; we

THIRTY-FOURTH
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

us. BUREAU OF
AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

TO THE SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

1L9T2=199S

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1922

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
Washington, D. C., August 5, 1913.
Sm: I have the honor to submit herewith the Thirty-
fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913.
With appreciation of your aid in the work under my
charge, I am
Very respectfully, yours,
; F. W. Hopas,
Ethnologist-in-charge.
Dr. CHARLES D. WALcortT,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
2

CONTENTS

REPORT OF THE ETHNOLOGIST-IN-CHARGE

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THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
F. W. Hoper, Ethnologist-in-Charge

The operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913, were conducted
in accordance with the act of Congress approved August
24, 1912, making appropriations for sundry civil expenses
of the Government, which act contains the following item:

American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches
among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including
the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains, under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or com-
pensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of necessary
books and periodicals, including payment in advance for subscrip-
tions, $42,000.

SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES

The systematic researches were conducted by the regular
staff of the bureau, consisting of seven ethnologists, and
by other specialists not directly connected with the bu-
reau. These operations may be summarized as follows:

Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge, was occupied
almost entirely during the year with administrative affairs
pertaining to the bureau’s activities. He was able to de-
vote some time to the preparation of the Bibliography of
the Pueblo Indians, the writings relating to the subject
covering so extended a period (from 1539 to date) and
being so numerous that much remains to be done. He
devoted attention also, as opportunity offered, to the re-
vision of certain sections of the Handbook of American

7

8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Indians, but as it is the desire to revise this work com-
pletely, with the aid of the entire staff of the bureau as
well as of other specialists, little more than a beginning
of the revision has been made. Mr. Hodge continued
to represent the Smithsonian Institution at the meetings
of the United States Board on Geographic Names, and
the Bureau of American Ethnology on the Smithsonian
advisory committee on printing and publication.

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, spent the summer
months and part of the autumn of 1912 in correcting the
proofs of his monograph on Casa Grande and of his report
on the Antiquities of the Upper Verde River and Walnut
Creek Valleys, Arizona, both of which appear in the
Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the bureau, and in com-
pleting the draft of a memoir devoted to the Symbolic De-
signs on Hopi Pottery, which it is designed to publish with
numerous illustrations. The remainder of the autumn
was occupied by Dr. Fewkes in gathering material for an
eventual memoir on the Culture History of the Aborigines
of the Lesser Antilles, these data being derived chiefly
from a study of the early literature of the subject and of
the rich West Indian collections from the island of St.
Vincent in the Heye Museum of New York City. Pre-
paratory to the publication of the final results, Dr.
Fewkes, with the generous permission of George G. Heye,
Esq., selected with entire freedom the necessary objects
for illustration, and before the close of the fiscal year
about 200 drawings of the archeological objects in this im-
portant collection had been finished.

In October, 1912, Dr’ Fewkes sailed for the West Indies
under the joint auspices of the bureau and the Heye Mu-
seum, the special object in view being the gathering of new
archeological data through the excavation of village sites
and refuse-heaps and the examination of local collections
in the islands. Dr. Fewkes visited Trinidad, Barbados,
St. Vincent, Balliceaux, Grenada, Dominica,, St. Kitts,
Santa Cruz, and other islands, excavating shell-heaps in
Trinidad and Balliceaux, and making archeological studies

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 9

in other isles. The results of the investigations in Trini-
dad proved to be especially important, owing to the light
which they shed on the material culture of the former
aborigines of the coast adjacent to South America.

Extensive excavations were made in a large shell heap,
known as Chip-chip Hill, on the shore of Erin Bay in
the Cedros district. This midden is historic, for it was
in Erin Bay that Columbus anchored on his third voyage,
sending men ashore to fill their casks at the spring or
stream near this Indian mound. Chip-chip Hill is now
covered with buildings to so great an extent that it was
possible to conduct excavations only at its periphery;
nevertheless the diggings yielded a rich and unique col-
lection that well illustrates the culture of the natives
of this part of Trinidad. The collection consists of sev-
eral fine unbroken pottery vessels with painted decoration,
and more than a hundred well-made effigy heads of clay,
in addition to effigy jars and many broken decorated bowls.
There were also obtained from the Erin Bay midden sev-
eral stone hatchets characteristic of Trinidad and the ad-
jacent coast of South America, a few shell and bone gor-
gets, and other artifacts illustrating the activities of the
former inhabitants. It is an interesting fact that as a
whole the objects here found resemble those that have been
taken from shell heaps on the Venezuela coast and from
the Pomeroon district of British Guiana more closely than
they resemble related specimens from the other islands
of the Lesser Antilles. Several other middens were
examined in Trinidad, the most representative of which
is situated near San Jose, the old Spanish capital. Prom-
ising shell heaps were discovered also at Mayaro Bay on
the eastern coast.

One of the most important results of the West Indian
field work by Dr. Fewkes was a determination of the
geographical distribution of certain types of artifacts and
a comparison of the prehistoric culture areas in the so-
called Carib Islands. Evidence of the existence of a
sedentary culture on these islands preceding that of the

10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Carib was obtained, showing it to have distantly resembled
that of Porto Rico; this culture, however, was not uni-
form. Dr. Fewkes also found that there were a number
of subcultures in these islands. In prehistoric time Trini-
dad and Tobago, it was determined, were somewhat simi-
lar culturally, just as they are similar geologically and
biologically, to northern South America. In Dr. Fewkes’s
opinion perhaps nowhere is the effect of environment on
human culture better illustrated: than in the chain of
islands extending from Grenada to Guadeloupe, which
were inhabited, when discovered, by Carib, some of whose
descendants are still to be found in Dominica and St. Vin-
cent. The earlier or pre-Carib people were culturally dis-
tinct from those of Trinidad in the south, St. Kitts in the
north, and Barbados in the east. The stone implements
of the area are characteristic and the prehistoric pottery
ean readily be distinguished from that of the islands be-
yond the limits named.

A large number of shell heaps on St. Vincent were
visited and studies made of localities in that island in
which caches of stone implements have been found. Six
groups of petroglyphs were examined, even some of the
best known of which have never been described. Special
effort was made to obtain information respecting the
origin of certain problematical objects of tufaceous stone
in the Heye Museum, said to have been collected from be-
neath the lava beds on the flank of the Soufriére.

Dr. Fewkes visited the locality on the island of Balli-
ceaux where the Carib of St. Vincent were settled after the
Carib wars and before they were deported to Roatan, on
the coast of Honduras. Extensive excavations were made
at the site of their former settlement at Banana Bay,
where there is now a midden overgrown with brush. Here
much pottery, as well as several human skeletons and some
shells and animal bones, were found.

The mixed-blood survivors of the St. Vincent Carib who
once lived at Morne Rond, near the Soufriére, but who are
now settled at Campden Park, near Kingstown, were

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT itil

visited. These still retain some of their old customs, as
making cassava from the poisonous roots of the manihot,
and preserve a few words of their native tongue. A brief
vocabulary was obtained, but Carib is no longer habitually
spoken in St. Vincent.

The fertile island of St. Kitts and the neighboring Nevis
were found to be particularly instructive archeologically.
Both have several extensive middens and well-preserved
pictographs, the former having yielded many artifacts
that illustrate the material culture of its pre-Carib
inhabitants. Through the courtesy of Mr. Connell his
large collection, which adequately illustrates the culture of
St. Kitts and Nevis, was placed at the disposal of Dr.
Fewkes for the purpose of study, and he was permitted to
make drawings of the more typical objects, one of the most
instructive of which is a sculptured torso from Nevis.

In Barbados Dr. Fewkes examined the midden at Indian
River, on the west coast, from which site the important
Taylor archeological collection was gathered. Several
other middens were visited on the lee coast from Bridge-
town to the northern end of the island, where a marly hill
strewn with potsherds was observed. He also examined
the so-called ‘‘ Indian excavations’’ at Freshwater Bay
and others at Indian River, and visited several cave shel-
ters on the island. The most noteworthy of these caves
are situated at Mount Gilboa and in the Scotland district,
St. Lucy Parish. To one of these, known as the ‘‘ Indian
Castle,’’ described in 1750 by the Rev. Griffith Hughes,
who claims to have found therein an idol and other un-
doubted Indian objects, Dr. Fewkes devoted much atten-
tion. The gulches so characteristic of Barbados were
favorite resorts of the aborigines, and, judging by the
artifacts, furnished cave shelters for them. Although
uninhabited at the time of its discovery, there is evidence
of a considerable prehistoric aboriginal population in Bar-
bados, whose culture was influenced largely by the charac-
ter of the material from which their artifacts were made,
most of them being fashioned from shell instead of stone—

12 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

a characteristic seemingly constituting this island a special
culture area.

A collection of stone implements, including celts, axes,
and other objects, was gathered at Santa Cruz. Several
local collections of archeological objects were examined,
and the large midden at the mouth of Salt River was
visited. The prehistoric objects obtained on this island
and from St. Thomas resemble those from Porto Rico.

Although the Carib inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles
are no longer of pure blood, and their language is known
to only a few persons in Dominica and St. Vincent, and to
these but imperfectly, it was found that the Negroes, who
form more than nine-tenths of the insular population, re-
tain in modified form some traces of the material culture
of the Indians. Cassava is the chief food of many of the
people, and the method of its preparation has been little
changed since aboriginal times. Cocoa is ground on a
stone and made into cylindrical rolls in much the same
manner as it was prepared by the Indians in early times.
The basketry made in Dominica was found to be the same
in style and materials as is described by the early mis-
sionaries to the Carib; while the Negroes of Nevis manu-
facture pottery of the same form and ornament and burn
it in much the same way as that found in the middens of
St. Kitts. In working their spells the obia men commonly
sprinkle stone objects with the blood of a goat, and the
common people regard petroglyphs as ‘‘ jumbies,’’ or
bugaboos. A great number of folk tales of a mixed ab-
original and Negro type are still recounted in the cabins
of the lowly, where Carib names for animals, plants, and
places are household words.

On his return to Washington Dr. Fewkes undertook the
preparation of a report on his archeological researches in
the West Indies, and considerable progress therein had
been made by the close of the fiscal year.

Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, was occupied during
the greater part of the year with the investigation of In-
dian population, which has engaged his attention for a con-

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 13

siderable time. This research covers the whole period
from the first occupancy of the country by white people
to the present time, and includes the entire territory from
the Rio Grande to the Arctic. To make possible system-
atic treatment the area covered has been mapped into
about 25 sections, each of which constitutes approximately
a single geographical and historic unit for separate treat-
ment, although numerous migrations and removals and
the frequent formation of new combinations necessitate a
constant overlapping of the work of the sections. Sev-
eral of the eastern areas have been completed and more
or less progress has been made with each of the others.
More recently Mr. Mooney has concentrated attention on
Alaska and western Canada, for the Arctic parts of which
Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson and Dr. Waldemar Jochelson
have generously furnished new and valuable data. In this
memoir the plan is to include chapters on notable epi-
demics, vital statistics, and race admixture, and the work
is intended to appear as a monograph on the subject.

On June 18, 1913, Mr. Mooney proceeded to the Eastern
Cherokee Indians in North Carolina to continue his in-
vestigations of the medical and religious rituals of that
tribe, commenced a number of years ago, as it was deemed
wise to finish this part of his Cherokee studies as soon as
practicable by reason of the changes that are so rapidly
taking place among this people. Mr. Mooney was still in
the field at the close of the fiscal year.

Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, continued, both in the
field and at the office, his studies of the Indians formerly
occupying the territory of the Southern States. He spent
the month of November, 1912, with the Alabama and
Koasati Indians in Polk County, Tex., where he recorded
250 pages of texts in the dialects spoken by these two
tribes, corrected several texts obtained on earlier expedi-
tions, and added materially to his general ethnological in-
formation regarding them. In December Dr. Swanton
proceeded to Oklahoma, where he obtained about 50 pages
of text in Hitchiti, a language now confined to a very few

14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

persons among the Creek Indians, and collected a few
notes regarding the Choctaw.

3efore his departure from Washington and after his
return Dr. Swanton spent the greater part of the time in
collecting information concerning the southern tribes from
early Spanish, French, and English authorities. Con-
siderable attention was also devoted to reading the proofs
of the Rev. Cyrus Byington’s Choctaw Dictionary, now in
process of printing, in which labor he was efficiently aided
by Mr. H. 8. Halbert, of the Alabama State department of
archives and history. Dr. Swanton also commenced a
general grammatical study of the languages of the Musk-
hogean stock, particularly Alabama, Hitchiti, and Choe-
taw, and in order to further this work he was subsequently
engaged in making a preliminary stem catalogue of Creek
from the material recorded by the late Dr. Gatschet, simi-
lar to the catalogue already prepared for Hitchiti, Ala-
bama, and Natchez. He began also the preparation of a
‘card catalogue of words in Timucua, the ancient extinet
language of Florida, taken from the grammar and cate-
chisms of Father Pareja. In May, Dr. Swanton visited
New York in order to examine rare Timucua works in the
Buckingham Smith collection of the New York Historical
Society. Through the courtesy of this society and of the
New York Publie Library arrangements have been made
for furnishing photostat copies of these rare and impor-
tant books, and the reproductions were in preparation at
the close of the fiseal year.

Tn connection with the researches of Dr. Swanton it is
gratifying to report that he was awarded last spring the
second Loubat prize in recognition of his two publica-
tions—‘‘ Tlingit Myths and Texts ”’ and ‘‘ Indian Tribes
of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast of
the Gulf of Mexico ’’—both issued by the bureau.

Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, ethnologist, devoted her time to
the conclusion of her researches among the Tewa Indians
of New Mexico and to the preparation of a paper on that
interesting and conservative people. A preliminary table

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 15

of contents of the proposed memoir indicates that her
studies of the customs and beliefs of the Tewa will be as
comprehensive as the published results of her investiga-
tions of the Sia and the Zuni tribe of the same State. As
at present outlined, the work, which will soon be com-
pleted, will contain six sections, dealing with the following
subjects, respectively: Philosophy, anthropie worship and
ritual, zoie worship, social customs, material culture, and
history.

Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, continued his
studies among the Algonquian tribes. In the middle of
July, 1912, he proceeded to the Fox Indians, at Tama,
Towa, from whom a large additional body of mythological
material was obtained; this, in connection with the myths
and legends in the form of texts gathered during the pre-
vious season, approximates 7,000 pages. When the trans-
lation of this material shall have been finished it will form
one of the most exhaustive collections of mythology of
any Indian tribe. It is noteworthy that these myths and
tales differ essentially in style from those gathered by the
late Dr. William Jones (searcely any of whose material
has been duplicated by Dr. Michelson)—a fact that
emphasizes the necessity of recording such material in the
aboriginal tongue. It may be added that the myths and
tales collected are also important in the light they shed
on the dissemination of myths. Study of the social and
ceremonial organization of the Fox Indians was likewise
continued, and especially full notes were obtained on their
Religion dance. Many of the songs of one of the drums
were recorded on a dictaphone and several photographs
of the native ball game were secured.

Dr. Michelson next proceeded to Haskell Institute, the
nonreservation Indian school at Lawrence, Kans., for the
purpose of obtaining notes on Atsina (Gros Ventre) and
several other Algonquian languages, the results of which
show definitely that Atsina shares with Arapaho all the
deviations from normal Algonquian, and that Potawatomi
is further removed from Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Algonkin
than any one of these is from the others.

16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Dr. Michelson next visited the Munsee, in Kansas, but
found that, unfortunately, little is now available in the
way of information except as to their language, which is
still spoken by about half a dozen individuals, though none
employ it habitually.

The Delawares of Oklahoma were next visited, Dr.
Michelson finding that their aboriginal customs are still
retained to a large extent. Extended observations were
made on several dances, and, to a lesser extent, on the social
organization. From a study of the Delaware language,
together with the Munsee dialect of Kansas, it was ascer-
tained, as had previously been surmised, that the Dela-
ware language of the early Moravian missionary Zeis-
berger represents no single dialect but a medley of several
dialects.

On his way to Washington Dr. Michelson stopped again
at Tama to obtain additional notes on the Fox Indians;
at the same time he succeeded in arranging for the acquire-
ment of certain sacred packs for the National Museum.
He also visited Chicago and New York for the purpose
of making comparative observations on the material cul-
ture of the Fox tribe, based on collections in the museums
of those cities.

On his arrival in Washington, at the close of December,
Dr. Michelson undertook the translation and study of the
Fox myths. The results indicate that very great firmness
in the word unit in Algonquian is more apparent than
real, and that the classification of stems must be revised.
Dr. Michelsen also brought to conclusion his translation
of the Kickapoo myths and tales, collected by the late Dr.
Jones, to which were added notes on Kickapoo grammar
and comparative notes on the myths and tales, the whole
making somewhat more than 300 pages.

Through correspondence Dr. Michelson succeeded in
arranging for the acquirement of other sacred packs of the
Fox Indians, which have been deposited in the National
Museum. He also aided in furnishing information in
answer to inquiries by various correspondents, and from

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT iby

time to time supplied data for incorporation in a new edi-
tion of the Handbook of American Indians.

From the investigations of the bureau it seemed that the
Siouan and Muskhogean languages resembled each other
morphologically. In view of these circumstances it was
deemed desirable that the Catawba, one of the Siouan
tongues, should be restudied, and accordingly, toward the
close of May, 1913, Dr. Michelson proceeded to South Caro-
lina, where the remnant of the Catawba tribe still reside.
Unfortunately, it was found that the language is all but
extinct, not even half a dozen persons being able to recall
phrases, although isolated words can still be had in goodly
number. Owing to this paucity of text material it is
hardly likely that the grammar of Catawba will ever be
completely elucidated, and as no comparative study with
other Siouan dialects has yet been made, it is not prac-
ticable at present to say with which Siouan group the lan-
guage is most closely associated. A considerable number
of native songs are still remembered by the surviving Ca-
tawba, nearly all of which Dr. Michelson succeeded in re-
cording by dictaphone.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, was occupied during
the year in translating unedited Seneca texts of myths
which were collected by himself in 1896 and at other times
on the Cattaraugus Reservation in western New York and
on the Grand River Reservation in Ontario, Canada.
These myths, legends, and tales number 13 in all. In ad-
dition, Mr. Hewitt undertook the editing of two Seneca
texts—‘‘ The Legend of S‘hagowé’‘not‘ha’, or The Spirit
of the Tides,’’»and ‘‘ The Tale of Doa’danégé’ and
Hotkwisdadegé"’’a‘ ’’—recorded by himself in the form of
field notes in 1896 and aggregating 95 typewritten pages.
At the close of the fiscal year about one-third of this work
was completed. ‘To these texts interlinear translations are
to be added for the purpose of aiding in the grammatic
study of the Seneca tongue.

Mr. Hewitt also devoted much time to the collection and
preparation of data for answers to correspondents of the

160658°—34 rrH—22 2

18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

bureau, especially with reference to the Iroquoian and
Algonquian tribes.

Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, continued his in-
vestigations of the ethnology of the Osage Indians, giving
particular attention to their rituals and accompanying
songs. He was enabled to record on the dictaphone the
songs and fragments of the rituals belonging to the
Waxobe degree of the No”ho"zhi"ga rites, of which, as
noted in the last annual report, he has been making a spe-
cial study. These rituals have been transcribed and, with
the 84 songs that have been transcribed in musical nota-
tion by Miss Alice C. Fletcher, comprise 66 typewritten
pages.

Mr. La Flesche has also been able to record the
No“ zhi"zho", or Fasting degree, of the Puma and Black
Bear gentes. These two organizations are closely re-
lated; they now not only use in common the songs and.
rituals of the No”ho"zhi"ga rites, but they even go to the
extent of exchanging gentile personal names as full recog-
nition of their relationship. The No™zhi*zho" degree em-
ploys 12 rituals and numerous songs, of which latter 81
have been recorded. These songs are divided into two
great groups, first of which is known as ‘‘ The Seven
Songs,’’ having 16 sets, and the second, ‘*‘ The Six Songs,”’
having 17 sets. The Osage texts of these rituals and songs
cover 207 pages, about three-fourths of which have been
finally typewritten. The 81 songs have been transcribed
in musical notation by Miss Fletcher, while the transla-
tion of the rituals and the words of the songs is in progress.

Tn the autumn of 1912 Mr. La Flesche was fortunate in
securing in full the Ni‘k’i degree of these intricate Osage
rites. Hitherto he had been able to obtain only the begin-
ning of this degree, but his informant was finally induced
to recite it in its entirety, comprising 1,542 lines. The
real title of this degree is Ni’k’i No*k’o", ‘‘ The Hearing
of the Words of the People.’’ In it the genesis of the
tribe is given in a story made up of myth, legend, and
symbolism, the whole being clearly devised to keep the

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 19

people ever mindful of the necessity of an orderly and au-
thoritative conduct of war. It goes to show that the prin-
ciple of war was early recognized by the Osage as the
surest means by which not only tribal and individual life
might be safeguarded against strange and hostile tribes,
but also as the means by which the tranquil enjoyment of
game and other natural products of their environment
might be won. It is to this coveted tranquillity that the
closing lines of many of the rituals refer, invariably lik-
ening it to a ‘‘ serene day.’’ This degree employs ritual
almost entirely, there being only 10 songs. The native
ritual comprises 57 typewritten pages, of which a large
part has been translated.

In the spring of 1913 Mr. La Flesche obtained the Rush
Mat Weaving degree of the Puma and Black Bear gentes.
Only the ‘‘ Seven Songs ”’ spoken of before, with various
ceremonial forms, are employed in this degree, the ‘‘ Six
Songs ”’ being entirely omitted. The distinguishing fea-
tures are the ceremonial weaving of the rush mat for the
sacred case in which were enshrined the bird and other
sacred objects, the renewal of all the articles that make
up the sacred bundle, and the ceremonial stitching of the
ends of the case. In some respects this is one of the most
extraordinary degrees of the Osage that Mr. La Flesche
has yet observed, since in its performance there are used
70 brass kettles, 70 red-handled knives, and 70 awls in
making the various articles, all of which the votary is
obliged to furnish, together with other expensive articles
that constitute the fees of the initiator and other officiating
No”ho"zhi"ga, as also 70 pieces of choice jerked meat for
distribution among the members attending the initiation.
Three rituals not used in the other degrees are employed
in this, namely, the Green Rush ritual, the Bark ritual,
and the Stitching and Cutting ritual. There are 61 pages
of Osage text, about half of which have been transcribed.

Mr. La Flesche also obtained the rituals and songs of
the Washabe Athi’, ‘‘ The Carrying of a Dark Object,”’
with full description of the various processions and cere-

20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

monial forms. This is a war ceremony, which, although
not counted as a degree, is a rite to which the seven degrees
lead. The name of this ceremony is derived from the war
insignia, which is the charcoal ceremonially prepared from
certain sacred trees, and which symbolizes the black marks
denoting the birds and animals used to typify strength,
courage, and fleetness. Mr. La Flesche’s Osage informant
regards this as the final act of the seven degrees. The
Osage text comprises 90 pages, nearly one-half of which
has been transcribed, together with 36 songs, which have
been transcribed by Miss Fletcher, and 7 diagrams.

Mr. La Flesche was fortunate enough to procure the
sacred bundle of the Deer gens and the reed-whistle bundle
of the Wind gens; the contents of the latter are of excep-
tional interest. Mrs. Brogahige, one of the ceremonial
weavers of the Osage, at considerable sacrifice to herself,
presented Mr. La Flesche two sacred looms, one of which
is used in weaving the buffalo-hair case, and the other in
weaving the rush case for the sacred bird. These packs,
together with specimens of ceremonially made burden
straps which Mr. La Flesche collected, have been placed
in the National Museum.

Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, continued the
preparation of the material for the Handbook of American
Indian Languages. As stated in the last annual report, the
manuscript of the grammar of the Chukchee language, to
appear in part 2 of this handbook, was completed and in its
final form was discussed with the author, Mr. Waldemar
Bogoras, during the visit of Dr. Boas to Berlin in the sum-
mer of 1912. The results of these discussions were em-
bodied in the work, the manuscript was delivered, and the
typesetting commenced. At the same time Dr. Boas stud-
ied the Koryak texts collected by Mr. Bogoras, published
in accordance with the plan previously outlined, at the ex-
pense of the American Ethnological Society, and the indis-
pensable references were embodied in the grammatical
sketch.

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT rAd

The Coos grammar by Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg was
completed, so far as the work of the editor, Dr. Boas, is
concerned, the page proofs having been finally revised.

The manuscript for the Siuslaw grammar, also by Dr.
Frachtenberg, was submitted and the editing considerably
advanced. This will be completed as soon as the entire
series of Siuslaw texts are in print—a work that: has been
undertaken under Dr. Boas’s editorship by Columbia
University. All the collected texts are now in type, so
that examples can be added to the manuscript of the
grammar.

Dr. Frachtenberg remained in Siletz, Oreg., throughout
the year for the purpose of revising on the spot the mate-
rials on the Oregon languages. He was engaged in collect-
ing and arranging the Alsea material for part 2 of the
Handbook of Languages, and in preparing for the discus-
sion of his Molala linguistics. The rapid disappearance of
the Calapooya may make it necessary, however, to com-
plete the field work on the language of this people before
closing the work on the other manuscripts, even though
this procedure may entail delay in the printing of the
volume.

Dr. Alexander F. Chamberlain, of Clark University,
who has undertaken the preparation of a grammar of the
Kutenai language, expects to deliver his manuscript early
in the new fiscal year. The printing of this sketch must
necessarily be delayed until the text material is available
in print.

Miss Haessler continued her preparations for a careful
revision of the Dakota Dictionary by Riggs—a work made
necessary by reason of the need of greater precision in
phonetics and translation, as well as of a more systematic
_ arrangement of the material. Miss Haessler expected to
complete all the preliminary work by the summer of 1914,
so that, should facilities be available, she would then be
able to undertake the required field work.

Miss Frances Densmore continued her studies in Indian
music, devoting special attention to that of the Sioux, and

22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

during the year submitted three papers, comprising 252
pages of manuscript, original phonographiec records and
musical transcription of 107 songs, and 23 original photo-
graphic illustrations. Three subjects have been ex-
haustively studied and a fourth is represented in such
manner that the results may be regarded as ready for pub-
lication. The three principal subjects are the sacred
stones, dreams about animals, and the buffalo hunt. The
fourth subject referred to relates to the warpath and is
represented by about 20 songs, but it awaits further study
of the military societies. A special group of songs con-
sists of those which have been composed and sung by the
Sioux in honor of Miss Densmore.

A study of the music of the Mandan and Hidatsa at Fort
Berthold, N. Dak., was made by Miss Densmore in the sum-
mer of 1912, in cooperation with the Historical Society of
the State of North Dakota. The results of this investiga-
tion consist of a manuscript of about 50 pages, with tran-
scriptions of 40 songs.

Miss Densmore also read the proofs of Bulletin 53
(Chippewa Music—I1), which is now in press.

Mr. W. H. Holmes, head curator of the department of
anthropology of the United States National Museum, con-
tinued the preparation of the Handbook of American
Archeology for publication by the bureau, as far as the
limited time available for the purpose permitted. Aside
from the preparation of the text and illustrations for
parts 1 and 2 of this handbook, Mr. Holmes made field ob-
servations among the ancient mica mines in western North
Carolina and among mounds and village sites in South
Carolina and Georgia. He also visited a number of
museums for the purpose of examining the collections of
archeological material, among them being the museums of
Boston, Andover, New York City, Philadelphia, Colum-
bus, Chicago, Milwaukee, Madison, Davenport, and St.
Louis.

Mr. D. I. Bushnell, jr., made good progress in the com-
pilation of the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains Kast of

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 5 23

the Mississippi, the manuscript material for which, record-
ed on ecards, now approximates 16,000 words. The collated
material has been derived from (1) replies to circular let-
ters addressed to county clerks in all of the States east of
the Mississippi, (2) communications from various so-
cieties and individuals, and (3) publications pertaining to
the subject of American antiquities. It is gratifying to
state that there are very few areas not covered by the ma-
terial already in hand, and it is expected that through the
systematic manner in which Mr. Bushnell is prosecuting
the work the handbook will be as complete as it is prac-
ticable to make it by the time it is ready for publication.

The investigations conducted jointly in 1910 and 1911
by the bureau and the School of American Archxology
have borne additional fruit. An extended memoir on the
Ethnogeography of the Tewa Indians, by J. P. Harrington,
was received and will appear as the ‘‘ accompanying pa-
per’’ of the Twenty-ninth Annual Report, now in press.
Three bulletins, namely (No. 54), The Physiography of
the Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico, in Relation to Pueblo
Culture, by Edgar L. Hewett, Junius Henderson, and
W. W. Robbins; (No. 55) The Ethnobotany of the Tewa
Indians, by Barbara W. Freire-Marreco, W. W. Robbins,
and J. P. Harrington; and (No. 56) The Ethnozoology of
the Tewa Indians, by Junius Henderson and J. P. Har-
rington, were also presented as a part of the results of the
joint expeditions and are either published or in process of
printing. Mr. Harrington also made progress in the prep-
aration of his report on the Mohave Indians, and Miss
Freire-Marreco is expected to submit shortly an extended
paper on the Yavapai tribe. There remains to be men-
tioned in this connection another memoir, namely, An In-
troduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs, by Syl-
vanus G. Morley; while not a direct product of the joint
work of the bureau and the school, this is in a measure an
outgrowth of it. The manuscript, together with the accom-
panying illustrations, has been submitted to the bureau,
but is now temporarily in the author’s hands for slight
revision. ;

24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Since the publication of the Handbook of American In-
dians, through which additional popular interest in our
aborigines has been aroused, it has been the desire to make
a beginning toward the preparation of a series of hand-
books devoted to the Indians of the respective States.
The opportunity was fortunately presented toward the
close of the fiscal year, when the bureau was enabled to
enlist the aid of Dr. A. L. Kroeber, of the University of
California, who has kindly consented to undertake the
preparation of the initial volume of the series, to be de-
voted to the Indians of California. It is planned to pre-
sent the material in each volume in as popular a form as
practicable, in order that it may be made of the greatest
use to schools, and it is hoped that the means may be soon
available to make possible the extension of the series to
other States.

Under a small allotment from the bureau, Mr. James
Murie continued his studies of Pawnee ceremonies. He
devoted special attention to the medicine rites, and on
June 13, 1915, submitted a description of the ritual per-
taining to the ‘‘ Purification of the Buffalo Skull.”’

The transcription of the manuscript French-Miami Dic-
tionary in the John Carter Brown Library at Providence,
R. I., to which attention has been directed in previous re-
ports, was finished by Miss Margaret Bingham Stillwell,
who submitted the last pages of the vocabulary (which
number 1,120 in all) early in January, 1913. The bureau
is under obligations to Mr. George Parker Winship,
librarian of the John Carter Brown Library, for his gen-
erous cooperation in placing this valued document at the
disposal of the bureau and to Miss Stillwell for the effi-
cient manner in which this difficult task was accomplished.

In the latter part of the fiscal year Mr. Jacob P. Dunn,
of Indianapolis, in whose hands the French-Miami Dic-
tionary was placed for study, commenced the annotation
of the transcription and the addition of English equiva-
lents. This necessitated a journey to Oklahoma, where
Mr. Dunn enlisted the services of a Miami Indian as an

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 25

interpreter. The result of these studies consists of (a)
the French-Miami-English Dictionary, from Abbaiser to
Cajeux; (b) The History of Genesis, Chapter I, being
Peoria text with Miami-English translation; (¢) English-
Miami Dictionary, from Abandon to Aim; (d) Wissa-
katcakwa Stories, recorded in Peoria by the late Dr.
Gatschet, for which Mr. Dunn has made an interlinear
translation.

The compilation of the List of Works Relating to -
Hawaii was continued by Prof. Howard M. Ballou, of the
College of Hawaii, who from time to time has submitted ad-
ditional titles. The recording of the material by more than
one person necessarily resulted in more or less incon-
sistency in form; consequently the manuscript, which con-
sists of many thousands of cards, has been in need of edi-
torial revision in order to insure uniformity. For this re-
vision the bureau has been fortunate in enlisting the serv-
ices of Mr. Felix Neumann, an experienced bibliographer,
who is making progress in the work.

PUBLICATIONS

The editorial work of the bureau has been conducted as
usual by Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor. The following publi-
cations were issued during the year:

Twenty-eighth Annual Report, containing ‘‘accom-
panying papers’’ as follows: (1) Casa Grande, by Jesse
' Walter Fewkes; (2) Antiquities of the Upper Verde
River and Walnut Creek Valleys, Arizona, by Jesse Wal-
ter Fewkes; (3) Preliminary Report on the Linguistic
Classification of Algonquian Tribes, by Truman Mich-
elson.

Bulletin 30, Handbook of American Indians North of
Mexico, edited by Frederick Webb Hodge. By concurrent
resolution of Congress, in August, 1912, a reprint of this
bulletin was ordered in an edition of 6,500 copies, of which
4,000 were for the use of the House of Representatives,
2,000 for the use of the Senate, and 500 for the use of the
bureau. This reprint, in which were incorporated such

26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

desirable alterations as could be conveniently made with-
out affecting the pagination of the work, was issued in
January, 1913.

Bulletin 52, Early Man in South America, by Ales
Hrdlicka, in collaboration with William H. Holmes,
Bailey Willis, Fred. Eugene Wright, and Clarence N.
Fenner.

Bulletin 54, The Physiography of the Rio Grande Val-
ley, New Mexico, in Relation to Pueblo Culture, by Kdgar
Lee Hewett, Junius Henderson, and Wilfred William
Robbins.

The work on the other publications during the year may
be summarized as follows:

Twenty-ninth Annual Report (‘* accompanying paper,”’
The Ethnogeography of the Tewa Indians, by John Pea-
body Harrington). Manuscript prepared for the printers
and nearly half of the composition finished.

Thirtieth Annual Report (‘‘ accompanying papers ”’:
(1) Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians, by Wal-
ter E. Roth; (2) Tsimshian Mythology, by Franz Boas;
(3) Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians, by Matilda Coxe
Stevenson). Editing of the third paper and to a consid-
erable extent that of the first paper completed.

Bulletin 40, Handbook of American Indian Languages,
by Franz Boas—Part 2. Work on the Coos section nearly
finished and composition of the Chukchee section begun.
Two sections (Takelma and Coos) are now ‘‘ made up,’’
aggregating 429 pages.

Bulletin 46, A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, by
Cyrus Byington, edited by John R. Swanton and H. 8S.
Halbert. The editors have revised two galley proofs of
the Choctaw-English section of this dictionary and have
practically finished preparations for the printers of the
English-Choctaw section. The first part of this bulletin
is now in process of paging.

Bulletin 53, Chippewa Music—II, by Frances Dens-
more. Manuscript edited and the several proofs read, in-
cluding proofs of 180 pieces of music. At the end of the

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 27

year the bulletin was held in the Printing Office awaiting
receipt of the necessary paper stock.

Bulletin 55, Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians, by Bar-
bara Whitchurch Freire-Marreco, Wilfred William Rob-
bins, and John Peabody Harrington. Manuscript edited
and the work in galley form at the close of the year.

Bulletin 56, Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians, by
Junius Henderson and John Peabody Harrington.
Manuscript edited and the work in page form at the close
of the year.

In accordance with the act of Congress approved Au-
gust 23, 1912, the entire stock of publications of the bu-
reau, with the exception of a few copies of each available
work which have been retained at the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for special purposes, was transferred to the Gov-
ernment Printing Office in October, 1912, for distribution
from the office of the superintendent of documents on or-
der from the bureau. It has been found that this plan of
distribution is highly successful, and, of course, much less
expensive to the bureau.

‘The correspondence relating to publications, of which
15,070 were distributed during the year, was conducted
under the immediate supervision of Miss Helen Munroe,
of the Smithsonian Institution. The distribution of the
publications may be summarized as follows:

Series : Copies.
Report volumes and separate papers__-------------__- 3, 895
Bulletinseese 2 352s erence COS WS eR 11, 040
Contributions to North American Ethnology___~------ 15
I trodichionst ates ae sid st Ne tay ea ree a Se aaa ie 7
Miscellaneousspulblicatrons|s- == 29s. 225 1a eee "ee 113

15, 070

The demand for the Handbook of American Indians
(Bulletin 50) continues unabated, by reason of the wide
scope of the work, its popular form of treatment, and its
usefulness to schools. There is an increasing demand for
publications relating to Indian arts and crafts, and to
archeology. The activity in the establishment of organ-

28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

izations of Camp Fire Girls throughout the country has
resulted in a flood of requests for information relative to
Indian customs names, ete.

ILLUSTRATIONS

As in the past, the preparation of illustrations for use
in connection with the publications of the bureau, as well
as the making of photographic portraits of the members
of visiting deputations of Indians, continued in the im-
mediate charge of Mr. De Lancey Gill, illustrator, whose
work during the year included the making of negatives
of 118 visiting Indians and of 93 miscellaneous ethnologic
subjects ; he also developed 298 negatives exposed by mem-
bers of the bureau in their field work, printed 975 photo-
graphs for official publication, exchange, and presentation
to Indians, and prepared 105 drawings for reproduction
as illustrations for the publications of the bureau.

The tribes or pueblos represented by Indians who visited
Washington during the year are: Acoma, Apache, Chey-
enne, Chippewa, Cochiti, Crow, Isleta, Kiowa, Osage, Pas-
samaquoddy, Ponca, San Juan, Santa Clara, Shoshoni,
Sioux, Taos, and Wichita. Among the more important
Indians whose portraits were made may be mentioned
Plenty Coups and Medicine Crow (Crow tribe), Big Man
and Iron Bear (Brulé Sioux), Hollow Horn Bear, Red
Cloud, and Red Hawk (Teton Sioux), Daybwawaindung
(Chippewa), and Two Moons (Cheyenne). Many re-
quests are made by correspondents for prints from the
large collection of negatives in possession of the bureau,
but it has not been possible to supply these, owing to lack
of means, although in many cases they are desired for
educational purposes. The series of photographs of rep-
resentative Indians, from 55 tribes, which was made dur-
ing the last fiscal year for special exhibition at the New
York Public Library, has been borrowed from the bureau
by the Public Library Commission of Indiana for exhibi-
tion in the public libraries throughout the State. In the
work of the photographic laboratory Mr. Gill was assisted
by Mr. Walter J. Stenhouse.

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 29
LIBRARY

The library of the bureau continued in immediate charge
of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mrs. Ella
Slaughter. During the year the accessions comprised
562 volumes (of which 129 were purchased) and 244
pamphlets, bringing the total number of volumes in the
library to 18,532, and the pamphlets to 12,744. The
periodicals currently received by the bureau, of which
there are several thousand unbound parts, number 629; of
these all but 18 are obtained in exchange for the bureau’s
publications. Special attention was paid during the year
to filling lacune in the periodical series.

The cataloguing kept pace with the new accessions, and
some progress was made in cataloguing ethnologic and
related articles in the earlier serials. A monthly bulletin
for the use of the members of the bureau staff was com-
piled and posted by the librarian, who also made a begin-
ning in the preparation of a list of writings on the music
of American Indians.

As in the past, it was necessary to draw on the collec-
tions of the Library of Congress, about 300 volumes hay-
ing been borrowed during the year. On the other hand,
the library of the bureau is frequently consulted by officers
of the departments of the Government, as well as by
students not connected with the Smithsonian Institution.

While many volumes are still without binding, the con-
dition of the library in this respect has greatly improved
during the last few years; 493 volumes were bound at the
Government Printing Office during the year.

COLLECTIONS

The following collections were made by the bureau or
by members of its staff during the fiscal year and trans-
ferred to the National Museum:

54311. Six photographs (unmounted) taken by A. J. Hortswill, San
Jose, Mindoro, P. I., among the natives of Mindoro Island. Gift
to the bureau by Munn & Co., New York.

30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

54465. Sacred pack of the Fox Indians of Iowa. Purchased for the
bureau by Dr. Truman Michelson.

54691. Five pieces of cotton painted with Assyrian subjects. Re-
ceived by the bureau from an unknown source.

54798. Three sacred looms and seven burden straps of the Osage In-
dians. Collected by Francis La Flesche.

54933. Three fragments of Indian pottery found at Red Willow,
Nebr., by Mrs. Ada Martin, by whom they were presented.
54934. Sacred bundle of the Fox Indians. Purchased through Dr.

Truman Michelson. .

54946. Two sacred bundles of the Osage Indians. Purchased by
Francis La Flesche.

55002. Sacred bundle of the Fox Indians. Purchased through Dr.
Truman Michelson.

55075. An Osage buffalo-hair rope (reata) and an Osage woven belt.
Purchased through Francis La Flesehe.

55234. Two ethnological objects from the natives of British Guiana,
presented to the bureau by Dr. Walter E. Roth, of Pomeroon
River, British Guiana.

55323. Set of five plum-seed gaming dice of the Omaha Indians and
a bottle of seeds used by the same Indians as perfume. Pre-
sented by Francis La Flesche.

55420. Pair of Osage ceremonial moccasins and an Osage ceremonial
“pipe.” Presented by Francis La Flesche.

PROPERTY

As stated in previous reports, the property of the bu-
reau of greatest value consists of its library, manuscripts
for reference or publication, and photographic negatives.
A reasonable number of cameras, dictagraphs, and other
apparatus, chiefly for use in the field, as well as a limited
stock of stationery and office supplies, necessary office
furniture, and equipment, are also in possession of the
bureau. The sum of $893.21 was expended for office
furniture (including fireproof filing cases) during the
year, $452.57 for apparatus (including typewriters, cam-
eras, dictagraphs, etce.), and $258.45 for books and pe-
riodicals.

The manuscripts of the bureau, many of which are of
extreme value, are deposited in metal cases in a small room
in the north tower of the Smithsonian Building, which

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 31

should be made as nearly fireproof as possible. Requests
for a small appropriation to protect the manuscripts
against possible destruction have been made in the past,
but unfortunately the means have not been granted. The
manuscripts, which have been in the immediate care of
Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, have increased from time to time
during the year, chiefly by the temporary deposit of mate-
rials preparatory to editing for publication. Mention
may here be made, however, of the gift of some manuscript
Chippewa letters from the Rev. Joseph A. Gilfillan, and
the acquirement of a photostat copy of the Motul-Maya
Dictionary, made at the expense of the bureau from the
original in the John Carter Brown Library, at Providence,
R. I., as elsewhere noted. Mention may also be made of
various vocabularies or parts of vocabularies, 23 items in
all, which were restored to the bureau by Mrs. Louisa H.
Gatschet. who found them among Dr. Gatschet’s effects.

MISCELLANEOUS

Quarters.—Since the beginning of 1910 the offices of the
bureau have occupied nine rooms in the north tower of
the Smithsonian Building, and a room (the office of the
ethnologist in charge) on the north side of the third floor
of the eastern wing, while the library has occupied the
entire eastern gallery of the large exhibition hall on the
first floor, and the photographic laboratory part of the
gallery in the southeastern section of the old National
Museum building. While the natural lighting of the
rooms in the north tower, by reason of the thickness of
the walls and the narrowness of the windows, is inade-
quate, and the distance from the library and the photo-
graphic laboratory makes them not readily accessiblé, the
office facilities are far better than when the bureau was
housed in cramped rented quarters. Aside from the
photographic laboratory and one room in the north tower,
no part of the bureau’s quarters is provided with running
water. It is presumed that after the rearrangement of
the large exhibition hall in the Smithsonian Building and

32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

its adaptation to general library purposes the facilities of
the bureau library will be greatly improved.

Office force-—The office force of the bureau has not been
augmented, although the correspondence has greatly in-
creased owing to the growing demand on the bureau for
information respecting the Indians. The copying of the
rough manuscripts, field notes, etc., prepared by members
of the bureau, as well as the verification of quotations,
bibliographic citations, and similar work of a minor edi-
torial nature, necessitate the employment of temporary
aid from time to time. Most of the answers to corre-
spondents who desire information of a special character
have been prepared by the ethnologist in charge, but every
member of the bureau’s scientific staff is frequently called
on for the same purpose to furnish information pertaining
to his particular field of knowledge.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Tt is difficult to extend the systematic researches of the
bureau along new and necessary lines without an increase
of appropriations. When a special research is under-
taken, several years are often required to finish it, conse-
quently the prospective income of the bureau for a con-
siderable period is required to carry out adequately the
work inhand. Opportunities are often presented for con-
ducting investigations in new fields which have to be neg-
lected owing to lack of means. An increase in the appro-
priations of the bureau has been urged for several years,
but unfortunately the estimates have not been met with
additional funds.

Respectfully submitted.
F. W. Hopce,

Ethnologist in charge.
Dr. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
. Washington, D.C.

ACCOMPANYING PAPER

160658°—34 rrH—22——3

33

i ¢t VASMMy A ; a

A PREHISTORIC ISLAND CULTURE AREA
OF AMERICA

By J. WALTER FEWKES

35

toate va) Shan ee HAUTIOO Gv Adel MMOTAINE AT
ADUAAMA AQ i009s bn aes

‘ : Uh? a:

CONTENTS

Page.
ERAT. OCU CEI ON ak 2 ae eR a el a Soe MONE I See 49
nistericalconsiderations: 22226 siecsses. = Eee ASU 51
Prehistoric cultural areas in the West Indies__--------__---________-__ 53
Trinida das 2 2522 ii se Ns A ph ae ener Bene nt oe 2d TT pad COS 62
Nrinw Bays sss oo ha ee ee ee 65
Chip-chip'..shell-heap 2. -2.42 222222222 be so 25 Se 66
D220) 12 AS cee a eee ee eee 67
Handles: of. vessels 2. £2 Dee Oe TE ee Se rau
Stone.implements: ==... 1 5stem 1 soleil wee ete eee 8 74
IBonesobiectsice 2s <5 522 be ee ar ee ee 75
Objects:0fswood...- 5 Sse Sees a SE Oe 8 es 75

Comparison of prehistoric objects from Trinidad with those from

othertislands\2= 332. sos ate er 7

Mobagolaos2 24 152 8 BO GS eI si, Sire Pd 7s
Barbados 33 a ee Su SOUS - EERIE Doe 78
Middens=222342 25 S605) ob sae ees ree e a SA 81
COWOS eS a, 5 ge SS cae Tee A 2 82
MopnieGilboa. caves2162- 2255225 35 eS = 83
Artificial excavatlons).. s6sscetb eee o sea saas aces a soo Be 83
Indian. (Castle,— 3=.-— 262 sec eee et SE 83
Jindisn. excavation Sasa n a eee eee ee SE 85
VASDCiTa Ott es S Se eck ate be ie ee are Scenery RN SA, 86
Sica vincent-Grenada, areas so 2 == 5 ot Se ie Le 88
(GTONS OO les ee a = a eS sa we 88
BeqQuiaj a6 a s5 55 soe Se Peer eg BT 89
Biattowl gins st ee et ee ne IY DB 89
i alllice ass cS a ee AD SUE Bn 8 89
Bt pVincent 2c. 32s So St Sa et RES 90
Kitchens mi dden sq ew ET SE 91
Bi ctograppl se Seas ae es EE 2,
PATTITA CUS ss Se Sees he eee ee ee ER OSE STN 93
Stone implements) 352228209 2NsG Phe: sea eras eee etl A 93
Coe tis ea 0 Ea CS a ere I Ne NS $4
Petaloidse ea en eee ne BAN I ne 94
Axes.and: chiselg stax Ohi iO" Oe Oe ee ee 94
Axes. With Gapss-2-< a SE SORES Se 100
Grooved. hammers: and ‘axesi {2 "eee Sere 101
ASYM CERI CA Og a pe I 102
TOO sa eta BAN SS seh eo 104
Iboplements' of ereseentic- forme os = eee ee 107
Hared saXe@ss* 25252255 s es eas Se 108
FONE BV Cd Aa 8 ep 109
Probiematic: stone objects eee. 2 Lea ees a ee 110
Grinding implements and pestles___-__________________ 112
Stone fetishes, amulets, and idols___-__________________ 113
HnismpticalMObjecus pees aoa a5 eee ee Se 115.

38 CONTENTS

Prehistoric cultural areas in the West Indies—Continued.
St. Vincent-Grenada area—Continued.
St. Vincent—Continued.

Pottery. 2.2222 OE ee ee eee

Pendantss== 2222-29-26 Pe ee ae ee

Shell objects =< :-: === eee es Sa 8

Terra-cotta Stamps) 2222 Sas a ee ee ee

Perforated) disks 22222 <5 52. 20 52 eee eh es

Dominica._===-~=2=-- = eet Fe a ee ee el

Stone: implements=2=—= 2! == 2) 5+ Ss Sa ee ee

Martinique: 2=— 250 =2<2 2-2 * a2 ee a ee eee

Gttadeloupe ——..-—- === 2S oe ee ee

Guesde/collection==— = =22 => 2 3h= s* 5 oe ee eee

Axes with regular margins: -=——. siaeeas te ealiyee see

Axes with asymmetrical margins_—-—2>_-4sss0{05-) <225 =~

Biared .axes-20- 8 et ee Se a ee

Bngraved axes... ane eee

Perforated james fo) wept peseyt hee hese Pl tye Bie wets ee

Anchor ‘axes. oe lea ee

Incised and perforated stones====— == eee ee

Problematical stonés=* === =3 ee epee

Mortars -2.22)— eo eee

Pestles, grinders; and hammers_____- -= === eee

Conical: stones*_ =~ == = === ee ear et epee Ee

St; JSitts 22062 Soe a See ee or eR ERAS

Middens'+ ==" 42 oe a ei

Pictographs:22 =. ==. = -===5_ 4S pala eben Hy nlioeS a oe

Altanstones=— 4*2=2* —'2 eae ee eeeee

The; Connell collection——-__ =— — = earn pee ee PESO

Grinders = 22-4 = 22s ee ee eee eee

Shell .objects2= = = sshsue 2 = ae eS ee ees

Pottery (2-5-2 2 oe eS eg

Stone objects=== 5-53 32 ee ee oe aeiee

St.) Croix 2s. 2S Se Ses es ae ae

Caves, shell-heaps, and ball courts______-2-2 5) sent
Archeological specimens === 2a se ee he ay et
Petaloid) celtsi:== = "= 2225504. Se Ren eS Se ee
Monolithic petaloid) celttasike se ee ae oe
Engraved celts 22. = aye haere pe ee Pee

ftuman heads and. figures-=22 a2) een
Stone: heads: =. 22 sac. tl Se ees a Se ae

Blbow' ‘stones.i22= 222 = se Bay ee =
Description) of (elbowastonesss22- 58) eee
Morphology and interpretation-_~-_--_--_____________

Ceremonial batons ofistonessa22 eo. = ts eee eee

CONTENTS. 39

Prehistoric cultural areas in the West Indies—Continued.
Porto Rico area—Continued.

Archeological specimens—Continued. Page.

‘Three-pointed: Stones: == oe ee eee 211

First type of three-pointed stones____---------___-_~_-_ 211

Second type of three-pointed stones_______---_-_------- 216

Fourth type of three-pointed zemis___-----_-___.-.-__ 217

Three-pointed stone used for pestle____________________ 220

1 Ko (0) (ea ee ee eae ae ee 221

Bitd) stones: =i. === 8 se See ee 221

Mortars and werinders==2-—-~ Ss = = a 221

[ROSE OS es = os ee ee ee ae 226

230

Stone wpen sn te eee ee ee em ee ee ee ey O80

VATU Ot Se5 was Se Rs Ree 8 See re ee ee ee 233

Bone? Objects =22= 28 =) a ae ea ee eee oe ee 234

Shell:obij ects $22 =a ee ee ee 235

@laynobjects= = ss eS = Sa se ae a ee ee eee 235

Claytievlinderss=3.= =.= - ios ee ee eee 235

Rotteryis=-~ <2 4 2-22 F eS eee ee 236

@ubakas= =) ene ieee 2 a eS a en ene 240

Prehistonicrcuiltures Of © Uae = =a ee ee eee 242

len cake) Cees eee ee ee 244

PAT CHEOLOLICAl TOD |G CUS ae a eee ee 248

Wonehusions==== =~ Se SS es Ss ee ne Se ee eee 252

STE MOTMmRIN CSP eae te 2 Se oo ae See a ee eee 256

Jamal Cave = eo Re Sk Se ee See Se ee eee PAs

GreateCaymane--- tae Leh Se eh See oe age Nae ee eee 258
Analysis of West Indian archeological data in its geographical distribu-

LO ies ene arte ee eee eee et ee ee Se SL ote eee 259
RO RCn y= aan ee eee ees See ee ee ee ee 259
TONER DICTION TS 2m =e me ee | tS a es ei 262
Ornaments See eS en ee eee 265

WMOnGlUSION SS Sok a2 aes Uh eS = ek oe ee a a ee 266
PATITN OTIS a Cite dees ae se a ee 8 ee oe oe ee ee eee 269

BTR (1 certs ee ae = ee ee ee ee eee te 273

ily
ay
1
‘
4 ‘ & . pr
hee Meat enatin. tas
t u
iB i ' : fray ici iS
é 1
3 ~ ! y aw eh
= tH Oy ty he
' i bp pith
3 : c i
‘ J i (
; uw 7
; uF “f Saad}
YY
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uy
oe
s se i '
; Mea : e
: > ‘ ! " ‘i
ie F ;
a 5 E ie
: om
; al 4 rc Pk
) bs! }
: ‘ , es
m a ’ : EF oak ePyefths Ledaoiinds
: My M y y Be hen é
? - wrltepleat ; t
: , he A ah sass Bae :
b j ae fi
= s os y fa - Sari ota}
: Gas “ ] : f v i Py eee
ely ; Ue pang k 4 t rae i ape pS a er
* ope: ae ; 1 —
. t i" 5 Pap
: UOT Tea EK. Ter Frees 6 tt th eat Lelie hie rae,
t t Pa mei Lan | i
i = i 4 j Se 1
Le 5 ‘ a o i re ag oe hare
5 ate , m a ‘4 dy? { .
‘ j ; bi lt
; er Fae re) ee get | * Pe

fe %

sii

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

1. Map of the West Indies, showing distribution of objects in the

Museum of the A

merican Indian (Heye Foundation) in 1914_____

spO[SClavron jects) tromly Mrintd a= sa eee ee eee ee

Aa Clayehanglesstromelninils dea === sees === See Eee ee

HS OMY ADeCHASGECO TTI aC ee ee ee eee eee

9. Stone implements from Grenada and St. Vincent_________-----------
TIO StOnenmplements fLONn St. V INCOM a er re
18-15. Notched stone implements from St. Vincent___---_--------------
1G Stoneamplements ron st. Vinecent== 2s
18. Fish tail and asymmetrical stone objects from St. Vincent__________
19-20: sStoneamplements'trom St, Vincent=-=—=—— === = ==
21-28. Asymmetrical stone implements from St. Vincent_____-________--
24. Spatulate stone implements from St. Vincent _—_---_-------------~-
25. A-E, Miscellaneous stone implements from St. Vincent; /F', Pend-

ant for necklace__

26. Miscellaneous stone implements from St. Vincent_-_-_------------_~
Pie oS Stone 1Mplements trom st. VinCent=-sasaaa= == cee ean
Crescentic stone implements from St. Vincent_-_--_--_--_-__------_

29.

30.

31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

36.
37.

62:

Eared stone impleme!
Eared stone impleme

nts from St. Vincent and Grenada___-____---~-
NUS HOM st. Vincent sees see ee ee

Inscribed and eared stone implements from St. Vincent ____----__-__
Problematic stone objects from St. Vincent------------------------

Problematic stone im
Pestles and other sto

plements from St. Vincent___------+-----__-_--
HeTopjectsif{romist. Vincent=.=-----— aes

STONE A MULe LS an Orreti Snes =.= sees Se ee eee eee
Problematiciopjects Lromr ste Vincenteaa a en ee ee
88-61. Problematical objects, Fancy, St. Vincent__----_--------_-_-_-__-

Pottery, Carriacou_-

GSeirarments) Of pollery,| Carrlacou es sae. ne 6 ee ee
64. Clay heads from pottery objects, Carriacou____-__-_-_--__--__----
65-67. Clay heads from pottery objects, Carriacou_____________---_-__-
Potteryrobjects) Carrie con (4 22s a a a ee eee

68.

Berlin Museum)
Berlin Museum)
Museum) -_---__-~

Berlin Museum)

. Problematical stone

Berlin Museum)

Mw iPendants of stone*and shell, st. Vintent=.—-—-- 2-2
VeObjects of claysand stoneh sea! Shee ee ea eee coe
. Stone implements, S
. Anchor-shaped stone implements, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,

iaeVancent) Guadeloupel=s-2 =

. Incised and perforated stones, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,

. Problematical stones, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection, Berlin

. A, pestle; B, stone ring; C, mortar, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,

implements, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,

Page.

42 ; ILLUSTRATIONS

77. Problematical stones, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection, Berlin
Museum) =2= 5-52-6022 LS ee eee

78-79. Pestles and problematical stones, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,
‘Berlin. . Museum) 52-22 > = ee eee a ee

80. Problematical objects and pestles, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,
Berlin, Museum) 222-252 36 ee eS ee ae ee

81. Pestles and other stones, Gaudeloupe (Guesde collection, Berlin
Mugeum) pts! os0 ws ee ee aS ee ee ee

82. Stone and shell implements, St. Kitts (Connell collection) _—-_______
838. Pottery ring and decorated shell cylinder, St. Kitts (Connell col-
lection) - 25242 522522} ee See Ee Bt a a

84. Various objects, St. Kitts (Connell collection)_-___________________
85> Pottery, and) Stone OD JeGts as tap Reh tse el ee ee ee
86. Shell objects, St. Kitts and Nevis (Connell collection) _--__-_______
87. Stone objects, St. Kitts, Dominica, St. Vincent______________________
88. Petaloid “celts: :@Berlin Mase uin)) sen ee
89. Engraved petaloid celt, Santo Domingo (Copenhagen Museum) __-__
90} ‘Stone: dink®2=_3 =. 25 S25 ie ee ee ee ee ee
91. Stone heads (A, Guesde collection ; B, C, Heye Museum)____________
92. Stone heads (Trocadero Museum, Paris) ~---------__-_____-___-___
93. Celt and stone balls with engraved faces, Hati, Cuba (Berlin
Museum) :2= 2 es ee ae ae er ee ee

94. A, Stone nodule; B, OC, stone masks; Haiti (A, Grosser collection,
Berlin (Museum) 222220 Set a a ee eee

95. Massive stone collar, Porto Rico_---________--_ eee ee
‘O6; Slender stonecollars: (Porto RicOms tae ae ee ee
97. A, B, C, Slender stone collars; D, massive stone collar, Porto Rico
(Erocadero! Museum: Paris) ee a ee eee

98; Elbow, stones: Porto) Rico=22-. ==) 2 ee eee
99. Elbow stones, Lesser Antilles, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection,
Berlin: Museum): 25< =e ese ee

100. Unidentified stone objects, Guadeloupe (Guesde collection, Berlin
Miisewm)) 2525s 2 ee ee ee ye a
101-103. Three-pointed stones of the first type, Porto Rico (Berlin
Museum) 222 2s. 24 Se ee ee ee

104. Three-pointed stones of the first type (Madrid Museum)_____-______
105. Three-pointed stones of the first type (Trocadero Museum) _—_-____ __
106. Three-pointed stones of the first type, Porto Rico__________»_________
107. A, C, Three-pointed stones of the first type, Porto Rico; B, Com-
posite three-pointed stone, first and second types, Porto Rico____

108. A, B, Three-pointed stones of the first type; C, fourth type; D, second

109. Three-pointed stone of the second type (Museum Santiago de los—

Caballeros: sSantodDomingo) => ase ee eee ee Se
110. Three-pointed stones of the fourth type (Berlin Museum) _—--------__
111. A, B, Three-pointed stones of the fourth type; C, fourth type with
face on each end; D, #, third type, Santo Domingo______________
112) A} Stone bird: B.C. stone mortar, POrto hi COs
113. A, B, Stool (duho) and grinders; C, turtle-shaped mortar (B, Guesde
collection, Berlin Museum): 322-22) eee
114. Pestles. A, St. Thomas; B, C, Haiti (Berlin Museum) -~-----_-___
115. A, B, C, Pestles, Santo Domingo; D, side view of €_-___-----~~=_=-

ILLUSTRATIONS 43

Page

116. A, Unidentified stone object; B, tooth-shaped object; C, D, 2, F,
aMUNLCtS ase ee Se ee ae See ee aa ea ee a 232

117. A, Stone amulet; B, C, D, H#, F, shell and bone objects; G, pottery
Stamps Santor Pom in go ea a ae ee ee ee is 232
118. Pottery, A, B, Porto Rico; C, Santo Domingo_______________________ 238
119. A, Broken pottery neck; B, C, pottery, Santo Domingo_______________ 238
120; Seated stone figure; Santo Domingo==2- ===. ee 238

TEXT FIGURES

errINOLCHEGM axe e eT 11 Oa esa ee eg ee eee ee ee Ee 8 74
2 JACeILe Renan te REiniG ag mas! ee cate Aes te Eee Pee nt = 75
Smoared’ ax fromm Guadeloupe: se sa at kes Fe ere a Re 108
ASCE. GSE LOS SOO TUGTIG I LOE mere ate eet nes Sas ae Se ek ie rey 112
Se NtOnewpestie: WilhmtaCees = kee aie SS i 5 oe 112
Gistone pestle withveyesrand mouth === = oe aoe ee ee 112
dees tonex obj ectuinvshape OL pestle=—= = == a ee ees 113
S..btead andehnandlevol broken pestle se. 22. - heey et te 113
9: Pestle-shapedsproblematical ‘object — 3 == ee 113
TOS StOne PENG an tS=— ase ea ne Si ee 114
11. Hollow clay eylinder with face:in relief =—-=— = —-=- 121
1a eAxe Wit oM arein a len OL CHESS == etna oe A oe a See SO eg 125
aoa Har-shanped blade@ses <a ane eae aa we a eee ee 139
ia Hared: Stonerimplement:< == Sete ap ore Ss Sees 2 pd ee 140
Tp SLone, implement uwith) two) Deaks==— == === ae = ae 2 ee ee 141
TGmhared stone vimplements = se 2 so tobe oe hee ee See 141
liieMassive: stonexeared: implement << 5. _ -23 sae ee 142
1Sa-Persoratedsearedelmplement 3 s— se. ns Oe ee ee I gn 143
193 Stone implement, withvindented heads yess oe 144
JU aWinelys polished Stone wmMplemen tos. = a 145
Slag incied sake hrOonin Gila OClOUDe =) se ea es ee ee 146
22. Incised decorated stone implement (Guesde collection) ______________ 147
SOWA SaWION. DITUTCALeN DIAG Geen are ee eee Se ee 148
24. Problematical stone, Guadeloupe (Berlin collection) __-_____________ 151
Zoe LATE al Vie WaOT MeL C24 8 ee Fe 2 ee 152
26. Unidentified stone object resembling a mortar______________________ 154
27. Unidentified stone object resembling a mortar______________________ 154
28; Outline of'ax, shown from edge-and side! -—- == = 172
20 SM BFOKEM MONOMUNICRCE tee ee ee eS ee ee 173
SD Brokenmonolithiexce tse. ea a oer oe ee eee Be eit SB 174
FS US Pte L KO) 2 shen (1) (seas es ee ee ee ee ee ee 186
32. Semicircular stone with face, from front and side_____-____-________ 187
oa. ochemsEticsview: of stone: collar 22-6 ee She 188
34. The Strube stone collar (Bremen Museum) _---_-__-_________________ 190

35. Lateral view of ‘‘ knob” of the Strube stone collar (Bremen Museum)_ 191
36. Dorsal view of “ knob” of the Strube stone collar (Bremen Museum) _ 191
37. Decorated panel and panel border of the Strube stone collar (Bremen

VESTN) es ee ee ee ee se ae eee 192
38. Panel of stone collar (Heye Museum) -__------____--____-_-_-_ 192
39. Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection) ____._.__-____-__________ 193
40. Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection) —~~_________»________________ 194
41. Panel of stone collar (Bremen Museum)__----------_--_--- 194
42. Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection) _-________________________ 194

43. Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection) __-_________-___-________ 195

ILLUSTRATIONS

. Stone collar showing unique decorated panel border (Trocadero

Museum))===62se2 Ase e sae = a Seen ne ee ee ee Oe ee eee

. Decorated panel and panel border of stone collar (Latimer collection )_—
3. Underside of decorated panel of the Strube stone collar___-_-________
. Elbow-stone in the United States National Museum_____---__-___-__ >
*Elbow-stone (Madrid tinsenn y= s=) oe e ae ee ee
» Elbow-stone in: therUatimer icollection=—— === re

50) Dhree-pointeds stom ess st ty Casa ee
51. Three-pointed stone with face on anterior end___-____________________
52.) Dhree-pointed stoneor fourth y per ee re ee

. Base of three-pointed stone of fourth type, showing longitudinal

TUTTOWS 2 252 Sos Se eS ee ee a

. Problematical stone recalling three-pointed idol, with superficial

kn ODS:;On DOG Ys= a a ee ee ee ee ee

. Chocolate grinder shaped like a seat or duho_________________--____
. Problematical object shaped like a pestle_______._--___-_-_-_-_

Front and back views of head of an end of decayed pestle handle______
Stone pestle with head on end of handle_-___--________________ pes

. Problematical stone implement, probably when in use lashed to a

wooden? handle! 2 = 54 Sas See ee ee eee ee ee

. Various forms of stone beads, plain and decorated__________________
7 Amu Lehinovienn a Museums 2" ate eee ee eee
Olay Stamp Oridiewithy Incisene MCA iG Grae = ae eee ee
BOWL NWithninCISCdude COR atl Oris eat eee oe ee ee eee eee =
. Idol of coral rock from Cueva de Boruga, Baracoa, Cuba, (Santiago

Museum)))=) S82 S850" 2.2 er eae ee ee ee
Idol or pestle from Loma del Cayuco (Santiago Museum) -—-__--_____

. Stone idol (University Museum, Havana) —-~-________________________
~betaloid, Cele. (Santiago: Mitre vin) ese eee ee
. Fragments of pottery from Nipe Bay (U.S. National Museum) _______
. Stone with face from Nipe Bay (U. S. National Museum) _-__________

Page.

195
196
196
202
203
205
212
219
219

220

220
"294
207
298
229

229
232
234
236
241

250
251
252
253
254
255

CATALOGUE NUMBERS CORRESPONDING WITH PLATES

AND FIGURES

[Specimens with Arabic numbers, Catalogue Museum of the American Indian (Heye

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

PLATE

Uh

10.

21.

22.

23.

24.

Collection) ; Roman numbers, Catalogue Berlin Museum. ]

A, No. IVC® 1755; B, No. [VC® 1767; C, No. 9636; D, No. 2/8308; Z,
No. 9708; F, No. 2/9151; G, No. 1/4412; H, No. 2/9848; I, No.
2/T788.

A, No. 2/7755; B, No. 9706; C, No. 2/7788; D, No. 2/8310; HE, No.
2/8330; F, No. 1/4398; G, No. 1/4411; H, No. 2/8758; I, No. 2/8294.

. A, No. 2/7761; B, No. 2/7761; C, No. 2/9154; D, No. 2/9151; #, No.

2/9851; F, No. 2/9838; G, No. 1/4398; H, No. 1/4425; I, No.
2/9064; J, No. 2/9844; K, No. 2/5342.

. A, No. 1/1924; B, No. 9702; C, No. 1/4385; D, No. 2/7771; EH, No.

2/8294: F, No. 3731; G, No. 2/7747; H, No. 3738; I, No. 2/77
J, No. 9676; K, No. 1/1970; L, No. 1/1930; M, No. 1/1936; N,
No. 2/5331.

. A, 1/1931; B, No. 2/8742; C, No. 2/5331; D, No. 2/7771; H, No.

2/7771; F, No. 1/1965; G, No. 1/1938; H, No. 2/5331.

. A, No. 2/7771; B, No. 1/1971; OC, No. 2/7771; D, No. 1/4393; E, No.

1/4411; F, No. 2/4898; G, No. 1/4398; H, No. 1/4411.

. A, No. 9655; B, No. 2/9832; C, No. 2/7757; D, No. 1/4411; H, No.

2/TTT1; F, No. 2/9044; G, No. 2/7711; H, No. 1/4411; I, No. 1/4411;
J, No. 1/4411.

. A, No. 2/5331; B, No. 2/7771; C, No. 1/4411; D, No. 2/8303; E, No.

2/8294; F, No. 2/9151; G, No. 1/1960; H, No. IVC® 1023; I, No.
2/3517; J. No. 1/122.

. A, No. 2/9036; B, No. 3/2018; C, No. 9656; D, No. 1/1931; HE, No.

7696; F, No. 1/4411; G, No. 9147; H, No. 9641; I. No. 1/1974.

. A, No. 1/4411; B, No. 9663; C, No. 2/7756; D, No. 1/4411; BE, No.

2/8742; F, No. 1/1964; G, No. 9634; H, No. 2/7749; I, No. 1/4411.

. A, No. 2/8294; B, No. 2/8742; C, No. 2/3524; D, No. 1/4399; E, No.

2/9842; F, No. 9688; G, No. 2/7777; H, No. 2/9144; I, No. 2/8633;
J, No. 1/4411; K, No. 2/8294.

. A, No. 1/1960; B, No. 1/121; C, No. 1/120; D, No. 1/4411; EF, No.

1/4898; F, No. 1/4898; G, No. 2/7764; H, No. 2/5831; I, No.
2/9985 ; J, 2/8651; K, No. 2/8294; L, No. 1/4411.

“A, No. 9643; B, No. 2/8294; C, No. 1/4411;°D, No. 9704; E, No.
2/9832; F, No. 1/1885; G, No. 2/8308; H, No. 192.

A, No. 9633; B, No. 9723; C, No. 1/4411; D, No. 1/1967; H, No.
1/1969; F, No. 2/9849; G, No. 1/1886; H, No. 1/4400.

A, No. 2/9148; B, No. 2/3521; C, No. 2/9851; D, No. 1/4411; H, No.
1/1949; F, No. 1/1981; G, No. 1/1942; H, No. 2/7788.

A, No. 1/1948; B, No. 1/1942; C, No. 2/9152; D, No. 2/8811; H, No.
2/8293; F, No. 2/7757; G, No. 2/8293 ; H, No. 2/8301; I, No. 2/8293.

PratE 25. A, No. 2/8293; B, No. 2/9831; C, No. 2/7757; D, No. 2/5331; E, No.

2/8261; F, No. IVCb 2022.
45

PLATE 27.

PLATE 28.

PLATE 29.

PLATE 30,

PLATE 31.

PLATE 382.

PLATE 33.

PLATE 34.

PLATE 35.

PLATE 36.

PLATE 37. 2

PLATE 38. A,

PLATE 39.
PLATE 40,

PLATE 41,
PLATE 42.

PLATE 43.
PLATE 44.

PLATE 45,

PLATE 46.

PLATE 47.

PLATE 48.
PLATE 49.

PLATE 50.
PLATE 51.

ILLUSTRATIONS

. A, No. 2/8293; B, No. 2/8768; C, No. 2/8268; D, No. 9702; EF, No.

1/1924; F, No. 2/8742; G, No. 2/5351; H, No. 2/8293; I, No. 2/7761;
J, No. 2/9827; K, No. 1/1924; L, No. 4402.

A, No. 2/8293; B, No. 2/9831; C, No. 2/7761; D, No. 1/1924; H, No.
1/4422; F, No. 2/8293; G, No. 9702; H, No. 2/8293; I, No. 1/1924.

A, No. 2/1924; B, No. 1/1933; C, No. 2/8305; D, No. 2/9151; FE, No.
2/9151; F, No. 2/9151; G, No. 2/5330; H, No. 2/5330; I, No. 2/7767;
J, No. 2/7757; K, No. 1/4391; L, No. 2/4391.

A, No. 2/7753; B, No. 2/7743; C, No. 9710; D, No. 2/7742: H, No.
9734; F, No. 1/1991; G, No. 1/4485; H, No. IVb 280; J, No. 2/9846;
J, No. 2/7739; K, No. 1/4408.

A, No. 2/4855; B, No. 2/9845; C, No. 2/3516; D, No. 1/1962; HB, No.
2/9851; F, No. 2/7771; G, No. 2/8294; H, No. 1/1957; I, No. 2/7751.

A, No. 1/4411; B, No. 1/1958; C, No. 2/9151; D, No. 1/4411; HB, No.
2/9151; F, No. 2/7757; G, No. 2/9151.

A, No. 1/1959; B, No. 6709; C, No. 2/3515; D, No. 1/4406; H, No.
9677; F, No. 9713.

A, No. 2/9981; B, No. 1/1994; C, No. 2/8309; D, No. 1/4424; B, No.
1/1976 ; F, No. 2/8299; G, No. 1/4424; H, No. 2/8299; I, No. 1/1893;
J, No. 2/8298; K, No. 2/5384; L, No: 1/1963; MW, No. 2/9142.

A, No. 2/8315; B, No. 1/8683; C, No. 2/4391; D, No. 1/1924; HE, No.

7763 ; F', No. 2/9848; G, No. 1/4878; H, No. 2/8295; I, No. 2/9856;
J, No. 2/8624; K, No. 2/8613.

A, No. 2/9847; B, No. 1/4898; C, No. 2/9837; D, No. 1/4376; #, No.

8/2185; F, No. 8/2135; G, No. 2/8582; H, No. 1/1999; I, No. 1/132.

A, No, 9720; B, No. 2/9140; C, No. 2/7732; D, No. 2/8717; F, No.

2/8267.

, No. 3/1981; B, No. 2/9957; C, No. 2/9848; D, No. 1/4386; HB, No.

2/8308 ; F, No. 2/9851; G, No. 2/9851; H, No. 2/9046; I, No. 2/8634;

J, No. 2/8619; K, No. 2/9037; L, No. 2/9040; M, No. 2/9039; N, No.

2/3038.

No. 2/7745; B, No. 2/8264; C, No. 2/8616; D, No. 2/8626; E, No.

2/8653; F, No. 2/8625.

A, No. 2/9621; B, No. 2/8650; C, No. 2/9895.

A, No. 2/9958; A (outline) represents C, Plate 46; B, No, 2/9952;
C, No. 1/124.

A, No. 2/8658; B, No. 2/9990; CO, No. 2/9872.

A, No. 2/8242; B, No. 2/9896; C, No. 2/7746; D, No. 2/8254; B, No.
2/9963; F, No. 2/9876.

A, No. 2/8644; B, No. 2/8247.

A, No. 2/9865; B, No. 2/9865; C, No. 2/8649; D, No. 2/9892; B, No.
2/8611; F, No. 2/9853.

A, No. 2/8639; B, No. 2/9870; ©, No. 2/9868; D, No. 2/2805; E, No.
2/8675; F, No. 2/82A1.
A, No. 2/8666; B, No. 2/8255; CG, No. 2/8652; D, No, 2/9889; E, No.
2/9899; F, No. 2/9878; G, No. 2/9851; H, No. 2/65; I, No. 1/129.
A, No. 2/9869; B, No. 2/8622; C, No. 2/8648; D, No. 2/7736; E, No.
2/8641.

A, No. 2/8631; B, No. 2/9945; C, No. 2/9875; D, No. 9880.

A, No. 2/8623; B (left), No. 2/9886; B (right, No. 2/8665; C, No.
2/9871.

A, No. 2/2848; B, No. 2/8660; C, No. 2/8647.

A, No. 2/8656; B, No. 2/8241; C, No. 2/7737; D, No. 2/8675.

es

PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE

PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE

PLATE

PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE

PLATE
PLATE

52.
53.
54,
55.

56.
57.
58.
59.
60.

61.

62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.

68.
69.

70.

98.

A,
B,
A,
A,
. B, C, No. 3045.
B,
A,
A,

ILLUSTRATIONS 47

A, No. 2/8630; B, No. 2/9885; C, No. 2/8252.

A, No. 2/7751; B, No. 2/9874; ©, No. 2/7744.

A, No; 2/2843; B, No. 2/8246; CO, No. 2/8244.

A, No. 2/7750; B, No. 2/7736; C, No. 1/146; D, No. 2/9867; BH, No.
2/9866.

A, No. 2/9987; B, No. 2/9947; C, No. 2/8635; D, No. 2/9884.

A, No. 2/9967 ; B, No 2/9984; C, No. 2/8627; D. No. 2/8627.

A, No. 2/9872; B, No. 1/4407.

A, No. 2/9990; B, No. 2/8658; C, No. 2/8677.

A, No. 2/8668; B, No. 2/8262; C, No. 2/8616; D, No. 2/9874; E, No.
2/9873.

A, No. 2/9864; B, No. 2/8665; C, No. 2/8659; D, No. 2/9951; BH, No.
2/8674; F, No. 2/8653; G, No. 2/8654; H, No. 2/7750.

A, No. 2/7784; B, No. 1/4427; C, No. 1/4427; D, No. 1/4428.

A, No. 2/7784; B, No. 1/4427; C, No. 8125.

A, No. 2/8271; B, No. 8125.

A, No. 1/4427; B, No. 2/57; C, No. 1/4427.

A, No. 1/4425; B, No. 1/8692; ©, No. 1/4427; D, No. 3509.

A, No. 2/8271; B, No. 8125; C, No. 1/4427; D, No. 1/4427; HB, No.
2/7777; F, No. 1/4427.

A, No. 1/4429; B, No. 2/8752; C, No. 1/4427.

A, No. 2/7740; B, No. 2/8305; C, No. 2/8804; D, No. 2/7765; H, No.
2/3806; F', No. 9701; G, No. 2/8274; H, No. 2/7741; I, No. 2/9139;
J, No. 8/1970; K, No. 9718; L, No. 1/4882; M, No. 1/4390; N, No.
1/4390; O, No. 1/4890.

A, No. 2/3537; B, No. 2/8278; OC, No. 2/3536; D, 2/7778%; HE, No.
2/9825; I’, No. 2/3535; G, No. 2/7778; H, No. 2/8316.

. A, No. IVC2 286;B, No. IVC® 293; ©, No. IVC® 1017; D, No. IVC2

303.

. A, No. IVC® 291; B, No. IVC® 289.

. A, No. IVC? 262; B, No. IVC® 261-; C, No. IVC® 265.

. B, No. IVC® 264; C, No. IVC? 135.

. A, No. IVC® 152; B, No. 2/9145; C, No. IVC® 134.

. A, B, No. IVC® 300; C, D, IVC® 299.

77. A, No. IVC® 159; B, No. IVC® 253; C, No. IVC® 1164; D, No. IVC?

1165.

. A, B, No. IVC® 105; C, No. IVC® 163; D, No. IVC" 165; H, No. IVC

166; F, No. IVC® 292.

. A, No. IVC" 178; B, No. IVC® 211; C, No. IVC® 408; D, EB, No. IVC®

1135; F, No. IVC® 171.

. A, No. IVC? 170°; B, IVC® 164; O, No. IVC> 692; D, No. IVC® 1702;

E, No. IVC® 153.

No. IVC® 703; B, FVC® 174; C, IVC® 151; EH, No. IVC? 169.
No. IVC? 1754.

IVC? 1781; B, IVC2 84; C, IVC 30.

B, C, 3/6812.

C, No. IVC? 1778; D, H, No. IVC? 78.
No. IVC? 1777.
A’, No. 2/1988; B, No. 1/4018.

100. A, B, IVC® 1326; C, D, No. 3/3936.
101. A, No. 3694; D, No. IVC? 55.
102, A, No. IVC® 34; B, No. IVC? 75.

48 : ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE 108. A, No. IVC? 54; B, No. 63488; C, No. IVC? 45.

Puate 106. B, No. 1/2300; C, No. 3695.

PuatTe 107. A, No. IVC? 45.

PLATE 108. C, No. 8695; D, No. 3/3939.

PLATE 110. A, No. IVC® 125; B, No. IVC® 124.

PLATE 111. A, No. IVC? 124; B, No. 1/4392; C, No. 2/3529; D, No. 3697.

PLATE 112. A, No, 5481; B, C, No. 9719.

PuaTE 113. A, No. IVC® 38; B, No. IVC® 1335; C, No. IVC 1780.

PuatE 114, A, No. IVC® 1776; B, No. IVC® 12; CG, No. IVC? 13.

PLATE 115. A, B, No. 2/49; C, D, No. 1/123.

PuLaTE 116. A, No. 3826; B, No. 2/8722; C, No. 1/9718; D, No. 1/9711.

PLatE 117. A, No. IVC? 92; B, No. 1/9714; D, EH, No. IVC® 1140; F, No. 1/9715;
G, No. 2/7773.

PLATE 118. A, No. 1/9710; B, No. 1/152; C, No. IVC? 2025.

PLATE 119. A, No. 2/60; B, No. 1/150; C, No. 1/151.

FicurE 2. No. 2/3726. Ficure 28. No. 3/3937.

Ficure 3. No. IVC? 308. Figure 29, No. 1/140.

Figure 4. No, 1/129. Ficure 30. No. 3/2791.

Fieure 5. No. 2/3533. Figure 32. No. 3698.

Ficure 6. No. 2/1993. Fieure 40, No. 8080 (U. S. N. M.)
Figure 7. No. 2/3534. Ficure 42. No. 17080 (U. S. N. M.)
Figure 8. No. 2/8725. Figure 48. No. 8029 (U. S. N. M.)
Figure 9. No. 2/9829. Ficure 45. No. 17082 (U.S. N. M.)
Frieure 11. No. 3/5910. Fieure 50. No. 8695.

Figure 12. No. IVC? 2175. Fiaure 51. No. 2/3529.

FicurE 21. No. IVC? 296. Figure 52. No. IVC? 125.

FicureE 22. No. 1VC® 296. Ficure 53. No. 1/4392.

Figure 23. No. IVC? 36. Figure 55. No. 3698.

FieurE 24, No, IVC? 123. Figure 56. No. 2/8269.

FieurE 25. No. IVC? 123. Figure 57. No. 3/1996.

Figure 26. No. IVC? 1327. Ficure 59. No, IVC? 79.

Figure 27. No, IVC? 1827. Ficure 63. No, IVC? 1788.

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A PREHISTORIC ISLAND CULTURE AREA
OF AMERICA

A REPORT ON PREHISTORIC OBJECTS FROM THE WEST
INDIES IN THE MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN
INDIAN (HEYE FOUNDATION) IN 1914

By J. Waurer FEwxKes

INTRODUCTION

In the year 1911 the author was invited by Mr. George G. Heye,
of New York, to examine his collection of Indian antiquities with
a view to publishing a report upon them. This collection, even
then, was very extensive, and since that time has been greatly en-
larged in number'* of specimens, so that in October, 1914, it con-
tained about 9,500 prehistoric objects from the West Indies. '
The localities in which these were found are indicated on plate 1 and
the number of objects obtained from each island is shown in the
following table:

GREATER AND LESSER ANTILLES

hrini a dtesese es ee ee ASM Gn TOelOUDes se ean net eet 99
MOR Ole ee eee ees ZOOMING VISmer = See eee eS 3
Grefiadals. 22a We ae SOAP SE MRA See De FE ee 19
@arriatoutss $2 Mee Aa sre B8St|oSaba) seesyeetea aye spas 2 tet 1
(Ohh) ee 5. |i, Mortolale = Ot 4 Bees Fe 1
@onnoune = 2 = eee ee 12 Sb. Mhomas ste 2S = t oe e e 2
Ballicestxs == se eta ee AGP Santani@rizi. 5222 see 219
IBequia. 42225: — 225-5 Slee TGS POLLO s EUG Ole a= eae eee oe a 386
Sti Vitieent2 22 Go as at a S228 Sao Mel ated SRE Te SN Se 8 171
Bapbados: 2262 se eth eee ie 169 | Republic of Santo Domingo____ 1, 478
Santa Luc¢ia=s-2-2 2 te. be ALA ol Cubes sh er ee be Vee 67
Momintcas: 79 3s ea 66a. Tam aig per ae et 569

1Since this article was written the number of Antillean objects in the Heye collec-
tion has greatly increased through the addition of the collections made by De Booy,
Harrington, and others. Those from Trinidad, Santo Domingo, and the Virgin Islands
have already been described by the late Theodoor de Booy, and a report on the Cuban
collection made by Harrington will shortly be published.

160658°—34 rrH—22——4 49

50 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 24

BAHAMA ISLANDS

HastiCaicos. 22-625 se===ees 25\(' Crooked) £==22 3 2-2 S555 eee ee 2
Grand (Caicos_-_- = 6S. || Ragcedes.. -. = ee eee ee 2
North Caicos! 35-22 ee 1043 SEleutheral= eee en ee 2
Brovidenc¢e "4 £22 S°k) Pere 59) |ARoyalla_ 3 5-22 fb ee eee 1
West (Caicos: 222. 22=i en oars 200") New Providence =a 2=22-—-2 = 3
Great Inagcud sees 20) iKGreat Abacos 8 ae nee Beat at
Manigians 22222222 ee GASMoress=3 ~_= 4.26 2 ae 2
PlanaaCay ors a eee eee delim bathle AbaC0 = 22-222 2s 2
Arcklingahe =< 2 Sab eek 2 eee 2

Some of these specimens have been collected on various expeditions
sent by Mr. Heye to the islands, but the majority have been pur-
chased for him by Rev. Thomas Huckerby from collectors in the
Lesser Antilles. A large part of this report is taken up in a consid-
eration of these specimens.

The author also visited these islands to gather data in the field
before writing this report,’* and spent the winter of 1912-13 in the
Lesser Antilles, visiting Trinidad, St. Vincent, Barbados, St. Kitts,
and Santa Cruz, where he obtained important material. He like-
wise made short visits to other islands, examining and making notes
on specimens in various public and private collections on the islands,
which are embodied in this memoir.

In order to get all possible information bearing on the forms and
uses of these objects the author, in the winter of 1913-14, visited
several European museums rich in West Indian objects, as those
in Copenhagen, Denmark; Bremen and Berlin, Germany; Vienna
and Prague, Austria. A considerable number of drawings were
made on this trip, especially in the Berlin Museum, which is one of
the richest in these objects on the European Continent. On a re-
cent trip to Europe, Prof. Marshall H. Saville, of Columbia Uni-
versity, kindly obtained for the author several photographs of rare
West Indian antiquities in the museums of London, Paris, and
Madrid. The West Indian collection in the Heye Museum has also
been enlarged by specimens purchased by the author from Senor
Seiyo, of Arecibo, Porto Rico, and other local collectors.

The description of artifacts in the Heye Museum is accompanied
by short accounts of related objects in other museums from the same
islands from which the material was obtained. For convenience in
the consideration of the subject the geographical method is adopted,
the West Indies being divided into areas, which are supposed to indi-
cate culture centers. The aim has been not so much a description of
specimens as a consideration of a highly developed insular culture
peculiar to America as a whole preparatory to a comparison of it
with that of the neighboring continent.

1¢ The work was done under cooperation of the Heye Museum and the Bureau of
American Ethnology.

FEWKES | INTRODUCTION. a

Since the author began the preparation of this report many other
archeologists have been led to enter the West Indian field.2 Several
collectors have been sent by Mr. Heye to the islands, and large col-
lections have been brought to his museum from the Bahamas, Cuba,
Santo Domingo, and Trinidad. In addition to work by the Heye
Museum, other institutions have begun work, especially in Porto
Rico, where important results are being brought to light by exca-
vations in ball courts, shell heaps, and caves. The New York
Academy of ‘Science, in cooperation with the Insular government,
made excavations in ball courts and shell-heaps of Porto Rico, under
the supervision of Dr. F. Boas, in 1915. This wealth of new material
sheds some light on many doubtful questions which pioneer students
in Antillean archeology have been unable to answer, and will prob-
ably, when published, antiquate some of the theories brought forward
by the author in this article. For obvious reasons no adequate
reference can here be made to details of unpublished material, but it
is very gratifying to the author that his prediction, made over a decade
ago, that the West Indian field will afford a rich harvest to arche-
ologists provided with ample means for intensive study on any one
of the chain of islands connecting South America with the south- .
eastern part of the United States, has been confirmed. Of all the
islands superficially explored none still offer greater facilities for
study than Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, the central points of the
characteristic Antillean culture, where, no doubt, it originated. Much
work remains to be done in this field.

The Antillean culture is sufficiently self-centered and distinctive
to be called unique, although the germ originally came from South
America.

HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Although the present memoir is concerned chiefly with material
antedating written history, and the deductions drawn from it are
objective rather than subjective, due attention should be given to the
ethnology of the Arawak and Carib inhabiting in historic times the
islands where these specimens were found. There is a large body of
documentary evidence bearing on the use of some of these objects,
especially survivals seen by the early discoverers. It is not designed
to treat this material from the historical point of view, but a few
general statements at the outset may clearly define the relation of
the historic to the prehistoric.

This memoir relates to prehistoric times, while the documentary
evidence deals with the historic epoch; the two methods of study
should go hand in hand. All the early historians point out that

2The reader will find in Mr. T. A. Joyce’s “Central American and West Indian
Archeology ” a valuable popular introduction to the subject here considered.

52 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

there was a marked difference between the historic inhabitants of
Haiti-Porto Rico, or the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles.
The former were called Arawak, the latter Carib. The two races
were hostile to each other and their culture was similar but not
identical. To the historians this was a fact of geographical dis-
tribution. They paid no attention to what had been the condition
in prehistoric times, or whether the life of the earlier inhabitants
from Trinidad to Cuba was ever more uniform than they found it.
They recognized, however, that the Carib were a more or less
nomadic, while the Arawak or Tainan were a stationary people. A
study of prehistoric material here presented supports the belief that
the earlier inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles were even more closely
allied culturally to those of the Greater Antilles than were the later
Carib to the Arawak. The Carib inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles,
as we know from both archeology and legend, had submerged the
former population as far north as Vieques Island and the east coast
of Porto Rico. They were likewise known to all the Greater Antilles,
even to the Bahamas, but had not yet overcome and replaced a
preexisting Tainan or Arawak population.

In his memoir on “The Aborigines of Porto Rico”* the author
has shown, as far as possible with limited material, the characteristics
of the culture of that prehistoric Antillean life in Porto Rico. In the
present article he will try to indicate, mainly from archeological
material, the culture of the Lesser Antilles before the advent of the
Carib. While it is probably true that many of the older customs and
objects belonging to the prehistoric people of the Lesser Antilles sur-
vived among the Carib and were in use when these islands were first
visited by Europeans, many were not. These objects of a past culture
were obsolete and the most exhaustive examination of the literature
fails to reveal their probable use. Notwithstanding this uncertainty,
however, these objects of stone, clay, wood, or shell are often desig-
nated “ Carib artifacts,” as if made by this vigorous nomadic stock.
Many of them are, however, mentioned as in use at this early time
by Carib, and as there is a larger literature on Carib than on Arawak
ethnology, dating to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth cen-
turies, much information may be gathered by historical methods or
examination of documentary accounts of this race. In one or two
instances this method is used in the following pages, but the arche-
ological or objective method is the one generally employed.

§ Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Bthn., 1907.

PREHISTORIC CULTURAL AREAS IN THE WEST
INDIES*

When the West Indies were discovered by Europeans the inhabi-
tants of these islands were ignorant of the metals, iron and bronze,
which have played such an important part in elevating the condition
of prehistoric man in the Old World. Stone, clay, wood, bone, and
shell were employed by the natives for utensils and implements;
gold and copper for ceremonial purposes or for personal decoration.
The pre-Columbian aborigines of the West Indies, like those of the
rest of America, were practically in what Prof. Hoernes has aptly
called the infancy of our race culture, to which the name Stone Age
is commonly applied.

This period of race history seems to have been universal; it was
nowhere of brief duration. Successive steps in cultural advance-
ment were slow and in certain localities were retarded by unfavorable
environmental conditions.

It has been estimated that the Stone Age in the Old World
lasted from the year 100000 to 5000 B. C.° The American Indian
was practically in the Stone Age when he was discovered at the close
of the fifteenth century, and the inhabitants of a few of the Poly-
nesian Islands were still living in this epoch a little over a century
ago. There is every reason to suppose that the parentage of the
American Indian dates as far back as that of the Europe-Asian man,
provided both sprang from the same original source. It is known
from evidences drawn from differences in implements that during
the protracted Stone Age epoch man in Europe passed through
distinct phases, which have been designated the earliest, the old, and
the new stone epochs, before he entered that of metals. The Ameri-
can Indian had developed into the new or polished Stone Age when
he came to America, and had not progressed beyond it when America
was discovered by Columbus.

Although the Stone Age still survived in America when it was
discovered, this epoch in the Old World had long before been super-
seded by one of metals, showing that the Age of Stone in the Old
and New Worlds does not correspond in time. When the New World
was discovered Europe had been in possession of metal implements
for several thousand years. The highest development of stone tech-

4 Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. V, No. 12, June 19, 1915.
5 Practically another way of saying that the length of the Stone Age far exceeded the
age of metals.

53

54 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

nique, other things being equal, would naturally be looked for where it
had been practiced the longest time, and it is to be expected that the
prehistoric stone objects found in America would be superior to the
European, known to have been made before the discovery of bronze
and iron.

Individual specimens of stone implements from the Old and New
Worlds are so similar in form and technique that it is very difficult
to determine which continent can show the better examples, but
comparing the majority of implements from the Stone Age in Amer-
ica with those made before the discovery of bronze and iron, now ex-
hibited in Europe, it has been found that the former are, as a rule,
superior to the latter. In Stone Age architecture we find a like
superiority. The buildings constructed in the American Stone Age
excel those of the same epoch in Europe, as will appear when we
compare the stately temples of Peru, Yucatan, or Central America
with the megalithic monuments and other buildings ascribed to the
latest Stone Age of Europe.®

Character and decoration of pottery is also a fair indication of
cultural conditions reached in the Stone Age in different regions
of the globe. The ceramics of this epoch in America reached a
higher development than those of the polished Stone Age of the
Old World, as may be readily seen by comparisons of the beautiful
prehistoric American Stone Age pottery with that of man before
the use of metals in the Old World.7

It thus appears that, if we base cultural advancement on pottery
or house building, America had reached a higher stage of develop-
ment than Europe, even though man in the former was ignorant
of the metals, bronze and iron. The implication is that the human
race, found in America in 1500 A. D., had lived in a Stone Age longer
than man in Europe, where metals had been introduced fully 6,000
years before Columbus.

The implements found in the West Indies are among the highest
developed examples of this Stone Age. Many of them are the most
perfect of their kind and rank with the polished stones of Polynesia,
Africa, and Asia. In architecture the branch of the American
race inhabiting the West Indies in prehistoric times had not made
great progress, although the cognate ceramic art was well developed.

While there is little in prehistoric America to show a serial succes-
sion of stone implements based on method of manufacture, as indi-

®This judgment is based on the probable form and character of the ancient houses
of the Stone Age in Europe, from “ house urns” or burial urns shaped like houses, or
from the reconstructions made of walls as indicated by post holes and floors. These
buildings of the European Stone Age were certainly inferior to those of the same epoch in
America.

7These examples show the weakness of relying solely on stone, bronze, and iron in
classification, and the futility of basing the degree of human culture on any one form of
artifacts.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 55

cated by chipping, polishing, or other superficial characters, the
variations in their forms are great. They indicate geographical
rather than historical cultural distribution. Certain characteristic
forms of stone artifacts are confined to certain areas, but these char-
acteristics are not of such a kind as to make it difficult for us to
readily arrange them in sequence. The first step to take in explana-
tion of different types of stone implements is naturally to define the
areas that are typical.’

While the different known types of stone objects found in the
West Indies-may be considered geographically rather than his-
torically, this manner of assembling specimens in large collections
brings out many facts which will make it possible later to determine
a definite chronology, and to associate types of implements with local
conditions, thus affording an instructive study of the interrelations
of environment and human culture.

We can believe that certain of the stone implements found on
these islands are old, but it can not be proved that the oldest of them
extend back to the earliest polished stone epoch. Stone implements
made by chipping, or those having unpolished surfaces, are rare in
the West Indies; they have not been reported in sufficient numbers to
enable us to say that they indicate the former existence in these
islands of an epoch when chipped implements were the only ones
employed. A few chipped axes have been reported from Santo Do-
mingo and other islands, but neither there nor in other islands are
the flint chips numerous enough to. afford conclusive proof of an
epoch, notwithstanding these implements and their chips closely re-
semble similar objects picked up on the sites of workshops in the
Old World.

The discoverers of the West Indies early recognized that the abo-
rigines of different islands differed in their mode of life, their culture,
and their language. In early accounts we find two groups designated
as Arawak and Carib, accordingly as their life was agricultural or
nomadic. It was stated by the early travelers that these groups in-
habited different islands, the former being assigned to the Greater
Antilles, the latter to the Lesser.

The large collection of artifacts characteristic of the aborigines of
the West Indies now available shows that the stone tools, pottery, and
other objects found on the islands inhabited by the Carib are radi-
cally different from those from islands on which the so-called Ara-
wak lived. Students of prehistory did not at first connect this dif-
ference with any racial dissimilarity, but ascribed all these imple-

8 The culture historian is concerned with the distribution of archeological objects in
time and space or in history and geography. It is for the geographer to interpret
geography in relation to history and for the historian to translate history by the interpre-
tation of the geographer.

56 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

ments to the Carib. This conclusion does not necessarily follow, for it
fails to take into account the significant fact that the stone objects
found on the so-called Carib Islands may have been made by a people
inhabiting them before the Carib came. Moreover, this interpreta-
tion does not give sufficient weight to the evidence furnished by the
implements themselves, for they imply a culture quite different from
that of the Carib as made known by historical accounts, as flourish-
ing at an earlier date on the Carib Islands. In other words, there is
good evidence of a prehistoric race other than Carib but related to it
inhabiting the Lesser Antilles before the arrival of the Europeans.
This culture is here called the Ierian as that of Porto Rico is known
as the Tainan.

One characteristic of the prehistoric objects found on the islands
inhabited by Carib when discovered may be mentioned in this con-
nection. It is well known that the Arawak, like all agricultural
peoples, are great potters, and that the ancient Carib, like nomads,
from necessity were not. The two races probably preserved these
characteristics in the West Indies; and the fact that we find pottery
objects of high excellence on all the islands inhabited by the Carib
leads to the natural inference that they were made by a people allied
to the Arawak who anciently lived on these same islands or Terian
women and their descendants married to Caribs.

Archeological remains left by the aborigines of the West Indies
reveal three cultural epochs, grading into each other, which may
indicate a sequence in time or distinct cultural stages. These epochs
were those of the cave dwellers, the agriculturists,** and the Carib.
The most primitive culture is represented by objects found in the
floors of caves or in the numerous shell heaps scattered from Cuba
to Trinidad. A second stage is more advanced and is agricultural in
nature, represented on all the islands, but surviving at the time of
discovery on the larger—Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico; while the
third, or Carib, stage had replaced the agricultural in certain of the
Lesser Antilles, especially on the chain of volcanic islands extending
from Guadeloupe to Grenada.

Although the three stages above mentioned are supposed to follow
each other chronologically, not one of them had completely died out
when Columbus discovered America. The cave dwellers still sur-
vived in western Cuba and in Haiti, and according to some authori-
ties they spoke a characteristic language. The Arawak inhabited
Porto Rico, Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamas.

The customs of the aborigines who left the great shell heaps found
throughout the West Indies were apparently different from those
of the natives of prehistoric Florida but like those of northern South

‘e Some of the finest specimens of pottery evidently belonging to the agricultural epoch
occur in shell heaps and caves.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES iy

America. These people, essentially fishermen, lived on fishes, mol-
lusks, or crabs, eking out their dietary with turtles, birds, and other
game captured along the shores; fruits and roots were also probably
collected and eaten, but their main food came from cultivated crops
of yuca planted in the neighborhood of their settlements. The
nature of their food supply confined them to the seashore or to banks
of rivers, where village sites occur in numbers. It is probable
that the shell-heap people of the West Indies were likewise cave
dwellers and resorted at times to rock shelters for shelter or protec-
tion. We know from excavations in caverns that they buried their
dead in these caves, which later came to have a religious or cere-
monial significance.

We may suppose that a life devoted to fishing would make men
good sailors, and it is probable that the prehistoric Antilleans manu-
factured seaworthy canoes, hollowing out logs of wood with the live
ember and the stone ax. It is also evident from objects found in
the floors of caves that the women of this epoch manufactured pot-
tery, and as reptilean figures in relief or effigy vases representing
this animal occur constantly, we may suppose that some reptile, as
the iguana or turtle, was highly prized for food. Some of the bone
needles, whistles, and ornaments of shell or wood found in shell
heaps show that those who camped in the neighborhood were ad-
vanced in culture, while other objects found in the West Indian shell
heaps are, so far as technique goes, equal to those of the highest of the
Stone Age culture. It is probable that this form of culture reaches
back to a very early date in culture development.

One important consideration presents itself in relation to the
shell-heap life in the West Indies as compared with that of the
shell heaps in Florida and Guiana in South America. The very
existence of the shell-heap culture on the continents and connecting
islands would seem to shed light on the earliest migrations of
West Indian aborigines. Unfortunately, however, the objects manu-
factured by all primitive people in this stage are so crude that they
are not distinctive; there is often a parallelism in their work.
For example, pottery from widely separated regions often bears
identical symbols, even where the people who manufactured it have
had no cultural connection. Consequently, although we find cer-
tain common features in decorated coastal pottery of Florida and
that of Porto Rico, this similarity implies rather than proves cultural
contact.

The highest prehistoric culture attained in the West Indies was
an agricultural one. It was based on the cultivation of the yuca
(Manihot manihot), a poisonous root out of which was prepared
a meal, from which the so-called cassava bread was made. At the
time of the discovery the cultivation of this plant had attained

58 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

such complete development that Porto Rico and Haiti are said
to have been practically covered with farms of this plant. In
fact, when sorely pressed by the Spaniards to furnish them
gold for tribute, one of the caciques offered to cultivate for
the conquerors a yuca farm extending across the island of Haiti.
Both Porto Rico and Haiti appear to have been densely populated,
and the failure of the population to advance into a higher stage of
development was due to the perishable character of the root or
food plant cultivated. Corn and other cereals? were not extensively
used and there was no domesticated animal. It is evident that this
culture was built on a root food supply which was clearly a product
of environment, and on account of this dependence merits careful
study by the culture historian and anthropo-geographer.

The development of this culture varies on different islands or
groups of islands, forming cultural centers of which the following
van be recognized by the character of the pottery: (1) Porto Rico,
(2) Jamaica, (3) eastern Cuba and Bahamas, (4) St. Kitts, (5)
St. Vincent, (6) Barbados, (7) Trinidad. The differences in arti-
facts characteristic of these culture centers of the Antilles are some-
times small; thus, the Porto Rico area, which includes also Haiti,
Santo Domingo, Mona, and some smaller islands, is clearly allied to
the eastern Cuba and Bahama.area. In the former we have the three
types of stone implements—stone collars, elbow stones, and three-
pointed idols—none of which has yet been described from Cuba, the
Bahamas, or Jamaica. Pottery from these islands bears rectilinear
or curved lines ending in enlargements,” a decorative feature which
is absent in Jamaica. This feature does not occur in the Lesser
Antilles from St. Thomas to Trinidad, where four different regions
of decorated pottery can be differentiated.

A search for a stone technique equal to that of the Greater An-
tilles on the North or South American contiguous areas is not re-
warded with much success. The stone collars, elbow stones and
triangular stones of these islands are of superior workmanship
and find their parallel on the gulf coast of Central America and
Mexico, especially among the Totonac and Huaxtec. Here, also,
we find enigmatic stone objects, like stone yokes and stone rings, as
finely made as the Antillean collars and elbow stones. Their rela-
tionship has been suggested by several students, but their connection
has not been made out with any satisfaction nor has it been demon-

® Corn (Zea mays) was introduced into the West Indies as a food plant shortly before
the advent of the Spaniards. If sufficient time had elapsed its cultivation would have
changed the form of cultural development based on root agriculture, unless as in the Lesser
Antilles it had been destroyed by Carib who were pressing in upon it with such force
that it could not survive.

10This characteristic feature of Porto Rican pottery decoration appears on pottery
fonnd by Mr. Clarence Moore in mounds of northern Florida.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 59

strated which objects are the most ancient; whether the West Indian
was derived from the continental, or vice versa, or whether both
independently originated is one of the unsolved problems of Ameri-
can archeology.

The West Indies are geologically divided into two great divisions,
known as the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The separation of the
two is a channel, or possibly the Anegada Passage, between Porto
Rico and the Virgin Islands.. The former division includes Cuba,
Jamaica, Santo Domingo, Haiti, and Porto Rico; the latter, a chain
of smaller islands extending from the Virgin Islands to the northern
coast of South America.

The antiquities of these divisions differ in many characters; for
instance, the majority of the edged-stone celts from the Greater
Antilles have a petaloid or almond-shaped form, being sharp at one
end, pointed at the other, finely polished and destitute of a groove for
the attachment of a handle. Ninety per cent of all celts found in
Jamaica, according to Prof. Duerden, and, it may be added, a still
larger percentage of those from Porto Rico, Cuba, and Haiti, have
this petaloid form. Across the Anegada Passage, in the Lesser An-
tilles, this proportion no longer holds true; the relative number of
petaloid forms diminishes at a leap, and true axes take their numeri-
cal predominance. In the volcanic islands very few petaloids occur.
Here the points of the almond-shaped celt are replaced by wings
or extensions—a form rarely found in the Greater Antilles, but con-
stituting about 90 per cent of all the stone implements in these
islands. This radical change stamps the petaloid, although it is
represented in all the Antilles, as a northern type characteristic of
the Greater Antilles, while the eared ax may be regarded as more
strictly southern in its distribution. |Shell celts are universal, but
their relative proportion is small in all of the islands except Bar-
bados, where they constitute 99 per cent of the total number of
celts. A comparison of pottery and other archeological objects shows
a similar separation of the islands into the two divisions correspond-
ing with those above mentioned.

_The West Indian geographical areas are considered in the fol-
lowing order:

. Trinidad.

. Barbados.

St. Vincent-Grenada.

Dominica.
Martinique.
Guadeloupe.

Por ge to

“The Bahamas constitute a special group, the culture of the aborigines resembling
that of Porto Rico in many particulars.

60 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

7. St. Kitts.

St. Croix.
Haiti-Porto Rico.
10. Cuba.

11. Jamaica.

12. Bahamas.

The differences in prehistoric culture in these areas are mainly
shown in their ceramics, but these variations do not always occur.
They are mainly due to local causes, as geographical situation
and possibly acculturation of foreign elements. The pottery of
Trinidad should be ranked very high, both in technique and decora-
tion, being closely related to that of the shell heaps of adjacent South
America. It may, however, not be far from truth to say that as a
rule there is a general similarity in pottery of prehistoric date
from Trinidad to Cuba. Some regions of individual islands, as west-
ern Cuba, appear to be wholly destitute of ceramic remains, and
possibly this is due to the persistence of tribes ignorant of this art
in these localities.

The boundaries of the areas above mentioned overlap and con-
verge into each other to such an extent that there is some difficulty
in determining the limits of any one area, and it is impossible some-
times to discover to what area some of the smaller islands should be
referred. A determination of culture characters of some of the
islands is impossible without larger collections and renewed investi-
gations.”

The urgency of a call for archeological field work in the Antilles
was long ago expressed by M. Guesde in a “ personal history ” quoted
by Prof. Mason, as follows: “In the presence of this collection
[Guesde] one is led to ask if these wrought stones are the work of the
Yguiris or of the Caribs, or if they would not belong to these two
races. We are in almost complete darkness on this point.” ™

In the many archeological collections from the Lesser Antilles,
embracing thousands of specimens examined, the author has not
found a single example of the characteristic three-pointed stones,“
not a single stone collar, elbow stone, or stone seat, which can be
referred without question to these islands. The fragment of a stone
collar seen in the Norby collection at Santa Cruz, Danish West
Indies, belongs to the Porto Rican area. Two stone collars, one of
which is in the British Museum and the other in the Guesde collec-

* At least two distinct cultures, probably more, existed in Santo Domingo-Haiti when
discovered. The western end of this island, like western Cuba, was inhabited by cave
dwellers ; the eastern by agriculturists.

43 Mason, Guesde Collection of Antiquities, p. 734.

“Specimens of a fourth type of these pointed stones in the Heye collection were ob-
tained from the Grenadines, but these are somewhat different from the type of three-
pointed stones and may not belong to this group.

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 61

tion, probably also came from the Porto Rican area, although
ascribed to Guadeloupe.

The general character of Jamaican antiquities seems to indicate
that the culture in that island was different from that of Haiti and
Porto Rico, and the stone implements thus far known from there
are certainly more closely allied to those from eastern Cuba. Stone
collars, elbow stones, and three-pointed stones do not appear to have
been indigenous in Jamaica or Cuba. Their absence is sufficient to
separate Jamaica and western Cuba, culturally, from Porto Rico.'®

It has been difficult to clearly differentiate minor archeological
culture areas of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, since sporadic
specimens are found in one that do not occur in others, and the diffi-
culties are increased by the fact that in many collections the pro-
venience of specimens is often wrongly labeled. It is also to be
pointed out that there is no material from several of the islands,
making our classification of prehistoric objects and references to
areas provisional. These areas can, therefore, only be accepted
in a general way.

Since three-pointed stones and collar stones are limited in their
distribution to Porto Rico and Santo Domingo it may be taken for
granted that this type originated there or that they are autoch-
thonous on these islands. By the same course of reasoning the
fishtail and winged implements, limited especially to the volcanic
areas, as St. Vincent, Grenada, and Guadeloupe, probably originated
where they are found buried in great numbers.*®

The study of Antillean linguistics ought to greatly aid the arche-
ologist in the study of West Indian culture areas. Words and
phrases, like objects, are archeological evidences handed down from
a remote past.

Some light on the existence of the prehistoric culture areas above
suggested may be shed by a study of words for animals or plants
still current on different West Indian islands. It is instructive to

1% The more general use of caves for burials and for habitations, and the great number
of middens, would indicate an earlier phase of Antillean culture surviving longer in
Jamaica than in the other Greater Antilles except Cuba.

© Father Labat (Nouveau Voyage aux Isles de l’Amérique, vol. 1, pp. 142-143) de-
seribes a custom among the Dominican Caribs of burying in a cache such valuables as
they wished to conceal. These have been found in caches in St. Vincent, in cutting roads
through the country, and may be explained in this way: ‘‘ When the inhabitants fear
pillage this is how they hide what they want to save. For such as will resist humidity,
such as objects of iron, plates and dishes, kitchen utensils, barrels of wine and brandy,
they make a hole on the seashore 8 or 10 feet deep so that the soldiers sounding with
their swords can touch nothing harder than sand. After the cache is filled up and
covered with the same sand the balance is thrown overboard so that no elevation of the
sand may be noticed. Water is also thrown on it to solidify it, and care is taken to align
it with two or three neighboring trees or big stones, in order to enable the cache to be
subsequently located more easily by lining up the same marks.

“When objects can not be carried to the seashore, holes are made in dry ground or
among the canes; if it is in a savanna the (top) ground must be carefully lifted as when
one lifts sod, after which cloths are put around the place where the hole is to be dug

62 : ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

note that Carib place names are rare in St. Kitts and Santa Cruz,
which is in marked contrast to other islands, as Porto Rico, St. Vin-
cent, and Dominica, which still bear Indian names. Islands colonized
by white settlers of English extraction rarely preserve Indian names,
while in those settled by French and Spanish many survive. Thus
in Barbados, settled by English, there are few Indian place names,
while in Jamaica, which was obtained by conquest and was Spanish
for 162 years before the English subdued it, several Indian names sur-
vive. As, however, the present paper does not venture into the great
field of Antillean linguistics this subject must be passed over with a
brief mention.

In the following pages the author considers the different archeo-
logical culture areas in sequence, from Trinidad northward, the
characteristic antiquities of each island being considered geographi-
cally.

TRINIDAD

The island of Trinidad may be regarded as the gateway to the
migration of Arawak and Carib races from South America to the
chain of islands connecting the continent with Porto Rico and the
other Greater Antilles. This island was the home of several tribes of
Indians when discovered by Columbus and constant references to
them are found in all the early writings.

The following account of excavations at Erin, Trinidad, is quoted
at length from “ Prehistoric Objects from a Shell-heap at Erin Bay,
Trinidad”: 17

The shell heap at Point Mayaro to which the author has here called
attention, and which he wished later to study, has been excavated
since he left the island and has yielded many specimens, some of

that the soil may not show on the neighboring plants. The top of the hole must be as
small as possible and enlarged as it deepens. When the cached objects have been put in
it is filled with earth and tightly packed down; water is thrown on it; the sod is also
wet which has been lifted, carefully replaced, and the rest of the soil is carried away.
The ground around is dampened in order to freshen the ground which has been parched.
When clothes, laces, silks, papers, and other things which may be impaired by dampness
are to be cached they are put in big coyemboucs, which are great calabashes from trees
cut off the fourth or fifth part of their length; this opening is covered by means of
another gourd (calebasse), and these two pieces are held together by a thread of mahot
or agave, somewhat as the bottom of a senser is attached to its top. These two pieces so
attached are called “‘coyembouc.”’ This word, as the invention, is of savage origin.
When the coyembouc is filled with what is desired should be put in it, the cover is
attached with a cord and it is tied among the branches of chestnut trees or trees with
larger leaves, which are commonly surrounded with vines, some of which are put in the
coyembouc, which hide it so well that it is impossible to see it, and the leaves which
cover it prevent the rain falling in it or to cause the least humidity. Thus the
inhabitants cache their most valuable articles; but their booty, jewelry, and money
they must hide themselves without witnesses, for if their negroes know they will not
hesitate to force him to tell where it is, or the slave may rob the cache while the master is
fighting.
7 Amer, Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, no. 2, pp. 200-220.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 63

which have been described and figured by Mr. De Booy in his article,
“Certain Archeological Investigations in Trinidad, British West
Indies.” 18 The collection made by De Booy at Mayaro and elsewhere
contains many more specimens than that from Erin, but they do not
greatly differ from those here illustrated. They indicate a people
in about the same cultural condition, allied to Tainan rather than
Carib stocks.

Trinidad is well adapted for the home of an aboriginal people.
It has constant fresh water, an abundant supply of food, its moun-
tains and plains being well stocked with animals, the sea affording
an abundance of fish, mollusks, and crabs, and its soil yielding a
large variety of edible roots and fruits. The island lies in full view
of the coast of South America and was visible to the natives in-
habiting the Orinoco delta. On its lee side the water is shallow,
but landing can be made at many places in small craft. There are
high hills in the interior, level savannas along the coasts as well as
inland, and streams of fresh water that open into brackish lagoons.

Early historical references to the Indians inhabiting Trinidad
date from the discovery of the island by the great Genoese. As
Columbus on his third voyage, in 1498, sailed with his companions
along the shore of the newly discovered island which he had named
after the Holy Trinity, writes Peter Martyr,1** “ from their ships the
Spaniards could see that the country was inhabited and well culti-
vated; for they saw well-ordered gardens and shady orchards, while
the sweet odours, exhaled by plants and trees bathed in the morning
dew, reached their nostrils.” Following the shore somewhat farther,
Columbus “ found a port sufficiently large to shelter his ships, though
no river flowed into it. * * * There was no sign of any habitation
in the neighbourhood of this harbour, but there were many tracks of
animals similar to goats, and in fact the body of one of those animals
* * * was found. On the morrow, a canoe was seen in the distance
carrying eighty men, all of whom were young, good looking, and of
lofty stature. Besides their bows and arrows, they were armed with
shields, which is not the custom among the other islanders.? They
wore their hair long, parted in the middle and plastered down quite
in the Spanish fashion. Save for their loin-cloths of various coloured
cottons, they were entirely naked.” Columbus naively declared that
he followed in this voyage the parallel of Ethiopia, but recognized
that the people he found in Trinidad were not Ethiopians, for the
“Ethiopians are black and have curly, woolly hair, while these na-

18 Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. xix, no. 4, pp. 471-486. Republished in Cont. Mus. Amer.
Ind., vol. iv, no. 2.

18 De Orbe Novo, vol. i, pp. 132-133.

1®The Orinoco Indians had elaborate shields,

64 - ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

tives are on the contrary white [lighter in color?] and have long,
straight, blond hair.” *°

According to Las Casas, who is said to have possessed accounts
of the third voyage of the great admiral which are now lost, the
sailors of Columbus saw human footprints on the shore of Trinidad
and discovered implements showing that the aborigines were fisher-
men. As Columbus skirted this coast he observed houses and culti-
vated fields “ bien probada a labrada,” indicating that agriculture
as well as fishing was practiced by the natives. In the meager refer-
ence to the people given by Las Casas he says incidentally that “ they
were lighter and better proportioned than those of the other Antilles,
and wore their hair long, like the women of Castile. They wore
variegated cloth headbands, and girdles on the loins. The men were
armed with bows and arrows, and, unlike the inhabitants of the
other Antilles, had [war] shields.” The identity of these people is
not clear from this early account, but somewhat later they were re-
ferred to as Arawak.

Sir Robert Duddeley in 1595 made a journey through Trinidad
and lodged in “ Indian towns,” finding the natives a fine-shaped and
gentle ** (sic) people, naked and painted red.

Later, Sir Walter Raleigh enumerated the following “ nations ”
or races in Trinidad: Yaios, Amecos (Arawak), Salvagay (Salivas),
Nepoios, and Carinepagotos. At the end of the seyenteenth century
there were said to have been 15 Indian towns in Trinidad, but the
2,032 aborigines recorded as inhabiting the island in 1783 had
dwindled to 1 082 ten years later.?%

In some of the early historical references to Trinidad all the
natives are classed as Arawak.* Thus Davies** writes: “It was
when the captain was engaged for the war against the Arawages
who inhabit Trinity [Trinidad] Island, and to that purpose he made
extraordinary preparations.” In other references to the Trinidad
aborigines which might be quoted the name of Carib does not occur,

2Tt is not improbable that in ancient times there was frequent communication
between the inhabitants of the mainiand of South America and Trinidad—a communi-
cation that was kept up until quite recently, for it was only a few years ago that canoe
loads of Indians were accustomed to land at Erin Bay, at rare intervals, and make their
way by an old Indian trail to the present city of San Fernando, via Siparia, through the
original forests. These visits are now made primarily for trade and are probably a
survival of a custom quite common in prehistoric times. Well-marked ‘“ Indian trails ”’
ean still be followed through the forest depths.

“The Warrau, who lived on the mainland, have a large square shield called ha-ha,
used in athlétic sports. (See E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, London,
1883, p. 327.)

22This is not characteristic of the Carib, according to ideas current then or in later
times. It may be noticed, en passant, that there is no mention of Carib in the early
accounts of the Indians in Trinidad seen by Columbus.

230n Bryan Edwards’s map of the West Indies an ‘“ Indian town” appears on the east
eoast of Trinidad.

4 The historical evidences all agree that the people of this island were an agricultural
race allied in culture to Arawak.

*s History of the Carribby-Islands, 1666.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 65

and indeed there is no good evidence that there were Caribs on the
island, notwithstanding several of the above-mentioned tribes are
supposed by some authors to be divisions of “ Carib.”

The nearest approach to pure-blood aborigines of Trinidad live
at Arima, in the middle of the island; but aboriginal features can
still be found elsewhere among the inhabitants, although the author
was unable to learn of a person who could speak any aboriginal
language once spoken on the island, or that there were any Indians
of pure blood remaining. There survive in Trinidad numerous
Indian place names, as Arima and Naparima; but while some of
these suggest names existing in Porto Rico and St. Vincent, they
are as a rule dissimilar, indicating different languages. The pre-
historic inhabitants of Trinidad were probably linguistically distinct
from those of the other islands.

Additional knowledge of the culture of the aborigines of Trinidad
can be acquired either by archeological research or through survivals
in folklore, which are very common.

Erm Bay

The small settlement at Erin Bay consists of a few shops, two
‘churches, and a number of dwellings along a well-built road that
passes through the town to a warehouse on the shore. Small steam-
ers anchor at intervals a few miles from the coast, but the best
way to reach the settlement is by steamer from San Fernando to
Cap de Ville and by carriage from the landing. It can also be visited
from San Fernando by road, via Siparia. The only accommodations
for remaining overnight at Erin are at the Government House.

The present population consists almost wholly of blacks and East
Indian coolies indentured to English planters or overseers, who own
or manage the larger estates. The vernacular is a French patois of
peculiar construction and incomprehensible to any but the inhabi-
tants. The plantations are large and considerably scattered; they
produce profitable crops, mainly cocoa and tropical fruits that are
shipped to Port of Spain for export.

Not far from Erin there are remnants of the primeval forests in
which game, monkeys, and tropical vegetation abound. The land
is rich and productive, and the estates are prosperous. There are
a few small kitchen middens on the coast, not far from Erin, some
of which will well repay excavation; but their isolation is a prac-
tical difficulty unless complete and systematic work be done.?°

28Trinidad has never been regarded as a remuneratiye field for archeological investi-
gation. The first results of the author’s efforts in the island were not very promising,
but after some discouragement, excavations of a shell heap at Hrin Bay, in the Cedros

district, yielded important data bearing on the former culture of the aborigines in this
part of the island.

160658*—34 ETH—22

5

66 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

There are several shell mounds on the eastern coast of Trinidad
which show fragments of pottery and other rejecta, and several
heaps on the southern shore that are superficially composed of shells.
In the so-called shell heaps at San Jose the shells are few and incon-
spicuous, but in a midden at Point Mayaro, which covers a fairly
large area, many characteristic potsherds may still be found on the
surface. As a rule these shell heaps are not far from the shore, but
in several instances they le inland.?*

Fragments of pottery from this region sent to the author by Mr.
Dearle, of Port of Spain, differ from those of Erin Bay, but appar-
ently were made by people in the same stage of culture. There is a
small collection from this region in the Heye Museum, obtained after
this report was completed, which contains a number of highly in-
structive heads and other fragments. This pottery is colored white
and purple-red, whereas that from the shell heap at Erin Bay has a
bright red superficial slip, although the color is often worn, showing
gray beneath.

Cuie-Cnip Suett Hear

The largest shell heap in Trinidad, locally known as Chip-chip
hill, situated at Erin, a short distance from the shore, covers several’
acres and forms a considerable elevation. Upon this mound are
constructed the government buildings, the police station, and the
warden’s office. The author. obtained from the assistant warden,
Mr. John Menzies, ** permission to make excavations in that part of
the shell heap situated on Crown land, but was obliged to suspend
work on the private land adjoining, as it could not be thoroughly
explored without injury to the property. The specimens, although
limited in quantity, are the most numerous known, and give a fair
idea of the nature of the contents of a typical Trinidad shell heap.

Chip-chip hill was first described by Mr. Collens, whose excavations
therein were rewarded with several fine specimens, now on exhibition
in the Victoria Institute at Port of Spain. These objects are figured
by Collens in his Handbook of Trinidad,?** and are also illustrated by
the present author in his Aborigines of Porto Rico.??

Some limited excavations were also made at Chip-chip hill by Rev.
Thomas Huckerby, of San Fernando, several years after Collens
finished his work, but only a few fragments of pottery, now in the
Heye Museum, were obtained.

“% Pfforts to find evidences that man inhabited the numerous caves in Trinidad, or used
them for burial purposes, have not been rewarded with success, although many caves,
especially those near Pedro Martin’s basin, were examined.

*8The author is very grateful to Mr. Menzies for his aid, and takes this opportunity to
thank him for his many kindnesses while at Erin Bay. He is likewise indebted to
Mr. Dearle, of Port of Spain, for voluntary aid in the excavations.

8a Collens, J. H. Guide to Trinidad. London, 1888,

“ Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pl. lxxxy.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 67

The extent of the Chip-chip mound could not be determined, as it
extends far into the cocoa plantation under a dense tropical growth.
Its surface, except where cleared by the Government for the erection
of buildings, was covered with vegetation. Some distance from the
hill, where a ceiba tree had fallen, the roots showed a considerable
deposit of shells, indicating that the extent of the heap was great
and furnishing a clew for continued excavations.

The shells in the mound at Erin are in layers alternating with
vegetable mold, ashes, and soil, forming a sticky mass*° that clings
tenaciously to the specimens and almost conceals their identity. The
terra-cotta heads, when dug out of the earth, were completely coated
with mud, which had to be removed by washing, and by so doing
some of the red pigment which covered them disappeared. As the
ceramic objects had been painted after they were fired, the color is
not permanent, and the length of time they had been in the ground
caused it to come off even more readily.

As mentioned, a vertical section of the mound exposed alternating
layers of shells and ashes, mingled in some cases with humus and
with frequent fragments of charred wood. Sometimes the strata
were composed entirely of shells, but their thickness was not uniform,
especially at the periphery of the mound. Over the entire surface
of the mound there was a dense growth of tropical vegetation, with
clearings at intervals for cocoa and plantains. The fallen trunks
of palms, live shrubs, and trees formed an almost impenetrable
jungle, extending into the neighboring forests where the ground had
not been cleared. On the sea side the mound is only a short distance
from the shore and is separated from the bay by a lagoon inclosed
by a narrow strip of land. Near by is a spring, from which the
shipmates of Columbus obtained drinking water in 1498.

In their general character the objects found in the Chip-chip
mound are not unlike those occurring in other West Indian middens,
although they differ in special features. As is usually the case, the
majority of the specimens are fragments of pottery, which are among
the most instructive objects by which culture areas can be defined.
These will be considered first.

Porrrry

Comparatively little has been published on the pottery of the
Lesser Antilles, although specimens of whole jars and innumerable
fragments are found in various museums and private collections.
The Heye Musuem is the richest in the world in these objects. The
potter’s art was practiced by aboriginal people from Trinidad to

%° During the author’s work in Trinidad it rained almost every day.

68 : ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Cuba and the Bahamas, but while there is general similarity in the
product, there are very marked specific differences.

The several beautiful specimens of pottery in the Victoria Institute
at Port of Spain, Trinidad, two of which, through the kindness of
the officers of that institution, were photographed, have been repro-
duced by the author,*’ who has quoted the description in the ap-
pendix in Collens’s Guide to Trinidad, here reprinted, as it contains
practically all that has been published on the archeology of Trinidad:

“The discovery of some interesting Indian relics at Erin during
the past month (May, 1888) is, although I had brought my work to
an end, of sufficient importance to demand a brief notice. On the
occasion of a recent visit of his Excellency Sir W. Robinson and
suite to the southern quarter of the island, the Hon. H. Fowler, who
was one of the party, observed a mound of shells. Dismounting, a
closer inspection revealed some pieces of rude pottery, and subsequent
excavations by Mr. A. Newsam, the Warden, led to the unearthing of
some capital specimens, indicating beyond a doubt this had been the
centre, at some period more or less remote, of an Indian settlement.
The pottery is of two kinds, glazed *? and unglazed, the latter dating
back to a time anterior to the discovery of the New World, for the art
of glazing was unknown to the early Indians, nor is it likely that they
became acquainted with it till after the Spanish occupation.”

The following specimens are figured by Collens:

“ Figure 1. A hollow stone, smooth in the concave part, forming a
rude mortar. The Indians used a hard, smooth pebble for pounding
their seeds and grains.

“ Figures 2, 3, 4. Heads of animals in burnt clay, more or less gro-
tesquely shaped. The eyes and mouth are exaggerated, a few, broad,
bold lines serving to bring out the most striking features. In figure
4 the head of the monkey is fantastically crowned. All these were
probably deities or ornamental attachments to earthen vessels.

“ Figure 5. A well-shaped squirrel. Perhaps a toy whistle.

“Figure 6. An earthen bowl in fine preservation, about the size
of an ordinary vegetable dish. With the lid, which is unfortunately
missing, there would doubtless be a good representation of a turtle:
as it is, the head and tail are clearly, and the limbs somewhat clumsily,
shown.”

The best entire vessel found by the author in his excavations at
the Erin Bay midden is the shapely brown vase shown in plate 2, 4.
This receptacle was buried 24 feet beneath the surface, in a thick
layer composed wholly of shells. Its association and situation show
no indication that it was deposited with care, and it could not have

“ Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. Ixxxy.
* The author regrets that he can not support Mr. Collens’s statement that glazed
pottery occurs in the Chip-chip mound.

FEWEKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 69

been a mortuary vessel, as no bones were found near by; it appeared
rather to have been abandoned or dropped by its owner where it was
found. The shape of this vase is an uncommon one in prehistoric
West Indian pottery. In form it is enlarged equatorially, and tapers
above to a rim, which, as is rarely the case in West Indian earthen-
ware, is without handles or lugs, and below, in which region the
exterior is slightly convex, to the base. Decoration in the form
of incised lines appears on the surface of the upper area, but the
under portion is smooth and without ornamentation. This decora-
tion consists mainly of parallel grooves alternating with crescents,
and circles with central dots. The walls of the vessel are thinner
than is usual in West Indian pottery, and the surface is little worn.
A noticeable feature of this receptacle is the base, which consists
of a circular stand, thus rendering stability to the vessel. Similar
bases of other specimens, being much more substantial than the
bodies, are frequently preserved entire while the remainder has dis-
appeared. This form of base is of common occurrence also in frag-
ments from St. Vincent and Grenada, but is rare in Porto Rico.

Several bowls had been so long in the moist soil of which the
Chip-chip mound is composed that they crumbled into fragments
when an effort was made to lift them from their matrix. Although
the forms of these bowls vary somewhat, several resemble that shown
in plate 2, B, which may have been used for condiments or for pig-
ment.°? The walls of this vessel are thick, with smooth undecorated
surface ; its bottom is flat. The rim shows two opposite imperfections
that may indicate the position of heads which served as handles.%*

A remarkably well modeled reptilian head is shown in plate 2, C.
Its great elongation distinguishes it from the head shown in plate
2, D, which is almost spherical and has the organs represented by
incised lines rather than in relief. The same general tendency to
rounded forms is exhibited in plate 2, #, 7, G, but in these the nose
is notably exaggerated.

The head, and especially the position and form of the nose, of the
handle shown in plate 2, 7, remind one of pottery from the Grenada
region, a specimen of which is figured in the author’s report on the
Aborigines of Porto Rico.** In this instance the nose and mouth
are indicated by hemispherical protuberances; the nostrils are rep-
resented by parallel slits, the eyes by pits in the middle of a circular
disk, and the lips by a transverse furrow in a circular boss. A some-
what similar method of indicating the eyes is shown in plate 2, H.

83 Many fragments of red and green pigment were found in the mound. The majority
of the vessels here described are of gray or bright red ware.

* After pottery objects were taken from the mound they hardened considerably, but the
handles of this vessel may have been broken from the rim previous to its recovery.

*® Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pl. Ixxxiy.

70 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Plate 8, A, represents a small rude pottery rest, of spool shape.
with flat base, very thick walls, smooth undecorated surface, and
somewhat flaring rim. Its size suggests that it was once used as a
toy or as a ceremonial vessel, but it was more likely designed as a
support for a bowl. Some beautiful pottery rests from St. Vincent
are in the Heye collection, several of which, in a fragmentary condi-
tion, were obtained by the author at Balliceaux. The most elaborate
of these measures about 6 inches in height, is perforated on the sides,
and has a face in high relief.

The rectangular clay box shown in plate 3, B, has thick walls, a
flat bottom, and squatty legs continuous with the sides. Its longer
sides bear incised S figures surrounded on three sides by a straight
furrow. The narrow sides of the vessel are ornamented with incised
crescents, also partly framed with straight lines. From the broken
places at the two opposite shorter sides of the rim it would seem that
the vessel had been provided with handles, probably in the form of
heads, but it is also possible that a head may have been attached to
one side and a tail opposite, thus producing an effigy vessel. Rectan-
gular receptacles of this kind are rare in collections of West Indian
pottery—a fact which imparts special interest to this example.

The object shown in plate 3, C, is a fragment of a bowl, shaped
like a turtle, with head and tail, and the left legs drawn up to the
side of the body. This interesting specimen is almost identi-
cal with the unbroken turtle effigy vase figured by Collens, to
which reference has already been made. Although nearly half of
this specimen is absent, enough remains to enable a determination of
its form and of the general character of the relief decoration, which
was no doubt identical on the two sides.*° The head, which is not
attached directly to the rim of the vessel but to the upper side, is
rather long, with blunt snout, and mouth extending backward; the
nostrils are indicated by pits, the eyes by slits. The tail consists of
two buttons separated by grooves, and the fore and hind legs, with
no indication of flippers, are modeled close to the body. Like many
Antillean earthenware vessels, the walls are thick and the rim not
decorated.

The vessel shown in plate 3, , is also supposed to be a turtle effigy,
an almost featureless head being attached to the rim. Opposite
the head the rim is broken, indicating where there may have been
formerly an appendage representing the tail. This object is one of
the few whole specimens in the collection.

%6 Unlike the clay turtle figured by Collens, this specimen has no raised rim about the
base. We know from historical sources that the turtle played an important part in
Antillean mythology, which accounts for its frequent appearance on ceramic and other
objects.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 2

CLAY OBJECTS FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 3

CLAY OBJECTS FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 4

CLAY HANDLES FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 5

CLAY HEADS FROM TRIN!DAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 6

CLAY HEADS FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 7

CLAY HEADS FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 8

CLAY HEADS FROM TRINIDAD

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 9

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM GRENADA AND ST. VINCENT

A, 3.5inches; B 4.38 inches.

FEWKus] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES elt

In sharp contrast with the thick-walled, coarse bowl last men-
tioned is a fragment of a vessel (pl. 3, 4) which may be regarded as
one of the finest and most elaborately decorated specimens found at
Erin Bay. This beautiful example represents the highest type of
incised decoration of which the Antillean potter was capable. It
shows the base and practically a quadrant of the lateral decoration
of the bowl, which was probably repeated on the missing sides.

In plate 3, F, the form of the head reminds one of a peccary or
wild hog. The mode of attachment to the rim of the vessel is quite
apparent in this instance.

In addition to the specimens of entire pottery above described,
many fragments, some of which represent characteristic forms, were
excavated from the Erin shell-heap. The best of these are sections
of rims and handles, which, being less fragile, are more readily
preserved. Their chief features will now be considered.

HANDLES OF VESSELS

Considerable variation occurs in the form of the handles of
earthenware vessels, several of which are still associated with
portions of the side or rim, while others show how the handle was
attached at both extremities. Some of the handles are mere knobs
or bosses; other examples are in the form of elaborate heads (pl.
3, /), the various modifications of which recall the pottery heads of
Porto Rico and Santo Domingo.

The handles of bowls shown in the accompanying illustrations
(pls. 4-8) are broken from their attachments. Sometimes they
are very simple in form, but more commonly they represent heads
which vary more or less in shape. The specimen (pl. 4, 4) which
has a fragment of the bowl attached is one of the simplest forms,
loop-shaped with a conical projection near the rim. The handle
is broad, with ample space for the fingers. In. some specimens
the handles are even simpler, as they are without the conical eleva-
tion, while the upper end, instead of being attached to the rim,
rises from the side of the bowl. In other examples the handle
takes the form of a lug or knob.

In plate 4, B, instead of a conical knob, the handle bears a simple
head in which the eyes, nose, and mouth are crudely indicated, as in
other West Indian vessels.

Plate 4, C, shows a specimen in which the head surmounting
the handle is modeled in greater detail, and a sufficient part of the
body of the bowl remains to show the incised ornamentation of
the exterior surface, as well as of the handle. Incised lines unite
at the throat and continue down the middle of the handle throughout
its length.

72 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

The figure of the handle illustrated in plate 4, D, is similar
to that of plate 4, C, but the two incised lines ornamenting it con-
tinue along the rim of the bowl and end above an oval elevation
evidently representing the body of the animal. The slender head
of the animal projects upward; the eyes are small, and incised
crook-shaped lines extend along the head and partly surround the
eyes. The equatorial girt of this vessel is somewhat larger than
the circumference of the rim and is decorated with two incised
parallel lines.

Another variation in form of effigy handle is. shown in plate
4, £, the head represented in this case having a somewhat pointed
snout, oval eyes surrounded by circular grooves, an open mouth,
and projections separated by grooves on the head. This is more
massive than the handles before described; it is not incised, and
its breadth at the middle is somewhat less than at the point of
attachment to the body of the vessel.

One of the most elaborate heads ornamenting a handle partly
free from the body of the vessel is shown in plate 4, 7. This
handle, like the preceding, is thick and broad. When placed with
the rim of the vessel uppermost the two grooves may be identified
as lips, the crescents above them as nostrils, and the ring on the
side as an eye. If, however, the figure is turned in such manner
that the rim is vertical, what was identified as the forehead becomes
the snout with nostrils and mouth.

The handle shown in plate 5, A, instead of being broad is small
and rounded. It is decorated with incised lines, and the effigy por-
tion is larger than the handle proper. The head is protuberant
and the eyes lenticular. Although the other features of the head
are considerably distorted, it would appear that the handle in this
specimen extends from the top of the head instead of from the neck,
thereby turning the mouth uppermost, as in the last example.

In the sections of the rims of vessels next to be described no
handles are present. Plate 5, 4, represents a rim ornamented with
two incised, horizontal, parallel furrows, alternating with vertical
grooves. This rim is broad and flaring, with rounded margins, im-
parting a convex surface to this portion of the bowl, which has a
straight body and a flat base.

The incised ornamentation on the example shown in plate 5, C,
is more elaborate than the last. In this case the rim is quite broad,
somewhat pointed, and covered with furrows, indicating an elaborate
figure which unfortunately can not be wholly determined on account
of its incompleteness.

Plate 5, ), exhibits a well-modeled rim, probably representing a
turtle with open mouth and rounded eyes. The pits under the lower

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 73
jaw are uncommon, but like other features are suggestive of a turtle’s
head. The two appendages at the sides evidently represent flippers.

The well-modeled head indicated in plate 5, /, is attached to a
section of the rim, but placed lengthwise instead of vertically, as in
other specimens. The snout is elongated, while the mouth extends
far backward; the eyes are indicated by pits, and a round projection
separated by grooves appears on the forehead.

The degree of conventionalization in these specimens is some-
times very great, as in plate 5, /', where practically all resemblance
to a head is lost. Here we have a disk attached by one margin to
the rim of a bowl, which is ornamented with a rude incised design.
A handle distantly related to the last is illustrated in plate 7, A.

It often happens that the walls of the orifice of a flask-shaped
bottle are modified into a perforated clay head,%* as in the specimens
shown in plate 6, A, B, C.

Plate 6 shows varying. forms of effigy heads which served as
handles of vessels. All of them have well-developed nostrils, eyes,
and other facial features. The presence of nostrils differentiates
these heads from many others and affords a hint, although obscure,
as to the identity of the animal designed to be represented. We find
sunilar nostrils in certain three-pointed stone idols from Porto Rico,
which we have other good reasons to identify as reptiles, hence the
conclusion is fairly logical that these heads were intended to repre-
sent similar creatures.

Plate 7, A, 4, are unlike any other heads in the collection.

The heads illustrated in plate 7, C, Y, #, can not, by reason of
their highly conventionalized character, be readily assigned to any of
the forms above considered.

The two projections on top of the head and the form of the eyes
and nose of the effigy shown in plate 7, /, are exceptional. The
crescentic mouth is suggestive of the same organ in certain unde-
termined Porto Rican stone idols of three-pointed form.

The unpaired nostril of the effigy shown in plate 8, A, is indicated
by a single pit in the summit of a conical projection; the eyes are
prominent and contain crescentic slits. This head, as shown by a
fragment of the rim still attached, projected farther beyond the bowl
than is usually the case. The flat form of the head suggests an
alligator, but it was evidently designed to represent a mythological
conception rather than a realistic animal.

If superficial likenesses of conventionalized figures are regarded as
reliable for identification, plate 8, B, might well be considered to
represent a shark’s head, for the position of the mouth in this speci-

87 This is the first example of a head from a prehistoric flasklike vessel from Trinidad
or the Lesser Antilles, although common in Haiti and Santo Domingo.

74 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

men is well below the snout, which tapers above uniformny to its end.
There is no doubt that the protuberances above the mouth were in-
tended to represent eyes, while those near the rim of the vessel may
have been designed for fins or other organs. No representations
of nostrils or ears are apparent in plate 8, (’, but the broad flat head
has two eyes and a well-developed mouth. The break at the point of
attachment shows that it was a handle of a vessel. There remains
a considerable number of other pottery heads obtained at the Erin
Bay midden, some of which are too greatly mutilated for identi-
fication.

Plate 8, /, illustrates a clay stamp, one of a class of objects not
uncommon in the Lesser Antilles. The face of this specimen is
circular, with an incised design, and was probably used either for
decorating cloth or for stamping figures
on the face or body in a manner similar
to the clay. cylinders elsewhere de-
scribed.** These stamps are often elab-
orate. Some of those lately obtained by
Mr. De Booy from Santo Domingo bear
images on their handles and rattle when
shaken.

Srone IwpLeEMENTS

Stone implements from the Erin Bay
midden consist of celts, axes, chisels,
pecking stones, mortars, pestles, and
other forms. A number of almond-
shaped celts, like Porto Rican petal-
oids, were collected in Trinidad. The most interesting ax is flat, with
notches cut at opposite edges, as shown in figure 1.

There is general similarity in the forms of the mortars found in
the West Indies, but the pestles vary in different islands. In the
Santo Domingo-Porto Rico area pestles commonly have handles
decorated with animal heads or even with entire animals, but in the
St. Kitts region they are simple unornamented cones, pointed at one
end, circular or oval at the opposite end, but with no differentiation
of base, handle, or head. The Guadeloupe and St. Vincent pestles
are of the same general character as those from St. Kitts, which are
identical with those found in Trinidad.

There are several stones in the collection from the Erin shell heap
that were evidently used for pecking other stones or for pounding

Fic. 1.—Notched ax. Trinidad.

Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pl. Ixxxvi, a.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES "5

pigments or bruising roots. They are elongate, sometimes angular,
with shallow pits on two or all four faces which served to facilitate
handling by providing convenient places for the thumb and fore-
finger. Circular stone disks, probably used as grinders, were like-
wise found.

A small, finely polished pendant (fig. 2), made of jadeite, per-
forated at one end, was found buried deeply among the shells in
the Erin Bay midden. In finish this beautiful specimen recalls
certain finely polished green petaloids collected in Porto Rico and
other islands. The stone of which these objects
are made does not occur in the West Indies—a fact
indicating that the pendant, as well as the celts, was
brought from the mainland, probably from South
America.

Boner Opsects

Considering their occurrence in soil saturated
with moisture, it is remarkable that bone objects
were preserved in the Erin Bay mound, but many
unworked animal bones and a few bone implements
were exposed in the course of the excavations. One
of the latter is from an unidentified animal, and its
flattened form resembles a spatula used in pottery
making. Among other bone implements may be
mentioned a tube of uniform diameter, supposed
to be an ornament, cut off at both ends and hav- gy.

2. — Jadeite

ing a slit extending along two-thirds of its risa Trin-
idad. (2.81
length. inches.)

Opsrcts or Woop

A fine black finger ring, similar to the rings made and worn by
the natives in several islands of the West Indies, was found deep in
the shell heap. It is made from a seed of the gougou palm. An
angular fragment of lignite of irregular form, with an artificial
groove encircling it, was found in one of the deepest excavations.

CompartIsoN OF Prenisrortc Opsects rrom TRINIDAD witH THOSE
FrroM Orupr Isuanps

As is generally the case in archeological studies, pottery, from
its greater durability and variety in form, is one of the most reliable
types of artifacts for the study of prehistoric culture areas in the
West Indies. The Erin Bay shell heap shares with the middens of

76 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

other islands a predominance of earthenware with effigy forms and
relief decoration, and the incised ornamentation of pottery vessels
from this mound is strictly Antillean. When we compare these
specimens with those from Porto Rico we notice certain specialized
features which are distinctive. In geometric designs the incised
lines do not end in an enlargement, nor are their extremities accom-
panied by pits, as is almost always true of pottery from Santo
Domingo and Porto Rico. Comparatively few elongated heads of
reptiles are found on pottery from Porto Rico, but such forms are
common from the shell heap at Erin Bay. The heads from Porto
Rico are mainly grotesquely human in form. As a rule, the rims of
the earthenware vessels from Porto Rico have approximately the
same thickness as the vessels themselves, whereas in Trinidad they
are often enlarged, or turned back, and are commonly ornamented
with figures as in the pottery from Grenada and St. Vincent.

While it has been necessary to make comparison mainly from
fragments, it is believed that the number of characteristic forms of
pottery figures from this and from more northerly islands are
sufficient to separate the two and to lead to the belief that the
pottery from Trinidad is most closely allied to that of the Grenada
area, as would be naturally suspected, and that it is only distantly
related to that of the Greater Antilles.*

While the evidence is not decisive, it appears from the material
available that the Trinidad pottery is nearer to that of South
America than to any of the northern islands of the West Indies.
This fact may be explained by the situation of Trinidad, which lies
within sight of South America—a fact that led to an interchange of
cultures and peoples of the two localities.

The nearest point in South America where excavations of shell
heaps have been made is the Pomeroon district, British Guiana,
whence we have a few specimens of pottery. None of these are
so well made as those from the Erin Bay shell mound, and there are
other indications that the ceramic art had reached a higher develop-
ment: in the islands than on the adjacent mainland.

Regarding the Pomeroon shell heaps, Im Thurn reached the fol-
lowing conclusions: “(1) That they were made not by the resident
inhabitants of the country, but by strangers; (2) that these strangers
came from the sea, and not» from further inland; and (3) that
these strangers were certain Island Caribs, who afterwards took

% The author has many drawings of St. Kitts pottery which shows still greater differ-
ences in form and ornamentation. For likeness of pottery heads from Grenada and
Trinidad compare plate LXxxiv, Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur.
Amer. Ethn., and plate vir and fig. 62, De Booy, Certain Archaeological Investigations in
Trinidad, British West Indies.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES Mr

tribal form in Guiana as the so-called Caribisi, or, as I have called
them, true Caribs.” *°

Attention has been called at the beginning of this paper to the
fact that the Trinidad aborigines are not spoken of as Carib, and
the archeological objects show no likeness to the work of this people,
but rather to that of the Arawak, who were the great potters of
the Orinoco.

The well-made pottery of Erin Bay suggests an agricultural popu-
lation rather than the nomadic Carib people, and the form of cer-
tain flat clay platters, or griddles, is not unlike those used by the
Arawak in the preparation of meal for cassava cakes. The aborigi-
nes who made these objects were in a stage of culture similar to
that of a people of the West Indies before the coming of the Carib
in prehistoric times. Pottery making is more strictly a character-
istic of meal eaters, and as the South American Arawak were well-
known potters, we can not go far afield if we ascribe the pottery
from Trinidad to a kindred people. The nearest South American
people to whom we would look for their kindred are the Guaranos,
or Warrau, some of whom still inhabit the delta of the Orinoco,
only a few miles across the Gulf of Paria, an inland sheet of water
which separates Trinidad from the continent.

Although Im Thurn identifies the builders of the Pomeroon shell-
mounds as insular Carib, he gives some weight to the theory that
they were Warrau, which theory, however, he does not discuss and
apparently does not accept. It seems to the author that the pottery
found in the Chip-chip mounds indicates a culture higher than that
of the Carib, and more advanced as art products than any thus
far collected from the Warrau. He regards it as a localized or
autochthonous development originally of South American origin,
but belonging to the same great prehistoric insular culture found
in the Antilles from South America to the Bahamas and Cuba. This
culture had been submerged by the Carib in some of the smailer
islands, but persisted into the historic epoch in the larger islands
which Carib could not conquer.

The conclusion reached from, a comparison of the objects from
the Erin Bay midden is that while there is a general likeness in
pottery from all the islands of the West Indies, there are special
ceramic culture areas in different islands. It is also believed that
the Carib had no extensive settlement in Trinidad, and that they
came to the other islands long after agricultural people had de-
veloped on them, or were renegades from some of the islands where
the uncertainty of crops drove them to become marauders on others.
They are not believed to have made permanent settlements or, as in

*Im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 416. See also Rey. W. H. Brett, The
Indian Tribes of Guiana, Their Customs and Habits, London, 1868.

78 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

St. Vincent and Guadeloupe, submerged the Tainan culture and sub-
stituted for it a mixed one.

Tosaco

The artifacts ascribed to the island of Tobago, as seen by the
author, approach so closely those of the northern part of Trinidad
that this island is included in the Trinidad area. In these collec-
tions occur several axes with wings on their heads and notches on their
bodies, and a few celts of petaloid form, which were purchased by
the author when in Trinidad in 1912-13. The majority were said to
have been found in a sugar-cane field near Scarborough, Tobago. No
middens are reported in the various archeological references to the
islands, and none were seen by the author in his limited visits.

BARBADOS

Very little has been published on the archeology of Barbados, and
practically no attempt has been made to determine from archeological
data the aboriginal culture of the island. References to the aborigi-
nes occur in works devoted to the history of the island, among which
are those of Hughes, Poyer, Schomburgk, Ligon, and others, but
these histories deal more particularly with the colonization epoch
and early European history, many having been written before it was
recognized that man lived on Barbados before the advent of the
whites.

The opinion is generally expressed, even in the most reliable and
complete historical accounts, that Barbados was uninhabited when
discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, and that the aborigines had
wholly disappeared in 1626, when the English took possession of
the island and settled it. Although not definitely stated, it is im-
pled by several authors that Barbados never had a_ prehistoric
aboriginal population, but that it was temporarily visited from time
to time by Carib or other Indians from neighboring islands for the
purpose of fishing or hunting. Archeological evidences show, on the
contrary, that the island had a considerable population in prehis-
toric times, and that the culture of this aboriginal population was
somewhat different from that of the neighboring islands.

The large number of implements of shell found both in the in-
terior and on the coast of Barbados, and the extent of the several
middens, show without question that the island had a prehistoric
population of considerable size. Descendants of the original popu-
lation lived in Barbados as late as the English colonization, and the
name of the chief city of Barbados, Bridgetown, is now thought to
be due to its vicinity to the “Indian bridge,” made of logs, now re-
placed by the well-known crossing. There is no doubt that there was
an Indian village near Bridgetown at Indian River, one of the best

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 79

places for landing on the whole lee shore. The names Indian River
and Six Mens Bay can also be instanced as evidence that there were
Indian residents in Barbados when these names originated.*?

The opinion advanced by some writers that Barbados was visited
from time to time by Carib from St. Vincent * in order to raid
the island may have some foundation. There must have been a
motive for these visits, which were probably for attacks on pre-
existing people, the agricultural race, signs of which occur in all the
Lesser Antilles. Whether populated or not at the time the whites
came, it is evident that many islanders must have lived in Barbados
permanently before these visits, for it can hardly be supposed that
transient visitors would have brought with them the multitude of
implements, pottery, and like objects now found in Barbados. The
fact that the natives had few stone implements does not mean that
there were few people, but that there was no stone suitable for the
manufacture of celts, axes, and the like. The implements were
made by permanent residents from the shell which was abundant.

On Ligon’s map ** of the island, published in 1657, 31 years after
the settlement of Barbados by Warner, there is figured not far from
the place now called “ Three Houses” an Indian named “ Smyago”
carrying a bow and accompanied by a canoe “35 feet long.” The
position on the map where the Indian is placed and the legend
“Three Houses,” which takes its name from Indian dwellings found
there in early times, prove that men were living on the island in
1657.4 It must be confessed that this argument loses some force,
as camels and hogs are also figured, and these were undoubtedly
brought to the island by white men.

There is indicated on this same map of Ligon the name of the
early proprietors of the island, and the legend “5 houses” on the
coast not far from the present estate “3 houses,” which latter, how-
ever, does not appear on Bryan Edwards’s map, where likewise is
the legend “16 men” not far from the bridge which appears on
Ligon’s map and apparently gave the name of Bridgetown to the
main city of the island. On none of these early maps is there any
indication of the Indian castle, which is not strange, as all the
localities are not indicated.

“ The origin of the name Barbados is doubtful. Some authors have supposed it to
have been given by the Portuguese on account of the epiphytic plant, hanging like beards
from the trees, but other writers have suggested that the natives were bearded.

42 St. Vincent has been seen from Mount Gilboa, but no one has stated that Barbados is
visible from St. Vincent, which is quite natural and explained by the low altitude of
Barbados.

43 Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados, 1657.

#4 The evidence that there was formerly an Indian settlement near ‘‘ Three Houses” is
supported by the many shell chisels formerly found in this neighborhood. One informant
told the author that he had seen bushels of these implements from that place, and that
they were formerly ground up and thrown on the roads to improve them.

80 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The earliest account of the shell implements, caves, and prehistoric
idols found in Barbados that has come to the author’s notice was
written by Rev. Griffith Hughes,** a former rector of St. Lucy’s
Parish. The Rey. Mr. Cooksey has supplemented this with a short
article on the earliest inhabitants of Barbados, one of the earliest in
which shell implements are mentioned. Sir Robert Schomburgk’s
account of the history of Barbados, like those of John Paget (1808)
and Dr. Hillary (1752), add little to the archeology of the island.
According to Joseph Forte shell chisels*® have been found in Bar-
badian caves, over 100 being taken from a cavern 350 feet above the
level of the sea.

The more extended account of prehistoric material from Barbados
in the Blackmore collection is as follows:** “The specimens exhibited
from Barbados have been presented to the Collection by the Rev.
Greville J. Chester, who has kindly furnished the following informa-
tion respecting them: ‘In Barbados there is no hard stone, nothing
harder than coralline limestone; the aborigines therefore were
obliged to import hard stone implements and weapons from the
other islands, or from the main continent of South America. For
ordinary purposes, however, they used implements made of various
kinds of marine shells,8 and of the foss¢ shells from the limestone.
These shell implements vary in length from 14 to 63 inches; some in
my possession are beautifully formed. In the commonest type the
natural curve of the shell formed the handle. Disks and beads made
of shell, and large quantities of pottery, in a fragmentary state, have
been found associated with the shell implements. The use of an
implement somewhat resembling a hone has not been satisfactorily
ascertained, only one specimen. out of the considerable number which
have passed through my hands being worn down by use. The large
number of implements discovered under rock shelters and in gullies
proves the existence of a large native population in Barbados, and as
shell hatchets are not found in the other West Indian islands, it is
clear that they are of purely local origin.’”

It is pretty generally agreed among historians that when the Eng-
lish landed at Holetown,*® in 1625-1627, the number of Indians on
Barbados was small, but as the islands were discovered over a cen-
tury earlier by the Portuguese, we can not be sure that they were not
peopled more abundantly at that time.

45 The Natural History of Barbados. London, 1750. This article contains a plate with
illustrations of shell implements and an idol.

“6 Note on Carib Chisels, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Britain, vol. xl, pp. 2-3.

47 Stevens, Flint Chips, pp. 235-236.

48 Found also in many islands, but most abundantly in Barbados.

“The site of their landing is now indicated by a monument bearing an appropriate
inscription.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 81

The lee coast of Barbados is a flat plain extending from highlands
in which arise small streams of water which flow westward to the
sea, the mouths being generally closed by extensive sand barriers and
beaches. Ordinarily the water of these streams is held back in shal-
low pools by these bars, but when abundant water fills the river it
flows over these barriers. In places, as at Freshwater Bay, the fresh
water having percolated through the porous soil, finds its way below
these bars and bubbles up in the sea along the shore, making the
water fresh.

The plains on the west side of the hills, especially near the shore,
are ideal places for Indian camps. Many pottery fragments and
other evidences of Indian occupation are seen, but well-defined shell
heaps of great height can rarely be traced at the present day.

Near St. Lucy’s Parish, in the central part of the island, there are
steep, well-marked cliffs in which are instructive caves or cave shel-
ters, common elsewhere on the island, and remarkable fissures called
clefts show overhanging cliffs. The aboriginal implements found
here indicate that they may have sheltered early man.

MippEens

Middens, or sites of aboriginal settlements, are found at various
locations on Barbados, occurring inland as well as on the coast. We
have records of archeological material from every parish in Bar-
bados, but the following localities are the best known:

1. Small gully near St. Luke’s Chapel.
2. Indian River.
3. Freshwater Bay on the border of St. Michaels and St.
James Parishes.
. Codrington Estate Springs.
. Three Houses.
. Marl Hill.
. Speightstown.
. Holetown.
. Maxwells.
10. South Point Lighthouse.

The most productive midden for collectors of “ Carib antiquities ”
in Barbados is situated on Indian River, a few miles north of
Bridgetown. This midden is rather a series of village sites than a
single mound. It can be readily visited from Bridgetown by using
the tramway to Fontabel, the terminus of which is a short distance
from the locality where the majority of objects were found. The
mound at Indian River has yielded many aboriginal specimens, the
most complete collection of which is that gathered by Mr. Taylor.
of Port of Spain, Trinidad.

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82 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The site of the settlement at Indian River is characteristic of those
along the west shore of the island. Indian River is nothing more than
a small brook hardly able to wash its drainage from its own mouth.
It does not empty directly into the sea, but spreads out at its mouth
into a lagoon, shut off from the coast by a narrow strip of sand
forming the coast line. Aboriginal objects, mainly fragments of
Indian pottery, occur in this neighborhood. They are found in most
abundance sticking out of the bank at a point near “ Old Fort,” and
many specimens are picked up on the surface of the ground in the
neighboring field.

Following along the river toward its source we find a low, flat
plain of rich soil capable of cultivation, in which occur many frag-
ments of ancient pottery. Although no great deposits of shells large
enough to be designated shell heaps were discovered, the whole plain
shows evidence of habitation and contains several home sites, but the
field has been so long cultivated by white farmers that the midden ~
form and the sites of the houses have been almost wholly obliterated.

There was an aboriginal settlement at Freshwater Bay, near the
road, only a few miles north of the city. The place takes its name
from springs of fresh water that bubble up along the coast, forcing
itself through the salt water along the shore, and is an ideal one for
an aboriginal settlement.

The author visited with Dr. John Hutson, of Bridgetown, an in-
teresting undescribed midden in the marly hills, not far from the
cove on the northern end of Barbados. This mound was situated a
short distance from the seashore on the side of a depression sloping
downward to an inlet that may have served as a landing place. It
was a barren place, with very little soil, but many fragments of pots,
legs of flat bowls, and two or three pottery heads were found. The
soil was scanty, probably worn away, so that these fragments and a
few broken shells were all that remained of human occupation.

Caves

Several of the West Indies are known to have caves used by pre-
historic man. These natural caves were well adapted for shelter or
protection from the sun or rain. Thus far no considerable number
of artificial caves have been recorded. On the author’s visit to Bar-
bados he inspected a number of caves that bear every evidence of
having been excavated by the hands of man.

These artificial caves, which remind one of those in the Canary
Islands, are described by early writers, but are not commonly known
to modern students of Antillean antiquities.

The few prehistoric objects found in natural caves or cave shelters
in Barbados are ample proof of their former occupation by abo-

PEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 83

rigines, but the larger number occur either in the talus of earth in
front of these caves or the hills above, being rarely found in the
floors. The best made of these caves are situated on the northern
end of the island, in St. Lucy’s Parish, at Mount Gilboa, but there
are many natural cave shelters in the gulches so characteristic of
Bermudian geology.

MOUNT GILBOA CAVES

Mount Gilboa is a conspicuous hill when seen from St. Lucy’s
church or rectory, and resembles the precipitous promontories so
common in countries where there are evidences of great erosion. A
double line of caves, situated one above the other, can readily be
approached from the neighboring road. From a distance they re-
minded the author of the cavate houses of the Rio Verde in Arizona.
Although the walls of these entrances are more or less broken, there
was in one instance a rude step cut in the stone floor. A large field of
sugar cane, in the soil of which a few fragments of Indian pottery
were found, covered the top of the cliff.

The traces of artificial steps cut at the entrance of the Indian
caves at Mount Gilboa indicate a former occupancy, and the tradi-
tion current in the neighborhood assigns them to the Indians. Re-
garding specimens of aboriginal handiwork found in the Gilboa
caves, Rev. Griffith Hughes says: “Till they came to a large con-
venient Cave under an Hill, called Mount Gilboa, in the estate of
Colonel John Pickering; where I found several of their broken
Images, Pipes, Hatchets, and Chissels.”°° A negro woman, who
lives in the plain near the caves, told the author that shell chisels had
been found within her memory on the talus below the caves and the
author picked up a fragment of a bowl of aboriginal make near by.

ARTIFICIAL EXxcavaATIONS

The artificial excavations in Barbados ascribed to the aborigines
are more or less problematical. They differ in form and character
from natural caves and their true nature is not known. They are
not accepted as aboriginal work by all historians.

The three supposed aboriginal excavations visited by the author
are: (1) Indian Castle; (2) Indian excavations at Freshwater Bay;
(3) Indian excavations at Indian River.

INDIAN CASTLE

The so-called Indian Castle is situated northeast of Speightstown,
on the Pleasant Hill property, about 3 miles due east of Six Men’s

50 Hughes, op. cit., p. 7.

84 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

Bay. As one leaves Speightstown the road rises gradually to a hill
and passes the castle, the entrance to which appears on the right-hand
side about 10 feet above the road. From its elevation the road has
been cut down to its present level, which necessitates leaving the road
in order to enter the cave by a slight climb on one side. The entrance
to the cave is through an archway with a keystone, on which a figure
is carved in relief. Both entrance and arch have their walls so
smooth that they appear to have been made by metallic implements ;
their angles are well made and the walls are perpendicular. The
general form of the chamber reminds one of a beehive tomb. There
are recesses on each side wall and small niches in the rear wall facing
the observer as he enters the chamber. The floor is level, slightly
elevated above the entrance passage, and there is an opening in the
right-hand wall which communicated with a well with slanting sides
and floor lower than that of the main chamber. This well is open to
the sky above and externally at its base by a passageway entered from
a side hill, recalling a limekiln. The whole character of this exca-
vation, especially its conical apex, led the author at first to ascribe it
to Europeans. He accepted the opinion that it had been constructed
for a limekiln. It is to be said, however, that the walls are compara-
tively smooth and the angles and arch so well cut that it seemed to
have been constructed with more care than is usual with these struc-
tures. The theory that it was a place of refuge, for storage, or pos-
sibly a chapel, seems to have something in its favor. This beehive
subterranean chamber has borne for several generations the names
“Indian Cave,” “ Indian Temple,” “ Indian Castle”; and the ad-
jective “ Indian” must be considered and explained away unless it
was made by aborigines. Several old residents affirm that this room
has always been called the “Indian Cave” or “Indian Castle.”
This name was current in 1750, as shown in the following quotation
from Rey. Griffith Hughes: :

“As there is a very commodious one [cave] in the Side of a neigh-
bouring Hill, called to this Day the Zndian Castle, and almost in a
direct Line from Sic Mens Bay, and not above a Mile and an half
off, in a pleasant Part of the Country, it is more than probable (espe-
cially as there was no other so near, and so convenient), that they
should pitch upon this, being upon several Accounts very commo-
dious; for, as the Mouth of it faced the West, and, being under the
Shelter of an Hill, was secured from the Wind and Rain, and even
from Danger by Hurricanes, and as the Entrance to it is so steep
and narrow, that, upon Occasion, one Man may defend himself
against an hundred, it may be justly called their Castle. But what
made this place more complete . . . is an adjoiming clayey Bottom,
where they dug a Pond. . . which Place is, and hath been, since
the Memory of the oldest Neighbours alive, call’d the ndian Pond.”

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST ENDIES 85

“Among several broken Fragments of Idols, said to be dug up in
this Place,” continues the Rev. Mr. Hughes, “ I saw the Head of one,
which alone weighed above sixty Pounds Weight. This, before it
was broken off, stood upon an oval Pedestal above three Feet in
Height . . . The Heads of all others that came within my Observa-
tion, were very small: One of these . . . exceeds not in weight fif-
teen Ounces; and all, that I have hitherto seen, are of Clay burnt.” ™

One or two more heads, former handles of pottery objects, have
been found at the settlement near the cave.

INDIAN EXCAVATIONS

If Indian Castle were the only artificial excavation in Barbados it
must be confessed its very exceptional character would have great
weight, but artificial rooms dug in the rocks also occur at Freshwater
Bay and at Indian River, both of these being known as Indian ex-
cavations, although they have a distinctive character. It may be
noticed that remains of_Indian village sites likewise occur near them
and aboriginal objects have been found in the immediate vicinity.”

As there are remnants of an old fort not far from the Indian ex-
cavations at Freshwater Bay, the theory that these excavations are
“magazines” has been favored by several writers, but this explana-
tion would hardly hold for the similar structures on Mr. Belgrade’s
property at Indian River, where no indications of fortifications
exist.

The general form of these excavations is rectangular and they
measure several feet deep. They consist of several rooms hewn out
of the rock and arranged side by side, communicating with each
other, sometimes having alcoves or niches in their walls. On the
hypothesis that they are subterranean habitations we may suppose
them to have been formerly roofed and that the entrance to them,
which is not otherwise apparent, was a hatchway in the roof. In
similar excavations at Indian River there was a side entrance
through the perpendicular bank of the neighboring stream.**

While the nature of these excavations is decidedly problematical
there seems no good reason to doubt their aboriginal character.
They have from the earliest times been known as Indian excavations,
and it would be strange if, after having been so called for so many
years, they are not of Indian manufacture or associated with the

51 Hughes, op. cit., pp. 6-7.

52 Magistrate Sinkler, of Port of Spain, Trinidad, in a figure in his Handbook of
Barbados designates these excavations as ‘‘ Carib graves.” They have also heen called
magazines of the neighboring fort, but in this memoir the author regards them as Indian
pit houses.

58 The rock is here so soft that there was little difficulty in excavating holes of this
nature with shell implements.

86 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

aborigines.°* It would certainly be possible for Stone Age man to
have excavated them as easily as for Indians of Arizona and Mexico
to dig out the well-known cavate dwellings of the Verde or Rio
Grande Valleys.

Certain depressions, which have a marked artificial appearance,
occur at various localities in Barbados and are called Indian ponds.
There is an estate known as Indian Pond which would certainly refer
them to Indians. One of these Indian ponds, situated near Mount
Gilboa, is mentioned by Rev. Griffith Hughes, and there are other
similar excavations in different parts of the island.

ARTIFACTS

The collection of Barbadian prehistoric objects in the British
Museum is one of the most important known from this island. Dr.
John Hutson, of Bridgetown, has a considerable collection and there
is a cabinet of antiquities at Codrington College. The greatest as-
semblage of prehistoric objects from Barbados was made by the late
Mr. Taylor at Indian River and contains several whole pieces of
pottery and others slightly broken, besides a number of pottery
heads and fragments.

Among the whole pieces of pottery there is a globular bowl like a
teapot, with snout on one side, reminding one of the form called the
“monkey,” still used by the blacks in the West Indies, and one or
two platters of somewhat exceptional form. The pottery heads have
characteristic forms, but perhaps that shaped like the head of a shark
is the most unusual.

Mr. Taylor’s collection has several shell objects, among which
may be mentioned perforated disks and cone-shaped perforated ob-
jects recalling spindle whorls.

Among the problematic objects are two hourglass-shaped objects,
coneave at each end and narrowed at the middle, which were prob-
ably used as rests for pottery. A stamp of disk shape, having a
handle in the middle and a design on one face, resembles pottery
stamps in the Heye collection, many of which came from St. Vincent.
These are flat angular shell plates decorated on their faces with
incised lines. Some are perforated near the border, while others are
without perforation.

Among stone implements may be mentioned a ball girt with
grooves crossing each other at right angles. The few stone celts
resemble the Scandinavian type, but petaloid celts also occur. The
finest specimen is a well-made shell fetish having a head finely
carved at one end and a knobbed extension at the other.

54 'The fact that Indian implements have been found in some of these caves shows that
the aborigines utilized the caye shelters and natural caves of Barbados.

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 87

One of the most instructive specimens (see pl. 87 (, 7) from Bar-
bados is owned by Mr. Connell at St. Kitts. It is made of clay, one
end enlarged in the form of a head, with a neck prolongated into a
handle tapering uniformly to a point. The enlarged end bears eyes,
nostrils, and mouth, and its identification as a rude head is unques-
tionable. This specimen is so highly conventionalized that deter-
mination of its use is not possible, but it resembles a stone baton
from Porto Rico described in the author’s article on Elbow Stones.**2
Both were possibly carried in the hand as a badge or for ceremonial
purposes.°°

A large collection of fragments of the aboriginal Barbadian pot-
tery was obtained at Marl Hill on the northern end of Barbados. It
is a coarse red ware, showing no signs of painting, the surfaces
appearing to be much eroded. Judging from the number of clay
cylinders with attached fragments of bowls from Marl Hill, the
general form of the dishes seems to have been flat or disklike with
raised rims. The rims of West Indian aboriginal pottery are often
decorated with finger prints and their walls with indentations—a
mode of ornamentation still practiced by negro potters of Nevis and
elsewhere. A common form of coarse pottery was a flat dish, gen-
erally circular, with the edge turned up into a low ridge, imparting
a T shape to a section. These are supposed to have been used in
frying cassava cakes.

There is nothing in Barbadian archeology thus far brought to light
to indicate that the prehistoric people of that island were less highly
developed than those of Porto Rico or Trinidad. No cause has yet
been discovered for its depopulation so early in history. The island
is not volcanic and we have no intimation that a convulsion of nature
drove away its prehistoric people or forced them to abandon agricul-
tural pursuits. The island was too isolated to have been frequently
raided. It has had several severe hurricanes in historic times, three
of which have done much damage, but none of these could have
driven away the inhabitants.

One of the important questions in Barbadian archeology is the pos-
sibility that there were once cave dwellers or aborigines who exca-
vated rooms in the soft calcareous formations which compose a great
part of the island. While there is no doubt that natural-cave dwell-
ers existed in the Antilles at the time of their discovery, it is not
so evident that the aborigines excavated their houses out of the rock.
As shown in Barbados, however, we have artificial excavations, which
have received the names “Indian excavations” and “Indian caves.”

54¢ Porto Rican elbow-stones in the Heye Museum. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xv, No. 3;
pp. 435-459, 1913. .

55Mr. Chester states (Stevens, Flint Chips, p. 236): ‘‘I haye also a small and beauti-
fully formed implement in the shape of a knife, made of yellowish alabaster, and a kind
of a stamp of the same material.”

88 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The author is unable, after an examination of these reputed works of
aborigines, to decide whether they were made by aborigines or by
later inhabitants, but he has no doubt that they are artificial.

ST. VINCENT-GRENADA AREA

The islands included in this area are those called the Carib Islands,
par excellence; that is, these are the islands on which the Carib cul-
ture had submerged a previously existing agricultural or “Tainan ”
epoch, and replaced it with their own. As, however, the natives of
these islands, at the time of the coming of Europeans, were de-
scended from Tainan women, the men being Carib, the resultant
culture was essentially agricultural, especially as descent was matri-
lineal, and most of the arts and industries were due to women’s
influence.

Those artifacts that are treated under this area were not all col-
lected in St. Vincent, many having been obtained from the Grena-
dines, Grenada, and elsewhere, but as they all have common features
in their local differences they belong together.*®

GRENADA

The antiquities from the island of Grenada in the Heye collection
show that the culture of this island is closely connected with that of
St. Vincent, although it has also relationship*to Trinidad and South
America. Like the other Lesser Antilles, Grenada shows evidences
of a shell-heap culture, an agricultural culture, and also a true Carib
culture. Prehistoric objects from Grenada closely resemble those
from St. Vincent, although they have some affinity with Trinidad.
We find petaloid celts, typical St. Vincent axes, and pottery not un-
like that from Carriacou.

One of the accompanying figures (pl. 9, 4) shows a perforated
object, another (pl. 9, 8), an ax with curved cutting edge and
elongated shank as if intended to be inserted in a handle of wood.
Both of these specimens are in the Berlin Museum, the former labeled
“ Carriacou, Grenada.”

Between Grenada and St. Vincent there are many small islands,
some of which have yielded interesting archeological specimens, but
the majority have not yet been explored. The author visited Bequia
and Balliceaux, but was unable to cross the channel to Battowia,
which is one of the most instructive of this group, both from its
geographical position and the archeological remains found in one of
its caves.

56'The majority of these objects, which number thousands, were obtained by Mr. Heye
from Rev. Thomas Huckerby, whose collection was the largest ever made in the Lesser
Antilles. There are still many more, mostly duplicates, in public and private collections
on these islands.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 89
Brauta

Bequia, an island near St. Vincent, has several kitchen middens
from which various forms of stone implements, fragments of pot-
tery, and other objects have been added to the Heye collection.
These were mostly purchased from natives and are like those of St.
Vincent. So far as the author can learn no systematic archeological
excavations have ever been attempted on the island.

Barrowia

The island of Battowia is celebrated for its Indian caves, which
have furnished several instructive specimens of aboriginal life. It
lies east of Balliceaux, from which it is separated by a narrow chan-
nel, which at the stormy time the author was at Balliceaux was im-
possible to cross without some danger. There are several cabins on
the lee side of Battowia inhabited by negroes, who venture across
the dividing water at almost all seasons of the year. These primitive
people, who are generally employed in raising cotton, were the la-
borers upon whom the author relied in his excavations at Banana
Bay. The best known of the objects obtained from a cave in Battowia
are the wooden turtle * found by Ober and a duho, which has not, to
the author’s knowledge, been described or figured.

Baichaux

After the Carib war in St. Vincent,®* the most hostile of these
Carib Indians, called the Black Carib,®® were removed from St.
Vincent to a small island, Balliceaux, from which they were later
transported to Ruatan Island, off the coast of Honduras. Their
Balliceaux settlement, now abandoned, was situated on the lee side
at a place called Banana Bay, and is marked by walls of a well near
the mouth of an arroyo. These walls are European in origin and
resemble those found elsewhere in the West Indies. The cemetery
of the Carib settlement was easily found, and from it several Carib
skulls and some fragments of pottery were obtained. It extends
along the beach a few feet above high-water mark, and is small, the
burials being shallow.

A general study of the mound at Banana Bay in Balliceaux indi-
cates that the midden was not inhabited for a great length of time,
and there is every evidence that it is comparatively modern. The
layer of soil which contains artificial objects is not more than a
foot thick; the sea has washed into the bank under the midden along

‘7 Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pl. xc, figs. a,a’.

®8 See “An Historical Account of the Island of St. Vincent,’ by Charles Sheppard, 1831.

5° Said to be descendarts of Negroes and Carib, the former saved from a slave ship
wrecked on Bequia.

90 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

the shore, exposing one or more skulls and a few skeletons, some of
which were removed by the author. These skeletons were interred
in the contracted or “embryonic” position and were accompanied
by broken pottery, shells, and fragments of charcoal and ashes, but
no whole jars were found. The place is now uninhabited and over-
grown with manzanillo and other bushes, but none of the trees show
marks of great age. The author’s excavations verify the historical
and legendary account that Balliceaux was inhabited by aborigines
and that the Black Carib probably lived at Banana Bay after the
Carib war in St. Vincent.

Sr. Vincent

The three islands, St. Vincent, Bequia, and Balliceaux, seem to be
related in all archeological considerations, the objects from them
being practically identical. Stone axes from St. Vincent are found
in almost every museum which makes any pretension to a West
Indian collection.

The Heye collection has over 3,000 specimens from St. Vincent,
mainly collected by Rev. Thomas Huckerby, who was Methodist min-
ister for several years at Chateau Belair. He likewise, through
agents, collected in Balliceaux and Bequia, large islands near by,
many specimens which he also sold to Mr. Heye for his collection.

60 Evidently the bodies of the dead at Banana Bay were buried in the same way as
those described by Du Tertre (Histoire des Isles des Christophe, etc., p. 455): “As soon
as one dies the women take the body, wash and clean it with great care. They paint it
with roucou from the feet to the head, greasing the head with palm oil, comb them, dress
their hair, and arrange as decently as if they were going to a solemn assembly; then
they wrap them in a new bed of cotton which no one has ever slept in. They make the
grave where they are to be buried in the same house where they have died, or they build
one for the express purpose, never burying the dead without covering them with earth,
nor omitting any ceremony they are accustomed to have wherever they happen to be.”

In an account of the burial of a child we read (op. cit., p. 456) : “* They asked us for a
little abandoned ‘ casa’ house in our garden, which we gave them, and they immediately
all set to work on the house and put it in as good condition as though entirely new.
They made sepulture of their child in the following manner and with these ceremonies :
They made a grave in the middle of the house, round, and 3 or 4 feet deep. They placed
in it the child prepared and arranged as I have said and wrapped in its cotton bed.
They placed it seated on its heels, the two elbows on the two knees, the head resting on
the palm of the two hands. Then all the women sat around the grave and commenced to
sigh strangely; then they intoned a sad and painful song. This song was divided into
sighs and often cries in a loud voice with the eyes turned to heaven. They shed so many
tears that it would have saddened the hearts of the most hardened. The husbands were
seated behind the wives, bathed in tears in imitation of them. They embraced them with
one hand as though to console them and caressed them with the other. During this time
a man filled up the grave with the end of a board, from time to time the women threw in
earth. After these ceremonies (which lasted a good hour) the ‘women buried all the
valuables of the dead person which consisted of certain little baskets, cotton thread and
other little bagatelles on the grave.” Referring to this method of burial Labat adds (vol.
vi, p. 168): ‘I learned during my sojourn in Dominica that when the master of a house
came to die that he was not buried in the corner of the house, but in the middle, after
which the house was abandoned and another was built in a different locality without the
thought ever occurring to any one to return and lodge in that place. I have sought with
eare the reason of this ceremony so extraordinary without having been able to discover
anything else than that it was an immemorial custom with them,”

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 91

There are also specimens from St. Vincent in the Berlin Museum
collected by Mr. Huckerby. During the author’s stay of about six
weeks at St. Vincent he visited several refuse heaps, prehistoric
mounds or kitchen middens, on both the windward and leeward
coasts. An enumeration of a few of the most important of these is
given below, but there are many others of smaller size that are not
considered. Through the kindness of Mr. Huckerby he saw several of
the St. Vincent pictographs and visited the middens at Fancy and
elsewhere, where a number of strange artifacts are said to have been
found. The pictographs of St. Vincent have been well described
by Mr. Huckerby.™

KITCHEN MIDDENS

Refuse piles and other evidences of former occupation by the
aborigines are found along the leeward coast of St. Vincent from
Kangstown to the extreme northern end of the island, especially
wherever there were convenient landing places or where valleys
opening to the sea presented available land for cultivation. They
are abundant at Barrouallie, Petit Bordel, and Chateau Belair,
in which neighborhood we often found bowlders with pictographs
and other evidences of past occupation. There are several middens
on the windward side, as at Argyle, Stubbs, Overland, and Ouria.
The volcano Soufriere has, however, covered with successive erup-
tions of ashes most of these evidences of village sites in the northern
end of the island, which has been designated on maps since 1733
by the name of the Carib country.

The midden at Fancy, designated on Bryan Edwards’s map as
a Carib settlement, lies in the Carib country at the extreme northern
end of the island. It is extensive, but has been somewhat modified
in form by the last eruption of Soufriere. A small stream flowing
past the Estate House at Fancy has cut its way down through the
soft formation, exposing a bank in which were gathered many frag-
ments of pottery and worked stones. The top of a low bluff, near
where this stream empties into the sea, is covered by a Carib ceme-
tery. Here the stream has encroached on the bank, exposing skele-
tons of the former natives and washing out human bones that are
strewn along the base of the bank.

The midden at Stubbs, situated on the windward side of St.
Vincent, is one of the largest in the island; but as its surface is now
almost wholly under cultivation, digging in it was not feasible,
as it would disturb not only cultivated fields, but also the founda-
tions of inhabited houses. Fragments of pottery are common along
the shore where the bank is eroded by the sea, and stones showing

‘tAmer. Anthrop., n. s. vol xvi, pp. 238-244, 1914.

92 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

evidences of having been worked by human hands can be picked up
in the bed of a neighboring stream. All along the high bluffs on the
sea side and in the bank of an adjacent inlet layers of pottery occur
and several fragments of bowls were picked out of the cliff. Super-
ficial indications show great possibilities when systematic excava-
tions are made at this place. One or two mortars with surfaces
hollowed out, but too large to be moved any considerable distance,
were seen lying at the base of the bluff or on the top. Not only
pottery fragments, but likewise shells, fragments of tests, and claws
of crabs occur with human bones mingled with the fragments of
pottery.

The Oberland midden lies near Oberland village and is approached
by a good road from Georgetown. This portion of St. Vincent suf-
fered greatly from the eruption of Soufriere voleano in 1902, and
many estates were destroyed, the inhabitants being asphyxiated by
poisonous gases. A road cut through the bank in descending to a
small stream exposed a section of the midden and revealed terra
cotta or pottery heads, some of which have been washed into the
ravine below by rains. This site shows evidences of a settlement
of considerable size, and would well repay systematic excavation.

The surface of the Argyle midden has been cultivated many years
and is now covered by fields of arrowroot. It lies to the left of the
road shortly before crossing the bridge over the Yambou River going
north, and can be followed for some distance on the way to the
Yambou pictographs. Nothing of great importance has been ob-
tained from this midden, although fragments of pottery are not rare
on the surface.

PICTOGRAPHS

Following up the river to the narrow defile, Yambou Pass, a trail
leads to bowlders on which were cut some of the finest pictographs
in St. Vincent.” They overlook the beautiful stream which here
flows between two high cliffs amidst fascinating scenery, with tall
palms and other tropical vegetation. The valley at this place is
sparsely cultivated, and to reach the Yambou pictographs one has
to cross a ditch several times which feeds a sugar-cane mill lower
down the valley. It is, however, possible to drive directly to the
pictographs or to within a short walk, although the road is obscure
and ends rather abruptly.

Pictographs recorded by Mr. Huckerby occur in St. Vincent at the
following localities: (1) Pass leading into Mesopotamia Valley at
Yambou Pass; (2) Layou; (3) Villa; (4) Buccament Valley; (5)
Barrouallie; (6) Petit Bordel.

These are figured by Rev. Thomas Huckerby in Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, pp.
238-244.

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 93
ARTIFACTS

Geological differences between the islands of Barbados and St.
Vincent are great, and the culture of prehistoric man in the two
may have been equally divergent. This diversity is reflected not only
in the form and character of the implements made in the two islands,
but also in the material of which they were made. The former does
not furnish hard rocks for implements, the prevailing rock being
coral limestone; in the latter the rocks are volcanic, very hard, and
suitable for fine implements.

Stone axes with extensions on the heads are characteristic of
the zone, including Grenada, St. Vincent, Santa Lucia, Martinique,
Dominica, and Guadeloupe, but are not found inthe Greater Antilles,
Barbados, or Trinidad. These implements are, in most instances,
not very sharp on their edges and are only rarely pointed at the
head, true almond-shaped or petaloid implements being rarely
found. This culture area is one of the best known for a peculiar
type of “Carib stones” well represented in different museums in
Europe and America. They are often found in caches, suggesting
either unfinished or ceremonial implements.”

The island of Santa Lucia, which has also yielded many artifacts
in the Heye collection, was not visited by the author, but from a col-
lector he has learned that the middens resemble those of St. Vincent,
the islands being in sight of each other. The artifacts from that
island are mainly stone axes and fragments of pottery.

The main feature of the stone axes from St. Vincent is an exten-
sion or ear on each side of the head, which imparts to it a variety
of forms, as notched, indented, and serrated or forked. This type,
preeminent in the St. Vincent zone, is well represented in collections
from Guadeloupe and Dominica, and to an extent from Grenada, but
it is sporadic, not occurring in St. Kitts, Barbados, Trinidad, or
other contiguous regions.

STONE IMPLEMENTS

The prehistoric stone implements from the St. Vincent area may
be classified into divisions as defined in the following pages:
Celts and axes.
Petaloids.
Axes and chisels.
Axes with caps.
Grooved hammers and axes.
Asymmetrical axes.

63 The collection of Carib stone implements in the public library of St. Vincent has a
few forms of the curved flat objects in which we find a continuation of the notch forming
a projection that is unfortunately broken, but there is a much larger collection in the
Heye Museum.

94 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

Tools.

Implements of crescentic form.
Eared axes.

Engraved axes.

Problematic stone objects.
Grinding implements and pestles.
Stone fetishes, amulets, and idols.
Enigmatical objects.

CELTS AND AXES

PETALOIDS

There are a very few examples of the first group of stone imple-
ments or true petaloid celts in collections from the St. Vincent region,
and a much smaller number of these have heads or figures engraved
upon their surfaces. Their general form is almond-shaped, identi-
cal with those from Porto Rico. They may be characterized by a
sharp edge at one end and a point at the opposite end. These celts
are supposed to have been once set in a wooden handle or to have
been carried in the hand without any such attachment. No speci-
men of the so-called monolithic type of petaloid, or those with
handle as well as blade made of one stone, has yet been recorded from
the Lesser Antilles, although several are known from the larger
islands.

AXES AND CHISELS

The second group of stone implements, or axes and chisels, differ
from petaloids in the absence of a pointed tip, which is, as a rule,
rounded into a head. While in the first group no head is differenti-
ated from the body or shaft of the blade, and there is no groove
surrounding the implement for the attachment of a handle, in this
group there are notches in the margin that may have served for that
purpose or grooves to which a handle was attached. Plate 9, A,
represents an unidentified perforated stone object. The edges of
some of these axes (pl. 9, B, C) are often so-blunt that they could
hardly be classified as cutting implements, although they may
have been used for hollowing out logs for canoes after fire had
reduced the interior of the log to charcoal. PD and F are typical
forms.

The stone chisels (pl. 9, #'), of which there are a few, are longer
and narrower than the axes, being beveled at one or both ends into
a cutting edge, but these implements are often pointed at one or
both ends. The pointed specimens are sometimes flat on one side
and curved on the opposite side, although many are curved on both
faces. When the edges of these chisels are squared they often bear

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 95

projections on one or both borders, but they never have raised ridges
or encircling grooves, separating the head from the body or shaft.

The opposite margins of a number of chisels belonging to a well-
defined group are indented, but these indentations are only rarely
connected by encircling grooves, indicating a point of attachment to
a handle. This type is very numerous and assumes a variety of
forms, but the many modifications included in it differ mainly in the
shape of the head and shaft, as seen in profile. Thus the head may
be extended laterally into two ears like horns, as viewed from one of
the flat surfaces, or may be decorated with carvings on their edges.
The blade is sometimes perforated, and the head often assumes a
fishtail shape or bears a crest on its terminal margin.

In one of the modifications of stone implements enumerated a
head (pl. 9, @) is still further differentiated from a shaft by a
shallow encircling groove that connects the two marginal indenta-
tions above mentioned. While this groove is ordinarily more pro-
nounced on the margin, it is often so shallow on the sides that it
is almost invisible and difficult to trace throughout its whole length.
Its breadth may vary, but the head is always clearly indicated.
Paired and unpaired projections sometimes occur on the margins
of the shaft, as may be seen when these implements are laid on their
flat side. In one of the numerous groups an asymmetrical outline
is brought about by lateral extensions.

A normal ax with the head perfectly symmetrical on both margins
is shown in plate 9, G, but the form of the head is almost triangular.
In this implement the marginal indentations are so shallow that the
general shape approaches that of a petaloid or almond-shaped celt.
An examination of the figure and a study of the character of the
marginal indentations sometimes shows that they are in all prob-
ability secondary in manufacture.

In the specimen seen from obverse and reverse surfaces, from
which plate 9, 7, was made, we have an approach to a ceremonial
celt, or one with a figure engraved on its surface, but of a form
quite unlike any yet figured. This specimen has two projections, one
on each side of the blade, while on the head there is cut an oval
incised figure, in which the eyes, nose, and mouth of a human face
can be readily seen. The incised lines of the face of this specimen
have been more or less deepened since it was found, but the fresh
markings follow the original engraving and are readily detected.
The aboriginal character of the head of the celt is so evident that
this specimen, although unique, is regarded as of veritable Indian
manufacture.

The Heye collection possesses a large number of flat stone im-
plements of triangular shape, often sharpened on one side by bevel-
ing. The other margins and front are rounded, and the specimen

96 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA (ETH. ANN. 34

was evidently used for scraping skins or cutting fibers, sticks, or
other material. Two stone implements of this type with straight
edges are shown in plates 9, 7, and 10, A, while in the third, illus-
trated in plate 10, B, the cutting edge is almost semicircular. These
are supposed to have been used as cutting implements, and to have
been held in the hand in such a manner that the straight edge was
opposed to the palm and the circular edge free. Their form sug-
gests the semilunar slate knives of certain of the aborigines of New
England, who, like all primitive peoples, endeavored to have a good
knife.

The notched edge of the implement in plate 10, C, suggests a saw or
a scraping implement, like the semilunar knife in figure B.

The object shown in plate 10, ), has a semicircular form, with its
convex side so rounded that a section takes the form of a crescent.
The concave surface, on the contrary, is flat, and the end of this
latter region is prolonged into a crescent horn, which is pointed, the
other extremity, or that shown on the right, being almost globular
in form. :

One of the most characteristic implements of semicircular shape
from St. Vincent is represented in plate 10, #. This implement may
have been a spear, its length from one point to the opposite being
greater than its breadth. In this implement the curved or cutting edge
shows evidence of having been chipped after the polishing shown
on the two sides and the cutting of the straight edges. Plate 10, F,
like the last mentioned, exhibits marked evidence of chipping, which
is here confined to the poll or head and sides, the curved edge being
comparatively smooth and sharp and destitute of any signs of second-
ary chipping.

The breadth of the ax, plate 10, G, from one end of the cutting
edge to the other, is slightly greater than elsewhere on the blade.
Its margin is notched at those points, which imparts an unusual
appearance to the whole implement. As prehistoric perforated axes
are very rare in America, this fact gives more than usual interest
to the specimen shown in plate 10, H. The perforation in this
specimen is at right angles to the surface, or from one flat surface to
another, not from one edge to the opposite as occurs in those from
the Stone Age of Europe.

The unusual stone object represented in plate 10, 7, is unique
among stone implements from the Antilles. Unfortunately, it is
broken, and the specimen seems, when entire, to have had a projec-
tion at that point. This implement is, however, wholly different in
form from the double-bladed ax figured and described by Prof.
Mason in the following lines: “ A double-edged, grooved blade, of
light brown color. The form is common enough elsewhere, but cer-

FEWKHS] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 97

tainly it seems to be the first appearance in this area of an ax with
both ends alike.” It is needless to say that the use of this imple-
ment must remain in doubt until other examples are brought to
hight.

There are represented in plate 11 a number of artificially formed
flattened stones which generally have their surfaces more or less con-
vex and their margins rounded. The characteristic features of one
type are indentations, one in each margin, but there is no encircling
groove connecting them by which the ax was hafted to a handle.
There are two divisions of this type, the first group including those
in which both sides of the notched area are of about equal size, im-
parting a dumb-bell shape as seen in profile, and a second (/)) where
they are unequal. The former is well shown in a specimen ((’) in the
Heye collection, as are all those considered under this heading. Plate
11, A, represents a chisel and & a celt-like form with point cut off
square.

No difference in size between the two halves of the object appears
in plate 11, (, where both parts are crescentic when seen in profile.
The surface of the notch is convex and has angular edges.

The general form of the specimen, plate 11, C, is like a dumb-
bell, the two halves being about spherical, and so flattened on the
sides that the length is less than one-fourth of the width of the
longer diameter. The general form of plate 11, Y, is circular, but
its upper half is much reduced, as compared with the lower. The
indentations separating the two are deep and the specimen is a com-
paratively thin object with blunt edges. Its nearest ally, belonging to
the same type, in which two sides are slightly incurved and two re-
main flat and oblong, is rectangular in form.

In plate 11, Y, the margin notches are very deep, imparting a spool
shape to the implement when seen in profile, although the curves of
the upper and lower halves differ somewhat in size.

The objects represented in plate 11, /, G, are stone implements
having more or less rectangular profiles, angular sides, and flat,
undecorated surfaces. It is not necessary to assume that they were
ever furnished with special handles; they were more likely held in
the hand for the use they served. Although rudely made, there is
no doubt that # and H were artificially fashioned. Their forms
are not symmetrical. In the implement figured in plate 11, /,
there is a marked triangular form, which, but for other features,
would be considered among the group designated as triangular
implements.

Plate 11, 7, represents a stone knife and A, a petaloid celt.

. ™Mason, The Guesde Collection, p. 789, fig. 109.
160658 °—34 ETH—22 ve

98 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The essential characters of plate 12, A, B, C, , are such as to ally
these implements with the same type, their differences being mainly
in details. The blades (A, 4) have practically the same general out-
line, one (pl. 12, 6) being sharper than the other. Plate 12, /, has
the ears turned upward. The margin of the blade is somewhat flat-
tened. The use to which these implements were put is doubtful but
they may have been used for grinders.

Plate 12, /, represents a perforated ax, waile A’ shows a groove
for hafting.

In plate 12, Z, a head in the form of a knob is well developed.

Plate 12, J/, V, represent implements in which the head is ex-
panded slightly on each side, the ends of the projections becoming
pointed. The specimen WV has a well-developed shank, the edge of
which is curved, in places relatively sharp. It is one of the best-
formed and most carefully made of all the implements of this type.

Modificattons of different parts of these specimens are common;
thus a still further development of the head and an extension of the
two extremities is found in the implement, plate 12, O. Its cutting
edge is curved to such an extent as to be the same as the general
curve of the margin of the blade.

Tn plate 13, A, there is a well-marked separation of the cutting edge
and the sides of the blade. Plate 13, 4, has a form similar to the
last, but differing from it in details which are apparent.

The marked feature of plate 13, (, is the comparatively great
development of the head as compared to the rest of the implement,
and a marked secondary beveling of its edge, the original form being
practically identical with other members of this type, except in the
relatively deep lateral notch.

The implement represented in plate 13, ), differs from all others
belonging to the group of notched axes in having its blade developed
to a relatively much greater size at the expense of the head, which
is comparatively small. The form of the implement, when seen in
profile, is such that its edge is continued by a gentle curve into the
sides of the blade—a feature that might well be compared to an
almond-shaped or petaloid celt. The convex head is roughly indi-
cated by the two shallow notches.

In plate 13, /’, is represented a fine ax, the blade of which, when
seen in profile, is almost circular, while the head is lenticular, con-
tinued on each side into a sharp point. The distinguishing charac-
teristic of plate 13, /, is the presence of a circular pit situated in the
middle of one side of its blade. This pit is deeply and symmetrically
sunken and has a smooth surface. The edge of this ax is much
broken and the head is slightly notched.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 10

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

B, Ginches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 11

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

G, 5.28 inches; J, 6 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 12

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

F, 2.88 inches; H, 2.25 inches; J, 4.75 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 13

NOTCHED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

F, 7.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 14

NOTCHED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

B, 8.25 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 15

NOTCHED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 99

There is the same relative predominance in size of the shaft over
the head in this as in previous specimens, while the form and the
relatively greater width of the shaft is shown in the specimen figured
in plate 13, G. In plate 13, H, the head is more sharply pointed
than the others, but their general form is identical.

The head of the circular implement, plate 14, A, is narrower
than the blade and separated from it by symmetrical marginal in-
dentations, presenting one of the best-known examples of a type
which has comparatively few members. Plate 14, B, C’, D, EF, are
provisionally placed in this group, although in plate 14, #, there is
a pronounced want of symmetry in the two sides.

The features separating plate 14, 2, /, from the different mem-
bers of the eared type are small, mainly specific rather than generic.
Plate 14, G, representing a typical notched-edge ax, unlike most of
the specimens thus far referred to, has a cutting edge. The essential
feature of an ax the head of which is notched at the edges is shown
in plate 14, ), and its relatively greater breadth of head compared to
the shaft is evident from the illustration.

The implement represented in plate 14, /, has a deep groove in
the head and a shallow indentation on each margin. The former
is deep and broad, whereas in plate 14, G, where it again occurs,
it is small and semicircular in form.

The single notch on the head of plate 14, G, is replaced by three
notches in plate 14, H, which is unique in this particular feature.
These grooves become quite deep in plate 15, A, while in plate 15, B,
the median groove of the head is more pronounced than the two
lateral ones. In plate 15, C, D, Z, there is a return to a tendency
to a groove separating the head of the ax from the blade or a hafting
for a handle.

The tendency to introduce a groove between the head and blade of
the ax appears also in plate 15, Z, /, whose margin, as seen in profile,
becomes a waved line with alternate projections and furrows, the
latter most strongly marked on the head. The margin of the ax
becomes rectangular in one specimen, shown in plate 15, G, there are
furrows cut on the head of plate 15, 7,7. Figures H and J must be
classified as aberrant forms of a type differing from the stone imple-
ments with indented edges, but having common features which justify
their being provisionally placed in this group.

In considering the shapes of plate 16, 4, B, we are reminded of
the forms of bronze axes so common in the Old World. They have
the same symmetrical form and the sharp edge, showing that they
are implements used in cutting.

The implement shown in plate 16, ), is dumb-bell shaped, when
seen in profile, and has a median groove, the two halves being about
uniform in size.

100 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

In the object shown in plate 16, #, one half is larger than the
other, suggesting a head and blade. There is, however, no encir-
cling groove.

In plate 16, C, /’, there is an approach to an encircling groove and
a head distinct from the blade. The top of the head of / is indented
and the right side flattened, perhaps broken.

Plate 16, G, represents a similar implement with two bevels on
the head, which impart a triangular shape to this region of the
implement when seen in profile.

The head in plate 16, H, is rectangular and extended; in plate
16, 7, it is concave on the top.

In plate 17, A, the head has a point on the apex, the outline of
the blade being circular. The implement, plate 17, B, has a ferrule
near the head extremity, the apex being flattened, and in plate 17, C,
the apex is concave. Plate 17, ), has a broad, flat apex, which in
plate 17, Z, is incurved, forming earlike extensions.

AXES WITH CAPS

There are in the Teye collection several specimens which, when
seen in profile, resemble a petaloid celt with a cap perched on the
pointed extremity. The rim of this cap seen on the margin over-
hangs the surface of the blade, forming a low ridge, which is the
upper rim of the groove, by which probably the handle was pre-
vented from slipping over the pointed head of the ax. The simplest
form of this type, shown in plate 17, /, has, in addition to the cap,
a secondary groove situated just below it. Another form of head is
shown in plate 17, G. In plate 17, 7, there are indications of two
similar supplemental encircling grooves, pronounced on the margins
as notches. In this specimen the top of the head has become more or
less flattened and slightly rounded, its end being cut off so that it is
parallel with the groove, instead of being continued into a point.
A like feature appears on the side of the ax, plate 17, 7, where there ~
are indications of three supplementary notches, parallel to each
other on the flat caplike structure on the end of the implement.
There was probably still another notch in that portion of the head
which is now broken off.

In plate 18, A, we have.a typical form of ax without cap, but with
head broad; one edge straight, the other curved.

The apical cap of plate 18, B, is more globular in form than the
last, and is separated into two regions by an apical furrow, absent
in plate 18, A. While the blade of this ax is destitute of the sym-
metry ordinarily found in this type, the groove of the handle
forms a true caplike head, a distinctive feature of the group. The

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 16

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 17

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

STONE

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 18

FISH TAIL AND ASYMMETRICAL STONE OBJECTS FROM ST. VINCENT

C, Sinches; E, Sinches; F, 2.5 inches; G, 9.13 inches; H, 4 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 19

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 20

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

B,7.75 inches; C, 8.44 inches; 2, 6 inches; J, 5.25 inches; L, 5.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 21

ASYMMETRICAL STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT
B, 4.38 inches; C, 6.63 inches; F, 6.5inches; J7, 7 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 22

int
ea

BANS

a

i

EEE

ASYMMETRICAL STONE

IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT
1, Jinches; B, 4.3 inches; D, Sinches; 2, 7.6 inches; F, 7 inches; G, 4.38 inches; H, 7.25 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 23

ASYMMETRICAL STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

A, 9.25 inches; C, 6.75 inches; D, 7.5 inches; FE, 3.88 inches; F, 5.5 inches.
, y)

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 101

cap of plate 18, C, has its apex not symmetrical but turned to one
side. A similar absence of symmetry likewise appears in the margins
of the blade, which are convex on one side and straight or slightly
concave on the other. The cap of plate 18, D, has two apical furrows
dividing the head into unequal lobes.

Two specimens in which the apical furrow has become so deep
that two extended lobes have elongated into horns or ears are figured
in plate 18, #, #. In figure F, these ears assume a fishtail form, and
in E the lobes are curved, distinctly resembling the ears of a rabbit.

The head of an ax of the cap type, shown in plate 18, G, has a
notched or serrated rim, the sawlike margin appearing especially
pronounced on the right side, imparting to the whole implement a
conical or triangular form when seen in profile.

Plate 18, H, represents another ax of the same type, the head being
broken and the blade missing. In essential features the cap of this
implement recalls that of plate 18, G, from which, however, it dif-
fers in dimensions and number of notches, the workmanship on it
being so coarse that it appears to be an unfinished specimen. We
repeatedly find.similar implements of this form in caches brought to
light by construction of roads across the island or by inroads of the
sea on exposed coasts. It appears that the natives blocked out these
implements and stored them for future use or for barter with those
who lived on islands where there was no stone adapted to the manu-
facture of implements.

Plate 18, 7, is an unidentified stone implement of rectangular
shape.

Plate 19, A, is a rectangular ax with sharpened edge; plate 19, C,
represents an ax of simple form; but the blade, plate 19, B, is not
unlike a modern ax in shape.

Tt is not possible to identify the use of the implements shown in
plate 19, D, #, but it is supposed that they once had handles.

GROOVED HAMMERS AND AXES

Four stone hammers from the Heye collection, shown in plate 19,
FI, represent typical forms of these implements from the Lesser
Antilles. In their general outlines they correspond closely with
those of Porto Rico, all being deeply grooved for hafting, rounded
above and below. They were evidently battering or pounding imple-
ments. From the depth of the groove it is evident that a wooden
handle was formerly firmly lashed to them, either tied by cords or bent
around their body, filling the encircling groove, which insured its
attachment.

102 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

The shape of the hammer shown in plate 19, G, approaches the
form of an ax, its deep groove and slightly projecting cutting edge
flaring. The groove in plate 19, H-A, is pronounced, evidently for
the attachment of a handle. A marked feature of ax J is the flat
head, which, as shown in the accompanying figure, also has angu-
lar projections.

Plate 20, A, has two lateral birdlike projections on the top of the
head, but the groove for hafting is less pronounced than in the
preceding. Plate 20, B, C, represent grooved axes with prolonged
extensions on the tops of their heads, where there are also notches.
The extent of the prolongation of the head is here so great that we
can hardly suppose that the notch played any great part in lashing
the blade to its handle.

The groove of an ax in the Heye collection, represented in plate 20,
D, is well marked and the beginning of the differentiation of a blade
or body from the shaft is apparent.

The implement figured in plate 20, #’, has the sides of the head
prolonged into two projections, like horns or ears. Its head is sepa-
rated from the rest of the implement by a well-marked groove, the
body being divided into a clearly defined shaft and blade. In plate
20, F, the head has been reduced to a low narrow ridge above the
encircling groove, there being in this specimen no line of demarcation
between shaft and blade, while in that shown in plate 20, @, there
are rectangular elevations on the head, which is perforated. This
object shows no want of symmetry on its two margins. The differ-
entiation of shaft and blade is quite evident in plate 20, 7. The
head furrow is here less pronounced than in G, where the groove is
deep and has about the same breadth all around the implement.

The grooved ax, plate 20, 7, is well made, showing head in profile
with ridges curving on the groove. The body, or the blade, is
crescentic in form, and its upper diameter is about equal to that of
the head, but less than that of the shaft, which broadens some-
what below the groove. The margins of the shaft are angular. In
the middle of the side of this specimen a pit has been sunk in the
surface, and there is still another such depression situated on the top
of the head. both recalling the notches in previous specimens.

ASYMMETRICAL AXES

Axes with or without grooves for hafting, but with an extension
on one edge imparting to them an asymmetrical form, are quite com-
mon in the St. Vincent-Grenada area. In its simplest form (pl. 20,
K, L) this want of symmetry is not very pronounced, consisting of a
slight projection on the side, almost imperceptible without close ex-
amination. From this we pass through intermediate forms to those

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 103

at the other end of a series in which the lateral projection has de-
veloped to such an extent that it has completely modified the form
of the ax.

One of the simplest of these asymmetrical axes in the Heye collec-
tion is represented in plate 21, A. The want of symmetry in this
specimen appears in the left border, the right margin of the ax,
when placed in a normal position, being simply curved, the left
slightly pointed.

In the next illustration, plate 21, B, representing a somewhat more
developed ax, the asymmetry of the left margin is more pronounced
and indicated by a marked projection. Plate 21, (, has this
feature still more developed, for in this specimen the right margin is
almost straight, while the left is curved inward, terminating in a
projection. Unlike the preceding, the specimen A is girt by a well-
marked encircling groove for hafting, which, combined with the
other features, imparts to it the conventional tomahawk form. Ex-
cept that it is relatively longer and narrower, the specimen rep-
resented in plate 21, C, is not unlike that shown in plate 21, A.
The asymmetrical feature is well marked in this, and also in those
represented in plate 21, 2, #, although in the last mentioned all
sign of a groove for hafting is absent.

While the ax, plate 21, /’, belongs to the same type as those de-
scribed above, the shape of its head is somewhat different. Here we
have a groove on the top of the head, evidently designed for lashing
the ax to a handle. The same general outline exists likewise in
plate 21, H, but in this specimen the single groove on the head is
replaced by three, and the groove encircling the head of the ax and
separating it from the body is more pronounced. Plate 21, G, has a
groove on the head for attachment of a handle.

The specimens thus far mentioned have an enlargement at the end

of the shaft forming a head. Not so, however, the next specimen
represented in plate 22, 4, where the shaft simply tapers'to the end
and is bent backward, forming a distinct curve, bringing the pro-
jection on one side of the ax at the extreme left end of the cutting
edge of the blade. In the next specimen, plate 22, B, this extension
has become still more prominent, for although the pointed end of
the blade has become somewhat enlarged, the projection imparting
the asymmetrical form almost equals that of the ax in length.

This lateral extension of the left margin of the ax has thus far
been confined to the lower end or the middle of the implement, but
in plate 22, (’, D, it has shifted its position and is here found near the
middle. The result is that the cutting edge of the ax has been ex-
tended on one side, whereas in the preceding specimens the length of
the cutting edge is about equal on each side of a median line.

104 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

The lateral extension which imparts the asymmetry to these axes
has been abnormally developed in plate 22, #, and would have been
still further extended in the specimen, plate 22, /’, were this speci-
men entire.

Closely connected with the asymmetrical blades already men-
tioned are a few of somewhat aberrant form which have the same
peculiarities, but are modified in a somewhat different manner.
Among these may be mentioned plate 22, @.

Plates 22, H, and 23, A, 4, represent other aberrant forms of
implements, each of which have pecularities, but all evidently belong
to the same type as the above. Of these specimens, that represented
in plate 23, B, departs so much from the normal form that we may
well doubt whether or not it belongs to the group. Its outline is,
however, asymmetrical.

The ax, plate 23, C, is regarded as one of the best made of the
asymmetrical type, for not only is its cutting edge continued into a
projection on the left side but its termination is turned upward,
imparting a characteristic form to the head and body of the blade.
Instead of being rounded, as on the right edge, three planes are cut
on the left margin, one in the middle and one on each side, forming
a kind of chamfering which differentiates it from the axes previously
mentioned.

In plate 23, D, both the right and left margins, instead of being
rounded, are bounded by flat planes, imparting to the two sides of
the blade, as seen in profile, very different outlines. The extension
on the left margin is exceptional.

A somewhat similar difference can be seen in an implement found
in the Berlin Museum, in which this difference in the two margins
is even more marked than in any other asymmetrical ax. It repre-
sents an implement allied on one side to the asymmetrical forms and
on the other to those with projections on the head, features so marked
that we may consider it a connecting link between those character-
ized by these two peculiarities.

TooLs

The variety of shapes assumed by stone tools in the St. Vincent-
Grenada area appears in the following figures, one of the most per-
fect forms of which is that represented in plate 23,G. Here the borders
of the shaft are angular and the cutting edge is curved and sharp.
The size of this specimen, or more especially the angular character
of the border of the shaft, points to the probability that it formerly
had a handle which may have been attached to it longitudinally, or
it may have been inserted in the end of the handle like a chisel. The
implement shown in plate 23, /’, is one of the most effective cutting
tools yet described from the Antilles. The margins are angular

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 105

and both the upper end and terminal edges are sharpened. It is the
author’s belief that this stone implement was inserted in a slit
formed in the extremity of a handle and firmly bound in place by
cords. Forms similar to the last mentioned are shown in @ and £,
which are broader than the last and sharpened at the end. There is
a want of symmetry in the two margins of //, the left being shorter
than the right. The end opposite the cutting edge is here pointed like
a petaloid stone.

The common form of tool is shown in plate 23, /’, G, 7, in which
we recognize the contracted shaft, which was probably fitted to a
handle, and the more or less curved edge.

We have in plate 24, A, B, tool-formed implements in which the two
sides of the shaft are not convex, as is usually the case, but are
slightly concave when seen in profile. The profile of plate 24, B,
would probably have been a complete triangle but for the fact that
one point has been broken. The curved side of this triangle is
sharpened and probably served as the cutting edge of an implement.
The implement C is such that it could readily serve as a spear point,
but it may have been used as a gouge for cutting wood previously
charred or otherwise softened ie fire—a custom ecrited to Carib
when they cut down trees or dug out cavities in logs for canoes. It
is said that in making canoes they first burned a hollow in a log
with live coals and then scraped it out with stone chisels, and some
of the stone implements we are now considering may have been used
in the way indicated.

The form of plate 24, D, is almost rectangular when seen in profile,
although there is a slight difference in width of the butt and cutting
edge. In the implement shown in plate 24, #, a handle has been
formed by a contraction of the diameter above the end. The same
reduction in size occurs in plate 24, /’, but in it the handle is some-
what shorter and the cutting edge has a circular form.

The implement represented in plate 24, G, is a good tool with
square margins, tapering uniformly and slightly curved, making it
a most effective cutting tool.

These chisels are sometimes elongated in form, as shown in the
specimen in plate 24, 7. This otherwise perfect implement is un-
fortunately slightly chipped on the cutting edge, but it is sharp and
not too thick. The handle is round, terminating in a blunt point.
Like the preceding, it shows evidences of having been formerly tied
by its short handle to a stick or stave to increase its effectiveness.
The object shown in plate 24, 7, is problematical.

The tendency in all these tools is to become pointed at one ex-
tremity, as in plate 25, A, B, C, and to become broader at the oppo-
site end, imparting a well-marked spatulate form.

106 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The broad cutting edge of plate 26, A, is slightly curved but sharp,
although the shaft tends to be angular on each margin. The finest
examples of a beveled cutting edge occur in plate 26, A, D-L. These
tools are angular and elongated in shape, of about uniform size
throughout their length, their thickness being about one-fifth of their
breadth. ‘The butt, when seen from one extremity, has a rectangular
form and the cross section throughout its length is uniform. The
use of stone objects represented in plate 26, B, C, is problematical.

In plate 26, G, we have represented an angular implement, sharp-
ened but not beveled at its cutting extremity, and squarely formed
at the opposite end.

In plate 26, 7, we find the tendency to angular edges very pro-
nounced, and in plate 26, 7, 7, the same figure is evident, although
the implement is much elongated and tapers slightly to each end.

In plate 26, A, the cutting edge is almost straight, but the ax
shown in plate 26, Z, is slightly curved, its two margins rounded
rather than angular, and the tip blunt.

Plate 27, A, B, may be regarded as tools of typical forms, and in
plate 27, C, we have an approach to the chisel form which often
occurs in all collections from different West Indian islands. Plate
27, D, represents a tool, the cross section of which is square, the
edge sharpened, and the tip flat. A similarly formed chisel is
shown in plate 27, #’, the same type, almost square in profile, appear-
ing in plate 27, ¥. The chisel, plate 27, @, is beveled on two oppo-
site sides, diminishing to a point at the opposite extremity. The
specimens represented in plate 27, 7, /, are tools of the types men-
tioned, whose forms are somewhat modified in detail, but still pre-
serve the same general features.

The implements shown in plate 28, 4, B, have been designated
chisels, and are probably, more strictly speaking, forms of cutting
implements, rather than celts or weapons.

In plate 28, C, D, FL, we have different forms of stone cutting
implements, cleaver shape, but with slight projections on the head,
on each side of a median notch. Although their outlines vary con-
siderably they preserve the same general form, usually having a
cutting edge.

Plate 28, /, from the Berlin Museum, is noteworthy on account
of the relative sizes of the head and blade.

A modification in the cutting edge is introduced in the two tools
represented in plate 28, G, H, the angle to the axis of the implement
is slight in @, but more acute in H. Plate 28, 7, shows a passage
from this type into the grooved implement shown in this specimen,
while plate 28, /, A’, LZ, are tools having the same form, but made of
shell. These implements are not as common as those of stone and

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 24

SPATULATE STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

A, 3.88 inches; H, 2inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 25

D

F
A-E, MISCELLANEOUS STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT.
F, PENDANT FOR NECKLACE

A, 5.25 inches; J’, 2.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 26

G

MISCELLANEOUS STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM. ST. VINCENT

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 27

if

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 28

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT
F, 5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 29

CRESCENTIC STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT
A, 5.5 inches; B, 5inches; C, 9.5inches; D, 9.5inches; 2, 8inches; F, 9 inches; G, 6.38inches; H, 7.25 inches; J, 7.5 inches;
J, 9inches; K, 6 inches.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 107

are rarely collected on the island of St. Vincent. Shell was the only
hard substance available in Barbados for the manufacture of cutting
implements, and axes made of this material occur in great abundance.

IMPLEMENTS OF CRESCENTIC FoRM

Certain crescentic stones, called sacrificial knives,*° generally con-
vex on one edge and concave on the other, commonly sharpened on one
point, are among the best found in St. Vincent. These assume a
variety of modifications, well illustrated by specimens in the Heye
collection. Although the majority of these forms were found in
St. Vincent and Grenada, the type is not limited to these islands.
The simplest forms of sacrificial knives are shown in plate 29,
A, B, C. The crescentic shape is somewhat modified in A, and a
projection which may have served as a handle arises from the
concave edge. It is popularly believed that these curved implements
are knives used in cutting out the hearts of victims in human sacri-
fices, and following out this erroneous idea certain large bowlders
bearing pictographs are called altar stones.

These crescentic implements are commonly sharp at one point and
blunt at the opposite. They may have been used in cutting fish,
meat, or even human bodies, suggesting sacrificial knives. They are
commonly flat at two opposite sides, rounded, often blunt on the
edges, but they almost invariably terminate in a cutting edge or a
sharp point. Their shape varies from a slightly crescent form to the
spiral; sometimes their handles are straight prolongations, terminat-
ing ina curved extremity. No historic authority can be quoted from
accounts of the aborigines of the West Indies that they sacrificed
human beings, but there is abundant proof that they removed flesh
from the skeletons of the dead, even their own relatives, in their
mortuary ceremonies.

Various other forms of sacrificial or ceremonial knives are figured
in the series represented in plate 29. One of these, plate 29, 0,
has a.semicircular cutting edge like the skin scrapers manu-
factured by some of the North American Indians. Figure @
represents a most instructive type, in which the implement is en-

® The crescentic form of stone implement, locally called sacrificial knives, is not very
common in St. Vincent, but a few fine specimens are known to exist. (See author’s picture
of pictographs on a large bowlder in 25th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. lxii, upper
fig.) The best known of these is owned by Mr. Patrick Huggins, an old resident of. this
island, whose ancestors he affirms received it from a ‘“‘ Carib chief,” who said it had been
used for sacrificial purposes. Local collectors in St. Vincent are accustomed to call
stones bearing pictographs ‘‘jumbi” stones or altars, and they say that sacrifices of
human beings were made on these altars with stone implements of crescentic form, but
none of the early contemporary accounts support this statement. The crescentie type
may be the curved knives mentioned by Labat as the instruments with which the flesh of
men devoured in cannibal feasts was cut into pieces or scraped from the victim’s bones.

108 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

larged into a scroll at one end, while the opposite extremity has a
flat tool-shaped edge. It is evident that the enlarged scroll was
so shaped in order to fit into the palm of the hand, thus enlarging
the handle and giving an opportunity to grasp the implement firmly
while it was being used.

The following figures (/’, 7, H, 7) represent other forms of sacri-
ficial knives whose curved ends have been enlarged into handles or
disks, evidently better adapted for grasping inthe hand. A common
feature of these knives is a notch in the periphery, which in two in-
stances (J, A’) becomes quite
prominent. The first of these
scroll-shaped knives to be men-
tioned was a fragment illus-
trated in the author’s report on
the Aborigines of Porto Rico.*
At the time this report was
written the complete form was
unknown. The first unbroken
specimen of the type of sac-
rificial knife was described by
Mr. T. A. Joyce in his account
of prehistoric implements from
the West Indies in the British
Museum.*?

The specimens figured in
plate 29, 7, 7, A, resemble sac-
rificial knives in some particu-
lars, but differ from them as
follows: The inner edge of these

Fig, 3.—Eared ax from Guadeloupe, (11.2 specimens is almost straight,

inches. ) °
the other curved, the two being
separated by a shallow notch, imparting to the implement a form
resembling an ax with sharpened edge on one side.

FEARED AXES

All the members of this type of stone implements possess two ex-
tensions, one on each side of the head (fig. 3). These projections
sometimes resemble forks, and at times impart to the head of the
implement the form of a fishtail. In other specimens they take the
form of simple rounded knobs, recalling incipient horns. The body
of the specimen shown in plate 30, , is perforated. As a rule, as in
plate 30, 7, the groove for hafting is absent in implements of this type,

°° Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. xxiii, hk.
® Journ, Roy. Anthrop, Inst., vol. xxxvii, p. 418.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 109

but in figure # this furrow, although shallow, is well defined. The
specimen, plate 30, #’, is exceptional in possessing two angular ridges,
extending one on each margin of the sides, almost half the length of
the shaft. Plate 30, 7, @, show prominent typical earlike appendages
to the head, characteristic of the type, but in plate 30, /7, 7, these lap-
pets are small, separated by a slight shallow notch. These ears,
which in the preceding illustration, plate 30, G, are prominent, suf-
fer a reduction in size in a specimen not shown, where they appear
as lateral projections and low prominences, one on each side of the
middle line of the ax. The two margins of this ax are almost paral-
lel, the cutting edge being slightly curved. In none of the specimens
is there an indication of a groove for hafting.

The form of implement shown in plate 30, /, departs slightly
from that of the typical eared ax, the prominent characteristics of
which are a broad, square incision on the poll at the middle line, and
the recurved ears.

Plate 31, A, shows a fine ax with prominent lateral projections
from its head, and two rectangular elevations replacing the ears on
the heads of specimens already described. Appendages of the same
form appear in a specimen (pl. 31, /) where the upper notches are
represented, when seen in profile, by a waved line. The margins of
the body of this ax are planes. 4

In the ax shown in plate 31, B, the two projections or ears are
confluent, having a perforation or opening between them. The edges
of this opening are not beveled but rounded, having been smoothed
on their surface, betraying the original lines of formation here
suggested. There is visible in this specimen a rectangular ridge
situated on the upper rim of each ear or lateral extension similar
to those found in other axes of the same type. The margins of the
blade in this ax are parallel and somewhat angular, but the sharp-
ened edge or the cutting portion is slightly curved.

The specimens, plate 31, (, D, /, may be called eared axes. The
projections from the head of are here bounded by flat planes and
are not curved, and the median depression on the head is rectangular.

ENGRAVED AXES

The head of the specimen in plate 32, A, is somewhat broken on one
side, and the surface of the body of the blade, below the groove,
decorated with incised lines arranged in triangles. Plate 32, B, bears
a number of parallel indentations on the edges.

If the ax shown in plate 32, C, be viewed in profile it will be
seen to bear, instead of two ears or horns, two grooves for hafting a
handle to the implement.

110 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

As the upper portion of the head of the specimen, plate 32, D,
is much broken, it is very difficult to determine its original form.
The general appearance of the unbroken portion would indicate a
perforation. The instructive features in this specimen are the figure
incised on the surface of a depressed area, situated in the middle of
the side, and a pointed arch, which lies within the same area. These
incised figures in St. Vincent axes remind one of the ceremonial celts
of Porto Rico. :

Plate 32, 4’, shows a broken ax somewhat similar to the last except
that the dumb-bell design which occupies the center of the latter is
here replaced by a perforation. The right-hand side of the blade is
broken, and when whole we probably have the anomalous feature of
an ax with its blade divided in its length in such manner as to present
two cutting edges. This remarkable feature in the blade is no less
strange than that of the head of the same implement, which is unlike
that of any known ax.

In plate 32, /’, where we have type features of the group of imple-
ments with projections on the head, there is a well-marked shaft,
narrow blade, and well-marked ears on the head, in the form of
angular extensions, one on each side of a median furrow.

PROBLEMATIC STONE OBJECTS

Plate 33, A, is melon-like, and, like the others, enigmatical so far as
use is concerned. Although these specimens are made of a hard
stone their forms recall certain objects made of pumice stone found
at the hamlet called Fancy, on the north side of the great St. Vincent
volcano, Soufriere. 4

The specimen illustrated in plate 33, B, with several features
ascribed to stone implements, is exceptional in possessing a peculiar
beveled edge which is shown on the right lower side. Its opposite
side, not shown in the figure, has an identical form to that shown in
the illustration.

Plate 33, (, so far as form goes, to all intents and purposes repre-
sents a pestle, but unlike all grinding implements thus far described,
it is rectangular instead of oval or circular when seen in cross sec-
tion. The general appearance of this implement recalls a stamp or
rubbing stone, but, although this resemblance is heightened by the
form of a handle, the majority of other features place this specimen
in the group we are considering. »

The two globular stones of irregular form shown in plate 33, D, 2,
have artificially worked surfaces and resemble each other in the
common feature, a slight indentation on the surface, by which a
pointed projection recalling a tooth is brought into relief.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 30

EARED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT AND GRENADA
B, 6.3 inches; D, 3.31 inches; E, 9.5 inches. ;

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 31

EARED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

B, 3.25 inches; D, 8.3 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 32

INSCRIBED AND EARED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. VINCENT

A, 5.5 inches; D, 7.4inches; EZ, 4 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 33

/

i

PROBLEMATIC STONE OBJECTS FROM ST. VINCENT

D, 4.38 inches; 2, 3.88 inches.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 34

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

. VINCENT

IMPLEMENTS FROM ST

PROBLEMATIC STONE

; J, 4.25 inches.

, 9.81 inches

Ss:

D, 5 inche:

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 35

GY

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLO¢

VINCENT

PESTLES AND OTHER STONE OBJECTS FROM ST

A, 3.25 inches; H, 5 inches

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 111

The problematical implement of irregular shape, plate 33, 7’, is
artificially worked, evidently for some unknown purpose, while that
illustrated in plate 33, G, has six regular faces of unequal size.

Another conical stone, plate 33, 7, also has six faces which are
slightly convex, no two of which have the same length or width.
Plate 33, 7, was drawn from a stone specimen of hemispherical form,
flat on one side and convex on the other. Like that shown in plate
33, J, it recalls an unfinished ax, being irregular, hemispherical or
ovate in form.

The last-mentioned form is preserved in plate 33, A’, the convex
surface of which is irregular throughout. This object might perhaps
be better described as an oblate spheroid with flat surfaces.

The general features of these stones are the slightly convex sur-
faces which reappear in the dumb-bell shaped stone, plate 33, ZL,
which has a flat surface on one side and a sharp cutting edge on the
opposite. Although in form this specimen reminds one of an ax, it
is unlike those thus far considered.

Plate 33, J/, represents an implement of cubical form with two
opposite . aoe of circular contour and a slight median constric-
tion in the narrow edge. This object has all the outward appearance
of a grinding implement, and may have been used to bruise roots,
vegetables, or pigments.

The form A (pl. 34) is somewhat more elongated than that last
mentioned, having surfaces smooth and slightly convex, bounded by
flat facets. é

Among other problematic stone objects of the same general type
there are certain forms, one of which is shown in plate 34, B,
which resembles a small whetstone, flat on one side, convex on the
other, and beveled into a cutting edge at one end. Unfortunately the
opposite extremity is broken, but its general form suggests that it
terminated in a point. The form of this implement is like that of a
chisel, but it differs from chisels found in Porto Rico, Santo Do-
mingo, and the other Greater Antilles.

The boat-shaped stone object, plate 34, (’, has its two opposite flat
faces connected by a flat plane, the width of which is uniform and
equals the distance between the faces. This implement terminates
at each end in beveled edges, which, however, are not adapted for
cutting, although it is not impossible that they may have been used
in fashioning clay or pottery objects.

The continuation of the plane around the border of the whole im-
plement found in plate 34, (’, is also a marked feature of plate 34, D.
A fiat stone with crenelated border, plate 34, #, may have been used
by potters in rubbing down pottery to the desired form.

112 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ ETH. ANN. 34
GRINDING IMPLEMENTS AND PESTLES

There is considerable variety in the form
of pestles and mortars from the St. Vincent
region. Some of the former are oval or
spherical stones, slightly concave, sometimes
with equatorial grooves. They often have
the head, handle, and base differentiated, but
the head is not, as in the Santo Domingo
pestle, carved in high relief, but incised on
the point of the handle. The forms, which
are conical, are distinctly characteristic of St.
Kitts, although they occur on all the islands
from Porto Rico to Trinidad.

Fic. 4.—Pestle seen in The object plate

profile. (3.5 inches.) 34, F, is of un-
knowp use and is remarkable on account of
the face cut on one end. Plate 34, G, is
placed among pestles on account of the simi-
larity in its form
to these imple-
ments. Plate 34,
fH, has a_pestle-
like form and /
and J are objects
of unknown use.
Plate 34, A, is a
pestle with globu-
lar end and handle
slightly nlarged 7 3 He, Bees wr
at its termination.

Different objects from the Lesser Antilles
are represented in figures 4-9. Figure 5
represents a pestle, the end of which is pro-
longed into two knobs or ears and the oppo-
site grinding surface slightly enlarged. It
has a face carved on the handle, with eyes,
nose, and mouth well represented. In many
respects this pestle recalls those from Porto
Rico. The object shown in figure 9 has the
form of a pestle, but the opening or depres-
sion at one end would indicate that it was
used for some other unknown purpose.
Figure 6 is a pestle with eyes and mouth

Fic. 6.—Stone pestle with 2 2 . rf
evealnad monte! represented at one end, while in figure 7

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS

these organs are simply pits or

figure 8 the face isin relief. Both figures 7 and
8 have a transverse perforation, which would
seem to indicate that they were not pestles, but
were suspended, possibly as ornaments.

On plate 35 there are figured a number of
pestles which vary in shape, all but one (2)
having the conventional form. That repre-

sented in A has a circular base
the handle turned to one side.

angular, a rare condition among pestles, but D
has the regular conical form. The point of the
handle is cut off by a flat plane in # and in F
the whole implement is pyriform. The pestle
shown in G is bicornis, and
H also originally had two
horns, one of which is
broken. J has a constric-

tion near

rounded.

The St.

private

Fic. 8-—Head and han-
dle of broken pestle.

are not as
made as those from the Santo
Domingo-Porto Rican area and
the characteristic forms of those
known from the two areas are
different. The only examples
of three-pointed stones are two
or three specimens belonging to
the fourth type which were col-
lected in Grenada. There are
only a few of these, and I doubt
whether those known came
from St. Vincent or from the
Greater Antilles.
160658°—34 rrH—22

the top of the handle is

lections from
these islands

IN THE WEST INDIES 113

depressions. In

and the point of
In C the form is

the base and

Fie. 7.—Stone object in
Shape of pestle. (3.88
inches.)

STonE FetisHes, AMULETS, AND IDoLs

Vincent area has furnished a few

fetishes that illustrate the idolatry of the Lesser
Antilles. Rep-
resentations of
idols that exist
in public or

col-

well

Fic. 9.—Pestle-shaped problematical object.

114 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

The various stones illustrated in figure 10 include forms of pend-
ants, triangular stones of unknown significance, and ornaments.

One form of amulet (pl. 36, 4) in the Heye collection resembles
in several particulars a specimen in the Vienna Museum figured by
Dr. Heger (see fig. 61). This specimen resembles in form a worm or
centipede and has appendages to the head, the body being divided into
sepments by grooves.

The amulet in the Heye collection shown in plate 36, B, is rec-
tangular in shape, much broader than wide, with a wing on each
side of the body. The head of this specimen has two perfo-
rations, and is separated
from the body by a slightly
curved groove. There are
similar perforations near the
upper edges of the wings.
In the center of the body
of the amulet there is a
pit surrounded by a circle,
from which extend. curved
lines, indicating appendages
with some likeness to legs.
The form and markings on
this specimen suggest a con-
ventionalized animal, as a
bird, while the position of
the marginal perforations
indicates that it may have |
been used as a pendant. The
surface is smooth and highly
polished, as if worn or much
handled by its former owner.

Fie. 10.—Stone ane (3, 1.38, 2.44, 1.88, The form of the amulet (pl.
.31 inches.)

36, C) from the Heye collec-
tion approaches that last mentioned, but the different parts are more
conventionalized. This amulet, probably a fetish, is quadrangular in
form, slightly curved on one surface and almost flat on the oppo-
site. At about one-third its length the specitmhen is crossed by a
deep groove extending from the margin to the middle of one side;
other deep grooves mark off a triangular figure that may have been
intended for a head. It is probable that this stone was used as
a pendant attached to a necklace, serving as a fetish for personal
protection or as an ornament.

The small, conical, well-worn, and perforated stone (pl. 36, D)
recalls the stones shaped like cones above described, but differs from

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 115

them in having a sulcus or groove cut in one side, but not extend-
ing around the rim of the base. This specimen, like the last men-
tioned, was probably a fetish or worn as an amulet on a necklace.

To the same type as the stone objects above mentioned belongs
a thin semicircular stone object which has two perforations, one at
each end of a scroll shown on each face. The margin between these
scrolls becomes straight instead of curved. The form of pendant next
to be mentioned consists of stones with perforations on their margins.
The simplest form of perforated stones used as pendants is seen in
plate 36, D, where we have an oval nodule with a perforation extend-
ing through the object. This nodule is made of the hardest kind of
rock and its perforation shows a degree of skill in the use of boring
implements which is not surpassed in work of its kind.

The specimen illustrated in the two following figures (pl. 36,
FE, G) from the Heye collection, is made of a hard stone, cut in a
triangular form, perforated with incised decorations on both sur-
faces. A perforation for suspension of this specimen is large and
recularly beveled.

ENIGMATICAL OBJECTS

The author approaches a consideration of these singular objects
with some trepidation, for while they are the most exceptional forms
reported from the Antilles they are not unlike certain stone objects of
undoubted Indian manufacture found elsewhere in the West Indies.

His first introduction to them incited a keen desire to see the
locality in St. Vincent where they were said to have been found
and discover others in situ. Through the kindness of Mr. Heye, the
author, accompanied by Rev. Thomas Huckerby, made a visit to the
locality, but, either because his time was too limited or from other
reasons, no additional specimens were obtained. The objects figured
in the accompanying plates were the only specimens of the type
examined. The majority are said to have been found at the settle-
ment called Fancy, on Fancy River, 250 yards from the sea, by Mr.
Morgan, from whom Mr. Huckerby obtained them and afterwards
sold them to Mr. Heye. They were exposed in digging a roadbed
from Shipping Bay to Fancy. The objects have a red or dark gray
color, sometimes with patches of black, and are made of a soft vol-
canic tufa that readily crumbles, especially under moisture. They
show a great variety of form and a number of plates (pls. 37-61) of
the more striking ones are here given for comparison.

These objects are unique and unlike any Antillean objects known
to the author. It is impossible for the author to interpret their use,
as his knowledge of the circumstances under which they were found
is limited. It has therefore seemed justifiable to give what might’ be
considered a superabundance of illustrations to guide future arche-

116 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA (ETH, ANN. 34

ologists in studies of these forms to which the author is able to add so
little definite information.

The following mention of these objects by Mr. George H. Pepper
is published in an account of “‘The Museum of the American Indian,
Heye Foundation.” *

“ Of still greater interest,” he writes, “to the student is a series of
both well-known and fantastic objects made from a metamorphosed
voleanic scoria. There are several hundred specimens, all of which
were found in a restricted area near Fancy at the base of the volcano
of La Soufriére. Nothing like them has been found in the adjacent
islands, and it is quite probable that they were made and deposited
at this place as votive offerings in way of propitiation to the god of
the volcano.”

Regarding their age the Rev. Thomas Huckerby, from whom Mr.
Heye purchased these objects, writes as follows: “I think that the
specimens indicate a very old civilization. Probably they take us
back beyond the Carib occupation. As suggested in a previous letter,
it is probable that these specimens and the people who used them
were covered up by the ejecta of a prehistoric eruption of the
SOumniercvemse cme

The author is unable from the scanty evidence available to deter-
mine either the age or genuineness of these objects; but he would
judge from a personal examination of the site where they are said to
have been found that they date back to pre-Carib times. No object
was found on the site that resembles them, so we are obliged to rely on
the testimony of the collectors for their authenticity.

These objects show artificial working and appear to belong to a
type. Their variety of form may be best illustrated by considering
in turn several of the most common representatives. Their three-
sided form is prominent in plate 87, 4, somewhat resembling in out-
line the three-pointed stone idols of the fourth type partially finished,
their points being rounded and without superficial decorations or
carved heads.

In plate 37, B, we have a similar stone, possessing three rounded
points, two of which are extended in such a way as to resemble
wings, arising from a spherical middle region that may be desig-
nated the body.

This modification of two points into forms of wings has gone
still further in plate 37, C, where the body has taken on an angular
or rectangular form.

The specimen shown in plate 37, , resembles an implement with a
groove for hafting and a pointed extremity; the other pole being
lens-shaped. It resembles in profile the other specimens, but its use
is unknown.

® Geographical Review, vol. ii, no. 6, p. 411, 1916.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 36

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

nent

iy MY ffl! “

ss

STONE AMULETS AND FETISHES

D,1.19 inches; F, 2.94 inches.

39 inches; C, 1.13 inches;

, 2.6

3.9 inches; B

A,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 37

PROBLEMATIC OBJECTS FROM ST. VINCENT

B, 3.81 inches; C, 4.31 inches; J, 7.44 inches; K, 8 inches; L, 5.5 inches; M, 2.75 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 38

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

1, 4.5 inches; C, 2.13 inches; D, 2.5 inches; E, 2.88 inches: F, 2.63 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 39

seo

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

3.31 inches; B, 3.63 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 40

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 3.5inches; B, 4.13 inches; C, 3.19 inches.

IRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 41

TH

he

A

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLO

NY

SN
RAR,
hate AN

}

j

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 3.38 inches; B, 4.69 inches.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 42

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

VINCENT
TOR

‘Salis

, FANCY,

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS

ches.

5 inc

2.13 inches;

E

5 inches;

44 inches; D, 3.

2
3.

inches; C, é

6

A,4

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 43

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 4.19 inches; B, 4.19 inches.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 44

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

BUREAU Of

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

, 4.63 inches.

>

, 0.44 inches

x
D

inches;

44

C, 3.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 45

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

FANCY, ST. VINCENT

8

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS

inches.

3.8

ches; F,

5 ine

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 46

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

ST. VINCENT

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY

; I, 3.5 inches.

ches

hes; H, 2.44 in

, 0 ine!

F,

3

C, 2.63 inches

hes

B, 2.56 ine

inches;

31

Alas

RT PLATE 47

)

URTH ANNUAL REPO

-FO

HIRTY

)LOGY

NO

AN ETH?

MERIC

Al

BUREAU OF

ST. VINCENT

,

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY

inches

a

975
2.79

D

06 inche:

C3

1 inches

B,5

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 48

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 4.19 inches; B, 5.5 inches; C, 5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 49

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT
A, 3.69 inches,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 50

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 4.56 inches; B, 3.5 inches; C, 3.19 inches.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 51

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

FANCY, ST. VINCENT

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS

inch

a

Ss

nches;

C,4

A, 4 inches;

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 52

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 5.13 inches; B, 3.88 inches; C, 2.81 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 53

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 54

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST, VINCENT
C, 4.25 inches.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 55

GY

ETHNOLO¢

h

A

BUREAU OF AMERIC

FANCY, ST. VINCENT

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS,

38 inches.

; C1.

ros]

3.19 inches; B,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 56

D

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 6.75 inches; B, 6.63 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 57

D

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 4.25 inches; B, 4.06 inches; C, 2.56 inches; D, 3.19 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 58

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

HIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 59

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

hes.

3.5 inc

6 inches; ¢

a)

3

A, 3.56 inches; B, ¢

ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 60

BUREAU OF AMERICAN

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT

A, 4.75 inches; B, 2 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 61

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS, FANCY, ST. VINCENT
B

5 inches; C, 3.75 inches; D,

6 inches; H, 3.19 inches.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 117

Plate 37, £, represents a globular stone having a projection which
is bifurcated at one end in such a way that it might easily be mis-
taken for an unfinished pestle.

Specimens shown in plate 37, /, @, H, are modifications of the
preceding, possessing conical projections or extensions, one on each
side. The lower edge of plate 37, 1, like all members of this group,
shows asymmetry in form. The object illustrated in plate 37, /, is
elongated and bears two deep equatorial grooves separated by a
ferrule; one-half of the specimen is oval, the other more pointed.

Plate 37, J, recalls certain prehistoric objects called ‘“ banner
stones,” often seen in collections of prehistoric objects found in the
United States. The body of this implement is elongated, pointed at
each end, and with an extension like a wing on each side. It reminds
one of a bird or some animal form.

The shape of the object shown in plate 37, XH, is that of a paddle,
with two parts, the blade, which when seen from one side is rec-
tangular with rounded angles, and the handle prolonged to a point.
The breadth of the flat blade is about equal to its thickness; but
the handle has rounded angles and the point of its union with the
blade is indicated by a deep groove, forming a triangular figure, one
angle of which is situated a little to one side of the middle of the
blade. The use of this implement is not known, as there is not
sufficient evidence to prove that it was employed as a cutting, bruis-
ing, or grinding implement.

The specimen shown in plate 37, Z, has the form of a disk, girt
with two grooves, one of which incloses a rounded projection oc-
cupying the central part of the upper hemisphere. The shape is
symmetrical, the surface convex, but there is no evidence visible
showing its use as a pounding or grinding implement.

The form of the stone objects shown in figures I/, V, is unusual,
but the objects are artificial, evidently belonging to the same group as
those referred to above.

Some of the specimens when found were in a rather soft and
pliable condition and had to be carefully handled until they were
dry. As corroboration of their aboriginal origin it should be
pointed out that some of the simpler forms of these objects resemble
closely stone objects from the island of St. Vincent. This is more
especially true of their likeness to certain ax-formed specimens in
which a blade, poll, and surrounding ridge is well marked. Some
of the bowls also have lugs that recall bowls and cups of burnt clay,
while the heads have a distant resemblance to the heads of pottery
objects. Some of them are symmetrically formed and covered with
complex ornamentation of incised spiral and rectilinear forms. Cer-
tain motives are prominent and modified in a way that shows skill.
They are remarkable enigmas and most difficult to interpret.

118 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

It is hardly necessary to consider individually each of the many
forms of these strange objects of the Heye collection, and almost im-
possible to make a satisfactory classification with hard and fast
divisions separated by strict lines of demarkation. In a general way
it may be said that the collection contains imitations of animal heads,
vessels of various forms, circular-lobed disks, and objects like mortars
with animal heads appended on one or both margins, recalling in that
respect pottery bowls or vases.

Among a great variety of animal heads of grotesque form several
specimens distinctly resemble human heads, and among animal
forms the bird, turtle, or some reptile is recognizable, but the re-
semblance is so aften so imperfect that close comparison with stone
or pottery heads from St. Vincent and other West Indian islands
is very difficult. They are highly conventionalized productions.
Some of them have a close likeness to the carapaces of crabs and
one or two are fish-like in form. Lateral extensions on the borders
of others recall wings of flying animals. These lateral extensions
impart a triangular form to the object when seen from above, the
body being represented by an enlargement with a well-defined head
with mouth and eyes at one end. <A quite distinctive form is circular
or oval with lobes separated by depressions extending from center
to circumference. In many these lobes are regular, but in a few
one or more of these bodies are absent, making an asymmetrical
form consisting of a central circular region around which is grouped
a ring of enlarged bodies. These bodies often do not extend com-
pletely around the periphery, imparting a more or less U shape to
the object. The number of lobes varies; several have seven or eight,
others a smaller number.

Several specimens have a form that might well be likened to the
whorls of a seashell, consisting of a coiled body terminating in a
spine with an open end such as occurs in the ordinary conch shell
or other univalve mollusca. Comparisons with animal forms are,
however, not very close, for the objects are too crude to allow accurate
comparisons.

POTTERY

The pottery from St. Vincent, Carriacou, Grenada, and other
islands of this culture center is judged largely from fragments; no
whole specimens occur in known collections from these islands. These
fragments, however, especially those from Carriacou, one of the
Grenadas, are characteristic and have distinctive features that readily
separate them from those of Trinidad, St. Kitts, Porto Rico, and
Santo Domingo. The larger number of pottery fragments from
St. Vincent belong to the so-called red ware, which there is every

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 119

reason to suppose was painted with red pigment. In numerous in-
stances this paint disappears if the fragment is moistened.

Among different forms of pottery aedicited by the fragments

may be mentioned bowls, bottles, cups. griddles (flat plates), vases
with or without snouts like the so- coated monkey jars or modern
teapots. As is the case with prehistoric pottery from the other West
Indies, there are many forms of effigy vessels and a considerable num-
ber with rims adorned with animal heads serving as handles or legs.
There are several fragments of the bases of reece or basal abn
rings, which, being more massive than the remaining walls of the
bowl, remain unbroken with fragments of the bowls. One of these
is shown in plate 62, 4, which, unlike the majority, is decorated with
an incised zigzag figure.

While the lips of the majority of these vases and bowls which are
not decorated with heads are plain or without distinctive markings,
certain of them are decorated with a succession of impressions evi-
dently made with the thumb-nail or finger when the clay was soft.
One fragment (pl. 62, B) has a series of holes around the rim,
evidently made with a coed stick or bone. Nothing like a roulette
was found, although there are several clay stamps. By far the
largest number of bowls have clay heads attached to the rim, placed
either vertically or horizontally, according to the shape of the
vessel, the latter being mainly confined to certain griddles or flat
plates evidently used in frying cassava bread, so ploced that the
cook may handle a hot dish without burning her hands.

Plate 62, C, shows a fragment of pottery with a small attached
snout See to those found on modern vessels from St. Kitts and
Nevis.*® A double bowl, one of the component parts of which is
unfortunately broken, is illustrated in plate 62, D. This object has
a flat base, thick walls, and is undecorated. A hole leading from
one bowl to the other characterizes this object. Its size and general
appearance suggest a receptacle for paints, and it may possibly have
been for red dye used in painting the body, as recorded in the early
accounts of the inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles.

The relief decoration shown on a fragment of a bowl] (pl. 63, 4)
is typical of the style of ceramic decoration constantly employed by
the prehistoric Antilleans. The fragment represents a section of
the rim, the ornamentation being on its outer wall.

The decorated handles of Grenada bowls are more massive than
those of Trinidad, and are commonly two in number, situated on the
end of the longer diameter near the rims or the sides. Plate 63, B,
illustrates the form of one of these handles and a fragment of the
vessel, upon which is the head of some animal, possibly a bird. There

* 09 'The ancient potters’ technique still survives in these islands.

120 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

are several similar fragments in the Heye collection. The handle of
plate 63, (, is decorated with a head bearing a toothed structure
that may be likened to a bird’s head. The representations of the
eyes in this head are quite different from those of other birds’
heads. In plate 64, 4, we find one of the flat handles of a vessel
modified into a head of peculiar shape. This figure shows the head as
seen from above, and from a section of the rim it is evident that the
vessel to which this head was attached was a flat circular platter of
clay. This was, in fact, the handle of one of those flat dishes or
griddles on which the natives formerly fried their cassava cakes—a
cooking utensil now replaced by an iron plate.

The square, angular head of this specimen is unlike those already
described, and has a peculiar incised decoration not common in West
Indian pottery. In plate 64, 2, we have another handle of a vessel,
from the island of Grenada, which is modified into a head. Although
this specimen is rather roughly made, the outlines of mouth, eyes, and
nose are well indicated by incised lines. Plate 65, A, represents
another handle of a cooking dish like a head, seen from above. The
presence of eyes and mouth and a circle commonly found on the
middle of the foreheads of animals, which is one of its most striking
features, leads to the identification of this as a head of an animal.
This head is surrounded by a row of holes which may have been
either for insertion of feathers or purely decorative.

In plate 65, B, is shown a comparatively large fragment of the
rim of a vessel, in which the face or head has well-made eyes, nose,
and mouth. The meaning of an appendage on each side of the head
of this specimen is not easy to interpret. These appendages occur
in pairs—one pair on the forehead, the other in the position of the
ears. It is not unlikely that they represent the two arms or legs of an
animal form, or are appendages of a human being.

Plate 65, C, represents the handle or lug of a flat cooking dish, evi-
dently a griddle.

Various forms of handles modified into heads are shown in plate
66, A, B, C. They are parts of griddles or clay disks used in cook-
ing, and while differing in details appear to represent like animals.
The effort made by the artist to enlarge the size of the handles by
an extension of the tops of the head or prolongation of the snout
imparts a ludicrous expression to the faces of two of these figures.
Both of these are large fragments of flat, shallow vessels to which
they were formerly attached.

A unique form of pottery rest with a face on one side, and various
other relief designs, appears in figure 11.

The burnt clay head, plate 66, C, evidently broken from a bowl or
other piece of pottery the shape of which is unknown, has a project-

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 62

POTTERY, CARRIACOU -

A, 3.4 inches; D, 4.25 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 63

FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY, CARRIACOU

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 64

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Hi

!

i

Sees

CARRIACOU

CLAY HEADS FROM POTTERY OBJECTS

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 65

CLAY HEADS FROM POTTERY OBJECTS, CARRIACOU

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 66

CLAY HEADS FROM POTTERY OBJECTS, CARRIACOU

A, 5.44 inches; D, 3 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 67

CLAY HEADS FROM POTTERY OBJECTS, CARRIACOU

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 68

POTTERY OBJECTS, CARRIACOU

A, 7inches; C, 5.31 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 69

aN

PENDANTS OF STONE AND SHELL, ST. VINCENT

G, 6 inches; J, 8 inches; J, 0.94 inch; K, Linch.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 70

OBJECTS OF CLAY AND STONE

A,1.31inches; C, 1 inch; D, 2.25 inches; E, 1.5 inches; F,

2.19 inches; G, 1.88 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE71

STONE IMPLEMENTS, ST. VINCENT, GUADELOUPE

A, 4.75inches; B, 5.5 inches: C, 6.88 inches; D,6 inches; £, 6.25inches; F, 6.5 inches,

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 121

ing snout and prominent eye. The head, plate 66, /), resembles that
of a turtle and is more angular than the head of a bird. The upper
jaw, which resembles a beak, extends beyond the lower and terminates
in nostrils. The exceptional feature of this head is a row of holes
at its attachment to the body, representing the flat dish of which it
was one of the handles.

Plate 67, A, is likewise identified as the head of a turtle. It has
an enlargement back of the head near its attachment, in which are
pits corresponding to the row of holes described in plate 66, D.

Plate 67, B, represents a head with a pointed snout, resembling the
wild hog, or peccary. The nostrils have the form of simple projec-
tions and the ears are indicated by raised ridges near the perforated
eyes. In the mid-
dle of the forehead
there is a rounded
elevation with a
central pit—a fea-
ture recalling that
found in _three-
pointed stones rep-
resenting reptiles.

The head, plate
67, C, 1s more or
less simian, and
its form recalls
those from Gre-
nada figured by the
author in his “Ab-

origines of Porto :
Rico.??” ‘rex Fic. 11.—Hollow clay ces’ aL face in relief. (6.13

markable feature

of this head is the pair of disk-shaped appendages just above the
level of the eyes. The same or similar organ is shown also in plate
67, E, where the monkey face is even more striking than in (. Plate
67, D, has the appendage hetween the eyes in the form of a low cone
or horn, while the highly conventionalized form, plate 67, /’, defies
interpretation.

One of the largest and best-preserved fragments of Grenada pot-
tery, much reduced in size, is shown in plate 68, A. The patches of
pigment with which this object was painted can still be seen adher-
ing to its surface. This illustration represents the top of a jar the
sides of which are missing, but the flat, heart-shaped base from
which the head rises is a cover to the neck of a flask or vase with

7 Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.

122 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

narrow orifice. The details of the head are evident from the illus-
tration, but an unusual feature is the connecting band whose outlines
inclose the pit representing the eye and thé opening of the nostrils.
The use of a vessel of the form indicated by this fragment is not
apparent, and the animalistic head is unlike that of any other known
to the author.

The fragment, plate 68, B, shows a handle and part of a spoon
collected in the Grenadines. Many fragmentary specimens of like
objects occur in the collection. It would appear that the frag-
ment, plate 68, C, is part of a cylindrical vessel pointed at one end
and probably modified into a head at the opposite end; but whether
this vase was an effigy vessel or not is not clear. The part figured is
exceptional in form and unlike any known bowl from the West
Indies.

PENDANTS

The perforated stones for pendants found in St. Vincent and
Grenada closely resemble those from the island of Guadeloupe, but
are as a rule somewhat better made. A number of these pendants
are in the Heye Museum and were collected by Rev. Mr. Huckerby,
of St. Vincent.

In their simplest form they are stone nodules perforated near the
border, as shown in plate 69, A, B, C. These differ mainly in form,
the last mentioned, plate 69, C, being shaped like a human kidney.
Plate 69, B, represents a spherical pendant and A,a pendant of ir-
regular shape, the perforations in both instances being angular and
not beveled.

In the specimen illustrated in plate 69, ), we find a pendant in
the form of an irregular nodule, the perforation being beveled on
each end. There is no question that the hole was for suspension by
a cord. This nodule is well polished, except at one point where its
surface shows marks of pecking. The surface of the heart-shaped
pendant, plate 69, /, is crossed by grooves spirally wound about it,
the perforation having beveling on each end. Plate 69, /’, represents
a pendant, rectangular in form, made of greenstone, its outlines re-
calling those of an ungrooved ax. The perforation is minute, not
beveled. The stone figures, plate 69, G, H, 7, are made of slate,
pointed at each end, rounded on one surface, and flattened on op-
posite margins. The perforations, when present ((, /), are situated
near the edge about midway in its length. In plate 69, H, we have
representations of crescentic stones, so allied to the former that they
appear to connect them with more aberrant types.

One pendant, plate 69, 7, in the St. Vincent collection was at-
tached to a necklace or other foreign body by a groove at one pole,
which is pointed.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 123

A somewhat larger stone pendant is perforated at a point about
one-third its length. This object, shown in plate 69, Z, is flat on
the surfaces and is rounded at one end, which recalls the cutting edge
of an ax. The other extremity tapers, narrowing gradually to a
blunt point.

SHELL OBJECTS

The three shell objects, plate 69, 17, NV, O, collected in St.
Vincent, are made from the tip of the giant conch shell, and were
probably implements, possibly used by the aboriginal potters. Each
is prolonged into a handle at one end, while the opposite end is
flattened, imparting to it the form of a spatula. Similar specimens
have been collected by the author in Porto Rico, and others have been
seen by him in collections from Barbados, where, from necessity,
implements of shell replace those made of stone of an almost identical
form.

TERRA-COTTA STAMPS

The common St. Vincent form of stamps for printing are disks
with short handles, or a cylinder with superficial incised figures.
Three of the four with designs upon them are here figured (pl. 70,
A, B,C). A unique figure representing the human face is shown
in A; the geometric designs, B and (, are more common. This type
of pottery stamp is rare in the Porto Rico area, where it is replaced
by a cylinder, several specimens of which have been described by
archeologists.

PERFORATED DISKS

There are several small perforated stones and terra-cotta disks of
the same form, collected at Grenada and St. Vincent, in the Heye
collection. One of these, plate 70, D, is made of stone and un-
decorated. The two opposite surfaces of this specimen are flat and
its margins square. The specimen, plate 70, /, is conical in shape,
its base being flat and the sides sloping gradually to the frustum,
which is almost wholly occupied by the perforation.

The perforated stone shown in plate 70, F’, is double, the conical
sides imparting to it a resemblance to spindle whorls from prehistoric
Mexico. A similar shape appears in an unperforated stone, plate 70,
G, which also has the lenticular form reproduced in plate 70, 7.

These perforated disks with convex or conical sides are identified
as spindle whorls, but the use of the lenticular stones is not certainly
known.

DOMINICA

The author remained a few hours in Dominica and saw one or two
collections from the islands, but is unable to add any information

124 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

to what is known of shell mounds or middens on this island. There
are opportunities to study the ethnology of the Carib who still
survive in Dominica and still speak their aboriginal language. As
historical accounts of the ancestors of the Carib in Dominica are not
voluminous, archeological field work among them would be amply
repaid.

The archeology of Dominica is illustrated by the numerous char-
acteristic objects purchased from Mr. Huckerby, and there are sev-
eral collections on the island, the objects in which resemble those
from the neighboring island of St. Vincent.

The museum in the library at Roseau, Dominica, has a collection
loaned by Dr. Nichols, which is one of the most complete examined,
and contains typical prehistoric specimens from the island. These
objects are mainly stone implements, which as a rule resemble
those from neighboring islands, although there are two or three
specimens which are quite different in form from any others from the
St. Vincent-Grenada area. Several petaloid celts were seen, but the
majority of the axes are similar to those so widely distributed
throughout the West Indies. The majority are peculiar to the chain
of volcanic islands to which Dominica is geologically related.1 The
most characteristic implements are the rubbing and grinding stones.

Dominica is one of the few islands still inhabited by a consider-
able number of the natives who speak Carib and preserve some of
the old Indian legends and many place names taken from their
aboriginal tongue. Many stories connected with a lake in the
middle of the island are survivals of Indian myths, and a large body
of folklore of like character is current.

The sacred lake of Dominica is regarded with superstitious dread
by the natives and has much folklore connected with it, which are
evidently survivals of old Indian legends.

Notwithstanding all efforts to crush it out, there still survive in
some of the Antilles remnants of the old negro culture called the
voodoo, brought by slaves from Africa. The so-called priests of this
superstition make use of all prehistoric objects in their rites and are
said to sprinkle Carib celts and axes with blood in their orgies. It is
not as complicated as in Haiti, and is generally used by the Obia men
in laying spells or in medical practices, which the common people
cling to with great obstinacy. The power of these Obia men on the
poor blacks is a very serious obstruction to the uplifting of economic
conditions in all the West Indies.

714 collection of prehistoric objects at Fort de France, Martinique, is represented to
contain several exceptional forms, but the author did not have the opportunity to
examine them,

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 125
Stone IweLeMENTS

The axes from Dominica are mainly without grooves for hafting,
but one of those in the museum at Roseau is girt by a deep furrow,
and another has deep notches in the margin like those from South
America. A unique specimen is flat or slightly curved on each
face, which is smoothly polished, recalling the hatchet found in
the Erin shell heap at Trinidad, in the mounds at St. Kitts, and
common in British"Guiana (fig. 12).

Fic. 12.—Ax with marginal notches.

Another exceptional stone implement from Dominica, likewise in
the museum, is rectangular, with the four angles continued into fish-
tail extensions, one of which is broken. In the middle of one face of
this specimen there is a pit, apparently the beginning of a perfora-
tion. There is another unique specimen in the Dominica Museum in
the form of a flat stone about 9 inches long. The collection in
Dominica contains also one stone grinder resembling those from St.
Kitts, another from Tobago, and a perforated stone from Nevis.

In the Nichols collection in the public library of Dominica there
were two flat stone implements, the remarkable feature of one of

126 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

which was the double crescentic form, united midway in the two
convex surfaces, the point of union being perforated.

In a form (pl. 71, 4) resembling celts of the northern Antilles,
except that the body is less tapering, the blade when seen in profile is
lenticular. This is supposed to be the same as that figured by Prof.
Mason, whose description applies to this object. He says: “ A bell-
shaped blade of brown patina and elongated body. It is difficult to
conjecture how such a blade could be fastened in a haft. There are
found in the Antilles frequently implements for smoothing, shaped
like this specimen inverted. This form with the edge at the small
end is unique.” 7?

Tt is difficult to tell to what class of implement Mason refers this
specimen, but it is here placed, not among grinders but among celts.

The various objects obtained from Dominica belong to the same
type as those used by an agricultural people, and probably belonged
to a race antecedent to the Carib. This points the same way as
the archeological material from the other Lesser Antilles, and sup-
ports the theory that the original inhabitants of these islands had
a kinship with those of Santo Domingo and Porto Rico.

The existence of an agricultural race allied to the “Carib” in
the island of Dominica is thus stated by Davies: “The Savages
of Dominico affirm, that it proceeds hence, that when the Car-
ribians came to inhabit these Islands they were possess’d by
a Nation of the Arouagues, whom they absolutely destroy’d, save
only the Women, whom they married for the re-peopling of the
Country ; so that those Women having retain’d their own Language,
taught it their Daughters, and brought them to speak as they did;
which being practis’d to the present by the Mothers towards their
Daughters, their Language came to be different from that of the
Men in many things. . . . To confirm what we have said
concerning the cause of this difference of Language, it is alleg’d,
That there is some conformity between the Language of the
Arouagues who live in the Continent, and that of the Caribbian
Women: But it is to be observ’d, that the Caribbians of the Con-
tinent, as well Men as Women, speak the same Language, as having
not corrupted it by inter-marriages with strange Women.”

In the following quotations" from the same author we have the
legend of the introduction of cassava as the food plant.

“ They say then, That their Ancestors were poor Savages, living like
Beasts in the midst of the Woods, without Houses or places where
they might retreat, living on the Herbs and Fruits which the Earth
produe’d of itself without manuring; whilst they were in this

72 Mason, op. cit., p. 753, fig. 24.
73 The History of the Caribby Islands, p. 261.
74 Tbid., p. 287.

VEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 177

miserable condition, an old man among them, extremely weary of
that brutish kind of life, wept most bitterly, and, orewhelm’d with
despair, deplor’d his wretched condition; whereupon a Man all in
white appear’d to him descending from Heaven, and coming neer, he
comforted the disconsolate old man, telling him, That he was come
to assist him and his Countrymen, and to shew them the way to
lead a more pleasant life for the future; That if any of them had
sooner made his complaints to Heaven they had been sooner relieved ;
That on the Seashore there was abundance of sharp Stones, where-
with they might fell down Trees to make Houses for themselves;
And, That the Palm and Plantine Trees bore Leaves fit to cover the
Roofs of them, and to secure them against the injuries of the Weather ;
That to assure them of the particular care he had of them, and the
great affection he bore their species, beyond those of other Creatures,
he had brought them an excellent Root, wherewith they might make
Bread, and that no Beast should dare to touch it when it was once
planted ; and that he would have them thenceforward make that their
ordinary sustenance: The Caribbians add further, That thereupon
the charitable unknown person broke a stick he had in his hand into
three or four pieces, and that giving to the old man, he commanded
him to put them into the ground, assuring him that when he should
come a while after to dig there, he should find a great Root ; and that
any part of what grew above-ground should have the virtue of pro-
ducing the same Plant; he afterwards taught him how it was to
be used, telling him the Root was to be scraped with a rough and
spotted Stone, which was to be had at the Seaside; That the juice
issuing by means of that scraping was to be laid aside as a most dan-
gerous poison; and then with the help of fire a kind of savory Bread
might be made of it, on which they might live pleasantly enough.
The old man did what had been enjoin’d him, and at the end of
nine Moons (as they say) being extreamly desirous to know the suc-
cess of the Revelation, he went to see the pieces he had planted in
the ground, and he found that each of them had produced many fair
and great roots, which he disposed of as he had been commanded:
Those of Diminico, who tell this story, say further, . . . But in
regard he went not to look what became of them, till after the expira-
tion of so long a time, the Manioc continues to this present all that
time in the ground, before it be fit to make Cassava of.”

The following quotation is likewise from Davies:*°

“ This iia [Dominica] is inhabited by the Caribbians, who are
very numerous in it. They have a long time entertain’d those who
came to visit them with a story of a vast and monstrous Serpent,
which had its aboad in that bottom. [Borlin’s Lake?] They af-

% Tbid., p. 15.

128 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [PTH ANN. 34

firmed that there was on the head of it a very sparkling stone, like a
Carbuncle, of inestimable price; That it commonly veil’d that rich
jewel with a thin moving skin, like that of a mans eye-lid; but that
when it went to drink, or sported himself in.the midst of that deep
bottom, he fully discover’d it, and that the rocks and all about re-
ceiv’d a wonderful lustre from the fire issuing out of that precious
Crown.”

The story of the Man in White from heaven or the sky who
brought the blessings of a higher culture has a familiar sound in
American aboriginal mythology, and naturally reminds one of the
Quetzalcoat] myth of the neighboring Central America. He brought
them the gift of the national food plant, the yuca, and was no doubt
worshipped on that account.

Not less aboriginal is the story of the Great Serpent who lived in
the bottom of the lake and wore the sparkling stone in his head which
lighted up the cliffs. This might well be a myth of the Sky God,
who was worshipped in the form of a snake.

MARTINIQUE

Less is known of the archeology of Martinique than of any other
West Indian island. The specimens from that island in different
collections differ so little from those of Santa Lucia and Dominica
that the island is put in the same culture area, although its relation-
ship to Dominica,and Guadeloupe is closer than to St. Vincent and
the Grenadines.

There is a small public collection at Fort de France which was not
visited by the author. The great volcanic activity of Mont Pelee
shortly before the author’s visit had about depopulated all the
northern region of the island.

GUADELOUPE

The most aberrant island, archeologically speaking, of the St.
Vincent culture area, is Guadeloupe, from which there are few, if
any, specimens in the Heye collection. In order, however, to give an
adequate idea of the objects from this area the author made new
studies of the famous Guesde collection now in the Berlin Museum
fiir Vélkerkunde and has embodied the results of his work in the
following pages. It was found necessary to prepare new illustra-
tions” of the Guesde objects, which are also introduced into this
report.

76 These illustrations were prepared by Mr. von den Steinen with permission of the
director of the museum.

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 129
GurspE CoLLECTION

The most important collection from the Lesser Antilles, next in
size to that owned by Mr. Heye, is the celebrated Guesde collection
made many years ago in Guadeloupe and now in the Berlin Museum
fiir Vélkerkunde. This collection was brought to the attention of
the scientific world by the late Prof. Otis T. Mason, whose account of
it will remain an important pioneer work on the antiquity of the
Lesser Antilles, as that on the Latimer collection is the first of im-
portance on the antiquities of Porto Rico. There are about 600 speci-
mens of the Guesde collection in Berlin, of which about a third were
described by Prof. Mason.

Mason thus refers to the nature of the material used in the prep-
aration of his monograph on the Guesde collection: “The edi-
tor of this monograph sincerely regrets that he has not the
specimens before him; but it was impossible to transport with
safety so many valuable objects to Washington, and equally impos-
sible for the editor to make the journey to Guadeloupe. Fortunately
M. Guesde has painted in water colors, with scrupulous care, all of
the examples figured, preserving both the color and the size. The
omission of the thickness would somewhat mar the description in
many cases were we not familiar with the two typical forms of
blades so frequently figured here.”*7 Many of these specimens are
described in the following pages with objects in the Heye Museum ;
the general type of antiquities from this island are so closely related
to those of St. Vincent that they are included in the same area.

The following quotation from M. Guesde, who made the Guesde
collection, is copied from Mason 7” and gives a good idea of the nature
and variety of objects found at Guadeloupe.

“From my youth I have always been deeply impressed with what
I have read about the Caribs. The sight of the stone objects which
once belonged to these primitive inhabitants of the Antilles produced
an indescribable impression on me.

“As years went by the stronger became my desire to collect together
all that the soil of Guadeloupe might contain relating to the Caribs.

“T accordingly went to work in the year 1866, and after 18 years
of constant research, never allowing myself to be discouraged by
any difficulty, I have the satisfaction of being able to exhibit to
ethnologists this collection, which I believe to be more complete than
all others now existing, in Paris as well as in America.

“My collection includes roughly worked stones indicating an in-
dustry in its infancy; and others, on the contrary, which are brought

™ Mason, op. cit., p. 732. The closing lines account for the fact that several rubbing
stones were identified as blades,
Ma Op. cit., pp. 733-740.

130 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

to such a degree of perfection that it would be difficult to improve
on them, either in design or workmanship.

“Tt is necessary to state the fact which permitted John Lubbock
to class the aboriginal inhabitants of the American islands among the
neolithic peoples; it is because the stone is always polished. There
is not a single relic formed solely by being chipped, for those rare
pieces (axes or chisels) which present such an appearance also have
the surface very well polished. Besides, these volcanic stones can not
be worked by chipping, like flint, quartz, or obsidian.

“We come across axes so small that we ask ourselves if they were
not used by pygmies, and these alongside of others so large and heavy
that we dream of Titans, and no longer of men like ourselves.

“Tn addition to all these relics, which I have gathered from the
ground in all parts of the colony, both on the seashore and in the
interior, and at altitudes of from 200 to 900 meters, enormous stones
covered with strange designs are found, especially in a single quarter
of Guadeloupe proper. The dimensions of these stones vary con-
siderably. In some the drawings are so high up that it is difficult to
reach them; in others they are near the ground or buried under the
surface. They are scattered without order about the country and in
the beds of the rivers. At St. Vincent also, the last refuge of the
Caribs, stones with inscriptions on them are found in the beds of
rivers.

“Tt is now very difficult to find wrought stones in the ground.
Here and there the plow or the hoe turns up some occasional frag-
ments. These stones lie in fact in the arable layer or stratum, and
this has been so well worked that everything it contained has been
brought to light. New clearings alone would favor the collector.
In the deep strata would other things belonging to an earlier race
be found? In the case of Grande Terre it would be impossible, for
as soon as we have passed the vegetable mold we reach calcareous
rocks, Madreporic formations containing numerous fossil shells and
dogfish, which preclude all idea of the presence of man. It appears
to me more probable in the case of Guadeloupe, which is of more
ancient formation, and which must at all times have offered more
resources to man.

“However large may be the number and variety of the types
which I possess, I still consider my work incomplete. It constitutes
only the prolegomena of what I would wish to accomplish.

“Tn the presence of this collection one is led to ask if these wrought
stones are the work of the Yguiris or of the Caribs, or if they would
not belong to these two races. We are in almost complete darkness
on this point. It is necessary to throw some light on the subject.
This could be done only by visiting all the Lesser Antilles, which
were already occupied by the Caribs on the arrival of Columbus;

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES Hehe

the Greater Antilles from Porto Rico to Cuba; and Trinidad, which
is but a fragment recently detached from the continent ; by gathering
carefully in each island all the wrought stones which would certainly
be found there ; by studying with the utmost care the inscribed stones ;
by classifying separately the inscriptions and relics according to
locality; and finally by comparing the whole together in order to
determine the points of relationship.

“Having completed this first labor in the Greater and Lesser
Antilles, it would be necessary to collect together the relics from the
soil of Guiana and, taking them as types, to compare them with those
of each Antille separately. Then only could we come to some con-
clusion. We would have laid open to us in fact the now silent his-
tory of these aboriginal inhabitants.

“T have been able to obtain some pieces from Porto Rico, as fol-
lows: Ist. Celts of all sizes, in general well polished, but some with
a fine brilliant glazing. 2d. A mortar representing a bat—a very
curious. piece which must have required long months of labor. 3d.
An idol representing a man lying on his belly and supporting a
mountain on his back. A very remarkable pecyliarity is that the
legs are bent as if in the act of swimming. I think that this idol is
the personification of some marine deity, protector of an island.
4th. An enormous necklace, covered with inscriptions on one of its
lower surfaces. This necklace was evidently slung over the shoulder
like a hunting horn. 5th. The lower part of another necklace, but
without any inscription. 6th. A small netting needle. 7th. Some
remains of pottery (heads of men and monkeys modeled with great
boldness, evidently forming cup handles) and the upper rim of a
cup which must have been of great diameter. Some of these frag-
ments of pottery still bear traces of a fine red glazing.

“T must acknowledge that during two sojourns at Porto Rico—
one of six and the other of two months—I never came across an ax.
Moreover, there is not a single ax in the superb collection presented
to the museum at Washington by Mr. G. Latimer, and which is
entirely from Porto Rico. The abundance of axes in the Lesser
Antilles and their complete absence in Porto Rico would seem to
indicate a difference of race in the inhabitants of these different
islands.

“T have been able to obtain five perfect celts and four fragments
from Martinique; one single celt—but very remarkable for form and
polish—from Dominica; two celts and three axes from St. Lucia;
and one celt from Santo Domingo (the Hispaniola of Columbus).

“No typical difference can be established between the celts, whether
they come from Porto Rico or from Martinique, Guadeloupe, Domin-
ica, and St. Lucia.

by ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

“Now, since the strata of the Lesser Antilles do not contain the
material used in some of these celts, it is certain that they were
not made where they were found. Should we not, therefore, infer
from this that they all have the same origin, that they all come
from the continent or from the Greater Antilles?

“T have in my possession a club (baton) from the Galibis of
Dutch Guiana. This club has a certain age. The wood, of a red
color when freshly cut, has assumed a very deep black hue. The
cotton thread around the handle is very dirty. The weapon has
seen service. This club is exactly like those used by the Caribs of
the islands, and which Father Dutertre has described; but the
peculiar part of it, the thing that gives it an enormous interest, is
the green celt fixed in its lower extremity. Now, this celt resembles
all those which I have found in Guadeloupe and the other islands.
Is it of modern manufacture? Is it not rather the work of the
first inhabitants of the continent? Has it not been found in the
soil and used by its discoverer? I would decide without hesitation
in favor of the latter hypothesis, for it is covered with a patina,
which only a long continuance in the soil could give it.

“Here is another fact which seems to prove that the Caribs of
Columbus and of Father Dutertre are the same as those of Guiana.

“The exterior distinguishing color is not always that of the
stone of which they are made. The color, which is black, red, yellow,
brown, or bluish, partakes essentially of that of the soil from which
they were taken. Those from Grande-Terre, whose calcareous soil
is covered with a thin layer of black and compact vegetable earth.
all have the colors more or less dark—brown, red, black—while
those from Guadeloupe proper, whose soil is covered with a thick
layer of more or less ferruginous red earth, have the tints lighter.
Yellow specimens are numerous there. Many of them have preserved
their normal tint. These are the ones found near rivers. Contin-
ually washed by their waters, they have not acquired the coating
of rust with which those buried in the ground are covered.

“So true is the above that every fresh break shows the interior
of the stone to be of a different color from the exterior.

“ All these rocks are volcanic, and are naturally either black,
blue, or green.

“This peculiarity does not generally exist in polished celts. The
glazing has unalterably fixed the color of the stone. They have, in
consequence, remained free from all oxidation, and appear as if just
from the hands of the workman.

“Agves.—Axes are more numerous than all the other pieces. That
may be readily understood, the ax being of prime utility to man.
Some are long and narrow, others short and wide; some are very

TEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 133

flat, others very thick; some are very small, while others are of
enormous size and weight. I have two weighing, respectively, 4
kilograms 750 grams and 4 kilograms 775 grams. Some are of
very simple construction, merely the natural stone of appropriate
form, which a little working transformed into an instrument; while
others, on the contrary, are true masterpieces, which will bear com-
parison with those found in Denmark only. The latter are very rare.
They were evidently used for purposes of parade, for it can not be
allowed that the author of such a work would have exposed it to be
broken at the first shock, thus losing the product of the labor of
several months—I might even say of several years.

“The ax admits of four distinct parts—the head, the neck, the
blade, the cutting edge.

“The head is sometimes round, sometimes flat, sometimes very
small, sometimes as large as the blade. Some axes have one or
several transverse grooves, some have none at all, others a single longi-
tudinal groove. The last are very rare. Pierced axes are very rare.
The holes served, if they offer any assistance, to fasten the stone to
the handle; if not, to suspend ornaments. The head played an im-
portant part in attaching the ax to the handle, for there can be no
doubt that all these axes had handles. The small as well as the
large ones were fixed on a wooden handle by means of cords made
of cotton or mohot.

“The neck is more or less lengthened. Sometimes it is formed by
lateral notches only, but generally by a circular depression.

“The blade varies considerably in form, length, and thickness.
There is no proportion between it and the other two parts.

“The edge is more or less distinct. In some axes it is so perfect
that one would think they had been sharpened the day before.

“T have three double-edged axes—two of moderate size, the other
very small. I have four axes of which the head is prolonged into
a long tail, and which resemble, one of them especially, that which
has been termed Montezuma’s ax. I have also a certain number,
both small and very large, with a slight but decided protuberance on
the lower part of one side of the cutting edge, which suggests the idea
of a tool appropriated to some special purpose. Finally, I have some
axes with the blade curved like that of a cimeter. These are rare.

“ Celts——Celts vary much in form, size, and color. Some are
slender with a sharp point, others are massive with a blunt point;
some are broad and flat, others narrow and deep; some reach enor-
mous proportions, while others are very much reduced in size.

“Celts are scarcer than axes in Guadeloupe. Most of them are
made of a handsomer, harder material than that used for axes,
such as serpentine, jade, or jadeite. The fine glazing of the stone,

134 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

also, is found only in celts. I have some, large and small, made of
the volcanic stone used ordinarily for axes. These are very well
polished, but not glazed. This handsome glazing gives an exalted
idea of the industry of these savages, for it could not be done better
in our days.

“The Caribs made use of the living forces of nature to fix the
celts on the wood. But to introduce a celt into a young tree and
let the tree grow till the resistance was sufficient, required many
years. I believe, therefore, that they rarely had recourse to this
process. They evidently followed the same method employed by
the Canaques and other savages of the present century ignorant of
the use of metals, whose celts do not differ from those found in our
islands. This method consisted in fixing the stone by the aid of
very fine cords in a socket prepared in the wooden handle.

“T must not forget to mention the shell celts. These are not
made of living shell, which would not have been hard enough for
the purpose, but of fossil shell. They are very rare. They were
extracted from the outer edge of the Strombus gigas, very common
in the Caribbean Sea.

“Tt is to be supposed that the glazed celts were rather warlike
weapons than instruments of labor, for they offer more resistance in
proportion to their size; and we know besides that the savages used
in war whatever had most value in their eyes. The very large-
sized celts must have served as wedges in splitting trunks of trees.

“Oasse-tétes—The casse-téte type is furnished by a stone, either
round or with bilateral facets, in the center of which is a more or less
deep groove for the wooden handle. One can easily conceive the
power of such a weapon wielded by a muscular arm in hand-to-hand
combat.

“ Some are more perfect in form than others. Everyone was free
to fashion so important a weapon as best suited him.

“ But what astonishes the observer is the small size of one of these
relics. Evidently it could have been only an amulet, worn with
the idea of preserving its owner from the blows of the weapon it
represented.

“Other casse-tétes were used without handles. Only two types
figure in my collection. This weapon had not the value of the
preceding.

“ Pestles, grinders.—Pestles and grinders are of various forms
and sizes. My collection includes a certain number of them. I
possess a single specimen, which was used with both hands.

“ Mortars.—Mortars are not very numerous. This is explained by
the fact that any hard stone which was flat and smooth would take
their place. The complete mortar could have been only an article
of luxury belonging to a cacique.

FEWKus] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 135

“Shall I designate as mortar that rounded concave stone with
regular grooves descending from the central point to the rim?
Although quite hollow on its lower surface, I do not think it could
have been anything but the lid of a large vase, grooved or fluted
in like manner. In fact, this mortar would have had no fixed posi-
tion. It could hot remain stationary in the position necessary to
make use of it. Or should we not rather think that the maker of
this piece wished to represent a miliform cactus so common in the
Antilles? And in this case should we not rather class it among the
idols?

“ Dishes—There are but two dishes in my collection: Ist. A large
one of rude workmanship. The concavity only is polished; the ex-
terior rough and very irregular. 2d. A small one of very remarkable
finish. It is in fact very well polished on all its inner and outer
surfaces.

“ Harpoon—One single harpoon, slightly broken at the three
extremities. The absent parts can, however, easily be restored in
following the lines traced on the body of the piece. This instrument
is very remarkable.

“ Hooks have two hooks very different in form. Both are a
little broken, but easy to reconstruct by following the method in-
dicated above.

“Awls.—Awls are rare. My collection includes only two of them,
but I must state that the material employed is harder than that of
the ordinary tools and instruments.

“ Chisels —Chisels are numerous and of various forms and sizes.
The basil of the cutting edge is perfect. Some of them are made
of the same material used in the fine celts, and, like the latter, have
the handsome glazing mentioned above.

“ Vases—I havé only two vases. One is of guaiacum. The handle
is perfectly isolated from the body of the vase. This piece is of
very great interest. As the guaiacum is incorruptible, we need not
be surprised that it has come down to us. It was found at Bertram
Creek, the last quarter of Guadeloupe inhabited by the Caribs. Its
edges are worn and hacked, and bear evidence of having been a
long time in the earth. I have seen a small tortoise of the same
wood found in a cave at St. Vincent.

“The other in my possession is of stone. It is an astonishing piece
from its general regularity and its contour.

“ Shall I class among the vases that small cup with a rather long
spout? It rather resembles a spoon, and I think that it might be
designated as such, taking into consideration the break, which leads
us to suppose that a prolongation forming a handle formerly existed.

136 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH, ANN. 34

“ Netting needles—There is one small netting needle, very well
made and very regular, which evidently served to net cotton, and
two other larger, more massive ones, which served to prepare cords.

“Tdols—The idols are six in number:

“Ist. One representing a man extended on his back, the legs bent
under him, the arms applied to the chest, the head covered with a
cap, the sexual organs very conspicuous. It is well finished and
must have cost years of diligent labor.

“9d. One representing a man on one face and a monkey on the
other, is very interesting. It was found at Matouba. The work
on this statuette is rude. The hand that made it was wanting in
skill. But what shall we say of the genius which inspired this
combination of man and monkey? Should we not consider Darwin
only a plagiarist ?

“38d. Another found in Guadeloupe, of the same type as that from
Porto Rico, but much larger and so rough that it can not be de-
termined what it represents. The undersurface is slightly concave.

“4th. A small granite pyramid, with three grooves or furrows
on its lower part. It was found on the island of Désirade.

“5th. A head with two faces surmounted by a Phrygian cap. This
head was to be fixed on another stone or a piece of wood forming
the body of the idol, for it is much too heavy to admit of the sup-
position that it was carried in the hand. I have vainly searched
for this complemental lower portion at the place where I found the
head.

“With this last idol we must place an ax and one other piece,
both having lines identical with those of the idol head. I think they
represent faces.

“ A mulets—The principal amulet is of carbonate of lime in bladed
crystallization. It represents a maboya (evil spirit), with bended
arms and legs, and the virile organ in a state of action. The
shoulders are pierced posteriorly to allow of the suspension of the
amulet. The other amulets are medallions of different sizes, more
or less round, all pierced with a small hole to admit of suspension.
I have a single small crescent of stone, an evident representation
of the caracoli of metal. This crescent must have been set in wood,
unless it was provided with a cotton string terminating at each ex-
tremity in a small cord for suspension.

“Disks or quoits—I have six disks, large and small. One espe-
cially is a very remarkable piece of work. There is no doubt about
the determination of these relics. The Caribs played quoits.

“Hdicule—A small monument having handles on each side; on
top of the handles a platform disappearing under a vault. There is
a hole in the middle, presumably the place for an idol. This relic
is very curious, and reminds one of the Mexican teocalli.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 137

“Chisels of shell—Besides the various stone tools my collection in-
cludes a series of very fine chisels extracted from the outer edge of
the Strombus gigas. This part of the shell is very thick and harder
than stone. It is certain that the Caribs did not use the living
Strombus, but were careful to take the fossil Strombi, which had
in time acquired the hardness of ivory.

“Stone for making axes.—I have in my possession a very interest-
ing stone, which has inscribed on it the use for which it was in-
tended. It has concavities on three of its surfaces. It is evidently a
kind of grindstone, on which stones were rubbed in order to shape
them.

“ Since writing the above I have had the good fortune to discover
in Grande-Terre, in a piece of ground which had not been plowed
for 60 or 80 years, two tools of flaked flint—a knife and hacking
knife. This discovery somewhat modifies the theory held to this
day by writers on America that flaked flint does not exist in the
Antilles.

“Tt is very evident, however, that these two flints were not dug
from the soil of the island and then flaked by their possessor, for
this stone does not exist in Grande-Terre or Guadeloupe in a state
of nature.

“These two flaked flints establish, in an irrefutable manner, the
fact of a migration of men from the valleys of the Orinoco toward
the islands.”

The account given by Prof. Mason of the Guesde collection was
based on the excellent figures in an album and not from direct obser-
vation of the specimens themselves. Since this report was pub-
lished the Guesde collection has passed into the possession of the
Berlin Museum fiir V6lkerkunde, and in order to familiarize him-
self with the typical features, the author visited Berlin in 1913 and
prepared new drawings,’® some of which may be of assistance to
future students.

There are many more specimens in the Guesde collection than
those thus far described. The collection numbers not far from 600
specimens, 190 of which are figured by Mason in his monograph.
M. Guesde apparently did not prepare drawings of some of the most
typical forms, and some of those which Makon figures were not in
the collection studied by the author. The majority of the specimens,
however, were examined and their special features noted, and the
more typical forms, several of which do not occur in any other collec-
tion, are here illustrated. It is hardly necessary for me to state that
the Guesde collection is by far the best, as it is the only one of size
from the island of Guadeloupe.

7 These drawings were made from the objects themselves by Herr von den Steinen, of
Berlin.

138 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Mason divides objects in the Guesde antiquities into the follow-
ing groups: (1) Unpolished implements; (2) polished blades with-
out haft-grooves; (3) faces continuous, sides incurved or notched;
(4) butt distinct, faces not continuous; (5) blades with hooked
edges; (6) blades with encircling grooves; (7) hammers, grinders,
and polishers; (8) perforated stones; (9) ornamental forms.

The author has adopted one or two of these groups, but certain
features unrecognized as of importance by others has led him to
remodel the existing classification of these West Indian objects.

In the author’s classification of Guadeloupe antiquities the first of
Mason’s groups is wholly eliminated and does not appear as a dis-
tinct type; his second group practically includes petaloid celts, while
his third and fourth groups are broken up into minor divisions.
His fifth group is regarded as composed of two distinct types, blades,
and grinders, the appropriate place for the latter being his seventh
or the author’s sixth group.

The stone objects from Guadeloupe studied by the author are here
considered under the following headings:

1. Axes with regular margins.

2. Axes with asymmetrical margins.
3. Eared axes.

4. Engraved axes.

5. Perforated axes.

6. Anchor axes.

7. Incised and perforated stones.

8. Problematical stones.

9. Mortars.

10. Pestles, grinders, and hammers.

1. AXES WITH REGULAR MARGINS

The greater number of axes from Guadeloupe belong to this type
or those stone implements with regular margins. Their form ap-
proaches closely that of similar axes already described as found in
great numbers in the islands of St. Vincent and Grenada, to which
area Guadeloupe is allied in pottery and bone and shell objects.
Only a very small percentage of petaloid implements occur in Guade-
loupe, while in Porto Rico the majority belong to this group.

2. AXES WITH ASYMMETRICAL MARGINS

The three axes, plate 71, A, B, C, ascribed to the Guadeloupe area,
seem more characteristic of the St. Vincent area,

Plate 71, C, has on one side a rectangular projection and a slightly
incurved edge on the other. What appears to be a like object is
represented by Mason in his figure 46 and described as follows:
“A curiously formed blade of dark color and highly polished. It is

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 139

not altogether unlike figure 45, the chief peculiarity being the pro-
jection upon the upper side. This characteristic does not appear on
any other specimen in the collection.”

Several specimens illustrating the asymmetrical type of stone axes
have been figured by other authors, among whom may be mentioned
Joyce and Mason, although no one has yet differentiated this type
from those of more regular forms. The present specimen, plate 71, ),
is one of the most striking and is thus described by Prof. Mason:

“A grooved blade of dark brown
color and fine polish. The butt
wedge-shaped and rounded. The
hafting space is a complex affair, con-
sisting of four parts, two narrow-
faced grooves, a groove on the lower
side a little wider, and a long, wide
notch on the upper. The section of
the groove is rectangular. The same
idea of a shoulder on one side of the
blade may be studied in a specimen
from Mennithorpe, Yorkshire, Eng-
land. This latter one, however, is Eee
very rude and far behind the Guesde’s "+ para te: blade. (3.6
example. (Evans’ ‘Ancient Stone
Implements,’ fig. 82.) This blade lashed to a shouldered handle
would be a very effective tool or weapon. From Marie-Golante.
Length, 6 inches; width, 258; inches.” °°

Plate 71, #, 7, are remarkable objects. The former has the head
ornamented with an 8-shaped design; the latter, from St. Vincent,
has an incised design on the surface.

3. EARED AXES

The simplest form of eared axes from Guadeloupe are not unlike
many from the St. Vincent area. One of these is shown in figure 13.
The edges of these could hardly be called cutting edges, and the
implement may be unfinished.

The following quotation” gives Prof. Mason’s comments on this
specimen :

“ A hoe-shaped blade, of the double-beaked variety and light, mar-
ble color. The beaks are reduced to the simplest form and divided
by an emarginate curve. The lateral notches are not separated from
the other parts, their lines being continuous from beak to beak. The
highly polished and finished condition of this specimen separate it
from the agricultural class, although its shape is that of the planta-
tion hoe. A similar but clumsier butt is seen in Im Thurn’s volume

1 Mason, op, cit., p, 762. © Mason, op, cit., p. 793. 8 Op, cit., p, 755, fig. 31.

140 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. $4

(Timehri ITT, pl. VII, fig. 2). His blade, also, is nearly rectangu-
lar. Width, 3% inches; width of neck, 1,3, inches.”

The large ax belonging to the Guesde collection, now in Berlin,
is a fine implement, and, although unfortunately broken, might well
be regarded the most perfect known eared ax. Two unique features
distinguish this ax—viz., the decoration on one surface and the pro-
jections on the margins. One of these appendages has been broken,
and its former shape is indicated by a dotted line (see fig. 22). The
other, still intact, is perforated by a minute hole which we have every
reason to believe was also present in the projection on the opposite
margin.

This specimen was figured and described by Prof. Mason.*?
It appears that the elab-
orately engraved figure on the
surface of the blade was over-
looked by him, as in fact it
was by others, and was only
detected by the author after
moistening with a damp rag,
when the engraved design,
which is more or less frag-
mentary, was brought to light.
It is evident that the surface
of the blade is much eroded
to have so effectually ob-
scured the engraving upon the
surface.

There are several specimens
in different museums which re-
semble that here figured (fig.
14). The nearest approach to
it, possibly the same speci-

Vic. 14,.—THared stone implement. (9.4 men, is thus described 8? by
inches.) i A

Prof. Mason: “This beautiful
blade, up to whose form the last few specimens have been
leading us, is of a dark-green color, and presents some interesting
characteristics. The butt resembles two eagle heads facing outward.
The long haft-space or neck widens gracefully outward to where it is
joined to the sides by abrupt shoulders. The faces are highly pol-
ished and continuous over the entire specimen. The lower side of the
edge has been broken and reground. Length, 9; inches; greatest
width of blade, 4,4; inches; greatest width of haft-space, 275 inches.”

The ax next considered (fig. 15) is referred to by Prof. Mason **
in the following quotation: “A two-beaked blade of blackish-drab
© Op. cit, p. 776, fig. 76. Op. cit., p. 758, fig. 37. Op. cit. p. 798, fig. 128.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 141

_ color, and perfectly smooth. The lines
of this specimen are everywhere bold and
graceful. The slender beaks, high crests,
and other characteristics are very taste-
fully combined. Length, 5,8 inches;
width of edge, 2;%; inches.”

A related specimen (fig. 16) is de-
scribed by Prof. Mason ® in the following
account: “A massive two-beaked blade of
mottled, marble-colored stone. The dis-
tinguishing feature is the ridged, seal-like
depression between the beaks. Length,
11,8, inches; width, 6,4, inches.”

The slight modifications in the course
of the cutting edges that distinguish
some of these specimens are not deemed
important enough to illustrate by sepa-

Fig, 15.—Stone implement with
rate figures. The same holds also re- two beaks. (5.8 inches.)

garding the relative length and
breadth. The general characters
are brought out in Prof. Ma-
son’s description ** of an ax (fig.
17) similar in all essentials to
the typical eared variety: “A
massive and graceful blade of
dark sooty-brown patina. It is
in perfect preservation, highly
polished, and almost perfectly
symmetrical. The butt has the
double eagle head, the crests form-
ing a gradined depression in the
center. The haft-space or neck
has nearly parallel sides, con-
nected with the body by shoulders.
The sides spread rapidly out-
ward to meet the broad, finely
curved edge. Length, 11,2; inches;
width of edge, 7,8; inches; top
of blade, 4 inches; width of
shank, 3 inches; width of butt, 5,2;

Fre@. 16.—Eared stone implement. (11.3 . .,
inches.) inches.

5 Op. cit., p. 798, fig. 129. 58Op. cit., p. 759, fig. 38.

142 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

The ax shown in figure 17, from the Guesde collection, now in the
Berlin Museum, may be considered one of the most highly developed
of the eared axes. This blade has all the essential features of an
eared ax, but its form is regularly spatulate and its edges crescentic.
The margins of the shaft are parallel, the head projections extending
outward, recurving slightly at their extremities. Small rectangular
elevations are to be noted on the upper edge of the projections, and
these are separated by a median notch, the walls of which are straight
and more or less angular.
This fine symmetrical speci-
men was probably used cere-
monially, for it presents no
evidence of having been at-
tached to a handle, and the
blunt edge shows no sign of
Uses

Only one known eared ax,
that is here described, has a
perforation on one edge of
the blade and in the head
aswell. This specimen (fig.
18) was first described by
Prof. Mason *7 in the follow-
ing lines: “An elaborate
blade of deep brown color.
This specimen really belongs
to three of our classes. The
butt is two-beaked and per-
forated, the beaks with long,
prominent crests. There is
no wide extension of these
Fig. 17.—Massive stone eared implement. (11.2 beaks, however, and the long,

inches. ) :
tapering haft-space or neck
is abruptly shouldered. The body is of the meat-chopper form to be
seen further on. Its upper side has the countersunk perforation to
be observed on several specimens in this collection. Length, 67%
inches; width, 44 inches.”

The peculiar serrated edges of the head in this specimen (fig. 19)
are rightly interpreted by Prof. Mason as ornamental, but in the
following reference to the object he fails to mention the rarity of this

87 Op. cit.. p. 759, fig. 39.

s§ Attention may be called to the fact that multitudes of similar implements have been
found in caches, as if hidden in this way intentionally, either for concealment for subse-
quent use, or for some other purpose. It has been suggested that they are partially
finished implements, which seems improbable, as most of them are perfectly made and
symmetrical in all their parts,

FEWKEs ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 143

form of decoration, which, so far as known, is confined to two or
three specimens. In his account *® of this specimen Prof. Mason
writes: “A beautifully polished blade of light brown color. It is
méri-shaped. The butt is gently rounded, bounded by a ridge, curved
transversely in a ‘ line of beauty,’ and ornamented with nine mammi-
form protuberances. The other elements form one continuous and
graceful outline, save a slight fracture on the right extremity of the
edge. Length, 675
inches; width, 4%
inches; width of neck,
2,1; inches.”

A careful examina-
tion of the specimen
(fig, 20) supports the
conclusion of Prof. Ma-
son as to its beauty
and polish. His com-
parison of the head
to an opera hat is par-
ticularly appropriate,
as in this feature it
stands alone among all
the axes examined by
the author. Prof. Ma-
son’s description of
this object is as fol-
lows: * “A finely pol-
ished blade of brown
color. This is one of
the most beautiful
specimens in the col-
lection. The butt has
a bounding ridge very
prominent, the curved surfaces above and below nearly alike. Two
gradines above this are carved in the shape of an opera hat or the
sheath of the lace palm doubled in and dented on the top. The unlike
sides are very well seen here. Length, 575 inches; greatest width.
4, inches.” ,

Fic. 18.—Perforated eared implement. (6.2 inches.)

8 Op. cit., p. 767, fig. 58. WOp cit, Dame, ae. GD.

144 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34
4. ENGRAVED AXES

The term ax is here limited to the implement with poll, shaft, or
blade, all combined, or with one or the other part absent. The poll
or head is present in some form or another, sometimes simply blunt

Fic. 19.—Stone implement with indented head. (6.2 inches.)

or rounded, convex or concave, often with ear-like lappets or vari-
ously formed lappets, indentations, or perforations. The shaft or
shank may be indicated either by incisions on opposite edges or
by grooves, narrow or broad, sometimes with a ridge on each side.

FEWEDs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 145

The shank is never perforated like the European stone ax for the
insertion of a handle, although, as we shall presently see, it is in
one instance decorated with an incised figure. The body of the ax
may be circular; when seen in profile it is elongated, oval, asymmet-
rical, and sometimes perforated near the edges. The grooved ax is

Fig. 20.—Finely polished stone implement. (5.1 inches.)

very rare in collections from the Antilles, there being only a dozen
specimens in the Heye collection. All of these are from the Lesser
» Antilles, the majority from those islands midway between Trinidad
and Anegada Passage. The few known specimens recall, in form

160658°—34 rrH—22 10

146 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

and existence of grooves, the ordinary grooved axes of North
America, but we can not suppose that they are significant enough
or sufficient in number to modify the theory that the Lesser Antilles
are archeologically cemented with South rather than with North
America.

As the petaloid celt is the most abundant implement in the Greater
Antilles, to which the engraved celt is confined, the ax is typical of
the Lesser Antilles from Anegada Passage to Trinidad. Petaloid
celts also occur in the Lesser Antilles, and the axes of the Carib-
bean islands occur sporadically in the Greater Antilles, but the
celt and ax are practically limited in their distribution in the way
indicated. As in the case of the petaloid celt
we have specimens with heads or figures en-
graved on one face, so we find engraved axes
or those in which figures are incised on their
faces. These figures are, however, geometric,
and in no instance known to the writer are faces
or human outlines depicted. We find, however,
instances of an animal head cut on the poll
of an ax which seem to be a connecting link be-
tween the petaloid with the head or face and
the ax with geometrical design. This group is
represented by the so-called fish idol from Cuba
(pl. 93, A), first figured by Poey. The general
shape of the body recalls those of several axes
Fic. 21.—Incisea ax In the Heye collection, the only difference being

from Guadeloupe. jin the fish head cut on the pointed end. It will

(5.5 inches.) .

be described under engraved celts.

Figure 21 represents a rare form of ax found in the Guesde collec-
tion in the Berlin Museum, in which the two opposite surfaces are
decorated with incised geometric figures which are duplicated. Be-
ginning with the notch on the margin of the implement they form
graceful curves, recalling scrolls on a ceremonial baton, which will
be deseribed later in this article.

This specimen is described by Prof. Mason, who writes: “ A highly
ornamented specimen. one portion of which is plain, resembling the
edge of a cleaver; the remainder is covered with ornament. Let us
imagine this to be a stone ax, the most beautiful in the world. The
following characteristics claim our attention: The hafting notches
are extended, that on the upper part by a narrow gutter almost par-
allel with the edge; that on the lower part sweeping outward in a
curve which combines the lower portion and both faces in a continu-
ous pattern. This is assuredly M. Guesde’s jewel in the ax class.
Length, 54 inches.”

" Op. cit., pp. 824-825, fig. 196.

FEWEES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 147

Some of these engraved axes did not show the incised figures on the
illustrations used by Prof. Mason in describing the specimens.

5. PERFORATED AXES

Several of the large ax-shaped stones from Guadeloupe are perfo-
rated at or near the upper margin of the head (fig. 22), suggesting
that they were suspended, perhaps ornaments worn about the neck.

CORR RNa

Fie. 22.—Incised decorated stone implement. Guesde collec-
tion. (9.5 inches.)

The Guesde collection has several of these axes with perforated
heads. Specimens from St. Vincent are fewer in number. Prof.
Mason thus describes one of these specimens: °”

“A finely-polished blade, of brown color. The general outline is
that of a shouldered hoe-blade. The edge is quite regular, the taper-
ing sides nearly alike, the neck symmetrical, and the faces continuous
nearly to the perforation. The butt is flared out at the sides like

* Op. cit., p. 757, fig. 36.

148 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA (ETH. ANN. 34

a crutch, the concave of which is occupied by a narrow, perforated
ridge. With this should be compared a specimen from St. Vincent
(Timehri, I, p. 264, fig. 3). The latter is more ornamented on the
upper border, but the body falls far below that of M. Guesde’s
specimen. A splendid example from St. Lucia is also in the collec-
tion of Mr. Cropper. (Timehri, I, p. 268, fig. 2.) Length, 7.2
inches; greatest width, 4 inches.”

Figure 23 is the same object as that mentioned by Prof. Mason
without comment, save that he refers to the “ concave grinding ” as
very uncommon. There are only two specimens known to have the
blade bifurcated; it is doubtful whether we can properly speak of
this concavity as an edge, and so peculiar is this remarkable specimen
that we may require a new group for its
reception. Prof. Mason mentions it as
follows:°* “A grooved blade of dark
brown color. It resembles figure 103, ex-
cepting that the butt is more distinct and
the sides divergent. The edge is much
worn by use, and the concave grinding
very uncommon. Length,4inches; width
of blade, 353; inches.”

6. ANCHOR AXES

There are several stone implements

which from their shape are called anchor

ney axes. They are made of one stone with a

Frc. 2 DRGs, central shaft modified into curved exten-

tensions at one end. The type is char-

acteristic of the island of Guadeloupe, the two specimens here figured,

plate 72, A, B, from the Guesde collection indicate, but a single

specimen from St. Vincent, not figured, has resemblances to them

and approaches in form an ax with meat-knife blade closely ap-
proaching another group.

7. INCISED AND PERFORATED STONES

There are several stones in the Guesde collection in the Berlin
Museum which are characteristic. These stones (pl. 73, A, 6, C)
have an oval or ovate form, with the polar diameter slightly less
than the equatorial, which sometimes varies, being longer or shorter
according to the points of measurement.

The simplest of these (pl. 783, 4) have a shallow pit at one pole
surrounded by a groove and a somewhat deeper furrow around

2% Op. cit., p. 787, fig. 104.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 72

ANCHOR-SHAPED STONE IMPLEMENTS, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 5 inches; B, 10 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 73

INCISED AND PERFORATED STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 74

PROBLEMATICAL STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE COLLECTION,
BERLIN MUSEUM)

B, 3.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE75

fou Y,

Pee)

A, PESTLE; 2, STONE RING; ©, MORTAR, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 149

the equator. In another figure (pl. 73, C) the simplest form of per-
forated stone is allied to the engraved stones above mentioned, but
is perforated by a beveled hole with a furrow at one side extending
to the border, which is destitute of a marginal groove.

In plate 73, B, the shape from above is oval, the longer diameter
being double the shorter. This specimen has on the upper side, turned
to the observer, two grooves at right angles to each other, the longer
bifurcating at each end and continuing into scrolls on each side and
not united with the shorter groove. This object is now in the Berlin
Museum and formerly belonged to M. Guesde.

In the specimen illustrated in plate 74, B, we have the highest form
of the type of perforated stones. The perforation is not beveled and
the marginal furrow is very deep.

We find in the Lesser Antilles several perforated stones, some of
which may be called rings. Some of these may be likened to the
well-known stone collars of Porto Rico.

The late Prof. Mason’s reference ** to one of these specimens is
short and differs from his figure: “A stone ring of great asymmetry.
This perforation was probably made by pecking, its faces being
rubbed down afterwards. Dimensions, 5.2 by 4.7 inches.”

One of the most instructive of the holed stones in the Berlin col-
lection is one not heretofore figured, shown in the accompanying
figure (pl. 75, 4). It suggests an unformed implement or idol.
Appended to one side there is a projection that reminds one of the
knot of a small stone collar. This specimen, now in the Berlin
Museum, belonged to the Guesde collection, and so far as known is
unique. Its use is unknown.

A ring (pl. 88, 4) from Carriacou in the Heye collection has some
points in common with that last mentioned, but is made of clay and
has the representation of the furrow on one face instead of on the
periphery. The edge of the perforation is in this case rounded in-
stead of beveled or at right angles.

The stone ring, plate 75, B, is beautifully made, and resembles
somewhat stone rings from the Totonac region in Mexico.

Plates 74, C, and 75, C’, are mortars, the former boatshaped.

8. PROBLEMATICAL STONES

Among the enigmas in the Guesde collection in the Berlin Museum
there are several specimens (pl. 76, A, B, C, )) the use of which is
problematical, and so far as form goes, they belong to none of the
types thus far described.

* Op. cit., p. 817.

150 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

One of these from Guadeloupe is shown in figures 24 and 25. Two
distinct regions may be recognized in the object as seen from above—
one a circular body, the other an extension on one side forming a
handle. ;

The body has a slightly curved upper surface and a flat underside,
the latter so smooth that the function of a grinding implement is
readily suggested. The smooth, flat surface is continued without
break into the lower side of the handle, which is also polished, evi-
dently by long-continued rubbing.

Although the upper surface of both body and handle is slightly
convex, the two curves are continuous and bounded by a shallow
furrow, a short distance from the margin.

The handle of this problematical implement (fig. 25) is crossed by
10 parallel straight grooves connecting the marginal furrow. At the
point from which the handle arises from the body of the implement
the marginal furrow is enlarged on each side into a deeper circular
depression, suggesting places where the fingers might grasp the ob-
ject, the palm of the hand resting on the handle. Held in that way,
the grooves on the handle might enable one who used the implement
to get a firmer hold in moving it back and forth as a grinding im-
plement.

The only known reference to the object is found in Prof. Mason’s
account of the Guesde collection,” and is as follows:

“A very highly polished implement of dark brown color, and pre-
senting one of those enigmatic forms that are ever springing upon
us in the West Indian area. The general outline is that of a ladle.
Upon the reverse the face is flat, but the broad portion of the obverse
is slightly concave [sic] and bordered by a molding which is carried
nearly to the narrow portion. The latter is lingulate in form and
has 10 concentric ridges terminating in the border, which is fluted
externally. There is no duplicate of this form. Length, 124 inches.”

There are many stone objects in the Guesde collection the use of
which it is difficult to determine. One of these is shown in plate 79,
D,E. This object is flat, triangular in shape, with two sides slightly
curved and rounded, the remaining side square with two ears or
rounded extensions imparting an irregular heart-shape to the object
when seen from one face. A lateral view shows that the object is
slightly warped at the point and obscurely convex on one surface,
flat or concave on the other, but that the warped point prevents the
stone from being used as a grinder, as neither surface could be made
to fit flatly on another surface, which a grinding implement would
imply. The object is smooth, well made, and evidently adapted

Op. cit., fig. 171, p. 815.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 151

to a purpose now unknown. Its form is, however, so far as known,
unique, although we have certain approximations, as the circular
stone obtained by the author from Archbishop Merino and figured
in his Aborigines of Porto Rico.*"

Pete

“ice

Tse

ST Foy)

5}

yey.

Fig. 24.—Problematical stone, Guadeloupe. Berlin collection.
(12.25 inches.) ‘

No implement is more enigmatical than that shown in the accom-
panying illustration (pl. 76, A, B) from the Berlin Museum. At
first sight we might suppose this to represent a new form of ax, and
the curved cutting edge at one end seems to support such an iden-

“ Twenty-fifth Ann, Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. xxxtiii, d.

52 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA (ETH, ANN, 34

tification, but the byeak in one side (pl. 76, B) is unlike any feature
in the many specimens thus far described. It may, however, be iden-
tified as an unfinished ax, or one the outlines of which have been
roughly worked out and then laid away to be polished and finished
at some later date.

Many similar instances of unfinished implements are found in
caches, which lead to the surmise that the
habit of partially finishing implements
and putting them aside was not uncom-
mon in the prehistoric West Indies.

The object illustrated in plate 76, C, D,
is from the Guesde collection in the Berlin
Museum. This implement might more
logically be classified as a grooved stone
ax, having a-well-marked furrow with en-
circling ridges on each side.- On the blade
side of the groove this ridge is slightly
larger than that on the head.

The beautiful finish of this specimen
(pl. 74, 6) did not fail to impress the
late Prof. Mason, and he gives a side
view illustrating the groove on the rim.
As the perforation is not countersunk in
this specimen, the author is inclined to
believe that the two views (Mason’s figs.
185-1 and 185-2) ascribed to the same
specimen really belong to two different
objects. Prof. Mason’s reference ®* to
this specimen is as follows:

“A beautifully finished stone pulley
[pl. 74, B]. The points to be noticed are
the nearly circular outline, the counter-
sink perforation, the curved slope of the
sides, and the groove in the circumference.
This last feature is unknown to the author
of these notes in any other stone imple-
ment. The edge view is enlarged to ex-
hibit the groove. Diameter, 1,8; inches.”

Guadeloupe has furnished several pre-
historic mortars which as a rule have

Fic. 25.—Lateral view of fig. 24.

9. MORTARS

the same form as those from the St. Vincent area and are_
almost identical with others in various islands from Trinidad to
Cuba. This uniformity is to be expected on account of the simplicity

98 Op. cit., p. 819.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 153

of these implements. Pestles from different islands differ more than
mortars, their handles admitting of different ornamentation.

The simplest form of Guadeloupe mortar *° is a slab of stone with
a shallow curved depression on one side. Examples of this type are
numerous, and, as they possess no features characteristic of typical
areas, they need not be considered.

In the mortar (pl. 74, C) next to be considered, the longer axis
has been elongated to such an extent as to give the object a
boat shape. This specimen, now in the Berlin Museum, is said to
have come from one of the Lesser Antilles, but from which is not
definitely known. In all these objects the cavity is much smoother
than the outside surface and shows by the way it is worn signs of
long-continued use. The size of these mortars points to their use
in grinding of some cereal, as maize, rather than roots or fruits.
They do not greatly differ from the forms of mortars found on the
mainland of South America, where, however, flat slabs of rock were
often used in grinding corn. It is, of course, not necessary to sup-
pose that mortars from the Lesser Antilles were used for maize, even
if their shapes are similar to those where corn was a food cereal.

In a specimen (pl. 75, C) in the Berlin Museum we have a true
mortar which has a spheroidal form with a circular cavity of about
half its longer axis on one side. The side view of this specimen
differs from that above mentioned in the thickness of its walls, but
especially in the character of the depression.

The accompanying representations (figs. 26,27) show a unique stone
object from the Guesde collection in the Berlin Museum, concerning
the use of which several suggestions have been made, but which has
never been satisfactorily identified. When seen from above the form
reminds one of the skeleton frame of certain cup-shaped sponges in
which we have a hemispherical knob or attachment to the bottom of
the sea from which arise walls flaring outward, leaving a deep con-
cavity and wide-open mouth. The interior wall is smooth, the lips
rounded, and the outer surface crossed by radiating grooves alternat-
ing with elevations extending from the knob-like base near which
they are deepest, becoming shallower as they approach the margin.
Provisionally this object is identified as a mortar.

The specimen is thus referred to by the late Prof. Mason? in his
account of the Guesde collection: “An unique specimen of light-
brown color and quite rough. It is hollow like a mortar, but the
most remarkable feature about it is the series of flutings on the
surface. M. Guesde is of the opinion that it was rather a cover for
something than a grinding stone. In deference to this opinion it is
drawn with the broad part downward. Height, 64 inches.”

* Several of the Guesde mortars have been described by the late Prof, Mason.
10Op. cit., p. 814.

154 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

10, PESTLES, GRINDERS, AND HAMMERS

The simplest form of pestle from Guadeloupe is an enlarged stone
of a form to fit the hands, but with no attempt at shaping or super-

Fic. 26.—Unidentified stone object resembling a mortar. (6.5 inches.

ay 0

Fic. 27.— Unidentified stone object resembling a mortar. (6.5 inches.)

ficial ornamentation. Objects of this kind are numerous on all the
West Indian islands, but the fact that they show no evidence of hav-

ing been artificially worked has led to their having been overlooked
by collectors.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

THIRTY-FOURTH AN NUAL REPORT

PLATE 76

Av an
pine

7

4,

eh

a

PROBLEMATICAL STONE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

IMPLEMENTS, GUADELOUPE

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 77

PROBLEMATICAL STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE COLLECTION,
BERLIN MUSEUM)

C, 1.5 inches; D, 1.19 inches.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES ILS 95)

One of the simplest forms of these implements is shown in the fol-
lowing series of Guadeloupe pestles (pl. 77, 4, B). Here we have a
spherical water-worn nodule evidently gathered from some river bed,
showing depressions on two opposite sides in which the thumb and
forefinger conveniently fit. This stone might have served for two
purposes; it may have been a pounding and a rubbing implement,
the depressions or pits serving simply to secure a good hold while in
use. These handholds are generally situated at the ends of a line
passing through the middle of the object. This object, now in the
Berlin Museum, is from the Guesde collection and is described by
Mason.

ConicaL STONES

Among the peculiar forms of stone objects from the St. Vincent
area may be mentioned certain conical specimens, in some instances
like the fourth type of three-pointed stones from Porto Rico. These
are more like amulets than idols and were possibly used as amulets.
A conical stone specimen of this type is figured and described in the
author’s Aborigines of Porto Rico.2 The general form of these
stones, as their name indicates, is conical, their longer diameter being
about twice that of the shorter. When placed on one side, which
forms a natural flat base, their height is about the same as their
length. The one feature besides shape that all these objects have in
common is the groove girting the whole circumference and following
the rim of the base.

The several variations in shape of these cones are mainly in the
breadth of this groove and modifications in the form of the cone,
some having broad, others narrow grooves about the margin of
the base, while a number have a serrated apex. In a few a
ridge separated by deep grooves occurs on the sides of the cone.
These conical objects (pl. 77, C) are not always made of stone, a
few specimens existing in local collections being of shell and at
least one of bone. None of these show any indications of a head
or face cut upon them and are devoid of superficial decoration, aside
from that above mentioned on the apex. It has been suggested
that these stone or shell objects were formerly attached to a handle
and served as weapons, but the small size and fragile nature of
those made of bone and shell would prohibit their use as striking
implements.

The accompanying figure (pl. 77, D) shows one of these stones,
the height of which is somewhat less than the greater diameter,
as indicated in the figure. As is common in the majority of speci-
mens, the curve of the basal groove is more gradual on the lower

2? Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 98; pl. xxiii, 1.

156 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

side than on the upper, which fact, so far as it goes, is opposed to
the theory that it was lashed to a foreign body. This specimen is
from the Heye Museum.

The specimens (pl. 78, 4, B, C) are pestles so fashioned that we
begin to have a differentiation of a disk or enlarged base in order to
secure a greater grinding surface, and a handle ending in a knob.
When the disk or base is seen from the side, it appears to be convex,
flattened at the upper surface. Similar forms (pl. 78, 2, £) re-
sembling meat choppers in profile have been mistaken for weapons
by Prof. Mason in his account of the Guesde specimens, but the
indication is that these, like the one considered, should be called
pestles or grinders. This form of pestle appears to have been very
abundant in Guadeloupe.

In another specimen, also from the Guesde collection, the basal
part or disk is globular when seen from the side and is surrounded
by an enlargement which may have been carved into a rude figure,
a character very pronounced in Santo Domingo pestles.

The implement shown in plate 79, A, in the Berlin Museum, is one
of the characteristic forms of pestle in the Guesde collection. In this
specimen the base is massive, and when seen in profile it will be no-
ticed that the outer upper edge is slightly curved inward, a feature
that becomes very pronounced in several specimens. The large size
of this object suggests that it was used for bruising roots rather than
for grinding grains, a function which it may share with several other
specimens.

The striking feature of the next specimen, also from the Guesde
collection in Berlin, as shown in plate 79, B, is the almost abnormal
enlargement of both base and head, imparting to it a spool shape
when seen in profile. The two ends of a dumb-bell object have their
edges turned toward each other so that in profile they have crescentic
outlines most pronounced in the basal region. This implement, like
the preceding, was probably used in bruising roots rather than in
pounding grains of corn.

Plate 79, C, is an ax of the characteristic St. Vincent type, with
groove and extensions on the apex.

The flattened form of grinders in which the base is extended on
each side into horns is shown in the next specimen (pl. 79, 7’), also
from the Berlin Museum. The object here takes the form of a chop-
per with blunt edge; thé handle is short with termination enlarged.
This type of pestle is represented by several specimens inthe Guesde
collection, all of which have as the common feature the extension of
the base on each side and flat opposite faces.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 78

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

PESTLES AND PROBLEMATICAL STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 6.25 inches; B, 5.5inches; C, 6 inches; D, Ginches £, 6 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 79

PESTLES AND PROBLEMATICAL STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 6.2 inches; B, 4.88 inches; D, 5.2 inehes; E, 5.2 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 80

aos
ety

whe Sones

PROBLEMATICAL OBJECTS AND PESTLES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 5.3 inches; B, 6.25 inches; C, 3.5 inches; D, 4.25 inches; E, 4.4 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 81

PESTLES AND OTHER STONES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE COLLECTION,
BERLIN MUSEUM)

A,5.Sinches; B,1

inches; C, 5.6 inches; E, 5.25 inches.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST es 157

A spool-shaped grinder (pl. 80, 4) is figured and described by
Prof. Mason® as follows: “A grooved implement of light-brown
color. It is introduced here to follow figure 119 on account of sim-
ilarity in groove. The ax function is lost in that of the smoother or
rubber. There is a great deal of nice work on this example; indeed,
as a work of art it is nearly faultless. The furrows of the sides con-
tinued across the bottom of the shaft or neck below give a pleasing
impression. Length, 675 inches; width of lower blade, 44 inches.”

A similar specimen (pl. 80, 7) was thus described by Prof. Mason,*
who regarded it asa hammer. There are several reasons which lead
the author to class this rather as a pestle, for the term hammer implies
a handle, which is hardly necessary in the interpretation of this
object.

“A bell-shaped hammer of blackish color. The very large curved
base is not unknown to hammers or pestles outside of the West
Indies. Several of nearly the same shape may be seen from the
Haida Indians in the National Museum. The offset on the rim
below at the base of the neck is unique. (See Timehri, ITI, pl. 10,
fig. 19.) Height, 54 inches.”

This implement (pl. 80, #) is one of the few rubbing stones in
which the handle is somewhat asymmetrical, and while it has some
resemblances to a pestle, it has none to a rubber or grinder. As
stated above, like the Eskimo knife, it would “fit the artisan’s hand.”
It is figured and described by the late Prof. Mason ** in the accom-
panying quotation. It will be seen on consulting his figure that there
are certain differences between the two which are important, although
not great enough to lead to any modification in interpretation.

“A carved rubbing stone, of brown color. The slanting column
and much-curved base, as well as the lateral flutings, extending
everywhere except along the bottom, are noteworthy features. The
Eskimo of Norton Sound and northward excel in fashioning ivory
scraper handles to fit the artisan’s hand. At Sitka the Thlinkit In-
dians also cut out the upper portion of the stone hand-maul to fit
the hand. Length, 4, inches.”

Plate 81, A, represents an implement in the Guesde collection in
Berlin which may have been used as a wedge, although it has resem-
blances to an ax. It has a form not unlike some of the rubbing
stones. _

The specimen (pl. 81, B) is one of the elbow-shaped, asymmet-
rical forms of grinders, having an extension on one side of the
base and an elongated handle slightly enlarged at one end. This
object is in the Berlin Museum, and apparently from the Guesde
collection, although not figured by Prof. Mason.

Op. cit., p. 794, fig. 120. ‘Op. cit., p. 804. 42 Op. cit., p. 807, fig. 157.

158 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34
&

The specimen (pl. 81, C’) is a unique grinder or pestle, the handle
of which tapers to a point which is gracefully bent over so that it
almost touches the flattened top of the base. This object has been
placed by some authors among problematical stones from the Lesser
Antilles, but its general resemblance to pestles or pounding imple-
ments is close enough to lead to its association with that type. As
an example of prehistoric stone cutting it is unsurpassed in the
West Indies.

The unique character and admirable workmanship of this speci-
men has already been commented upon by the late Prof. Ma-
son,’ whose reference to it is as follows: “The object. is entirely
unique, and indeed outlandish to the Antilles. It is admirable
in workmanship and has been preserved without a scratch. The
material is mottled green and brown. It would not be difficult
to guess, granting this to be genuine, that the process of stone
carving went on after 1493, the year in which Columbus discovered
Guadeloupe, and that some ingenious lapidary had undertaken to
imitate a hook in the tackle. There is nothing improbable in this,
for the Haida slate carvers to-day imitate steamers and other inven-
tions of the whites in making their curious pipes. Height, 575
inches.”

This is as remarkable a specimen as it is rare, so far as known,
unique and worthy to stand as the best known example of Antillean
stone working.

Of the most beautifully made of all the grinders two are repre-
sented in plate 81, D, Z, of specimens in the Berlin Museum formerly
in the Guesde collection. These wonderful examples of stone work-
ing have the bases prolonged into curved horns at opposite ends of
their longest diameters. The handles taper uniformly to a head
slightly enlarged and convex above. The shortest diameter of the
base is slightly greater than the lower portion of the handle.

This is certainly a remarkable specimen of Stone Age work, quite
equal in technique to stone collars or zemis from the Greater Antilles.

ST. KITTS

The island of St. Christopher, or, as it is commonly called, St.
Kitts, was known to the Carib as Luiwa, the fertile land, on account
of its great fertility. The wealth of archeological evidences indi-
cates that it was once inhabited by a large aboriginal population
devoted to agricultural pursuits.

The archeology of St. Kitts and Nevis® has attracted the attention
of local students, and is well considered in an instructive article by

© Op. cit., p. 809.

° From the absence of aboriginal place names of Indian derivation in either St. Kitts or
the neighboring island, Nevis, it appears that the Indians were early exterminated on
these islands.

FEWKEs] _ CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 159

Dr. C. W. Branch.’ Since the publication of that paper Mr. E. Con-
nell, an old resident of St. Kitts, who furnished much of the data
to Dr. Branch, has added to his collection many prehistoric objects,
as yet undescribed, which greatly enlarge our knowledge of the
archeology of these islands. There are several specimens from St.
Kitts in the Heye collection and in the insular Carnegie Library
which are not incorporated in Dr. Branch’s excellent article.*

The author visited several mounds and other antiquities of this
island to determine the typical sites where stone and other imple-
ments were found and visits were made to numerous pictographs
referred to by Dr. Branch.® He spent some time in studying the
many objects lately acquired by Mr. Connell and examined another
small undescribed collection.

Evidences of the prehistoric character of the culture in St. Kitts
are afforded by mounds or middens, pictographs, and the very con-
siderable collection of aboriginal objects in public and private hands,
all of which indicate a culture quite different from that of Porto
Rico or St. Vincent. As the antiquities from St. Kitts and Nevis are
practically identical, it is supposed that they belong to the same
culture area which may likewise include some of the neighboring
islands, which have been little investigated.

Mippens

The middens on St. Kitts visited by the author are as follows:
(1) West Farm or Two Mile Cut; (2) Stone Fort; (3) Wingfield
Estate.’

In general character the St. Kitts middens do not differ from
those of St. Vincent. They are ordinarily situated in cultivated
fields and their presence can be detected only by fragments of pot-
tery strewn over the surface of the soil, or, as at West Farm, where
roads have been cut, laying bare a section of the mound. Speci-
mens of marine shells invariably occur in the sites of these middens
and deep below the surface as shown by cross sections, but not in
sufficient quantities to lead us to designate them as shell heaps.

7 Aboriginal Antiquities of St. Kitts and Nevis. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 1x, no. 2,
pp. 315-333.

8The majority of the objects of Dr. Branch’s collection are now in the National
Museum at Washington, to which institution he presented them when his article was
published.

®In addition to his article above referred to, Dr. Branch has published in Nature,
vol. LIII, p. 580, Apr. 23, 1896, the following: ‘‘ Last year in St. Kitts, in a cliff fresh cut
by a wash, a gentleman found what were apparently the contents of a Carib grave—
fragments of pottery, two complete utensils, and pieces of human bones. * * * This is
the first discovery, so far as I can ascertain, of either bones or pottery in the Leeward
Islands. * * * Since then, however, I have found a kitchen midden, and procured
plenty of small fragments, along with crab claws, broken shells, fishbones, etc.”

10 These three localities and others are mentioned by Dr. Branch in his paper previously
quoted. There are also middens at Indian Camp, Cayon, and Brighton Estates that were
not visited by the author.

160 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34
PicroGRAPHS

There are several instructive pictographs of aboriginal make in
the island of St. Kitts, one of the best preserved of which occurs
on a bowlder in a field at the Wingfield estate. There are others
on a bowlder on the West Farm estate at Harts Bay, and still others
in the gorge at Bloody River, near Stone Fort. Many of these pic-
tographs are simply scratched in the surface of the soft tufaceous
rock, and are in some instances undoubtedly helped out by modern
visitors. The pictograph reported from Millets Bay by Dr. Branch
is on a slab of stone which has been removed by Mr. Connell and
placed in his collection. This stone was once used by women as a
washboard.

Arar Srone

Baird™ thus describes a singular stone from St. Kitts: “ Among
the memorabilia of St. Kitts I find in my notebook honorable
mention made of a somewhat singular stone which is to be seen
almost on the very summit of a remarkable and singularly beauti-
ful hill, called by the more appropriate than euphonious name
of Monkey Hill, which hill may be said to form the southern ter-
mination of the range which traverses the island. Monkey Hill is
in itself a verdant object, with green and consequently beautiful
cane fields and brakes extending to its very base; and on the sum-
mit of it stands the large stone referred to, inform and shape some-
thing like a cradle and having part of the top hollowed out so as
to give countenance to the legend that it was used by the fierce
Caribs for the immolation and burning of their human sacrifices.”

THe Conneti CoLtiecrion

The best collection of archeological objects from St. Kitts belongs
to Mr. Connell, engineer of the central sugar factory, who has
assiduously collected antiquities from this island for many years. It
is fortunate that the majority of objects found at St. Kitts drift into
his hands and have augmented his collection, so that it has now be-
come the largest in the island and one of the best in the West Indies,
for he liberally exhibits it to all visitors and allows archeologists
to study the objects it contains. His collection, like all others from
the island of St. Kitts, is rich in grinding stones and as a rule poor
in axes. There are very few winged headed axes like those so com-
mon in St. Vincent, and a few petaloids, but no three-pointed stones,
elbow stones, or stone collars. One of the rare forms of implements
is shown in plate 82, 4, B. It is exceptional in having a rectangular

11 Impressions of the West Indies, pp. 67-68.

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 161

projection on one edge. Another specimen ((’, /) has projections
on both edges, the latter resembling a stone object figured by Mason
from Guadeloupe. Both are rare in West Indian collections.

The grinder (pl. 82, #) is from St. James Parish, Nevis, and
belongs to one of the type forms of grinders from St. Kitts. Its
form is better suited to a rubbing stone than to a pestle such as occurs
in Santo Domingo."4

Tn the Connell collection is a remarkable specimen of stone carv-
ing from the island, Nevis, similar in technique to a “ pillar stone,”
now in the British Museum, described and figured by Joyce, but
originally from Nevis. This remarkable specimen is a torso, of which
two human legs and the lower part of the abdomen are carved in relief
on the surface of a soft stone slab. The feet have been broken off at
the ankles, and the remainder is more or less mutilated. The knees
are extended, with several folds of skin indicating muscles on the
inside of the legs, similar to the specimen in the British Museum.
The sex is realistically indicated. The carving of the lower abdomen
and limbs is of a high order of excellence. A remarkable character-
istic of this specimen, a feature which it shares with the pillar stone
described by Joyce, is a Medusa-like head, with curled hair cut in
relief, between the extended knees. The eyes and nose of this head
are represented, though considerably battered, and there is a kind of
chaplet on the forehead. Grooves and rows of holes on the cheeks
and chin suggest that feathers, or some other decoration, were in-
serted in these holes. The hair is curly, like that of an African
rather than an Indian, and is represented in relief by scrolls on the
crown and the ears. The collector of this specimen records that there
was formerly another fragment of this carving which has disap-
peared, and may be that described by Joyce in the British Museum.
The art of these two specimens is practically identical, and if they
are pillar stones or examples of West Indian prehistoric art, as they
seem to be, they present one of the best examples of Antillean stone-
work known to the author. The supposition that they were pillar
stones seems logical, in which case they may have been set up and
treated as idols. The treatment of the hair is not typically Ameri-
can, and it has been suggested that they may have been brought to
this island from the Old World.

One of the remarkable and exceptional forms of stone objects
in the Connell collection, figured by Dr. Branch and represented in
plate 82, A, is an elongated oval ring, the perforation being in the

a Joyce, Prehistoric antiquities from the Antilles, in the British Museum. Journ.
Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxxvii, pl. Lu, fig. 3, 1917.

160658°—34 ETH—22 11

162 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [PTH. ANN. 34

form of a slit with beveled sides. One end of this is enlarged into a
knob, but the surface is not decorated. While it is barely possible
* that this object is a St. Kitts representation of the Porto Rican stone
collars and may have been used in similar rites, there is no likeness
to them in the superficial decoration. This is the only specimen of
its kind that the author has ever seen in the Lesser Antilles.

GRINDERS

The grinders from St. Kitts may be divided into the following
types: (1) Conical with circular base and pointed apex, base curved
or flat; (2) conical with oval base and pointed apex, base convex or
flat; (3) frustum of cone with narrowing sides, top slightly en-
larged; (4) base circular extending beyond handle, which is conical
or rounded at apex; (5) base oval, handle narrower than diameter
of base, rounded apex; (6) apex enlarged into knob, handle slender,
base larger than apical knob; (7) apex curved to one side, base larger
than handle; (8) spool-shaped, handle deeply cut; (9) flat, with
handle decorated with parallel lines.

None of the many grinding stones in collections from St. Kitts have
the pestle form with a human, bird, or animal head cut on the end
of the handle, which is in marked contrast with the known specimens
of pestles from Santo Domingo and Porto Rico.

Most of the above types of St. Kitts grinders also occur in the
Guesde collection from Guadeloupe, and a few specimens are repre-
sented elsewhere, but nowhere is there a relatively greater number of
grinders than in St. Kitts and Guadeloupe. One or two conical grind-
ers resembling those of St. Kitts have been collected in Trinidad.
Similar implements in the Guesde collection have been described by
Prof. Mason as axes. There are several stone objects shaped like
pencils, one of which is not much larger than one’s little finger.
These problematical stones taper uniformly to a point.

Two forms of grinding stones represented in plate 82, 7’, @, recall
forms from Guadeloupe. The former is from Dayfords; the latter
from the Hermitage.

SHELL OBJECTS

Implements and other objects of shell are abundant in the Con-
nell collection. The lip of the shell, Cassis tuberosus, was often the
material used for this purpose. Celts, axes, conoids, and raspers
made of shell are common, but among these specimens the Barbados
shoehorn-shaped shell implement is wanting. One type of shell
implement has the end flat and beveled, and the corrugations of the

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 82

IL

STONE AND SHELL IMPLEMENTS, ST. KITTS (CONNELL COLLECTION)

A, 7 inches; B, 7 inches; C, 4 inches; D, 4 inches; F, 4.19 inches; H, 1.56 inches; 7, 2 inches; J, 3 inches;
K, 5.5 inches; L, 2.94 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY PHIR TY FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT Pl

t, POTTERY RING; “, DECORATED SHELL CYLINDER,
ST, KITTS (CONNELL COLLECTION)

Hy! tnohes

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 84

VARIOUS OBJECTS, ST. KITTS (CONNELL COLLECTION)

B, 2.5inches; C, 3.44inches; D, 3 inches; J, 1.13 inches; J, 2.25 inches; K, 2.19 inches; L, 1.5 inches,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 85

POTTERY AND STONE OBJECTS, ST. KITTS

A, 1.75 inches; B, 2.06 inches; C, 8.06 inches; F, 2 inches; G, 3 inches; H, 3 inches; J, 5.25 inches.

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 163

lip along the side emphasized by deepening the grooves between them,
Numerous implements have almost the same shape as petaloid or
almond-shaped celts. The ordinary Scandinavian type with a blunt
head is common.

Cylinders made of shell, clay (pl. 82, 7, 7), and stone are found in
the Connell collection. A shell cylinder shown has its surface in-
cised with dots and lines forming a design (pl. 83, 2) of unknown
meaning. The same design appears on cylinders of clay (pl. 82, 7),
a broken fragment of which is in the Connell collection.

Plate 83, 4, represents a ring made of burnt clay.

The shell ornament (pl. 84, A) from Stone Fort is rectangular in
shape and has three parallel marks connected with a transverse
groove incised at each end. This unique form has been provisionally
interpreted as an ornament, but its true meaning may later be shown
to be a much different character.

The shell object (pl. 84, B) is provisionally called a spoon on
account of the concavity on one side. It is convex on one side, con-
cave on the opposite, and perforated at each end. .

The shell object shown in plate 84, (, is of unknown use, but the
indications are that it was used as an ornament. Other similar forms
with additional perforations also occur in the Connell collection.

Ornaments of shell and stone of an elongated pendant form are
numerous. Some of the varieties of these are shown in plate 84,
#, F. Figure D has a circular form and is perforated. In one
or two instances these have a groove cut around one end.

The object, plate 84, @, shown laterally and from above, calls to
mind forms of labrets. It is ovate with medial groove, smooth, and
of relatively small size.

The conical objects like the accompanying figures (pls. 77, C, D,
84, H,/, L) are of unknown meaning. These are specimens of stone
and shell, one of the latter (7) having a pointed crest, which is ser-
rated.1?

POTTERY

The pottery of St. Kitts is among the finest in the Lesser An-
tilles and is commonly red or red and white, generally with incised
decorations. The Connell collection contains several rare forms never
before figured.

There is a marked resemblance between the St. Kitts pottery and
that from the St. Vincent-Grenada area, but there is sufficient indi-
viduality to indicate that the St. Kitts pottery belongs to a subarea
allied in some particulars to the ceramics of the Greater Antilles.

2 A specimen of the same type made of stone is figured in the author's Aborigines of
Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur, Amer. Ethn., pl. SxiIrh

164 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Numerous heads made of earthenware, evidently the handles of
bowls or jars, occur in the Connell collection. That figured here
(pl. 84, 7, A’) recalls Grenada ware, the mouth being represented by
an elevation, the eyes by a dot surrounded by a circle. There is an
elevated knob on the forehead and a pair of similar knobs on each
side of the face.

One of the most instructive specimens of St. Kitts pottery in the
Connell collection is a broken jar of bright red ware with superficial,
indistinct, white figures. This rare specimen (pl. 85, 4) was found
on the Brighton estate, Cayon, St. Kitts, and although partly broken
is one of the most remarkable pieces of pottery from this island.
The specimen evidently formerly had two handles opposite each
other on the rim, one of which is now broken. The remaining han-
dle, an animal head, is attached to the rim of the vessel, with mouth
over the edge and large goggle eyes. From the head there extends
a slim rounded handle attached midway in the curved side of the
upper part of the bowl.

The bowl is mounted on a base flaring below and of somewhat less
diameter above. The ware is thick. Possibly this was a mortuary
vessel. This specimen is the best known to me from the island of
St. Kitts.

The bowl figured in plate 85, 2, found in an excavation in the
road of the Cunningham estate, is practically of the same pattern as
the “ monkey vases” made by modern negroes of Nevis and sold in
St. Kitts. It is of rough gray ware and has a snout with handles
on each side. The base is flat, mouth somewhat constricted, snout
protuberant, body of the vase enlarged at the equator and sloping to
base and mouth.

A platter of thick red ware (pl. 85, C) with a prolongation of
the rim on one side, decorated on the interior with a double scroll,
is fragmentary, but enough remains to indicate the general form.
The bottom is flat, without basal ring, and the lip is slightly re-
curved. This specimen was found at the botanical station on the
island of Nevis.

The pot here shown (pl. 85, D) was dug out of a grave at the Mills
estate, and is a fine example of an amphora, few of which occur in
the known collections. The lower part tapers uniformly to a flat
circular base from an angular middle ridge, which narrows to the
orifice and forms the lip. The two slender handles are attached to
this part of the vessel.

The comparatively large food bowl of reddish color shown in
plate 85, /, has a wide flaring orifice slightly turned back. The
base of this pot is circular, flat, and its sides slightly bulge midway

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 165

between base and orifice. This bowl was found upside down about
2 feet below the surface, covering a vertebra of a fish, 11 flint
scrapers, and 3 small chisels.

STONE OBJECTS

There are two amulets in the Connell collection representing the
frog, one of which, shown in plate 85, 7’, recalls the Prague speci-
men described on page 234. This specimen is made of a green
stone-like jadeite and is perforated through the head. The raised
ridge on the groove that separates the head from the neck is not seen
in the cast of the Prague specimen and the eyes are wanting in the
Connell object.

An examination of the different forms of amulets that have been
figured shows no fetish in form of a frog, but as the technique is
purely Antillean there appears to be no doubt that this specimen
came from one of the West Indies. From its resemblance to speci-
mens from Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Cuba the author supposes
that it came from the Greater Antilles.

There is in the Public Library collection at St. Kitts a goblet-
shaped mortar with two handles projecting, one from each side.
This specimen is unique, but mortars in which the base is not dif-
ferentiated from the body and in which the handles are absent are
not rare.

A flat rectangular stone, with four short stumpy legs, and a depres-
sion as if due to grinding on the top, may have been used as a metate
in grinding maize, yuca root, or cassava bread. This specimen also
reminds one of seats (duhos) found in Porto Rico and some of the
Greater Antilles, especially Jamaica.

An exceptional worked stone object (pl.85,G,) in the St. Kitts
Public Museum collection has a spherical or ovate shape with a de-
pression on one side, imparting to it the appearance of a small
mortar; but on one side of the wall of this concavity there is a
projection resembling a handle extending into the depression, which
is hollowed on each side as here shown. This unique specimen recalls
somewhat an artificially worked stone in the Connell collection.

Plate 86, A, represents a shell object of unknown use, unique in
West Indian collections, and &, a shell disk which is perforated.
C is the spire of a shell perforated and apparently used as a tinkler.
D represents the lip of a conch shell with ridges artificially inten-
sified.» The object shown from above, from below, and in section in
E is made of bone, but its use is not known. / shows two imple-
ments, possibly made of human bone.

166 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Plate 87, A, is a pestle or grinder of unusual form and use, while
B is a crescentic stone gorget perfarated midway in its length.
C and P are two views of a clay object with a resemblance to a
human head. The remaining figures, /’, /', G, 1, are made of stone,
but their use is unknown.

The few objects from Nevis in the Connell and other collections
are exceptionally fine, and certain of them so closely resemble those
found in St. Kitts that we may suppose the prehistoric people of
this island and those of St. Kitts, only a few miles away, were tden-
tical in culture. The indications are that there was a considerable
population on this island in prehistoric times.

ST. CROIX

A few pieces of pottery from St. Croix belong to the Porto Rican
area, and a few stone collars and three-pointed stones characteristic
of prehistoric Borinquen have been found on this island. The objects
from this island are almost identical with those from the other
Danish Islands, San Juan and St. Thomas. Separated by a wide,
deep channel from the St. Kitts group and geologically different
from other Danish Islands, St. Croix shows recent volcanic action.
The rock formation of the two ends of St. Croix are geologically a
bluish slate, the area between being of a caleareous formation."

St. Croix is called Ay-Ay in several of the early accounts of the
island and is considered Carib, but the stone implements found in
its territory are so like those of Porto Rico and the typical forms
so different from the St. Vincent and St. Kitts area that it is con-
sidered a member of the Borinquen group, and not as belonging to
the Lesser Antilles, culturally speaking.

Several private collections made on this island were examined by
the author, who himself gathered about 100 specimens of petaloid
celts. In the collection of the governor of the Danish West Indies at
St. Thomas there are a number of prehistoric objects from St. Croix.
It appears that the prehistoric population of St. Croix was fairly
large, judging from the number of known mounds and middens.
Early historical accounts of the island would lead me to suspect that
it was smaller than the archeological evidence indicates.

The inhabitants of St. Croix were valiant, as was evident to Co-
lumbus, who had an encounter on his second voyage with the aborigi-
nes, in which one of his crew was mortally wounded by a poisoned
arrow.'t The place where this encounter occurred was probably

18 For geology see Quin, The Building of an Island, New York, 1907.
“The arrows of the natives were apparently tipped with sharp sticks or teeth, not
with stone points,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 86

SHELL OBJECTS, ST. KITTS AND NEVIS (CONNELL COLLECTION)

A, 2.13 inches; B, 4inches; C, 1.5inches; D, 5 inches; FE, 3.13 inches; F, 7.63 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 87

STONE OBJECTS, ST. KITTS, DOMINICA, ST. VINCENT

A, Zinches; B, 5.5 inches; C, 3.5inches; D, 4.44 inches; F, 3 inches; F, 4.88 inches; @, 5.25 inches; H, 5.5 inches.

rewKus] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 167

near the Salt River settlement, about 7 miles from Christiansted.
Here there was a landing place for canoes. The hostility of the na-
tives led to the island being designated as a Carib island.

The Salt River settlement has in the past yielded many specimens
of aboriginal artifacts. In recent times it has been examined by
Dr. Christian Branch and Mr. A. Pinart, who obtained a small
collection of pottery fragments and stone objects; a few specimens
were also collected by the author from a low bluff eroded by the sea
at this place. The largest collection from this site was made by the
late Theodoor de Booy.*®

The prevalence of petaloids and axes over grinding implements in
the collections at St. Croix suggests warlike rather than peaceful
pursuits; and as the island is climatically dry and not very fertile,
it may be supposed that agriculture was not as common among the
natives as in well-watered fertile islands like St. Kitts. Historical
accounts often speak of the Carib of this island, who made raids
from it on Porto Rico and other islands of the Greater Antilles.

- Although St. Croix is distinctly called a Carib island, of the
1,000 specimens from that island examined by the author, not one
of the wing-shaped axes of St. Vincent was found, from which fact
it is supposed, on archeological grounds, that the culture of the
people who originally inhabited St. Croix was different from those
of St. Vincent.

Sarit River Mippen

The Salt River midden, the most important known prehistoric vil-
lage site in St. Croix, is situated on a slightly elevated point of land
on the right hand entering the river, and covers a considerable ex-
tent of the shore at that point; but as the whole mound is now cov-
ered with bushes which cover the surface much of its extent is con-
cealed. Thesea has made deep inroads on the edge of the bank, baring
layers of shells and débris which are nowhere more than 3 feet thick.
The author has been informed that a number of objects of stone,
pottery, and other artifacts have been gathered along the beach, and
that Dr. Christian Branch discovered human skulls in the lower
layer, but on my visit a few fragments of coarse pottery, broken
shells, with a few shell chisels, were all that was obtained.’*

There are one or two other shell mounds along the coast, one of
which is an obscure midden near the landing at Christiansted, but it
is much concealed by modern débris and rank vegetation, and quite

1% Vide Booy, Archeology of the Virgin Islands, Indian Notes and Monographs, vol. 1,
No, 1, 1919.

“This midden was partly excavated by Dr. Branch, and earlier by M. A. Pinart.
Others have dug in it for supposed buried treasure.

168 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH, ANN. 34

limited in size. The majority of objects now in collections from St.
Croix were picked up on the surface, having been brought to light
in the process of cultivation of the cane fields; but they are said to be
most abundant on land bordering Salt River.

ARTIFACTS

The collections, like that obtained by the author, are largely made
up of petaloid celts, which vary from almond to spear shaped forms.
One or two show shallow. encircling grooves or notches on the sides
for hafting and others are like edged tools of triangular form. The
form of one stone implement is oblong, flat on one side and rounded
on the other, with both ends sharpened to cutting edges. A large
number of implements showing recent breakage were also collected.
There is a general uniformity in the shape of St. Croix implements,
the majority being like those of Porto Rico. No grinding tools ap-
pear in the collections made by the author, but a mortar and pestle
were seen in a private home.

Among so many specimens of almond and leaf shaped implements
which constitute the majority of objects in collections from St.
Croix, it was a genuine surprise to find a stone implement which
showed undoubted influence of Porto Rico. This was a fragment
of a stone collar, or, to be more accurate, a fragment of the decorated
panel, which had evidently been put to secondary use as a pestle.
The surface was decorated with chevron lines, recalling the orna-
mentation of certain collars from Porto Rico.

The Carib at the beginning of the historic epoch had submerged
the Tainan culture of the Virgin Islands and introduced many ob-
jects peculiar to them, but the earlier culture of St. Croix was
essentially like that of Porto Rico.

It is certainly significant that while the majority of stone imple-
ments from St. Kitts showed marks of having been used for grinders,
out of about 500 specimens examined by the author from St. Croix
there was not found a single grinding pestle, and but one small mor-
tar, too minute to be used for anything but-pigment. Although
situated about 100 miles from Porto Rico, no three-pointed stones
or collars have yet been found in St. Croix. The collection owned
by the governor of the Danish West Indies contains, in addition to
many petaloids of almond shape, one or two other forms, as a
paddle-like stone that recalls one figured by the author” and a long
needle stone pointed at both ends. Both of these are like the Porto
Rican types.

PORTO RICO AREA

The Porto Rico area is separated from the Lesser Antilles by the

Anegada Passage. The prehistoric culture which extends from this

1 Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. xxutt, f.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 169

passage to Cuba, called Tainan, is agricultural. Geographically it
includes not only the large islands, Porto Rico, Santo Domingo,
Haiti, and eastern Cuba, but also the Danish Islands," St. Thomas,
Santa Cruz, St. John, and a few small islands along the coasts of
those above mentioned. The general features of this cultural area
the highest developed in the West Indies—have been outlined by the
author in his “Aborigines of Porto Rico and neighboring Islands.” ***
It is essentially unlike any of the subgroups of the Lesser Antilles
and has marked differences from Jamaica and the Bahamas.

Here developed in prehistoric times the highest culture of the
Indian race in the West Indies, and, although Arawak, it was related
to that of the Carib, who had made settlements at certain points on
the coast, but had not been able to submerge the preexisting Arawak
or overlay the existing culture with their own.

The Porto Rican cultural center is distinguished by the presence
of three-pointed idols made of stone, stone collars of unique form,
elbow stones, and wooden and stone seats or duhos. The pottery is
among the finest in the West Indies. Effigy forms with raised heads
for handles, incised rectangular lines, with enlargements at their
extremities, and encircling lines not joined predominate. In Santo
Domingo the vessels are generally flask-shaped, often decorated with
human figures in relief.

The majority of the stone implements have a petaloid form,
pointed at one end and flattened at the opposite, not grooved, but
sometimes with a face engraved on one side.

The prehistoric inhabitants of the Porto Rican area had cultural
relations with Central America, but not close enough to indicate
either an identity or intimate relationship. The decoration of
stone collars recalls that of the stone yokes of the Totonacs, but the
differences are so great that, although these resemblances have been
repeatedly pointed out, the variations in details are important.
There are also anomalies in the distribution of the stone collars
which are difficult to explain on the supposition that they are related
to stone yokes. Cuba, especially the western extremity which ap-
proaches very near Yucatan, has yielded no stone collars, and they
are likewise absent in Jamaica, which lies between the mainland
and Haiti. No stone collars have been found in the Totonac region
and no stone yokes in Porto Rico.*®

18Mr. De Booy, who has lately made a considerable collection of prehistoric objects
from shell heaps in the Virgin Islands, questions the close Telations here suggested, and
may have good grounds for his doubts. The objects belonging to the historic epoch are
more like Carib; those of the prehistoric more Tainan or Arawak, like those from Porto Rico.

18a Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.

1® A stone ring in the Dehesa collection from Vera Cruz is unlike in all but form a
Porto Rican stone collar.

170 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

Caves, SuHetit Heaps, snp Batt Courts

Archeological objects have been found in many localities in Porto
Rico, but they are especially abundant in the caves with which the
island is honeycombed, in shell heaps, and inclosures ef rectangu-
lar shape called batey, cercados de los Indios, or juegos de bola. All
these sites are numerous and have been repeatedly referred to by pre-
vious writers.

The surface characteristics of these places are indicated in Aborigi-
nes of Porto Rico,'** where those of this island were first described
in English, although known for many previous years through the
descriptions of Dr. A. Stahl.” The vicinity of the ball courts to
dwellings is mentioned by Oviedo and several other authors.

In his pioneer reconnoissance of Porto Rico in 1902-4 the author
had not the time or means to engage in prolonged intensive work
of excavation of caves, shell heaps, and ball courts (juegos de bola) .2°"
There is much work to be done in this direction and a fair begin-
ning has already been made. The opportunities are very great.
Sites of prehistoric settlements are many, and those of historic char-
acter can easily be identified. As in all the West Indies, the arche-
ologist has barely begun his work, and much remains to be done
before the story of the culture of the Tainan race can be adequately
made out. One of the most promising islands awaiting the spade of
the archeologist is Haiti, and it is to be hoped that ere many years
the antiquities of this island may be explored.

At the time of my visit a few desultory excavations had been
made by local students in caves and shell heaps, but it remained for
an expedition from the New York Academy of Sciences, under the
direction of Prof. Boas, to pay especial attention to the subject. The
results of extended excavations have not been fully published, al-
though notices of the work have appeared in some of our journals.

There have been several collectors of archeological material in
Porto Rico since my Aborigines of Porto Rico was written, among
whom should be mentioned Mr. and Mrs. Lathrop. who have added
several unique specimens obtained by excavations in shell heaps and
by purchase to the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.

Although some light has been thrown on the so-called ball courts
from an archeological point of view by the excavations of J. A.
Mason and Haeberlin, they have added no new interpretation to the
discussion by Oviedo and Stahl or to that in the author’s Aborigines

1a Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur, Amer, Ethn.

2” Los Indios Borinquenos. Puerto Rico, 1889.

2a Tn Oviedo these sites are called batey, but country people in Porto Rico speak of
them as juegos de bola (game of ball). The old name is still applied to open places
before large buildings.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 171

of Porto Rico. The excavations have revealed the form and size of
these inclosures and uncovered posts indicating buildings mentioned
by Oviedo.

The caves and shell heaps have likewise been investigated, but up
to this time, with the exception of articles by Messrs. Aitken,”
Mason,” and Dr. Haeberlin,” the results are not known to the author.
Several unique objects have been excavated; others have: been pur-
chased from native collectors.

The most important result of this work in caves was the discovery
of bones of extinct animals, and others belonging to modern periods,
as similar bones occur also in shell heaps. The aborigines of the
West Indies probably used many animals for food, thereby hastening
their extinction.

In both Porto Rico and Espanola we find evidences of a cave people
and settlements of Carib—a vigorous nomadic stock—but the caves
had practically become burial places, or ceremonial in their use. Evi-
dences of the use of caves for these purposes occur all over Porto
Rico, and, although they have not been thoroughly investigated,
enough material has been taken from them to show that the cave
inhabitants had many points in common.

There is considerable similarity in the artifacts from Porto Rico
and Santo Domingo, and many differences between them and those
from the Lesser Antilles, so that as a culture area the Greater An-
tilles are well differentiated from the Lesser.

ARCHEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS

The specimens in the Heye collection from Porto Rico add much
to our knowledge of the prehistoric period in Borinquen life, not-
withstanding there are many duplicates of those already elsewhere
described.

The Heye collection contains several new forms of zemis, stone
implements, pottery, wooden objects, and those made of bone and
shell. The stone implements are naturally the most numerous and
will be first considered.

The type form of celt from Porto Rico is the petaloid, which,
wherever found, has the same form and finely polished surface,
as contrasted with the rough surface of the ax (fig. 28) or paddle-like
stones of the Lesser Antilles.**

2 Porto Rican Burial Caves. Proc. 19th Int. Cong. Amer., pp. 224-228, 1917.

2 Excavation of a new archeological site in Porto Rico. Proc. 19th Int. Cong. Amer.,
pp. 220-223, 1917.

23 Archeological work in. Porto Rico, Am. Anthrop., 0. s., vol. XIX, pp. 214-238, 1917.

2Wor a discussion of distribution of the petaloid and ax form of implement see
Fewkes, Aboriginal Culture in the Lesser Antilles, Bull, Amer. Geog. Soc., vol. XLyI, no. 9,
1914.

172 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The pottery found by the author in Cueva de los Golondrinos, near
Manati, fragments of which are figured in Aborigines of Porto Rico,
is coarse, not unlike that from the Lesser Antilles, and very much
more like that from Barbados. As was pointed out, there are like-
nesses to pottery found in shell heaps of Porto Rico and in other places
of the island. It was not possible to distinguish this pottery from
sea caves from that. found in open juegos de bola, as no extended col-
lections had been made from the ball courts, and so far as could be
judged this difficulty still confronts us. The pottery from the shell
heaps is now better known than it was a dozen years ago, and it
would appear that the ceramics from shell deposits is quite unlike
that from some of the caves, as, for instance, the Cueva de los

Golondrinos on the north shore. It
is, however, difficult to make this
statement comprehensive, as it ap-
pears that caves were used for burial
purposes, especially in the uplands,
by a people more recent than those,
if any, who lived in caves.

“The present inhabitants of His-
paniola still find the figures of Zemes
in several parts of the island, and it
is by this sign they know where In-

} dian towns formerly stood, as well
as by certain heaps of shells found
under ground; the Indians having
been very fond of shellfish; and as
often as this happens, very curious
discoveries are to be made, by con-
tinuing to dig a little, in the neigh-
bourhood of such heaps; for here are generally to be found
everything this people used; such as earthen vessels, flat earthen
plates for baking cassava bread, hatchets, and those little plates
of gold they used to hang to their nostrils, and sometimes to
their ears; but above all, a considerable quantity of Zemes of every
formy.’725

Fig. 28.—Outline of ax, shown from
edge and side. (3.5 inches.)

PETALOID CELTS

The majority of the stone axes from the Porto Rican area belong
to a type which, from its resemblance to the petal of a flower, has re-
ceived the name petaloid. A much closer resemblance in form, how-
ever, is that to an almond nut, from which fact these implements

2 Jefferys, Natural and Civil History of the French Dominions in North and South
America, pt. 2, p. 15.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES eit

are often called almond celts. The petaloid form occurs in great
abundance in Porto Rico, but it is found in all the islands from
Trinidad to the Bahamas.

The size of the petaloid celt varies, some of the specimens being
too small for use as implements, while others are very large. The
latter may be ceremonial objects; the former mascots or charm stones.

The mode of uniting the petaloid to its handle is indicated by the
several specimens described by Joyce, Mason, and the author. In
these specimens the handle and blade are both made of one stone,
which has suggested the name monolithic petaloid celt.

Fic. 29.—Broken monolithic celt. (6 inches.)

Mono.uitHic PETALOID CELTS

There are two monolithic celts (figs. 29, 30) in the Heye collec-
tion, from both of which fragments have been broken. There are,
however, a few undescribed specimens of this form in other museums.

The specimens of monolithic celts from the mounds of the United
States, as those discovered by Mr. C. B. Moore at Moundville and
in Jones’ Antiquities of the Southern Indians, are particularly in-
teresting on account of their variety and Antillean affinities. Those
from Central America are also instructive, but as yet no one has
compared them to those from the West Indian region.

One of the most common differences between petaloids is the
variation in the relation between length and breadth or thick-
ness. Platé 88, A, shows one of the most unusual modifications in the
otherwise regular form of these petaloids. The point in this speci-

174 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

men is less acute-than is ordinarily the case and the sides enlarge
as they recede from it, forming a cap, which appears to fit over the
point of the celt as indicated. A cross section of the length of this
modification of this form of petaloid is evident in the accompanying
illustration.

The most important differences in the petaloids are not so much
in shape as in the form and na-
ture of the heads, bodies, or faces
engraved upon them. A special
group has been made to contain
petaloids with engraved surfaces,
called ceremonial celts, several un-
described specimens of which have
been studied by the author. <An-
other kind of petaloid celt, also
elevated to a special group called
monolithic petaloids, has a handle
and ax in one piece. The celt pre-
serves its almond shape, but the
handle may be variously modified.
Several specimens of this group, one of which is in the Heye collec-
tion, have been studied by the author.

Fic. 30.—Broken monolithic celt.

ENGRAVED CELTS

The following is quoted at length from the author’s account ** of
these implements in the Heye Museum.

The majority of stone objects known from the larger islands
are finely polished, while those from the Lesser Antilles are of
a different form, with a rough surface. The former are called
celts; the latter are commonly known as axes. The peculiari-
ties of these objects found in the West Indies indicate that these
islands formed a sharply defined culture area in prehistoric times.
Their technique suggests an occupation by man for a consider-
able period, for it takes many years to develop the culture that
they express. We find, moreover, that the geographical distribu-
tion of the two different types of these objects can best be ex-
plained on the supposition that they belong to two radically differ-
ent culture regions which can be readily distinguished. These
two subcultural centers, geographically speaking, are the Greater
and the Lesser Antilles—the former characterized by the smoothly
polished celt; the latter by the rough ax, having an enlarged, well-
developed poll, differentiated from the blade by encircling grooves

*° Engraved Celts from the Antilles. Contributions from the Heye Museum, vol. 11,
no. 3, 1915.

FEWKES] . CULTURE AREAS IN THE WESE INDIES 175

or marginal notches for the hafting of handles. While the celt
has no indication of: a head, and the extremity of the blade tapers
into a point, the head of the majority of axes from the Lesser
Antilles is often broader or larger than the blade, and is variously
modified into projections, horns, or bifurcations, very rarely tak-
ing the form of an animal’s head.

The type form of celt from the Greater Antilles. has an almond
or petal shape, which has suggested the name “ petaloid.” Although
the petaloid celt occurs in greater or less abundance ** in all the
West Indies, this form is particularly characteristic of the Greater
Antilles. Implements of this type are generally made of stone, but
when proper stone does not occur another material, as shell, may also
be used for the purpose.

No implement of the polished stone epoch in America can sur-
pass the petaloid in the regularity of its form or the beauty cf its
superficial finish. There is considerable variation in their size, but
only a slight modification in their outlines, as seen in profile, the
general almond or petaloid form being constant.

A cross section of one of these implements, taken midway in
length, is as a rule oval; but a few are rectangular, the angles being
rounded. The greatest breadth of a typical petaloid is near the
middle. These celts have blunt edges and taper to a point, being
destitute of grooves.%

The petaloid type passes almost imperceptibly into the ax form,
or those with one end modified into a head and without the pointed
extremity.

The petaloid celt figures extensively in the folklore of the modern
islanders. In Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indies they are
usually called “ piedras del rayo,” or thunder-stones, by which name
they are commonly designated in the English islands. They are
supposed by the country people to be endowed with magic powers,
and are regarded as efficacious in healing diseases. They are like-
wise supposed to protect the natives from lightning, being fre-
quently deposited for that purpose under the thatch forming the
roof of their cabins. In St. Vincent and some islands they are
placed in earthen jars to keep the drinking water pure and cool.”

7 The petaloid type occurs as far south as Trinidad, its northern extension being the
Bahamas. About 90 per cent of all stone implements from the Greater Antilles are
petaloid celts, and an equal percentage from the Lesser Antilles are axes.

2 It is sometimes stated that grooved axes do not occur in the West Indies, but in the
Heye collection we find them well represented from St. Vincent and other Lesser Antilles.
The author has seen very few of this type from the Greater Antilles.

* There exists considerable folklore and many superstitions connected with these
stones. It is sometimes stated that they are found in trees struck by lightning, while
others declare they penetrate the earth and come to the surface in seven years. A true
thunder-stone may, according to some informants, be determined by binding a thread about
it and applying a lighted match. If the thread burns the stone is genuine, Several
specimens bear superficial marks of having been tested this way.

176 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

They are conspicuous in the equipment of the African voodoo or
obia men, who are said to employ them in some of their rites.

The writer has excavated several of these implements in Porto
Rico caves, shell heaps, or middens, but the majority, counting into
hundreds, were purchased from the country people, who, finding
them in the soil while cultivating their “canucos,” or small farms,
preserve them as curiosities for purposes above mentioned. Those
purchased by the author were, as a rule, slightly nicked by the
finders, their points or edges being broken under the impression
that they contain “ electricity.”

Specimens of Antillean petaloid celts with figures or faces cut
upon their surfaces are rare. These probably were carried by the
pointed extremity.*° The most highly ornamented bear a morpho-
logical likeness to idols, and their forms imply more than the term
“decorated celt” would indicate, for some of these are practically
figurines rather than celts. The step, however, from the incised celt to
the idol is here, as elsewhere with man in lower stages, so slight that
nothing can be gained by ascribing one use or name to the engraved
petaloid and the other to the petaloid in the form of a figure."

The form and symbolism of the petaloids with life figures engraved
upon them have led the author to the belief that these celts were never
furnished with handles, but were used symbolically as insignia of
rank, and carried directly in the hand by the pointed ends or inserted
in staves or wooden sticks for the same purpose.

Engraved celts have been collected in the Bahamas and the Greater
Antilles, but have never been found in the Lesser Antilles. The fol-
lowing list of specimens, named from the museums in which they
now are, contains the more important variations in this type of celt:
. Berlin Museum, No. 1.

Rae specimen.

. Berlin Museum, No. 2.

. British Museum (4 specimens).

. United States National Museum.
Heye Museum.

. Museum of the University of Havana.
. Copenhagen Museum.

. Heye Museum (stone “ dirk”).

. Blackmore Museum (stone “ dirk”).

SOMA TP wry

me

20'The term decorated celt or celts with incised decorations might suffice to designate
the simpler forms, but this name is inadequate to apply to the highly developed
specimens.

31 The monolithic stone celts, or those in which blade and handle are formed of one
stone, are supposed to have been ceremonial in nature or to have been used in religious
practices. Incidentally they indicate the way a wooden handle was attached to a smooth
undecorated celt, and may throw some light on the probable way the celt with a figure
engraved on one side was used.

TFEWKDESs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES lrg

An examination and comparison of the above specimens show that
while they have considerable variation in form there is a sufficiently
well marked resemblance to refer all to the same type. In its sim-
plest form the incised petaloid celt can hardly be distinguished from
an undecorated petaloid, the main difference being the human face
cut upon its surface.

1. Berlin Museum, No. 1.*°—This specimen (pl. 88, 2) is one of
the simple forms of the type of ceremonial petaloid celts. Its thick-
ness is slight, compared with the breadth, the lateral as well as the
terminal edges being sharp. Its main character is the incised
circle on one side, inclosing other circles indicating eyes and mouth.
Below this face, the arms with elbows upward are also indistinctly
represented by grooves.

The specimen came to the Berlin Museum from Dr. Grosser, Ger-
man consul at Plaisance, Haiti. It measures 13} inches long by 3}
inches broad and 2 inches thick.

2. Rae specimen.—Mr. Theodoor de Booy has called my attention
to a similar, almost identical, specimen which was found on a farm
in New Providence, Bahamas, and is now owned by Mr. C. S. Rae, of
Nassau. Mr. De Booy believes that there is a mention of this speci-
men in some work on the Bahamas, but says he has never seen it
figured. To supply this want he has sent me drawings from the
specimen itself with the size indicated. Its greatest length is 104
inches; width, 34 inches; thickness, 1? inches. The face of this celt
is 2 by 13 inches. The circle represents a face, and is confined to one
side, the opposite surface being smooth. It seems probable that this
specimen was brought to the Bahamas from the neighboring islands,
and its close similarity to the one from Haiti above mentioned shows
a great probability that it was derived from that island.

3. Berlin Museum, No. 2—An incised celt (pl. 88, C) in the same
museum, said to have come from the island of St. Thomas, is one of
the most beautiful forms of ceremonial petaloid celts known to the
author. Its technique recalls stone objects from Santo Domingo,
Porto Rico, and Haiti.** The outward form of this petaloid seen in
profile is well preserved, the figure engraved upon it being well cut
and unmistakably human. It measures 8 inches in length by 3 inches
in width.

One of the illustrations shows this specimen from the face; the
other from the back.*t The details of both surfaces are so well

%It is with great pleasure that the author here acknowledges his thanks to the
authorities of the Berlin Museum fiir Vélkerkunde for permission to publish figures of
these petaloids.

33 Probably it came originally from one of these islands, the locality St. Thomas being
wrongly ascribed to it.

% These figures and the preceding were made by W. von den’ Steinen, of the Berlin
Museum,

160658°—34 rerH—22——_12

178 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

worked out in the illustration that there is no need of an elaborate
description. The style of the figure is thoroughly Antillean through-
out, and comparable with that so constantly found in engraved
figures of human beings from these islands, especially those cut in
low relief on stone, shell, or bone. This specimen may be regarded
as an intermediate form between a smooth celt with a face incised
on the surface and that from the Royal Museum in Copenhagen, to
be considered later, where the celt form has almost completely
disappeared.

4. British Museum (four specimens).—Four specimens **" in the
British Museum preserve a petaloid form, but are not so symmetrical
nor so well made as some others. They are, however, especially in-
structive, since they show an elongation of the pointed end in the
form of a handle, while the cutting edge still survives above the
head. The position of these celts in a hypothetical series illus-
trating the modifications in the type would be nearer the simplest
than the most complicated forms. This shows connections with
another series, for from them one can readily pass into a group
of globular stone objects or heads, with handles—a form without
indications of a cutting edge and showing no affinity with celts.

5. National Museum.—The type specimen of engraved or ceremo-
nial celts, first published in the author’s work on the Aborigines
of Porto Rico,?° was one of the most instructive specimens of Arch-
bishop Merifio’s collection and was collected in Santo Domingo.
The general characteristics, as shown in the figure referred to, are
a sharpened edge extending over an oval head, with a pointed poll
below, imparting to it the true petaloid form. The hands with their
fingers drawn up under the chin and the low projection rising be-
tween them are feeble attempts to represent either the body or its
appendages. On its reverse side the surface of the implement is
plain, shghtly curved, as is true of all celts on which face or head
is represented. There can hardly be any good reason to believe
that this celt ever had a handle, as no signs of such an attachment
are to be seen, and even if there were the presence of a hance would
conceal a part of the figure it bears. The specimen is of a greenish
stone and measures 14 inches in length.

6. Heye Musewm—Mv. Theodoor de Booy collected in the Bahamas
a broken ceremonial petaloid celt, which is now in the Heye Mu-
seum. The edge of this celt and the surface bearing the figure are
very much mutilated, but enough remains of the body to enable us
to show its form ** and verify his identification.

si@' These have been well figured and described by Joyce, in Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., vol.
XXXVII, pl. Lv, figs. 1—4,

% Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. xv.

%6 This specimen is figured by Mr. de Booy in his article on Luecayan Artifacts in Amer.
Anthrop., n. s., xv, No. 1, p. 6.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 88

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

(BERLIN MUSEUM)

PETALOID CELT, HAITI

ENGRAVED PETALOID CELTS (BERLIN MUSEUM)

ches.

=I
-

5inches; C,

8 inches; B, 1:

A, 2.8

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FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 179

7. Museum of the University of Havana—Aside from a brief field
note made by the author, there is little information concerning a
ceremonial petaloid now preserved in the University of Havana. This
specimen was thus referred to in the author’s article on the Pre-
historic Culture of Cuba:* “Among the objects seen in these two
collections [Academia de Ciencias, and University at Vedado] are
10 petaloid celts in the Academy museum and about double that
number at the University. One of those in the latter collection has
a stone handle like those obtained by me in 1903 in Santo Domingo.
There is also a celt with a face cut on one side—evidently a cere-
monial celt like one in Archbishop Merifio’s collection.”

8. Copenhagen Museum.—tThere is a remarkably engraved petaloid
celt in the Ethnological Museum of Copenhagen, Denmark. This
specimen (pl. 89, A,B,C) is of a hard black stone, well made, with its
surface smoothly polished. It is said to have come originally from
Santo Domingo, and to have been added to the museum in the year
1861. Through the kindness of Prof. Sophus Muller, director of the
museum, the author has been able to take the photographs from
which the accompanying illustrations were made. The only other
figure of this object is published by Rudolph Cronau in his book on
America.”

Certain implements ascribed to prehistoric Santo Domingo find a
fitting place in our classifications near the ceremonial petaloid celts.
Their form is somewhat different, but can readily be reduced to
the same type. The main difference appears to be the absence
of a cutting edge, the pointed end being prolonged into a long
pointed blade. These objects with figures carved on their handles
and long blades suggest stone dirks. Two of these are known to
the author.

9. Heye Museum (Stone “ Dirk”)—On his expedition to Santo
Domingo, in the interest of the Heye Museum, Mr. Theodoor de
Booy collected in that Republic a stone dirk (pl. 90, A, B, C) which,
while allied to some of the incised ceremonial celts, still shows a form
quite unlike any previously described. The specimen was formerly
in the collection of the late Senor José Gabriel Garcia, of Santo
Domingo City. Its general form, as shown in a_ photograph
taken by Mr. Theodoor de Booy, from side, front, and rear, re-
sembles a dirk, the handle of which is modified into a rude figure of a
human being, and the pointed end prolonged into a blade. It
measures 8 inches in length.

# Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. vi, No. 5, p. 594.
88 Amerika, vol. 1, p. 357. Cronau labels his figure of this object, a “hand weapon,”
an identification that is not far from correct.

180 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

10. Blackmore Museum (Stone “ Dirk”)—Mr, E. T. Stevens *°
has figured another stone dirk which also came from Santo Domingo.
This specimen shows signs of secondary work, and the “ tool marks ”
upon it, according to Stevens, “have been removed by subsequent
polishing.” The same author likewise calls attention to a “sketch
of a somewhat similar weapon” engraved upon a map of Santo
Domingo, published in 1731.*° This specimen is described as having
been found in an Indian sepulcher.

In considering the morphology of these dirks we may theoretically
suppose that they present the most highly specialized form of incised
or ceremonial petaloid celts, but it may be that the part interpreted
as a blade was used as a handle by which the object was carried in
the hand. This handle may have been inserted into a staff, or set in
a stand, or even planted in the ground. The use of this object is
problematical, but there is little evidence that it was ever tied to
a handle midway in its length.

While the celts above described have in one or two cases lost the
original form of this implement, their relation to an undecorated
petaloid is evident and the main characters of the type are preserved.
The modifications are not difficult to follow.

The cultural differences in the prehistoric aborigines of the Greater
and Lesser Antilles are nowhere better shown than in the character-
istic types of implements. Stone implements of the former islands
are celts without grooves for hafting, while axes with marginal
notches, enlarged heads, or encircling grooves are characteristic of
the latter islands. The celts of the former islands recall Central
American or North American forms; the axes found in the Lesser
Antilles are more South American.

The type called celts, with smooth or decorated surfaces, described
in the preceding pages, is not found in the chain of islands from
the Danish Islands south from Anegada Passage to South America ;
neither have similar petaloids yet been reported from the adjacent
continent. It may therefore be regarded as characteristic of the
Greater Antilles, as are also elbow stones, stone collars, and tri-
pointed zemis or stone idols. The technique of these objects from the
West Indies is superior to those found in the southeastern area of the
United States, but not better than those from the coast of Central

% According to Mr. Stevens (Flint Chips, p. 226) : ‘Two similar specimens are in the
Christy collection ; another is in the collection of Mr. Hodder M. Westropp, of Rookhurst,
Cork; and another, said to have been found at Aigueperse, near Riom, Puy de Dome,
France, is in the Clermont Museum.” }

“The following footnote reference to this map appears: ‘‘ The map is entitled, ‘L'Isle
Espagnole sous le nom Indien d’Hayti, ou comme elle étoit possédee par ses habitants
naturels lors de la decouverte, avee les premiers Etablissemens des Espagnols. Par le
Sr. D’Anville, Geographe Ord. du Roi. May, 1731.’ The figure of the implement has been
copied in the ‘Trans, Amer. Ethno. Soc.,’ vol. 111, part 1, fig. Ta,”

FEWKES J CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 181

America—a fact which, so far as it goes, points to ethnic kinship
with the latter rather than with the former area. It can also be
shown that the stone axes of the Lesser Antilles, like the ceremonial
petaloids above described, bear incised decorations on one side, al-
though so far as known these incised figures represent geometrical
designs and not human faces or bodies.

In connection with these ceremonial celts should be mentioned
another type reported from Cuba by Senor Andres Poey, who in
1855 read before the American Ethnological Society a paper entitled
“Cuban Antiquities; a Brief Description of Some Relics found in
the Island of Cuba.” According to Dr. Brinton this paper was not
published in English, but Senor J. L. Garcia printed a Spanish trans-
lation of itin Volume I'V of his “ Revista de la Habana.” This appar-
ent contradiction is explained when we know that the edition of the
publication in which Poey’s article appeared was burned, but was
subsequently reprinted in facsimile in 1909 by the American Eth-
nological Society.* ‘

This object (pl. 93, A), according to Poey, was found by “D.
Miguel Rodriguez-Ferrer in the eastern department of Cuba at a
place called the Junco, in the jurisdiction of Baracoa, in the interior
of a wood, at a depth of 3 feet below the surface of the ground.”

The original account as represented is as follows: * “[Fig. 2] is
a correct representation of the second relic and is one-fourth of the
size of the original. All the figures seen on one side are exactly
reproduced on the other. These are so admirably executed that I
am inclined to think they must have been done with a mold; the
particular reasons for which conclusion are: 1st, That the measure-
ments in both sides are so exactly alike that it seems almost impossible
to have regulated the work merely by the eye or even by a compass;
2d, all the figures are executed on both sides in alto-relievo; 3d, the
outlines of the figures are perfectly smooth. The stone, which is very
hard and of a brownish red color, had originally a thick coat of
varnish and was neatly polished, as is easily seen in those parts where
the varnish has not been destroyed by friction. A, B is a vein of
quartz which passes through the stone at an equal distance from the
circumference. There is a slight groove cut all around it. The stone
gradually diminishes in thickness from the center to the circum-
ference. It is difficult to conceive what operations can have been
performed with this implement unless we suppose it to be an ax.
Were we to look for any animal representation that of a fish would
most probably be the true one.” **

“Trans. Amer. Ethn. Soc., vol. 111, pt. 1, pp. 183-202.

“Tbid., pp. 187-188.

“This object is also mentioned without figure in my work ‘“ Prehistoric Culture of
Cuba,” Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. vi, p. 589.

182 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

As may be seen in plate 93, A, from a photograph by Senor Na-
cisso Sentenach, procured in Madrid by Prof. Saville, this speci-
men has an ax form with a somewhat broken edge and a head in
relief on the opposite end or poll. Its general form is oval, the
surfaces plain, slightly convex, its margins rounded. The thickness
is much less than the length or breadth.

The unique characteristic of this ax is the head on the poll and its
relative position respecting the longer axis. The form of the nose,
mouth, eyes, and forehead suggests the head of a human being and
the appendages represented in low relief on each side suggest fingers
or flippers at the extremities of the arms. The boundary between
body and head is a curved line near which on the under surface back
of the chin are indications of folds. The straight line extending
across the head and body passing through the eyes diagonally is the
quartz vein in the stone to which reference is made by Poey. The
resemblance to a fish is not striking.

In comparing this blade with the ceremonial celts mentioned above,
it will be noticed that in the latter the head or figure is engraved
on one side, and the median line of the engraved figure corresponds
with that of the middle line of the side of the ax, while the middle
facial line of the Cuban specimen is at right angles to the middle line
of the blade. This is the only known ax which has the butt modified
into a head, although there is something similar in monolithic axes
from Santo Domingo and Haiti.

In the Heye collection there is a fractured ceremonial celt col-
lected by De Booy in the Bahamas which connects ceremonial celts
and engraved stones with heads or human figures which have lost
their likeness to celts. This specimen preserves a likeness to deco-
rated petaloids as well as to stone images where the petaloid form is
lost, and may be said to connect these two types and possibly suggest
a meaning for both. It was found in a negro cabin in Mariguana
Island, Bahamas,“ and is thus referred to by De Booy, in an
article, “ Lucayan Artifacts from the Bahamas” :*

“Although in fragmentary condition, this object shows clearly
what the original outlines must have been, and it may be included
among the best examples of prehistoric stonework from the Ba-
hamas * * * The celt is petaloid and is made of a green, slate-
like stone, possibly of volcanic origin.”

Mr. De Booy adds this important information about the object:
“The figure on the celt is shown in a seated posture and is carved
in low relief. The knees and arms point inward and the hands rest

“The character of the stone of which it is made shows that it did not come from a
coral island like Mariguana, and the resemblances in technique and culture ally it to
Haitian forms.

4 Amer, Anthrop., n. s. vol. xv, Dp. 6.

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THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

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BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 92

C D
STONE HEADS (TROCADERO MUSEUM, PARIS)

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 93

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CELT AND STONE BALLS WITH ENGRAVED FACES, HAITI, CUBA
(BERLIN MUSEUM)

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 183

under the chin. The body itself is not shown. The fingers and toes
are represented by shallow grooves. The head is indicated by a
carved circle, of which, owing to the fact that the top of the celt
is missing, not more than half can be seen. However, the right ear
is still shown outside the circle. The eyes and mouth are cut in
intaglio; the nose and the right eyebrow are in low relief.” *®

The general style of the stone cutting is very similar to that of
an idol now in the Trocadero Museum, Paris, although the disposi-
tion of the limbs is different and the latter has a large umbilicus,
which is missing in the Bahama specimen. The outlines of the faces
of both are similar and the details of the carving of the nose almost
identical.

Mr. De Booy, in the author’s opinion, has correctly identified this
specimen as a ceremonial celt, but it has certain features that impart
to it an interest apart from its resemblance to an engraved petaloid.
One of these features is the manner in which the hands are brought to
the body, as the grooves representing fingers are longitudinal instead
of horizontal.

HUMAN HEADS AND FIGURES

The passage from petaloid celts with human faces or heads en-
graved upon them to stone heads that have lost all resemblance to
celts bifurcates into two directions, one of which leads to stone heads
with a prolongation on the back of the head, either above or below or
in both directions; the other to stones with graven heads or faces,
but with no projections. The former are called in the author’s
Aborigines of Porto Rico stone heads; the latter, stone masks.

In neither of these are the limbs or body represented with the
heads, which separates them from another group in which portions
of the body or limbs or both are represented. In both also the sem-
blance to a ceremonial celt is lost by the absence of any representation
of the »o'nt or cutting edge. In the other group we have simply a
stone nodule with representations of a human head or other parts of
the body carved on its surface. These forms have no visible projec-
tions by which they could have been lashed to a staff or which may
have served as a handle.

Figures of various forms of stone heads with projections for lash-
ing will be found in the article on the Aborigines of Porto Rico, and
in Mr. Joyce’s paper already mentioned,*? where they are called stone
heads. Heads or faces (pl. 91, 4) cut on the surfaces of stones with-
out projections by which they may be attached to a staff are also
figured in my article under the name “stone masks”—a term open

4© Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xv, pp. 6, 7.
‘7 Prehistoric antiquities from the Antilles, in the British Museum. Journ, Roy. Anthr.
Inst., vol. XxxviI, pp. 402-419.

184 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

to some objection. In none of these are there representations of
body or legs carved in stone with the head.

Sronp Heaps

One of the most interesting forms of stone heads in the Heye col-
lection is shown in plate 91, B, and represented from the side in plate
91, (. This head is globular, with two projections on the back, one
above on the crown of the head and the other below under the chin.
The cheeks are marked by depressions, one on each, and above each
depression there is a ridge, which becomes so pronounced in the fol-
lowing specimens from the Pinart collection in the Trocadero Mu-
seum that they seem to show the bones of the jaws or to resemble
skulls, suggesting a death god.

An illustration showing one of these heads with pronounced like-
ness to a human cranium is shown in plate 92, A, from the Troca-
dero Museum. This object, the gift of Mr. Schéchler to the museum,
was found in Porto Rico, and measures 0.145 by 0.09 m. It has a pro-
longation in the place of a neck by which it was attached to some
foreign body.

The head shown in plate 92, B, is cut in low relief on a stone
nodule 0.12 by 0.09 m., and has visible projections by which it could
have been attached to a foreign object. The nose, lips, and eyebrows
are cut in low relief, the eyes and the mouth being indicated by shal-
low depressions.

The stone head shown in plate 92, 7), is said to have come from
Martinique, although it recalls in general features those from Santo
Domingo. This specimen has been so mounted as to resemble a
bust, and has marked European technique with the exception of the
earrings, which show decided Antillean features. This bust is in
the Trocadero Museum, Paris, and measures 0.20 by 0.18 m. I have
many doubts of its prehistoric character, but have introduced it
here to show the manner in which the ear ornaments were set in
the lower lobe of the ear. It is mounted in a way different from
that implied in the forms of other specimens, where the neck was
probably lashed to a stave or staff.

Stone Noputrs AND Masks

A stone face in the Heye collection represented in plate 94, C, has
all the essential features of these objects as figured in the author’s
Aborigines of Porto Rico.

The surface on which the face is cut is flat, the opposite convex,
without prolongation or groove for attachment. The features that
distinguish this mask from others are the two triangular engraved
figures below the mouth which probably represent the limbs or body.

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 185

Plate 94, B, also in the Heye collection, represents one of the sim-
plest forms of stone masks. It has an oval form, with eyes and mouth
represented as shallow depressions, while nose and lips are in relief.
It has all the features found in the typical stone masks, but is dis-
tinguished from the majority by the two round symmetrical protu-
berances, one on each cheek. In some of the engraved stones that
have lost all resemblance to masks, homologues of these protuberances
alone remain, and in one or two instances there are three of these
projections, one on each cheek and one in the middle of the fore-
head.

The nodule type is differentiated from stone heads and stone masks
because body and limbs, one or all, are graven on them. There sur-
vives in them no indication of the point or cutting edge of a ceremo-
nial celt and no projection by which they can be bound to other ob-
jects. To all intents they resemble idols except that they are destitute
of any flat base by which they may be made to stand upright. They
show no evidence of having been attached to a wooden base or a pup-
pet made of fabrics which has been suggested for the head. This

type was unknown when the memoir, Aborigines of Porto Rico,
was written, and so far as known has not been differentiated from the
other types.

There are in the Berlin Museum three specimens which can be re-
ferred to this type, the essentials of which will appear in the follow-
ing description :

The first of these (pl. 93, B, C), from Cape Haitien, has an almost

_ globular form, more like an ovate spheroid, in which the organs of
the face and arms are cut in low relief on one side. The eyes, repre-
sented by simple slits, are cut obliquely and are surrounded by a
raised side. The lips are large and the nose more or less broken.
Just below the lower lip we find representations of the fingers, four
in number, connected by a ridge that surrounds and incloses the
face. This ridge probably represents the arms, the elbows being
situated just below the hands. ;

The nodule figured (pl. 94, 4) is from Les Cayes, Haiti, and is
much more complicated: in its carying, because both arms and legs
are represented. In this specimen the chin is pointed, and the face
has the eyes, nose, and teeth carved in relief. The nose has an in-
verted T shape. The forehead is low and, like the chin, indicated
by a curved line. An exceptional feature of the face is the two
parallel vertical markings on each cheek. These recall the grooves
on the cheek of an etched stone from Nipe Bay, Cuba, elsewhere
figured.*®

49 Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pl. yxxi1, b, and Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol.
VI, no. 5, pl. xvii, 1.

186 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Ridges representing the arms on each side of the stone extend back-
ward, forming shoulder blades, and lengthwise for upper arms to the
elbows, ending in hands a short distance below the chin. The legs
are made in low relief extending to the knees.

A flat form of stone nodule is shown in plate 93, D, #. This speci-
men has the hands turned upward and the raised ridges representing
the arms inclose the face. The eyebrows arch over the eyes and are
continued into the nose,
which bifureates above
the teeth, inclosing the
mouth and forming the
lower lip. The teeth
are indicated by parallel
ridges alternating with
grooves.

This specimen from
Gonaives, Haiti, which
is now, like the two pre-
ceding, in the Berlin
Museum fiir V6lker-
kunde, was collected by
Dr. Grosser, German
consul in Haiti.

The stone object shown

; aoe: in figure 31, purchased

Fic. 31.—Stone idol. a, Front view. b, Side view. & 5 a
(7.25 inches.) in Paris by Mr. Heye,
is cylindrical in shape,
with a human face cut on one end, and with arms in low relief. The
remarkable feature about this object is the knobs, 15 in number, ar-
ranged with some regularity, covering the sides and back of the body.

The lower part of the body and the legs of this specimen are miss-
ing, probably broken. The specimen is 74 inches long and about 34
inches in diameter at the level of the chin.

In various collections studied by the author there occurs another
type of Antillean stone handiwork, the technique of which resembles
that on the ceremonial petaloid celt, the stone head, and the mask, but
in which there is no projection that might serve asa handle. These are
oval or spherical stone balls with face, body, limbs, or complete human
forms cut in relief on their surfaces. They recall the ceremonial peta-
loid celts of the British Museum, figured by Joyce and referred to
above. If, for instance, the handle of the latter were reduced in length
and the head made more globular, we would have the ceremonial ball
referred to.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 187

SEMICIRCULAR STONES

There are several semicircular stones in the Heye collection, one
of which, shown from front and side (fig. 32), is particularly well
made.

The distinctive features of this type are the semicircular form,
flat on one side, convex on the other, and the two ear-like lappets,
sometimes modified into heads, one on each side of the base, by
which the stone was lashed to a foreign object. In the stone heads
these cleats for lashings appear above the head and below the chin,
forming a neck, whereas in the semicircular type the ear-like lap-
pets are at right angles to the axis of the face when such exists.

Pic. 32.—Semicirculaw stone with face, from front and side. (7.31 inches.)

The face on this specimen is indicated by a well-made circle,
within which are two circular pits of equal size, side by side, for the
eyes, and a third, oval in form, for the mouth. all three being sur-
rounded by ridges.

STONE COLLARS

There are no more characteristic objects from the West Indies
than the so-called stone collars, which are prehistoric in origin and
of unknown use. These objects appear to be confined to Porto
Rico and Haiti, although specimens in some of the European mu-
seums are labeled from the Lesser Antilles. The Heye collection
contains several stone collars, one of which (pl. 95, A, 8) is unique.

The stone collars of Porto Rico and Santo Domingo have a variety
of forms which admit of a classification. - There are two great types
known from characteristics that are evident—the massive and the
slender ovate. Both massive and slender collars are secondarily
divided into two groups, right and left handed, accordingly as the
knob is on the right or left hand side as the collar is placed in a
natural position.*° .

©The “natural position” would seem to be in case of the slender ovate with the
pointed pole uppermost, the panels facing the observer. In the massive collars, when
there is no pointed pole, the situation of the panels determines the upper pole.

188 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

The specimen of a massive collar that is represented in plate 95,
A, B, was purchased by the author ®t from Sefior Seiyo, of Arecibo,
Porto Rico, and is one of the most remarkable of all. This specimen
is evidently a connecting link between the massive collars and the
slender ovate, the symbolism on it belonging to the massive variety.
There is a remote likeness in this to the paneling of the slender ovate
variety, but no other collar has a head carved in such high relief.

Several massive stone collars have been figured by archeologists.
They have the general features shown in plate 97, D,°? from Paris,
which is one of the heaviest of its group. Although massive collars
have sometimes been interpreted as unfinished specimens of the slender
ovate, there is every evidence that the massive type is wholly dis-
tinct and its symbolism should
be interpreted from its own char-
acters. We are forced to the
conclusion, if the slender ovate
is regarded as a finished form
of the massive, that having cut
one form of decoration for the
massive they.changed it later, in
making that of the slender ovate,
to another type of symbol.

The vayjous parts of a slender
ovate collar are designated in
figure 33 for reference and are
known as follows: 6, boss; dp,
decorated panel; dpg, decorated
panel groove; dpb, decorated
panel border; dpbp, decorated
panel border pot; p, projection ;
, shoulder; sb, shoulder bowl; upp, undecorated panel pit; upg,
undecorated panel groove.

The corresponding parts of a massive collar are designated in the
accompanying cut by the same letters. There are intermediate forms
connecting the two groups, and the evidences appear strong that both
massive and slender collars had the same use.

The collar represented in plate 96, (, shows the marginal border
of the panel highly decorated, while the projection modified into a
head recalls one with the snake’s head in the museum at Bremen fig-
ured by the author.

Fic. 33.—Schematic view of stone collar,

s

‘This beautiful specimen was first figured by the author in his article on “ Porto
Rican Elbow-Stones in the Heye Museum.” ‘The author’s figure is reproduced by Joyce,
“ Central American and West Indian Archaeology,’ pl. XIX.

53'The author is indebted to Prof. M. H. Saville for the photograph here reproduced.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 94

A, STONE NODULE; 2, ©, STONE MASKS, HAITI (4, GROSSER COLLECTION,
BERLIN MUSEUM)

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT FPLATE 95

MASSIVE STONE COLLAR, PORTO RICO

20.5 by 16 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 96

C D
SLENDER STONE COLLARS, PORTO RICO

C, 18 inches; D, 17 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 97

B A
i.

D C

A, B, C, SLENDER STONE COLLARS; 2, MASSIVE STONE COLLAR, PORTO RICO
(TROCADERO MUSEUM, PARIS)

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 189

The specimen, plate 97, A, from a photograph procured by Prof.
Saville from Dauberton, Paris, shows modifications in the edge of the
undecorated panel border, somewhat different from the last, although
comparable with it. The parts represented are a median head with
lateral appendages, recalling the more extensive design on the elabo-
rate form of the massive collar (pl. 95, 4). The slender ovate collar
figured in plate 97, B, is in the Trocadero Museum, Paris, and is
exceptional in the relatively large development of the boss. There is
also a remote resemblance in the projection to a head, which assumes
the reptilian form in the specimen from the Bremen Museum. Inci-
dentally attention may be called to the neat method of installation
which is worthy of adoption in other museums.

In another specimen from the same museum shown in plate 97, C,
the boss is not as prominent, and the region of the undecorated panel
is more massive. The shoulder band is broad, the projection not
being visible in the view here given. The photograph (pl. 97, ))
here reproduced was likewise made by Dauberton, and procured for
the author by Prof. M. H. Saville.

One of the most instructive stone collars known to the author
was described by him in his article on “A Prehistoric Stone Collar
from Porto Rico.” ** The knob of this collar is modified into the
head of a serpent or some reptile. In this article the author shows
that the knobs of several collars may represent the heads of some
reptilian form and if that conclusion has any important significance
in a determination of the identify of the type we may adopt the
serpent theory, or that the stone collar represents a serpent idol. In
this article the homologies of other parts of stone collars are con-
sidered to such an extent that the paper is here quoted at length.

Attention was first called to a stone collar with knob modified
into a snake’s head in the following lines of an article on Porto Rico
Stone Collars and Tripointed Idols :°* “ Sometimes the projection is
ferruled, often with pits like eyes, and in one collar the prominence
is said to have the form of a snake’s head.” To this is added the
following note: “ This specimen is owned by Mr. Leopold B. Strube,
of Arecibo, who has sent the author a drawing which shows the
knob in the form of a snake’s head.” This reference was later
quoted in the writer’s memoir on the Aborigines of Porto Rico.*®

On a recent visit to Europe the author examined the specimen,
now in Bremen,*® and made the drawings reproduced in figures

53 Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. XVI, pp. 319-330.

% Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. XLv11, pt. 2, 1904.

% Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept, Bur. Amer. Ethn,

56 The author acknowledges with pleasure his indebtedness to Dr. Johannes Weissenborn,
curator of ethnology in the Stadliche Museum, Bremen, for the opportunity of studying
this instructive specimen. _ 4

190 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ ETH, ANN. 34

34-87. A glance at the first of these shows that it belongs to the
type called by the late Prof. O. T. Mason ** the “right-handed va-
riety of the slender oval group.”

This collar is made of a hard, light-gray andesite or diorite, with
surface fairly smooth but not finely polished. Its general form is
not unlike other examples of the slender ovate type. The special
differences are found in the ornamentation of the decorated panel
border and the modification of the projection or knob into an
animal head. It measures 15 and 11
inches in greater and lesser diam-
eters, respectively.

The undecorated panel shows no
exceptional features, except that
the rim is pinched midway of its
length into a triangular projection,
as shown in figure 34, but which
could be better seen from one side.
A slightly raised band extends
around the collar, just below the so-
called boss or elbow, joining the
upper and the lower margin of the
decorated panel border. As will
be pointed out presently, the head
carved on the panel border is very
well made and instructive.

Lateral and dorsal representations
Eee: Sys Te ier. collar (Bre- 4 £ the knob modified into a head are

; shown in figures 35 and 36.

Before the author had examined the Strube specimen he was of
the impression, from sketches of the objects, one of which was kindly
sent to him several years ago by Herr Strube, and the other by Prof.
W. H. Holmes, who saw the specimen in the Bremen Museum, that
the head replacing the projection or knob represents that of a serpent,
but he is now able to point out a more striking resemblance to the head
of some other reptile, a conclusion reached mainly from comparative
studies of similar heads found in some of the three-pointed stone idols
of the first type, figured elsewhere.**

The three-pointed idols with heads like those of the Strube collar
also possess legs, which would prohibit their identification as serpent
idols and would weigh against acceptance of the opinion that the
head on the collar represents a snake, were it not for the fact that
primitive man is not always consistent in fashioning his images}.

' Latimer Collection of Antiquities from Porto Rico in the National Museum at Wash-

ington, Smithsonian Report for 1876.
58 Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann, Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pls. xxXXIx, a,

a’; XL, 0, c; XLII,-a, b; XLIDI, a, a’:

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 191

hence the heads of beth, even when furnished with limbs, may repre-
sent some serpent monster, the iguana, or a reptile with the body and
appendages of a turtle.

The modification in the projection in this collar, although less usual
than other features, is not more instructive than the unique figures
graven on the border
of the decorated pan-
els. The surface of
the panel is not excep-
tionally ornamented,
but its border is sculp-
tured into the form of
a head with lateral ap-
pendages miueh better Vic. 35.—Lateral view of “knob” of the Strube stone
made than is generally collar "(Bremen Museum).
the case.

The appearance of the head and legs on the panel border of this
specimen (fig. 37) are as exceptional in form as the knob, for, unlike
the heads cut on the panels of other slender oval collars, the head
of this specimen is in high relief. The relation of the head to the
collar is here exactly reversed, as compared with that of almost all
other collars, for the forehead adjoins the panel instead of being
turned away from the decorated panel. The two lateral appendages
extending along the border on the sides of this head are readily com-
parable with similar figures, in the same position, on other collars.
A representation of the head and appendages as seen from below
shows that the lower jaw is pointed and triangular.

The form of the decorated panel border of the Strube collar (fig.
37) bears directly on our interpretation of this feature in other collars
and sheds light on the meaning of certain conventionalized figures on
other specimens in which the head form is not so evident as in this
specimen, as may ap-
pear from the follow-
ing comparisons.

The decoration on
the panel borders of
different stone collars
falls naturally into a
Fic. 36.—Dorsal view of “knob” of the Strube stone Sees patentee! from

danaeytpeainem Mbenm yi realistic to convention-
: alized figures, shown
in the accompanying figures. In order to interpret these decorations
we may pass from the most complicated to the simplest form.

Commencing with the form shown in figure 38, representing a
specimen now in the Heye collection, we have a massive collar with
a head cut in high relief on the surface of one side. This head (/)

192 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

resembles those constantly found engraved on stone images or
modeled in terra cotta for handles of Antillean bowls or vases. It
represents a being wearing a kind of Phrygian cap, with mouth half
open, large eyes, and other features recalling a turtle or some reptile.
Two arms (a, a), with the elbows bent and showing the palms of
the hands and the fingers, are well represented and rise from under
the chin. The hands
appear to hold up
rings cut at the sides
of the head, which
they touch on each
side, and are inter-
preted as representa-
tions of ears or ear or-
Fic. 87.—Decorated panel and panel border of the Strube naments. These rings

stone collar (Bremen Museum). recall the lower lobes
of the ears in certain stone yokes found in Vera Cruz and other
Mexican States. The umbilicus appears on the body just below the
chin, and on each side are rectangular carvings (d, p), supposed to
represent other parts of the body.

In the collar of the Heye collection there is practically no sepa-
ration of the panel border and the panel, or rather the former has
extended over the latter, which remains as a rectangular design
(d, p) filling the areas on each side of the anterior appendages (a)
and below the problematical lateral extensions (pa).

Extending on each side of these rings on the upper margin of
the collar there is an interesting conventional figure in relief, unlike
a leg or any other part of the body, but which is seen constantly
in modified form in
other collars. In a
general way this dec-
oration (pa) consists
of a distal portion,
which is more or less
angular and of eubi-
cal form with a me-
dian pit (6), and a
proximal region con-
nected by means of a knee-shaped relief figure (j), with the head
and all other portions of the design. The parts represented in this
carving are the head, forearms, ear lobe or ornament of the ear,
and a knee-like problematic body. Every organ except the last
can be readily identified, but in order to determine the meaning of
the knee-like member we must consider similar relief designs on
collars in other collections.

Fic. 38.—Panel of stone collar (Heye Museum).

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 193

The ornate design on the panel border of the Strube specimen
in Bremen naturally next claims our attention. In considering
this example (fig. 37) it will be noticed at once that the mouth, eyes,
and all other parts of the face are reversed when compared with
the head of the collar in the Heye collection (fig. 38). This is due
to the fact that its left side represents the right side of the Heye
collar, as will be seen when these collars are laid with the decorative
panels uppermost for comparison, in which case the lower jaw in
the former is naturally below, while in the latter it is above, a re-
versal caused by one’of these collars being right-handed while the
other is left-handed. This does not prevent a comparison of similar
parts in the ornamen-
tation of the collar,
but it must be borne
in mind that they are
in reversed positions.

We fail to discover
on sides of the head
of the Bremen collar
any indication of
those rings or ear or-
naments in relief that
are so conspicuous in the Heye Museum specimen. There are likewise
no homologues of arms and hands below the chin, but the lateral
figures carved in low relief on each side are represented in somewhat
modified form. Here occur representations of a joint (7) and the
terminal circle with a deep pit (6), leading us to consider them the
same organs. The panel is distinct from its border and has no sign
of legs.

Passing to a consideration of a collar figured by Prof. Mason and
said to be from Guadeloupe, we discover on the decorated panel
border a still greater simplification of the head which here (fig. 39)
. appears as a circle (2), with eyes and mouth represented by shallow
pits. The problematical lateral organs (pa) have here become sim-
ple scrolls, with a pit (6) in the middle of the distal end, a conven-
tionalization which is paralleled by that shown in another design
on the panel margin of a collar from the Latimer collection figured
by Mason,°° where the lateral appendages (pa) are reduced to
scrolls, although the joint is still angular.

A similar decorated panel is found in one of the collars of the
Latimer collection (fig. 40).

Fie. 39.—Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection),

8° Op. cit.
160658°—34 ETH—22

13

194 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

We pass now in our comparison to a collar (fig. 41) in which the
face on the panel border is divided medially into two parts, and the
remainder of the
figures, especially
the lateral scrolls,
have ‘undergone a
strange elongation.
The simple pits rep-
resenting eyes still
remain, and each of
the halves of the
former head is con-
tinued into an extension curved into a scroll in which the only recog-
nizable feature is the jointed organ.

Another variation in the figure on the decorated panel border
(fig. 42) occurs in another of the Latimer collars. The vertical
division between the eyes separating the face into halves has not
extended wholly across the head, and the forehead here remains un-
divided. The scroll-
like lateral append-
ages (pa) that make
up the remainder of
the figure of the dec-
orated panel border
have no exceptional
features.

In still another
eollar of the Lati- 1c. 41.—Panel of stone collar (Bremen Museum).

Fic. 40.—Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection).

mer collection, the conventionalization of the panel border figure has
proceeded so far that the resemblance to a head with lateral append-
ages is completely lost. Here we have simply two scrolls with one
extremity of each approximated and their distal ends widely sepa-
rated and extended.

In another collar of the Latimer collection the decoration of the
panel has been subject-
ed to further modifica-
tion in form, the panel
figure taking the form
of two rectangles rep-
resenting the half-
circles of the divided
face, each bearing a pit
representing an eye.
The elbow-like scrolls are present with their terminal dots rising
one on each side of the rectangle representing half of the face.

Fig. 42.—Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection).

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 195

Any resemblance of the panel decoration shown in figure 43 to
a human head with lateral appendages has wholly vanished. Here
the decorated panel
border takes the form
of a narrow rectangu-
lar figure with round-
ed ends, slightly
curved upward and
crossed at regular in-
tervals by three pairs
of bars. In each of
the intervals there is a
small pit, two of which (e, e) represent all that remaias of the eyes,
and two (b, }) those constants at the extremities of the scroll-like ap-
pendages that exist in
the figure of the compli-
cated panel border.

There remain other
designs on panel bor-
ders, one (fig. 44°) of a
collar in the Trocadero
Museum at Paris, and
the other (fig. 45) in the
Latimer collection. The
outlines of these show
important modifica-
tions, but these also in

reality teach the same
morphology as the

preceding, viz, that fig-
ures on the decorated
panel borders are simply
highly conventionalized
heads with extended lat-
eral appendages.

There is one feature
lacking in the figures

last mentioned that

hic, 44.—S > collar s ying ique decor: é > 1
Iu. 44 se col ar BINA unique decorated panel should be explained.
border (‘Trocadero Museum).

Fic. 43.—Panel of stone collar (Latimer collection).

Since the pits which
represent the eyes, as we have pointed out, are here absent, it might be
supposed that the conventionalized head is also wanting; but if we
compare them with the underside of the figure cut in the panel of the
Bremen collar (fig. 46), the reason for this lack is apparent. All of

60 The author is indebted to Prof. M. H. Saville for this illustration.

196 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

these represent the underside of the lower jaw, not the upper part of
the head where eyes, mouth, and nose are present. .

From the comparative data given above we are able to say that
wherever we have figures cut on decorated panel borders they prob-
ably represent a head, body, arms, or legs, often highly convention-
alized and sometimes lost. As the arms or forelegs appear in the
more completely represented form, figure 38, accompanied with the
problematical lateral scrolls, we can not regard these scrolls as duph-

cate arms or fore
: ve limbs; if they are
H appendages they
must be posterior
limbs or legs. The
posterior append-
ages in all these
instances have
been brought for-
ward into the same

Fic. 45.—Decorated panel and panel border of stone collar 5
(Latimer collection). plane as that in
which the head
and anterior legs lie, and by this contortion have lost all Hkeness to

limbs.

This interpretation of the ornamentation of the decorated panel
border of the stone collar reduces it to a figure of the same general
character, but it takes no account of certain figures on the surface
of the panel itself. The figures engraved on this area are sufficiently
distinctive to bear certain resemblances whose meaning is doubtful.

The decorated panels of several stone collars (figs. 39, 41, 42,
43) bear an incised ring or circle, sometimes with and sometimes
without a central
pit. On each side
of this circle there
are constantly
represented well-
made figures, of
unknown signifi- ;

lic. 46.—Underside of decorated panel of the Strube stone
cance, that have collar.
certain common
resemblances in all specimens in which they occur. It may be
assumed, but without positive proof, that these figures repre-
sent parts of the body; for example, the circle, which so often
appears in Antillean art, represents the umbilicus, while the in-
cised geometrical lines on each side of it resemble figures of legs
or arms.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 197

In several of the decorated panels we find this circle doubled;
or these duplicated circles may be connected or modified in such a
way as to appear a8 spirals;*! or at times parallel lines may extend
from the circles. The figures on the decorated panels of several
collars consist of geometric parallel lines arranged in squares and
chevrons, a form of decoration sometimes found on panels of massive
collars. These are regarded as decorations of the body of the animal
or the human form represented.

The main difference supposed to exist between the Bremen collar
and other examples of its kind would seem to be the modification
of the projection or knob into an animal head, and yet when we
examine a series of collars we find several specimens in which the
projection is carved in such a way as to suggest the conventional
head of some animal.

Many massive stone collars*? and some of the slender ovate “
varieties have two “knobs,” one of which projects on each side of a
binding band or shoulder band filling the interval between them.
In one instance the two ends are not united by a band but are hooked
together.

No decorations appear in any of these double knobs, and all are
without eyes or other indication of the presence of a head, which is
likewise true of those examples in which the projections do not rise
above the surface of the collar, although a remnant of the shoulder
band °“* may in these cases sometimes survive.

When the projection bears any design, it is commonly flattened,
with a pit on each side. Another form of simple flattened knob, hav-
ing circles on each side and parallel lines between them, is found on
the second Bremen specimen. In an example in the Heye collection,
where the projection is not very prominent, it is marked by a single
transverse and several parallel grooves, recalling the parallel lines
between the pits in an undescribed collar in the See Museum.

The simplest interpretation of these variations in the so-called pro-
jection or knob of a stone collar would be that, like that of the Strube
specimen, it represents a highly conventionalized head, and that the
accompanying pits or circles are eyes.

Although several forms of stone collars have been added to those
known to the author when he published his account of the Aborigines
of Porto Rico, and one or two new theories concerning their use have

* This form suggests the ornamentation of a fragment ann a specimen oe doubtful
relation in the Stahl collection, now in the American Museum of Natural Eustery, New
York.

® Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pls. lsxiil,
Ixiv, Ixy.

"Prehistoric Antiquities from the Antilles in the British Museum, Journ. Anthr, Insti-
tute, vol. XXXvII, pl. xl, 1907.

*@ Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. Ixv, f.

195 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

been brought forward, we are still somewhat perplexed as to what may
be regarded as their true use. A few of the more reasonable theories
are mentioned below:

1. Insignia of office, worn on the person.

2. Sacrificial objects.

3. Idols for animal worship—serpents, lizards.

4. Idols for tree worship, especially yuca.

5. To assist childbirth—representations of female organ of

generation. ;

6. Collar for men or women dragging canoes.

In the following pages the author will return to the interpretation
of the Antillean stone collars in connection with elbow and three-
pointed stones, but he will here state that he inclines to combine the
third and fourth theories mentioned above as the nearest approach
to a correct interpretation of the stone collars. The beneficent super-
natural being of the Porto Ricans and Haitians was probably the
Yuea god or the Sky supernatural who brought life to the food plant,
yuca, and, as occurs on the neighboring continent, was represented
by a mythic snake or dragon. Stone collars represent this god of
serpent form but also with human features carved upon them. An
undoubted serpent made of wood "*” has the same form of head as the ,
knob of the collar above figured.

ELBOW STONES

In an article entitled “ Porto Rican Elbow Stones in the Heye
Museum, with Discussion of Similar Objects Elsewhere,”’* the author
has published the following account of these instructive objects:

“Many prehistoric stone objects found in Porto Rico have taxed
the ability of archeologists to explain and have furnished the theorist
with abundant material for speculation. Among these may be men-
tioned three-pointed idols, both with and without animal or human
heads. Other forms, from their resemblance to horse collars, have
from the first been designated as collars or collar stones. Those
prehistoric Porto Rican stone objects that, from their shape, are
called elbow stones, are the least known and apparently one of the
most enigmatical types.

“Elbow stones resemble, in general form, fragments of broken
collars, but a detailed study of various elbow stones and comparison
with stone collars, rather than bearing out this seeming resemblance,
tends to show that they form types distinguished by highly special-
ized characters.

63> Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. xe, b.
% American Anthropologist, n. s., vol. Xv, pp. 435-459. Reprinted as Cont. Heye Mus,,
no, 4.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 199

“The elbow stone type of objects is represented by 12 specimens
in the archeological collections studied by the author. Objects of
this type are therefore less numerous than the collars, of which there
are about 100 in different collections. Elbow stones have not been
found in Cuba, Jamaica, or the Lesser Antilles, and have never been
reported from the American mainland. Their distribution in the
West Indies corresponds closely with that of stone collars and three-
pointed stones, which are practically confined to Porto Rico, His-
paniola (Haiti and Santo Domingo), and possibly eastern Cuba.
The author is of course aware that stone collars and three-pointed
stones have been recorded from certain of the Lesser Antilles, but
their number, or rather their relative proportion to other prehistoric
objects from the same islands, is so small that he is inclined to ques-
tion the recorded provenance of these specimens. Thus the late Pro-
fessor O. T. Mason described and figured a single collar in the Guesde
collection from Guadeloupe, and M. Alphonse Pinart ascribed an-
other specimen of this type to the same island. Among several hun-
dred stone objects from St. Vincent the author has not seen a single
collar or three-pointed stone, and he therefore reasonably suspects
that the locality of the single broken fragment of the latter type
ascribed to St. Vincent by Mr. Joyce is doubtful. It is the writer’s
belief that these objects are not indigenous to the Lesser Antilles.
With a collar in the British Museum described by Joyce and said to
have been found in St. Thomas, Danish West Indies, the case is
somewhat different. St. Thomas, St. Croix, and neighboring islands
belong to the same prehistoric culture area as Porto Rico, hence stone
collars may rightly be expected in them; in fact, a fragment of a
collar undoubtedly found in St. Croix is now in the Nordby collec-
tion at Christiansted, the chief city of that island.

“As the author intends to point out elsewhere that the localization
of characteristic stone objects determines certain archeological areas,
he will now only briefly mention the existence of several well-defined
prehistoric Antillean culture areas. The majority of stone objects
from the St. Vincent-Grenada area are radically different from those
of St. Kitts, and these in turn differ from those of the Barbados
area. Stone collars, elbow stones, and three-pointed stones are pecu-
liar to the Porto Rico-Haiti culture area, and when found elsewhere
in the West Indies are believed to have been introduced. * * *

“For convenience of study the two arms of an elbow stone [pl. 98,
B] may be designated as right and left (RA, ZA), and their point of
junction the angle or elbow. One of the arms is either decorated
or has a panel; the ends of both may be fluted, while their general
form tapers more or less uniformly. One or both arms may have
a groove on the outside called the sulcus (s), which, when situated
on the paneled arm, extends lengthwise from the panel border to

200 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

the end of the arm. A cross section of an elbow stone near the boss
following the elbow band is, as a rule, about the same as that near
the pointed pole of an ovate slender collar. The surface of an elbow
stone, especially the boss, is generally rough, but several examples
have the remaining parts finely polished.

“So close are the general likenesses between the boss and the arms
or shoulders of collars and elbow stones that an identification of the
latter with broken collars is most natural. In order to explain minor
differences in the two types, it is held by some of those who entertain
this opinion that a broken collar has been subsequently fashioned
into an elbow stone and its surface redecorated to fit it for secondary
use. So radically different, however, are the carvings and symbols
on the surfaces of these two types of objects that this conclusion
seems unreasonable.

“Other archeologists believe that the elbow stone is a fragment
of a type of collar differently ornamented from any that have been
found entire. The resemblances are believed by them to be close
enough to indicate identity and the differences are looked upon as
special rather than as general characters.

“ The belief that the elbow stone belongs to a distinct type is far
from the thought that there is any utilitarian difference between
the two classes of objects. All indications tend to show a like use,
and that if we could satisfactorily explain the meaning of one type
we should be in a fair way to interpret the other. It is, in fact, pri-
marily to shed some light on the significance of the stone collar that
the author presents the following results of his comparative studies:

“ Elbow stones, like stone collars, may be divided into right-
handed and left-handed, or right-armed and left-armed, according
to the position of the decorated arm. When an elbow stone is placed
so that the panel will show, this feature will be seen either on the
right or the left hand, thus determining the designations ‘ right-
handed’ and ‘left-handed’ elbow stones. The significance of the
difference in this feature is not known; it may mean nothing, but it
would appear that its very occurrence in both collars and elbow
stones has some important bearing on the function of the objects.

“The style of ornamentation furnishes data for a classification
of elbow stones on other grounds. Two distinct varieties of these .
objects can be readily recognized accordingly as a head, face, or
body is sculptured on the outer surface of one of the arms. This
sculpture, when it appears, is generally in low relief, and always
represents human features, never those of an animal. In elbow
stones on which such a sculptured figure does not appear there is —
always a panel with a shallow, oval, concave pit hollowed in the
middle, in which is sometimes a secondary depression, as shown in
figure 36 [see pl. 99, B], The arm bearing this panel with its pit cor-

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 98

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

ELBOW STONES, PORTO RICO

thes; B, 9.63 inches.

inc

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 99

ELBOW STONES, LESSER ANTILLES, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A,6.8inches; C, C’, 8 inches.

FEWKES |] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 201

responds with that on which, in decorated elbow stones, is cut a human
head or body. A homologue of this plain panel (identical with the
undecorated panel of a stone collar) does not occur on those elbow
stones in which carved heads or faces are found; consequently it is
supposed that the decorated panel of the stone collar is not repre-
sented by a sculptured head in elbow stones.

“Tn those specimens of elbow stones in which a face is sculptured
on one arm it will be noticed that the middle line of the face or head
is placed longitudinally and not transversely to the axis—always
lengthwise of the arm, never crossing it. The position of these fig-
ures on known elbow stones differs radically from that of the heads
on panels of stone collars, for in the latter the middle line of the
face is at right angles to the panel. The figure on a collar is situated
generally on the border of the decorated panel, and is small and in
low relief; but in an undescribed collar in the Heye Museum [pl.
95], which is unique in this respect, the head rises above the
surface. An examination of this collar shows that in general form
it belongs to the massive stone collar group, while the decoration is
more like that of the slender*oval collar; but the head cut on the
panel is so different from any yet described that it can hardly be as-
signed to the latter group. It is therefore regarded as a connecting
form having affinities with both massive and slender oval collar
stones.

“It is instructive and may be significant that the faces on all the
elbow stones are anthropoid; and the same is true also of the stone
collars, the heads on all of which have human features. The sym-
bolism of the spirit depicted represents a human, not an animal,
zemi.

“DESCRIPTION OF ELBow STONES

“The following classification includes the known elbow stones in
various collections, designated by the name of the owner, the col-
lector, or the museum in which they are deposited:

“A. With face cut in relief on one arm

a. Face on the right arm.

1. Madrid specimen (fig, 48).

2. Heye Museum specimen (pl. 98, A).

3. Latimer specimen, National Museum (fig. 49).
b. Face on the left arm.

1. American Museum specimen.

2. American Museum specimen.

3. Pinart specimen.

4. Heye Museum specimen (pl. 98, B).

202 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA

“B. Arm without face, but with panel

a. Panel on the right arm.

1. American Museum specimen.

2. American Museum specimen,
3. American Museum specimen.

4. National Museum specimen (fig. 47).
b. Panel on the left arm.

1. Heye Museum specimen (pl. 99, B).

“CO. Blbow stone of doubtful type

A. WITH FACE CUT IN RELIEF ON ONE ARM

“a. Pace on the right arm

[ETH. ANN. 34

“1. Madrid specimen.—The most perfect and elaborately decorated
of all these objects is an elbow stone in the Museo Arqueologico of

ic. 47.—Elbow-stone in the United States National Museum

Madrid, which has face, arms, and legs sculptured on one arm. This
specimen has been figured by Neumann and several other writers, but

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 203

as it is almost unknown to archeologists a new illustration [fig. 45]
indicating the variations in the decorations of these objects, is here
introduced.

“From an inspection of the figure it appears that both arms of
this beautiful specimen, unlike those of most elbow stones, are un-
broken. The right arm shows the longitudinal groove (suleus) com-
mon to these objects, extending from the lower margin of the panel
to the extremity of the arm. The surface is almost wholly occupied
by the figure sculptured upon it, the head, arms, legs, and horseshoe-
shaped headband or fillet being in relief. This fillet, which is of
about the same breadth through-
out, is decorated with a number
of incised pits, one of which is
placed medially over the fore-
head. The fillet ends on each
side of the face, near the cheeks,
where there are depressions ap-
parently representing ears. This
headband recalls those found on
heads of three-pointed stones,
with which it is seemingly
homologous. The two ends of
the fillet merge into the shoul-
ders of the figure and continue
to form the arms. The fore-
arms are folded on the breast,
as is common in Antillean ob-
jects of art in stone and shell,
and the fingers are rudely rep-
resented by grooves. Near the
wrists, a short distance from the 44. 48.—wlbow-stone, Madrid Museum.
fingers, there is a slight projec- (12.62 inches.)
tion on each arm, which recalls the protuberances commonly repre-
sented on the ankles of Antillean figures. Relatively the body is
abnormally small or inadequately represented, the space between chin
and legs being so restricted that not even the umbilicus, so constantly
found in stone images from Porto Rico, is represented. The soles
of the feet are turned upward in an extraordinary way and the toes
are folded back, a common feature in Antillean idols. The mouth
is large, nose broad, cheeks prominent, the whole recalling faces on
three-pointed stones.

“9. Heye Museum specimen.—The second specimen of elbow stone
(pl. 98, A, A’) with a face on the right arm is less elaborately sculp-
tured than the Madrid example, the arms and body not being
represented. The right limb is apparently broken off just below

204 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH, ANN. 34

the carved face, so that there is nothing on this arm correspond-
ing to a ferruled end. On the forehead of the figure may be seen
a triangular area in which is a central pit. The head is fringed
by a fillet less elaborately made than that of the Madrid speci-
men. The end of the small arm appears to have been broken,
there being no sign of fluting, although it shows indications of
a sulcus. On the outer side of the small arm, near the angle,
there are two series of parallel lines, or chevrons, cut in the sur-
face, recalling the decoration of a massive collar elsewhere figured.

“Tn order to compare this elbow stone with certain stone heads
figured by the author in his Aborigines of Porto Rico (pls. 11,
LII, Lill), we may suppose that the two arms are much reduced
in length, as in plate um here referred to, and the face cut in
high relief instead of being low or flat. A still further reduction
in the homologues of the arms appears in certain stone heads and
in stone disks with faces illustrated in the plates mentioned, in
some instances all traces of the arms having disappeared. The
stone head shown in plate tiv, a, a’ has the neck developed into
a short handle, giving the appearance of a baton and recalling
certain ceremonial celts. The objects called ‘stone heads’ in the
author’s work above cited so closely resemble three-pointed stones
that they may be allied to the third type of zemis, in which the
conoid projection is modified into a head. A like parallel occurs
in the first type of three-pointed stones, the heads of which recall
those of men, lizards, and birds. The few known specimens of the
second type have human faces.

“The figures representing lizards in both the first and the third
type of three-pointed stones are characterized by elongated snouts,
eyes, and two pits, representing nostrils, placed near the extremity
of the upper lip. The human faces of the first type generally
have the ornamented fillet reaching from ear to ear, which is never
represented in reptilian three-pointed stones of the first type, but
is present in reptile figures in the third type. Ears appear in
human but never in bird or reptilian forms. In place of a depres-
sion or pit in the median line of the headband, the reptilian figures
of the third type have a device consisting of a low convex pro-
jection and pit of the first form. This last-mentioned feature is
sometimes situated in a fold extending downward over the fore-
head, suggesting a frontal ornament.

“3. Latimer spectmen—This elbow stone [fig. 49] was first fig-
ured by Prof. O. T. Mason, who regarded it as a part of a collar,
and afterwards by the author, who founded the type now known as
elbow stones upon its characteristics. Although the form of the
Latimer elbow stone is somewhat aberrant in several particulars, it
presents the distinctive features of the type. Its arms are ap-

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 905

parently unbroken at their extremities, and the face is cut on the
right limb. Instead of the encircling grooves on the arm bearing
the face, the arm is perforated near its end, where it is crossed by a
single transverse groove supposed to serve the same purpose as the
grooves in the fluted specimens above considered; in other words,
for attachment to a staff or some other object. The oval face, eyes,
nose, and mouth are typical of Antillean art. The headband has
a pit medially placed above the forehead and is ornamented by a
series of parallel incised lines. The slightly protruding ears at
the termini of the headband have large circular pits. The shorter
arm has a shallow longitudinal groove (sulcus?) and obscure elbow
band. ’

Fic. 49.—Elbow-stone in the Latimer collection. Side and front views.
(Length 73 inches.)

“pb. Face on the left arm

“1. American Museum specimen.—Among the elbow stones in the
American Museum of Natural History there is an instructive speci-
men in which an arm is ornamented with a human face in relief, por-
tions of the body, and anterior appendages; the legs are drawn to-
gether and merge into a beaded end with longitudinal sulcus and
accompanying encircling grooves. The face sculptured on this speci-
men is oval, the cheeks are prominent, the eyes and mouth circular.
The ear pits are prominent, and the fillet or headband bears a medial
circular protuberance with its accompanying pit. The armsare bent ;
the legs are separated above by a space in which is a triangular
depression. The umbilicus, is indicated by a circular design. The
shorter arm is girt by parallel grooves and tapers to a rounded
extremity.

“9. American Museum specimen.—tin the same museum there is
a second specimen of elbow stone, on the left arm of which is carved
a rude face. This example is broken on one edge. It has no grooved

206 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

arms, but in place of them is a perforation near the end of one arm,
as in the Latimer specimen. The sulcus is absent.

“3. Pinart specimen.—The Pinart elbow stone, said to have been
at one time in the Trocadero Museum, Paris, belongs to that group
in which the left arm is the larger and bears an oval face, which
has large open mouth, prominent ears, and headband, with a circular
pit over the forehead. Representations of arms, legs, and umbilicus
are present; the legs are separated by a triangular depression as in
a former specimen. In the figure given by Pinart there are indica-
tions of the grooves or furrows of the terminal ends of both arms,
but as his illustration is imperfect this feature is difficult to de-
termine satisfactorily.

“

B, ARM WITHOUT FACE, BUT WITH PANEL
“a, Panel on the right arm

“There are five specimens of elbow stones with flat panels instead
of figures on the arms. Three of these are in the American Museum
of Natural History, New York; a single specimen of the same
type is in the National Museum collection; and there is one in the
Heye Museum. All, except the last, are right-handed.

“These objects are simpler in form than those of the previous
group, otherwise they are of the same general character. Each has
a sulcus on the surface of one arm, which, however, is without encir-
cling arm grooves. Although the panel pit, a constant feature of the
panel, is about uniform in position, it varies in shape and size in the
several specimens. From its general shape and simplicity it would
appear that the panel in these specimens served as a base to which
another object, possibly a stone head, was attached.

“ The specimen in the National Museum is said to have been col-
lected at Vieques Island, a new locality from which elbow stones
have been recorded. The paneled arm of this specimen is long and
slender, the other limb short and grooved, but with a well-marked
suleus not shown in the figure.

“Db. Panel on the left arm

“1. Heye Museum specimen.—The left-handed elbow stone [pl. 99,
B | in the Heye Museum is a fine specimen, surpassing the others
of the same group in form and superficial polish. Its left arm ends
in a series of fluted joints, but is without a sulcus; the right arm is
short, with an encircling groove. The panel is almost wholly oc-
cupied by an elongate oval depression, in which is a second oval pit,
the surfaces of both of which are smooth. The panel is surrounded
by a polished border slightly raised and evenly rounded.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 207

“Cc. ELBOW STONE OF DOUBTFUL TYPE

“There are one or two aberrant specimens that are doubtfully
identified as elbow stones. In discussing the Guesde collection Prof.
Mason figured and described an unusual object from Punto Duo (#),
allied to elbow stones but of highly aberrant form, as follows:

“*Big, 195. An ornamental piece, of bluish green color, It is rare in form,
but not absolutely unique. In the American Museum at New York is a similar
specimen. The chamfering and fluting are gracefully blended. The left-hand
extremity is perforated for suspension. Length of long limb, 8 inches; of short
limb, 5%0 inches.’

“The differences between this specimen [pl. 99, (', @’] and the
typical elbow stones lie mainly in the ‘chamfering,’ nevertheless it
shows certain characters peculiar to elbow stones. The ‘similar speci-
men’ in the American Museum, referred to by Mason, is possibly
one of those above mentioned under group B.

“The Guesde stone is exceptional in several particulars. The
figure shows no indication of a panel or a head, and the sulcus like-
wise is missing. On account of the absence of the panel it is diffi-
cult to tell whether it belongs to the right-arm or the left-arm group.
The fluting on the longer arm reminds one of the specimen in the
National Museum at Washington, and the perforated shorter arm
is like that of the Latimer specimen. The grooves of the smaller
arm extend halfway round the arm, while those of the longer arm
girt it entirely.

““ MorPHOLOGY AND INTERPRETATION

“The many similarities between three-pointed zemis, elbow stones,
and stone collars would seem to indicate a corresponding similarity
in use, consequently any light on the morphology of one would aid
in the interpretation of the other types. The author believes that
the life figures on these three types of objects are symbolic repre-
sentations of zemis, or spirits, which were worshiped by the pre-
historic Porto Ricans. They were idols, and bore the name of the
particular spirit represented (as well as the general designation
‘zemi’)—a usage common to primitive religions.

“A consideration of the differences in form, or the morphology,
of these objects is desirable before the many theories as to their use
can be intelligently discussed.

“A forward step in the interpretation of the morphology of
stone collars was taken by Mr. Josiah Cato and later by Prof. Mason,
who recognized that the ‘shoulder ridge’ faintly resembles a lashing
of the two ends of a hoop.

“An important suggestion has been made by Mr. T. A. Joyce “¢ that
the Antillean stone ‘collar is a copy of an archaic zemi made of

“Prehistoric Antiquities from the Antilles, in the British Museum, Jour. Royal Anthr,
Institute, vol, XXxXv1I, pp, 402-419, pl. xLviri—-Lv1, 1907.

208 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

branches of a tree bent into a hoop and fastened at their ends. He
was the first to associate the stone collar with ‘tree worship —
an important advance in the solution of the enigma. Mr. Joyce
described a stone collar in the British Museum in which there is no
shoulder ridge, but what appear to be the two ends of branches
‘overlapped’ and ‘ hooked together’ at the point where the shoulder
ridge ordinarily is found. This led him to suggest that in studying
a stone collar we must ‘retranslate’ it to its wooden prototype, and
recognize that the juncture of the ends in this case, and perhaps in
all, was effected as follows: ‘When the limbs of the fork [of a tree}
were trimmed, the stump of a small subsidiary branch growing in a
conyenient position toward the end of each, was left projecting; the
longer limb was bent round, and the projection toward its termina-
tion was hooked round the projection on the shorter limb; the ad-
dition of a cotton bandage would hide the joint and make all
secure’ (p. 410).

“*Tt is perfectly obvious, Mr. Joyce says, ‘ that these collars were
constructed originally of wood. A young tree was selected and cut
off immediately below a fork; the two ends of the fork were trimmed
into unequal lengths, the longer bent round so as to overlap the
shorter, and the two fastened together by a band of cotton smilar to
the leg bandages worn by the natives.’ He also states (p. 410) : ‘ Start-
ing with the supposition that they were originally constructed of
wood (which seems to me to be almost certain), it seems possible that
a clew might be found in the prevalence of tree worship in the
Antilles.’

“<The heavy collars, continues Mr. Joyce, ‘ which appear to have
been formed of a single and comparatively stout stem bent into a hoop
and the ends secured by a bandage may represent a zemi nade origi-
nally from the straight trunk of a tree without a fork.’ Thus a second
and important step in the interpretation of the meaning of the collar
was taken by Joyce in the recognition of the collar as a zemi con-
nected with tree worship, its original prototype being made of wood,
the stone form being a more lasting one, but one in which certain
characters of the wooden or archaic form still persisted.

“In Ramon Pane’s account of how Antillean wooden zemis were
made, as directed by a tree spirit, we have evidence of tree worship
in Haiti; but the testimony afforded by this account is too meager to
prove that when the tree referred to by the Catalan father was felled
it was made into the form of a collar. The author suspects that the
idol referred to by Ramon Pane represented the Yuca Spirit,® but
this suspicion is still subject to proof.

® The Yuca spirit or Yocahu (Yocabana) Maorocon, Mabouya, Huracan, or Great
Serpent, whose idol Maroio was one of the two stone images in the Cave of the Sun,
worshipped for rain and blessings. ‘i

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 209

“In Antillean, as in other tree worship, it was the spirit of the
tree that was the object of adoration, and that worship was more or
less connected with the material benefits desired—generally the food
that the tree yielded. The deity that controlled the manioc (yuca),
or the Yuca Spirit, Yweayu, was worshipped for temporal benefits,
the wooden idol being the visible, material symbol.

“In differentiating the elbow stone from the collar as a distinct
type, it has been shown above that the position of the heads of both
relative to the axis does not coincide, since one is transverse to the’
axis, the other longitudinal. In one case the object must be placed
vertically, in the other horizontally, in order to bring the face into
a normal position—a difference in position that remains to be satis-
_factorily explained. If, however, the elbow stone was carried, it may
be that one arm only of the elbow stone was attached to a staff and
the object carried upright, while the collar was laid horizontally
when in use, bringing the head into the same relative position.

“Tt is evident that the furrow, or sulcus (s), is an important
feature in the morphology of elbow stones. This groove, non-
existent in the collars, may have been cut in the surface of the elbow
stone for the insertion of a rod or staff, to which it may have been
lashed with cords held in place by the grooves girdling the arm. It
is not always limited to one arm, but is sometimes found on both
arms, and it would appear that occasionally either two sticks were
attached to the stone, one at each end, or the two ends of the same
stick were bound to the arms, in which latter case the stick would
have to be bent into a hoop resembling in shape a stone collar, part
wood, part stone, the elbow being of the latter material.

“ The attachment of an elbow stone to a rod or staff was probably
by means of vegetal fibers. In some instances this was unnecessary,
since there was sometimes a depression in the end of each arm, as
in an elbow stone reputed to be owned by Sefior Balbas, of Porto Rico,
to which reference has been made elsewhere, but which the author
has not examined. In this case it appears as if there are depres-
sions in which the sticks were possibly inserted, rather than lashed
to the stone.

“The theory that the extremity of a staff was laid in the sulcus
and lashed to the elbow stone would preserve the normal position of
the face carved on the panel if held vertically. If carried by means
of this staff, the face cut on the arm would be upright or in a nat-
ural position. Some of the elbow stones may have been carried in
the hand without an attached staff, thus accounting for the absence
Olarsulcus: s- *, *

160658 °—34 ETH—22

14

210 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

“CEREMONIAL BATONS OF STONE

“ An examination of certain celts, clubs, and other stone artifacts
leads to the belief that the prehistoric Antilleans had many kinds
of objects which they carried in their hands on ceremonial or other
occasions. Several of the almond-shaped or petaloid celts with heads
or human figures cut on the sides have their pointed ends prolonged
into a handle, and even those without such a prolongation can hardly
be supposed to have been hafted, as in such a case much of the
design cut upon them would have been concealed. Many of the
beautiful axes for which the island of St. Vincent is famous were
too bulky to be carried in war and too dull to be used as cutting
implements. They may have been carried by chiefs on ceremonial
occasions as badges or insignia of office.

“A remarkable stone object [pl. 99, 4] in the Heye collection
has the appearance of having been used as a baton, but its form
is different from that of any yet described, and would suggest that
it was carried in the hand, but it may-have been inserted into a
wooden staff. One end of this object is enlarged, with the surface
cut into a definite form, while the other end tapers uniformly, pro-
viding the handle, possibly for attachment to a rod. The figure
on the larger end has a median crest or ridge extending over the
extremity, on each side of which is a prominence, the arrangement
recalling the crest and eyes of some highly conventionalized animal.
The crest or ridge is found on examination to be double and to
extend round the larger end, the two parts coalescing at one end
and uniting by a transverse band on the other. On the sides of
this median crest are the protuberances, each with a circular pit
and extension from the margin. The only object known to the
writer that approaches in form the stone referred to is one made
of burnt clay found in Barbados, many miles away. This specimen
also has an enlargement representing a head at one end and tapers
uniformly to the other extremity in the form of a handle. The
Barbados object also has a crest extending along the middle of the
enlarged part and ending abruptly near a hole which may be likened
to a mouth; on each side of this elevation there are pits that may be
regarded as eyes. The ridge or crest suggests a distorted nose, or
the beak of a bird, a suggestion that would seem to comport with
the parts on the enlarged end of the stone baton above described.
The double median fold and lateral elevations with pits represent
beak and eyes.”

Another stone object (pl. 100, 4, B) from Guadeloupe, described
by Prof. Mason, evidently belongs to the same type as the stone cere-
monial baton, or some form of badge mounted on a staff.

FEWKEs | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES PAE

The stone object (pl. 100, C, 7) shown from side and top reminds
one of the bird-shaped ceremonial baton. This object was evidently
so fashioned as to be held in the hand by the pointed end, the carved
portion being held aloft. Its shape is similar to the bird-formed
baton from Arecibo, Porto Rico, above mentioned. The Heye speci-
men is distinguished from the latter by a double row of rounded pro-
jections, regularly arranged one row on each side of a median
groove, running along the enlarged end of the baton. It is probable
that it was carried in the hand. The specimen is 64 inches long by
4 inches wide at its broadest end, tapering to a point at the opposite
extremity.

Elongated stone ceremonial batons with figures cut on one end and
enlargements at the other have been reported from several West
Indian islands, but the author knows no specimen of quite the same
form as that figured in plate 100, C, D.

THREE-POINTED STONES

The group of stone objects known as three-pointed stones, also
called zemis and mammiform stones, is confined to Porto Rico and
Santo Domingo. These objects may be divided into the following
groups: (1) Those with head on the anterior end; (2) those with
head on the anterior side of the conoid projection; (3) those with
conoid projection modified into a head; (4) those without head or
face cut upon them.*® The Heye collection contains one specimen
with features of both the first and second groups, and one referred
to the fourth group, which in place of an engraved head has an
incised circle on both anterior and posterior ends.

First Type oF THREE-POINTED STONES

. It is possible to still further divide the first group of three-pointed

stones into four subdivisions: (1) Those with human heads (fig. 50) ;
(2) those with reptilian or mammalian heads; (3) those with bird
heads; (4) heads of nondescript animals. <A single specimen of the
first subgroup has a head on the posterior as well as the anterior
end, but as a rule the posterior end of stones of this type has a pair
of limbs cut upon it. A specimen (pl. 101, 4) from the Heye Museum
has a superficial feature on the cone, hitherto undescribed. Two cir-
cular pits or depressions occur on each side of this projection, each
surrounded on the lower half by an incised line, which is connected
by an incised line with the edge of the base.”

* An aberrant form of the fourth subgroup occurs also in the St. Vineent-Grenada
region, but with this exception—three-pointed stone idols are not found outside the Santo
Domingo-Porto Rico area. ‘

A similar pair of pits is figured in another specimen in Aborigines of Porto Rico,
Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn., pls. XxXxVII, a; XXXIX, C; XLI, b; and XLIII, ¢.

PL? ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

A second specimen (pl. 101, 4) in the Heye Museum is closely
allied to that group of three-pointed stones with a representation of a
human head on the anterior end, and shows a pair of pits on each side
of the middle line of the conoid projection near the apex. These
pits, unlike those of the last specimen, are without encircling lines,
and are destitute of the lines on the side of the specimen, plate 101, 4.
The mouth is represented widely opened, recalling that of a fish.
The form of the legs is quite exceptional, being unlike those of the
majority of three-pointed stones of the subgroup to which it be-
longs.

The specimen (pl. 101, C) belongs to the same group as those
already considered, but differs from them in wanting two pits on the
side of the conoid projection; the ear is rudely engraved, lips not
being well represented. Its legs are drawn up; eyes barely outlined.
The frontal fillet on the forehead is smooth and undecorated.

This specimen (pl. 101, Y) in the Museum fiir Vélkerkunde in
Berlin, has the typical human form of a three-pointed stone of
the first type. The frontal fillet is not
clearly indicated, and the legs or posterior
appendages are rudely cut. The apex of
the conical projection leans slightly for-
ward, the body being short and thick.

The specimen (pl. 102, 4) differs from
all others thus far considered in the form
of its posterior appendages, which are
folded backward and notched at the ends.
The frontal fillet is not differentiated
from the eyebrows, the nose being some-
what broken and the ears being obscurely
represented. The form of the head sepa-
rates this specimen from any in the group
of three-pointed stones with human heads
to which it belongs. It is rudely carved,
its legs being in low relief and the ears not even indicated. This speci-
men has the appearance of never having been finished, notwith-
standing which it shows unmistakably marked features of the first
group.

A three-pointed stone shown in plate 102, B, has its mouth wide
open. like one of the specimens above represented. The body is
very long as compared with its height, and the apex of the conical
projection does not bend forward. The head suggests a human being,
its fillet being without engraved decoration. The ears are indicated
by incised circles and triangles.

Fic. 50.—Three-pointed stone,
first type.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 100

Side view. Lateral view.

UNIDENTIFIED STONE OBJECTS, GUADELOUPE (GUESDE
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, B, 11.5inches; C, D, 6.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 101

THREE-POINTED STONES OF FIRST TYPE, PORTO RICO (BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 10 inches; C, 10 inches; D, 10.75 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 102

THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE, PORTO RICO (KRUG
COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 103

Bi ES
“ A Beit.
cht S ie
saayeeit Aon NANA TE

be

5
}

2H

THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE, PORTO RICO
(BERLIN MUSEUM)

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 913

The next specimen to be considered, shown in plate 103, A, is in
the Berlin Museum. It shows all the essential characteristic features
of the first group, the fillet on the head being somewhat more elab-
orately decorated than is the case in the majority of these objects.
Its nose is broken, but the chin is quite protuberant. The legs are
shm and bifurcated at the extremity, suggesting webbed feet,.as in
the figure taken from the posterior end.

The head of plate 103, B, represents that of a human being, while
C of the same plate is reptilian. The crest on the head of the latter
is unique in three-pointed idols.

Mr. Theodoor de Booy, of the Heye Museum, collected in Santo
Domingo a three-pointed stone of the first type, which is different
from those yet described. This specimen is made of a brown stone
resembling fossil wood. Morphologically it belongs to the second
group of the first type, or those with a reptilian head, and is now in
the Heye Museum. The exceptional feature of this specimen is its
rounded base, which curves upward around the edge. There is a
circular depression in the middle of this base. situated about equal
distance from anterior and posterior ends,

Another specimen belonging to the first type of three-pointed stone,
also collected by Mr. de Booy in Santo Domingo, differs from the
preceding in the position of the mouth, which instead of extending
longitudinally in the axis of the base is vertical to it. Perhaps the
nearest approach to this is the form figured on plate xu of my Abo-
rigines of Porto Rico. The stone of which this specimen is made
has a whitish color, and its surface is quite rough.

Three imperfectly described specimens (pl. 104, B, C, D) of
three-pointed stones in the Madrid collection, all of the first type,
are worthy of notice. One of these ((’) had the anterior ends cut
in the form of the head of a bird with engraved wings on the sides.
Figure & has a highly decorated fillet, engraved lines of which alter-
nate with three pits, each surrounded by a ring. One of these pits is
situated on the median line, the other two laterally.

Plate 104, (’, in the Madrid Museum, represents a zemi in the form
of a bird. When seen from above the bill appears to be upward. The
head is distinct from the body, but appears to be swollen just back
of the beak, the relative position of which to other organs is
unique, the mouth generally pointing forward and not upward as
is here the case. The apex of the conical projection is modified into
a knob tipped slightly forward. The posterior end of the idol
shows no indication of feet, legs, or other organs. This is one of
the most exceptional forms of known three-pointed idols and differs
radically from that of the other known bird forms.

A most remarkable three-pointed stone from the Trocadero
Museum, shown in plate 105, A, is unique in having a head

214 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH, ANN. 34

carved on the posterior as well as on the anterior extremity.
This specimen also bears exceptional incised markings on the
anterior and posterior slope of the conical process. They are
evidently decorative and have grooves extending from the apex
a little to one side of the median line of the cone. From these
arise 7 short parallel lines on one side and 10 on the opposite. These
lateral grooves arising on the same side of the longitudinal line ap-
parently have no reference to the position of the conoid projection
between them. They extend toward, but do not join, other longi-
tudinal scratches not very clearly indicated. If the whole figure
could be made out we would probably find it to consist of two ir-
regular rectangular designs crowned by a number of parallel lines,
the two figures separated at their narrow sides by the conical eleva-
tion, but what was intended to be represented by these areas and
parallel lines is not wholly clear.

The most exceptional feature of this three-pointed idol is its bi-
cephalism, a head being found on each end. The structure of the
forehead is also exceptional, for it would appear that representations
of a pair of limbs had been crowded into the area just above the
eyes on each side of the circular pit which marks the middle of the
forehead.

If we interpret the parts back of the eyes as arms or legs it
would appear that the figure is kneeling, the knees being pointed
forward and ending just back of the nose in claws that embrace the
circular figure in the middle line; but it should be mentioned that
the representations of claws, fingers, or toes are indistinct and the
appendages are somewhat problematical. Back of these so-called
folded leglike appendages there exists a rounded ridge on the side
of a groove, plainly showing indications of a place of attachment by
a cord that may have bound the idol to a foreign object.

The three-pointed idol shown in plate 105, B, belongs to the first
type, or those with head on the anterior and legs on the posterior
point; but although its form is somewhat different from any pre-
viously known, the essential structures are not very clear. The eyes
appear to bulge from the sides of the head, while the nostrils are
represented by pits mounted on papille like those of reptiles. The
head is not relatively as long as that of the majority of three-pointed
stones representing reptiles, but the mouth is large and extends back-
ward rather than transversely, as is usually the case in stone rep-
resentations of these animals.

The essential feature of the three-pointed stone, plate 105, (, also
from the Trocadero Museum (Pinart collection), is the two pairs
of circular pits, surrounded by ridges in high relief, engraved on
the sides of the conoid projection. These appear to be separated
from each other by another ridge extending from the point of the

(ANASNW GIYQGVW) AdAL LSYI4d AHL 40 SSNOLS GSLNIOd-S3SYHL

vol 31LV1d LYOd3yY TVWANNV HLYNOsS-ALYIHL ASOIONHL]A NVOIYAWY JO NVaYNEG

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 105

THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE (PINART COLLECTION,
TROCADERO MUSEUM)

PEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES Dit

conoid process to the margins of the base. A corresponding ridge
likewise extends lengthwise of the three-pointed stone from the apex
of the conoid to the base.

The three-pointed stone represented in plate 106, A, has a wide
open mouth unlike any other specimen of this type, but recalls in
other respects the first group of the first type.

Plate 106, B, from the Heye collection, represents a zemi of the first
group of the first type, and plate 106, C’, from the same collection be-
longs to the same type. This specimen is also distinguished by two
elevations in the frontal fillet, and the characteristic shape of the
ear, by which it can be separated from the majority of three-pointed
stones with human heads and those where the mouth is distinctly
anthropoid. This specimen, unlike other representations of the
group to which it belongs, has toes at the ends of the legs. The apex
of the conoid projection is broken, but shows evidence that formerly
it inclined slightly forward.

There is a good example of the second group of the first type in
the Heye collection. The head of this specimen (pl. 106, )) re-
sembles that of a lizard.

There is a three-pointed stone in the Berlin Museum fiir Vélker-
kunde that has features of the head like a reptile, but differs from
this animal in certain well-marked characteristics. Along the median
line of the head of this specimen (pl. 107, 4) there is an elevated ridge
on the side of which are parallel markings recalling heads of rep-
tiles. The nostrils, which are constant features of the three-pointed
stones of the first class representing reptiles, are indicated by two
pits situated slightly behind the tip of the snout. These are not, as
is usually the case, surrounded by a ridge or mounted on an elevation.
No ears, fillet, or nose were made out in the specimen.

The Heye collection has a specimen of three-pointed stones (pl. 107,
&) with characteristics of the first and second types and seems to be a
connecting form. This remarkable specimen is not only exceptional
in having a head carved on the anterior surface of the conical projec-
tion, but the conical projection is deeply incised, the position of the
ear being indicated by an incised triangle. The posterior extremity
is also quite exceptional and unlike three-pointed stones of the first
and second types.

The three-pointed stone, plate 107, C, belongs to the Heye Museum
and has likenesses to a bird, but likewise resembles a turtle. Gen-
erally in other bird zemis wings are represented.

The three-pointed stone shown in plate 108, A, was collected by
Mr. de Booy in Santo Domingo. It belongs to the first type and
shows relations, in the form of the head, to those placed in the rep-
tilian group. The object is made of a brown stone, said to be fossil
wood, which effervesces with acid.

216 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

Perhaps the most exceptional feature of this object is the curved
base, instead of flat, ending on each side in the pointed rim shown
on the side. This base has a median circular depression about mid-
way in its length. The lower lip extends forward and is curved
upward, the mouth impression being a deep-cut groove.

The specimen shown in plate 108, B, belongs to the first type of
three-pointed stones, and is remarkable in the position and shape of the
mouth, which is turned upward instead of being horizontal, as is
usually the case. The specimen was collected by Mr. de Booy in
Santo Domingo.

Second TyPE oF THREE-POINTED STONES

The only specimen of the second type of three-pointed stones, or
that with a face on the side of the conical projection, in the Heye
collection is the form, plate 108, (, which appears never to have
been finished. The position of the eyes is indicated by a depres-
sion, and there is a slight bridgelike elevation representing lips.
The cone is low, its apex bent forward.

Specimens of these stones are not very common, and as a rule come’
from Santo Domingo.

Although pointed stones of the second type are so rare in Antil-
lean collections, Mr. de Booy has added another to those already
known. This specimen, like most of the others, was collected in
Santo Domingo and resembles that figured on plate xtvir in Abo-
rigines of Porto Rico. Like this specimen it has a pit on the sur-
face of the conical projection, opposite the eyes, surrounded by an
incised ring, around which are three lines of a triangular incised
figure. In the published figure the ear has the form of the figure 6,
but in this specimen the ear is a circle. The lower jaw of the speci-
men collected by Mr. de Booy is more pronounced than in any of
the three-pointed stones of the second type yet described.

In a collection of Porto Rican antiquities presented to the National
Museum by Miss B. A. Gould and described by the author * there
are several instructive three-pointed stones—one of the first, two of
the second, and one of the fourth type—which so far as known are
unique. They are referred to as follows in the article above quoted:

“‘ Specimens of the type in which a face is carved on one side of the
conoid projection, or between its apex and the anterior projection, are
much less abundant than those of the first type in Porto Rican col-
lections. Only five zemis of this kind are described in the author’s
memoir, and the majority of these came from Santo Domingo.**

8 Wurther notes on the Archeology of Porto Rico, Amer, Anthrop., n. s., vol. x, No. 4,
1908.

6 The second type was originally distinguished from the first in the memoir above men-
tioned. The author has seen no representations of this type in other publications. A
similar method of representing joints by incised circles is found in many Central
American figures, and in Mexican bas-reliefs.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 106

THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE, PORTO RICO
A, B, C, 10 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 107

¢

-|
at
ANS
Se

i

i
a Sy
SVN

A, C, THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE, PORTO RICO.
B, COMPOSITE THREE-POINTED STONE, FIRST AND SECOND TYPES,
PORTO RICO

A, 5.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 108

A, B, THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FIRST TYPE; ©, FOURTH TYPE;
D, SECOND TYPE

A, 8.31 inches; B, 9.5 inches; C, 8 inches; D, 3.75 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 109

THREE-POINTED STONE OF SECOND TYPE (MUSEUM SANTIAGO DE
LOS CABALLEROS, SANTO DOMINGO)

a, b, 4.13 inches.

FEWKEs] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES Pay

There is one additional specimen of the same type in the collection
here considered [pl. 108, 2], and Senor Grullon has sent the author
a photograph of still another [pl. 109, 4, 2B], now in the Santiago
Museum. These seven known specimens fall logically into two
groups—three having limbs carved in relief on the sides, and four
without any sign of appendage. One of the three-pointed stones
here described belongs to the latter, the other to the former group.

“ The specimen of the second type, sent by Miss Gould, came from
Aguas Buenas, Porto Rico, and according to its label was found in a
cave.” It is instructive in several particulars, not the least being its
geographical locality, indicating that the type is Porto Rican as
well as Dominican. This specimen has legs cut in low relief on the
sides of the conoid projection. These appendages rise from the back
and extend to the anterior projection, where they terminate in feet
which are brought together below the mouth. Round depressions,
or pits, are found near the position of the joints, and just below the
apex of the conoid projection is a small lateral depression. Grooves
worn in the base of the conoid projection seem.to indicate that the
object was lashed to some foreign body. The face of this idol is
without nose, while lips and ears, which ordinarily are prominent in
the type, are inconspicuous. The tip of the posterior projection is
considerably battered, but strive in the stone at this point would
appear to have been intended for feet. The specimen measures 6
inches in length by 4 inches in height.

“The author’s attention has been called by Senor Grullon to an-
other fine and instructive specimen of this type from Santo Do-
mingo [pl. 109]. It resembles that figured in plate xy, figures
-b, b’, of the author’s memoir on the Aborigines of Porto Rico, but
unlike that specimen has incised scrolls around a circle on the back
like the object represented in plate xtvm of the same paper.

“ Unlike the one last mentioned, this zemi has no indication of
legs or other appendage on the side of the conoid projections; but
the ears are elaborately cut in relief, the mouth is large, the lips are
rather narrow, the eyebrows flattened, and the nose is prominent.
The ferrule back of the head, which possibly indicates a neckband, is
pronounced.

“ FourTH TYPE OF THREE-POINTED ZEMIS

“The fourth type of three-pointed zemis includes all those which
are destitute of head on either the anterior projection or the conoid
prominence, and have no indication of a face on any part of the
object. The specimens of this type vary considerably in general

7 Miss Gould has kindly furnished a photograph of the exact point in the cave where
she was informed this specimen was found.

218 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 24

form, most of them having the anterior and posterior projections
blunt and rounded, the cone being of limited height. The best figure
of this variety can be seen in plate x, e, of the author’s memoir on
the Aborigines of Porto Rico. Another subdivision of the type
[pl. 110, A, B] has more pointed anterior and posterior projec-
tions, the surface lying between the anterior projection and the apex
of the cone being slightly concave, while that portion which extends
between the posterior projection and the apex is slightly convex.
There are sometimes pronounced lateral ridges that extend from the
apex of the cone to the edge of the base.

“In the third subdivision of the type the conoid projection is
slender, while in the fourth the cone seems to rise out of a depression
surrounded by a slightly elevated lip. The first two subdivisions
of this type have been figured elsewhere (op. cit., pl. 1) ; the second
two, here distinguished from the others for the first time, have not
hitherto been illustrated. They will be considered in turn, beginning
with the one last mentioned.

“An instructive new form of three-pointed zemis, to which the
author’s attention was called by Senor Grullon, is provisionally
placed in the fourth subdivision of the fourth type, from which
it differs in having an elevated fold or raised ridge inclosing
a depression, out of which rises the conoid projection. Although
the general appearance of this stone has suggested phallicism, the
author would not so interpret it. This is the only specimen of this
form thus far described.7

“Another three-pointed zemi from Santiago has the conoid pro-
jection quite slender, more so than that of any other specimen. Its
apex tips slightly forward toward the anterior end of the zemi. A
photograph of this idol was sent to the author by Sefior Grullon.
This specimen belongs to the third subdivision of the fourth type.”

Four examples of the fourth type of tripointed stones are here
described for the first time. Two of these (pl. 110, 4, 2) are in the
Berlin Museum and one in the Heye collection.

The fourth type of: tripointed stones is easy to distinguish, from
the fact that while it shows the three points—anterior, posterior, and
conical projections—it has no representative of human or animal head
carved on it, although not without geometrical designs, as parallel
lines. :

Plate 111, A, represents a specimen which shows grooves near the
anterior and posterior ends for lashing to some foreign object. The
cone is girt by parallel lines, and the base is slightly concave.

Plate 111, B, represents one of the Heye specimens, which differs
from others in having vertical lines near the apex of the conical pro-

70a Wigured in Further Notes on the Archeology of Porto Rico, Amer. Anthrop., vol. x,
1908.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 919

jection. These lines are also represented in the second Berlin speci-
men (pl. 110, A), in which the base has a central groove with a well-
marked rounded edge on each side. The object shown in plate 111, (,
represents the passage from this type of three-
pointed stone to the first type.

Other specimens of the three-pointed stones of
the fourth type were collected by Mr. de Booy
in Santo Domingo. They do not differ essen-
tially from those already figured ; certain of them
have rough surfaces and show indications of hav-
ing been used for purposes different from that for S
which they were originally made. ana, alae

The fourth type of three-pointed stones is a ed stone with face

: ed on anterior end.
large and comprehensive one containing several
different forms, as may be seen by an examination of the objects fig-
ured in my Aborigines of Porto Rico. It will probably be necessary
later to divide this type into several subgroups, and it is possible that
specimens now referred to the type have different uses.

Figure 51 presents features of a three-pointed stone of the fourth
type so far as general form is concerned, but with a face cut
on the anterior end, consisting of a circle with dots for eyes. There

is a similar face with like
representations of eyes and
mouth on the posterior end
in plate 111, C. This fea-
ture calls to mind one of
the three-pointed stones of
the first group, already de-
scribed (fig. 50).

The specimen shown in
figure 52 belongs to the
fourth type, but has cer-
tain peculiarities different
from it, one of which is
four parallel incised lines

cae : near the point of the cone,
Fig. Te ina iu Tavhen type, from the meaning Gf which 4s
not known.

The third type of three-pointed stones, one of which is shown from
front and side in plate 111, Y, grades into stone heads. A well-made
specimen (pl. 111, #) in the Heye collection presents all the essen-
tial features of the same group as described and figured in the author’s
article on the Aborigines of Porto"Rico. A similar specimen belong-
ing to the same group is also figured by Dr. Haeberlin.”

™ Archaeological work in Porto Rico, p. 234.

220 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

There are included in this group of stone heads objects (pl. 111, /)
that might more properly be called three-pointed or triangular stones,
and they grade into circular or oval disks upon
which faces are indicated.

TTHREE-POINTED STONE USED FOR PESTLE

The stone object shown in figure 54 shows
marked evidences of a secondary use. It is evi-
dently a three-pointed zemi of peculiar form, the
anterior end of which is modified by evidences
of hammering as if used as a pestle for bruising
roots or grains.

If we interpret the original use as the same as
that of other three-pointed stones we have pe-
culiarities not previously recorded for this type
Pic. 53—Base ot Of stone objects. On the supposition that it is the

Rae ee ee posterior end which has been modified or shows

showing longitaai’ the effector pounding, the centrally placed of the

Coe aE ee ‘6 three knobs, as shown in the figures of the object

of from above, would represent the apex, while the
two lateral knobs in the same figure represent excrescences that are
present in certain forms described in previous articles. There is a
central circular depression surrounded by a raised rim midway in the
length of the base. While the median extension
shows no evidences of eyes the whole appearance
of this specimen recalls the bird group of the
first type of three-pointed stone zemis. The in-
clination of this projection forward would indi-
cate that the right-hand end of the stone, which
does not show the marks of hammering, could be

Pic. 04.—Froblematical stone recalling three-pointed idol, with superficial knobs
on body. Front and side views. (4.75 inches.)
interpreted as the anterior end of the figure or a handle by which it
may have been carried as a baton. The general appearance of the
object suggests a new type of three-pointed stones or an aberrant
example of the first type.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 110

THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FOURTH TYPE (BERLIN MUSEUM)

A, 6 inches; B, 2.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 111

Vi

A, B, THREE-POINTED STONES OF THE FOURTH TYPE; ¢, FOURTH TYPE WITH
FACE ON EACH END; D, 2, THIRD TYPE. SANTO DOMINGO

A, 2.56 inches; B, 6 inches; C, 4.4 iuches; D, 7 inches; E, 6.5 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 112

4, STONE BIRD; 8, ©, STONE MORTAR, PORTO RICO
B, C, 10 inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 113

A, B, STOOL (DUHO) AND GRINDERS (COL. BASTIAN); ©, TURTLE-SHAPED MORTAR.
(B, GUESDE COLLECTION, BERLIN MUSEUM)

B, 16 inches.

bo
_

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 2

IDOLS

Several stone objects of spherical or oblong form are covered with
projecting warts or wens, the signification of which is unknown.

A few of these, resembling idols, but showing marks of having
been used as pounding implements, were purchased in Paris by Mr.
Heye. The stone idol shown in figure 31 shares with the stone balls
the problematical excrescences.

One of the most instructive idols in the Heye collection from
Santo Domingo obtained by Mr. Theodoor de Booy near Boca
Chica, on the south coast of Santo Domingo, is said to have
been found in a cave. This object, figured in plate 120, recalls
in several respects an object figured by Pinart and is remarkable on
account of the large size of the legs, as if afflicted with elephantiasis.
How much of these legs represents a seat is not known, but the rest of
the human anatomy is so well formed that one is tempted to interpret
these appendages as part of the seat. The relief figures on the shoul-
ders and that on the belt are instructive. The ornamentation of the
back of the head is very similar to that frequently found on tri-
pointed zemis. The hunchback is likewise not without a parallel
in clay figures already elsewhere described by Pinart.

The head has a close likeness to figure a, plate Ixxxii, in Aborigines
of Porto Rico, where we also have the same elephantiasis in the
lower legs. Particularly: interesting is the head on the belt shown
in profile, which may have been a buckle. The features of tech-
nique are well brought out in the plate.

BIRD STONES

A worked stone from Arecibo purchased by the author from Senor
Seiyo for the Heye collection has a bird form and is the only speci-
men of this form known to the author, with the exception of one
described by him in the Aborigines of Porto Rico (pl. v1, fig. a, a’).
This specimen has the different parts as legs and wings of a bird
somewhat more elaborated than that in the National Museum.

This specimen (pl. 112, 4) represents a bird with legs drawn up
below the breast. The wings are represented in the conventional
form, the joints being indicated by depressions, while the surface is
crossed by curved lines and triangular figures which may represent
feathers. The,use of this object is not known, nor can the specific
bird represented be identified.

MORTARS AND GRINDERS.

The ordinary form of Antillean mortars and grinders, like those of
other primitive races, is destitute of decoration and has a depression
in the surface. It may be of stone or wood. The former was gen-
erally used for grinding corn. Yuca roots were ground into meal

222, ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 54

for cassava bread. on a flat board set with sharpened stones—a form
still used by the Carib.

In the collection of the United States National Museum there
are several flat, rough stones, rectangular in shape, with rounded
corners, that have been identified as grinding stones. These objects
have a paired extension on one margin. They are supposed to have
been used in grindifig seeds or roots, and are not common. Similar
flat stones with two projections occur in several European museums,
the best of which known to the author are in the Trocadero Museum,
Paris.

A mortar presented to the United States National Museum by
Miss A. B. Gould has a concavity on each side, and a distinct groove
extending around the body. Of all West Indian mortars seen by
the author this is the most interesting and is of most exceptional
form.

There are, however, many other forms, not unlike those described
by the author, ‘some of which are represented in the Heye collection.
Haeberlin figures a fragment of a clay mortar from Porto Rico.

One of the stone mortars, closely resembling in form an earthen-
ware vessel, is figured in plate 112, B, C. This utensil is ornamented
with incised geometrical designs on the outer surface. The decora-
tions cover also the bottom of the mortar and bowl and are quite
different from the majority of geometric figures on earthenware
objects. They have, however, this instructive feature, that most of
the curved lines end in an enlargement—a common characteristic of
incised decorations.

It is difficult to distinguish an implement on which the root of the
yuca, chocolate, or corn was ground from a seat (duho), and one or
two of the grinders are identified by some writers as seats. There is
reason to suspect these identifications, but not enough to prove their
falsity. It is probable that some of the objects described as seats or
Porto Rican duhos are in reality grinding stones, especially those of
very small size; but at present the author has not been able to differ-
entiate the two, and it is possible that some of them were used for both
purposes. In this connection an incident quoted from Du Tertre may
be as instructive as it is amusing: “ I recall,” he writes (p. 483), “ that
an Indian capitaine, who was quite newly clothed, was rebuked quite
sharply by Madame Aubert, the wife of our governor in the island,
for his having sat upon her bed (hamas), which was of white fustian,
where he had left a good part of his breeches (pantaloon legs). Then
M. Aubert, her husband, invited him to dinner. He had much diffi-
culty in coming to a determination what to do, seeing in advance that
he would redden the bench on which he would sit; but having cast
his eyes on his plate, he imagined that this round article, which
only needed three legs to make of it a stool, had been placed there
to serve as a place to sit on, he took it and put it on the bench and

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 223

sat on it; and seeing every one laughing at his action, he became
angry and informed us by means of an interpreter that he did not
know what posture to assume among the French, and that as long as
he lived he would never return!”

Some of the chocolate slabs have short, stumpy legs; others are
flat stones. These flat stones are, however. easily distinguished from
those used in cooking cassava bread.

According to Labat,” “before the Europeans prought the iron
plates [for frying cassava cakes] they made their cassava on large
flat, thin stones, which they adjusted for this purpose in decreasing
the thickness. Many of these stones are found on the seashore. It
is a kind of sandstone or pebble of the color of iron, ordinarily 2 or 3
feet long and oval. They heated it for the purpose of removing more
easily the fragments and reducing it to the desired shape. I saw one
of these stones in 1701 at quay St. Louis, in the island of Santo
Domingo, at the house of a man named Castras, manager of the house
of the company of the Isle 4 Vache. It was 22 inches long and 144
inches wide and 3 inches thick. It was very even, and it would have
been difficult to make it better with tools. In digging the ground
they found it with some pieces of pottery and figures of grotesque
shapes, which were supposed to be Indian idols, worshipped on the
island when it was discovered by the Spanish.”

The specimen shown in plate 113, A, is about twice as long as broad,
rounded below, and mounted on four stumpy legs. It has a head on
one edge. This specimen was found near a town situated in the in-
terior of Porto Rico not far from the military road from San Juan
to Ponce.

On certain grinders (pl. 113, C) the position of the heads, legs,
and tails represented by simple extensions reminds one of a turtle
form. This specimen, now in the Berlin Museum, was found at Cape
Haitien.

The most instructive form of chocolate grinders (stone seats or
“ duhos”) in the Heye Museum is shown in figure 55. This beautiful
specimen is made of a greenish stone with surface very smooth and
polished on both the upper and lower surfaces.

The head is a continuation of one side and closely resembles that
of a turtle, having a blunt nose, mouth extending far backward, and
eyes obscurely indicated by elongated depressions in the side of the
head. On each side of the neck above the forelegs are projections
comparable with the fore flippers of a turtle, without any indication
of claws or leg joints. The concave upper surface of the seat follows
the line of the neck, narrowing as it approaches the back of the head.

There are four short, stumpy round legs, one of which is broken,
which support the body of the seat. The diminutive size of this

™ Nouyeau Voyage aux Isles de l’Amerique, vol, I, pp. 409-410.

224 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA Delaiee Lisp

specimen would seem to indicate that it was of a very different type
from that used by the caciques for seats, and it may have been used
for some other purpose. Unlike many other seats it has no back,
and the smoothness of the upper surface implies that it was not used
asa mortar. It may have been one of those seats on which idols were
placed, or it may have been used for some household god. Ls re-
semblance to some of the known stone seats has led me to place it
among the duhos, several specimens of which are described in my
Aborigines of Porto Rico.

The most elaborate duho made of stone is that shown in plate
113, 4, in which we have the back prolonged beyond the seat and
modified into a human head. The remarkable things about this
specimen are the arms and portions of the upper body engraved on
the inside surface of the back.

Fie, 55.—Chocolate grinder shaped like a seat or duho. (9.31 inches.)

The seat and its short legs are not greatly unlike the corresponding
parts of other duhos. The anterior legs are much larger and thicker
than the posterior, and between them is a projection comparable
with the turtle head of the specimen just described. Neither of
these parts is sufficiently well cut to clearly indicate that they were
intended to represent any life forms. The posterior legs are longer
than the anterior and are destitute of ornamentation.

That neither of these represent any part or appendages of the body
to which the head graven on the extremity of the back belongs is
evident from the position and character of the arms engraved on
the flat inner surface of the back of the duho. These arms are so
represented that the hands are folded on the breast, the four fingers
reaching almost to the neck. The upper arms are straight, the
lower curved, a line connecting the elbows indicating the margin
of the junction of the body and the seat. This point of union is also
well marked on the rear side on a level with the elbows. The only

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 925

part of the body that can be identified is a circle with central dot,
probably the umbilicus, which for some unknown reason is so con-
stant on figures of Antilleans. ;

In examining the arrangement of parts in this duho, and especially
the relation of the head and arms of the human figure which forms
its back to that of the seat itself, it appears that the former is an ad-
dition and not an essential part of the latter. In instances, however,
where an animal head appears between the two anterior legs of the
duho, these legs may be regarded as the fore limbs of the same
animal. Such is probably true of this duho, but the head on the
back has nothing to do with the rude anterior limbs here represented.

This stone seat, formerly in Paris, now in the Museum fiir Vélker-
kunde, Berlin, has already been described and figured by the late
Prof. O. T. Mason in his account of the Guesde collection. The
specimen is one of the best-made examples of these objects yet found.

This specimen, according to the late Prof. Mason, was identified by
M. Guesde as an “idol.” Mason considered it a duho or chair, as
shown in the following quotation :

“A stone stool or chair of the variety mentioned and illustrated
in the Smithsonian Report, 1876, page 376. The material of those
there described, however, is either sandstone or wood, and the device
is some animal form. In M. Guesde’s specimen the material is a dark
brown volcanic stone, and the device is the human form. Moreover,
the position is inverted. The man is lying on his back, with his feet
drawn up to form the legs of the stool. His arms, without any at-
tempt at accuracy of delineation, are doubled on his neck. The eyes
and mouth are like the same features in all aboriginal statuary, and
beautiful shells were doubtless inserted in them. The ears have large
openings in which were inserted plugs of wood, stone, shell, or
feathers. The legs of the chair, just beneath the man’s shoulders, are
mere projections from the stone. The markings in the head and fore-
head are quite tastefully designed. The back does not slope upward
as much.as in the Latimer specimens. In Dr. Liborio Lerda’s Eldo-
rado is figured a mummified human body seated on a stone stool in
a cist. The figure in this paper and notes of im Thurn (Timehri, I,
271) should be consulted. The impossibility of using such objects
as mealing stones was pointed out by the author of these notes 10
years ago, and im Thurn adds the very pertinent argument that the
ancient West Indians did not grind maize, subsisting mainly on
cassava. Dr. Joseph Jones quotes Sheldon as saying: ‘When a
Carib died his body was placed in the grave in an attitude resembling
that in which they crouched around the fire or the table when alive,
with the elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands against the
cheeks.’ Length, 16 inches; width, 6} inches; height of head, 6}
inches; of feet, 2 to 3 inches.”

7™ Mason, op. cit., p. 827.
160658°—34 rTH—22

226 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

By the author’s interpretation the extended portion of this chair
should not be confounded with the horizontal portion or seat proper.
We find the head, arms, and upper body of a human figure graven on
the former, while an animal figure is represented in the latter. The
anterior appendages or front legs of the seat have a rude head be-
tween them, and the legs of the upright figure are not represented.
The identification of the projection on the anterior border as a head
conforms with other seats having a head carved in the same position.

Labat describes how these grinders are used. Apparently, from
his account, after the kernels of cacao have been roasted to a
paste and cleaned of their skin in a wooden mortar, they are
pounded on a stone to make the meal finer. “The stones,’ he
writes, “used by them should be hard, a little porous in order that
the fire placed below should heat them more readily; but they should
not be liable to split, nor to calcine, and their grain should
be sufficiently hard not to disintegrate, because it would spoil the
taste. They should be polished with care, and cleaned, washed, and
well rubbed immediately their use is finished. Ordinarily they are
15 to 18 inches in width by 23 feet long. They are excavated their
whole length, so that they are concave and are left 2 or 3 inches
thick. They have at each extremity a foot about 4 inches square
and 6 inches high to hold up the stone and raise it high enough from
the ground to place fire under it.” ™*

Labat, in speaking of the seats used by the Carib in bathing,
hints at the form of the chocolate stones. He says (p. 109): “The
Caribs arise before day and a little before sunrise, withdrawing
from the house for their necessities, which they never do near the
houses, but in a place a little away, when they make a hole and
subsequently cover it with earth. They immediately go into the sea
to bathe if there is no river near; if there is, however, they do not
go into the ocean. When they return they sit down on a little seat of
one piece of wood shaped like a chocolate stone.”

The dead were buried in a contracted or sitting posture. Jefferys
says:7°* “ The corpse was not laid out horizontally, but seated on a
little bench under a kind of wooden arch, to hinder the earth from
falling in upon it. * * * But the bodies of the Caciques were
not interred till they had been first well embowled and dried by fire.”

PESTLES ;

The pestles of the Porto Rico-Santo Domingo area are among the
finest stone implements in the West Indies, and are readily dis-
tinguished by the carvings on the head. In the Berlin Museum there
is an undescribed pestle from St. Thomas (fig. 56) that approaches in

7% Labat, vol. vi, pp. 58, 59.

7 Op. cit., p. 109. This would certainly imply that duhos and “ chocolate stones ’’ were
practically the same in some instances—a conclusion arrived at by comparative studies.

74 French Dominions, pt. 2, p. 16.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 927

form the Porto Rico or Santo Domingo type. While the provenance
of this specimen may be doubtful, its presence in a Danish island
would not be unexpected, if the Porto Rico-Santo Domingo culture
areas embrace also the islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and
San Juan. ; -

The St. Thomas pestle (pl. 114, A) has a well-developed disk, a
thick handle, and a prominent ferrule, the tip of the handle being
sculptured into a head with protruding lower jaw, sunken eyes, and
prominent eyebrows marked with a fillet, which ends in slightly
developed ears after arching over the
forehead.

As this specimen is the only one of
its form described from St. Thomas, the
author suspects that it was brought
there from Santo Domingo. The Porto
Rico pestles are generally destitute of
carved heads on the handle.

Plate 114, B, shows front and side
views of a pestle from Haiti in the Ber-
lin Museum. This specimen shows
characteristics of the Santo Domingo
type, the most marked of which is the
presenze of a ferrule at the point where
the handle joins the enlarged lenticular
base. The surface of the base is con-
vex; the diameter of the handle at its
union with the base is less than midway
in its length. The end of the handle is
enlarged, bearing a carved imitation of
a human head, body, and retracted
legs.

A pestle somewhat better sculptured 16. 56.—Problematical object

than that last mentioned was found in spent ) ake 8 Re deaaaee
Haiti and is now in the Berlin Museum.
Its essential features are seen in plate 114, C. The resemblance of the
head to that of a human being is better than that just described, and
the limbs are more skillfully carved. Both of these pestles are in-
ferior to some of those in the Merifo collection, elsewhere de-
scribed.**

Quite inferior in sculpture to the pestle in the Merifio collection
from Santo Domingo or those in the Berlin Museum, above described,
is one in the Heye Museum, figured in plate 115, A. This specimen
is somewhat smaller than the preceding, differing from it in the

™ Aborigines of Porto Rico, 25th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.

228 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 3£

absence of a ferrule and lens-shaped base. Its handle terminates in a
head, from which project widely extended ears. The eyes are rep-
resented but are not prominent.

A glance at plate 115, 4, shows a pestle more closely allied to
those from Porto Rico than to those from Santo Domingo. The
ferrule is absent and the disk thick, even massive. The head, as
shown from the side, is separated by a deep groove from the handle.

The typical form of pestles of the Porto Rico-Santo Domingo area,
as represented by the preceding specimens, is easily distinguished
from that of pestles found in the Lesser Antilles, one of which is

Fic. 57,—Front and back views of head of an end of decayed pestle handle.

shown in plate 115, (, , from front and side. We have in these
specimens no ferrule differentiating a lens from the handle, and,
instead of the head being cut on one end of the handle, a face is en-
graved on the side.

The two heads, figure 57, represent front and back views of a
broken end of a pestle in the Heye collection. The grooves incised on
them form a strictly Antillean design, which, however, is better
brought out in the form of the face, ears, and mouth. The object
suggests Santo Domingan rather than Porto Rican art, the ends of
the pestle handles from the former islands being much more elab-
orately sculptured than those from the latter island.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 114

PESTLES. 4, ST. THOMAS; 2, C, HAITI. (BERLIN MUSEUM)
A, dinches; B, 4.13 inches; C, 4.25 inches.

PEATE dS

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THIRTY-FOURTH

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

D, SIDE VIEW OF

C, PESTLES, SANTO DOMINGO;

3,

A

8

FEWEES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 9929

The fine pestle shown in figure 58 closely resembles those from Santo
Domingo. It is elsewhere described and figured in the article, “ Fur-

2977

ther notes on the archeology of Porto Rico,
and is now in the United States National Museum.

This specimen was presented to the Smithsonian
Institution by Sefior Don Juan Cabezas, of Caro-
lina, Porto Rico, and, according to its label, was
plowed up near his estate. It is made of a hard,
smoothly polished stone, and is one of the finest
examples of pestles from Porto Rico. The handle
is elongated, slightly tapering, with a well-carved
head at one end and a lens with slightly chipped
periphery at the other. This pestle, unfortu-
nately, has been broken at the neck. The handle
has no ferrule. The lips, nose, eyes, and ears are
well carved in high relief. Each side of an eleva-
tion on the crown of the head bears a ring-like
protuberance unlike anything in other described
pestles from this region. This specimen measures
7d inches in length.

The lobate stone shown in figure 59 belongs to
a type the use of which is unknown. It has cer-
tain relationships to the three-pointed type of
idol, but its form is quite different, and it may
have been used as a rubber.

Fic. 58.—Stone pestle
with head on end of
the handle.

This object came from Haiti, according to the label in the Museum
fiir Vélkerkunde, where the specimen is now on exhibition. I have

Fic, 59.—Problematical stone implement, prob-
ably when in use lashed to a wooden handle.
(4.5 inches.)

en ae

personally placed it among the grinding implements, not, however,
without some misgivings, as it seems to be unique among prehistoric

Porto Rican or Antillean objects.

™ Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. x, No. 4. 1908.

2380 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

ORNAMENTS

The aborigines of both the Greater and the Lesser Antilles prized
many kinds of ornaments to decorate their heads and bodies. They
are described by contemporaries as a cleanly people, bathing often,
and are even said to have built their habitations near the water so
they could take frequent baths. They painted, stained, and tattooed
their bodies and faces with pigments in elaborate designs and varie-
gated colors. These designs were said to represent in some instances
zemis, possibly totems.

The early authors frequently speak also of stone pendants, shell
or stone necklaces, gold earrings and gorgets, and other ornaments
which they found on their bodies or inserted in nose and ears. Speci-
mens of these objects in the Heye collection have a great variety of
form. These are generally made of stone, but are probably of the
same form as those made of gold.

Several ornaments here described have a crescentic form that sug-
gests the “ caracolis” referred to by Labat*® and others. The ac-
count by Labat is instructive, although none of the prehistoric orna-
ments were made of other metas than gold.

“The ornaments most valued by them are caracoli, which are cer-
tain plates of metal purer than brass and less valuable than silver.
It has the property of neither tarnishing nor rusting. This causes the
savages to hold it in great estimation. Only the chiefs or their chil-
dren wear them. It has been thought that the caracoli came from
the island of Hispaniola, otherwise called St. Domingo, but the
savages assert to the contrary and say they trade for them with their
enemies, who call them alouagues through certain understandings
they have among them who make presents to those from whom they
receive things. To know whence these Alouagues are obtained is a
difficulty. They say the gods whom they adore, who make their home
in frowning rocks, in inaccessible mountains, give them to them so
that they may have greater reverence for this sovereignty. If true
I believe, however, that it may be that the devil abuses the feeble
minds of these ignorant ones by this artifice. However that may be,
these caracoli are very rare amongst them, and are brought from the
mainland.

“They are of different sizes; the largest are twice as large as a
piastre. They have the form of a crescent. They wear them at the
neck incased in wood. They wear bracelets of white beads, not at
the wrist, but on the arm near the shoulder. They also wear them
on the legs in place of garters. The women dress their hair like the
men do but do not ever use feathers stuck in the hair and never
wear a crown. They color themselves with arnotto as the men do,
also wear bracelets as they do, but at the wrist and not on the upper

7 Nouveau Voyage aux isles de l’Amerique. Paris, 1742.

>

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 231

arm. They carry necklaces of different kinds of stones, such as crys-
tal, amber, greenstone, and beads. I have seen them with over six
pounds hung at the neck. In their assemblies they wear belts of
plaited cotton and chains of white beads. They hang to the different
parts of this belt little bundles of six or seven chains of beads of a
finger’s length, and a large number of little bells, so as to make
more noise in dancing. All the women and girls, excepting the slaves,
wear from their earliest youth a certain half stocking which grasps
the leg from the ankle to the calf of the leg, and another between the
calf of the leg and the knee. At the top of the cotton stocking there is
attached a kind of enlargement larger than a plate, plaited from
reed and cotton, and a smaller one at the bottom than at the top, so
that these two enlargements press on the calf of the leg in such a
manner and press out the calf that it looks like a Holland cheese
between two plates.

“The caracolis worn by the savages are made in the shape of cres-
cents, according to the part of the body where worn. Ordinarily
they are worn one at each ear. From one end of the horn to the
other is about 24 inches. A little chain with a hook is held attached
to the ear. Where they have no chains (for all do not have them)
they are held by a cotton thread which is passed around the center
of the crescent, of which the weight is like that of a piece of 15 sols
(halfpennies). They wear another of the same size at the space
between the nose, which strikes on their mouth. The lower part of
the underlip is pierced, where they attach a fourth caracoli which
is a third larger than the preceding ones. Finally, they have a fifth
one, which has an opening of 6 or 7 inches, which is ineased in a little
black wooden board centering in the crescent, falling on their breast,
being attached at the neck by a cord. I leave it to be imagined
what resplendence this gives to a man’s head, and if it does not
resemble a mule with his plates.

“When they are not wearing these caracolis they are careful to fill
the holes in their ears, in the nose, and in the lips with little sticks to
prevent them closing up. At such times they resemble hogs that have
had pins to prevent them rooting up the ground. Sometimes they
wear greenstones in the ears and in the lip, and when they have neither
greenstones nor little sticks, nor caracolis, they put in them the
feathers of parrots or red, blue, or yellow (“aras”) paroquettes,
which give them mustaches 10 or a dozen inches long on both sides of
the mouth, both above and below, without counting that which they
have in their ears, which gives them the most pleasant countenance in
the world.” *?

The Porto Ricans wore strings of gilded beads (fig. 60), crescentic
stones. and earrings of shell or bone. The Heye collection, how-

= Op; Cits, ve TI, DepS0s

pe) ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

ever, contains no specimen of a gold ornament; but pendants made
of shell carved into amulets have been described by one or two
authors. Beads made of bone, shell, and stone are known from pic-
tures of Porto Rican Indians in early writings. None of the gold
beads of prehistoric times escaped the cupidity of Europeans, and
those given them by the natives found their way into the melting
pot. Beads made of stone, however, exist in several collections.
Their form is cylindrical rather than globular, perforated, and often
having a second hole at right angles for insertion of feathers. A
necklace made of these beads had the appearance of a feather col-
lar, as described by early authors. These stone beads are sometimes
cut in the forms of animals or human beings. They were strung on
a string side by side for a collar, similar to the necklaces figured by

Fic. 60.—Various forms of stone beads, plain and decorated.

Giglioli,s* Andree,’* and other ethnologists. These ornaments must,
however, be distinguished from amulets or zemis, worn on the fore-
heads when they went into battle.

In the Berlin Museum there are 40 shell sticks of brown and white
color of a similar form.

In several of the early accounts it is stated that every medicine
man among the Carib carried a zemi, by which he was known. In
some cases this was worn on a necklace, in other instances attached
to his forehead, and still other forms were painted or tattooed on the
body. These and other facts lead me to believe that in a way we
may regard the zemi as a totemic symbol, representing the divinized
ancestor in much the same way as the Katcina among the Hopi.

STONE PENDANT

There is in the Heye collection a unique stone object, plate 116, 4,
of unknown use, from Santo Domingo, which is provisionally called
a pendant and supposed to have been worn as an ornament. It is
made of black stone and has the form of a cone pointed at one end
and flattened at the opposite, or base, recalling a grinding stone.
The conical end is, however, perforated and the hole beveled on

®8 Rept. XVIth Int. Cong. of Amer., pt. 2, p. 316.
® Baessler-Archiy, Band IV, pp. 31-32, Leipzig, 1914.

THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 116

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

A, UNIDENTIFIED STONE OBJECT; 2, TOOTH-SHAPED OBJECT; ©, DP, 2, F,
AMULETS
f, 2.06 inches; F, 1.88 inches.

A, 2.88 inches; B, 2.7 inches; C, 2 inches; D,3.1inches; E,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 117

A, STONE AMULET; 8, ©, D, BE, F, SHELL AND BONE OBJECTS;
G, POTTERY STAMP. SANTO DOMINGO.

A, 3inches; D, enlarged; EF, 5.5 inches; F, 2.75 inches; G, 2.4 inches.

FEWEES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 233

each side. An exceptional feature of this specimen is the four flat
circular disks or knobs, one in each quadrant, attached to the sides.
The bases of attachment of these disks adjoin, their diameter being
about half the whole length of the object. This unique object is well
polished and may be considered one of the finest specimens of Antillean
stonework.

AMULETS

One of the shell amulets in the Heye collection is the best made of
these objects known to the author. It is represented in plate 116, D,
and while in general features it resembles fetishes or amulets figured
elsewhere,*° it has certain features that are characteristic. The head
of this amulet is well cut, showing mouth with rows of teeth, eyes,
nose, and crest on the forehead. The forearms are fluted in such a
way as to bring the hands below the chin with palms pointed out-
ward. The body is elongated into a round shaft, which terminates
in an angular, cubical enlargement, to which the posterior append-
ages, the parts of which are not clearly indicated, are attached. The
back of the head is perforated from side to side, on a level with the
nose, indicating that the object was formerly suspended. The general
form of this object and its perforations leads me to regard it a
pendant worn with beads as a necklace about the neck.

Several amulets (pl. 116, C) from Santo Domingo resemble those
the author has already figured, but one or two are better examples
and have characteristic features. The specimen shown from face and
back in plate 116, #’, resembles that on plate txxxvir of my Porto
Rico memoir.** It has a perforation for suspension, which is shown
in the figures.

In another amulet (pl. 116, /) there is a disk-like addition to the
head, recalling the tabla or table added to the heads of wooden
images. This table addition appears to be typical of several speci-
mens, all from Santo Domingo. The ear projections are prominent
features in several of these amulets.

One of the most remarkable amulets from Guadeloupe is now in
the Vienna Museum, and was described by Prof. Franz Heger.’*

The three views given in figure 61 show the form of this amulet
from the front, back, and side. The exceptional feature is the exist-
ence of four constrictions dividing the body of the specimen into five
regions and imparting to it the form of a segmented animal like a.
worm or centipede. Each of the body segments has markings on the
sides that might be mistaken for legs. They have the form of simple
grooves, sometimes, as in the first segment, bifurcated. This like-
ness to a centipede is enhanced by the form of a proboscis-like ap-
pendage to the head and the form of eyes and mouth. The relative

*5 Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.

a Aus den Sammlungen der anthropologisch-ethnographischen Abtheilung des k. k.
naturhistorischen Hofmuseums in Wien, Mittheil. der Anthrop Gesell. in Wien, Bd. ix,
p. 132, pl. I, Wien, 1880.

234 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

position of the perforation by which this amulet was suspended is
the same as those of other frontal amulets, which leads the author
to include the specimen in this group. It is recorded that an amulet
of,a frog was found with a human skeleton on Guadeloupe.

The museum of Prague, Bohemia, is said to have one of the
finest amulets from the West Indies. The author knows of it from
a cast in the Berlin Museum. This specimen (pl. 117, 4) is made of
a greenstone, probably jadeite, and has the form of a frog, the head
and hind legs being cut in low relief. The perforations by which it
was suspended appear in a view from the underside. The smooth
surface on this side, combined with peculiar perforations so like
those of other amulets, would indicate that it might have been worn
on the forehead by warriors
when they went into battle,
as described by Gomara and
Peter Martyr.

BONE OBJECTS

The problematical object,
plate 117, , preserved in the
Berlin Museum, is made of
bone, one end having a
snake’s head, the opposite ex-
tremity being slightly flat-
tened and bifurcated. <A
perforation through the mid-
dle of the head would appear
to indicate that it was worn
on the body, possibly as an
ornament suspended about
the neck. The side view in-
. dicates that a section of
Fic. 61..—Amulet in Vienna Museum. Shown it 1s round or oval, and that

from front, back, and side. (4.38 inches.) the flattened spatulate ex-
tremity is separated by a shoulder from the body and _ head.
It is not unlikely that this specimen may have been used as a
spatula in modeling, the extremity ornamented with a head being
held in the hand for that purpose, and the flattened end applied to
the soft clay.

Plate 117, 7, shows an unusual spoon-like object made of bone, a
unique form in the Heye collection. One surface is convex, the con-
cavity on the opposite side or bowl of the specimen being decorated
with incised lines on one end. Further resemblance to a spoon is
lost from the absence of a handle, the end near the bowl on which
the ornamentation appears being cut off sharply and replaced by a
smooth surface.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 235

A bone swallow stick was found by the late Theodoor de Booy in
the Virgin Islands, and is now in the Museum of the American Indian
(Heye Foundation). The eyes and mouth are inlaid with shell.

SHELL OBJECTS

The shell mask (pl. 117, C’) in the Heye collection is almost iden-
tical with that figured by the author in his Aborigines of Porto Rico,
but is much better carved. It was purchased by the author from
Sefior Seiyo, of Arecibo. As in the Merino specimen, there are two
holes near the rim for suspension by a band. These holes alternate
with round elevations. There is also a perforation in the chin—a
feature absent in the Merifio specimen. On each cheek of the Heye
specimen there is an engraved circle, recalling the elevations or wens
on cheeks of the stone head in the Berlin Museum previously referred
to. The curved incised line on the forehead of the Heye specimen
ends in three extensions, recalling a hand with fingers. The anoma-
lous position of these appendages, which do not occur in the Merino
specimens, is an objection to our identification of this as a fore limb.

The Heye collection has an imitation of teeth made of shell. This
object (pl. 117, B) was probably formerly inlaid in a wooden figure
of some West Indian god and represented its teeth. It has been
suggested that these imitation teeth were used as an amulet, either
suspended around the neck or carried with other fetishes in a special
sack for that purpose.*®

The object, the carved surface of which is shown in plate 117, /), is
made of shell and is perforated in the middle.

CLAY OBJECTS

Disks made of clay or burnt earthenware often have incised figures
upon them, suggesting that they were used as stamps for pottery or
fabrics. These disks also, in some instances, bear knobs forming
handles fashioned in the form of animals. One of these stamps, with
the knob broken but the incised legs of an animal still shown, is fig-
ured in my memoir on the Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighbor-
ing Islands.*’ The incised designs on the surface of this disk rep-
resent the legs of a frog, turtle, or other animal. The body and head,
formerly in relief, have been broken off, but the author has seen speci-
mens from Santo Domingo in which the whole body of a frog is rep-
resented on one of these stamps.

CLay CYLINDERS

In essential features the clay cylinder (pl. 117, @) is unlike other
objects of the same type elsewhere described; the figure incised on its

88 Possibly this object was tied to a belt in front, as recorded in older histories,
57 Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. LUXxXVI.

236 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

surface is characteristic. This cylinder was probably used as a
roller for stamping decorations on pottery or fabrics, since iden-
tical designs to those upon its surface are on the surface of
earthenware: vessels. Similar cylinders have been collected on
other islands of the Santo Domingo-Porto Rico area, and have
been reported likewise from the Lesser Antilles, where, however, they
are generally replaced by disks with a knob or handle in the middle.
These latter apparently serve the same purpose as the cylinders, al-
though that has not yet been definitely determined. Another use to
which these cylinders and circular stamps may have been put is sug-
gested by a study of certain
tribes of Venezuela and Guiana
who are said to use similar ob-
jects in stamping patterns on
woven fabrics. Woven prehis-
toric Antillean fabrics are rare,
but a few show evidences of repe-
tition of the same designs as if
stamped with cylindrical rollers
or flat tablets.

Circular stamps with central
knobs are not rare in some of
the Antillean shell mounds and
village trash heaps. Some of
these from Santo Domingo
caves, as shown in the collections
obtained by De Booy, are orna-
mented with figures in relief.
Other stamps have slender han-
dles projecting from the middle
of each end of the cylinder.
These cylinders sometimes taper at each end (fig. 62), impart-
ing an ovate form to the object. One of these is elsewhere figured.**

Fic. 62.—Clay stamp or die with incised
meander.

POTTERY

The pottery from the Haiti-Porto Rican region is rather coarse
as compared with that of the Lesser Antilles, especially Trinidad and
St. Kitts. It is, asa rule, thick, its surface unpainted, but decorated
with incised lines, ridges, and raised figures that appear to have
been added after the rest of the bowl had been fashioned. The in-
cised lines are generally rectilinear, but are sometimes spiral, in the
former case being arranged in triangular and in the latter in cir-
cular figures. The spaces about the center, which is occupied by a

®§ Notes on Archaeology of Porto Rico, Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. x, no. 4, 1908.

FEWKES |] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 237
circle or dots, are well filled. Straight lines often end in pits, which
may be separated from the ends of the lines. They were apparently
made with a pointed implement.

Food bowls are not uncommon, their decoration being commonly
a modification of lugs, or handles, into heads, which when broken
off are often called idols by the country people. The margins of
the openings are not turned outward or upward, but are without
modifications. There are rarely necks to the bowls or feet or bases
for them to stand upon.

The earliest described whole piece of pottery from Porto Rico
was figured in 1907 in the article on the Aborigines of Porto Rico.
Several additional specimens are now known in different collections.
As shown elsewhere, there are two distinct types of Porto Rican pot-
tery—one from caves (Cueva de los Golondrinos, not far from
Arecibo) ; the other from the shell heaps and ball courts (batey).
The vessel *** from the mound near the ball court at Utuado is of
rough ware, the handles slender, not as broad as those from the caves-
If the reputed provenance of specimens can be relied upon, the pot-
tery from inland caves differs from that of the caves alongshore—
a condition that might be expected if caves were at times inhabited
and later used for mortuary purposes. The pottery from Porto
Rico is quite different from that found in middens of the Lesser
Antilles; the incised or relief decorations are not the same. It is,
in fact, possible to differentiate art designs from the different islands,
although there is a general similarity in pottery forms from Trinidad
to Cuba, indicating a like cultural condition of the prehistoric inhab-
itants, the modifications being largely due to environmental condi-
tions, character of clay, and pigments used in decorating.

The most abundant fragments of pottery from Porto Rico and
Santo Domingo are lugs or handles of bowls and vases made in the
form of human and animal heads. To consider all these fragments
in any collection would be a great undertaking, and many such heads
have been figured by students of collections from these islands.

While the pottery of Porto Rico and Santo Domingo in general
characters resembles that of the other West Indies, it can be readily
distinguished from that of the St. Kitts, St. Vincent, Barbados, and
Trinidad areas. Many of the specimens in the Heye collection are
fragmentary and are more or less worn on the surface by use, but as
a rule they exhibit no evidence of a gloss which they formerly had.
Even these fragments indicate that the ancient islanders were excel-
lent potters, showing superior art and workmanship. As in the other
islands, handles of vessels in the form of clay heads predominate, in-
dicating that effigy bowls, vases, and jars were very numerous.

5 Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. Lxxvil, c;
the character of cave pottery is shown in pl. LxxItt.

238 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 3£

The flat open-mouthed bowl (pl. 118, A) is destitute of lugs or
relief figures and has the base convex, the outer surface being slightly
inclined inward. This upper region is decorated with incised pat-
terns, in which circles, parallel lines, crescents, and triangles may be
easily recognized. Some of these lines are enlarged at their extremi-
ties into pits, and the decoration is also helped out by similar pits,
free from the end of the incised lines. The figures engraved on the
upper zone of the bowl recall those on the decorated panels of certain
stone collars from Porto Rico and possibly are the same symbols.

One of the best objects made of burnt clay from Santo Domingo
in the Heye collection is shown in plate 118, B. This specimen is in
fact one of the most beautiful examples of Antillean pottery yet col-
lected. Its general form is oval, the opening being about half the
longer axis, the rim or lip of the orifice without decoration. AlI-
though the surface is worn, it shows evidence of decoration with in-
cised lines which girt the vessel or are arranged in such a way as to
indicate organs of the animal intended by the effigy. The head stands
out in bold relief from the body of the vessel, from which it is sepa-
rated by a well-developed neck. This head recalls in some features
those of certain three-pointed idols already elsewhere figured. The
representation of the fore limbs consists of four short parallel in-
cised lines situated on each side not far from the junction of the
neck and bowl. There is a triangular figure on each side, but not
elevated above the surface of the jars. A similar triangular figure
occupies a like relationship to each of the posterior appendages. The
hind legs are represented by two club-shaped appendages which arise
on each side near the pole of the bowl, opposite the head. These
posterior limbs are represented in such a manner that the soles of
their feet face outward toward the observer—a common feature in
Antillean art. The sole of the foot is triangular in shape and has
a slightly curved border and indications of four toes.

The leg itself is short and stumpy, without joints. Its general
form and situation as regards the remainder of the effigy recalls the
flippers of a turtle or leg of a lizard—an identification not opposed
by the general shape of the head and the existence of nostrils, so
common in clay representations of reptilian heads. The tail is elon-
gated, round, and enlarged at the extremity into a button, which is
further marked with parallel incisions above. Around the enlarged
base of its attachment there are two ferrules or raised sides separated
by circular grooves, from the middle of which the tail seems to
emerge. The existence of this tail favors a reptilian or turtle identi-
fication of the vase. It is a feature unknown in effigy forms of bowls
and other pottery objects.

The bow! shown in plate 118, (, belongs to the Museum fiir V6lker-
kunde in Berlin, to which it was brought from Santo Domingo. It

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 118

POTTERY, 4, 8, PORTO RICO; ©, SANTO DOMINGO
A, B, 10 inches,

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 119

4, BROKEN POTTERY NECK: B, ©, POTTERY. SANTO DOMINGO

£B,5.4inches; C, 6inches.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 120

SEATED STONE FIGURE, SANTO DOMINGO

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 239

has a globular form with orifice wide open and lugs in relief in the
decorated zone. ‘These vertical handles are perforated, but as the
openings are too small for insertion of the fingers it would seem that
the bowl was once suspended by strings in these lugs. The decora-
tion is confined to the upper half and consists of alternating recti-
linear parallel lines, four of which occur in the horizontal and three
in the vertical areas. The lip opening is shghtly bent outward.

A small bowl (pl. 119, &) in the Heye collection is decorated with
two heads, placed opposite each other, in relief, recalling some of
those from the Erin Bay midden in Trinidad, British West Indies.
It has a convex base, and the opening is only slightly less than the
diameter of the bowl. The surface decoration consists of parallel
grooves, whose extremities are separated by the heads in relief or
lines at right angles to the same. There are several pits near the
ends of the rectilinear grooves—a feature characteristic of pottery
from Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. The heads are attached in
high relief on the two opposite sides of the bowl, the rim flares out-
ward, extending over a deep groove or neck that separates two areas
of incised lines that form the main decoration of the outer surtace of
the vessel. The eyes and ears are represented by circular rings in
low relief. The back of the head corresponds in curvature with the
inner surface of the bowl.

The bowl shown in plate 119, C, from the Heye collection from
Santo Domingo, has sloping sides, with a flat base. The exterior
bends inward to form an undecorated lip, which also serves as the
place of attachment of two heads, placed opposite each other, pro-
jecting shghtly outward and upward from the margin of the opening
and forming lugs or handles. The eyes and other organs of the head
take the form of dumb-bell appendages to the rim and are situated
one on each side of the handle. :

In an account of his trip to Santo Domingo Mr. De Booy added
several instructive forms of pottery to those already known from
that island, thus increasing our knowledge of the ceramics of
the Porto Rico-Santo Domingo area. Several of these water jars
have nozzles ornamented with human faces and other organs as
elsewhere figured and described.*° The nozzles of these specimens
resemble those on vases in the United States National Museum pur-
chased from Archbishop Merino and figured in my Aborigines of
Porto Rico.

The suggestion that these flask-shaped necks contained charcoal
and were used for filtering water is unsatisfactory, but they may have
been used in filtering the fermented juice from some plant, as the
yuca, a theory that can hardly be looked upon as more than a
suggestion.

™“ Aborigines of Porto Rico, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pl. Ixxx, a, a’, a’.

240 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 3¢

The additions made to the Heye Museum by Mr. De Booy are
very important, as they belong to a few unrecorded types. The
number of whole pieces from Santo Domingo in the Heye Museum is
greater than in any other West Indian collection. Many have a
great value, because they were found in caves, the floors of which
are now submerged.

One of the most unique forms of Porto Rican pottery yet unde-
scribed is a bowl in the Museum fiir Vélkerkunde, in Berlin, said to
have been found in one of the caves on the left side of the road from
Arecibo to Utuado. This bowl has a plain surface without relief
decorations, its upper zone having two encircling incised grooves
inclosing incised figures, placed horizontally and vertically, as shown
in figure 63.

In figure A, plate 119, from a specimen in the Heye collection, we
have a very elaborate neck, to which is added heads in relief, all
that remains of a large vase, the body of which has been lost. Its
style is Santo Domingan rather than Porto Rican. The well-
preserved specimens of an exceptional type of pottery from pre-
historic Porto Rico figured by Dr. Haeberlin should be mentioned.
One of these specimens is particularly instructive as having a raised
base, which feature, although known for many years® from the
Lesser Antilles, has not previously been recorded from Porto Rico,
the bowls and vases hitherto described from that island having a
rounded or flattened base.

CUBA

The island of Cuba, the largest in the Greater Antilles, has up to
a few years since yielded a smaller number of archeological remains
than Porto Rico, Jamaica, or Haiti. This is due to want of explora-
tion, as shown by the large collections made by Mr. M. R. Harrington,
of the Museum of the American Indian (Heye Foundation), who has
made extensive collections in the island since 1914 and is preparing a
memoir on this subject.

The eastern end of Cuba shows evidences of a higher culture than
the western, as if affected more by influences from Haiti and Porto
Rico. This is especially seen in pottery obtained from caves of the
eastern end. Apparently the western extremity, toward Yucatan,
which lies nearer to the continent than any of the Greater Antilles,
was inhabited by a race of low comparative culture who spoke a
different language from the inhabitants of the eastern extremity.

°° One of these bowls with basal ring from Trinidad is figured in Aborigines of Porto
Rice, Twenty-fifth Ann. Rept., Bur, Amer, Ethn., pl. Lxxxy.

Monaca, 1906) contains

BEWEES] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 241

The archeology of Cuba has been studied by several scientific men,
and we have valuable contributions by Morales, Dr. Montané,*’ Poey.
Carlos Torre, Brinton, and others. The author published a few
years ago the following article which adds a few new observations

Fic. 63.—Bowl with incised decoration. (9 inches.)

on a subject which promises great results after systematic explora-
tion.

“The article “ L’Homme de Sancti Spiritus (Ile de Cuba)"’ (Extrait du Compte Rendu
du xiii Congres international d’Anthropologie-et d’Archeologie prehistoriques, Session de
valuable information on the archeological objects in the Uni-
versity of Habana. For the Indians of Cuba see Culin, in Bull. Free Mus. of Sci. and

Art, vol. 111, no, 4, 1902.

160658 °—34 rru—22 16

249 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA aaa awry
‘PREHISTORIC CULTURE OF CUBA “2

Although the early Spanish writers ascribed to Cuba a large abo-
riginal population, they recorded very little regarding racial differ-
ences of natives in different parts of the island. The majority, con-
sidering the inhabitants as homogeneous in culture, paid little atten-
tion to variations in language or:to diversity in mode of life, while
later authors, who are few in number, have added little to earlier ac-
counts. Archeological investigations, to which we must now look for
more light on this subject, have thus far been limited, and our
museums are very poor in prehistoric Cuban objects. Few speci-
mens are known to have been found in the province of Pinar del Rio,
or the western end of the island, and local collectors are unanimous
in saying that all the aboriginal objects they possess came from the
eastern extremity. This limitation is significant, especially when we
consider that Yucatan, where the natives attained high culture, is
such a short distance from the western end of Cuba, and that it was
from the Cubans that the Spaniards first heard of the highly de-
veloped Indians of Mexico. The present paper, based on studies and
collections made during a brief visit to Cuba in 1904, suggests an
explanation for this paucity of prehistoric objects and the limitation
of the localities from which those known have been obtained.

A study of the available evidence, both documentary and arche-
ological, shows that the aboriginal culture of Cuba differed in differ-
ent parts of the island. Some of the inhabitants reached a compara-
tively high degree of culture development, others were rude savages.

The former had polished stone implements and knew how to make
the fertile soil yield their food supply, but the latter were naked
cave dwellers, who gathered for food roots or tropical fruits that
grow spontaneously in the rich soil of the island. There were also
fishermen, who subsisted on a natural supply of the products of the
sea when their habitat made it possible. Contact with people of
high culture had raised them somewhat above the dwellers in the
mountains to whom they were related.

Columbus commented on the resemblance of the aborigines of Cuba
to those of the Bahamas, regarding them the same in language and
customs; but this supposed identification was true only in a very gen-
eral way. The diary.of the first voyage of the discoverer, as found
in the writings of Las Casas, affords no direct evidence of a more
primitive race in Cuba, although it suggests the theory that such a
people existed.

Historians do not agree as to the first landfall of Columbus in Cuba,
but no one doubts that it was somewhere on the northern shore of
what is now Santiago Province. At whatever point he landed he

* Reprinted from Amer, Anthrop., n. s., vol. 6, pp. 585-598, 1904. |

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 243

found the natives living in houses, making use of hammocks of cotton
and palm fibers, and possessing stone idols and carved wooden masks.
Columbus learned from them of a ruler, whom he called king, of a
country to the south, which was rich in gold. Nothing is said in his
diary of the natives to the west of the landfall, but he sailed westward
a few leagues along the northern shore without finding people worthy
of special mention. Later, turning back, he rounded Cape Maysi
and examined a section of the southern coast, but was not attracted
farther toward the west. On this side of Cuba he again heard of
the wealth of the Indians of the south. The implication is that the
people of eastern Cuba knew of the Haitians and recognized that their
culture was superior to that of the western end of their own island.
They held out no inducement to Columbus to extend his explorations
westward, as we might suspect they would have dgne had there been a
superior race in that end of the island.

The great Genoese returned to Cuba on his second voyage and
explored the entire southern shore. Bernaldez, to whom we owe
an account of this visit, scarcely mentions the Indians in this part
of the island, although he describes the Jamaicans in some detail,
regarding them a highly developed race. Many native fishermen
were seen along the shore, but they were evidently lower in develop-
ment than the Jamaicans, whose canoes (according to Bernaldez)
were painted, better made, and more luxuriantly ornamented than
those of the Cubans.

Numerous references might be quoted from the writings of those
who followed Columbus, showing that the prehistoric customs and
languages of the natives of the eastern and western ends of the island
were not the same. In the judgment of many of the Spanish con-
querors, among whom Diego Velazquez may especially be mentioned,
the natives of Cuba were more susceptible to Christianity than the
other West Indians, but they say that this docility was not true of
all the Cubans, some being less tractable than others. The extreme
western end of Cuba was said to have been inhabited by barbarous
Indians similar to those living in Guacayarima,** the Province at the
western end of Haiti. The Spanish writers declare that these natives
could nct speak; by which is probably meant that their language was
different from that of any other Indians of these islands. Bachiller y
Morales says that the Guanahatebeyes (Guanacahibes), who lived in
the interior of Cuba, were savages who did not treat with the other
Indians. He adds that they lived in caves, which they left only to
go fishing, and quotes from older writers** that there were other

*8 4 town on the island of Trinidad, where survivors of the Indians still live, is called
Arima. There is another Trinidad village called Naparima.
* Cuba Primitiva, p, 280.

244 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN, 34

Indians called Zibuneyes, a tribe that included the inhabitants of the
islands off the northern and southern coasts, called the Gardens of
the King and Queen, who were enslaved by the other natives.

According to La Torre * the Indians of Cuba form one of the
natural groups of the Tainos and are generally known by the name
Siboneyes. They inhabit, he says, the whole island and have the same
customs, although in certain parts of Cuba there are backward tribes,
as the Guanacahibes of Cape San Antonio. The original authority
for these statements is found in the Mufoz collection, and reads as
follows :°°

“Lo mismo podra hacerse con los indios de los Jardines del Rey é
de Ja Reina, que son muchos islotes de indios que no suelen comer sino
pescado solo. E éstos se les duraé menos trabajo, pues no estan acos-
tumbrados sino 4 pescar, lo mismo se entiende para unos indios al
Cabo de Cuba, los cuales son salvajes que en ninguna cosa tratan con
los de la Isla, ni tienen casas, sino estan en cuevas continuo, sino es
cuando salen 4 pescar; Guanahatabeyes otros hay que se llaman
Cibuneyes, que los indios de la misma Isla tienen por servientes é
casi son ansi todos los de los jardines.”

Diego Velazquez, the conqueror, wrote to the King of Spain in
1514 that there were two provinces in the western part of Cuba,
and that one of these was called Guaniquanico, the other Guanahata-
bibes. The latter was situated at the western extremity, where the
natives lived as savages, having neither houses nor farms, subsist-
ing on game captured in the mountains or on turtles and fishes.
Peter Martyr d’Anghera says that the inhabitants of the Haitian
Province of Guacayarima, to which these Indians are said to have
been allied, lived in caves and subsisted on forest fruits.

Gomara®* mentions the fact that the inhabitants of different parts
of Cuba have different languages, and says that both men and
women wear little clothing. He thus writes of a peculiar custom
which they practiced in their nuptials:

“Si el Novio es Cacique todos los Caciques combidados duermen con la Novia,
primero que no el; si mercador, los mercadores; i si labrador, el Senor o algun
Sacerdote.”

HISTORICAL

The earliest contribution to the archeology of Cuba we owe to
Sefior Andrés Poey, who in 1855 read before the American Ethno-
logical Society a paper entitled “Cuban Antiquities: A Brief De-
scription of some Relics Found in the Island of Cuba.” Although

® Manual 6 Guia para los exaémenes de los Maestros y Maestras, p. 45.

Vol. LXy. See also Ferrer, Naturaleza y Civilizacion de Cuba, vol. 11, p. 142.
*7 Documentos inéditos del Archivo de Indias, vol. XI, pp. 224, 225.

8 Historia, chap. 51, p. 41.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 245

Brinton *® says this paper was not published in English, Senor J. Q.
Garcia, in 1855, edited what he calls a Spanish translation of it in
the fourth volume of his Revista de la Habana.

The figures accompanying this article include two stone images,
a few clay heads copied from Charlevoix, and a stone pestle taken
from Walton.? The stone images are from Cuba, but the pestle
and the clay heads came from Santo Domingo. The images more
especially concern us in this article. One of these, called an idol, is
made of a hard stone of reddish color, highly polished, with a head
cut on one end. Poey believes it was originally covered with a
varnish which has been worn off in exposed places. He is probably
right in this conclusion, for remains of a resinous substance which
once covered some of the three-pointed stone idols from Porto Rico
still adhere to several specimens. This so-called idol has the gen-
eral form of a celt, although it differs in details from the cere-
monial celts which have thus far been described as from the West
Indies. It is now in the Archeological Museum at Madrid. There
is no doubt that the other image, described and figured both by
Poey and Ferrer,’ is an idol. The former likens its attitude to that
of a dog resting on his hind parts, the forelegs crossed over the ab-
dominal region. This specimen is now in the University of Habana,
to which institution it was presented by Ferrer.

The form of this idol is different from that of idols from Santo
Domingo and Porto Rico, but its technique indicates an equally
high development in stone working.

In a brief article of four pages; Brinton, “ without aiming at
completeness,” gives a review of the labors and results of students
of the archeology of Cuba. He calls attention to some of the con-
tributions of Poey, Ferrer, Garcia, Pi y Margall, and others, and
shows that the archeology of Cuba “has not been wholly neglected
by intelligent Cubans, although it is true that there has been little
serious investigation of the remains.” He considers that “ the most
promising localities for research would seem to be the extreme
eastern and western provinces, Santiago and Pinar del Rio. In the
caves of the latter we should, if anywhere, find traces of the Mayan
culture.” #

“” The Archeology of Cuba, American Archeologist, vol. 2, No. 10, Oct., 1898.

1 L’Histoire de l’Isle Espagnole ou de S. Domingue, Paris, 1730.

2 Present State of the Spanish Colonies, Including a Particular Account of Hispanola,
London, 1810. Mr. Walton finds in these pestles evidences among the Haitians of phallic
worship like that of the Hindoos, and Poey devotes considerable space in his articles to a
discussion of this theory, which he supports. The comparisons of this pestle to the yoni
and lingam appear to me to be strained, especially when we examine a series of these
objects, some of which represent birds and other animals.

* Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Actas de la Cuarta Reunion, Madrid, 1881,
p. 245.

* Brinton says that according to Ferrer there are caves along the Rio Cuyaguatege, in
Pinar del Rio, in which the aborigines interred their dead. Archwology of Cuba, Amer,
Archeol,, vol, 11, no. 10, 1898, p, 256,

246 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

According to Brinton,® Senor Garcia gives in “one of the num-
bers of the Revista de la Habana an illustration of what is called
a duch/, which is the common term in Cuba for the figures of stone
or clay attributed to the aborigines. This particular duchi was a
stone ring, with eves and ears of gold, and was supposed to have
been the seat or throne of a chief, but probably was a stone collar.”
The author has not been able to find this illustration in the Revista
de la Habana, although he has examined and copied Garcia’s two
articles which he claims to be translations of Poey’s paper read before
the American Ethnological Society, which have not been seen.

Brinton’s suggestion that this duchi was a stone collar does not
appeal strongly to me, for the term duchi, duho, or dujo was given
by the West Indians to native seats or stools in the form of ani-
mals with eyes and ears of gold."

According to Bachiller y Morales,’ D. Tomas Pio Betancourt, in
his Historia de Puerto Principe, says that D. Pedro de Parrado y
Pardo, in a book on the genealogy of families of Bayamo, written
in 1775, gave the name duho to one of these seats, in possession of
Dona Concepcion Guerra, that formerly belonged to the Cacique of
Bayamo.

I am unaware that the following statement by Brinton ® has ever
been verified: “I have also learned,” he writes, “ of a locality, which
I will not now further specify, in central Cuba, a river valley, along
which, from time to time, one meets grim faces carved from the
natural rock, and sometimes monolithic statues, the work of the
aborigines and believed to represent the guardian spirits of the
river. This locality I hope to have visited by a competent person
this winter.” A verification of these statements and a description
of these supposed “monolithic statues,’ with figures of the same.
would be an important contribution to Cuban archeology. It
would also be interesting to know whether the river valley where
they are reputed to have been found was in the eastern or the west-
ern provinces of the island.

At the Madrid session of the International Congress of Ameri-
canists, in 1881,° Senor Rodriguez-Férrer read a paper in support of
the theory that there was evidence of the existence, in prehistoric
times, of Cuban aborigines different from those discovered by
Columbus. The thesis is defended mainly by facts drawn from
crania found in caves, but the two archeological specimens which

5 Op. cit., p. 253.

© So far as known, stone collars and three-pointed idols, which characterize Porto Rican
aboriginal culture, haye not been found in Cuba.

7Cuba Primitiva, p. 268.

8 Archeology of Cuba, p. 255.

®* Congreso Internacional de Americanistas: Actas de la Cuarta Reunion, Madrid, 1881,
vol. I, pp. 224-267.

FEWKES | CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 247

he elsewhere describes and figures are also brought to the support
of this theory. There is nothing to show that this cave people dif-
fered in any respect from those to whom early writers allude as
living in the central and western parts of the island. All the
evidence appears to support the theory that some of the natives of
Cuba lived in caves at the time of the discovery, and the conclusion
is natural that they were the lineal descendants of the oldest race
which they resemble in bodily and cultural characters.

Sefior Rodriguez-Férrer, in his valuable work,’ referring to the
letter of Las Casas and to other evidence published in the Docu-
mentos Inéditos del Archivo de Indias (vol. vii, p. 34), points out
certain differences in the culture of the natives in different parts of
the island, which are practically the same as those indicated by
archeology.

An important addition to our knowledge of Cuban archeology
was made by Don Eusebio Jimenez,'t who, in October, 1850, exca-
vated some mounds in the central part of the eastern end of the
island. According to J. de J. Q. Garcia these important remains
were found on the farm of D. Francisco Rodriguez, nearly 5 miles
southwest of Moron. Various utensils and objects made of hard-
wood, stone, and burnt clay were recovered from these mounds. The
description which Garcia gives of the excavations leaves no doubt
that these mounds, called caneys, were aboriginal burial places, and
they suggest the existence in the neighborhood of one of those dance
places called cercados de los Indios, or juegos de bola, which occur
in Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. One of, the best known of these
aboriginal inclosures in Cuba is the so-called Pueblo Viejo, situated
in the eastern end of the island, near Cape Maysi. Although this
inclosure has been described by several writers, no one has yet
called attention to its resemblance to the dance inclosures of the
neighboring islands.

It is evident from the contents of the numerous caves that have
been excavated by Dr. Montané and others in Santiago and Puerto
Principe Provinces that cave men lived in those provinces after the
introduction of a higher culture from the neighboring islands.

Although there is considerable literature on the somatology of
the Cuban Indians, especially on crania found in caves, a considera-
tion of this subject is foreign to the scope of the present article,
which is devoted mainly to the consideration of evidences of the
existence of a high and a low culture in Cuba at the time of its
discovery. The crania found embedded in calcareous rock in caves
near Cape Maysi and elsewhere on the eastern end of the island

1 Naturaleza y Civilizacion de la grandiosa Isla de Cuba, Parte Segunda—Civilizacion,
Madrid, 1887, pp. 142-144.
11 See EI Periodico de Puerto Principe, and Faro Industrial diario de la Marina,

248 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN. 34

have been amply described by anatomists, and are highly instruc-
tive in a consideration of the antiquity of man in Cuba, but I am
not yet ready to express myself fully on their significance. The
natural inference would be that these skulls support the theory of
ancient cave man in Cuba, of whom the Guanahatabeyes were the
survivors in the fifteenth century; but West Indian caves were used
as burial places after the discovery, and no one has yet satisfactorily
shown any great difference in the crania embedded in rock from
those found under usual conditions in the caves.”

Dr. Enrique Gomez Planos, in his valuable work on prehistoric
Cuba,® mentions several caves on the island from which human
remains and pottery have been taken, and gives an interesting
résumé of Cuban archeology without adding much that is new to the
subject.

Another work containing considerable material on Cuban eth-
nology is that of Bachiller y Morales,* a most valuable compilation,
but very carelessly edited. It contains much information in regard
to the aborigines of the Greater Antilles, but the title “ Cuba Primi-
tiva” is somewhat misleading, for while it contains chapters on the
subject of primitive Cuba, the larger part of the book deals with
Haiti and Porto Rico.

® ARCHEOLOGICAL OBJECTS

The distribution of polished stone objects in Cuba may be said
to confirm the historical accounts of a difference in culture between
the inhabitants of the eastern and those of the western provinces.
Those of Santiago resemble objects from Haiti and Porto Rico, but
no similar implements are found in Pinar del Rio at the western end
of the island.

There are two collections of Indian objects in Habana which
contain objects of interest to the archeologist. One of these, the
smaller, is in the museum of the Academia de Ciencias, on Calle de
Cuba; the other is in the university near Vedado, a suburb of
the city. Both collections are under the directorship of Dr. Luis
Montané, who has conducted excavations in several caves of the
island and has in preparation a memoir on the subject. The collec-
tion at the university is particularly rich in crania from caves, and

12 For an account of these remains see Anales de la Academia de Ciencias, vol. xxvu,
Habana, 1890,

13 Prehistoria de la Isla de Cuba, Anales de la Academia de Ciencias, vol. XXXVII,
Habana, August—December, 1900.

Cuba Primitiva: Origen, Lenguas, Tradiciones e Historia de los Indios de las
Antillas Mayores y las Lucayas, 2d edition, 1883. In his paper on the Archeology of
Cuba (1898) Brinton thus refers to this valuable book, fifteen years after its publication :
“The announcement of it, which is before me, dated ‘Havana, 1881,’ states that it will
discuss the antiquities of the island, and the traditions and languages of its early inhabi-
tants. Whether it was published or not I have not learned.”

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 249

contains several interesting objects, descriptions and figures of
which have not been published. Dr. Montané has kindly shown
me many photographs and charts illustrating his explorations, and
has courteously permitted me to photograph some of the more
striking objects, including a stone collar from Porto Rico.** The
majority of the archeological specimens came from the eastern end
of the island and closely resemble in technique those from Porto
Rico. Among the objects seen in these two collections are 10 pet-
aloid celts in the academy museum and about double that number
at the university. One of those in the latter collection has a stone
handle like those obtained by me in 1903 in Santo Dorningo.
There is also a celt with a face cut on one side—evidently a cere-
monial celt like one in Archbishop Merino’s collection. This lke-
wise is a product of Tainan culture, as is the stone pestle with a
well-fashioned head on the end of the handle.

The three choicest specimens in Dr, Montané’s collection are a
wooden idol, a stone turtle, and a shell with a face cut on one side.
The wooden idol has a perforation, as if for attachment to a staff,
and may have been used in ceremonial dances like those of the
Salivas and other Orinoco tribes described by Gumilla.° The turtle
of stone recalls one of wood collected by Ober in a cave in St.
Vincent in 1878 and now in the Smithsonian collection, but, unlike
it, the latter is not perforated for attachment. An account of these
objects in the university museum, with localities and figures, would
increase our knowledge of the archeology of Cuba.

In the Santiago museum were two idols made of coral rock, one
(fig. 64) of which, according to the label, is from Cueva de Boruga,
near Baracoa, the other (fig. 65),!7 which is smaller, from the Loma
del Cayuco, Gibara. The former was loaned to Prof. W J McGee,
Ethnologist in Charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology, by
Sefior Quesada in 1900, at which time Mr. DeLancey Gill made
front and profile photographs of the specimen. This idol represents
a seated figure, with elbows on the knees and hands to the breast.
Its whole appearance is different from that of any West Indian idol
that I have ever seen.*®

The smaller idol, also of coral rock, shows the septa of indi-
vidual coral animals scattered over the surface, and has the form

15 The idol presented by Sefor Ferrer (fig. 66) is historically the most interesting in
this collection.

16 Bl Orinoco, ilustrado y defendido, Madrid, 1745.

17 Prehistoric Culture of Cuba, Amer, Anthrop., n. s. vol. 6, No. 5, 1904.

18'The exceptional form of this idol, when compared with those from Santo Domingo
and Porto Rico, may lead some archeologists to doubt its authenticity. The form of the
mouth, however, is almost identical with that of the head of a pestle from Santo
Domingo, and the attitude recalls that of the wooden idol in the university museum at
Habana.

250 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

of a pestle, the arms being obscurely indicated and the legs being
replaced by a base upon which it stands.

kz ]

lig. 64.—Idol of coral rock from Cueva de Boruga, Baracoa, Cuba (Santiago Museum).

The idol shown in figure 66 is the same as that elsewhere mentioned
as presented to the university museum by Sefior Ferrer and figured
by him and by Senor Andrés Poey.

The ceremonial celt, also in the Santiago museum, has a rude head
cut on one end and arms carved in low relief on the sides. This

FEWKEs ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 251

specimen is said to have been found at the Indian town of E] Caney; it
belongs to the same type as the ceremonial celt described and figured by
Poey, Ferrer, and others. Its general character allies it to stone prod-
ucts of the Tainan culture of Santo Domingo and Porto Rico.

The celts collected by me in Cuba have the same forms as those
from the other West Indian Islands, and are known to the country
people by the same name, péedras del rayo, or thunderbolts (fig. 67).
They are petaloid in form,
smoothly polished, and
without grooves for haft-
ing. As in Porto Rico,
there is considerable foll-
lore in Cuba _ connected
with these implements.
Twenty petaloid celts were
collected in the neighbor-
hood of Santiago at El
Cristo, El Caney, and the
outskirts of the city.

While in Santiago I pur-

chased a small collection of
Indian objects from Nipe
Bay, on the northern coast
of Cuba, which includes
petaloid celts, fragments
of pottery (fig. 68), a shell
implement, and other ab-
original objects. Among
the last is a water-worn
stone on which is cut in
outline (more like a picto-
graph than in relief) a | ;
human face with mouth, |” + aa
eyes, and what might have I'1c. 65,—Idol or pestle from Loma del Cayuco
been intended for a nose (Sentaee Moseum).
(fig. 69). The specimen is unique in form, and although not flattened
on one side, in certain particulars it reminds one of the so-called stone
masks of the ancient Porto Ricans. The chief characteristics of this
outlined face are the oblique eyes and the three curved lines extending
from their lower ends to the incised line which borders the face. Its
use and significance are unknown to me, nor am I familiar with any
similar specimen from the other West Indian Islands. It will be
observed that this and the following specimens came from the eastern
end of Cuba and can be referred to the Tainan culture.

=]

252 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

In character the pottery from Cuba is practically the same as that
from Porto Rico. The collection made by me consists wholly of
fragments of clay heads from bowls or vases. The specimens shown
in figure 68 were obtained from Nipe Bay on the northern coast,
but I have seen almost identical fragments from Pueblo Viejo,*® the
dance inclosure near Cape Maysi.

The archeological evidences of a low culture stage in the western
provinces of Cuba are thus far negative, for no objects which can be
ascribed without question to the
aborigines have yet been found
in those parts. The known pol-
ished stone implements, idols,
and like objects from Cuba re-
semble those characteristic of
the Tainan culture, and are con-
fined to the eastern end of Cuba.

Naturalists have long recog-
nized a marked difference in the
fauna and flora of the two ends
of Cuba. The prehistoric cul-
ture of these two localities was
also different.

CONCLUSIONS
It appears from both histori-
cal and archeological evidences,
so far as now known, that the
Tainan or Antillean culture
which was found in eastern
Cuba did not originate on that
island, but was introduced from
Porto Rico or Haiti, where it
reached its highest develop-
ment. The germ of this culture
came to both these islands from
South America, but had grown
into a highly specialized form
in its insular home. There were minor differences in the different
islands—Cuba, Jamaica, Santo Domingo, and Porto Rico—but these

differences were all modifications of the polished-stone age.
There was considerable likeness in culture between the inhabit-
ants of the keys of Florida and those of the Cuban coast and the

I'ic. 66.—Stone idol (University Museum,
Havana).

© This inclosure has been described by Ferrer and others; but one of the best accounts,
and the only one in English that is known to me, is by Mr. Stewart Culin : The Indians of
Cuba, Bulletin of the Free Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, vol.
111, no. 4, 1902.

FEWKES] CULTURE AREAS IN

small adjacent islands, due
either to early contact of these
two peoples or to migration
from one to the other locality
in limited numbers. The In-
dian villages of Carahate (near
the site of the modern Cuban
town of Sagua la Grande) and
Sabaneque (near Remedios)
were pile dwellings,”° not unlike
those of the Indians now inhab-
iting the delta of the Orinoco
and the shores of Lake Mara-
caibo in South America; but
these adaptive conditions do not
necessarily show kinship, and
more probably were of inde-
pendent origin. The resem-
blances between Floridian and
Cuban coast peoples were due
to contact and interchange of
culture.

There were at least two dis-
tinct stages of culture in abo-
riginal Cuba. The natives in
the first stage were savages with
few arts, but those of the second
stage were as highly developed
as any of the West Indian abo-
rigines. The one was an archaic
survival, the other an intro-
duced culture which originated
outside the island.

The people of the first stage
were survivors of the earliest in-
habitants of the island, but they
have left little to the archeolo-
gist to indicate the status of
their eculture; nevertheless, it
was evidently of a very low or-
der. The natives of the Cuban
coast and of the numerous small
islands were fishermen. Their

72These houses built on piles were
ealled barbacoas. The polygonal or cir-
cular house with conical roof was known

as a caney, and the quadrangular dwell-
ing, with two-sided roof, a bohio or bujio.

THE WEST INDIES 953

Qic.

67.—Petaloid celt

(Santiago Museum).

954 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

culture was higher than that of the others referred to, but the highest
prehistoric culture was confined mainly to the eastern provinces,
especially Santiago, and was apparently introduced from Haiti,
where it reached a high development, although even in the mountains
of that island there were survivors of the savage, or lower, culture
stage which predominated in western Cuba.

The Carib, who occupied the Lesser Antilles from Trinidad to
Porto Rico, were the last of the several South American tribes

fic. 68.—Fragments of pottery from Nipe Bay (U, 8. National
Museum).

which invaded the West Indies. This virile race at the time of the
discovery had conquered and assimilated the original inhabitants of
the Lesser Antilles and peopled them with a composite people. The
evidence that the Carib settled on the coast of Cuba is not decisive.
They probably visited the island in their marauding expeditions,
but they contributed little to the existing culture of Cuba or that of
the neighboring peninsula of Florida.

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 255

The Indians of Cuba, like those of Haiti, Porto Rico, and the
Bahamas, were harassed by the Carib from the Lesser Antilles, but
it is yet an open question whether these marauders had settled in
any considerable numbers on the island at the time of the dis-
covery. The inhabitants of the extreme eastern end of Cuba, like the
Ciguayos, who occupied the region from Puerto Plata to Higuey,
from exposure to the inroads of the Carib had become more war-
like than the other people of Cuba, but this does not necessarily
mean that they were Carib, as some writers appear to believe.
The discovery of flattened skulls in caves near Cape Maysi, and
their identity in this re-
spect with deformed Carib
crania from Guadeloupe,
does not prove identity of
race. According to Dr.
Carlos de la Torre,”* the
explorations of Sefior Mi-
guel Rodriguez- Feérrer,
Valdés Dominguez, Mon-
tané, and himself tend to
confirm the opinion of
Rafinesque that the Caribs
had settled south of Bara-
coa, but the evidence pre-
sented in support of this
theory is not conclusive.

The original coloniza-
tion and prehistoric cul-

ture of Cuba must com-
| prehend three different
conditions of aboriginal
life, practically three dif-
ferent peoples—viz, the
primitive cave dwellers of the central region and western extremity
of the island; the fishermen living in pile dwellings in some places;
and the Tainans having the true Antillean stone-age culture. The
derivation of the last-mentioned culture from Haiti and Porto Rico
is reasonably certain. The connection of the coast fishermen of Cuba
with the shell heap and the key population of Florida was intimate.
but it is still undetermined which was derived from the other.

The origin of the cave dwellers and of the rude savage race of
Cuba is the most difficult of all to determine. Their ancestors were

Fic. 69.—Stone with face from Nipe Bay (U. 8.
National Museum).

“Manual 6 Guia para los Exfmenes de los Maestros y Maestras, Habana, 1901, p. 45.

256 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

the first colonists of the island, but we know little of their language,

arts, names, and customs, and lack a basis for comparing them with

peoples of North America or South America, It is probable that

these people were lineal descendants of those whose semifossil skele-

tons found in caves have excited so much interest. No evidence has

yet been presented to prove that this race had vanished when Cuba
vas discovered by Columbus.

The prehistoric objects from Cuba in the Heye collection have been
greatly augmented in numbers since the author began his studies of
the collection, and as these additions should be considered as a unit
by their indefatigable collector, Mr. M. R. Harrington, it would not
be justice to him to anticipate any of his discoveries by further com-
ment in this report. The author has, however, introduced the pre-
ceding quotation from his account of the prehistory of Cuba, as it is
a part of the work that has been done in preparation for this general
discussion.

In a new field of research like the Antillean, when energetic col-
lectors are annually adding so much new material, a delay in prepa-
ration of this report has rendered some of its results antiquated be-
fore they were published. This is as it should be, and it is a great
satisfaction to feel that a subject like Cuba, of which so little was
known when the author began his studies of the West Indies, has
attracted so many other younger and better equipped archeologists.
In antiquities from Cuba the Heye collection is one of the richest in
the world, but there are many objects from that island in the Berlin
Museum, collected by Bastian, and a very fine collection in the Uni-
versity Museum of Habana.

ISLE OF PINES

The largest outlying island of Cuba is the Isle of Pines, which
shows evidence of being inhabited in prehistoric times by Indians,
who have, unfortunately for science, left little to indicate their
culture. We may suppose from this paucity of material that they
were low in development and allied to the natives of the western
end of Cuba, as no objects of Tainan culture have yet been found
on the island.

The author spent several weeks at the capital, Nueva Gerona,
from which, as a base, he visited all parts of the island. He dis-
covered a few Indian skeletons in one of the numerous caves (cuevas
de los Indios) near that city and investigated the sunken pits called
Indian cacimbas, but found no artifacts that seemed to him ade-
quate to determine the relationship of the prehistoric inhabitants.
There is no collection of Indian antiquities from this island in
the University of Habana; and, although since the author’s explora-

FEWKES ] CULTURE AREAS IN THE WEST INDIES 257

tion a great many objects from Cuba have been added to the Heye
Museum, little material has been obtained from the Isle of Pines.

Among enigmatical structures of supposed Indian origin are the
so-called cacimbas—an Indian word which occurs in place names in
Venezuela and even on the west coast of Florida with the spelling
“caximba.” The Indian word means a pipe, but the structures to
which it is applied are subterranean depressions with openings at
the level of the ground shaped like buried ollas. They likewise have
in a few instances lateral entrances, and are generally accompanied
by small areas showing evidences of fire and much charcoal. They
occur among the pine trees; and as tar and evidences of turpentine
occur on their inner surfaces, they may be places where tar or other
products of the pine were obtained for ships or canoes. They are
widely distributed in the Isle of Pines, a few being situated only a
short distance from Nueva Gerona, the capital of the island.

Tt seems probable that these cacimbas ascribed to the Indians of
the Isle of Pines may have been constructed by the aborigines under
direction of their Spanish masters. Nothing of distinctly Indian
culture was found in these subterranean depressions or near them,
a fact that may have a bearing on the relative time when they were
constructed.

In the neighborhood of Nueva Gerona there are numerous caves
called “ cuevas de los Indios,” in the floor of which skeletons and frag-
ments of the same, including a mutilated cranium, were found, but
no accompanying artificial objects. These bones are of Indian
origin, but whether they date back to prehistoric times or not it is,
of course, impossible to say. It was a custom, not only in Cuba
but also in all the West Indies, to bury the dead in caves, but ante-
cedent to that custom we have good authority for the belief that
caves were inhabited. Whether, therefore, the bones exhumed from
the Cueva de los Indios, near Nueva Gerona, indicated this original
cave population of the western extremity of Cuba, or burials in the
historic epoch, no one can now tell. No pottery or mortuary objects
of any kind which might have shed light on this question were
found with the human remains.

JAMAICA

The antiquities of Jamaica are well known from the researches
of Duerden,” and many specimens from this island in the Heye
collection, collected by Theodoor de Booy, have been described by
him in a paper in the American Anthropologist,’ leaving it un-
necessary for me to consider that island in detail.

2 Aboriginal Indian Remains in Jamaica, Journ. Jamaica Inst., vol. 11, pt. 4.

2 Certain Kitchen-middens in Jamaica, Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. xv, pp. 425-434.

160658° —34 prH—22 17

258 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [BTH. ANN, 34
GREAT CAYMAN

The author made a special visit to the Great Cayman in order to
investigate its archeological features, but found nothing of im-
portance to satisfy him that it was peopled in prehistoric times. He
collected four stone axes, which may have been brought by turtle
fishers from Honduras or Jamaica, and discovered a cave from which
fragments of pottery were said to have been collected years ago.
He is convinced that if there were any aborigines on the island in pre-
historic times they belonged to roaming, nomadic Carib, who landed
there and remained only a few days. No middens or shell heaps were
called to his attention. Fragments of pottery occur in certain caves
and a few celts were obtained from the natives. As some of these
closely resemble those of the other islands they may have been
brought there by visitors.

ANALYSIS OF WEST INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL
DATA IN ITS GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU-
TION

In the preceding account of archeological material from different
islands the plan has been to group them as far as possible on a geo-
graphical basis. It is evident that there are great differences in the
remains from different islands, and it is sought to account for these
differences by minor variations in culture. A distinction in variety
of cultures, probably in the beginning more marked, was more or
less broken down by interchange of material cult objects before the
advent of the Europeans, and while the problem is a very complex
one a brief summary of differences in prehistoric pottery, imple-
ments, and ornaments may be instructive.

POTTERY

Although there is a general similarity in pottery from the West
Indies, there are marked differences in the ceramics from different
islands. In a general way it may be said that it indicates two great
culture areas—that of the Greater Antilles (Haiti, Porto Rico,
Cuba, and Jamaica) and that of the Lesser Antilles, the islands
extending from the eastern end of Porto Rico to Trinidad. There
are differences of note between pottery objects from Cuba, Jamaica,
Haiti, and Porto Rico which would differentiate these as subculture
areas of the Greater Antilles. The pottery from Haiti and Porto
Rico is so close in likeness that these two islands are embraced in
the same ceramic area, and this corresponds with what is known of the
distribution of stone collars and three-pointed stones, which are char-
acteristic of these two islands and not found in Cuba or Jamaica.
It may be possible later to chronologically separate pottery from
caves near the sea from that of caves in the upland of these islands,
but at present this separation is conjectural. There are some differ-
ences between the pottery of Haiti and Porto Rico and the other
Greater Antilles, but these are not very great. Jamaican pottery is
the most aberrant of the Greater Antilles.

In the Lesser Antilles we also have a difference in ceramics from
different islands. As a rule, the pottery from these islands is of
better character than that of the Greater Antilles, perhaps the highest

259

260 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

grade being from Trinidad, which indicates a special subculture area
so far as pottery is concerned. St. Kitts pottery ranks higher tech-
nically and artistically.

One important difference between the pottery of the Lesser and
the Greater Antilles is the presence of a superficial slip in the former.
This is generally red in color, the paste is finer, and there is a supe-
riority from an artistic point of view in the ornamentation. The
incised decorations of pottery from the Lesser Antilles are rectilinear
or curved, but the lines have not the terminal pits which occur pretty
generally in pottery from the Greater Antilles, Porto Rico, Haiti,
Cuba, and the Bahamas. The ornamentation of pottery from the
Lesser Antilles is not as commonly produced by applied relief figures,
and the relative number of effigy vases is less than in the Greater
Antilles. The ring-shaped base is common in the Lesser but rare in
the Greater Antilles. As a rule, animal heads are more common
in the former than the human heads so constant in Santo Domingo
pottery.

The pottery from Barbados is as a rule coarse, the relief decora-
tions low and crude. It can hardly be placed in the same category
as the beautiful ware from Trinidad. Grenada ceramics resemble
the Trinidad forms.

The pottery from St. Vincent is quite distinct from that of St.
Kitts, which includes also Nevis. It resembles that from neighboring
islands, as Carriacou, and marks a distinct ceramic area.

The island of St. Kitts had a development in ceramics quite distinct
from any other and shares with Trinidad the position of the highest
development of the pottery technique in prehistoric West Indies. It
is as a rule simpler in form and does not have the complexity of de-
velopment of handles, lugs, and superficial additions so prominent
in the pottery of the Greater Antilles. The forms are more graceful,
and incised decorations are less frequent. Perhaps it is more closely
related to pottery from Trinidad than to that from any other island,
but it is distinctly unique. This is likewise in conformance with the
character of stone implements, as notched axes, pestles, and orna-
ments. On St. Kitts pieces of pottery with incised decorations filled
in with white_pigments are found, imparting an appearance of
painted ware—a condition not yet recorded from the other islands.
As a rule the heads found in pottery from St. Kitts are not as gro-
tesque but more realistic than those from the larger islands.

Mr. Joyce ** has pointed out the resemblance of some of the heads
of Trinidad prehistoric pottery from Erin to that which occurs
“throughout the basins of the Aruka and Araau tributaries of the
Barima River, not far from Morowhanna. The Aruka hills, iso-

*% Central American and West Indian Archaeology, p. 254.

FEWKEs | WEST INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA 961

lated eminences, stand now in a tidal mangrove swamp, and were evi-
dently at no very distant date actual islands.” This significant rela-
tionship points to a cultural connection of the prehistoric inhabitants
of the strictly continental islands like Trinidad to those of the neigh-
boring coast of South America, as shown also by De Booy’s archeo-
logical investigations on the island of Margarita.

A word may be said in regard to the affinities of the pottery of all
the Lesser Antilles and that of the Greater from the chronological
point of view. The pottery from the former is often styled “ Carib
pottery ”; that from the latter, “Tainan” or “Arawak.” There may
be little foundation for these designations. When Columbus dis-
covered America he recognized the difference between the inhabitants
of the Greater and the Lesser Antilles, and all the early writers have
regarded the two as distinct people and commented on their customs.
That the inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles were different from those
of the Greater at the dawn of history should not lead to the state-
ment that objects found on the two groups indicate the same ditf-
ference in culture. Many of the so-called prehistoric objects from
the Lesser Antilles antedate the submergence of the people who made
them by the Carib, and it is probable that the conquered people
might have been more closely related to those of Porto Rico; in fact,
might be called Tainan or peaceful agriculturists. That the conquer-
ing race obtained by acculturation many features of culture of the
conquered is true; in fact, we know it appropriated the wives of the
Tainans, who transmitted a higher culture to the Carib of the
islands. The pure Tainan culture of the Lesser Antilles was no doubt
modified by mixture, but there is every reason to believe that the
antecedent form of life in the Lesser Antilles in ante-Carib days
had many points of resemblance to that dominant in Porto Rico in
the days of the advent of Europeans.

Thus far little has been done in the determination of the relative
age of the different kinds of pottery found in the West Indies and
the comparative age of pottery from shell heaps, caves, and “juegos
de bola.” Some of the shell heaps offer good opportunities for
stratigraphical studies, and caves should be excavated, paying at-
tention to the relative depths at which different kinds of pottery
occur. The provenience of many specimens of West Indian clay
heads in our museums is doubtful, and a more accurate knowledge
of the localities from which they were taken is a necessary pre-
requisite for exact generalizations on its distribution. The pottery
from Cueva de los Golondrinos, on the north shore of Porto Rico,
described and figured in plate lxxiii of Aborigines of Porto Rico, is
quite crude as compared with the best Porto Rican ceramics and
would seem to have been the product of a people of different culture.

262 {SLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

The handles of bowls are destitute of heads or realistic decorations of
animal form, and are vertical bands, pits with a raised ridge, or sim-
ple lugs. Whether the caves in the interior of the island have similar
pottery is not known, but there is every probability that the numer-
ous excavations made in them since my visit will shed much light on
this subject. It is very desirable that those having more material
on cave and shell-heap ceramics should make thorough examinations
of the character of pottery from different parts of Porto Rico.

STONE IMPLEMENTS

The stone artifacts from the West Indies indicate a division into
two large groups, corresponding roughly with the geographical
divisions called the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The predominating
type of stone implement of the Haiti-Porto Rico group is the celt of
almond shape called the petaloid, which is also common in collec-
tions from Cuba and Jamaica. The name conveys accurately the
form of these implements. They rarely show any sign of a groove
for hafting, have a pointed poll and a curved, often blunt, edge. The
predominating cross-section of these petaloids is oval, but convex-
concave outlines also exist, and some are slightly angular or rounded
at the corners. Their surfaces are smooth, often highly polished,
and are among the most beautiful known forms of stone implements.
Outside the Greater Antilles area they are rarely found.

There are several known examples of these petaloids with faces,
heads, and human figures cut on the surface.2? The mode of hafting
of the petaloid is known from several specimens. One specimen has
been found with a wooden handle and in others the wooden handle
is replaced by stone, which is sometimes engraved on surface and
extremities.

The stone implements from the Lesser Antilles are quite different
from those of the Greater Antilles, although the petaloid occurs in
scanty numbers. The typical ax with blunt poll has been found on
several islands, and many of these have a shallow groove for hafting.
A cross section of these is generally oval or square with rounded
angles. The ax with two deep opposite angular marginal notches,
a strictly South American form, occurs in St. Kitts and Trinidad,
but isnot found in great numbers. It has not yet been recorded from
Haiti and Porto Rico. The poll of this type is flat, the cross section
oval, and the thickness much less than the breadth.

By far the most numerous form of ax from the Lesser Antilles
is that found often in caches and abundantly figured in this article.
The forms vary from a circular, oval, or almost square body with
regular or asymmetrical outlines. The greatest modification appears

%* Fewkes, Engraved Celts from the Antilles, 1915,

PEWKES] WEST INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA 263

in the poll, which is bifid, or crossed by vertical ridges modified into
what looks like birds’ heads, and various other grotesque figures.
These have no well-marked groove for hafting and many are too
large for practical use. The surface is rough; none have the polish
of the petaloid, but many have incised figures cut on their surface and
some are perforated, the perforation being confluent with the edge,
making that region bifid. A very large number as well as a great
variety of these axes have been found in St. Vincent, and the form
occurs in other islands, but this ax is characteristic of the Lesser
Antilles.

The theory that this form sometimes represents unfinished weapons
on account of their occurring in caches is interesting, but has not yet
been fully demonstrated. Their edges are not sharp enough to cut
wood or other objects, and there is no evidence that they were hafted.

The forms of grinders or pestles distinguish at least two sub-_
culture areas of the Antilles. Thus the pestles from the Haiti-Santo
Domingo area have elaborated heads, which are absent in those
from Porto Rico. The pestles of St. Kitts are as a rule conical with-
out decorations. The grooved pestles found in Guadeloupe are de-
scribed by Prof. Mason as blades.?* There are about 65 pestles in the
Guesde collection in the Berlin Museum. There is not a single pestle
with decorated head from that island, but a very large number of
grinding stones (or hammers).

The most important difference between stone objects from the
Porto Rico-Santo Domingo area and the Lesser Antilles is the
presence in the former of stone collars, elbow stones, and three-
pointed stone idols, and their total absence in Cuba, Jamaica, and
the Lesser Antilles. We find, however, certain crude forms of three-
pointed idols in the latter islands, but the well-made, highly deco-
rated specimens are peculiar to Porto Rico and Haiti. These two
types seem to have been autochthonous in the Haiti-Porto Rico area,
and are alone sufficient to differentiate this area from all other West
Indian prehistoric cultures.

The very natural desire to know the uses of these peculiar and
exceptional objects can not yet be gratified. There are many theories
of their use, and it is pretty generally conceded that they are zemis
or idols rather than badges of office or secular paraphernalia. Their
elaborate symbolism and variety of forms make their interpretation
difficult. Their relative abundance connects them intimately with
some great desire of their owners and points to some widespread
want in the Antillean mind.

2 Among the grinders (pestles) in the Guesde collection figured by Prof. Mason as
“blades” may be mentioned figs. 119, 120, 121, and 122. Nos. 135, 136, 137, 139, 140,
141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149-157, 158, 159, and 160 are variously identified
as hammers and stones for various uses. The majority are, however, rubbing stones or
grinders,

264 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH. ANN. 34

There was no material necessity greater in the life of an agri-
cultural people than the fructification and growth of their food sup-
ply. The West Indian culture was based on the growth of the yuca
plant, from which cassava meal was obtained. It would be in accord-
ance with what is known of other primitive religions of agricultural
people for the Antilleans to center their religious ideas about their
food plant, and naturally the production of yuca was the great need
of the Antilleans. One of the two great gods of the Haitians, accord-
ing to Pane, bears in its name the element yuca. Yucayu was the
great Sky god, whose name is varied, but under various designations
controls the rain, the winds, and other phenomena of the sky. This
is supposed to be the beneficent Sky god, and there was a stone
image in the Sacred Cave of the Haitians called’: Maroio (Morahu),
which from its holy character must have been one of the chief shrines.
It is, perhaps, a coincidence that the Yucayu or Yuca god of the
sky has for part of its name Guamaonoco, or Maorocon, in which
we detect the element maroio of various spellings, as if the name of
the idol and the name of the beneficent Yuca god were the same.
They were at least similar conceptions, as both were appealed to for
rain. ‘There was another stone idol of equal sanctity to Moroio in
the Cave of the Sun, the sanctuary of the Haitians. This idol was
called by Pane, Bonael, and was also appealed to for rain—a func-
tion of the highest deity in the Antillean pantheon. Bonael was
supposed to be the idol of a being in the Sun, as Maroio was that of
the Moon god. The sun and moon are also symbols of a higher god
of the sky, the Yucayu or the god of winds and rain which the An-
tillean farmers worshiped.

Bonael (e/ signifying son; the son of Bona) was not the chief god,
but was the son of another who might have been. Who, then, was
Bona, his father? Ma boya, the great (ma) Boya, was the great god to
which the Antilleans appealed for rain. He must have been a Sky god,
and a great one at that. Boa is the serpent and Maboya is the great
serpent. Guabansex was a woman to whom the Antilleans prayed for
rain. Her two assistants were her agents in bringing rain, ete. Ma-
boya and Guabansex have many points of similarity. In this ap-
parently tortuous linguistic method the conclusion is arrived at that
the great Sky god to whom the Antilleans prayed for success of their
farming was a serpent god; not a god of evil, as early authors stated
in their interpretation of Antillean mythology, but a beneficent god,
although at times a ruler of the hurricane. The great serpent might
readily have been the god of the yuca.

Did the Antillean represent this serpent in stone, as we are told he
did in wood? Mr. Joyce has shown the relation of the collar stones
to a bent tree, and the author has interpreted the designs on them as

FEWKES] WEST INDIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA 265

representing the idol of the yuca plant. Porto Rican stone collars
have certain resemblances to serpents with tail bound to the neck.
The collar stone thus becomes the idol of the great beneficent serpent,
Hura kau, to whom the Antilleans prayed for rain for their yuca.

The other important power worshiped by the Antilleans was
Mamona, or Tierra the earth, Mother Earth, the female element that
produces the yuca. A problematical stone idol of the Antillean that
is not less numerous than the stone collar is the three-pointed stone.
According to Pane three-pointed stones were worshiped “to make
the yuca grow.” These are supposed to represent clan tutelaries,
children of the earth power.

ORNAMENTS

Although a considerable number of amulets, beads, and objects of
’ personal adornment are known from the West Indies, our knowledge
of these is mainly confined to the Haiti-Porto Rican area. We can
hardly expect any great difference in those from different islands,
since they are portable and no doubt were exchanged in trade even in
prehistoric times. Gold objects traveled in the hands of traders from
one end of the West Indies to another, and, although there is good
evidence that many ornaments of this metal existed on the islands
when discovered, no single specimen is now to be found in any of our
museums. From contemporaneous descriptions of these objects that
have come down to us there is little doubt that the Antillean gold-
smiths were not less clever workmen in this line than their neighbors
on the Continent. The avidity with which they exchanged their work
for objects made of baser metal and the richness of the sources of
gold in the Cibao Mountains would seem to indicate a considerable
abundance of gold objects among the prehistoric Haitians, Porto
Ricans, and Cubans, and possibly renewed search may yet bring some
of these objects to light.
There is little doubt that the aborigines of the Greater Antilles had
more gold objects than those of the Lesser Antilles.

CONCLUSIONS

The foregoing data may be discussed from two points of view—
first, the geographical distribution of the archeological material, and,
second, its distribution in time.?”

A study of the geographical distribution of archeological objects in
the West Indies leads me to divide the area into three great divisions—
the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. The
characteristic orographical feature of the Greater Antilles, as com-
pared with the other regions, is their size, their geological character,
and the extension of their axis east and west. The four great islands,
universally called the Greater Antilles, including Porto Rico, Haiti,
Jamaica, and Cuba, are tops of high mountain chains, reaching a
moderate altitude, composed of sedimentary, azoic and volcanic rocks,
in which the first predominate. An extension of this mountainous
chain westward would unite it with the Mexican-Central_American
highlands, Jamaica being continued westward by a submarine bank
which rises out of the sea in the Caymans. Many geologists are in
accord in the belief that formerly the Caribbean Sea was closed on
the north by a continuous elevated region extending practically from
the Yunque Mountain in eastern Porto Rico to the coast of Yucatan,
and others find evidences of this former communication well marked
in distribution of animals and plants. It is an interesting fact to note
that cultural likenesses between the Greater Antilles and Central
America are limited to the islands of Porto Rico, Haiti, and Jamaica,
and the eastern end of Cuba. The western end of Cuba, where it
approaches nearest to Yucatan, has not a close likeness, culturally
speaking, to the mainland. As can be shown from the nature of the
artifacts characteristic of the culture of man in this region of the
Antilles, the indication of a derivation from Central America is not
close. Evidently it occurred in very ancient times, before a char-
acteristic Antillean culture had developed on the islands. The char-
acteristic cult objects from the Antilles do not occur on the main-
land but there is a likeness in fauna and flora.

The geology of the Lesser Antilles is more closely allied to that
of South America, all the West Indies, from the Virgin Islands
to Trinidad and Barbados, having their longer axis north and south,
forming a chain of islands, either submerged peaks or volcanoes,
some of which are still active, or a submerged ridge of land extend-
ing from South America, having all the geological characteristics
of the adjoining region on the continent. The fauna and flora of
the Lesser Antilles are distinctly South American, and the cultural
relationship of the prehistoric inhabitants of these islands shows a

2% The relations of aboriginal culture and environment in the Lesser Antilles have been
discussed in my article in Bull, Amer, Geog. Soc., vol. xlvi, no. 9, 1914; reprinted as
Cont. Heye Mus., yol, i, no. 8.

266

FEWKBS ] CONCLUSIONS 267

like kinship. It is not known whether the separation of these islands
was before or after man’s advent.

The Bahamas, forming the third geological area, are low coral
islands, closely connected geologically with the adjacent peninsula
of Florida, but not mountainous like the other two divisions.
Culturally and biologically the Bahamas have relations on the one
side to the adjacent regions of North America and on the other to the
neighboring islands, Cuba and Porto Rico. The cultural features
follow in distribution the fauna and flora, as might be expected.

From the chronological point of view the evidence of the archeo-
logical objects above recorded indicates a longer occupation of all
areas considered and a distinct cultural development in those areas.
In other words, it appears that while there has been a process of
acculturation going on throughout the West Indies there has been
a specialized development of culture in the different groups of
islands. If we compare the antiquities of the Greater Antilles with
those of the Lesser we readily note these important differences,
which have been emphasized in previous contributions to the study
of the aborigines of these islands. Two distinct cultures, one of
which may be called the Tainan, the other pre-Carib, are evident.
The Tainan was that of an agricultural people, and we may conjec-
ture that the ancestors of the Tainans settled the islands in very
ancient times before specialized features which distinguish that cul-
ture had been developed. This pre-Carib colonization formerly ex-
tended over the whole Lesser Antilles and took place before written
history began. It was replaced by waves of Carib immigration from
South America, being submerged in all the Lesser Antilles as far
north as the Virgin Islands. These waves of Carib invasion, over-
running these islands, radically changed the character of Antillean
culture. The Carib killed the men and appropriated the women, the
result being a mixed race, in which the arts of the preexisting Tainan
people were appropriated. Evidence of this mixture may be found
in the difference between the language of the men and the women,
to which attention was called by Columbus and the early travelers;
the women, who were the slave wives of the Carib, retaining the
language of the conquered, the men speaking a tongue akin to the
Carib on the Orinoco. Most of the objects called Carib, especially
ceramics and basketry, which represent the prehistoric Lesser An-
tilles, belonged to a submerged culture. Although represented in
such abundance in archeological collections from the Lesser Antilles,
they do not occur in the same abundance or have the same charac-
teristics among the Carib on the continent of South America. They
are characteristic of an epoch 7 previous to the submergence of the
island people by the Carib.

27a So long as all the artifacts found on an island are arbitrarily assigned to the same
culture epoch archeology will be unscientific.

268 ISLAND CULTURE AREA OF AMERICA [ETH, ANN. 34

In the Bahamas the relationship of prehistoric aborigines with
those of North America is shown most strikingly in the character
of their pottery. The Bahamas also suffered from the incursions
of the Carib, and their aboriginal culture shows strikingly the marks
of this influence.

From the data now in hand we can distinguish three cultural
epochs in the West Indies. The earliest people were cave dwellers,**
a mode of life that had not wholly disappeared at the advent of Co-
lumbus, who recorded the existence of cave dwellers in Cuba and the
western extension of Haiti. This cave dwelling culture, or the earli-
est known in the West Indies, was not generally dissimilar to what
has been recorded in coastal South and Central America. It appar-
ently extended throughout both the Greater and Lesser Antilles,
but on account of the absence of caves it naturally did not exist in
the Bahamas. It appears to have been allied to that of the coast
of Florida. As the great shell heaps occurring on the islands would
indicate, and the pottery from these shell leaps emphasizes, the life
of the caves is almost identical with that of the kitchen midden.
The absence of fine stone objects separates the West Indian cave
man from that of a following epoch, the agricultural West Indian,
whose stonework reached a perfection not excelled elsewhere in the
two Americas. The characteristic of the agricultural epoch, which
was highest in development at the time the islands were discovered,
is best known from the stone collars, stone idols, ornaments, and
various other artifacts which have been described in the preceding
pages. While pottery was more highly developed in the Lesser An-
tilles than in the Greater, the celts and objects made of stone of the
Lesser Antilles were as a rule inferior to those of Porto Rico. This
superiority in pottery found in Trinidad and neighboring islands
is undoubtedly due to the vicinity of South America, the coarse pot-
tery of Porto Rico not being highly influenced in that way. The
archeological evidences of the third epoch, or that of the mixed race
formed by an amalgamation of agricultural and Carib elements,
appear to indicate a decline in the arts, as would naturally be ex-
pected from the nature of the life of the inhabitants. All three
states of culture—caveman, Tainan, and Carib—coexisted in the
West Indies when discovered. The first mentioned had been driven
to isolated, undesirable localities; the Tainan held the Greater
Antilles, but had been submerged on the Lesser except in Trinidad;
the Carib occupied the islands between Trinidad and Porto Rico
and was slowly encroaching on the Greater Antilles when Columbus
gave a new world to Castile and Leon.

°8'The difference between pottery found in the Cueva de los Golondrinos and that from
caves in the interior of the island of Porto Rico is easily recognized.

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INDEX

Page.
ACKLIN, number of specimens from_ 50
Acoma Inptrans, visit of, to Wash-
Mpipy=—=— eae 28
AGRICULTURAL EPOCH IN THE WEST
Wiss == 56, 57-58
See Tainan culture.
AGUAS BUENAS, specimen from__--- 217
AITKEN, ROBERT, article by—------- 171
ALSPA LANGUAGE, work on, by Dr.
rachLenbery——--———— = 21
ALTAR STONE, St. Kitts__--- = 160
AmeEcos, a Trinidad nation--_--~~~ 64
AMERICAN MuSEUM, elbow stones
Vy Se ee ee 205-206
113-115, 233-234
from Guadeloupe_-——---~-~----- 136
in Connell collection_-—-- 165
AneEcpotp from Du Tertre 222
ANIMAL FIGURES in Antillean art.
See BirD STONES, FROG, HEADS,
MONKEY, PECCARY, REPTILES,
SHARK, SQUIRREL, TURTLE.
APACHE INDIANS, visit of, to Wash-
Nahe Yi a eye a le le 28
APPROPRIATION FOR AMERICAN BPTH-
RGICONR Se pee be cee cee eee eS 7
ARAWAK, THE—
a stationary people____------- 52
STULACt RN OL ae ee 55
as pottery makers____---__--- 56, 77
assigned to the Greater Antilles_ 55
islands inhabited by_----~---~--- Sli
natives of Trinidad classed as__ 64
POLLCRG OL eee 261

submerged by Carib_— 52, 261, 267, 268
See Tainan.
ARCHITECTURE, STONE AGE, of Amer-

ica and Europe compared__----_ 54
ARGYLE MIDDEN 22 =e ee 92
ASSYRIAN SUBJECTS, painted on

cotton 30
AwLs from Guadeloupe---_~ 135
AXES—

absent from Porto Rico collec-

HORE a a ee 131
FI TOY) AS apne SO ee 148
asymmetrical 102-104, 188-139
ceremonial= == — anaes 133, 142
characteristic of Lesser An-

legs Soeee een nae 174, 180
GUT | herrea es 8 108-109, 189-143
eared, where found___-------- 59, 93
engraved === oo 109-110, 144-147
from .Wominicdas. nase 125
from Great Cayman ____-__--_ 258

from Guadeloupe___ 132-133, 138-143
160658°—34 ErH—22——_18

Page.
Axps—Continued.
BYOMUGS sul CLA = eee 131
from St. Vincent region___~~~_ 94-104,
108-110
Brome Dobe eos=—— == ae 78
PYOOVEU === oe 101-102, 145
TIQUCHE Oe eee 74, 78
Of mnnsualusize.=——- == Sa8 130
periorated=—— == eee 147-148
typical of Lesser Antilles__-- 146, 262
winged, from Tobago---_----- 78
with animal head on poll___--- 140
SUA GF Sh TS se se 100-101
with regular margins __-_----- 138
Ay-Ay, name for St. Croix_—_------- 166
BACHILLER Y MORALES, work of, on
Gubansethnolory 2-2. - == — 248
BAHAMAS—
eultural relations of~---~-~---- 267
number of specimens from___-~- 50
BALBAS, SBRor, elbow stone owned
209
86
170-171
BALLICEAUX, ISLAND OF__--------- 89-90
excavations) in==2)_2==4EUSs—— 10
number of specimens from_--_~ 49
Batiou, Howarp M., compilation of
bibliography> Dyo22=2-———=-——= 25
BANANA BAY, mound at—-_-----—_-- 89
BARBACOAS, name of pile dwellings__ 253
BARBADOS
aboriginal population of----~-- 78-79
archeological work in_--_-~-~-- 11
artifacts. from——==—==——=— _--- 86-88
depopulation vof _=---===-s=se= 87
earlyamaps ofse = =e = ae ee 79
English landing at-_--_-----_ 80
number of specimens from_—____ 49
BATHING CUSTOMS of the Caribs__ 226, 230
Barons—
ceremonial====— == =--s Sa 210-211
clay, from Barbados__-_~~ s 87
from Dutch Guiana___-_----_~- 132
Ole W00d senate na ee 132
BarrowtA, Indian caves of__----~~ 89
BEADS oe a See ed ee bole 231-232
BEeQura—
kitchen middens of-_-------_~- 89
number of specimens from__-~— 49
BERLIN MuspuM FUR VOLKER-
KUNDE—
COLES aU eee ee 177-178
Guesde collection in-____--~_~- 128

West Indian objects in--_ 50, 215, 218
Bia MAN, portrait made of___- 2s

274 INDEX
Page. Page.
BIRD! “STONES 22: -§ 22s 2S ee 221 | CASSAVA BRBAD—

Boas, Franz—
archeological work of_
editorial) work"of———= === 2

excavations under supervision
We ears = ee 51
yO even hs oh fee en eee ot ea 26
Bocoras, WALDEMAR, author of Chuk-
chee prammano—=——— == 20
3ONAEL, an idol in the Cave of the
Sin=s=——- === 23 264
BONE, OBJECTS OF===-=—=="=— 75, 284, 235
BOWLS

fragments of —~---~~ 70,71
from Porto Rico area

from) /Trinidad= ===" ===

Box, \CLAY 2522-52524 ssa feces 70
BRACELETS OF BEADS___---------—~ 230
Brancu, Dr. CHRISTIAN, archeolo-

eicall work: ofii2=228) ==- 45-25
BREMEN MUSEUM, West Indian ob-
sects} ina<— 2. = 50

BRIGHTON ESTATE, rare specimen
from). = = =--5 ses") = = Seen seek 164
BRITISH MUSBUM, specimens in____ 178
BURIAL CUSTOMS—=—2— = 2s=se— 90, 225, 226
BURIAL PLACES—
CAVES (ase === 8 = Sees 57, 61, 248
mounds) ‘as=4-2s23 ee Sa 247
BUSHNELL, D. I., JR., work of-—__ 22-23
BYINGTON, Cyrus, author of Choc-

tow? dictionary: =———= 26

CABEZAS, DON JUAN, specimen pre-
sented to National Museum by_-—— 229
CacHES, valuables buried in_-__-~~ 61-62
CactmsBas of the Isle of Pines____ 256-257
CALABASHES, valuables hidden in___ 62
CaMPp FIRE GIRLS, requests for infor-
mation) from ———-2===ss >> SSE 28
Canoes, method of making__-~-~-~ 105
Capp HAITIEN, stone nodule from___ 185
Caracouis, described by Labat_-_ 280-231
Carip INDIANS—
a nomadic people__------_-___ 52
artifacts, of === =2=34225325=2=5 55
assigned to the Lesser Antilles_ 55
Black, origin of__ 89
culture epoch of__ 56
inhabitants of Lesser Antilles
submerged by_—-------- 52. 88, 261
invasion of Lesser Antilles
by .2-=-=+ see ess 254-255, 267
islands inhabited by_-__--_ 51, 52, 88
not pottery makers___----_--- 56
settlements of, in Porto Rico__ 171
still living in Dominica_______ 124
survival among, of older cus-
toms and objects___________ 52
theory. coneerning:———- = — 77-75
CARIB POTTERY, meaning of the term 261
CaRIB STONES, where found_____-_~_ 93
CARINEPAGOTOS, a nation of Trinidad 64
CARRIACOU—
number of specimens from_____~ 49
pottery’ 0f--==2- > = 118
CASSAVA, legend concerning, in Do-
Mminicaes———s— 126-127

made from -yWucdee= === 57
stones for baking_-__-________
CassE-ThTEs from Guadeloupe______
CATAWBA LANGUAGE studied by Dr.
Michelson.=-=% +. 3 =-~ eee 17
Caro, Mr. Jostan, stone collars in-

terpreted! by ==-2+22_> = 207
CAVE DWELLERS—
cultureof, 22-2252 s2- Sees 56, 268
of), Cabat ose = 246-247, 255-256
CAVE DWELLINGS of Barbados____—~ 87
Cavps—
as burial places__ = pit, 16L
of Barbados ___ ~ 11, 82-83
of Isle’ ofsPines=——==-— - = 257
of Porto mRicotsn.s-s=— en 170-171
of Urinidadh. seas eee 66
CELTS—
ceremonial —-_~====-~-= 176, 178, 251
- characteristic of Greater An-
tiles: ~ <5. 3s See 174, 180
engraved —____ 174-183
from Barbados Se 86
from: ‘Dominica=-<—_ == 126, 131
from Guadeloupe ——~-----____ 133-134
fromiaMartinique =.= see 131
fromyuPortoyRicon= === ee 131
from) (Sie lucig== = 131
from) LOTMA. a ees 74
monolithic, not found in Lesser
Antilles== 2o22> eee 94
monolithic, use of_ — 176
monolithie petaloid____ 173, 174
Of fossil) \shells=_¢= Ss. =e 134
petaloid, called thunder stones 175,
251
petaloid, from Porto Rico_ 171, 172-183
petaloid, from St. Croix_______ 168
petaloid, from Tobago_______~_ 78
petaloid, scarce in St. Vincent__ 94
petaloid, typical of Greater
Antilles===—= == =.= 59, 146, 262
shell, where found ___________ 59
CEREMONIAL OBJECTS. See AXBS,
BATONS, CELTS, COLLARS, KNIVES,
SWALLOW STICKS, THRBPE-POINTED
STONES, ZEMIS.
CHAMBERLAIN, A. F., work of___--- 21
CHEROKEE INDIANS, work among, of
James Mooney----~- SESS SSS =- = 13
CHESTER, GREVILLE J., specimens
collected by==—2= === 80
CHEYENNE INDIANS, visit of, to_
WiisShin S100 Sees a ee 28
CHIP-CHIP SHELL HEAP, description
OfS = Sete cies oe ee seekess 66-67
CHIPPEWA INDIANS, visit of, to
Washington 2==- ===. = see 28
CHIPPEWA MUSIC, paper on__-__-_~ 26
CHISELS—
fossil. »sheli_=-====—=-==—- == 80, 137
stones =2 = S2—5 2S oe 94-95, 155
CHOCOLATE GRINDERS___-~-—~= .—. 2238, 224
See Grinders.
CHOCTAW LANGUAGE, Dictionary of
theo. 22 bss SSS ee See See 26

INDEX 275
Page Paxe.
CHUKCHEE LANGUAGE, work on---~-~ 20 | Cusa—Continued,

Cuban tribe-=s) se2==5 255
See POTTBRY.

CIGUAYOS, a
CLAY HEADS.

CuLuss. See BATONS.

CocHit1 INDIANS, visit of, to Wash-
Ingion2 see e se 28
COLLARS, STONB-=—---25—=-—----~— 187-198

characteristic of Greater An-
tieS ee ete oe 180
compared with elbow stones-- 200—
201, 207-209

confined to Porto Rico and
iStiin! == 38 ee 187

distribution of. 199
fragment of, found in St. Croix_ 168
interpretation of form of____ 207-209
POPE 0): eS a 188
possible use 198
propable origin- of==-—---——-—— 61
two SLY Des) Ola= == —— Leo 187

theories concerning use of_— 268-265
where fOnNge===2"- = —=— 60, 61, 169

COLLECTIONS, WEST INDIAN—
Connell

nie. Sa See
in European Museums_-—------ 50
li TEN ins = Sees == Se ES 248
mades by, De Booye-—— =. -— =. 49, 63
Merino: ste oe ae er 227
FUNG Ope ee Se Se eee SS 11, 81, 86
transferred to National Mu-
e COTES Ue ees ee eee 29
CoLLENS, J. H.—
excavations made by_—-~--~---- 66
quoted on archeology of Trini-

CLS et 68
COLOR OF SPECIMBNS-_--------- = 132
CoLuMBUS—

phe Wet bh ae 2 oe eS 63-64
explorations of, in Cuba____~- 242-2438
CONNELL, Mr. E., acknowledgment
pee ae oe a ee a Se 11
CONNELL COLLECTION---- 87, 159, 160-166
CoNNOUN, number of specimens
ERTS YN a a et 49
Cooxsry, Rey. Mr., article by----- 80
Coos LANGUAGR, grammar of, by Dr.
FBrachtenberg ———_ -- -==--—---___ 21
COPENHAGEN Muspum, West Indian
objects: in2----—==—=-—-U--- = 50, 179
Corn, introduction of, into the West
indies aoe heres e a a 58
CrANntIA found in caves of Cuba_. 247-248
CRBPSCENTIC IMPLEMENTS, See
KNIVES.
CRrooKED ISLAND, number of speci-
Mens {LOM — 5 ee ee ee 50
Crow INDIANS, visit of, to Washing-
hh eee ee eee ee eee 28
CuBA—
archeological remains of_—--~ 240-256
natives of, described by early
Voie eee ee eS 243-244

number of specimens from__--~ 49

prehistoric culture of_-_----_ 242-244
stages of culture in--___----- 240,
242, 247, 253-254, 255

western, destitute of pottery___ 60
writers on archeology of_--. 241, 245
CUBVA DE LOS GOLONDRINOS, pot-
tery: found In-=+—-=22e—24— 172, 261-262
CULTURE CENTERS of the West
Indiesaess- = aaa a eee oaks 58
CULTURE EPOCHS of the West Indies_ 56,268
CUNNINGHAM ESTATH, specimen from. 164
CY LINDERS—
(0) eee ee 235-236
shelle=ss So Se Ae Sane = 163
Dakotas DICTIONARY, necessity for
reyvyisgionoTetet a aso ea 21
DAUBERTON, photographs made by_-~ 189
Davies, quoted on aborigines of
Dominiet== === aa 126-127
DAYBWAWAINDUNG, portrait made of- 28
DEARLP, Mr., acknowledgment to--~- 66
De Booy, THEODOOR—
drawings furnished by-------- 1i7
Menhion: Ole 74
specimen described by------- 182-183
specimens collected by----~--- 49, 63,
167, 213; 215,
216, 219, 221
DELAWARE LANGUAGE, study of, by
Dr, Michelson====-=22==--=2-s-= 16
DENSMORE, MISS FRANCES—
papeniby see] ae ae oe 26
WOLk Oh oa eo See eS 21
DESCENT, MATRILINBAL__---------_- 88
Dirks, sToNE, from Santo Do-
mingoss22) 23 aSh Sse eee 179-180
DisHeEs from Guadeloupe__----~~~~- 135
Disks—
clay, used as stamps_-----~--- 235
from Guadeloupe —___---_------ 136
perforated== le oss— eae 123
EO a ee 75
DomMINIcCA—
agricultural race in-__--_----- 126
Carib istillitiving in---—----——— 124
Celt fronts ees ee 131
culture areas — +> =" 22s Se 123-128
number of specimens from___- 49
old negro culture in-___-----~- 124
SACCeGMInke Ole ee 124
DucHI, native name for seat__---~- 246
DvuppeLpy, Sir Ropert, journey of,
through Trinidad__----------~- * 64
DuHOS—
from, BaAtbowia=———— 92 — a -— 89
grinders mistaken for_—-------- 222
Dian tONe see — 223-226.
Dunn, Jacob P., work of 24-25
HARRINGS:, gold o-—- == eee 280
Basv Catcos, number of specimens
Fro eee eee ee ae 50
EpicuLp from Guadeloupe--— 136
HERIGY BOWLS) ---— ao ——-— 68, 70, 237
ELBOW STONES 198-209:
arma: of2---—=- SS Lee 199-200

276 INDEX
I Page. Page.
ELBOW STONES—Continued. JONAIVES, HAITI, specimen from___ 186
characteristic of Greater An- GovLp, Miss B. A.—
tilles2= 223) Shee ee 180 collection presented by_ ~~ ---_~ 216
compared with collars__—__- 200-201, mortar presented by 222
207-209 | Granp Caicos, number of specimens
distribution of 322225- === 60, 199 fr Orne ee ee te 50
theories concerning use of___ 263-265 | Grear Apaco, number of specimens
with face in relief______ 201, 202-206 fronts. . eee Jo ae 50
without face__-_------- 202, 206-207 | Grear CayMAN, archeology of_____ 258
ELBUTHERA, number of specimens Great INAGUA, number of specimens
P00 =e 50 Pronits a eo. oe Pee OL . 50
ENIGMATICAL OBJECTS— Chane
frome St. wincent=———— 115-118 . : : fa
Reelpeoblematicaibenjects, culture relationships Offs e en 88
Erin Bay, description of settlement PELVIS? Gi SIEBER SHS) ES = =e)
ARit es. als sets Otley ices 65 pottery, from====— = === 118, 119, 121
: 3 yeaa GRIDDLES for cassava bread__-_~ 119; 120
ERIN BAY MIDDEN, excavations in___ 9
EXCAVATIONS, INDIAN, in Barbados__ 83, | GRINDERS—
85-86 forichocolate= =~ === === 223, 224
Fancy— from Guadeloupe__—------___ 154-158
enigmatical objects found at___ 115 from Porto Rican area______ 221-224
midden: atmo a es 91 from) St: Katts-——=— sae 162
FEATHURS: Use ofio-c eee e 230 from St. Vincent region______ 112-113
FENNER, CLARENCE N., collaborator_ 26 identified as seats___---___--_ 222
FrerrsHEs— See Mortars, Pestles.
shell, from Barbados_-________ gg | Grosser, Dr., specimen collected by_ 186
SE TLC eh vest ae eg! cc 113-115 | GRULLON, SeNor, mention of____- 217, 218
Fewkes, J. WALTER— GUABANSEX, an Antillean goddess___ 264
Dapere Rb yee ee 25 GUADELOUPE—
OTE GE ans Harel Spy ot aaa 8-12 archeological specimens from_ 128-158
FINGER RING, made from seed of number of specimens from______ 49
gougou palms ~ eeee ee es 75 | GuESDB, M., quoted by Mason_ 60, 129-137
FISH IDOL, described by Poey____-- 181 | GUESDE COLLECTION—
FLASK-SHAPED VESSELS.___________ 239 described__—_---__---______ 129-138
FLETCHER, ALICE C., songs tran- drawings of_____-----------__ 137
scribed! by=222s=- == =* = Seve 18 size of -----___---~-~-------- 137
FLINT, KNIVES OF, found in Guade- GUIANA—
“loupe —- 25. eee ee eS 137 ethnological objects from 30
FLORIDA NATIVES, resemblances of, paper on Indians of____- 26
to Cuban coast people__------_ 252-253 | Gurtny, J. G., work of__--___----- 25
WOOD BOWLS fone a 237 | HAnperiin, H. K.—
Forts, JOSEPH, quoted on_ shell excavations made by--__----__ 170
ChisGl gee ee ee ee 80 specimen figured by——--------- 219
Fow.er, Hon. H., mention of__---_ 68 | Hamssuur, Miss, work of_--_____~- 21
Fox InpIANS— EVAInT, spesties tom == —- aaa ae 227
Sacred packs, Ofe= ee 16,30 | Haveerr, H. S.—
studied by Dr. Michelson 15 acknowledgment to -----_---—_ 14
FRACHTENBERG, LEO J., work of__—— 21 editorial work of_—_ == 26
Frerre-Marreco, BarBara, collabo- HAMMERS __~-~-----~~ ---------- 154
PatGD oe ee ee ee 23,27 grooved, from St. Vincent re-
FresHwarer Bay, settlement at-__- 82 gion___----------_--~--__- 101-102
Fro, amulet representing_________ 234 | HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIANS,
Garcia, J. L., translation by, of demand for ~~~~~-~~-~-----~~-_- 27
paper ‘by Poeyo 22 sss eee 181 | HANDLES oF vesspLS___------ 71-74, 237
GATSCHET, Mrs. Lovursa H., vocabu- Harpoon from Gaudeloupe_—-——-—_- 135
laries restored by_____-_=-----_ -31 | Harrineron, J. P.— Pa
GEOLOGY OF THE West INDIBS__- 266-268 collaborator ————————————_——-—— ai
GILBOA, Mount, caves of__-_------ 83 paper by--- = 26
GILFILLAN, Rey. Jos. A., gift by, of work of ---_ SoS Se aaa 23
Chippewa letters _--_--__-______ 3, | Harrrneron, M. R., collections made
GiLt, De Lancey— Wes aeesaaSeS=ss=5= 49, 240, 256
specimen photographed by_-—-- 2949 | Harcaers found in Hispaniola_____ 172
Oy ee AOE oi 9g | HAVANA, collections in_-_--~-~-___- 248
Gotp— HnAaDS—
objects of, in the West Indies__ 265 animal_——-~-—-~__ 68, 72-74, 118-121
ORNAMents, Of eee 230 EUS LLC Se rts eee 69, 71-74

INDEX Ht
Hereaps—Continued. Page. Page
grotesque human, on Porto Rico IMPLEMENTS, STONE—
pottery =—=2=22-4- 3 ee 76 aeey (Ofee soso: $e eo Ses 55
peceary or wild hog___-----___- 71 chipped, rare in West Indies___ 55
reptilian=2—=2 2422—— — 209) 56 classification of, from St. Vin-
stone____ ~ 183-184 (ON eee ee eS eee ee 93-94
turtle =* 5 ee et ee se 121 comparison of, from Old and
Hecer, FRANz, amulet described by_ 233 New e\Vonlds= = ee 54
HENDERSON, JUNIUS, collaborator___ 23, 26 CLeRCeNT Gee men eee 107-108
Hewett, Enear L., collaborator____ 23, 26 development of, in the West
lewirt, J. N. B., work of--=——— Ta Sivos ndlies: 4) <== See. ease 54
HEYE, GEORGE G.— fishtail, limited to volcanic
acknowledgment to___-_______ 8 Eo ay eS Ss 61
eouection Of = eee ee 49 flaked, not made in Antilles_ 130, 137
objects purchased by_______-___ 221 from, Dominica S25 =- ~===<* = ‘125
Hern MusrumM— from St. Vincent region_____ 104-105
artifacts in, from West Indies_ 49-51 Prom) Oring ae ee 74-75
work under auspices of-_______ 8 from West Irdies, two groups
HISPpANIOLA, another name _ for 1) a 262
Santo. Domingo! —-- 2-25 2) =e 131 winged, limited to volcanic
Hopcs, F. W.— ROR eee ee ko ae Se Se 61
Bulletin edited by_--__________ 25 See AWLS, AxES, CELTS, CHIS-
TEPOY ROL == 5-32 PLS, DIRKS, GRINDERS, HAM-
WODK. Of 5-35 was eee 7-8 MERS, HARPOON, KNIVES,
HoLtow Horn Bear, portrait made NEEDLES, STAMPS, TOOLS,
OL ee ane a TS a 28 UTENSILS, WEAPONS.
Hormes, W. H.— INCISHD ISTONDS2oo~ Sse =- Se 148-149
collaborstor=s=- -=s<=s- S22) = 26 | INDIAN CASTLE—
Sketch: by= =222 55+ =-s32se=8. = 190 described Se etes snt. Sees 83-84
WOLKE (OR = 222 SW 22 visited by Dr. Fewkes____---_- 11
Hooxs from Guadeloupe 135 | INDIAN EXCAVATIONS in Barbados__ 85-86
HrpiitKa, ALES, bulletin by, in col- INDIAN RIVER, mound at---_----~~ 81-82
laboration with others__________ 26 | Iron Bpar, portrait made of___-___ 28
Huckersy, Rey. THOMAS— ISLE oF PINES, cacimbas of__-_-- 256-257
eouectionn 0b == aes 88,90 | IsLETa INDIANS, visit of, to Wash-
excavations made hby__-______- 66 Ine ton Psa a8 Sa ee a ee 28
mention --of° =. 3S ee ee, 145 | Japwrre; pendant of.2__—-.---—-__ 75
pendants collected by_--_---___ 122 | JAMAICA—
quoted on objects from St. Vin- antiquities, ‘ofs22—2—==== 257
(enh 232 2a eee ot Ba 116 cave burials in-___---___ = 61
specimens purchased by_----~-~ 50 cultural relations of. 61
HuecuHes, Rey. GRIFFITH— number of specimens from___-_~ 49
article. by2tsree..* ssa. ef en. <. 80 | JIMENEZ, DoN EvSEsBIo, mounds ex-
Indian Castle described by___- 84—85 Cavated) Dyiasa 2S as sie eS 247
Hura KAU, the beneficent serpent___ 265 | Jones, WILLIAM, myths gathered by_ 15, 16
Hutson, Dr. Joon— Joyen, T. A., theory of, concerning
collectioninofsa= ssa). se 86 tole: COUATSs aoe eer eo oe 207
mention “ofi<2a225==2=-si2=-= 82 | Kickapoo MyTHs translated by Dr.
IpOLs— Michelbonit =s¢2 oe 35254 522 16
from Cuba =5-=3 245, 249-250, 251 Kiowa INDIANS, visit of, to Wash-
from: .Guadeloupe=—=-— = -- = = 136 ington) Sa ees ee es ey a 28
from; Porto ‘Ricos===——==- =~ 131, 221 | KircHEN MIDDENS. See MIDDBENS,
from St. Vincent area_ —- 113-115 Mowunpbs, SHELL HEAPS.
in Heye collections_______ -- 186, 221 | Knives—
in University Museum, Havana_ 245, ceremonial or sacrificial_____ 107-108
250, 252 Ohelakedointe= = eee 137
stone collars possibly used as__ 198 | KNogs, specimens showing ______~ 186, 220
three-pointed, with heads and Kroeper, A. L., to prepare yolume
legs — == See eee 190 on California Indians________-__ 24
wooden, in Montané’s collec- La FLescHEr, FRANcCIS—
tion, -+--_ == = 249 specimens collected by__------ 30
IpRIAN CULTURE of the Lesser An- work *of.--=2-525=3sS2222 —32 18-20
tilles' - .-- 2225523482325 =) Eos 56 | LANGUAGES, INDIAN, Handbook of__- 26
ILLUSTRATIONS, preparation of____ 28 | Larurop, Mr. AnD Mrs., collection
IMPLEMENTS, SHELL---~__-~ 59, 78, 79, 80 made. Dy, - eee ae eee 170

978 INDEX
Page. Paze.
LATIMgR, G., collection: presented by_ 131 | ‘“ MonKery ” THAPOT, from Barbados_ 86
LATIMER SPECIMEN of elbow stones_ 204—205 MONKEY VASES made by negroes____ 164
Leary, Miss ELLA, work of___---~~ 29 | MoNOLITHIC CBLTS —_----_-_~ 178, 174, 176
Les Caygs, Haiti, nodule from____—~ 185 | Monran&, Dr. Luts, collections under
Lessgpr ANTILLES— directorship: of==.—====5=2-=—=5" 248
comparison of pottery from____ 259 | Moonpy, JAMES, work of-_-------= 12-13
inhabitants of, at time of Colum- Mores, number of specimens from__ 50
BUS2 224 beee ee aS 130 MorGan, Mr., enigmatic objects
invaded by the Carib__-_~ 52, 88, 261 found. bywstscuee st ft ee 115
theory of kinship of aborigines Moruby, SYLVANUS G., memoir by__— 23
ofS st = 62 SS ee ee 126 | Morrars—
Lincuistics as an aid to archeol- from Guadeloupe___ 134-135, 152-154
ogy Me Se Uses. Se eee Jest 61 of Porto Rican area___-_____ 221-226
LiTtTLe ABACO, number of specimens ordinary. fornivore=2— 2 221
Tromsss22 252538 -See ee 50 resembling, a, bat2=2==>-42- 2 = 131
LOBATH: (STOND 22-3 Oe eS es 229 Trinidad! i222 =22-72 =< 3 2238 68
LOUBAT PRIZE awarded to Dr. Swan- See Grinders, Pestles.
tons 38555235 ee Oe 14 MorTruL-Maya Dictionary, photostat
Luseock, JOHN, mention of________ 130 copy 0f 2-2 2s eee 31
MABOYAs a-Sky, 20d—--—- 264 | Mounps—
McGnr, W J, mention of__________ 249 excavation of, in Cuba__-____~ 247
Maprip MusreuM— See Middens.
elhow? stone?in=2o8= 2535 > = 202-203 | Mount GILBOA, caves of_-_------_- 11, 83
specimens in’ 2322. => eee 213 | MuLipr, Pror. SopuHus, acknowledg-
Mamona, the Earth Mother________ 265 ment) tovos = oe a ee 179
MANDAN AND HIDATSA MUSIC, study MUNN AND Co., gift by, to Bureau__ 29
of, by Miss Densmore_---=--_--—_ 22 | Munrog, Miss HELEN, work of___-- Zit
MANuscriprs of the Bureau_______ 30-31 MUNSPE INDIANS, visited by Dr.
MArIGUANA— Michelson,222- ee 2222.-2ee es 16
number of specimens from 50 | Muriz, JAmMms, work of_-----____-_ 24
specimen found in____________ 182 | Music—
Maru HILL, BARBADOS, collection ob- Chippewa, papers on____--__~~- 26
tained! ‘ats. ase se See 87 Siouan, study of
Manroro, stone image called________ 264 | NEcKLACES—
Martin, Mrs. Apa, pottery presented from. Porto) Rico 181
PVs a eee ee eee 30 ofsshell. orsstone-=— = 230, 231
MAnrTINIQUE— NEEDLES, NETTING—
culture relationship of________ 128 from Guadeloupe __-______-__- 136
specimens. from 2422 see 128, 131 from\yPorto) Rico=_-- 2 == 131
Masks— NEGROES, influence on, of Indian cul-
shells. - st 22 248 22¢232_45 S82 235 ture)—+=2 22-3 eee eee 12
stone ____ 183, 184-185 | Nepotos, a nation of Trinidad 64
Mason, J. A., excavations made by__ 170 | NeuMANN, Fettx, editorial work of_ 25
Mason, Otts T.— NEVIS, ISLAND OF—
Guesde collection deseribed by_ 129, archeology (of2=—==2se es 158
1387-156 number of specimens from_____ 49
on form of stone collars______~ 207 perforated stone from_______~~ 125
MAYA HIEROGLYPHS, work on, by Mr. torso) ‘front=— > 11
Morley22yas5- 5228 sie Se 23 | New PROVIDENCE, number of speci-
MEDICINE Crow, portrait made of__ 28 Ineng. from oS See ee 50
MENzIES, Mr., acknowledgment to__ 66 | New York ACADEMY OF SCIPNCE,
MERINO COLLECTION, mention of__-~ 227 archeological work of. o1
MICHELSON, TRUMAN— NewsamM, A., mention of 68
Paper: by, .8s2 Sots oe Ela dans 25 | NicHOoLs, Dr., collection loaned by__~ 124
work. of}=—~-=5s2—. 2 Sede 15-17 | Nripp Bay, objects from______ 251, 254, 255
MIpDDENS— NODULES) STOND: 22S 254 = eee 184-186
Argyletix: a isinis i See ae 92 | NorrH Carcos, number of specimens
Oberland ):>- 2 Sees eee uy fromes ost oS see eee 50
of ‘Barbados _.=2) 523222222 81-82 | OBERLAND MIDDEN -_-------------_ 92
of St. ‘Kitts: 3.552232" S- ees 159 | Ogia MBN, influence of_____------- 12
of St. Vincent — ~ 91-92 | OMaHA INDIANS, gaming dice of,
Salt Riverai240252 See 22S 167 presented to the Bureau____--___ 30
See Mounds, Shell heaps. ORNAMENTS >= — Se bate _. 230-232
MILLS BPSTATE, specimen from______ 164 of gold__ 230, 265
MInDoRO ISLAND, photographs of na- of ‘shellla_=3 > s=- =. “ee eeeee= 163, 232
fives of. = =-- =<. - Jas eee 29 See Beads, Caracolis, Neck-
MONKEY HEAD of clay--------__--- 68 laces, Pendants,

INDEX 279
OSAGE INDIANS— Page. | PorTERY— Page
specimens collected from_----- 30 ere) Of 3.22222 eee) 261
studied by Mr, La Flesche___-- 18-20 as an indication of an agricul-
visit of, to Washington____--- 28 inrallpeaplesse ees Seeks 77
PacET, JoHN, mention of___------- 80 culture areas indicated by __--__~ 259
Pane, RAMoy, account by, of mak- excavated in Trinidad_____-_~_ 9
Ing ZeW Se ea 208 fragments of, from Porto Rico 131
PANELS of stone collars____--~-- 193-196 from), Barbados 3s5— ee 86
PASSAMAQUODDY INDIANS, visit of, to from Cuba, character of_______ 252
Washington __----------- alee 28 from Greater Antilles, affinities
PrccaryY, HEAD oF, in clay--------- 121 Of 223624555 aS sa ee 261
PERFORATED STONDS ~~---------- 148-149 from Greater Antilles, compari-
PUONDANIS = 22 22-2 5 = ae ace 114 SON) Of)=2--22+ 24 a4Se3== 259, 260
found in St. Vincent area___ 122-123 from Greater and Lesser Antilles
ee ee 75 compared #2228 _— ee ee 260
232-233 from Lesser Antilles, affinities
PEPPER, GEORGE H., quoted on speci- Of = so See = eer 261
mens from St. Vincent___------~- 116 from Porto Rican area___~~ 236-240
PERFORATED STONES —----------- 148-149 fromest Wkitts2- 22522 163-165, 260
PHSTLES— from St. Vincent area____-_ 118-122
comparison of, from different from Trinidad_-____ 60, 67-74, 75, 76
HORS pee ae ee ae a 263 glazing jof-=-—-— = 68
found in Lesser Antilles___~-~~ 228 of Porto Rico 172
from Guadeloupe_-—~-~-- 134, 154-158 Porto Rican, characteristics of_ 58
from St. Vincent region_-_-~ 112-113 Porto Rican, quality of-_---__ 169
from. /Drinidad),.-5- = -- 5 74-75 Stone Age, of Old and New
of the Porto Rico area__ 220, 226-229 Worlds compared__—__----_- 54
Variations: Of. 2-9 ee 14 Maia ie eee ne 261

See Grinders, Mortars.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF INDIANS—

exhibition 0f-2-—=—---——— = 28

TOQUESIN MOY —= = ee eee 28
PIcTOGRAPHS—

of Guadeloupe.__------~-.----- 130

Di SU es tise ee ee 160

OfList..vincent ==2- 3 ee 92, 130

PIEDRAS. DBL RAYO ~_---_---- 175-176, 251

PILP DWELLINGS OF ‘CUBA 253
IPIDGARUSTONDS === ee 161
Prnart, A., collection made by_---- 167
PINART DBLBOW STONE_—---~-----—~ 206
PLACE NAMES, INDIAN—
iniUtrinidad=== =e 65
OCCURTCUCE Ot = an 62
PLANA Cayo, number of specimens
i) a a a 50
PLANOS, Enrique GoMnz, work of,
SOTHO) Sr ee ee 248
PLentTy Coups, portrait made of___ 28
Pory, ANDRES, on Cuban antiqui-
ties Se ee at el 181, 244
POMEROON DISTRICT OF BRITISH
GUIANA, excavations in______--__ 76-77
Ponca INDIANS, visit of, to Wash-
ington} 2s Ss he 28
POPULATION, INDIAN, work of James
Mooney “O05 ee ee 13
Porro Rico—
absence of,axes!in=2. —-— 131

culture area_____

excavations in 5
highest culture developed in___ 169
Latimer collection from_---___ 131

POTTERY RESTS 70, 86, 120, 121
POTTERY STAMPS. See STAMPS.
PRAGUB, West Indian objects in mu-
peumate+ 4-43. Seen ee 50, 234
149-152,
154, 220, 227, 229
from St. Vincent-__ 110-111, 115-118

Of! (bOneZ a2 25S ate 234
PROPERTY OF THE BUREAU______-~ 30
PROVIDENCE, number of specimens

from ==. 2223-838 aces ae 50
PUBLICATIONS—

correspondence relating to __-~ 27

d@?-tribution: wofi-2ee- 3-22-41 Js 27
PUEBLO INDIANS, preparation of bib-

ography ‘of=-= === 2—=== 2a: 7-8
PULLPY, STONE, in Guesde collection_ 152
Quoits, played by Caribs__ 23 136
Rag, C. S., celt owned by__-------- 177
RacGep ISLAND, number of speci-

TOeENS) LOM eo! ee oe ae oe ee 50
RALEIGH, Str WALTmHR, races of Trini-

dad enumerated by ---~---~ = 64
Rep CLovup, portrait made of__ = 28
Rep Hawk, portrait made of___--_ 28
RED WILLow, Neer., fragments of

pottery. ‘from=+——="=— === =-4_= 30
REPTILES, HEADS OF, in pottery____ 69, T6

RINGS, STONE—

in Connell collection__~—~__ 161-162

in Dehesa collection_-___-_---~- 169

in Guesde collection__ 152

in) Heye‘collection=—_ = =e 149
ROBBINS, WILFRED WILLIAM, col-

TAD OLEIEO Ree eee 23, 26, 27
Ropinson, Str W., mention of___-- 68
RODRIGUHZ-FERRBR, MIGuEL—

MeNHOR) (Ole soe meee es er 247

280 INDEX
Page. Page.

RODRIGUEZ-FERRER, MigueL—Continued. SENECA TEXTS, edited by Mr. Hewitt_ 17
paper: read iby = 2S ease 246 | SERPENT, GRPAT, story of________ 127-128
specimen figured by_-----_-~ 245, 250 | SeRPeENT Gop of the Antilleans____ 264-265
specimen found by__-_-_______ 181.| SHARK, HEAD OF, as handle of

Rote, WALTER BH.— vessel: itu) eee 73-74, 86
paper (by2222) 2s". Sx eee 26 SHELL, OBJECTS OF—
specimens collected by_-___-___ 30 cone-shaped=—==232222=2.—==— 86

ROYAL, number of specimens from__ 50 disks 2+ 3223S ee 86

Sapa, number of specimens from____ 49 from ‘Barbadosi==—=—--—- == 86

SACRED PACKS OF Fox INDIANS— fromuSt. Karts) =3" ee 162-163
acquired for National Museum__ 16 froms St. .vincent=—-2 === 123
purchased by Dr. Michelson____ 30 implements|2="==—= === = 78, 79, 80

SACRIFICIAL KNIVBS__~-----_-_-- 107-108 Mask 2425246— mad 235

St. CHrisToPpHER. See St. Kitts. > pottery: ‘stamps====2===- === 86

Sr. Crorx— teeth: => 22272 < 22 2--i eee 235
aborizines| of ==—2-—— = s==—= 166-167 | SHELL-HEAP PROPLE—
artifacts) from =2es- 2h == 168 Customs x0f = ee ee 16-57
eulture of, like that of Porto probably cave dwellers____-_-~ 57

Rico .22=-2222—-525-0---22-28 168 | SHELL-HEAPS—
geology of == 22 22-2 ee 166) — > “excaivations inl=2_="-- eee 9, 62
Specimens, from === - =e 166-168 | °- of British Guiana_—---—--=""- 76

Sr. Kirts— eeu Lr (its by (ak
archeological work in__~ ALhe 11 on eastern coast of Trinidad___ 66
archeology. ofs2o- ese 158-166 See Middens, Mounds.
number of specimens from_____ 49 SHIELDS, used by natives of Trini-
pottery: of ==. 3S eee 260 G Fs | eee Ee eS 65

Sr. THomas— SHOSHONI INDIANS, visit of, to
number of specimens from____~ 49 Washingeton.=-— 22 eee 28
pestle. from==—_a-—_ see = 227 | StouaN music, study of, by Miss

St. VINCENT— Densthore) 2s es es 21-22
number of specimens from_—__~ 49 | Sioux InprANS, visit of, to Wash-
pottery (of==--== 2) 118-122 | ington)s-=2=* 22 eo eee 28
specimens from —____ _-- 90-91 | SIUSLAW LANGUAGE, grammar of, by
visit to shell heaps of____-__ 10 Dr. Frachtenberg__-__~- 21

St. VINCENT—GRENADA CULTURE Sky Gop, worship of. 128

ARIA == 2 n= eh ED eS 88-125 | SuavucHTeER, Mrs. EvLua, work of____- 29

SALIVAS, a nation of Trinidad_____ 64 | SouFRIERE VOLCANO—

SabvaGay, a nation of Trinidad____ 64 | eruption yof=2- =. *>S22 ee- so 91, 92

San Juan INDIANS, visit of, to Wash- | mention (of -=2-—- oe eee 110

ington] = 2+ SS oe eee 28 | SquiRREL, whistle in shape of______ 68

Santa CLARA INDIANS, visit of, to | STaHL, AuGUSTIN, archeological work

Washington-==2 [382222 -—3s 28 Of 22222 2252 228 2 See eee 170

Santa Croz— STamps—
collection gathered at--_---~--- 12 Clay) See soe Son eee 74, 123, 235
number of specimens from 49 shel sts e_ ee re eee 86

Santa Lucta— STATUES, MONOLITHIC, mentioned by
artifacts) from\=—==— sae ae 93 Brinitonyess a ee ee 246
celts and axes from 131 | StmnHousE, WALTHER J., work of_—--— 28
number of specimens from————~ 49 | Srpvpnson, Mrs. M. C.—

Santo DomiInco— paper) by = ee 26
eelt froms—222=22 == = 131 WODKS Of ite a ee 14-15
number of specimens from—-—-~ 49 | STILLWELL, Miss MarcGarer B.,

SAoNA, number of specimens from__ 49 transcription of manuscript by_-~ 24

SAVILLE, MAarsHALL H.— Srongp Ac, in Old and New Worlds_ 53
acknowledgment to _--_------- 188 | Sronp Fort, midden at_____---___ 159
photographs obtained by 50,189 | STONES, INCISED AND PERFORATED 148-149

ScHOMBURGK, Str ROBERT, mention STONES, PROBLEMATICAL_____-___ 149-152

Of. -- S22 525-23 eee 80 See Problematical objects.
ScHOoL oF AMERICAN ARCH OLOGY, STONEWORK—
investigations conducted by—----~ 23 of Central America__—-------_- 58

SHATS, STONE. 2222 eee 223-226 of Mexicosa seer see 58
not found in Lesser Antilles_—- 60 of the Greater Antilles____-___ 58

Servo, SENor, specimens purchased Srrupe, Lrorpotp B., stone collar

froms: =. ee eee 50-221 Owned "By = 2a 189, 193

SEMICIRCULAR STONES__-~--------- 187 | Srupss, midden at 91-92

INDEX 281
Page. Page.
SuLcus, an important feature of U. S. BoarD ON GBOGRAPHIC NAMES,
elbow stones_—_~—=—- === 209 Smithsonian Institution repre-
SWALLOW STICK of bone_--- 235 NENG Onin =e Same ean Sa ea 8
SWANTON, JOHN R., work of_--- 13-14, 26 | U. S. Nationan MuspuM—
TAINAN CULTURE— collection presented to, by Miss
of Porto, Rite=——-— =e 3) Gouldo2= 2328222 216
ODIPI DS Of eee ee 252 elbow stone. win====— == 202
submerged by Carib-------~- 267, 268 engraved celt in=---=-—.-==-- = 178
See Agricultural epoch, Arawak. Latimer collection in ___--__~_ 131
Taos INDIANS, visit of, to Washing- UNIVERSITY OF HAVANA MUSEUM, en-
tone ee ee 28 eravedn cell insen==- 2 a= 179
TATTOOING in the Antilles__----- 230,232 | Urpnsits. See BowLs, GnrivpLes,
TAYLOR COLLECTION, Mention of_ 11, 81, 86 GRINDERS, IMPLEMENTS, Mor-
Trwa INDIANS— TARS, PESTLYS, POTTHRY, SEATS,
TRIDEES OMe oe 26, 27 TOOLS.
researches among, by Mrs. Ste- VASES—
MEUSOQ =a ee oe 14 from Guadeloupe_---~--~---~~ 135
study of, by Mr. Harrington__~_ 23 from’ ‘Trinidad’=—~- =.= —=——=—= 68-69
THREE-POINTED STONES— VicroriA INSTITUTE, pottery in_-__ 68
areas differentiated by _----__- 263 | VIENNA MuspuM, West Indian ob-
dMishributon Of === oe 199 jects im -____------------------ 50
not found in Lesser Antilles 60 | VON bDEN Steryen, Mnr., illustra-
Di tourtypes =e eos se ae 211-220 tions made by ~---------_---- 128, 137
theories concerning use of___ 263-265 | WaLcorr, Dr. CHas. D.—
used for pestle________-_--___ 220 letter of transmittal to_-_____ 2
where found... ete be Te SDeGt report of FP. W. Hodge to_____- 5-32
ReeZemis: Weapons. See Cassm-TRTES, Dirks,
THUNDER BOLTS OR THUNDER STONES— 179, SHIELDS.
951 | WEISSENBORN, Dr, JOHANNES, ac-
TIMUCUA LANGUAGR, work on, by knowledgment to----_--__--_-~ 189, 190
Dretwantone eee 44 | West Carcos, number of specimens
ToBago— HMO So ee ee See See Se 50
antifactavvl<- =<. 7s | West Farm, midden on_-_--______ 159
grinding stone from__________ j25 | West INDIANS, condition of, at time
number of specimens from_ 49 of Discovery_-~—-------__-_-- 53
Toots. See IMPLEMENTS, UTENSILS. West InDIES—
TorroLa, number of specimens from_ 49 geological divisions of ~- 59
TREE WoRSHIP in the Antilles______ 208 visit of Dr. Fewkes to --_---~- 8
Tings Bee INDIANS, visit of, to
archeological work in--~~~~-~- 9 ia cept Pima Aer Te a zie
RA cota i. ay aa ace 62-78 LEIS) BalLey, collaborator baths Sb 26
iesumiiion alc ls oe ee 63 WINGFIELD ESTATE, midden on_____ 159
alge eae ie <2 WINSHIP, GEORGE PARKER, acknowl-
named by Columbus ~~ 63
Neh Ves Ol ates ee ee we 638-65 edgment to-———=--—-—=-------~- 24
= Wnricat, F. E., collaborator________ 26
number of specimens from___~~— 49 VAIOR. A Ration of Tvidad 64
objects from, compared with as 5 Aree Sead Ea SCL CS ae len ea
etait =) ce ee i Stake a 75-77 ee ee oF THH TOTONACS, ye
S rea U Kel COP net me i}!
DOLLCR Ys Oa eee 60, 67-T4 Ais
TROCADERO Museum— cassava bread prepared from___ 57
specimen) im ——————————=-——--- 213 CHitivations ores ee ee en 57-58
stone collar in_-__---_-----__ 195 West Indian culture based on__ 264
TSIMSHIAN MYTHOLOGY, paper on__ 26 Yuca Spirit, idol of-_-___----__ 208-209
TuFA, VOLCANIC, objects made Yucayu—
from__~~-~--~~-~--~--------- 115-118 name of Yuca Spirit-_________ 209
TurTLE— thesereat: Skyy pod—==—----=- == 264
effigies 2 — —. = = 2a ee 68, 70, 72-73 | Zemis—
NEGROS 7 Glay: = soe eee 121 as a totemic symbol__________
stone, in Montané’s collection__ 249 earried by medicine men_____~—
wooden, from Battowia ___--__ 89 found. in) ispaniola.==— = ===
wooden, from St. Vineent__ 249 tri-pointed, characteristic of

Two Moons, portrait made of____-_ 28
Unton ISLAND, number of specimens

160658 °—34 rTH—22

Greater Antilles__-
See Three-pointed stones.
ZuNt INDIANS, paper on__--~_--~-_

NL

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