some fruit may keep until March.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
November and in chemical cold storage to February. It does not
stand heat well before going into storage and goes down quickly,
losing in quality and firmness, shriveling, becoming mealy and
bursting.

Rawles Genet (see Rais).

Rep Canapa (Canada Redstreak, Steele Red Winter, Red Win-
ter).

Fruit of the crop of 1897, stored October 19, showed an average
life of June 9. Several specimens still sound were thrown out
August 12 to close the test. The fruit suffered but little loss before
the first of March and then the rate of loss did not become high
till late in May. Nevertheless after mid-winter it gradually
became milder in flavor and lost its characteristic high quality.

In the Department cold storage tests immature, hard, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from
scald and decay May 1.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
February and in chemical cold storage to April. It stands heat
well before going into storage and goes down gradually.

Rep Russert. Fruit of the seasons of 1896, ’97 and 798 was
tested at the Station. The average number stored was 87. The
mean date of storing was October 8, of average life March 5 and of
going down of last specimens June 5. The results in the different
years were fairly uniform and indicate that the commercial limit
of this variety is February. The fruit kept well until January
or February and the rate of loss usually was not high before
March.

Reinette de Cauax (see Caux).

Reinerre Pippin. Tests were made at the Station all four
seasons. The average number of fruits stored was 104. The mean
date of storing was October 38, of average life March 5 and of
going down of last specimens June 9. An uncertain keeper in
fall and early winter, sometimes holding well till midwinter but
more often showing a high rate of loss in November, making
early November the common commercial limit for handling this
variety, although its season extends from October to March.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 319

In the Department cold storage tests hard, immature, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 11, was firm and free
from scald March 14, but was slightly decayed. May 1 it was
semifirm and good in quality but considerably decayed. Fruit
picked in 1901 reached its commercial limit February 1 and by
March 14 was badly scalded and specked with rot.

Ruope Isuanp Greening. A standard variety for holding in
storage.

Tests were made at the Station-all four seasons. The average
number of fruits stored was 124. The mean date of storing was
October 6, of average life March 26 and of discarding last speci-
mens June 15. The crop of 1895 kept poorly, the loss being
low till late November when it became high and so continued till
the close of the season except for a short period in midwinter,
when it was rather low. Ordinarily the fruit kept well till late
November, then suffered moderately high loss for a short period,
then the rate of loss again became rather low and continued so
till March, after which the fruit went down rapidly. Com-
mercial limit January or early February. Season October to-
March.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, sound, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 11, 1902, was in good com-
mercial condition till March 15, when it began to discolor and
soften. Fruit picked in 1901 gave similar results except that it
scalded.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as till February
and in chemical cold storage till April 1. It does not stand heat
well before going into storage as this induces scald. If in good
condition the fruit goes down in storage gradually, but if affected
by any disease, quickly. In going down it scalds badly in stor-
age, loses in quality, turns yellow, becomes mealy, and large speci-
mens are liable to burst. Wilson believes that this variety is
commonly picked too early for holding in common storage and
that this accounts for the prevalence of scald. But cold storage
- men hold that it should be picked while it is still quite green, that
is, in the last half of September. Thus picked it will carry through
until very late in the season without any scald. But such fruit
does not have the flavor and quality of fruit that is allowed to
become riper on the tree. It is even more essential that this var-

320 Report’ OF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

iety be hurried into storage at once than the average variety. To
bring the best price Rhode Island Greenings must be green in
color and free from yellow or any blush.

Risston (Ribston Pippin). Possibly equal to Tompkins King
as a keeper. Season according to storage men, in cellar storage
till November and in chemical cold storage till February. It
stands heat before going into storage fairly well but goes down
rather quickly though not dangerously so.

Rivce (Ridge Pippin). The account given in Bulletin 248 under
this name should be credited to Ribston. Since Bulletin 248 was
published it has been discovered that among some fruit dealers
the name Ridge Pippin is a trade synonym for Ribston and was
so used in the correspondence upon which the statement con-
cerning Ridge Pippin was based. The true Ridge Pippin is a
very late keeping apple.

RoMAN Srem. Reports on this variety differ widely. Graham
reports that it keeps well. Season in chemical cold storage till
April 15. Newhall reports that it is a poor keeper, with season
’ in chemical cold storage till January and in common storage till
November.

Rome (Rome Beauty). This is reported to be one of the best
keepers grown. According to Graham it scalds if picked too
green but if left on the tree until it gets its color it is free from
this and other undesirable peculiarities which so often precede
decay. This variety, the report continues, will stand hard usage.

Tests were made at the Station all four seasons. The average
number of fruits stored was 96. The mean date of storing was
October 14, of average life April 27 and of decay of last specimens
June 25. Results were quite uniform and indicate March as the
commercial limit of this variety. The fruit kept well until May
when it went down rapidly.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, light-colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored November 15, 1902, was firm and
sound March 14. Fruit picked in 1901 was in good commercial
condition until May 1.

Graham reports its season in chemical cold storage as until
July 1, “but we have held it until August 4 in ice storage with
practically no shrinkage.” According to Newhall this variety
ranks between Rhode Island Greening and Baldwin in keeping

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 321

quality, with season in common storage until February, and in
chemical cold storage until May. It stands heat well before going
into storage, but contrary to Graham’s experience, Newhall states
that in going down it scalds late, loses in quality, color and firm-
ness, skin becomes bitter and’ the fruit becomes mealy and
bursts. .

Romna. ‘Testis were made at the Station with fruit from the
crops of 1896 and ’97. The average number of fruits stored was
67. The mean date of storing was September 5, of average life
December 25 and of going down of last specimens February 6.
The results both seasons were quite uniform, indicating that the
commercial limit of this variety is early October. Deterioration
commenced early and proceeded rapidly. The fruit was practi-
cally all gone by February 1. Season September to January.

Ronk. Fruit from the crops of 1896 and ’97 was stored at the
Station. The average number of fruits stored was 84. The
mean date of storing was October 7, of average life March 26 and
of going down of last specimens July 6. January appears to be
the commercial limit of this variety. Deterioration proceeded
most rapidly in March and April, but otherwise regularly from
fall to spring. Season November to March.

Roxsury (Roxbury Russet). As grown in New York this is
one of the latest-keeping of all varieties.

Tests were made at the Station all four seasons. The average
number of fruits stored was 102. The mean date of storing was
October 15, of average life April 26 and of discarding last speci-
mens July 17. The keeping quality of this variety fluctuated
widely in different seasons. The fruit of 1895 went down at a
rapid rate from November to February while in the other years
the fruit commonly showed but a very low rate of loss till March
or April, after which it went down rapidly. The ordinary com-
mercial limit is April! or May.

In the Department cold storage tests No. 1 fruit from this
Station, stored November 15, was firm and free from decay May
1. Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
May and in chemical cold storage to July. It is reported to vary
less from season to season than do most varieties. It stands
heat about as well as any variety before going into storage. It

goes down gradually, scalding a little some seasons, losing in
' 21

322 REpoRT OF THE HortTicuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

quality and firmness if kept too late, shriveling, becoming mealy
and bursting. Hoag remarks that this variety holds in better
condition if kept rather damp.

Sr. Lawrence. This variety is too early to go into storage as
a rule.

Fruit was stored at the Station in 1895, ’96 and ’97. The
average number of fruits stored was 83. The mean date of stor-
ing was September 24, of average life December 24 and of dis-
carding last specimens March 16. This variety fluctuated widely
in keeping quality in different seasons. October appears to be its
commercial limit. The fruit began going down in October and by
January 1 one-third or more was gone.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as October and
in chemical cold storage until December. It does not stand heat
well before going into storage and goes down quickly. In going
down it is variously reported as scalding, losing in quality and
firmness in storage, skin becoming bitter, shriveling, becoming
mealy and bursting. Britton remarks that the fruit may not
remain on the tree until it becomes well-colored and that unless
it is well-colored it fades in the barrel to a gray color, rendering
it almost valueless. But Howes remarks that the fruit retains
firmness if fully ripe and that the bitterness of the skin is due
to the fruit being picked too green.

Satome. In the Station tests fruit of the crops of 1895, 96 and
97 was stored, the average number of specimens put under test
being 94. The mean date of storing was October 19, of average
life April 10 and of going down of last fruits July 7. The fruit
of 1895 kept poorly and went down at a rather rapid rate from
mid-November till the season closed. In the other years the fruit
kept well till the last of March, after which the rate of loss gradu-
ally increased. Commercial limit March but in exceptional sea-
sons December.

In the Department cold storage tests No. 1 fruit from this Sta-
tion, stored October 21, was in good condition till April 1, when
scald appeared freely. June 1 it was still hard but all scalded.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
January and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands heat
well before going into storage and goes down gradually.

New York AGRICULTURAL IXXPERIMENT STATION. 323

Scnopack. In the Station tests 30 apples, stored October 29,
1897, showed an average life of July 18. A number of specimens
still in good condition were thrown out August 12 to close the
test. Decay began in April but proceeded only slowly until July.
Commercial limit appears to be June.

Scott (see Baker).

Scorr (Scott Winter). In the Station tests fruit from the crops
of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was stored. The average number put under
test was 71. The mean date of storing was October 10, of average
life March 22 and of discarding last specimens June 30. Results
were quite uniform all three seasons and indicated that the sea-
son of this variety extends to March.

In the Department cold storage tests No. 1 fruit from this
Station, stored October 21, was sound, firm and free from scald
May 1 but slightly wilted.

Seek-no-further (see WrstFriELp Seek-no-further).

Suarp. Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was under obser-
vation at the Station. The average number of apples stored was
65. The mean date of storing was September 29, of average life
March 1 and of going out of last specimens June 30. The differ-
ences in keeping quality the different seasons were very great.
Common commercial limit November, but the crop of 1897 kept
well until March.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, immature
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was firm until Janu- |
ary 15 and semifirm until March 15, after which scald appeared
and the fruit softened.

Sherwood Favorite (see CHENANGO).

SHIAWASSEE (Shiawassee Beauty). A fall variety, season in
cellar storage September, and in chemical cold storage until
December. It stands heat before going into storage poorly and
goes down rather quickly.

Small Admirable (see ADMIRABLE).

Smiru Cider. In the Station tests 51 apples were stored Octo-
ber 1, 1895. Their average life was March 3 and the last speci-
mens were thrown out July 24. There was a moderate loss in
October but a high rate of loss in November and December. Stor-
age men give its season in cellar storage as extending to March

324 REPORT OF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands heat well before
going into storage and goes down gradually. It scalds badly
and in going down loses in quality, color and firmness, skin
becomes bitter and the fruit shrivels, becomes mealy and bursts.

Snow (see FAMEUSE).

Spitzenburg (see Esopus Spitzenburg and Newtown SPIrzEN-
BURG).

Spy (see NoRTHERN Spy).

SraNnarp. At the Station fruit was tested in 1896 and in ’97.
The average number stored was 100. The mean date of storing
was October 4, of average life January 19 and of discarding of
last specimens April 30. Its season extends to January but the
commercial limit appears to be early October.

In the Department cold storage tests highly colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, 1901, was in good
commercial barrel condition till April’ 1 and semifirm and in
good box condition till May 1; no scald or rot. Fruit stored
September 27, 1902, was mellow after March 1.

Srark. Observations were made at the Station on fruit from
the crops of 1895 and 797. The average number of fruits stored was
110. The mean date of storing was October 9, of average life May
21 and of going out of last specimens August 17. There was con-
siderable difference in the length of the commercial season the
two years. Its usual commercial limit is May. The crop of 1895
showed a pretty high loss late in December, otherwise the fruit
of both seasons kept till May with but little loss. Season January
to June.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, greenish red, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was hard and free
from scald or decay June 6 when removed from storage.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
February and in chemical cold storage to May. It stands hear
well before going into storage and goes down gradually. It is
reported to improve in color in common storage. In going down
it is reported to scald late in the season, lose in quality and some-
times in firmness, the skin to become bitter and the fruit to become
mealy and burst.

SrayMAN Winesap. In the Department cold storage tests
medium sized, rather dull-colored, No. 1 fruit from this Station,

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 325

stored October 21, was in good condition till April 1, when the
fruit began to scald. May 1, 65 per ct. of the fruit was scalded,
the balance still hard.

Storage men report that this variety holds well in storage but
is liable to scald.

STREAKED Pippin. Fruit stored in 1897 showed an average life.
of April 12 the last specimens being thrown out June 30. There
was practically no loss till February, after which there was .a@
uniform and moderate loss till the close of the season.

SrrovE (Strode Birmingham). This is a fall variety which
Should be handled commercially in September. A few specimens
may keep until January.

In the Department cold storage tests small, greenish-yellow
fruit from this Station, stored September 27, was in good condi-
tion till December 15, after which tke skin cracked open while
the fruit was still firm.

Srump. At the Station fruit was stored in 1895 and ’96, the
average number put under test being 101. The mean date of
storing was September 6, of average life November 15 and of going
out of last specimens January 27. Results both seasons were very
uniform in that the fruit went down very rapidly in October, indi-
cating September or possibly early October as the commercial
limit for this variety. Season September to November.

Sugar Barbel (see BARBEL).

Surron (Sutton Beauty). Tests were made at the Station all
four seasons. The average number of fruits stored was 98. The
mean date of storing was October 8, of average life March 26 and
of decay of last specimens June 13. The fruit usually keeps pretty
well till late February or March but it kept poorly in 1895. The
loss with that crop became heavy in November and then dropped to
a low rate through the winter becoming high again in March.
Commercial limit of this variety appears to be February. Season
November to March.

In the Department cold storage tests medium-sized, well col-
ored but rather dull No. 1 fruit! from this Station, stored
October 27, was firm for barrel storage till March 15 and in good
condition for box storage till April 15.

Storage men report its season in cellar storage as extending to
January, in chemical cold storage to March. It stands heat fairly
well before going into storage and goes down gradually.

326 Report OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Swaar. Fruit was stored at the Station in 1896 and in 797.
The average number stored was 106. The mean date of storing was
October 16, of average life April 6 and of going out of last speci-
mens June 3. The season differed considerably for the two years
but appears to extend to the last of February. It shrivels as it
begins to deteriorate. It went down gradually until March one
season and until May the other, and then decayed rather sud-
denly. .

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, green, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from decay
but slightly scalded May 1.

Its season in cellar storage is given as extending to December
(Newhall, Hart) or March 1 (Howes), and in chemical cold
storage to February or April 15 according to different correspond-
ents. It stands heat fairly well and goes down gradually. It
improves in color in storage but the skin becomes bitter.

Swenker. Fruit of the crop of 1896, stored October 3, showed
an average life of March 11, the last specimens going out June 8.
They went down gradually. There was a high rate of loss in
November, afterwards a low rate till March when it became high
again. Commercial limit February. Season, December to March.

Tallow Pippin (see LowELL).

Texas (Pride of Texas). In 1896, 111 apples and in 1897, 105
apples were tested. The mean date of storing was October 9, of
average life May 6 and of discarding last specimens July 28. The
fruit of 1897 kept with no loss till April; the rate of loss was then
small till late in May, when it became heavy. The crop of 1896
kept poorly for this variety, losing heavily in December and
January and again in March. The season of the variety usually
extends to May.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, green fruit,
stored October 21, was firm and free from rot but considerably
scalded May 1. 4

Tosras. Fruit of the crop of 1896 showed an average life of
December 24, with the last specimens going out April 19. It went
down gradually from November through the winter.

Topras Pippin. Fruit of the season of 1896 showed an average
life of January 5, the last specimens going out June 8. One-half

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 327

of the specimens went down in November and early December.
Commercial limit October or possibly November.

ToL~MAN Sweet. Tests were made at the Station all four seasons.
The average number of fruits stored was 72. The mean date of
storing was October 8, of average life March 8 and of discarding
of last specimens May 30. This variety differed in keeping quality
considerably in the different seasons. The fruit usually went
down gradually through the winter, but the crops of 1895 and ’98
showed a heavy loss in November and December. Commercial
limit December or January. Season December to March.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 1, was firm and free from decay
but slightly scalded May 1.

Storage men report its season as extending in cellar storage to
December or January, though Phillips Brothers say to March,
and in chemical cold storage to February 1 or April, according
to different correspondents. It stands heat before going into
storage only fairly well and goes down quickly according to some,
gradually according to others. In going down it scalds some,
‘shrivels a little and becomes somewhat mealy but improves in
color. This variety requires very careful handling for it shows
bruises very readily.

Tompkins Kine (King of Tompkins County). Tests were made
at the Station all four seasons. The average number of fruits
stored was 98. The mean date of storing was September 28, of
average life March 4, and of going out of last specimens June 26.
The average life of this variety differed greatly in the different
seasons, ranging from December 26 to April 11. There is apt to
be considerable loss of fruit in November and sometimes it occurs
even as early as October, so that the commercial limit is December
or exceptionally January. Season October to January or later.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard and green
fruit from this Station, stored September 27, was green and hard
and free from scald or decay May 1.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
December or January and in chemical cold storage to February.

It is not so much influenced by differences in season as are many
varieties. It stands heat before going into storage fairly well and

328 Report oF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

goes down gradually, though Newhall says quickly after deter-
ioration has set in. In going down it scalds, loses in quality and
becomes mealy.

Turrs. Tests were made at the Station with fruit of the crops
of 1895, 796 and ’97._ The average number of fruits stored was 50.
The mean date of storing was September 30, of average life Decem-
ber 14 and of discarding of last specimens May 6. The average
life varied considerably different seasons. The rate of loss was
high in October and November. One-half or more of the speci-
mens had decayed by December 1. Commercial limit October.
Season October to January.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, greenish red, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored September 27, was firm and sound
March 14; May 1 it was softening and slightly scalded but not
decaying.

Tulpehocken (see FALLAWATER).

Twenty Ounce (Cayuga Red Streak, Wine; Cabashaw incor-
rectly). <A fall apple which usually should be handled direct to
the consumer and not go into storage at all. But Hoag says that
when allowed to remain on the tree until it gets its color it holds
well in cold storage.

Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’?97 was under observation at
the Station. The average number of fruits stored was 95. The
mean date of storing was September 28, of average life January
20 and of discarding last fruits March 31. The fruit goes down
rapidly in October and November. Commercial limit, November.

In the Department cold storage tests, well colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored September 29, 1902, was mellow and
commencing to decay January 6. Fruit picked in 1901 kept well
till February 1.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
November. It does not stand heat well and goes down quickly.
Howes remarks that it cannot be held so long in those seasons
when it does not color well; also that spraying sometimes rough-
ens its thin skin. It holds its color if well colored on the tree,
but never colors after picking. Some report that it is lable to
lose in quality, to shrivel, to become mealy or to burst while
others report just the opposite.

—

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 329

Twenty Ounce Pippin (of some; see CaBASHBA). There is
another variety which is known in some parts of Western New
York under the name of Twenty Ounce Pippin the identity of
which we have not yet determined. In size and coloring it some-
what resembles a smooth roundish Twenty Ounce, but is less
mottled and more striped with red. It is distinct from Twenty
Ounce in the flavor and texture of the flesh and in the character
of the core. It is reported as a better keeper than Tompkins
King.

Vandevere (of Western New York) (see NewrowN SPpirzen-
BURG).

VaNuHoy. The fruit of 1895 and of ’96 was tested at the Station.
The average number of fruits stored was 89. The mean date of
storing was October 17, of average life April 30 and of discarding
of last fruits June 14. Both tests gave quite similar results. Sea-
son January to May. Commercial limit March. There was prac-
tically no loss before midwinter.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, green, fair, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from
rot but considerably scalded May 1.

Victoria (Victoria Sweet.) Fruit of 1896 and of ’97 was tested
at this Station. The average number stored was 82. The mean
date of storing was October 6, of average life February 3 and of
decay of last fruits April 21. Results the two seasons were fairly
uniform. The rate of loss was rather high in December and
moderate from then till February when it became very high.
Season October to January. Commercial limit October.

In the Department cold storage tests well-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was beautifully colored and
quite mellow January 10.

Wacener. Fruit of the crops of 1896 and of ’98 was tested
at the Station, the average number stored being 62. The mean
date of storing was October 20, of average life May 5 and of dis-
carding of last fruits June 27. Results both seasons were very
similar. The fruit kept well till March, after which the loss
was high. Season November to February. Commercial limit
December. This is a delicate apple and subject to scald. It loses
flavor late in the season through apparently sound. ;

330 Report of THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

In the Department cold storage tests hard, well colored, No. 1
fruit from this Station, stored November 15, was firm and free
from decay and scald March 14. May 1 it was soft and consider-
ably decayed but free from scald.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
December and in chemical cold storage to February. It does not
stand heat well before going into storage and goes down rather
quickly. In going down it is reported to scald, lose in quality,
color and firmness and to become mealy and burst. Powell and
Fulton remark that this variety, unless highly colored, is one of the
“worst to scald after midwinter.

Wacpripcr. At the Station fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and
97 was under test. The average number of fruits stored was
108. The mean date of storing was October 8, of average life April
15 and of discarding of last specimens June 23. The crop of 1895
kept poorly and showed a high rate of loss, beginning in the
latter part of December and continuing till the season closed. In
the other years results were more normal and there was but
little loss till March, when it became high. Commercial limit
February.

In the Department cold storage tests hard, green, fair, No. 1
fruit from this Station was stored October 21. After March 15
the fruit softened and much of it became mealy.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as February and
in chemical cold storage as May. It stands heat well before going
into storage and goes down very gradually, scalding and losing
in quality, color and firmness. Powell and Fulton remark that
this variety often ripens unevenly and becomes mealy and dis-
colored in flesh while the skin is bright in color.

WaLLAce Howarp. Fruit of the crop of 1897 showed an aver-
age life of March 27, with the last fruits going out June 11. It
showed a low rate of decay from- November till March then went
down more rapidly. Season November to March or later.

WasHinctron Royau. Fruit of the crops of 1895, ’96 and ’97
was tested at the Station. The average number of fruits stored
was 101. The mean date of storing was October 11, of average
life March 26 and of going out of last fruits June 21. The dif-
ferent seasons gave widely different figures for average life, rang-
ing from January 28 to June 5. The fruit went down continuously

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. aol

through the winter from November; but in 1895 at a rapid rate,
in 1896 at a moderate rate and in 1897 at a low rate. On account
of its variable keeping qualities November is the safe commercial
limit for fruit grown here although the season extends to May or
June. |

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard, green fruit
from this Station, stored October 11, was mellow but free from
rot or scald April 30. Commercial limit March 1; fruit softens
without developing yellow color.

WASHINGTON STRAWBERRY. Fruit of the seasons of 1895, ’96
and ’97 was tested at the Station. The average number stored was*
46. The mean date of storing was September 12, of average life
December 24 and of going out of last specimens April 12. This
variety varied greatly in the length of its season with the different
years. The fruit went down rapidly in October and November.
Its season may extend to December. Commercial limit October.

In the Department cold storage tests light-colored, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored October 21, was mellow but free from
scald or rot January 10. Commercial limit December 1.

WEALTHY. Station tests were made with fruit of 1896 and ’98.
The average number stored was 71. The mean date of storing
was September 18, of average life February 8 and of discarding
last fruits May 1. There was a difference of over four months
in the average life of the variety in the two seasons. One-half of
the fruit went down by December 1. Commercial limit October.

In the Department cold storage tests small, hard and immature
fruit, stored September 27, was semifirm and slightly decayed
but free from scald March 14.

Storage men give the season of this variety in cellar storage
as October and in chemical cold storage January. The variety
does not stand heat well before going into storage and goes down
rather quickly, losing in quality and firmness, becoming some-
what mealy and occasionally bursting.

Western Beauty (see HypDE KING).

WestrieLp Seek-no-further. Ranks about with Baldwin as a
keeper. Storage men give its season in chemical cold storage as
extending to March. It shrivels badly.

Wuiter Docror. Station tests were made all four seasons. The
average number of fruits stored was 88. The mean date of storing

332 Report or THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

was October 12, of average life April 9 and of going out of last
fruits June 17. There was an extreme difference of over three
months in the average life of the fruit in different seasons. The
crop of 1895 kept poorly and began to show high rate of loss by
the last of December. On the other hand the crop of 1898 showed
practically no loss till May. Season usually December to April.
Commercial limit early February.

In the Department cold storage tests small, greenish-yellow
fruit from this Station, stored September 27, was semifirm,
slightly decayed and all specimens slightly scalded March 14.
*Commercial limit February 1.

WuHiIteE Pippin. Station tests were made all four seasons. The
average number of fruits stored was 108. The mean date of stor-
ing was October 13, of average life April 1 and of going out of
last fruits June 29. There was an extreme difference of four
months in its average life in the different seasons. The fruit
of 1895 kept very poorly, showing a high rate of loss from Octo-
ber till midwinter but in other years the rate of loss was low or
moderate till March or April after which it became high, indicat-
ing February as the ordinary commercial limit and November to
May as the season for this variety.

In the Department cold storage tests sound, No. 1 fruit from
this Station, stored October 11, 1902, was firm and free from
scald March 14. Commercial limit April 15. Fruit picked in
1901 softened rapidly and decayed after March 1.

Wine (of some). (See TWENTY OUNCE.)

Winesap. Fruit of 1895, 96 and ’97 was tested at the Station.
‘The average number of fruits was 97. The mean date of storing
was October 16, of average life May 24 and of discarding of last
fruits July 11. The results for all three seasons were quite simi-
lar. In 1897 the loss became moderately high in January, and
very high in March. In other years it remained low till May then
became very high, indicating April as the ordinary commercial
limit and January to June as the season for this variety as grown
at Geneva.

In the Department cold storage tests, hard, small, light-colored
fruit from this Station, stored October 21, was firm and free from
scald or decay March 14. April 30 the fruit was still hard and
free from decay, but about 75 per ct. scalded.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 333

Storage men give the season of this variety as extending in
cellar storage to February and in chemical cold storage to April.
It stands heat well before going into storage and goes down grad-
ually with scalding.

Winter Banana. AS grown at this Station the season of this
variety in common storage extends from late November or early
December till about the first of March, but its safe commercial
limit would probably not extend much beyond December.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
December, and in chemical cold storage to April. It stands heat
well before going into storage and goes down gradually, scalding
- and losing in quality, color and firmness.

Wotr River. Fruit of 1896 and ’97 was tested at the Station.
The average number of fruits stored was 56. The mean date of
storing was September 13, of average life January 25 and of dis-
carding last fruits June 12. The rate of loss is high in November
and December, indicating October as the commercial limit and
September to December as the season for this variety. Some of
the fruit may keep later than this apparently in good condition
but it is deficient in quality.

In the Department cold storage tests large, bright, No. 1 fruit
from this Station, stored September 27, was in prime commercial
condition January 6, and free from rot or scald.

Storage men report that this variety does not stand heat well
and goes down quickly.

YELLOW BeLLFLoweR. Fruit of 1895, ’96 and ’97 was tested at
the Station. The average number of fruits stored was 107. The
mean date of storing was October 4, of average life March 7 and
of discarding of last fruits June 12. There was a difference of
three months in the average life of the variety in different seasons.
In 1895 it kept poorly, beginning to decay at a rapid rate as early
as October and continuing till the season closed. In the other
years it kept well till February or March then began to decay
rapidly. Commercial limit January or February. Season Novem-
ber to April.

Storage men report this variety to rank between Rhode Island
Greening and Baldwin as a keeper. Its season is reported as
extending in cellar storage to January and in chemical cold stor-
age to March. It does not stand heat well before going into

334 REPorRT OF THE HortTICcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

storage and goes down quickly. Its keeping quality is not so
much affected by differences of season as is the case with many
varieties. Some report that in going down it scalds, loses in
quality and firmness, becomes mealy and bursts, but experiences
are contradictory on all these points. It improves in color in
storage. This variety must be handled very carefully because it is
very easily bruised.

YELLOW Forest. Fruit stored in 1895 showed an average life
of April 22, with the last fruits going out July 24. There was a
moderate rate of loss from November to May, after which: the
fruit went down more rapidly.

YELLOW Newtown (Albemarle Pippin). Usually equal to
Baldwin as a keeper. Season in cellar storage is reported by
storage men as extending to February and in chemical cold
storage to April. Graham reports that it stands heat very well
before going into storage and that it goes down gradually. But
Newhall reports that it does not stand heat well. It appears
that this variety is often confused with the Green Newtown but
it is not so good a keeper as the Green Newtown.

York Imperiau (Johnson Fine Winter). At the Station fruits
of 1895, ’96 and ’97 were tested. The average number stored was
95. The mean date of storing was October 18, of average life
May 5 and of decay of last fruits July 7. The results all three
Seasons were quite similar. The rate of loss is low till April or
May then rises very rapidly. When it does not scald its com-
mercial limit is March and season January to May as grown at
Geneva.

In the Department cold storage tests, medium to small, light-
colored, very hard fruit from this Station, stored October 21,
1901, began to scald February 15, 1902, and a month later three-
fourths of the fruit was lightly scalded on the green side. The
fruit remained firm throughout the season. Commercial limit
February 15 to March 15.

Storage men give its season in cellar storage as extending to
December and in chemical cold storage to February. It stands
heat fairly well before going into storage but goes down rather
quickly, scalding, losing in color and the skin becoming bitter.

ZurDEL (White Zurdel). Fruit stored in 1897 showed an aver-
age life of May 30, the last fruits going out July 18. There was no
loss still February and no considerable Joss till April.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 335

SEED SELECTION ACCORDING TO SPECIFIC
GRAVITY.*

Ve Aa CLARK.

SUMMARY.

In this report is described a variation of the method of seed
selection by salt solutions. The variation differs from the method
as heretofore practiced in its making separates at much shorter
intervals, thereby permitting of determining with greater preci-
sion the distribution of seeds with regard to specific gravity.
With different ranges of specific gravity different cultural pro-
perties of the seed are often found to be correlated.

The method of a series of separates differs from the method of
samples, which has been principally used heretofore by scientific
investigators, in that it distinguishes between individual seeds
of different qualities, in so far as these qualities are correlated
with specific gravity, and separates them; and does not simply
indicate the average specific gravity of the whole lot, as is done
by the method of samples.

Seeds of the same lot commonly are distributed through a con-
siderable range of specific gravity. If the seeds are of good
quality, the larger part of them are found within a relatively nar-
row range near but not at the upper limit of specific gravity for
the variety. But in the the case of oil-bearing seeds the range of
greatest frequency of distribution is intermediate.

Specific gravity may be utilized as a means of separating for-
eign matter, or, occasionally, foreign seeds, as has long been
known to practice.

Within the limits of the variety, the lower the specific gravity,
the greater the proportion of small seeds and vice versa. The
separation of an unsifted lot of seeds by the method of salt solu-
tions is in reality in part a crude separation according to size,
so far as cultural properties are concerned.

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 256.

336 REPORT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

A quite definite correlation exists between the specific gravity
of a seed and its germination. Seeds of low specific gravity do
not germinate at all. Those in a range higher germinate scantily
and in many cases produce comparatively weak plants. Seeds of
highest specific gravity, or in the case of oil-bearing seeds, those
of intermediate specific gravity, show the highest percentage of
germination.

In occasional species a correlation between the specific gravity
of the seed and it's color has been observed.

A few chance observations appear to indicate that there is a
correlation between the specific gravity of the seed and its
viability. It would appear that seeds of a specific gravity repre-
senting the greatest storage of reserve material are longest lived,
and that seeds of low specific gravity or of a specific gravity repre-
senting a comparatively low storage or reserve material, soonest
lose their vitality.

To some extent a correlation appears to exist between the
specific gravity of the seed and the vigor of the resulting plant.
Results in this case are, however, not so clear cut as they are in
the cases of the cultural correlations already mentioned. ~ *

Differences in specific gravity are due either to differences in
structure or differences in composition. If differences in com-
position are not obscured by differences in structure, which they
often are, the differing specific gravities to which they give rise
are indexes to the quality of the seed. ;

Differences in specific gravity may indicate differences in com-
position due to different degrees of ripeness. In this case specific
gravity is an index to ripeness.

If differences in specific gravity are due to differences in struc-
ture, these differences may or may not be correlated with some
other cultural property of the seed, and accordingly specific grav-
ity may or may not be an index to quality.

It follows that specific gravity is by no means of unfailing
reliability in determining the quality of seeds.

INTRODUCTORY.

The work herewith reported is an outgrowth of an investiga-
tion conducted by Prof. S. A. Beach of this Station on seed
selection as applied to the breeding of grapes. While weighing

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. et

individual seeds the writer observed that they were of very unlike
specific gravities. This observation suggested a study of the sub-
ject of specific gravity as a moment of seed selection.

This report is based on only one season’s work. The litera-
ture of the subject is reviewed and some preliminary observa-
tions are presented. The presentation throughout is tenative
and subject to future verification, modification and especially
development. It is hoped to continue this work.

I am under obligations to the authorities of Cornell University,
and especially to Mr. W. H. Austen, in charge of the Reference
Library, for kind permission to use the University Library.

HISTORICAL.

The method of seed selection by means of salt solutions has
long been known to gardening. Yokoi* remarks that it has been
practiced for over 250 years in China and Japan. A simpler form
of the method, which consists in floating off light seed in pure
water, is by some practiced in this country at the present time,
as for instance among growers of lettuce under glass. But the
method appears never to have come into any considerable vogue,
either in Europe or in America; and this despite the facts that
striking results have repeatedly been obtained by its use and that
several European experimenters have recommended it.

Perhaps one reason is that several prominent investigators, in-
cluding Nobbe, Hellriegel and Wollny, have examined it crit-
ically and declared it to be of little or no value in agriculture.
Yet over against the critical studies of these trained investigators
stands a mass of experience and numerous practical tests which
declare that the heavier seeds as separated by salt solutions do
produce the better crops. Where there is much smoke there
must be some fire. Perhaps the practical experimenters, who
did not examine the subject critically, have misinterpreted their
results; but the results stand.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS FAVORABLE TO THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
METHOD.

Some of these practical tests and recommendations may be
cited :

*Citations for this and other references in this report to writings on specific
gravity of seeds referred to with the name of the author, may be found in bib-
liography at the close of this bulletin.

22

338 Report oF THE HorrTicULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Haberlandt separated winter rye at specific gravity 1.30 and
oats at 1.03 by means of salt solutions. In both cases the heavier
kernels gave considerably the larger yield in quantity and at the
same time the quality of the crop was better, since the average
weight of the individual kernels from the heavier separates was
greater than that from the lighter separates. Furthermore, the
lighter seed gave a less proportion of grain to the amount of straw
produced than did the heavier seed.

Riimpler recommended the use of solutions of sodium nitrate
for separating barley, wheat, rye, ete: He advises planting only
the heaviest third of such seeds.

Miiller separated barley by salt solutions into light, medium
and heavy separates. The heaviest seed gave the largest per-
centage of germination, the largest average number of inter-
nodes per plant, largest vield of grain, the largest total yeild of
vegetable matter, the highest average weight of grain per head
and the highest average weight per kernel.

Grandeau ‘separated oats by immersing them in water and
made culture tests with the two separates. On the basis of equal
areas the yield of grain from the heavier separate was 2.09 Kg.,
and of straw 6.079 Kg. From the lighter separate the yield
of grain was 1.83 Kg. and of straw 5.71 Kg. At the market price
of oats at the time these crops were harvested, the money value of
the crop from the heavier seed was 14 per ct. greater than
that from the light seed. In reporting these experiments the
author remarks that certain other experimenters have increased
the money value of the crop as much as 22 to 25 per ct. by thus
separating the seed.

Lyon separated seed, first by using a solution of calcium
chloride and later by the use of an ordinary seed fanning mill.
One year the yield from the heavy seed was 27.2 bu. as com-
pared with 26.7 bu. from ordinary seed of the same sample and
21.8 bu. from the light seed. Samples of the crops from the
heavy and the light seed were again separated and planted the
following year. The heavier half from the heavy sample yielded
28.5 bu. as con.pared with 25.0 bu. from the check, while the
lighter half from the light seed yielded only 23.9 bushels.

Kobayashi separated rape seed into lots of different specific
gravities by means of salt solutions. He found that seed of

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 339

medium specific gravity was best for planting. It was also
richest in oil. ,

Seulen recommends floating off light seeds and foreign matter
from garden seeds which are to be planted, by immersing them
in water. Other persons who have reported favorably on the
practice of seed selection according to specific gravity are Church,
Dietrich and Trommer, as cited by Wollny.

Especially timely is the present investigation in view of the
fact that a well known English seed firm has recently advertised
that they are perfecting a method of selecting seeds according to
specific gravity. This firm already advertises to apply the method
of selection by salt solutions to the selection of forage roots to be
used for mothers.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS NOT FAVORABLE TO THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
METHOD.

Mention will now be made of some of the investigations which
have led experimenters to assert that the method of specific
gravity is of little or no applicability in practice:

Hellriegel separated from a lot of barley, kernels of specific
gravities 1.255, 1.205 and 1.15, all of which weighed from 34 to
36 milligrams each. The experiment was repeated a second sea-
son, in this case selecting seeds lying between 36 and 38 milli-
grams. There was no noticeable difference between the plants
from the different seeds and the investigator concludes that
specific gravity has no considerable effect on the vigor and size
ef the plant, either as a seedling or as a mature plant.

Marek re-investigated the method of seed selection according
to specific gravity by exact methods. His conclusion is that
specific gravity is no general criterion of the quality of the seed,
and that only when the more intimate relations of the composi-
tion of the seed to its specific gravity are known can the latter be
accepted as a standard of judgment of quality.

Nobbe has reviewed the subject and has also reached the con-
clusion that the practice is of little value in agriculture.

Willard, Clothier and Weber applied the method of specific
gravity to the selection of seed corn, but without positive results.

Wollny has critically reviewed the subject and reaches the
conclusion that specific gravity is of no account in seed selection.

340 Report or THE HorricuULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

He remarks further, that previous investigators who have reported
‘ favorably on the method have disregarded the absolute weight of
the seed and have thereby been led into error.

The method of salt solutions as applied to potato tubers and
to roots is not considered in this article. Much experimental work
both practical and scientific has, however, been done along these
lines in Europe. <A critical review of such work is made by
Wollny. In this country the late Prof. E. 8, Goff* made prac-
tical application of the method to the selection of potato tubers
and with good results.

METHODS OF DETERMINING SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND
OF SEPARATING SEEDS ACCORDING TO IT.

Two fundamentally different methods have been used in study-
ing the specific gravity of seeds. One is the method of separates
illustrated in the experiments of Grandeau, Lyon and others.
The other is the method of samples, illustrated in the pycnom-
eter method. It will be perceived at once that these two general
methods approach the subject from entirely different standpoints.
The method of samples is identical in principle with the same
method as applied in sampling fertilizers, ete. Its object is not
to separate one constituent from another but only to determine
the average composition of the whole mass. In the method of
separates, however, the object is to distinguish between different
individuals or elements. As applied in seed selection the method
of separates is historically much the older and has grown up with
agricultural practice. The method of samples is of comparatively
recent introduction and belongs to the realm of criticism.

THE METHOD OF SEPARATES.
The application of the method of separates has been more or
less arbitrary. Most frequently it has been the custom to sep-
arate a lot of seeds, irrespective of their intrinsic quality, into
two or three lots of generally equal quantities. In so doing the
fact that seeds vary much in quality under different conditions
and in different seasons, is not taken into consideration and no
attempt is made to define with exactness the limits within which
seeds of different qualities occur.

* Wis. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt., 1895, p. 317,

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Seal

The objections to the method are mechanical in nature—they
are the objections arising from a faulty technique. Seeds gener-
ally take up water, though there are very considerable differences
between individual seeds of the same lot with regard to the
rapidly with which they do so. For this reason the method of
salt solutions as commonly applied does not yield separates
exactly comparable; but the differences in specific gravity due to
unequal absorption of water are at most only a few one hundreths
of unity, and for practical purposes may be to a considerable
extent disregarded. Another objection which has been urged
against the method of salt solutions is that it is slow and trouble-
some of application; but it is no more so than is that of immers-
ing oats in hot water as a treatment for oat smut. This latter
is recognized as an agricultural practice in good standing.

The logical applications of the methods of separates and of
samples are fundamentally different. As has already been
remarked, the method of separates is suited properly for distin-
guishing between different individual seeds in the same lot. It
is analytical. The method of samples is not analytical, but is
appliable in judging the comparative merits of two lots of seeds.
It does not take cognizance of individual differences among the
seeds; it judges the average value of the whole lot.

THE METHOD OF SAMPLES.

The method of samples has been applied in several ways. A
simple and elementary form of it was used by Grandeau. He
placed a certain number of seeds in a small graduated cylinder
of water and noted the amount of water displaced. From this
and the weight of the seeds previously determined the specific
gravity could be computed. This method is quick of operation
and for this reason is subject only to comparatively small error
on account of absorption of water by the seeds.

The method which has been most used in exact investigations
in seed selection according to specific gravity is the pycnometer
method. This method gives very exact results but is slow of
application, even in the laboratory. In gardening practice it is
utterly out of the question.

Determinations by this method were at first made in distilled
water, but the use of water was soon abandoned for the reason

342 REPORT OF THE HorTicuLTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

that the seeds were often found to have changed materially
in specific gravity before the determination could be completed.
Various devices have been tried with a view to preventing this
absorption of water, but apparently without entire success, since
none of them have become a recognized part of practice. One
of these methods, suggested by Wollny, was to oil the hands
lightly and to roll the seeds between them before making the
determination. In reviewing the literature of the subject the
present writer has not noticed that this practice has been con-
tinued by any other investigator. The objection to it is, that
more or less air is imprisoned and the results vitiated. Another
device is to coat the seeds with shellac or varnish. In a series
of careful determinations it was found that this treatment of the
seeds changed their specific gravity slightly, though not enough
presumably to be of importance in practice. Obviously, seeds
thus treated would be valueless for use in culture tests.

In order to obviate the practical difficulty involved in the use
of water, various other liquids have been employed. Among
these are alcohol, naptha, benzine and petroleum. <A quite
extended study was made by Wolffenstein of the subject of media
for use in making pycnometer determinations. He it was who
first suggested the use of petroleum. The employment of this
medium obtained much currency among investigators. The super-
iority of this fluid for use in making specific gravity deter-
minations lies in the fact that the seeds take up almost none of it.
A very considerable objection to it is, that it changes much in
volume and consequently in specific gravity with even small
changes in temperature, so much so that corrections must be
made for temperature changes so small as one-half degree.

One practical difficulty which experimenters have to contend
with, is the adherence of air to the seed when immersed. In
order to obivate this difficulty Nowacki, after having put seeds
in petroleum in a pycnometer, placed the apparatus under the
receiver of an air pump and exhausted the air uniformly to a
stated pressure, allowing the apparatus thus to remain for fifteen
minutes, after which the determinations were made. In thus
treating the seeds a little petroleum was absorbed, but the error
therefrom is stated not to be of importance, not amounting to
more than three or five per ct. according to Nowacki.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 343

The pycnometer method as commonly applied carries the deter-
mination to four places of decimals; but this is an unneces-
sary refinement of operation, since separates differing by only
one-hundredth of unity commonly show very little if any differ-
ence in germination and in vigor of seedlings except at or near
critical points, as 1.18 for naked leguminous seeds, below which
points germination does not take place.

THE METHOD OF A SERIES OF SEPARATES.

Taking into consideration the inadequacy of the method of
samples and considering the fact that seeds differ much in com-
position and other characters according to the conditions under
which they are grown, and further, that seeds borne on the
same mother plant also differ, it is surprising that greater efforts
have not been made to separate these seeds according to their
cultural properties. The somewhat primitive separation of a lot
of seed into two or three arbitrarily determined separates has
already shown that very considerable differences in cultural
properties do exist. By making these separates at equal inter-
vals of specific gravity and sufficiently near together, it should
be practicable to determine the range within which seeds of
different cultural qualities occur, so far as such are in direct
correlation with specific gravity. By so doing, prescriptions for
the selection of seed according to specific gravity would be made
on the basis of an unchanging standard. Heretofore the method
used has given variable results as regards quality of seeds,
since a stated fraction, as one-half, of a variable quantity—the
specific gravity of seeds grown under different conditions—was
taken.

The present writer has put this idea into effect! by using a
series of salt solutions differing each from the next by one one-
hundredth of unity in specific gravity. Seeds passed through
such a series of solutions are grouped into a series of separates
having different ranges with which various properties of great
economic importance are found to be somewhat definitely asso-
ciated. ©

As will appear later, this method of series takes into con-
sideration the very unlike conditions under which seeds are grown,
so far as these differences find expression in the specific gravities

344 REpPoRT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

of the seeds. It also distinguishes between different individuals
in the same lot. For instance, when a lot of seed is harvested
some individuals are not quite so ripe as others. These differ-
ences find expression, to some extent at least, in specific gravity.
In many cases seeds grown on different soils or in different eli-
mates are of unequal value for planting. To some extent these
differences also find expression in specific gravity... The method of
a series of salt solutions theoretically sorts out from a lot of
seeds, those best suited for planting, irrespective of the propor-
tion of them in the lot, whether few or many..

It is unnecessary that solutions differ by less than one one-
hundredth of unity, as is shown by the following facts: (1)
Except at critical points in the range of specific gravity, there is
little or no difference in the cultural characters of seeds differing
by no more than one one-hundredth of unity. (2) Most seeds
take up water rapidly and in the length of time it takes to make
a series of experimental separates, some seeds at least will
change as much as one one-hundredth in specific gravity and
sometimes more. (3) In skimming the seeds from one solution
to the next, the solutions are somewhat changed in density and
are liable to vary as much as one one-hundredth if they are not
frequently tested. In a few cases, however, the author has used
solutions differing from each other by only five one-thousandths
of unity.

SALTS USED IN MAKING SOLUTIONS.

There are a number of highly soluble salts that may be used
in making up these solutions. The present writer has used
common kitchen salt (sodium chloride), ammonium nitrate, and
sodium nitrate (Chili saltpeter). Common saltpeter (potassium
nitrate) and calcium chloride are salts that have been much
used. One author has used molasses with good results. Sodium
chloride makes up a solution of a maximum density at room
temperature in the summer time of 1.20 and will hold up to this
density unless a very cool day comes. In winter time this solu-
tion will not hold up above 1.175 to 1.185 according to tempera-
ture. Hence this solution can only be used for separating seeds
of less specific gravity than these densities. For denser seeds some
of the other salts must be used. Ammonium nitrate holds up to
about 1.31 at room temperature in the summer time and to about

New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 345

1.28 in the winter time. This solution is comparatively expen-
sive and does not entirely separate the heaviest seeds, some of
which are among the most common. Sodium nitrate holds up
to about 1.39 in the warmest summer weather and to about 1.86
in the winter time. This solution can be used for completely
separating the heaviest seeds, such as Leguminosz and some of
the cereals.

The technique of solutions has not been much studied by the
present writer and practically no attempt has been made as yet to
use solutions of a density less than that of water. It is suggested
however, that petroleum, naptha, benzine, etc., might be adapted
to this purpose, if there was occasion for it. As a matter of fact,
however, many seeds with a density as low as that of pure water
do not germinate anyway and there is no need of carrying the
separation below unity. The present writer has grouped all seeds
of a specific gravity less than that of water together and indi-
cated them collectively by the sign <1.00. The sign > is used
_ to indicate “greater than.”

DETAILS OF MANIPULATION.

In practice, the solutions were made up in glass jars, deter-
mining densities with a common dairy hydrometer. A part of the
solution in each jar was poured into a saucer beside it, and the
seeds to be separated poured into one of the higher solutions—
which must be denser than any of the seeds—and all seeds that
floated skimmed over with a piece of wire gause into the solution
next lower. In each solution such seeds will settle as are denser
than that solution but less dense than the one next above.

In practice much difficulty is found in getting rid of adhering
air bubbles. This difficulty can be obviated at least in part by
dipping the seeds from water into some solution or into alcohol,
formalin or some similar substance and then dipping them quickly
back into: water.

DETERMINATIONS BY PREVIOUS INVESTIGATORS.

Mention should be made of some of the results obtained by
previous investigators of the specific gravity of seeds. Nobbe
gives a long table of specific gravities as reported by earlier
investigators. Many of these determinations were made by Renz,

346 Report or THE HortricuLTuRAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

who simply made up a solution until one-half of the seeds had
sunk. Many of his figures agree with the optimum as deter-
mined by the present writer; but in some cases our results are
widely at variance. For instance, he gives the specific gravity
of grape seeds at 1.06, whereas as a matter of fact the optimum
for grape seeds, including vinifera varieties, which were what
Renz probably used in making his determinations, ranges from
about 1.10 to 1.18 or 1.16. In many varieties, especially the
stronger growing ones such as Concord, seeds of the specific gray-
ity of 1.06 do not germinate.

Nobbe refers also to determinations by v. Grevenitz and by
Hoffman, neither of which are of value. Hianlein has also
reported determinations of the specific gravities of thirteen kinds
of seeds.

RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS WITH RESPECT
TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The most casual examination of some of the tables given later
on in this report (see for instance Tables II and VIF) reveals the
fact that while the seeds of any kind of plant are distributed
through a wide range of specific gravity, most of them are com-
monly found within a relatively narrow range or within two such
ranges. If the seeds are of good quality and high in percentage
of germination, most of them are found near but not at the
maximum specific gravity. Such distribution is shown in Table
VII and Chart II. If, however, the seeds in their fresh condi-
tion are low in percentage of germination and are of poor quality,
many of them are found at or near the opposite extreme of the
series of separates. This fact is brought out in Table II and
Chart I, in which is shown the relative distribution of seeds of
an imperfectly self-fertile variety of grape close-pollinated.

All the common kinds of farm and garden seeds that the writer
has examined show some floaters, that is, seeds that float on
pure water. The range of density in different kinds of seeds is
very unlike. Within the limits of the same species different
varieties show different specific gravities, sometimes quite mark-
edly so. This point is brought out in Table I, showing the dis-
tribution of seeds of numerous varieties of grapes.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 347

It may be remarked that the very large number of seeds of
low specific gravities, that is of ungerminable seeds, is probably
attributable to imperfect pollination. Other cultural conditions
also exercise a marked influence on the specific gravity of seeds.
For instance, the common field corn of New York State ranges
in specific gravity up to about 1.15; but some of the corn of high
protein content now being bred in the west ranges up to 1.25.
It isa matter of common knowledge that wheat grown in northern
Colorado is heavier than the same variety grown in the Mississippi
valley. It has also been definitely proven by Wollny that the
same variety may vary in specific gravity from year to year. That
investigator’s determinations were made by the method of sam-
ples, and consequently represent only averages for the whole
amount of seed. While the optimum specific gravity of a variety
grown under favorable conditions might not vary much, numerous
conditions might enter in to bring it about that there might be
a larger number of slightly inferior seed in one sample than in
another. By this consideration the average specific eravity would
be lower and yet the optimum specific gravity might remain
unchanged. The suppositions are confirmed in the writer’s
mind by his observation of grape seeds grown under different
conditions; but figures are not at hand to support these state-
ments.

As to the range of specific gravity in the seeds of a number of
cultivated crops, the Cruciferee range from about 1.21 down, let-
tuce from 1.10, Solanacee from 1.12, onion from 1.18, carrot
from 1.15, grapes from about 1.16, buckwheat from 1.23, and
wheat, rye and naked leguminous seeds from 1.30 to 1.36 accord-
ing to the variety.

Renz concluded from his investigations that the seed of every
kind of plant has in its natural ripe and fully developed condi-
tion a specific gravity which varies only between certain limits,
apparently meaning by this rather narrow limits. From this
conclusion he makes the deduction that specific gravity can be
used as a distinguishing character of the kind and quality of the
seed. The writer’s observations tend to support the conclusion
that specific gravity is a character of the variety but not a dis-
tinguishing character. This last is for the reason that seeds of

348 REPORT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

nearly related species or varieties overlap each other in the range
of greatest_frequerney of disiribution and consequently are not
separable by te mechanical means of solutions; also, because
the proportion of seeds not of the optimum specific gravity varies
greatly under diilerent conditions, and hence the average specific
gravity of differcri samples of the same variety would not be
constant.

TABLE 1.—NSHOWING THE VERY DIFFERENT DISTRIBUTION OF DIF-
FERENT VARIETIES OF GRAPES AS REGARDS SPECIFIC GRAVITY
WHEN GROWN IN A VARIETY VINEYARD OPEN TO Cross POLLINA-

TION.
Sp. gr Agawam Alice Aminia. | Arkansas. peheeey Berckmans.
<1.00 10 54 19 3 8 27
1.01 1 6 1 2 4
1.02 2 10 2 8
1.03 1 14 1 1 1 5
1.04 1 19 3 1 3 7
1.05 5 32 14 5 5 7
1.06 2 14 9 2 3 3
1.07 17 25 36 20 38 12
1.08 25 6 31 57 62
1.09 37 6 45 51 50
1.10 39 10 27 37 21
ileal! 28 2 10 15 Zi
Le 23 1 2 7
res 9 1 1
200 200 200 | 200 200 73
Sp. gr piace Brighton. | Brilliant} Canada. | Catawba. ae ou Na Clevener.
ee
<1.00 16 33 9 121 22 42 3 2
1.00 1 23 5 1
1.01 1 9 1
1.02 2 9 1 4 2
1.03 2 2 2 | 1
1.04 1 4 1 6 1
1.05 1 if, 1 6 12 2 6
1.06 16 1 19 36
1.07 3 3 22 7 2 21 + 50
1.08 4 2 74 2 27 1 15
1.09 2 5 38 HM [ia Me Sg (Yl i
1.10 5 8 13 6 PA | 10 |
ila la} 15 33 8 H 16 11 12
i Se 39 45 il i 68 6 9 |
1S 2 8 59 2 4
1.14 94 61 9
1,15 8 2
193 200 200 ye: 200 200 58 113

349
‘Taste 1—(Concluded).
Crev- Del- Dia- 2 Dracut | Elvi- E]- Grein Hart- Her-
Sp. gr eling. | aware. | mond. Diana. Amber.) bach. vira. |Golden.| ford. bert
<1.00 1 12 25 51 8 8 74 6 50 39
1.00 isl 1 1 1 12
LO 1 4 14
102 1 1 15 1 1 14
1.03 2 1 19 1 15
1.04 3 1 1 23 1 1 18
1.05 6 1 21 3 2 19
1.06 2 2 3 9 3 4 1 i 11
1.07 3 *ef 27 11 19 3 5 23
1.03 9 5 2 17 | 27 2 6 13
1.09 5 5 5 10 3 36 3 6 3
1.10 18 16 3 32 6 18 1 23 6
ete 33 19 57 14 14 Mai 56 1
1.12 36 45 41 52 2 14 32
1.13 14 34 12 84 18 17 1
1.14 4 31 5 31 40 2
1.15 - 4 1 3
1.16 2 2
15 138 200 200 200 200 200 111 200 189
Tsabella ‘ Black | Pough-
~ | Lady | Lind- : : Mass-| Ma- a seit
Sp. er:| Iona. fee Spink.| ley Lutie. | Marion. Pista lle rites ea Keep
1.00 26 13 16 9 20 2 15 30 10 126
1.00 3 1 2 3 1 2 a
1.01 1 | 4 1
1.02 1 | 2 4 il 1 1 3
1.03 6 8 if 3 2 2
1.04 1 10 10 2 2 2
1.05 2 O 20 28 6 5 5
1.06 o 1 6 6 34 9 3 11
Oz iat 6 65 16 44 9 3 ii
1.08 18 33 48 8 27 29 20 9
1.09 23 46 34 1 L7/ 29 2 15
110 19 28 13 6 2] 7 10
vagal 52 39 2 11 4 2 25 3 31
12: 17 2 3 4 26 2 9 1 12,
iho ils} 9 13 49 Py 8
1.14 8 i2 1 alles 4
V.15 3 2
1.16 1
200 169 109 200 100 200 200 eee 61 256
Roch-| Station} Station| Station) Station} Tri- ; Winch- Vv.
Sp. er. | Regal.) ester. | 95. 96. g. |- 116. | umph. | Ulster-| en | riparia.
<1.00 37 8 11 1 7 3 17 37 4 197
1.00 5 3 2 1
1.01 1 5 1 1
1.02 3 9 1 2 1 if
1.03 13 1 in 4
1.04 3 19 1 1 3
1.05 3 21 2 2 5 3
1.06 3 23 2 Dy 7
POF 2 43 if 1 3 11 i 4
1.08 8 25 4 1 2 6 26 1
1.09 10 21 15 3 1 15 35 i 1
1.10 16 5 19 1 6 1 18 | 56 1
iat 48 4 55 3 6 8 42 54 3
J.12 22 1 55 6 15 4 33 i173 2
hos 20 39 4 12 3 21 2 6
1.14 16 44 35 100 8 19 5
els 3 3 12 36 2
1.16 8 3
Lye 3
200 200 259 76 196 29 200 248 27 200

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

350 REporRT OF THE HorvIcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

DIFFERENCES IN DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF GRAPES.

How greatly varieties may vary in average specific gravity,
that is in distribution of the seeds according to specific gravity,
is abundantly brought out in Table I, in which are shown records
of separations of a number of varieties of grape seeds grown
under normal conditions in a variety vineyard. For instance,
much the larger part of the seeds of Agawam are found in the
range from 1.07 upward, which is the range within which alone
germination takes place, that is the range within which good
seeds are comprised. But in the case of Canada most of the
seeds are comprised in the range from 1.083 downward, in which
range germination does not take place in this variety. In the
case of the particular observations shown in this table, the very
great differences in distribution of seeds is probably due in large
part to unequal protencies of the pollen which chance to alight on
the pistil. That there is ground for this assumption is abund-
antly proven by examinations of seeds, both cross and self-ferti-
lized, made by the writer for Prof. Beach, and representing some
twenty different varieties. In the case of such strongly self-fer-
tile varieties as Concord and Worden it was found that the dis-
tribution of the seeds as regards specific gravity was about the
same whether the flowers were self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.
But -in the case of varieties which Prof. Beach has heretofore
examined and classed as imperfectly self-fertile, it was found that
very striking differences in the distribution of the seeds as re-
gards specific gravity—that is as regards quality—are correlated
with the potency of the pollenizing parent. For instance, in the
case of Little Blue, an imperfectly self-fertile hybrid, only 30 per
ct. of the seeds from self-pollinated bunches were found in the
range from 1.07 up; but other bunches from the same vine open
to cross-pollination showed 60 per ct. of seeds within the same
range. See Table II and Chart I. Even in this latter case
there was a very large percentage of poor seed. It is a fair
question whether a considerable part of these may not have been
due to imperfect pollination from some source. It would be in-
teresting to compare the specific gravity of the seeds of this
variety self-pollinated with the seeds of the same variety cross-
pollinated with some strongly self-fertile varieties as Concord.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. aol

TasLte Il. SwHow1ne DIsrrRipuTioN oF Seeps or Lirrte BLusE
GRAPE SELF-POLLINATED AND OPEN TO Cross-POLLINATION.

Sp. gr. Self-pollinated. ta ae ae
<1.00 728. 390.
1.01 4.
1.02 10. 6
1.03 6. 6
1.04 5. 12
1.05 12. 12
1.06 9. 6
TOV 10. 12
1.08 15. 12
1.09 13: 18
1.10 48. 42
ibaa t 49. 42
eek? 56. 156
1.13 98. 204
1.14 28. 84
1.15 10. 78
1.16 on 24
1104. 1104

SEPARATION OF FOREIGN MATTER FROM SEEDS BY
MEANS OF SOLUTIONS.

The method of separating seeds by salt solutions can some-
times be applied to the separation of foreign matter or foreign
seeds from the desired seeds. It is admitted, however, at the out-
set that this consideration is of very minor importance. In sepa-
rating a lot of clover seed, the highest separate was found to
consist almost entirely of gravel and other inert matter. In sep-
arating a lot of timothy, the separate above 1.30 consisted almost
entirely of foreign seeds, apparently clover seed. In separating
another lot of clover seed it was noticed that many of the seeds in
the highest separate were foreign leguminous seeds quite similar
in size and appearance, however, to the clover seed. The separates
were planted and the results are shown in Plate XVI, fig. 3. It is
here seen that the larger part of the plants in these higher sep-
arates are of a foreign species. These seeds were too nearly of
the size of clover seed to have been separated by sieving; but
they could have been gotten rid of in larger part by discarding
all seeds above 1.33, and almost entirely by discarding all seeds
above 1.28. In so doing but comparatively few clover seeds
would have been lost.

Garman! makes mention of a practice of separating the seeds of
certain morning glories that grow among hemp from hemp seed
by immersing the seed in water.

1 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 105, p. 19.

352 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

The method of solutions is apparently not of much use, how-
ever, for separating different kinds of seeds from each other.
This is because seeds of different kinds are distributed over so
wide a range of density that the separates commonly very much
overlap. Even in the occasional instances in which it is desired
to separate a heavy seed as a legume or cereal from some light
seed, the use of a fanning mill would commonly be more con-
venient.

RELATION BETWEEN SIZE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
SEED.

Noteworthy correlations exist between the size of the seed and
its specific gravity. In this connection, by the word size is
meant volume, that being the common use of the term as applied
to seeds. In illustration of this correlation the figures in Table
III may be cited. Prof. Beach had separated grape seeds into
different lots according to their smallest diameter as indicated in
the table. Among seeds of different diameters which were thus
separated, those that were noticeably plump were selected by the
eye and classified separately. They are designated as ‘ ‘very
plump” in the table. It will be noticed that these seeds are
almost all good and fall within the range of seeds of high quality.
This observation simply emphasizes once more the old horticul-
tural truth, that the plumpest seeds are the best.

TaBLe [II.—DIstrrisutTioNn or Seeps of MABEL GRAPE ACCORDING
TO SIZE AND oF EHacu Size AccorDING TO SpPecIFIC GRAVITY.

|
SIZE OF SEED. <1.00) 1.00 | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.03 | 1.04 | 1.05 | 1-06

Weryesmialliaers. saci cin cee 2
poh eats | Pe eak acer) G its cee mene Ee 12 2. | 1 Ae a] 1 1 1 ik
Smallvery/plump.. 20... 6... le 2 | 1
Medniimisi ze. ei es ticeiciceS voice 42 By Ope 2 Hal 21
Medium size, very plump......... Pigs len a | 1 3
Lhd TRE Ree ee ore trae cco teNe | 1 2 2
Large, very plump,.............. i 3 4
Werylargess nec cite amu cscceenren |

| |

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 353

SEeconD SEcTION oF TABLE III.

|

SIZE OF SEED, PO7aie 0.08.) 1.09) LONE DE Poros 4s ee 15) Totals
Wery. arrtal lec terteter so kostvels ys 2
RS a reenter nies yenayerac 2 6 5 5 7 an 4 l 2 54
Small, very plump......... 1 1 hale eed 4 a su Weeds
Medium 1z@. 0.810 < 22-0 23 |) 43 39 | 54 64 ae) it | 332
Medium size, very plump... 4 6 i |a16 10 3) | 53
Dirgaihes aC eae oe | 1 8 S| meta oe | gee
Large, very plump........ 3 3 | 3 | 6 1 24
Wierwilanmate den crisis esses sa | 1 : | | 1

It will be noticed that all of the seeds in the smallest lot
are lighter than water. This observation applies to grape seeds
in general. In the next larger size there are relatively a large
number of floaters. Only the seeds of highest specific gravity
germinated. In the case of the variety (Mabel) shown in this
table the percentage of germination among the small seeds was
less than what it commonly is with such vigorous and self-fertile
varieties as Concord. It is noticed from the table also that as the
size of the seed increases the number of light seed decreases; but
‘at the same time the maximum range of the heavier seed becomes
less and less. This observation also is of general application.
In the seeds of largest diameter there are very few light seeds.
In the table the range within which germination took place is
included within the irregular line.

These facts as to the distribution of seeds of different sizes
through the range of specific gravity are shown in graphic form in
Chart II. A glance at this chart shows immediately that the
great mass of seeds are of medium size, which would have been
anticipated. The small seeds are numerically greater in number
than the large ones, but fewer of them fall within the range of
germinable seeds. On the other hand almost all of the large
seeds are seen to be of good quality. The medium sized seeds
are seen to fall in larger part within the range of good seed.

23

354 REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

TaBLe I1V.—SHOWING RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF GRAPE SEEDS OF
DIFFERENT S1zEs AS REGARDS Speciric GRAVITY.

Sp. er. Small. Medium sized. Large.
Per ct. Per ct Per ct.

<1.00 21. 11 2.

1.00 3.

1.01 2. 1

1.02 2. 2.

1.03 Pas 1

1.04 2. 1

1.05 pe 3 8.

1.06 on 5. 9.

1.07 4. is 6.

1.08 10. 13 lige

1.09 9. 12 18.

1.10 10. 18 él.

ak 16. 19 6.

a hea I 4, 6

ipale ide 2 we

1.14 it

Lold 3.

100. 100. 100.

The distribution of the seeds of each of these sizes in per-
centages of the total number of seeds in each size is shown in
Table IV and graphically in Chart III. Although Charts II and
III represent the same sample of seed, the appearance of the
two charts is quite different. Chart III shows that almost the
entire percentage of larger seed falls within the range in which
germinations occur; that a less percentage of medium sized
seeds falls within that range, and a still less percentage of small
seeds. The number of poor seeds is obviously in inverse pro-
portion to the number of good seeds. This chart brings out for-
cibly the fact that a conventional separation of seeds by a salt
solution without having previously separated the seeds into lots
of different sizes is of itself a partial separation according to
size; that is, the lighter separates consist predominantly of the
smaller seeds, and the smaller the seeds the greater the propor-
tion of them contained in the lighter separates. Inversely, the
heavy separates contain a larger portion of large seeds than
does the original sample and the larger the seeds the larger the
proportion of them which is included.

Charts II and III and their respective tables bring out anew
the fact that the seeds of highest specific gravity absolutely are
small seeds, and that the larger the seed, the less high does it
range in specific gravity, though the average specific gravity of
large seeds is greater than that of small seeds. This obser-
vation is of general application. For instance, in the case of

-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 355

cabbage and cauliflower the maximum specific gravity of small
seeds is about 1.21; but none of the large seeds run as high as
1.20. ;

As a rule, as has already been stated, the seeds largest in vol-
ume have the fewest floaters among them; but there are some
notable exceptions. For instance, in a lot of egg plant seed
examined, all of the largest seeds were floaters. These seeds
were actually the heaviest in milligrams of all seeds in the pack-
age and were to all outward appearances the finest seeds in the
lot. They were closely examined with a view to discovering some
outward indication of their lightness, but none was found. But
in the case of egg plant the general rule also holds good that the
smallest seeds are in large part floaters.

Schertler found that specific gravity increases with the size of
the seed. For practical purposes this statement is correct, but
strictly it is only a half truth. The author’s investigations were
presumably made by the method of samples, and this method
would lead to this error, since the method of samples does not
show distribution, but only averages. The fact is, as has already
been brought out, that small seeds attain to the highest specific
gravity; but there are so many small seeds of low specific grav-
ity that the average specific gravity of small seeds is less than
that of large seed.- Schertler’s observation that abnormally large
seeds have a less specific gravity than do good medium sized
ones agrees with the observations of the present writer. Lyon
concludes that large kernels of wheat are generally of higher
Specific gravity than are small ones, and gives figures showing
the proportion of light seed in small, medium and large seed.

RELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEED
AND VIGOR OF GERMINATION.

Noteworthy correlations also exist between the specific gravity
of the seed and its vigor of germination. Moreover the ranges
within which seeds germinate most vigorously, less vigorously
or not at all may be rather closely delimited. In anticipation of
a later discussion in this report, it may be remarked that vigor of
germination appears to be associated with storage of reserve
material, and that in the range of specific gravity which repre-
sents the largest storage of reserve material the most vigorous

356 Report or THE HorricULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

germination is found. Correlated with a less storage of reserve
material is a less vigorous germination. With many kinds of
seed the lightest ones do not germinate at all or only sparingly.
Most conspicuous is this last in the case of seeds enclosed in a
firm seed coat, such as grape and solanaceous seeds. Many such
are found to be lighter than water and are generally hollow.

The ranges of specific gravity representing different vigors of
germination may be mentioned for a few kinds of seed:

In the case of grapes, germination is very rare below 1.07 to
1.04 according to the variety. Over a range of several one-hun-
dredths above these points germination is infrequent. In the
case of several kinds of leguminous seeds examined, germination
had not taken place below 1.18 or thereabouts. In the case of
common field clover there was in one case no germination below
1.17 and in a sample of crimson clover, known to be at least one
and a half years old, there was no germination below 1.28. Wheat
gave no germination below 1.18. Egg plants give very few ger-
minations below 1.00 and perhaps these few germinable seeds
could have been separated from the others by the use of a solu-
tion slightly lighter than water.

MUSTARD.

Germination tests with mustard gave the results reported in
the following table. The seeds were set in filter paper April 10
and the first germinations observed April 138.

TABLE V.—SHOWING CORRELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
MusrarD SEED AND RAPIDITY AND PERCENTAGE OF GERMINA-
TION.

Germinated. Germinated. Germinated. | Germinated.
Sp. gr. | No. of seeds.) “April 13, April 14. April 15. April 22.

i

HR

AH AwOoOOnNrF
eee te

1
1
2
1
5
5
15.
15 ile
16.
10
3
10

NR hw h

Prt pt fet et et et et et fet et et et
xs
re
Bb Rt

2.
21 ie
89. 43. uh ie thn Ue

ae

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Sot

From these figures it may be computed that 48 per ct. of all
the seeds set germinated the first day of germination. Between
1.14 and 1.17 inclusive fifty-eight seeds are included and of these,
thirty-cur, or 59 per ct., germinated in the same time. All others
are thirty-one seeds, of which nine, or 29 per ct. only, germinated
the third day. it ihus aptears that the best germination in all
respects took place between 1.14 and 1.17. The reserve material
in cruciferous seeds is characteristically in the form of oil, and
Kobayashi, as already stated,* has shown that the greatest per-
centage of oil is contained in cruciferous seeds of medium specific
gravity. This one trial would indicate, then, that vigor of germi-
nation is correlated with storage of reserve material.

TIMOTHY.
Tests with timothy seed resulted as follows:

TABLE VI.—SHOWING RELATIVE Vicor OF GERMINATION OF TIMO-
THY SEED OF DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Sp. er. Germination. Remarks.
Per ct.
1.00 30.
1.00-1.10 : 40.
1.10-1.20 40.
1.20-1.26 tine Very vigorous
<1.26 90. do. P

Timothy seed does not lend itself well to separation by salt
solutions, at least in the small way in which the writer has con-
ducted his experiments. Perhaps on a large scale, especially
where a quantity of seed was being separated in a large recepta-
cle, the method would be applicable. It appears from these
results that, as a matter of agricultural practice, it would be easy
to get rid of a large part of the ungerminable seeds in fresh
timothy seed by simply immersing the seed in a saturated sait
solution (1.20) and planting only the seeds which sank.

CLOVER.

A sample of fresh clover seed showed in the separates less than
1.20 only three germinations out of sixteen seeds. These separ-
ates consisted mostly of small (foreign) seeds. The percentage of
germination in the separates 1.20 to 1.24 was low. Between 1.25
and 1.50 the percentage of germination was high. Above 1.30

*See page 339 of this report.

358 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

the percentage was again low, being only about fifty per ct., and
many foreign seeds were intermixed.

In a sample of another variety of clover germination was prac-
tically complete up to 1.27, above which it was low.

In the case of another sample of common clover there was no
germination below 1.17 and only three below 1.20. From 1.20
up germination was good but in the higher ranges the seeds
proved to be mostly of a foreign leguminous species. These seeds
were planted in a single row about two rods long. In Plate XVI
are shown the range from 1.20 downward (Fig. 1), the plants
from seed of specific gravity of 1.23 to 1.26 (Fig. 2), which were
the best separates in the lot, and the separates from 1.27 up (Fig.
3.) From 1.27 to 1.33 many plants of another smaller legumin-
ous species are seen to be intermixed, and from 1.83 up they are
seen to constitute almost the entire growth.

CHAMPION OF ENGLAND PBAS.

One hundred Champion of England peas were separated with
the result shown in the table below. These separates were put
under test at three o’clock, December 8, 1903. The first germina-
tions were observed at eight o’clock on the morning of December
11, sixty-six hours later. These germinations were noted and are
separately recorded in the table. Other germinations occurred
during the next forty-eight hours, but not later, although the test
was continued for two days after the last germination was ob-
served. The total verminations are also shown in the table.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 359

TaBLeE VIJ.—SHowING DISTRIBUTION OF CHAMPION OF ENGLAND
Peas AS Recarps Speciric Gravity; ALSo SHowinc NUMBER
oF GERMINATIONS IN First Srxtry-six Hours anp Toran Num-
BER OF GERMINATIONS.

Germinations in Total

Sp. gr. No. of seeds, ours. germinations,

S
o
bo

a
MDB OOO Cr Or WO RT 00

_
RPNRNORWNWNHNwW RP

el ee ee a ee en rere
bo no
(0) oO
Noe

to
to
BN ROSCOOUPRR ROOM WW Re

—"
i=)
o
»
oo
«J
or

These data are shown graphically in chart IV.

From this table, as also from the chart, it appears that among
the 100 seeds set, 85 were in the range from 1.19 and above and
15 were in the range below 1.19. Of the 85 seeds in the higher
range, 74 germinated in all, or 87 per ct. Of the 15 seeds in the
lower range, only one, or 6.6 per ct. germinated, and this ger-
mination was very weak. Of the 74 germinations in the higher
range, 48 occurred the first day of germination, or 65 per ct.
The one germination below 1.19 did not occur until the second
day tater. It appears, then, that if one should make up a solu-
.tion of common kitchen salt to its maximum density (1.20) and
Separate Champion of England peas by this means, he could
separate out nearly all of the germinable seeds and discard a con-
siderable part of the poor seeds.

In the course of the observations on the relative vigor of ger-
mination of peas of different specific gravities reported in Table
VII, it was noticed that among those seeds which had germinated
in the first sixty-six hours, some had germinated either earlier
or else much more vigorously than others. An effort was made

360 Report or THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

in a crude way to compare the relative vigor of germination of
these different seeds by measuring the length of the radicles.
These measurements are recorded in the following table:

TABLE VIII.—Lerenerus or Rapicte MaApE By PEAS oF DIFFERENT
Sreciric GRAVITIES DuRING THE First Sixty-stx Hours or
GERMINATION.

Length of radiclein | Average length in
Sp.er. No. of seeds. 32ds of an inch. 32ds of an inch.
eo! 1 4 4
1.30 : i
1.29 : -
1 1
1 4 4.25
—
1.28 2 1
| 1 3
2 4 |
1 7
1 10 |
| 2 ape
| 1 15 | 6
1.37 - : |
1 4
1 6 2.66
1.26 2 i
1 6 2.75
1.25 1 | sy
\ 1 3 ies
1.24 : ‘n
ies : =
1 5 5.33
1.22 : = 5
1.21 | 1 1
1 4 2.5
1.20 — | 1 =
| 1 3 1.66
|
1.19 | 2 *
| 2 2 1

* Testa broken but radicle not yet protruding.

No correlations stand out very clearly in this table; but never-
theless seeds of high specific gravity, that is 1.28 and above,
made quite uniformly a vigorous germination. On the other

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 361

hand seeds of low specific gravity made considerable less vigor-
ous germination, though very unequally so. This is most notice-
able in the three lowest separates. In addition, as has already
been pointed out, the percentage of germination among the seeds
of higher specific gravity was high while the percentage among
seeds of lower specific gravity was low.

CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
SEEDS AND THEIR COLOR.

Correlations have occasionally been noticed to exist between
the specific gravity of the seed and its color. For instance. the
purplish, immature seeds of grape which are often observed,
especially in varieties imperfectly self-fertile, are almost always
floaters or in a few cases have a specific gravity slightly above
1.00. The dark colored seeds which are often seen in the Solan-
ace, as in egg plant and pepper, are, so far as observed, always
of low specific gravity and mostly floaters. In the case of the
tomato a few brown seeds are high in specific gravity, but the
numerical proportion of them to the whiter seeds rises very rap-
idly as specific gravity decreases.

The result of a germination test with pepper seeds of differ-
ent colors (and sizes) is shown in the upper figures of Plate
XVIT.

The row at the extreme left (in both figures) was grown from
large white seeds and contains twenty-one plants. In the next
row, grown from medium sized white seeds, are sixteen seedlings.
In the third row, from small white seeds, are eight seedlings. In
the fourth row, from rather brownish seeds of various sizes, are
ten seedlings, and in the fifth row, from dark colored seeds of
different sizes, are five seedlings. In each case twenty-five seeds
were planted in each row. The very differing vigor of growth
in the different lots is shown in Fig. 1, and something of the
very unequal germination in Fig. 2, which is another view of
the same lot. It is seen that brownish seeds, irrespective of size,
produce but little better seedlings than do small white seeds, and
that the seedlings are inferior in vigor to those from medium
sized white seeds. Further, dark colored seeds germinate very
scantily indeed and produce very weak seedlings. Unfortunately

862 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THB

these seeds were not separated according to specific gravity, but
trials with other seeds of the same variety showed that all dark
brown seeds and the larger part of the light brown ones are
floaters. All pepper seeds at all discolored are low in specific
gravity.

Wolffenstein believed that he had found a correlation between
color of wheat kernels and their specific gravity. The present
writer has verified this observation. In the case of wheat the
difference in color is due to differences in gluten content, as
Snyder* has pointed out. The higher the specific gravity the
larger the percentage of gluten, which is dark in color.

RELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEEDS
AND THEIR VIABILITY.

There is some evidence that a correlation exists between the
specific gravity of a seed and its viability. For instance, in the
case of a sample of mustard seed (see Table V), known to be at
least one and a half years old, the specific gravities ranged from
1.01 to 1.21; the only germinations which took place, however,
on the first day of germination were between 1.14 and 1.19.
Not until the second day after did any germination take place
among the seeds lying between 1.13 and 1.01, below the optimum
of distribution, nor in the separates 1.20 and 1.21, above it. In
all, eighty-nine seeds were set, of which eighty-one lay between
1.12 and 1.19, and of these forty-three, or 53 per ct., germinated
the first day of germination, and 66, or 82 per ct. in the entire
test. Outside of these limits, both above and below, were eight
seeds, none of which, as stated before, germinated until the
third day of germination, and in the entire test only two of these,
or 25 per ct., germinated.

In the case of some seeds of the Swedish turnip, also old, only
12 per ct. of those below 1.12 germinated and all of these very
weakly. Of the seeds in the separates 1.12 and 1.13, 31 per ct.
germinated and the seedlings were generally vigorous. Above
1.13 to 1.17 (the maximum) only one germination. occurred.
Ordinary germination tests showed that the percentage of germ-
ination in these particular samples of seed was very low. While

*Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. No. 85.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 363

opportunity was not afforded for comparing these results with
the germination of new seeds, it may be confidently stated that
the percentage of germination among normal, fresh seeds would
have been much higher than those here given.

A sample of old crimson clover seed was also separated. There
were no germinations below 1.23. Judging from experience with
other kinds of clover and other leguminous seeds, it appears
probable that fresh crimson clover would show germination
below 1.23.

If the correlation between viability and specific gravity here
suggested is found to exist actually, it immediately becomes prac-
ticable to separate in advance from a lot of seeds those which
would soonest become non-germinable. This might be desirable
in cases in which it was desired to keep seeds for several years.

RELATIVE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEEDS MOIST AND
AIR DRY.

Seeds in the moist condition, such as grape seeds fresh from
the berry, generally do not have the same relative specific grav-
ity as do seeds in the air dry condition. This point was brought
out in observations on seeds of the Black Hamburg grape which
were examined on the same day they were taken from the fruit
and again about two and a half months later. The results are
shown in the following table:

864 Report oF THE HoRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Taste IX.—Speciric GrRAviTIes oF SEEDS oF BLack HAMBURG
GrarE Fresu FroM THE Berry AND AGAIN AIR Dry.

Spreciric GRAVITY.
No. seeds.
Fresh Air dry.
ARTE FS EU Se Zee, SEES
11 <1.00 <=1.00
1 1.01 <1.00
2 1.02 <1.00
1 1.03 <1.00
1 1.04 1.02
2 1.06 1.03
1 1.06 1.04
1 } 1.07 | 1.06
1 | 1.07 1.05
2 1.08 1.04
1 1.08 1.06
3 1.09 1.08
2 1.09 1.06
9 1.09 1.05
3 1.10 1.08
5 nL (0) 1.07
2 1.10 1.05
1 1.10 1.04
] 1.10 1.02
6 ier 1.09
6 asl 1.08
il Teall 1 Od
1 1 Wea | 1.06
1 1.12 1.10
7 H.12 1.09
9 1.12 1.08
2 d a 2 1.07
1 ea. 1.06
3 1.13 1.10
3 1.13 1.09
3 1.14 1.10
12 1.14 1.09
5 1.14 | 1.08
16 1.15 rag
7 1.15 1.09
4 1 hy 5s 1.08
1 1.15 1.07
5 dle Li iii Lif
6 17 1.10
3 1007 1.09
9 118 toe
1 es 1.10
1 ies 1.08
i! P19 | 1.14
2 | 1.20 Laz
|

This table emphasizes the need of having seeds in the air dry
condition when specific gravity determinations are to be made.
It shows also that the method of specific gravity is less applicable
to seeds which must be kept moist in order for them to germi-
nate. Among such are apple seeds and various other seeds which
it is customary to stratify in the fall. At the same time these
observations show that the specific gravity of the fresh seeds
follows in a general way, though irregularly, the specific gravity
of the air dry seed.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 365

Schindler concludes from his investigations that the capacity
of pees for swelling is in general the greater the less their spe-
cific gravity. According to the writer’s observation, this general
principle appears to apply to cruciferous seeds, though no sys-
tematic observations have been made. But in the case of some,
though not all, peas of abnormally low specific gravity, the prin-
ciple does not apply at all. Tor instance in one series of obser-
vations one pea having a specific gravity of 1.02 changed only
to 1.01 in twenty-four hours, another seed of specific gravity
1.08 changed to only 1.07, and a third seed of specific gravity
1.09 changed only to 1.05. In the same period of twenty-four
hours normal, germinable seeds of specific gravity 1.24 to 1.31
changed variously from 1.09 to 1.02. Doubtless the reason for
the very slight change in specific gravity of the non-viable seeds
is the well known physiological fact that dead seeds cannot swell.

Incidentally it was brought out in the course of these observa-
tions that seeds of abnormally low specific gravity often contain
an exceptionally high content of moisture when in the air-dry
condition; for instance the seed referred to above of specific
gravity 1.02 contained twenty-two per ct. of moisture and the
seed of specific gravity 1.09 contained 18.6 per ct. Viable seeds
in the same lot contained generally from 11 to 13 per ct. But
all peas of abnormally low specific gravity do not contain an
excessive amount of moisture, as is shown by the fact that a pea
of specific gravity 1.08 contained only 13 per ct.

RELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SEED AND
VIGOR. OF RESULTING PLANTS.

The writer has made but few culture tests to determine whether
there is a correlation between the specific gravity of the seed
and the vigor and productiveness of the resulting plant, and
none of these tests are satisfactory. They were made in the
season of 1903, when the exceptional period of drouth early in
the season put the crops back; and later disease or other untoward
circumstances interfered, lessening confidence in the compara-
bility of the results obtained. Some of these results are never-
the less believed to be sufficiently reliable to be worthy of being
placed on record.

866 Report oF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

CARROT.
Trials with carrot seed gave the following results:

TABLE X.—RESULTS WITH CARROT SEED.

Sp. gr. No. large plants. Average weight. | Small plants additional
(50 large seeds.) Ozs.
<1.00 3 14 5

1.00-1.03 2 13 1

1.03-1.06 2 12

1.06-1.09 1 7,

1.09-1.12 2 11

1.12-1.15 No germination.
(50 small seeds.)

1.00 3 ano} : 1

1.06-1.09 2 i

1.09-1.12 3 9

Little, if any, effect, on the vigor of the plants appears to be
attributable to specific gravity. Size of seed is, however, seen
to be very important.

SWEDISH TURNIPS.

The seed used in this test was low in percentage of germina-
tion. The plants grew as they came up in the row and did not
need thinning.

TABLE XI.—RESULTS WITH SWEDISH TURNIPS.

Se ooo SSS ———————SSSSSSE

Sp. gr. Weight of roots.

<1.00
1.00-1.03 5 Average 9 ozs.

———— nel

1.03-1.06 5

1.06-1.09 23 Average 19 ozs.

1.09-1.12 19

———_————————————

1.12-1.15 22

64 Average 42 ozs.

1.15-1.18 53

a
ee SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS93$9a9s9S98S9B99s9S9SESESETESESS a as

New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 367

The results in the above table are shown in Plate XVII, fig. 3.
These figures would indicate apparently a very striking correla-
tion between specific gravity of seed and vigor of the resulting
plants; but the writer has not yet separated Swedish turnip
seeds by sieving and the striking differences shown in this table
may be found to be due to a grouping of the seeds according to
size, '

CAULIFLOWER.

The tests with cauliflower did not at first promise results and
for this reason four heads which did form early in the fall were
cut and no record was made of their weight. Later, other plants
came on and their records are given herewith. The variety used
in this test was Autumn Giant.

TaBLE XII.—Cuttrure Tests WiTH CAULIFLOWER SEEDS OF
DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Sp. er. Weight of head. Weight of leaves,
Ozs. Ozs.
(Large seed.)

1.00-1.03 10 : 54

1.03-1.06 12 44

1.03-1.06 20 59

1.06-1.09* 5 40

1.12-1.15* 17 66

(Small seed.)

M12 —t15 4 66

PeL2=1-15 4 66

1.12-1.15 6 56

ne nd aera aaa TETEEEEEe mean ee ee
* Two other plants in this lot had been cut early in the season.

It is regretable that all of the plants in this experiment were
not preserved intact. It will be noticed, however, that all four
of the plants which were harvested early were from large seed
of medium or high specific gravity. In one of these groups was
found the heaviest head, with one exception, of any weighed. If
a single test like this indicates anything at all, it indicates that
the largest cauliflower heads are grown from large seeds of
medium or high specific gravity.

868 Report oF THH HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THD

LATE STONEHEAD CABBAGE.
Trials of this variety of cabbage gave results as follows:

TABLE XIITI—RESULTS witH LATE STONEHDAD CABBAGE.

Sp. gr. Weight of head. Weight of leaves. Remarks,
Ozs. (Large seed.) Ozs.
<1.00 21 10 | Hard.
1.00-103 41 34 | Hard.
39 29 | Soft.
47 30 | Soft.
1.06-1.09 66 33 Hard
50 41 Hard
43 23 Hard.
1.09-1.12 28 27 Soft.*
12 34 Very soft.*
1.12-1.15 21 24 Medium
24 16 “
(Small seed.)
1.00-1.03 | af N o head.
1.06-1.09 9 33 Fluffy.
24 43 Very soft.
54 20 Hard.
1.12-1.15 19 31 Very soft,
| $5 Almost no head.
1.15-1.18 16 24 Very soft.
37 Almost no head.
| 13 | Nohead. .
1.16-1.21 | 22 20 Hard.
29 24 «“

*Root system very weak.

This table does not bring out clearly the correlation of any
cultural property with specific gravity. It does appear, how-
ever, that large seeds are better for planting than small seeds,
which is an observation of general application. It appears also
that large seeds give firmer heads than do small seeds; and in
general this observation also holds good with cabbages so far as
the writer’s experience extends.

EARLY JERSEY WAKEFIELD CABBAGE,

In one part of this test comparisons were made of seeds of
different sizes and colors, the comparisons being between 10
very small reddish seeds, 10 medium sized reddish seeds, 10
medium sized black seeds, 6 large red seeds, and 10 large black
seeds. In the other part of the test seeds were selected of different
sizes from the smallest to the largest and their individual weights
and later specific gravities taken. The results are shown in the
following table:

Pt pt ek et et tp

COSCO ELLD
SSSSSH HAWS

AAAAA

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 369

seed
Mg.

Wt. of

3
22
22

3

22
22

Weicut or Heap. | WEercut or LEAVES.

Lbs. Ozs. | Lbs. Ozs.

10 very small reddish seeds.

1 12 2 0
2 13 2 0
4 2 2 5

10 medium sized reddish seeds.

Nanmowaw-
WRN ROR Or
RPONhhhbre td
=
ounoowanwt

r—

10 medium sized black seeds.

2 Ors = 2
3 12 3 12
5 0 2 0
4 7 2 5
2 15 1 2
1 13 2 9
1 3 2 2
2 a 1 8
6 large red seeds.
0 8 0 8
2 0 4 2
4 2 1 3

TABLE XIV.—RESULTS WITH EARLY JERSEY WAKEFIELD CABBAGE.

Remarks.

Did not germinate.
Firm.

| Medium.

Firm.

Did not head.

Did not germinate.
Did not germinate.

| Did not germinate.

Did not germinate.
Did not germinate.

Did not germinate.
Slightly cracked.
Firm.

Firm.

Firm.

Firm.

Medium firm.
Medium firm.
Medium firm.

Did not germinate.

Rather soft.

Rather soft.

Firm.

Medium firm.

Hard; cracked open.
Hard; cracked open.

| Rather soft.

Did not germinate.
Rather soft.
Did not germinate.

Soft.

Soft.

Firm, badly cracked.
Did not germinate.
Did not germinate.
Did not germinate.

370 Report oF THE HorRTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THH

TaBLE XIV.—Continued.

a : Weicut or Heap. | WEIGHT OF LEAVES. .
t. ©
Sp. gr. ‘ced Date nee aT Remarks.
Lbs. Ozs. | Lbs. Ozs.
10 large black seeds.
1.18 Plant dried out.
Thea bt Oct 3 ue 10 5 2 Firm.
5 Rea hi Aug 2 9 2 4 Firm.
ibaa) Aug. 22 3 33 2 4 Firm.
1.10 Oct 3 2 10 2 5 Moderately firm.
1.09 Aug, 22 2 12 2 vi Firm.
1.09 Aug. 23 1 9 1 8 Rather soft.
LAGE Oct 3 9 14 5 14 ard.
<1.00 Oct 3 2 9 0 13 Hard, decayed.
< 1.00 Did not germinate.
1.16 4 Aug. 22 3 9 2 2 Medium hard.
1.16 1.6 | Oct. 3 6 4 2 9 Hard.
il salys LAS POets 3 5 14 2 6 Hard.
1.16 270) | eAue. 22 3 3 2 2 Firm.
1s 118: 2.0 Did not germinate.
1.15 2.2 | Oct. 3 5 0 3 11 Firm.
1.06 2.2 | Oct. 3 1 10 1 15 Rather soft.
ako 2.4 Died.
P13 2.8 | Aug. 22 2 11 1 6 Soft.
PAG. 3.0 | Aug. 22 5 3 2 8 Rather firm.
1.16 3.0 Did not germinate.
ag 113} 3.0) | vAugs) 22 3 8 2 0 Firm.
1 Sod Ae. 22 1 10 0 14 Hard, badly cracked.
bes ont | Aug: © 22 5 2 2 10 Firm.
afea 3.4 | Aug. 22 3 10 2 10 Firm
1.10 3.4 | Aug. 22 4 8 1 12 Firm.
1.09 3.6 Died.
1.06 3.6" | "Aug. | 22 4 & 2 10 Medium firm.
ogee lg b 4.0 | Aug. 22 3 6 1 9 Firm.
1.09 4.0 | Aug. 22 3° 7 1 10 Hard, badly cracked.
1.14 4.4 | Oct. 3 Did not head.
As 4.4 | Oct. 33 6 0 2 5 Firm.
1.10 4.4 Did not germinate.
1.14 4.6 ied.
1.09 4.8 Did not head.
Uap i 5.0 | Died.
1.09 5.0 Did not germinate.
1.09 5.6 Did not germinate.
1.15 5.8 || Aug. 22 1 5 1 0 Rather soft.
i 6.0 Did not germinate.
< 1.00 6.0 | Aug. 22 q 2 1 5 Firm.
1.14 6.4 Died
1.14 6.4 Died.
<1.00 6.4 | Oct. 3 5 9 1 12 Hard.
Ibs beg 6.6 Did not head.
asain Wo2aOcts 3 4 2 1 11 Hard.
1.05 7.4 Dried out.

This table brings out anew the fact that the percentage of ger-
mination among very small seeds is low; also that such seeds as
do germinate produce small plants. As regards the difference
between reddish and black seeds, both of medium size, it would
appear that plants from the black seeds are a little earlier than
those from the reddish seeds, since more of the plants from the
black seeds were ready for harvesting in August.- In the case
of the large red seeds the percentage of germination was low.
Whether this was due to chance or not the writer cannot say.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 371

The heaviest yielding plants were those from the large black
seeds.

This table brings out a point in regard to the germination of
cruciferous seeds which the writer has often observed, namely,
that no floaters germinate except some of those of large size.

It would appear from the second part of the table that seeds
medium to large in size are earlier than those either very small
or very large. But all of these results with cabbage are unsatis-
factory.

EGG-PLANT.

Records of the results of culture tests with seeds of egg-plants
of different specific gravities are shown in Table XV. Much
the larger part of all the seeds planted failed to germinate; but
practically every seed of a specific gravity of 1.00 or above did
germinate. The seeds used in this test were purchased of one of
the leading seed houses in America and were especially certified
for the purposes cf this experiment to have been produced the
- year before. It is well-known that egg-plant seed of the best
quality is of a lov percentage of germination; but the results of
this test indicaie that nearly all of the ungerminable seeds might
be separated from such a sample by the mechanical method of
solutions and thereby the dealer could offer an article known to
be of high quality and at the seme time showing a high percentage
of germination.

TABLE X V.—RESULTS WITH EGc-PLANT.

Sp. er. Weight of plant. | No. of fruits. oo of
Ozs. Tifty light colored seed. Ozs.
<1.00 12 1 1
9 1 <1
ue 1 1.5
22 3 5.5
2 — _- No fruit.
17 1 3
27 4 3.5
Forty-five black seeds.
1.00 15 1 <1
9 pes — ““
ital — — x
20 1 <1
20 — = .
f 16 1 <1
ail — —_ &
21 1 <1

372 Report ofr THE HorvTIcULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THD

TABLE X V.—RESULTS WITH Eoao-PLant—Continued.

Total weight of

(Sp. gr. Weight of plant. No. of fruits. Poures

Light colored seeds.

|

| No fruit.

(=)
—
i
©
*%

“

=
j=)
ne
00
o

| norar| oro | os
rer

_
So
o
ie 2)
or

A

an
lor)

ates tee eaI Re ROM Rese eRe Ree ean

Herb Gog 00 89

* One of these fruits alone weighed 8 ounces.

Individual record is not made in this table of the seeds which
did not germinate; but as has just been stated, they were practi-
cally all of a specific gravity less than that of water. By float-
ing the seeds off in water a few germinable seeds were floated off
at the same time; but an inspection of the table above shows
that in not a single instance did any such seed produce a first-
class productive plant. Out of fifty light colored seeds planted
only six bore fruits at all, and the average weight of these fruits
was only a little over one ounce. Among forty-five black
seeds all of a specific gravity less than 1.00, eight germinated,
but only four of these produced any fruit and in every case the
weight of the fruit was less than one ounce. It appears, then,
that if one should float off egg-plant seed in pure water, he would
be throwing away no seed of high quality. At the same time he
would by this mechanical method be getting rid of practically all
of the black seeds, which are mostly floaters and which uniformly
produce considerably less vigorous plants than do light colored
seeds of the same size.

As has already been said, germination was practically perfect
among the seeds of a specific gravity 1.00 and above. Of such
plants which lived through the season (two or three had died)
sixteen out of nineteen produced fruit, and the ayerage yield

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 313

per plant for the whole lot was 3.75 ozs., or three times as much
as was produced by germinable seeds of specific gravity less

than 1.00.
PEPPER.

A part of the seedling peppers already described under the
head of “ Correlations between specific gravity of seeds and their
color,” were transplanted into the field for further culture tests.
From each lot the largest two seedlings and three medium sized
ones were selected except in the case of the seedlings from dark
colored seeds, in which the largest five were taken. The season
was very unfavorable to the growth of these plants and the yields
were small, but are believed to be nevertheless comparable. The
plants were harvested and records made of the weight of each
plant entire, exclusive of roots, also of the number of fruits pro-
duced and of their size. The fruits were, however, nearly all
too small for market purposes. The larger fruits are indicated by
giving the weight of each. The records follow:

TABLE X VI.—ReESULTS WITH PEPPERs.

: | 1 =

. - | . |
Five piants from le No. ee traits DIO; | Remarks.
st a
Ozs. |
ariicipeed cemja, nerf jstoreteravcleie 4 2 | Small fruits.
14 6 | Small fruits.
8 2 Small fruits.
12 5 Smali fruits.
-_~ a Plant died.
—— |
Brownish seed...........- 16 10 | Small fruits.
14 4 Fair sized fruits,
12 5 | Small fruits.
16 6 | Small fruits.
12 3 | 1 fair sized fruit, weight, 5
| | oz.
32) Ee ee | Se ee ee eee |
Small white seed.......... 7 4 Small fruits.
1 0 Very feeble.
3 0 | Very feeble.
2 0 | Very feeble.
_ — | Plant died.
Medium{white seed........ 6 3 | Small fruits.
12 st | 1 fair sized fruit, weight, 5
| OZ.
ve 2 Small fruits.
15 3 1 large red fruit, weight, 10
02.
11 5 | Small fruits.
Large white seed.......... 21 4 1 large red fruit, weicht, 15
OZ.
a e 1 large fruit, weight 16 oz.
a} 4 | Small fruits.
18 8 1 large fruit, weight 10 oz.

374 Report oF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

It is seen from this table that plants from seeds more or less
discolored are as little desirable as yielders as they are unpromis-
ing as seedlings. It will be noticed that without exception every
large fruit was obtained from a large or in one case medium sized
white seeds. Plants from dark seeds did not produce a single
fruit large enough for use, and brownish colored seeds produced
only two such. None were produced by plants from small white
seed.

CAUSES AND DIFFERENCES IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY
AMONG SEEDS.

If the specific gravity of a seed is truly related to the vigor of
the resulting plant, this fact must presumably be due to differ-
ences in composition of the seed. These differences, moreover,
must be differences in the relative amounts of reserve material
present. The important reserve materials of seeds and their
respective specific gravities are as follows:

BAGS i bots teres conte sic ene nae. store wena tone 0.91—0.96
10241116 RL AMR eieh MA NEY A RAS one t4 1.285
IPPFOLET 2S Fes asics g Sun Se Caieue pe epee = ees 1.297
Stare 212s ais eas cass 5 tiateole «Mieracwetae hte teem 1.53
Ce NTOTOSE S75 Fis ve cnce, @ ols ince ele a Scag eye nonetinns member 1.53
ion Papo! sca ttott Aon hoe Meee ee 2.50

In addition to the above the seed contains considerable quanti-
ties of water (sp. gr. 1.00), and of air (sp. gr. 0.001293). Among
the components of the seed the proteids are especially important
to the vigorous growth of the plant. It is well known that seeds
do vary very greatly in their composition. For instance, Wiley
reports differences in the composition of American wheats rang-
ing from 8.58 per ct. to 17.15 per ct. in proteids, 66.67 per ct. to
76.05 per ct. in carbohydrates (excluding crude fiber), and 12.33
per ct. to 39.05 per ct. in wet gluten.

It is well known also that differences in composition are in-
duced by differences in soil, climate, fertilization, and methods
of cultural management in general. For instance, as already
stated, wheat grown in northern Colorado is heavier than the
same variety grown in the Mississippi valley. This is due pre-

1 Wiley, H. W. (Food and Food Adulterations,) U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Chem.
Bul. 13, pt. 9, p. 1186.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. ato

sumably to differences in composition of the grain, though the
writer has not figures at hand to support this statement. Soule
and Vanatter? have recently demonstrated the influence of cli-
mate on protein content of wheat, also the influence of fertilizers
on the same element. Snyder* has also recently called attention
to the great differences in protein content that obtain in different
varieties of wheat and among different samples of the same
variety. Prof. Snyder did not touch on the subject of specific
gravity directly, though his investigations are such that his
results may to some extent be brought into relation with the work
here reported. He showed, for instance, that light colored wheat
is lower in protein content than dark colored wheat from the
same sample. As already indicated in this report, the light
colored kernels are lower in specific gravity than the dark colored
ones. We have, then, here a correlation between the specific
gravity of the seed and its chemical composition. Prof. Snyder
_also pointed out the physical basis for these differences in color
and showed them to be due to differences in gluten content.

In the case also of the field corn commonly grown in New
York State, as has already been stated in this report, the specific
gravity is low and the protein content is also well known to be
low. But the field corn high in protein content now being grown
in the west is relatively high in specific gravity.

These are, however, only particular and isolated cases and do
not establish the principle that differences in specific gravity are
correlated with differences in composition. The subject of the
relation of specific gravity to chemical composition has been
investigated by a number of workers but, so far as has come to
the writer’s attention, uniformly with the conclusion that the
one is not a reliable index to the other. This is for the reason
that there are so many extraneous factors entering in which are
liable to obscure relations. A conclusion of this kind was
reached by Wollny, who remarks that in many cases the specific
gravity of the seed is an index to its composition, but that there
are so many exceptions that in practice no general rule can be
laid down. Marek, Wolffenstein and others have reached similar
conclusions.

2 Bul. Tenn. Agr. Expt. Sta., Vol. XVI, No. 4.
3 Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. No. 85.

376 Report oF THE HortTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AS RELATED TO RIPENESS.

If the seeds compared are of unequal degrees of ripeness, ob-
viously differences in chemical composition exist. Nowacki
found that the specific gravity of wheat decreases from the stage
of milk ripeness to that of dead ripeness, and Wollny found the
same to be the case with rye. But with peas Wollny found just
the opposite changes in specific gravity as related to ripening.
The writer has not himself yet investigated the relation between
degree of ripeness and specific gravity; but theoretically such a
correlation may be assumed to exist, not merely on account of
differences in composition but on account of the greater shrinkage
which unripe seeds undergo in drying out. Wollny has called
attention to this point, as has just been noted, with reference to
certain seeds in which the seed coat adheres closely or quite so
to the parts within; but Nobbe also calls attention to differences
in specific gravity induced in seeds with a rigid seed coat. In
this case the endosperm or cotyledon may become slightly reduced
in volume in drying out; but the seed coat remains inflexible.
If such a change as this actually takes place, the endosperm or
cotyledon within would shrink away from the seed coat, leaving
a hollow region between. Now just such a hollow region is found
in seeds with a rigid seed coat such as grapes, squash, and various
other seeds. Whether, however, the seed coat in any of these
seeds is completely filled in the unripe seed, or in the seed as it -
comes fresh from inclosing moist tissues, the writer has not yet
made the examinations to determine. If, however, the fleshy
parts of seeds do change in volume unequally at different stages
of ripeness, it appears probable that selection of seed by specific
eravity would be really a selection according to degree of
ripeness.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AS RELATED TO STRUCTURE OF
SEED.

Differences in composition are not sufficient to explain the
observed differences in specific gravity of seeds. These differ-
ences, then, must be sought in differences in structure. In fact,
it must be borne in mind that seeds are by no means homogen-
eous, but are rather porous and are unequally developed in dif-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 377

ferent structural parts. If these differences did not exist, the
substance of the seed reduced to powder would have the same
specific gravity as the seed itself; but this is by no means the
case. For instance, the specific gravity of a certain grape seed
was 1.13, but the specific gravity of the substance of the same
seed, after having been crushed with a hammer, was about 1.25
for the endosperm and about 1.385 for the outer seed coat. This
seeming paradox, that the specific gravity of each part of the
seed may be higher than the specific gravity of the seed as a
whole is of course explained by the presence of air spaces within.

The experiment just reported brings out clearly the fact that
in studying seeds two kinds of specific gravity must be distin-
guished — apparent specific gravity, and real specific gravity.
These two are, or at least may be, very different from each other.
In speaking of the specific gravity of seeds, apparent specific
gravity is universally meant, but apparent specific gravity is
evidently a property of no practical importance unless it can be
correlated with some cultural property.

The writer has made few structural analyses with a view to
determining the specific gravities of the component parts of a
seed and the relations of these specific gravities to the specific
gravity of the seed as a whole. Yet such analyses are indispen-
sable to a correct understanding and interpretation of results
obtained in the application of the method of seed selection
according to specific gravity.

As to the testa, the specific gravity of this part would appear
to be of little effect on the specific gravity of the seed as a whole
in the cases of those seeds having very thin covering, such as
wheat, since the mass of the testa in these cases forms so small
a part of the mass of the seed as a whole. Nobbe reports obser-
vations on this point in which it is shown that the thickness of
the outer seed coat is only about .04 to .05 mm., varying between
those ranges. Obviously the specific gravity of the seed coat in
the case of wheat may be disregarded.

In the case of the grape seed, the writer finds the thickness of
the testa to vary from .3 to .4 mm. in normal seeds; in hollow
seeds it is very slightly less, ranging down to about 2.5 mm. In
this case the mass of the testa is great enough to necessitate a
consideration of its specific gravity in judging the specific gravity

878 Report oF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

of the seed as a whole. Observations on this point showed, as
has already been stated, that the specific gravity of the shell-like
covering of the grape seed is about 1.35.

Now as to the relation of the mass of the testa to the mass of
the inclosed contents in seeds of different sizes: A number of
observations were made, from which it appears that the thickness:
of the testa of a small seed varies very little or none at all from
that of a large seed. From this observation a conclusion of
practical importance is deduced, namely, that the higher range
of specific gravity observed uniformly to obtain in the case of
small grape seeds than of large ones is due simply to the larger
proportion of testa in the small seeds as compared with the large
ones. For in the case of the small seeds the volumes of the
kernel decreases more rapidly than does the volume of the seed
coat, Since the reduction in diameter falls mostly on the kernel,
this leaves an increasingly larger proportion of testa.

Air-dry grape seeds of the highest specific gravity, say from
1.13 to 1.16, reveal no air spaces between the kernel and the seed
coat, but beginning at about 1.12 and from there down a slight
shrinking away from the seed coat is noticeable. This shrink-
ing uniformly occurs first on the chalazal side of the seed. Ata
specific gravity of one or two one-hundredths less a separation
appears on one side of the seed also. At a somewhat lower spe-
cific gravity still, a separation appears on both sides. As the
specific gravity of the seed decreases more and more, the volume
of unoccupied space within the seed coat increases. It appears
then, from these structural differences that, even if the kernel
of the seed had in every case the same composition, nevertheless
these differences in specific gravity of the seed would appear.
Further, given seeds all of the same volume, it appears that the
greater the amount of unoccupied space within the seed, the less
must be the volume of the kernel and presumably therewith the
less the mass of reserve material. Seed selection then, under
these or similar conditions, would not in reality be selection
according to specific gravity at all in the common understanding
of that word, but would simply be selection according to size,
and differences in vigor of the resulting plant would have to be
attributed to differences, not in specific gravity, but in size. Un-

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 379

fortunately, the writer has not yet made tests to establish or
disprove these hypotheses.

So important is it to distinguish between the apparent specific
gravity of the seed and the specific gravity of that which is of
importance to the plant, 7. e., the structural parts in which re-
serve material is stored, that further studies were made on this
point, using material convenient of manipulation. The specific
gravities of several buckwheat seeds were determined and then
the hulls were removed and the specific gravities were again
taken. The records of these determinations are shown in the
following table: .

TABLE X VII.— Speciric GRAVITIES OF BUCKWHEAT KERNELS IN
THE NATURAL CONDITION AND WITH THE OUTER SEED CoATS

REMOVED.

Sp. gr. of entire seed. Sp. gr. of seed with testa removed. No. of seeds.
1.23 1.30 al
1.22 <1.30 2

1.30 2

1.28 3

1.21 1.30 1
1.28 1

1.20 <1.30 1
1.30 1

1.29 2

1.27 1

25 2

1.24 1

9

1.18 =I oa t Small seeds. 1
1 WP 1

1 ey Large seeds. 2

125 1

1.14 1.28 2
1.24 1

1.22 i

1.07 1.25 1
1.23 2

1.22 1

<1.00 eli 1

From this table it appears that the specific gravity of the ker-
nel follows in a general way that of the entire seed; or in other
words, the specified gravity of the entire seed in indicative in a
general way of the specific gravity of the kernel within. It ap-
pears also from the one set of observations recorded above, that,
given two seeds of the same specific gravity, the one large and
the other small, the kernel of the small seed is the more compact
or else has a larger percentage of the heavier reserve materials
in it,

380 REPORT OF THE HorTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Buckwheat seeds of high specific gravity, that is, above about
1.18, are not large but are very plump and firmly closed at the
end. The testa is completely filled by the kernel and the two are
separated with comparative difficulty. Beginning at about 1.18
and thence downward, the kernel does not fill the seed-coat com-
pletely and the latter is much more easily removed. From about
1.07 down the difference in size between the volume of the ker-
nel and that of the inside of the testa becomes marked, and the
seed-coat is very easily separated from the kernel. Seeds of a
specific gravity less than 1.00 have a very shrunken appearance
and the kernel is very small. Kernels from seeds of high spe-
cific gravity are very firm and withstand considerable pressure —
as between the fingers — without breaking; but the firmness of
the kernel gradually decreases with the specific gravity of the
seed, and the kernel from a seed of specific gravity less than
1.00 is so soft that it must be handled very carefully indeed, in
order to get it out of the seed coat without breaking it. Further,
the kernels of seeds of high specific gravity are solid all the way
through but those of low specific gravity are not. In the latter
there is more or less of unoccupied space surrounding the em-
bryo which is in the middle of the endosperm and extends from
point to base.

From these observations it would appear that differences in
structure are abundantly sufficient to account for the observed
differences in specific gravity in buckwheat, granting even that
the chemical composition of all of the seeds is the same. In this
case specific gravity should be set down as of no theoretical value
in seed selection as applied to buckwheat. This conclusion is
supported by a single culture test which the writer made on 2
very small scale. In this seed test no conspicuous correlation,
if any at all, was found to exist between the specific gravity of
the seed and its germination; and, while no measurements were
made, the plants from seeds of lowest specific gravity appeared
to be as good as those from the highest.

Other seeds also of low specific gravity are in many cases
found to present some peculiar characteristic. For instance, in
the case of peas it has already been remarked that some seeds of
abnormally low specific gravity contain considerably more moist-
ure than do normal air-dry seeds. In another connection some

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. eiclt

peas of very low specific gravity were examined physically. In
this case it was found that the cotyledons were very imperfectly
developed and did not completely fill the seed-coat, whereas in
normal seeds the cotyledons do fill the seed-coat. In normal
seeds the cotyledons are also closely and firmly united, but in
abnormally light seeds they are only slightly united, show con-
siderable air space between them, and are very easily split, which
is not the case with good seeds. In one seed of specific gravity
1.001 the cotyledon had not filled the space immediately under
the radicle. The whole texture of the cotyledons was soft and
they were easily crushed. This is not the case with normally
developed seeds. At anotlrer time a seed of specific gravity 1.03
was under examination. It was noticed that the cotyledons
were loose within the testa; and when the seed was split and
one-half of it inverted, the contents fell out of the seed-coat of
their own weight. In a seed of normal specific gravity the coty-
ledon adheres very closely to the seed-coat. In the seed of spe-
cific gravity of 1.03, just referred to, the specific gravity of each
cotyledon taken singly was about 1.25. Here again is indicated
how unreliable an index the apparent specific gravity of the
whole seed may be to the specific gravity of the essential parts
within.

In the case of cabbage seeds also, differences in specific gravity
were found to be correlated with differences in physical charac-
ter. In a cabbage seed of normal specific gravity the embryo is
of a shade of lemon yellow and the cotyledons which surround
it are of a slightly greenish hue; but in seeds of very low specific
gravity, that is, less than 1.00, this difference in color was not
observed to exist. The entire interior of the seed is uniformly
yellowish, but of a lighter and more buff-like color than in the
plump seed. The light seed is also noticeably drier than the
heavy seed and on a casual examination appears to be of a more
woody texture; but microscopic examination does not confirm
this impression. A seed of very low specific gravity is also not
well developed internally, the cotyledons not being in close con-
tact either with the radicle or with the seed-coat. If such a seed
is cut in half and inverted the kernel will fall out of the seed-coat.
This is not the case with a normal seed.

382 REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

Extreme differences in specific gravity in the cases of cabbage
seed and peas have been shown to be due to the presence of an
unusual amount of air within the seed-coat; hence, strictly, the
Specific gravity of the seed should not be spoken of as affecting
its cultural properties. But wherever an unusual amount of air
is found within a seed, other characters of the seed are found to
be correlated with this condition so that indirectly the specific
gravity of the seed is in a general way an index to, though not
a measure of, the specific gravity of its essential parts.

To ascertain whether differences in specific gravity obtain
among the structural sub-divisions of the essential parts of the
seed, examinations were made of squash seeds as material easy of
manipulation. Squash seeds in their normal condition are uni-
formly lighter than water. The outer seed-coats were removed
from a number and the specific gravities of the kernels were
found to range from 1.03 to 1.08. The radicles are much denser
than the cotyledons as appears from the following dissections:
Sp. gr. of cotyledons: 1.05 1.065 1.07 1.08

tii: radieles): 1.105 1.12 L438 1.135

The cotyledon lowest in density was accompanied by a radicle
also lowest in density, and the cotyledon highest in density was
accompanied by the radicle highest in density. It appears, then,
that the densities of these two structural parts vary together in
a general way, that is, apparently the development of these or-
gans and the storage of reserve material within them proceeds
together. This general statement is also supported by observa-
tions on peas.

The specific gravity of the two cotyledons is the same or prac-
tically the same, both in the squash and in the pea, the only
kind of seed on which observations have been made on this point
by the writer.

The cotyledons are of uniform density throughout, at least in
the case of the squash, as may be shown as follows: If a single
cotyledon be separated from its radicle and placed in a liquid
of such density that it almost remains in suspension, the thinner
distal edge comes to the surface first if the cotyledon rises, or
remains longest buoyed up in the liquid if the thicker proximal
end barely sinks to the bottom. But if the dark covering of
the cotyledon be carefully removed all parts of it rise or sink

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 383

together, showing their equal density, and showing further that
this dark covering (the inner seed-coat) is of much less density
than the cotyledon itself, which is otherwise obvious. By the
same method the difference in density between the cotyledon and
the radicle can be shown. This method may also be used in some
cases to locate quickly large air spaces if such exist in one part
of a seed, as in the grape seed and sweet corn. In the latter case
the air spaces are around the embryo.

APPLICABILITY OF THE METHOD OF SEED SELECTION
ACCORDING TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The method of separating seeds into a series of separates of
approximately uniform densities is of course a method of inves-
tigation and not of practice. By means of it, together with cul-
ture tests, may be ascertained the limits of specific gravity with-
in which the most desirable seeds for planting are embraced.
The practical application of the method consists in making up
one or two solutions of predetermined densities and by means of
them separating the seeds that are to be planted.

The method of solutions is of only restricted application, but
within limits it appears to give promise of considerable useful-
ness. Specific gravity is of not nearly so great moment in seed
selection as is size; but after seeds have been separated into
lots of approximately the same size by sifting, then the method
of specific gravity carries the selection a step farther. The most
desirable method of selecting seeds would be to weigh each indi-
vidual seed; but this is out of the question in field practice.
If seeds were of uniform density, the method of sifting should
alone admit of selecting the desirable individuals; but the size
does not take into account the density of the seed. These two
methods of selection are combined in the fanning-mill method and
in the method of seed selection by means of centrifugal force;
but on the other hand, neither of these methods admits of exact-
ness of application as does the method of solutions.

Some kinds of seeds do not admit of sifting satisfactorily on
account of either small size or irregular shape. To this category
belong timothy seed, carrot, tomato, egg-plant and pepper. To
such seeds the method of solutions is especially applicable, since

384 ReporT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF THE

various other physical properties of cultural importance are cor-
related with specific gravity.

The method of solutions is rather unsatisfactory of application
to seeds such as oats and lettuce, which have a rough husk-like
covering that retains air when the seeds are immersed.

The method does not give so striking results with seeds not
having a rigid seed-coat but having relatively large cotyledons,
as peas, or having a large quantity of endosperm, as maize, as it
does with seeds having a rigid seed-coat, such as grape seed,
pepper, egg-plant, etc. In the hands of the writer the method
has given no positive results at all with corn or with beans.

Correlations between specific gravity of seed and vigor of the
resulting seedling are less close than correlations between the
specific gravity of the seed and its germination; nevertheless such
correlations do exist, it appears, in sufficient degree to make them
of value in practice.

»

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

In this bibliography are comprised such references to the sub-
ject of specific gravity of seeds as have come to the writer’s atten-
tion in the course of a rather limited survey of the literature.
They are taken in larger part from the Samenkunde of Nobbe and
the Saat und Pflege der landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen of
Wollny. The subject of specific gravity of seed has been worked
up in various monographs, especially in those of Marek and
Schertler, as also in the Samenkunde of Harz; but to these works
the writer has not had access.

Since the manuscript of this bulletin was prepared for the
printer the writer has learned that Dr. T. L. Lyon of the Nebraska
Experiment Station is about to publish from the Plant Breeding
Laboratory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, a report of
extended investigations on the relations between specific gravity
and other properties, such as composition and size of grain in
wheat kernels. The writer regrets that Dr. Lyon’s work has not
already appeared so that a review of it might be included in this
report.

References in the following bibliography, such as “ Cited by
Wollny ” or “ Cited by Nobbe,” refer to the two works mentioned
above.

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 385

Cuurcu, Practice with Science. London, 1865, p. 107. Cited
by Wollny, p. 157.

Dierricu, TH., Erster Bericht ueber einige Arbeiten der agr.
chem. Vers-Stat. in Heidau. Hassel, 1862, 1848. Cited by Wollny,
p. 156.

GranpEAu, L. Influence du poids du grain de semence sur le
rendement des cereales. Journ. Agr. Prat., 1898, p. 627. Abst.
in Bied. Centbl., 1899, p. 485.

v. GREVENITZ. (Determinations of specific gravities of various
seeds.) Vers. Deutscher Naturf. u. Aertze zu Heidelberg, 1829.
Isis von Oken, 1830. Cited by Nobbe, p. 315.

Haperuanpr, F. (Favorable report on seed selection according ~
to specific gravity.) Boehm, Centbl. fuer die ges. Landeskultur.
1866, p. 4. Cited by Wollny, p. 156, and Nobbe, p. 313.

HaAkENiLemn, H. (Determinations of specific gravities of several
kinds of seeds.) Landw. Vers. Stat., 1877, p. 171. Abst. in Bied.
Centbl., 1878, p. 311.

Harz, C. O. Samenkunde.

Hewtiriecet, H. (Favorable report on seed selection according

to specific gravity.) 2. Jahresber. der Vers.-Stat. Dahme, 1859,
pott Cited by Wollny, p:L56.
(Effect of specific gravity of seed on yield of
plant.) Beitrsege zu den naturwissenschaftlichen. Grundalagen
des Ackerbaues. Braunschweig, 1883, pp. 39-117. Abst. in Bied.
Centbl., 1883, p. 530.

HorrMaN, Ros. (Determinations of specific gravities of various
seeds.) Landw. Vers.-Stat., 1863, p. 189. Cited by Nobbe, p. 315.

Kopayasul, C. On the selection of rape seed. Imp. Univ. Col.
Agr. (Tokyo) Bul., Vol. 3, p. 440. Abst. in Hxpt. Sta. Record,
Vol. 10, p. 1047. ;

Lyon, T. L. The adaptation and improvement of winter wheat.
Nebr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 72 (1902), p. 19.

Marek, G. Das Saatgut und dessen Hinfluss auf Menge und
Guete der Ernte. Vienna, 1875. Cited by Wollny, p. 247.

Mueuier, A. (A method of determining the specific gravity
of seeds.) Journ. fuer Landw., 1855, p. 91. Cited by Wollny,

p. 248.

25

386 Report oF THE HortTicuLTURAL DEPARTMENT.

Muetier, O. H. Kleine Demonstrations—Anbauversuche mit
Hackfruchten und Getreide. Fuehlings landw. Zeit., 1892, p. 61.
Abst. in Jahrb. Agr. Chem., 1892, p. 272.

Nosse, F. Handbuch der Samenkunde, Berlin, 1876, pp. 318-
321.

Nowack1, A. Unters. ueber das Reifen des Getreides. Halle,
1870. Cited by Nobbe, p. 314.

Renz, C. F. Unters. ueber das sp. Gew. der Samen. Inaug.
Diss. Tiibingen, 1826. Cited by Wollny, p. 246, and Nobbe, p. 315.

Rimpeau, H. Ueber die Bezieh. des. sp. Gew., etc. Mitt. d.
. Deutsch. landw. Ges., 1890-91, p. 101. Abst. in Jahresber. Agr.
Chem., 1890, p. 293.

Ruempier, A. Verbesserung des Saatgutes. Deut. Landw.
Presse, 1896, p. 194. Abst. in Bied. Centbl., 1896, p. 427.

ScHinpier, Fr. Untersuchungen ueber den Quellungsprocess
der Samen von Pisum sativum. Forsch. Agr. Phys., IV, p. 194.
Abst. in Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 1881, p. 154.

Scuertiter. Die Anwendung des sp. Gew. als Mittel, ete. Vi-
enna, 1878. Cited by Wollny, p. 246 and Nobbe, p. 215.

SEULEN, A. ‘Samenreinigung. Die Gartenwelt, 1908, p. 482.

TrRoMMER, C. Eidenaer Jahrb., 3, p. 92. Cited by Wollny, p.
156.

WILLARD, CLOTHIER AND WeBER. Analyses of corn with refer-
ence to its improvement. Kans. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 107 (1902).

WOLFFENSTEIN, O. Journ. Landw., 1875, p. 401. Cited by
Wollny, p. 243.

Ztschr. fuer die ges. Naturw., 32, p. 151. Cited
by Wollny, p. 246, and Nobbe, p. 318.

Wotiny, E. Unters. ueber die Werthbestimmung der Samen,
etc. Journ. fuer Landw., 1877. Cited by Wallny, p. 250.
Saat und Pfiege der landw. Kulturpflanzen.

Berlin, 1885.
Unters. ueber den Einfluss des sp. Gew., ete.
Forsch. auf dem Geb. der Agr. Phys., 1886, p. 207. Abst. in Bied.
Centbl., 1887, p. 169.

Yoxor, T. On the salt water method of the selection of seeds.
Imp. Uniy. Col. Agr. (Tokyo) Bul., Vol. 3, p. 421. Abst. in Hapt.
Sta. Record, Vol. 10, p. 1047. »

REP On:

OF

INSPECTION WORK.

W. H. Jorvan, Director.

L. L. Van Styxke, Chemist.

W. H. AnNvbreEws, Assistant Chemist.
F. D. Fuuuer, Assistant Chemist.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Analyses of fertilizers, 1908.
II. Analyses of fertilizers, spring of 1904.
III. Inspection of feeding stuffs.

REPORT OF INSPECTION WORK.

REPORT OF ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTI-
LIZERS FOR@#HE SPRING AND FALL: OF 1903.*

W. H. Jorpan, L. L. Van StyKe, W. H. ANDREWS.

SUMMARY.

(1) Samples Collected. During the year 1903, the Station
collected 948 samples of commercial fertilizers, representing 540
different brands. Of these different brands 377 were complete
fertilizers; of the others, 70 contained phosphoric acid and pot-
ash without nitrogen; 29 contained nitrogen and phosphoric acid
without potash; 12 contained nitrogen only; 39 contained phos-
phoric acid alone; and 12 contained potash salts only.

(2) Nitrogen. The 377 brands of complete fertilizers con-
tained nitrogen varying in amount from 0.14 to 8.382 per ct., and
averaging 241 per ct. The average amount of nitrogen found
by the Station analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount
by 0.07 per ct., the guaranteed average being 2.04 per ct., and the
average found being 2.11 per ct.

In 262 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 1.50 per ct., and averaging 0.22 per ct.

In 115 brands the nitrogen was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 2.08 per ct., and averaging
0.27 per ct. In 96 cases the deficiency was less than 0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble nitrogen varied from 0 to 8.91
per ct. and averaged 1.02 per ct.

(3) Available Phosphoric Acid. The 377 brands of complete
fertilizers contained available phosphoric acid varying in amount
from 0.06 to 15.50 per ct., and averaging 8.50 per ct. The aver-

*Partial reprint of Bulletin_No. 252.

390 Report OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

age amount of available phosphoric acid found by the Station
analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.83 per ct.,
the guaranteed average being 7.67 per ct. and the average found
being 8.50 per ct.

In 330 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of available
phosphoric acid found was equal to or above the amount guar-
anteed, the excess varying from 0.91 to 4.04 per ct., and averaging
1.04 per ct.

In 47 brands the available phosphoric acid was below the guar-
anteed amount, the deficiency varying from 0.02 to 11.94 per
ct. and averaging 0.85 per ct. In 25 cases the deficiency was
below 0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble phosphoric acid varied from 0 to
11.08 per ct. and averaged 5.40 per ct.

(4) Potash. The complete fertilizers contained potash varying
in amount from 0.03 to 13.83 per ct. and averaging 4.78 per ct.
The average amount of potash found by the Station analysis
exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.23 per ct., the
euaranteed average being 4.55 per ct., and the average found
being 4.78 per ct.

In 275 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of potash
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 2.79 per ct., and averaging 0.55 per ct.

In 102 brands, the potash was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 4.10 per ct. and averaging 0.54
per ct. In 70 of these cases, the deficiency was less than 0.5
per et.

In 62 cases among the 877 brands of complete fertilizers the
potash was contained in the form of sulphate free from an excess
of chlorides.

(5) The retail selling price of the complete fertilizers varied
from $16 to $60 a ton and averaged $26.60. The retail cost of the
separate ingredients unmixed averaged $19.64, or $6.96 less than
the selling price.

INTRODUCTION.

NUMBER AND KINDS OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

During the year 1903, the Station’s collecting agents visited
203 towns between March 24 and August 28, obtaining 948 sam-

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 391

ples of commercial fertilizers. These samples represent 540 dif-
ferent brands, the product of 60 different manufacturers, each
manufacturer being represented by from one to 180 brands.

The subjoined tabulated statement indicates the different
classes included in the collection.

CLASSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

Brands con-

Brands con-| taining Brands con-

Brands con- taining ni- phos- taining ni-
Brands con- | taining only| Brands con-; trogen and phorice trogen and | Brands of
taining only phos- taining only phos- acid potash complete
nitrogen. phoriec potash. phoric acid | and potash without. fertilizers.

acid. without without phosphoric

potash. nitrogen. acid.
12 39 12 29 70 1 377

COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

The following tabulated statement shows the average composi-
tion of the complete fertilizers collected during the year, together
with a comparison of the guaranteed composition and that found
by analysis. |

" AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

Per Cr. GUARANTEED. | Per Cr. Founp. Average
| per ct.
|————_——_———_———_—_—_———_-_| found

. above
guaran-
Lowest. | Highest. | Average. | Lowest. | Highest. | Average. tee.
ee ee eee | i S| ee
Nitro mendes: wan tere cc: 0.41 8.23 2.04 Onilares ier Seae Orem 0.07
Available phosphoric |
Ever (0 le eee ae 1.50 12200R | fa6e 0.06 15.50 8.50 0.83
Insoluble phosphoric |
BCI isco crates —- — — 0.01 5.84 2.05
IPOtASD). an) taton shoe he 0.50 15.00 4.55 0.03 13.33 4.78 0.23
Water-soluble nitrogen| —— == eed 0200") 18291 1.02
HECIES eee ias, spaelel arena a | | |
Water-soluble phos- |
phorie acid........ — — — 0.00 | 11.08 5.40 ——

TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-FOOD ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND
CHEMICALS.

The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed
upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Vermont, as a result of
Study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of
these states.

392 Report OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE

These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated,
the average prices at which, during the six months preceding
March, the respective ingredients, in the form of wanuaxed raw
materials, could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets.
These prices also correspond (except in case of available phos-
phoric acid) to the average wholesale prices for the six months
preceding March, plus about 20 per ct., in case of goods for which
there are wholesale quotations.

TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-Foop ELEMENTS IN RAw MATERIALS AND

CHEMICALS.
Cts. a eons
Nitroven:, In ammonia Salts... 5). cdi. .ssiectuses episodes eeaeeee 1714
s Mh TEER ECS. 33 + 0c sds p's Bx aE Fas eee eee 15
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and
blood and mixed fertilizers........ LT
7 in fine-ground bone and tankage...... 1614
4: in medium bone and tankage........ 12
Phosphoric’ acid, water-soluble cs ee -aj1-- een oe eee 4%
iS citrate-soluble (reverted) ........... 4-
of in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage.. ~ 4
= in cottonseed meal, castor-pomace and
ARES. a. Sarena woo ana onan ohap erat eren arate ereiere 4
* in coarse fish, bone and tankage...... 3
= in mixed fertilizers, insoluble in am-
monium citrate or water... 0... 2. 2
Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muri-
ates:( chlorides) , in ashes; ete. Sony. 3s.-. oe pean ee ee 5
Potash in. WWUElale. <i. 2. so prae cate ee ciagete aat eee ene 4,

COMPARISON OF SELLING PRICE AND COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

Giving to the different constituents the values assigned in the
schedule for mixed fertilizers, 17 cents a pound for nitrogen, 414
cents a pound for water-soluble phosphoric acid, 4 cents a pound
for citrate-soluble phosphoric acid, 2 cents a pound for insoluble
phosphoric acid, and 414 cents a pound for potash, we can calcu-
late the commercial valuation, or the price at which the separate
unmixed materials contained in one ton of fertilizer, having the

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 393

composition indicated in the preceding table, could be purchased
for cash at retail at the seaboard. Knowing the retail prices at
which these goods were offered for sale, we can also readily
estimate the difference between the actual selling price of the
mixed goods and the retail cash cost of the unmixed materials;
the difference covers the cost of mixing, freight, profits, etc. We
present these data in the following table:

COMMERCIAL VALUATION AND SELLING PRICE OF COMPLETE FER-

TILIZERS.
Commercial valuation of Selling price of one ton Average in-

complete fertilizers. of complete fertilizer. creased cost of
mixed materials

over unmixed
; materials for one

Average. Lowest. | Highest. | Average. ton.
$19.64 $16 | $60 $26.60 $6.96

COST OF ONE POUND OF PLANT-FOOD IN FERTILIZERS AS PURCHASED

BY CONSUMERS. ;

In the table below we present figures showing the average

cost to purchaser of one pound of plant-food in different forms
in mixed fertilizers.

AVERAGE Cost oF ONE PouNpD or PuLANT-Foop to CONSUMERS IN
MIxep FERTILIZERS.

Je PTE C0 S210 ee Le CRA Sr Lee Ree ee 23.00 cents.
Phosphoric acid (available)............. 5.75 cents.
J ECG ICIS SA epee Ay eae Cree eRe eg Oe Sn ee Mea Vee 6.10 cents.

NEW FERTILIZER LAW.

The State legislature amended the fertilizer law in 1899 and
attention is called to the principal changes that affect manufac-
turers and. dealers.

(1) All fertilizers selling for five dollars or more per ton come
under the law.

(2) Every manufacturer, importer, dealer or agent must pay
a license fee amounting to twenty dollars a year for each separate
brand or kind of fertilizer or fertilizing material.

(3) Statements of guarantee analysis, etc., are to be filed and
license fees paid during December each year covering the goods
to be sold during the year following.

394 Report OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE

LIST OF MANUFACTURERS WHO HAVE PAID LICENSE
FEES AND FILED STATEMENTS AS REQUIRED
BY LAW FOR 1903. .

Manufacturers to the number of 87 have, since the first of
December, 1902, paid license fees and filed statements in com-
pliance with the provisions of the law. Of these there are 40
firms whose places of business are located outside of New York
State. These 87 manufacturers put on the market 646 different
brands of fertilizers, including mixed and unmixed goods.

NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF MANUFACTURERS.

orb
reported.
The Abbott-Martin Rendering Co., 16 E. Broad St., Colum-
TOUTS OUR IO 52s a om ay hth DOM: haw SUM palace ORR ahaut le eyceee ne ane ee 6
The American Agricultural Chemical Co., 26 Broadway, New
Y Orles@ibysi. ACEH os ee hy Se ee ee ee 211
Armour Fertilizer Works, 205 La Salle St., Chicago, Ill.... 238
E. Aspinall, 100 Beekman St., New York City.............. 3
A.M: Baker & Son,,:Mt: Morris, (Ni. 4.29. Sn.) een ee 1
Baugh & Sons Co., 20 8. Delaware Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.... 3
Bere’ Co,.,Station-E, Philadelphia, Par s.0i.<c.- nose eee 3
Berkshire’ Fertilizer’ Co., Bridgeport, Conn. 7.. 0c. - ee
Bowker Fertilizer Co., 43 Chatham St., Boston, Mass....... 29
Bradley & Green Fertilizer Co., 9th and Girard Aves., Phila-
Gelpliay Padi sD icoe aye vente sae ste ratel aiple aatiet ats) aie eae a 3
M. Ac Briggs. Fertilizer Co., Homer, No co ees ea een 2
Bucyrus, Fertilizer Co., Bucyrus, O. 023.5 cies 6 ies ote a ee 6
doiP Butts, Oneonta,’ .N.. Yio oas teak ose eee eee
Chicago Fertilizer Co., Security Bldg., Chicago, Ill......... 5
The Cincinnati Phosphate Co., Station P., Cincinnati, O..... 4
O. W. Clark & Son;.59. Seneca St, Buttalo, Noo Ya. eee iL
KE. Frank Coe Co., 1385 Front St., New York City........... 39

Peter Cooper’s Glue Factory, 13 Burling Slip, New York City
G. & W. H. Corson, Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery Co., Pa.
Mrs. ROW... Day, Arlington, No Mo tas aa eee
Eagle Guano Co., 19 Liberty St., New York City...........
Farmers Fertilizer and Chemical Co., Syracuse, N. Y.......
John” Finster, Rome; Ni Yon oc; . ase eee eee eee

Re Ne Be Re Ee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

395

sone,
reported.
The Fisheries Co., 135 Front St., New York City........... 2
Henry Mitehard, Minetto, N. Y......2..0.0.s-0esecesecens ul
Flower City Plant Food Co., Rochester, N. Y.............. 2
Geo. B. Forrester, 159 Front St., New York City............ 1
Henry 5. Foster, Tonawanda, N. Y..........-.22+.-+++-s0. i
Siew Giles; Apalachin, IN. Yoo... sees sie weaie sed esac ems di
Griffith & Boyd, 9 S. Gay St., Baltimore, Md.............. 9
John Haefele, Delaware Ave., Albany, N. Y...........-..-- 1
Hammond’s Slug-Shot Works, Fishkill Landing, N. Y...... 1
Hh Hancock, Walkerton, Ontario, Can. : . 15.00 .055.-55 = 1
S. M. Hess & Bro., 4th and Chestnut Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.. 18
International Seed’ Co:, Rochester, N.Y. 2.02 060.62 5. s/o as
darecki, Chemical :Co.,. Sandusky, OMi0ss 2. 5. 66. os eee «wes 10
Janay, dunckiow.. Omi. + Cabin Pi asp «eye ania ole) 910 2) eeiaelens 1
Lackawanna Fertilizer and Chemical Co., Moosic, Pa....... 10
Listers’ Agricultural Chemical Works, Newark, N. J........ 21
Po tndlam, 08 Water St. New, York (City ../. <3 2sfe os ccs ate 9
Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano Co., 143 Liberty St.,
BNE ws eevee Nt Ue an det tata hefsralen aenriccarayiche, sexe olecel <i cit « wpa dha aac 22
The D. B. Martin Co., Land Title Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa... 2
Maxsonien Platine. COFTMAMG, wNee Nos xt)a0- sscce sv scetoders «usa ane 2
Ricioye a: Bests Peekskill: aN, MV 2655.5 yacn's 0) anayase! eon ye raile alae, 0.0 8s 1
Michigan Carbon Works, Detroit, Mich................... 6
Miller Fertilizer Co., 106 South Gay St., Baltimore, Md..... 1
Pee Mittennmaier a Som Tome, INO 2...) eis aes Seon eben Seles 6
lg Merete Corer TASC Uy 17.) e 2) nyc otc taal <thdrstalelle Gis orate ere Poe 2
K. Mortimer & Co., 13 William St., New York City......... 5
PeO ie MCE ROINW EM OWING Ne cesrcs,c a's as cis « dite Sore a'diavecd ete ess if
Nassau Fertilizer Co., 5 Beaver St., New York City......... 10
National Fertilizer Co., Bridgeport, Conn................. 3
Newburgh Rendering Co., Newburgh, N. Y................ 1
Newport Fertilizer Co., 401 Drexel Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.. 4
SU RESO Ou CO OLS Ose pele VA OMT pes Nise Nciisers (ror Stratos seh sy oho'ceebanalas Simik. ails 7
Ohio Farmers’ Fertilizer Co., Hayden Bldg., Columbus, Ohio. 8
Patapsco Guano Co., Boxi2i3; Baltimore, Md. ..........<. 10
Aerererson, Penfield Ny Mo ceca Sie cee wisiels eve wie wae a aiats 1
VAIS TDS ATU 2 sg oy dere TCs eS a 3

396 Report of THE INSPECTION Work.

Pe ioc SESS es Wee ee aie’ hn we uid We eee cet teas ee 2
Wilcox Fertilizer Works, Mystic, Conn...\3 vcs 2:5... sem i
Bi Pine, Hast Wallisten, iN. Wes jis wow Stak eae et nese 3
The Pollock Fertilizer Co., 51 S. Gay St., Baltimore, Md.... 6

Rasin-Monumental Co., Continental Trust Bldg., Baltimore,

Ms 52S 5 OS eee ob ae se a ete hy ne ne 9
B.C. Reeves! 187 Water St., News VorkCity.\. oreo 4
James L. Reynolds, New Rochelle, N. Y..............-.--:; 2
George Ripperger, Long Island City... ose «oc ee a
Rochester Fertilizer Works, 509 Cox Bldg., Rochester, N. Y.. 10
Russia Cement Co.,,Gloucester;, Mass: co 5 cone caeb eres 6
Sanderson Fertilizer Co., New Haven, Conn............... 3
Schaal-Sheldon Fertilizer Co., Hie, Pa’ ii. 3. ween iene 12
M. L. Shoemaker & Co., Philadelphia, Pa..... ee af
Chas. C, Schader- Martyille, IN, Nec geo. ose athe ke i.
Chas. D. Smith, 2 Borden Ave., Long Island City........... 1
eimer 0. Smith, Wurtsboro, NivV o> os. arse apo ees i
Brank B. Smith, Columbiaville, N.Y. 202\0. c-neprgsaeeeeeen i
H. Stappenbeck.,. Wiiea, oN. Vien sn ihn wate ee epee et ee 3
Geo. Stevens, Peterborough, Ont., Cam. .2.....25°s .cis cote oe uf
Swift & Co., Union Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill............... 1
Swifts’ Lowell Fertilizer Co., 44 N. Market St., Boston, Mass. 8
Syracuse Reduction Co; Syracuse, No sc. «jee -- stein ee 5
I. P. Thomas & Son Co., 2. 8S. Delaware Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. 6
J. M. Thorburn & Co., 36 Cortlandt St., New York City...... 3
Tuscarora Fertilizer Co., Box 184, Chicago, Tll............. aA:
J. E. Tygert Co., 42 S. Delaware Ave., Philadelphia, Pa..... 3
Walbridge & Co.;,392 Main. St., Buffalo N.Y... ..assie eee a
W..4. Whann; William Penn,'Pa. \ cs oa. wena eee ee 3
Wilcox . Fertilizer Works, Mystic, Commi ...,:1.4\2.040- eee il

[The analyses of samples collected, as given in the bulletin, are not reprinted
here, as they cease to have value before this Report is distributed.—D1rEcror.]

REPORT OF ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTIL-
IZERS FOR THE SPRING OF 1904.*

W. H. Jorpan, L. L. Van Stryke anp W. H. ANDREWS.

SUMMARY.

(1) Samples Collected. During the spring of 1904, the Sta-
tion collected 468 samples of commercial fertilizers, representing
371 different brands. Of these different brands 275 were com-
plete fertilizers; of the others, 47 contained phosphoric acid and
potash without nitrogen; 16 contained nitrogen and phosphoric
acid without potash; 7 contained nitrogen only; 22 contained
phosphoric acid alone; and 4 contained potash salts only.

(2) Nitrogen. The 275 brands of complete fertilizers con-
tained nitrogen varying in amount from 0.54 to 9.74 per ct., and
averaging 2.12 per ct. The average amount of nitrogen found by
the Station analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount by
0.11 per ct., the guaranteed average being 2.01 per ct., and the
average found being 2.12 per ct.

In 194 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 1.78 per ct., and averaging 0.22 per ct.

In 81 brands the nitrogen was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 1.04 per ct., and averaging
0.17 per ct. In 77 cases the deficiency was less than 0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble nitrogen varied from 0 to 9.62
per ct. and averaged 1.01 per ct.

(3) Available Phosphoric Acid. The 275 brands of complete
fertilizers contained available phosphoric acid varying in amount
from 1.26 to 11.38 per ct., and averaging 8.52 per ct. The average
amount of available phosphoric acid found by the Station analysis
exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.96 per ct., the
guaranteed average being 7.56 per ct., and the average found
being 8.52 per ct.

*Partial reprint of Bulletin No. 253.

398 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

In 246 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of available
phosphoric acid found was equal to or above the amount guar-
anteed, the excess varying from 0.02 to 3.88 per ct., and averaging
1.06 per ct.

In 29 brands the available phosphoric acid was below the guar-
anteed amount, the deficiency varying from 0.04 to 4.20 per ct.,
and averaging 0.84 per ct. In 14 cases the deficiency was below
0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble phosphoric acid varied from 0.04
to 8.96 per ct. and averaged 5.98 per ct.

(4) Potash. The complete fertilizers contained potash vary-
ing in amount from 0.16 to 10.74 per ct. and averaging 4.77 per
ct. The average amount of potash found by the Station analysis
exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.27 per ct., the
guaranteed average being 4.50 per ct., and the average found
being 4.77 per ct.

In 200 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of potash
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 3.25 per ct., and averaging 0.51 per ct.

In 75 brands, the potash was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 2.42 per ct., and averaging
0.45 per ct. In 53 of these cases, the deficiency was less than
0.5 per ct.

In 45 cases among the 275 brands of complete fertilizers the
potash was contained in the form of sulphate free from excess
of chlorides.

(5) The retail selling price of the complete fertilizers varied
from $17 to $45 a ton and averaged $27.56.

The retail cost of the separate ingredients unmixed averaged
$19.85, or $7.71 less than the selling price.

INTRODUCTION.

In May of this current year, an amendment to the fertilizer
law of this State was made by the legislature, as a result of which
the administration of the law was transferred to the Department
of Agriculture. This Station continues to perform the chemi-
cal analyses. The analyses published in this bulletin represent
only samples of fertilizers collected by this Station previous to
the time the law was amended in May.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 399

NUMBER AND KINDS OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

During the spring of 1904, the Station’s collecting agents vis-
ited 98 towns between March 26 and May 9, obtaining 468 sam-
ples of commercial fertilizers. These samples represent 3871
different brands, the product of 49 different manufacturers, each
manufacturer being represented by from one to 145 brands.

The subjoined tabulated statement indicates the different
classes included in the collection.

CLASSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

| Brands con- Brands con-

Brands con- | taining ni- taining phos-
Brands con- | taining only Brands con- | trogen and phoric acid Brands of
taining only phosphorie taining only | phosphoric and potash complete
nitrogen. acid. potash. acid with- without fertilizers.

| out potash. nitrogen.
a | |
7 22 4 | 16 47 275

COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

The following tabulated statement shows the average composi-
tior of the complete fertilizers collected, together with a com-
parison of the guaranteed composition and that found by analysis.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

|
Per Cent. GUARANTEED. | Prr Cent. Founp. Average
| per ct.
| found
| above
| Lowest. | Highest. | Average. | Lowest. | Highest. | Average. | guar-
| antee.
Nitrogen............| 0.50 9.88 2.01 | 0.54 9.74 2.12 0.11
Available phosphoric) |
ECGs eset Peele50n a) TOL00 oC alle 26m clness 8.52 0.90
Insoluble phosphoric) |
ACID 2 cceiato sine ae ote | === 0.04 | 6.52 1.80
Botashye sorte te 0.50 10.00 4.50 0.16 | 10.74 4.77 0.27
Water soluble nitro- ; |
PED Sy Ga ie 0.00 | 9.62 | 1.01 | ————
Water-soluble phos-'
phoric acid........ | —_ |’ ———_ } ———— | 0.04 | 8.96 | 3980)

TRADE-VALUES oF PLANT-Foop ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND
CHEMICALS.

The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed

upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Vermont, as a

400 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

result of study of the prices actually prevailing in the large
markets of these states.

These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated,
the average prices at which, during the six months preceding
March, the respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw
materials, could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets.
These prices also correspond (except in case of available phos-
phoric acid) to the average wholesale prices for the six months
preceding March, plus about 20 per ct., in case of goods for which
there are wholesale quotations.

TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-Foop ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND

CHEMICALS.
Cents ae
Natrogen, in. ammonia, Salis... ass. ore ae ae ee 17%
e HEL, EDUCA URR 3. Sic aia. ew Sik oe eee eRe ee 16
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and
blood and mixed fertilizers........ 17%
25 in fine-ground bone and tankage..... it
5 in medium bone and tankage........ 12%
Phosphoric “acid, “water-soluble. .... ccc « wis cee Gee AV,
“ citrate-soluble (reverted) ........... 4
. in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage, 4
= in cottonseed meal, caster-pomace and
sshieson. |. cytes ee ge pe oe ee 4
in coarse fish, bone and tankage...... 3
as in mixed fertilizers, insoluble in am-
monium citrate of water.......... 2
Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muri- |
ates (chlorides), im sashes, sCtG, Jit ee oo eee ieee 5
Potash, in -MVaPiabe. 3. ..5. 2.6% ae aio does hese ee cane 414

COMPARISON OF SELLING PRICE AND COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

Giving to the different constituents the values assigned in the
schedule for mixed fertilizers, 17144 cents a pound for nitrogen,
414 cents a pound for water-soluble phosphoric acid, 4 cents a
pound for citrate-soluble phosphorie acid, 2 cents a pound for
insoluble phosphoric acid, and 414 cents a pound for potash, we
can calculate the commercial valuation, or the price at which the
separate unmixed materials contained in one ton of fertilizer,

New York AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT STATION. 401

having the composition indicated in the preceding table, could
be purchased for cash at retail at the seaboard. Knowing the
retail prices at which these goods were offered for sale, we can
also readily estimate the difference between the actual selling
price of the mixed goods and the retail cash cost of the unmixed
materials; the difference covers the cost of mixing, freight, profits,
etc. We present these data in the following table:

COMMERCIAL VALUATION AND SELLING PRICE OF COMPLETE FER-

TILIZERS.
ComMMERCIAL VALUATION OF |SELLING PRICE OF ONE TON OF Average in-
COMPLETE FERTILIZERS. CoMPLETE FERTILIZER. creased cost of
mixed materials
over unmixed
materials for one
Average. Lowest. | Highest. | Average. ton,
$19.85 $17 $45 $27 56 $7 71

Cost oF ONE PouND or PLANT-FOOD IN FERTILIZORS AS PURCHASED
BY CONSUMERS.

In the table below we present figures showing the average cost
to the purchaser of one pound of plant-food in different forms in
mixed fertilizers.

AVERAGE Cost oF ONE PouND or PLANT-FOOD TO CONSUMERS IN
Mixep FErrIviZers.

“TSE OSs 1 SM Deiat ih io) 5 sae Fear SEPT eee ace ee eo 24.30 cents.
Phosphorte acids (available) oil. 02 le sce pends © as 5.90 cents.
SOR SUSEIEE orcs seen Encik ee A auld sal) SEED voherienan th nila ioe % oS acars 6.25 cents.

LIST OF MANUFACTURERS WHO HAVE PAID LICENSE
FEES AND FILED STATEMENTS.
Manufacturers to the number of 70 have, since the first of
December, and up to May 14th, 1904, paid license fees and filed
statements in compliance with the provisions of the law. These
manufacturers put on the market 585 different brands of fertil-

izers, including mixed and unmixed goods.
26

402 Report oF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE

NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF MANUFACTURERS.

: ese ectiery
The Abbott-Martin Rendering Co., 16 E. Broad St., Colum-

WS, “ORIG i.e waster aiale ops ate we odes enn I + Sol ee 2
The American Agricultural Chemical Co., 26 Broadway,

New SYMrks O1ey .... ccs cesses « clas ~ Schereeeee tee 216
Armour Fertilizer Works, 205 La Salle St., Chicago, Il]... 20
E. Aspinall, 100 Beekman St., New York City.......... 2
Berg Co. Station EK, Philadelphia; (Pa: . 2.0. «62. eam sone 3
Berkshire Fertilizer Co., Bridgeport, Conn.............. 3
Bowker Fertilizer Co., 48 Chatham St., Boston, Mass.... 29
Bradley & Green Fertilizer Co., 9th and Girard Aves., Phil-

adelphias Pac. ... Pssaneh, . dental. tien ...o6 on eee 3
Butiale;-Kertilizer-Co;,-Buttalo; Ne Xeioeor ses see 18
ders Battie <Omeonita, No AY 0. oii. pthc aoe ae ae ee 3
Chicago Fertilizer Co., Security Bldg., Chicago, Ill...... 2
The Cincinnati Phosphate Co., Station P, Cincinnati, O.. 4
O. W. Clark & Son, 59 Seneca St., Buffalo, N. Y.......... i
E. Frank Coe Co., 135 Front St., New York City........ 34
Peter Cooper’s Glue Factory, 13 Burling Slip, New York

GEE she ois crate Spee a dave Sie epe fala oa ere ee ee ee t
G. & W. H. Corson, Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery Co.,

Pre LON to Ae Ge Oe catia ah pei Mica necaupee Chak eReas is pe ion oe eae a ean 2
Mrs: RB: W. Day, Arlimeton; INV Soc ees! 2 se whe eee ee if
Eagle Guano Co., 19 Liberty St., New York City.......... i
Jonn, Fimster,~ Romie: IN Voss 5A a5 eee ues een ee eee 1
The Fisheries Co., 185 Front St., New York City........ 2
George B. Forrester, 159 Front St., New York City...... 1
Henry 'S.) Foster, Tonawanda, N.Y st tac oot eee 1
Griffith & Boyd, 9 S. Gay St., Baltimore, Md............ 6
Hammond’s Slug-Shot Works, Fishkill Landing, N. Y.... 1
S. M. Hess & Bro., 4th and Chestnut Sts., Philadelphia, Pa., 14
Ls Ts Huber,, Rockport. N.Y. <0) abies qs ue neee 2h ete vi
International Seed Co., Rochester, N. Y......... 5.2 -50% 4
Jarecki Chemical Co., Sandusky, Ohio...........2...... if
John Joynt, Lucknow, Ont., Can...........-.: Ihe nen 1
The .N. Lawrence Co., Dobbs-Ferry, NeW... oc sree ee 2
Listers’ Agricultural Chemical Works, Newark, N. J..... 21

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

403

Number of
brands reported.

Pecudiam, 108 Water St., New York City... ...........:
Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano Co., 143 Liberty St...

JES LECT, | Ou yg Aa Pn ra
The D. B. Martin Co., Land Title Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa..
Maxsomracocarim~ Cort lands IN. Yrs. bse siele se css wees
MeO Ova best, -Peclkesieil] Nica Ven oes, ois ot ape ayo cce. 2 #16, wis ee
Michigan Carbon Works, Detroit, Mich.................
Miller Fertilizer Co., 106 South Gay St., Baltimore, Md..
felaitenmaier So Son,vome, N.Y 2° seeps.) jeeiase o's ole als
Pe nretnac Os eM me UM olay, Whos bliss eos 2)o.4 eee 282 oer vito natan See
EK. Mortimer & Co., 138 William St., New York City........
Geo-wk. Munroe, Oswego, Nav Vivi. send siewiehee eicid sc aue es rons
Nassau Fertilizer Co., 5 Beaver St., New York City......
National Mertilizer Co., Bridgeport, Conn... ....... + -
Newburgh Rendering Co., Newburgh, N. Y...............
earnin cow Ol Say dese ROTI WIN. Wi ote jose sudiiveie Giseee ob dyayoevevaladejaiacs
_ Ohio Farmers’ Fertilizer Co., Hayden Bldg., Columbus, O.,
PeeereE SON. wi emields IN. Weg 5 aiteieteicia cee o-c'0 He dees ba dee

VP eMN Ne SOLE TO Se) AULT TD SIN SY. oo: 8,50) 5 ye ysilagsy ides doer ess Sao te bb tbhe
Epeerines HaSV MliStOMse Ni) XM aeste jo urfds atnam copepod’.

Rasin Monumental Co., Continental Trust Bldg., Balti-
TENOR. RUS eee Eo cues go me a Be een re

R. C. Reeves, 187 Water St., New York City..............
J. G. Reichard & Bro., Middletown, N.Y... %....2.....0.
James L. Reynolds, New Rochelle, N. Y................
Georse kipperger, Lone Tslamd) Cayce, 6s. cisien oie oie & scace
Russia, Cement Co. Gloucester, Mass...') 650.2. 65... 60. 0s
Sanderson Fertilizer Co., New Haven, Conn............
scuadl-sheldon Merializer:@o:, rie, Paes... os .05 sooo es
Mol Shoemaker & Co, Philadelphia, Pas... . 2... aa.
SIS ©. ChACeI Wdinuvalles se Nosy seca, doapa cw ocelee ow scv ors, 0%,
fers, bs. SMLehy oma yelles IN. Vo a sc. 5 dikis’e cc, Baas
[SL AN oles yererell dyer) fee UL UI i eesti es Ea ome nar

Swift & Co., Union Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill............
Swifts’ Lowell Fertilizer Co., 44 N. Market St., Boston,
JA TES SES roel RE UA 4 ws oP OTL ar a en ae ea

Cr |

nw RF bb

i
Ss Co he hos) cs) ics)

bow Re

QAuexnwpnwrEA

ow eB = dS Oo WH

404 Report oF THE INSPECTION WorkK.

Number of

brands reported.

J. M. Thorburn & Co., 36 Cortlandt St., New York City.. 2
Tuscarora Fertilizer Co., Box 184, Chicago, Ill.......... 15
J. E. Tygert Co., 42 So. Delaware Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. . 5
W. E. Whann, William, Penn, Pa.o000. 0.9 - as cee 4
Wilcox Fertilizer Works, Mystic, Conn 1

@ cere 0 o:/5 @ © (e.\0 ©) 6) 's ous ene

|The analyses of samples collected, as given in the bulletin, are not reprinted
here, as they cease to have value before this Report is distributed.—D1recror. }

—— ee

_ INSPECTION OF FEEDING STUFFS.*

W. H. JorpaNn AND F. D. FULLER.

SUMMARY.

(1) Prior to May 3d 104 manufacturers licensed 154 brands
of feeding stuffs for the year 1904.

(2) 263 samples of feed stuffs, officially collected from Jan.
6, 1904, to May 6. 1904, have been analyzed.

INTRODUCTION.

Herewith is presented the work of the Station in the examina-
tion of concentrated feeding stuffs found in the markets of New
York State, in 1904, in compliance with the provisions of the
Agricultural Law, Chap. 338, Article 9.

The law under which the samples included in this bulletin were
taken so defined the term “concentrated commercial feeding
stuffs ” that it practically covered all feeds excepting the follow-
ing:—Hays and straws, and the entire grains of wheat, rye, bar-
ley, oats, maize (corn), buckwheat and broom corn, either whole
or ground into meal; also bran and middlings from wheat, rye
and buckwheat when sold as such unmixed with other materials.
The above feeds may still be sold legally without the payment of
a license fee.

AMENDMENT OF THE LAW.

The Legislature of 1904 passed an act amending the law con-
trolling the sale and analysis of concentrated commercial feeding
stuffs, which was approved by the Governor on May 3d, 1904.
This amendment transfers the administration of the feeding
stuffs law to the Commissioner of Agriculture, the Experiment
Station still being required to analyze the samples of feeding
stuffs collected by said Commissioner. Certain materials were
added to the specified list of feeds which are defined as “ concen-

*Reprint of Bulletin No. 255.

406 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

trated commercial feeding stuffs,” as follows: bean meals, pea-
nut meals, dried distillers’ grains, dried beet refuse, meat and
bone meals, clover meals, condimental stock and poultry foods,
patented and proprietary, or trade-marked, stock and poultry
foods.

The condimental stock and poultry foods were added to the
list of feeding stuffs requiring legal supervision because it was
felt that the interests of the agricultural public demand this. If
these mixtures were offered to the public merely as medicines or
condiments and no other claims were made for them they would
not properly be classed among feeding stuffs. The fact is, how-
ever, in a large number of cases extraordinary and even start-
ling claims are made as to the nutritive (food) value of these
substances, and it is but just that these claims should be subject
to the same examination given to other materials offered to the
public as food for cattle. It is time for the public to be more
fully defended, if possible, against what is now one of the most
serious impositions practiced upon it.

The law has been further modified by repealing section 127
which required that any person violating the provisions of the
law be given thirty days after one notice in which to comply with
said provisions. The actual effect of this requirement, under
the interpretation placed upon section 127 by the Attorney-
General, was to prevent prosecutions of offenders, a fact which
caused the attitude of the Director of the Station to be misin-
terpreted by those ignorant of the situation.

FEEDING STUFFS LICENSED IN 1904.

Previous to May 3d, 1904, 104 manufacturers or jobbers regis-
tered the required guarantees and paid the license fee on 154
brands of feeding stuffs to be placed on sale in New York State
in 1904.

The brands named in the following table (1) may be handled
legally during the current year:

407

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411

New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

te)

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iW MAAN ODED

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00F
(Ga7

412 Report OF THE INSPECTION WoRK.

The list of licensed brands may be classified as follows:

Proprietary or mixed Corn bran, 3 brands.
feed, 70 brands. Molasses feed, 5 ee
Meat and bone meal, 16 “ Gluten meal, et
Hominy feed or chop,18 “ Sugar beet refuse, a
Gluten feed, 2 Cottonseed feed, dae ee
Linseed oil meal, 1 Naess Germ oil meal, a Kan =?
Distillers’ grains, gee
Cottonseed meal, Gide =; =
Malt sprouts, Dia! es Total, 154 brands.

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES COLLECTED BY INSPECTOR.

The following table (II) shows the partial analyses of samples
of feeding stuffs collected by an inspector in different parts of the
State from Jan. 6 to May 6, 1904. In the feeding stuffs law,
special emphasis is laid upon two important features—first, that
the composition of certain feeds shall be correctly guaranteed, as
to their contents of protein and fat; second, that adulteration ot

any feed is a violation of the law unless the true composition or.

adulteration is plainly indicated upon the package containing
the same or in which it is offered for sale.

Therefore in the following tabulation the percentage of pro-
tein and fat guaranteed are given for comparison with the amount
actually present, and in most of the samples the percentage of
crude fiber was determined, which served in estimating to what
extent some of the materials were adulterated. The table also
includes the retail price per ton.

Owing to an excess of moisture in some of the samples collected,
which were evidently kept under conditions favorable to the
growth of mold, they deteriorated to such an extent that their
analysis would represent the goods as being much inferior to what
they were when they were sampled in the markets.

Therefore, eight samples of corn and oat products, four of beef
scraps, three of meat meal, two of bran and middlings, and one
sample each of corn meal, meal and shorts, molasses feed and
stock food were not included in the inspection.

es

PABILE: Ey
ANALYSIS OF FEEDING ae

Collected by Inspector.

414

Collee-
tion No.

| Hauenstein & Co.,

Report or THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

‘

TABLE II—ANALYSIS OF FEEDING

NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANU-
FACTURER OR JOBBER.

American Cotton Oil Co., New York,

Biggs, R. W., & Co., Memphis, Tenn.,
Bridges, H. E., & Co., Memphis, Tenn.,
Brode, W., & Co. ‘Memphis, Tenn.,
Chapin (Co. we Louis, Mo.,

Halise Je Ge & C , Memphis, Tenn.,
Falls, Ia Gs, & Oe Memphis, Tenn.,
Hayley & Hoskins, Memphis, 'Tenn,.
Humphreys, Godwin & Co., Memphis, Tenn.

Humphreys, Godwin & Co., Memphis, Tenn.,
Hunter Bros. Milling Co., St. Louis, Mo.,
Hunter Bros. Milling Co.. St. Louis, Mo.,
Independent Cotton Oil Co., Memphis, Tenn. i
Nat. Cottonseed Products Co., Memphis, Tenn.,
Pettit, Hugh, & Co., Memphis, Tenn.,
Robinson, Geb New York,

Sledge & Wells Co., Memphis, Tenn.,

American Linseed Co., New York,
American Linseed Co., New York,

Chapin «& Co., Buffalo,
Chapin & Co., Buffalo,
Chapin & Co., Buffalo,
Chapin & Co., Buffalo,

Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,

Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,

Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Hauenstein &’ Co., Buffalo,

Buffalo,

Hunter Bros.,Milling Co., St. Louis, Mo.,

Kelloge, Spencer, Buffalo,
Kelloggs & Miller, Amsterdam,
Mann Bros. Co., The, Buffalo,
Mann Bros. Co., The, Buffalo,
Metzger Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, O.,
Metzger Seed & Oil Co., Toledo, 0.
Union Linseed Co., Troy,

Clements, A. L. & Co., New York,
Midland Linseed Co., Minneapolis, Minn..,
Milwaukee Linseed Oil Wks.,

Biles, The J. W., Co., Cincinnati, O.,
Biles, The J. W., Co., Cincinnati, O.,
Chapin & Co., Buffalo,

Krause, C. A., Grain Co.,
Biles, The J. W., Co.,
Chapin & Co., Buffalo,
Chapin «& Co., Buffalo,

Milwaukee, Wis.,
Cincinnati, O.,

American Spirits Mfg. Co., Peoria, IIl.,
cope Spirits Mfg. Co., Peoria, IIl.,
Pace, J: Dy & Go: Syracuse,

Merchants Distilling Co., Terre Haute, Ind.,
Merchants Distilling Co., Terre Haute, Ind.,

| Mueller, E. P., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Mueller, E. P., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Heinhold, J. G., Buffalo,

Kam Malting Co.,

Buffalo,
Mueller, E. P.,

Milwaukee, Wis.,

Mil’kee, Wis., |

| Ossining, Te

Sampled at

Fort Edward, E. L. Potter,
Buffalo, Husted Milling & Ele-
vator Co.,

New York, W. S. Travis,

Troy, J. D. Westfall & Sons,
Watertown, A. H. Herrick & Son.,
Amsterdam, W. N. Carpenter Co.,
Binghamton, G. Q. Moon & Co.,
Fulton, Gilbért & Nichols Co.
Pleasantville, Washburne Supply

Bneaiat Oneonta Milling Co.,
Geneva, J. T. Coo

Jamestown, RAS Smiley & Co.,
Buffalo, pata Cereal Co.,
Oswego, H. M pues,
Syracuse, jnleilhh

New York, otk "& Allen,
Utica, Ogden & Clark,

Jamaica, J. & T. Adikes,
Oneonta, Morris Bros.,

Dobbs Ferry, Lawrence & Co.,
Jamestown, F. A. Smiley & Co.,
Owego, Truman & Jones,
Spencer, M. a Fisher & Sons,
Malone, O. S. Lawrence,

| Rome, c. Oster & Sons,

Neff,

Chadeay ne & Sons,
Mathews,

Washburne Supply

Salamanca, H.

Brocton, V.
Peasantville,

Co.,
LeRoy, J. Maloney & Son,
Albany, Beepey & Bennett,
Boonville, A. ae ee & Son
Jamestown . Grandin,

| White Plains, Sct a Faile,

Jamestown, Hayward & Co.,
Poughkeepsie, J. J. McCann,

New York, Clark & Allen,
Batavia, C. H. & H. N. Douglass,
Ossining, Crow & Williams,

Albany, J. A. Reynolds,
Rochester, E. C. Campbell,
Pleacentyalle, Washburne Supply
0.,
Troy, J. D. Westfall & Sons,
Buffalo, Henry & Missert,
Fulton, Gilbert Nichols Co.,
Falconer, Falconer Milling Co.,
Carthage, Jones & Simmons,
Olean, Olean Mills,
Ogdensburg, W. C. Wilcox,
Pleasantville, Washburne

Supply
Co.,
Buffalo, Chapin & Co.,

Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,
Poughkeepsie, Ambler Bros.,

Laneaster, P. Mook,
Buffalo, Henry & Missert,
Poughkeepsie, Ambler Bros.,

* Not licensed in this State for

—-

New York AGrRicuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

STUFFS COLLECTED BY INSPECTOR.

1262
1265
1139

Name of feed.

Cottonseed meal, prime,
*Cottonseed meal, prime,

*Cottonseed meal, prime,
Cottonseed meal, Owl,
Cottonseed meal, Green diam’d,

*Cottonseed meal, South’n beauty,

*Cottonseed meal, South’n beauty,

*Cottonseed meal, prime,

*Cottonseed meal, Dixie,

*Cottonseed meal, Dixie,
Cottonseed meal, Dixie,
Cottonseed meal, prime,

*Cottonseed meal, prime,

*Cottonseed meal, Indian, prime,
Cottonseed meal, Horseshoe,
Cottonseed meal, prime,

*Cottonseed meal, Star, prime,

Linseed oil meal, O. P.,

Linseed oil meal, OMES
*Linseed oil meal, O. P. , Export,
*Linseed oil meal, OsEs .’ Export,
*Linseed oil meal, O. P., , Export,

*Linseed oil meal, O. P., Export,
Linseed oil meal, (O12. Green OVv.,
Linseed oil meal, O. P., Green ov..,
Linseed oil meal, O. P., Green ov.,
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oli meal,

Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil, meal
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil meal,
Linseed oil meal, Cow,
Linseed cake, ground, O.
Linseed cake, ground, O.
*Linseed cake, ground, O. pb”

S99999 999
A rotary Fahd

DISTILLERY AND BREWERY By-
Propucts.

Distillers’ Grains.
Distillers’ dried grains, XXXX,
Distillers’ dried grains, ORK
*Distillers’ dried grains, Ajax,

Distillers’ dried grains, Blue rib.,
Distillers’ dried grains, rye (R),
Ajax flakes,

Ajax flakes,

Gluten feed, Manhattan,
Gluten feed, Manhattan,
Dairy feed, Empire State,
Dairy feed, Merchants’,

Dairy feed, Merchants’,

Brewers’ Grains.
*Brewers’ dried grains,
Brewers’ dried grains,

Malt Sprouts.
Malt sprouts,
Malt sprouts,

*Malt sprouts,

1904, prior to May 3 1994,

PROTEIN.

“ Guar-

Found anteed.

Per ct. Per ct.
42.2 43.0
21.8 |41.0-46.0
43.8 43.0
45.9 43.0
45.5 43.0
43.2 43.0
39.8 43.0
40.3 43.0
44.1 43.0
43.6 43 .0
43.1 43.0
38.7 43.0
4.7 43 .0
46.2 |40.0—45.0
41.2 |43.0-—47.0
39.1 43 .0
43.5 43 .0
31.3 |32.0-36.0|
34.6 |32.0-36.0)
30.0 36.0
29.8 36.0
29.9 36.0
28.3 36.0
33.0 36.0
29.5 |382.0-86.0
36.5 |382.0-36.0
36.4 38.32
Bia aa 35.65
32.3 34.0
32.6 35.94 |
34.9 | 36.7
34.7 35.15
34.9 3}0), 15)
32.2) |o2.0=36).0}
32.6 |32.0-36.0
32.9 22.09
28.9 |32.0=37.5
28.9 |32.5-37.5])
32.7 |34.0-38.0
Sate) © B50)
Ser) 33.0
30.9 34.02 |
31.6 | 33.0
19.1 21.0
Sie) 3480
32.4 34.0
34.8 34.0
soso 34.0
31.6 36.22
32.6 | 34.0 |
31.8] 34.0 |
Zona | |
28.7

24.2 |
25.9 23.81 |
25.0 | |

Far.
Guar-
Found anteed.
Per ct. Per ct.
9.9 9.
5.0 |7.0-9.0
10.0 |9.0-10.0
9.5 9.0
9.5 9.0
10.2 9.0
11.4 9.0
10.0 9.0
9.0 9.0
8.0 9.0
8.8 9.0
6.9 9.0
9.7 9.0
10.8 |8.5-10.0
10.2 |9.0—-11.0
10.2 9.0
8.2 |9.0-10.0
7.4 | 5.0-7.0
7.1 | 5.0-7.0
76'4 7.0
7.4 7.0
8.0 | ie Oo
6.8 ow)
8.3 7.0
7.3 | 5.0-7.0
7.8 | 5.0=1.0
(eff 7.01
6.6 7.62!
a2) 6.5 |
1123.8) 5.04!
9.2 7.83]
8.6 6.05
7.9 6.05
8.2 5.0-7.0
me 5:.0-7.0
8.1 6.32
7.1 | 5.5-8.5
8.2 | 5.5-8.5
9.2°| 5.0=-8.0
13e5 1A 0")
14.1 LAO
14.1 12.03
12.8 11.0
18h) 5.0
ie33al yl 12.0
11.4 12.0
11.4 | 12.0
10.2 12.0
13.4 | 11.76}
14.3 | 12.0
14.3 20
Gre
hee, |
i oye |
1.4 1.34
1.5

So

415

TABLE II—

Sampled at

Geneva, S. K. Nester,

Troy, A. Van Valkenburg,
Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,
Utica, McLaughlin Bros.,

Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,

Ogdensburg, V. G.
Albany, "Rickerbockor
708s

"Mill &
Dean,

a Reynolds,

Oswego, National Starch Co.,

New York, W.S. Travis,

Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,

Lancaster, P. Mook,

Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,

Binghamton, ie Q. Moon & Co.,

Albany, &

Grain Co.,

Oswego, H. M. Qui
Buffalo, Husted Mall & Elev. Co. =

Knickerbocker Mill

Yonkers, M. A. Austin,
Peekskill, C. S. Horton & Sons,
Buffalo, Buffalo Cereal Co.,
Ithaca, 'W.. J. Davis,

Ossining, J. Chadeayne & Sons,
Olean, ‘mpire Mills,

Oneonta, Oneonta, Milling Co.,
Geneva, Patent Cereals Co. 5
New York, W. H. Payne & Son,
White Plains, Cowen & Co.,
Oneonta, Ford & Rowe,
Poughkeepsie, Ambler Bros.,
Oneonta, Morris Bros.,
Springville, Victor Mills,

P. Mook,

Lancaster,
& J. R. Hall,

Fredonia, O. M.

Oneonta, Morris Bros.,

Lowville, Louis Bush,

Canastota, F. T. Benjamin,
Brocton, C. P. Lawson,

Tully, W. A. Dewey,

Sidney, A. J. Ives,

Lowville, Louis Bush,

Buffalo, Flint Mill Co. -
Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,
Norwich, R. D. Eaton Grain & Feed

Co.,

Rome, G. Oster & Son.,

Oneonta, Morris Bros.,

Utiea, McLaughlin Bros. ie

Ww hitehall, The Witherbee Cash
Store,

Phoenix, A. C. Parker,

Oneonta, Morris Bros.,

Oneonta, Morris Bros.,

paver Ogdensburg Roller
i

Malone, Ladd & Smallman,

416 Report oF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE
Collec- NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANU-
tion No. FACTURER OR JOBBER.
1357 Nester, S. K., Geneva,
1160 Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,
1306 Oneonta Milling Co., Chicago, IL,
1200 Rang, H., & Sons, Chicago, IIl.,
1130 Pope, Chas., Glucose Co., Chicago, IIL,
1199 Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
1152 Glucose Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, IIL,
1334 Glucose Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, IIl.,
1142 Illinois Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, IIl.,
1218 National Starch Co., Oswego,
1094 New York Glucose Co., New York,
1304 New York Glucose Co., New York,
1263 Piel Bros. Starch Co., Indianapolis, Ind.,
1136 Warner Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, IIL,
1327 Warner Sugar Refining Co. Chicago, IIL,
1151 Glucose Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, ILL.,
1215 Pratt Cereal Oil Co., Decatur, IIl.,
1256 Pratt Cereal Oil Co., Decatur, ILL,
1097 American Hominy Co., Indianapolis, Ind.,
1123 Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,
1259 Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,
1342 Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,
1126 | Chapin & Co.. Buffalo,
1281 Chapin & Co., Buffalo,
1309 Hunter Bros. "Milling Co., St. Louis, Mo.,
1356 Patent Cereals Co., Geneva,
1082 Payne, W. H., & Son, New York,
1109 Suffern, Hunt & Co., Decatur, Ill.,
1319 Suffern, Hunt & Co., Decatur, IIL,
1137 Toledo Elevator Co., The, Toledo, O.,
1314 Toledo Elevator Co., The, Toledo, O.,
1290 U.S. Frumentum Co., Detroit, Mich.,
1264 Acme Milling Co., Indianapolis, Ind.,
1269 Beret, Craft & Kauffman Mill Co., St. Louis,
1311 Blish Milling Co., Seymour, Ind.,
beh Brooks Elevator (Oe Minneapolis, Minn.,
1231 Chapin & Co., Buffalo,
1268 Commercial Milling Co., Detroit, Mich.,
1353 Empire State Mills, Svracuse,
1320 | Fertig, H. G., & Co., Minneapolis, Minn.,
1210 Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
1293 Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
1131 Gardner Mill, The, Hastings, Minn.,
1325 Hunter Bros. Milling Co., St. Louis, Mo.,
1229 Imperial Milling Co., Duluth, Minn.,
1313 | Imperial Milling Co., Duluth, Minn.,
1202 Kehlor Bros., St. Louis, Mo.,
1187 Eeraeneebury Roller Mills Co., Lawrenceburg,
nd.,
1222 Meyer, J. F., & Son, Springfield, Mo.,
1316 Moore, R. P., Milling Co., Princeton, Ind.,
1315 Morris Bros., Oneonta,
1196 Odgensburg Roller Mills, Ogdensburg,
1195 Rex Milling Co., Kansas City, Mo.,
1209 Russell, Henry, Albany,

Boonville, A. H. Barber & Son,
* Not licensed in this State for

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 417
(Continued).
PROTEIN. Far
Le Crude | Pri
ec- + = = ‘rude | Price
tion Name of feed. ; y E jfiber, Gee
oO. uar- | uar- ound.; ton.
Found.| snteed. | Found. | anteed.
Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.
1357 | Malt sprouts, 31.2 Zon Dae Sede 2.0 $15.00
1160 |*Malt sprouts, 24.3 TR 7e:| 18.00
1306 |*Malt sprouts, 24.4 154 | 20.00
1200 |*Malt sprouts, 26.4 1.5 ' 18.00
|
Corn By-Propucrs.
Gluten meal. |
1130 | Gluten meal, Cream, 38.8 34.12 2.0 | 3u2 | 32.00
. Gluten feed. |
1199 | Gluten feed, Flint, QT 28 5elby eSe2. 3.0 26.00
1152 | Gluten feed, Buffalo, 23.4 28.0 3.6 | 3.0 26.00
1334 | Gluten feed, Buffalo, 24.2 28.0 2.9 3.0 | 24.50
1142 | Gluten feed, Pekin, 26.6 CASEC OW eGeataal| 3.0 | 26.00
1218 | Gluten feed, Queen, 24.3 27.5 2.4 2E5 24.00
1094 | Gluten feed, Globe, 2553 27.0 2.5 3.38 27.00
1304 | Gluten feed, Globe, 25.9 27.0 aed 3.38 26.50
1263 | Gluten feed, Piel Bros., 27.0 27.6 1.9 2.6 24.00
1136 | Gluten feed, Warner’s, 23.8 28.0 2.5 | 3.5 27.00
1327 | Gluten feed, Warner’s, 24.5 | 3.5 | 25.50
Germ oil meal.
1151 | Germ oil meal, 23 .2 25.0 9.9 10.5 26.00
Germaline.
1215 | Germaline, 13.2 12.9 Deal! 1.29 4.4 | 23.00
1256 | Germaline, eS 12.9 1.4 1.29 4.9 | 25.00
Hominy feed.
1097 | Hominy feed, 10.9 10.24 9.4 TRIPS 4.2 | 25.00
1123 | Hominy meal, Howard, 9.6 LOn5 eee) Satan Nl SaBistehl peta (010)
1259 | Hominy feed, 9.7 10.5 5.4 | 8.5 3.9 | 20.00
1342 | Hominy feed, 9.7 10.5 8.6 8.5 5.3 | 24.00
1126 | Hominy feed, Green diamond, 10.4 10>") 8.2 | 8.0-9.0 | 5.1 | 24.00
1281 | Hominy feed, Green diamond, 9.2 LO} 6.6 | 8.0-9.0 We Na2500
1309 | Hominy feed, 9.4 | 11.02 | 8.4 | heath Heo leanoO
1356 | Hominy feed, 10.1 LOR Leesa 8.0 4.4 | 21.00
1082 | Hominy chop, 10.1 11.49 non 8.0 3.6 | 24.00
1109 | Hominy chop, 9.5 11.02 | Gnz| Cet 5.2 | 28.00
1319 | Hominy feed, 9.2 TH O2| 7.4 eee OV OO)
1137 | Hominy feed, 9.3 DG 6.4 | S350 7. | 24.00
1314 | Hominy feed, 9.6 12=67" | Layee 8.57 | 6.4 | 23.00
1290 | Hominy feed, Frumentum, 10.1 10.31 | 2 | 7.98 3.3 | 22.00
Wueat By-Propucts. | | |
Bran and Middlings. | |
1264 | Acme feed, 15.8 cay ie: Se fa 8.5 | 24.00
1269 | Mixed feed, 16.3 Pe KAS 8.4 | 23.50
1311 | Mixed feed, 15.4 her TAGE | liaSs 225.00
1211 | Mixed feed, Royal, 16.3 | 4.8 | 8.7 | 23.50
1231 | Mixed feed, Erie, 15.6 4.5 8.2 | 24.00
1268 | Mixed feed, winter wheat, 15.3 | 4.0 | 8.2 | 24.00
1353 | Mixed feed, 15.4 4.9 | (at oro OO
13820 | Mixed feed. Monogram, eas} ae 7.6 | 25.00
1210 | Mixed feed, Vermont, 17.3 le Lisle Test 250
1293 | Mixed feed, Vermont, 16.9 | [ya taal ee ates
1131 | Mixed feed, Croesus, 16.3 4.5 10.2 | 25.00
1325 | Mixed feed, Sunshine, 1¥.6 | 4.7 7.8 | 25.00
|
1229 | Mixed feed, Boston, 16.8 |) 520 8.9 | 24.00
1313 | Mixed feed, Boston, 16.8 | are 8.9 | 24.00
1202 | Mixed feed, 15.6 4.5 } 8.6 | 23.00
1187 | Mixed feed, Snowflake. f5pa \eeenGh | 7.4 | 27.00
|
1222 | Mixed feed, Model, 16.3 tifa 8.5 | 23.00
1316 | Mixed feed, King. 18.3 4.6 | 8.6 | 25.00
1315 | Mixed feed, Delaware, 15.1 Pei 35 i} | 7.9 | 25.00
1196 | Mixed feed, 15.0 | 4.3 io. 24°00
1195 | Mixed feed, 16.5 eh GSO) | 8.0 | 25.00
1209 | Mixed feed, 7/583 | D2 | | “7.1, 1924.50

1904, prior to May 3, 1904.

27

418

Collec-
tion No.

1310
1321
1194
1203
1208

Reporr or THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE

NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANU-
FACTURER OR JOBBER.

Russell-Miller Mill Co., Minneapolis, Minn.,
Sheffield Milling Co., The, Faribault, Minn.,
Sparks Milling Co., Alton, IIL,

Sparks Milling Co., Alton, Ill.,

Stott, David, Detroit, Mich.,

Stott, David, Detroit, Mich.,

Thornton & Chester Milling Co., Buffalo,
Waller, A., & Co., Henderson, Ky.,
Washburn-Crosby Co., Minneapolis, Minn.,
Webster Mill Co., Webster, 8. D.,
American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
American Cereal Co., Chicago, Ill.,

Stock, F. W., & Sons, Hillsdale, Mich.,

Gage, W. G., & Co., Fulton,
American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
American Cereal Co., Chicago, IL., -

Barwell, J. W., Waukegan, IIl.,
Barwell, J. W. " Waukegan, atte
Barwell, J. W.. Waukegan, IIl.,
Barwell, J. W., Waukegan, IIL,
Biles, J. W., Co., Cincinnati, Or

Glens Falls Co., Glens Falls,
Hotton, Nicholas, Portville,
| Lapham & Parks, Glens Falls,
Ashton, E. B., Saratoga Springs,
Barber & Bennett, Albany,

Bowne Bros., Flushing,
| Bowne, 8. W., Brooklyn,

Fall Creek Milling Co., Ithaca,
Morgan, Thomas, Long Island City,
| Neff, Henry, Salamanca,

Payne, WwW. FL., & Son, New York,
Shaw & Truesdell Co., Brooklyn,
Washburne Supply Co. Pleasantville,

Tierney & Dalton, Mechanieville,
Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,
Chase-Hibbard Milling Co., Elmira,
Dayton Milling Co., Towanda,

Allen, C. E., Niagara Falls,
Ellicottville Milling Co., Ellicottville,

Hayt, 8. T., Corning,

Hodgman Milling Co., Painted Post,

| Husted Milling & Elevator Co., Buffalo,
Husted Milling & Elevator Co., Buffalo,

| Oliver, Geo., Olean,

Roberts, Geo., Glens Falls,

Victor Mills, Springville,

Albany City Mills, Albany,

American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,

American Cereal Co., Chicago. Ill.,

Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

| Ellsworth & Co., Buffalo,
Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,

| Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,

| Illinois Cereal Co., Lockport, Ill.,
Niagara Mill & Elev ator Co., Buffalo,

| Niagara Mill & Elevator Co., Buffalo,

Great Western Cereal Co., The, Chicago, Ill.;
Great Western Cereal Co., The, Chicago, I1.,
Great Western Cereal Co., The, Chicago, Ill.,

Knickerbocker Milling & Grain Co., Albany,

| Knickerbocker Milling & Grain Co., Albany,

TABLE [I—

Sampled at

Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,
Sidney, Sidney Flour & Feed Co.,
Malone, G. D. Northridge,

Utica, G. Aue nia Co.,
Boonville, A. Be perket & Son,

| Amsterdam, W. N. Carpenter Co.,

| Utica, ee Bros.,

Malone, 0. S. Lawrence,

Norwich, H. O. Hale,

Phoenix, A. C. Parker, -
Oswego, H. W. Barnes & Son,
Ellicottville, Ellicottville Milling Co.

| Ogdensburg, W. C. Wilcox,

ete G. Gage & Co.,

Troy, J D. Westfall & Sons,

Fort ‘Edward, J. G. Kinne,

Fort Edward, E. L. Potter,

Glens Falls, rey Roberts,

Painted Post, Hodgman Milling Co.,

Hoosick Falls, J. J. Deming & Co.,

Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,

Fort Edward, E. L. Potter,

Salamanea, H. Neff,

Cazenovia, G. H. Atwell & Son,

Albany, Knickerbocker Milling &
Grain Co.

Glens Falls, ‘Glens Falls Co,

Portville, N. Hotton,

Glens Falls, Lapham & Parks,

Saratoga Springs, E. B. Ashton,

Albany, Barber & Bennett,

Flushing, Bowne Bros.,

Brooklyn, S. W. Bowne,

Ithaca, W. J. D avis,

Long Island City, Thos. Morgan,

Salamanca, ae Neff,

New York, W. H. Payne & Son,

Brooklyn, Shaw. & Truesdell Co.,

Pieeenuae. Washburne Supply
10.

| Mechanieville, Tierney & Dalton,
| Hoosick Falls, Brown & Brownell,

Elmira, Chase-Hibbard Milling Co. P

Ithaca, J. B. Thayer,

Niagara Falls, C. E. Allen, :

reece Ellicottville Milling
oO

| Corning, 8. T. Hayt,
| Painted Post, Hodgman Milling Co.. ‘

Peekskill, E. McCord & Son,

Geneva, C.C. Davidson,

Albany, Knickerbocker Milling &
Grain Co.,

Olean, Geo. ‘Oliver,

Glens Falls, Geo. Roberts,

Springville, Victor Mills,

Albany, Albany City Mills,

| New York, H. Ingersoll,

Medina, S. P. Blood & Co.,

| Amsterdam, Hill & Watson,

Oneonta, Morris Bros.,
Malone, G. D. Northridge,
New York, eee & Carr,

| New York, Demerest & Carr,

Ballston Spa W.S. Wheeler’s Son
Malone, G. D. Northridge,
ae . Chadeayne & Sons,
Batavia, C. “H. & HN. Douglass,

* Not licensed in this State for

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

(Continued).
Col-
em Name of feed.
No.
—_ |
1310 | Mixed feed, Occident,
1321 | Mixed feed, Gold Mine,
1194 | Mixed feed, Tri-Me,
1203 | Mixed feed, |
1208 | Mixed feed, Stott’s Honest, |
1236 | Mixed feed, Stott’s winter wheat,
1201 | Mixed feed,
1189 | Mixed feed, Blue Grass,
1326 | Mixed feed, Superior,
1223 | Mixed feed,
1217 | Wheat feed, Buckeye,
1288 | Wheat feed, Buckeye,
1198 | Wheat feed, Monarch ground,
OATS AND THEIR By-PRopucts. |
1219 |*Oats, ground,
1157 |*Oat feed, X,
1181 | Oat feed, Vim,
1177 |*Oat feed, Cream, |
1183 | Oat feed, Royal, P
1340 | Oat feed, Royal,
CoMPOUNDED FreEps.
| Proprietary and Otherwise.
1169 | Blatchford’s calf meal,
1305 | Blatchford’s calf meal,
1178 | Blatchford’s sugar and flaxseed,
1277 | Blatchford’s sugar and flaxseed,
1354 | Biles’ ready ration,
1149 | Champion feed,
1185 |*Common feed,
1285 | Common feed,
1176 Common feed,
1174 | Corn and light oats, ground,
1148 | Corn and oats, ground,
1081 | Corn and oats, ground,
1088 | Corn and oats, ground,
1343 | Corn and oats, ground,
1076 | Corn and oats, grouud, |
1278 | Corn and oats, ground,
1083 | Corn and oats, ground,
1089 | Corn and oats, ground,
1105 | Corn and oats, ground,
1170 | Corn, oats, and rye, ground, |
1166 | Corn and oat chop, |
1337 | Corn and oat chop, No. 2,
1346 | Corn and oat chop, No. 2,
1261 *Chop feed, Niagara,
1286 | Chop feed,
1338 | Chop feed, corn and oats,
1339 | Chop feed, corn and oats,
1121 | Chop feed, Monarch,
1233 | Chop feed, Monarch,
1150 | Chop feed, corn and oats,
1284 | Chop feed,
1182 | Chop feed and corn meal,
1289 | Chop, Golden,
1153 | Corn and oat feed, Capitol.
1086 | Corn and oat feed, Victor,
1299 | Corn and oat feed, Victor,
1238 | Corn and oat feed, XXX,
1317 | Corn and oat feed, XXX,
1192 | Corn and oat feed, De-Fi,
1084 | Corn and oat feed, Boss,
1085 | Corn and oat feed, Excelsior,
1171 | Corn and oat feed, Excelsior
1191 |*Corn and oat feed, Anchor,
1125 | Corn and oat feed, Niagara,
1227 | Corn and oat feed, Niagara,

1904,

prior to May 3, 1904.

PROTEIN. Far.
Guar- Guar-
Found anteed. Found. anteed.
Perch.) Bericht \whencts | Perict.
16.5 5.4
18.5} 3.8
18.3 4.5
16.3 4.5
14.5 | ANd,
15.9 4.5
16.5 Dep
10.5 | 12.59 129);) 3.19
16.8 | | 4.7
16.7 er SDs
15.6 17.75 BPS GW Ane
1550) aol 4,2 | 4.7
14.6 | Won 456°
|
7.9 | See)
tae 6.3 SOM 2.38
8.1 | 6.3 Dioiks 2.38
Del 6.97 | ie 2.83
Sen oS} |! PARIS | 2.85
5.1 7.6 220))) 2.8
22:0 | 26.0 4.5 5.0
22.) 26.0 4.3 5.0
26.1 28.25 1O..2: | M5
27.1 28.25 10.9 | PES25
24.6 | 24.0 6.9 | 7.0
9.9 | 9.92 | 2.8 4.01
8.5 2.9
8.9 | 8.38 2.90.4 4.85
8.1 7.5 Dee ores 6
9.6 3.4
8.5 1.2
9.0 | 4.3
Tots || 3.8
12.4 | 4.0
Sisal 4.0
LOS | ert
9.1 | 10.05 633u) Geez
8.6 | oa5
9.6 | | POET
Oats) | | 2.2 |
8.4 | 30 sl 4.3 3.5
9.1 | fea 0s|
6.8 | i 2.4 |
LORE 10.42 | 3.0) | 4.83
Lo | 8.2 128" 4.4
9.4 10.43 3.4 | 4.0
NOS2)| 9.69 3.4 | 3.88
ek 8.09 | 4.0: | 4.16
DS6rl FS OO) lyn 4 51) 4B
9.8 | | 2.5
Ho 8.13 | 1.8 4.59
8.4 | 3.4
8.8 | Qt | LOM 5.84
6.3 9.04 | 2-6 | 335 763)
8.1 9.0 4.1 4.0
8.9 9.0 4.6 | 4.0
OG: ly O85 4604 ALS
ere 9.5 4.5. | 4.5
9.4 823-4 Tala 3.0
Tish) A Saozah Lo Nie S* Ge
9.4 | S221" | 4.4 | 4.58
9.6 G20)5| 6.2 4,2
9.1 9.5 2.4 4.0
Sisal piss 3.5 3.37
Ge2 8.2 2.9 Ba if

v
s

RANE OCOWNOLODDS

=
MINTNT 00 00 00 60 “7.00 00 CO ST SY

=

a

eR

i i
NWOor SCORPWN HOON WYROMmlA wo

DOM WORDORYNAH MOD AON WNWON ONHORAMRODANO NH

NHAROM

o>

419

420)

Report OF THE INSPECTION WoRK OF THE

NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANU-
FACTURER OR JOBBER.

Niagara Mill & Elevator Co., Buffalo,
Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,
Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,

Peck, T. R., & Son, Horseheads,
Dixon & Warren, Port Bryon,
Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta

Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,

Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
American Milling Co., Peoria, IL.,
American Milling Co., Peoria, Il.
Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

Great Western Cereal Co., Chicago, Ill.,

| H-O Co., The, Buffalo,

Empire Mills, Olean,

Empire Mills, Olean,

Adikes, J. & T., Jamaica,

Brett J. H., Mt. Vernon,

Brooklyn Elev. & Mill. Co., Brooklyn,

Close Bros., Schenectady,

| Fulton Grain & Milling Co., Brooklyn,

Lawrence, N., Co., Dobbs Ferry,
McCord, H. D., & Son, New York,
Paine Bros. Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Travis, W. S., New York,
American Milling Co., Peoria, IIl.,
American Milling Co., Peoria, IIl.,
Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

H-O Co., The, Buffalo,

H-O Co., The, Buffalo,

Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,
Lackawanna Mill & Elevator Co., Buffalo,

Bagley. G. A. Peekskill,

Crow & Williams, Ossining,

Oneonta Milling Co., Oneonta,
Staples, A. S., Rondout,

Mueller, E. P., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Mueller, E. P., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Mueller, E. P., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Rankin, M. G., Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Toledo Elevator Co., The, Toledo, O.,

‘Toledo Elevator Co., The. Toledo, O..,

American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,

American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Flint Mill Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
Strong, Lefferts Co., The, New York,
Unknown,

Diamond Elev. & Mill. Co., Minn.,

American Cereal Co., Chicago, IIl.,
Buffalo Cereal Co., Buffalo,

H-O Co., The, Buffalo,

H-O Co., The, Buffalo,

Cornell Incubator Mfg. Co., The, Ithaca,

Cyphers Ineubator Co., Buffalo,
Harding, Geo. L., Binghamton,
Puritan Poultry Farms & Mfg. Co., N. Y.,

TaBLE [I—

Sampled at

Albion, Woods & Sprague,
Sandy Hill, H. S. & J. S. Shippy,
Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,

| Horseheads, T. R. Peck & Son,

Auburn, A. W. Holley,
Albany, J. A. Reynolds,

Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,

| Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,
| Hoosick Falls, Brown & Brownell,

Yonkers, J. J. Wiffler,

Ithaca, Holman Bros.,

Ballston Spa., W. S. Wheeler’s Son.
Norwich, Eaton Grain & Feed Co,,
Hoosick Falls, Brown & Brownell,

| Malone, G. D. Northridge,

Dobbs Ferry, Lawrence & Co.,
Auburn, J. T. Mollard,

Olean, Empire Mills,

Jamaica, J. & T. Adikes,

Mt. Vernon, J. H. Brett,

Bethe Brooklyn Elev. & Mill.

0.,
Schenectady, Close Bros., ,
Brooklyn, Fulton Grain & Milling

0.,
Dobbs Ferry, N. Lawrence Co.,
New York, H. D. McCord & Son,
Troy, J. D. Westfall & Sons,

New York, W.S. Travis,
_ Ballston Spa., W. S. Wheeler’s Son,

' Norwich, Eaton Grain & Feed Co.,

White Plains, R. Young & Bros.

Co.,
| New York, T. P. Huffman & Co.,
| Owego, C. R. Dean,

Albany, J. A. Reynolds,
Buffalo, Lackawanna Mill & Elev.

Co.,
Peekskill, G. A. Bagley,

Ossining, Crow & Williams,
Oneonta, Oneonta Milling Co.,
Rondout, A. S. Staples,
Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elev. Co.,
Saratoga Springs, D. Gibbs & Son,
Norwich, Eaton Grain & Feed Co.,
Syracuse, H. Frier,
Poughkeepsie, Reynolds Elevator
O.,
Binghamton, Baker Bros.,
White Plains, R. Young & Bros.

!) =iCox,
| Ithaca, J. B. Thayer,

Dobbs Ferry, Lawrence & Co.,

| Buffalo, Flint Mill Co.,

Peekskill, G. F. Cooley,
Geneva, C. C. Davison,
Troy, J. D. Westfall & Sons,

Troy, Young & Halstead,

White Plains, R. Young & Bros. Co.,
Dobbs Ferry, Lawrence & Co.,
Batavia, E. J. Salway,

oe The Cornell Incubator Mfg.

10.,

Buffalo, Cyphers Incubator Co.,
Binghamton, G. L. Harding,
Peekskill, E. McCord & Son,

* Not licensed in this State for

New YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

(Continued).
Col-
ES Name of feed.
No.
1300 | Corn and oat feed, Niagara,
1186 | Corn and oat feed, Arrow,
1303 | Corn and oat feed, Arrow,
1336 | Corn and oat feed,
1234 | Corn and oat feed provender,
1145 | Corn and oat feed provender,
choice,
1302 | Corn and oat feed provender,
choice,
1132 | Creamery feed,
1168 | Creamery feed,
1096 | Dairy feed, Quaker,
1344 | Dairy feed, Quaker,
1173 | Dairy feed, Sucrene,
1322 | Dairy feed, Sucrene,
1167 | Dairy feed,
1193 |*Dairy feed. Great Western,
1113 | Dairy feed, H-O,
1235 | Empire feed,
1280 | Empire feed,
1079 | Ground feed,
1098 | Ground feed,
1090 | Ground feed,
1154 | Ground feed,
1091 | Ground feed,
1115 | Ground feed,
1092 | Ground feed,
1158 | Ground feed, Puritan,
1093 | Ground feed,
1172 | Horse feed. Sucrene,
1323 | Horse feed, Sucrene,
1107 | Horse feed,
1087 | Horse feed, H-O,
1335 | Horse feed, H-O,
1146 | Horse feed, Monarch,
1291 | Horse and cattle feed Lacka-
wanna special,
1119 | Mixed feed, G. W. Bagley &
Son’s,
1116 | Mixed feed, C. & W.,
1308 | Mixed feed, rye,
1359 | Mixed feed, Arcade,
1135 | Molasses feed for horses,
1175 | Molasses feed for horses,
1324 | Molasses feed for horses,
1225 | Molasses feed for horses,
1140 | Star feed,
1332 | Star feed,
1108 | Stock food, Schumacker’s,
a
1345 | Stock food, Schumacker’s,
1112 | Stock food, Apex,
1292 | Stock food, Apex,
1124 |*Stock food, Lenox,
1355 |*Wheat bran and oat hulls,
1156 | Yellow feed, ‘‘O. O.’,

. Pouttry Foops.
1164 | Poultry food, American,
1106 | Poultry food, American,
1111 | Poultry food, H-O,

1244 | Poultry food, H-O,

1350 |*Chickjfood, Stan. Peep O’Day,
1252 | Chick food,

1331 |*Chick food, Unexcelled baby,
1122 | Chick food, Puritan,

1904, prior to May” 3,31904.

PROTEIN.
Guar-
Found. anteed.
Per ct. | Per et
7.0 8.2
8.8 9.0
8.7 9.0
7.9
URC
7.3 | 8.75
8.4 | 8.75
19.8 | 20.0
17.6 20.0
14.7 14.0
13.6 14.0
14.4 LG.)
15.5 16.5
12.8 14.0
8.1 12.25
18.1 18.0
7.4 7.63
7.6 | 7.63
9.2 8.75
11 BG
9.3 |
9.7 |
12.8
6.8
WEG
7.3 8.5
12.9
14.8 11345)
15.0 LS To
12.3 12.0
TIES 12.0
ikea 12.0
13:.-8)|) -43%0
7.4 10.93
16.0 16.0
10.3 10.0
15.8 14.75
7.4 10.42
Vid! 21.81
24.0 | 21.81
22.4 | 238i
22.2 21.81
8.3 11.4
9.7 11.4
11.6 | 13.0
te. S| 1350
14.9 16.0
14.1 16.0
7.30 9.88
8.9
UES) 10.51
13.3 | 14.0
15.2 | LO
16.4 17.0
iver.) l(a)
10.8 15.0
LONd 10.47
i Uy We b 15.0
12.4 12.5

Found.

Uv

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NPD NOOWA

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Wh hwWRWWWWEENO oO
CMOMOUMNOUMH
IN

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5

OONRRO RO CHOCOWREAN HR YAR TOORWAE MO WHodaNndDONPOOENMEO IR wate

©

* 421

422

Report OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

Taste II—
Collec- NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANU-
tion No. FACTURER OR JOBBER. Sampled at
1254 Cyphers Incubator Co., Buffalo, Buffalo, Cyphers Incubator Co.,
1161 Cyphers Incubator Co., Buffalo, | Troy, H. W. Gordinier,
1255 Cyphers Incubator Co., Buffalo, Buftalo, Cyphers Incubator Co.,
1253 Cyphers Incubator Co., Buffalo, Buffalo, Cyphers Incubator Co.,
1110 H-O Co., The, Buffalo, | White Plains, Corven & Co.,
1133 Harding, Geo. L., Binghamton, | Poughkeepsie,, Reynolds Elevator
O.,
1296 Armour & Co., Chicago, IIl., Lockport, J. T. Darrison,
1248 Armour & Co., Chicago, IIL, Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co.,
1117 Berg Co., The, Philadelphia, Pa , | Ossining, Crow &iWilliams,
1287 Barwell, J. W., Waukegan, IIl., | Biltenttville Ellicottville Milling
‘ 0.,
1348 Cornell Incubator Mfg. Co., The, Ithaca, Tenses, The Cornell Incubator Mfg.
Ou
1144 Harding, Geo. L., Binghamton, Albany, J. A. Reynolds,
1329 Harding, Geo. L., Binghamton Binghamton, Geo. L. Harding,
1129 Bowker Fertilizer Co., New York, | Poughkeepsie, J. J. McCann,
1301 Bowker Fertilizer Co., New York, | Albion, Woods & Sprague,
1246 Romaine, DeWitt, New York, Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co.,
1295 Armour & Co., Chicago, IIl., Lockport, J. T. Darrison,
1349 Cornell Incubator Mfg. Co., The. Ithaca, cacy The Cornell Incubator Mfg.
‘One
1141 Darling & Co., Chicago, IIl., Hudson, J. H. Vosburgh,
1239 | Darling & Co., Chicago, IIl., Gloversville, M. D. Kasson,
1206 Finn, G.%M., Syracuse, Utica, M. T. Jones,
1163 Stanton, H. M., Schenectady, Troy, Young & Halstead,
1247 Wuychet Fertilizer Co., Dayton, O., Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co.,
1298 Armour & Co., Chicago, Ill., Lockport, J. T. Darrison,
1251 Cudahy Packing Co. The, Kan. C., Kan., Buffalo, Cyphers Incubator Co.,
1249 Swift & Co., Chicago, IIl., Buffalo, Harvey Seed Co.,
1120 Pioneer Cereal Co., Akron, O., Peekskill, G. A. Bagley,
1352 Ryan Bros., Jamesville, | Jamesville, Ryan Bros.,
1351 Smith, A. V., Marcellus Falls, Marcellus Falls, A. V. Smith,
1214 | Alma Sugar Co., Alma, Mich., Watertown, A. H. Herrick & Son,

|
1

*jNot licensed in this State?for 1904, prior to

(Concluded).
PROTEIN
ec-
tion Name of feed. a
oO. uar-
Found anteed.
Perict. |) -Penict.
1254 | Forcing food, 16.2 18.17
1161 | Laying food, 155 15.26
1255 | Laying food, 15.7 15.26 |
1253 | Scratching food, ii eil 11.34 |
1110 | Scratching food, H-O, |. 10.6 12.0
1133 | Egg builder ration, Harding’s, iii
1296 | Poultry bone, coarse, 22.9 |24.0-26.0)
1248 | Poultry bone, fine, PANT 25.0
1117 | Poultry meat, 58.1
1287 | {Poultry meats, Blatchford’s 29.9 | 33.0
1348 |*Meat meal, Cornell. 36.6 |55.0-65.0)
1144 | Meat meal, celebrated 34.1 |55.0-65.0
1329 | Meat meal, celebrated. 35.6 |55.0-65.0
1129 | Animal meal, 34.1 30.0
1301 | Animal meal, 40.4 30.0
1246 | Boiled beef and bone, 45.6 45.0
1295 | Meat and bone, 51.4 45.0
1349 *Beef scraps, Cornell standard, 34.1 |42.0—-50.0
1141 | Beef scraps, pure, ground, 56.5 |55.0-65.0,
1239 | Beef scraps, pure, ground, 52.0 |55.0-65.0
1206 | Beef scraps, ground, 41.6 | 42.64
1163 | Beef scraps, 40.6 50.0
1247 *Beef scraps, ground, 58.8 | 50.0
1298 | Blood meal, 83.4 87.0
1251 |*Blood meal, 82.8
1249 |*Blood meal, 83.8 87.0
UNCLASSIFIED FEEDS.
1120 | Barley feed, Pioneer, 13.7 fon
1352 | Barley meal 13.9
1351 | Barley meal, 13.1 14.
1214 | Beet pulp, dried, 8.4
May 3, 1904. + A condimental preparation.

New York AGrRicULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

|

Far
Guar-
Bl Found. anteed.
Per ct. Per ct.
4.0 aielatt
4.2 5.5
1.8 byeN5)
2.9 Salli
3.1 3.0
3.9
1.0 | 5.0-6.0
0.9
16.8
Chait 10.0
17.1 |10.0—-15.0
13.6 |10.0-15.0
14.1 /10.0-15.0
10.0 520
9.0 5.0
Tigao! 15.0
12.4 8.0
22.1 |30.0—-35.0
13.2 |10.0-15.0
11.9 |10.0-15.0
19.1 19.12
25.6 50)
12.6 9.0
0.2 0.2
(0 yt33
0.5
3.0 4.61
3.4
4.1 3.4
0.7

v

womens
conwHans

Pee
bho nT bo bo

423

424 REPORT OF THE INSPECTION WORK OF THE

The samples analyzed may be classified as follows:

TaBLE III.—CuassiFICATION OF SAMPLES ANALYUED.

NAME OF FEED. | No

3 oO.
| samples. | brands.
| |

Cottonseed. meals.) Miaysitc taints cinvous ere ere eit. os wel cterspeie ha nes eee i lrg 13

| Atay stevevo Wea) 1 hetcc et: ye epee aes pene NPI gk ar SR eth AORN RR os fae - 8 19 | 10

Linseed cake, ground........ SES SHO ROS oe OnE SG ooae 3 3

Distillers} Praise. oh vos stage ete aS crete mere ee tei Leo eee | 12

ISTEWEES, PLAINS yt. ate oien ens aut OIG oe ene aR ee eEo eae en 2 1

INT ATE SPEOUES 2 Brn cchs eels oie chica tema hats ope aie) este aT ete eee eee ALA Eee bs 6

Glittertvemiealt hse Saree, toe Shelve tm afferaisls arn ona for oye-svevavaiarate espe rreemane 1 iI

Gliten feed ack Ne ates te aes SO ein ot Dene eee | 10 7

Germ (oil meal es. 2 si. hon rine ee cin shel te See De OE 1 1

Ker alin es ste che sane jo Se sicher Ooh adede aio. lesayeiciessve’ helt hels Meee 2 1

Hominy feedror phop ss espa canine one tithe oe ee eae et 14 10

Mixed feeds! (brantand middlings)snc.c8 cit ceils Geers aioele clomioeteres 35 30

Ontsrand their byaproductaern sce seen tec etoce isn Lee ele 6 is}

Compounded feeds, proprietary and otherwise............--+---- 96 74

BOUT Y FOOGSEE Sl rclend lchovaia ates eel creie eee teic ts ene gabtie Ok eee 34 29

MIsceHAnecOUstieeds te feet cee tee eee oie oe ee ieinne ioe 4 | 4

BP Natelcesebecn rr ahne Vike nt one cM eats. cf erie Me aaa 263. —| 203
|

BRANDS ESPECIALLY MENTIONED.

The brands mentioned in Table IV are named for special con-
sideration either because they are not what their name would
indicate or because they are compounded by the use in part of
inferior materials, oat hulls being the undesirable ingredient in
nearly all cases.

It is unquestionably true that oat hulls have slight value as
food for cattle, and their introduction into a compounded feed
lowers the quality of the feed and should proportionately lower
its price.

New YorkK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 425

TaBLeE IV.—BraNnps NAMED FOR SPECIAL CONSIDERATION.

—— ———————— ——— ———————————————————————————————————————Sooooooooo™

Collec- |
es Name or Frep. Protein. | Fat. Fiber.
oO.

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct
1257 Cottonseed meal, 21.8 5.0 2287;
1189 Mixed feed. Blue Grass, ialOne 1.9 18.0
1219 Oats, ground, | 7.9 3.2 20.5
1157 Oat feed, X, | Tar 3.0 24.0
1181 Oat feed, Vim, 8.1 20 =e 22356
1177 Oat feed, Cream, | ei | Le5 25.6
1183 Oat feed, Royal, ke 2.1 Pag ieal
1340 Oat feed, Royal, oa 2.0 29.7
1153 Corn and oat feed, Capitol, 6.3 2.6 18.4
1086 Corn and oat feed, Victor, 8.1 } 4.1 ELD
1299 Corn and oat feed, Victor, 8.9 4.6 Lh
1238 Corn and oat feed, XXX 9.6 | 4.6 10.4
1317 | Corn and oat feed, XXX, Oa7e444) 4.5 14.0
1192 Corn and oat feed, De-Fi, | 9.4 2.5 15.8
1084 Corn and oat feed, Boss, Mao 2.4 15.4
1085 Corn and oat feed, Excelsior, 9.4 4.4 13.0
ial Corn and oat feed, Excelsior, 9.6 6.2 10.3
1191 Corn and oat feed, Anchor, 9.1 2.4° 14.1
1227 Corn and oat feed, Niagara, 6220) 2.9 16.8
1300 Corn and oat feed, Niagara, we oO 15.6
1234 Provender, ewe 2.7 13.3
1145 Provender, choice corn and oat, Klos: DIZ | 11.4
1302 Provender, choice corn and oat, 8.4 i ele a ag 18.3
1115 Ground feed, 6.8 2.9 15.5
1158 Ground feed, Puritan, a3} 2.6 15.3
1359 Mixed feed, Arcade, 7.4 4.7 | 14.3
1335 Wheat bran and oat hulls, 8.9 235 25.8
1193 Dairy feed, Great Western, 8.1 22 19.9

COMMENTS ON THE RESULTS OF INSPECTION.

A study of the figures showing the results of the inspection
up to May 3 reveals the fact that the samples representing quite
a large number of brands contained considerably less protein
than called for by the guarantees. In all, at least 52 samples
showed a larger deficit than would be regarded as reasonable.

426 Report oF THE INSPECTION Work.

The deficit occurred as follows:

Gottonseeth Meal ns. 6-2 <r. ais wets ses geen ae ee eee 5 samples.
Tnimseed imealt. © <i ..cdstantts 4 oysec'e. = 3 2 ER MOL MATE soe 9
Distillers’ dried joraims h45 0 0. 8ei0h sc eee eee wees pee ee 4 is
(Ghukem feed |. 2s UALR Sue athe aia Alay cic ave weal epee ene 4 ue
Evounmticy feed? srt et he ed Petia ton ne eree eee 6 oe
Yompounded and proprietary feeds............... 18 i
POM yAHOOUR. . pom on: fest ae ty clemie 2 oie cree ot ioa ie 6 =
52

One brand, licensed as cottonseed meal, sold by the Husted
Milling and Elevator Co., of Buffalo, N. Y., and recorded as man-
ufactured by R. W. Biggs & Co., of Memphis, Tenn., was found
to contain. only 21.8 per ct. of protein, whereas the minimum
guarantee is 41 per ct.

The material is evidently cottonseed feed, or cottonseed meal
mixed with ground hulls. Such a feed is fraudulent in its
character.

APPENDIX.

“JT. PreriopicaLs RECEIVED BY THE STATION.

IL. MerrorotocicaL REcorDS.

Appendix.

PERIODICALS RECEIVED BY THE STATION.

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455

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

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69 | &8
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69 88
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67 LL
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6g 08
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oF ZL &F ag ZI
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6F ¢9 625 | eae 8Z
68 oo | 9°33 | &F 6
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gg 82 91 1g gT
gg ¥8 9% | g°98 21

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OF <9 98 6F Jani
Tr | 9°¢9 Vemeel sean 21
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AVERAGE MontTHLY TEMPERATURE SINCE 1882.

November. |December.

LD AIO AIO OD OU SH 1D C1919 HH AO ORRE IE O10

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March.

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09 69 HO OV.OD A. Od 6D BOO 2 A ACO HOD ra 4

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ANAANNAMANANTANANANAAA

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‘SINV1d ADVAAVO GHLWINOONINA GNY daLVIOQOONI—'] FLVId

PLATE IJ1.—Errectr oF LIME-SULPHUR-SODA WASH ON LEAF-EATING CATER-
PILLARS AND ON SCALES: A, SPRAYED; B, UNSPRAYED.

A. Ps
aS

PLATE JIJ.—Errecr oF LIME-SULPHUR-SALT WASH ON PEACH LEAF-CURL
AND SCALES: 1, UNSPRAYED: 2, SPRAYED.

?

ee e :
giant Net wattle 2

PLATE IV.—Limn-suLppur-SALT WASH AS A PREVENTIVE OF PEACH
LEAF—CURL: 1, UNSPRAYED ELBERTAS; 2, SPRAYED ELBERTAS.

ww 1 . n
fa) ene a fy
My ate

A (

vr

PLATE V.—PreEpARATION OF LIME-SULPHUR-SALT WASH: 1, OVER WOOD
FIRE; 2, IN POPULAR STEAM OUTFIT.

Pe 3 *
ead

PLATE VI.—EFFEcT OF FALL SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON FitTz-
GERALD PEACHES: UPPER, BOILED LIME-SULPHUR-SALT WASH; LOWER, LIME—

SULPHUR WASH.
Orchard I, Photographed May 31, 1904.

PLATE VII—EFFecr OF FALL SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON Firz-
GERALD PEACHES; UPPER, NOT TREATED; LOWER, SELF—BOILED LIME—SULPHUR—
CAUSTIC SODA WASH.

Orchard I, Photographed May 31, 1904.

iv

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FOG ‘1 AB poydessoyoyg ‘T paeyolg |
‘“HSVM VaOS
OMSAVO-HNHATAS-ANIT HLIM GHAVUdS ACAVID ANIAY ‘SWATd NO SHHSVM UAHAIAS HLIM ONIAVNdS TIVd 40) LOMaay— TIA LV Td

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“dHAVUdSND “AGNAVIO ANIGY ‘sWOTd NO SHHSVM YAHAIAS HIM DNIAVUdS TIVa wO Loaddy— KX ALWId

PLATE XI.—Errecr oF FALL SPRAYING WITH SULPHUR WASHES ON PLUMS;

Upper, Reine CLAUDE SPRAYED WITH BOILED LIME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC SODA

wasH; Lower, BURBANK SPRAYED WITH SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC
Rows SPRAYED WITH OTHER WASHES SIMILAR.

SODA WASH.
Orehard II, Photographed May 31, 1904.

‘NOILISOd NI SUHAOD :SENTWINAIXA ONIGVHS-ANNAAMVUIS— TIX WLVId
‘VAGNGY) LY

NVA NNO DY

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‘VAGNGYD) LY L¥Id aaavHg

VAUNGD): LY LVId GXaVHSN/)

4

PLATE XIV.—View IN INTERIOR OF NATURAL TEMPERATURE ROOM OF STATION
FRUIT HOUSE.

| 7, 7, 7 UE
] [pe sanremerrrre eas

iV wa a BA IV
<1 7 ROR REO ” EEE RD / BRS 7 7 RZ | Ko

NATORAL TEMPERATORE

Room

how Fyroom

FIRS OVeoRy

A Ye ee —— 14

PLATE XV.— First svory PLAN OF STATION PRUIT HOUSE.

Sp. er. 1.20 we7 less than 1.00
FIG. 1.—FRoOM SEED OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY LESS THAN 1.20.

FIG. 2—FRomM SEED OF SP. GR. 1.23-1.26 (THE OprimuM).

Sp. cr. 1.35 1.33 1.27
FIG. 3.—TuHE HIGHEST RANGES IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

PLATE XVI.—CuLTuRES OF CLOVER FROM SEEDS OF LOW, MEDIUM AND
HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

& ae un
i yf

FIG. I. SHOWING UNEQUAL VIGOR OF PEPPER SEEDLINGS
FROM SEEDS OF DIFFERENT SIZES AND COLORS.

FIG. 2. —SHowtnGc 2QUAL GERMINATION OF PEPPER
SEEDS OF DIFFERENT SIZES AND COLORS.

Sp. gr. 1.03 1. 03-1. 12 Salo
PIG 3.—YieLDs OF ROOTS FROM SWEDISH TURNIP SEEDS OF DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Pate XVII.

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of” Lo't a cot bot to's tO" 10 I 00 t> ah IC
Vy VEU gy (OO ggg 90°t

git SEU Gy et

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ye = 2 |
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\ 4 :
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'
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ic
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of 7" dadanr aut | =
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ieee ipu4at 3SO 9
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We serminations

SmaH seed. (diameter 24 & 3mm.)

Medium sed( 6 3 3% 6)

Large seed ( 35 a) ee

Sp.Ge <-00 1.00 NOG Mca CALC ys enue:

CHART II.—Re.ative NUMBER OF SMALL, MEDIUM SIZED
AND LARGE SEEDS OF MABEL GRAPE, AND THE RELATIVE DIS-
TRIBUTION OF EACH AS REGARDS SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

\
26 Sua secede) i \
24 Medium een eek sey / \

|

°
Sp. Ge? too M9" ye 3) jog FOS nog MOF now MOD nto SM aia, MS pig tS

CHART III.—PrErRcENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS OF
MABEL GRAPE OF DIFFERENT SIZES.

ll
4
SP

hs A

18 was Seeds yerminated. the jivst day
SB “ rt later

SSS " aid not germinate,
WS

dt

of Seedg

No
=rywhta OrNDWOS

Z
Z
Y
g
Z
Z
Z
A
g
Y
%

SSS

Plot del

).00 - 1.075 1-125 118

1.10 15 pig Ze a 2 ag URE as WAC pag 267 ho 2 ai

»

CHART IV.—DistrrisutTion oF CHAMPION OF ENGLAND PEAS AS REGARDS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND RELATIVE NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS GERMINA-
TING IN 66 HOURS AND OF THE TOTAL GERMINATION.

INDEX,

A.
PAGE
Acetie acid in cider vinegar ......... Rae URIS ee Stee Poh Pt ep aaaGe: 164
LOSSMONpStaM GINO co ayer see teate se enone see hes 155
fermentation, effect of straining cider on.............+... “ 152
OERCHCOR oe pa grten de ote jae my guaelet As Sana yeala stars 148
eilect Of AGGING WIMeGAT oo awe me sepa - 152
MIMO oom cae a ooao ous Do Am ooneE DoS 148
relation of temperature to .............. 150
PUMICE OR. ices sleia aphangisfele:s| tenes 149

Acid, acetic. (See Acetic acid.)
advantages of use in making cottage cheese................-+++-- 100
effect of, in artificial digestion of nitrogen compounds in cheese.103, 108
lactic. (See Lactic acid.)
malic. (See Malic acid.)

objections to use in making cottage cheese.............--+-+-++5- 100
meleninara way CopremieniKony) Oe ills 75 Cok oe ol toa olgmmuas anor eho ae 90
MEPS ree Monae on eieey ANSE. 6 elogs suo Bao ge he oe co uaed roy aic 96, 112
AGIdS ass preservallves UN CAMINO i lle cels 2056 a0< eyes cheiedshl ele) ©) sth te ohn ohshe ss 50
DV ep UAMES EPIRA cae sa pees Om ws ovate ated = Peon oats ©: i 0) "6, => abo) Wah Shayievehwr al cms a= 127

Air, necessity for, in acetic fermentation...............+.s2eeeeeeeeeee 168
Alcoholic fermentation in apple juice, study.............-.e esse ee eeee 144
cider, effect of adding yeast on.............. 147

¥ MIAN ASEM CT tratsisrais hat gete oneness Heid eho els 144
relation of temperature to ............ 146

GIINEE LOm ete sore telstra tokio 145

Alfalfa, green, composition............. Reet ake: siNene ts. abo etet atebabancee 34, 35
FAURE aT COMINGS ODP Se denweter gteled.hemaicrerofeleNavehoteberorotehavetel est wrefinieislorsy cet slelanskatatets 121
PNTENN RESO TGR INI VES RINT GA sit cbc oho 7G 0 Dob kiCOCoMICIUIDIU oI emia on 414
PETIT ZOTS wes ee Ie he ee ts ena e coer te eel o HS 389, -397
AMdGewicrmWerlembullebins: Dycerssieyceidistrolcsencteeiele tsetse site oe eliete « -389, 397
Anhydro-oxymethylene di-phosphorice acid in wheat bran, properties...... 120
Animal Husbandry, note on work...........---. esse cece eee eee eeee 16
report of Department... 02.00.2002 ee eee eee 31

food rsor ducklings, investigation. .../.....)..262 Vee ee ees eee 31

face COMIMOSILIGH -0es ait. se dle se ite ae eats e alee eV Ses wee 34, 35
fmnemmerors poultry. cee. ak woe ee eae wae al alate lh olny ee wl os 16

Antiseptics in canned goods, use deprecated............. 5-22 e erences 50

446 INDEX.

PAGE

Apple juice, aleoholic «fermentation; study =... ../.2.+.240068--> oe eee 144

COMPORIELON = 5. Sc BS clare beet At ee cic 138

poor, producing poor vinegat. «2% 2.0.2. oci.7 eee he ieee ee 167

sugar in,.at different dates.s. ty..° 2s. ce a. seins «2 see ae ee eee 143

varieties, behavior in storaets eer og ® sino ac. «seminar 277-334

(Varieties alphabetically arranged.)

life TP Storage fi owe ohiss oe ok ae ee 255

temperature for. storage. 72.0. cme avis oie eee 265

Apples; beeomine bitter in ‘skin. in gtorage.... ....0e so. 6chee cane 273

mealy (in Storage sc... cca en one tae ee ee 273

changing inxcolor in. storage =. -.velaa-s : .sncien oe Se eee 271

conditions affecting keeping quality... .......°.2:.).. c..ses ener 259

decaying “rapidly \im (ShOLAgE. 14 cActos ote oo, eee ee 275

slowly: In Stongees ir gei ec eke ee ee eee 274

different varieties, composition of juice.................... 138, 141

efféct, of season “on keeping quality: "7/21: 2+ one ee 268

efficiency of different kinds of storage for..7 2 /.0.. 0. ..:-20- 465 262

Iralble::Lopbirst In SbOrage jy. = cre it ese co stern see ae es 274

jite*instorage of varieties. : vol see ce 6 cco ee ee eee 255

losing firmness: tne storweess ol. bee lien. oseepe ame eee ee ee 272

QuialiGyi im STOVASe so kes. Sacer okay ape BOERS oe cc 271

of. New. York,:note-on-publication.....4250 2 eo aene eee 13

not resistant’ to heat before storine%0-). 1-6 1. cee eee 277

resistant to heat before storing... 22. sme oe eee ee ee ee eee 276

season'of varieties differently stored..4.> s+... 4+ eee eee 263

shriveling im st@rage:.2 5.052. ss.2 262 Bere to ee 273

storage Investigation! 2 oie cace: eke Oe oe en eee eee ae 21, 250

femperaGune Of clOLrace Lory. or cee eee at ee eee an te ee 265

varieties’ scalding in; storages: . i272. eel cece tts ene ee eee 269

Artificial ‘digestion of -cottage’‘cheese.....°.).. 249%. 2 oe ee eee a eee 103

B.

Bacteria, cause of losses impeanning peas. acis.).0ohs +. 2 ie etn ee 16, 49

; Swelling im canned pease. va -aah oiericier- eta e ee eeeaee 55

causing swelling in canned peas, description.................. 56

nature, amd, AGEON Eph oE isthe ko .cla wren! ota Sel Me 51

of different lands ~...24. 3.93. Se see eee 52

Bacteriology; note Only WOrke ees pk seialoRew uate ht cpsie i oaks Ecleeene ee 16

report of Departmentac: | ase: ease Heer ee af 47

Barrels, unclean, as) cause of poor vinegars: /°.).(4 520.1) s< eee eee 168

Bedeh,’ S.3A., bulletins: byes: Gece ah dan nes cle ee ee e eee 187, 250

Bibliography of specific gravity seed selection.......:......-:..0.2.-5- 385

Bittér skin in‘stored ‘apples... -245-.c4...o 7.2 ae ae ee eee 273
Black rot of cabbage. (See Cabbage black rot.)

Bone meal; composition: 2 ee eren- oe EOP Co cette ein ore 34

Booth, N..O., appointment...) ..Ssoc- eas 2 ou eee ee ee 9

Bordeaux-arsenical mixture, formula used in experiment..............-- 191

Bran, wheat, nature of phosphorus compound in.................-... 19, 114

INDEX. Bee aly

PAGE
MMA ATe RIE WBA ROP TIAULOW = foe s.. .-n , sees os ae jpfetekd uci e ae ps eaemee 10
Bulletins, mailing list ........ Eh mea ore ces VE Gs, oxic AcE Sunt Biokeeyeps i eeskteme eases 12
publishedy ne VOOA Sts oie eas) 5 popes tyous) nS poate eke, cqspchersuedopeier a= 27
Bulletins reprinted:
UN eee ley cae tga Ohare ttetyes’ 16 0T aed acoheys atiay obs: mihi ae! ate ss ale oe © eet oR 81
PO shresns ta pa. tipi esa Sunset phos tpays Ge opeie spapatenebanteansi es © oct) cane 229
BE OI ER OTST ee ee ee Peet Emenee Py 187
OE IE ge hide) Ur Ach Pon Mas facie tan cr heh cree eats Save itch pee pen oe 250
21d OAH Sec ecdsene 9s" AS EAH Saye (ys ope vac sd austueyhaneves eae is oe eae aay ote 47
POE A ie Bees tte yesh Pass Tohnns eo 2c oe vee 8 Ste oieie wre.vl doesn © oe eae 114
VAIS Ee on Bie AO 0 Os Oe AP OIEC ERT Err EOE OER RT ER Ce ae ree Pr 62
Dees eye P a ep E Neyo Sis dey sic EEA hoksh tad: «ots dve «oa oree eke accuse ereieye 389
DOR eet Pret Peta ie ard eps, ay <n souct ray seeheys SPT ae 3 eect 397
a aa ee noes. &: = 4 apoan 2 oho iehaee nisps-e uassqe rere tae 206
VAD) a ighg aa ot One 0 oa GH orgie Oana y DC ICROTO ID DO ataIG tetonn eihiciavs eames Airis 405
PANE I PE Se SN el ie RES eae aR Ce ee Pm eee En Fe ek ate 335
FED cr ws Gio eee ONS Gr Meer cd AACS Oke IO Ce CER ERER RER ITT OT Oe he Rn te 122
OE tee eel yee Senate SI Sen MN es sc cael buna cans ds siecle vese 133
PEN Mere eh ate ac tay eto ae Pee. 6 Jarek Sa allSsucreysh> © Fiyaise’ sane 31
PEND Cece Oe A ela NS RU alc P ada c/daalbie fear h) dana Suaynys, stohatd wie 9
Bursting of apples in storage, varieties liable to........................ 274
€:
Capbages black=rots description) 2: cera = het ses ee eed tele ween 62
Serms on) cabbagerseed! 5.0005 cfs ahi dcneoue etter setts 67
LEV ALEN COS Sesto Sec aet terse Ad ra (eratel Pate ena onset ee ucts Eaele tale 63
relation of seed infection to disease outbreaks........ 17
SPECACMDVAESCOO nr MOCO ici scorer tre ce ciel sie events eteta nek sterarers Wi
VALU ya Ong S OTM. ce watts easement cue « pyshane ca nlepsnct tern thence 62
from»seeds of different Specific eraviby.... 2: sss. 5. ee we 368
seed, effect of drying on germs of black rot.................... 69
AH CENOGMOTMOM OW NINO: fepace. fo sh tenchar aortas) Se betet A anaye, aca, at otsiey okeesearats 65
BATIMNEC MSG OMS MKCE PUNE Met ee Toate, or ake tak Ale oes Wevae, ate elev cto antes o.0: ce ole ayes ores 49
MSeCHOn antisepelcsndeprecated ae serrate se Greats «oe <6 «sie ae 50
peas. (See Peas, canned.)
Carrots from seeds of different specific gravity....... PRIS ok BO wee 8 366
Casein ‘compounds: in cottage cheese, digestion...............5...00000. 103
culactatemincmimn lic SOUT IMO a. ora et 1.48 cshelet ceavees alle ateere eh: de, oxy ayers eiieiehe 90
monolactate wine milk: SOUTING Eee fn. sea es tele TLORCRO OAc 90
Caterpillars, leaf-eating, effect of lime-sulphur-soda wash on............ 197
Cauliflower from seeds of different specific gravity..................... 367
Changes chemical qinh milky SOUrimos ces Aa A eeic = eae hae oak lo so ~ oe nelaete 17
HOURS LEAL See ote Oa A taka ah hehe feet A Hac of YN ROMS ARS ALEN eyed snd arate 9
Cheese, cottage. (See Cottage cheese.)
Dutch. (See Cottage cheese.)
influence of division on digestibility... .....20+1. 222A. sncee ese ss 107
Chemical changes in milk souring, investigation ................ Wife acoils tte
(EU STIEABION I, Soak tsol cee sotre nierencer® GeaemBicacrs ra 87

Wem ARUMeM bap RE OTU Oye yeni.) sis else sks felig aie) aie ih) «10 lo) erm seh eho! ale $1

448 INDEX.

PAGE

Chemistry, work ANS je au ec aca sins cre chads Stas <2! Sake reer ea ae ne 17
Cider, ‘acetic fermentation= 22202). hc eee wks wl ed ee 148
alcoholic fermentation in, study...... Talalalate "e's co eet PEN USE a a ee 144
behavior of malic: aetd™in’, 2557.0 33 cays eds ee ee Sree 157

effect of adding vinegar on acetic fermentation................. 152

yeast on alcoholic fermentation................. 147

straining on acetic fermentation............0....0--00- 154

from different varieties of apples, composition................ 138, 141
management, of acetic fermentation...) =) o>. Li nese ere ae eee 148
relation of temperature to acetic fermentation in............... 150
aleoholic fermentation in............ 146

time: to acetic fermentation in). <:....<.\..Atens eae ee 149

alecholic fermentation in... 2.0. 20.02 -ase 145

sterilizing eftect on lossror maliczacider ps.cbei io eee ee eee 160
vinegar, Chemistry. Of (523.1 ciot isc raeehetear ele eee anes 133
experiments” am maa@keine 7 Fp. a)s). a cies eter eh ae 19

Cireular No. 5, Peprdmbss oii. '5. o-Ps wie otelel ete tet hey caste etcetera ey ee 223
Clark, Vie0A:; bulletins: (bys 55.6. 5 rant oo eee ee eae 229, 250; 335
TESTOMATTON (555.34 ores uiiat ote ete letra shale Maer ene ee 9

Clover seed, : Perminabion:. <= 5! 3 o/s/sleini blades eye's & Mets Te A eee ee 357
Coagulation of milk, relation to amount of acid.............:.......... 90
Codling moth, effect of lime-sulphur-soda wash on...................-.. 194
Color and specific gravity of seeds, correlation. .....0....2..2+-+-2e-05 361
apples chaneing rin, duro, StOndee netics cies eae aera eee 271
Commercial, fertilizers, analysesis... oo 2c. oe 7 Mente eee 389, 397
Gooperabive experiments os +3). fuespas? gach a. cate oe 14
Cornemeal; Composition << ie: y 6G ys cue as hikes GRO Le eee 35
Corrosive, sublimate.for seeds disinfections fu. syocueitetues a-t se eaneeeeee 74
Gost of shading strawberries: 5... ...= cco - 1 Soggy end oa eoee ney iors eis een 231
Cottage cheese, artificial digestion: of... ccs, 12 guts ashes onin = Sa ee 103
change of nitrogens compounds: cc) eists oa citehani eee eee 101

chemical \changespinem akin ens 7s vere ena uer een ene 81

COMPOSICLOM. She. cca.) eo ela dy saeeet aerenas SoU eee eae mene 99

from whole and skim milk, digestibility................ 106

influence of mechanical division on digestibility......... 107

investivation:s\c<..<'- une. 25 eee eid eee 17

making: with! acid: 1 vrai hannaiysS\- Brute Mee 96, 112

TONNEb cab ye sedinusy eh aches calene. dyatensetemucer ante sauna lll

mamufachune. <6. 7- <<) a, a,2 setepetecm hb te eee eee ae
MethodseoLmManuirachune ne See ticik es eee 98, 110

Milk sugary ane 3 He pee eibet tin\c eek Ned: Sco oho eee ene 95

MIOISEWUTES! HG pss epi apadepss hese eRe Ratio gs omc ee 93

TRUGEO MEN s Lites jo. {Sepsis choose ech See Rees eed eee open ete ane 95

QUaLUG TOS eo: io. si) 0) =: cuoneesynit era ec empev are temic oiohar tie ee rane eae 112

separation oficurd, and (whey .isyapky- alte <i, ag eee ee 96

temperature and) moistwrer. tbo iss eee eer aarti 93

WRCLA et). scp Hoe Rh ee nee die Neda rena een 93, 99

Curd, separation from whey in making cottage cheese................... 96

D.
PAGE
emoustration Exe rime mbae set jriee i ajoeispeheld Sy» sjsvelsv «<a hapsiaia)bye ove wo ale e's 13
Department of Agriculture, United States, cooperation in apple storage.. 21
: Animal Husbandiny, ereport).. <usfsjsi-stercieme syopstessieys p[e sae 8 6 5 oe 31
Ba cberinlogy Menon) irs cities tise wi bis we’ diese bus 68 wrasse B byes 47
Chemistry, report ..... IOORDOUU DOL s coUGD aT HOO Oa SoU 81
I NLOMOla Myo KEPOLU ic). seek aeleis<fele sc) <1e16 « st= esis o)« o)-pshele 187
OMire OUligUne Hare pO tatiana 2) qeie | cosies ieltierayrisye =| “yates os |eliers el sielener 229
Dessication, effect on germ of cabbage black rot... 2.2.2.0... eee e eens 69
Digestibility of cottage cheese from whole and skim milk................ 106
Direction warntiticialofscottage Cheese. 2/5. 2 se sis oe eee blets[eleleje eicers eo oe 103
of cottage cheese, influence of mechanical division............ 107
Wrtactate, casein, im’milk/souring.....5..-..-.----- aici 5 60:4 0S Geka Diy iat oee 90
ID MEGEOT REM ONG A Olen yelape aya s, seee osaa 0s. 6) 2120 es selioFel leis) sv eies ust eferes ore) © cise eye 5 9
Mineases, strawberry, elech Of Shading. < .. .% evissirlnsysinieye Gene deere vee ces 239
ICSAC. Ore COE) ep oabe meer aumitc Do OBO cco AUD Ot bOdod Ob Cote UT Os ee 74
GIRECLIGH SLOTS pies shateushs sy 5 vahoe MF cinta by brelo ieaevePe feral s) sysreie}>.= 76
(DEtedmbloodsy COMPOSI ELON yey. ra cyayty-9915,co)) -7e)orajei v6. oislich ete barieyevys) Welton suctele orsinys 34
Dryine= eect on) serm, of cabbage black roti... : \s))ooe pete eicrs sgcts ajo ae): 69
Wurckhines animal TOO LOK, INVESLIG A LLOM sty 57 eke spe alam i Pavets <tciw tp sss) 61510 31
food and growth under rations varying in animal protein..... 33
37, 38, 39, 40
MALYONS LOC wre tey Pars eiei aries otis. eile et oc ooe Wislal,o: a ool euaataee cata eicee 34, 36

Fi.
Hanlmess otestraw berries, Ciech Of SNAGING..)sip. lena sale e030 0 21+ creel ee oie © 242
Egg-plants from seeds of different specific gravity...............e0eeee 371
imtoo] ooish.vaAssISvaM yn Ap PONE MeNMts yale are cis pelela\e os <0 cle «10 6)» 60s c.6.0/ sok 9
Piitdmoatomy, Department Of, TOPO .0.) cone ccieie 8 Wins ie eae ie.8 owe wimin'e, nce note 187
HO LC RO UIE W OLN tee one vare-nMerane i eMeteesVetsle: alisinls (eh ctScyer el et svaileisiis\eie)0) ekeius 19
Oe raat Mpa ERE TI Meee sate ol cette cg ete et eee) x fone’ Ghnlled at el gh8, ie Seat si 5L.6. ni Sts) osuten's ll
Biv ApOnatione CHecth, Of SHAME TODS ciety = sine okie jaya 6 wg 9mm ol syopegnm Sian aims 236
Pin MEEIMICMEN COOPETALIVE Rite cits cite o/c yrictel es 6°Ala) a 6 @) tec) tiahels wcctnas 5 bimile cole otate 14
CAMA OM. ocosovarwpd co comnobds IO MNS Tas cuOoocUd boc 13
BID teed ob) (CME VINE GA Tedrctess sev clgis bly e aln@)s me's « eyniele wie's, ait 19
PUUlenyALec dine MOLeVON rise. ockeldy clejeiarccie om wlele!¢ cb oiee1 16
SHACIMN Se SLLAW DCELICS Iris acts cleave cies oye at eicisrekaro\enaye wi ens’ o eas 23
VM oeeyenbeeyl areolar Cibo dbhileaion gow ae Oo Deo me OG Deo 31

Es
Seed ISNT Cee terse eens caste este S)c2g var orm sth t a's) eMer ene w etegees wal ner ate ate wt ohe 08 20
PROS) OTPES: uae lle je attain Seeks. re Ce OOM A INERT cis teal er tetra 212
MISC OLPAUUP UNIT, WHEDES secs cocina ie cin rete ere mioic.eiwiaeieiae eee R eee ele cole «a's 206
Petey eACHOBPEMGSOADS! ooo. 5 was Cae nets nies wicle's pew eget s ee te cen sews ee res 127
Feeding experiments with poultry, note on................-+ee seers Ae a KE
SE MEIE Se ePTEAN VSS ele spare eretdic/sim 14 wherein iis ee ore wee) es se sie ep 28. tho e8e he's 414
TMSPICCLION, MOLE csc. ees s cette eee teres en yee 25
On WOy IOV ods ocalpocb est peo cbacr sooGuE 10
PASO eta clel sisi ictet is fev sbemegniniawiaie’® rein eeieir © ck ae
PIDUIHTET ACE IEDEL LT cor iais es saiersctet= srs ajmcre = oe mi eeinre oe ssn < oarel rl 4u]

29

450 INDEX.

PAGE
Fermentation, acetic. (See Acetic fermentation. )
alcoholic. (See Alcoholic fermentation.)
effect on malie’acid ‘in«cider 0.0% 7. Gh Vine aes eee 157
in canned peas, note on investigation............eeeeeee- 16
Fermentations in vinegar making, unfavorable conditions..............-.. 167
Fertilizer inspection, note ......... ccc cec cece cree ence reese ence senens 24
OB NEW LAW. 0). '. seer cde Seale eeele atte el eiateleieleletetat 10
POPOL 61.52 hide + als cee oe e wheres Metals aie dele nate: fates 389, 397
MAnNUPAccurerss + [USES se ccernsiere eects tees chelsea Maret akemeteietelre reas 394, 402
commercial; ‘analyses O60. Ae os Ses Pe aeee atest ataintets 389, 397
trade: Values: ss fsa dcce ne cc cis cite eras a ciate a ee lderonavelere ta teteohals 392, 400
Firmness, apples losing in storage...........e ce eer ec ee sere eee eeeeeees 272
Fish oil soap, analyses (2/056 ci 0c cc's ciclo wiele aieeretstetalniatehalat a! min talia) atetalatanats 126
formula; for malkang oer ite Rausteretonclebetetorar chain kets 128
Home MANUACEULE Hse kaye oe arose cee hel ol ate ehele Neenah ole eletee eleeetioes 128
Food, animal, for ducklings, investigation............ssceeceeeeeeseess 31
Foods for ducklings, composition.........c-2ccssccecseccscenssovscs 34, 35
Formalin for seed’ disinfection’... < suis arte e'els'suale ste eela © we teratere nistelatatle le 74
Frost, shading as protection... 1.1.0.0... ccc. cece es cee teewesnecee eden cuts 237
Fruit, dirty, as cause of poor Vinegar... ........cee cece rs ceeer cece eees 168
house, Station, general description...........cceeeeeeeeecceeees 253
storage house, temperature ranges iN.......... eee esse cece eeees 254
Faller:-i. ‘D:, ‘bulletin by < 25055 os s8s ss dis 2 2 ste ae ene ca a ete ORM teen etol a aia 405
G.
Germination and specific gravity of seeds, relation.............++eeeee- 355
of seeds, effect of corrosive sublimate ..............-e0+s 74
Fora Hae aleve ielehe tee estenetel </ erelerefeedetetfeters 75
MOREA ces coc cua csatercutoiee el vtele eye nisies eieie ete ater nee teas 356, 360
Germs of cabbage black rot on cabbage seed........ eee eee c cree ee eeeee 67
Grape seeds, specific gravity Of........ 6. cece cece cece eee eee eens 348, 352
Gravity, specific. (See Specific gravity.)
Growth, effect of shading On.........ceccccereee eee e ce eetereceevecees 237
Hi.
Harding, H. A., bulletins by...........sseeee eee eceeeeeeeeeeeneees 47, 62
Hart, E. B., bulletins by......... cece cece eee ce rc ceccnenesncens 81, 114
Heat, apple varieties not resistant to, before storing.............+.++-- 277
resistant sto, before Storingyy, ... cts. iter nee 276
as a preservative in CAnNing.......... ee eee eee e cece eee eeeeeeeeee 51
Heating, effect on canned peas.... 1... sere cere sere renee ereeereennes 60
Hodgkiss, H. O., appointment. ....-.. sere eee eee eee e nee e eee e eee neenes 9
Home-made soap, spraying experiments.........e eee cece cece eee eens .- 129
Horticultural Department, report Of...... eee eee reer e eter e eee eeeeee 229
Horticulture, work in, note........ cece eee e eee erence ence ce ceeenaes 21
Horticulturist, assistant, changesS..... sss eeeee ce ereceeseeeecceesveces 9
Houses for Staff needed... .......ccccccccccerwcnrenseodecessveseseses 1l

Humidity, effect of shade On... 1... eee e eee cece tect ene eneeeeneeeee 235

f INDEX. 451
Tr.
PAGE
PEPLGVeMeNntAs PENErAln a. sa seme oS fe cc et eee sy a hos mes a RNa 11
Taspeetion or feedine Stuiis, NOG. . 2.5652 oss vse > sv oiatS WES « biota ee 25
REMI ole Fj iets LNelaiel seas ak eid RES 405
fertilizers note wre. te Seis sres eke Rial Ge one ONS Cee oe 24
MEBOP Met fs «1 cts bas 2) a.ce\s de ao Bictdle SURO 389, 397
WOT OLE ire ete crest Span dareat eh @ cae sal tos LN SLINGS SMR eo 24
ETO ee eiaie et Sai cs i fay koala Sey wetats oases Siceks bie. Deal 389
J.
PE Ets, PTE bIMae DY se e's) alae! « alex's «:< eae eS Gh MDD. 9, 389, 397, 405
PEPOTE Asa ORTECLON: ix. s/s looks Paslode onan dl. fette 9
K.
“Keeping. qualities: of apples) by varieties ........2 0000. caer een n co ecese 255
COMMILTONS: RMCCHING a), (5: << 050 \cceyssatoibier dvesnje ta 259
Kerosene emulsion fon Pear PSVlla.. 22's. b/es «spe. s scois o.oleeidys wee sasaleo eles 224
L.
WHChIECH. LOTIBALION Dt IMI SOULING 5c = >.0 cise s se ce as ajesle cae hd ssiaece'e ¢ 90
MPACECHACIACTOLMeG Wa yHOUTINe OF WINK oy ois cure ws Sie ewe eee ks aieee ewes 88
eRe ECIAtANG CO MCACION, CRANIOES.. . o 2s o.b ae ols oso on be eaiein siesiw lee Oe owed 10
WeClenome Ac pWOTKGOMVIMECG AT... 5)0.c's, s/s oiepsueessjeie) a cieievevn eivicleysielaveie elelesaielae ois 137
Pereaiven Atectns SLALION...« 4.) 14% were ee ee See eed, SO 10
epee ree CLE CHET GED FERELE OED 7c) cuetoee Javea st ake eee. ey e1aoie nisees & id sa etek ves tere a eT 236
ume-spuuy-SAle wae, TOFMUIAS ...ce oe cee. eee acer ssc come meee 203, 210
PE CDUERAIOW fcc oo iia cl nna «2s ani eyarcnauee kets 203, 210
Soda) wash; elect on) codling moth 21-1, 1cijatienicie tee cone 194
leat-eating caterpillars ...:.< <leiecs o> +: 197
BEES leesnis oie, es «exept cuntete,s fais ere he a ys ede 193
forsorchard treatment; ci. vary. sie eclectic ae 19, 187
LOUMINUILAS Beret rer she sre ha sas Sicvegsuectecks 191, 204, 21}
PUECP APA ION ech oe saint core hej 5) aspen, «ose 205, 21}
VS UL O LIMIT Actionchene latepebeycresel-. Sioksliogs ictopsus pels iSialageyautagn ce leeievsy os ores 211
EIS OfM DUPE CUS GOT OO ie cialis.) cy ata lets) o. s SyeVoNoy a's! «silo! apsesdeh she eysitysve¥s. 0 es: ov. e/e.4.8 27
MAMMA CCURETSNOls LECMING SCUPTS ses cre 4.4) sieves, «sae Blais sys.01s. 010» 6661s 407
(2A BU OUTS OT: Gols Of CERO Dae ee Se 394, 402
ase of aectic ACId IN Vinegar on BtANGING® 6.55. fel. as 02 sens vie a s.che eines 155
a La OLE ECUN GE SINTOCEIO Mica slot 2s =, aialvtoie-9 2)» =) =) s'nie- ©, o/s: ene ieGounsyaus aysbnoueyeiand e 4 74
M.
bel) The, LOSI) eas Goro Grn elesate: Sino Ree ncn acto es CRP ee eae, Ser cree A cee 12
NGAI LEM TICE MPEG Sit OTs tye! cic} sj ale pehes- aso. -1/oriiou seein vol ainsoz f= 'esciee] syevevenssenecersiessy ere) eters 12
Malice acid in apple juice, behavior during fermentation................ 157
cider efrect, of, sterilizing -OnVlOSS)./t.157-)-ljale ae vs sive ere eee exe 160
ATG. I 1AENCMICALION, OF VINCOAR 550, 5.0.3 « <oei0, ajeceyajagere sn ¢ siete « 161
MIME PLHEeESy On LECGING (SEUITS 2 5) «0a > sais slo c'h lh Siplet sin )ye.'s>/a.0.0 w wra'ess beens sip 407

FOTCMEZOLA ge weren ate cerotote tence ones le telat ceyeh ch ate\ oy eyes 'o-e's -os are i 394, 402

452 INDEX.

PAGE
Mealiness of apples in storage........ weiajiere 4.6) 6 tela yelevavahcne, sa iets te ster ae 273
Meat meal, compositions: 07502275 nc220022 20 ¢s8aeanaseten Ot ee een 34
Meteorological ‘records. ais saiccc: Seca ha tment ee eee eee ee 435
Methods of determining solids in cider vinegar...............2.200000- 165
spéecifie gravity ef seeds?2"1: 2... sce = cate visions 340
Milk} coagulation: ‘and acids)... snet ici vous he ee cai seta cere “2 Oe
souring, chemical changes, investigation.................. 17, 81, 86
explanations ef changes: 2s: ets 42 Scines ane cin ptectee eens 84
tabulation of chemical changes..............00.ceeeee0s 87
Sugar, decrease in souring of malic. 4.2... .(.0 sic a o-(ee on eee 88
in! cottage: cheese. ..2s\.\retatece teases <n in te ae ee 95
Moisture in ‘soil; effect:of shadevon:. +5 ...¢see ree. eee eee eee 234
Monolactate, casein, in “milk ‘SOUTINg. jcc fos ¢ cic: st shee o's Meee cee 90
“Mother ” of vinegar, effect of adding, on acetic fermentation of cider... 154
Mustard seed, germination. . 0.10. . sncjdutopeay: apf Medea dn 2)» eats ee 356
N.
Nicholson, J. F., bulletin by : o..\4: osis/eije. «sr slates Goelei eet ate Cae ee 47
Nitrogen compounds, in cottage cheese, change ............ceeceececes 101
GIZeStION: cic caine tcc ere 103
Ti COULA SE "CHEOSE o 7 oe oye where wis she eigen B iopi ee eae isl a ee 95
oO.
Orchard treatment, lime-sulphur-soda wash for............0eceeeueee 19, 187
P.
Paracasein compounds in cottage cheese, digestion.............0eeeeeees 103
Parrett;..P. J.,.<bulletins * byt ic. s+... 82. ora te sare aid © vicina 187, 206
CITCUEAT DY 5. cgecerivaresors mytupvaye sigs Gks v a's) Gigi es orale ieee a On 222
Patten;, Az dg bulletinebyi 5 chic, &.+.1cec+s os ssers.e, or egetsco) esepelsys loyscaheners oucd eteleeerenene 114
Peaches, effect,of fall ispraiyan @ OW. rosh. o.s)0)- 010) <0 @ cies ays) ojareloietepeusehele 213, 214
Pear*psylla,snotes ‘and jremedies’<. 1%... 's.0 15 s16 sis oanle clos ete rorstele olen Neteraaee 223
‘Peas, canned, cause of swelling determined....................-ceesees 53
effect of heatin@: (3 make .\< els creretcio los eiciaiieese ei eee 60
fermentation ‘in,’ Notes? «cre crs.crstare ce eros SPaexe cl reise eee 16
swelling and decomposition, study...............sseeeees 47
canning, statistios << Gkajus bot ibe ence Seen sem ickire ene Soe 47, 48
PV aUbCHP OTe aarp oh oO oO Oa od MdaoddarashoNb sede sahsSo7f: 358
TOSSES; iN CANNING. «chi ecesotelete 31s clenetes wsael cicteleleus otehs rete otcae sete 48
processing to destroy bacteria, temperature...........sceeeceeeee 57
Peppers from seeds of different specific gravity...........seecceseceees 373
Periodicals: Teceived ss. o:.4-. as wseitaeciase oles panei susl ets nie Merete pyaleretal cies aie iaaaeete 429
Phosp} orus compound in wheat bran, composition .................06- 116
SOLAR geist 2s) 115
WV QCUTE, oe sccue cuore Sicusterne fake ener 19, 114
compounds similar to that in wheat bran................05. 116
Plant’ culture, applicability of ‘shading. (25% « - cere eae aie ee 246

INDEX. | 453

PAGE
Habs, Cece, Ob SMa Gang ..:27.0.y-, rae eats toh VPS a abate elders: ov ola teberareter ais 246
vigor as related to specific gravity of seeds................ee00. 365
Phims, effect of fallysprayano Onesie. ato cartel cM cleetelet« oe oehete 215, 217, 218
Pollination of strawberries, effectiof shading... 2.050....0. Jie eee de os 240
Poultry, animaliproteinyfars motes coy.) snes lk alte oe ee ee. Beene 16
LECMIN SLEXPEHIMENtS OLE LOM aks sseisilctel peocreleln| eee 2k Sete Mes sielsce s 16
(See also Ducklings.)
REC UpUt ALO, yaANt OVUM Dye MGW GIS oy cvacct ayes yp cl yt) set cberal aie e sestebabe devel « el allele) ole cave 441
PTET CTV ALLY CAMN eC MINN OS ei/etssostiiete ny auersi ersiaye cMeltaailer ofthe, ates isha sc nice elsce 49, 50
Processing peas to. destroy bacteria, temperature. ........05.0ccesseeces 57
Pes Tren EME g eUIULIA Bl LOT POUL ager ches 0s ov'ersi'ar orovsi ate" lohates sets ar ataval erste tues, 3. cun a: (e eliosee 16
eral G rae Vice) se LE GUILD Vecpeyey ns thsunceg ches sc< ARGCRE. sue. «gis y elie Aaceneravetaeer apes wey ayete 62
Pscudomonas canvpestris, cause of cabbage rot..............0.ececeees 62
Bavllarepear MOLES (AIG sre CICS ayo eisrepa: x pak cet shes'osm arenexaqaie RAN oueetaralele leis) sus 223
O.
Ouahitve apples; losing sin: StOTAR e677. rr. ae etree ee te nihers oie elerells apeiate 271
R.
PAE LO NS per eC Ma Payspeyebe ds oe eeN eens Nafta ais occa aoe cle, a dyes eles iltysis: avacers 34, 36
iRennet, uses makano cottage Cheese... . foc .5- 2 va ced ens cance se leew 111
ReDOTt OL bacteriolopical, Department, oo. ... 2 soos csiee Sisig seins ose aes 47
(Clismanenil ID cyan nih cyan abieino's oe taice more dhe clo Nieto Orc Lo 81
Weparcementeons Animal, ELUSpANG TY. ois... cr cous)chs spcle <)ccs| «oto siecle 31
DUC OL OTM tea iach canon etre te eye Yokoo eysiinds) soe ona" 2 shame de avei sie e00. heise as 9
Pabomolomicnl Department. ore. . .is<s-sis 6 oo Sib aie seis F «dss wie onesie 187
ORL CULE UMallie Dep An bMICMG weyete is eve t ctetess) ole sie. +a) eqole ya esyels ele ei stele 229
TS PECULO MM NOT aera at ae nce Ayatetcd shen sheavis ah oe tas exepolavel susie exeualeys aU ekehs 389
PUG ASIN Cle youl an tends aereh ics erie. Saisie wie oleae gov olaseiye; sep elelay sTelpeyn sies 1
INIPEHESS) WudasPeciticuora wily OLISCEUS oc oo .y5 sca « «lepsr site. «is; sie/s) eneversi oyeipsi oe 376
Ss.
SACCHARINP AS! PLESCLVAtLVer iM: CANNING oy. <5: 1s, --c1oye) + ale)s.cys misiode apiel es eieigiareleie 50
Salt solutions of different specific pravity:.. . 1.2 a5. js. wae cleie el aisieiviels 344
Samples, method of determining specific gravity of seeds................ 341
Scald of apples in storage, varieties affected.............. cee ee ce eeees 269
Seale, San José, effect of fall spraying OM... ci)... edn bcos eels es 219, 220
lime-sulphur-soda wash on............+-++0+- 193
Season, effect on keeping quality of apples..............ecee cee eeeceees 268
Seed, cabbage, method of growing............... sleek wie ops cjelade bik abeeel obeys 65
SRHPeCELONM: 2. ok 2... <P e Ata aktode Se gemiinisit «tataepee a4 74
GITECHONS LOLs: 4 teieciap Aasok eqns tebe ber « aleiake seplers 76
Seed, selection by specific gravity 2.0.2. .00 cece cee cece sees senor 335
applicability, <<. jisaataws s+ esses ee ss 383 |
favorable results from.............. 337
IMVESHIC APIO yertjierstetew al taje ere oe «= = 22

results unfavorable to..............-. 339

454 INDEX.

PAGE

Seeds, methods of determining specific gravity.............eeeeeeeeeee 340

range and distribution by specific gravity..........0..eeeseeeeee 346

separation of foreign matter by solutionS.............ceceeceeee 351
specific gravity. (See also Specific gravity.)

Separates, methods of, for determining specific gravity of seeds......... 340

series of, for determining specific gravity of seeds............ 343

Shade, effeet on evaporation: ni... - eas. n,ninio.o.c. dais ore ate nto waite etn a Ree cela 236

PUTA TEY. oo, «ia Goto vcizyayegspepsasivraveseralehhthstehe a Bhs, eet aiatalate. ale ata anaIneR 235

rheRAS) sch lm erCoy ta) Died 1 HeerelG ICI Ogio Haro cid dod ia.Hold bicd.cio'c 236

SOIL MOBEUTES oxi chi sie Steph, ahahcheves stele a teretate ate elite. Stele al eee te te 234

Gemiperature. OF BAR .s.ccjc...crerevoreioreiels el ole ele nent eee mn 232

BOL) ois ccein iwucpsrenemsrdinnereteberstolete hale’ ache reamnae 234

vegetative prowth, ousciiso.. is. feMCNR, oes eaet teterea 237

WAIL 5, 5 ie, <yasieus lapahe yeherotaypa,aroneratalede teat tolohe: ci ane te fer tale Sse tae teats 236

Shading, applicability in plant culture...............2seeeeeeecesceees 248

as frost Protection. <5 <j. & kgs cos ava son wel einyalsialote lnicie| olen oe 237

effect on general quality of strawberries...............+++.-- 243

Pleats) oa apectccc ure nop pete tot orem averse wae hemns salle aa eel 246

pollination of strawberries... . 0. 0.:0+< sh -6. 00 scan 240

SIZ, Of Straw Derries's jo <yisi io cin: <cs'e oue ots fale dei =f noe tale 243

BtrAWberry GiSCASES .6 oo asin. » wep n ©2.0js8 tee 2fe lelsie sain 239

VaClG Sooo os ciccaig piaeee «aie 3 oeurietn Peete 240

SUTAWDELTICS 8 0 ob silence Gis eked tnele esac calcu Cekeueials eae egotenerctokets 23, 229

(ci}:| MOIR OO Ore bab DOU Sooo ODE ony Aob.s SOOO OC 231

eftect; om earliness! 2. 0.6 ciels)s cis =! saisenaenaeh ster 242

plant environment ............-...-+--s 232

Vleld. ising cee prune takers ter eiaaseiimmree 240

TOSULG Sy cee -wekeieyaieis: ehevchen-teeleye/e fe aisiebe) opera ita ieietaters 245

Shriveling of apples in storage........... cece cere eee e cers cece eeeenes 273

Sirrine, FA; bullletine by-n. 25 acc sas elain ere -oheie semitones yeti types rohens iain 206

Size and specific gravity of seeds, relation.........-.. esses ee sree recone 352

Soaking as a means of seed disinfection............-. 0s see eee cece eeees 74

Soap, commercial, used in spraying, composition...........-++++seees 18, 122

fish-oil, or whale-oil, home making............ se see eee ee rece eees 128

home-made, cost of materials.............c eee e eee cree eee eees 131

spraying experiments .............-e sees e cer eeeees 129

Soaps, analysis, terms used...........- esse cece cece cence eeneeenens 125

function as insecticides... ..0. 5.002 te ee ese e eee ar asm meamele 124

general composition ......... 6... sees eee e eee eee e cece eee enone 125

whale-oil, analyses ......... 02 ce ecc reece cette ree ccescesccecens 126

Soil, effect of shade on temperature Of.......... ee ee ee ence cece ence eees 234

Solids in vinegar, methods of determination............+++e essere eeeees 165

Solutions, salt, of different specific gravity..........-. seers eee eee ees 344

Souring of milk, chemical changes, investigation.............+esee-. 81, 86

explanation of changes........-- + seeeee rere re eeeees 84

note on chemical changes..........cseseceererecsrece 17

tabulation of chemical changes........---seeees esses 87

INDEX. 455

PAGE
Specific gravity and color of seeds, correlation..............e0eeeseeees 361
germination of seeds, relation... .... 0... 0.0600000+ 355
BAERS ae BECO. foeist cn cin sin sary lip ss 47 chon ore Ge 376
BIZEN OM SECUSs Te] ACLONG a susheus clus vines. avers be, sunicie lereiene one 352
BU GUC GIGS BDU ESECOS seve. as iss: ous ous sisc\' 0 nwt. 0. oield elena 376
WIADAULILY OF BEGAS, COFTELALION,. 0.00.05 cic sbis cs wv ve 88 362
method of seed selection, applicability................. 383
of grape seedS .......... ore Ss Manic SiGe iy BEBE MBE Gir 348
seeds and vigor of plants, relation.......... Sean 365
CAMBOS, OF NTCTCHCE icc. a/c 5) 5 sua ein v/ailaiehoxsie aia evel 374
methods Of determining. . 66... s.s nes nesicn ae 340
Ry etre Pia UV ccs Ge oz 6) «sas 0.8 aS ainjace/stopoteca-e out ele, ereee 363
range and distribution of seeds by...........ssceeeeees 346
BalC SOMUONS Ob CIMLCKERG so. 5s o:< 17s 0. sche ois s+ bielm nails ey 344
RESUS BE LCC DLONG UiMimeatai niet aie (i a5. 4yc.daces ofGpaisci eee aia.sctre aeele Be 22, 335
favorable results from... ..i...0c n2000s0s 90 337
results unfavorable tsi. 5 cscs cis vs aches 339
BPEDVInG CXPSLIMENts, NOLES (OD. «si is sje 3 «eit, sos. ayes auessicn aw Sade s ajeag vie nea 6 19, 20
PASE SULGSH cee atrtsars irc estes: xo crchcan Peucdaceansuaeesnete Taare core ee 2125 221
Wie RUN: WABHES omc cise sik siacinia.s x reese s Gene ee e's 8 ns 206
Roa pe commercial, COMPOSIGION «075 ii. 5 <4 u)s & We ons s sce Seis oes’ 122
Saisie CHUMP PRT EIEM EE ee Me. An eR tS lots vis tie ores o hv SP etls oe Oe oles dobee os 9
EERE ICCA gL Mare Re totat Waly 75116 ais salina) elamastisSurete se Riera D wal vata ahes sasike 1]
Lamers leon Or Glder WINCLAE «5 5.0% va «eis s-n'e 0 Siac aisbi syed a0 wines «/vteretece 163
SCALLON em IN IN LeManCOMEUN CS ye tay sich eh croak tiowhars 0. areicle hal es e eek 12
Sterilization of cider, effect on loss of malic acid.................0s000- 160
RSE Waa iey Kea: INEM CE TEED Yy 5.00) v.20 assole: sp3- Ales avarasnse sie Mbls SERIA Wis. adie Lea teeee 62
Storage, behavior of varieties of apples.............. 0. ce cece eeeees 277-334
(Varieties alphabetically arranged.)

efficiency: of @ifferent:kinds for-apples.. 2 celswisis..0si'ddiee won cee es 262
experiments: wibhe Apples. iis crise cass « Bla PERO Lie SS os od 21, 250
house, fruit, of Station, description...... RIM VARI Sis ca, toler sees 253
detesah apples; LeMipera ture. ic/.:.jieate hee Mewes » bitethedie vate Siat 265
Straining cider, effect on acetic fermentation................000000e00- 154
pirtwberries, cost OL! shading... dive, Tus iid manta. a6 + elite eile scaec 2s os 231
BiechcOG Shaeing OMY CALINOSE jasc) sinc sc) os wee oad © ais soe 242
peneral quality po. 26 bit. tb. SoG hes ose 243
POUMIMAtION, 5s). e tidy. alesse O's we < 240
SIZO Mapes -Nehhs eh areibeds te Meadade Sia shebade -ele\sis 243
SURAT creche wey nis ea’ « CMTE TES NG. GS e aie « 23, 229
yields, eifectnetishadinpe. fis she fechas ele seis. «ck a'ss ove 8 240
Structure of seeds and specific gravity.......... 0... cc cece ee cccccceees 376
Sugar as preservative in canning............... On ce ec, ch ee eat 49
SHRP RIG At OMNeTenL GALES. (5. \<..:5.-.0 bls Ae » Bs, dette etek: 0.e. se dis» os oe 143

milk. (See Milk sugar.)
paepHitE washes.fall’ TSG, -o. ali cs eee owe e tyne MERE Ms BUST cision s aewiey -,20, 206
FOE EPEAT PSYC As. 2, cyaistepapaae PEAR, SAIRo = Seles ae see @ 224
results, from fall spraying ‘with vniciagi.... 625. bse es oo 212
Swelling of canned peas, cause determined ..... Rh YOR kweli vay woe 53

BULLER © cis clue (echo 0.516 SSI eG ea ci eeeeea 47

456 ; INDEX.

a

PAGE

Taylor, O..M:, ‘bulletinvby ei. seeing ales 2 ce cc vs tin.c leteicie elects stents 229

Temperature, idailiy... ci Head cet iw le eke ere re awe cecal ghode cious oreo 437, 438

effectof shad@iGninct:. aren pee Make oa alee Sette reheat 232, 234

low, cause of slow fermentation in vinegar making........ 168

jvstb.ohiahibonlerneteg pacbavoorboae WANG Ae Goly odao ne pos 435, 436, 440

TLV TUGD IG 28S feuseste arora ey «coe aie laericiee shales coeirs aca aah ee tne Maarenae etaeoreene Rare 439

of processing pea® to destroy bacteria.............0..s00. 57

TAnGes INVETUIE Storage HOUSE. 0.02 sae ¥ 7. oe Miele eee ae ee 254

relation to acetic fermentation in cider.................. 150

alcoholic fermentation in cider............... 146

Thermometer. TEAdines + (5. gaps cuey tel cba tcayecsnek- eee ahs rena elec reenter ere 435, 440

Time, relation to acetic fermentation of cider...........-sseececsseces 149

alcoholic) fermentations Crd Ortete ge -focie aici etelslsetnee 145

Timothy seed, PERMiIMAtlOn Ss 6%, lero. s tise we ae he Sov slo. cies faster mala are 357

Trade values! Of fertilizerst cs x cecreereva ci sou cteh ous raver cov orevekaheped cone enol tetoe nao 392, 400

Treasurer, -TEPOrt OR acs dss spewed wile «seks Ge ieee wearatayd ole ial een 1

Turnips, Swedish, from seeds of different specific gravity................ 366
U.

United States Department of Agriculture, cooperation in apple storage... 21
Uiner, F, :A., bulletin: by. 3. ..si ee oe oe Seasons oe eet ae ee aie 122
V.

Varieties. of apples, life in storage:..235 8205 .1iy distil. Hela deatelats «c's labels sid eluates 255
Wan Slyke, Li. dic, bulletins by: ste. 3cr-1yscctasustartetnk yee 81, 122, 133, 389, 397
Viability of seeds and specific gravity, correlation...............+-eee0e- 362
Vinegar, elder, acebie acid amp. 22hIG00 Wisco. el as te gia Wathen adn ile eons eee 164

~ below standard, conditions producing.............-.++8. 167
CHEMISELY . OF. o)oce < oiaeiet's ce nae MEOMEM sta ktale otelsennt ete Meter 133
experiments, .incimakingy.. . ov.) 826i. cltie «Silas alawielele ois = 19
legal ‘standards: fOr 2 )-v.0. 7m -tetemtl hotel oleate erelstelevels shale Meteheraele 163
malic acid in}. identificabion-of <2i1cc. cic «ele lovete) <eatatete stata 161
methods of determining, Solids). Rickie <ial- deiele «isreotenel 165
BOLIGS 5 6 x,«, 6a 6, «che 5: 2 AIO: LP RE Ge Re tne eRel ebe 161, 164

effect of adding, on acetic fermentation of cider............++.- 152
home-made; estrd'y: Ott.) esearch eteret ats ate a cole tone lore) cfeher ae hetetele tele foterete 133
loss of acetic ‘acid on standing ea 62. cael. oe cee one oleae ole nie nis 155
making at shome, directions). 4... chcjac 0 siatcinne » oiafesebenelehalatehetal elotetate 169
care necessary after acid is formed............-.++4-- 168
experiments, detailed results.............s0eeeeees 171-184

low temperature retards. . . cfis/ciclee Setelaeieleiciste stele oles 168
necessity, OF MIT IM... .. sicis em lnia Sie a aetales wale wemhele atehays 168
unfavorable fermentation conditions...............+.- 167

poor, ‘from dirty. fruit... o..4 tings ag 0/7 «Medd aloes aeaie lw elala eats 168
poor. apple. JUICE ss niin 016 akin Cea eet ental s «amie tainiais 167

unclean: barrel sist anion c lat ~ Musee tts Ieeneret eet oa /e1e/(olal<foate 168

variations under uniform conditions.......... Pa Og ee oe 156

INDEX. 457

W.

PAGE

Wash, lime-sulphur-soda. (See Lime-sulphur-soda wash.)
IIE etn TaN AAI ra rakes ert A naPe atau fits, ideas die, Oe sw oisiaca «i /e,0) 8s Gaogelerwiviecarerow 127
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Wheat bran, nature of phosphorus compound in..................0.. 19, 114
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Whey, separation from curd in making cottage cheese...............065 96
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