patie th a ? Ye Ut Brel an 1 be i . y me 1) i " . Reet adie es dye phn ; z Sen \ he 3 os atest R ; irra Rr 0 hs to siths Aran faa Woe tic sit ich RAUL ane ; nay +) poiketeres ey ra rerey ks " sehr o Rhee abet ft Forty-sixth Annual Report of the BUREAU OF AMERICAN Dae | ETHNOLOGY a Rec - Oe 5 ipot - ae. 7 1928-1929 § $04 \ 1930 *}] os TONAL 2 user SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WASHINGTON Dy. C: FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TO THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1928-1929 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1930 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - - - Price $1.90 (Paper cover am, — = () Tago an OF 1 TA ! (9 2 aAUTAY A | JASE IOV TEE ane he | 2 ae wy , ' . RH" ee & oe Ts bh bi oe (U i Tol ~ ge o 17 a - 2 ; ce : oe MAIO? TIME " BOQ] we wy (HADEN y w LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, BuReEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D. C., September 15, 1929. Si: I have the honor to submit herewith the Forty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1929. With appreciation of your aid in the work under my charge, I am Very respectfully yours, M. W. STIRLING, Chief. Dr. C. G. ABBor, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. ut ia - a ¥ ; LATTIMAAANE AG hie : ee ‘ MoryTreeal 1 AOR Ee '¢ LOOT TL RE On eee J REEL Bt vader aS AD opiate Vt : - al rhe 'L ah itive at tiveredire Od sirod 4} ovale Tot vaplostit casita ty yerene oft Yo negra . Reer OC soy habns tes. Te ver wba Arow off of bia toy ae neiaby vaca 1A ite Le sivog Vfiiigsgest ior ft [ 4 47 mi \5i 1) : Toms, . » Bo oa , WON lool aphagoa Rem, ol} Ae Rewer a 44 ‘ ' ‘2 i 5 } A T r3 b * i? oat ae ¥ CONTENTS REPORT OF THE CHIEF Page MVALCIIAnIC ROSCARDNGH S05) So sco eo eee eee eee eae 1 Bpeulairencarches= sone 2 Sed. Se ko ee i ee il HMiditonal work ang pubhcestions: 2.) ~~ 2222552. 22. cee 13 PINGS Urea GIQNA= = Sea ae eR sk So oe Soe eee occu sees eeeeee 14 TARY Sane ete es oe he eee neh so eet oe sce eo eae ee 15 POUECWIOUSS Hane ase a ees ohne ae acne eet ee Sonn ccoeende 15 PRO DELU Yee oe ete oe eae i ae te ne aan wee Neen er sess 16 Miscellaneous®=.22----22- 2: 2 3S. San sa Se ee eee ane ssees 16 ACCOMPANYING PAPERS Anthropological Survey in Alaska, by AleS Hrdlitka_________---_------ 19 Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, by Edwin T. Denig, edited by PN Ms MEOWIU SS. ooo HSS ee co tele Ce aoe eo So 375 EMPL OD i), Me ao HOTA —¢2 2 6 < ee ee i ee eee Cavern aee ° os ee ee Sc CRESTSE Sade A42TAT- OV FY AAT MBODA SASHOTH folk qe adnal nik eae td hatibe pinigth = pintar hain ee bist lied bw REPORT OF THE CHIEF FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY M. W. Srieurne, Chief The operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1929, were conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved May 16, 1928, making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Government, which act contains the following item: American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees, the prepara- tion of manuscripts, drawings, and illustrations, the purchase of books and periodicals, and traveling expenses, $60,300. Mr. M. W. Stirling entered upon his duties as chief of the bureau August 1, 1928, succeeding Dr. J. Walter. Fewkes, who retired January 15, 1928. SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES During the months of September and October Mr. Stir- ling worked with a group of Acoma Indians who were visiting Washington and secured from them in as com- plete form as possible the origin and migration myth of that very conservative tribe. This myth not only de- scribes the emergence of the first human beings from the underworld but also explains the origin and functions of the pantheon of demigods and heroes connected with the legend. The myth likewise explains the origin and function of the clans and the medicine societies and the 1 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY reason for the many ceremonies practiced. In connec- tion with this work phonographic records were made of 66 songs, many of which have been transcribed by Miss Frances Densmore, as described in her report. This in- formation fills an important gap in our knowledge of the oldest inhabited pueblo in the United States. Mr. Stirling spent the months of March and April in Florida, where a survey was made of the mounds in the vicinity of Tampa Bay. An interesting discovery was made of a series of mounds composed of mixed sand and shell, constructed at a distance of about 4 miles inland, parallel to the shore, and in each instance directly back of a large shell mound located on the salt water. Pre- liminary excavations were made at Cockroach Point, Palma Sola, and Safety Harbor. The shell mound at Cockroach Point is the largest on the west coast of Florida and is composed entirely of shell and bone, refuse from the meals of the Indians who formerly occupied the site. Collections of shells and bones were made in the different levels of the mound, together with human artifacts asso- ciated with them, with a view to establishing a culture sequence. The site at Safety Harbor was determined to be of the same culture as that excavated at Weeden Island during the winters of 1923 and 1924. The large sand mound at Palma Sola proved to be of exceptional interest and was selected as a site for intensive excavation next winter. During the latter part of April Mr. Stirling visited Chi- cago for the purpose of delivering lectures before the Geo- graphic Society of Chicago and the anthropologists of Chi- cago and vicinity. From Chicago he went to Memphis, Tenn., where he attended the meeting of the Tennessee Academy of Sciences and addressed the society at their annual banquet. Proceeding from Memphis to Macon, Ga., he visited the large mounds on the site of Old Oemul- gee Town, traditional founding place of the Creek Con- federacy, ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 3 During the third week in May Mr. Stirling attended the conference of Mid-Western Archeologists, which was held at St. Louis under the auspices of the National Research Council, and as representative of this body went to Mont- gomery, Ala., to deliver an address at the unveiling of a monument by the Alabama Anthropological Society on the site of old Tukabatchi. He also attended the meeting of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science in New York in December, 1928, as representative of the United States Government. Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was engaged during the year in completing the proof reading of his bulletin on the Myths and Tales of the Southeast, which has been re- leased for publication. Considerable material was added to his manuscript pa- per entitled ‘‘ Source Material for Choctaw Ethnology.”’ Part of this was collected from the archives of the State Department of Archives and History at Jackson, Miss., and some from the eastern Choctaw at Philadelphia, Miss., in July, 1928. Also, a great deal more work was devoted to the projected tribal map of aboriginal North America north of Mexico and to the accompanying text, including the incorporation df some valuable notes furnished by Mr. Diamond Jenness, chief of the division of anthropology of the Geological Survey of Canada. Work was continued throughout the year on the Timu- cua dictionary which, in spite of the elimination of a large number of cards on account of closer classification and the correction of errors, still fills 14 trays. Shortly after July, 1928, Dr. Truman Michelson, eth- nologist, left Washington to renew his research among the Algonquian tribes of Oklahoma. He first studied the linguistics, sociology, and physical anthropology of the Kickapoo. Kickapoo in certain respects is very impor- tant linguistically. While working on Arapaho he was able to formulate many phonetic shifts of complexity. Even so, the amount of vocabulary that can be proved to 4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY be Algonquian is very small. The grammatical structure is, however, fundamentally Algonquian. It is also true that there are a few traits which are distinctly un-Algon- quian ; for example, the order of words. The first week in August Doctor Michelson went to Tama, Iowa, to renew his work among the Foxes. He there restored phonetically some texts previously obtained in the current syllabic script and worked out some transla- tions. He also obtained some grammatical notes on these texts. Some new Fox syllabic texts were collected and new and important ethnological data were obtained. Doctor Michelson returned to Washington in Septem- ber. He corrected proofs of Bulletin 89, Observations on the Thunder Dance of the Bear Gens of the Fox Indians, and prepared for publication by the bureau a memoir entitled ‘‘ Notes on the Great Sacred Pack of the Thunder Gens of the Fox Indians.’’ Early in June Doctor Michel- son left for Oklahoma, where he obtained more Kickapoo linguistic notes, further elucidating the relation of Kicka- poo to Fox. From this it appears that Kickapoo diverges more widely in idiom than hithereto suspected. He also secured some Kickapoo texts in the current syllabic script and obtained new data on social organization. Some brief Shawnee linguistic notes were collected. These show that while Shawnee is in certain respects very important for a correct understanding of Fox phonology, as a whole it is not as archaic. It is also now clear that Shawnee is further removed from Sauk and Kickapoo than he had previously surmised. Doctor Michelson witnessed several Kickapoo dances and attended a Shawnee ball game. In June, 1929, Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, completed his report on the Taos Indians, who inhabit a large pueblo on an eastern affluent of the Rio Grande in north-central New Mexico. These are the northernmost of the New Mexico Pueblo Indians and are peculiarly in- teresting because of the long intimate relations they have had with the Jicarilla Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and other tribes of Great Plains culture. During the period ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 5 of Spanish domination in New Mexico the Taos had to play the double and difficult réle, because of their frontier position, of persuading the Spanish that they were really on their side, and the Plains Indians that they were really on theirs. The relations with the Plains Indians existed far back in Taos history and amounted at times to the incorporation of large bodies of these Indians in the blood which went to make up the present-day Taos. And there is still more remote and fundamental connection with one group of Plains Indians, namely the Kiowa. The Taos language, which was the language of one of the ancient groups which contributed to the composition of Taos, has been determined to be a dialect of Kiowa, which seems to indicate that this contingent of the Taos population at least, like the Kiowas themselves, once lived in the north- ern region of the Rocky Mountains, probably in what is now Canada. Grasping still another opportunity to check the old and new information on this region, studies on the related Karuk Indians of the central Klamath River region of California were resumed during field work on the coast and were continued throughout the year, resulting in an accumulation of carefully analyzed material, a large part of which is now ready for publication. The work consists of many divisions of information, including the grammar of the language, its sounds, its peculiar musical intona- tions, and the system of long and short consonants and vowels; the history of the tribe, which remained intact and unspoiled up to 1850; the census, with the peculiar old personal names; the villages, which were strung out along the river and its tributary creeks; the construction of the living houses and sweat houses, and the description of all the manufactures, and the process of making the objects, all in Indian; the social life, an organization without chiefs; the great festivals and the various dances; feuds, wars, and peace making ; sucking and herb doctors, and the sources of their power; medicine formulas and myths, all in the language, for any other record of them would be 6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY inadequate. This information is accompanied by photo- graphs and phonograph records and is rapidly approach- ing completion for publication as a report of the bureau. Early in June Mr. Harrington went to Chaco Canyon, N. Mex., for the purpose of making further study of the Pueblo Indian languages, notably the relation of Zuni and Keresan to the newly discovered Kiowan family. Coop- erating with students at the University of New Mexico attending the university summer school being held at Chaco Canyon under the joint auspices of the State Uni- versity and the School of American Research, a minute comparison was made of the Taos and Zuni languages, re- sulting in the discovery of the genetic relationship of these two languages, a relationship which can be traced through hundreds of words of similar sound and identical con- struction, which was long ago hinted at by the discovery of such words as lana, big, and papa, older brother, which are the same in sound and meaning in both languages. About 200 kymograph tracings were made. Similar gen- etically related words and features were also discovered in the Keresan language. Cooperating in this work were Miss Sara Godard, Miss Clara Leibold, Miss Anna Ris- ser, Miss Janet Tietjens, Miss Winifred Stamm, Mr. Regi- nald Fisher, and several other students. The results are ready for publication, including the kymographie alpha- bet, which is mounted and ready for the engraver. The months of July and August, 1928, were spent by Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, jr., archeologist, in completing archeological investigations along the Piedra River in southwestern Colorado. During that time the remains of 50 houses belonging to the first period of the prehistoric Pueblo peoples were excavated and examined. As a re- sult of these researches it was possible to determine a three-stage chronological development of the house types in the district as well as to postulate very definite recon- structions of the dwellings. An additional discovery was that in the arrangement of the structures the builders had developed the prototype of the unit house which was the ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 7 characteristic building of the following stage, the Pueblo II period. Besides the work in house remains, a number of burial mounds were explored and many skeletons and objects of the material culture of the people were obtained. The latter include a large number and variety of pottery specimens, many of which represent an entirely new fea- ture in the ceramic industry, bone and stone implements, and ornaments. The work as a whole gives a clear-cut picture of the life and conditions prevailing at a time of instability and disturbance due to an influx of new peoples, with its attendant cultural transition. On the completion of the work along the Piedra River one week was spent in a reconnaissance of the Governador district in northern New Mexico. The Governador region includes the Governador, Burns, La Jara, and Frances Canyons. The latter are of special archeological and ethnological interest, because it was to that section that a large group of the Pueblo Indians from the Jemez vil- lages fled after they had been disastrously defeated in the Battle of San Diego Canyon during the month of June, 1696, by Spanish forces engaged in the reconquest of the Southwest. The ruins of the dwellings built by the refugees are in a good state of preservation and furnish excellent information on the methods and styles of house building prevalent at that time. At the close of the Gov- ernador explorations Doctor Roberts returned to Wash- ington, reaching there the middle of September. During the autumn illustrations were prepared to ac- company a manuscript entitled ‘‘Recent Archeological Developments in the Vicinity of El Paso, Tex.,’’ which was published in January, 1929, as volume 81, No. 7, of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Proof of another paper entitled ‘‘Shabik’eshchee Village, a Late Basket Maker Site in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico,’’ was corrected, and this appeared in June, 1929, as Bulle- tin 92 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Considerable time was spent in the laboratory of the division of American archeology of the United States Na- 8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY tional Museum in working over the collection made during the excavations along the Piedra River. = tan ye sn ss sree ee ee 144 ICIS DONE CULT te eee eee eat ers foe eee ar eee TS eae 144 eT OULEL eee eee ee ae ere ee ee ee 146 Die Makan prooved Stone AZ ou. asso soe oe eee eee 147 22 CONTENTS Page Anthropologyjomthe alkOnw == == a= = ee 150 The living Indians -Soss2 22 hse ee 150 Pure: bloods === = a ee ee eee 150 General types. =~ =< s eyen asec = Sos ses sce seca obo sae 151 Color#sse aoe ee 2 ae eee ke ee ee eee 151 Staturetandistrength!. -=-- 225222222 asso ee ee 151 Headkiormee.2-<—-- 36.25 ee ee ee 151 BOG eee ee ae ee 151 IPHOLOPTADUSS == 2= = 5-55-2552 — 6 = ee ees 151 Skeletaliremains' ofthe: Yukon-2= 2-5 = os ee ee eee 151 Detailed measurements of skulls_____--__-__----____-=__=..- 152 Tower middle Yukon Indian crania=s—2=222-2 2-7 eee 153 Skeletallparts’=-=.<-.-=.-2 = = oe es 156 Skeletal remains from the bank at Bonasila___-._____-________-_-- 156 - atbe.crania.=s = 2. 2a se oe ee ee eee 157 Additional parts... >. =-2==-=s222-<5<2-- = 8 Se ee 159 Mhe Yukon ‘Wskimo - --- 225. 5222o25-2 5-4 eee eee ae eee 161 WRheMiving 22=- - == =—— —- == = ee 171 Sites‘end' villages: 25 -22- a5) oes = ee ee eee 176 Burial grounds: - .2=5=s2-.- 55-6 == ee te ee ee eee 183 Prince William Sound, Kodiak Island, Alaska Peninsula_----------_ 184 Kodiak Island ‘and neighborhood 22=— ==) == = so =e ee 184 ‘Alaska ‘Peninsula®.2-2.- 25 25 2 pes ae ee 186 Bristol (Bay to Cape Romanzol= = 22252222 oe 190 Cape Romanzof to Northern (Apoon) Pass of the Yukon and north- Wardle 22 i202 le coed a ee ee 195 St.Michael! Jsland!=_: 2-222. ©2250 Ss =e ee 195 Norton Sound = =_ =. -pep 207s 0k ee ek 195 South shore of Seward Peninsula west of Bluff____---------------- 196 Scammon Bay, Norton Sound, south coast of Seward Peninsula, to @apeiRodney ss =.= foe 6 be oe ee a 198 The northern shore of the Seward Peninsula__-___-------------_-- 202 Kotzebue Sound, its rivers and its coast northward to Kevalina______ 204 Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and northward__-------------- 204 Kevalina—Point) Barrow-=-=-==-22=~ =--2 25-65 eee 205 Point sHopex(Tigara) |. -.---. 2222 325 eae 205 Point Hopeltoy Point (Barrowe-- = aoe os nee 206 Barrowsend! Point (Barrow-- =.=. 222 ee 206 The St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands__.-....--~.----------+---- 209 St: dbawrence: Island. 22 < 2. 209 The Diomede Islands and the Asiatic coast.____._------------ 210 Physicalianthropoloey.=2 2-- = 4. 2. 2-2 ee eee 213 Harlien data. 28 ee 20 Se ge Se ee eee 213 Older anthropometric data on the western Eskimo____-_---------- 228 Stature and other measurements on the living___-_------------ 228 The skulls 3. eos. 2 oe eg ee Oe oe oe SO 231 CONTENTS 23 ’ Physical anthropology—Continued. Page Present data on: the western. Bskimo so". 2 252.222 2222 2 e222 Le 238 (Dhejliving <3!) 262. Renee see Pee SOUT e NS Ee Sessa cle 238 Measurements of living western Eskimo-_-_-_-_---__------------ 238 Statiress=s 2. 552 see See ES ee EP eee ee 238 Heiphtisitting sea sesso sca Sao ee roe ee ass 239 ATM SPAN a. 5 222k =a ee ee ee eee eee ee 239 ple hesd) > S65 sas Ss ee sa Ee a 239 fhnedorehead 2. -— See See + Se a ae a a 240 Mbhetfaceti tenis’) sie. od Meee ee ese LOY 2a 241 Bowe: facial \bresdthuss29]. 352 eee ee ee iS 242 ‘Memose 5. 7 2=+ Sees Se Bile i Pe eer ese 242 he wmotthaes: oi -Ssss 52 3s esses 23 SE. 243 WheyesTsLS 526s. ae se SSS ee ee eee 243, Mie chestose. 2225 -. Je a eS 244 bbe band: 3.) sts eo ee ee ee = = 245 he: foots3 i245. 5.242 32 SE ee eee 246 Ginthisfithercaliese bec bo) sae sere - 246 Phypiolopicallabsenvations 5335 s2cs. 5 24S eee 247 Summary of observations on the living western Eskimo_-___-_ ~~~ ~~ 249 TRS TrT a Se Sah oh ie gh ee 250 Present data on the skull and other skeletal remains of the western PSIG Re tee ee eee Se Re ES ee ee ee See 254 Pera AT 2 eS ae oo ee 254 Siillsizesee 25 Sen Sone Stee plebbes st. J El. ae ee 255 WModtlerandecanaciiy <> =e Siew suet. _ >. eee 258 Additional remarks on cranial module_-_-_-------------------- 258 Dkulléshape eeemee eee et eee ts. eee ee 258 Heightfoteiherskulle reset SHCA Sera the hey oe 261 GLE. eas ahs ee BE ee es eee 263 Aeneas: Baws Seale ee ee ee Bee Sete eat ee 267 MRD EXORD ICS ae ee eee SE Sealine See te 8 Se 270 sbhempperslvedlariaxch=2.. = 2 kes 4s Sone ek ke SORES 275 The basion-nasion diameter_-_-__-__--------- 262 3 eS 3. AS 277 (Prop rad bisa eee Ste a tes Sep a es ee. SU 282 MichhsiGieriGkimo;cHUdnenease= oo an coe ee ee ee ee 294 GranigioPakimoe hl dren aits eet ee Eo Gee 295 Southwestern and midwestern Eskimo-__-------_-------------- 295 Principal cranial indices in children compared with those in MOILtE ee et. SGA eS Os See oes Se Be. 8 ee es 297 NC OWEI MAW ss Soe can oe we ee eS ea ee ae eee ene AS 299 DUreleh br Omules awe = ee eee eee Fer oe 301 BTARC DOM He earnilo sas. <-ee ae eee ee ee Bet es 303 (Otley Git ates Lae eee eee ee oS ee ee ee 303 VSG: AVS Set Oe ee ee ee a ne tend ater ae 305 RGAE G eee See eee es Dees SBS ee eS a ee. Fed 306 Winrrashinlar hy perostoseshes5.- 85! ane eee a 2 ot 306 Wisinmerererences== "ese Pee SS ge a Shee * ee ee tt 310 Skpletalspartsiotier thanibhe skulle. oss on. Soke 2 ek es ek 313 SHER OM id ONES Meee han. 2 eer ee ee aed 314 Womparativerdavanrms - etek. < oo soe ee Pee a Lae 315 Long bonesiineskimorand sfature. +. 22s2s-- 22-22-6542 -2s-Ss2=-5 316 Length of principal long bones, and stature in the living, on the St. LEE! ts |e ee = oe ee Se eee 317 Long bones vs, stature in Eskimo of Smith Sound__---.----------- 317 24 CONTENTS A strange group of Eskimo near Point Barrow__---------------------- Anthropological observations and measurements on the collections__ Physical characteristics Orxigin-andjantiquityjof the iskimo. =-2=-=—-- = = ee Originvofiithemame*Hskimo”’. <--> ee er Opinions by former and living students________-__----_--________ OriginvinvAsiae = \.- - 3) eo eee eae ee ee OnigintinvAmerica: —.-=~. == ee Origin in Europe—lIdentity with Upper Palaeolithic man _-_---- Othershypothesés >= 2. - .~. 2. = eet es ee Theories as to the origin of the Eskimo---_--__-_._--------------- IABSIAUICS= 22 =~ 22 3 - See SS a ee ee eee (American: - = == 25 23552555545 oe ee eee Muropean)..6— = 22... =~ $44. Vee ee ee ee ee Opposed.to: Buropean.. 33 eae eee Miscellancous,and indefinite2-=— == == === ee eee eee Discussion and conclusions indicated by present data____-_____-_ Summary~ = o-===......=-.2--.+- = = = 4 ee ee ee Bibliography . =.= =-.=s=:222=se45esssletce ess citavesuhs de eee [RGex Hae 22 ot oa oe oe ed a ee es ee 16. aI - a . Tanana Indian woman . Chief Sam Joseph, near Tanana village, on the Yukon. (A. H., ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES . a, “Old Minto” on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926.) b, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to the right of the village) from some distance up the river. (A. H., 1926.) c, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of knoll. (A. H., 1926.)_--_- a, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926.) 6, Indian burial ground, middle Yukon. (A.H., 1926.) c, Anvik, from the AIRS ON AMAL er el O2G, Ae... sve Sitsee sah esas) cep feet y. . -ahoe8 a . a, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska. 6, East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo from Joe Bernard.)_________ . A group of women at Shishmaref. (Taken at 2 a.m. by A. H., 1926.) __ . a, My “‘spoils,’’ loaded on sled, Point Hope. (A. H., 1926.) 6, The load is heavy and sledding over sand and gravel difficult. (A. H., NO 20S) a ae es ee i See See Yes . Characteristic stone axes, middle Yukon. (A. H. coll., 1926.)______ . Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A. ED, Weel 1006 ye ene er) ad lout) = Saptul gevlas A Mh) 0 . Crude stone artifacts, found at Bonasila, lower middle Yukon. (A. ET COL sp Q AG) espe ee ee ee eee eee nea Eel Oe DOZ Gs) tae Oe Se eee Sees eae ber SURE. 0 eet . a, Yukon Indians, at Kokrines, Jacob and Andrew. Jacob probably has a trace of white blood. (A. H. 1926.) 6, Yukon Indians at IGRI eam CASE POU Os pn ee a ee age ee. Seer A Yukon Indians. a, Marguerite Johnny Yatlen, Koyukuk village. (A. H., 1926.) 6b, Lucy John, Koyukuk, daughter of a former chief. CA He O20) ee eed ee) ed See Obie, Bot! 0 Yukon Indians. a, George Halfway, Nulato on the Yukon. (A. H., 1926.) 6, Jack Curry of Nulato, 41 years. (Now at Ruby, middle Yukon; Eskimoid physiognomy.) c, Arthur Malamvot, of Nulato_ 88253°—30——3 25 Page 54 54 64 96 96 96 96 136 136 136 136 150 150 150 150 150 26 ILLUSTRATIONS Page 18. a, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon. b, Indian children, mission school at Anvik, lower middle Yukon. c, Two women of Anvik, on the Yukon, somewhat Eskimoid__--____ 150 19. Terminal piece of a lance or harpoon, northern Bering Sea. Black, high natural polish. Most beautiful piece of the fossil ivory art. (ASSES 1926 SU SNe M.)s.2 2 ees oe eee ee ee 174 20. Fossil ivory specimens showing the old curvilinear designs. Northern Benne SeaweCAs Ecol: 1926.U:SINeMe) Eee ee eee 174 21. Objects showing the old fossil ivory art, northern Bering Sea. CUFSENEMEENOos= i and!3 ‘coll: sACtE 5919263) Sa=s es eee 174 22. Fossil ivory needle cases and spear heads, northern Bering Sea, show- ing fine workmanship. (A. H. coll., 1926, U.S.N.M.)___-_______ 174 23. a, Small, finely made objects in fossil ivory and stone (the head), from the ruins at Point Hope. (A. H. coll., 1926.) 6, Old fossil ivory objects, northern Bering Sea. The article to the right is almost classic in form; it is decorated on both sides. (A. H. coll., 1926*4U:SNeM.) sos 02 Sols ee eee Eee? 6 ee 174 24. Fossil ivory combs, upper Bering Sea. (A. H. coll., 1926)_-__--___- 174 25. Fossil ivory objects from the upper Bering Sea region. Transitional art. (Museum of the Agricultural College, Fairbanks, Alaska.) ___ 174 26. Old black finely carved fossil ivory figure, from the northeastern Asiatic coast. (Loan to U.S.N.M. by Mr. Carl Lomen.)-----__-- 174 27. Wooden figurines from a medicine lodge, Choco Indians, Panama. (USAIN. Mi colls.))2 222. Santee at sett Sela Ss es ee 174 28. Left: Two beautiful knives lately made of fossil mammoth ivory by a Seward Peninsula Eskimo. (Gift to the U.S.N.M. by A. H., 1926.) Right: Two old ceremonial Mexican obsidian knives. Manche de poignard en ivoire, avee sculpture représentant un renne. Montastrue (Peccadeau de l’Isle; in De Quatrefages (A.)— Hommes fossiles; Paris, 1884,%p:/50)) sss eee See eae 174 29. Billings and Gall’s map of Bering Strait and neighboring lands, 1811__ 178 30. Eskimo villages and sites, Norton Sound and Bay and Seward Penin- sula, and the Kotzebue Sound, from Zagoskin’s general map, 1847_ 178 31. Graves at Nash Harbor, Nunivak Island. (Photos by Collins and Stewart, 01927) = Sots ee ee ee 214 325 Cheyschoolichildrenyat, Walesi_ 2222 54— =! = ete 2a eee eee 214 33. a, Children, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.) b, Adults, Nunivak Island. (Photo by Collins and Stewart, 1927.). 214 342 Kine wisland) Biskamovaifamily proupeer = eee eee ee 214 Sot Kanpalsland mative: 2... -32- 2 40502 ee ee 214 36. A fine full-blood Eskimo pair, northern Bering Sea region. a, Young Eskimo woman, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) 6, Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by F. H. Nowell} -decek 2 seestast it en escnk sepia te eee eee 214 37. Typical full-blood Eskimo, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by omenyBros.))osos— se ne eee ee eee 214 38. Elderly man, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S IN GMy) 4 Net St shee Ser SL ert | ee 5 ee ee 214 39. The Wales people. (Photo by Lomen Bros.)_____-_-__----------- 242 40. The long broad-faced types, Wales. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) ------ 242 41. a, The broad-faced and low-vaulted Eskimo, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S. N. M.). 6, Broad-faced type, St. Lawrence Island. (Photo by R. D. Moore, 1912. U.S. N. Mi) 0.3 eee ee ee 242 PON Anew ILLUSTRATIONS . The long-faced type. a, A young man from Seward Peninsula. 6, A boy. from’ St. Iuawrence Island: 2—-------.---->224_- == 32623 . A “Hypereskimo,” King Island. Excessively developed face__~_--_- . Eskimo ‘‘Madonna”’ and child, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo Jove lbovrlan Ibias se oe eee Seo es ee ee . Young woman, northern Bering Sea an (Photo by Lomen Bros.) _ . Young women, full-blood Eskimo, Seward Peninsula. (Photo by RomensBros))et esse! 24 ses Sas eee ete ire Sete ee a =A PointeHoperproup sy 20 At 2 oe eee es es ore Ge eats . a, Eskimo woman, Kevalina. (Photo on the ‘‘Bear”’ by A. H., 1926. U. S. N. M.). b, The body build of an adult Eskimo woman, Upper bering Sess: 2b. cteet) 21/283 22 ae ere Sees Jets eee le 2260s . Elderly woman, St. Lawrence Island. (Photos by R. D. Moore, 1912. USS Ning Mi) eS es ee ei er . a, Yukon Eskimo, below Paimute. (A. H., 1926.) 6. Norton Sound Eskimo woman and child. (A. H., 1926.)_.__-_-_-_______ . Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen (B05) ee ee ee eS oe ns ee eis fe teins . Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photos by Lomen EOS) Pest A See abou sl eee ovine? ol ee fen ele aces veel ale . Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen EEC) ene cee ae ee ee ee ee eee . Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen PES E:CIE) renee cae eee ay ee Ce ek ce es Se . Eskimo, Indianlike, northern Bering Sea region. (Photo by Lomen ye O)e = Roe Sa ae ee Oe ee eee ee aS . Eskimo, Indianlike, Arctic region. (Photo by Lomen Bros.) ________ = piberian Hskimo and child, Indian type_-—----.2-.-£---.-_.-.=2_8 . a, Mrs. Sage, Kevalina. Fine Indian type. Born on Notak. Both parents Notak ‘‘Eskimo.’”’ (Photo by A. H., 1926.) 6, Eskimo family, Indian-like, near Barrow. (Photo by A. H., 1926.)______ . Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low vault. (TEAS SN eR SI od i ae ES ee . Skulls from old burials, Point Hope; right skull shows low vault. GRIER Se Niet) ie See eT) Seen ee. Se ees Sees . Western Eskimo and Aleut (middle) lower jaws, showing lingual DV PErOspOses na (WU ciSer Naas) g2o2 haa oe te Se oe TEXT FIGURES . The Tanana River between Nenana and Tanana, with Indian villages_ The Yukon from Tanana to below Kokrines____---_._-..-___-_--- The Yukon from below Kokrines to below Koyukuk_-___________._- The Yukon from below Koyukuk to Lofkas Oldimansolsthey Nwlato Gistricten - aac a Se Pe aS Map of Kaltag and vicinity. (By McLeod)__-------__._-________ The Yukon from Bystraia to below Holy Cross . The Yukon from above Holy Cross to below Mountain Village_--____ - The Yukon from below Mountain Village to near Marshall . The Yukon from near Marshall to below Kavlingnak_____________- . From above Kobolunuk to mouth of river_________..-___-_-----__- . Conventionalized design from fossil ivory specimen chown in Plate 19. PE OLOMn aD seme eee eee aa as eee 27 Page 242 242 242 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 262 262 308 125 137 137 138 139 139 140 141 141 142 143 174 177 . Nelson’s map, Eighteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1898 . Linguistic map, United States census, 1920 . Villages and sites on Kodiak Island . Villages and sites on the proximal half of Alaska Peninsula . Villages and sites on the distal half of Alaska Peninsula . Eskimo villages and sites on Nushagak Bay to Kuskokwim Bay . Eskimo villages and sites, Kuskokwim Bay to Seammon Bay . Eskimo villages and sites, Seammon Bay to Norton Sound and Bay . Eskimo villages and sites, Kevalina to Point Barrow . Russian map of St. Lawrence Island, 1849. (Tebenkof) 27. Eskimo villages and sites, St. Lawrence Island, the Diomedes, and the . The Bering Strait Islands . Probable movements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska and ILLUSTRATIONS . Dall’s map of the distribution of the tribes of Alaska and adjoining territory; US87hs-- 2. =... 25 ee ee eee ee eee toiGape: Rodney. 5. esse 35. SABES Sees BIS ee oe . Eskimo villages and sites, Wales. (By Clark M. Garber, 1927)__:_ . Eskimo villages and sites, Seward Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, and Arctic coast, to, Kevalina- ==) — 2559. ee eee eee eastern ‘Asiatic:coast..-2422 3-26 ee ee ee eee eee in Alaska. (A. Hrdliéka) ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA By Axes HroiicKa INTRODUCTION Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia hold, in all probability, the key to the problem of the peopling of America. It is here, and here alone, where a land of another continent approaches so near to America that a passage of man with primitive means of navigation and provisioning was possible. All the affinities of the American native point toward the more eastern parts of Asia. In Siberia, Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Formosa, and in some of the islands off southeastern Asia, living remnants of the same type of man as the American aborigines are to this day encountered, and it is here in the farthest northwest where actual passings of parties of natives between the Asiatic coast and the Bering Sea islands and between the latter and the American coasts have always, since these parts were known, been observed and are still of common occurrence. With these facts before them, the students of the peopling of this . continent were always drawn strongly to Alaska and the opposite parts of Asia; but the distances, the difficulties of communication, and the high costs of exploration in these far-off regions have proven a serious hindrance to actual investigation. As a result, but little direct, systematic, archeological or anthropological (somatological) research has ever been carried out in these regions; though since Bering’s, Cook’s, and Vancouver’s opening voyages to these parts a large amount of general, cultural, and linguistic observations on the natives has accumulated. For these observations, which are much in need of a compilation and critical analysis, science is indebted to the above-named captains; to the subsequent Russian explorers, and especially to the Russian clerics who were sent to Alaska as missionaries or priests to the natives; to various captains, traders, agents, miners, soldiers, and men in collateral branches of science, who came in contact with the aborigines; to special United States Government exploratory expe- ditions, with an occasional participation of the Biological Survey and the Smithsonian Institution, such as resulted in the fine “ Cor- win” reports and the highly valuable accounts of Leffingwell, Dall, 29 30 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Nelson, and Murdoch; to the separate pieces of scientific work by men such as Gordon and Jennes; and to Jochelson and Bogoras of the Jesup exploring expedition of the American Museum. As a result of all these contributions, it may be said that there has been established a fair cultural and linguistic knowledge of the Aleut, the Eskimo, and the Chukchee, not to speak of the Tlingit, considera- tion of which seems more naturally to fall with that of the Indians of the northwest coast. There are also numerous though often very imperfect and occa- sionally rather contradictory notes on the physical status of these peoples, and some valuable cultural and even skeletal collections were made. Since 1912 we possess also a good series of measurements on the St. Lawrence Island natives, together with valuable cranial ma- terial from that locality, made, under the direction of the writer, by Riley D. Moore, at that time aide in the Division of Physical Anthropology in the United States National Museum. The need of a further systematic archeological and somatological research in this important part of the world was long since felt, and several propositions were made in this line to the National Research Council (Hrdlicka) and to the Smithsonian Institution (Hough, Hrdli¢ka) ; but nothing came of these until the early part of 1926, when, a little money becoming available, the writer was intrusted by the Bureau of American Ethnology with the making of an exten- sive preliminary survey of Alaska. The objects of the trip were, in brief, to ascertain as much as possible about the surviving Indians and Eskimos; to trace all indications of old settlements and migra- tions; and to collect such skeletal and archeological material as might be of importance. The trip occupied approximately four months, from the latter part of May to the latter part of September, affording a full season in Alaska. It began with the inside trip from Vancouver to Juneau, where at several of the stopping places groups of the northwest coast Indians were observed. At Juneau examination was made of the valuable archeological collections in the local museum. After this followed a trip with several stops along the gulf, a railroad trip with some stops to Fairbanks, a return trip to Nenana, a boat trip on the Tanana to the Yukon, and then, with little boats of various sorts, a trip with many stops for about 900 miles down the Yukon. This in turn was followed by a side trip in Norton Sound, after which transportation was secured to the island of St. Michael and to Nome. From Nome, after some work in the vicinity, the revenue cutter Bear took the writer to the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands, to Cape Wales, and thence from place to place of scientific interest up to Barrow. On the return a number of the more important places, HRDLICKA] INTRODUCTION Bil besides some new ones, were touched upon, while the visit to others was prevented by* the increasing storms, and the trip ended at Unalaska. Throughout the journey, the writer received help from the Gov- ernor, officials, missionaries, traders, and people of Alaska; from the captain, officers, and crew of the Bear; and from many indi- viduals; for all of which cordial thanks are hereby once more ren- dered. Grateful acknowledgments are especially due to the follow- ing gentlemen: Governor George A. Parks, of Alaska; Mr. Harry G. Watson, his secretary; Mr. Karl Thiele, Secretary for Alaska; Judge James Wickersham, formerly Delegate from Alaska; Father A. P. Kashevaroff, curator of the Territorial Museum and Library of Juneau; Dr. William Chase, of Cordova; Mr. Noel W. Smith, gen- eral manager Government railroad of Alaska; Mr. B. B. Mozee, Indian supervisor, and Dr. J. A. Romig, of Anchorage; Prof. C. E. Bunnell, president Alaska Agriculture College, at Fairbanks; Mr. and Mrs. Fullerton, missionaries, at Tanana; Rev. J. W. Chapman and Mr. Harry Lawrence, at Anvik; Father Jetté and Jim Walker, at Holy Cross; Mr. C. Betsch, at the Russian Mission; Messrs. Frank Tucker and E. C. Gurtler, near the mission; Mr. Frank P. Williams, of St. Michael; Judge G. J. Lomen and his sons and daughter, at Nome; Rev. Dr. Baldwin, Fathers La Fortune and Post, Captain Ross, United States Coast Guard, and Mr. Elmer Rydeem, merchant, at Nome; C. S. Cochran, captain of the Bear, and his officers, par- ticularly Mr. H. Berg, the boatswain; Rev. F. W. Goodman and Mr. LaVoy, at Point Hope; the American teachers at Wales, Shish- mareff, Kotzebue, Point Hope, and elsewhere; Messrs. Tom Berry- man, Jim Allen, and Charles Brower, traders, respectively, at Kotze- bue, Wainright, and Barrow; Mr. Sylvester Chance, superintendent of education, Kotzebue, Alaska; the United States marshals, deputy marshals, and postmasters along the route; and the numerous traders, miners, settlers, and others who were helpful with specimens, advice, guidance, and in other matters. GENERAL REMARKS The account of the survey will be limited in the main to anthro- pological and archeological observations; but it is thought best to give it largely in the form of the original notes made on the spot or within a few hours after an event. These notes often contain collateral observations or thoughts which could be excluded, but the presence of which adds freshness, reliability, and some local at- mosphere to what otherwise would be a rather dry narrative. A pre- liminary account of the trip and its results was published in the 32 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA (ETH. ANN. 46 Smithsonian exploration volume for 1926 (Washington, 1927, pp. 137-158). Not much reference is possible to previous work of the nature here dealt with in the parts visited, except in the Aleutian Islands, where good archeological work was done in the late sixties by William H. Dall, and in 1909-10 by Waldemar Jochelson.* The archeology and anthropology of the Gulf of Alaska, the in- land, the Yukon Basin, the Bering Sea coasts and islands, and those of the Arctic coasts up to Point Barrow are but little known. The archeology is in reality known only from the stone and old ivory implements that have been incidentally collected and have reached various institutions where they have been studied; from the excava- tions about Barrow, conducted by an expedition of the University Museum, Philadelphia, in charge of W. B. Van Valin, and by the trader, Mr. Charles Brower, the results of which have not yet been published; and from the recent diggings at Wales and on the smaller Diomede Island by Doctor Jenness.* Neither Dall, Nelson, Rau, nor Murdoch conducted any excavations outside the already mentioned work in the Aleutians. Nortuwesr Coast—J uNEAU THE COAST INDIANS Passage was taken on a small steamer from Vancouver. The boat stopped at a number of settlements on the scenic “inside” route—which impresses one as a much enlarged and varied trip through the Catskills—permitting some observations on the Indians of these parts. The main opportunity was had at Aleut Bay. Here many British Columbia Indians were seen on the dock, belonging to several tribes. Names of these, as pronounced to me, were unfamiliar. They have a large agency here; engage in salmon industry. A minority, only, 1Dall, Wm. H.: Alaska as it Was and Is; 1865-1895. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash., 1900, vol. xui, 141. On Prehistoric Remains in the Aleutiam Islands. Proc. Cal, Acad. Sci., November, 1872, vol. tv, 283-287. Explorations on the Western Coast of North America. Smiths. Rept. for 1873, Wash., 1874, 417-418. On Further Examinations of the Amaknak Cave. Proce. Cal. Acad. Sei., 1873, vol. y,. 196-200. Notes on Some Aleut Mummies. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., October, 1874, vol. v. 399-400. Deserted Hearths. The Overland Monthly, 1874, vol. x111, 25-80. Alaskan Mummies. Am. Naturalist, 1875, vol. 1x, 438-440. Tribes of the Extreme Northwest. Contrib. N. Am. Ethnol., vol. 1, Wash., 1877. On the Remains of Later Prehistoric Man Obtained from Caves in the Catharina Archipelago, Alaska Territory, etc. Smiths. Contr. to Knowledge, No. 318, Wash., 1878. 2 Jochelson, W., Archeological Investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Publ. No. 367, Wash., D. C., 1925. ®Rau, Chas., North American Stone Implements. Smiths. Rept. for 1872, Wash., 1873. Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America. Smiths. Contr. to Knowl- edge, Wash., 1884, vol. xxv. Thomas, Cyrus, Introduction to the Study of North American Archeology. Cincinnati, 1898. Jennes, D. Archeological Investigations in Bering Strait. Ann, Rep. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1926 (Ottawa 1928), pp. 71-80. HRDLICKA] INTRODUCTION 33 full bloods—of the younger a large majority mixed (white blood). The full bloods all show one marked type, of short to moderate stature, rather short legs, huge chest and head, i. e., face. Color near onion-brown, without luster. Indians, but modified locally. Remind one (chest, stature, stockiness, shortness of neck and legs) of Peruvian Indians. Indians at Prince Rupert same type; color pale brown; eyes and nose rather small for the faces in some, in others good size. Look good deal like some Chinese or rather some hand-laboring Chinese and Japanese look like them. Indians at Juneau (the Auk tribe) very similar, but most mixed with whites. Juneau.—A week was spent at Juneau, gathering information, ob- taining letters of introduction, and making a few excursions. The city has an excellent museum devoted to Alaskan history and arche- ology, under the able curatorship of Father Andrew P. Kashevaroff, himself a part of the history of the Territory. The archeological collections of Alaska Indians and Eskimos are in some respects— e. g., pottery—more comprehensive than those of any other of our museums; but they, together with the valuable library, are housed in a frail frame building, under great risks from both fire and thieves. Fortunately the latter are still scarce in Alaska, but the fire risk is great and ever present. The museum is a decided cultural asset to Juneau. NOTES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL INTEREST Auk Point—Thanks to Father Kashevaroff and Mr. Charles H. Flory, the district forester, an excursion was arranged one day to Auk Point, approximately 15 miles distant, a picturesque wooded little promontory near which there used to be a settlement of the Auk Indians. On the point were several burials of shamans and a chief of the tribe (all other dead being cremated), and near the graves stood until a short time ago a moderate-sized totem pole. Of all this we found but bare remnants. The burials of three shamans and one chief had been in huge boxes above ground; but they had all been broken into and most of the contents belonging to the dead were taken away, including the skulls. The skeletal parts of two of the bodies and a few bones of the chief remained, however, with a few objects the vandals had overlooked. The latter were placed in the Juneau Museum while the bones, showing some features of interest, were collected and sent to Washington. A large painted board near the graves of the shamans remained, though damaged. The totem pole, however, had been cut down the year before by a young man from Juneau, who then severed the head, which he carried home, 34 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 and left the rest on the beach, from where it was soon washed away. Thus a group of burials, the only ones known of the once good-sized Auk tribe, have been despoiled and their record lost to science. And such a fate is, according to all accounts, rapidly overtaking similar remains everywhere in southeastern Alaska. Rare stone lamp (?)—At the museum one of the first and most interesting objects shown the writer by Father Kashevaroff was a large, heavy, finely sculptured oblong bowl, made of hard, dark crystalline stone, decorated in relief on the rim and with a squatting stone figure, cut from the same piece, near one of the ends. The bowl looks like a ceremonial lamp, though showing no trace of oil or carbon. Subsequently four other bowls of this same re- markable type and workmanship were learned of, two, the best of the lot, in the University Museum at Philadelphia; one in the Museum of the American Indian, New York; and one, somewhat in- ferior and of reddish stone, in the possession of Mr. Miiller, the trader at Kaltag, on the Yukon (later in that of Mr. Lynn Smith, marshal at Fairbanks). The localities where the five remarkable and high-grade specimens have been found range from the Kenai Peninsula in southwestern Alaska to the lower Yukon. The Juneau specimen comes from Fish Creek, near Kuik, Cook Inlet (see De- seriptive Booklet Alaska Hist. Mus., Juneau, 1922, pp. 26, 27) ; that in the Heye Museum is from the same locality; the one in Philadel- phia was found in the Kenai Peninsula; while that at Kaltag came from an old Indian site on the Kaiuh slough of the Yukon. Locally, there is much inclination to regard these specimens as Asiatic, es- pecially Japanese, and a bronze Japanese Temple medal has been found near that now at Juneau. On the other hand, a strong sug- gestion of similarity to these dishes is presented by some undecorated large stone lamps from Alaska, and by a class of pottery bowls with a human figure perched on the rim at one end from some of the Arkansas mounds, Mexico, and farther southward. (See Mason, J. A. A remarkable stone lamp from Alaska. The Museum Jour., Phila., 1928, 170-194.) Copper mask.—Shortly before leaving Juneau I became acquainted with Mr. Robert Simpson, manager of the “ Nugget ” curio shop, and found in his possession a number of interesting specimens made in the past by the Tlingit Indians. An outstanding piece was an old copper mask, which was purchased for the the National Musuem. Mr. Simpson obtained it years ago from a native of Yakutat and stored it with native furs and other articles of value. It originally belonged to a shaman of the Yakutat tribe and was said to have been worn by him in sacrificial slave killings, the shaman with the mask representing some mythical being. It is an exceedingly good and rare piece of native workmanship. HRDLICKA] INTRODUCTION 35 Copper “ shield.’”—Another interesting article secured from Mr. Simpson is a large old shieldlike plate of beaten copper, decorated on one side with a characteristic Tlingit engraved design. Mr. Simp- son, in a letter to Doctor Hough, dated June 26, 1926, says: “ The shield, or to speak more correctly the copper plate—for it was not used as a shield—was the most valuable possession of the 'Tlingits. They were usually valued in slaves, this one, at the last known ex- change, having been traded for three slaves. The possessor of four or five such plates was a man of the utmost wealth. Some claim that they got these copper plates from the early New England traders and others that they came from the Copper River. Either is possible. Lots of the Copper River nuggets were very large and fiat and could have readily been hammered into plate form. I bought this in the village of Klawak on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island. I do not know of another one around here. All of the local elderly natives are familiar with its previous value, and when they have wandered into my shop to sell things they always made deep obei- sance to this plate.” Talks—While in Juneau the writer spoke before the Rotarians, who honored him with a lunch; and later, in the auditorium of the fine new high school, gave a public lecture on “The Peopling of America,” etc. The object of these and the many subsequent talks in Alaska was, on the one hand, to reciprocate as far as possible the kindness and help received on all sides, and on the other to leave wholesome information and stimulus in things anthropological. The audience was invariably all that a lecturer could desire, and many were left everywhere eager for help and cooperation. The aid of some of these men, including prospectors, miners, settlers, engineers, foresters, and various officials, may some day prove of much value in the search for Alaskan antiquities. Juneau—Seward.—June 8, leave Juneau. It has been raining every day, with one exception, and is misting now, depriving us of a view of most of the coast. Wherever there is a glimpse of it, however, it is seen to be mountainous, wooded below, snowy and icy higher up, inhospitable, forbidding. June 10, arrive at Cordova, a former native and Russian settle- ment of some importance. Will stay here large part of the day and go to see about Indians, old sites, burials, and specimens, the main hotel keeper, the assistant superintendent of the local railway, the postmaster, the supervisor of the forests, and Dr. William Chase, who has been connected with the work of the Biological Survey in these regions. Mr. W. J. McDonald, the forester, takes me out some miles into the very rugged country, where there are still plenty of bear and mountain goat. After which Doctor Chase takes me to the old Russian and Indian cemetery. There are many graves, mostly 36 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Indian, but also a few whites, and even a Chinaman. Russian crosses are still common. The older Indian part could be easily excavated. Learn of skulls and bones on “mummy ” island in Prince William Sound. Indians.—See quite a few. Nearly all appear more or less mixed; color in these more or less pronounced tan with red in cheeks and some tendency to paleness. Heads still all brachycephalic and of only moderate height; faces broad, noses not prominent, in males tend to large. Two adult men, evidently full-bloods—pure Indian type of the brachycephalic form, head moderate in size, medium short, face not very large, nose slightly or moderately convex, not prominent, but all Indian. Color of skin submedium to near medium brown, no trace .of whitish or pink. Stature and build medium; feet rather small; hair typical Indian, black, straight; beard sparse and short ; mustache sparse, no hair on sides of the face. The boat makes two or three more commercial and passenger stops before reaching Seward, the main one at Valdez, the terminal of the Richardson Trail to the interior. These stops permit us to see some fish canneries, which are of both general and anthropologi- cal interest. These establishments employ Japanese, Philippine, and Chinese labor, and it was found to be quite a task to distinguish these, and to tell them from the coast Indians. The Chinamen can be distinguished most often, though not always, the Japanese less so, while the Filipino usually can not be told from the Indian, even by an expert. Here was a striking practical lesson in relationships. Seward—Anchorage-—Seward found to be a fine little town, full of the same good brand of people that one finds everywhere in Alaska and who go so far to restore one’s faith in humanity. It is the terminus of the Government railroad to Fairbanks and a port of some importance. Indian basketry—No Indians were seen here, though some come occasionally. But several of the stores, including that of the Seward Drug Co. (Mr. Elwyn Swestmann), have an unexpectedly good supply of decorated Alaska Indian baskets. It was found later, in fact, that the Alaskan Indians, with the Aleutians, compare well in basketry with those of Arizona and California. Anchorage-—June 12-13. Anchorage, on Cook’s Inlet, is a good- sized town for Alaska and the headquarters of the railroad. Here were met some very good friends, particularly Mr. Noel W. Smith, general manager of the railroad; Dr. J. H. Romig, formerly of the Kuskokwim; and Mr. B. B. Mozee, the Indian supervisor. Here, at Ellis Hall, I lectured on “The Origin and Racial Affiliations of the Indians,” and the large audience included seven male (some full HRDLICKA] INTRODUCTION 37 blood) and two female (mix blood) Indians—of the latter, one very pretty, approaching a Spanish type of beauty. Near town I also visited with a launch two small Indian fishing camps. From Doctor Romig information was obtained about the Indians and some old sites of the Kuskokwim; and through the kindness of Messrs. Smith and Mozee I was enabled to visit the Indian school at Eklutna. Here at Anchorage I also was given the first and rather rare old Indian stone implement. The Indians at the camps included 6 full bloods—4 men, 2 women. One of the men tested on chest. Typical full-blood results. Type of full bloods: Color slightly submedium to medium brown, never darker; heads, subbrachycephalic to full brachycephalic, rather small; forehead in men more or less sloping in two; face, not large, Indian; nose tends to convex but not high. Indian in features and behavior, but features not as pronounced as general in the States tribes. The full bloods in town: Medium to short stature, not massive frames, moderate-sized faces, Indian type, but not the pronounced form; head brachycephalic; hair all black; mustache and beard scarce, as in Indians in general; color of skin submedium brown. Children in camp (up to about 5 years) were striking by a relative- ly considerable interorbital breadth, otherwise typical Indian. Birch-bark dishes—At Anchorage, in several of the stores, but particularly at one small store, were seen many nicely decorated birch-bark dishes or receptacles. They are made by inland Indians, are prettily decorated with colored porcupine quills, and evidently take the place of the baskets of other tribes. It was difficult to learn just what Indians made the best or most, though the Tanana people were mentioned. No such fine assortment of these dishes was seen after leaving Anchorage. Eklutna—Sixteen miles from Anchorage, along the railroad, is the Indian village and school Eklutna. Mr. Smith made it possible for me to reach this place on a freight and to be picked up later the same day by the passenger train. At Eklutna was found an isolated but prettily located and well- kept Indian school, with about fifty children from many parts of southwestern Alaska. More than half of these children showed more or less admixture of white blood, but there was a minority of unquestionable full bloods. There were two children from Kodiak Island and two or three southern Eskimo. The main impression after a detailed look at the children was that, while they all showed clear Indian affinities and some were typically Indian, yet on the whole there was a prevalent trace of something Eskimoid in the physiognomies—an observation that was to be repeated more than once in other parts of Indian Alaska. 38 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN, 46 Burials —At a few minutes’ walk from the school at Eklutna there is in a clearing of the forest a small Indian village, with a late graveyard showing Russian influence. A short distance farther, however, according to the Indians, there is an old burial place of some magnitude, with traces of graves, although quite obliterated. Eklutna—Fairbanks—Since reaching Seward the almost inces- sant drizzles have ceased and the weather has been fine and pleasantly warm. Everything is green, grass is luxuriant, and there are many flowers. The railroad journey is a regular scenic tour, with its crowning point a glorious view of Mount McKinley. The trains run only in the daytime. For the night a stop is made at a railroad hotel, in a quiet, picturesque location, at the edge of a good-sized river. They have foxes in cages here and a tame reindeer. There are no natives in this vicinity. There are two interesting passengers on the train, with both of whom I became well acquainted. One is Joe Bernard, an explorer and collector (besides his other occupations) in Alaska and Siberia. He furnishes me with some valuable pictures and much information. The other man is Captain Wilkins, the flier of Point Barrow fame, who strikes me as an able and modest man. The next day, as the train stops at Nenana, I am met, thanks to a word sent by Mr. Noel W. Smith, by Chief Thomas and a group of his people. ‘These behave kindly and tell me of a potlatch to be held at Tanana “after some days,” where they will visit. The chief im- presses me with his rather refined though thoroughly Indian countenance. Fairbanks —Before reaching Fairbanks, the inland capital of Alaska, I am met by Prof. C. E. Bunnell, head of the Alaska Agri- cultural College. This college, located on an elevation about 4 miles out of the city, I visit with Professor Bunnell soon after arrival, to find there some interesting paleontological and archeological collec- tions. Here are fair beginnings which well deserve the good will of the Alaskans. Unfortunately the college has not yet the means for any substantial progress or research in these lines, and the collec- tions are housed in a frame building where they are in serious danger from fire. But their presence will aid, doubtless, in the saving of other material of similar nature from the Tanana region, and speci- mens of special scientific importance will doubtless be referred to scientific institutions outside. Fairbanks is a good-sized town, built on the wide flats of the Tanana River. Its population, now reduced, includes some civilized natives, most of whom, however, are mix breeds. A large petrified mammoth tusk on the porch of one of the semi-log houses shows HRDLICKA ] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 39 that these are regions of more than ordinary biological interest. And there is soon an occurrence which demonstrates this further. Mr. John Buckley, the deputy marshal, takes me to an old Japanese resident, now a rooming-house keeper, who has had a hobby of col- lecting fossils, and who in the end is happy to donate to the National Museum a fine skull of a fossil Alaskan horse, together with some other specimens, refusing all payment. Such is the human Alaska, or at least the most of it. Here, too, to a full hall in the library, a lecture is given on “ The Peopling of Alaska and America,” after which follows a return to Nenana to catch a steamer to the Yukon. THE WRITER’S TRIP ON THE YUKON TANANA—YUKON June 17. Nenana: This is a small town on the Tanana, mostly railroad buildings, with a hospital; there is one street of stores (three short blocks), most of them now empty. About half a mile off a small Indian settlement about an Episcopalian mission, Country flat on both sides of the rather large river, except for some hills back of the right shore beyond the railroad bridge, for a short distance. The river flats seem scarcely 3 or 4 feet above water, overgrown with brush and a few scrubby trees, later spruce thickets. Purple flowers (fireweed) strike the eye. No relics found at Nenana; no information concerning old sites or abandoned villages along the stream. Physically, the Indians seen at Nenana were submedium brown, good many still full:blood, pure Indian type, brachycephalic, faces (nose, etc.), however, of but medium prominence. Moderate to good stature. They are all fairly “civilized,” wear white men’s clothing, to which on gala occasions are added bands or collars of beadwork, and speak more or less English. The younger men are evidently good workers. The distance from Nenana to Tanana is given as about 190 miles by the river. The government boat Jacobs, on which we shall go down the Tanana, is a moderate-sized, shallow-bottomed stern-wheeler, and, like all such boats on these rivers, will push a heavily laden freight barge before it. There are about a dozen passengers, the boat labor, a trader or two. All kindly, open. A few women—most of both sexes of the Scandinavian type. On barge some horses, a cow, pigs, chickens. Leave after lunch—very good, generous, and pleasant meal in a local restaurant that would do credit to a large city; only the people 40 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 are better, more human. Meals $1, the almost universal price in Alaska. Some quaint expressions: When anyone has been away, especially to the States, they say he was “outside.” I am an “ outsider;” show it “by my collar.” Underdone bacon is “easy.” To assent they say “you bet.” In a restaurant, to a decent, cheerful girl: “May I have a little hot coffee?” “You bet!” Which bright answer is heard so often that one finishes by being shy to ask. Dogs, of course, do not pull, but “mush.” This is from the Cana- dian French “ marche.” Dogs do not understand “ go” or “ go on,” only “ mush.” Extensive flats. Below Nenana these flats, plainly recent alluvial, are said to extend up to 60 miles to the left (southwestward) and to 20 miles to the right. As one passes nearer they are seen to range from 3 up to about 8 feet above the level of the river at this stage of water. Cabins and fishing camps along the river, mostly flimsy structures, with a few tents. Indians in some. The Indians are said by the whites to be pretty lazy, living from day to day; yet they seem industrious enough in their own camps and in their own way. Storage or caches, little houses on stilts. Dog houses in rows. Curious wheel fish traps, revolving like hay or wheat lifting ma- chines, run by the current. They scoop out the fish and let them fall into a box, from which the fisherman collects them twice a day. It is the laziest fishing that could be devised. The contraption is said to come from the northwest coast, but has become one of the char- acteristic parts of the scenery along the Tanana and the Yukon. An Indian camp—stacks of cordwood—canoes.’ The day is sunny, moderately warm and rather dry—about as a warm, dry, fall day with us. The river shows bars, with caught driftwood; also considerable floating wood. There are seagulls, said to destroy young ducks and geese and water birds’ eggs. Shores now wooded, mainly poplar, not large. Farther back and farther down, spruce. The river averages about 200 to 300 yards but differs much in places and there are numerous side channels (sloughs). It is crooked; many bends. The current is quite marked, stated to run 4 to 6 miles an hour. The water is charged with grayish-brown silt, part from glaciers higher above, part from banks that are being “cut.” The banks are entirely silt, no trace of gravel or stone. Indian camps getting very scarce. Boat making good time, but now and then re- quires careful manipulation, with its big, heavy barge in front. Once driven to shore, but no damage, and after some effort gets away again. No trouble yet from mosquitoes, but there are some horseflies. HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON Al Pass a large camp—a Finn married to a squaw, and three or four Indian families—all snug in a clearing of the fresh-looking woods on the bank of the river. Bend after bend in the stream, and boat has to follow them all, and more, for the current and deeper water are now near this bank and again at the opposite bank. The water in many places is undermining the bank, exposing frozen strata of silt. The top often falis in without breaking, with trees and all, and it then looks like heavy, ragged mats hanging over the bank, with green trees or bushes dipping into the water, and per- haps a clump of wild roses projecting from the sward. There are many low bushes of wild roses in this country, pink and red kinds, now blooming. Also many small bushes of wild berries—cranberries (low and high), raspberries, dewberries or blueberries. Meat is imported even to here from Seattle, and carried far down the Yukon. When received they place it in a “cellar” or hole dug down to the frozen ground and place the meat there—a natural and thoroughly efficient refrigerator. Past Old Minto, a little Indian village, a few little log houses in a row facing the river, with a wheel fish trap in front (pl. 1, a). Later a few Indian houses and a “ road house ” with a store at Tolo- vana. Most Indians there (and elsewhere here) died of the “ flu” in 1918, the bodies being left and later buried by the Government. A few isolated little Indian camps. The boat ties to trees along the banks. No docks or anything of that nature. Not many mosquitoes yet, more horseflies, which, how- ever, do not bother man very much. After reaching Hot Springs (right bank), there is seen a long range of more or less forested, fairly steep-sloped hills along the right bank, coming right down to the water’s edge for miles, with bush and forested flats opposite. At the end of one of the ravines with a little stream, right on the bank, remnants of a little glacier melting very slowly in the sun. Strange contrast, ice and green touching. Boat making good time along the hills. June 18. Hardly any sleep. Sun set after 10 and rose about 2.30, with no more than dusk between. Then heat in the cabin, and above all the noises. The boat stuck five hours on a bar and there were all sorts of jerks and shudders and calls. Flats again on both sides, but hills beyond, with just one little spot of snow. Will be warm day again. ANCIENT MAN Prospects of old remains of man all along the river are slight if any. Old silt flats have doubtless been mostly washed away (as now) and rebuilt. Only on the older parts, now often far from water, 88253 °—30——4 42 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 could anything remain and there it is all a jungle of forest with un- dergrowth, with all surface traces absent (no stone, no shell), and no one here to find things accidentally. As to the hills that approach the river, the slopes (shales, overlain by what looks like stratified mud and silt rock) are mostly of recent exposure, and have doubt- less been receding slowly through erosion, so that the bank line along them is not old; and their valleys are few, narrow, and were higher formerly as well as more extended toward where the river flowed then. The only hopeful spot is about Hot Springs, where fossil animal remains are said to exist, but here nothing as yet has been noted suggesting ancient man. June 18, 4 p.m. River getting broader.. Some low dunes. In distance a range of bluish hills before us—the hills along the Yukon. Boat meandering from side to side. Every now and then a necessary steam blow-out of mud, or a short whistle, hurry of a man over the top of the barge and of two half-breeds along its side to the prow to test, with long pointed and graduated poles, the depth of the water, calling it out to the captain. The calls range from “no bottom ” to “4 feet,” at the latter of which the boat begins to touch and back water. 5 p.m. Arrived at Tanana, a cheerful looking town, extending over about half a mile along the right bank of the Yukon, here about 20 feet high; but now, with the gold rush over, rather “slack ” on both business and population, as are all other Yukon towns. Somewhat disappointed with the Yukon—not as majestic here as expected. See storekeeper—introduced by captain. Hear good news. The Indians have a big potlatch at the mission, 2 miles above. Tanana Indians expected. And there will be many in attendance. Rumors of this potlatch were heard before, but this was the first definite information. Get on a little motor boat with Indians who were making some purchases, and go to the St. Thomas Episcopal Mission, Mr. Fullerton in charge. THE INDIANS AT TANANA The mission above Tanana is beautifully located on the elevated right Yukon bank, facing Nuklukhayet island and point, the latter, according to old reports, an old trading and meeting spot of the Kuchin tribes, and the confluence of the Tanana with the Yukon. The mission house, located on rising ground, the wooden church lower down, the cemetery a bit farther up, and the Indian village a bit farther downstream, with their colors and that of the luxuriant vegetation, form a picturesque cluster. I am kindly received by Mr. Fullerton and his wife and given accommodation in their house. On the part of the good-sized In- HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 43 dian village everything is life and bustle and we soon are over. Motor launches owned and operated by the Indians in the river; dogs, scores of the big, half-wild, noisy sled dogs tied to stakes along the slope of the bank, fighting stray ones, barking in whole out- bursts, feeding on smelly fish, or digging cooling holes into the bank in which they hide most of the body from the warm rays of the sun; and many Indians, about 400 in all, in whole families, in houses, large canvas tents, cooking, eating, visiting—a busy multitude, but with white man’s clothes, utensils, etc., not nearly so interesting as a group of more primitive Indians would be. Walk, visit, talk, and observe. Note many mix-bloods, especially among the younger ones and the children. Among the full bloods, . many, about one-half, with features reminding more or less of Eski- moid; but a few typically Indian, i. e., like most of the States Indians. Medium stature, substantial but not massive build, quite a few of the older women stout. Color of full bloods generally near medium brown, features regular Indian but not exaggerated, noses rather low especially in upper half, eyes and hair Indian. Epicanthus not excessive in children, absent in adults (traces in younger women), eyes not markedly oblique. Behavior, Indian. The more pronounced Eskimoids have flatter and longer faces, more oblique eyes, and more marked epicanthus. They should come, it would seem, from Eskimo admixture. The Tanana Indians (Nenana) did not, so far as seen, show such physiognomies. Toward evening, and especially after supper, natives sing and dance. Songs of Indian characteristics, and yet different from those in south; some more expressive. A song “ for dead mother,” very sad, affects some to crying aloud (a woman, aman). A wash song—a row of women and even some men imitating, standing in a row, the movements in washing, while others sing; humorous. A dance in a line, curving to a circle, of a more typical Indian character. Late at night, a war dance, with much supple contortion. Also other songs and dances up to 2.30 a. m.—heard in bed. June 19. With dogs barking and whining and Indians singing, got little rest. All Indians sleep until afternoon. No chance of doing anything, so go down to town to get instruments and blanks. Find that storekeeper has an old stone ax—sells it to me for $1. Also tells of a farmer whe has one—go there with the boat and obtain it as a gift; told of another one—a Finn—has two, sells them for $1. Come from the gravelly bank of the river or are dug out in garden- ing. There may well have been old settlements in this favorable location. After return, visit some tents to see sick. Much sickness— eyes, tuberculosis—now and then probably syphilis. 44 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [PTH. ANN. 46 Indians relatively civilized, more than expected, and most speak tolerable English. Have flags, guns, sleep in some cases on iron beds and under mosquito netting, smoke cigarettes and cigars; and even play fiddles. Of course some have also learned the white man’s cupidity and vices. This day I met with something unexpected, due to perversity of mix-breed nature. Seeing so many Indians present, and after a good reception by them the evening preceding, I thought of utiliz- ing the occasion for taking some measurements. I therefore men- tioned the thing to some of the head men shortly after my arrival and receiving what seemed assent, went to-day to Tanana to get my instruments. On coming back and finding a few of the old men, who were quite friendly, I invited them into the “ kashim ” (community house) and began to question them on old sites, ete., when in came, probably somewhat under the influence of liquor, a mix-breed to whom I had been introduced the night before and who at that time acted quite civilly, but now coming forward began rather loudly and offensively to question about what I wanted here and about authority, giving me to understand at last quite plainly that he wanted to “be paid” if I was to take any measurements. He claimed to be one of the “chiefs,” and I would not be allowed to do anything without his help. His harangue quite disturbed the other Indians, who evidently were both ashamed and afraid of the fellow. And as I would not be coerced into employing and paying him, and there being no one, as I learned, of supreme author- ity, the “chief” of these Indians being little more than a figurehead, it was decided to give up the attempt at measurements. The rest of the visit was therefore given to further observations and to the witnessing of the potlatch. Chief Joseph (pl. 14), nominally the head of these Yukon Indians, expressed his sorrow and tried to make amends by offering himself. The potlatch was evidently in the main a social gathering of the Yukon Indians, with the Tanana natives as visitors. It con- sisted mainly of eating, singing, and dancing, to be terminated by a big “give-away.” This latter was witnessed. It proved a disappointing and rather senseless affair. The whole transaction consists in the buying and gathering, and on this occasion giving away, of all sorts of objects, by some one, or several, who have lost a husband, wife, mother, etc., during the preceding year. The pos- sessions of the deceased are included in this and doubtless often transmit disease. All the color of the observance is now gone. The goods—blankets, clothing, fabrics, guns, and many other ob- jects, even pieces of furniture, trunks, or stoves—are gathered in the open and when the time comes are one after another selected HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 45 by those dispensing and brought to this or that man or woman of those who have gathered around. No song, no ceremony, no talks, no thanking, no “ wake” following. Just a poor shadow of some- thing that formerly may have been a tragic, memorable, and meaning occasion. Returned to Tanana near 10 p. m. and found lodging with a store- keeper who kept a “hotel.” Got a big room, big bed, and when store closed was alone in the house, the storekeeper sleeping else- where. June 20. But, Alaska was evidently not made for sleepers. Had not a wink until after 3 a. m—daylight, people talking loud and walking on the board walk outside, and heard so clearly in my room—loud-laughing girls, the dogs, and at last another boat with its siren; and every now and then a singing mosquito trying to get at me through even the small opening left under the sheet for breathing—there being no netting. Finally doze off, to wake near 9 a. m., but everything closed, deadlike. However, go to a little frame house for breakfast, and in waiting until it is made find my- self with two elderly men who go to-day down the river with their boats. One is a former store clerk, etc., and now an “ optician ”— peddles eyeglasses down the river; the other was a prospector, miner, and blacksmith, now an itinerant “ jeweler ” and a reputed “ hootch ” peddler. As the latter—otherwise a pretty good fellow—has a good-sized though old boat, arrange to go down with him. See the marshal, storekeeper, settle with my hotel man (had to go at 11 to awake him), and ready to start. The outfit is largely homemade, not imposing, old, unpainted, and unfit for the rough—but it could be worse. It consists of a scow, a low, flat-bottomed boat, partly covered with canvas roof on birch hoops, in which Peake (the owner) carries fresh meat to some one, a stove, dishes, bedding, and many other things; and the motor boat proper, in which there is little room except for the machine and its tender. The latter sits on a soap box; I, on a seat extemporized from a cylindrical piece of firewood with a little board across it, with my two boxes and bedding within easy reach. Sit in front of the scow, except when driven back by spray. But our motor works and so we start quite well at some time after 11. The arrangement is to stop at every white man’s camp or settlement down to Ruby. I could have gone on a better boat with its owner, but they charge here $15 a day, with “keep,” and twice the amount for the return of the man and the boat, which is beyond my resources. Tanana—Ruby. The river is clearer than the Tanana, and much broader. It is a great fine stream and its shores, while mostly still low on the left, on the right rise here and there into moderate loess 46 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 bluffs, far beyond which are seen higher elevations and bluish for- ested mountains. All covered with poplar and spruce. 2.15 p.m. Wind has so increased that the scow bumps and squeaks and there is danger of opening its seams. Therefore side to the beach and make lunch—a roast of fat pork, oversalted, canged spinach, dry bread, and black coffee. All on a simple, old, but effici- ent little stove in the boat. Our companion, the oculist, rides not with us but in a nice little green canoe with a plaything of a gasoline motor fastened to the backboard, but we all eat and sleep together. But a few small Indian camps seen, and no white man’s house. Soon after lunch, however, approach “The Old Station,” where there are a few Indian houses, and later a white man’s place (Bur- chell’s). Stop at the latter. Learn that we are 20 miles from Tanana and on a 5-mile-long channel. There are here 15 to 40 feet high loesslike (silt) bluffs with a flat on the top, which latter was from far back one of the most important sites of the Indians of these regions. Mr. Burchell and his partner kindly take me back, with their better boat, to the main old site. Many old graves there, a few still marked. Traces of dugouts (birch-bark lined), houses, caches, etc., from Burchell’s place to old main site. Important place that deserves to be thoroughly excavated, though this will entail no little work. Site was of the choicest, dominant, healthy. Connects by a trail, still traceable, with the Koyukuk region. There are said to be no traces of pottery in any of these parts. But average to very large stone axes are washed out occasionally from the banks, and other articles are dug out (long ivory spear, bone scraper, etc.). Promise of bones, etc., by Mr. Burchell. One hundred miles more to Ruby. Near 8 p. m. start again—sun still high, little wind—endeavor to get to the “bone yard,” a great bank bearing fossils. Fine clean scenery, flat on left, flat to elevated with grey-blue mountainous beyond on right. Water now calm and we make good progress. Very few camps—dogs on the beach, fish- drying racks a little farther, then a little log cabin and perhaps a tent, with somewhere near by in the river the inevitable fish wheel, turning slowly with the current. Had supper at Burchell’s; white fish, boiled potato, coffee, some canned greens. Scenery in spots precious, virginal, flat at the river, elevated be- hind, foreground covered by the lighter green of poplars and birches, with upright, somber, dark spruce behind. Sun on the right, half moon on the left, and river like a big glassy lake, just rippling a little here and there. Cooler—need a coat. On right, getting gradually nearer the mountains. HRDLICKA} WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 47 Near 10 p.m. Sun still above horizon. On left a long (several miles), mostly wooded, but here and there denuded, palisadelike bank, apparently 200-400 feet high—the “ graveyard.” Monday, June 21. Just at sunset last night—after 10 o’clock— came to the “bone yard” bank—a long curving line of loess bluffs 100 to 300 feet high, steep right to water’s edge, riven by many ra- vines. Lowest third (approximately) hght compact loess; then a thick layer of river sand (stratified more or less) and small gravel, then from one-third to nearly two-fifths of darker loess. In spots quite dark, frozen, but on surface melting,“ running,” also tumbling in smaller or larger masses. Wherever darker there emanates from it and spreads far out over the river a decided mummylike smell. Too late to photograph from boat, and no other place available. Also impracticable to explore with any detail—would take several days and be a difficult work. The bluffs become gradually lower downstream. No bones seen from boat, but mostly were not near enough to discern. A remarkable formation, in many ways, and in need of masterly study as well as description. Night on a low gravelly and pebbly beach. Many mosquitoes. Mosquito netting found bad—sides too short (gave directions, but they were disregarded) and mesh not small enough. In a short time impossible to stay under. Supplemented by old netting of Mr. Peake, who will sleep under his canvas in the boat; but the old dirty net has holes in it and the mosquitoes keep on coming through the two. Fighting them until some time after midnight, then under all my things—netting, blanket, clothes—find some rest, sleeping until 4.30 a.m. After that—full day, of course—sleep impossible. The “optician,” who slept well under proper Alaska netting, gets up, wakes my man; we both get up, shake, roll up bedding, have a cat- wash, then breakfast, and at 6.30 off once more along the beautiful but not hospitable river. Inquiry at a local white man’s cabin about fossils and Indian things negative—has paid no attention, and fossil bones that he sometimes comes across generally not in good state of preservation. Right bank now hilly, with greater hills and then mountains be- hind. Warm, river smooth, just a light breeze. How puny we are in all this greatness. A lot of trouble develops with the engine to-day—bad pump. Will not get to Ruby until evening. Meat, on which I must sit occasionally, begins to smell, and there are numerous horseflies, probably attracted by the smell. Four p.m. Visit Kokrines, on a high bank, native village, ceme- tery. Photograph some natives, are good natured, talk pidgin Eng- lish. Clearly considerable old Eskimo admixture, but the substratum 48 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 and main portion is Indian. All kind and cheerful here, glad to have pictures taken. Only white man is a “road-house” keeper; i. e., storekeeper. Store, however, poorly stocked, probably in all not over $200 worth of goods. “ Optician,” who is hoggish, has head- ache, but eats and drinks all he can nevertheless. ‘ Jeweler” re- paired his pump, and so we are once more on the way—35 miles more to Ruby. No trace of any relics at Kokrines. River now a mile wide, with many “slews” (side channels, sloughs), and many low, flat, forested islands. Mountains to right, higher, traces of snow. Smoke wall from forest fire advancing from the west—now also smell. Islands beautiful, fresh colors and clean— light grass on border, then green and grayish poplars, birches, and alder, from among which rise the blackish green spruces. Little native fishing camps a mile or two apart, right bank—on left wilder- ness of flats, as usual. A few miles above Ruby conditions change—high bluffs (rocky) now on left, flat on right side. Ruby, from a distance and after the loneliness of the day, looks quite a little town on the left bank, at the base of the higher ground. Rusy June 22-23. Our approach to Ruby was very modest. With Mr. Peake paid off, we just sided against and tied to the bank, on which are the lowest houses of the village, and carried out my boxes and bedding on the bank. There two or three men were idly watch- ing our arrival. I asked about the local marshal, to whom I had a note, and had my things carried to the combined post office and hotel. In almost no time I meet Mr. Thomas H. Long, the marshal, become acquainted with the people about, tell my mission, and begin to col- lect. It does not take long for one properly introduced to be thor- oughly and warmly at home in Alaska. The first specimen I get is a fine fossilized mammoth molar. It is brought to me by Albert Verkinik, who was about to depart for some mines, but went back to get the tooth. And he asks no compensation. The parts of two days spent at Ruby were quite profitable. Visit- ing, and in the jail, were several Indians who could be noted and photographed. At the old jail there were two skulls of Indians that were donated. The teacher had two of the characteristic Yukon two-grooved axes. The postmaster, Mr. H. E. Clarke, gave a col- lection of fresh animal skulls. Mr. Louis Pilback donated two mam- moth molars, found 2 miles up the Yukon on Little Melozey Creek, about 8 feet deep, in the muck right over the gravel. Mrs. Monica Silas brought me a good old stone knife. Several of the men took me down to the beach to see a damaged fossil elephant skull, also to HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 49 see some fossiliferous workings above the town. Another party took me a few miles up and across the river to see an Indian camp and near by some old burials. The collections were sent through parcel post; and the evening before departure I gave a lecture to an atten- tive and respectful audience. The town itself, however, is now a mere damaged and crumbling shell of what it was in the heyday of its glory, during the gold rush. Many of the frame dwellings and stores are empty; the board side- walks are rickety and with big holes; and in the air is a general lack of impetus. June 23. Failing to find another suitable boat, I once more made an arrangement to go farther down the river with Mr. Peake and his friend. Peake’s boat and scow were not much to look at, and the troubles with the engine, and with its owner’s raw swearing at times, were somewhat trying; but for my purpose the outfit did well enough, and I was treated very well and given all needed oppor- tunity to examine what was of importance on the banks. I was quite sorry when eventually we had to part company, and I know Mr. Peake has not forgotten my quest, for I heard of his talking about it to parties, with whom I was very glad to come in contact, on the Kuskokwim. June 23. The sunny evening of my second busy day at Ruby, near 10 p. m., Peake unexpectedly comes to the hotel to tell me he will be ready to start to-night, on account of quiet water. His wash “is being ironed ” and will be ready soon. The marshal comes in, calls the prisoners to take down my baggage, and at 10.15, after true, hearty good-byes, I am once more in the old scow. Then Peake goes for his wash, with an Indian woman, and does not come until near 11. River peaceful, sun shortly set, sky somewhat cloudy, for- est fire on opposite shore below still smoking a great deal. Leaving good people at Ruby, who promise to help in the future. It is getting much cooler after a pretty warm day. Will lie on the hard boxes and try to get a little sleep. Thursday, June 24. We went long into the night, then stopped at alone cabin. Up timely, but slow start—it is 10.10 a. m. before we go. The time gained at night lost now—bad habits. Breeze up the river, occasionally strong, but not severe. The cabin was the “ Dutchman’s,” or Meyer’s. He came out at 1 a. m. to meet us, at the bark of his big dogs, a good-hearted, weather-seared prospector, fisherman, and trapper of about 40, alone with his huskies. Asked-me into his little log hut, prepared a place for my bedding on a frame, burned powder against the mosquitoes, brought out from cool “cellar” a bottle of root beer he brews, and then we went to sleep. But dogs kept waking us and Meyer went 50 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 out several times to quiet them. Fall asleep at 3.20 and oblivious until near 7. Meyer forces on me six bottles of root beer, I leave him some prescriptions, and taking my bed roll we go down to the boat. My men still sleeping, as I expected. And then slow awaken- ing, breakfast, and late starting. Meyer never saw any Indian bones or stones, but promises cheer- fully to watch for them hereafter and to make inquiries. Of course, he also, like so many in these lands, tells of a “ prospect ” of a gold find, and is quite confident he'll “make good.” As usual, also, it is a “lead” that was “lost” and he believes he has found it. And all the time the gold is inside, not outside, of these hunters of the yellow star. Hills on the right again; flat islands, banks, ete., on the left. Meyer’s is 18 miles down from Ruby, right bank. About 5 miles farther down on the slopes of the right bank is a pretty little In- dian graveyard (pl. 1, 6), and a little lower down there are three now empty Indian huts. Hills and mountains seen also now beyond the wide flats of the left bank. The hills on right, along which we pass, are more or less forested, but often just bushy and grassy. They rise to about 600 to 700 feet and the slopes are seldom steep. Along their base there are many elevated platforms, low swells, and nooks, that could have served of old—as they serve here and there now—for native habita- tion, though only few could have accommodated larger villages. Pass an Indian camp—the inevitable staked dogs; a swimming boy—first being seen bathing in the open. Whiskey Creek next. Sixty-two dogs, all along the bank, and each one-half or more in his own cooling hole; holes they dig down to near the frozen ground. A settler, and two Indians—a photo- graph. No relics or bones now, but will watch; promise also to save some animal skulls, ete. Twelve o’clock. Off again. Day better now, less squally, warm. Hills above and below lower and earthy—loess, at least much of it. The right shore is all along sunnier, higher, more beautiful, and more open to wind (less mosquitoes). These are the reasons, doubt- less, why it was of old and is still the favored side for habitations by natives as well as whites. i Just before reaching “ Old Lowden,” overtaken by a rather crazily driven small motor boat with four young Indians, who hand us a crude message for the storekeeper at Galena, telling him that a baby in the camp is to die to-night. I offer to see the baby. Find a boy infant about one year or a little over, ill evidently with bronchitis. Father and mother, each about 30, sit over it brooding in dumb grief, each on one side. Respond not to my presence, and barely so to my questions. And when I begin to tell to the fellow who inter- o HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 51 prets and is some relative that the baby need not die, and what to do—I note that he is somewhat under the influence of liquor and a little flushed—to my dismay he begins to rant against me as a doctor and against the Government, and wants me perforce, seemingly, to say that the child is going to die and die to-night. There are two guns around and I almost anticipate his catching hold of one. The gist of the piecemeal talk is that they believe I am a Government doctor, who ought to stay four or five days with them and take over the child’s treatment, and yet the fellow insists that the child will die before next morning. I do not know what they would say or do to the doctor if he undertook to stay and the child died—or if it recovered. It is dismal. They have the idea that the “ Government ” is obliged to do all sorts of things for them, without being clear just what, and that it does not do them. They believe, and try to say so, that I am sent and paid by the Government to treat them. Probably they have heard about the Government medical party that is to examine conditions along the river this summer, and think that I do not want to do or give what is necessary. I give all the possi- ble advice, but there is plainly no inclination to follow it. I offer some medicine; they sneer at medicine. Even the father says he does not understand it or want it. They are all surly and in a dangerous, stupid mood. So there is nothing left but to go away as well as one may. On way down the bank a woman is seen cleaning and cutting fish—knife steel, with wood or ivory handle, of the Chinese and Eskimo type. A porcupine, bloated, and with flies and maggots on it already about the nose, mouth, and eyes, lies next to the woman, and its turn will probably come next after the fish. Have modest lunch—canned pears, a bit of cold bacon left from morning, a bit of cheese, and coffee; and start once more onward. So much beauty here, and such human discord. 3.30 p.m. Passing on right bank a line of bluffs, wholly of loess, about 200 feet high and approximdtely 4 miles long, and as if shaven with knife from top to water’s edge.’ After that flats only on both sides, with but one hill far ahead of us. Motor trouble again—same old pump; but not for long; in half an hour on again. A steamer upward passes us—like a stranger, and power. GaALENA A little town (village), on a flat promontory. An old consump- tive storekeeper—no knowledge of any old implements or skeletal remains. Lowden village moved here due to mine opposite and better site. About 10 Indian houses here; inhabitants now mostly in fish- ing camps. 52 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. is From Galena down, low shores and islands as on the Tanana, as far as can be seen, with mountains, grayish blue, in far distance (and only occasional glimpses). River never less than three-fourths of a mile and sometimes together with its sloughs and islands several miles broad. Some geese; occasional rabbit seen on land; otherwise but little life. First gulls. The Indians at Ruby and Galena show here and there an Eskimoid type, with the younger nearly all mix bloods (with whites). Full bloods of same type as all along the river, brachycephalic, low to moderate high vault of head, moderate to medium (rarely above) stature, medium brown, noses not prominent, concavo-convex, moder- ately convex or nearly straight, Indian cast of the face, but quite a few more or less Eskimoid. Not very bright. Sit in the bottom of the scow, in front, before the stove and make notes. When we stop, jump out to tie the boat; when leaving, push it off. Getting sunburnt dark. Forgetting once again that I have a stomach or any other organ. Only sleep, never fully, much less than ought to; but even that is somehow much more bearable here than it would be at home. 6.45 p.m. Suddenly, after a turn, confronted with a steep rocky promontory about 500 feet high—stratified mud rocks. On side, high above, a tall white cross; learn later an Indian murdered a bishop here. A little farther, on a flat below the slope, a small settle- ment. A remarkable landmark, known as the Bishop’s Rock. After- wards again flats, but some more elevated than before to the left. River like a great looking-glass. Same character of vegetation and colors as farther above, but details varied. At Ruby had made a genuine, effective, Alaska mosquito netting, and so now feel quite independent of the pest; also have two bottles of mosquito oil, which helps. Fortunately on the water we are not bothered. Toward night reach Koyukuk River, and later on, Koyukuk village, a pleasant row of houses, white and native, on a high bank. Here, at last, pass one good night, sleeping under good mosquito netting in the house and on the bed of an Italian trader. Also had good sup- per of salmon, and good breakfast of bacon and eggs, and so feel rested and strong. Friday, June 25. But in the morning the sky is overcast and every now and then there is a loose shower. Of course my boon companions are not ready again until long after 9 o’clock, and then the engine will not go again, so a longer delay. They were inclined, in fact, to “Jay over,” but I urged them on. But they are determined if it rains a bit more to “tie to” somewhere. Fortunately there is no wind. About 3 miles below Koyukuk and its flats, the high bluffs with HRDLICEA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 53 steep more or less shavedlike barren slopes recommence. A gloomy day. About 7 miles down, after a large rocky promontory, a small grave- yard on the side of a hill, with a little native camp about a third of a mile beyond. 10.45 a.m. Beautiful wooded great hills, 400 to 800 feet high, all along the right bank again, with large V-shaped valleys between. A fine, rounded, slightly more than usually elevated island ahead. Left banks flat. Sun coming out a little; cool, but not unpleasant. No more showers, river smooth, boat making time. Blue hazy mountains far to the left front. Hills to right rocky, strata horizontal to warped, mud rocks, broad banks of sandy, gravelly or mucky materials, not consolidated, be- tween hard strata. Now and then a small Indian camp, usually two or three tents, Indians, dogs, boats; some drying fish (not much). 11.00 a.m. Another isolated little graveyard, right slope, near an old camp. There is no possibility now of excavating any of these graveyards, for the Indians are in unpleasant disposition toward the Government for various reasons. But such a place as that near Burchell’s could be excavated as soon as conditions improve. Also that above Ruby and another opposite and just below Ruby. There are no longer any superstructures left at these (or but traces), and the graves, as seen above Ruby, are near (within 2 feet of) the surface. No trace or indication of anything older than the double-grooved ax culture has thus far been seen anywhere in the valley; and large stretches of present banks are quite barren. As we approach Nulato the horizon before us becomes hilly and mountainous. The sun is now fully out and its warmth is very pleasant. Pass an Indian woman paddling a canoe; later an Indian family going upstream in a motor boat. Most of these Indians possess a motor boat of some sort, and know how to run it, though it is not in their nature to be overcareful. Nubato (Pl. 1, b) Arrive midday. Quite a village, as usual along the water front on a high bank. Large fancy modern surface burial ground with brightly painted boxes and flying flags on a hill to the right. Met by local marshal and doctor; my things are taken to a little hospital. Natives here have poor reputation, but now said to be better. Boys nearly all mix bloods. Several men and women show Eskimo type, 54 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 but majority are Indian to somewhat Eskimoid. Soon find they are not very well disposed—want pay for everything, and much pay. Have a few specimens, but to obtain anything from them is diflicult. Have been spoiled. A visit with the marshal to the site of old Nulato on the proxi- mate point; nothing there, just a rabbit’s skull and a lot of mos- quitoes. Photograph old graveyard (that of old Nulato), on the distal point beyond the creek. Mr. Steinhauser, trader, of Czech descent, helpful and kind. But nothing further to do here. Steamer that was to be here to-night or to-morrow will not arive, just learned, until Tuesday (this is Friday) ; and so must engage a little gasoline boat to the next station, Kaltag, 40 miles down the river. Sleep under my new netting in the hospital. In the morning, after parting with doctor and marshal, start 8.30 a.m. Boat little, shaky, run by a half-breed boy of about 18. My old scow with Peake and his companion will stay a day longer. Partly cloudy, warm. Pass flats, and come again to similar shaved-off bluffs like yester- day. We are now running close to the shore so that I can see everything. Flowers, but not many or many varieties. 9.50 a.m. Pass (about 8 miles from Nulato) a few burials (old boxes) on right slope. (Pl. 1, ¢.) Indian camp about one-half mile farther, and a few old abandoned huts and caches. Everything on and along the river about the same as yesterday, except in little details. Sky clouded; light clouds, however. The boy with me has had good schooling (for a native) and is a good informer. But there is little of archeological or anthropological interest hereabouts. (Pl. 2, a. 12.10 p. m. Another rounded island ahead of us; far beyond it grayish-blue hills and mountains. Six miles more to Kaltag. But little life here—a few small birds, a lone robin, a lone gull. KAraG 1.00 p.m. Kaltag in view—a small modern village on right bank, less than half the size of Nulato; a nearly compact row of log and plank houses. Nothing of any special interest seen from distance, and but little after landing. The old village used to be somewhat higher up the river. There is an old abandoned site also just opposite the present Kaltag. Another site, “ Kienkakaiuh,” is, I am told, in the Kaiuh slough south of Kaltag, in a straight line about 10 miles, but no one there; and several other old villages in that region along that slough—same Indians as those of Kaltag. All of Kaltag go there on occasions, but do not live there permanently any more. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE | a, ‘Old Minto” on the Tanana. Indian village. (A. H., 1926) 6, Present Nulato and its cemetery (on hill to right of village) from some distance up the river. (A. H., 1926) c, The Greyling River site, right bank, 22 miles above Anvik; site and graveyard (male skeleton) from top of knoll. (A. Ef., 1926) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 2 a, View on the Yukon from above Kaltag. (A. H., 1926) b, Indian burial ground, Middle Yukon. (A. H., 1926) c, Anvik, from the mission. (A. H., 1926) HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON ; 55 At Kaltag Eskimoid features already predominate and some of those seen are fully like Eskimo. There is a tradition of an Asiatic (Chukchee) attempt at Kaltag once. Later in the afternoon photograph some natives and go with Mr. Miiller, the storekeeper, and Mr. McLeod, the intelligent local teacher, on the latter’s boat, “hunting” along the banks up the stream. Meet an old Indian (Eskimo type) paddling a birch-bark canoe, said to be the only canoe of that sort now on the Yukon. About three-fourths of a mile above the village see caved bank and find a skull and bones— split ” old burial of a woman. A canoe coming, so we all go farther up the beach, pretending to examine stones. It is only the boy who brought me, however, going home with some planks, and he grins knowingly. After that we locate three exposed coffins, two undisturbed and covered with sod. These two, for fear of irritating the natives, are left. But the third is wrapped only in birch bark. It was a power- ful woman. With her a bone tool and a white man’s spoon. With the burial that had tumbled out of the bank there were large blue and gray beads and three iron bracelets—reserved by the teacher. I gather all the larger bones and we put them temporarily in a piece of canvas. It is hard to collect all—the men are apprehensive— it might be dangerous for them if detected. Everything smoothed as much as possible, and we go across the river to examine two fish nets belonging to the trader. One of these is found empty; but the other contains five large king salmon, 15 to 20 pounds each, three crowned, two still alive. The latter are hooked, hoisted to the edge of the boat, killed with a club, and, full of blood, thrown into the boat—great, stout, fine fish. To secrete our other findings from the natives the storekeeper gets a large bundle of grass and ties it to my package. We shall be bringing “ medicine.” _ Arrive home, only to learn that against our information the river boat has left Tanana on schedule time, is now above Koyukuk, and is expected to arrive at Kaltag before 8 p.m. Hurriedly pack, a few more photographs, supper, and the smoke of the steamer begins to be visible. In a little while she is at the bank, my boxes are brought down, a greeting with old friends on the boat—the same boat (Jacobs) on which I went from Nenana to Tanana—and we start off for Anvik. Mr. Miiller, the trader at Kaltag, German by birth, has a young, fairly educated Eskimo wife, a good cook, housekeeper, and mother of one child. The child is an interesting white-Eskimo blend. In his store Mr. Miiller showed me a good-sized heavy bowl of red stone with a figure seated in a characteristic way near one end. The specimen was said to have come from an old site on the Kaiuh and ® 56 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 is of the same type as that at the museum in Juneau and the two in the east, one at the Museum of the American Indian, New York, and the other at the University Museum, Philadelphia. Regret- tably Mr. Miiller would not part with the specimen. (See also p. 34.) The natives of Kaltag, so far as seen, are more Eskimoid than those of any of the other settlements farther up the river. Fine evening; sit with a passenger going to Nome, until late. Learn that the boat to St. Michael is waiting for this boat and will go right on—not suitable for my work. Also we are to stop but a few minutes at Anvik, where I am to meet Doctor Chapman, the missionary. Sunday, June 27. About 5 a. m. arrive in the pretty cove of Anvik. Received on the bank by Doctor Chapman, the head of the local Episcopalian mission and school, and also the Anvik post- master. The doctor for the present is alone, his wife and daughter having gone to Fairbanks, and so he is also the cook and everything. In a few minutes, with the help of some native boys, I am with my boxes in Doctor Chapman’s house, and after the boat has left and the necessities connected with what she left attended to we have breakfast. I am soon made to feel as much as possible “at home,” and we have a long conversation. Then see a number of chronic patients and incurables; attend a bit lengthy service in Doctor Chapman’s near-by little church; have a lunch with the ladies at the school; visit the hill graveyard. They have reburied all the older remains and there is nothing left. Attend an afternoon service and give a talk to the congregation of about half a dozen whites and two dozen more or less Eskimoid Indians on the Indians and our endeavors; and then do some writing, ending the day by going out for about a mile and a half along the banks of the Anvik River, looking in vain for signs of something older, human or animal. (PI. 2, c.) There are many and bad gnats here just now—how bad I only learned later, when I found my whole body covered with patches of their bites; and also many mosquitoes, which proved particularly obnoxious during the lunch. As the doctor is alone, the three excel- lent white ladies of the school, matron and teachers, invited us, as already mentioned, to lunch with them. We had vegetable soup, a bit of cheese, two crackers each, a piece of cake, and tea. But I chose an outlandish chair the seat of which was made of strips of hide with spaces between; and from the beginning of the lunch to its end there was a struggle between the proprieties of the occasion and the mosquitoes that kept on biting me through the spaces in the seat. Chairs of this type, and I finally told that to the ladies to explain my seeming restlessness during the meal, should be outlawed in Alaska. HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 57 Tue Anvik PEOPLE The Anvik people, it will be recalled, were the first Yukon natives seen by a white man. They were discovered in 1834 by Glazunof, and since then have occupied the same site, located favorably on a point between the Anvik and the Yukon Rivers. They belonged to the Inkalik tribe, a name given to them, according to Zagoskin, by the coast people and signifying “lousy,” from the fact that they never cut their hair, which in consequence, presumably, harbored some parasites. Their village was the lowest larger settlement of the Indians on the Yukon, the Eskimo commencing soon after. The Anviks to-day are clearly seen to be a hybrid lot. There are unmistakable signs of a prevalent old Eskimo mixture. The men are nearly all more or less Eskimoid, and even the head is not infre- quently narrower, fairly long, jaws much developed. The women, however, show the Eskimo type less, and the children in a still smaller measure—they are much more Indian. Yet even some women and an occasional child are Eskimoid—face flat, long, lower jaw high, cheek bones prominent forward (like welts on each side of the nose), whole physiognomy recalling the Eskimo. The more Indianlike types resemble closely those of the upper Yukon. There is percep- tible, too, some mixture with whites, particularly in the young. To bed about 11. Attic warm and window can not be opened because of the insects. Sleep not very good; some mosquitoes in room anyway. Wake up after 3 and just begin to doze off again when the doctor gets up. About 4 he puts his shoes on—one can hear every sound throughout the frame house, even every yawn— -and then goes to the kitchen where there soon comes the rattling of pots. At 4.30 comes up to bid me good morning and ask me if I am ready to get up and have breakfast. A man with a boat is to be ready at 6 to take me to some old site. So a little after 5 I get up, shave, dress and go down. Another night to make up for sometime, somewhere. We finish breakfast and the doctor goes to look for the man, but everything deadlike, no one stirring anywhere. So I pack my stone specimens from the river above and the bones from Kaltag, etc. It is 8 a. m. and then at last Harry Lawrence, our man, appears— having understood to come about that time—and before long we start, in a good-sized boat, up the Yukon. Day mostly cloudy but fairly good; no wind. Must use mosquito mixture all the time, even after I get on boat, but they quit later. Am standing on the back of the boat against and over the “ house ” over it—inside things shake too much and I can not see enough. Passing by fish wheels—heaps of fish in their boxes—some just being caught and dumped in. Picturesque bluffs passed yesterday 88253 °—30—_5 58 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 seen to be of volcanic stone, near basalt, not granite, with indication of minerals. Passing close to vertical cliffs of fissured and frag- mented rocks 200 to 500 feet high—dangerous. Consolidated vol- canic ashes with inclosure of many bowlders—fine lessons in geology. Slides of soil and vegetation here and there. Large spruces and altogether a richer vegetation since this particular rock region was reached. There was in fact a plain line of demarcation in the vegeta- tion where the rocks changed. Sleepy. Afraid to doze and fall off, so go inside. But there the motor thumps and shakes too much for a nap to be possible. About 12 miles upstream from Anvik, on the north bank, the min- eralized rocks and tufa suddenly cease, to be superseded by a line, several miles long, of sheared-off loess bluffs about 200 feet high. Here the vegetation changes very perceptibly. Two mammoth jaws obtained from these deposits have a few years ago been given to Mr. Gilmore, of the United States National Museum. 22 to 23 miles up the river, north bank, a fine large platform and an old native site. Many signs still of pit and tunnel houses. ) Start back a little after 3. Very warm day. River smooth. Sky looks like there might be a storm later. Hear of pottery—40 years ago it was still made at Anvik. Was black, of poor quality. The women used to put feathers in the clay “to make the pots stronger.” When buried it soon rotted and fell to pieces. In shapes and otherwise it was much like the Eskimo pottery. Its decorations consisted of nail or other impressions, in simple geometrical designs, particularly about the rim. It was rather gross, but better pieces did occur, though rarely. It is becoming plain that there are no known traces of any really old settlements along the present banks of the Yukon; nothing be- yond a few hundred years at most. If there was anything older no external signs of it have been noted, and no objects of it have ever been found. It seems certain that the stone implements thus far seen were used and made by the pre-Russian and probably even later Indians. They all belong to the polished-stone variety. No “ paleo- lithic ” type of instrument has yet been seen. It is also evident that the Eskimo admixture and doubtless also cul- tural influence extended far up the river. The farther down the HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 59 river, particularly from Ruby, the more the Eskimoid physical char- acteristics become marked and the Indian diluted, until at Anvik most, or at least much, physical and cultural, is clearly Eskimo. Have further learned quite definitely that native villages on the Yukon were seldom if ever stable. Have been known (as at Kaltag and elsewhere) to have changed location as much as three times within the last few scores of years, though in general they keep to the same locality in a larger sense of the word. Anvik alone seems to have remained on the old site since the advent of the whites. Anvik, Tuesday, June 29. Last night gave talk on evolution to white teachers, etc. Quite appreciated, regardless of previous state of mentality. Caught up with some sleep, even though my attic room was so hot that the gum from the spruce boards was dropping down on me. Good breakfast with the doctor—canned grapefruit, corn flakes with canned milk, bread toasted in the oven, and coffee. Pack up my Greyling skeleton—much drier to-day—and dispatch by parcel post, through the doctor as postmaster. Photograph school children and village. Gnats bad and have to wear substantial underclothing (limbs are already full of dark red itching blotches where bitten by them) though it is a hot day again. The full-blood and especially the slightly mixed children would be fine, not seldom lovely, were they fully healthy; but their lungs are often weak or there is some other tubercular trouble. The color of the full-bloods, juvenile and others, on the body, is invariably submedium to near medium brewn, the exposed parts darker; and the chest test (mine) for full-bloodedness holds true. The young are often good looking; the old rather ugly. All adults fishing now, the fish running much since a day or two; all busy at the fish camps, not many, in the daytime especially, about the mission. At noon air fills with haze—soon recognized as smoke from a fire which is located at only about a mile, and that with the wind, from the mission. We all hasten to some of the houses in the brush— find enough clearing about them for safety. The school here burned two years ago and so all are apprehensive. Natives from across the river hasten to their caches. Luckily not much wind. After lunch children come running in saying they hear thunder; one girl saying in their usual choppy, picturesque way, “ Outside is thunder”; another smaller one says, “It hollers above.” Before long a sprinkle and then gradually more and more rain until there is a downpour followed by several thunderclaps (as with us) and then some more rain. That, of course, stops the fire from ap- proaching closer and all is safe. Such storms are rare occurrences hereabouts. 60 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 45 My limbs are a sight from the gnats. Must apply Aseptinol. Worse than any mosquitoes; like the worst chiggers. Poisonous— some hemolytic substance, which causes also much itching, especially at night. Arrange to leave to-morrow. Good people these, unpretentious, but white through and through. Mr. Lawrence, the local trader, who with his boy was with me yesterday, is going to take me to an old site down the river and then to Holy Cross. Donates a fine old ivory arrow point from the site mentioned. Doctor Chapman gives three old dishes and two stone axes—haft on one of recent manufacture. The natives seem to have nothing of this nature, and no old site is near. The nearest is Bonasila, where we go to-morrow. This is truly a fish country. Along the placid Anvik River fish smell everywhere—dead fish on shore here and there, or fish eggs, or offal. Wednesday, June 30. Hazy and cool, 52° F. Take leave with friend, Doctor Chapman, then at school, and leave 8 a. m. for Bonasila. The gnat pest was bad this morning—could hardly load my bag- gage; had to apply the smear again, but this helps only where put and for a time only. Bonastna Close to 10 a. m. arrive at the Bonasila site. Not much— just a low bank of the big river, not over 4 feet high in front, and a higher rank grass-covered flat with a little stream on the left and a hill on the right. But the flat is full of fossae of old barabras (pit and tunnel dwellings), all wood on surface gone; and there is a cemetery to the right and behind, on a slope. Examine beach and banks minutely until 12. Modest lunch—two sandwiches, a bit of cake and tea—and then begin to examine the shore again. Soon after arrival finding bones of animals, some partly fossilized; beaver, deer, caribou, bear, fox, dog, ete., all species still living in Alaska, as found later, though no more in the immediate neighborhood. Mosquitoes and gnats bad—use lot of oil. Begin soon to find remarkably primitive looking stone tools, knockers, scrapers, etc. Crawl through washed-down trees and brush. Many stones on the beach show signs of chipping or use. Very crude—a protolithic in- dustry; but a few pieces better and showing polished edge. Also plenty of fragments of pottery, not seldom decorated (indented). Make quite a collection. And then, to cap it, find parts of human skeleton, doubtless washed out from the bank. Much missing, but a HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 61 good bit recovered, and that bit is very striking. (See p. 156.) Also a cut bone (clean cut, as if by a sharp knife) in situ in the mud of the bank, and a little birch-bark basket still filled with mud from the bank, with later a larger basket of same nature in situ; could save but a piece. Conditions puzzling. Was there an older site under one more recent ? 2p.m. About 2 p. m. go to the cemetery. About a dozen burials recognizable. A pest of mosquitoes and gnats—Lawrence soon bleeds over face and neck, while I keep them off only by frequent smearing. He soon has to smear, too. Open five graves—placed above ground, wooden (split and no nails) boxes covered with earth and sod. Skeletons all in contracted position, head to the east and lying on right side. Some in poor condition. Three women, one man, one child. Gnats swarm in the moss and the graves, and with the smears, here and there a trickle of blood, the killed pests and the dust, we soon look lovely. But there is enough of interest. With each burial appears something—with the man two large blue Russian beads; first woman—a pottery lamp (or dish), iron knife; with the second two fire sticks, stone objects (sharpeners), partly decayed clay dish; with the third, a Russian bead and a birch-bark snuffbox; with the child a “killed” (?) glass bottle of old form and an iron flask; in the grave of an infant (bones gone) a Russian bead. A grave of a child—bones burned. 6.15 p.m. Rest must be left. Lawrence may be enabled to do some work in the fall. Leave 6.15; carry quite a lot—in sacks, gaso- line cans, lard cans. Wonder how I shall be able to send things from Holy Cross, and what next. Cool, sky overcast whole day. Hoty Cross Thursday, July 1. Slept on the floor of a little store last night at Ghost Creek. The Catholic mission at Holy Cross, with all sorts of room, about 1144 miles down, and where, though late and tired, I visited Father Jules Jetté, a renowned student of the dialects of the Yukon Indians, did not offer to accommodate me, and the trader in their village could only offer me a “ bunk” in one little room with three other people. So after 10 p. m. we went down to the “ Ghost Creek,” where I was gladly given a little corner in the store of Alec Richardson. Of course there were whining dogs outside, right next to the store on both sides, and they sang at times (or howled) like wolves, whose blood they seem to carry. And a cat got closed in with me and was pulling dried fish about, which she chewed, most of the night it seemed. So there was not much sleep until from about 5 a. m. to 8.30, after the cat was chased out and the dogs got weary. Then no breakfast till near 9.30. 62 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 Went to mission again to see Father Jetté—he is not of the mis- sion—a fine old Frenchman and scholar. He was not responsible for last night and anyway I was spoiled farther up the river. His meritorious work deserves to be known and published. After a very simple lunch packed yesterday’s collections from the Bonasila site—five boxes. The parcel post here alone will cost $20.40. How odd that the transportation of the collections of a Government institution must be paid for from the little appropria- tion received for scientific work to another department of the same Government. It is cloudy, drizzly, cold. Am endeavoring to leave to-morrow, but they want $35 to the next station, and the boat does not leave for St. Michael until the 11th. Fortunately I am able to send away the collections, and there will surely be some way down the river. Guost Creek July 1-2, 10.30 p.m. .) Unfortunately most of the skeletal re- mains have been collected by a former teacher and then left and lost. With Doctor Jenness and the present teacher, himself an Eskimo, we climb from bowlder to bowlder and collect what remains. The work is both risky to the limbs and difficult in other respects. The large bowlders are piled up many deep; and there being little or no soil, there are all sorts of holes and crevices between and underneath the stones. Deep in these crevices, completely out of sight or reach, nest innumerable birds (the little auk), and their chatter is heard every- where. But into these impenetrable crevices also have fallen many of the bones and skulls of the bodies that have been “ buried ” among the bowlders, and also doubtless many of the smaller articles laid by the bodies. The burials here were made in any suitable space among the rocks. The body was laid in this space, without any coffin and evidently not much clothing. About it and on the rocks above were placed various articles. We found clay lamps, remnants of various wooden objects, the bone end pieces of lances, and finally one or two pieces of driftwood to mark the place. Here the bodies decayed and what was left had either tumbled or was washed by rain into the crevices. It was suggested, however, that much may have been taken by dogs and foxes. Some of the skulls and here and there one of the larger bones remained, to eventually be covered by moss and eroded. With the help of Doctor Jenness and the teacher I was able to find five male and seven female crania in fair condition, which will be of much value in the study of this interesting contingent of the Eskimo. No evidence in the graveyard among the rocks of any great an- tiquity, nothing more than perhaps a few scores of years. But traces of older burials would surely be completely lost among the rocks, though they may lie in the deep crevices and holes where they can not be reached. Upon return am treated to a cup of good hot coffee—never can get a real hot cup of coffee on the boat—and excellent bread, made by the Eskimo wife of the teacher; and see his family of fine chubby 96 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 children. Can not help but kiss his girl of about 10—she is so fresh and innocent and pretty. Obtain also from the wife of the teacher a good old hafted “jade” ax, though she hesitates much to part with it—it used to belong to her grandmother; and from the teacher himself a number of interesting articles in old ivory. Leave Doctor Jenness. Have learned to like him much, both for his careful work and personally, in our short association; and at 11 a. m. return to the boat. Cold, but calm and sunny. Sit on boxes at the very end of the good old Bear, See Asia, the two Diomedes, and Seward Peninsula, all in easy reach, all like so many features of a big lake. Pass around Greater Diomede. There never could have been any large settlement on the Diomede Islands—they are not fit for it. The Great Diomede has just two mediocre sites, which are occupied now each by about half a dozen dwellings. A small old settlement, a few stone houses, has also once existed, I am told, on the elevated top of the larger island op- posite the Little Diomede. On the latter only the one visited—every- where else the steep slopes or walls come right down into the water, and there is even no landing possible (or only a precarious one at best) except where we landed. The old natives of the Little Diomede are said to have believed that another village had once existed farther out from the present site and that it has become submerged. The evidence cited (told by the native teacher) is not conclusive, and no indication of such a settlement could be seen from the beach. But in front and possibly beneath the native houses, in the old refuse, there may be remnants of older dwellings. Just passed from Monday to Tuesday, and then back to Monday, all in a few hours—the day boundary. We are now just north of the Bering Strait and see all beautifully, in moderate bluish haze. A grand panorama of utmost anthropological interest. A big lake, scene of one of the main migrational episodes of mankind. Sea just wrinkling some, day calm, mostly sunny, mildly pleasant, with an undertone of cold. How trivial feel here the contentions about the possibilities of Asiatic migrations into America. There can be no such problem with those who have seen what we now are witnessing. Here is a great open pond which on such days as this could be traversed by anyone having as much as a decent canoe. As a matter of fact it has always been and is still thus traversed. (PI. 6, a.) The Chuk- chee carried on a large trade with America, so much so that we find the Russians complaining of their interfering with their trade. (Pl. 6, 6, ¢.) The Diomede people stand in connection on one hand with the northeastern Asiatics and on the other hand with the whites BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 5 a, Cape Prince of Wales from the southeast. (A. H., 1926) 6, Village and cemetery slope, Little Diomede. (A. H., 1926) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 6 a, Asiaties departing for Siberia from the Little Diomede Island. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926) KA : . . b, ““Chukehis”’ loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia. (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926) c, “‘Chukchis”’ loading their boat with goods on Little Diomede Island, before departure for Siberia, (Photo by D. Jenness, 1926) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 7 a, Eskimos from East Cape arriving at Nome, Alaska 6, East Cape of Asia (to the southward). (Photo by Joe Bernard) Coz6t “H “Vv Aq ‘UL "BZ 38 TAyR,L) SASYVWHSIHS LV NAWOM SAO dNOYS Vv 8 ALVId LYOdaY TWONNV HLXIS-ALYOA ADOTONHLA NYOIMSNY JO NYAYN HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 97 as far as Nome, where most of them go every summer to sell their ivory and its products and bring back all sorts of provisions. And in the same way the King Islanders come every summer to Nome, on the east end of which, as the Diomedes on the west, they have their summer habitations. (Pl. 7, a, 6.) Only a year or two ago, the natives tell, an Eskimo woman of St. Lawrence Island set out alone in a canoe with her child to visit a cousin on the Asiatic coast, 50 miles distant, and returned safe and sound after the visit was over. To bed dressed—the captain tells me we shall soon be at Shish- maref, on the north shore of the Seward Peninsula, and that he will have me called, if I want to visit the village. Awake 11.30 p.m. At 11.45 word comes that we have arrived and a boat is getting ready. On deck in five minutes. Of course it is still light—there is no real night any more in these regions. Have a cinnamon roll—the night specialty for the crew on the Bear—and a bow! of coffee. The natives, two boats full, already coming, and a fine full-blooded lot they show themselves to be. They are accompanied by Mr. Wegner, a big, pleasant young teacher. Leave natives trading and set off in ship’s boat. The Bear is anchored about 114 miles off. Fortunately fairly quiet or we should not be able to go ashore. Teacher and a young English-speaking native go with us. We have the launch and the skin whaleboat. Anchor first off shallow beach and transfer into the skin boat for the landing. Tuesday, July 27. It is about 12.30 a. m. Many native women, youngsters, and some men gather about us at the school. Talk to them-—explain what I want, which is mainly skulls and bones—all quite agreed. Take two young natives, some bags, and proceed to where they lead me. Find, about half a mile from the present village, a big and im- portant old site, which existed up to the white man’s time. But dunes on which burials were made and house sites have been largely graded by a fox-farm keeper and trader, Mr. Goshaw. He. had gathered many skulls—shows me a photo of two rows, at least 40— will not tell what he did with them. Says he sent “ many things to the Smithsonian,” but can give no details, “and to the universities,” but will not mention which. Also “ buried a lot.” Bad business. Gathering what is possible from the débris thrown out by the Eskimo working for the fox farm, we proceed rapidly from mound (dune) to mound. Find burials still on the surface in situ—i. e., nearly buried by the rising carpet of the vegetation—but skulls gone. Many of those on remaining heaps imperfect, but at least something can be saved. Collect all that is worth collecting. See Mr. Goshaw— 98 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 get but little out of him. Donates a few archeological specimens of no great value—has no more. We hurry on to the other village and burial ground, almost a mile west of the present settlement. Find only a small pile of bones, with one whole male skeleton of fairly recent date. Then back, as fast as possible, the Indians carrying the bags with bones, and load on boat. My shoes and feet have long since become thoroughly wet, after which Mr. Wegner loaned me wool socks and native shoes that protected my feet. But now these must be left behind and I have to get into my wet, cold shoes—socks too wet. Officers in a hurry to get back. It is now 3.00 a. m.; the sun rose about 1.80. Pay my men, change shoes, photograph women (pl. 8) and then men—all pleasant and willing. See a few poor articles of archeological nature—not worth getting; and after a hearty hand- shake with the teacher we take off through the somewhat rougher water to the whaleboat, then on to the motor boat and the ship. Ar- rive with six bags of specimens, reaching boat just a little after 4. Sleepy captain meets us, but luckily shows no grudge, though this stop and his loss of sleep were essentially for me. Though it would seem they could have readily waited for our going ashore until morn- ing, or have given me a little more time at the Diomedes, which would have brought us here later. Am too much awake now and worked up to sleep. Lie down a while but fully awake. Total sleep last night 21% hours. But it was worth it, except for the vandalism. Pack—inadequate boxes—until 3.30 p.m. Whole collection made last night put in order. But back and knees stiff. Weather two- thirds fair (my own estimate), some wind, sea choppy. Lie down but can not sleep. At 5.30 off Kotzebue. Due to shallowness of water must anchor far out of sight. At 6 go to land in ship’s larger launch. Waves rather bad, much tossing about and spray, have to get behind the canvas canopy that is raised over one seat. It is 15 miles from where the ear is anchored to the Kotzebue village—over two hours of (at times) rather violent tossing up and down and sidewise. Run for a part of the time not far from beach—a number of isolated, orderly fish camps—lots of fish drying. Wonder at not getting seasick again—it must be the open air or difference of movement. Kotzebue village les around a point on a not very high, flat bank, facing the bay of three rivers (Selavik, Kobuk, Noatak). As we ap- proach I count over 50 clean tents of Eskimos, about 15 frame houses and stores, and many skin and other boats on beach or in water. Many natives hurry to meet us. Go ashore. Thomas Berryman, the trader, with the local judge and two or three other whites come also to meet us. After getting ac- MRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 99 quainted inquire about possibility of exploring the Kobuk and reach- ing the Koyukuk and Yukon. But all that I learn is uncertain and discouraging. There are but few native villages on the river, all Es- kimo; and higher up the water is rapid, necessitating much hauling of the boat by the natives, which is costly; upon which follow three or four days’ portage. The trip would cost much, and no loads over 40 pounds to a man could be carried. Only a few old sites hereabouts are known by those whom I have a chance to ask. Say there is a somewhat important one at Cape Krusenstern. Mr. Berryman has from there a big stone (slate) lance. He also has a huge piece of serpentine, over 80 pounds in weight, with a moderate depression in top and some cutting (old native work), said to have been used as a lamp. Wants to keep this and spearhead, but donates an old rusty tin box full of smaller things and promises to obtain skulls for us; and I get a similar promise from a man (probably one of Mr. Berryman’s storekeepers) from farther up the country. Later meet here Mr. Chance, the school superintendent of these parts; a young and not prepossessing man, but one who steadily improves on closer acquaintance. Learn from him of a skeleton recently dug out from the ground under the schoolhouse. See many natives, all Eskimo, good looking, clean, and kind. Some mix bloods, but the majority pure. Good to moderate stature, well proportioned though not fat body, medium to somewhat lighter brown color, physiognomies less typical Eskimo than hitherto and often strongly like Indian. Too late and dusky to photograph. Go to see the teacher and find that the skeleton ke dug out was placed by him in an open box, pushed as far as possible under the rafters of the floor of the schoolhouse and covered with gravel and earth. There are four of us—start hurriedly digging for it, remove with shovel, hoe and arms about a ton of the “ filling ”—and can not reach the box. It is 10 p. m., the wind rising, officer comes and urges me to get back to the boat. So must leave with promise that the box will be gotten out and await me on our return from the north. Have by this time decided the best policy will be to go with the Bear as far as she may go. Load empty boxes, some pack- ing—and one of the young white men who have been digging with us runs up from the distant schoolhouse announcing that they “ struck” the box. Urge him to run back as fast as he can and get it. Luckily the postmaster and a good many others who came to see us off delay us; also the transfer of the mail and boxes to the larger boat. Finally, after a good many anxious looks, I see at last the two young men appear, one with a wheelbarrow on which is the box of bones. Bones look not very old, and Eskimoid at first sight, but 100 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 take box, which contains a good deal of gravel, carry it through the very interested Eskimo to the boat, all get in, hurried good-bys to everybody, and we are off. A two and a half hours’ trip once more, and the last more than half of it very rough. Such tossing and dancing and dipping and twisting, with the spray, fortunately not cold, shooting high up at times, or an angry wave splashing over. But the boat is large and strong and so eventually we reach the Bear, which was completely out of sight until about an hour after we started, and in a few min- utes off we go to the north. A little fruit, bed, and know nothing more until near 7 the next morning. It was a long day—over 25 hours in a stretch without a wink. Yet did not feel bad; the work and good nature of people about and those met with, with some success, are good tonics. Wednesday, July 28. All of us have to consult the calendar to be sure of the day and date. Sort and wash Berryman’s specimens—a nice lot of little things, mainly of stone, slate, flint, ete. Then go after my bones. Find the spray made the earth and gravel in the box thoroughly wet, so that it is necessary carefully to excavate all the bones. Find a male, rather short-statured, typically Eskimo. May have been a burial of the Russian times. Wire for all details. Must dry bones. Meanwhile try to catch up with notes. Toward evening expect to be in another village. Weather fair. Have passed the Arctic Circle during night, but it is not cold nor in any way strange here. Sunset coloring lasts long and passes into that of sunrise—no real night, no stars; but moon seen late at nignt and far to the south. May this weather continue, for in rough weather landing at any of these places—there are no harbors whatever and always shallows and bars and shoals—would be extremely risky or impossible and my work, for which I feel ever more eager, would suffer. If only I could see all worth seeing, and stay a little longer when I find what I am after. We reach Kevalina. It is just a schoolhouse and about seven sod houses. Only a native school teacher, from whom I do not get much. No remains or old site very near, but an old village, with “ good many things,” exists on the Kevalina River within a few hours’ dis- tance (by canoe) from Kevalina. Natives bring old adzes (mounted by them, however), and a har- poon handle from the old site—bought. Spend rest of day in washing, sorting, and packing specimens. After supper am invited to the officers’ room and given by Lieut. M, C. Anderson a fine selection of old ivory harpoon heads and other HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 101 things. Many of these are from the old site on the St. Lawrence Island, and especially from little isles off that island named Punuk. All this strengthens the importance of those islands for regular exploration. Thursday, July 29. In anticipation of being called up again dur- ing the night, at Point Hope, which is evidently another importanv spot for archeological exploration, for the natives are said to bring many old articles for sale each year, I do not undress and go to bed earlier, but have, because of the anticipation, closeness of air, and a cat jumping on my face just as I am dozing off, a very poor night; and no call came after all. In the morning there are cold showers, the sky is much clouded, and the wind keeps on blowing from the north-northwest, threatening, the officers say, to drive the ice toward this shore, which would be bad for us. It is cool and disagreeable. We have anchored to the south of the spit on which stands the vil- lage and can not unload or get ashore. Nor can the natives come here to us. The village consists of a schoolhouse, a little mission (Rey. F. W. Goodman), an accumulation of houses, semisubterraneans, and tents. A few tents are also seen a good distance to the right—a reindeer camp. Otherwise there is nothing but the long, low, sandy, and grassy spit projecting far out into the ocean. Later. The north-northwest still blows, and so the ship has to anchor to the south of the long spit on the point of which is the vil- iage. Of this but little can be seen, just a few houses, and it seems near and insignificant. The captain is evidently waiting again for the natives to come out, and I am helpless. Finally, however, a boat is made ready and I am taken to the shore with the mail. This is piled on the beach, and with two officers we start to wall toward the dwellings opposite to us, which are the mission. Heavy walking in the loose sand and gravel of the steep beach, and as we ascend it is seen the buildings which seemed so near to the shore are about a mile or more away. A man coming toward us—the missionary, Archdeacon Goodman. Tell him my mission; says he has some business on the ship, but will come, and there will be no trouble in helping me to a “ good deal of what I want,” which sounds fine. In the absence of the missionary, go to see the teacher. The school is over a mile in the direction toward the point. Find him at home and helpful. In 15 minutes, with his aid, engage two native boys, give two sacks to each, and send them out over the long flats (old beaches) to pick up every skull and jaw they can find. They go cheerfully, and we depart shortly after to see Mr. La Voy, a movie- picture man, who has been staying here for some time making movie 102 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 pictures of the natives, and at the same time collecting all the antiquities they could bring him. We go to see his collection, but find him not home; has gone for mail. The rare mail in these regions is, of course, the most important of events. So back to the school (a good many rods from the sod house part of the native village to the left), and then—it is now near noon—to the mission, a good mile from the school and more from the village. Road staked on one side with whale ribs about 2 rods distance. Flats on both sides show many parts of bleached human bones. They are a part of the old extensive burial grounds. Unfortunately, about two years ago the predecessor of the present missionary had most of the skulls and bones collected and put in a hole in the new cemetery, now seen in the distance to the right of the mission. This new burial place is surrounded by a unique whale-rib fence. Reach mis- sion, but no one there. Does not look good. Try one building and door after another—no one—learn later that the missionary has no family. Twenty minutes to 1. Nothing remains but to go back to the school for some lunch. So leave my raincoat, camera, and re- maining bags (expecting to do main work on the buried bones) and hurry back to the school, which I reach just after 1, and, thanks to their late clock, just in time for a modest lunch, but with a real hot cup of coffee. Queer that the only genuinely hot cups of coffee I got on this journey were furnished by Eskimo—for Mrs. Moyer, the wife of the teacher, is an Eskimo. Then comes the mail and Mr. La Voy, and I go to gee the latter’s collection. Find a mass of old and modern material, of stone, bone, and wood. All the older things are from an old site on the point. It is an important and large site, as found later (at least 50 houses), which the natives (getting coffee, tea, chewing gum, chocolate, candy, ete., for what they find) are now busy digging over and ruining for scientific exploration. Women dig as well as men, confining them- selves to from 2 to 3 uppermost feet that have thawed; but even thus finding a lot of specimens. Bones, of course, and other things are left and no observation whatever on the site is made. It is a pity. Mr. La Voy donates some stone objects, mainly scrapers, and then I go with a native he employs to the “ diggings.” Find much already turned over—one woman actually digging—but very much more still remaining. Examine everything—site evidently not ancient but of the richest—and then return with the woman to get some of her “ cullings.” On the way am called by a man whose sod house (semisubter- ranean) we pass. We sit on the top of his house and soon establish a regular trading place, with a big flat stone as a counter. One HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 103 after another the native women and men bring out a few articles, good, bad, or indifferent, lay them on the stone, I select what I want, lay so much money against the articles, and usually get them. Everybody in the best of humor. The natives surely enjoy the sport, and so do I, if only I was not hurried. Thus trade for at least an hour until my pockets are bulging. Then once more to the school and once more to the mission. In the latter get my things, as nobody is there yet, Doctor Goodman having doubtless been de- layed on the boat. I hear that there are prospects of both him and Mr. La Voy going north with us on a little vacation. Send the coat with spare bags to the school by a native I meet, while I go to look at the rib cemetery and photograph it. Find the bones have been interred in its middle and a low mound raised over them, so there is for the moment nothing to do there. Therefore go over the plain a little farther, picking up a few odds and ends, a damaged skull, and finally, from a fairly recent burial box, a fine skull with its lower jaw. Then attempt to pass a pool of water and sink in the mud to above my rubber boots, so that the icy water runs in, wetting me thoroughly, and gurgling henceforth with every step in the shoes. Try to get these off but can not. The feet must be congested. So spill out all I can by raising the feet, and then do some hard walking which takes away the cold. Evening, though no dusk approaching. Sit on gravel to empty more water from shoes, but can still hardly get one off. And just as I succeed I see, across another long pool, two men, one with a cap of an officer of the ship, waving their arms, evidently signifying to me that the time is up and I am to return. Call to them to wait. Impossible to make them hear me or for me to hear them. All here is elusive—enchantedlike—distances, sounds. Finally they stop. I catch up with them after passing a broad ditch and learn that the ship is about to sail and they are waiting for me. My coat, however, and collections are still at the school, over a mile away, so once more it is necessary to hurry to the school and then back to the ship. So things go when promises go wrong and one is alone under a constant apprehension. The boys collected four bags full. Moreover, they undertook to bring them toward the boat, and are bringing the last two just as I approach the beach. There are Eskimos on the beach with dog teams and sledges waiting to cart off what was unloaded from the ship. Photograph one of the teams and then on into the boat and to the Bear with the four bags, a box full, part of another bag, and all pockets full of specimens. Only to learn when we reach the boat that both Doctor Goodman and Mr. La Voy are going with us and that the former after supper is still to go and get his things 104 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 from the mission. I have no boat to go back with, and so lose several hours. July 30. Gloomy morning, windy, cool, sea not good. Do not feel easy. But need to pack. One of the officers, Boatswain Berg, lends me his short sheepskin coat, and I pack up to lunch. The sea is getting worse. Have but little lunch and soon after have to take to bed or would again be sick. To avoid the pitching of the end of the boat where my bed is I go to the dispensary and lie until 6. From 6 on the sea moderates somewhat, so that I am able to have a little supper. After that go to officers’ wardroom, play two games of checkers with the doctor, get some more specimens from two of the officers, and retire. When I boarded the Bear it became plain to me that I must earn as much as possible the sympathetic understanding of my work by both the officers and the crew, and so I gave two talks, one to the officers and the other to the men, telling them of our problems in Alaska, of the meaning and value of such collections as I was making, and of other matters that I felt would be useful on this occasion. As a result I had throughout the voyage nothing but the friendliest feel- ings of all and their cooperation. Sincere thanks to the officers and the crew of the Bear, from the captain downward. Saturday, July 31. At 4.30 a.m. suddenly a heavy bump forward, followed by several smaller ones. Ship rises and shivers. Have struck ice floes. Going very slowly. Further bumps at longer or shorter intervals and, occasionally the ship stops entirely. Sea fortunately much calmer. Up at 7. We are in a loose field of ice—aquamarine-blue ice covered with hillocks of snow, all shapes and sizes, as after a hard winter on the Hudson, only floes mostly larger and especially deeper. Soon after breakfast hear walrus and seals had been observed on the ice, and shortly before 9 the captain comes down hurriedly to tell us they have just spied—they now have a man in the crow’s nest up on the foremast—a white bear. Run up—everybody pleasurably excited—to the front of the ship. See a black-looking head of something swimming toward a large ice floe about 500 yards in front of us. As we approach the head reaches the floe, then a big yellowish paw comes out upon the ice, then the shoulders, and finally the whole bear. The officers hurry forward, 2ach with a gun. Soon men all there. Some one fires. Bear stands broadside watching us. The bullet goes way over. Then other shots—still missing—water spouting high in many places. Bear bewildered, does not know what to do, lopes off a little here and there, stops again, looking at us, and now—we are less than 100 yards from him it seems—a bullet strikes him above the loin—we can see him jerk HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 105 and the red spot following. He runs clumsily, but other shots follow, some seemingly taking effect, and then he drops, first on his belly. then, twisting, turns over on his back. A few more movements with his paws and head, and he lies still, quite dead. Can not but feel sorry for the poor bear, who did not know why he was being killed, and had no chance. A motor boat is lowered and goes to get him. They find on the floe the remains of a seal on which he fed. Tie a rope to him, drag him into the water, tow him to the Bear, which has stopped and where all stand on the bows in expectation and with all sorts of cameras, and prepare to hoist the brute aboard. Captain says it is the second case of this nature in 20 years. Ropes are fastened about the big body, attached to a winch, and the big limp form is hauled up, though not without some difficulty, due to its size and weight. All stand about him, examine, photograph. They will let the natives at Wain- wright skin it and give them the flesh. It is a middle-sized, full- grown male. It shows only two wounds, the one in the side and one where the bullet passed through his mouth, knocking out one of the canines. Cold—must put on second suit of underwear. Very gloomy, but storm abated. No land in sight—above Cape Lombard all is flat. It rains in that direction. We meander among the floes, now and then bumping and shivering. Should a wind come up and blow the ice landward we would be in danger of being closed in and stopped or delayed. Evening. Arrive off Wainwright. Village recent—older site 20 miles away. People the usual type of Eskimo. Visit the village, but soon return. After supper the boat stops—fear the ice. Another passenger is added here, Jim Allen, the local trader, with a bagful of white fox skins and a bear skin. Conditions becoming a bit crowded. Sunday, August 1. No movement to-day. They are apprehensive of the ice, and so we stay here, the one place of all where there is nothing for me to do. Of course there are the natives, but with the constant uncertainty as to when we shall start and a lack of facilities I can not do much with them. The weather is quiet but still cloudy, though the sun may possibly peep out. Ice seen in the offing. Would be more interesting to be in it, as yesterday. The bear has been skinned, cut up, and we shall try some of its flesh at noon. Rest of day quiet but still mostly cloudy, though occasionally a little of pale, lukewarm sun. At 3.30 give lecture to the officers and fellow passengers on the subject of evolution. Seems quite appreciated. Reading, writing, and walking the deck fills the time. Ate a little of the bear meat—some- 88253°—30——8 106 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 what tough, otherwise not much different from reindeer or even beef. If better prepared (especially roasted on coals) would be quite palatable. Yesterday there were several flurries of snow, none to-day, but air cold enough to make a long stay outside disagreeable. Toward evening Captain announces that he is going to try to reach Barrow, about 80 miles northeastward, and soon after supper we start. He also tells me we may be there at or not long after mid- night and so to be ready, for the boat will be unable to stop more than an hour or two. As the only place where a few skulls and bones may be found is about 1144 miles outside of the village and it takes a good 30 minutes to make a mile over the tundras, I shall have to rush once more. But I am promised a man to help me. August 2. With clothes on, and anticipation, slept poorly. Ship stopped about 1 a. m. and I imagined we were off Barrow. But on rising find that we have gone on and then backward again, encoun- tering ever more ice. It is cold and foggy outside, and cloudy and gloomy. We now meander among the big floes, now and then bump into one until the whole ship heaves and shivers, and occasionally the siren, stop for a while to diminish the shock. We are now on way back to Wainwright. If we only could go as far back as Point Hope, where there is so much of interest. I might have stayed over, but would surely have reproached myself for missing the remainder of the coast. Back off Wainwright, cold, windy, sky gloomy as usual. Late in the afternoon go with the trader to land, to visit the site of an older village, about a mile down the shore. Walk along the beach. Cold wind, raincoat stiffens. Walrus meat and blubber chunks (slabs, etc.) along the beach at several places, also a large skinned seal. Traces, as one nears the village, of worked stones, but all waterworn and no finished objects. At one place in bank, about 3 feet deep, a layer of clear blue ice about 20 inches thick—strangely pure ice, not frozen earth or even inclusion of any dirt or gravel. Village site small, along the edge of the low (about 10 feet) bluff. Count remains of eight dwellings. Some animal bones, but nothing else on surface or in vicinity. Burial place not seen. Companion says there is nothing. A simple supper at the trader’s, prepared by his Eskimo wife, and good company: Doctor Smith, of the Geological Survey, with two of his men; Jim Allen, the storekeeper, a big, good-hearted fellow; La Voy, the big, active movie man, who knows all the gossip and enjoys telling it with embellishment; and two men of the trader. Menu: Soup, boiled reindeer meat, underdone biscuits, coffee. After supper go to a meeting at the school, where our missionary, Doctor Goodman, is to talk to the natives. Large schoolroom IRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 107 crowded. I talk through an interpreter—a serious disadvantage— on cleanliness. Fine study for me on the many present, though like elsewhere on such occasions they are mainly women and children. Good many Indianlike faces, though cheekbones more prominent and more flatness between them. But hair, low foreheads, eyes (ex- cept in children where they are more superficial, less sunken, and with more epicanthus than in Indians), lips, and other character- istics the same as in Indians. Some of the faces are strong, many among the younger pleasant, some of the young women handsome. A moderate number of mix bloods, even among the adults. Color of skin in full bloods medium to submedium brown, exactly as in full-blood Indians along the Yukon, but cheeks more dusky red. The behavior of these people is in all important points radically that of the Indian, but they are more approachable and open and matter-of-fact people. More easily civilized. Good mechanics. Less superstitious, more easily converted to white man’s religion. And good singers. Their singing at the meeting in the schoolhouse would have shamed a good many whites in this respect. Except for epidemics, I am told, these natives would more than hold their own in numbers. They are fecund, if conditions are right. Sterility is rare. They marry fairly young. August 3. Still standing, though we had to pull out farther south and away from the shore. The water was pretty rough and I had to go to bed again, but weather moderated. We are in touch with the world through the ship’s radio, but get more trash—same all through the radio service in Alaska—than serious news. Spend time in reading, talking; some play solitaire games; captain and Allen play cribbage. Deck too small for any outside games, even if it were not so cold. Ice floes floating about us, now scarce, now thicker; water splashing against them and wearing them out into pillared halls, mushrooms, and other strange forms. Due to their snow covering, the water upon them, so far as it results from melting, is sweet, and in it swim many small fishes. It snowed a bit again to-day. August 4. No change, except that the sea is somewhat calmer, and for a while we have once more seen the sun, but it was hazy and just mildly warm, while the same wind, from the sea, even though row subdued, has an icy undertone. It snowed a little this morning. Thursday, August 5. Sea calm, atmosphere hazy, but the wind has turned at last slightly offshore and the sun penetrates through the mists, until it conquers and shines, warm and bright if not wholly clear, once more. Ice visible only on the horizon. At 7.15 we start on another effort to reach Barrow. Pass Wainwright, and all is well until after lunch, when fog (though fortunately not thick) develops and the floes increase until 108 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 they are as thick as at the first attempt in this same region. Heavy bumps and strains follow one another and the boat must often go very slow or even stop altogether. Sometimes the heavy ship just staggers from the impact, but the floes are generally broken by the shock and swirl away out of our way, or scraping the ship pass to the rear. All aboard show new interest and energy. The forced stops and inaction were dulling even to the crew. File a wireless to be sent from Barrow. It will reach Washington to-morrow after we shall have started on the return journey. Two dogs on board fight fiercely. An officer, the owner of one, trying to separate them is bitten by his own through a finger. A marine, in swinging the heavy lead with which they are con- stantly sounding the depth, gets the cord caught about his hand and suffers a bad sprain with fracture. The captain’s little black cat, Peter, helps to entertain us by his antics. No wonder sailors in their often monotonous existence like all sorts of mascots. Friday, August 6. Of course our dates got mixed, and more than one has to consult the calendar and count. The Bear had to turn back once more last night; ice too heavy. Anchored, however, not far to south. This morning very cloudy, rainy, chilly, but wind from near to east, and so from about 6 a. m. we are once more labori- ously on our way. Now and then a bump, heave, stagger, then again the screw resumes its cheerful song. We are passing through the most dangerous part of all the coast here where many vessels have been lost, sometimes whole small fleets of whalers. But very few come here now—we have seen but one since leaving Kotzebue. They call this stretch “ the boat graveyard.” Saturday, August 7. Stalled, about 30 miles from Barrow. An- chored in the protection of a great grounded flat, in a clear pond of water, with ice all around it, but especially seaward, where the pack seems solid. Some open water reported beyond it, but wind (wild) keeps from the wrong quarter and the captain will make no further attempt until conditions change. Of course it is cloudy again and has rained some during the night and morning, but the temperature is somewhat higher, so that one does not need an overcoat and gloves, although the officers wear their sheep-lined short coats which are nice and warm. After noon asked the captain for the skin whaleboat to explore the shore. The latter is nearly a mile distant and shows about 60 feet high dirt bluffs. Got the boat and went with the boatswain, Berg, a young “hand,” Weenie, and the movie man, La Voy. Rowed with La Voy. Had a wholesome two and a half hours exploring. Found a little stream, with traces of native deer camp HRDLICKA] WRITER'S TRIP ON YUKON 109 (collected two seal skulls) ; a moderate number of flowers and grasses (collected some mushrooms) ; some fossil shells from the bluffs; and two Eskimo burials. One of these, a woman, nearly all washed away and lost; of the other, a man, secured the skull, jaw, one shoulder blade and part of a diseased femur with corresponding socket (mushroom arthritis), also the two humeri. A good specimen. Re- turned, rowing again, near 4. All there playing cribbage and solitaire. Am tempted to walk to Barrow; but there are some streams in the way which it might be impossible to ford. Moreover, no one knows the distance. Sunday, August 8. Morning finds us once more thwarted, and standing at our place of refuge. No change in conditions, but there will be a change of moon to-night, so I at least have hopes. In my travels I learned too much about the moon not to believe in it. Toward evening ice begins to move out. Monday, August 9. At 12.30 a. m., unexpectedly, a new start. The wind has turned at last (new moon!) to northeast, but is mild. Soon in ice. Many bumps and much creaking and shaking. Cap- tain’s collie gets scared and tries to get into our beds, one after another. But very little sleep under these conditions. In the morning we find ourselves in a thicker ice field than any before, with floes on all sides. Boat barely creeps. Toward 10 a. m. further progress found almost impossible, and so forced to turn back- ward once more. However, can not even go back and so, near 12, anchor about a mile offshore opposite a small river with lagoonlike mouth and two tents of natives—‘ Shinara,” or “ Shinerara.” Ask captain for a boat to visit and explore the coast. Consents, and so at 1 we go forth, about eight of us, with the captain’s dog. Reach Eskimo, photograph the group. All look remarkably Indian- like. Then go to look for skeletal material. Nothing near, so return fot the Eskimo boy. He leads me about a mile over the highland tundra to two burials in boxes—not old. Look through crevices shows in one an adolescent, in the other a female (or a boy) with hair and skin still on. Leave both. y Then into the boat once more after buying some fossil teeth, and with the boy Isaac—his father is Abraham—try to go into the river, and soon get stuck in the stickiest mud (oily shale) imaginable— great work to clean even the oar with which we had to push ourselves off. Land then on the beach and for the next two hours explore that side of the basin. Find remains of two small settlements— seven huts in all, none very old. Gather five skulls with parts of four skeletons, most bones missing ; also some mushrooms, several interesting humeri of seals, and a piece 110 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 of pumicelike fossil bone. Near 4.30 begins to rain a bit so we hurry to boat, and in a little while, after depositing Isaac near his camp, reach the Bear. Eskimo on shore had two skinned seal lying on the ground, and there were many reindeer horns. A pile of them was over a fire, being smoked. The wind has been the whole day from the northeast, the long- wished-for wind, and the ice has moved out sufficiently to induce the captain to make another start. So at 5 p. m. off we go again, and for quite a while the screw sings merrily, until we reach some remaining ice, when there are more bumps and staggers. The waters about the ship show, whenever calmer, the heads of swimming seal, grown and little. But they are wary and keep at a distance. Otherwise the only live things are an occasional gull, and rarely a couple of ducks. In the icy water, however, on and about the floes, are seen again numerous small, dark fish (from the size of a big minnow to that of a tomcod) ; and along the shore swim merrily hundreds of very tame and graceful little snipes, lovely small birds, too little, luckily, to be hunted. Little enthusiasm about my collecting, but the boatswain and some at least of the men are genuinely helpful. I believe some of the others are a bit superstitious. But I get some chance at least, and that is precious. Expect to reach Barrow before 12 p. m., and to start back before morning—a big chance for some sleep again if I want to do some collecting. Sleep, through the frequent tack of it, has become a kind of obsession in one’s thoughts, yet when there were chances dur- ing the days of waiting it would not come. August 9, evening, to 10 next morning. This is a land of odds and wonders. In the morning things looked hopeless; toward evening the wind has driven away enough ice to make a narrow open lane near the shore, and utilizing this we arrived without difficulty at 8 p. m. at the long unreachable Barrow. At 9 boat takes us ashore. At 9.30 p. m. I start with an Eskimo and a seaman (Wee- nie) from the #ear on a collecting trip over about 3 square miles of tundra behind Barrow, and at 12:30 return te ship with four bags of skulls and bones. But sleep! Hardly any since 12.30 last night, and very little after return to-day, for due to fear of ice they called in everybody from shore before 3 a. m., and the newcomers keep on walking and talking and banging with their baggage until 5, when, fearing a return of the ice, we start once more southward, toward—it feels strange, but it is so—home. It was a remarkable good fortune, our getting there thus and getting out again, as we did, without damage. HRDLICKA] WRITER’S TRIP ON YUKON 111 Barrow is a good-looking and rather important place. It stretches about 2 miles along the low shore, in three clusters, the two main ones separated by a lagoon. It has a radio station, a mission hospital, and a school. There are over 200 natives here, and also quite a few whites, including Mr. Charles Brower, the trader, observer and collector, with his native wife and their family, the teacher, the missionary and his family, and the nurses. The burial place here is the most extensive in the Eskimo territory. Taking the older parts and the new, it covers over a square mile of the tundra, beginning not far beyond the site of the hospital and extending to and beyond a small stream that flows over a mile inland. But the burials were grouped in a few spots, the rest being barren. This extensive burial ground is now about exhausted for scientific purposes, except for such skeletons and objects as may have been assimilated—i. e. buried—by the tundra. That such exist became quite evident during our search, and they naturally are the oldest and most valuable. We secured two good skulls of this nature. They were completely buried, only a little of the vault showing, and had there been time we should doubtless have found also parts of the skeletons. The skulls were discolored brown. Of the later skeletal material we found but the leavings, the best having been carried off by other collectors. There were remnants of hundreds of skulls and skeletons, but for the most part so dam- aged as not to be worth saving. Nevertheless our diligent midnight search was not in vain, and we brought back four sacks full of speci- mens, the Eskimo carrying his with the utmost good nature. The destruction here is due to sailors and other whites and to dogs, foxes, and reindeer. The reindeer herds, going in hundreds over the ground, help materially to scatter and damage the bones. So, the older material gone, while the more recent burials are, at least so far as the younger element is concerned, quite worthless to science, containing many mix bloods of all sorts—even occasionally with the negro (men from the wrecked whaleboats). The collection now secured was the last one possible from this locality, except through exca- vation. Tuesday, August 10. The boat is now crowded. We lost one woman and got three; also about five or six men—newspaper, movie, radioman, a dog teamster, a trapper. Quite a variety, in every way, and most are to go with us at least as far as Nome. They will have to hang up two hammocks in our little cabin each night, and some must sleep elsewhere. Packing the whole morning. Five boxes. My man of last night helping, a fine, big young fellow. This aid in the work is a great iP ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 boon to me, and the transportation of the many specimens by the Bear down to Seattle or San Francisco will be a fine service to the Institution. ; The older of us, that is those who have been longer on the ship, feel like veterans and are drawn closer together. The new lot, heterogeneous, do not attract, particularly one of the women. An older one, evidently a well-liked nurse, goes off at Wainwright, which we reach once more at 8 p.m. Here goes off also Jim Allen, the trader, who is a good fellow in a rough shell and whom I learned to like. He helped us all a good deal while in the ice. The movie man from Point Hope is a somewhat spoiled, gossipy, and roughshod, but otherwise a good-hearted big kid—not very wise, but not mischievous, and more than efficient in his own calling. Is 40, but already aging, like a weather-beaten poplar—not pine or oak. Is violently against all “ kikes,” or eastern money-lending Jews, from whom he used to borrow at usurious interest and who sold him out once or twice when he could not pay. Lost Jim Allen and dropped the nurse, but are still too many. At 10 p. m., just as the minister and I have retired, there comes a call for the former to go up. 5 ajnpour oreyday QL “ZI 06: Cia | Sich LORS eMlRECueeSeSrcele (bE el | ZOLeneNOBeah: ICOVEE WSO el Wc tseec scenes co » JUZIOR LL YI 08 ‘ST CMIMOCRGTMMIRGLAC DD. |MGREGh. 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ANN. 46 ALASKA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN 252 , &¢ 8 69 T's¢ | (s"s9) | 979 619 8 7G G99 6°89 88g i909" a" Se eee eee xepul req 19:8 Sts cre §=6|(6F'S) | FOF seg 69 8 16 8 (Ate a8 € Ca ameyltsaeec eo. aa a WpRerg €2°9 09 9 6F'9 |(66°S) | OF 2 ag 9 61 °9 G02 iS Fe, ype? TL 9; aa en qs :(QJ9]) 18g CERGHe oN osae ee cel 9g'¢ (18m) | 09°¢ OLS FL 18 °¢ 02° ZS °¢ FO@>* Par aoe eee YypReig :qINoW hy Ui aes|| eae anos Y 69 4°99 61k 4°99 Td 8°69 1 69 4°69 tT Neal ence nelle tae xopul [eseNy COR Sk Gane 6SEew (GEEe)ESGEe 09 '¢ 68 68 8 Gs (Ash 48 ee oe oes pve Sie oleae L1G |(Z0'S) | 247° ars SFE s¢¢ 1g°¢ £0 9 GORG? "|| —cagane na a ena ys :OSON, Sie I | (aro Seaman | Raa ee a | aaa QUIN ilpence a senna os peers lease S| er o["" 225 2.-<<- 15.37 14 72 proximately ________- 15.39 14.78 (47) (52) | Females vs. males (M= Point, Barrow =--2=--- 15.45 14.75 LOO) cose. = as 95.7 (35) (34) Barrow and vicinity_--- 15.46 14. 66 Northern and northeastern (49) (52) (9) (6) Greenland--.---------- 15.51 14.72 | Southampton Island_.. 15.65 15.18 Hudson Bay and vi- (5) (2) (7) (2) LTTE ee es 15.55 14.57 | Smith Sound-________- 15.81 15.15 Baffin Land and vi- (16) (17) | General averages, ap- (92) (89) CIntyEE BVAC Ls es 15.55 15. 04 proximately ______-_-- 15.62 14.92 (6) (10) | Females vs. males (M= Northern Arctic___---- 15.63 14 85 LOO}=, 22 ee eee 95. § 2 Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 23. “Cat. Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 2. 258 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 MODULE AND CAPACITY A comparison of considerable interest is also that of the cranial module or mean diameter, to the capacity of the same skulls. This comparison reveals an important sex factor. Relatively to the module, the capacity is very appreciably smaller in the female than it is in the male. This is a universal condition to which, so far as known, there are occasional individual but no group exceptions. It appears very clearly in the Eskimo. In 283 western male Eskimo skulls in which we have so far measured the capacity,® the module averages 15.88 centimeters, the capacity 1,490 cubic centimeters; while in 382 female skulls thus far gauged the former averages 14.82 centimeters, the latter 1,337 cubic centimeters. The percentage relation of the capacity to the module, the numbers taken as a whole, is 94.8 in the males but only 90.2 in the females. This means that relatively to the external size of the skull the female Eskimo brain is 6.66 per cent smaller. Similar sex disproportion exists in other American groups as well as elsewhere. Some day when suitable data accumulate it will be of much interest to study this condition on a wider scale. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON CRANIAL MODULE Before we leave this subject, it may be well to point out two note- worthy facts apparent from the data on the northwestern and north- eastern groups. The first is that the figures on both sexes from Barrow and Point Barrow are very nearly the same, suggesting strongly the identity of the people of the two settlements; and the Point Hope group is in close relation. ‘The second fact is the curious identity of the old Igloo group, 8 miles southwest of Barrow, with the Greenlanders. The import of this will be seen later, SKULL SHAPE Utilizing the materials of the Otis and Barnard Davis Catalogues and with measurements taken for him on additional specimens in several of our museums, Boas, in 1895 (Verh. Berl. anthrop. Ges., 398), as already mentioned, reported the cranial index of 37 “ west- ern Eskimo” skulls of both sexes (without giving localities or de- tails) as 77. He also reports in the same place (p. 391) the cephalic index of 61 probably male living “Alaska Eskimo,” again without locality, as 79.2. These rather high indices and the relatively elevated stature (61 subjects, 165.8 centimeters) lead him to believe (p. 376) © See writer’s ‘Relation of the Size of the Head and Skull to Capacity in the Two Sexes,’ Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1925, vu, No. 3. ©All measured de novo by my aide, T. D. Stewart; for procedure see my “An- thropometry.” HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 259 that both are probably due to an admixture with the Alaskan Indian, though the report contains no measurements of the latter. The data that it is now possible to present may perhaps throw a new light on the matter. As was already seen in part from the data on the living, the head resp. the skull tends to relative shortness and broadness throughout the southwestern, midwestern, and Bering Sea region (excepting parts of the Seward Peninsula). Important groups in this region, particularly those on some of the islands, had little or no contact with the Indian. The cranial index in most of the groups of the southwestern and midwestern Eskimo equals or even exceeds that of the Indian. And Eskimo groups with a rela- tively elevated cranial index are met with even in the far north, as at Point Hope, Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound.” Finally, the shorter and broader head connects with that of the Asiatic Eskimo and that of the Chukchee, as well as other northeastern Asiatics.§ The records now available show the highest cranial indices to occur on the coast between Bristol Bay and the Yukon and on lower Yukon itself, while the lowest indices of the midwest area, though still mesocranic, occur in the aggregate of Nunivak Island and the mouths of the Yukon. Another geographical as well as somatologi- cal aggregate is that of the people of the St. Lawrence and Diomede Islands and of Indian Point, Siberia, the cranial index in these three localities being identical. Eskimo: CRANIAL INDEX Mean of both sexes Mate-t Female inder) on 1,281 adult skulls IN DESCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (11) (32) Mogi sath tee see bee oe 80. 1 | Indian Point (Siberia) ________-_ 77. 4 (13) (12) Moapen Bayes. }i2 = Se se 79.7 | Little Diomede Island_-________ 77.4 (10) (299) Ua lade heat pak SA cg SAS OT 79. 6 | St. Lawrence Island__________-_ V7.2 (6) (5) Pilot Station, Lower Yukon__-_ 79.3 | Port Clarence__..-_-_------~- 76. 6 (5) (34) Chukchee (Siberia)__________-- 78.6 | Pastolik and Yukon Delta__-_-_-_ 76.1 (26) (14) INGIEDEISIATIC a. sereue Fa Seeks 78 St. Michael Island_________---_ 75. 7 (6) (116) Southwestern Alaska__-_______~ dig. 4 NUD sic elsanide ots a 210 7Compare writer’s “An Eskimo Brain,’ Amer. Anthrop. n. s., vol. ni, pp. 454-500, New York, 1901; and his ** Contribution to the Anthropology of Central and Smith Sound Eskimo,’ Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. 2, New York, 1910. *Compare, besides present data, measurements by Bogoras in his report on “ The Chukchee,” Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1904-9, x1, p. 33; 148 male and 49 female adults gave him the mean stature of 162.2 and —152, the mean cephalic index of 8&2 and &18. 260 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Northwestern (222) (73) Point Hopes S024 “ent bess 760") "Barrow 2202. St ott es ee 73. 5 Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3) (33) FRivier en a ee ee Tore || Wales. Se oe ee ee 73. 5 (22) (7) Shishmaret=-s.— -- == -esee eee (455>|" Golovnin, Bay==oos-=2- See seee 8372. 6 (101) (52) Point Bartowasta=-=2 eee eee 74. 1 | Igloos, southwest of Barrow__-- 69.7 Northern and northeastern (7) (15) Hudson Bay and vicinity ---_-- 76. .3u|) NortbernvArchic™ === see 73. 6 (9) (33) Smithsound £2252. 22==se 76. 2 | Baffin Land and vicinity -_----- UB 24 (15) (101) Southampton Island__---~-_---- 74.58: |(Greenlandwtss: *- + 2s ee 71.9 The Seward Peninsula shows sudden differences. There are a few localities along its southern coast where the cranial type belongs apparently to the Bering Sea and southern area. One site at Port Clarence was one of these. But already at Golovnin Bay, which is not far from Norton Sound and St. Michael Island, and according to the evidence of the most recent collections (Collins 1928), also at Sledge Island, there is a sudden appearance of marked dolicho- crany, which is repeated at Wales, on the western extremity of the peninsula, approached at Shishmaref, the main Eskimo settlement on its northern shore, and, judging from some fragmentary material seen at the eastern end of the Salt Lake, also in the interior. The cause of this distinctive feature in the Seward Peninsula is for the present elusive. The little known territory urgently needs a thor- ough exploration, The distribution of the cranial index farther north along the western coast shows several points of interest. The first is the exceptional position of Point Hope, one of the oldest and most popu- lous settlements in these regions, which by its cranial index seems to connect with the Bering Sea groups. The second is the closeness, once more, of Barrow and Point Barrow. The third and greatest is the presence, in a small cluster of old igloos 8 miles down the coast from Barrow, of a group of people that finds no counterpart in its cranial index and, as will be seen later, also in some other character- istics, in the entire western region; in fact, in the whole Eskimo territory outside of Greenland. As noted before, the size of the head in this group is also closest to that of Greenland. These peculiar facts indicate a problem that will call for separate consideration. 8a Including 4 female skulls collected by Collins in 1928 and received too late for general inclusion into these series. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 261 The northern and northeastern groups, with the exception of. the mesocranic Hudson Bay and Smith Sound contingents, and the very dolichocranic Greenlanders, show dolichocrany much the same as that of Barrow and Point Barrow. HEIGHT OF THE SKULL This is a measurement of much value, both alone and as a sup- plement to the cranial index, for skulls with the same index may be high or low and thus really of a radically distinct type. The height of the vault is best studied in its relation to the other cranial dimensions, particularly to the mean of the length and breadth, with both of which it correlates. But in the Eskimo it is also of interest to compare the height with the breadth of the skull alone. The former relation is known as the mean height index and the latter as the height-breadth index. Both mean the per- centage value of the basion-bregma height as compared to the other dimensions. The mean height index (anc tay advocated independ- ently by the writer since 1916 (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn., p. 116), is proving of much value in differentiation of types and has already become a permanent feature in all writers’ work on the skull. There is a corresponding index also on the living. In the American Indian the averages of the index range from approximately 76 to 90. (See Catalogue of Crania, U. 8. Nat. Mus., Nos. I and II.) Where the series of specimens are sufficiently large the index does not differ materially in the two sexes. Indices below 80 may be regarded as low, those between 80 and 84 as medium, and those above 84 as high.® The southwestern and midwestern Eskimo skulls show mean height indices that may be characterized as moderate to slightly above medium. In general the broader and shorter skulls show lower indices, approaching thus in all the characters of the vault the Mongolian skulls of Asia. (Compare Catalogue Crania, U. S. Nat. Mus., No. I.) The Indian Point, St. Lawrence Island, and Little Diomede Island skulls are again, as with the cranial index, very close together, strengthening the evidence that the three constitute the same group of people. (Pls. 59, 60.) The northwestern Eskimo and most of those of the northeast have relatively high vault. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more almost the same. The Point Hope group shows a high vault, though also rather broad. The somewhat broad Hudson Bay crania © These subdivisions are somewhat arbitrary and may, as data accumulate and are better understooa, be found to need some modification. 262 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 are but moderately high, like those of the southwestern Eskimo. The northern Arctic skulls give smaller height than would be expected with their type; the Southampton Island specimens give higher. The old Igloo group from near Barrow stands again close to Green- land; its skull is even a trace narrower and higher, standing in both respects at the limits of the Eskimo. The whole, as with the cranial index, shows evidently a rich field of evolutionary conditions. Eskimo: CranrAL Mean Heicut INDEX (H-FiLoor-Line or Aup. Mearus to Ba 100) Mean or L+B MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (11) (5) POGIaK oo oe at ance eee eee S184 "Chukeheetacea ase en ease 83. 3 (25) (34) Nelsoniisland= 23222. === == 82.1 | Pastolik and Yukon Delta____-_ 83. 4 (6) (4) Southwest Alaska________----- $2-3->|hort Clarence $38 sas) > sea 83. 4 (6) (29) Pilot Station, Yukon_________- 82.3 | Indian Point (Siberia)________ 83. 8 (10) (279) Miumitralke 2"): ee oe See 82. 5 | St. Lawrence Island___-______- 84.1 (13) : (12) Hooper Baye.-2-—- = 82. 7 | Little Diomede Island___-_-__-_ 84.5 (116) (14) Nunivak: Islands! — 224°) 8345 83. 3 | St. Michael Island____.---_--- 85. 1 Northwestern (69) (33) Barro We Se ee ee een ees 83. 83l7 Wisles- 2-72 =e. oe eee 85. 0 (99) (216) Point, Barrow. 22222 _ See 8451 Point Hope. eae ee 85. 7 Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (2) (4) Rivera. attack ete Hee 84. 4 | Golovnin Bay—Cape Nome_---- 85. 9 (20) (51) Shishmarel = 22> sa=—— ees 84.5 | Igloos, southwest of Barrow._-- 86.3 Northern and northeastern (7) (9) Hudson Bay and vicinity—____- 82225) SmithiSound! 532-232 ee 85. 1 (15) (101) Northemp Arctic a= == soe 82.71 Greenland=_ 632 oe ee ae 85. 1 (33) (15) Baffin Land and vicinity__--- ~~ 84. 4 | Southampton Island___-___-__- 85. 5 The height-breadth index saree of the Eskimo skull shows in substance the same conditions as did the mean height index, but CWN’S'N) “LINVA MOT SMOHS 11NMS LHSIY '3dOH LNIOd ‘SIVINNG GIO WOYY s11nNS 66 ALVId LYOddY TWONNV HLXIS-A.LYOA ASOTONH.LA NVOINSNY AO NvaYNNd CAW'N’S'N) “LINVA MOT SMOHS 77NMS LHOIY 09 ALWId LYOdae IWONNY HLXIS-ALYOA *AdOH LNIOd ‘SIVINNG GIO WOYXs Ss7I1NHNS ADOTONHLA NYOIMAWY JO NYAYNN _— a HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 263 while less informative or dependable on one side, on the other it accentuates the relative narrowness of the skull in some of the groups. : Eskimo: Hercut-Breaptu INDEX OF THE SKULL MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (12) (12) (kno ee ee ee 91.9 | Little Diomede Island________- 96. 3 (6) (279) Pilot Station, Lower Yukon__. 92.8 } St. Lawrence Island___________ 96. 5 (10) (116) Loaner ch ec ie) eS 2 es es ee 93.4 |p Nunivakwisland: ==-2. =.) =. 96. 7 (5) (31) CT ee ee eee 93. 1 | Indian Point (Siberia) _________ 96. 7 (13) (29) Hooper-Bay 222.08 le O52) | PABLO Kes s= ee een ee SOE 96. 8 (25) (6) Nelson Island. 22 2 22 93. 7 | Cape Nome and Port Clarence_. 97. 0 (5) (14) Mesa ip B73 1G ial eee al ia) 94.7 | St. Michael Island___.._______ 98. 2 (5) Southwest Alaska_____________ 95. 2 Northwestern (99) | Kotzebue Sound and Kobuk (3) EOIN GALNOWE = ee 98. 7 UR ee ye SO en ee 99. 6 (69) (33) Brows setts: Seek: ais 2 sr SIE Wealensseeet, 2 steal weir fa) 100. 3 (20) (51) Biinvansrets en ates ost 98.9 | Igloos, southwest of Barrow___ 105.0 (216) OER ee eee eae 99. 2 Northern and eastern (7) (15) Hudson Bay and vicinity______ 95. 3 | Southampton Island__________ 99.8 (16) (33) NerinvAmOtiC: * - -ti te wae 97.8 | Baffin Land and vicinity_______ 99.9 (9) (101) Didier ees Bee Maa ee Sa SRo | Crrecrianclen seen soe ese ROE 101.8 THE FACE The facial dimensions of the Eskimo skull offer a number of points of unusual interest. The face is absolutely and especially relatively to stature very large in all measurements. It is particularly high between the upper alveolar point and nasion. The large size of the Eskimo face will best be appreciated from a few figures. 964 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 FactaL DIMENSIONS OF THE WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO CRANIA COMPARED With THOSE OF THE SIOUAN AND ALGONQUIAN TRIBES Southwestern and f I Siouan | Algonquian midwestern Eskimo Eskimo in general tribes tribes bate a 10 groups | 27 groups | 22 groups | 12 groups | 15 groups Ga als) (female) (male) (female) (male) (male) Total height (ment.- MASS) s5 See eee 12. 60 | (11. 63) 12. 52 | (11. 59) 12. 26 12. 11 Upper height (alv. pt.- (AST \Et(e29) @ €9\\ @ 21) Up Gy? 7. 35 10) as eet Diameter bizyg. max_-| 14. 25 | (13. 27) 14. 26 | (13. 22) 14. 16 13. 89 Module of upper face (U. H.+B) 11. 06 | (10. 28) | 11.03 | (10. 22) | 10. 84 10. 62 So far as known there are no larger faces among the Indians than those of the Sioux, yet they remain very perceptibly, in all three measurements, behind the Eskimo. No face as large as that of the Eskimo is known, in fact, from anywhere else in the world. In whites the mean diameter of the largest faces (see data in Martin’s Lehrbuch Anthrop., 789-791) does not exceed 10.36 centimeters. The above showing assumes especial weight when it is recalled that both the Siouan and the Algonquian tribes are among the tallest there are on the American Continent. The cause of the large size of the Eskimo face can only be the excessive use of the jaws; no other reason even suggests itself. But the character may already be more or less hereditary. It furnishes another attractive subject for further investigation. With its large dimensions the face of the Eskimo skull presents generally also large orbits, large molars, submedium prominence and breadth of the nasal bridge, shallow suborbital (canine) fossae, large dental arch above medium teeth, and a large and stout lower jaw with broad not seldom more or less everted angles, giving the whole a characteristic appearance. With partial exception of the orbits and the nose, which are subject also to other factors, all these features of the Eskimo face are explainable as strengthenings resulting from the increased function of mastication. The main dimensions of the cranial face in the three large group- ings of the Eskimo are given in the next table. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 265 WESTERN AND OTHER Eskimo: FactaL DIMENSIONS IN THE SKULL Males Females Diam- a facial ; Diam- | Cranial facial Alve- | eter index fen. | Alve- | eter index Men- | ‘olar | bizy- Men- | ‘olar | bizy- nasion point- |gomatic | nasion point- |gomatic nasion | maxi- 7 nasion | maxi- 7 Tain Total | Upper mum | Potal | Upper (Gronps:5-=<5=.-s-s- (9) (14) (14) (8) (14) (8) (10) (10) (8) (10) Southwestern and midwestern _______ 12. 60 7.87 14. 25 88. 2 65.3 11. 63 7.29 13. 27 87.7 54.9 iit pe a ae (5) (7) (7) (5) (7) 1¢3 (7) (7) (2) (7) Northwestern. ______ 12. 58 7.73 14. 23 88.3 54. 4 11. 55 7.19 13. 18 88.2 54.6 IGEOUDS 5 o= ono (5) (6) (6) (5) (6) (3) (5) (5) (3) (5) North Arctic and northeastern _-____- 12. 22 7. 69 14. 32 86.9 63.7 11. 61 7.13 13.15 85.7 54.2 These data show a number of interesting conditions. The height of the upper face (alveolar point-nasion) is greatest in the south- western and midwestern groups, is slightly lower in the northwest- erners, and still further slightly lower in the north Arctic and the northeast. On the other hand the facial breadth is slightly higher in the north and east, and that although the vault has become mostly decidedly narrower. These facts are shown best by the upper facial index, which in the males descends quite perceptibly in the west from the south to the north and in the Arctic from the west to the east. In the females there is a parallel gradual diminution in the upper facial height from the south to the north and then east, but the facial breadth diminishes very slightly also instead of increasing, as a result of which the upper facial index shows only minor differences; yet these differences are in the same direction as those in the males. These matters are involved with a number of factors—the stature, the breadth of the vault, and the development and direct influence of the temporal muscles, besides hereditary conditions. Their proper study will necessitate even more—in fact, much more—material than is now at our dispo§gal. The following table gives the distribution of the upper cranial facial index in the various groups. Of the two indices that of the whole face, including the lower jaw, is the less valuable; first, because the jaw is often absent; second, because it is influenced by the height of the lower jaw, which does not correlate perfectly with the upper; and third, on account of the wear of the teeth, which in such people as the Eskimo is very common and diminishes more or less the total height of the face. Its averages in the three main groupings have already been given. Its figures are not very exceptional. 88253°—30——18 °266 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 Eskimo Skuuus: Facrau Inpex, Upper MEAN OF BOTH SEXES IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (6) (24) Pilot Station, Lower Yukon____ 53.6 ) Indian Point (Siberia) _________ 55. 1 (5) (23) Cape Nome and Port Clarence_- 54.0 | Nelson Island__----_---_---__- 55. 2 (10) (4) Hooper Bays === 32-2 ee 54. 4 | Southwestern Alaska_________- 55. 4 (9) (10) Mhuimitrak=.== to. genes 2 ee 54. 5 | St. Michael Island____________ 55,/D (93) (25) Nunivak sland: === 222 see DANG eb Astolikeaa sees see eS eaeee a 77 (262) (4) St. Lawrence Island_____---_-- 54:9] Chukehees22 8 See. oo 55. 8 (8) (11) Togiak and vicinity_________-- 55. 0 | Little Diomede Island_______-. 56. 0 Northwestern (190) (41) PointaHopet! 422 4a DZA8) |MBaALrOwee oes =e ee 54. 8 (2) (75) Kotzebuecs 2 = -5-ss-"seeea— as D3ut.| oints Barrow] ope oe eee Ope (17) (31) Shishmarciae === D4. Waless =< <- poe eee 55. 4 (42) Igloos north of Barrow__---_-- 54. 1 Northern and northeastern (9) (90) Smith southiaes= ss seen SIM? (| (Greenland £6223) eet Sent 54.1 (14) (7) Southampton Island____-____- 52. 3 | Hudson Bay and vicinity --_-- 54. 3 (23) (11) Baffin Land and vicinity_______ 53.700 NONE TCA ULC eae ee =e 56. 6 The upper facial index of the Eskimo skull is high, though there is considerable group variation. The reason is the height of the upper face, for which the accompanying considerable expansion of the zygo- matic arches does not fully compensate. In the white groups this index ranges from approximately 50 to 54; it averages 52.9 in 15 Algonquian and 53.7 in 12 Siouan tribes. The means in the large Eskimo groupings are from a little below 54 to a little over 55. Its regional differences have already been mentioned. Sex differences in the index are very small. There are a number of points of signifi- cant agreement, the foremost of which is once more that in the case of Barrow and Point Barrow, and especially that of the Old Ighoos near Barrow and Greenland. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 267 THE NOSE Equally as engaging as the whole face of the Eskimo skull is the cranial nose. Our data throw much light on this feature also. Where the dimensions of the whole face are altered by some cause the nose can not remain unaffected. This is especially true of its height, which correlates directly and closely with that of the face proper; the correlation of the breadth of the nose with that of the face is weaker and more irregular, but not absent where not counter- acted by other factors. Accordingly with the high Eskimo upper face there is found also a high nose, both being the highest known to anthropometry. But the nasal breadth, instead of responding to the considerable facial breadth, has become smaller, until in some of the Eskimo groups it is the smallest of all known human groups. There is plainly another potent factor in action here. This factor could conceivably be connected simply with the above-average growth of the facial bones; but if this were so then individuals with smaller development of these bones ought to have broader noses, and vice versa. This point can readily be tested. Taking the largest and best cranial series, that of St. Lawrence Island, and selecting the skulls with the smallest and the largest faces, the facts come out as follows: Smallest development of face Largest development of face . Breadth of Breadth of eT, Mes 2 8 zeal per. Face height eeabi nasal aper- A MnIes. = — | ee ott 7. 52 13. 64 2. 37 8. 46 14. 79 2. 49 iN females... 222.2. _ 6. 81 12. 56 2. 37 7. 54 14. 02 2. 40 Percentage relation of breadth of nose to mean diameter of face: Male tes 2-52 nc) see Bee een CR the Sekar see Se 21.4 Hemale:- 222-24) 2 || EA | 24.6 |--------|-----=-- 29.2 | | The above data show that while the narrow nose in the Eskimo is to some extent affected by the large development in these people of the facial bones, yet there must be also other factors. But if not wholly connected with the development of the facial bones, then some of the causes of the narrow nose in the Eskimo must either be inherited from far back or must be due to influences outside the face itself. Pushing the character far back would be no explanation of its original cause, but it may be shown that such a procedure would not be justified. In the following important table are given the now available data on the breadth of the nasal aperture of the Eskimo, 268 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 group by group and area by area, and these data show that narrow nose is by no means universal in this family. The nasal aperture is broader in the southwest and midwest than in the northwest, and broader in the latter region than in the Arctic north and the north- east. In general it is seen that the farther northward and north- eastward the narrower the nose, until it reaches beyond that of all other human groups; while in the west and southwest it gradually approaches until it reaches the nasal breadth of the Indian. And that this latter condition is not due to Indian admixture is shown by the fact that among the broadest noses are those of the Eskimo in Siberia and those on the St. Lawrence Island, where there was no known contact with the Indian, while the narrower noses are along the midwestern coast, where Indian admixture might have been possible. EskIMO: BREADTH OF THE NASAL APERTURE BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (5) (6) Southwestern Alaska_________- 2.50 | Cape Nome and Port Clarence. 2. 38 (31) (28) Indian Point (Siberia) _________ 25480)" Nelson’ island 2232 PE OYE (5) (9) Chukchees---2=-¢ ===4---= == 2. 47 | Togiak.and vicinity....-.----- 2. 36 (6) (4) Pilot Station, Lower Yukon__-- 2.45 | Yukon Delta_______-__-----_-- 2. 34 (280) (107) St. Lawrence Island_____----_-- 2.749) Nunivealkelsland===—== === == aes 2. 33 ; (29) (11) Pastolikj22 #2 =. 08 22-5 2.41 | Little Diomede Island___------ 2. 32 (13) (13) Hooper!Bay 22] ee ones 2.39 | St. Michael Island/-=-=--_==22 22H (10) Mumitrake 2. eee. eee 2. 38 Northwestern (3) (211) iKotzebuctan eae) see eee 2/41) sRointsHopesse=— see 2. 33 (34) (92) Wialess= 2. = 222 ee 253 (a| PE OIDb eB all OWease se ae 2. 30 (20) (48) Shishmaref--.--.- Sa22s85- 260 2. 36 | Igloos, north of Barrow_--_---- 2. 30 (56) (Barro We ee eee ae ee ee 230 Northern and northeastern (9) (29) Smith Soundv2ss =) 25> aa, 2.29 | Baffin Land and vicinity______- 2. 25 (15) (98) Northern Arctie_=-__---=----=- 2. °26),|:Greenland&=s< 92 Sieh eek! 2. 23 (14) J (7) Southampton Island__--------- 2. 25 | Hudson Bay and vicinity _---_-_ 2. 19 ~ x HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 269 It is hardly possible, therefore, to assume that a narrow nose is an ancient inheritance of the Eskimo. From the facts now at hand it seems much more probable that the Eskimo nose or respiratory nasal aperture was not originally very narrow, but that it gradually acquired this character as the people extended farther north and northeastward; and there appears to be but one potent factor that could influence this development and that increases from south to north, namely, cold. A narrowing of the aperture can readily be understood as a protective development for the throat and the organs of respiration. | It is not easy to see how the bony structures respond to the effects of cold or heat, but that they do, particularly where these are aggravated by moisture, has long been appreciated, and shown fairly con- clusively through studies on the nasal index by Thomson and later by Thomson and Buxton.’* An even more satisfactory study would have been that of the nasal breadth alone. Perhaps the normal variation with the elimination of the less fit are the main agencies. The next two tables show other interesting conditions. The first of these, seen best from the more general data, are the relations of the nasal dimensions and index in the two sexes. The females in all the three large groupings have a higher nasal index than the males. This is a general condition among the Indians as well as in other races. It is usually due to a relative shortness of the female nose. This condition is very plain in the Eskimo. The female nose is actually narrower than the male, due to correlation with shorter stature and lesser facial breadth, yet the index is higher. The reason can most simply be shown by comparing the general mean nasal breadth and height in the two sexes. The breadth in the female is approximately 96.2 per cent of that in the male; the height is only 92.7 per cent. Nasat DIMENSIONS IN WESTERN AND OTHER ESKIMO CRANIA Males | Females A eee ae Height Breadth Index | Height Breadth Index i eee Cara tay |) oye! 10) (10) Southwestern and mid- WIPBLCTO ee ee 5. 46 2. 42 44. 8 5. 06 2. 32 45.8 Gronpsssent {Alte (7) (7) (7) | (6) (6) (6) Northwestern.-._._.__- 5. 42 PLOY Ss Tan O800 2. 30 45. 4 KOROU DES eer eee oe (6) (6) (6) | (5) (5) (5) Northern Arctic and northeastern________ | 5.38 Dag 42. 4 | 4.95 218 44. 0 °2 Thomson, Arthur, The correlation of isotherms with variations in the nasal index. Proc. Seventeenth Intern. Cong. Med., London, 1913, Sec. I, Anatomy and Embryology, pt. 1, 89; Thomson, Arthur, and Buxton, L. H. D., Man’s nasal index in relation to cer- tain climatic conditions, Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., tur, 92-122, London, 1923. Addi- tiona] references in these publications; also in the latter an extensive list of data on naSal index in many parts of the world. 270 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Detailed group data on the nasal index show that this ranges from 47.7 on the Yukon to 47.8 in the northernmost contingent of the Eskimo at Smith Sound. The Kotzebue group that shows even a higher index than on the Yukon is too small to have much weight. Barrow and Point Barrow are once more nearly the same, as are the Old Igloos and Greenland; and there are some other interesting relations. ESKIMO SKULLS: NASAL INDEX BOTH SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER IN DESCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (6) (107) Pilot Station, Lower Yukon.--_ 47.7 | Nunivak Island____.___..-...- 45.1 (5) (9) Southwestern Alaska_________- 47. 5 | Togiak and vicinity___-_...._- 45.0 (31) (29) Indian Point (Siberia) _________ 4635) AR actohikt! = See e See ee 44.9 (13) (23) Hooper Bay - 2-5 248.455- 22h 46:2; |" Nelson Island=t 22.2.2) 4s2525 44.6 (6) (14) Cape Nome and Port Clarence__ 46.0 | Little Diomede Island_____-_-_-- 44.5 (280) (13) St. Lawrence Island_____-- .--- 45. 8 | St. Michael Island___________- 42.9 (5) (4) Chukchee-ts 3 on ee os 45:64) Yukon, Deltaz=-- =-- =". sae 42.7 (10) Miumitralkes == S25 tse oe ee 45. 2 Northwestern (3) (56) Kotzebue se sass ae eee nee 49.0 | Barrow and vicinity_..-------- 44.0 (20) (48) Shishmiarefios 22 see e- ae 46.0 | Igloos north of Barrow____---- 44.0 (34) (92) Wales. 4948.2. eee _ Sa 45:3) Point’ Barrow! oe se 43.5 (211) Point Hopes s ioe eee = 44.9 Northern and northeastern (7) (98) Hudson Bay and vicinity ------ 44; 6+) Greénland*= _ 2 S222 eee RE 43. 6 (15) (14) INorthPArctie“- = 2 3. Sees 44.1 | Southampton Island__--------- 43.0 (29) (9) Baffin Land and vicinity-__-___ ASUS Smith Soundes) 2552 a= ae 41.8 THE ORBITS In many American groups the orbits are notoriously variable, yet their mean dimensions and index are of value. - =a HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 271 The Eskimo orbits have long been known for their ample propor- tions. Their mean height and breadth are larger than those of any other known people and the excess is especially apparent when pro- portioned to stature. Taking the family as a whole, the mean height of the two orbits in males averages approximately 3.64 centimeters, the mean breadth 4.03 centimeters; while the males of 23 Algonquian tribes give for the same items 3.42 and 3.93, and those of 12 Siouan tribes 3.58 and 3.96 centimeters. . The general averages for the female Eskimo approach for orbital height 3.52 centimeters, for breadth 3.89 centimeters, dimensions which also surpass those in the females of any other known human group. These large dimensions of the Eskimo orbit are, however, on closer examination into the matter, found not to be racial characters except in a secondary way. They are the direct consequence of the high and broad face. The correlation of the orbital height and breadth with the height and breadth of the face are shown by the following figures. These figures indicate also some additional details of interest. Eskimo Orpits: Rigor anp LEFT MALES Height Breadth Index Right Left Right | Left Right Left (145) (145) (145) St. bawrence Island—.-=--.2 -=..- = - 3.67 3.68 | 4.05 401 90.7 91.8 (41) (41) (41) Miumnbtyakelsland==—-0 = -2 Sle se Sak 3.59 3.59 | 405 4— 88.7 89.7 (120) (120) (120) Romi Hopess=: = s2- 2 eee 81.7 | Southwest Alaska_____________ 84.7 (9) (5) Miuumitrak.. 6. ,-2 5-225 -8 eek 81.7 | Cape Nome and Port Clarence__ 84.9 (9) (22) Little Diomede Island_________ 82. 2 | Indian Point (Siberia) _________ 85. 0 (234) (22) St. Lawrence Island___________ 83808)/"Nelsontisland 22 2 Ses 85. 5 Northwestern (39) (31) Igloos north of Barrow-___----- S4 el Wiglest a5 =4== sees ae eee 84.9 (14) (38) Shishiaets === === === === 8445 || PBartowecseseeee aos nee ee ae 85. 8 (171) (66) Point Hopert=fasss4 sere $4) GR ME ointeBarrowe a. 2e=- = see ae 87. 1 Northern and northeastern (9) (23) Smithisoundess)] 25222 =s sn en = 82. 7 | Baffin Land and vicinity __--_--- 85. 7 (138) (89) Southampton Island_______- es 183.7 | (Greenland: =— 5 ee 85. 9 (7) (10) Hudson Bay and vicinity______ 84. 4 || Northern Arctic: ____----_-_-- 86. 5 Sex differences in the index are small, nevertheless the females tend to show a slightly higher index, due to relatively slightly smaller breadth of the arch. The size of the arch and its index differ but little over the three main areas of the Eskimo territory, yet there are slight differences. They appear plainly in the following table. Notwithstanding the fact that on the whole the southwestern and midwestern groups are somewhat taller than those of the far north and northeast, the largest palate, in the males at least, is found in the latter area. In the southwest and midwest the upper alveolar arch is rela- tively (as well as absolutely, barring one group) somewhat broad and short. This may be in correlation with the broader head in this area, just as the absolutely slightly longer palates over the rest of the Eskimo territory and particularly (in males) in the northeast may correlate with the longer heads in those regions. This point may be HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 277 tested on our splendid material from St. Lawrence Island. Taking the broadest and the narrowest skulls from this locality, the fellow- ing data are obtained for the proportions of the upper dental arch: Eskimo Crania: DentaL ArcH AND ForRM OF SKULL ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND MATERIAL [rinizscS =s0 ES se a ee ee Mean diameter_=_---_-----_- Mean cranial diameter (cranial module) of same skulls____- Percentage relation of mean dental arch diameter to the mean diameter of the skull_ Length of same skulls_-__-~_-__- Percentage relation of length of dental arch to that of skull_ Males Females Narrowest skulls} Bie Geog | skulls (70.3 | skulle (80.9- (C. I. 70.7-73.5) 83.1) 74.2) 83.8) 5. 68 3.1o8 abe 5. 20 6. 83 6. 77 6. 66 6. 36 83. 2 82. 4 82.9 82.7 6. 26 6. 18 6. 09 5. 78 15. 61 15. 49 14. 97 14.73 40. 1 39.8 40.7 39. 2 19. 21 18. 10 18. 35 io 29. 5 30. 8 80. 1 80. 1 The above figures show several conditions. arch is quite distinctly larger in the narrow than in the broad skulls in both sexes. The second fact is that the skull (vault) itself is slightly larger in the narrow-headed. The third is that the length of the arch is somewhat greater in the narrow and long skulls than it is in the broad and shorter, relatively to the skull size. The first is that the The fourth is that there appears a close correlation, more particularly in the females, between the length of the arch and that of the skull. THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER The anterior basal length (basion-nasion) is a measurement of importance, though its full meaning in anthropology is not yet entirely clear. From data quoted by Martin (Lehrb., 715-716) it appears to average in whites up to 10.3 centimeters in males and up to 10.1 centimeters in females, and is known to correlate closely with the length of the vault. Secondarily it also correlates with stature. Data on American Indians are not yet generally available, though in preparation. The Munsee skulls gave the writer for the diameter the means of 10.27 for the males and 10.02 for the females; the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave 10.45 for the males and 9.77 for the females. 278 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 An abstract of the data on the Eskimo skulls is given in the next table. The values for the measurement are rather high, especially for such short people. The percentage relation of the measurement to the length of the skull appears also to be high. Manouvrier (1882, quoted in Martin, Lehrb., 716) found this relation in French skulls to be 53.6 in the males and 54.7 in the females. ESKIMO CRANIA: BASION-NASION LENGTH Groups of males Corresponding aiaaes of Its per- Its per- Basion- | centage re-| Basion- | centage re- nasion lation to nasion lation to diameter | length of | diameter | length of skull skull (13) (13) (13) (13) Southwestern and midwestern___________ 10. 38 56. 4 9. 85 56. 7 (6) (6) (6) (6) Northwestern 222-2 s=5- eee 10. 58 56. 4 10. 06 56.3 (5) (5) (5) (5) Northern Arctic and northeastern________ 10. 65 56. 2 10. 06 55. & The female measurement to that of the male, in the Eskimo, is as 94.9 to 100. As a similar relation of the cranial modules in the two sexes is close to 95.7, the anterior basal length would seem to be at a little disadvantage in the female Eskimo skull. The same condition is seen also when the basion-nasion diameter is compared with the length of the skull. In the males, notwith- standing the fact that the length of the vault is increased through the development of the frontal sinuses and not infrequently also through that of the occipital ridges, the percentage relation of the basion- nasion to the maximum total length of the vault is approximately 56.3, in the females but 55.8. It seems therefore safe to say that in the Eskimo, in general, that part of the brain anterior to the fora- men magnum is relatively somewhat better developed in the males than in the females. But to this there are some exceptions. Thus it may be seen in the general table which follows that in the northwestern groups condi- tions in this respect are equalized; and in the succeeding detailed table it will be noted that while the males exceed the females in this particular in 14 of the groups, in 5 groups conditions are equal (or within one decimal), and in 5 the female percentage excecds slightly that in the males. Inthe numerically best represented groups condi- tions are nearly equal, with the males nevertheless slightly favored. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 279 Esximo Sxuiis: Baston-Naston LenetH AND Its RELATION TO LENGTH oF SKULL SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern Tattle Diomede Island 3262... _=--_-_-___. Chukchee Kotzebue Point Hope DMsGnareho ee tee eee Jone ee ee I Males Females BNX100 BNX100 B-N. “Sront | BON: “sium (4) (7) 10.18 56.2 9.91 54.9 (3) (2) 10.20 548] 10.00 548 (3) (3) 10.27 54.8 9.97 56 (9) (4) 10.29 57.6 9.70 55.7 (4) (6) 10.32 57 9.52 656.1 (146) (133) 10.36 56.3 9.93 656.1 (3) LOST. ORS S hea eae ee = (11) (18) 10.41 56.5 9.98 66.3 (8) (6) 10.44 57.3 9.98 66.3 (9) (15) 10.46 56.8 9.73 66.9 (3) (7) 10.47 47.2 9.56 66.7 (3) (2) 10.47 57.6 9.80 54.8 (15) (16) 10.54 56.6 9.97 66.6 (46) (69) 10.55 66.1] 10.02 66 (2) 1Os45 RoR Shoe resent t (133) (82) 10.48 57 10.00 66.9 (12) (8) 10.50 66.8] 10.20 57.6 (47) (52) 10.54 456.2 9.94 56.5 (35) (34) 10.61 66.9] 10.01 56.3 (19) (15) 10.64 66.7] 10.01 66.6 (27) (24) 10.70 66.6] 10.18 66.2 I80 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA Ler. ANN. 46 Eskimo Sxuuus: Baston-Naston Lenetu Anp Its Rextation To LenatTH or SxuLtu—Continued SEXES SEPARATELY IN ASCENDING ORDER Males Females Northern and northeastern (16) (17) Bafin Landiand vicinity 2282. == ee 10.51 55.6 10.11 55.2 (5) (2) Eudsoniibay and vicinity 5/255 = 2 eee 10.60 56. 4 9.75 55.6 (48) (52) Greenland? 4-832 52 AS ee eee 10.60 455.9 10.13 56.2 (5) (10) INo;them¥Arctics +322 OS oF Fee a eee 10.68 56.1 10.07 55.3 (7) Smith Sound! = 2 C208 (Me ee 10:. 70. .56..2.|-.-5 25a (9) (5) Southampton sland = eee ee ee ee ees 10.83 57.3} 10.34 46.9 An interesting point is that in the north and northeast, where the skulls are longest, there is evidently a slightly greater relative de- velopment of the occipital portion of the vault, or slightly lesser development of the frontal portion. Some additional points of interest appear when the basion-nasion : skull-length index, taken collectively for the two sexes, is compared in the different groups. All these comparisons suffer, naturally, from unevenness and often insufficiency of the numbers of specimens, yet some of the results are very harmonious with those brought out repeatedly by other data. Thus the St. Lawrence material stands once more close to the medium of the southwestern and midwestern groups; Barrow and Point Barrow are almost identical; and so are the Old Igloos from near Barrow and Greenland. The St. Michael islanders show very favorably in the midwest, the Shishmarefs in the northwest and the Southampton islanders in the northeast. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 281 Eskimo Sxkutuis: Baston-Naston Line IN RELATION TO SKULL LENGTH (BX SL BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern (5) (5) R@niChee.., = Pw 54. 8 | Southwestern Alaska_-_-----_-- 56. 2 (6) (29) ignition, Lower Yukon... 65.2) ||) Pastolik=-.-----.--..-_-_..5- 56. 4 (11) (10) Little Diomede Island_______-- 55jG | hopink= 055 2. See e~ See 56. 5 (24) (31) NEIBOMIIRIBNGS = 5 eet et ee 55.9 | Indian Point and _ vicinity (115) (Siberia) eecsee soa a a= 56. 5 Wunivak island... 2-22-22. 56. 0 (13) (10)i,| Hooper Bay: 222.2 = 2 56. 6 UNS. eee oe, See 56. 1 (14) (279) | St. Michael Island._..__.-_--- 56. 8 St. Lawrence Island_________-- 56. 2 Northwestern (51) (34) Igloos southwest'of Barrow---. 55.9 | Wales..-._..-.-_-.-.--.--_-- 56. 1 (99) (215) WOMABATTOW = — = a5 2922 o8os 55:9) | Point Hopess- = 48-22 ees 57.0 (69) (20) Jan i eee 0021s) Pisin rete ss = ee 2 ese ee 57. 1 Northern and northeastern (33) (100) Baffin Land and vicinity ------ ~ Oo & | pGneenanGd2faosc2sseee seen =- 56. 1 (10) (7) Northern ‘Arctic. <+........~-< 55. 7 | Smith Sound (male)-_-__-______ 56. 4 (7) (14) Hudson Bay and vicinity --_---- 56. 0 | Southampton Island__________ 57. 1 The next table gives the percentage relations of the basion-nasion diameter to the mean diameter of the skull. The correlation of the two is even closer than in the case of the skull length, and the grouping, while in the main alike, seems in general even more in harmony with that in previous comparisons. The St. Lawrence Island females are very exceptional, as was also apparent in other connections. The unusual smallness of their skull (compare section on Cranial module) is evidently due to a poor development of its posterior half. 88253°—30-——19 282 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH, ANN. 46 ESKIMO CRANIA: PERCENTAGE RELATION OF THE BASION-NASION DIAMETER TO Mean CRANIAL DIAMETER (CRANIAL MODULE) BN x 100 Chim BOTH SEXES TOGETHER IN ASCENDING ORDER Southwestern and midwestern Northwestern Pilot Station, Yukon----_---- 65.6) Wales: =2= 2022542 =. ose Gia @Chukchee:+==522-525e) See 66/0! || Point, Barrowss2===5-=--=——— 67. 8 Little Diomede Island________ 66:51" Pointhtopess a= == =e 68. 1 IEoopertbayeeae == 6654, Barrow==--02 22. So Rs See 68. 4 Nelson@island==se=.==—=——=—— 66.c7Oldblgloos= ===. 5 === -=seee 69. 0 WOpIak Goes am neal s ashen te re 6629) | (Shishmaref--===-5922 ee aeie 69. 2 Southwest Alaska__--_-_----- 67. 3 x i Indian Point, Siberia________- 67. 4 Northern Arctic and northeastern Mumtrak=**38+-22=5=>s=-=0 67,4 || Batiniland==--- 222-2 eee 67. 4 INfimiy ak sande ee 67.6) | Hudson: Bay=s—=- == eee 67. 6 Pastoliles=s> 35224 ss 5-228 67. 6 | Smith Sound (male)_-________ 67. 6 St. Michael Island___________ 68: /0))|| NoxthArctic=2==-=— = — eee 68. 1 St. Lawrence Island: Greenland'= =: 22-2. ee 68. 5 Males sae seen Seen 67. 2 | Southampton Island_____-_-- 68. 7 Remale 324.2. =e aa (69. 6) PROGN ATHISM Since better understood, the subject of facial prognathism has lost much of its allure in anthropology; yet the matter is not wholly with- out interest. Facial protrusion is as a rule secondary to and largely caused by alveolar protrusion, which in turn is caused by the size and shape of the dental arch; and the dental arch is generally proportional to the size of the teeth. The form of the arch is, however, quite influential. With the teeth identical in size a narrow arch will be more, a broad arch less protruding, and a narrow arch with small teeth may pro- trude more than a broad one with larger teeth. Another influence is that of the height of the upper face, the same arch protruding more in a low face than in a high one. And still another factor is the in- cline of the front teeth, though this affects merely the appearance of prognathism and not its measurements. There are different ways of measuring facial prognathism, and with sufficient care all may be effective; I prefer, for practical reasons, linear measurements from the basion, which, together with the facial and subnasal heights, give triangles that can readily be reconstructed on paper and allow a direct measurement of both the facial and the alveolar angle. The three needed diameters from basion are taken, the first to the “prealveolar point,” or the most anterior point on the upper dental arch above the incisors; the sec- ond to the “subnasal point,” or the point on the left (for con- venience) of the nasal aperture, where the outer part of its border passes into that which belongs to the subnasal portion of the’ maxilla HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 283 (the point where the subnasal slant begins) ; and the third to nasion. The facial height is that from the alveolar point (/owest point of the upper alveolar border in the median line) to nasion; while for the subnasal height, which can not be measured directly, I utilize the difference between the facial and nasal heights, which is very close to the needed dimension. The important basion-nasion diameter has already been considered. That to the subnasal point needs no comment. That to the prealveo- lar point shows in the western and other Eskimo as follows: Esk1Mo CRANIA: BASION-PREALVEOLAR POINT DIAMETER Ati Eskimo Males: IM Gaye migmietenss 9 aero) ly eres Vek 12s a te bed Seem Fay centimeters__ 10. 54 Mean relation to length of skull._---------------------_ per cent__ 66.3 Females: 1D PRESTON S| EES ge SBR i yg Sl pe ag yp _centimeters__ 9. 99 LEDs he) cls en EE lee Se ad A ete me ee ees a per cent__ 65.8 MALES A=Basion prealveolar point diameter B=Its relation to length of skull N : Sea rdasie Northstern ene A B A B A B 10. 38 56. 4 10. 58 56. 4 10. 65 56. 2 Mean skull lengths 18. 41 | 18. 75 | 18. 96 FEMALES 9. 85 565.7 | 10.06 56.3 | 10.06 Fay Mean skull lengths 17. 69 | 17. 86 | 18.15 As in other details, so here there is a remarkable similarity between the skulls from the three large areas, pointing both to the unity of the people and to absence of heterogeneous admixtures. As the skull length increases so does the basi-alveolar line, but the relative proportions of the two remain very nearly the same. The relative value of the basi-alveolar length in the males, com- pared to the length of the skull, is in general about 0.5 per cent higher than it is in the females. This is just about the excess of the relative proportion of the length of the male dental arch when com- pared to the same skull dimension. The general mean skull length in the Eskimo male approximates 18.705, in female 17.899 centi- meters; the mean length of the arch is, in the male, close to 5.625, in the female 5.365 centimeters; and the percentage relation of the latter to the former is 30.6 in the males, 30 in the females. The relatively slightly greater basi-alveolar length in the males is evi- dently, therefore, at least partly due to the relatively longer male 984 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA (ETH. ANN. 46 dental arch, which in turn is doubtless due to the somewhat larger teeth in the males.1? Notwithstanding the just discussed slight sex difference in the Eskimo, the facial angle, i. e., the angle between the basi-alveolar line and the line nasion-alveolar point, is equal in the two sexes. This equalization is due largely, if not wholly, to the effect in the males of the relatively longer basio-nasion diameter (v. a.), while the alveolar angle, or that between the basi-alveolar and the subnasal lines, is In general by about 1 per cent lower in the females (males, 56°; females, 55°), indicating a slightly greater slant of the subnasal region in the female, which can only be due to a relatively slightly shorter in this sex of the basion-subnasal point diameter. As a matter of fact, the percentage relation of this diameter to the length of the skull amounts in the males to 56.3, in the females to but 55.6. Compared to that in the Indians, the facial angle in the Eskimo skulls shows close affinities. Its value (69°) is very nearly the same as in the mound skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana (males 70.7°, females 69°). In other Indians it ranges from close to 68° to 71.5°. In the Munsee it reached 73.5°. In whites, according to Rivet’s data,” it ranges from about 72° to 75°; in a group of negroes it was 68.5°. In American and other negro crania measured by me * it ranged from 67° to 70.5°, in Melanesians from 66° to 68°, in Aus- tralians from 67° to 69°. The alveolar angle is more variable. It shows considerable indi- vidual, sex, and group differences. It averages slightly to moder- ately higher, which means a more open angle or less slant in the males than in the females. In the Eskimo as a whole it was seen to be approximately 56° in the males, 55° in the females; in the Munsee Indians (Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethn.) it was males 59°, females 57°; in the Arkansas and Louisiana skulls (J. Ac. Sci., Phila., 1909, XIV) it averaged males 55°, females 52°. In my catalogue material it shows a group variation of 46.5° to 55.5° in the negro, 47.5° to 52.5° in the Australians, 46.5° to 50.5° in the Melanesians. In the whites it generally exceeds 60°. Differences in facial and alveolar protrusion among the Eskimo according to area are small, yet they are not wholly absent. The figures below show that in the southwesterners and midwesterners, where the skull is more rounded, the prognathism is smallest; and that toward the north and northeast, where the skull is narrower and the palate (dental arch) tends to become longer, prognathism increases. The “ Old Igloo” group shows once more such affinity with the Greenlanders that it is placed with the third subdivision. 4 Compare writer’s Variation in the dimensions of lower molars in man and anthropoid apes, Am, J. Phys. Anthrop., v1, 423-438, Washington, 1923. Rivet, P., Recherches sur le prognathisme. L’Anthropologie, xx, pp. 35, 175; Paris, 1909. xx1I, pp. 505, 637, 1910. Cat. Crania, U, S, Nat, Mus., ete., No, 8, Washington, 1928, 88, 105, 139. HRDLICKA] PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 285 Esximo SKULLS: FactAL AND ALVEOLAR ANGLE WITH PRINCIPAL AREAS Males Females : : h South a74| northwest | Northand | South and| nortnwest | Northand Cro ipe ae in 2 5 (13) (5) (6) (13) (5) (6) Wacial angle= =... 5.- 68 69 70 67. 5 69 70 Alveolar angle___--__-- 55 56 55 54 55 54. 5 Individual group differences in the facial and alveolar angle are moderate, yet evidently not negligible. (See next table.) The most prognathic, especially in the subnasal region, are the skulls from Nelson Island. A marked alveolar slant is also present in the Pilot Station Yukon group, and in Greenland. The least prognathic are the St. Michael Islanders, the Point Hope people, and those from Southampton Island. St. Lawrence stands once more near the middle of the southwesterners and midwesterners, and there are to be seen the principal old relations. The main points shown by the above conditions are the group variability, particularly in the southwest and midwest; the tendency, on the whole, toward a slightly greater prognathy, both facial and alveolar, in this same area; and the evidence that the alveolar slant has some individuality. EskIMO SKULLS: GRouP CONDITIONS IN FACIAL AND ALVEOLAR ANGLE “4 Facial Alveolar Facial Alveolar South and midwest angle angle Northwest angle = angle (20) (11) Nelson Island_-____-_-- 66. 3 51. 5 | Sledge Island _________ 69.5 54.9 (4) (31) Southwest Alaska _____ 66. 8 fate ial VGC ay 3 eens! 8 a ea 67.8 56. 0 (4) (17) i a i a 66. 8 Ofa0) |eShishmerete S22 ee 68. 3 55. 8 (21) (73) Indian Point--=-_-----.-- 67. 0 56. 5 | Point Barrow___-___-- 69. 56. 0 (8) (43) (NG) ea eS 67. 0 DEO MB ARTO Wars eee ee eee 69. 8 56. 8 (242) (181) St. Lawrence Island____ 67. Db5.0:)| LomtiHope.=—s.-- see 70. 5 56. 5 86) Nunivak Island_-_-_-_--- 67. 8 56. 5 North and northeast (23) (11) IRABLOM Ram = oe 68. 3 54. 8 | North Arctic__________ 68. 5 54.5 (10) (24) looper Bay. .—.==--~- 68. 3 55. 3 | Baffin Land_.----_---- 70. 0 55.0 (10) (87) Little Diomede Island_ 68. 5 bao | sereenland S22. 2252 5.5- 69. 8 53. 8 (9) (35) Mianntrak = 2.52. ==. = 68. 8 55. 3 | Old Igloos near Barrow_ 70. 3 55. 8 (5) (7) Pilot Station, Yukon__ 68.8 5290) |BHudsone Bay 2 == _- 5. 70. 3 56. 8 (10) (12) St. Michael Island_____ 70. 0 56. 8 | Southampton Island___ 71 55 so Lower angles mean higher, higher angles lower facial or alveolar protrusion. 3 4°99 99 | £:99 | 199 | 1°99 a 8) (@) (or) | () (gi) a ie “| $88 | (%@) HH eOFT «| SOT | ZEIT | cover | 02H en (S) () (FI) (¢) (#1) 01's 90'8 | 162 | So: |. 28Z (Z) @) (OT) (g) (681) : ay <2) n 116 696 | 6°96 | 8:96 | 1°96 < (8) (@) (st) | (9) (of) 2 £08 9°98 $8 | 6°88 18 (8) (@) (1) (9) (Cra) q L8h $94 Wy \\ REVO | VOY MH (8) (@) (71) (9) (891) S O6p T2255 FE OLF‘T| z9F ‘T mB () (g) (ZI) 5 98'S | 06ST | #9°Or | ce'ST | oF'or n () (Z) (1) (¢) (SFT) ee Of FT | 89 eT | O9'er | 90°er ss (g) (2) (eI) (g) (#1) OS 19 %t | oper | est | gest | ort = ©) @) (1) | @) (gst) est | seer | ec’st | cr'st | OF ‘ST ©) (2) (Ft) | @) (esT) ° (a EB Suisg | (ede | (edeo v, Bou 10 a is ee ‘q | PueISI | Pueist = oa i ujoug | werpuy ope ‘Ga SORT end | 4s BISY U10jSBvoq}ION 286 +99 () 88 (6) 66 1 (8) 98 °L (1) aras () 666 (8) @ 98 (8) 69 (8) 19F ‘I (g) 08 ST (8) £8 ‘81 (8) #8 ‘EI (8) £Z ST (8) puejs} yor “WOH. 48 9°79 (sh) £06 (%é) ze $1 (oF) e8°L (€) 96 ‘ZI (¥2) 16 (9f) & 88 (91) oh (9%) $09 ‘T (9%) eo ST (9%) 69 “1 (9%) 60 FI (9F) 18 ‘81 (9F) puv[st 99 | 6°89 99 | 179 | 2°99 (6) (2) (8) (8) (6) TGS) |\ea¥e09) alee canal eatin eO ule 19108 () () 179) () SIFT | 26°F | Of FL | LT | FF FT (6) (8) (€) (6) (6) SLL | 98% | 282 |69% | 618 (6) (2) (8) (8) (6) 19°@I | OF'@E [777-7777] FR SL &I (2) (¢) (2) (2) gue | 16 | £96 | 76 | &%6 (1) (s) (8) (6) (6) 178 | 9718 | 9°88 | #8 8 CD (8) (8) (6) (6) rol | Leh | 194 | 8:08 | BLL (779) (s) (8) (6) (6) 98F‘T| 099‘T] O6F‘T) 6Ig‘T| 9¢¢'T (11) (8) (8) (6) (6) Te‘St | 16ST | 9F'ST | OG'ST | 69 ‘ST (11) (e) (8) (6) (6) O98E | 2L°€L | 29" | 09°EE | 09°eT (11) C3) (e) (6) (6) 06 ‘EE | 20ST | LT | eh FT | HF HT (11) (8) (€) (6) (6) ¥F'ST | 06ST | 29°ST | 98°2T | S2’8T (11) (£) (8) (6) (6) 4 | uoynx | erp ane -OUSVT JOMOT pues Avg -nUB,L pus ‘uo1e4g| UoAN A |JeadooH pups] HOM | Old | Joao Wos[aN SIV a eS ee 9°99 | 6°99 1698 eas aa | SLO 99 \~~~4daddn ‘xepur [eneg (8) (8) (1) (1) (7) 8°88 9°96 GEOR eas Se lee me ale at [#10 ‘xopur [BIoBT (8) (@) i¢9) i¢9) 06 "Et | 40 FI 9°FT II ia PiGheli sa >" UINUIIXBur (#) (8) (1) (1) (1) (1) alyBuI0sAz1q-10}0MBICL 09° 8 OL, line. eal Sie qc Wh sae eae eee quiod (8) (8) (1) (1) (1) apjooaqe Joddn-uoiseN LT-@L | 06 ZI CN 4 ta eg ees cL lke oom a el UOIsvu-NOJUe PL (€) (2) (1) (1) 0B 76 | 8°86 s6 | 7°96 | #46 | £06 | ~~~-xepul qypeeiq-yysIeH (1) (1) () 19) ) () 468 9°18 8 18 $98 ars (ay | FSS es XOPUl IYFZIey UAL (f) (1) i¢9) i¢9) () (1) 98h 9LL 8°38 6 6L if (30) | (at as = XOpUl [BIUBID (1) (1) (1) @) ¢9) () COP Tih LFPuL OPE | eetammate | tee Coy 1| (nen Ost). | eran areata Aqrondeg (¥) (€) (1) (1) (1) 2 ST Gost | LOST | ZT ST 219 °ST OL Oe | me See a[npom jemelD (F) (¥) (1) (1) (1) (1) Geel | Sse FEL 9&1 ¥1 3c | Dia inci est 4gs1eH (¥) (¥) (1) (1) (1) (1) 0Z FI | 02 “FT ban 26 ar FFI SST eal ir ae wed eee qi peg (¥) (¥) (1) (1) (1) (1) OTST | O& ST FLT 8°LT 9°81 eal: => S43 qisueT (F) (F) (1) 09) G9) (1) mea yeuey -vuey | ens punog ade Pasou iy | oa ee | yes -euyQ sould -BysnN VINVUO OWIMSA “LSyOD OILVISY ANV ‘SANVIST Vag SNINEG ‘VESVIV NUGLSaM GNV NUALSAMALOOG PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 287 HRDLICKA] #88 @) StL (@) 969 @) 8 oF (8) 08% (g) £9°9 (¢) 116 (s) 10% (¢) 998 (e) 9°49 @) 99 G) 02 OT (¢) Or 6 (¢) 09 ‘OL (2) 06 "8 (2) 198 @) 09'9 @) 01'S @) Lor @) oe Z @) L¥’s (@) £48 @) 9% 'F @) 09° @) 89 (é) 89 (é) 06 ‘OL @) 086 @) 96 01 (@) 9°S8 (8) 999 (8) us'¢ (8) Ly (fF) oo % (#1) ugg (#1) 1°66 (11) Ol '* (#1) 08 'f (¥1) 49 $'S8 (9) 9F'9 (g) 86 °¢ (8) 9 tt (9) 98% (¢) 08S (g) 168 (9) 88 "8 (¢) Sys (g) 9°99 (1) 89 (?) ST ‘OL (5) a6 () 9% ‘OL (F) 98 01 (SFT) 9% 6 (#1) &F 01 (181) 998 (@) 168 () £99 (2) Fo (2) let (8) 9% % (8) 9g°¢ (8) $86 (8) 10'F (8) ¥L'E (8) 9°99 09) 69 (4) PF OL (8) 106 (8) Tz 01 (2) OL’ (11) 1'S8 () 029 (2) ug'¢ (2) e oF (1) 1% (11) FS (11) $36 (¢79) 86° (11) 19°8 (I) 99 (d) 69 () Tr 01 609) 116 (ot) OF OL (2) £98 (8) ry) (@) OFL @) 01'S @) gu (8) u% (8) 18°9 (€) 48 (8) 10°F (¢) 1g'€ (8) 69 (@) 90k @) 4201 (g) 106 (g) 9¢ 01 @ £98 (3) 18 (8) co) (8) 9F'e (8) et (6) eh % (6) IF’¢ (6) 1°86 (6) 268 (6) 99° (6) 9°99 (8) 89 (3) 62 01 (6) a6 (6) &@ OL (8) (82) bars (th) 6L°9 (FF) 99'S (FP) 8st (71) 98% (FF) 98's (¥) @ 68 (é) 20+ (Gt) 698 (Gr) 89 (It) 89 (if) s¢ OL (95) 1g 6 (FF) 9 01 (Gs) 998 (*) ris (8) £99 (g) OF'¢ () Sor (/) id () 6S (5) sts (fh) 60°F (6) o's (¥) 99 (8) 69 (8) ze OL (¥) ZL'6 (5) 1801 (8) 8° (2) 8°88 19) 99 (1) g¢ (1) or () ad (1) £9 (1) «6 () 6e (1) 19°¢ (1) 6r @) 9°49 () 66 () 98 (1) | rae salaries cl stsAqdurAs 48 «4qsIeAR MBE 6 JAaMO'T Gaye ocoe Qipevelq UBeyy qyatey WBATT ‘SHqIO ~-7-" ==" 91808 IB[OVATY a------5-- “e[due pepe 77>" "=" OISBU-MOISB Ey ~gujod jeseuqns-uolseg “-qulod 18[ooare aOIsBg, 2[B10BJ-O]SBT ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. 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(@) (OT) (12) 86 (8 66) 6°66 6 86 1°96 (8) ) ie) (91) (0L) 68 (6 62) 118 168 ¥ 88 (8) @) (7) (91) (0L) £ 8h 9%L 9°8L 48h 8°9L (8) ) (1) (A) (02) Bacar Ss 9¥% ‘T EE ‘T eee ‘T (Sep SP eae dee (F) (#1) (99) ST (2ST) |89 FT ¥9 FT 06 “FT (€) (2) (¥) (91) (02) 02 “eI &1 29 ‘ZI SL @r ST “er (g) (2) (F) (9T) (02) #1 96 ‘ET 02 81 TL “1 9 "EI (8) (@) (#) (21) (02) MA L'81 ee LT eF LT 68 “LT (8) (@) (¥) (21) (02) uoynA uoynA JOMOT JeMOT |pus (you Avg puvysyT pueysy ‘aoieig | -ngsey) | radooy | uosjfaN | ¥8ATUnN 40d Bed woyn SHIVA 9°89 9°99 (9) (7) gts 1°86 (7) (8) ST “et 2181 (9) (F) 0h 0g °2 (9) (¥) e'IL Tr (F) () 8°66 4°06 (9) () 168 & (9) (2) 9°08 L468 (9) «) 928 ‘T Le ‘T (F) (9) 89 “FI 82 FL (9) (2) o8 ZI 98 ‘ZT (9) (2) 26 '€T 21 FT (9) (1) Le “LT AT “LT (9) (1) YBIJUMYY| YeI0T, OWINSY NUGLSVY ANV ‘NUBHLUON ‘NUDLSA AY penulyuoO—VINVUO OWIMSH ~-----==-joddn ‘xopur e1oey weseee==""78409 ‘XOpU! [BIBT eC Cee --" "TOM UIT -XBUI O1JBUIOZAZIG JOJOMIVIC, ~4ys1eq woIseu-qurod IejoaATy can a= mn 4qs1ay UOIseu-uOJO AL 2008 q Sees ~ Xepul Ipveq4qysIeH ae ae eas XOpUl 4qsIey uve} F=teonpeeeee aoe --xXepUl [eTURIQ orn ee ee ae ee Ajroedeg fae -->->-"==--gmpoul [RIUBIQ) Rae 2 Paes = Sect 44210 iar err qypeolg “qy3ueT 408A, ensured eysepeuyQ 291 PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY HRDLICKA] Pe eae ae petal ST’ 6 °E 99° 19° nae OBES OP's She 0g "8 0c g, ~-a=>="-1-=--adurds 48 JqIeH : ef 12M0T (F) (21) (C)) Mea mes (F) (11) (ze) () (Co) a a 9°98 198 Sj el eae r 1g 8°98 +78 Tes 608 L798 sk renner 2 ~-7>"""="xapuy (79) (1) (601) ($) (91) (8) (1) (97) (9) (f) (@) OF 9 zs '9 oF 9 £%'9 869 O00 ails caetan | a) ze'9 19 £1'9 OF 9 (ORY ge OY fiber Seimei 1) (21 (21) (¥) (601) (¢) (ST) (8) aaa | Sa | @) (#1) | (9%) (9) (*) (@) F'S 0g '¢ 28 °S OFS oF’ (1) i | ba ei ray 6E°¢ 6g°¢ £0°¢ 8I'¢ egg keke Ae qiaueT (21) (F) (601) (g) (ST) (Ce ee oe (2) (#1) (9) (9) (F) (2) se18[eg Ag bark 99F gst 9% Lor ot 9°Lt $ oF Yor ety 8°9F CE RDI i bhatt ah ai ~*xepuy (91) (9) (0779) (9) (81) (8) () (1) () (89) (9) (9) @) ard 82% 68 Z ard 1e% £8 °Z Sard ce % FE Ze % tard (ood gs °% (ST) (9) (221) (¢) (sT) () (1) (¥) (#1) (89) (9) (¢) (@) 91's SI'¢ ets c6'F 6r'¢ g ¢ 66> 90°¢ 66 F £0°¢ 90°¢ e's (ST) (9) (21) (¢) (81) () (1) (F) (#1) (9) (9) (g) (2) 6°16 £68 166 9°9€ 16 16 1°66 L716 8°16 16 9°86 9°86 $6 (91) (9) (121) (9) (81) (8) () (7) (¢1) (69) (9) (8) (@) 06 "8 10°F 168 8.8 98 68 € 8's 68° 188 98 € 188 68° [a et ca “>> Gy pBelg UBAPAL (ST) (9) (a1) (8) (81) (g) 49) (#) (eT) (6g) (9) (8) (Z) 6g 09'€ 09g 19'€ 29'8 #08 $e 9g °g og “g Io 'e &¢'€ 6o€ co's nea a eae ae See “qys!oy UBeyT (ST) (9) (Té1) (8) (81) (8) (1) (F) (GT) (69) (9) (g) (2) SUqIO 19 969 19 49 9°89 19 gs Slee | 0g 99 9°99 9°19 AS file aetna Sakmann 9[duB IBpOeATy ($1) (9) (IID) (8) (91) (8) le Finley 9) ($1) (of) (9) (1) (@) 19 69 89 17) 9°19 1 Somme kak “771 9°89 9°99 9°49 9°89 99 CA Tea I Fes ~~~ ~r9[sue [BoB (81) (9) (929) (8) (91) (8) rite ie) ($1) (gf) (9) (1) (@) 166 166 £66 866 866 166 2 OL 0L6 £16 20 01 296 9¢ 6 08 6 pau ~->->=--OIsBU-OIse (91) (1) (821) (9) (81) () (1) (F) C9) (69) (9) (2) (@) 968 82°38 888 088 98 '8 088 68 o¢'g 918 16°8 098 jeg 'g 08 8 ~—"""="quTod [esBuqns-uolseg (St) (9) (611) (9) (ST) () (1) (F) (ST) (09) (9) (#) (2) FL OL £16 #0 ‘OI 116 60 01 L101 ek eer 09 6 90 OI L101 eo 6 86 $0 OL ~“-----qujod se[ooa[e-uolse g (g1) (9) (IIT) () (91) () (#1) (o) (9) () @) *[B}Ow)-O1Se ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 292 1't9 (gf) 4°98 (9) £0 ‘ST (0g) 902 (cf) 29 IT (g) Tor (69) 9°18 (69) BL (69) ¥28 ‘I (8h) tL $1 (29) raat (zg) 86 ZI (2g) #0 ‘ST (Zs) pus -00011) 9°19 @) 618 ) 02 “eT @) 08 ‘9 (2) 0@ ‘IT (2) 6°86 (@) 8°98 (@) L9l (@) org ‘T a9) Carat (2) 9 “81 (2) 08 ‘€T (2) sr 639 |679 , L919 \8'l9 18°99 | 8°89 449 1°89 89 449 19°99 119 199 «| £°99 «| 8°99 ~-~---=-~-geddn ‘xeput [BoB (779) @) (9) (9) (68) (81) (7) (LL) () (8) () () ) (1) (8) (OB 8a| Gecacaemmal LST St acute a Peas EE SS SEE MCT? I Cp Sees! Citic | ae Bi 06/4 etree ae 1810} ‘xepur [e1oey (9) ares 1K(9) oro ltama C70) eet (@) () 79) (Diy, 7° ol (8) peareaea| (S) EGRSE. (GOSH ZSie (9620 wIQOKET |SONEL SIOR'Sm Lizeist | Fesh ITcrel | |G2c8E cP OD sOeser | leben icctel \lmeuecauesss an nsnaacne ~~ mur (FI) (2) (g) (1) (94) (¥2) (82) (¥8) (1) (8) (1) (1) (2) (2) () “IXBUI o1jemosAzIq 10,9MIBIC, OT'’2 (969 |FI'2 eh jee2 10% st 907% TL (002 ees 49° ~=«(|082 €L |OF2 |--4Ws!eq wolseu-yuI0d s1B[ooaTy (21) (2) (g) (1) (0#) (81) (2) (82) (1) (6) (91) (1) (2) (1) (g) 00)sTTasallieeaeina| aby yakad |pSesees a|(CaCaen| ea “19021 | 6 IT Cle 98h 0a | eae EGE |r Seee tae |prreee ~"4qdleq doIseu-no ua (9) i ala 5 eae ~"|(8) (() eee epee (OT) aie «|| (enrehgl (2) (1) (1) (LD) ees |S ae (8) bales ag (8) 2008 T $66 1836 |666 18:6 | 8°46 | 970! | 1°86 | 696 OOr | 6°86 66} 9'°96 «=|6:6 | 186 | 846 1 ~-““xopurl Wy pBelq-4 4s10H (779) (@) (9) (01) (69) (¢79) (78) (68) 09) (6) (¢1) (8) (6) @) (1) 18 908 |e |see |f'se |798 |6e8 |o98 |9u8 | 6% ED NEE” WORE REE |OGE |p SSeS SESS xopul JYSIey Ueayy (779) @) (9) (on) (69) (¥6) (78) (68) () (6) (91) (8) (6) @) (1) SSL | ohh 19 1 SL tL 6 OL 9% 19L | BLL GL | 68L 9°94 OTL STL Bigk oS R Sonnac sane See XOPUI [BIUBIC) (079) (@) (9) (01) (69) (96) (98) (66) () (01) (91) (8) (6) C3 ie) sakedaman |i cea faa Fal | tana neal) GEC aT ecaie aaal| asacaesaal | MOL C= 1 | mma an aa OCCT || AROSE NT me SBCiT|| wa FZ eel OG HE eeRGhOs) | ccpenne nena aeaan ena Soma ANE EC) Pie aa | tart sigan (9) PFE KO) Foe |< Sea | (68) eel KG) (ST) (1) (8) (2) (#) POSE |49°FE |8E'ST SB FL [SL FE 22°F |99°FE |cLFE 29°F |oLPE |Z8°FL |8OPE |S6°P |SoPE |S2°RE |--t77ttttm moro emnpour peruB, (21) (2) (9) (OT) (ag) (¥2) (FE) (68) (1) (6) (ST) () (6) (2) (¥) FEEL [So°2I |e9'e [66'2E eO'el |IZet 26°21 loc‘et | FE |OL‘et |IZ'et [06 et jeer €T (Osean. || esas ystassasssseses=5 44310 (.1) (2) (9) (OT) (29) (¥2) (Fe) (68) (1) (6) (ST) (g) (6) (2) (¥) ¥r'eE 09'S jOL‘ET |98eT |eeer i7z-2r |ecet lerel | het jose oeet joger jos‘er jccer |ee'er Yypeelg (21) (2) (9) (OT) (zg) ($8) (98) (26) G9) (OT) (st) (8) (6) (2) (F) tS) Git fA Go VG) Gn 4:9 Ga 99g Ot) Sm Vn PX 007) Qa) WE i) G77) Qi «oe <) Gm 3072) QI 3 Ua) Que (1) 2a Gl SoA QD Re acta S -qqauey (21) (2) (9) (OT) (2g) (S@) (98) (26) (1) (OT) (ST) () (6) (2) (¥) mba Agra JOAIY Avg -1A pus | Aqrato MOdIB 0) DUB ISTe | OSLO Ni ecrrer Rone oul Hee Baty. MoIIB g [Jo qi See edo pine jar | sore y aes 88pas | Ed’ | poton tN B ae -qjnog |-y3z0N | 2d eel mouieg| Med ae -4siys 30.1 ued 2401 B[NsUlUeg PIBMEg Sa1IVNaA ponunu0g—OonIusq NUGLSVY GNV ‘NUDHLUON ‘NUGLSaAY penuydoo—VINVdO OWIMSa PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 293 HRDLICKA] 99 6 (@) se °8 @) Se 6 @) ore (g) 98 (1) %'9 (1) FS (21) str (1) 0% % (e1) 86 (et) 8°16 (81) It OL (1) 906 (eI) eI ‘Or (49) Ste (2) 668 @) 989 (@) 98°F @) 6'st @) St % (2) 06 *F (2) (446) @) (08 "€) (@) (09 '€) 926 () 8°8 () 46 () 02 '¢ Le @) (1) sss | 9°98 (1) (9) 099 = |zz'9 (¥) (9) ogg = ge "9 (#) (9) DET Nh tee (9) (6) 12% = |FL% (g) (6) 90°¢ ER 'F (9) (6) 9°98 =| t'16 (1) (ol) (ee (g) (01) we loos (g) (OT) ae| 9 Pome vag) a SS 89 heer (C:)) ¥e 01 = |20 01 (g) (01) 206 688 (¥) (9) Z20'OL = |£0 “OT (¥) (9) ses = 28 (11) (g) 6s | 1°98 (91) (86) (va a Oa) (91) (2) reo |ea'g (91) (8%) bh Y Sih (a) (48) (4 Qual 434 (12) (22) z0'9 6's (12) (22) 16 86 (81) (98) 10% [88 (81) (92) ue = |T9 8 (19) (92) St'Or 10 OT (¥2) (¥8) Z16 = |98'8 (12) (22) £10 |s86 (9) (2) 888 (8) $18 (82) 6r'9 (£2) 1%'¢ (e2) sof (98) 82% (98) 109 (98) 806 (88) 06 € (£8) #8 (£8) 9°99 (92) OL (92) 686 (68) ZL'8 (£8) ZL 6 (92) 6¢ 8 (1) (1) 6°98 98 (1) (9) 9 861499 (1) (9) 9 = |z9"9 fea can 60) PSE NEDA (1) (on) 9% \ee% (1) (01) 6% |b as ll ma()9) 8°98 | 188 (1) (01) QE = 068 (1) (Ot) (3a Sa a (1) (OT) Favor "| 9°99 Ke meas (8) rae ie 89 ia Be (8) ¢'6 = |9T ‘OT (1) (6) 6L 1926 (1) (8) 26 = |se ‘OL (1) (8) £08 C29) 99 (1) £9 (1) 6 oF (+) £% (1) 6% (1) 168 (@) 96 "8 (2) ogg (2) or 09) 99 (D £66 (f) 8°8 @) 86 (1) (9) 62 ‘OT (8) 916 (2) 9% “OL (9) [Fk Fai Te Pca qdurds 48 Aq a1IeF] ‘vel JOMOT () 1 is: ae Dich ema ain a OMe al i ~oo""" xepuy (8) eZ ‘9 idea are g ia it ~~~" gypeeig (8) 1775S" (ER [ese oa eas Raciee e qwauey (g) seqereg 1 (ie! |e Po Vik Sen xepuy (fh) (ara ~~ "YI peolg (¥) (dt ai estore tras Sam ye cae qqa10H (F) :OSONT EAC (ei (aaa 7 Basile ROM (ake ~xopuy (f) (Ce el ee aera erage cr Wypweq ULE, (¥) eal | ce allem 3 qqa}ey UBOTY (F) suqio SSeS Hs Reese eae ae o[aue IBlOeATy peeame [pee cr tae ga ~--9[3U8 [BIBT OLSO Toi Fae ur seen UOISeU-HOISE Ey (¥) 6 ro sare ~“qujod |eseuqns-uolseg (+) 2e'OL [777 -guyod svpooaye-uoyseg (eg) :[B]OVBJ-OjsBET 994 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH, ANN. 46 SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN A special effort in our work has been made to secure well-pre- served skulls of children. As elsewhere, so among the Eskimo, more children die than adults, but conditions are not favorable for the preservation of their skeletal remains. Most of the bones are done away with or damaged by animals (foxes, dogs, mice, ete.), while others decay, so that generally nothing remains of the youngest subjects and but a few bones and a rare skull of the older children. The total number of such skulls in our collection now reaches 25. They are all of children of more than 2 but mostly less than 6 years old, and are all normal specimens. The principal measurements of their vault—a study of the face is a subject apart and needing more material—are given in the following tables. SKULLS OF ESKIMO CHILDREN 295 HRDLICKA] ed EE MN At 9°08 Lh Neto Tee NG’ ral 9 “GI PY") il tetatiiatatel batataiatsatattatatae OPe csslewee OD Ses. al \oaaeaee S616EE 53 Off «ERs 42 Pee case aoss, (0) 0 fap line! crak ae 2) ena yal WR ESl6se “*WBMIIS “CL 6’9t_ |-------|----- pussy yearuny | puw “al ‘suypop “gq “H |7---7- GLIGBEE OWINSHA NUALSAMGIN GNV NYALSAaMALOAOS 49 898 9 68 9 G8 TTS ELT AEN CELTS ON, JA DLO) Cal epee ie i naa eect eam (RAR aaa a eee (ot R52 OdBIOAY Te 2 ee 09). bees || ee See |e a ee cae CELA OEE Ils > oll. . wa Rabatee hootacttt|Ldeecn ? ab clallla® hh abt we |) > ees waledy (9) 9) (9) (9) (6) (9) (6) (6) aaa 2 aaa | 2 operas | Ls aoa BBRUS Neen ee aleRee | lnceO [al pms aml fiomnen AU OU OOM la oo oP nar S ooo lOD Go aalco sae Cnr R ae 849 9°8 Tk8 |6@8 | @°68 | 2 CI FI yh Sah eee ea 2 as aes Ua pamingeraae mire oe (0) pete AS £90688 97g 68 L 66 Sam eae Seen Seed 8 ‘EI (<4) aw laa | Nara CEOS USUI | en ie oe Op eal =. 960688 I ‘8y Say 8°98 | 6°LL Sead] OMe | ORG | eGROly WC 2 al ene eee Opsa seg oa ee ae OPSSs=s|RaesS5 ss06ee CRE CHO Ea eSe One ogosen|RShehmam 8 to0. 4 See i UNOUe lesen s s5|caneens puvysy uospany |-~> => - 7 OU Gane S|, saan 180688 899 Z 6 16 9°18 é 18 Carat F St CIO lea aaaie «Ge a = YBIsoOT, |---4ABMAYG puB suTT[OD |-~-~ ~~ LE06EE 9°09 ¥'8 48 6L I 8 rat 8&1 (ht ] Leng a aS [aR ere OPeianalees Sao ta OD a ggeallt areas FOCTER he, aR ee sae | a |e ea €1 OPO LSise eoudlag | a OR: wal aees rs OD rot erlae =: OOO Ree a eee Slag i fin ae BiGe Nin aes lk oe PoQL yee ceeaiee 0) SUOIERd ison os wer OO OL Oy |i ame emeouces ‘WN'S'0. jouer qWAe Yipeeg | yisueyT 8! o1seu xypuy xB PEP xeput " wor , sooner -UOISe EL at pela yeruel) -BULIOJOq, AqI[B00T 20}00T109 oN sue -TOISB ET WNneA NGUCTIH() OWINSY AO VINVUS) ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 296 O4G el GEE | aL ISTO Pee iGo er | SammralesOlaes WG aTRAKGE la ee aBvr0Ay Been Brg ae eee ela ea ee NC OTTIGE ORDA ee ee ean eee a eee lee eared, (2) (2) (2) (2) (6) (2) (6) (6) Poggen Green| Ghee | Gala) |esiee la er | Ger | OL leer "suas Opes =r [ae at gee ee === = 055617, ec a oe \seaos=| patil feey [oe a ao a RODs | et OD eee al 5 OGGLG Sa ES eigg \p=----al grep lipcOleigccaac => OR = Oe all = orPOue mpg ae wee vatae Were lee Is? nek ep eb eeOn t\ees ieee Gpreass [ah eaeocesenaae optas7 ols IZF6LZ so¢9 |26 |996 |42u8 |s 0s | 8a Cael ras tae een ae alia aoe ee Op? 2ssa\0s eo ee Opraraalte aa ZOFGLZ 9°89 6 Wab lneecs \norae, Inge dinccen lesson sal ss ac Oprsc alps es ata a i 6LEGLZ eto |16 |es96 lars CMOKZD Mise cIcgcal Iccsssilccess> od | Slane gl ekare Semen Te Opa ale ess G6FGLZ 4to |e Leraca se gc oemMliscan alCCceL wlauoee ee | Ope sate Ope srlpeas 896612 sz |e6 Ten eecelanaalacar Apel Waleb i a --pueysy eouermey “yg |--------- SI0OIy Gre ic a 699612 SerG al ete | gsGRIMOGIEMMINGGDn | SCEE ((lGer. | SHOR \22=325a|Rr77 =e sas secs meaner | Sore meres taee een |e adtsoAy aie Go |psst [ese | aee—| ape ores. |S BEL |v 2se salsa ome eR [ee ee ee ol eI (9) (9) (9) (9) (2) (9) AC (2) 19 |L8 | 6°98 os |sos |9 zt | oH iF dl Game eee cena. ODesstdics 4s aero Opn ss =s|s as ZS16Ee 5 | feof (ee Deel sssss| Beee OE | c eed e e le = noeneee o99 |16 | 816 18 og |v zt | 9 eI eo nlp ee eee Ope = a4 ee Ope = ~2eaas LO168S “IBMOIG “G “VL 9°89 6 Tee \guose lesuae | oat | vests | Soll is puvysy yearuny | puw “ul ‘sumo “gq “H |---~-~ ZZ6EE ‘WN'S'0 yo YysU9I qq3ieH | wipeerg | 433007 somal artes uipeoiq | sqzioy mien eae AqtTB00T 103091109 ON ongo[Bye woIsea ‘ AN EJOSE |) UT : areata yA penuyju00—OWIMSA NUALSAMGIN GNV NYALSaMALIOS penulyuoyj—NaguaTiHy OWIASH AO VINVU)) 297 *HOIP[TYO 10} sv sj[npe Joy dnows eureg ; a Fog Y G6 @ 8 (alin Slip white eee STOP Vie se ne. et LE, wm Ths 6 66 T 96 8 06 { 889 I @6 L 8 GSTGs Bltes se res ea Smo} Tv Fe Zog bGs06ie || Tepss 3] Seege wr ors (sexes y}0q) SyNPY)| : q 9 ‘88 o '€6 & G6 @ ‘06 { CG FS Il t6 Il #8 PalS, Elesssms Soo oe eno! PUSTPL Conor Sets | : Og. lkzepen sihexegs #000) So am (sexes y30q) EP} eee 5S © TeZy € 36 F 96 L ‘16 { 82g SZ 9°18 Ge Sy ee UoIPTIYO DEMS eT eStore ° 9¢ £6 € G8 GxO28 {lh Par (sexes y}Oq) SyINPY | 1 OUILYSH a $98 & &6 L°96 T 06 { $S 9 68 GZ {29S aca ea eS uaipylyO | U1eyseaMprux pus useyseayynog PD a a JojeueIp ) uoIseu qqs1I0R qj} peeig qjsue7 -n0Iseg, xepul xopul xoput xoput 4 Gea | Sead | SP) oe E (OT =SiINpe) Warp puv sympe ut : iy) 4[M¥A oY} JO SUOISUeLAIpP JO UONRIe1 edBINEDI0g 7) slindy NI SSOHL HLIM GauvdNOD NaYGMHD NI SaOlGN] IVINVYD TvdIONtaq 7-99 26 SG ES 20S LCs s\eV CEL (50) Oink | se oe slece punog yyrag ‘yey | yonseg ydep |----- 0692 er Seg T6 Y 66 Pans: T8L ards % 1 GOR SS le wae AG CORO DI ET | |iec ne. Siena 2° as! (aa a LOOP HM 9°09 88 6 96 Y ‘$8 7 92 8 OI € $I i | Sa Neen ame ~puvys[ uoydureyynog |--~-~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ Tsuloy “HD | 90TP-66 | fl ‘H ‘N ‘WV 88253°—30——20 298 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 The main interest centers in the comparison of the relative pro- portions of these skulls with those of the adults from the same locali- ties. These comparisons, given in the smaller table, are of consider- able interest. The cranial index is considerably higher in the children. On analysis this is found to be due almost wholly to a greater relative breadth of the child’s skull. During later growth the Eskimo cranium advances materially more in length than in breadth. A further expansion in breadth is evidently hindered by some factor outside of the bones themselves, for nothing appears in these that could constitute such a hindrance. And the only evident outside fac- tor capable of producing such an effect are the strong pads of the temporal muscles. Hx 100 mean of L+B in the children and adults, indicating that the relative increase dur- ing growth in skull length compensates for the lagging increase in breadth, while the proportion of the height to the mean of the length and breadth remains fairly stable. The much greater growth in length than in breadth of the Eskimo skull from childhood onward is shown even better in the second part of the table by a direct comparison of the mean dimensions. The length of the adult skull is by over 9 per cent, the breadth by less than 4 per cent, greater than that in childhood in the same groups. The adult Eskimo skull has also grown very perceptibly more in height than in breadth, though somewhat less so than in length. The result is a notably higher height-breadth index in the adult. Com- pared to that in childhood the adult Eskimo skull is therefore rela- tively markedly longer, higher, and narrower. These facts are probably of more significance than might seem at first glance; for it is precisely by the same characters, carried still further, that some of the Eskimo differ from others. Let us com- pare two of our largest and best groups, those of St. Lawrence Island and Greenland: The mean height index ( remains much the same Number O(tetn | length | Breadth | Height sexes) Siaihawrence Island]. == === see ne (293) 18. 05 13. 90 13. 45 Greenland S22 224 ae a ee (101) 18. 51 13. 30 13. 54 The Greenland skull is longer, narrower, and somewhat higher. The differences are less than those between a child and an adult HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 299 western Eskimo, but of the same nature. This apparently speaks strongly for the development of the Greenland type of Eskimo cranium from the western. On the other hand, the type of skull shown by the Eskimo child approaches much more closely than that of the Eskimo adult to the type of the skull of the Mongol. The above are mere observations, not theories, and they carry a strong indication that mostly we are still floundering only on the borders of true anthropology, embracing all phases of life and devel- opment, which, if mastered, would give us with beautiful definition many now vainly sought or barely glimpsed solutions. A highly interesting feature is the relatively great development in the Eskimo, between childhood and the adult stage, of the anterior half of the skull or basion-nasion dimension. This augments, it is seen, by even 3.4 per cent more than the length. This growth must involve some additional factor to those inherent in the bones them- selves and in the attached musculature, and this can only be, it seems, the development of the anterior half of the brain. Evidently this portion of the brain between childhood and adult life grows in the Eskimo more rapidly than that behind the vertical plane correspond- ing to the basion. It is a very suggestive condition calling for fur- ther study, and thus far almost entirely wanting in comparative data on other human as well as subhuman groups. THE LOWER JAW The lower jaw of the Eskimo deserves a thorough separate study. For this purpose, however, more jaws in good condition are needed from various localities, and particularly more jaws accompanying their skulls. As it is, a large majority of the crania are without the lower jaw, or the alveolar processes of the latter have become so affected in life through age and loss of teeth that their value is dimin- ished or lost. Still another serious difficulty is that the measuring of the lower jaw is difficult and has not as yet been regulated by general agreement, so that there is much individualism of procedures with limited possibilities of comparison. One of the principal measurements taken on the available Eskimo mandibles was the symphyseal height. This is taken by the sliding calipers and is the height from the lower alveolar point (highest point of the normal alveolar septum between the middle lower in- cisors) to the lowest point on the inferior border of the chin in the median line.* The results are given in the following tables. 44 Should there be a decided notch in the middle, as happens in rare specimens, it is rational to take the measurement to the side of the notch, 300 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Eskimo Lower JAw: HeicHt aT SYMPHYSIS Male Female South- South- western North | \ pxthern tee North; (|; Nortbemn end pie western eastern pag ae western eaaterrt Groups (main)___-___- (9) (5) (5) (9) (5) (5) Specimens! os == == (116) (148) (40) (121) (134) (25) AVEIACe n= eee eee By 45) 3. 76 3. 67 3. 38 3. 34 3. 39 General mean in west- ern Eskimo_______-- SVGed ap jeeseteet 3/361). 7h zee Percental relation of female to male Qi 100) ae 89.4 Males, Females, 19 groups | 19 groups (399 jaws) | (280 jaws) General mean for all Eskimo (approximate) ________-_---___ 3. 73 3. 37 Percental relation of female to the male_______ ._---_------|_------- 90. 4 General mean of total facial height. .--------=.-.---+2--=-= 12. 47 11. 60 Percental relation of height of jaw to total facial height -_-_- 30 29 General mean of upper facial height_--------------------- 7. 76 7. 20 Percental relation of height of jaw to upper facial height--__| 48 47 Just what these figures mean will best be shown by a table of com- parisons.’ All these are my own measurements. Lower Jaw or Various Races: Heicut at SyMPHYSIS Male (399) Eskimo? (all) 2 So eee ge thee Bees eee tees Eee 3. fo North American Indians: (36) Sionxe |: hel pee yh ey esi ye Siva rrr ree 3. 60 (52) ATKANSS§. 22 =e tg ee ee 3. 66 (29) | heya papel a i MN hs Mt is st SN oe 3. 69 (9) Miunseéas: §. rece eres! Gn} eft _ oe cya: pee ate 3. 70 (15) bouisiana et vt Sesd ee eae ey eee 3. 72 (44) Kentucky... nf ye tot eee eee 3. 49 Female (280) 3. 37 (26) 3. 22 (50) 3. 24 (21) 3. 38 (6) 3. 40 (14) 3. 29 (30) 3. 18 Female ver- sus male (M=100) 90. £ 89. 88. 6 91. 4 91.9 8&8. 91.1 18 From my Phys. Anthr. of the Lenape, etc., the Anthropology of Florida, and the Catalogue of Crania. HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 301 Lower Jaw or Various Races: Hercut ar SympHysis—Continued Female ver- Male Female sus male (M=100) (50) (30) WES. whites! (miscellancous)..—---. ------o-- 3. 29 2. 87 87.2 (41) (8) Negro, full-blood, African and American__________ 3. 54 3. 14 188.7 (261) (191) ATISUIRUB Gee eee See ee eee 3. 44 3. 07 89. 2 1 Approximately. The table shows the Eskimo jaw to be absolutely the highest at the symphysis of all those available for comparison, with the female nearly the highest.*° Relatively to stature it exceeds decidedly all the groups, the Indians that come nearest matching it in the abso- lute measurement being all much taller than the Eskimo. And the female Eskimo jaw is relatively high compared with that of the male, being exceeded in this respect only in three of the Indian groups, in two of which, however, the showing is due wholly and in one partly to a lesser height of the male jaw. The relative excess of the female jaw in this respect seems particularly marked in the northern and northeastern groups, though it must remain subject to corroboration by further material. The white, Negro, and Australian data have an interest of their own. STRENGTH OF THE JAW The Eskimo jaw is generally stout. Barring rare exceptions there is nothing slender about it. The body, moreover, is frequently strengthened by more or less marked overgrowths of bone lingually below the alveoli and above the mylohyoid ridge. These neoforma- tions will be discussed later. The strength of the mandible may be measured directly in various locations on the body. Due to the peculiar build of the body, how- ever, and especially to its variations, these measurements are by no means simple and wholly satisfactory. It is hardly necessary in this connection to review the various attempted methods, none of which has become standardized. As a result of experience I prefer since many years to measure the thickness of the body of the jaw at the 1®Rudolf Virchow, as far back as 1870, in studying some mandibles of the Greenland Eskimo, found that the height of the body in the middle (3.5 centimeters) was greater than that of the lower jaws of any other racial group available to him for comparison. Archiy. fiir Anthrop., Iv, p. 77, Braunschweig, 1870. 302 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 second molars, and that in such a way that either the molars, if the measurement is taken from above, or the lower border of the jaw if it is taken from below, lies midway between the two branches of the sliding calipers with which the measurement is taken. The two methods (from above or below) give results that are nearly alike. In some cases the one and in others the other is the easier, but wherever the teeth are lost the measurement from below is perhaps preferable. The records obtained on the lower jaws of the western Eskimo and other racial groups are given in the next table. THICKNESS OF THE Bopy oF THE LOWER JAW AT THE SECOND MOLARS IN THE WESTERN HskIMO AND OTHER GROUPS Male Female Female versus male Right side | Left side | Right side} Left side | 4=100) (240) (248) Western Eskimo___millimeters__| 16. 2 1653) |) P51 5s 92.9 (29) (28) Florida Indians_-_------ dosse2 16. 6 15. 5 93. 4 (21) (16) Louisiana Indians_~_----_-~ Gdonse= 16.3 15. 3 93.9 (58) (47) Arkansas Indians______-_ dos=== V5.2 14.7 96.7 (40) (22) Kentucky Indians_---_--- dos = 14.7 14.2 96.6 (50) (20) American whites (mise.)__do____ 14.5 12.8 88. 3 The figures show that the Eskimo jaw is very stout. It is ex- ceeded in thickness only by the jaws of Florida, which in general are the thickest in America, and in males is about equaled, in females very slightly exceeded by those of the prehistoric Indians of Loui- siana, who belong to the same Gulf type with the Indians of Florida. The old Arkansas Indians, though closely related to those of Louisiana, show a very perceptibly more slender jaw, particularly in the males; while in an old Kentucky tribe (Green River, C. B. Moore, collector) the jaws are still less strong. The lower jaws of the American whites (dissecting-room material) are slightly less stout than even those of the Indians of Kentucky in the males, and much less so in the females. The interesting sex differences are shown well in the last column of the above table. HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 303 BreaprH OF THE RAmri Still another character that reflects the strength of the lower jaw is the breadth of the rami. The most practicable measurement of this is the breadth minimum at the constriction of the ascending branches. A great breadth of the rami is very striking, as is well known, in the Heidelberg jaw, and the Eskimo have long been known for a marked tendency in the same direction. The measurements of the lower jaws of the western Eskimo show as follows: Lower JAWS OF THE WESTERN ESKIMO AND OTHER RACIAL GROUPS: BREADTH MINIMUM OF THE ASCENDING BRANCHES Male Female Female versus male Right Left Right Lett | (M=100) (2438) (240) (237) (228) Western Eskimo__-_centimeters__ 3. 99 4. 03 3. 68 3. 70 92 (20) (20) (13) (18) Florida Indians_-~--_---~- dose 3. 82 3. 85 3. 39 3. 34 87.7 (21) (19) (19) (16) Louisiana Indians_---_--_- dot2ee 3. 72 342 3. 29 3.27 88. 2 (62) (60) (58) (61) Arkansas Indians___--___ dor == 3. 47 3. 47 3. 24 3. 23 93. 2 (42) (40) (30) (29) Kentucky Indians__---_-- dos-= = 3. 44 3. 44 3.18 3. 21 92.9 (50) (50) (20) (20) United States whites (miscella- eos) 5 2 centimeters_ - 3. 17 3. 14 2. 89 2. 82 90. 5 The Eskimo jaws, and particularly that of the female (relatively to other females), have the broadest rami. Otherwise the series range themselves in the same order as under the measurement of the stoutness of the body. Oruer Drrensions Four other measurements were taken on the jaws, namely the length of the body (on each side) ; the height of the two rami; the bigonial diameter; and the body-ramus angle. The results of the first three may conveniently be grouped into one table. 304 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS ON THE LOWER JAW MALE reece Tength of: |p eeat of ramus tee pane bigonial 4 Right Left Right Left (236) (236) (100) | (132) (1381) (201) Western Eskimo _--—--_--___ 10. 28 10. 28 8. 03 6. 45 6. 38 11. 42 (24) (18) (22) Blorida indian. =22- S=see2.—|2- =o a oe 8. 45 6. 72 10. 75 (19) (15) (17) ouisiansy indian. eee | eee ee es 8. 44 7 10. 67 (62) (52) (57) Arkansas tin cdisn ee == | See eee 7. 88 6. 52 10. 49 (42) (37) (38) Kentucky, Indian] s=-ss- = 4|= == 7. 45 6. 48 10. 48 (50) (50) (50) U.S. whites (miscellaneous) _|_-_____------- (hay 6. 53 10. 11 FEMALE (230) (228) (100) | (184) (128) (199) Western Eskimo-----_--_--- 9.61 9.60 Heel) aay il sb 4y/ 10. 57 (19) (18) (17) Hlorids Indian=s222-2—-—==4|5—5"-2-——— eae (6 6. 02 9. 70 (16) (15) (15) (Rouisian ss nd tan see sa 7. 38 5. 77 9. 90 (57) (52) (56) Arkeansasvin Gian eee ee ee | eee eee 7. 46 5. 85 9. 58 (30) (25) (30) Wentieky, in dias = eo | ene 7. 12 5. 64 9. 45 (20) (20) (20) U. S. whites (miscellaneous) _-|___-_--------- 7. 02 5. 87 9. 12 1 Sliding calipers: Separate measurement of each half of the body, from the lowest point on the posterior border of each ramus not affected by the angle to a point of corresponding height on the line of the symphysis. The anterior point may, in consequence of a lower or higher location of the posterior point, range from the chin to above the middle of the symphysis, but the results are much alike. The measurement leaves much to be desired, but is the best possible if the two halves of the body are to be measured separately. 2 The length of the whole jaw is measured on Broca’s mandibular goniometer, by laying the jaw firmly on the board, applying the movable plane to both rami, and recording the distance of the most anterior point of the chin from the base of the oblique plane. This measurement is easier than the previous, though on account of the variation in the angles and the lower part of the posterior border of the rami it is also not fully satisfactory, and it does not show the differences in the two halves of the body. * Sliding calipers: One branch applied so that it touches the highest points on both the condyle and the coronoid, while the other is applied to the lowest point of the ramus anterior to the angle, if the bone here is prominent ; if receding, the branch of the compass is applied to the midpoint on the lower border of the ramus. 4 Sliding calipers: Maximum external diameter at the angles; the maximum points may, exceptionally, be either anterior to or a little above the angle proper. HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 305 Frmates TO Mates (M=100) Length | Lengthas | Height of | Diameter each side a whole rami bigonial Western Nekimore. foes 2.22 ooo ee 93. 93.0 87.3 92.6 Wioridavindianiee Ty TUOIL Ee SP oeel oe BE eas 22s 91.4 89.6 90. 2 oulsisna) Indian: s2.. 8 yeu ae | eteseu 87.4 82. 4 92.8 Arkansan lniginne- 2-42 Loo sceass.| Sees 94.6 89.7 91. 3 Kentucky, Indian -- =~ 32 2-2 e se 95.6 87.0 90. 2 U. S. whites (miscellaneous) -__--_-------|-------- 92.7 89.9 90. 2 The Eskimo lower jaw, which, as seen before, is characterized by a high and stout body and the broadest rami, shows further that these rami are remarkably low, and that the bigonial spread is extraordinarily broad. The length of the body, on the other hand, is not very exceptional, being perceptibly exceeded in some of the Indians. Tue ANGLE The angle between the body and the ramus of the lower jaw is known to differ with the age and sex as well as individually. Not seldom it differs also, and that sometimes quite appreciably, on the two sides. Racial differences are as yet uncertain. The angle, especially in some specimens, is not easy to measure, and the position of the jaw may make a difference of several degrees. Numerous trials have shown that the proper way is to measure the angle on the two sides separately, and to so place the jaw in each case that there is no interference with the measurement by either the posterior or the anterior enlarged end of the condyle. Leaving out jaws in which extensive loss of teeth has in all probability resulted in changes in the angle, the western Eskimo material gives the following data: , WesterN Esximo: ANGLE OF THE LowER JAW Male Female Male Female (224) (217) (218) | (207) Right. side. 2.2222. 25 119. 6°} 124. 5°|| Left side-_----__--- 119. 5°} 124. 3° In the male Munsee Indians the angle was 118°; in those of Arkansas and Louisiana, 118.5°; in those of Peru (Martin, Lehrb., 884), 119°. In the whites, males, the average angle approximates 122°; in the Negro, 121° (Topinard, Martin). 306 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 45 The angle in the female in the Eskimo is to that of the male as 104 to 100; in the Arkansas and Louisiana series it was 103. In the whites the proportion seems to be a little higher. There are evidently, if we exclude the whites in whom the short- ness of the jaw conduces probably to a wider angle, no marked racial differences, but the subject needs a more thorough study on large series of sexually well-identified specimens, carefully selected as to age. The average angle on the right differs in the Eskimo but very slightly from that on the left, though individually there are fre- quent unequalities. RisuME The Eskimo lower jaw differs substantially in many respects from that in other races, particularly from that of the whites. It is char- acterized by a high and stout body; by broad but low rami; and by excessive breadth at the angles. The body-ramus angle is moderate. To which may be added that the chin is generally of but moderate prominence, and that the bone at the angles in males is occasionally markedly everted. Manpreunar HyPrrostroses These hypertrophies or hyperostoses are rarely met with also in the jaws of the Indian and other people. They are symmetric and characteristic, though often more or less irregular. They generally extend from the vicinity of the lateral incisors or the canines back- ward, forming when more developed a marked bulge on each side opposite the bicuspids, which gives the inner contour of the jaw when looked at from above a peculiar elephantine appearance. They may occur in the form of smooth, oblong, somewhat fusiform swellings, or as a continuous more or less uneven ridge, or may be rep- resented by from one to four or five more or less rounded or flat- tened hard “buttons” or tumor-like elevations. In development they range from slight to very marked. These hyperostoses have been reported by various observers (Dan- ielli, Séren Hansen, Rudolf Virchow, Welcker, Duckworth & Pain, Oetteking, Hrdlicka, Hawkes). They received due attention by Fiirst and Hansen in their “ Crania Groenlandica” (p. 178). They have been given the convenient, though both etiologically and mor- phologically inaccurate, name of “ mandibular torus ”; I think man- dibular hyperostoses or simply welts would be better. Fiirst and Hansen found them, taking all grades of development, in 182, or 85 per cent, of 215 lower jaws of Greenland Eskimo; in 28 jaws, or 13 per cent, they were pronounced, the remainder being slight to me- dium. A special examination of 62 lower jaws of children and 710 HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 307 lower jaws of adult western Eskimo (with a small number from Greenland) gives the following record: Lingua, Manpiputar HyrErrosTOSES IN THE WESTERN Eskimo CHILDREN [62 mandibles, completion of milk dentition to eruption of second permanent molar] None or in- Slight to | distinguish- rioderate Medium |Pronounced able , Seer i: ee _ <_. eee 47 110 ie he ene Ren Cen Get ne ey ee 75. 8 16.1 Si lig! nt Cate sees ADULTS (Both sexes. 710 mandibles] WDECUNENS Seen ee a 215 356 114 25 er centstsi Memmeee, 25 FU hls See 80. 3 50. 1 16. 1 8.5 | 1 None in the younger children. 2 All in older children or adolescents. ADULTS {Sexes separately. M. 350; F. 360 mandibles] None or indis- | Slight to moder- ‘Medium Pronounced ate tinguishable ] a Males | Females} Males |Females| Males | Females} Males | Females Specimens- 422. 52=.=- 71 144 193 163 67 47 19 6 Per. cents. 52 = __.- 20.8 | 40.0 | 56.1 | 46.8 | 19.1 | 18.1 5. 4 Ne 4 | The significance of these hyperostoses is not yet quite clear. Danielli, who in 1884 reported them ™ in the Ostiaks, Lapps, a Kirghiz, a Peruvian Indian, and four white skulls, offered no ex- planation. For Sgren Hansen,* who first suggested the resemblance of these formations to the torus palatinus, “the significance of this feature, which also occurs in other Arctic races not directly related to the Eskimos, is not clear.” R. Virchow,!® who reports “ wulstigen und knolligen Hyperostosen ” on both the upper and lower jaws of a Vancouver Island Indian, restricts himself to a brief mention of the condition with a suggestion as to its causation (see later). Welcker *° found them in the skulls of a German (Schiller?), Lett, and a Chinese, but has nothing to say as to their meaning. Duckworth 17 Danielli, J., Arch. p. l’antrop. e letnol., 1884, xrv. 18 Meddel. om. Grgnl., 1887, No. 17. 1 Beitr. Kraniol. d. Insul. w. Kiiste Amer., 1889, 398. »” Arch. Anthrop., 1902, xxvul, 70. 308 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [PTH. ANN. 46 and Pain” report the “thickening” in 10 out of 32 Eskimo jaws, but do not discuss the causation; and the same applies to Oetteking,** who reported on a series of Eskimo from Labrador. In 1909 Gorjanovi¢-Kramberger ** somewhat indirectly notes the condition, without a true appreciation of its meaning. In 1910 I had the opportunity to report on the mandibular hyper- ostoses in a rare collection of crania and lower jaws of the central and Smith Sound Eskimo." Of 25 lower jaws of adults and 5 of children, 18, or 72 per cent, of the former and 2 of the latter showed distinct to marked lingual hyperostoses, while in the remaining cases the feature was either doubtful (absorption of the alveolar process) or absent. Two of the five children showed the peculiarity in a well-marked degree. A critical consideration of the condition leads me to the conclusion that it is not pathological, and my remarks were worded (p. 211) as follows: “A marked and general feature is a pronounced bony reinforcement of the alveolar arch extending above the mylohyoid line from the canines or first bicuspids to or rear the last molars. This physiological hyperostosis presents more or less irregular surface and is undoubtedly of functional origin, the result of extraordinary pressure along the line of teeth most con- cerned in chewing; yet its occurrence in infant skulls indicates that at least to some extent the feature is already hereditary in these Eskimo.” In 1912, Kajava *° reported lingual hyperostotic thickenings on the lower jaws of 68 adult Lapps, and found the condition in frequent association with pronounced wear of the teeth. In 1915, finally, Fiirst and C. C. Hansen, in their great volume on “ Crania Groen- landica,” approach this question much more thoroughly. They, as also Kajava, did not know the writer’s report of 1910. They found the “ torus ” (p. 181), “ also in the mandibles of some various Siberian races in a not insignificant percentage * * * and also not in- frequently among European races, especially in the Laplanders (30 to 35 per cent).” They also report the presence of the condi- tion “in a Chinaman,” and saw indications of a good development of it in 17 per cent of 164 middle ages to prehistoric, and in 12 per cent of later Scandinavian lower jaws. Their interesting comments on its possible causation, though at one point seemingly not har- monizing, are as follows (p. 180): “ The possibility is not precluded that we have here a formation which, even though it has at first arisen and been acquired through mechanical causes, has in the end “J, Anthr. Inst., 1900, xxx, 134. 22 Abh. und Ber. Zool. und Anthr. Mus., Dresden, 1908, x11. *8 Sitzber. preuss. Ak. Wiss., LI—LIII. * Anthrop. Pap’s. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. 1. * Verh. Ges. Finn. Zahnarzte, 1912, rx. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 61 WESTERN ESKIMO AND ALEUT (MIDDLE) LOWER JAWS, SHOWING LINGUAL HYPEROSTOSES. (U.S.N.M.) HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 309 become a racial character, albeit a variable one.” And page 181: “ There seems to be no doubt whatever that it is a formation connected with Arctic races or Arctic conditions of life; and, accordingly, it can not safely be assumed to be a racial character, however difficult it is to regard it as a formation only acquired individually.” With both the previously published and the present data, I believe the subject of these bony formations may now be approached with some hope of definite conclusions. These hyperostoses give no indication of being pathological. They are formed largely, if not entirely, by compact bone tissues of evi- dently normal construction. They never show a trace of attending inflammation or of ulceration or of breaking down. They resemble oceasionally the osteomae of the vault of the skull, and more dis- tantly the osteomae of the auditory meatus, but in those cases where the bony swelling is uniform and in many others they show to be of quite a different category. (PI. 61.) As a rule these bony protuberances in the Eskimo are not con- nected with evidence of pyorrhoea, root abscesses, or any other pathological condition of the teeth, for those conditions are prac- tically absent in the older Eskimo skulls; therefore they can not be ascribed to any irritation due to such conditions, and the Eskimo have no habits that could possibly be imagined as favoring, through mechanical irritation, the development of these bony swellings. Wear of the teeth, which has been thought to stand possibly in a causative relation to these developments, is common in many races and even in animals (primates, etc.), without being accompanied by any such formations. The development of such overgrowths is not wholly limited, as already indicated from the cases reported by Danielli (1884) and Virchow (1889), to the lower jaw, but somewhat similar growths may also be observed, though much more rarely, both lingually and on the outer border of the alveolar process of the upper jaw in the molar region. When present in the latter position they interfere with the measurement of the external breadth of the dental arch. But, if neither pathological themselves nor due to any pathological or mechanical irritation, then these hyperostoses can only be, it would seem, of a physiological, ontogenic nature; and if so, then they must be brought about through a definite need and for a definite purpose or function. These views are supported by their marked symmetry, which is very apparent even where they are irregular; by the fact that in general they are not found in the weakest jaws (weak individuals), or again in the largest and stoutest mandibles (jaws that are strong enough as it is); and by the history of their development. 310 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 Our rather extensive present data on children show that these formations are absent in infancy. They begin to develop in older childhood, in adolescence, or even during the earlier adult life; they stop developing at different stages in different individuals, and they never lead to any deformity of the body of the mandible. These overgrowths are further seen to be more common and to more frequently reach a pronounced development in the males than in the females. What is the effect of these hyperostoses? ‘They strengthen the dental arch. With them the arch is stronger; without them it would be weaker. The view is therefore justified that they augment the effectiveness of the dental arch; which is just what is needed or would be useful in such people as the Eskimo where the demands on the jaws exceed in general those in any other people. All these appear to be facts of incontrovertible nature; but if so then we are led to practically the same conclusion that I have reached in the study of the central and Smith Sound Eskimo, which is that the lingual mandibular hyperostoses are physiological formations, developed in answer to the needs of the alveolar portions of the lower jaw. They could be termed synergetic hyperostoses. The process of the development of these strengthening deposits of bone is probably still largely individual; yet the tendency toward such developments appears to be already hereditary in the Eskimo, as indicated by their beginning here and there in childhood. But their absence in nearly one-third of the Eskimo mandibles, their marked differences of occurrence and development in the two sexes, and their occasional presence in the jaws of various other peoples, including even the whites, speak against the notion of these hyper- ostoses being as yet true racial features. Taking everything into consideration, the writer is more than ever convinced that the lingual hyperostoses of the normal lower (as well as the upper) jaw, in the Eskimo as elsewhere, are physiological, ontogenic developments, whose object and function is the strength- ening of the lower alveolar process in its lateral portions. Only when excessively developed, which is very rare, they may, mechani- cally, perhaps cause discomfort and thereby approach a pathological condition. Man Rererences Danielli,?* 1884: “Saw the condition in lower jaws of 1 Swede, 1 Italian, 1 Terra di Lavoro jaw, 1 Slovene, 1 Hungarian, 1 Kirghis, 1 ancient Peruvian.” Found hyperostoses in 9 out of 14 Ostiak lower jaws. *6 Danielli, Jacopo, Iperostosi in mandibole umano specialmente di Ostiacchi, ed anche in mascellari superiore. Archivio per ]’antropologia e l’etnologia, 1884, xiv, 333-346. HRDLICKA] THE LOWER JAW 311 Material: Young 2, adult 6, old 6. Hyperostoses in young 1, adult 3, old 5. Mantegazza, at his request, examined some Ostiak and Eskimo skulls in Berlin and found the hyperostoses in 2 Ostiak lower jaws (slight) and in 1 Eskimo skull from Greenland (marked). Found also smaller hyperostoses in the upper jaw ventrally to the molars (“situate quasi sempre dalla parte interna in corrispondenza dei molari”) : Skulls: 2 Italians, 1 Hungarian, 7 Norwegians, 2 Lapps, 5 Ostiaks. Plate shows 8 lower jaws, 1 with slight, 7 with marked hyperostoses (1 symphyseal swellings, 3 tumorlike). Refrains from interpretation (could not reach conclusion). Virchow,”* 1889, page 392: In upper jaws of three Santa Barbara skulls: “An den Alveolarriindern der weiblichen Schidel Nr. 3-6 von S. Barbara besteht eine héchst eigenthiimliche und seltene, knol- lige Hyperostosis s. Osteosclerosis alveolaris, wie ich sie in gleicher Starke friiher nur bei Eskimos gesehen hatte. Ein leichter Ansatz dazu zeigt sich auch bei dem miinnlichen Schidel Nr. 4 von S. Cruz. Es diirfte dieser Zustand, der mit tiefer Abnutzung der Ziihne zusammenfilt, durch besonders reizende Nahrung bedingt sein.” Vancouver Island skulls: “dagegen sehen wir dieselbe alveolare Hyperostose, die wir bei den Leuten von S. Barbara und weiterhin bei Eskimos kennen gelernt haben.” Virchow,** 1892: “Der Alveolarrand gleichfalls mit hyperosto- tischen Wiilsten besetzt, jedoch mehr an der inneren Seite, besonders stark in der Gegend per Priimolares und Canini, weniger stark in der Gegend der Incisici.” Welcker,”® 1902: “ Exostosen der Alveolarriinder. Von erheblicher Beweiskraft kénnen Eigenthiimlichkeiten und Abnormitiiten des Knochengewebes under der Knochenoberfliiche werden, wenn diesel- ben, bei an sich grosser Seltenheit ihres Vorkommens, an einem Ober- schiidel und Unterkiefer zugleich vorkommen. “So fand ich am Unterkiefer der Gypsabgiisse des sogenannten Schillerschiidels sehr merkwiirdige, bis dahin nirgends erwiihnte, erbsenférmige Exostosen an den Alveolen der Eck- und Schneide- zihne. Ganz iihnliche, wenn auch etwas fliichere Exostosen zeigen die Alveolen eben derselben Ziihne des Oberschiidels, und es beweist dieses seltene Vorkommen bei dem Zutreffen aller iibrigen Zeichen das Zusammengehoren beider Stiicke mit hoher Sicherheit. 7 Virchow, R., in Beitriige zur Craniologie der Insulaner von der Westkiiste Nord- amerikas. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Verhandl., 1889, xx1, 395, 401. 28 Virchow, R., Crania Ethnica Americana. Berlin, 1892, Tafel xxi. A “ long-head” male adult of Koskimo, Vancouver Island. *° Welcker, H., Die Zugehérigkeit eines Unterkiefers zu einem bestimmten Schiidel, nebst Untersuchungen tiber sehr auffiillige, durch Auftrocknung und Wiederanfeuchtung bedingte Grében und Formyeriinderungen des Knochens. Arch. f. Anthropol., 1902, XXvVII, 70. 312 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 “In einer etwas anderen Form, in der dieselben einen geschlos- senen, exostotischen Saum bilden, fand ich Alveolarexostosen bei einem Lettenschiidel (G. Gandras, 47 J., Halle Nr. 52). Hier sind die Alveolarriinder der Schneide-und Eckziihne mit flachen, am Oberkiefer streifenformigen (senkrecht gestellten), am Unterkiefer mehr rundlichen Exostosen besetzt, so dass der sonst papierdiinne Zahbnfliichenrand beider Kiefer in einen, die Zahnhilse begrenzenden wulst-formigen Saum umgewandelt ist. Der gleiche Charakter dieser nicht hiufigen Abnormitiit an beiden Kiefern giebt die vollste Ueberzeungung der Zusammengehorigkeit. “Tn schwicherem Grade zeigt diesen Zustand ein Chinesenschidel der Halle’schen Sammlung (Lie Assie).” Fiirst,®° 1908: “ Wir haben hier auf diese interessante anatomische Bildung aufmerksam machen wollen, die, wenn nicht konstant, doch in sehr hohem Prozentsatze und in bestimmter charakteristischer Form bei den Eskimos auftritt und in verschiedenen Variationen auf dem Unterkiefer anderer Rassen, speziell nordischer oder arktischer, vorkommt. — Wir wollen spiiter eine ausfiihrlichere Beschreibung tiber den Torus mandibularis mitteilen.” Gorjanovic-Kramberger,*! 1909: “ Durch die Ausbiegung der seit- lichen Kieferflichen wurde ferner die Druckrichtung der M und P eine gegen die innere Kieferwandung gerichtete. Als direkte Folge dieses Druckes hat man die starke Ausladung der entsprechenden lingualen Kieferseiten im Bereiche der P und M anzusehen, die da cine auffallende Einengung des inneren Unterkieferraumes bewerk- stelligte.” Hrdlicka (A.), 1910. See text. Hansen,°? 1914: “ The lower jaws attached to the skulls are power- fully formed, high, and, above all, very thick, their inner surface being markedly protruding, rounded, and without any special promi- nence of linea mylohyoidea. This peculiarity, which is common enough among the Eskimo and certain Siberian tribes, but is other- wise exceedingly rare, must be regarded as a hyperostosis of the same nature as the so-called torus palatinus. It is a partly pathologi- cal formation due to a peculiar mode of life rather than a true morphological mark of race.” Fiirst, C. M., and Hansen, C. C., 1915. See text. © Fiirst, Carl M., Demonstration des Torus mandibularis bei den Askimos und anderen Rassen. Verhandlungen der Anatomischen Gesellschaft in Berlin, 1908, Ergiinzhft z. Anatom, Anz., 1908, xxx, 295-296. ® Gorjanovit-Kramberger, K., Der Unterkiefer der Eskimos (Grinliinder) als Triiger primitiver Merkmale. Sitzungsberichte der kiniglich preussischen Akademie der Wissen- schaften, 1909, LI. “Hansen, Sgren, Contributions to the anthropology of the East Greenlanders. Med- delelser om Grgnland, Copenhagen, 1914, xxxrx, 169. HRDLICKA] SKELETAL PARTS 313 Cameron,** 1923: “In some instances the bony thickening was excessive. For example, in mandible XIV H-8 the inward bulging of the bone was so marked that the transverse distance between the inner surfaces of the body opposite the first molars was reduced to 21.5 millimeters. This jaw had therefore an extraordinary appear- ance when viewed from below. (See fig. 5.) The writer would regard these bulgings as bone buttresses built up by nature to resist the excessive strain thrown upon the alveoli of the molar teeth. He exhibited the mandibles to Prof. H. E. Friesell, dean of the dental faculty, University of Pittsburgh, and this authority concurred in the opinion expressed above.” A disagreement with this view is expressed by S. G, Ritchie, pages 64c-65c, same publication. SKELETAL PARTS OTHER THAN THE SKULL The skeletal parts of the western Eskimo, outside of the skull, are but little known. The only records are those on two skeletons (one male, one female) from Point Barrow by Hawkes,®* and those on a few bones from Port Clarence by Cameron.** The data on the skele- tal parts of the northern and eastern Eskimo are only slightly richer, being for the most part fragmentary and scattered.*’ Nor has the time arrived yet for a comprehensive study of such material, for notwithstanding the relative abundance in crania and the more resistant individual skeletal parts, the securing of anywhere near complete skeletons is very difficult. Nevertheless there is now a good number of the long bones of the western Eskimo in the possession of the National Museum and the main data on these, all secured personally by the writer, will be given. They must for the present remain essentially as so many figures without adequate discussion and comparisons. Nevertheless a few facts appear so plainly that they may well be pointed out befere concluding this section. * Cameron, John, The Copper Hskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-1918. Ottawa, 1923, x1, ¢c. 55. % Amer. Anthrop., 1916, Lv1II1, 240-243. * Rep. Canad, Arct. Exp., 1913-1918, Pt. C, 1923, 56-57. Mainly by Turner (London, 1886) ; Duckworth (Cambridge, 1904) ; Hrdlicka (New York, 1910); Cameron (Ottawa, 1913-1918); also a series of incidental references and comparisons. 88253 °—30——21 314 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 WESTERN Eskimo: THE LONG BONES Males Females Seward Seward Bones ofboth sides taken to-| South. | |_| Renin, | South: ae Beane and Pee Polat north- and Gpard Point | north- mide: | euias,|, HoPs, neste, |anidwae| soda | MOUS area groups ! in gen- | groups in gen- eral 4 eral Humeri: (143) (261) (67) (100) (136) (26) (55) (83) Length maximum_-___--- 30. 69 31, 42 31. 07 31.17 28. 40 28.75 28. 83 28. 83 At middle— Diameter maximum _ 2.40 2. 46 2. 46 2. 46 2.10 2.14 2.16 2.15 Diameter minimum__ 1.80 1.81 1.86 1.85 1% 1.59 1.63 “1.62 Index at middle_____- 75.1 73.8 75.8 76.1 78.2 14h. 4 76.4 76.1 Radii: (98) (20) (15) (37) (109) (16) (8) (24) Length maximum_-_____-- 22. 90 23. 63 23. 44 23. 50 20. 50 21. 26 |5 (21. 58) 21. 25 Radio-humeral index (ap- proximate))==-—-2=----> 74.6 75.2 75.4 76.4 72.2 Th (74. 8) ve4 Femora: (195) (44) (10) (60) (132) (26) |e (31) Length, bicond._-_---_--- 42.50 43.20 | (44. 06) 43. 46 39. 36 40212) |-=.=-2255 40. 44 Humero - femoral index (approximate) ---------- 72.2 72.7 |4 (70.5) 71.7 12.2 tf CY fie eee 71.8 At middle— Diameter antero-pos- tenors seen 3.08 3.17 | (3.38) 3. 21 2. 69 2. 88 Diameter lateral - 2.70 2.72 (2. 68) 2. 72 2.46 2. 56 Index at middle______ 87.6 865.8 (80. 4) 84.8 91.6 88.9 At upper flattening— Diameter maximum__ 3.35 3.34 | (3. 27) 3. 32 3. 02 Br 045 [Ean 3. 06 Diameter minimum__ 2. 51 2.57 | (2. 58) 2. 59 2. 26 QO || eee 2.40 Index at upper flat- teninga ase eee a 75 vi (79) 78.1 74.6 78 4| es 78.4, Tibiae: (141) (35) (41) (79) (147 (18) (17) (36) Length (in position) -_--- 33. 86 34. 52 36. 40 35. 52 31. 32 31. 90 32. 90 32. 50 Tibio-femoral index (ap- proximate) -------=---- 79.7 79.9 | 4(82.6) 81.7 79.6 9956 sore Eee 80. 4 At middle— Diameter antero-pos- terior s==="----55— 4 3. 12 3.13 3. 26 3.19 2.71 2.71 2.80 2.75 Diameter lateral --__- 2.12 2.12 2. 20 2.16 1.89 1.93 1,92 1.92 Index at middle_____- 67.9 67.7 67.4 67.8 69.9 71.8 68.8 70 1 Principally Hooper Bay, Nunivak Island, Pastolik, and St. Lawrence Island. 2 Mainly Shishmaref, Wales and Golovnin Bay. 8 Including Point Hope. 4 Number of femora insufficient. 6 Number of radii insufficient. HRDLICKA] SKELETAL PARTS 315 The first fact shown by the preceding figures is the slightly greater length of all the long bones in the midwestern and northwestern groups as compared with those of the Bering Sea (midwestern and southwestern). This means naturally that the people of the Seward Peninsula and northward average somewhat taller in stature. The second evident fact is that the people of the Seward Peninsula and the more northern groups (so far as represented in these collec- tions) show a slightly greater stature of all the bones than the groups farther south, showing that they were both a somewhat taller and somewhat sturdier people. The next fact of importance is the remarkable agreement in some respects in the relative proportions of the main skeletal parts be- tween the people of the more southern and the more northern groups. The males are more regular in this respect than the females. The relative proportions of the humerus and again the tibia at their middle are identical in the males of the southwestern and midwestern groups and those farther northward; and the radio-humeral, humero- femoral, and tibio-femoral indices are all very closely related. Why there should be less agreement in these respects among the females it is difficult to say; in all probability the series of specimens are not sufficiently large. The next table presents data and some racial comparisons. Here the western Eskimo are taken as a unit. They are seen to consider- ably resemble the Yukon Indians, but somewhat less so other Indians in the radio-humeral and tibio-femoral indices, and they resemble all the Indians in the relative proportions of the femur at its middle. In other respects there are somewhat more marked differences, especially between the western Eskimo and the Indians in general. Some irregu- larities in the Yukon series may be due to insufficiency of numbers. When compared with the bones of the whites and the negroes the Eskimo and Indians separate themselves in many respects as a distinct group, while the white and the negro bones are particularly distinct through the greater relative thickness of the humerus and tibia at their middle, and of the femur at its upper flattening; in other words the Eskimo as well as the Indians are more platybrachic, platymeric and platyenemic than the whites or the negroes. The basic relation of the Eskimo to the Indian bones is quite evi- dent; though the Eskimo, when compared to Indians outside of Alaska, show a relatively shorter radius and tibia, indicating the already discussed relative shortness of the forearm and leg. Lone Bones in Eskimo AND SrTaTuRE One of the most desirable of possibilities in the anthropometry of any people, but particularly in groups now extinct, is a correct esti- 316 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 WESTERN Eskimo, Lone Bones: COMPARATIVE DATA MALES Hu- Femur merus: bees ¢ aoe 4) [Lz es ofshatt | Radio. Index | mero- |Indexof| -Tibio; One | index | ete | fanaa aa cea (all middle flat- groups) tening 1 (243)| (135)] (255)} (255)} (243)| (220)) (220) Western Eskimo__-________-_- Foxe to 86: 2) 76.5 | 72 67. 9 80. 7 (10)} (10)} (14)} (14)} (10)} (14); (14) Waukon Indiansees = seen 70 TO | St Lt Ol es) SAL on| 66 81.5 (448)| (370)| (902)| (902)| (378)|(1259)| (324) Others Indians= 33s) = iane)| Wiel |\t8753) | 72.5 | 66.1 | 844 Inited States whites (mis- |(1930)|(1052)} (207)| (836)| (800) (1400)) (1216) Cellancolls) =e een | 83 73.6 | 97 83 uy aay WAL all [|i rs =i) (112)} (74)}2 (14)| (48)} (50)) (63)| (68) United States negroes______-_ 84.1 | 77.3 |(91. 2)| 86.8 | 71.6 | 78.9 | 84.9 | | FEMALES (213)| (133) (153)| (153)} (153)) (183)} (183) Western Eskimo _______-_-- 74.1 |) 73. 1 9052") 7655") 71389170 80 (348)} (200)| (327)| (248)| (200)} (910)| (384) Other jindians]= === 70.1 | 76.6 | 91.8 | 70 W2e Dall etO 84. 3 United States whites (mis- | (770)] (424)| (100)| (192)| (290)| (600)| (520) cellaneous) es. ess s2e— = 79.3 | 72.7 | 97 Tied. | CUGy| WlesOe ote (52)) (34)}2 (17)| (48)} (52)) (44)) (48) United States negroes_______ COQ VG. 2 (100)| 81.1 | 70.2 | 75.9 | 83.7 1 Bones of both sides. 2 Numbers insufficient. mation of their stature. For this purpose the most useful aid has been found in the long bones, and various essays have been made by Manou- vrier, Rollet, Topinard, Pearson, and others ** at preparing tables or arriving at methods that would enable the student to promptly and satisfactorily obtain the stature as it was in life from the length of the long bones. But all these essays were based on observations on white people, and it has always been recognized that they could not with equal confidence be applied to other racial groups. They would in all probability be especially inapplicable to the Eskimo with his relatively short forearms and legs; yet the possibility of estimating the stature in many localities of the Eskimo territory, where no living remain, would be of real value. Fortunately for this purpose there are now some data on hand which make this possible. See section on Estimation of Stature from Parts of the Skeleton, in author’s An- thropometry, Wistar Inst., Philadelphia, 1920, HRDLICKA] SKELETAL PARTS 317 In 1910, in my Contributions to the Anthropology of the Central and Smith Sound Eskimo, I was able to report both the stature and the length of the long bones in two normally developed adult males and one adult female from Smith Sound. To this it is now possible to add larger though less direct data from the group of St. Lawrence Island. We have the stature of many of the living from this place and also the measurements of numerous long bones from the dead of the same group. The relations of the two are given below, together with corresponding data from Smith Sound. There is in general such a striking agreement in the relative proportions that the latter may, it would seem, be used henceforth for stature estimates also in other parts of the Eskimo region. Lreneru or Principat Lone Bones, AND STATURE IN THE LIVING, ON THE St. Lawrence Istanp Male Female (63) (48) Mean stature: 163.3 Mean stature: 151.3 Percental Percental Mean relation Mean relation dimensions to stature dimensions to stature (S=100) (S=100) (58) (49) ETS = ae ee eee 30. 41 18.6 27. 77 18.3 (28) (35) eaten tins = Seip st nesdy Linney 0s 23. 03 14.1 20. 77 187 (100) (38) TREGh hy es ee | ee 32. 54 27.8 38. 12 25. 1 (58) (50) ise ae eee ee ee 34. 16 20. 9 31.13 20. 5 Lone Bonszs vs. Stature 1N Eskimo oF SmituH Sounp ! Male Female a b Pope reeeens 8 ea 2 = SURI AEA LA Said dies 2 155. 0 164. 0 146. 7 Humerus: Mean length (of the two)______________-__-- 28. 95 29.0 26. 55 Percental relation to stature.___.__._._.___--__ 18.7 Ui fat 18. 1 Radius: 1 SRS AVY S017] ge el lee Dna AE Nh a es ae epee 21.3 23. 2 19. 85 Percental relation to stature_________________ 13.7 14.1 18.5 Femur: WhiGbOM Gyan hls 2 Se ee Se Se Se ee eee 39. 1 42.1 38. 55 Percental relation to stature.______.___-_.-_- 26. 2 26.7 26. 8 Tibia: WHT Gre Paro Lyall 2 bie 2 Le IN Seal EEE let 30.25 | 34 45 30.9 Percental relation to stature_________________ 19.5 21.0 21.1 1 Hrdliéka, A., Contribution to the anthropology of central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop, Pap. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., v, pt. 2, 280. New York, 1910. 318 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH, ANN. 46 A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO NEAR POINT BARROW In 1917-1919, in the course of the John Wanamaker Expedition for the University Museum, Philadelphia, W. B. Van Valin, with the help of Charles Brower, the well-known local trader and collector, excavated near Barrow a group of six tumuli, which proved in the opinion of Van Valin to be so many old igloos, containing plentiful cultural as well as skeletal material. The collections eve entually reached the museum, but due to lack of facilities they were in ihe main never unpacked. T heard of this material first from Mr. Brower, with whom I sailed in 1926 from Barrow southward, and later with Dr. J. Alden Mason I saw the collection still in the original boxes, at the University Museum. In April of this year the skeletal remains were transferred to the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, and after their transfer I obtained the permission of Dr. Milton J. Greenman, director of the Wistar Institute, to examine the material, which was of importance to him in connection with his own collections from Barrow and south- ward. A due acknowledgment for the privilege is hereby rendered to both Doctor Greenman and Doctor Mason. The study proved one of unexpected and uncommon interest. The material was found to consist of two separate lots. The first of these consisted of a considerable number of brown colored, more or less complete skeletons with skulls, proceeding from the “ igloos”; while the second lot comprised a series of whitened isolated skulls, without other skeletal parts and mostly even without the component lower jaws, gathered on the tundra near Barrow. At first sight, also, the skulls of the two groups were seen to present important differences. The “igloo” crania, while plainly pure Eskimo, proved to be of a decidedly exceptional nature for this location. The skulls, in brief, were not of the general western Eskimo type, but reminded at once strongly of the skulls from Greenland and Labrador. And they were exceptionally uniform, showing that they belonged to a definite and distinct Eskimo group. After writing of this to Doctor Mason, he kindly sent me a copy of the notes and observations on the discovery of the material by W. B. Van Valin, who was in charge of the excavation. The detailed notes will soon be published by Doctor Mason. The main information they convey is as follows: The excavations by Van Valin date from 1918-19. They were made in six large “ heaps,” approximately 8 miles southwest of Barrow and about 1,000 yards back from the beach on the tundra. Two of the heaps were on the northern and four on the southern side of a ravine HRDLICKA] A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO 319 or draw formed by a drain flowing from inland to the sea. The Eskimo at Barrow knew nothing about these remains or their people. Each of the heaps inclosed what in the excavator’s opinion was an “jgloo” made of driftwood and earth; and all contained evidently undisturbed human skeletons. ‘The total number of bodies of all ages was counted as 83, and they ranged from infants to old people. There were many bird and other skins (for covers and cloth- ing), and numerous utensils. The hair on the bodies was in general “black as a raven.” Most of the bodies lay on “beds” of moss or “ oround willows,” or rough-hewn boards. There was no indication of any violence or sudden death. The bodies at places were in three levels, one above the other; but there was but moderate uniformity in the orientation of the bodies. There were found with the burials no traces of dogs (though there were some sled runners), and no metal, glass, pipes, labrets, nets, soapstone lamps or dog harness; but there were bows and arrows, bolas, and ordinary pottery. The cul- tural objects, Doctor Mason wrote me, resemble in a smaller measure those of the older Bering Sea, to a larger extent those of the old northern or “Thule” culture. There were some jadeite axes, indi- cating a direct or indirect contact with Kotzebue Sound and the Kobuk River. Some of the bearskin coverings were “as bright and silvery ” as the day the bear was killed (Van Valin) ; and the frozen bodies were evidently in a state of preservation approaching that of natural mummies. Notwithstanding indications to the contrary, Van Valin reached the opinion that these remains were not those of regular burials, though offering no other definite hypothesis. Desiring additional information about this highly interesting find, I wrote to Mr. Brower, who assisted at the excavations, and received the following answer: These mounds are from 5 to 8 miles south of the Barrow village (Utkiavik). The largest that were opened were the farthest south, and seemed more like raised lumps on the land than ruins. No doubt that is the reason no one had bothered them. ; The Eskimo have no traditions of these people. In fact they did not even suspect the mounds contained human remains until Mr. Van Valin started to investigate them. While Van Valin thought they might be houses, I have always thought they were burial mounds, as there seemed no family to have been together at the time of death as often has happened. When whole families have died from some epidemic, then the man and wife are together under their sleeping skins. In these mounds each party was wrapped separate, either in polar bear or musk ox skins; none were wrapped in deer skins. If male, all his hunting imple- ments were at his side, and if a female her working tools were with her, as scrapers, dishes of wood, and stone knives, The men had their bows, arrows, 320 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 spears, and often a heavy club, for what purpose unless used in fighting I could not make out. At the head of each persen was a small receptacle, made of whalebone, and in it or alongside was a long wing bone that had been used as a drinking tube. In some cases there seemed to be the remains of food in the platters, but that was impossible to identify. Most of the bodies were laid on the ground, a few had the remains of scrub willow under them, while only in two or three cases had there been driftwood planks under the bodies; these were crudely hewn with their old stone adzes. There seems to have been some sort of driftwood houses over these bodies at some time, but they decayed and have fallen on the remains, which were in some cases embedded in the ice. Often before the frame had broken down earth must have accumulated and covered the bodies. In these cases the flesh has the consistency of a fine meal. While with those in the ice in some cases part of the flesh still remained. In both cases when exposed to the air they rapidly disintegrated, leaving nothing except the bones. By measurements they must have been a larger race than the present people. When your letter reached here I at“once started making inquiries as to what mounds were still intact; and I find that as far as known only two of the larger ones have not been opened. The Eskimo have been opening the mounds ever since they were found, taking from them all the hunting implements and other material and selling them aboard the ships for curios. It seems a shame that all this should be lost to science, and if no one takes an interest in these places in a year or two they will all be gone. I have again made inquiries as to what the present Eskimo think of these people, but they tell me they have no tradition regarding them and that they do not know if they were their ancestors or not. In fact, they are ignorant of where they came from or when they died. To date I do not know of any whaling implement being found with these old people, neither is any of the framework of these mounds made from the hones of whales. In some of the implements ivory has been used. The mounds farthest from the shore were about 400 yards, those that remain are closer to the beach. Some of the smaller ones are on the banks of small streams but never very far from shore. Undoubtedly, however, they were at one time considerably farther from the sea, but the sea is every year claiming some of this land, especially where the banks are high along the beach. There the beach is narrow and during a gale the waves wash out the land at its base. This is about all that I can tell you of these people. All credit for finding these mounds belongs to Van Valin. Yours truly, Cuas. D. Brower. The material—tThe collection as received at the Wistar Institute was notable for its general dark color, enhanced in many of the specimens by dark to black remains of the tissues. There was no mineralization and but little bone decay, though the bones were somewhat brittle. There is a scarcity of children and adolescents; there are in fact only two skulls of subjects less than 20 years of age in the collection. The skulls and bones that remain show no violence. The remains show a complete freedom from syphilis or other con- stitutional disease; the only pathological condition present in some of the bones being arthritis. This speaks strongly for their preced- HRDLICKA] A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO 321 ing the contact with whites. The surface series, though smaller, shows three syphilitic skulls. An additional fact of interest is the absence in both the igloo and the surface series of all marks of scurvy. Such marks are fairly common farther southward. Finally, none of the skulls are deformed, either in life or posthumously. ANTHROPOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS ON THE CoLLECTIONS Age.—tThe first observations made on the igloo material were those as to the individual ages of the bodies. Such observations are neces- sarily rough, yet within sufficiently broad limits fairly reliable. The criteria are principally the condition of the teeth and that of the sutures. The possible error in such estimates is, experience has shown, as a rule well within 10 years in the older and within 5 years in the young adults or subadults. One of the objects of these observations on the “igloo” material was to get some further light on whether the remains were those of a group that perished of an epidemic, famine, or some other sud- den agency, or whether they represented just burials. The age dis- tribution of the dead would differ considerably in the two cases. ‘ + EsTiMaTEp AGEs At DratTH IGLOO MATERIAL 20 to 25 30 to 40 45 to 56 Above 55 Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent ENDER Os HRDLICKA] A STRANGE GROUP OF ESKIMO 327 Tur Lone Bones oF THE IGLoo PropLeE AND OTHER Eskimo BONES OF THE Two Sipes ToGEerTHER Male | Female BS icc! sce ‘eninsula = eninsula - Igloo ‘| and north- Hee Igloo | and north- = crap western western wv Eskimo Eskimo Humerus: Length- (35) (100) (16) (27) (83) (16) Mme xEMUNs = ee Sess OLaLe |b Sil 27 | rs2r10) |" 28r40 28. 82 28. 31 At middle: Diameter, major__ 2. 47 2. 46 2. 33 2. 11 2.15 2. 07 Diameter, minor__ 1. 86 1. 85 1. 80 1/60.) | 1-62 1. 51 lanl eo ae ae eel 75. 2 75. 1 78. 2 76. 1 75. 1 15.2 Radius: Length, max- (31) (37) (16) (17) (24) (16) TLLEQS Hit 6 gd esa Se Mee Se 23. 53 23. 50 23. 44 20. 98 21. 35 20. 18 Radio-humeral index__| 75. 5 75. 4 73 73.8 74 (Abs) Femur: Length, bicon- (33) (60) (22) (25) (31) (27) (Ghia it eee ae eed 43. 86 43. 46 43. 78 40. 31 40. 44 41. 11 Humero-femoralindex_| 71.1 | 71.7 73 70. 6 71.3 69 At middle: | Diameter, ante- ro-posterior__ —_ 3. 37 3. 21 3. 05 2. 88 2. 88 2. 74 Diameter, lateral_ 2. 90 2.72 2. 67 2. 51 2. 56 2. 44 lin(al2) Ot ee ees 86. 1 84.8 87.6 87.3 88. 9 88.8 At upper flattening: Diameter, maxi- J mums sess es 3. 51 3. 32 3. 31 3. 09 3. 06 3. 02 Diameter, mini- rent 1 eee eee PATA 2. 59 2057 2. 30 2. 40 MPT ( indexs. 2-4 77. 2 78. 1 77. 4 74. 4 78. 4 75. 4 Tibia: Length in posi-| (29) (79) (22) (24) (36) (27) hla} eet ke Senne Sa 35.60 | 35.52] 35.14] 31.94] 32.50 32. O1 Tibio-femoral index___| 81. 2 81.7 80. 3 79. 2 80.4 |. 79.8 At middle: Diameter, ante- ro-posterior_-_ ~~ 3. 26 3. 19 3. 16 2. 80 2.75 2. 61 Diameter, lateral_ 2. 20 2. 16 2.15 1. 87 1. 92 1. 90 ridexs ce ty. 23h oe 67.5 67.8 68. 3 66.7 70 72. 8 The above table shows some remarkable and interesting condi- tions. The first of the most apparent facts is that the type of the Yukon Eskimo stands well apart from both of the other series in a number of essentials, showing that it is not very nearly related and that it may be left out of consideration. On the other hand the long bones from the Seward Peninsula and the northwest coast, especially those of the males, show very closely to 328 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 those of the Igloo group. The male bones of the two series are almost identical, except that the Igloo bones are somewhat stronger. Such close resemblances can hardly be fortuitous. They speak strongly for the basic identity of the old Igloo people with those of at least parts of the Seward Peninsula and parts of the northwest coast. If we take the bones from the Seward Peninsula alone (see p- 314) it is found that these resemblances still hold. The evidence thus shown constitutes a strong indication that the old Igloo group may be inherently related to that part of the Eskimo population of Seward Peninsula which shows the long and narrow skull; but the data offer no light on the questions as to whether the Igloo group may have been derived from that of the Seward Penin- sula or vice versa, and on the true relation of either or both of these to the Eskimo of Baffin Land, Greenland, and Labrador. To definitely decide the problem of the Igloo group there are needed data on the long bones of the northeasterners; in the second place it is highly desirable to know how large and how ancient was the group of the narrow-headed people on the Seward Peninsula and Sledge Island; and in the third place it is important that the cultural history of the two groups be known as thoroughly as possible. All of which are tasks for the future. The possibility of a development of the Igloo cranial type on the northwest coast itself can not be denied, in view of the facts that all its characteristics are within the ranges of normal individual variations on that coast, and that similar developments have evi- dently been realized elsewhere. But in such a case it would be logical to expect, locally or not far away, some ancestry of the group, and the group would not probably be limited to a little spot and a few scores of persons. Had the group developed incidentally from a physically exceptional family, it could not be expected to have been anywhere nearly as uniform as the group under consideration. * The high degree of uniformity of the Igloo contingent speaks for a well accomplished differentiation; and as there is no other trace of this in the conditions near Barrow, and there are no ruins denoting a long occupation, the evidence is against a local development and for an immigration of the greup. A coming of a small-sized con- tingent from the Seward Peninsula would be easy; its coming from Greenland or Labrador or Baffin Land would surely be difficult, but not impossible to the Eskimo, who is known to have been a traveler. Whatever may be the eventual solution of the Igloo problem, it is plain that the presence of that group near Barrow, together with the presence of evidently closely related groups in a part of the Seward Peninsula and again in the far east of the Eskimo region, offers much food for thought and investigation. The most plausible possibility HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 329 would seem to be a relatively late (within the present millennium) coming of a physically already well differentiated small group, from either the south or the east, with a relatively short settlement at the Barrow site, some local multiplication in numbers, and then extine- tion partly through disease, partly perhaps through absorption into a stronger and newer contingent derived from the western people. ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO All anthropological research on the Eskimo has naturally one ulti- mate object, which is the clearing up of the problems of the origin and antiquity of this highly interesting human strain; and it may well be asked what further light on these problems has been shed by the studies here dealt with. To show this with a proper perspec- tive it will be requisite to briefly review the previous ideas on these problems. Ortery or THE Name “ Eskimo” According to Charlevoix (Nouv. France, III, 178), the term “Eskimo” is a corruption of the Abenaki Indian Esquimantsic or the Ojibway Ashkimeg, both terms meaning “those who eat raw flesh.” In the words of Captain Hooper,*t “ Neither the origin nor meaning of the name ‘ Esquimaux,’ or Eskimo, as it is now spelled, is known. According to Doctor Rink, the name ‘ Esquimaux’ was first given to the inhabitants of Southern Labrador as a term of deri- sion by the inhabitants of Northern Labrador, and means raw-fish eater. Dall says the appellation ‘ Eskimo’ is derived from a word indicating a sorcerer or shaman in the language of the northern tribes.” For Brinton, as for Charlevoix, the term “ Eskimo” is derived from the Algonkin “ Eskimantick,” “eaters of raw flesh.” Accord- ing to Chamberlain,** Sir John Richardson (Arctic Searching Exp., p- 203) attempts to derive it from the French words ceux qui miaux (miaulent), referring to their clamorous outcries on the approach of a ship. Petitot (Chambers Encyc., Ed. 1880, IV, p. 165, article Esquimaux) says that at the present day the Crees, of Lake Atha- basca, call them Wis-Kimowok (from Wiyas flesh, aski raw, and mowew to eat), and also Ayiskimiwok (1. e., those who act in secret). In Labrador the English sometimes call the Eskimo “ Huskies” (loe. cit., p. ix. 7. Chambers Encyc, article Esquimaux. See Hind. Trav. in Int. of Labr., loc. cit., and Petitot loc. cit., p. ix.) and Suckemos “1 Hooper, C. L., Cruise of the U. S. revenue steamer Corwin, 1881. Washington, 1884, p. 99. “Brinton, D. C., Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 28. New York. 43 Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo race and language. Proc. Canadian Inst., 3d ser., vol. v1, pp. 267-268. Toronto, 1889. 88253°—30——22 i 330 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 (Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition, p. 202) and Dall (Proc. Am. Ass, Adv. Sci., 1869, p. 266) says that in Alaska the Tinneh Indians call them “ Uskeeme” (sorcerers). The Eskimo call themselves “ Innuit,” said to be the plural of in-nu, the man, hence “the people”; the same being as a rule the meaning of the name by which the various tribes of the Indian call themselves. On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo is known as the “ Yuit,” “On- kilon,” “ Chouklouks,” or “ Namollo”; while in the east appears the name “ Karalit.” None of this has thrown any light on the origin of the Eskimo. Oprntons By Former anp Livine Srupents Origin in Asia—Many opinions on the origin of the Eskimo have been expressed by different authors. Among the earliest of these were those of missionaries, such as Crantz (1779), and of the early explorers, such as Steller, v. Wrangell, Liitke and others. They were based on the general aspect of the Eskimo, particularly that of his physiognomy; and seeing that in many features he resembled most the mongoloid peoples of Asia they attached him to these, which meant the conclusion that he was of Asiatic derivation. Quite soon, however, there began to appear also the opinions of students of man. The first of these was that of Blumenbach, as expressed in his In- augural Thesis of 1781. In this thesis, more particularly its second edition, he classifies the Eskimo expressly as a part of the Caucasian or white race. But after obtaining an Eskimo skull and an Eskimo body he changes his opinion and in 1795-1806 he comes out with a definite classification of the Eskimo as a member of the Mongolians; and a similar conclusion, with its implied or expressed consequence of a migration from Asia to America, has been reached since, mainly on somatological but also in part on linguistic and cultural bases, by a large number of authors, including Lawrence, Morton, Picker- ing, Latham, Flower, Peschel, Topinard, Brinton, Virchow (1877), Quatrefages and Hamy (1882), Thalbitzer, Bogoras and numerous others. With all of this, the conception of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimo has not passed the status of a strong probability, lacking a final conclusive demonstration. A chronological list of the more noteworthy individual statements is given at the end of this section. Origin in America—Since the earlier parts of the nineteenth century the opinion began to be expressed that the Eskimo is not of Asiatic but of American origin. Already in 1847 Prichard tells us that there are those who “ consider them as belonging to the Amer- ican family,” and he plainly favors this conception. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 331 Between 1873 and 1890 the American origin of the Eskimo is re- peatedly asserted by Rink, who for 16 winters and 22 summers lived with the eastern Eskimo, first as a scientific explorer and later as royal inspector or governor of the southern Danish settlements in Greenland (preface by R. Brown to Rink’s Tales and Traditions, 1875). In this opinion, briefly, the Eskimo were derived from the inland Indian tribes of Alaska; without referring to the origin of the Indian. Rink’s authoritative opinion was followed or paralleled by Daniel Wilson (1876), Grote, Krause, Ray, Keane, Brown, and others. In 1887 Chamberlain expresses the somewhat startling additional theory that it was not the Eskimo who was derived from the Mongolians but the Mongolians from the Eskimo or their American ancestors. And in 1901-1910 Boas comes to the conclusion that the Eskimo probably originated from, the inland tribes (Indian?) in the Hudson Bay region. An interesting case in these connections is that of Rudolf Virchow. In 1877 (see details at the end of this section) he expresses the belief in the Eskimo coming from Asia; in 1878 he seems to be uncertain; and in 1885 he comes out in support of the opinion that the original home of the Eskimo may have been in the western part of the Hudson Bay region. Among later students of the problem, Steensby ** and Birket-Smith *° incline on cultural grounds to this hypothesis. Wissler, not explicit as to the Eskimo in 1917 (The American In- dian), in 1918 (Archeology of the Polar Eskimo) finds, after Steensby, the most acceptable theory of the Eskimo origin to be that “they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Archipelago ”; but in 1922, in the second edition of his The American Indian, he repeats word for word his opinion of 1917, which appears to favor an Asiatic derivation. Origin in Europe—Identity with Upper Palaeolithic man—About the sixties of last century growing discoveries in France of imple- ments, etc., of later palaeolithic man brought about a realization that not a few of these implements and other objects, particularly those of the Magdalenian period, resembled like implements and objects of the Eskimo; from which, together with the considerations of the similarities of fauna (reindeer, musk-ox, etc.), and of climate, there was but a step to a more or less definite identification of the Magda- lenians and Solutreans with the Eskimo. In 1870 Pruner-Bey * claims a similarity between Solutrean and Eskimo skulls. In 1883 “Contr. Ethn. and Anthropogeog. Polar Eskimos, Med. om Gronl., xxxiv, Copenhagen, 1910; also, Origin of the Eskimo culture, ibid., 1916, 204-218. Internat. Congr. Americanists, New York, 1928. “In Ferry, H. de, Le Maconnais prehistorique, etc., 1 vol, Macon, 1870, with a section by Pruner-Bey. 332 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 these views received the influential support of De Mortillet (see details). In 1889 the theory receives strong support from the char- acteristics of the Chancelade (Magdalenian) skeleton which Testut declares are in many respects almost identical with those of the Eskimo. And within the next few years the notion is upheld by Hamy and Hervé. It remains sympathetic as late as 1913 to Marcel- lin Boule, and finds most recent champions in Morin and Sollas. However, there were also many who opposed the effort at a direct connection of the upper palaeolithic man of Europe and the Eskimo. Among these were Geikie, Flower, Rae, Daniel Wilson, Robert Brown, Dechelette, Laloy. At present the theory is supported mainly by Morin and Sollas, opposed by Steensby, Burkitt, Keith, MacCurdy, and others; while most students of the Eskimo ignore the question. Other hypotheses—Besides the preceding ideas which attribute the origin of the Eskimo to Asia, or America, or old Europe, there were also others that failed to receive a wider support; and there were authors and students who remained undecided or were too cautious to definitely formulate their beliefs. Some of the former as well as the latter deserve brief mention. Gallatin, in 1836, mainly on linguistic grounds, recognizes the fundamental relation of the Eskimo and the Indian and seems in- clined to the American origin of the former, but makes no clear state- ment to that effect. For Meigs (1857), who probably followed an earlier opinion, the Eskimo came “from the islands of the Polar Sea.” C. C. Abbott (1876) saw Eskimo in the early inhabitants of the Delaware Valley. To Grote (1875, 1877), the Eskimo were “ the existing representatives of the man of the American glacial epoch ”; they were modified Pliocene men. Nordenskidld (1885) follows closely Meigs and Grote; the Eskimo may be “ the true autochthones of the Polar regions,” having inhabited them from before the glacial age, during more genial climate. Keane (1886) believed the Eskimo developed from the Aleuts. For De Quatrefages (1887), man origi- nated in the Tertiary in northern Asia, spread from there, and some of his contingents may have reached America and been the ancestors of the Eskimo; the western tribes of the latter being a mixture of the Eskimo with Asiatic brachycephals. Nansen (1893) avoids a dis- cussion of the origin of the Eskimo; and the same caution is ob- servable more or less in most modern writers. The following chart of the more noteworthy opinions regarding the origin of the Eskimo will show at a glance the diversity of the views and their lack of conclusiveness. Hrdli¢ka__ 1910,1924 De Mortillet__ 1883 HEDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 333 THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE Eskimo Asiatic: Asiatice—Con. European—Con. tellers we s= 1743 Thalbitzer____ 1914 éestute— ae 1889 Cranes os 1779 Fiirst and Han- Bowet2ia 322 1913 Blumenbach___ 1795 Ber ase = a 1915 Sollas___ 1924, 1927 Lawrence----- 1822 Wissler__-~--- 1917 | Opposed to Europe: Von Wrangell. 1839 Mathiassen__-- 1921 Brown. Mortons. — == 1839 Bogoras_- 1924, 1927 Burkitt. McDonald____- 1841] American: Dechelette. Latham --___--- 1850 Prichard] 1847 Flower. Pickering - _~__- 1854 Rink____ 1873, 1888 Geikie. Walsone: 32245 1863 olmes2_2-2—— 1873 Keith. Rae: se Sere - 1865, Wilsons 22-55 1876 Laloy. 1877-78, 1886 Grote. oa 1877 MacCurdy. Markham-__-__ 1865, Kravse= > ss 1883 Rae. 1875 13), eee 1885 Steensby. Whymper-____- 1869 Virchow - ----- 1885 Wilson. Peschel_--—+_- 1876 Keane___ 1886, 1887 Hrdliéka (1910). Leer eM hn ed See 1876 Browns- 222 == 1888} Miscellaneous and Petitot_- = 24 1876 Murdoch-____-_ 1888 indefinite: Toprnard = === 1877 Chamberlain__ 1889 Gallatin= =~ 42 — 1836 Virchow.——-—— 1877 Quatrefages___ 1889 Richardson____ 1852 DU legs ee 1877 Boas__-- 1907, 1910 Meigsa See 1857 Palmers? ££ sie 1879 Wissler__.__-- 1917 Grotes.. 42s 1875 ek eran ieee s oe Ose 1879| European or con- ADbolip=s 5.5 5 1876 Dawsons. a 1880 nected with Eu- Nordenskiéld__ 1885 Quatrefages___ 1882, rope: Keane. s--e2 1886 1887 Lartet and Quatrefages___ 1887 [OV Gat ES at 1886 Christy._-_- 1864 Nansen------- 1893 Flower__------ 1886 Dawkins_____-_ 1866 Tarenetzky__._ 1900 Browiies ae 1888 Herve=.2- = - 8 1870 Nadaillac_ ____ 1902 Ratzel___--_.- 1897 Abbott. —_-.-. 1876 Jenness=sees ae 1928 ASIATICS Steller, 1743: 47 Several references which indicate that Steller re- garded the Eskimo as related to the northeastern Asiatics. Cranz, 1779:*8 Points out the resemblances of the Eskimo (and their product) to the Kalmuks, Yakuts, Tungus, and Kamchadales, and derives them from northeastern Asia (forced by other peoples through Tartary to the farthest northeast of Asia and then to America). Blumenbach, 1781:*° The first of the five varieties of mankind “and the largest, which is also the primeval one, embraces the whole 4 Steller, G. W., Journal, 1743. Transl. and repr. in Bering’s Voyages, Am. Geog. Soc. Research, ser. I, 2 vols., vol. 11, p. 9 et seq. New York, 1922. *®Cranz, David, Historie von Grénland, Frankf. and Leipz., 1779, 300-301. “ Blumenbach, J. F., De generis humani varietate nativa. 2d ed., Goettingen, 1781; in The anthropological treatises of J. F. Blumenbach, Anthr. Soc. Lond., 1865, p. 99, ttn. 4. 334 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 of Europe, including the Lapps, * * * and lastly, in America, the Greenlanders and the Esquimaux, for I see in these people a wonderful difference from the other inhabitants of America; and, unless I am altogether deceived, I think they must be derived from the Finns.” But in his “ Beitrige zur Naturgeschichte,” 2d ed., Gottingen, 1806, Blumenbach classes both the Lapps and the Eskimo with the Mongolians (Anthr. Treatises of Blumenbach, Lond., 1865, p. 304) : “The remaining Asiatics, except the Malays, with the Lapps in Europe, and the Esquimaux in the north of America, from Bering Strait to Labrador and Greenland. They are for the most part of a wheaten yellow, with scanty, straight, black hair, and have flat faces with laterally projecting cheek bones, and narrowly slit eyelids.” Von Wrangell, 1839:°°“* * * ihre sclavische Abhingigkeit von den Rennthier-Tschuktschen beweist, dass die letztern spatere Einwanderer und Eroberer des Landes sind, welches sie jetzt inne haben.” Lawrence, 1822:**““ The Mongolian variety * * * includes the numerous more or less rude, and in great part nomadic tribes, which occupy central and northern Asia; * * * and the tribes of Eski- maux extending over the northern parts of America, from Bering Strait to the extremity of Greenland. * * *, “The Eskimaux are formed on the Mongolian model, although they inhabit countries so different from the abodes of the original tribes of central Asia.” Latham, 1850: *2 “ Our only choice lies between the doctrine that makes the American nations to have originated from one or more separate pairs of progenitors, and the doctrine that either Bering Strait or the line of islands between Kamskatka and the Peninsula of Alaska, was the highway between the two worlds—from Asia to America, or vice versa. * * * Against America, and in favor of Asia being the birthplace of the human race—its unity being as- sumed—I know many valid reasons. * * * Physically, the Eskimo is a Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is American.” 1851:°° “ Just as the Eskimo graduate in the American Indian, so do they pass into the populations of northeastern Asia—language being the instrument which the present writer has more especially 60 Von Wrangell, in Baer and Helmersen’s “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches,” pp. 58-59. St. Petersburg, 1839. 51 Lawrence, W., Lectures on physiology, zoology, and the natural history of man, pp. 511-513. London, 1822. 52 Latham, Robert Gordon, The Natural history of the varieties of man, pp. 289-291. London, 1850. 53 Latham, Robert Gordon, Man and his migrations, p. 124. London, 1851. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 335 employed in their affiliation. From the Peninsula of Alaska to the Aleutian chain of islands, and from the Aleutian chain to Kamskatka is the probable course of the migration from Asia to America—traced backwards, i. e., from the goal to the starting point, from the circum- ference to the center.” Pickering, 1854:°* “ The Arctic Regions seem exclusively possessed by the Mongolian race.” Wilson, 1863:°° “ The same mode of comparison which confirms the ethnical affinities between the Esquimaux and their insular or Asiatic congeners, reveals, in some respects, analogies rather than contrast between iN dolichocephalic Indian crania and those of the hyperborean race.’ Markham, 1856:°° “ The interesting question now pt vse Wes came these Greenland Esquimaux, these Innuit, or men, as they call themselves, and as I think they ought to be called by us? They are not descendants of the Skroellings of the opposite American coast, as has already been seen. It is clear that they can not have come from the eastward, over the ocean which intervenes between Lapland and Greenland, for no Esquimaux traces have ever been found on Spitzbergen, Iceland, or Jan Mayen. We look at them and see at once that they have no kinship with the red race of America; but a glance suffices to convince us of their relationship with the northern tribes of Siberia. It isin Asia, then, that we must seek their origin.” Whymper, 1869: ° “ That the coast natives of northern Alaska are but Americanized Tchuktchis from Asia, I myself have no doubt.” Peschel, 1876:°* “The identity of their language with that of the Namollo, their skill on the sea, their domestication of the dog, their use of the sledge, the Mongolian type of their faces, their capability for higher civilization, are sufficient reasons for answering the ques- tion, whether a migration took place from Asia to America or con- versely from America to Asia, in favor of the former alternative; yet such a migration from Asia by way of Bering Strait must have occurred at a much later period than the first colonization of the New World from the Old one * * *. “Tt is not likely that the Eskimo spread from America to Asia, because of all Americans they have preserved the greatest resem- blance in racial characters to the Mongolian nations of the Old ™ Pickering, Charles, The races of man, p. 7. London, 1854. 5s Wilson, Daniel, Physical ethnology. Smithsonian Report for 1862, p. 262. Wash- ington, 1863. ® Markham, C. R., On the origin and migrations of the Greenland Esquimaux. J. Roy. Geog. Soc., xxxv, p. 90. London, 1865. ® Whymper, Frederick, Travels in Alaska and on the Yukon, p. 214. New York, 1869. 58 Peschel, Oscar, The races of man, pp. 396-97. New York, 1876. 336 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH, ANN. 46 World, and in historical times their migrations have always taken place in an easterly direction.” Kuhl, 1876:°° “ Bilden so die Eskimo in der Sprache das Binde- ghed zwischen America und Asien, so ist dies noch viel mehr der Fall in Bezug auf ihren Typus: dieser stimmt bei den Polarvélkern diesseits und jenseits der Beringsstrasse ‘zum Verwechseln ’ tiberein, wie denn auch ein bestindiger Verkehr hiniiber und _heriiber stattfindet. Hierm legt der unwiderstehliche Beweis, dass diese Polarvélker wenigstens von einer Herkunft sind und dass eine Einwanderung von einem Continente in das andere hier stattge- funden hat. Haben wir nun die Wahl, entweder die Eskimo aus Asien nach America, oder die Tschuktschen, die dort auf der Asiatischen Seite wohnen, aus America einwandern zu lassen—woftir sich auch Stimmen erhoben haben—so werden wir keinen Augenblick zweifelhaft sein: eine spiitere Riickwanderung eines einzelnen Stammes in das Land der Viiter wire immerhin denkbar; aber wer iiber die Tschuktschen hinweg die Sache in’s Grosse sieht, kann fiir die Urzeit nur eine Einwanderung von Asien nach America, nicht umgekehrt, annehmen, und hierfiir finden wir ausser den allgemeinen Griinden, welche uns der Verlauf unserer Untersuchungen nahe gebracht, noch zwei besondere Beweise bei den Eskimo: einmal k6nnen wir die Spur ihrer Wanderungen historisch verfolgen, und diese waren nach Osten gerichtet, sodass sie Groénland, mit dem heute ihr Name so eng verbunden ist, zuletzt erreichten (S. 209) ; sodann haben die Eskimo allein unter den Americanischen Stiimmen das Mongolische Gepriige ganz unversehrt bewahrt—dies bliebe unerkliirlich, wenn sie Americanische Autochthonen wiren * * #* Kinen deutlichen Hinweis auf die Urheimath Asien enthalten auch die Wanderungen der Stiimme durch das Americanische Continent, soweit wir dieselben verfolgen kénnen.” Dall, 1877: °° “T see, therefore, no reason for disputing the hypoth- esis that America was peopled from Asia originally, and that there were successive waves of emigration. “The northern route was clearly by way of Bering Strait; * * * Linguistically, no ultimate distinction can be drawn be- tween the American Innuit and the American Indian. * * * I shall assume, what is also assumed by Mr. Markham, that the orig- inal progenitors of the Innuit were in a very primitive, low, and barbarous condition. * * * “T assume, then, that the larger part of North America may have been peopled by way of Bering Strait. * * * TI believe that this 5 Kuhl, Dr. Joseph, Die Anfiinge des Menschengeschlechts und sein einheitlicher Ursprung, pp. 315-16. Leipzig, 1876. ° Dall, W. H., Tribes of the extreme northwest. U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, 1, pp. 938-105. Washington, 1877. HREDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 337 emigration was vastly more ancient than Mr. Markham supposes, and that it took place before the present characteristics of races and tribes of North American savages were developed. he “My own impression agrees with that of Doctor Rink that the Innuit were once inhabitants of the interior of America; that they were forced to the west and north by the pressure of tribes of In- dians from the south; that they spread into the Aleutian region and northwest coast generally, and possibly simultaneously to the north; that their journeying was originally tentative, and that they finally settled in those regions which afforded them subsistence, perhaps after passing through the greater portion of Arctic America, leaving their traces as they went in many places unfit for permanent settle- ment; that after the more inviting regions were occupied, the pres- sure from Indians and still unsatisfied tribes of their own stock. in- duced still further emigration, and finally peopled Greenland and the shores of northeastern Siberia; but that these latter movements were, on the whole, much more modern, and more local than the original exodus, and took place after the race characteristics and language were tolerably well matured. * * * “T conclude that at present the Asiatic Innuit range from Koliu- chin Bay to the eastward and south to Anadyr Gulf. * * * “To the reflux of the great wave of emigration, which no doubt took place at a very early period, we may owe the numerous deserted huts reported by all explorers on the north coasts of Asia, as far east as the mouth of the Indigirka. At one time, I thought the migration to Asia had taken place within a few centuries, but subsequent study and reflection has convinced me that this could not have been the case. No doubt successive parties crossed at different times, and some of these may have been comparatively modern.” Rae, 1878:° “All the Eskimos with whom I have communicated on the subject, state that they originally came very long ago from the west, or setting sun, and that in doing so they crossed a sea separating the two great lands. “That these people (the Eskimos) have been driven from their own country in the northern parts of Asia by some unknown pressure of circumstances, and obliged to extend themselves along the whole northern coast line of America and Greenland, appears to be likely, and that the route followed after crossing Bering Strait was of neces- sity along the coast eastward, being hemmed in by hostile Indians on the south, and driven forward by pressure from the west * * *, “Such were my opinions 12 years ago, and their correctness has been rather confirmed than otherwise, by all that we have since learned) wiv #4 i722 © Rae, John, Eskimo Migrations. Jour, Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, vir, pp. 130-131. London, 1878. 338 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 1887: °° “ Professor Flower said that his investigation into the physical characteristics of the Eskimos led him to agree entirely with Doctor Rae’s conclusions derived from other sources. He looked upon the Eskimos as a branch of the North Asiatic Mongols (of which the Japanese may be taken as a familiar example), who in their wandering across the American continent in the eastward direc- tion, isolated almost as perfectly as an island population would be, hemmed in on one side by the eternal polar ice, and on the other by hostile tribes of American Indians, with whom they rarely, if ever, mingled, have-gradually developed special modifications of the Mon- golian type, which increase in intensity from west to east, and are seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants of Green- Tardis ait “ Doctor Rae also thinks that the Eskimos came from across Bering Strait from Asia. Their traditions and many other things point in that direction, and they are in no way related to the ancient cave men of Europe.” Dawson, 1880: °° Eskimo: “On the eastern side of the continent these poor people have always been separated by a marked line from their Indian neighbors on the south, and have been regarded by them with the most bitter hostility. On the west, however, they pass into the Eastern Siberians, on the one hand, and into the West-coast In- dians, on the other, both by language and physical characters. They and the northern tribes at least of West-coast Indians, belong in all probability to a wave of population spreading from Bering Strait.” Quatrefages et Hamy, 1882: °* “ Les Esquimaux ou Eskimos, qui se nomment eux-mémes Innuits, constituent dans la série mongolique un groupe exceptionnel, qui différe & maints égards de ceux qui viennent de passer sous nos yeux, mais dont l’origine asiatique n’est plus aujourd’hui contestée et dont les affinités occidentales frappent de plus en plus les observateurs spéciaux.” Brown, 1888:*° “Tt is only when we come to the region beginning at Cape Shelagskii and extending to the East Cape of Siberia that we find any traces of them. This tract is now held by the coast Tchukchi, but it was not always their home, for they expelled from this dreary stretch the Onkilon or Eskimo race who took refuge in or near less attractive quarters between the East Cape and Anadyrskii Bay.” = Rae, John, Remarks on the Natives of British North America. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, xv1, p. 200. London, 1887. °° Dawson, J. W., Fossil men and their modern representatives, pp. 48-49. Montreal, 1880. Quatrefages, A. de, et Hamy, E. T., Crania ethnica. Les cranes des races humaines, p. 437. Paris, 1882. °° Brown, Robert, The origin of the Hskimo, The Archaeological Review, 1, No. 4, pp. 238-289. London, 1888, HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 339 Ratzel, 1897:°* “If we ask whence they came, Asia seems most obvious, since between the American and Asiatic coasts of Bering Straits, intercourse has always been ventured upon even in the rudest skin=poats.*. “Ethnographic indications also point predominantly to the wesiaut eee “ But we have an equal right to suppose a migration from America into Asia.” Thalbitzer, 1914:°* “T still believe (like Rink), that the common Eskimo mother-group has at one time lived to the west at the Bering Strait, coming originally from the coasts of Siberia.” Fiirst and Hansen, 1915:° “We are to some extent acquainted with the diffusion of the Eskimos over the earth, and know that they could not have come directly from Europe and that Greenland was populated from the west, one may naturally conclude, as has often been concluded before, that their descent is from the west, in other words from Asia, though the time at which such an immigration took place and the racial type which they then possessed must remain still more hypothetical than immigration itself.” Mathiassen, 1927:°° “ We must therefore imagine that the Thule culture, with all its peculiar whaling culture, has originated some- where in the western regions, in an Arctic area, where whales were plentiful and wood abundant, and we are involuntarily led toward the coasts of Alaska and East Siberia north of Bering Strait, the regions to which we have time after time had to turn in order to find parallels to types from the Central Eskimo finds. There all the conditions have been present for the originating of such a culture, and from there it has spread eastward right to Greenland, seeking everywhere to adapt itself to the local geographical conditions. And it can hardly have been a culture wave alone; it must have been a migra- tion. The similarities between east and west are in many directions so detailed that it is difficult to explain them without assuming an actual migration of people from the one place to the other.” Jochelson, 1928:7° “In discussing the question of former Eskimo occupation of the Siberian Arctic coast a very remote period of time is not meant. so that in this sense the assumed recent Eskimo migra- tions from Asia into America and vice versa do not interfere with the general theory of the Asiatic origin of the American population.” ® Ratzel, Friedrich, The history of mankind, u, pp. 107-108. London, 1897. * Thalbitzer, W., The Ammassalik Eskimo. Meddelelser om Grgnland, vol. xxxix, pt. 1, p. 717. Copenhagen, 1914. * Fiirst, Carl M., and Fr. C. C, Hansen, Crania Groenlandica, p. 228. Copenhagen, 1915. ® Mathiassen, Therkel, Archaeology of the central Eskimos. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-1924, p. 184. Copenhagen, 1927. 7 Jochelson, W., Peoples of Asiatic Russia. Am, Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 60. New York, 1928. 340 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 AMERICAN Prichard, 1847: “A question has been raised, to what department of mankind the Esquimaux belong. Some think them a race allied to the northern Asiatics, and even go so far as to connect them with the Mongolians. Others, with greater probability, consider them as belonging to the American family. All the American writers eminent for their researches in the glottology of the New World, among whom I shall mention Mr. du Ponceau and Mr. Gallatin, are unanimous in the opinion that the Esquimaux belong to the same great department of nations as the Hunting Tribes of North America.” Rink, 1890: “* * * kann es wohl keinem Zweifel unterworfen sein, dass die Eskimos den sogenannten Nordwest-Indianern an der Kiiste Alaskas und weiter siidwiirts am niichsten stehen. Es diirfte deshalb der Untersuchung werth sein, ob sie nicht auch wirklich als das jiusserste nérdliche Glied dieser V6lkerstimme zu betrachten wiren. Man hat angenommen, dass diese letzteren, dem Laufe der Fliisse folgend, vom Binnenlande zur Kiiste gekommen sind. Sie lernten dann, theilweise und um so mehr wohl, je weiter nach Norden sich ihren Lebensunterhalt aus dem Meere zu verschaffen. Die Eskimos endigten damit,-sich ausschliesslich der Jagd auf dem Meere zu widmen, und erlangten dadurch ihre merkwiirdige Fiahigkeit, allen Hindernissen des arktischen Klimas Trotz bieten zu _ k6nnen. Betrachten wir demnach, wie man vermeintlich noch jetzt die Spuren der Veriinderungen beobachten kann, denen sie nach und nach unter- worfen worden sind, indem sie sich, unserer Vermuthung zufolge, nach Norden und Osten verbreiteten.” Rink, 1873: 7° “As far as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear to have been the last wave of an aboriginal American race, which has spread over the continent from more genial regions, following prin- cipally the rivers and watercourses, and continually yielding to the pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they have peopled the seacoast. * * * “The author explains some of the most common traditions from Greenland as simply mythical narrations of events occurring in the far northwest corner of America, thereby pointing to the great probability of that district having been the original home of the nation, in which they first assumed the peculiarities of their present culture.” 7 Prichard, James Cowles, Researches into the physical history of mankind, yol. y, p. 374. London, 1847. 7 Rink, H., Die Verbreitung der Eskimo-Stiimme. Congrés International des Améri- canistes, 1888, 221-22. Berlin, 1890. ™ Rink, H., On the descent of the Hskimo, Mém. Soc. Roy. d. Antiquaires du Nord; Journ. anthrop. Inst., 1, 1878, pp. 104, 106, 108. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 341 Captain Pim also expressed his belief that “ the Eskimo were pure American aborigines, and not of Asiatic descent.” Rink, 1875:7* “If we suppose the physical conditions and the climate of the Eskimo regions not to have altered in any remarkable way since they were first inhabited, their inhabitants of course must originally have come from more southern latitudes, * * * it ap- pears evident on many grounds that such a southern tribe has not been a. coast people migrating along the seashore, and turning into Eskimo on passing beyond a certain latitude, but that they have more prob- ably emerged from some interior country, following the river banks toward the shores of the polar sea, having reached which they be- came a coast people, and, moreover, a polar-coast people. The Eskimo most evidently representing the polar-coast people of North America, the first question which arises seems to be whether their development can be conjectured with any probability to have taken place in that part of the world. Other geographical conditions appear greatly to favor such a supposition * * *, The rivers taking their course to the sea between Alaska and the Coppermine River, seem well adapted to lead such a migrating people onward to the polar sea. * * * “The probable identity of the ‘ inlanders’ with the Indians has al- ready been remarked on. When the new coast people began to spread along the Arctic shores, some bands of them may very probably have crossed Bering Strait and settled on the opposite shore, which is perhaps identical with the fabulous country of Akilinek. On the other hand, there is very little probability that a people can have moved from interior Asia to settle on its polar seashore, at the same time turning Eskimo, and afterwards almost wholly emigrated to America. “On comparing the Eskimo with the neighboring nations, their physical complexion certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin; but, as far as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a transitional link to exist between the Eskimo and the other American nations, which would sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common origin from the same continent.” Rink, 1875: * “ The author, who has traveled and resided in Green- land for 20 years, and has studied the native traditions, of which he has preserved a collection, considers the Eskimo as deserving particular attention in regard to the question how America has been originally peopled. He desires to draw the attention of ethnologists to the necessity of explaining, by means of the mysterious early London, 1875. ™ Rink, H., On the descent of the Eskimo. In a Selection of Papers on Arctic Geog- raphy and Ethnology, Roy. Geog. Soc., pp 230, 232. London, 1875. 342 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH, ANN. 46 history of the Eskimo, the apparently abrupt step by which these people have been changed from probably inland or riverside in- habitants into a decidedly littoral people, depending entirely on the products of the Arctic Sea; and he arrives at the conclusion that, although the question must still remain doubtful, and dependent chiefly on further investigations into the traditions of the natives occupying adjacent countries, yet, as far as can now be judged, the Eskimo appear to have been the last wave of an aboriginal American race, which has spread over the continent from more genial regions, following principally the rivers and watercourses, and continually yielding to the pressure of the tribes behind them, until at last they have peopled the seacoast. * * * “When we consider the existing intercourse between the inhabi- tants on both sides of Bering Strait, we find many circumstances to justify the conclusion that those traditions of the Greenland Eskimo refer to the origin of the Eskimo sledge dog from the training of the Arctic wolf, to the first journeys upon the frozen sea, and to intercourse between the aboriginal Eskimo and the Asiatic coast.” Rink, 1886:7° “ Grénland kann ja nur von Westen her seine eski- moische Bevélkerung empfangen haben. Dasselbe lisst sich mit Wahrscheinlichkeit auch von den nichsten Nachbarlindern jenseits der Davisstrasse annehmen, und wenn wir diese Vermutung weiter erstrecken, gelangen wir zum Alaskaterritorium als der wahrschein- lichen Heimat der jetzt so weit zertreuten arktischen Volkes. Zuniichst findet diese Annahme eine Bestiitigung darin, dass die Eskimos hier nicht auf die Kiiste beschriinkt, sondern auch lings der Fliisse ins Binnenland verbreitet sind, nur dass der ungeheure Fisch- reichtum dieser Fliisse es méglich gemacht haben kann, dass hier urspriinglich eime noch viel gréssere Bevélkerung, als jetzt, sich sammelte, welche durch Auswanderung das notwendige Kontingent zur Entstehung der auf die Meereskiiste beschrinkten Stiimme geliefert haben kann.” Wilson, 1876: 77 “ Some analogies confirm the probability of a por- tion of the North American stock having entered the continent from Asia by Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands; and more probably by the latter than the former. * * * “In this direction, then, a North American germ of population may have entered the continent from Asia, diffused itself over the Northwest, and ultimately reached the valleys of the Mississippi, and penetrated to southern latitudes by a route to the east of the Rocky Mountains. Many centuries may have intervened between the first 7 Rink, H., Die Ostgrénliinder in ihrem Verhiiltnisse zu den Wbrigen Hskimostiimmem Deutsch Geographische Bliitter, IX, p. 229. Bremen, 1886. 7 Wilson, Daniel, Prehistoric man, pp. 343-352. London, 1876. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 343 immigration and its coming in contact with races of the southern continent; and philological and other evidence indicates that if such a northwestern immigration be really demonstrable, it is one of very ancient date. But so far as I have been able to study the evidence, much of that hitherto adduced appears to point the other way. * * # “With Asiatic Esquimaux thus distributed along the coast adjacent to the dividing sea; and the islands of the whole Aleutian group in the occupation of the same remarkable stock common to both hemi- spheres: The only clearly recognizable indications are those of a current of migration setting toward the continent of Asia, the full influence of which may prove to have been more comprehensive than has hitherto been imagined possible. * * *” Grote, 1877:"° Regards the Eskimo as the original inhabitants of North America and believes they extended down to 50° in the eastern and 60° in the western part of the continent. Krause, 1883 :8° “ Ueberblickt man nun die gegenwiirtige Verbrei- tung der Eskimos in Asien, so wird man der Ansicht von Dall und Nordenskiéld beistimmen, dass die asiatischen Eskimo aus Amerika eingewandert sind und nicht, wie Steller, Wrangell, und andere ver- mutheten, zuriickgebliebene Reste einer ehemals zahlreicheren, nach Amerika hiniibergezogenen Bevélkerung. Immerhin wiirde durch die Annahme eines amerikanischen Ursprunges der jetzigen Eskimo- bevélkerung die Méglichkeit friiherer Wanderungen in entgegenge- setzter Richtung nicht ausgeschlossen sein, nur giebt die gegenwiir- tige Verbreitung keinen Anhalt fiir eine solche, und historische Be- weise fihlen.” Ray, 1885: ** “Of their origin and descent we could get no trace, there being no record of events kept among them. * * * “That they have followed the receding line of ice, which at one time capped the northern part of this continent, along the easiest lines of travel is shown in the general distribution of a similar peo- ple, speaking a similar tongue, from Greenland to Bering Strait; in so doing they followed the easiest natural lines of travel along the watercourses and the seashore, and the distribution of the race to- day marks the routes traveled. The seashore led them along the Labrador and Greenland coasts; Hudson Bay and its tributary waters carried its quota towards Boothia Land; helped by Back’s ™ Grote, A. R., Buff. Daily Courier, Jan. 7, 1877 (q. by. R. Virchow, Z. Ethnol., Verh., Ix, 1877, p. 69). ® Krause, Aurel, Die Beyilkerungsverhiiltnisse der Tschuktschenhalbinsel. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthrop., etc., in Z. Ethn., XV, pp. 226-27. 1883. = Ray, P. H., Ethnographic Sketch of the Natives. Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska, pt. 2, p. 37. Washington, 1885. ’ 344 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 Great Fish River, the Mackenzie carried them to the northwestern coast, and down the Yukon they came to people the shores of Norton Sound and along the coast to Cape Prince of Wales. They occupied some of the coast to the south of the mouth of the Yukon, and a few drifted across Bering Strait on the ice, and their natural traits are still in marked contrast with their neighbors, the Chuckchee. They use dogs instead of deer, the natives of North America having never domesticated the reindeer, take their living from the sea, and speak a different tongue. Had the migration come from Asia it does not stand to reason that they would have abandoned the deer upon crossing the straits.” Keane, 1886:*? “Dr. H. Rink, in the current number of the Deutsche Geographische Blitter (Bermen, 1886) * * * makes it sufficiently evident that their primeval home must be placed in the extreme northwest, on the Alaskan shores of the Bering Sea * * * the Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doctor Rink asa branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges pro- foundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further discussed by our author. To say that they must be regarded as ‘ein abnormer Seitenzweig,’ merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders should possibly be regarded, not ‘as abnormal offshoot, but as the original stock from which the Eskimos themselves have diverged. * * * Doctor Rink himself advances some solid reasons for bring- ing the Eskimo, not from Asia at all, or at ieast not in the first instance, but from the interior of the North American continent. He holds, in fact, with some other ethnologists, that they were originally inlanders, who, under pressure from the American Indians, gradu- ally advanced along the course of the Yukon, Mackenzie, and other great rivers, to their present homes on the Bering Sea, and Frozen Ocean.” No individual or decided standpoint on the question is taken in the author’s Man, Past and Present, 1920 edition. Brown, 1881: ** “The Eskimo are therefore an essentially American people, with a meridional range greater than that of any other TACCS cee “Tt is also clear that this migration has always been from west to east, as also has been that of the Indian tribes; * * * “Did these hyperboreans come from Asia or are they evolutions, differentiations, as it were, of some of the other American races? ® Keane; A. H., The Eskimo. Nature, xxxv, pp. 309, 310. London, New York, 1886-87. 88 Brown, Robert, The Origin of the Eskimo. The Archaeological Review, 1, No. 4, pp. 240-250. London, 1888. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 345 That all of the American peoples came originally from Asia, is, I think, an hypothesis for which a great deal might be said. Unless they originated there or were autochthonic, an idea which may at once be dismissed; they could scarcely have come from anywhere else, * * * but the central question is whether the Eskimo are of a later date than the Indians or are really Indians compelled to live under less favorable conditions than the rest of their kinsfolk. The latter will, I think, be found to be the most reasonable view to adonuees at. > “Doctor Rink seems not far from the truth when he indicates the rivers of Central Arctic America as the region from whence the Eskimo spread northward. * * * “Tt is not at all improbable that the original progenitors of the race may have been a few isolated families, members of some small Indian tribe, or the decaying remnants of a larger one. Little by little they were expelled from their hunting and fishing grounds on the original river bank until, finding no place amid the stronger tribes, they settled in a region where they were left to them- Se ee “Tt may, however, be taken as proved that the Eskimo are in no respect and never were a European people; that they are not and never were an Asiatic one, except to the small extent already de- scribed; that the handful of people settled on the Siberian shore migrated from America, and that it is very probable the Eskimo came from the interior of Arctic America, Alaska more likely than from any other part of the world.” Virchow, 1877:8* “Ich méchte namentlich darauf aufmerksam machen, dass diejenigen, welche den niichsten Ankniipfungspunkt fiir die Urbevélkerung Amerika’s bei den Eskimo’s suchen, welche ferner die Sprache und die Formen der Eskimo’s nach Asien hinein verfolgen, leicht ein petitio principii machen diirften, insofern als es wohl sein kénnte, dass sie ein spiiteres Phiinomen fiir ein friiheres halten. Warum sollte nicht die Einwanderung der Eskimo’s von Asien erst erfolgt sein, nachdem liingst andere Theile des Continents ihre Bewohner erhalten hatten? ” 1878:*° “ Nun ist es sehr bemerkenswerth, dass gegeniiber dieser physiognomischen Aehnlichkeit der Eskimos und der Mongolen eine absolute Differenze Zwischen ihnen in Bezug auf die Schiidelkapsel existirt ” (examined six living Greenland Eskimos). % Virchow, R., Anthropologie Amerika’s. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., Jahrg. 1877 (with Z. Ethnol., 1877, tx), pp. 154—55. al Eskimos. Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., etc., 1878, pp. 185-189 (with Z. Ethnol., 1878, x), p. 186. 88253 °—30——23 346 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 1885 :8° “ Verbinden wir dieses mit dem Umstande, dass die Sagen der Ungava-Eskimos stets nach Norden iiber die Hudson-Strasse verlegt werden, dass man im Baffin-Lande stets tiber die Fury- und Hecla-Strasse fort nach Siiden als dem Schauplatz alter Sagen hinweist, und dass die westlichen Eskimos ebenso den Osten als das Land ihrer sagenhaften Helden und Stimme betrachten, so gewinnt die Vermuthung an Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass im Westen des Hudson- Bay-Gebietes die Heimath der weitverbreiteten Stimme zu suchen Ste Chamberlain, 1889:*7 ““In a paper read before the Institute last year (Proc. Can. Inst., 3d. ser., Vol. V., Fasc. i., October, 1887, p. 70), T advanced the view that instead of the Eskimo being derived from the Mongolians of northeastern Asia, the latter are on the contrary descended from the Eskimo, or their ancestors, who have from time immemorial inhabited the continent of America.” Boas, 1901: ** “All these data seem to me to prove conclusively that the culture of the Alaskan Eskimo is very greatly influenced by that of the Indians of the North Pacific coast and by the Athapascan tribes of the interior. This is in accord with the observation that their physical type is not so pronounced as the eastern Eskimo type. I believe, therefore, that H. Rink’s opinion of an Alaskan origin of the Eskimo is not very probable. If pure type and culture may be considered as significant, I should say that the Eskimo west and north of Hudson Bay have retained their ancient characteristics more than any others. If their original home was in Alaska, we must add the hypothesis that their dispersion began before contact with the Indians. If their home was east of the Mackenzie, the gradual dis- persion and ensuing contact with other tribes would account for all the observed phenomena. * * * On the whole, the relations of North Pacific and North Asiatic cultures are such that it seems plausible to my mind that the Alaskan Eskimo are, comparatively speaking, recent intruders, and that they at one time interrupted an earher cultural connection between the two continents.” To which he adds in the second part of this work,*® speaking of the Eskimo taboos: “It may perhaps be venturesome to claim that the marked development of these customs suggests a time when the Es- kimo tribes were inland people who went down to the sea and gradu- ally adopted maritime pursuits, which, however, were kept entirely apart from their inland life, although in a way this seems an attrac- tive hypothesis. 8° Virchow, R., Eskimos, Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., ete., 1885, p. 165 (with Z. Ethnol., 1885, xvi). 8’ Chamberlain, A. F., The Eskimo Race and Language. Troe. Can. Inst., vi, p. 281. Toronto, 1889. § Boas, F., Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., xv, pp. 369-370. 1907. © Tbid., xv, pt. 2, pp. 569-570. 1907. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 347 Boas, 1910: °° “ There is little doubt that the Eskimos, whose life as sea hunters has left a deep impression upon all of their doings, must probably be classed with the same group of peoples. The much-discussed theory of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos must be entirely abandoned. The investigations of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, which it was my privilege to conduct, seem to show that the Eskimos must be considered as, comparatively speaking, new arrivals in Alaska, which they reached coming from the east.” Clark Wissler, 1917.°° Page 363: “The New World received a detachment of early Mongoloid peoples at a time when the main body had barely developed stone polishing.” Pages 361-862: “Our review of New World somatic characters revealed the essential unity of the Indian population. It is also clear that there are affinities with the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. Hence, we are justified in assuming a common ancestral group for the whole Mongoloid-Red stream of humanity. We have already outlined the reasons for assuming the pristine home of this group to be in Asia.” Page 335: “ For example, the Eskimos, whose first appearance in the New World must have been in Alaska, spread only along the Arctic coast belt to its ultimate limits.” 1918. Page 161: “ The most acceptable theory of Eskimo origin is that they expanded from a parent group in the Arctic Achipelago.” 1922.°* Pages 368, 396, 398: Identical in every word again with that of 1917. EUROPEAN Dawkins, 1866: °* “The sum of the evidence proves that man, in a hunter state, lived in the south of Gaul on reindeer, musk sheep, horses, oxen, and the like, at a time when the climate was similar to that which those animals now inhabit. To what race did he belong? In solving this the zoological evidence is of great importance. The reindeer and musk sheep now inhabit the northern part of the American Continent and are the principal land animals that supply the Esquimaux with food. The latter of these has departed from the Asiatic Continent, leaving remains behind to prove that it shared the higher northern latitudes of Asia with the reindeer, and this © Boas, Franz, Ethnological Problems in Canada. Jour. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, xu, p. 534. London, 1910. ™ Wissler, Clark, The American Indian. New York, 1917. oa Archaeology of the Polar Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, pt. 3, p. 161. New York, 1918. = The American Indian. New York, 1922. ™ Dawkins, Boyd, In a Review of Lartet and Christy's ‘‘Cavernes du Périgord”’ (1864), in the Saturday Review, xxl, p. 713, 1866. [This review is not signed but is attributed to B. D.J ; 348 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 latter has retreated farther and farther north during the historical period. May not the race that lived on these two animals in southern Gaul have shared also in their northern retreat, and may it not be living in company with them still? The truth of such a hypoth- esis as this is found by an appeal to the weapons, implements, and habits of life of the Esquimaux. The fowling spear, the harpoon, the scrapers, the marrow spoons are the same in the ice huts of Mel- ville Sound as in the ancient dwellings of southern Gaul. In both there is the same absence of pottery; in both bones are crushed in the same way for the sake of the marrow, and accumulate in vast quanti- ties. The very fact of human remains being found among the relics of the feast is explained by an appeal to what Captain Parry ob- served in the island of Igloolik. Among the vast quantities of bones of walruses and seals, and skulls of dogs and bears found in the Esqui- maux camp, were numbers of human skulls lying about among the rest, which the natives tumbled into the collecting bags of the officers without the least remorse. A similar carelessness for the dead was also observed by Sir J. Ross and Captain Lyon. This presence, then, of human remains in the south of Gaul is another link binding the ancient people then living there to the Esquimaux. Their small size also is additional evidence. “The only inference that can be drawn from these premises is that the people in question were decidedly Esquimaux, related to them precisely in the same way as the reindeer and musk sheep of those days were to those now living in the high North American latitudes. The sole point of difference is the possession of the dog by the latter people, but in the vast lapse of time between the date of their sojourn in Europe and the present day the dog might very well have been adopted from some other superior race, or even re- duced under the rule of man from some wild progenitor. By this discovery a new people is added to those which formerly dwelt in Europe. The severity of the climate in southern Gaul is proved by the northern animals above mentioned. As it became warmer musk sheep, reindeer, and Esquimaux would retreat farther and farther north until they found a resting place on the American shore of the great Arctic Sea. Possibly in the case of the Esquimaux the immi- gration of other and better-armed tribes might be a means of acceler- ating this movement.” Hamy, 1870: °° “Il nous parait, comme a MM. de Quatrefages, Car- ter-Blake, Le Hon, etc., que les caractéres anatomiques des races de Furfooz et de Cro-Magnon doivent leur faire prendre place dans le groupe hyperboréen.” % Hamy, E. T., Précis de paléontologie humaine, p. 355. Paris, 1870. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 349 Dawkins, 1874 °: In 1866, Boyd Dawkins, on the basis of the re- semblances between the implements of the Eskimo and those of the later prehistoric man of Europe, advances the idea that the Eskimo were close kin to the palaeolithic man of Europe, before the scientific forum. In his Cave Hunting he says: “ Palaeolithic man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe along with them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements are of the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be con- cluded that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological and zoological evidence should be an accident.” 1880: * “ The probable identity of the cave men with the Eskimos is considerably strengthened by a consideration of some of the ani- mals found in the caves. * * * “All these points of connection between the cave men and the Eskimos can, in my opinion, be explained only on the hypothesis that they belong to the same race * * *” The cave man: “ From the evidence brought forward in this chap- ter, there is reason to believe that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos.” Mortillet, 1889: °° “Les Groénlandais, au point de vue paléoeth- nologique, présentent un trés grand intérét. Ils paraissent se relier trés intimement aux hommes qui habitaient Europe moyenne pend- ant ]’époque de la Madeleine. Ils seraient les descendants directs des Magdaleniens. Ils auraient successivement émigré vers le pdle, avec Vanimal caractéristique de cette époque, le renne. Habitués aux froids les plus rigoureux de l’époque magdalénienne, ils se sont re- tirés dans les régions froides du Nord. * * * “Comme on le voit, il y a la plus grande ressemblance, tant sous le rapport physique et moral que sous le rapport artistique et indus- triel entre les hommes de la Madeleine et les Groénlandais. Cette ressemblance est telle que nous pouvons en conclure que les seconds sont les descendants des premiers.” Testut, 1889:°° “Parmi les races actuelles, celle qui me parait présenter la plus grande analogie avec Vhomme de Chancelade est celle des Esquimaux qui vivent encore a l’état sauvage dans leg glaces de Amérique septentrionale. Ils ont, en effet, le méme crane que notre troglodyte quaternaire ; leur face est constituée suivant le méme type; ils ont, a peu de chose prés, la méme taille, le méme indice pala- %® Dawkins, Boyd, Cave Hunting, p. 359. London, 1874. ® Dawkins, Boyd, Early Man in Britain, pp. 240, 241, 245. London, 1880. *§ Mortillet, G. de, Les Groénlandais descendants des Magdaléniens. Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie, VI, pp. 868-870. Paris, 1883. * Testut, L., Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette quaternaire de Chancelade (Dordogne). Bull. Soc. d’anthrop., vii, pp. 243-244. Lyon, Paris, 1889. 350 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 tin, le méme indice nasal, le méme indice orbitaire, le méme degré de torsion de Vhumérus, etc. * * * “La découverte de Chancelade, en mettant en lumiére une analogie frappante entre le squelette de notre troglodyte périgourdin et celui des Esquimaux actuels, apporte 4 cette opinion aussi séduisante que naturelle, ’appui de l’anthropologie anatomique qui, dans l’espéce, a une importance capitale. Elle lui est de tous points favorable et éleéve & la hauteur d’une vérité probable, je n’ose dire d’une vérité démontrée, ce qui n’était encore qu’une simple hypothése.” Hervé, 1893:1“* * * * par leurs usages et par leurs moeurs, aussi bien que par leur matériel industriel et artistique, les Hyper- boréens actuels (Tchouktches et Eskimaux) sont extrémement voisins des Troglodytes magdaléniens de l’Europe occidentale; a ce point que Hamy a pu dire * qu ils continuent de nos jours, dan les régions circumpolaires, lage du renne de France, de Belgique, de Suisse, avec ses caractéristiques zoologiques, ethnographiques, ete.’ (op. cit., 366). ‘Nous avons vu, d’autre part, que les plus purs dentre eux ne different pas anatomiquement des Magdaléniens. C’est done au rameau hyperboréen que nous sommes amenés & ratta- cher, au point de vue ethnique, les dernitres populations de l’Kurope quaternaire.’” Boule, 1918: “ On sait (ailleurs, depuis les travaux de Testut sur VHomme de Chancelade, que les relations des Esquimaux sont avec d’autres Hommes fossiles de nos pays, mais d’un age géologique plus récent.” Sollas, 1924:* The Magdalenians are represented “in part, by the Eskimo on the frozen margin of the North American Contiment and as well, perhaps, by the Red Indians. * * *” Due to pressure of stronger peoples, the ancestors of the Eskimo were present to the north; “but as there was no room for expansion in that direction, it was diverted toward the only egress possible, and an outflow took place into America over Bering Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The primitive Eskimo, already accustomed to a boreal life, extended along the coast.” 1927:4 “The assemblage of characters presented on the one hand by the Chancelade skull, and on the other by the Eskimo, are in very remarkable agreement, and that the onus of discovering a similar assemblage, but possessed by some other race, rests with those who refuse to accept what seems to me a very obvious conclusion. * * * 1Heryé, Georges, La Race des Troglodytes Magdaléniens. Rev. mens, de l'Eeole d’anthrop., 11, p. 188. Paris, 1893. 2 Boule, Marcellin, L’Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints, pp. 228. Paris, 1913. 3Sollas. W. J., Ancient hunters and their modern representatives, pp. 590, 592. New York, 1924. 4Sollas, W. J., The Chancelade skull. J. Roy, Anthrop. Inst., Lym, pp. 119,121. London, 1927. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO S51 “Our only reason for any feeling of surprise is, not that Chan- celade man should prove a close relation of the Eskimo, but that so far he is the only fossil example of his kind of which we have any certain knowledge.” OPPOSED TO EUROPEAN Rae, i887:° “'The typical Eskimo is one of the most specialized of the human race, as far as cranial and facial characters are con- cerned, and such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe present no structural affinities with him.” Laloy, 1898:° “Cette théorie est absolument contredite par les faits.” (That is, the theory of the identity of the Eskimo with the European upper palaeolithic man.) Déchelette, 1908 :* “ C’est en vain qu’on a noté certains traits d’anal- ogie de l’art et de l'industrie * * * telles analogies s’expliquent aisément par Ja parité des conditions de la vie matérielle.” Burkitt, 1921:° “Again the Magdalenians have been correlated with the Eskimos, who inhabit to-day the icebound coastal lands to the north of the New World, and also the similar lands, on the other side of the straits, in the northeast corner of Asia. But the vast differ- ence in place and in time would make any exact correlation very doubtful.” MacCurdy, 1924:° “If a Magdalenian type exists, it is probably best represented by the skeleton from Raymonden at Chancelade (Dordogne). One must not lose sight of the fact that the osteologic record of fossil man is even yet so fragmentary that there is grave danger of mistaking individual characters for those on which vari- eties or species should be based.” Keith, 1925: 1° “In the Chancelade man we are dealing with a mem- ber of a racial stock of a true European kind.” MISCELLANEOUS AND INDEFINITE Gallatin, 1836: 1" “ Whatever may have been the origin of the Es- kimo, it would seem probable that the small tribe of the present 5 Rae, Dr. John, Remarks on the natives of British North America. J. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, xvi, pp. 200-201. London, 1887. *Laloy, L’Anthr., 1x, p. 586. 1898. * Déchelette, J., Manuel d’Archéologic préhistorique, etc., pp. 312. Paris, 1908. 5’ Burkitt, M. C., Prehistory. p. 307. London, 1921. ®MacCurdy, G. G., Human Origins, v. 1, pp. 406-407. New York and London, 1924. * Keith, Arthur, The Antiquity of Man, p. 86. London, 1925, “Gallatin, Albert, A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes of North America. Archaeologia Americana, II, pp. 13, 14. Cambridge, 1836. 352 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN, 46 sedentary Tchuktchi on the eastern extremity of Asia is a colony of western American Eskimo. The language does not extend in Asia beyond that tribe. That of their immediate neighbors, the “ Rein- deer,” or “ Wandering Tchuktchi,” is totally different and belongs to the Kouriak family. *“ There does not seem to be any solid foundation for the opinion of those who would ascribe to the Eskimaux an origin different from - that of the other Indians of North America. The color and features are essentially the same; and the differences which may exist, par- ticularly that in stature, may be easily accounted for by the rigor of the climate and partly, perhaps, by the nature of their food. The entire similarity of the structure and grammatical forms of their language with those of various Indian tribes, however different in their vocabularies, which will hereafter be adverted to, affords an almost conclusive proof of their belonging to the same family of mankind.” Richardson, 1852:1* “The origin of the Eskimos has been much discussed as being the pivot on which the inquiry into the original peopling of America has been made to turn. The question has been fairly and ably stated by Doctor Latham in his recent work On the Varieties of Man, to which I must refer the reader; and I shall merely remark that the Eskimos differ more in physical aspect from their nearest neighbors than the red races do from one another. The lineaments have a decided resemblance to the Tartar or Chinese coun- tenance. On the other hand, their language is admitted by phi- lologists to be similar to the other North American tongues in its grammatical structure; so that, as Doctor Latham has forcibly stated, the dissociation of the Eskimos from their neighboring nations on account of their physical dissimilarity is met by an argument for their mutual affinity, deduced from philological coincidences.” Meigs, 1857:** “A connected series of facts and arguments which seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, whose dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but whose dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow; that the early migrations of these people have been from the north south- wards, from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not from the mainland to the islands; and that the present geographical area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary center of human distribution for the entire polar zone.” * Richardson, Sir John, Origin of the Eskimos. The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, LII, p. 325. Edinburgh, 1852. 38 Meigs, J. Aitken, The cranial characteristics of the races of men. In Indigenous Races of the Earth, by Nott, J. C., and Gliddon, George R., Philadelphia, p. 266. London, 1857. HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 353 Abbott, 1876: ** “It is fair to presume that the first human beings that dwelt along the shores of the Delaware were really the same people as the present inhabitants of Arctic America.” Grote, 1875:** Basing himself on certain biological reasonings, the author concludes “ that the Eskimos are the existing representatives of the man of the American glacial epoch, just as the White Mountain butterfly (Oeneis semidea) is the living representative of a colony of the genus planted on the retiring of the ice from the valley of the White Mountains.” In a later communication 1° the author expresses the opinion that the peopling of America “was effected during the Tertiary; that the ice modified races of Pliocene man, existing in the north of Asia and America, forced them southward, and then drew them back to the locality where they had undergone their original modifica- Monn Ape “ During the process, then, which resulted in the race modification of the Eskimos, their original numbers must have been decreased by the slowly but ever increasing cold of the northern regions, until experience and physical adaptation combined brought them to a state of comparative stability as a race.” Baron Nordenskiéld ** thought that the Eskimo might probably be the true “ autochthones ” of the polar regions, i. e., that they had inhabited the same previous to the glacial age, at a period when a climate prevailed here equal to that of northern Italy at present, as proved by the fossils found at Spitzbergen and Greenland. As‘it might be assumed that man had existed even during the Tertiary period, there was a great deal in favor of the assumption that he had lived in those parts which were most favorable to his existence. ‘The question was one of the highest importance, as, if it could be proved that the Eskimo descended from a race which inhabited the polar regions in the very earliest times, we should be obliged to assume that there was a northern (polar) as well as an Asiatic cradle of the human race, which would open up new fields of research, both to the philologist and the ethnologist, and probably remnants of the culture and language of the original race might be traced in the present polar inhabitants of both Europe and Asia. 44 Abbott, C. C., Traces of American Autochthon. Am. Nat., p. 329. June, 1876. Grote, A. R., Effect of the Glacial Epoch Upon the Distribution of Insects in North America. Proc. Am. Ass. Ady. Sci., Detroit meeting, 1875, B, Natural History, p. 225. 16 Grote, A. R., On the Peopling of America. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sc., 11, p. 181-185, 1877. 17Qskimo. Lecture before the Georgr. Soc. of Stockholm, Dec. 19, 1884; abstract in Proc. Roy. Georgr. Soc., vit, No. 6, p. 370-371. London, 1885. 354 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [PTH. ANN. 46 Keane, 1886:1* “ The Aleutian Islanders, who are treated by Doc- tor Rink as a branch of the Eskimo family, but whose language diverges profoundly from, or rather shows no perceptible affinity at all to, the Eskimo. The old question respecting the ethnical affinities of the Aleutians is thus again raised, but not further dis- cussed by our author. To say that they must be regarded as ‘ein abnormer Seitenzweig,’ merely avoids the difficulty, while perhaps obscuring or misstating the true relations altogether. For these islanders should possibly be regarded, not as ‘an abnormal offshoot,’ but as the original stock from which the Eskimo themselves have diverged.” Quatrefages, 1887: 1° From migrations of Tertiary man: Men origi- nated in Tertiary in northern Asia; spread from here to Europe and over Asia; “ D’autres aussi gagnérent peut-étre l’Amérique et ont pu étre les ancétres directs des Esquimaux, . . . Sans méme supposer l’existence passée de la continuité des deux continents, les hommes tertiaires ont bien pu faire ce que font les riverains actuels du détroit de Behring, qui vont chaque jour d’Asie en Amérique et reciproquement.” . .. “ Evidemment la race esquimale est américaine. Au Groénland, au Labrador, dont personne ne lui a disputé les solitudes glacées, elle a conservé sa pureté. Elle est encore restée pure quand elle a rencontré les Peaux-Rouges proprement dits, parce que ceux-ci lui ont fait une guerre d’extermination qui ne respectait ni les femmes ni les enfants. Mais, dans le nord-ouest américain, elle s’est trouvée en rapport avec des populations d’un caractére plus doux et des croisements ont eu lieu. Or, parmi ces populations, il s’en trouve de brachycéphales. Tels sont en particulier certaines tribus, con- fondues 4 tort sous un méme nom avec les vrais Koluches . . . Ces tribus sont de race jaune et leur crane ressemble si bien & celui des Toungouses que M. Hamy les a rattachées directement i cette famille mongole. Les Esquimaux se sont croisés avec elles; et ainsi ont pris naissance ces tribus, dont Vorigine métisse est attestée par le mélange ou la fusion des caractéres linguistiques aussi bien qu’ anatomiques.” Nansen, 1893:°° “So much alone can we declare with any assur- ance, that the Eskimos dwelt in comparatively recent times on the coasts around Bering Strait and Bering Sea—probably on the 18 Keane, A. H., The Eskimo; a commentary. Nature, xxxv, p. 309. London, New York, 1886-1887. 19 Quatrefages, A de, Histoire Générale des Races Humaines, introduction l’Etude des Races Humaines, pp. 136, 485. Paris, 1887. *Nansen, Fridtjof, Eskimo Life, pp. 6, 8. London, 1898. (Translated by William Archer.) HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 355 American side—arid have thence, stage by stage, spread eastward over Arctic America to Greenland. * * * “The likeness between all the different tribes of Eskimos, as well as their secluded position with respect to other peoples, and the perfection of their implements, might be taken to indicate that they are of a very old race, in which everything has stiffened into definite forms, which can now be but slowly altered. Other indications, however, seem to conflict with such a hypothesis, and render it more probable that the race was originally a small one, which did not until a comparatively late period develop to the point at which we now find it, and spread over the countries which it at present inhabits.” Tarenetzky, 1900:*! “ Die Frage ist bis jetzt noch nicht entschieden und wird wahrscheinlich auch niemals definitiv entschieden werden ob die gegenwiirtig die Nordostgrenze Asiens und die Nordwest- grenze Amerikas bewohnenden Polarvélker urspriinglich aus Asien nach Amerika oder in umgekehrter Richtung zu ihren Wohnsitzen wanderten.” De Nadaillac “2 believed that the Eskimo (with some other aborigi- nal Americans), now savage and demoralized, have issued from races more civilized and that they could raise themselves to the old social level were it not for their struggle with inexorable climate, famines, and lately also alcoholism. Jenness, 1928: “We still believe that the Eskimos are funda- mentally a single people; that they had their origin in a homeland not yet determined ; but we have learned that they reached their pres- ent condition through a series of complex changes and migrations, the outlines of which we have hardly begun to decipher.” DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS INDICATED BY PRESENT DATA The maze of thoughts on the origin of the Eskimo shows one fact conclusively, which is that the necessary evidence on the subject has hitherto been insufficient. From whatever side the problem has been approached, whether linguistically, culturally, from the study of myths, or even somatologically, the materials were, it is plain, more or less inadequate and there was not enough for satisfactory comparisons. The best contributions to Eskimo studies, from the oldest to the most recent, all accentuate the need for further research and more ample collections. = Tarenetzky, A., Beitriige zur Skelet-und Schiidelkunde der Aleuten, Konaegen, Kenai und Koljuschen. Mem. Acad. imp d. sc., ix, No. 4, p. 7. St. Petersburg, 1900. =Nadaillac, M. de, Les Eskimo. L’Anthropologie, x1, p. 104. 1902. 2 Jenness, D., Ethnological Problems of Arctic America. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Special Publ. No. 7. New York, 1928. 356 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 Another point is that heterogeneous and wide apart as many of the opinions may seem, yet when the subject is looked upon with a larger perspective they may often perhaps be harmonized. Thus a belief in an American origin of the Eskimo need not exclude that in the Asiatic derivation of his parental stock. Even in the case of the supposed European derivation the Eskimo are understood to have reached America through Asia; there is not one suggestion of any importance advocating the coming of the Eskimo over northwestern Europe and Iceland. Only the Meigs-Grote-Nordenskiédld theory of an ancient polar race and its descent southward appears now as beyond the bounds of what would be at least partly justifiable. What is the contribution to the subject of the studies reported in this treatise, with its relatively great amount of somatological mate- rial? The answer is not easy. Even the truly great and precious material at hand is not sufficient. There are important parts of the Arctic, such as the Hudson Bay region, Baffin Land, and the central region; several parts of the west coast, such as the inland waters of the Seward Peninsula and the Eskimo portions of the Selawik, Kobuk, Noatak, and Yukon Rivers; and above all the Eskimo part of northeastern Siberia, from which there are insufficient or no collections. There is, moreover, especially in this country, a great want of skeletal material from the non-Hs- kimo Siberian tribes, and also from the old European peoples that are of most importance for comparisons. It must be plain, therefore, that even at present no final deductions are possible. All that can be claimed for the evidence here brought forth is that it clears, or tends to settle, certain secondary problems, and that it presents in- dications of value for the rest of the question. The secondary problems that may herewith be regarded as settled are as follows: 1. Unity or plurality of the race—The materials at hand give no substantiation to the possibility of the Eskimo belonging to more than one basic strain of people. They range in color from tan or light reddish-yellow to medium brown; in stature from decidedly short to above the general human medium; in head from brachycephalic and low to extremely dolichocephalic, high and keel shaped; in eyes from horizontal to decidedly mongoloid; in orbits from microseme to hypermegaseme; in nose from fully mesorrhinie to extremely leptorrhinic; in physiognomy from pure “Indian” to extreme “Eskimo.” Yet all through there runs, both in the living and in the skeletal remains, so much of a basic identity that no separation into any distinct original “races” is possible. At most it is permis- sible to speak of a few prevalent types. 2. Relation —The general basic prototype of the Eskimo, accord- ing to all evidence, is so closely akin to that of the Indian that the two HRDLICKEA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 357 can not be fully separated. They appear only as the thumb and the digits of the same hand, some large old mother stock from which both gradually differentiated. This appears to be an unavoidable conclusion from the present anthropological knowledge of the two peoples. The next unavoidable deduction is that the mother stock of both the Eskimo and the Indian can only be identified with the great yellow-brown stem of man, the home of which was in Asia, but the roots of which, as has been discussed elsewhere, were probably in ancient (later paleolithic) Europe.** The latter fact may explain the cultural as well as somatological resemblances between the Eskimo, as well as the Indian (for the Indian, physically at least, has much in common with the upper Aurignacians), and the upper glacial European populations. But such an explanation can not in the light of present knowledge legitimately be extended to the assump- tion that either the Indian complex or the Eskimo originated as such in Europe; they could be at most but parts of the eventual more or less further differentiated Asiatic progeny of the upper paleolithic Europeans. 3. Mixture—It has been assumed by Boas and others that the eastern Eskimo have become admixed with the eastern Indian and the western with the Alaskan Indian, that the physical and especially craniological differences between the eastern and western Eskimo were due to such a mixture, and that both extremes deviated from the type of the pure Eskimo, who was to be found somewhere in the central Arctic. The evidence of the present studies does not sustain such an assumption. As shown before *° and is seen more clearly from the present data, the western Eskimo type is also present or approached in various localities in the far north (part of Smith Sound, Southampton Island, part of the Hudson Bay coast, with probable spots in the central Arctic proper). There is no indication of any central region where the western Eskimo type would be much “purer” than elsewhere. Individual skulls and skeletons in the west, particularly in certain spots (especially on Seward Peninsula), show the same characteris- tics as the most diverging skulls or skeletons in the farthest northeast. And both in the west and in the east the most pronounced Eskimo characteristics exceed similar features in the Indian, indicating in- dependent development. Such characteristics involve the stature * Hrdlitka, A., The Peopling of Asia. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., Lx, 535 et seq. 1921; and The Peopling of the Earth. Ibid., txv, 150, et seq. 1926. * Contrib. Anthrop. Central and Smith Sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1910. 358 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 (taller in the west, shorter in the east than that of the Indian) ; the size of the head (everywhere averaging higher in the Eskimo) ; dolichocephaly, height of the head, its keel shape (all more pro- nounced in the eastern and now and then a western Eskimo than in any Indian group) ; the face, nose, orbits, and lower jaw; with the relative proportions and other characteristics of the skeleton. All these point to functional and other developments within the Eskimo groups and none suggest a large Indian admixture. Tt is well known that more or less blood mixture takes place among all neighboring peoples*where contact is possible, even if otherwise there be much enmity. Such enmity, often in an extreme form, ex- isted everywhere it seems between the Eskimo and the Indian, as a result of the encroaching of the former on the latter; there are many statements to that effect. Within historic times also there are no records of any adoptions or intermarriages between the two peoples. Nevertheless where contact took place, as on the rivers and in the southwest as well as the southeast of the Eskimo territory, some blood mixture, it would seem, must have developed. The Indian neighbors show it, and it would be strange if it remained one-sided. But of a mixture extensive enough to have materially modified the type of the Eskimo in whole large regions, such as the entire Bering Sea and most of the far northeast, there is no evidence and little not only probability but even possibility. Nothing approaching such an ex- tensive mixture is shown by the near-by Indians; and it would be most exceptional in people of this nature if a much greater propor- tion of the mixture was into the Eskimo. Finally, a mixture of diverse human types, unless very old, may be expected to leave numerous physical signs of heterogeneity and disturbance, none of which is shown by either the western or eastern Eskimo. Such groups as that of the St. Lawrence Island, or that of Greenland, are among the most homogeneous human groups known. The range of variation of their characters is as a rule a strictly normal range, giving a uniform curve of distribution, which is not consistent with the notion of any relatively recent material mixture. 4. The indications —The indications of the data and observations presented in this volume may be outlined as follows: The Eskimo throughout their territory are but one and the same broad strain of people. This strain is fundamentally related to that (or those) of the American Indian. It is also uncontestably related to the yellow-brown strains of Asia. In many respects, such as pigmentation, build of the body, physiog- nomy, large brain, fullness of forehead, fullness of the fronto-spheno- temporal region, largeness of face and lower jaw, height of the nose, HRDLICKA] ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE ESKIMO 359 size and characteristics of the teeth,2* smallness of hands and feet, ete., the Eskimos are remarkably alike over their whole territory. They differ in details, such as stature, form of the head, and breadth of the nose. But the distribution of these differences is of much interest and probably significance. Higher statures, broader heads, and broader noses are found especially in the west, the latter two particularly in the Bering Sea region; low group statures, narrow heads and narrow noses reach, with few exceptions, their extremes in the northeast. Between the two extremes, however, there is no interruption, but a gradation, with here and there an irregularity. These conditions speak not of mixture but rather of adaptation and differentiation. They strongly suggest a moderate stream of people, rooted in Asia, of fairly broad and but moderately high head, of a good medium stature, with a mesorrhinic nose (and hence probably originally not far northern), and with many other characteristics in common, reach- ing America from northeasternmost Asia after the related Indians, spreading along the seacoasts as far as it could, not of choice, or choice alone, but mainly because of the blocking by the Indian of the roads toward the south and through the interior; and gradually modifying physically in adaptation to the new conditions and necessities; to climate, newer modes of life, the demands of the kayak, and above all to the results of the increased demands on the masticatory organs. The narrowness, increased length and increased height of the Eskimo skull, without change in its size or other characteristics, may readily be understood as compensatory adaptations, the develop- ment of which was initiated and furthered by the development and mechanical effects of the muscles of mastication. A similar conclusion has been reached in my former study on the central and Smith Sound Eskimo (1910). It has been approached or reached independently by other students of the Eskimo, notably Fiirst and Hansen (1915) in their great work on the East Green- landers. It is a conclusion of much biological importance for it involves not merely the development but also the eventual inheritance of new characters. Former authors, it was seen, have advanced the theories of an American origin of the Eskimo. This could only mean that he developed from the American Indian. And such a development would imply physical and hereditary changes at least as great as those indicated in the preceding paragraphs, and in less time. A differentiation commenced well back in Asia, geographically and chronologically, and advancing, to its present limits, in America would seem the more probable. ™See Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., vi, Nos. 2 and 4. 1923. 860 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 An origin of the Eskimo in Europe, during the last glacial inva- sion, would not only push into the hazy far past the same changes as here dealt with, but it would at the same time fail to explain the physical differences within the Eskimo group, and deny any sub- stantial changes in him during the long time of his migration toward the American northern coasts. Absolute proofs of the origin of the Eskimo, as of that of the various strains of the Indians, are hardly to be expected. Such ori- gins are so gradual and insidious that they would escape detection even if watched for while occurring; they are noticed only after suf- EtES SEWARD PENINSULA Meller = BragiiaR =D S = Uninak| $$ A o— = L Us Ska: SE! a ne E Fl A n= —mnek = aa s5= + O-C—-£—-A-N- RI WALRAT Fa 170 160 150 | FicurE 29.—Probable moyements of people from northeastern Asia to Alaska and in Alaska. (A. Hrdlitka) ficient differences have developed and become established, which takes generations. The solving of racial origins must depend on sound scientific induction. Such induction may not yet be fully possible in the case of the Eskimo. The evidence is not yet complete. But with the present and other most recent data there is enough on hand for substantial indications. The evidence shows that barring some irregularities, due possibly to later intrusions or refluxes, the farther east in the Eskimo territory the observer proceeds the more highly differentiated and divergent the Eskimo becomes, and there is a greater gap HRDLICKA] SUMMARY 361 between him and his Indian neighbors, as well as other races. Proceeding from the east westward, conditions are reversed. In general the farther west we proceed the less exceptional on the whole the Eskimo becomes and the more he approximates the Indian, particularly the Indian of Alaska and the northwest coast. As this can not, in the light of present evidence, be attributed alone to mix- ture, it is plain that if it were possible to proceed a few steps farther in this direction the differences between the Eskimo and the Indian would fade out so that a distinction between the two would become difficult if not impossible. The facts point, therefore, to an original identity of the source from which were derived the Indian, more particularly his latest branches, and the Eskimo, and to the identification of this source with the palaeo-Asiatic yellow-brown people of lower northern Asia. The differentiation of the Eskimo from this source must have proceeded over a fairly long time, and probably started already it would seem on the northern coasts of Asia, where conditions were present capable of beginning to shape him into an Eskimo; to be carried on since in the Bering Sea area and especially in the Seward Peninsula and farther northward and eastward. In a larger sense the cradle of the Eskimo, therefore, while starting probably in northeast Asia, covered in reality a much vaster region, extending from northern Asia and the Bering Sea to the far American Arctic. SUMMARY What is the substance of the results of all these new observa- tions and studies on the western Eskimo, who is the main subject of this report? In large lines this may be outlined as follows: 1. The western Eskimo occupied, uninterrupted by other people (save in a few spots by the Aleuts), the great stretch of the Alaskan coast from Prince William Sound and parts of the Unalaska Penin- sula to Point Barrow, all the islands in the Bering Sea except the Aleutians and Pribilovs, and the northern and western coasts of the Chukchi Peninsula in Asia. They extended some distance inland along the Kuskokwim and Yukon Rivers; along the interior lakes and rivers of the Seward Peninsula; along a part of the Selawik River, most (perhaps) of the Kobuk River, and apparently along the whole Noatak River, com- municating over the land with the lower Colville Basin. But no traces of original Esktmo settlements have ever been found in the true Alaska inland or along those parts of the Alaska rivers that constitute the Indian territory. 2. The present population is sparse, with many unpeopled inter- vals, and not highly fecund, but, except when epidemics strike, it 88253 °—30——24 362 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 no more diminishes; children and young people are now much in evidence, hygienic and economic conditions have improved, and the people in general are well advanced in civilization. Their condition and morale are rather superior, in places very perceptibly so, to those of the majority of the Alaska Indians. 3. Except where there has been more contact with whites, a large percentage of these Eskimo are still full bloods. They are a sturdy, cheerful, and liberal yet shrewd lot. They intermarry and mix not inconsiderably among themselves (between villages). Some of the white traders have married Eskimo women and raised prom- ising families. Where larger numbers of whites were or are in prox- imity clandestine mixture is apparent. The better educated show often decidedly good mental, mechanical, business, and artistic abil- ities. In the isolated localities, such as St. Lawrence Island, the people have apparently escaped the period of demoralization that so often attends the passing from the old to new conditions. Tuberculosis and venereal diseases are present but not prevalent; rachitis seems absent. The people show much endurance, but lon- gevity as yet is not much in evidence. Alcoholism is almost non- existent except on occasions when drink is provided by whites. 4. The region of the western Eskimo shows a former larger popu- lation of the same people. This is attested by many “ dead ” villages and old sites. And this population evidently goes back some cen- turies at least, for some of the remains are extensive and both their depth and their contents give the impression of prolonged duration; though seemingly all thus far seen could be comprised within the Christian era. 5. No habitations or remains belonging to a distinct people (In- dians) have thus far come to light anywhere within the territory of the western Eskimo; and no trace has as yet been found of anything human that could be attributed to greater antiquity than that of the Eskimo. But the older beaches and banks where such remains might have existed have either been covered with storm- driven sands and are now perpetually frozen, or they have been “cut” away and lost; and there seems no hope for finding such re- mains in the interior away from the sea or streams, for such parts were never under recent geological conditions favorable for human habitation. 6. The now known remains consist of the ruins of dwellings and of accumulated refuse, the two together forming occasionally marked elevated heaps or ridges. Some of these ridges are over 18 feet deep. They contain many archeological specimens of stone, ivory, wood, and bone. The ivory in the older layers is more or less “ fossilized.” The upper layers of such remains usually contain some articles of white —— =.=" HRDLICKA] SUMMARY 363 man’s manufacture (copper, iron, beads); lower layers are wholly aboriginal. Indian artifacts occur in Eskimo sites only in the proximity of the Indian on the rivers. 7. The prevalent or later culture shown by the remains is fairly rich, of good to relatively rather high grade, and of considerable uni- formity. There are numerous indications of extensive trade in various articles, particularly those of the Kobuk “ jade.” 8. On the Asiatic coast, in the northern parts of the Bering Sea, on the Seward Peninsula, in the Kotzebue region and at Point Hope, the deeper portions of the remains give examples of the higher and richer “fossil ivory culture.” This is distinguished by many objects of high-class workmanship, and by curvilinear to scroll de- signs. The art appears to have distinct affinities with, on one hand, deeper Asia, and on the other with the northwest coast of America and even farther south. It is not clearly separated from either the contemporaneous or the later Eskimo art, yet it is of a higher grade and delicacy and much distinctiveness. It is not yet known where this art begins geographically, what preceded it, whence it was derived, just how far it reached along the coasts, or even what was its main center. It seems best for the present to reserve to it the name of the “ fossil ivory art” (rather than Jenness’s too limiting “ Bering Sea culture”), and to defer all conclusions concerning it to the future. 9. It seems justifiable, however, to point to the significance of what is already known. This “fossil ivory art” especially, but also the general culture of the western Eskimo, are highly developed and differentiated cultures, denoting considerable cultural background, extended duration, and conditions generally favorable to industrial and artistic developments. It has, it is already ascertained, cer- tain affinities in Asia. If this art and the attending culture were advancing toward America, as seems most probable, then the ques- tion of cultural influences and introductions from Asia to America will have to be reopened. 10. Due to the perpetually frozen ground and the consequent necessity of surface burials, the area of the western Eskimo was, until recently, relatively rich in skeletal remains lying on the sur- face. It is no more so now, due to storms, beasts, missionaries, teachers, and scientific collectors. But while only a scattering re- mains of the surface material, there is much and that of special importance lying in the ground, mostly self-buried or assimilated by the tundra. This material, which now and then is accompanied by interesting archeological specimens, calls for prompt attention; it will help greatly in clearing local and other problems. 364 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [ETH. ANN. 46 Occasionally burials were made or dead bodies were left in old houses. ‘These remains, too, may prove of special value. 11. Observations on both the living and the skeletal remains in the western Eskimo area, supplemented by those on the northern and northeastern Eskimo, are now ample enough to justify certain generalizations. These are: a. Barring the Aleuts, who are Indian, the Eskimo throughout belong somatologically to but one family, and this family appears as a remarkably pure racial unit, somewhat admixed in the south with the Aleut, on the western rivers with the Indian, and in the east and a few spots elsewhere with recent white people. 6. Within this family there is observable a considerable cranial change, with moderate differences in nasal breadth, stature, and color, but the general characteristics of the physiognomy, and of the body and the skeleton, remain remarkably similar. ec. The changes in the skull affect mainly the vault, which, in di- mensions, ranges through all the intermediary grades from moder- ately broad, short, and moderately high to pronouncedly narrow, long, and high, and in form from moderately convex over the top to markedly keel shaped. The distribution of skull form is somewhat irregular, but in gen- eral the broader and shorter heads predominate in the Asiatic and the southwestern and midwestern American portions of the Eskimo region, while the longest and narrowest heads are those of parts of the Seward Peninsula, and especially those from an isolated old settlement near Barrow with those of Greenland (exclusive of the Smith Sound), Baffin Land, and, judging from other data, also east- ern Labrador. More or less transitional forms are found between the two extremes, without there being anywhere a clear line of demarcation. The breadth of the nose, too, averages highest in the Asiatic, Ber- ing Sea, and the more southern Eskimo of the Alaska coast, the least along the northern Arctic coast and in the northeast. The stature is highest along the western Alaska rivers and parts of the coast, least in Greenland and Labrador. The skin, while differing within but moderate limits, is apparently lightest along parts (at least) of the northern Arctic. 12. The whole distribution of the physical characteristics among the Eskimo strongly suggests gradual changes—within the family itself; and as the long, narrow, high skull with keeled dome, occur- ring in a few limited localities in the west but principally in southern Greenland and neighboring territories, appears to be the farthest limit of the differentiation which finds no parallel in the neighboring or other peoples, while the form found in northeastern Asia, the HRDLICKA] SUMMARY 365 Bering Sea, and southwestern Alaska is near to those of various sur- rounding peoples, the inevitable resulting deduction is that, in the light of our present knowledge, the origin of the Eskimo is to be looked for in the western rather than the northern Arctic or the northeastern area, and that particularly in the northern Bering Sea and the adjacent, particularly perhaps the northern, Asiatic region. The author is, therefore, led to regard the area between 160° west and 160° east longitude and 60° to 75° north latitude as contain- ing the primal Eskimo-genic center, and as the source of the oldest Eskimo or proto-Eskimo extensions, while the larger part of the Eskimo differentiations is in all probability American. 13. The earlier notions relating to the western Eskimo, namely, those that would attribute his physical characteristics to a large admixture with the Indian, are now untenable for the following reasons : a. The distribution of the western Eskimo traits and measure- ments does not indicate any important heterogeneous mixture. b. The groups most distant from the Indians, such as the St. Lawrence or Diomede islanders and the Asiatic Eskimo, show very nearly the same somatological characteristics as the rest of the southwestern and midwestern groups. ce. Among the western Eskimo there are no data, no traditions, and no linguistic or cultural evidence of any considerable Indian admixture. d. The western contingents of the family do not represent a phys- ical resultant or means of the more narrow and long-headed type with the neighboring Indians of Alaska (or elsewhere in the north), but they equal or even exceed the Indians in the principal features of the skull, face, and in other particulars. 14. The nearest physical relatives of the Eskimo are evidently some of the Chukchi, with probably some other north Asiatic groups; their nearest basic relatives in general are, according to’ many indica- tions, the American Indians. The two families, Indian and Eskimo, appear much, it may be repeated, like the thumb and fingers of one and the same hand, the hand being the large, original palaeo-Asiatic source of both. But the Eskimo are evidently a younger, smaller and still a more uniform member; which speaks strongly for their later origin, migration and internal differentiation. 15. With his numbers, purity of blood, approachability, present facilities of language, many of the young speaking good English, and other favorable conditions, the Eskimo offers to anthropology one of its best opportunities for a thorough study of an important human group, adapted to highly exceptional natural conditions. His food, mode of life, the climate, and isolation, give promise of inter- 366 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY IN ALASKA [BTH. ANN. 46 esting conditions of the internal organs, perhaps even blood, and of physiological as well as chemical and pathological peculiarities. This opportunity, together with the excellent and important opportunities for archeology in the Bering Sea and neighboring regions, should be utilized to the possible limit within the present generation, for the western Eskimo, on one hand, is rapidly becoming civilized, changing his food. clothing, housing, and habits; is also becoming more mixed with whites; and is most assiduously exploiting the archeological sites in his region for the sake of the income that comes to him from the ever-rising demand for beads, ete., and from “ fossil ” ivory. Hey | BIBLIOGRAPHY Aspes, H. Die Eskimos des Cumberland-Sundes. Globus, xiv1, 198-201, 213- 218, Braunschweig, 1884. AsmMussEN, P. Die erste Entdeckung Amerikas. Globus, Lv1, 337-841, Braunsch- weig, 1889. Bartz, E. Die Kérperlichen Higenschaften der Japaner. Mitt. deutsch. Gesell- sch. f. Natur- und Voélkerk. Ostasiens, Band m1, Heft 28, 3380-359, Yoko- hama, 1883. Bauer, M. Beitriige zur anthropologischen Untersuchung des harten Gaumens. 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Stevens, Governor of Washington Territory, on the Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, by Edwin Thompson Denig.” It has been edited and arranged with an introduction, notes, a biographical sketch of the author, and a brief bibliography of the tribes mentioned in the report. The report consists of 451 pages of foolscap size; closely written in a clear and fine script with 15 pages of excellent pen sketches and one small drawing, to which illustrations the editor has added two photographs of Edwin Thompson Denig and his Assiniboin wife, Hai-kees-kak-wee-lah, Deer Little Woman, and a view of Old Fort Union taken from “The Manoe-Denigs,” a family chronicle, New York, 1924. The manuscript is undated, but from internal evidence it seems safe to assign it to about the year 1854. The editor has not attempted to verify the statements of the author as embodied in the report; he has, however, where feasible, re- arranged some portions of its contents by bringing together under a single rubric remarks upon a common topic which appeared in various parts of the report as replies to closely related but widely placed questions; and he has attempted to do this without changing the phraseology or the terminology of Mr. Denig, except in very rare instances, and then only to clarify a statement. For example, the substitution of the native term for the ordinary English expression, the Great Spirit, and divining in the place of “ medicine” in medi- cine man, practically displacing medicine man by the word diviner. In his letter of transmittal “To his Excellency, Isaac I. Stevens, Governor of Washington Territory,” Mr. Denig writes: “Being stimulated with the desire to meet your wishes and forward the views of government, I have in the following pages endeavored to answer the ‘ Inquiries’ published by act of Congress, regarding the ‘History, Present Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian Tribes’ with which I am acquainted. * * * Independent of my own personal observation and knowledge acquired by a constant residence of 21 years among the prairie tribes, in every situation, I have on all occasions had the advice of intelligent Indians as to the least important of these inquiries, so as to avoid, if possible, the introduction of error. * * * 88253 °—30——25 377 378 PREFACE “Tt is presumed the following pages exhibit a minutie of infor- mation on those subjects not to be obtained either by transient visi- tors or a residence of a few years in the country, without being, as is the case with myself, intimately acquainted with their camp regula- tions, understanding their language, and in many instances entering into their feelings and actions. “The whole has been well digested, the different subjects pursued in company with the Indians for an entire year, until satisfactory answers have been obtained, and their motives of speech or action well understood before placing the same as a guide and instruction to others. “The answers refer to the Sioux, Arikara, Mandan, Gros Ventres, Cree, Crow, Assiniboin, and Blackfeet Nations, who are designated as prairie, roving, or wild tribes—further than whom our knowledge does not extend. “Tam aware of your capacity to judge the merits of the work and will consider myself highly honored if I have had the good fortune to meet your approbation; moreover I shall rejoice if I have con- tributed in any degree toward opening a course of policy on the part of the Government that may result in the amelioration of the sad condition of the savages. Should the facts herein recorded ever be published or embodied in other work it is hoped the errors of language may be corrected, but in no instance is it desired that the meaning should miscarry.” Elsewhere in this letter Mr. Denig writes: “Some of their cus- toms and opinions now presented, although very plain and common to us who are in their daily observance, may not have been rendered in comprehensible language to those who are strangers to these things, and the number of queries, the diversity of subjects, etc., have necessarily curtailed each answer to as few words as possible.” The report was made in response to a circular of “ Inquiries, Re- specting the History, Present Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States,” by Henry R. Schoolcraft, Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C., printed in Philadelphia, Pa.,in 1851. This circular is a reprint of the circular issued in July, 1847, in accordance with the provisions of section 5, chapter 66, of the Laws of the Twenty-ninth Congress, second session, and ap- proved March 32, 1847, which read, “ And be it further enacted, That in aid of the means now possessed by the Department of Indian Affairs through its existing organization, there be, and hereby is, appropriated the sum of five thousand dollars to enable the said department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to collect and digest such statistics and material as may illustrate the history, the present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States.” PREFACE 379 The original circular recites that it was addressed to four classes of individuals, namely, “I. Persons holding positions under the department, who are believed to have it in their power to impart much practical information respecting the tribes who are, respec- tively, under their charge. II. Persons who have retired from similar situations, travelers in the Indian Territory, or partners and factors on the American frontiers. III. Men of learning or re- search who have perused the best writers on the subject and who may feel willing to communicate the results of their reading or re- flections. IV. Teachers and missionaries to the aborigines.” The circular closes with an expression of the “ anxiety which is felt to give to the materials collected the character of entire authenticity, and to be apprised of any erroneous views in the actual manners and customs, character, and condition of our Indian tribes which may have been promulgated. The Government, it is believed, owes it to itself to originate a body of facts on this subject of an entirely authentic character, from which the race at large may be correctly judged by all classes of citizens, and its policy respecting the tribes under its guardianship, and its treatment of them, properly under- stood and appreciated.” The 348 inquiries in the circular embrace the history (and arche- ology), the tribal organization, the religion, the manners and customs, the intellectual capacity and character, the present condition, the future prospects, and the language, of the Indian tribes of the United States. But the report of Mr. Denig consists of brief and greatly condensed replies to as many of the questions propounded in the circular in question as concerned the native tribes of the upper Missouri River, to wit, the Arikara, the Mandan, the Sioux, the Gros Ventres, the Cree, the Crows, the Assiniboin, and the Blackfeet, tribes with whom he was thoroughly acquainted, although the Assiniboin seem to have been the chief subjects of his observations. It should be noted that the answers to some of the questions, if adequately treated, would have required nearly as much space as was devoted to the entire report. While the facts embodied in the replies of Mr. Denig are, when unqualified, affirmed of all the eight tribes mentioned in his letter of transmittal, he is nevertheless careful, when needful, to restrict many of his answers to the specific tribes to which their subject matter particularly related. But, of course, all the tribes mentioned belonged measurably to a single cultural area at that time. That Mr. Denig made use of the circular issued by Mr. Schoolcraft is clearly evident from the fact that on the left-hand margin of the manuscript he usually wrote the number of the question to which he was giving an answer. 380 PREFACE In the manuscript there appear two quite distinct handwritings, and so it is possible that this particular manuscript is a copy of an original which was retained by the author. Dr. F. V. Hayden made extensive use of this report in prepara- tion of his “Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley,” Philadelphia, C. Sherman & Son, 1862. But he did not give Mr. Denig proper credit for using verbatim numbers of pages of the manuscript without any indication that he was copying a manuscript work from another writer whose position and long experience among them made him an authority on the tribes in question. This piece of plagiarism was not concealed by the bald statement of Doctor Hayden that he was “ especially indebted to Mr. Alexander Culbertson, the well-known agent of the American Fur Co., who has spent 30 years of his life among the wild tribes of the Northwest and speaks several of their languages with great ease. To Mr. Andrew Dawson, superintendent of Fort Benton; Mr. Charles E. Galpin, of Fort Pierre; and E. T. Denig, of Fort Union, I am under great obligations for assistance freely granted at all times.” Mr. Edwin Thompson Denig, the author of this manuscript re- port, was the son of Dr. George Denig and was born March 10, 1812, in McConnellstown, Huntingdon County, Pa., and died in 1862 or 1863 in Manitoba, probably in the town of Pilot Mound, in the vicin- ity of which his daughters live, or did live in 1910. His legally mar- ried wife was the daughter of an Assiniboin chief, by whom he had two daughters, Sara, who was born August 10, 1844, and Ida, who was born August 22, 1854, and one son, Alexander, who was born May 17, 1852, and who was killed by lightning in 1904. To his early associates Mr. Denig was a myth, more or less, having gone West as a young man and having died there. He lost caste with his family because of his marriage with the Assiniboin woman. Mr. Denig entered the fur trade in 1833 and became very influ- ential among the tribes of the upper Missouri River. He was for a time a Government scout; then a bookkeeper for the American Fur Co. Earlier he had gone to St. Louis and became connected with the Choteaus and the American Fur Co. Before he was 30 years of age he was living among the Indians as the representative of these two companies in that vast and almost unknown region between the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers inhabited by tribes of the Sioux. Mr. Denig became a bookkeeper for the American Fur Co. at Fort Union, situated near the mouth of the Yellowstone River, of the offices of which for a time, about 1843, he was superintendent. Because of his thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the Indians PREFACE 381 of his adopted tribe, their language, customs, and tribal relations, he was consulted by most of the noted Indian investigators of that period—Schoolcraft, Hayden, and others. Being a Government scout, Mr. Denig was able to conciliate the Indians during the expedition of Audubon in 1848, making it pos- sible for the great Frenchman to collect his wonderful specimens. A very colorful description of Fort Union was written by Mr. Denig July 30, 1843. This description is found in Volume II, page 180, of “ Audubon and His Journals.” In it Mr. Denig writes: “ Fort Union, the principal and handsomest trading post on the Missouri River, is situated on the north side, about 614 miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone River; the country around it is beautiful and well chosen for an establishment of the kind.” Then after describ- ing in detail the structure and furnishings of the fort, he says: “The principal building in the establishment, and that of the gentle- man in charge, or bourgeois, is now occupied by Mr. Culbertson, one of the partners of the company,” and farther on, “Next to this is the office, which is devoted exclusively to the business of the com- pany. * * * This department is now under my supervision [viz, E. T. Denig].” During this period Audubon sojourned with him for some time and spoke of him not only as an agreeable companion but also as a friend who gave him valuable information and enthusiastic assist- ance. One of his frequent companions at Fort Union was the Belgian priest, Father De Smet. Their correspondence was continued after De Smet had returned to Belgium. (See Life, Letters and Travels of Father De Smet, Chittenden and Richardson, 4 vols., New York, 1905.) Several plausible but nevertheless quite unsatisfactory etymologic interpretations of the name, Assiniboin, have been made by a num- ber of writers. Among these interpretations are “Stone Roasters,” “Stone Warriors,” “Stone Eaters,” etc. These are unfortunately historically improbable. It appears that difficulty arises from a mis- conception of the real meaning of the limited or qualified noun it contains, namely, doin. This element appears in literature, dialecti- cally varied, as pour, pouar, poil, poual, bwan, pwan, pwét, ete. Evidently, it was the name of a group of people, well known to the Cree and the Chippewa tribes, whom they held in contempt and so applied this noun, Loin, bwan, pwat, etc., to them. The signification of its root bwd(n) or pwa(t) is “to be powerless, incapable, weak.” So that Pwatak or Bwanig (animate plurals) is a term of contempt or derision, meaning “ The Weaklings, The Incapable Ones.” This name was in large measure restricted to the nomadic group of Siouan tribes in contradistinction from the sedentary or eastern group of 382 PREFACE Siouan peoples who were called Nadowesiwig, a term appearing in literature in many variant spellings. The name Dakota in its re- stricted use is the appellation of the group of tribes to which the name Bwanig, etc., was applied. This fact indicates that the Assini- boin, or Assinibwanig, were recognized as a kind of Dakota or Na- kota peoples. Nakota is their own name for themselves. The rup- ture of the Dakota tribal hegemony thrust some of these peoples northward to the rocky regions about Lake Winnipeg and the Saskachewan and Assiniboin rivers. So it was these who were called Rock or Stone Dakota (i. e., Bwanig). It would thus appear that the rupture occurred after there were recognized the two groups of Siouan tribes in the past, namely, the nomadic or western, the Dakota, and the sedentary or eastern, the Vadowesiwiig of literature. Traditionally, the Assiniboin people are an offshoot of the Wazi- kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihafikto*watna) Dakota. Dr. F. V. Hayden in his “ Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley ” says that Mr. Denig was “ an intelligent trader, who resided for many years at the junction of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers as superintend- ent of Fort Union, the trading post for the Assiniboins.” Of the vocabulary of the Assiniboin language, recorded by Mr. Denig, Doc- tor Hayden wrote that it is “the most important ” one theretofore collected. From the citation from Mr. Denig’s description of Fort Union in a preceding paragraph it appears that Doctor Hayden is in error in making Mr. Denig superintendent of the fort rather than of the office of the American Fur Co. at that point. In one of his letters Reverend Father Terwecoren wrote that Mr. Denig, of the St. Louis Fur Co., is “a man of tried probity and veracity.” From references in Audubon, Kurtz, De Smet, Hayden, and School- craft, and as well from a perusal of this manuscript, it is evident that Mr. Denig was an exceptional man, and for more than 20 years was a prominent figure in the fur trade of the upper Missouri River. In this summary report to Governor Stevens Mr. Denig has suc- cinctly embodied in large measure the culture, the activities, the customs, and the beliefs of the native tribes who occupied the upper Missouri River 75 years ago, more than 75 per cent of which has been lost beyond recovery by contact with the white man. For more than 40 years the native life with which Mr. Denig was in contact has been largely a thing of the past, so that it is futile to attempt to recover it from the remnants of the tribes who formerly traded with Mr. Denig at Fort Union. In addition to preparing this report to Governor Stevens Mr. Denig also recorded a Blackfoot Algonquian vocabulary of about 70 words, a Gros Ventres Siouan vocabulary, and an Assiniboin Siouan PREFACE 383 vocabulary of more than 400 words, which was published by School- craft in his fourth volume. From a letter written February 27, 1923, by Dr. Rudolph Denig, of 56 East Fifty-eighth Street, New York, N. Y., the following in- teresting biographical matter relating to the ancestry of Mr. Denig is taken: f The Denigs, or “ Deneges,” trace their descent from one Herald Ericksen, a chieftain, or “smaa kongen,” of the Danish island of Manoe in the North Sea, from whose descendant Red Vilmar, about 1460, they derive an unbroken lineage. They were seafarers, com- manding their own vessels, and engaged in trade in the North and Baltic Seas. About 1570 Thorvald Christiansen changed the tradition of the family by becoming a tiller of the soil, having obtained possession of a large farm near Ribe in northern Slesvig, which to this day bears its ancient name of Volling gaard. Christian Thomsen, 1636- 1704, was the first of the family to take up a learned profession; he studied theology, and being ordained a minister in the Lutheran Church, he was also the first biographer of the family, in that he left a kind of genealogy inscribed on the flyleaves of his Bible. His grandson, Frederick Svensen, took part as corporal in a Danish auxiliary corps at the age of 17 in Marlborough’s operations in the Netherlands in the war of the Spanish Succession. Following the disbanding of his corps he took up his residence in Cologne, and after a few years he found a permanent home, about 1720, in Biebrich- Mosbach, opposite Mayence. The two branches of the family at present are the descendants of Philip George and Johan Peter, both sons of Frederick. Johan Peter emigrated to America in 1745, leaving among his descendants Edwin Thompson Denig, the subject of this treatise; Commodore Robert Gracie Denig, United States Navy, his son; Major Robert Livingston Denig, United States Marine Corps, a distinguished soldier of the World War, and Dr. Blanche Denig, a well-known woman physician of Boston. The descendants of Philip George include Dr. Rudolph C. Denig, professor of clinical ophthalmology in Columbia University, New York, N.Y: Ethnologically, it may be of more than passing interest to know that the name Denig was originally Denek(e), then Deneg, which was taken as a family name by Frederick Svensen at the time he left Denmark in 1709. Until then the family had followed the old Scan- dinavian custom of the son taking his father’s first name with the suffix sen or son as his family name. 384 PREFACE The Denigs came to their present name in the following manner: After the Kalmar War, 1611-1613, conditions in Denmark became critical, and the Danes were hard pressed for all the necessaries of life, especially foodstuffs. They were therefore forced to import grain from neighboring countries. So it happened that Ludvig Thorvaldsen, born in 1590, was sent by his father, Thorvald Chris- tiansen, to Valen in Westphalia, a district still renowned for its agriculture, to buy corn. Ludvig went there every fall for three or four successive years. Eventually the Westphalians nicknamed him Deneke; “ Den ” mean- ing Dane, and the suffix “ eke,” like “ ike,” “ ing,” and “ig,” a diminu- tive, derivative, or patronymic. Naturally this surname was not used at home, but it became useful when occasional trips took mem- bers of the family outside of Denmark. The use of such a nom de guerre has always been popular with Scandinavian and kindred races like the Friesians. As the supply of available names did not meet the demand, frequent similarity of names made it difficult to avoid losing one’s identity. When Frederick Svensen Deneg had settled in Biebrich-Mosbach the name Deneg had to undergo another change. While in the north the syllable “eg” is pronounced like “ ek,” the Chatto-Franconian dialect around Mayence pronounces it like “esh.” Automatically, for euphonic reasons the name was dialectically changed to Denig. In former times such capricious changes in names were frequently made. In perusing old chronicles many names are found written in three or four different ways within one century. An instance to the point is the Frankish name of King Meroveg, who was also called Merovig, and his descendants were called Meroveger, Mero- viger, and Merovinger, according to dialects spoken in the different regions of the former Frankish empire. This parallels the change of Deneg to Denig. Upon his arrival, September 5, 1851, at Fort Union, 3 miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone River on the Missouri, Mr. Frederick Kurz, the Swiss artist, of Berne, Switzerland, who had heard some ugly rumors about Mr. Denig, wrote in his Journal (yet in manuscript) : “ Bellange delivered the letter he brought to a small, hard-featured man, wearing a straw hat, the brim of which was turned up in the back. He was my new bourgeois, Mr. Denig. He impressed me as a rather prosy fellow. ... He ordered sup- per delayed on our account that we might have a better and more plentiful meal. A bell summoned me to the first table with Mr. Denig and the clerks. My eyes almost ran over with tears. There was chocolate, milk, butter, omelet, fresh meat, hot bread—what a magnificent spread. I changed my opinion at once concerning PREFACE 385 this new chief; a hard, niggardly person could not have reconciled himself to such a hospitable reception in behalf of a subordinate who was a total stranger to him” (pp. 205-206). Kurz remained with Denig three years. Again, Kurz wrote: “In his relations with me he is most kind and agreeable. Every evening he sits with me either in my room or in front of the gate and relates experiences of his earlier life. As he has held his position in this locality for 19 years already, his life has been full of adventure with Indians—particularly since the advent of the whisky flask. He wishes me to paint, also, a portrait of himself and his dog, Natah (Bear), a commission I am very glad to execute ” (p. 211). Again, in speaking of the duties of Mr. Denig, Kurz wrote: “Tt goes without saying that a bourgeois who occupies the position of responsible warden, chief tradesman, and person in highest au- thority at a trading-post far removed, where he has fifty men under his direction, may regard himself of more importance than a man who directs five men ” (p. 2138). Again Kurz wrote: “As a matter of course, Denig keeps the subordinate workmen strictly under his thumb—what is more, he has to, if he is to prevent their overreaching him. He feels, how- ever, that one man alone is not sufficient to enforce good order among these underlings, for every one of them is armed and, though not courageous in general, are, nevertheless, touchy and revengeful. So, for purposes of order and protection he has attached to himself the clerks who stand more nearly on the same level with him in birth and education and afford, besides, the only support, moral as well as physical, upon which he can reckon” (p. 216). Again Kurz wrote: “He talks to me continually about Indian legends and usages. As he writes the best of these stories for Pere De Smet, by whom they are published, there is no need of my pre- serving more than some bits of memoranda” (p. 238). This ex- plains why the writings on these matters of Father De Smet have a close family resemblance with those of Mr. Denig. Again Kurz wrote: “Mr. Denig has been reading to me again from his manuscript, which is extremely interesting. He is very well educated and he has made a thorough study of Indian life—a distinct advantage to him in trade. He is so fond of the life in this part of the country that he is averse to any thought of going back to his Pennsylvania home in the United States. For the reason, as he says, that he may avoid political carryings-on that disgust him ” (p. 242). Another entry in the Kurz Journal reads: “September the 24th. Began a portrait of Mr. Denig—life-size, knee-length. This work 386 PREFACE is to be finished before Mr. Culbertson’s return from Fort Laramie” (p. 254). The following citation is from the Kurz Journal at page 577: “ February the 26th, Mr. Denig is a Swedenborgian and at the same time he is a Freemason. He mentioned to me that it would be of great advantage on my travels if I were a Freemason.” It seems appropriate to insert here briefly what another intimate friend of Mr. Denig, the Reverend Father De Smet, thought of the knowledge and attainments of our author. Father De Smet in speaking of the source of his information in a particular instance wrote: “I have it from two most reliable sources—that is to say, from a man of tried probity and veracity, Mr. Derig of the Saint Louis Fur Company .. .”? On page 1215 of this same work Father De Smet in a personal letter to Mr. Denig, dated September 30, 1852, wrote: “ I do not know how to express my gratitude for your very interesting series of narratives concerning the aborigines of the Far West. ... Noth- ing could be more gratifying to me than the beautiful and graphic details which you have given me of the religion, manners, customs, and transactions of an unfortunate race of human beings.” It is hoped that these excerpts from the writings of Frederick Kurz and Father De Smet, both intimately associated with Mr. Denig, will supply some data concerning our author not otherwise accessible. The Swiss artist, Friedrich Kurz, who painted many pictures of the region around Fort Union, lived with Denig for some time, and in 1851 painted his portrait. The Indians called Mr. Denig “ The Long Knife,” which simply meant that they knew him as “an American.” In the manuscript Mr. Denig employs the word “ band” to denote “a gens of a tribe,” the word “clans” to denote “societies” or “corporations,” and the “orders of doctors” he calls “shamans or theurgists.” To understand Mr. Denig these meanings must be kept in mind. Tue Eprror. 1 Chittenden, H. M., and Richardson, A. T. Life, letters, and travels of Father Pierre- Jean De Smet, 8S. J., 1801-1873. Vol. tv, p. 1111. New York, 1905. CONTENTS Page REGLer Olt UPeannTN GOS) i. oboe Ce een tee beet eet 393 Tue ASSsINIBOIN LA Aye ae eo a oe ee eae eS reer 395 STi ae 2 SE Ee RL ny Geen ae ee 395 Name ‘and: geoprapbical position. — = --—- Sees 24 eee Ba* So oe 396 Avcient) and modern habitat. == -==--=5-2-— = aBh ee ane 397 Westipesioneanlyguradition:. . <2 4) see ss ee 398 Namesand events Ininistony = =.= == o£ ee ee ot Babe tens! 399 Presentimiersand condition..._ - = - -- - 2245 2+ Se ieee a oe at cee 401 Enter tsAuTaAnk ang Telationg=— > 2. --- == ee Be ee 403 Magnitude and resources of territory a cause of the multiplication of SITING eae eo Se Ps Se ee ee 405 Regie? .... See een eee 406 LGU NTN a) a ee ee 406 hocalitesiuires or the nabitat=—— <=. --2.22-22622-5. een eee 406 BRACE ret NEICOMMNUTY 2 ans Sats Sn ee ee 407 PEGA? Tica As a ee SEES See Ree ene, Dense 408 Mifech on trine whe prairiesse =o. en ee 408 AGT ENG ee a ee eee! eee 409 LETTS PSD? NCO) CGN GY (0) 7 es Ne nn eee nee EN 409 PREC TIPO RIC TIO TN as nie 8 a es is eee 1 409 SSAC NNeTANPrOGuctse 2 =! 2a eee 410 DTI. 2.02 oe es eee ee ee ee ie 410 UCC Tt Pe ee eee rl ee elem een 410 Ancient bones and traditions of the monster era__________________ 411 Animals Usediaslarmorial marks! :cpiicet Pate ti ee et ths ee 412 teenorse— irs) of Importahion..= <20 565280 eee 412 uaaerapbe—Cbarte on bark! s2 = 2-22 see teee es es): 412 cE a URES 9 TE BT a eee 413 Elric... eae ee Ee ee ee eee eS, ee 413 SS THR ate bine ees SR ee ee ee eee a ite 414 PAREEATIO ys PeOlOg ye. = eo bee te steel Od ed 414 Martbsine ts INOWONE So ee ae Be eee 414 NUTR Sin Se Sete SS ee eee ee ee 415 MiG Se Ca EAE ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 415 apne ile——Iidian paradise 22. se ee et by 418 Hoh Pah bint. Set bbs SR Reta SS I EE ee es ee eee ee 418 JOVEN EECE ey mae ge ESS 2 oe ae 418 COTE. SE sr SF ee ee ee 420 EAE LOTR UDOT Fe oe eS ee ee Se ee 420 LOIIELETEST ETCH DS 0 Fp os ee Oe eS Oe EI eee A Be oe a ee eS 421 DOS Le See a ee ee a ce ae ee eee Poe nn Sr 422 RSCG Hn TACUICOt Ssh Siang 422 Meplsiionibvableccsnp. 2 ee 426 Ptappsreof blood and, healing art 5 ee ee 427 FARINA ON ars ge ee 8 eee bk 427 Theory of diseases and their remedy..._.......... 222022220 bse 428 LEST o) eee ee ae, Pee eS ent NBER Seat) Be 429 387 388 CONTENTS Page Government=: = == S2 te ae ee ee ee ee 430 Tribal organization and government__________.__.-..-..=--.----- 430 Chiefs... 2-2 en ee ee ee ee ee 431 he; Sndoo-kany + @ircumeised: Ma. s- ee 434 Doldters®. 5. 2-5 Sea ae te ae a A a ee ee eee 436 Councils: Geese Be Sete 5S A ee ee ee 446 Scopexof civaljurisdiction= easiness eee eee ees 448 Chicisttiput jpn ee ee re a ee ee 448 Power-oftheswar chiei&. ean. ae ee ee ee 449 Poweri\of the:priests.ny councils: = —— = — = sans pee ee 450 Matrons*‘in: councilsi3=- 32 et eee a ee 451 Geneéralccouncilss: 22 s¢e- 52 ee ee ee ee eae 451 Private zight to.takedife:--tt0ce--t 4= eels) oot Bees 452 Gamelaws, ormights of.theichases a-e-. 2. eee ee See SE ee 455 Indian tradeé_... =<-25 52-202 oe coe a ee Eee 457 Educationiaiien Sut u2e 82 So ey 2 Pir tet ee Serine de hire ae eee 466 Warfare i - 3c. te ae Se ee ee oe 470 Property... s2eeee ss se ce eet et ae ee eee 474 Territorial ighte..2c2 23-4 hen eee eee pore ee ae eee 476 Primogeniture....2...<-- Sitter econ see noe ee 478 @nime: = sic e cc ce Sete ecco cca et ee oc Ee ee ee ae eS 479 Priyersh< - 2oe sh oe Be Ore ee Se eee ee re 483 Prayer Of swartior). eet eee ce ee er ee 483 ‘Prayer.to hosts’ 2-48. cee ee feces ee ae ee eee 484 THE MOON es 2. Se eet oe ee eee ee Se eS aoe 484 Parental. affectiony..—- 22-2. 2. = Sore ee Se 485 Religions. = oe ae Seese oe ee a oe ee ee ee ee ee EE 486 Tmmortality 2252-2 ee 8 ee ee ee ee eee 498 Mythology :slegends;,tales=: = 5-98.22 Eee ee eee 500 Manners ;andcustomss_ == 22)sstesss_ a3! Seat ee eee Se 503 Constitution of the Assiniboin family; kinship__-____---_-_-___---- 503 Campy lifes, on 3 ca oe ee ee I er 505 Courtship: and! marriage... 2 22 eee ee ee eee 510 Miisic? 3-4 Ree ae ee eee ee eee 512 Longe vitycsoct oe re ee Oe ee eee eee 513 Hospitalityes- 24) ee Yn eee 513 Midwifery, childbirth) taming =. S222" 2222 eee eee ee eee 516 Agsiniboin’ personal names__..=-.-2-=--=------4-. = 285s ee ees 518 @hildrent 23.2 Soe Se ee ee ee ee 519 Suicide. .': ese. 22 eS e e eeeee 522 Pérsonalubehaviors: 26223 22222222 sree ee eee 523 Scaling es =a ee a ae ee 524 @aths te. 2s ws oo ee ee ee cep Ro ee 524 Smoking @s..-27 32552 eee ee ee 524 Bames = 22253. 2-2 ooo a ee ee ee ee ee 525 Stéicismic =< =2-s- 262 ose5s25 ee es ee ee ee 525 Taciturnityes ee 2s Sots ee ee eee 526 Public:speaking 3. === = 2242252 ee ee 526 Travel. 2— 225-252 s2 cose ise scene soso = te Lee ole 526 Sétises.. =) -=-2---=.2 25-2. 225. - - e e Ee ee 527 Jiiggling and isorcenyesa== === na eee eee 528 Strength and endurance. =.= ==. ==-— =. eee ee ae ee ee elie ees 529 Spirituous, liquors: s22223- 3 se eee eee 529 CONTENTS DEATOWwING DU AlOMn ai aN Ke ee oe Se ee a ee ee ee cesses F A DLORCOLN 2 DIS) Oza ee en ee eS IDTa Te AT MiSs Sk ae a ee eee SPEC LION NEUE LET ULE posts 2 = = = |e eee = eee neers ne ee a es PRES CO ea ne ee er es Se eS Ee ee re Se See eS IHRE G Ryn tas 8s SS Fey eo a re Se ae oe es ee DO METS CAN CEs eee eee ke es oe ee ea Wiabiics Choate Te Yee eS Se ee ee a= See ee RU TO SEC Ti Ge amen eee wae Oe re a ee ee eS Vaso) (ob) to ee oe ee a ae QL IGGih: S bien. 8 2 ee ee eee ee ee ee WG GBD oe Te ee ree ee eee ae nee UEP ACTI ATOR SAI 2 2 ee ee ee ea owanditstcOnseq lenCesa= = 3228s oe eee eee ee es Sennbenta VOLesses 22 22 to sha ee ee a eS ook COU ear TSA I a ee ee ee ee ere inrellectish capacity. and character. .2=--<--.=-2==---.222.22=-2=5.- = {ELK CLipawe) yg ct ee eR ee ee a LS aie EET Te a oo eR I i eee oe) . iret: | { lidau Akt sada? evant oa intealt ite a Ty: | Wires. 12 | oda) ) dal vase! ail (anki ~o feta iy | > ft? uly ie, mutt afril Liat 4 abel oe E if ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES MHOrt Uniomasieiappeared in U8aee 9. 22ess see nae seanccscs= . Edwin Thompson Denig and Mrs. Denig_-_-____..____.________-- ebDrawinps iby an Assiniboin! Indian: =..i--=- 3225-52-58) . KOUTA A er Ee ee ae ee ae a Ree ee eee . Characteristic implements of the Assiniboin_______________________ MOND TOOU Ho Cat-talles so 8k ee ee eet peubercalumet/and its accompaniments__ == 25 -+ = 2 ee RED aloOLrparkiOns SUITOUN Gy S22 5 ee ee ee MeONeAgniDoinrunningre DUMaAlOL 2 =a 2 ae a 3 SiGe GENS ee SES 2 Se ee ee Ree oe ee ae MmOOU-S00/vOr pame.or the POWl.--- 522-4 =e ee ee mene hiinekan-Gee amen =-8 20s 2 woe We ee ee . A lodge frame and a completed lodge..._--..--.--_---.-.-=.-._.- . The interior of a lodge and its surroundings________..____.--_____- Se An ASIN DOM stabbing a, Blackfoot.-- 2-2-6 -— == — a meaMOLrerion above Hort, UmlONS =.= ee ee Be DINPr AO 4 Aue Held: 2-2 eee eee! See es! 5. Toe mebineram of aipautle held: ..2 25. Swe Aes. BUSY oe ROVuBiCAluITiN i rUCIen tae 26 ats eer eg ee eee aha 2 DE SRTIC CURR EHS oer ok el oe eee eel 9 eee eh Sok PED BOTaIMVOL 8 COUNCIMIOG Ee. 2s memeatre name ot SE ee » (CRS GIE Moray ng I ete Rm ae eee nee ae ee a ee ee ee ey MPLGOMioOr Gesbing tie nie: = os meee ce st Jk eee aL ets 4. Tool for scraping hides or shaving the skin__._________1___________ MeLRCUITekwWriUinip se. ae = Sete ee ts Fo ee yee ee LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To His Excellency Isaac I. Srevens, Governor of Washington Territory. Sir: Being stimulated with a desire to meet your wishes and for- ward the views of Government, I have in the following pages en- deavored to answer the Inquiries published by act of Congress re- garding the history, present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes with which I am acquainted. Had I been called upon to illustrate the facts herein recorded by reference to their different individual histories and actions, a more voluminous and perhaps interesting work might have been presented the general reader, but in conformity to the instructions laid down in the document referred to, have only replied to the vari- ous queries, limiting the answers to plain statements of facts. Independent of my own personal observation and knowledge acquired by a constant residence of 21 years among the prairie tribes in every situation, I have on all occasions had the advice of intelli- gent Indians as to the least important of these queries, so as to avoid, if possible, the introduction of error. Should there be new ideas presented, and the organization, customs, or present condition of the Indians made public in the following manuscript differ either ma- terially or immaterially from any other now extant I would beg leave to say I would much rather have the same rejected than to see it published in a mutilated form or made to coincide with any his- tories of the same people from others who have not had like oppor- tunities of acquiring information. Some of their customs and opinions now presented, although very plain and common to us who are in their daily observance, may not have been rendered in comprehensible language to those who are stranger to these things, and the number of queries, the diversity of subjects, etc., have necessarily curtailed each answer to as few words as possible. In the event, therefore, of not being understood or of apparent discrepancies presenting, it would be but justice done the author and patron to have the same explained, which would be cheer- fully done. It is presumed the following pages exhibit a minutize of informa- tion on those subjects not to be obtained either by transient visitors or a residence of a few years in the country, without being, as is the 88253 °—30——26 393 394 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL case with myself, intimately acquainted with their camp regulations, understanding their language, and in many instances entering into their feelings and actions. The whole has been well digested, the different subjects pursued in company with the Indians for an entire year, until satisfactory answers have been obtained, and their motives of speech or action well understood before placing the same as a guide and instruction to others. The answers refer to the Sioux, Arikara, Mandan, Gros Ventres, Cree, Crow, Assiniboin, and Black- feet Nations, who are designated as prairie roving or wild tribes, further than whom our knowledge does not extend. I am aware of your capacity to judge the merits of the work, and will consider myself highly honored if I have had the good fortune to meet your approbation. Moreover, I shall rejoice if I have contrib- uted in any degree toward opening a course of policy on the part of Government that may result in the amelioration of the sad condition of the savages. Should the facts herein recorded ever be published or embodied in other works, it is hoped the errors of language may be corrected, but in no instance is it desired that the meaning should miscarry. Should any references be required by the department for whom this is written I beg leave to name as my friends and personal ac- quaintances in addition to your Excellency, Col. D. D. Mitchell, Ken- neth Mackruger, Esq., Rev. P. I. De Smet, Messrs. P. Chouteau, Jr., & Co., and Alex. Culbertson, Esq., all of St. Louis, and Dr. John Evans, United States geologist, any of whom will satisfy inyuiries on this head. Permit me, my dear friend, to remain with great respect and high consideration, truly your most obedient servant, Epwin T. Dente. —— €€8l NI GaYvaddy LI SV NOINM LYO4 (990 PND 100 De | se “PES ps prof, — - moynpnyc], Luin) hg ST 79 ALVId LYOdaY IWANNV HLXIS-ALYOS ADSOTONHLA NVOINSWY 40 NvaUNnd ————— SINSQ “SHYW OGNV SINSAGQ NOSdWOHL NIMGQW £9 ALVId LYOddY IWOANNY HLXIS-ALYOA ASOTONHLA NYOINANY JO NVAYNNA INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI By Epwin T. Denia THE ASSINIBOIN + History Ortc1n.—But little traditionary can be stated by these Indians as authentic of their origin which would be entitled to record in history, though many singular and fabulous tales are told concerning it. As a portion of people, however, once inhabiting another district and being incorporated with another nation, their history presents a con- nected and credible chain of circumstances. The Assiniboin were once a part of the great Sioux or Dacotah Nation, residing on the tributary streams of the Mississippi; say, the head of the Des Moines, St. Peters, and other rivers. This is evident, as their language with but little variation is the same, and also but a few years back there lived a very old chief, known to all of us as Le Gros Francois, though his Indian name was Wah-he’ Muzza or the “ Iron Arrow-point,” who recollected perfectly the time of their separation from the Sioux, which, according to his data, must have been about the year 1760.° He stated that when Lewis and Clark came up the Missouri in 1805 his band of about 60 lodges (called Les Gens des Roches) had after a severe war made peace with the Sioux, who at that time resided on the Missouri, and that he saw the expedition referred to near White Earth River, these being the first body of whites ever seen by them, although they were accustomed to be dealt with by the fur traders of the Mississippi. After their first separation from the Sioux they moved northward, making a peace with the Cree and Chippewa, took possession of an uninhabited country on or near the Saskatche- wan and Assiniboin Rivers, in which district some 250 or 300 lodges still reside. Some time after the expedition of Lewis and Clark, or at least after the year 1777, the rest of the Assiniboin, at that time about 1,200 lodges, migrated toward the Missouri, and as soon as they found superior advantages regarding game and trade, made 1Consult Preface for etymologic analysis of this word and for its objective meaning. 2This traditional date given by Denig is evidently much too Jate, for as early as the middle of the seventeenth century they were known to the Jesuit missionaries of Canada. 395 396 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH, ANN. 46 the latter country their home. One principal incident in their his- tory which they have every reason to remember and by which many of the foregoing data are ascertained is a visitation of the smallpox in 1780 (see Mackenzie’s travels), when they occupied the British territory. Even yet there are two or three Indians living who are marked by the disease of that period and which greatly thinned their population, though owing to their being separated through an im- mense district, some bands entirely escaped. Upon the whole it does not appear to have been as destructive as the same disease on the Missouri in 1838, which I will have occasion to mention in its proper place in these pages and which reduced them from 1,200 lodges to about 400 lodges. Name anp GrocrapuicaL Postrrion.—The name of the Assiniboin among themselves is Da-co-tah, same as the Sioux, which means “ our people.” By the Sioux they are called Ho’-hai or “ Fish-eaters,” perhaps from the fact that they lived principally on fish while on the British grounds, as most of those Indians do. By the Cree and Chippewa they are called As-see-nee-poi-tuc or Stone Indians; hence the English name of Assiniboin arises. As has been stated, at the earliest date known they roved about the head of St. Peters, Des Moines, Lac du Diable, and Lac qui Parle; and they were then joined with the Sioux Indians, who inhabited and claimed all the lands between the Mississippi and the Missouri as low down as Big » Sioux River and as high up as the head of Rivier & Jacques, thence northward toward Lac du Diable, other bands of Sioux (Teton) residing west of the Missouri. The number of Assiniboin when they separated must have been at least 1,500 lodges, averaging six souls to a lodge [or about 9,000 persons]. Their migration has been referred to and the extent of land they occupied in the British terri- tory on the Saskatchewan, etc., was very large, but at present their habitat is entirely different, and it may be as well to state it here. The northern Assiniboin, 250 or 300 lodges, rove the country from the west banks of the Saskatchewan, Assiniboin, and Red Rivers in a westward direction to the Woody Mountains north and west among small spurs of the Rocky Mountains east of the Missouri, and among chains of small lakes through this immense region. Occa- sionally making peace with some of the northern bands of Blackfeet enables them to come a little farther west and deal with those Indians, but, these “ peaces” being of short duration, they are for the most part limited to the prairies east and north of the Blackfeet range. The rest of the Assiniboin, say 500 to 520 lodges [who may be called the Southern Assiniboin], occupy the following district, viz, com- mencing at the mouth of the White Earth River on the east, extend- ing up that river to its head, thence northwest along the Couteau penta] THE ASSINIBOIN 397 de Prairie, or Divide, as far as the Cyprus Mountains on the North Fork of the Milk River, thence down Milk River to its junction with the Missouri River, thence down the Missouri River to the mouth of White Earth River, or the starting point. Formerly they in- habited a portion of country on the south side of the Missouri River along the Yellowstone River, but of late years, having met with great losses by Blackfeet, Sioux, and Crow war parties, they have been obliged to abandon this region and now they never go there. As before remarked, the Assiniboin still numbered 1,000 to 1,200 lodges, trading on the Missouri until the year 1838, when the small- pox reduced their numbers to less than 400 lodges. Also, being surrounded by large and hostile tribes, war has had its share in their destruction, though now they are increasing slowly. Ancient and Mopern Hasrrat.—Before proceeding further it would be well to state and bear in mind that of all the Indians now residing on the Missouri River the Assiniboin appear to have made the least progress toward acquiring civilized ideas or knowledge of any kind. Superstitious, lazy, and indisposed to thought, they make no attempt to improve themselves in any way. Neither are they anxious that others should teach them; consequently they are far behind the other tribes even as regards their own savage manner of life. This will receive further explanation. They do not think the Great Spirit created them on or for a particular portion of country, but that he made the whole prairie for the sole use of the Indian, and the Indian to suit the prairie, giving among other reasons the fact that the buffalo is so well adapted to their wants as to meat and clothing, even for their lodges and bowstrings. To the Indian is allotted legs to run, eyes to see far, bravery, instinct, watchfulness, and other capacities not developed in the same degree in the whites. The Indian, therefore, occupies any section of prairie where game is plentiful and he can protect himself from enemies. With regard to any other kind of right than that of possession and ability to de- fend, besides the general right granted by the Great Spirit, they have not the most distant idea. The-Assiniboin conquered nothing to come into possession of their habitat, they had their difficulties with surrounding tribes and still have, as others have, and continue as they commenced, fighting and hunting alternately. Their first interview with Europeans (now spoken of) was when the traders of the Mississippi pushed their traffic as far as their camps, and from whom they obtained firearms, woolen clothing, utensils, ete. Afterwards these supplies were had from the Hudson Bay Co. and, latterly, from the Americans on the Missouri River. There is every reason to believe that the introduction of ardent spirits among them was coeval, if not antecedent, to that of any other article of trade. 398 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 Before the trade was opened with them by the whites they say they used knives made of the hump rib of the buffalo, hatchets made of flint stone, mallets of the same, cooking utensils of clay and wood, bones for awls, and sinew for thread, ali of which articles can yet be found among them. They made with these rude tools their bows and arrows, pointing the latter with stone, and, as game was abundant, hunted them on foot or threw them into pens built for the purpose, which method they continue to use to this day. In this way they had no difficulty in supporting themselves, and so contend that they have gained nothing by intimacy with the whites but diseases which kill them off in numbers and wants which they are unable at all times to gratify. They have never sold lands by treaty, and the only treaty (with the exception of that at Laramie, 1851) was made by them through an Indian agent of the United States named Wilson, at the Mandan village in 1825. But this was merely an amicable alliance for the protection of American traders and an inducement held out to the Indians to leave off trading at the Hudson Bay Co.’s posts and establish themselves on the Missouri, without, however, any remuneration on the part of the United States. VesticEs OF Karty Traprt1ion.—They have no creditable tradition of the Mosaic account of the creation or deluge, neither of their ancestors having lived in other lands nor knowledge of foreign quadrupeds nor any idea of whites or other races occupying the country before the Indians. It is easy to perceive in converse with them that whites have from time to time endeavored to explain the Mosaic account of the creation and deluge, together with other scriptural records, but instead of comprehending the same they have mixed with their own superstitions and childish notions in so many various and nonsensical forms that none is worthy of record. They have no name for America, neither do they know of its extent, for the most part believing that the lands occupied by them- selves and the surrounding tribes compose the greatest part of the world, and certainly contain the greatest reputed number of people. It vexes and grieves them to be told of large tracts of land elsewhere, and they do not or will not believe the whites to be as human as they are. There is nothing in this subject any Assiniboin could either com- prehend or answer, except that there is a mound about 50 miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone on the west side and near the Missouri consisting of an immense pile of elk horns, covering an area of about an acre of ground, and in height about 30 feet. We have frequently inquired of these and the surrounding nations as to its origin, but it was raised previous to the knowledge or even tradition of any tribe now living in these parts. From the state of decay the horns are in it must be very ancient. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 399 Names AND Events 1N Hisrory.—There is no great event in the history of the Assiniboin that gives them cause to rejoice. True, they have occasionally gained a battle, but at other times have lost greatly by wars. Upon the whole they have had the worst of it; at least they, being a smaller nation than the Blackfeet and Sioux (their enemies) have felt the loss more severely. The principal calamity that first overtook them, and by which they suffered greatly, was the smallpox in 1780. (See Mackenzie’s travels and other authors.) On this occasion they lost about 300 lodges of their people, and it is to this day mentioned by them as their greatest first misfortune. In the spring of 1838 this disease was again communicated to them, be- ing brought up the Missouri by a steamboat, and although every precaution had been used, the boat cleansed, and no appearance of disease for a long time aboard, yet it in some way broke out among the Indians, beginning with the Sioux tribes and ending with the Blackfeet. Being an eyewitness to this, we can with certainty give an account of its ravages. When the disease first appeared in Fort Union we did everything in our power to prevent the Indians from coming to it, trading with them a considerable distance out in the prairie and representing to them the danger of going near the infec- tion. All efforts of the kind, however, proved unavailing, for they would not listen, and 250 lodges contracted the disease at one time, who in the course of the summer and fall were reduced to 65 men, young and old, or about 30 lodges in all. Other bands coming from time to time caught the infection and remained at the fort, where the dead were daily thrown into the river by cartloads. The disease was very virulent, most of the Indians dying through delirium and hemorrhage from the mouth and ears before any spots appeared. Some killed themselves. On one occasion an Indian near the fort after losing his favorite child deliberately killed his wife, his two remaining children, his horses and dogs, and then blew his own brains out. In all this the Indians behaved extremely well toward the whites, although aware they brought the disease among them, yet nothing in the way of revenge took place, either at the time or afterwards. Being obliged to be all the time with them, helping as much as possible to save a few, they had plenty of opportunities should they have wished to do damage. Every kind of treatment appeared to be of no avail, and they continued dying until near the ensuing spring, when the disease, having spent itself, ceased. The result was that out of 1,000 lodges and upward of the Assiniboin then in existence but 400 lodges or less remained, and even these but thinly peopled. Relationship by blood or adoption was nearly annihilated, all prop- erty lost or sacrificed, and a few very young and very old left to 400 ‘TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 mourn the loss. Most of the principal men having died, it took years to recover from the shock. Young men had to grow up, new leaders to be developed, remnants of bands to be gathered together, property to be had—in fact, under all these adverse circumstances, so slow has been the increase that during the interim of 17 years but 100 lodges have accumulated. In times like this no leader can be ef- fective. All counsel was rejected; their chiefs and divining men shared the fate of the others. With the Mandan the disease was even more destructive. Before it they numbered 600 warriors and in- habited two large villages where the Arikara are now stationed, and when the disease ceased about 30 men remained, from which remnant have since sprung about 25 lodges. All this time an Assini- boin chief named The Gauche, or by the Indians “ He who holds the knife,” was the principal man in the band which bore his name, consisting of 250 lodges. These died in greater proportion than the others and after the disease had disappeared the old chief found himself at the head of about 60 fighting men. The Gauche was a very old man and had had the smallpox in the north; he was also famed in their annals as a leader and divining man. He had been very successful in his expeditions against the Blackfeet, and by the use of poisons admin- istered occasionally to his people, while predicting their death, he had inspired in all the fear of a sorcerer. His life contains a history which our limits do not admit of describing, although well known. singular, interesting, and authentic. On this occasion he under- stood that the Mandan were rendered totally helpless by the effects of the smallpox, and conceived the idea of taking their village and in a measure retrieving his losses by the horses and other property of these Indians. Gathering together the remnant of his band, about 50 men, he proceeded thither. The writer saw him pass with the pipe of peace to lull suspicion, in order to enter their village in a friendly way, and then at a given signal each one with knife in hand to rush upon and destroy the unsuspecting friends. The whole was well planned, managed, and kept secret, and it would have succeeded but for an occurrence of which the Assiniboin was not then aware. The Arikara, a tolerably numerous people, having left the Missouri, had been for years residing on the Platte River, and having previously had the smallpox did not contract the disease to any extent. About the same time The Gauche was on his way to the Mandan, they re- turned suddenly from the Platte and took possession of their village a short distance from the Mandan. Now the Arikara numbered about 500 men, all deadly enemies to the Assiniboin, so that when the latter presented their pipe of peace the ceremonies were interrupted by an attack of the Arikara. The Assiniboin were routed, and about 20 of them killed. penie] THE ASSINIBOIN 401 The old chief, as usual, escaped, though his day of power was over. Shortly afterwards he predicted the day and hour of his own death at the fort—days beforehand, without any appearance of disease or approaching dissolution, and the writer with other gentlemen at the fort saw the same fulfilled to the letter. The conclusion was that he took poison, which he was long supposed to have received from the whites in the north and kept a dose for the fullness of time. This man had more renown than any other leader spoken of, al- though several have done gallant actions. His success may be attrib- uted to great cunning and the large force he always headed, together with the power his fetishes gave him over his fellows, who blindly followed his instructions and fought desperately under his prophecies, though his life shows the anomaly of a great leader being entirely destitute of every particle of personal intrepidity. Many other events have happened which form data in their history; indeed it is composed of reference to certain remarkable occurrences, such as the year of the smallpox, year of the deep snow, year of massacre of 30 lodges of Blackfeet, year of great rise of waters, and other natural phenomena. Presenr Routers and Conprt1on.—Their present ruling chief is Man-to-was-ko, or the Crazy Bear, made chief by Colonel Mitchell, Commissioner of the United States, at the Laramie treaty in 1851. The choice could not have been better. The Crazy Bear has always been a respectable and brave man, greatly elevated above all the rest in intelligence but not ranking with some in military exploits, having never been a great warrior, though on some small occasions he has shown an utter contempt of death before his enemies. He is a mild, politic man, looking after his people’s interest, and viewing with a jealous eye anything inconsistent with them. Even when a very young man his opinions were always honored with a hearing in council, and he now bears his honors with great credit to himself and service to his people, endeavoring to carry out to the letter the stipulations of the treaty to which he is a party. Among the principal soldiers and war captains may be mentioned To-ka’-ke-a-na, or the “ First Who Flies.” This man is a son of the old chief, Wah-hé Muzza, or “Iron Arrowpoint,” mentioned before. The whole of that oid man’s numerous family have been, and those living still are, desperate men, proud and overbearing with their people, though good to the whites. From the eldest, named “ The Sight,” who visited Washington City by General Jackson’s orders, to the one now mentioned, five in number have been killed by their own people in personal quarrels. The one now spoken of has frequently led parties to battle and showed such a recklessness of danger that his name stands high as a 402 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 warrior; has also killed two of his own people who were concerned in the murder of his brothers; was at the Laramie treaty and since behaves himself with great moderation; is one of the Crazy Bear’s principal soldiers and supports; and should the Bear die would undoubtedly take his place as chief of the tribe. ; Wa-ké-un-to, or the Blue Thunder, is another warrior and partisan in a band of 200 lodges, is not over 25 years of age, but has raised himself to distinction by going to war alone on the Sioux and bringing home scalps and horses; he has also headed several war excursions with great success and is generally liked by his own people. Wo’-a-see’-chah, or Bad Animal, known to traders by the name of Le Serpent, is a war leader and chief of Les Gens des Canots Band, the same 200 lodges of which Blue Thunder is one of the warriors and camp soldiers. I believe he has never killed many enemies but has murdered in quarrels two of his own people, is considered a sensi- ble man, very friendly to the whites, judicious in his government of his band, and also is a person whom it is not desirable to aggravate too much. Me-nah (The Knife), A-wah-min-ne-o-min-ne (The Whirlwind), Ish-ta-o-ghe-nah (Gray Eyes), He-boom-an-doo (La Poudriére), and others are soldiers and warriors whose histories are known to us and would present the usual features of savage life and warfare. The Assiniboin speak but one dialect, being radically the same as the Sioux; no other is incorporated in it, though some few can in addition speak Cree and others of the northern bands of Blackfeet, but no more than one interpreter is required in transacting any busi- ness with each or all of them. A person who can speak the Sioux language well could interpret for the Assiniboin, or vice versa. There are many elderly persons capable of stating their traditions and willing to impart any information they are in possession of regarding their history; but what is heard from them in this respect is so mingled with fable and superstition as seldom to admit of its serving as a basis for truth or knowledge or for a correct repre- sentation of their past condition. They do not exhibit any chain of connected facts; and though these oral tales have been preserved entire, transmitted in their original form through successive gen- erations, and may possibly have been the belief of their ancestors, yet at the present day are regarded more as a source of amusement than a medium of instruction or means of perpetuating their history. Too much error has been the result of depending for knowledge on these traditions by people who only understand them in their literal sense or have been badly interpreted. All facts among the nations with whom we profess an intimate acquaintance and minute knowledge DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 403 farther than a century back are involved in obscurity, mingled with fable, or embodied in their superstitions. The time when the tribe reached its present location was from 1804 to 1825, when the most of them might be considered as established on the waters of the Missouri, the boundaries of which have been pointed out, though in 1839, 60 lodges of Assiniboin came over from the British northern possessions and joined those of the Missouri, since which time they have resided together. INTERTRIBAL RANK AND Retations.—As to the question, what rank and relationship does the tribe bear to other tribes, we are not aware of any political scale of superiority or inferiority existing among any of the tribes along the Missouri; neither do their traditions point out or assign any such particular position to each other. Being well acquainted with the manners and customs of the Sioux, the Arikara, the Mandan, the Gros Ventres, the Crow, the Assiniboin, the Cree, and the Blackfeet tribes we can safely say that no such distinction exists that would receive the sanction of all parties. There is, however, this: Each nation has vanity enough to think itself superior to its neighbors, but all think the same, and the more ignorant they are the more obstinately they adhere to their own opinions. All tribes are pretty much independent of one another in their thoughts and actions, and, indeed with the exception of the Gros Ventres, the Mandan and the Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, neighboring tribes usually are completely in the dark re- garding one another’s government, not even knowing the names of the principal chiefs and warriors unless told them or recognizing them when pointed out. In all the above-mentioned tribes there is no such thing as pretensions to original rank. Rank is the growth of the present, as often acquired as lost. The greatest chief any of these tribes ever produced would become a mere toy, a butt, a ridicule, in a few days after he lost his eyes or sense of sight. Neither has affinity of blood in this sense anything to do with rank as to succession. If the son for want of bravery or other qualifica- tions can not equal or follow the steps of his father chief, he is noth- ing more than an ordinary Indian. There are consequently no dis- cordant pretensions to original rank, though it may be a matter of dispute which of two or three chiefs ranks at present the highest, and in this case it would be immediately decided in council by the principal men. In fact the rank or standing of each Indian, be he chief or warrior, is so well known, and his character so well judged by the vox populi that he takes his place spontaneously. A higher step than his acts and past conduct confer, imprudently taken, would have the effect of injuring him in their eyes as a leader. Every chief, warrior, or brave carves his own way to fame, and if recognized as 404 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 one by the general voice becomes popular and is supported; if not, he mixes with hundreds of others who are in the same situation, waiting an opportunity to rise. There is no relative rank among tribes bear- ing the name of uncle, grandfather, etc. The names of the different bands among themselves or the surrounding tribes have no such sig- nification. There are, of course, affinities of blood and relationship among the Indians as well as among whites. People have their fathers, uncles, grandfathers, brothers-in-law, etc., but this personal or family relationship has nothing to do with the clanship, nor has it any bearing on other tribes. As to the relations above alluded to we will have occasion to refer to them under the head of tribal organization and government. Among eastern or southern tribes such distinctions may exist, but we can vouch they have no name nor interest in all the tribes mentioned in the beginning of this answer. To prevent misunderstanding, it should be observed that when we speak of a tribe we mean the whole group who speak that language. Different tribes are different groups. Portions of these groups or tribes are called gentes, and portions or societies of these gentes are designated as subgentes, and the next or most minute subdivision of gentes would be into families. “ Peaces ” are made between wild tribes by the ceremony of smok- ing and exchanging presents of horses and other property ; sometimes women. The advantages and disadvantages are well calculated on both sides before overtures for peace are made. It is a question of loss and gain and often takes years to accomplish. The Crows, a rich nation, five years ago, through the writer as the medium made peace with the Assiniboin after half a century of bloody warfare. Why? The Crows being a rich nation and the Assiniboin poor, how could the former gain? The points the Crows gained were these: First, liberty to hunt in the Assiniboin country unmolested and secure from the Blackfeet; second, two enemies less to contend with and from whom they need not guard their numerous herds of horses; third, the privilege of passing through the Assiniboin country to the Gros Ventres village in quest of corn. Now for the other party. The Crows having large herds of horses and the Assiniboin but few, the former give them a good many every year to preserve the peace. The Crows winter with the Assiniboin, run buffalo with their own horses, and give the latter plenty of meat and skins without the trouble of killing it. The Crows are superior warriors and the others have enough to contend with the Blackfeet. Again, one enemy less, and jointly the numerical force is so augmented as to make them formidable to all surrounding tribes, while separately they would prey upon each other. It is in this case evident the peace must last, there being suffi- cient inducements on both sides to keep it, although upon the whole ———— . ra) ee DENI] THE ASSINIBOIN 405 any of their “ peaces” are liable to sudden and violent interruptions and are not to be depended upon. Macnrrube AND Resources OF Trerrirory A Cause or THE Muutipit- CATION oF Tripes.—There can be no doubt that magnitude and re- sources of territory are the principal causes of an increase of popula- tion. All roving tribes live by hunting, and scarcity of animals produces distress, famine, disease, and danger by forcing them to hunt in countries occupied by their enemies, when game is not found in their own. Such a state of things happened in this district in 1841, when during a total disappearance of buffalo and other game some of the Assiniboin and Cree were under the necessity of eating their own children, of leaving others to perish, and many men and women died from fatigue and exhaustion. Although the above posi- tion is evident, yet we do not see how it could multiply tribes, much less dialects. A large territory with much game might induce por- tions of other tribes not having these advantages to migrate, make peace with the residing nation, and perhaps increase in a greater ratio than they otherwise would have done, but the language would remain the same, neither would it produce a separate tribe, but only a portion of the tribe who migrated. The Gros Ventres of the Prairie were once Arapaho and lived on the Arkansas. They have for a century past resided with the Black- feet, yet have preserved their own language. True, by these means they learn to speak each other’s language, but they do not commingle and make a separate dialect of the two. The Assiniboin from the Sioux, the Cree from the Chippewa, the Crows from the Gros Ventres are three other cases of separation, and in each the language is so well preserved that they understand without any difficulty the people whence they emanated. The causes of these separations, whether feuds, family discords, or in quest of better hunting grounds, does not now appear. Most probably it was dissatisfaction of some sort. From all appearances we may reasonably expect to see ere long a portion of the Sioux occupying the large disputed territory south of the Missouri and along the Yellowstone, as game is becoming scarce in their district since white emigration through it and Indians are thronging there from St. Peters and elsewhere. The Sioux regard the Mississippi as once their home, and it is very certain that nation came from thence, also the Cree and Assiniboin, and perhaps others. It does not appear that the track of migration pursued any direct course. From certain facts, similitude of lan- guage and customs, it would seem some nations traveled from south to north or northwest, such as the Gros Ventres of the Prairie who wére once Arapaho. The Arikara speak the same as the Pawnee and must have migrated westward. The Blackfeet moved from north 406 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH, ANN. 46 to southwest, and the Crows, Cree, and Assiniboin west and north. It is reasonable to believe they spread out over these immense plains from all points and at different times as circumstances favored or forced them. The habits of the prairie Indian differ essentially from the Indian of the forest, and those of stationary and cultivating habits from both. It is impossible for us now to state with any degree of certainty the time of their first location on these plains, or to point out any one general course of emigration pursued by them. GnoGcRAPHY Figure or THE GuLose.—It can not be expected that these Indians who are in a complete savage and unenlightened state should have any knowledge of the configuration of the globe or of its natural divisions. They know what a small lake or small island is and have names for the same as they are to be met with through their country. They think the earth to be a great plain bounded by the Rocky Mountains on one side and the sea on the other, but have no idea of its extent nor of any other lands except those they are acquainted with. Although told frequently, they can not realize extent of lands in any great measure, and without troubling themselves to think or inquire are content with believing there are few lands better or larger than their own. It is not in their nature to acknowledge in- feriority, which would follow were they convinced of the extent of the territory and power of the whites. Of the sea they have a vague idea from information offered them by the traders, and would not believe there is such a body of water had not the same received a sort of sanction through the Cree and Chippewa, some of whom, having seen Lake Superior, represent it as the ocean. Locan Frarures or tHe Hasrrar.—The chief rivers running through the Assiniboin country are, first, the Missouri, which is so well known as to need no description here. The next is Milk River, on the northwest boundary, a very long and narrow stream; heads in some of the spurs of the Rocky Mountains east of the Missouri and lakes on the plains, runs a southwest course, and empties into the Missouri about 100 miles above the Yellowstone. Its bed is about 200 yards wide at the mouth, though the waters seldom occupy more than one-third of that space, except during the spring thaw, when, for a week or two, it fills the whole bed; is fordable on horseback all the year except at the time above alluded to and when swollen by continuous rains. Riviére aux Tremble, or Quaking Aspen River, empties into the Missouri about 50 miles below Milk River, is about half the length and breadth of the others, and heads in the range of hills constituting the divide, called “ Les Montaignes des Bois.” It is fordable at all DENIC] THE ASSINIBOIN 407 times except during spring freshets and when swollen by rain. Neither of these streams is navigable by any craft larger than a wooden canoe except at the high stages of water above referred to, and then navigation would be difficult and dangerous owing to float- ing ice and driftwood. There are no rapids or falls in either of them. Several creeks fall into the Missouri below the point on the east side called Big Muddy, Little Muddy, Knife River, etc., all of which contain but little water and are of no consequence, White Earth River, the last, is about 100 miles in length and at the mouth a little more than 100 yards wide, contains but little water, always fordable, and not navigable by anything, empties into the Missouri near the commencement of the Great Bend. None of these rivers being navigable except the Missouri, goods are only landed at the following points along that river, viz: Fort Pierre (Sioux), mouth of the Teton River; Fort Clarke (Arikara) at their village; Fort Berthold (Gros Ventres village) ; Fort Union (Assini- boin), mouth of Yellowstone. Steamboats have gone up the Mis- souri as high as the mouth of Milk River, but heretofore goods for Fort Benton (Blackfeet), near the mouth of Maria River, have been transported by keel boats from Fort Union. We know of no large navigable lakes in this district, though along the northern boundary there are many small ones, or rather large ponds of water, without any river running through them or visible outlet, being fed by snows, rain, and springs, and diminished by evaporation and saturation. Lakes of this kind are to be met with in many places on the plains and differ in size from 100 yards to 2 or 3 miles or even more in circumference, are not wooded, and con- tain tolerably good water. Small springs are also common, most of them having a mineral taste, though none are large enough to afford water power. Surrace or tHE Country.—The whole country occupied by the Assiniboin is one great plain, hills and timber only occurring where rivers run, in the valleys of which good land for cultivation is found, but the general feature appears to be sterile as regards arable land, producing, however, grasses of different kinds, some of which are very nutritious, and particularly adapted to raising horses, cattle, and sheep. The prairies may be said to be interminable and destitute of the least particle of timber except along the banks of the few streams before mentioned, and even these but thinly wooded. Water, however, can always be found in the small lakes and rivers spoken of. The Assiniboin do not cultivate the soil in any way, though the Gros Ventres and Arikara raise corn and pumpkins to some extent on the Missouri bottoms. By experiments made at or near Fort Union, 408 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 we find that oats, potatoes, corn, and all garden vegetables grow well if the season be favorable. The soil, being light and sandy, requires frequent rains to produce good crops, which happens about one year in three; the others fail from drought and destruction by grasshoppers, bugs, and other insects. The natural productions of the country are few and such as no one but an Indian could relish. A wild turnip called by them teep-see-na, and by the French pomme blanche, when boiled is eatable, is found in quantity everywhere on the plains, will sustain life alone for a great length of time either cooked or in its raw state, can be dried and preserved for years, or pulverized and made into passable bread. Wild rhubarb is found and eaten either raw or cooked. It has rather a pleasant sweetish taste. Artichokes grow in quantites near marshes. Chokecherries, bullberries, service berries, buds of the wild rose, red plums, and sour grapes are the principal fruits and are greatly sought after by the Indians, preserved, dried, cooked, and eaten in various ways, and considered by them great luxuries. Wild hops are in abundance which possess all the properties of the culti- vated hop. ‘These are all of any note the country produces. Factmrries For Grazinc.—These Indians raise no stock of any kind, though judging from that raised at Fort Union it is one of the best grazing countries in the world. The supply of grasses of spon- taneous growth is inexhaustible and very nutritious. The only diffi- culty is the severe cold winter and depth of snow, though if animals were provided for and housed during the severe cold we know that a hardier and better stock can be raised than in the States. As yet, however, no market being open for surplus stock and but few raised for the use of the fort, our attention has not been much directed to that business, but have no hesitation in advancing the opinion that horses, horned cattle, and sheep would thrive and increase well with proper care. We are not able to say whether water could at all times be had by digging on the high prairie and in the absence of springs or creeks, never having tried the experiment, though the country abounds in small lakes, cool springs, and creeks where good localities for grazing purposes could always be chosen. In the winter animals appear to want very little water and generally eat snow in its place. Errects or Firtne toe Prarries.—We presume there must be some mistake that any of the tribes residing on the plains set them on fire to facilitate the purposes of hunting. It has the contrary effect, driving the game out of their own country into that of their neighbors. Buffalo may pass through a burnt country covered with snow, but can not remain, and travel until they meet with suitable grazing. Consequently the greatest precautions are used by both Indians and whites to prevent their taking fire in the fall, when the pENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 409 grass is dry (the only time it will burn), and the most severe pen- alties short of death are imposed on any person, either white or red, who even by accident sets the prairie on fire. A good thrashing with bows and sometimes tomahawking is in store for the poor traveler who has been so forgetful as not to put out his camp fires and they extend to the plains. These fires are made mostly by returning war parties, either with the view of driving the buffalo out of their enemy’s country or as signals to their own people of success in their expedition, though sometimes they originate in accident or petty malice of individuals. With regard to its injuring the soil it has no such effects; on the contrary, the next crop of grass is more beautiful than the other, as the undergrowth and briars are by that means destroyed. The same, unfortunately, is not the case with the timber. There are no forests on the plains to burn, though where the fire passes through the bottoms of the Missouri it consumes and kills great quantities of timber, which dries and decays and is only re- placed in time by younger saplings. Fruit bushes are also destroyed, though they recover its effects in three or four years. Waste Lanps.—In this section there are no deserts or barren land of any extent; though there are some marshes, pools, and swamps which, however, are not so close together or extensive as to form any formidable obstruction to roads. Even if they could not be drained or otherwise disposed of, they could be left on either side of the way. Neither do these appear to affect the health of any of the Indians more than being the cause of producing hosts of mos- quitoes, which are very annoying to man and beast. Errects or Voicanic Action.—We are not aware of any remark- able appearances of this kind,* neither are there to be found exten- sive sand plains or other tracts entirely destitute of herbage. The cactus is found everywhere, but not in such quantity as to destroy herbage or be a hindrance to animals traveling. A mile or two may occasionally be found where herbage is comparatively scarce. Still, even in these places there is sufficient for animals for a short time. Saurne Propuctions.—We do not feel ourselves competent to state the properties of the mineral springs so common throughout all this country. Some of them no doubt contain Glauber salt, as they operate as a violent cathartic; others have the taste of copper, sul- phur, etc. What the country would produce in the way of gypsum, saltpeter, etc., we can not say, never having witnessed any geological or mineral researches and being personally completely uninformed regarding this branch of science. * There are portions of pumice stone and other things occasionally picked up that have undergone yolcanic action; also burning hills, but no eruptions, 88253 °—30——27 410 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 Coat and Mrnerau Propucrs.—Dr. J. Evans, who lately traveled through this country, can enlighten you on this subject. As for us, we must plead unadulterated ignorance. CLIMATE The climate is pure and dry and perhaps the healthiest in the world. In the months of May and June, when east winds prevail, much rain falls, but during the rest of summer and fall the season is generally dry and moderately warm, except a short time in July and August, when intensely hot. There are occasionally severe thun- derstorms accompanied by rain or hail; not more, however, than three or four in a summer, and these in a few hours swell the smallest streams so as to overflow their banks, but with the ceasing of the rain they fall as suddenly as they rise, and do no damage, as there are neither crops nor fences to injure. Tornadoes we have never seen here, although they do happen on the Missouri far below this place. Severe gales are occasionally met with, lasting but a few minutes. With regard to temperature and other natural phenomena I refer you to the accompanying tables. Witp ANIMALS The most numerous and useful animal in this country is unques- tionably the buffalo, both as regards the sustenance of all the Indians and gain of the traders. Any important decrease of this animal would have the effect of leaving the Indians without traders, no re- turns of smaller skins being sufficient to pay the enormous expense of bringing supplies so far and employing such a number of people. Buffalo are very numerous, and we do not, after 20 years’ experience, find that they decrease in this quarter, although upward of 150,000 are killed annually throughout the extent of our trade, without taking into consideration those swamped, drowned, calves frozen to death, destroyed by wolves, or in embryo, etc. It yet would appear that their increase is still greater than their destruction, as during last winter (1852-53) there were more found in this quarter, and indeed in the whole extent of our trade, than had been seen for many years before. The buffalo is the Indian’s whole dependence. It serves him for all his purposes—meat, clothing and lodging, powder horns, bow- strings, thread and hair to make saddles. In the winter season the hides are dressed, made into robes and traded to whites, by which means they are able to buy all their necessaries and even some lux- uries. Robes are worth about $3 each, and although the number sent to market is great, yet the high price paid for them to Indians and the danger of transportation is such that fortunes are more DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 411 easily and often lost than made at the business. Beaver were for- merly numerous and valuable, therefore much hunted by whites and Indians, but of late years the price of that fur being greatly reduced, and the danger of hunting considerable, does not induce either whites or Indians to hunt them. This animal has been trapped and killed to such an extent as to threaten their entire extinction, though for the last 10 or 12 years, since beaver trapping by large bodies of men has been abandoned, they have greatly increased, and are now to be found tolerably plentiful in all the small streams and in the Missouri and Yellowstone. These Indians do not and never did trap them much; though the Crow and the Cree still make good beaver hunts, they do not rely much on this either as a source of profit or food. Elk, deer, bighorn, and antelope are numerous and afford a means of living and profit to the Indians although they are not hunted to any extent except in a great scarcity of buffalo. From this circum- ‘stance they do not diminish and are found now in much the same numbers as 20 years back. Wolves are very plentiful and of three kinds, the large white wolf, the large grayback wolf, and the small prairie wolf, all a good deal hunted and many killed, though they continue to increase. They fol- low the buffalo in large bands, waiting an opportunity to pounce upon one that has been wounded or mired. They also destroy a great many small calves in the month of May when they are brought forth. The skins of the larger kind are worth 70 cents to $1 each; the smaller about 50 cents each. Red and gray foxes, hares, badgers, skunks, wild cats, otters, er- mines, and muskrats are found and killed when opportunity offers. Of all these the red fox appears to be the only one that has diminished in numbers. We are not aware that any animals have disappeared altogether, nor of any perceptible decrease of any except the beaver and red fox. The Indians kill only as many buffalo as are wanted for meat and hides. Taking only as many hides as their women can dress, they do not destroy them wantonly to any extent; consequently the destruction is limited, and that not being equivalent to the in- crease, but little diminution, if any, is perceptible, and the trade as long as this is the case can not have the effect of exterminating them. Tt is different as regards the beaver and fox. Their skins require no labor except drying, and being slower to increase must of course be the first to disappear if hunted. Grizzly bears are tolerably numer- ous on the Missouri and Yellowstone and are not hunted often, al- though killed occasionally. The animal being ferocious is not much sought after by the Indians. Ancient Bones anp Traprrions or THE Monster Era.—The In- dians know from bones found that such animals existed and were of 412 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTEH. ANN. 46 immense size, but their traditions never make mention of the living animal. To these bones, etc., they assign the general name of Wan- wan-kah, which is a creature of their own imagination, half spirit, half animal. Any whirlwind or great tempest would be attributed to the movements of the Wan-wan-kah, also any other natural phe- nomenon. Many stories are told of its actions, but all are fabulous, although they profess to believe in the existence of its powers, some even stating they have seen it crossing the Missouri in the form of a large fish covering half the breadth of that river.’ Anrmats Usep as ArmortAL Marxs.—These armorial marks or symbols, such as the eagle, owl, bear, serpent, etc., do not represent any tribal organization but kinship occasionally. Neither do they refer to any traditions of any early date, but are insignia adopted by themselves as their medicine or charm. Most Indians have a charm of this kind, either in consequence of some dream or of an idea that the figure has some effect in carrying out his views regarding war, the chase, or the health of his family. These are assumed for his own purposes, whether real or imaginary, to operate on his own actions or to influence those of other Indians. To these tangi- ble objects, after Wakofida, who is a spirit, they address their prayers and invocations. Neither do these symbols affect them re- garding the killing of the same animals on all occasions, though after he has killed it he will smoke and propitiate [the spirit of] the dead carcass, and even offer the head small sacrifices of tobacco and provisions. Tue Horse Era or THE ImpPorTATION OF THE Horse.—When the horse was first introduced among them does not appear by any of the traditions of these ignorant people. The name of the horse in Assiniboin is shunga (dog) tunga (large), i. e., large dog. Among the Sioux it is named shunka (dog) wakan (divining), i. e., divining dog, which would only prove that the dog was anterior to the horse, inas- much as they were obliged to make a name for the strange animal resembling some known object with which it could be afterwards compared. PrcroGRAPHSs Cuarts oN Barx.—Their drawings of maps and sections of coun- try are in execution miserable to us but explanatory among them- selves. Most Indians can carve on a tree, or paint, who they are, where going, whence come, how many men, horses, and guns the party is composed of, whether they have killed enemies, or lost friends, and, if so, how many, etc., and all Indians passing by, either 4 See page 617 at the end of their oral tales, ppnic] THE ASSINIBOIN 413 friends or foes, will have no difficulty in reading the same, though such representations would be quite unintelligible to whites unless instructed. (PI. 64.) Some Indians have good ideas of propor- tion and can immediately arrive at the meaning of a picture, point- ing out the objects in the background, though others can not distin- guish the figure of a man from that of a horse, and as to their exe- cutions of any drawing they are rude in the extreme. Where the natural talent exists, however, there is no doubt they could be instructed. ANTIQUITIES From the Sioux to the Blackfeet, inclusive, there is not in all that country any mounds, teocalli, or appearances of former works of defense bearing the character of forts or any other antique struc- ture. Not a vestige or relic of anything that would form data, or be an inducement to believe their grounds have ever been occupied by any other than roving tribes of wild Indians; nor in the shape of tools, ornaments, or missiles that would lead to any such inference. We have not been more fortunate in searching their traditions in the hope of finding some clue relative to these things. They do not be- lieve that any persons ever occupied their country except their own people (Indians), and we can not say we have ever seen or heard anything to justify any other conclusion regarding the extent of territory mentioned. The elk-horn mound, mentioned elsewhere, is evidently of re- mote date and the work of Indians, but proves nothing sought by these researches. It might be stated that although no antique vessels of clay are found, yet the Arikara now, and as long as the whites have known them, have manufactured tolerably good and well- shaped clay vessels for cooking, wrought by hand without the aid of any machinery, and baked in the fire. They are not glazed, are of a gray color, and will answer for pots, pans, etc., equally as well as those made by the whites, standing well the action of fire and being as strong as ordinary potter’s ware. They also have the art of melting beads of different colors and casting them in molds of clay for ear and other ornaments of various shapes, some of which are very ingeniously done. We have seen some in shape and size as drawn in Plate 65, the groundwork blue, the figure white, the whole about one-eighth inch thick, and presenting a uniform glazed surface. Pires No antique pipes are found, but many and various are now made by all Indians. 414 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN, 46 VESSELS AND IMPLEMENTS The Arikara and Gros Ventres, who raise corn, have other vessels as alluded to, but not the roving tribes, except the utensils furnished by whites. None of these things denote anything more than a people in the rudest state of nature, whose only boiling pot was once a hollow stone, or the paunch of a buffalo in which meat can be boiled and still is on occasions, by filling the paunch with water and casting therein red-hot stones until the water attains a boiling point, after which the stones are taken out, and one added occasionally to con- tinue the heat, or the paunch suspended above a blaze at such a dis- tance that the fire, though heating, does not touch it. Their spoons are yet made of the horns of the bighorn and buffalo, wrought into a good shape, some of which will hold half a gallon with ease. These are dippers. Others for eating are made smaller of horn and wood, yet large enough to suit their capacious mouths. (Pl. 65.) In all this and in everything they do, but one idea presents itself— that of crude, untutored children of nature, who have never been anything else. The only ancient stone implements we have ever seen are the hatchet, stone war club, arrow point, buffaio shoulder-blade ax, hump- rib knife, and elk-horn bow, the shapes of which we have endeavored to draw in Plate 66, and all of which, except the knife, can yet occasionally be seen among them. There is a total absence of anything antique, any shell, metal, wampum, or other thing formerly possessed by inhabitants supposed to have occupied this country. Neither are there any hieroglyphics or traditions to denote anything of the kind. AsTRONOMY AND GEOLOGY Karri anp Its Mortons.—Their knowledge on this subject is very limited. They believe the earth to be a great plain containing per- haps double the extent of country with which they are acquainted, and that it is void of motion. They do not believe the stars are inhabited by other people, but admit they may be abiding places of ghosts or spirits of the departed. They are not fond of talking about these things, neither do their opinions agree, each man’s story differing materially from the other and all showing extreme igno- rance and superstition. They believe that Wakonda created all things and this one idea appears original and universal, further than which, however, they are at a loss. If they can not be made to comprehend the extent of the earth and its laws of motion, etc., there is much less likelihood that they can esr ol toy wry dup y} f ce erly wo Fup . fi POWAY Jppranay boy ‘soo v Furjooys wy Sacas pw J)% wry IV SY) 69 ALVId LYOdaY TWONNV HLXIS-ALYOA ADOTONH.LA NYSINANYV JO NVaNNE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 65 “CL JSS Ly thew CULINARY UTENSILS FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY a aa Mog UWLo yy MoT cod Ne] ne c es = ~” SoS MD Stone War Clib, CHARACTERISTIC IMPLEMENTS OF THE ASSINIBOINE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 67 Gioli Root . Racine Noir, E-pach-cha-hoo a, Comb root Cats Tait Hint =leah=koo Racine dé Quenourlle 6, Cat-tail. pENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 415 have any reasonable idea of the field of space or other creations therein further than superstitious notions according to the fancy of the individual. Tuer Sun.—They take the sun to be a large body of fire, making its daily journey across the plains for the purpose of giving light and heat to all, and admit it may be the residence of Wakonda; consequently it is worshiped, venerated, smoked, and invocated on all solemn occasions. We have often endeavored to explain the diur- nal revolution of the earth, representing the sun as stationary, but always failed. They must first be brought to understand the attrac- tions of cohesion and gravitation, for, as a sensible Indian stated on one of these occasions, “ If at midnight we are all on the under side, what is to hinder the Missouri from spilling out, and us from falling off the earth? Flies, spiders, birds, etc., have small claws by which they adhere to the ceiling and other places, though man and water have no such support.” Tue Sxy.—Those who take the trouble to explain state the sky to be a material mass of a blue color, the composition of which they do not pretend to say, and think it has an oval or convex form, as apparent to the eye, resting for its basis on the extreme boundaries of the great plain, the earth. Hence their drawing, which is almost the only form in which they could represent it. Stars are small suns set therein, though they think they may be large bodies appearing small by seeing through space. Space is the intervening distance between earthly and heavenly bodies. The Indians can not rationally account for an eclipse, supposing it to be a cloud, hand, or some other thing shadowing the moon, caused by Wakofida to intimate some great pending calamity. Many are the prophecies on these occasions of war, pestilence, or famine, and their predictions are often verified. Predicting an eclipse does not appear to excite their wonder as much as would be supposed. The writer predicted the eclipse of the moon on Decem- ber 25, 1852, months before, but received no further credit than that of having knowledge enough from books to find out it was to take place. Their year is composed of four man-ko’-cha or seasons, viz, wai-too (spring). min-do-ka’-too (summer), pe-ti-e-too (autumn), wah-nee- e-too (winter). These are only seasons and do not each contain a certain number of days, but times—a growing time, a hot time, a leaf-falling time, and a snow time. These four seasons make a year which again becomes man-ko’-cha or the same as a season. This is difficult to explain. They count by the moon itself and its different phases, not computing so many days to make a moon, nor so many moons to a year. 416 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 They give each moon its name, beginning, say, with the March moon whenever it appears either in February or March, when it would be wee-che’-ish-ta-aza, sore eye moon; next would follow Ta-pa’-ghe-na-ho-to, frog moon; next pe-tai-chin-cha’-ton, buffalo calf moon; next wee-mush-tu, hot moon; next wah-pa’-ze-ze, yellow- Jeaf moon; next wah-pa-ich-pa’-ah, leaf-falling moon; next yo-ka’- wah-how-wee, first snow moon; next we-cho-kun, middle moon; next om-hos-ka-sun-ka-koo, lengthening days moon’s brother; and next om-has-ka, lengthening of days moon. Their year has no beginning nor end. They count and name the moons as they come, and these names are also varied. Any annual remarkably known fact respect- ing the season can be applied to the name of the same moon. Thus the sore-eyed moon can be called the snow-melting moon, and the falling-leaf moon be termed the moon when the buffaloes become fat. These moons suffer no divisions of time except their phases, viz, new moon, increasing moon (first quarter), round moon (full moon), eaten moon (second quarter), half moon, dead moon (invisible). Among themselves they have no division of time equal to a week, although they are aware that we count by weeks, or divining days (Sundays), and will often ask how many divining days (or Sun- days) there are to a given period. An Indian in counting any period less than a year will say 3 moons and a full (314 moons), 4 moons and an eaten one (484 moons), 6 moons and an increasing one (614 moons), ete. These serve all his purposes and when wishing to be more minute and exact he must notch each day on a stick. For a year or four seasons they say a winter. A man may say “I am 40 winters old and one summer.” Yet sometimes the same man will say, “I am 40 seasons old.” This is still right. He will also say that he is 80 seasons old, or 160 seasons old. All of these are correct and under- stood immediately, as in the one case you mentally take the half, and in the other the quarter. This is often done among themselves, but with whites they generally name the winter only to designate the year, yet man-ko-cha (season) is the right name for a year and would be received as such by all the Assiniboin. The day is divided into the following parts: hi-ak-kane (daylight), umpa (morning), wee-he-num-pa (sunrise), wee-wa-kan-too (forenoon), wi-cho-kun (midday), we-coo-cha-nu (afternoon), we-coh-pa-ya (sunset), hhtie- too (twilight), eoch-puz-za (dark), and haw-ha-pip-cho-kun (mid- night). Any intermediate space of time would be indicated by point- ing the finger to the place the sun is supposed to have been at that time. They know nothing of the division of hours and minutes, yet some of the squaws living a long time in the fort can tell the hour and minute by the clock. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 417 They know that the minute hand makes the revolution of the dial plate before it strikes and know the figures from 1 to 12; also that each figure is five minutes apart, and will say it wants so many fives to strike 9, or it has struck 10 and is 5 fives past. This they pick up nearly of their own accord, which proves that some are susceptible of intelligence and education. They know nothing of the solstices nor have any period such as a cycle or century, neither do they believe the world will come to an end or that their priests or any others have the power to destroy or rebuild it. They know and name the North Star the same as we do—wa-se-a- ure-chah-pe (north star)—and also know the Ursa Major, sometimes calling it the “seven stars ” and “the wagon.” They are aware that it makes its revolution around the polar star, pointing toward it, and this is the secret of their traveling by night when there is no moon. They call no other stars by name. The Milky Way is said to be moch-pe-achan-ka-hoo (the backbone of the sky). It is known by them to be composed of clusters of small stars, but they suppose it to bear the same relative position to the arch of the heavens, and to be as necessary to its support as the backbone of any animal to its body. Meteors are falling stars which become extinguished as they fall. They attract but little attention as their effects are never perceived. Aurora borealis is believed to be clouds of fire or something the same as electricity. Being very common and brilliant it creates neither wonder nor inquiry. The moon is not believed to influence men or vegetables nor to have any other properties than to give light by night.’ They sup- pose it to be made of some body wasting away during a given period. Some say it is eaten up by a number of small animals (moles) and Wakofida makes a new one on the destruction of the old. They know very well that all this is error and that the whites have a better philosophy, but will not take the trouble or can not compre- hend our views of the motions of heavenly bodies. Having nothing else better explained to them, they adhere to their own ideas, which are of the simplest and most primitive kind, and do not appear to wish them superseded by others which they can not understand. The same remark would apply to all their astronomical and geo- graphical opinions. They have a correct knowledge of the cardinal points, and honor the east as the first from the fact that the sun rises there. The pipe is first presented to the east, then to the south, sup- posed to be the power of the spirits of their departed friends, then west, then north, and lastly to the earth as the great grandfather of all. The amount of facts or real information they can give are mentioned and as for further explanations, as observed before, they 5It is considered a fetish as a light at night and sacrificed to on this account. 418 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 do not delight to talk about these matters but appear to think them sacred or forbidden fields through which their thoughts ought not to roam. The subject affords no scope for research unless a writer is disposed to collect a number of fables, which would serve no pur- pose unless it be to develop their ignorance and superstition. Furoure Lire Inpran Parapise.—The Paradise of these Indians is in the south in warm regions (not necessarily in the heavens, yet in some imagi- nary country not belonging to earth), where perpetual summer, abundance of game, handsome women, and, in short, every com- fort awaits them; also the satisfaction of seeing their friends and relatives. No quarrels, wars, disturbances, or bodily pain are al- lowed to exist, but all live in perfect harmony. Departed spirits have the power to revisit their native lands, manifest themselves to their friends in dreams, and if they have been neglectful in crying for or feasting them car trouble them with whistling sounds and startling apparitions, many of which are said to be seen and heard and are most religiously believed in by all. Consequently, the dead are feasted (a long ceremony), smoked, sacrificed to, and invoked, besides being cried for years after they are gone, perhaps as long as any of the relatives are living. The heavenly bodies they think may also be residences for spirits, but we think this idea is derived from the whites. The other is the most ancient and original tradi- tion, if not the only one, and is universally believed. This subject will meet with further notice in the course of these pages. ARITHMETIC NUMERATION.—AII these prairie tribes count by decimals and in no other way. The names of the digits are: One—washe’ nah. Six—sha’kpah. Two—noom’pah. Seven—shakkowee. Three—yam’ ine. BHight—sha’kkando’gha. Four—topah. Nine—noo’ mpchewo’ oukkah. Five—ta’ptah. Ten—wixchemenah. After ten the word akkai, dropping the name of the ten, serves until twenty, thus: Eleven—akka’i washe. Seventeen—akkai shakko’. Twelve—akkai noompah. Highteen—akkai sha’kando’gha. Thirteen—akkai yammene. Nineteen—akkai noompchewoukkah. Fourteen—akkai topah. Twenty—wixche’mmene noompa; i. e. Fifteen—akkai zaptah. for twenty, literally two tens. Sixteen—akkai sha’kpah. 5 From twenty to thirty the word “sum” or “ more’ added, thus: (plus) is penic] THE ASSINIBOIN 419 2i—wixchemmena noompa sum washena (two tens plus one). 22—-wixchemmena noompa sum noompa (two tens plus two). 23—wixchemmena noompa sum yammene (two tens plus three), and so on up to thirty, which is three tens or wixchemmene yam’mene. 31—wixchemmene yammene sum washena (three tens plus one). 32—wixchemmene yammene sum noompa (three tens plus two) ; the same as after twenty, and the same after each succeeding ten as far as one hundred, thus— 40—wixchemmene to’pah (four tens). 41—wixchemmene topah sum washena (four tens plus one). 50—wixchemmene zaptah (five tens). 51—wixchemmene zaptah sum washena. 52—wixchemmene zaptah sum noo’mpa. 60—wixchemmene shakpa (six tens). 61—wixchemmene shakpa sum washena. 62—wixchemmene shakpa sum noompa. 70—wixchemmene shakko (seven tens). 7i—wixchemmene shakko sum washena (seven tens plus one). 72—wixchemmene shakko sum noompa. 73—wixchemmene shakko sum yammene. 74—wixchemmene shakko sum topah, ete. 80—wixchemmene shakandogha (eight tens). 90—wixchemmene noomchewouka (nine tens). 100—o-pah-wa-ghe. 101—o-pah-wa-ghe sum washea. 110—opahwaghe sum wixche’mmene. 160—opahwaghe sum wixche’mmene shakpa. 161—opahwaghe sum wixche’mmene shakpa sum washena, 170—opahwaghe sum wixche’mmene shakko. 180—opahwafihe sum wixche’mmene shakandogha. 190—opahwaghe sum wixche’mmene noomchewouka. 200—opahwaghe noompa. 300—opahwaghe yammene. 400—opahwaghe topah. 500—opahwaghe zaptah. 600—opahwaghe shakpah. 700—opahwaghe shakko. 800—opahwaghe Shakandogha. 900—opahwaghe noomchewouka. 1,000—koke-to-pah-wa-ghe. 1,853—koketopahwaghe sum opahwaghe shakandoga sum wixche’mmene zaptah sum yammene. 2,000—koketopahwaghe noompah. 3,000—koketopahwaghe yammene. 4,000—koketopahwaghe topah. 10,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene. 20,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene noompa. 50,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene zaptah. 100,000—opahwaghe koketopahwaghe. 500,000—opahwaghe zaptah koketopahwaghe. ~ 600,000—opahwaghe shakpah koketopahwaghe. 10,000,000—opahwaghe wixehemmene koketopahwaghe. 420 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 Although the computation could thus be carried on to a million yet the Indian would not appreciate the number. We think that after 5,000, or at the utmost 10,000, their ideas fail them; that is, they can not realize in thought more than that amount, yet are able mechanically to count it. This is evident, as they have no distinct name for a million, but are obliged to call it ten hundred thousand, and were they requested to go further would proceed eleven, twelve, thirteen hundred thousand, etc., but not comprehending the great number as a body. They can not multiply or subtract uneven sums without the aid of small sticks or some other mark. Thus to add 40 to 60 would be done by the fingers, shutting down one for each suc- ceeding ten, naming 70, 80, 90, 100. But to add 37 to 94 would re- quire some time; most Indians would count 37 small sticks and beginning with 94, lay one down for each succeeding number, nam- ing the same until all were counted. Now tell them to add 76 to 47 and substract 28. In addition to the first process, and counting the whole number of sticks, he would withdraw 28 and recount the remainder. They are easily confused when counting and consider the knowledge of figures one of the most astonishing things the whites do. In counting with the hand, an Indian invariably begins with the little finger of the left, shutting it down forcibly with the thumb of the right; when the five fingers are thus shut he commences on the thumb of the right, shutting it with the left fist. When wishing to telegraph by signs a certain number less than 10 he holds up that num- ber of fingers, beginning with the little finger of the left hand and keeping the others shut. Should the number be 7, then all the fingers of the left and thumb and finger of the right would be ex- tended, holding up his hands, the rest of the fingers closed. Tens are counted by shutting and opening both hands; thus, 100 would be indicated by shutting and opening both hands 10 times in succes- sion. The number 7 has two names, shakkowee and enshand (the odd number). They count fast enough in continuation from 1 to 100 but must not be interrupted. Corn.—There is not now nor have we any reason to suppose there ever has been among them any coin, shells, wampum, or any other thing constituting a standard of exchange, neither are they ac- quainted with American money. Were a guinea and a button pre- sented there is no question but the Indian would take the latter. They barter their furs for goods which have fixed prices, and are well acquainted with these prices, as also of the value of their robes and furs as a means of purchasing merchandise. Keertne Accounts.—The Indians themselves keep no accounts. The manner in which accounts are kept by whites with them is as follows. We are not exactly acquainted with the minor operations DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 421 in accounts kept by the Hudson’s Bay Co. with the Cree and the Chippewa, but from authentic information the following appears to be their system. A plue is equal to 1 pound beaver skin or 3 shillings sterling (say 67 cents) ; that is, 1 pound of the fur is worth at their forts 67 cents in merchandise at their fixed prices. Therefore a large beaver skin (2 pounds) is 2 plues; 6 muskrats, which are worth from 10 to 121% cents each, is a plue; 1 wolf skin is counted a plue, being equal in value to the standard 67 cents; an otter skin is 2 plues, a red- fox 1, and so forth. All skins and other articles of trade acquired by Indians are reck- oned into plues by the trader and the Indians and the prices of merchandise are computed in the same manner. On the Missouri the plan is somewhat different, to explain which we annex the following accounts copied from our books. It will be necessary to observe that everything is brought to the standard of buffalo robes which have an imaginary value of $3 each in the country. , THE Crazy BEAR, ASSINIBOIN CHIEF 1851 Dr. 1852 Cr. Dee. 3 | To1-3 pt. white blanket 3 robes. | Jan.) 8 |) By.@ robes. = - 2252-2 o 6 robes. To 2 yards blue cloth____ _| 2 robes. By 2 dressed cow skins___ -| 1 robe. To % yard scarlet cloth__-_-__| 1 robe By 30 pounds dried meat______| 1 robe. To 244 pounds tobacco---___-__ 1 robe. By 2-red foxskins..-==- -2.<-1. 1 robe. 1852 By 2 raw cowhides____________ 1 robe. gant; 16) "Po ltorse:! 045. 23 2._L2 et 10 robes. By 1 large elk skin, raw __ 1 robe. To 3 knives_-_--_-_-- --| lrobe. Feb. 10 | By 4 robes__-___-______ 4 robes. To 1 kettle, 2 gallon___ _-| 2 robes. By 12 wolf skins. 4 robes. To 100 loads ammunition______ 1 robe. Balance forward____-__________ 2 robes. 21 robes. 21 robes. 1853 — Feb. 10 | To balance on settlement___.__ 2 robes. Pictorial or other signs are not used in accounts, either by them or the white people. Exements oF Ficures.—A single stroke answers for 1 and each additional stroke marks the additional number as far as 100. When a stroke is made apart, the score is rubbed out and begun again. There are no written nor marked records kept, either on graves or otherwise, of ages or of events, scalps taken, or war expeditions. Their transactions, or coups, as they are called in this country, are pictured on their robes, lodges, and shields, but these wearing out are seldom renewed, particularly when the man becomes old. Also these coups are recounted publicly by the performer on occasions appointed for the purpose, which we shall notice hereafter, and moreover, are Se It is not intended by this that they make no use of picture writing, but that these records are not preserved. For further explanation see picture writing, p. 603. The de vices on their robes are not renewed after they have arrived at a very advanced age, or in other words after their influence and standing has been destroyed by age and helplessness. 422 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 talked of often enough around their firesides. Ages are numbered by particular events that took place at the time they could first recol- lect, and afterwards by certain remarkable years from time to time. Though no Indian can be sure as to his exact age, yet he will not vary more than a year or two as to the time. The cross (X) is not used in counting or for any other purpose, neither does the dot or full comma signify a moon or anything else. MepIcIne GrnerAL Practricr.—They are careful of their sick relatives and particularly so in regard to their children or men in the prime of life. Very aged persons do not, however, meet with such kindness even from their own children, having become useless as a help in camp. Besides being a burden in traveling and a bore and expense, they are anxious to get rid of them and leave them on the plains to die. It must, by no means, be inferred from this that the Indian has no paternal feelings or affection; from several instances of the kind that have come under my observation I am assured it is their in- ability to carry about and along with them aged people. These Indians are poor, have but few horses and are constantly on the move, in all weather, sometimes requiring flight; therefore every- thing that might encumber in the way of baggage is thrown aside, and among other rubbish is classed the aged of both sexes. I am also told that it is often the desire of the aged to be left to die. To keep up appearances with his people, the Indian will generally pay a small doctor’s bill for the relief of his aged relatives, but nothing like the amount the same man would pay for his wife or child. To explain their mode of practicing medicine, surgery, etc., we must be somewhat prolix. In every camp there are several doctors, both men and women, called by them divining men, who have the double reputation of physicians and sorcerers. This is generally some old wretch who is very ugly, of great experience, and who has art enough to induce others to believe in his knowledge, and can drum, sing, and act his part well. The present great doctor and soothsayer is named “ Bull’s Dry Bones,” a very old man who is now with me. This man was once sick and died while the camp was traveling. His friends packed and tied him up in several envelopes of raw hides, blankets, etc., and, after duly crying over him, placed the body in the fork of a tree as is their custom. By some means, however, the man came to life and after great difficulty worked himself out of his bonds, traveled and overtook the camp some days after they had left him. He stated to them that during his decease he had been in other worlds, seen penic] THE ASSINIBOIN 423 much, knew everything, past, present, and future, and from this circumstance he has ever after been considered a great divining man and prophet. We will now state how they proceed in case of sick- ness. A child falls sick. The father or some other near relative immediately sends a gun or a horse to the divining man to secure his services. Sometimes smaller articles are sent, and the doctor, thinking them beneath his notice, will not pay a visit until enough is offered, which amount varies in proportion as the patient’s rela- tives are rich or poor. He then enters the lodge of the sick person in his medical capacity. His instruments are a drum, a chi-chi-quoin, or gourd rattle, and, perhaps, a horn cupping apparatus. He must have (although not perceptible) some things concealed in his mouth or about his person, as will presently appear, although they go usually through their operations entirely naked (except the breech- cloth) and not in a hideous costume as has been represented. The doctor is accompanied by five or six others as old and ugly as him- self, bearing drums, bells, rattles, and other noisy instruments. All sing to the extent of their voices and make a terrible noise with the instruments spoken of. The doctor slowly approaches the patient, applying his mouth to his naked breast or belly, draws or appears to draw therefrom by suction a worm, sometimes a bug, a wolf hair, or even a small snake, making at the same time horrible gestures, grunts, and grimaces. This object he displays to the lookers-on, stating he has extracted the cause of the disease. This operation is repeated several times with like results, and after he and the accompanying band of music partake largely of a dog or other feast provided for them they leave for the time. The whole per- formance, with the music, incantations, preparations, and feast in- cluded, would occupy perhaps from two to three hours and often the whole night, if the performers are paid high. Frequently their diseases are colic from eating unripe fruits and berries er over- loading the stomach, which, of course, get well in a short time and the credit is given to the doctor, each recovery aiding to raise his reputation and enlarge his practice. But if the case is serious and the patient gets worse, the doctor is then paid again and another visit takes place. The forms are always somewhat similar, but on this occasion, in addition to the full band of music and cupping with the horn, besides the usual grimaces, noises, ete., the patient is made to drink decoctions of roots or powders made by the doctors of pulverized roots, rattles of the rattlesnake, calcined bones, etc., the properties of which he is entirely ignorant, and probably the small- ness of the dose preventing them from doing any harm. This, with the noise of the instruments and feast, concludes the second visit. Sometimes the doctor performs alone and keeps up the drumming, etc., all night. In this way by a repetition of visits, if the case is 424 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 of long duration, the whole of the property of the relatives of the sick person falls to the doctor and his assistants, who are also slightly paid for the music. And this is the cause of great individual dis- tress and poverty, though the property given does not go out of the nation, but only changes hands and is liable in like manner to revert to others should the divining man fall sick. In case, after all, the patient dies, it is then the doctor who is in danger, and runs great risk of losing his life, by the parents or relatives of the deceased. Indeed, being aware of this they generally abscond to other camps when death approaches, and whatever property they leave behind is taken from them. No later than last winter the writer paid an Indian to prevent his killing the “ Bull’s Dry Bones” (doctor) who the man said had poisoned his two children six years ago. But the old doctor, although a humbug, is an innocent man and would harm no one. They have various forms of doctoring, in all of which the drum forms a principal figure, and songs and incantations, all of which are most religiously believed in by the Indians. Old women are as often practitioners as old men and of as great celebrity. There is also another reason why these Indians give away so much of their property to the divining man. Independent of these payments securing the doctor’s services, they are considered as sacrifices; that is, the man makes himself poor with a view of propitiating the Great Spirit. Also it is considered and spoken of as a great honor to give away large articles to the divining man, such as horses, guns, etc., and goes to prove the affection with which they regard their sick rela- tives. For a long time afterwards the giver will boast of his liberal- ity in these respects and is also looked upon as a man with a “large heart.” We must, at the risk of not being believed, state that on two particular occasions, and before witnesses, we have examined the divining man’s mouth, hands, and all his person, which was entirely naked, with the view of discovering where these worms, snakes, ete., were hidden, and that these examinations were made without any previous intimations to him who, never having been subject to examinations of the kind by Indians, was completely unpre- pared for the trial, yet he acquiesced cheerfully, afterwards continued his performance, and repeated it in our presence, drawing and spitting out large worms, clots of blood, tufts of hair, skin, etc., too large to be easily secreted, and leaving no visible mark on the patient’s body. The trick was well done and not yet known to any of us. Their knowledge of anatomy consists in being acquainted with the larger bones and joints. They can set a broken arm or simple frac- DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 425 ture tolerably well, and even replace a dislocated shoulder, which they do by pulling and outward pressure from the armpit, but this knowledge is not confined to the divining man nor is it his business more than any other who happens to be present. Most men of middle age have witnessed so many accidents of the kind that they can do this. They are, however, unacquainted with the circulation of the blood and with any judicious treatment of internal diseases, for all of which they resort to incantations and drumming. They do, however, indiscriminately use the vapor bath or sweat house for various complaints. This construction is a small lodge thrown over a basket- work of willows stuck in the ground and bent in an oval or round form, the skins well pinned down and every aperture well closed. The doctor after heating some large stones red hot and putting them into the lodge enters with the patient, both entirely naked and taking along a kettle of water and, as usual, his drum. The lodge is then shut tight by the people on the outside. A brisk singing and drum- ming is kept up in the lodge by the doctor, who at intervals throws water on the stones and steam is raised. A violent heat and perspira- tion takes place, which they endure as long as they can; as soon as the patient is taken out he is immersed in cold water, which in nine cases out of ten results in his death. In this way the Crow Indians lost nearly 200 persons three years since during a_ prevailing influenza. The Mandan and Gros Ventres, however, being accustomed to cold bathing from their youth, are said seldom to suffer any incon- venience but often receive benefit from the vapor bath and immediate cold immersion. They have no names for fevers, consumptions, obstructions of the liver, etc., and can not explain further than by pointing out that part of their body which is in a state of pain. Indeed, in this climate, except consumption, rheumatism and quinsy, diseases are extremely rare; and no febrile symptoms seen except in cases of wounds and parturition when puerperal fever often occurs, and assuming a typhoid form is generally fatal. They are also exempt from paralysis, toothache, and almost all the thousand nervous complaints to which the whites are subject, among which might be mentioned baldness or failure of eyesight from age. Their materia medica is consequently in a very primitive state. They have no medicine except some roots, some of which are known to be good for the bite of the rattlesnake, frozen parts, and inflam- matory wounds. The principal of these is the black root, called by them the comb root (pl. 67, a), from the pod on the top being com- posed of a stiff surface that can be used as a comb. It is called by the French racine noir, and grows everywhere in the prairie throughout the Indian country. It is chewed and applied in a raw state with a 88253°—30——28 426 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 bandage to the part affected. We can bear witness to the efficacy of this root in the cure of the bite of the rattlesnake or in alleviat- ing the pain and reducing the tension and inflammation of frozen parts, gunshot wounds, etc. It has a slightly pungent taste re- sembling black pepper, and produces a great deal of saliva while chewing it. Its virtues are known to all the tribes with which we are acquainted, and it is often used with success. A decoction of the root of cat-tail (pl. 67, 6) is also used to reduce inflammation, and given internally to produce perspiration, but mostly as an external application for wounds, sprains, and pains of all kinds, as also the in- ner bark of the red willow; both of which are said to be beneficial, and are much used by the Indians and French voyageurs in all the Indian country. At the risk of a smile and perhaps something more from the en- lightened civilized medical fraternity we will now state how they absolutely can and do cure hydrophobia, in hopes of furnishing them with a hint that may be improved upon. We have never actually seen this operation, but are as certain of its being done as we can be of anything not seen but in all other respects well authenticated. Al- sa ies though Indians are often bitten by mad i pies ian aig wolves, yet they never die from the disease ST ASEy os eee if operated upon. After it is known that the patient has hydrophobia, the symptoms of which they are well acquainted with, and has had a fit or two, he is sewed up in a fresh rawhide of a buffalo. With two cords attached to the head and foot of the bale the man is swung backward and forward through a hot fire until the skin is burnt to cinders and thé patient is burned and suffocated [sic]. He is brought to the brink of the grave by the operation; taken out in a state of profuse perspiration and plunged into cold water; and if he survives the treatment the disease disappears. The remedy is terrible. Now, if the poison of the rattle- snake is expelled by perspiration by administering ammonia and other remedies, might not the poison communicated by the rabid animal undergo a like process by the violent treatment mentioned, or intense heat produce the desired constitutional revolution and effect a cure. Derpietion py Bueeptne.—They bleed often, both when the pulse is full from sickness and at any time they think it beneficial. The instrument is a sharpened arrow point or any other small piece of pointed iron. (Fig. 30.) They wrap the whole of this with sinew except as much as they wish to enter the vein. It is then tied into a split stick and secured firmly with sinew and being laid on the vein is knocked in suddenly with the thumb and middle finger. They also pENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 427 open the veins of their legs and arms while crying over dead relatives, making large transverse cuts with knives, arrow points, or flints. When they bleed they generally let the blood flow as long as it will without bandage. Cupping is done with a part of the upper end of a buffalo horn, about 21% inches long, and a vacuum is produced by suction with the mouth which, with their powerful muscles and exer- tions, is, of course, double force. It is said to be useful in drawing out the poison of snake bites and is also used for pains and cramps in the stomach, besides for extracting worms, bugs, snakes, etc., as mentioned in the general practice. We believe it may have some- thing of the effect of dry cupping with glasses; they do not, however, scarify before cupping except in cases of snake bites. Srorpacr or Bioop aNp Heatrnc Arr.—For stopping of blood they use cobwebs, dried pulpy fungus, or very fine inner bark of trees. When these are not to be had finely pulverized rotton wood is used. These answer tolerably well when the divided artery is small. They have no good plasters or healing salves. Bandages are mostly tied on too tight, with the view of stopping the bleeding and are left too long before being removed, which fre- quently results in gangrene. They are not skillful nor clean in these things, seldom washing a wound. From actual observation, which has been pretty extensive with regard to cuts and wounds of all kinds, we are disposed to believe that their cure does not depend upon any skill in treatment nor care taken of them, but upon their vigorous constitutions, extremely healthy climate, and strictly temperate mode of life, with perhaps a disposition to heal naturally in the absence of scientific knowledge vouchsafed to the ignorant Indian by an all-wise Creator. Amputation—They never amputate a limb, though fingers and toes often undergo that operation.* The Assiniboin run a sharp knife around the joint of the finger and snap it off. The Crows do the same, but on other occasions take them off by placing a sharp toma- hawk on the finger, it being laid on a block and the tomahawk being struck with a mallet. Whenever a Crow Indian dies his near rela- tives, male and female, sacrifice each a finger and sometimes two, and the loss of these people by sickness and enemies the last few years having been great, there is scarcely such a thing as a whole hand to be found in the Crow Nation. The men reserve the thumb and middle finger on the left and the thumb and two forefingers of the right hand to use the bow and gun, but all the rest are sacrificed. They mostly take them off at the first and second joints, though occasionally lower down. These small amputations are seldom at- ®In the few cases where the Indians have an arm or leg missing, they have been shot off, or so nearly off as not to come under the head of amputation, as but little skin or nerve were to be cut. 428 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 tended with any serious effect, but from their awkward operations the bone frequently projects and requires a long time to heal. They use splints and bark in fractures and lacerated bones, but are not skillful in applying them, nor attentive in removing them, and in a short time the wound smells bad. Their wounded are carried from the field in a blanket, robe, or skin, by four men each holding a corner, who are relieved by others when fatigued, in which way they trans- port them for days and sometimes weeks together. When very badly wounded in an enemy’s country and supposed to be mortally wounded they are left in some point of timber to die. A small stock of pro- visions and ammunition is left with them. They sometimes recover almost by miracle. Instances of this kind are not uncommon and serve to show the suffering an Indian will undergo and the different means he will use to preserve life. TuHerory or Diseases AND THEIR Remepy.—They understand nothing of the properties of mineral medicines except a few simple ones given them by whites of later years, neither are they acquainted with the theory of diseases, being for the most part unable to describe their complaint so that any person could prescribe. They are as ignorant of any true knowledge of diseases or medicines as they are of astronomy or any other science. It is hardly conceivable how the smallpox among Indians could be cured by any physician. All remedies fail. The disease kills a greater part of them before any eruption appears. We have person- ally tried experiments on nearly 200 cases according to Thomas’s Domestic Medicine, varying the treatment in every possible form, but have always failed, or in the few instances of success the disease had assumed such a mild form that medicines were unnecessary. It generally takes the confluent turn of the most malignant kind (when the patient does not die before the eruption), which in 95 cases out of 100 is fatal. It appears to be the natural curse of the red men, and here we leave it, perfectly willing others should do more. We have from year to year tried to introduce general vaccination with kinepock among them, and have even paid them to vaccinate their own children, but they will not have it done to any extent, and the few who will do it more to please us than to benefit themselves. More- over, should any accident happen to the child or even should the Indian miss his hunt, or any casualty befall him or his family, the vaccination would be blamed for it and the good-hearted operator would find himself in a position of danger and expense. There is also great risk in giving them medicines, for should the patient die the whites would be blamed for poisoning him, and should he live the Indian drummer or doctor will get both the credit and the pay. Therefore, as their customs at present stand but little can be done for them, however willing people are to attempt it. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 429 Parturition.—Men never interpose their services in cases of parturition. When there is danger a midwife is called, and the deobstruents administered are castoreum and pulverized rattles of the rattle- snake, either of which have the effect of the ergot. Shampooing is also resorted to with the view of detaching the fetus or expelling the envelope. Nevertheless strangulation and consequently death of both mother and child often happens, not so much in the natural course as when destroyed expressly in utero, as is done by the Crow women and sometimes by the Assiniboin, though not to such an ex- tent by the latter. This is accomplished by violent pressure on the abdomen, by leaning on a stick planted in the ground, and, swinging the whole weight of their body, they run backward and forward, or by violent blows administered by some other person called for the purpose, in all which operations, if the time be not well calculated for expelling the fetus, death is the consequence. Their vapor baths have been alluded to and might prove efficacious in some cases of chronic rheumatism, catarrh, ete., if proper care was taken, but are very pernicious owing to their negligence after- wards, or cold immersion during perspiration. In conclusion we would remark that with regard to any judicious treatment of any disease whatever (that is, any such treatment as would meet medical approbation) they are entirely in the dark. The most of their de- pendence is on the drumming, singing, and incantations which per- haps sometimes have some little effect on the mind of youthful patients, though in these cases the probability is they are more frightened than sick. In a large camp the drum can be heard at all hours of the day and night, as there is always some one who is sick, or thinks he is. What appears singular is that the doctor, knowing his art to be deception, should he fall sick calls for another divining man and pays for the drumming the same as his patients have paid him. This would seem to prove they actually have faith in their own in- cantations, etc. They can not distinguish between an artery and a vein. ‘They call both by the same name, though they say the arteries are large veins. Arteries are compressed, not taken up when cut, and if a large one is cut, the consequence is either mortification from the ligature or, if loosely tied, death by bleeding, which invariably happens when the large artery of the thigh is separated. Indians will receive extensive wounds, apparently mortal, and yet recover. Some years ago an Assiniboin was surrounded by three Blackfeet a few miles from this place. He had fired at a prairie hen, and the moment his gun was discharged the three enemies fired on him. The three balls took effect. One broke his thigh, another the shin bone of the other leg, and the third entered his abdomen and 430 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 came out near the kidney and backbone. They then ran in upon and endeavored to scalp him, running a knife around the cranium and partially withdrawing the scalp. Finding that he struggled they stabbed him with a long lance downward under the collar bone, the lance running along the inside and against the right ribs about 12 inches. They also gave him several more stabs in the body with their knives. In the struggle the man got out the lance and plunging it at them alternately they retired a few paces. The camp in the meantime having heard the firing and suspecting the cause, turned out. The enemies seeing this, decamped, and the Assiniboin carried the wounded man to his lodge. In a few days afterwards the camp passed by the fort and the writer saw this man in so helpless a state that, expecting him to die, nothing was done. The weather was very hot, the wounds had a purple color, smelt bad, and had every ap- pearance of gangrene. The camp moved off and the man in time recovered. The scalp was replaced and grew on again. Here was no judicious treatment, not even ordinary care, for in traveling that is impossible, and very unfavorable weather. This man is yet living and is said by the Indians to bear a charmed life, is respected as a warrior and brave, called “ He who was many times wounded,” and can be seen any time in the Band des Canots of the Assiniboin. GovERNMENT TripaAL ORGANIZATION AND GOvVERNMENT.—The tribe of Indians called Assiniboin is separated into the following distinct bands, viz, Wah-to’-pah-han-da’-tok, or “ Those who propel boats,” by the whites Gens du Gauche, from the circumstance of the old Gauche (chief) spoken of before who for a half century governed this band. It now numbers 100 lodges. The second band, Wah-ze-ab-we-chas-ta, or Gens du Nord, thus named because they came from that direction in 1839 as already represented, though their original appellation was Gens du Lac. These count 60 lodges. Third band, Wah-to-pan-ah, or Canoe Indians, Gens des Canots, who may be recorded at 220 lodges that trade on the Missouri, and 30 lodges more who deal with Ameri- can and British traders near the mouth of Pembina and Red Rivers, occasionally visiting the Missouri. Fourth band, We-che-ap-pe-nah, or Gens des Filles, literally the “ Girls Band ”; these can be put down at 60 lodges. Fifth, E-an-to-ah or Gens des Roches, literally “ Stone Indians,” comprising 50 lodges. The original name for the whole nation given them by the Chippewa (As-see-ni-pai-tuck) has the same‘ signification. Within the last 10 years another division has again arisen, called Hoo-tai-sha-pah or “ Lower End Red,” alias 7 Wor correct meaning see footnote 1. ppnic] THE ASSINIBOIN 431 “Red Root.” These are a branch from the Gens des Canots and odds and ends of other bands and consist of 30 lodges. RECAPITULATION Indian name French name Lodges Chiefs of bands Head chief Wah-to-pah-han-da-toh___-| Gens du Gauche--___- 100 | La Main que tremble___ Wah-ze-ab-we-chas-tab_____ Gens du Nord____----- 60 | Le Robe de vent-_-_------ Wab-to-pan-ah__-_--...---- Gens des Canot_------ 220 | Le Serpent...----------- L’ours Fou or We-che-ap-pe-nah_________- Gens des Filles_-_--_--_- 60 | Les Yeux Gris___------- Crazy Bear. Bpar-to-ah- == -=-.==---.-_-- Gens des Roches- ---_- 50 | Premie® qui volle_------ Hoo-tai-sha-pah---__...---- Le Bas Rouge.-_------- 30 | Le Garcon bleu-_-_------- 520 Average, four and one half persons per lodge. Total, 2,340 souls, These 520 lodges form the nation, with the exception of those residing in the north, whom they never visit. The bands named are distinct and usually encamped in different sections of country, though they mingle for a short time when circumstances require it, such as scarcity of buffalo in some part of their lands or on an approach of a numerous enemy. When these causes for combina- tion cease they separate and occupy their customary grounds sey- erally, within three or four days’ travel of each other. The chief of the whole nation is Crazy Bear, made so by the commissioner of the United States at the Laramie treaty in 1851, not having as yet, however, that popular rule which will follow in due time if the treaty stipulations on both sides are complied with. Cuters.—In each and all the bands mentioned there are several men bearing the character, rank, and name of chiefs. But he only is considered as chief of the band who heads and leads it. Yet this power does not give him a right to tyrannize over any of the other chiefs, or dictate to them any course they would not willingly follow; neither does it detract from their dignity and standing to acknowl- edge him as the head. Some one must be the nominal leader, and as this place involves some trouble and action and is not repaid with any extra honors or gifts it is not in general much envied. More- over, this leader is mostly, if not always, supported by numerous connections who second his views and hence his authority. In fact, these bands are nothing more than large families, the chiefs resem- bling the old patriarchs, being intermarried and connected in such a way as to preclude the probability of clashing of interests or separation. These are the elements of the bands. The chief is little more than the nominal father of all and addresses them as his children in a body. Now, although some of these children may be as brave as he, and have accomplished greater feats in war and the chase, yet they do not feel disposed to dispute his acknowledged authority, neither would 432 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 such insubordinate conduct be submitted to by the mass of the people, without some great mismanagement on the part of the chief, render- ing such a course necessary and inevitable. The process of arriving at the chieftaincy—an instance of which was exemplified in the formation of the Red Root Band and of which we were an eyewitness—has always been the same and is as follows: Some ambitious brave young man with extensive relations separate from another band with 8 or 10 lodges of his connections and rove and hunt in a portion, of the country by themselves, acknowledging this man as their head on account of his known bravery and success- ful management of large war expeditions. From time to time addi- tions are made to this band from other bands of persons with their families who from different causes of dissatisfaction choose to leave their leaders and submit to the government of the new chief. This chief, wishing to rise, does all in his power to benefit his small band by protecting them, choosing good hunting grounds, giving to them all horses and other property taken by him from his enemies, and, if necessary, fearlessly risking his life to strike or kill one of his own people to preserve order or their sense of justice. In the course of some years around this nucleus is assembled a body which assumes the form and name of a band and the leader, rising in power and support, increases in respect, and the standing and name of chief rewards his perseverance. It will be thus seen that the title and posi- tion of chief is neither hereditary nor elective, but being assumed by the right and upon the principles above explained, is voluntarily granted him by his followers. And this is the correct representation of the origin of Assiniboin chieftainship and different bands being the same in all the roving tribes of which we attempt to treat in these pages. This high officer does not, however, at all times wear his honors securely. It is a known impossibility for any man in high station to please everybody, and although surrounded by numerous and strong friends yet he must have some enemies, and it does happen, though rarely, that he is assassinated. But this is more the consequence of some personal quarrel than ambitious designs, for although by assassination the chief is destroyed yet it does not follow thai the assassin would take his place. Generally the reverse is the case and he is obliged to fly or the relatives of the deceased chief would kill him. In the event of the decease of a leader or chief, most likely some one of his rela- tives would succeed him, but whether brother, cousin, or uncle would not matter. ‘The successor must absolutely possess the requisite gov- erning powers, viz, known and acknowledged bravery and wisdom, moderation, and justice. If the relative be thus constituted, he would become the chief, not because he is a relative, or that he is the only brave man in camp—there are many such—but simply by being such penig] THE ASSINIBOIN 433 and having a stronger family connection than any other he would consequently be acknowledged by the greater part of the band. Should there be two candidates for the chieftainship equally capable and related, the question would be decided the first day the camp moved. Each would follow the leader he liked best, and the smaller portion would soon revert to the larger, or if they were equally divided and both parties intractable, a new band would be formed subject to increase under their new leader or to dissolve and mix up with other bands. Viewing things in this light, it is easily comprehended how some personal defect, such as loss of sight or constitutional debility, would depose a chief, but that these unfortunate circumstances should render him a laughingstock and butt for others who before feared and respected him is a trait in their character not to be ad- mired. We have said enough to give a general idea of the origin, progress, and tenure of chieftainship. It is only elective so far as general consent has accorded his right to rule, and is only hereditary, or appears so, because the relatives of the chief are mostly the most numerous, and from their ranks arises a successor. Though we have witnessed the chieftainship pass into other hands when the claims of two powerful families were equal and the abilities or popularity of one of the candidates defective in some principal part. Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, or have anything to say in councils. We know of but one anomalous instance of the kind on the whole upper Missouri which, being very remarkable, merits notice. She is a Blackfoot by birth, but having been taken prisoner when young by the Crows, was raised by and has since resided with that nation, being identified with them. We have Inown this woman for 10 years, and during that time have seen her head large war parties of men against the Blackfeet, bringing away great numbers of horses, and killing several of the, enemy with her own hand. She is likewise a good huntress, both on foot with the gun and on horseback with the bow and arrow, ranks as a warrior and brave and is entitled to a seat in councils of the Crow Nation. She ranked as fifth from the Crow chief in a council held by the writer with the Crows and the Cree at Fort Union on the occasion of making a peace between these two nations. She keeps up all the style of a man and chief, has her guns, bows, lances, war horses, and even two or three young women as wives, but in reality servants. In appearance she is tolerably good-looking, has been handsome, is now about 40 years of age, and still goes to war. Her name is “ Woman Chief,” and although dressed as a woman the devices on her robe represent some of her brave acts. She is fear- less in everything, has often attacked and killed full-grown grizzly bears alone, and on one occasion rode after a war party of Blackfeet, 434 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 killed and scalped one alone (within sight of our fort on the Yellowstone), and returned unharmed amid a shower of bullets and arrows. This extraordinary woman is well known to all whites and Indians. She resided at Fort Union last winter, and appears in pri- vate disposition to be modest and sensible; but she is an only instance in all the roving tribes of the Missouri. Her success induced an imi- tation a few years since by an Assiniboin woman, but she was killed by the enemy on her first war excursion, since which no rivals have sprung up. Having disposed of the chieftainship for the time and separated the nation into bands, we will now proceed to describe other divi- sions which we shall call clans. These are clubs or societies formed by the young men of different bands or of the same band. There are not many among the Assiniboin, they being a small nation, but are numerous among the Sioux and the Blackfeet, bearing the names of Foxes, Foolish Dogs, Strong Hearts, Bulls, Pheasants, ete. Among the Assiniboin are first the braves, Na-pa’-shee-nee, Ceux qui sauvent, who are a picked body of young men, said to be bound by the most solemn promises and oath never to run from an enemy or leave one of their clan in danger. They are chosen from all the bands on account of some previous brave act, and are only known as a body at feasts of their own and on war expeditions. They wear no badges but dance completely naked in public and have different songs, different from those of other dances. The Bulls, Tah-tun-gah, are another of the same kind of clans in the band, Gens des Canots. Their badge is a bull’s head and horns painted on their drums, shields, and robes, also in the Bull Dance they imitate the motions of that animal, his bellowing, and shoot at each other’s feet with powder. When dancing they wear the head and horns of a bull, skinned to the neck, the bones taken out, and the skin dried. Into this the head of the man is thrust, giving him the appearance of half man and half animal. Tuer Snpoo-Kan, “ Crrcumctsep.”—This is a large clan of the band, Gens des Canots, consisting of at ‘least 100 persons, young and old. They have not actually had circumcision performed, but these are called so, and belong to that class who are naturally minus the prepuce. These assemble once or twice a year and their ceremonies are kept somewhat secret. They are, however, obliged to display the part alluded to, to prevent imposition. When wishing to be known in that capacity on private occasions they paint the tip of their nose red. The end of a feather painted red or the pod of the plant sketched as the comb root stuck in their hair is equally significant. ‘The Fox and Wolf clans are small and only appear to differ in the manner of their dances and songs. There does not seem to be much DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 435 importance attached to these clans, neither do they appear to be of much use, and most likely are got up for the purpose of display, dancing, and other ceremonies, but as soon as these are over mix up with the bands they belong to, and are very little talked of. There are no minor subdivisions except into families. These remarks answer nearly all search for origins of bands in badges and names of bands. Now, as far as the roving tribes are concerned, this is error. The names of the Assiniboin bands we have mentioned and those of the Sioux now follow, some of which consist of two, three, and four hundred lodges, and none of them have the least reference to Bear, Wolf, Eagle, Fox, or Father, Grandfather, Uncle, etc., or anything of the kind. The names of the different bands of the Missouri and the Platte Sioux are Lower Yanctons, Sechong-hoo (Burnt Thighs), Oglala, Sawone,® Minneconzshu, Etasepecho (Sans Arcs), Honcpapa, Seah- sappah (Blackfeet Band), Wohainoompa (Two Kettle Band), Mide- wahconto, Esantees, Teezaptah, Zahbaxah (Téte Coupées), Waze- cootai (Tireur dans les Pines). As before remarked, not one of these names bears the most distant resemblance to any living animal, bird, and so forth, neither have any of them any general badge representing these things as symbolical of their band.® The clans before referred to are of no importance in their government and with the Sioux and with the Assiniboin are only recognized as separate bodies during their dances and other ceremonies. Is each band entitled to one or more chiefs? There is, as observed before, but one nominal chief to each band, and it is he who leads it. Yet this position does not destroy nor militate against the will of several others in the same band whose voices are as much entitled to a hearing and sometimes more so than his. No man’s rule over them is absolute; their government is pure democracy. Their consent to be governed or led by any man is voluntarily given and likewise with- drawn at the discretion of the person. But their existence as a people depends on forming themselves into bodies capable of defense. These bodies must have leaders and these leaders must be brave, re- spected, followed, and supported. In case of a treaty either with whites or with Indians of other nations, the leading chief’s voice would have no additional weight because he is in that position. He would be allowed to state his opinions with others of the same stand- ing as men in the same band, but nothing more. As a good deal that is to follow will depend upon receiving a correct idea of these chiefs or leaders we do not like to leave any portion of these matters ob- scure or unanswered. There are no bands more honorable than 8 This term is the same as Saone or Sanona. ®° Here Denig seems to refer to what is commonly called clan totems. 436 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 others; some are more powerful, more rascally, or more tractable, but no aristocratic or honorable distinctions exist. Sorprers.—Having mentioned and explained the divisions of bands and clans with the chiefs thereof, the next important body in their government is the ah-kitch-e-tah,° or soldiers or guard. These soldiers are picked from the band on account of their proved bravery and disposition to see things well conducted. They are men of family from 25 to 45 years old, steady, resolute, and respectable, and in them is vested the whole active power of governing the camp or rather of carrying out the decrees and decisions of councils. In a camp of 200 lodges they would number 50 to 60 men, and in a camp of 60 lodges 10 to 15 men. The soldiers’ lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and occupied by some of them all the time, although the whole body are only called when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided upon. ‘This is their statehouse; all business relative to the camp and other nations is transacted there, and all strangers or visitors, white or red, are lodged therein. Neither women, children, nor even young men are allowed to enter in business hours and seldom are seen there at any time. All tongues of animals killed in hunting belong to this lodge if they wish them, and the choicest parts of meat are furnished them by the young hunters all the time. A tax is also laid on the camp for the tobacco smoked here, which is no small quantity, and the women are each obliged to furnish some wood and water daily. What are the general powers of chiefs in council? To explain this, it will be necessary to describe a council as witnessed by me a few years since. The camp when I was a visitor consisted of about 110 lodges and in the neighborhood, say, 10 or 15 miles off were two other camps, respectively 50 and 60 lodges, all being of the band Gens des Canots. The council was held in the soldiers’ lodge, where, being a stranger, I had a right to be, though having nothing to say regarding the question. This question was, Will we make peace with the Crow Nation? A few days previous the leading chief had received an intimation through me that overtures for a peace were made to them by the Crow Nation, and that the Crow tobacco sent for that purpose was in my possession at any time the council assembled; also that a deputation of Crow Indians was at the Fort, who had commissioned me to bear the tobacco with their request and to await a reply prior to their visiting the camp in person. To decide this runners were sent immediately to the two camps mentioned with a message from the chief requesting the attendance of all chiefs, counsellors, soldiers, and warriors who felt an interest 1°Jn form and sense this term ah-kitch-e-tah is identical with the Chippewa kitchitwa, “sacred, holy, honorable,” and with the Cree okitchitaw, ‘‘a brave, a soldier, un soldat).” ~~ DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 437 in the affair in question, who in due time arrived and took up their residence in the different lodges around about until the hour for busi- ness arrived. When it was ascertained that all or a sufficient number had come the haranguer or public erier of the camp made the circle of the village, speaking at the extent of his voice the object of the meeting and inviting all soldiers, chiefs, and braves or warriors to attend and hear what their chief would bring before them for their Lodge door Ficurn 31.—Diagram of a council lodge, representing the interior of a council lodge in which Mr. Denig met the Assiniboin leaders to discuss peace overtures made by the Crow Indians to the Assiniboin at the instigation of Mr. Denig. At a point directly opposite the doorway Mr. Denig is seated with the proffered tobacco of the Crow Indians lying in front of him, denoted by 3 parallel marks; at Mr. Denig's right sits the leading Assiniboin chief; to his right sit 6 other chiefs and councillors; next are seated 18 so-called “ soldiers,” i. e., official guards of the camp; the next 15 figures are 15 principal young warriors. The small square figure with a central dot is a small fire; and the small circlet beside the fire is a flagstaff running up through the lodge top, flying a United States flag. The calumet pipe lies in front of the leading chief, consideration. This was repeated over and over again in different parts of the camp, and shortly afterwards they began to assemble in the soldiers’ lodge. Three skin lodges had been formed into one, making an area 24 feet in diameter, which could with ease accom- modate 60 to 80 persons. On this occasion about 46 people presented themselves and when the whole had entered the interior exhibited the form shown in Figure 31, » A388 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 It was nearly sunset when they had assembled and no feast had been prepared in this lodge, though after the council was over they were feasted elsewhere. We have here the represented authority of 220 lodges, for the chiefs are largely connected, having from 10 to 20 or more lodges of their immediate relatives each. The soldiers are the most respectable heads of families in camp, and the warriors are the sons and relations of these and others of the camp. If this body decides on carrying a point who are to object? Those about are also related to those present and these being the principal leave only young rabble, very old men, women, and children not repre- sented, all of whom combined could do nothing against the decision of this body. We will now proceed with the ceremony. For nearly a half hour the pipe was passed around in silence, it being filled with their own tobacco and handed from mouth to mouth, making its circuit on the right-hand, after which it was laid down by the lead- ing chief and he opened the meeting by thus stating its object, the words of whom and others were taken down by us at the time and preserved. It will be necessary to state here that the Crow Indians had massacred about 30 lodges of this same band two years previous on the banks of the Yellowstone, yet had succeeded in making a peace with some of the upper bands of Assiniboin who had not suffered by them. The leading chief spoke thus from where he sat: “My children, Iam a mild man. For upward of 20 years I have herded you together like a band of horses. If it had not been for me, you would long ago have been scattered like wolves over the prairies. Good men and wise men are scarce; and, being so, they should be listened to, loved, and obeyed. My tongue has been worn thin and my teeth loosened in giving you advice and instruction. I am aware I speak to men as wise as myself, many braver, but none older or of more experience. I have called you together to state that our enemies (the Crows) have sent tobacco, through the me- dium of the whites at the big fort, to me and my children, to see if they could smoke it with pleasure, or if it tasted badly. For my part I am willing to smoke. We are but a handful of men sur- rounded by large and powerful nations, all our enemies. Let us therefore by making a peace reduce this number of foes and increase our number of friends. I am aware that many here have lost rela- tives by these people, so have we by the Gros Ventres, and yet we have peace with them. If it be to our interest to make peace all old enmities must be laid aside and forgotten. I am getting old, and have not many more winters to see, and am tired seeing my children gradually decrease by incessant war. We are poor in horses—from the herds the Crows own we will replenish. They penic] THE ASSINIBOIN 439 will pay high and give many horses for peace. The Crows are good warriors, and the whites say good people and will keep their word. Whatever is decided upon let it be manly. We are men; others can speak. I listen—I have said.” This speech was received by a slight response by some of Hoo-o-0-0 and by the majority in silence. After a few minutes’ interval he was replied to by another chief, the third or fourth from where he sat. This was a savage, warlike, one-eyed Indian, and his speech was characteristic. He said: “ He differed from all the old chief had said regarding their enemies. Individually as a man and as their leader he liked his father, the chief, but he must be growing old and childish to advise them to take to smoke the tobacco of their enemies, the Crows. ‘Tell the whites to take it back to them. It stinks, and if smoked would taste of the blood of our nearest relations. He thought (he said) his old father (the chief) should make a journey to the banks of the Yellowstone, and speak to the grinning skulls of 30 lodges of his children, and hear their answer. Would they laugh? Would they dance? Would they beg for Crow tobacco or cry for Crow horses? If horses were wanted in camp, let the young men go to war and steal and take them as he had done—as he intended to do as long as a Crow Indian had a horse. What if in the attempt they left their bones to bleach on the prairie? It would be but dying like men! For his part it always pleased him to see a young man’s skull; the teeth were sound and beautiful, appearing to smile and say, ‘I have died when I should and not waited at home until my teeth were worn to the gums by eating dried meat.’ The young men (he said) will make war—must have war—and, as far as his influence went, should have war. I have spoken.” This speech was received with a loud and prolonged grunt of approbation by more than two-thirds of the assembly. Other speeches followed on both sides of the question, some long, some short, until the council became somewhat heated and turbulent; not, however, interrupting one another, but mixing a good deal of private invective and satire with the question in their speeches. At a point of violent debate and personal abuse, two soldiers advanced to the middle of the lodge and laid two swords crosswise on the ground, which signal immediately restored order and quiet. The debate was carried on with spirit for about two hours but it was easily to be perceived long before it terminated, by their responses and gestures, that the war faction greatly predominated. The chief, after asking if all had spoken and receiving an affirmative answer, remarked they could go and eat the feast that had been prepared for them. The warriors gave a loud yell and when out commenced 440 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 singing their war song. We asked the old chief what was the deci- sion. He said,“ It is plain enough; listen to that war cry.” He then desired me to send the Crow tobacco back without delay and tell them to leave the fort immediately and go home. A few days after a large war party started to the Crow village. The morning after the council’s decision was made known by the haranguer or public crier, at the break of day, walking through the village and crying it out at the top of his voice. From the foregoing it will be seen that the chief only expressed his opinion as the others, yet the large ma- jority or rather the feeling evinced for war by the leaders of the war parties, warriors, heads of families, soldiers, and all who could make war, left none to contend with. Had the same general exhibition for peace prevailed, the same powers could make it, or rather force would be unnecessary when a unanimity of such a body prevailed. Had the parties or feeling been equally manifest the question would have been laid aside for another time, perhaps years, and each went to war or remained at home as he pleased. Most councils have this feature and termination, that is, if the measure is not at once visibly popular, it is abandoned. This pre- cludes the necessity of vote and none is taken. Besides, except for camp regulations, hunting, ete., they are not obliged to decide. Time is not valuable to them. There is no constituent power in the rest of the band, whose voices are not asked, nor required, to force a deci- sion, nor actual power to operate against any measures, that may be decided upon by their parents, and soldiers of the camp. Wher- ever force is necessary, however, to carry out these decisions, as in hunting regulations, the soldiers are pledged to act in a body to effect it, even at the risk of their lives. But should the decision be for a peace and afterwards a war party be raised to go against the nation with which peace has been made, the soldiers would not use force to prevent it. They have too much good sense to strike or kill any of their own people to benefit their enemies, and in this case the peace party being the most numerous, and consequently the richer, would pay the partisan, or leader of the party, to remain at home and a collection of horses, guns, and other property made among them for that purpose, which being handed the partisan and by him divided among his warriors, stops the expedition. This is done often among them, particularly at this time when “ peaces ” have become tolerably general through the Laramie treaty. There are cases, however, where force is necessary, and the soldiers are brought to act, which we will shortly mention. To present any idea of their government so that it can be understood, we must first proceed to describe the component parts of a large camp, after which it will be easy to perceive their principles of government, The regu- DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 44] lations kept up in the following description is only in large camps: Smaller ones, from 10 to 20 lodges, hunt, every man when he pleases, and, as there are but few persons to feed, they can always have meat in this way; but where the camp is composed of from 50 to 100 or 200 lodges this is not the case, as will presently appear. COMPONENT Parts or A LARGE CAMP 1. The leading chief. 10. Partisans.14 2. The other chiefs. 11. Doctors and conjurors. 3. Chief of the soldiers. 12. Very old men. 4. Cook of the soldiers’ lodge. 13. Young women. 5. The soldiers. 14. Old women. 6. The elderly men. ~ TS. Middle-aged women. 7. The haranguer. 16. Boys and girls. 8. The master of the Park. 17. Very small chlidren. 9. Warriors and hunters. The ordinary occupations of these several divisions of the camp will now be taken up in order. 1. The leading Chief, Hoon-gah, being the head, is expected to devote his time to studying the welfare of his people. It is for him to determine where the camp shall be placed and when it should move; if war parties are advisable, and with whom, how many, and at what time; where soldiers’ camps and the soldiers’ lodge should be established; when traders are wanted in camp, or when they shall go to the fort to trade; to call councils on these and all other affairs of general interest. 2. The other Chiefs, Hoo-gap-pe. These are sometimes counselled privately in their lodges by their leader and their advice followed if correct and according to his views. They sit in council when called, and rank equally with the leader as men, warriors, counsellors, etc., except they do not publicly attempt to lead or act without his knowl- edge and consent. 3. Chief of the soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah Hoon-gah. This is the head man in the soldiers’ lodge; sees to their property therein, whether there is wood, water, tobacco, and meat enough; opens coun- cils; sometimes sends invitations for the others to assemble when the Chief requests, and on small occasions of his own accord; makes feasts; lights the pipe in large assemblies, and is the nominal head of this active body; is a highly respected and useful officer in camp. He has much influence with the young warriors and is selected from among the bravest of them. 4. Cook of the soldiers’ lodge. First, Wo-ha-nah; second, Wah- yu-tena. This functionary is also a soldier and a highly respectable officer, ranking next to the Chief of the soldiers. 4 Denig employs the word partisan in the sense of “a leader of a war party.” 88253 °—30——29 449 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 Eating being one of the Indian’s most important occupations, the care of the meat, choice of the parts, and separation of the whole depending upon him, the station becomes at once of consequence and requires a determined man. On feasting, which in that lodge is going on every night, if not every day, he dishes out the meat into wooden bowls and gives to each the parts he chooses. Of a dog, the head, paws, and grease—bouillon—are the most honorable parts. There is great etiquette shown in this respect, and it is too long a story to record when there is so much yet to be written. 5. The soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah. These are the bravest and most orderly men of from 25 to 35 years of age. They have been and are still warriors and leaders of parties to war, are chosen expressly to carry out the decrees of the council, even at the risk of their lives, to punish people for raising the buffalo, setting the prairie on fire, govern the camp, protect whites and strangers of other nations in camp, entertain and feast the same, arrange preliminaries of peace, trade, and generally to aid their chief in carrying out his views and decisions of council. 6. Elderly men, We-chap-pe. These may be called the body of the camp, being men of family, about 40 years old, have been warriors and soldiers when younger, but have abandoned these occupations, devote their time to hunting, are still good hunters, try to amass horses and other property by making robes, endeavor to get their daughters married well, send their sons to hunt or to war. They are respectable, quiet, peaceable men, among their own peo- ple, content to follow their leader and obey the council, rank as coun- cillors when they wish, are always invited though but few attend except on interesting occasions. 7. The Public Crier. First name, Ponkewichakeah ; second, Hoon- kee-yah. This is some elderly or middle-aged man who has a strong voice and a talent for haranguing. He answers the purpose of the daily newspaper of the whites. (S alumet Calumet THE CALUMET AND ITS ACCOMPANIMENTS A, The pipestem of ash wood, garnished about half its length with porcupine quills of various colors; a red-headed woodpecker. B, a large red-stone pipe; C, C, C, three tails of the war eagle, feathers connected with sinew and beads or shells between. The stem or stalk of the feathers is garnished with colored porcupine i D, D, two festoons of beads or shells with a small strip of otter skin on which the beads are ~, the head of a mallard duck (male) without the under bill. Sometimes this is the head of DENIG] TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 447 mences the ceremony of unrolling it, and at the taking off of each envelope says a few words equivalent to “ Peace we wish,” “ Look over us, Wakofda,” “ This to the Sun,” “This to the Earth,” etc., giving, as it were, some distinction or value to each envelope. After a long time and the untying of many knots, the pipe and stem ap- pear, with a tobacco sack, a bunch of sweet-smelling grass, a probe for the pipe, and a small sack containing a charm or amulet. The Pipe is on this occasion filled from the tobacco (or mixture) sack by the chief of the soldiers, though not lit, and in this way handed to his own chief. He (the chief) now stands up, the different depu- tations of nations sitting opposite each other on either side of the lodge. He first presents the pipe to the East, singing a gentle and harmonious song for about a minute, then presents it South, West, North, to the Sky and lastly to the Earth, repeating the song at each presentation. In conclusion he turns it slowly three times round, and lays it down, all responding hoo-o-00 as the pipe is placed on the ground. The chief now sits down in his place, and the Chief of the soldiers rises. He lights the pipe with a piece of the sweet-smelling grass—if the strangers are of the Crow nation a piece of dried buffalo dung is used to light it—stands up and presents it precisely to the same points as the chief had done without singing, giving three puffs or whiffs of the pipe to every presentation, finishing in the same way the chief had done, and, receiving a loud prolonged universal hoo-o-00 or grunt of approbation, he then resumes his seat. The chief now rises the sec- ond time and having had the pipe relighted, holding the stem in his hand advances and presents it, or rather places it in the mouth of the head man of the strange deputation, allowing him to take a few whiffs, passes to the next and the next, they sitting and he moving round from one to another until all the strangers have been smoked, then he hands the pipe to the chief of the soldiers and sits down. This officer now presents the pipe in the same way to his own chief and going round the other side smokes all his people, and hands the pipe to another soldier, who goes the whole round again, and this is repeated over in silence for at least two hours, when the pipe is laid down by the chief, and speeches or signs begin by which they arrange the preliminaries of a peace. After all is settled the pipe undergoes the ceremony of rolling up, which is fully as long, though not in silence, conversation becoming general and ordinary pipes being introduced. The termination on this occasion is a grand feast in the soldiers’ lodge to the strangers, and invitations to 50 or more other feasts in camp, to all of which they must go, and when all is finished the strangers are accommodated with temporary wives during their short residence. 448 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 There is generally order observed in the breaking up of councils, the chief saying “ We are done,’ when all retire. Occasionally, however, it breaks up turbulently, and they separate in passion, but the subject is recouncilled and settled in order the next time. Dif- ferent councils have different ceremonies. Some open and some close with feasts of dog meat. The pipe is never omitted, though the real calumet is never opened except in dealings with strangers. In all other councils soldiers’ pipes are used. The duties of the public crier we have already mentioned. Questions are well debated, and generally decided on the spot or abandoned as already explained on the principle of large majorities, or rather general approbation, though absolute unanimity is not required. The few who oppose say nothing against the affairs when once decided, and although they do not relinquish their opinions, yet can not or will not go contrary to the wishes of the many. But the voice of the leading chief is in no instance taken as the expression of the will of even a single band, much less a whole tribe. Score or Crvit Jurispicrrion.—A decision by the body of the coun- cil is carried into effect by the soldiers, by force if necessary, as in the case of hunting by the surround, removing neighboring lodges of their own people who are so placed as to bar the passage of the buffalo toward the camp. Lodges thus situated are invariably forced to come and join the camp or to remove so far as to be no obstruction to the passage and advance of the buffalo, and to move them against their will is often a serious and always a dangerous undertaking. They do it, however; that is, the soldiers turn out in a body, kill their dogs, and keep doing damage until they leave. The power of taking life is not invested in any body of Indians, neither has the council any right to take cognizance of or legislate on the subject. If a soldier is killed in doing his duty the body of soldiers would imme- diately fall upon the murderer or on any of his relatives, should he have absconded. Crimes of this kind are privately redressed and revenged by the relatives of the deceased, and as the murderer always flies, it is often years before they can get an opportunity to kill him, yet vengeance only slumbers. A1l these things will be fully explained under the head of “ Crime.” It might, however, be as well to state here that there is no public body among them whose duty it is to punish crime of any kind, nor any authority equivalent to or resem- bling a court of justice. Consequently, there are no public or stated executions, neither is there any person who exercises the functions of public executioner. All this will be fully explained, as also the restoration of property, in the place where rights of property are considered. Cuiersnip.—How are rank and succession in office regulated? The circumstances of the decease of the leading chief and the suc- pena] THE ASSINIBOIN 449 cession has already been referred to. If not yet sufficiently explicit, we may in addition state that it would be a subject of earnest debate in council, not so much with the view of choosing the successor, as this individual had long before been tacitly acknowledged, being the next most popular leader of the right kind, and of the most numer- ous connections, but to install that person into office, intimating their desire that he should lead and govern the camp. This might be called election, although no vote is taken, yet if a general feeling in his favor prevails he becomes their leader; if not, those who dissent have the privilege of leaving that band and joining another, or if numerous enough for the general purposes of hunting and defense can form a band of their own and choose a leader from among themselves. In all this we hope to have been sufficiently explicit as not to present any idea of a distinct line of hereditary succession. A chief would be deposed from his office by being guilty of any conduct that would bring upon him general disgust and dissatisfac- tion. Though crimes in the abstract could not have this tendency, yet if he murdered a man without cause whose relations were numer- ous, a skirmish between the two families and immediate separation would be the consequence. If the murdered man was friendless nothing would be done and the rest would fear him the more. The offenses that would most likely lead to his overthrow would be re- markable meanness, parsimony, or incest. A chief must give away all to preserve his popularity and is always the poorest in the band, yet he takes good care to distribute his gifts among his own rela- tives or the rich, upon whom he can draw at any time should he be in need. We take the custom of wearing medals to be a modern one, at least they say so, introduced by the whites. The ancient mark of distinction was, and still is, the feathers of the eagle’s tail, wrought into headdresses of various forms, which to this day is the badge denoting the chief and great warrior, and are not allowed the ordi- nary class to wear. Tattooing also is a mark of dignity. We have already named the principal chiefs of bands, though there are others, but by no means a numerous body. But few Indians go through war enough to arrive at that position, more especially as the same individual must be possessed of other natural talents and wisdom. The number is not limited but is from 3 to 6 or 8 in bands respectively of 50, 100, and 200 lodges. It makes no difference in their government whether they be few or many; if many, so much the better, as they are wise, brave, and responsible men. Power or THE War Curer.—No chiefs are war chiefs in contra- distinction to their being civil chiefs. If it is desirable to go to war and so decided, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has a right to 450 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [DTH. ANN. 46 raise and lead a war party, provided he can get followers. He then comes under the head of partisan or captain of the expedition, his powers in this capacity only lasting during the excursion and termi- nating on his return to camp and resuming his civil place and duties. The powers of war and civil chief are united in the same, also those of warrior and hunter, soldier and hunter, soldier and partisan, chief and partisan. The leading chief could also and often does guide the whole band to war; in fact in the event of any general turnout, he must be the head. Any man, however, in whom the young men have confidence to follow, may raise and lead a war party, if war is going on and the time suits the chiefs and soldiers in council assembled. But as the chiefs and soldiers are the most experienced in this occupation, and are better acquainted with their enemies’ country, they are generally chosen as leaders in these expeditions. Yet from among the warrior class, occasionally a young partisan arises who is neither chief nor soldier, but whose character for brav- ery, caution, and all the necessary talents is established. There is no specified age when a young man may rightfully express his opin- ion. This depends on his success in war, his general good behavior, activity in hunting, etc. When he becomes remarkable for these things he is noticed by the soldiers, invited to feasts, to councils, where being of sufficient consequence his opinion is asked and is given. We have known men not over 22 to 24 years of age being called upon to speak in council, and others to arrive at extreme old age without ever opening their lips there. An Indian soon sees and feels his standing with the others, and acts accordingly; to do other- wise, or force his presence and opinions prematurely, would only incur ridicule, contempt, and disgrace. Power or THE Priests ty Councit.—The power of priests is con- joined with that of doctors, sorcerers, and prophets, to which is oc- casionally added that of councillors, as they are sometimes shrewd old men and somewhat feared on account of their supposed super- natural powers; but they do not influence councils in any great de- gree, seldom attending at all. Whatever influence they have on public questions must be exercised in council, and not as a separate body. They do not constitute a body and only rank as councillors when their former exploits have been of a nature to entitle them to that position, and their age is not too far advanced. Being generally very old, their opinions in council are not much regarded. Their forte is at the bed of the sick or in other operations where something is to be gained. In making war or peace they would have little to say, in a cession of lands still less, and in conducting war parties noth- ing at all. The old Gauché mentioned before, although a divining man, was a warrior, not old at that time, and feared because he had the power over their lives by the use of poisons which he made no DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 451 scruple to administer; besides he was no doctor nor sorcerer on other occasions, and was one of the greatest chiefs the Assiniboin ever had. He was uniformly successful in his young and middle time of life, although he failed in age and died as recorded. This extraordinary man does not present a correct sample of a priest or sorcerer as now considered, and is an anomalous case. Matrons 1x Councm.—Neither matrons nor any other women whatever sit in council with the men of any of the Missouri tribes, nor have they privately any influence over men in their public affairs, and take but little interest in them. Their domestic duties occupy most of their time and their social position is inferior to that of men in every respect. We have heard of only one instance where : woman was admitted in council, during a period of 21 years’ con- stant residence with all these tribes. GeneraL Councrts.—The roving tribes call no general councils with other nations. Even those with whom they have for a long time been at peace they look upon suspiciously and seldom act to- gether in a large body. We have known, however, a combination of Cree, Chippewa, and Assiniboin, consisting of 1,100 men, who, having met in council, went to war upon the Blackfeet. The council was formed by the Cree and Chippewa sending tobacco to the Assiniboin during the winter, to meet them at a certain place the ensuing spring, where, after deliberating the matter at home, they went and formed the above-named expedition. It is the misfortune of all large bodies of Indians formed of different nations to meet with failure. They can not act ina body. Jealousies arise between the soldiers of the different nations, often quarrels, and always sep- arations and defeat of the object. The evil appears to be the want of a commander in chief whom all are content to follow and obey; also their ignorance and unwillingness to submit to discipline, restraint, or subordination. Opinions clash, rank is interfered with, rebellion, dissatisfaction, and consequent separation follows; or should any considerable body keep on, their march is conducted in such a disorderly manner that their enemies have time and notice to enable them to hide or prepare for them. These tribes are not yet far enough advanced in civil organization to enable them to unite for any great purpose, excepting their mutual and general interest require it. The only way they could and do accomplish anything of importance at war by combination is by each nation being headed and commanded by their own leaders and going to war upon the general enemy at different times and entirely inde- pendent of each other. This increases the number of war expedi- tions and annoys the enemy from different quarters, but does not give them the advantage of bringing large armies into the field. 452 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 Private Ricut to Take Lire.—Every Indian believes he has a right to his own life and consequently to defend it. There being no persons or body whose duty it is to punish crime, trespass, or insult, each individual is taught when a boy, and by experience when a man, to rely entirely on himself for redress or protecting his person, family, and property. Every one is thus constituted his own judge, jury, and executioner. Whether the person wronged is right in his means of redress does not matter. He thinks he is right and risks the consequences of retaliation. Every Indian being armed induces the necessity of each using arms; therefore when an Indian strikes, stabs, shoots, or attempts to do these things it is always with an intent to Jall, knowing if he misses his aim or only wounds, the other revenges either on the spot or after, as occasion requires or opportunity offers. Therefore he can not act otherwise. This being the state of things, quarrels are not so common as might be supposed. When it is uni- versally known that a blow or a trespass would entail death as its consequence they are avoided, or if unavoidable each endeavors to gain an advantage over the other by acting treacherously or waiting a favorable time when he least expects it to kill or strike him, stating for his reason that if he had not killed him the other only waited the same opportunity against himself. A fair chance to kill or strike does not always present itself. The relations may be too numerous on one side, and the object of contention (be it a horse or a woman) is given up for the time by the weaker party, apparently willingly. yet he only waits until their situations are reversed to seek redress. When a man has killed another, if the relatives of the deceased are more numerous than his own, he flies to a distant part of the country, joins another band and seeks protection there, where he is not sought by the next of kin at the time, but will be killed whenever they meet. In the meantime the relatives of the offender pay much to stop the quarrel. If the killed and the killer are both of the same band and equally strong in relationship perhaps nothing would be done at the time as the rest of camp would endeavor to stop a skirmish, and a good many guns, horses, and other property would be raised and presented the relatives of the deceased to stop further bloodshed. This generally concludes an amnesty or respite for the time, but the revenge must be accomplished at some time by the next of kin, otherwise it would be a great disgrace to him or them. An opportunity to kill the offender with comparative safety is then sought, perhaps for years, or as long as any of that generation lives. Time and absence may have the effect of giving the murderer a chance to die in some other way or of diminishing the force of the revenge so that he does not find himself in a position to act with any degree of safety when an DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 453 occasion offers. Yet, if of standing in camp, and a brother, father, or brother-in-law to the deceased, he is bound to revenge at some time, though they make no scruple to receive presents of horses, etc., to refrain in the meantime. Thus the death of a man is never paid for by that generation, though by that means the revenge may be delayed for some years, which is all they can do except surrendering up their relative to the incensed party, which would not for a mo- ment be thought of. We have known three or four horses to be given on the instant by the friends of the offender to those of the deceased and the same to be repeated yearly for two to six years and more, yet still revenge was consummated. On one occasion I asked the man why he killed the other after so long a time and taking property as payment from his relatives and friends. He answered that the pay was well enough as long as the culprit kept out of his sight; that remuneration only destroyed the disposition to seek him out and kill him, although it did not affect the right to revenge if he was fool enough to thrust himself in his way. When he saw him his blood boiled, his heart rose up, and he could not help it. Besides (he observed) he was obliged to kill him, as the other, being afraid of him, would do the same to him to save his own life. Thus the killing of one induces the necessity of killing another, and there is no end to the affair. The other party are obliged to re- taliate and so on through several generations. In this way a good many of the family of the chief, Wah-he Muzza, have been killed, and the smallpox settled the affair by taking off the offenders on the other side. It will be inferred from this that vengeance is not ap- peased by payment, absence, or the lapse of time, and in the instances where retaliation has not followed after payment we believe they may be ascribed to a decrease in the relationship of the deceased or other domestic changes or reverses which render vengeance out of their power, or too dangerous to accomplish, in which case the rela- tives get over it by saying they have been paid or forgotten it, yet at the same time would revenge, could they act with safety, or even a chance of comparative safety. Sometimes, however, large offers of recompense are rejected by the father or brothers of the deceased, and the tender is then made to relatives not so closely connected, who generally accept. Herein the cunning of the Indian is manifest. This is a point gained. A negotiation is opened in the family of the deceased and a difference of feeling established with regard to the offender, slight to be sure, but it is there, and is worked by these distant relatives to his advantage and their own, and opens a way through which presents and overtures of compromise may be offered the brothers, etc. But there is no dependence to be placed on anything a wild Indian does. 454 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 Neither do they depend on one another. They are suspicious in everything, and more particularly so when life is at stake. In these compromises no one is deceived—either he who takes or he who re- ceives—the minds of both are perfectly known to each other, the object of the one party being to gain time, and of the other to lull suspicion and make the offender and his relatives poor by accepting their property. We think we have presented their customs in this respect in their true light, viz, that although the compromise be effected and vengeance for the time suspended, yet the feeling is not changed or the right to punish relinquished; but time may make such a change on either part as to render revenge impracticable. There is no recognized principle or means of escape for the murderer unless it be to flee and join another nation with whom they are at peace, wiarry and remain there. It will now be necessary to state that the Crow Indians are better regulated in this respect than any of the prairie tribes, Private murders are nearly unknown among them. Our knowledge of this nation from certain sources extends through a period of 40 years and in all that time but one Indian was killed by his own people. The offender absconded and remained with the Snake Nation for 12 years, when he returned, but was obliged again to leave, and since has not been heard of. Stealing women or otherwise seducing others’ wives is revenged by the party offended taking every horse and all private property the offender owns, and in this he meets with no contention. It is considered a point of honor to let everything be taken but keep the woman. Now this nation has from 40 to 80 and sometimes 100 horses to a lodge, and a large haul is made by the husband of the woman, in company with his relatives. If the transgressor has no property that of his nearest relatives is taken, and is suffered to be taken away unmolested. After the excitement is somewhat over, these horses are bought back by the relatives of the offender, each giving two, three, or more as the case happens, which they hand over to him, who in the course of time gets the most of his property returned. All smaller quarrels or misdemeanors are paid in the same way, though not so high, but they never strike or kill each other, yet are addicted to using personal abuse and invective freely. Our gentle- man in charge of that nation states that he has seen the two principal bands of Crow Indians, over 200 lodges, abusing and throwing stones at each other all day, the Yellowstone River being between them. No damage could happen, as the missiles could not be thrown a fourth of the distance, yet not a shot was fired, although balls would reach, and this force was headed by the two principal chiefs of that panic] THE ASSINIBOIN 455 nation. In all the regulations of these Indians (the Crows) we can discern great natural goodness of heart, and absence of any useless barbarity and bloodshed except with regard to their enemies, the males of whom they kill and cut to pieces, but never kill women and children, whereas the Assiniboin, Sioux, and Blackfeet kill every- thing. Very few feuds from polygamy result in death, but should it so happen the other would be punished. If the favorite wife had been killed, the least the other wife expected would be a tomahawking, or an arrow shot into her, perfectly regardless as to whether death would be the consequence or not. Women among Indians are bought, paid for, and are the property of the purchaser the same as his horses. Their lives are of course more valuable than those of animals, and every Indian regrets the loss of his woman. Yet when he has bought them he expects them to do their duty, not quarrel nor render his lodge disagreeable, or if so they must expect to be severely punished. ; Their lives are not, however, considered as valuable as men, nor are they ever so much mourned for. When not bought, or unmarried, the killing of a woman never happens and would be a great disgrace to any man, though after marriage they are subject to the penalty of death from different causes in which the man thinks he is justified. Private debts are never settled by the chief, nor private disputes by council. Advice may be given and taken, frequently is, though the usual mode of settling trivial quarrels is by payment, and an invitation to a feast. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be paid for among these Indians. Game Laws, or Rieuts or THE Cuase.—The roving tribes subsist by hunting buffalo, and these animals being constantly on the move, they are obliged to move after them. Therefore no particular section of country is appointed to each as a hunting district.'* There are, however, certain regulations with regard to the hunting of these ani- mals which may as well be recorded here. “Ties of fusk Mat on Seaf- felt outde Coven with “ew Aleds ~~ = & Ss 7 S ® ars recs - ° Siete Mecliosnevack > 3: 3 = ~ BS ob ¥ Le ~ > ; & Shield oulhide e Dogs muUtiole thengl cack exe the com agent ha Lockep THE INTERIOR OF A LCDGE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS ye ‘y00) youre tw 4 eo 9L ALVId LYOddY TWONNYV HLXIS-A.LYO4 = Or 9 97798 ooela og) CLES I uy ' FG TAT CALI eae BAU ADAWOM Tn Drs Sy wy hy TESOL OF ADOTONHLA NVOIMAWY 4O nvaund DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 579 and renders them impervious to rain. The men have nothing to do with the construction, erection, removal, or internal arrangement of the lodges. The Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara live in dirt cabins made by planting four posts in the ground, with joists on the top. From this square descend rafters to the ground in angular and circular shape, the interstices being filled with smaller sticks and willows; then grass is laid on, which is covered with mud, over which is thrown earth, and the whole beaten solid. An opening is left in-the top for the smoke and a door in the side, which is extended into a covered passage of a few steps and will admit a man upright. These are large and roomy huts, will accommodate 30 or 40 persons each, but are generally occupied by one family, who frequently have their beds and bedsteads, corn cellar, provision room, and often a horse or two under the same roof. They are said to be damp and unhealthy. The figures and representations of animals, etc., painted on their skin lodges are those of monsters seen by them in their dreams; also the hand is dipped in red paint mixed with grease and its im- pression made in many places over the tent. This denotes the master of the lodge to have struck an enemy. The same impression is also made on their naked bodies in some of their dances and has the same signification. CaNnorEs Skin canoes are the only watercraft used by these tribes, and these are only to be found among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara. They are made of the skins of one or two buffaloes with the hair on, not dressed, and stretched over a basketwork of willows. The women make, carry, and propel them with paddles, one person only paddling in front. A canoe of one buffalo skin will contain four persons and cross the Missouri, but they must sit very quiet or they will upset. The women carry these canoes on their backs along the bank to the place where they wish to cross, and on their return bring them to the village and turn them upside down to dry. A canoe of this kind is made in two or three hours and will last a year. Bark canoes are used by the Chippewa, but we are not well enough acquainted with their construction to describe them. When no skin can be found to make a boat war parties will cross any river on a raft. Mentat anp Eruican ApvANCEMENT There is no doubt but most of these nations are disposed to ad- vance from the barbaric type, though as yet they have made but little progress. Indeed, when we consider their mode of life, wants, and situation with regard to each other we can not imagine how they 580 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 can well be anything more than what they are. Harassed by inter- nal wars, pinched by necessities that compel them to constant exer- tion, discouraged by the ravages of diseases, and overwhelmed by innumerable superstitious fears, their condition is not one calculated to prepare either mind or body for the arts and habits of civiliza- tion. The whole tenor of an Indian’s life, and the sum and sub- stance of all his labors is to live, to support his family, and rear his children, and he must bring them up in such a way that they in their turn can do the same. For this all is risked, and to this end the whole of their occupations, even their amusements, tend. They would be most willing to embrace any mode of life by which this main object could be realized with less risk and toil than the one they now pursue, but they must first be convinced of the certainty of success in the strange pursuit to which their formed habits must give way before they would apply themselves. Their present manner is certainly precarious, but they would not abandon it unless some better way to live was made manifest, not by tales and speeches but by actual experiment. Indians (men) will not work. Even. the slight attempt at agricultural labor by the few nations on the upper Missouri who raise corn and other vegetables devolves solely upon the women to perform them, and the men hunt as the other tribes. Meat must be had, and as yet no relish has been formed by any of them, except the Sioux, for the flesh of domestic animals. Notwithstanding all this, we see in many things a desire to change for the better, exhibiting itself in a general feature of im- provement when compared with that of 20 years since. Within that time and within our acquaintance with these people the Sioux, As- siniboin, and other nations were much more savage than they now are. At the period to which we allude it was almost impossible for even the traders, much less strangers, to travel through their country without being robbed and often killed. Horses were stolen from whites on all occasions; every person outside the fort was liable to be abused, imposed upon, flogged, or pillaged, and even their dealings with each other were no better. Murders upon slight provocation, robberies, and misdemeanors of all kinds were common among them. Even whole bands armed against each other and skirmishes took place whenever they met. All these things now, if not obsolete, are very rare. Whites move about among most of the nations with security of life and property, and the Indians are better clothed, provided for, armed and contented than formerly. For these happy results so far we are indebted to the unmitigated exertions and good counsel of a few white traders of the old stock, some good Indian agents, the entire abolishment of the liquor trade, and lately the humane endeavors on the part of the Government by the treaty at Laramie in 1851. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 581 Mepictne; Drucs Most of them are beginning to see the superiority of drugs and treatment of the sick as exhibited to them by whites and are becom- ing aware that their drummings and superstitions are of no avail, but it is only a perception of truth, not as yet leading to any change in their superstitions, because no person instructs them*in aught better. As it stands at present and to come to the point of this matter, we would say a disposition to emerge from barbarism is apparent among most of these tribes, though as yet no great advance- ment has been made. The small improvements alluded to only show the desire to exist, but their present organization, knowledge, and relative positions to each other as nations do not admit of further improvement, which must necessarily unfit them for their ordinary pursuits and successful contention with enemies, Foop Their provisions, cooking utensils, manner of cooking, serving the meal and eating assimilates yearly more to that of the whites. Their conversation, desires, and willingness to listen to counsel for their benefit all convince of a disposition to advance toward civilization and exchange their present mode of life for one more certain in its resources, provided they could follow these employments secure from the depredations of neighboring tribes yet their enemies; but here is the difficulty, they are obliged to be always in readiness for war, also to make excursions on their foes to replace their stolen horses or revenge the death of their relatives. They usually eat three times a day, morning, noon, and night, if meat is plenty, but the number of meals depends altogether on the supply of food, as has already been stated. Clay pots and other earthen vessels are still in use among the Mandan, Gros Ventres, and Arikara, being of their own manufacture, though they also have metallic cooking utensils. The flesh of buffalo and other animals is cut in broad, thin slices and hung up inside the lodges on transverse poles over the fire, but high up in the lodge and in the way of the smoke, which soon pene- trates it, and in a few days the meat is dried and fit to pack away. In the summer it is dried by spreading it in the sun, being cut up as above, which soon cures it. They employ no salt in curing any meat. The parts of the buffalo eaten in a raw state are the liver, kidneys, gristle of the snout, eyes, brains, marrow, manyplies, or the omasum, testicles, feet of small calves in embryo, and glands of the calf envelope. Meat when cooked is either boiled or roasted, princi- 582 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 pally the former, and always rare in either way, not overdone. They have no salt for seasoning, but are fond of a little in the beuillon. In former times meat was boiled in the rawhide, in holes in the ground smeared with mud, and heated stones dropped in, or in pots made of clay and soft stone, but metallic cooking utensils, consisting of kettles of every size and description, have entirely re- placed these. Tin cups and pans, with some frying pans, wooden bowls, and horn spoons, are yet common. The tongues of buffalo sent to market are salted by the traders, who secure them from the Indians during the winter in the hunting season, and when frozen, salting them before the spring thaw comes on. None of these tribes preserves meat in any other way than above mentioned, some of which when dried is pounded and mixed with berries and marrowfat. It is then called pemmican, or in Cree pim-e-tai’-gan. Dried meat will keep but one year if free of wet, as afterwards the fat turns rancid and the lean tasteless. The tail of the beaver is first turned in the blaze of a fire, the out- side skin scraped off, then incisions are made each side lengthwise along the bone, and it is held in boiling water for a few min- utes to extract the blood. It is then hung up in the lodge or in the sun and left to dry. All inquiries regarding fish are inapplicable to these Indians, as they take none in quantity. The few catfish that are hooked by the Gros Ventres and Arikara are boiled in water, no salt added, and a horrid mess of bones and fish mixed together is produced, which no one but an Indian could eat. They eat but do not relish them. All the hunter tribes rely greatly on the spontaneous roots and fruits found in the country and collect, dry, and pack them away, to be used in times of scarcity of animal food. We have known hun- dreds of Indians to subsist for one or two months on the buds of the wild rose boiled with the scrapings of rawhides. At all times the different kinds of roots and berries are a great resource, are used in their principal feasts and medicine ceremonies, are of great assist- ance when game is not to be found, are easily packed, and contain considerable nourishment. The following is a catalogue of those found among all the nations of which we treat, though there are several others whose names in English are unknown to us, and some of these now named peculiar to the most northern latitudes. DENIG] Roots, Berries, Etc., EATEN BY THE INDIANS OF THE Upper Missouri English name Prairie turnip (pomme blanche) __- Service: berriess_._..25- =. ==... Bull berries (grains des boeufs) --_- Chokecherries Fungus growing on trees_-__-.__--- AT RUNONER sesso ee oe eee oes Antelope turnips___.__..--..--...- Wild garlic A berry called PACORTIS AIRS 8 32 oa eae nS Inner bark of cottonwood - -------- Berries of the smoking weed______- A root resembling artichoke______- Buds of the wild rose.____..______- Red haw berries_--_--..........-- Teep-se-nah____...........-- We-pah-zoo-kah_ Taque-sha-shah ________-_-_- Wecha-ge-nus-Kah_______-__- Chap-tah-ha-zah _ Chan-hn-no-ha.__-.-..------ Chaun-no-ghai-__.-.---_-_--- Pung-ghai Chau-sha-sha - -- ‘Ta-to-ka-na Teep-se-nah -_ ___ Ta-poo-zint-kab___- THE ASSINIBOIN 583 Assiniboin name Method of preparation Dried and pounded. Dried. Do. Pounded with seeds and dried. Stones extracted and dried. Not preserved; eaten ripe. Do. Do. Tops eaten raw or boiled. Not dried; found in winter. Eaten raw or boiled; not preserved. | Eaten raw only in great need. Boiled and dried. Raw; not preserved. Not dried; eaten ripe. Roasted and dried. Not dried. Resorted to in time of actual famine. Not preserved; eaten ripe. Dried, pounded, and boiled. Found everywhere all winter on the stalk. Not dried; eaten in fall and winter. 27a Found only along White Earth River. ANIMALS EATEN BY INDIANS Buffalo (wo-ta- Mink: 28 ao = b= E-koo-sa. al peg -| Ta-tun-gah. Beaver ¢ =. ._5 Chap-pah. a aa cow_-| Petai. Muskrat_-_------| Sink-pai. Antelope-------_- Tah-to-ka-nah. Giuitone se = = Me-nag-gzshe. | 21) oes Se ere Opon. ivnxith sie we Ega-mo’. Deer 22 42.4fa! Tah-chah. Mouse. -eAtcels = Pees-pees-anah. 13th a eee Wah-ghua-kseecha. |} Ground squirrel__| Tah-she-ho-tah. Wolfe == Se Shunkto-ka-chah.” || Water turtle Kai-ah. —_ {red___| Shunga shanah Werrapine = == 2 Pat-kah-shah. nice ~|gray_ -| To-kah-nah. Horns of elk in | Tah-hai. Porcupine. 229.2 Pah-hee. the velvet. Badgera 2224-42. Kho-kah. Horse 22. a Serse Shungatun-gah. Siginic 2s 222. Man-gah. Mile sae sees Sho-shonah. 1 213 0) 0) hr nears ee Mushtinchanah. DOR Sees a 8 Shunka. Hare: 2) -- --=- Mushtincha ska., || Snake (not eaten Rrmines22522_ 22 E-toonka sun. except bv Cree). Ottergiss esse2 Petun. °8 Literally, the other kind of dog. Birps Eaten Crows. ee oe Ah-ah-nah. Crarig ee ales 201 Pai-hun. Ravens:ees* 28 Con-ghai. Relican seas Mid-dai-ghah. Magpie- - - ------ Eh-hat-ta-ta-na. Small bird of any | Sit-kap-pe-nah. (O72 AP ee eal He-hun. sort. Wucke so. se ke: Pah-hon-tah. || Eagles are not Goose: -.- 25-2 Man-ghah. eaten. 584 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH, ANN. 46 Parts oF Burrators Nor Eaten Glands of the neck. Bull’s pizzle. Sinews. Horns, hoofs, and hair. Every other part, inside and out, is eaten, even to the hide. Sugar is made from the sap of the maple. Wild rice is gathered by the Cree and Chippewa on Red River and the adjacent lakes, but not by the upper Missouri tribes. In times of great scarcity old bones are collected by the nations of whom we write, pounded, and the grease extracted by boiling, and eaten together with any of the foregoing roots or berries that can be found. But these sad times always happen when the snow is deep, the ground frozen, and they can not be found. Then those who have not laid up a stock of some of these roots the previous summer are driven to the necessity of killing and eating their horses and dogs, which being exhausted and nothing more to be found they are compelled to eat human flesh.2° Garments; Dresses In the materials of their clothing, as far as the cold climate will admit, articles of European manufacture have been substituted for their skins, but there being no fabric as yet introduced equal to or even approaching the durability and warmth of the buffalo skin, all hunters and travelers in the winter season must be clothed with the latter to preserve life or prevent mutilation by frost. Still in the summer season these are laid aside, being full of vermin and saturated with grease and dirt, and the Indian steps proudly around in his calico shirt, blanket, and cloth pantaloons. Their hair also, formerly tangled and matted, has been unraveled by the use of differ- ent kinds of combs, and the livestock, which found “a living and a home there,” has, by these instruments, been torn from their com- fortable abode, thus rendering useless their original method of dis- posing of these vermin, viz, extracting them with their fingers and masticating them in turn for revenge. Most of the clothing used by these tribes is made of skins of their own procuring and dressing, the process of which has already met with attention. They have different dresses for different seasons, also various costumes for war, dancing, and other public occasions, some of which have been described. In the summer seasons, when comparatively idle, the clothing traded from the whites is preferred on account of its superior texture and color, but in their usual occu- pations, in winter, at war, in the chase, or any public ceremonies among themselves, very few articles of dress thus obtained are seen, if we except some blankets, undercoats, scarlet cloth, and ornaments. We have only witnessed one season in 21 years where they were driven to this necessity. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 585 Their own dresses of skins fancifully arranged, adorned with feathers, beads, shells, and porcupine quills, are much more highly prized by them than any article of dress of European manufacture introduced by the traders. We will now detail a few of the most common or everyday dresses among them, in different seasons, male and female, estimating the cost of each in buffalo robes at $3 each, their value in this country. SUMMER AND Fatt Dress FoR MEN No. 1 A buffalo robe, thin hair, or a dressed cowskin robe GIDE ENG AG Rae enn ee 2 es a ee 1 robe Dressed deer or antelope skin leggings_-______________ 1 robe Cloth breech flap and moccasins___-_----_------___- 1% robe 214 robes at $3= $7.50 No. 2 JS al UE oe 4 robes iResdsiworked in samés = 6 ok 10 robes Deerskin shirt and leggings fringed and garnished With beads and porcupine (quills: —=— 2 5 robes Breech flap of scarlet cloth and moccasin___-___--_-_~_ 1 robe Necklace Ob Dears claws=—===-=22—.--- 22-222 = 28. 5 robes Moccasins and handkerchief for the head-_-_-___-_-____ 1 robe 26 robes at $3=$78. 00 No. 3 Wititem blanket) 24 — 4-9) 4. ks 3 robes (Ciel) (Sn Re eee ee eee 1 robe Neckerchief and cloth breech flap_-___________________ 1 robe Wotrona de pantaloorsle ste nthe oS ee Ae eee eee 1 robe REG anys esters eh eageey sere cere Ps Tbehe fer epee sit 5 1 robe Maucnsings 1-2 .-=* et ts 8 NW a eo et O robe 7 robes at $3=$21. 00 No. 4 Wihiiesblanket.— 5. es ey 3 robes DCR ER 9 ae = ee ee ers oe 3 robes Skin leggings, plain antelope skin-______-_--_-__-_--__ 1 robe Breechcloth and moccasins eos es ee ee 1% robe 7% robes at $3=$22.50 No. 5 Scarlet or Hudson Bay blanket—.—--=-. =) = 3-5. = 4 robes Beads sworked von james =~ = = ek 10 ~=robes Nearlen Jaced chiets C0at-—=-—— a eee 6 robes Black fur hat and three cock feathers___________-____ 2 robes Silverihatoand and platelet tee a ee 2 robes Dipairi silver anmmibands: 3-292. be = Srest we eS 2 robes Scarlet cloth leggings and hawk bells___--_----_-----__ 1 robe Black silk handkerchief and cloth breech flap_------~-- 1 robe Silver gorget, ear wheels and hair pipe--___--_------- 2 robes Moccasins garnished with beads___-__--------------_ 1% robe 3014 robes at $3=$91.50 88253 °—30——38 586 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 - WINTER DRESS FOR MEN Hunter’s winter dress of the Plains No. 7 Buitalogrobe coats hair insid eae ae 1 robe Buitalohrobe toversite==2. see ee eee 1 robe Skin cap and mittens, hair inside----~----~----______ Y% robe Blanket breech flap, robe, moccasins, belt knife, and fire appears tis = a a ee ee eee Y% robe Dressed’ ‘cowskin: wlecvines= === =e | b 1 pair snowshoess=s220- =< Sete, SA | 7% robe 3% robes at $3=$10.50 No. 2 White blanket coat with hood_-_______---~-__________ 3 robes White blanket over: it=- =<. Ss ee eee 3 robes Hlannel\ For) calico, Shirtes. == ee = ae 1 robe Blanket “leggings Se. *= 20 aoe ee ee eee 1 robe Soled rope;moceasins 8 —=2==- 52222 Se eee ne ee Blanket ipreechy flap22— = aes =eeeee eee aes 1 robe Skin) mittens; hhairvinside=—2--— se] =a == eee 9 robes at $83=$27.00 No. 2 is the dress of a wood hunter, ordinary warrior in winter, if we take away the blanket and substitute a buffalo robe; or it is worn in traveling, and is occasionally used by hunters in the Crow and Sioux Nations, but the Cree and Assiniboin mostly wear No. 1 winter on the plains. Other ordinary dresses are only variations of the foregoing, adding some articles and withdrawing others, but none of them are used when in full dress, on public occasions, among themselves, except sometimes No. 5. All their fancy dresses for dances, war, and feasts have their peculiar marks and distinction in rank; also the robes worn by chiefs, soldiers, or warriors in stated assemblies have their battle scenes painted on them in rude draw- ings, though intelligible to them. When merely designed to be orna- mental the drawing consists of a representation of the sun, made by a large brilliant circle painted in the middle. Sometimes a calumet is pictured, and other devices, such as guns, bows, lances, horses, ete. The dresses of the divining men are not distinguished from those of ordinary Indians by any marks, unless they are able and wish to renew the remembrance of their former coups on their enemies by wearing a robe on which they are drawn, but being generally old they seldom make any display in dress, though wearing a cap or piece of bearskin round the head is common with them. The rest of their clothing in summer would answer to No. 1 and in winter to No, 2, abstracting the blanket capot. pent] THE ASSINIBOIN 587 WoMEN’S SUMMER DRESSES No. 1 Dressed cowskinucotilion— == es 1 robe ReErinesi ol sam es 240 = A See % robe Dressediicow? or elk-skin> robe__.. =... == -_-—— 1 robe Moceasingee 202 2225 hasan aaseeaseescsseencsce 0 robe 21% robes at $3=$7. 50 No. 2 Molored= Dinette soe = aaa aoe eee 4 robes Blue: om scarlet cloth: dress= "=== =- 3 robes Garnishine of beads on same=———_-_—~-_________- = 5 robes Scarlet cloth leggings ornamented with beads____-_-_-~ 2 robes White deerskin moccasins worked with beads__---~~~ 1 robe Heavy bead earrings and necklaces_______________--__ 4 robes Brass-wire wristbands and rings-__-----------__--_-_-- 1 robe 20 robes at $3=$60. 00 = No. 3.—Crow INDIANS Fine white dressed elk-skin robe_____-_------_------- 1 robe Fine white bighorn skin cotillion adorned with 300 elk uae ats Se ee ee ee 25 robes Neck collar of large brass wire______--_-------------- 1 robe Fine antelope skin leggings worked with porcupine OMS. 2 2S 3 robes. Brass wire wristbands and rings___--_-------_------ 1 robe. California shell ear ornaments_____--------_-------- 3 robes. Very heavy bead necklaces____.-__------------------ 3 robes. Mocassins covered with beads__--------------------- 2 robes. 39 robes at $3=$117. 00 No. 4.—Sroux Fine white dressed elk skin robe, painted__------_-__ 1 robe. Fine white dressed antelope skin cotillion heavily orna- mented with beads or shells on breast and arm_____ 30 robes. Leggings of same ornamented with beads____-___----- 3 robes. Bead “or wire necklace=_-.-2==2==—=--=-——_- 2 = 2 robes. Garnished mocassins and brass breast plate__-_-----_ 1 robe. Mani bones.t oop a) fee 2 Bote Se eee ees Seis SS 3 robes. 40 robes at $3=$120. 00 No. 5.—ComMon Sroux, ASSINIBOIN, oR Crow DRESS SOUTER STIR ES Cee ee = ee ee ae 3 robes. Blue cloth cotillion or green cloth___----------------- 2 robes. Séarief cloth wlegezings=—- = =: =) a ee ee 1 robe. 6 robes at $3=$18. 00 588 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [PTH. ANN, 46 No. 6.—WINTER DRESS Buffalo, robes =--—_ = 1 robe. Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe. Dressed cowskin leggings and shoes___----_--------~_ 1 robe. 3 robes at $83=$9. 00 No. 7.—WINTER Dress—Crows Buffalo robe much garnished with porcupine quills__-. 4 robes. Big Horn cotillion trimmed with scarlet and orna- mented: with porcupine, quills===== === —— een 3 robes. Leggings of elk skin, fringed and worked with quills__ 2 robes. Wrist, ear, and neck ornaments, say---______________. 3 robes. 12 robes at $83=$36. 00 There are many other dresses worn, differing in cost according to the ornaments or labor bestowed on them, and the foregoing are varied with their fancy and means; some therefore would cost high and others merely a trifle. ‘Those of mounted warriors, for dances, soldiers, etc., are still more valuable owing to the war eagle feathers and other decorations. It is difficult to determine the cost and dura- bility of each costume. The cost has been stated, but every Indian can dress only according to his means, which, if sufficient, will adorn his clothing with ornaments to a great extent; but if limited, he must be contented with such materials for covering as are yielded by the skins of the animals that furnish him with food; consequently every shade and variety of dress is visible among them. Some por- tions of these dresses are only worn on occasions, while others are retained all the time, and wear out the sooner. As an ordinary rule, Indians, both male and female, renew their clothing of European manufacture every spring, though the portions discarded are cut up for leggings, breech flaps, hunting caps, gun wadding, etc. It may be said to last six months if worn while hunting, or a year if only used at times, in traveling and while idle, as is com- paratively the case in the summer season. A complete suit of skin will last the whole year round, its actual cost being only the labor of dressing, and as time in the summer is of no value to them it may be said to cost in reality nothing if not ornamented. Blankets and cloth are not damaged by wet but do not resist the cold. Skins are impervious to cold and wind but are destroyed by being wet, hence the necessity and advantage of wearing the one in summer and the other in winter, independent of the filthy nature of skins when long worn, and of the capability of woolens to be cleansed by wash- ing. The dress of a mounted warrior (pl. 76), as in battle or in the dance, would be as follows, the cost being estimated as before: pENIa] THE ASSINIBOIN 589 MountTeD WaArkRIOR’S DRESS Buffalo robe painted with battle scenes and garnished with porcupine ER ERETES 7s DS) OR me re ee ee $18. 00 Skin shirt and leggings garnished with human hair and porcupine quills, VALUE wath horse or 10 irobess= 24-4 =e oe ee es sk 30. 00 War-eagle feather cap, largest kind; price, 2 horses, 10 robes each_____-_ 60. 00 Necklace of bear’s claws wrought on otter skin, 6 robes_____------__---_ 18. 00 Feathers of the war eagle on shield, lance, and horse, 10 robes____---_-- 30. 00 Garnishea NOCCHSIOS, 1) LODC 22 oat eee ae ee eee ae 3. 00 Shellenr’ornaments:: 4 rebesl=> 10 OUR Ny_ wires ee Osh 12. 00 Ui {0 fee a Se ee ee Sees oS Se eee ae 171. 00 Another fancy dress would cost as follows: Searletiblankets 4 robes at pols 2s Ses ee oe Se ee SS 512200 Beadsvorscarn ei Ouro pess 5 a es hh ae Se Se 30. 00 Skin shirt and leggings garnished with porcupine quills and trimmed SAaalel Koyeert hay p10 she ge) 0 =|: ee es a a ae en er eee 60. 00 Tay 2eetyS C1 yy hata Ch EY Cate SU 0 YS) fies ae Dl A hs al i ep ata 18. 00 Soldier’s cap of magpie feathers, tipped with red and fringed with EEMmine who) Obes Hes? - Pe Bek SE Beer Phe Se | le eee a eee 30. 00 Biaseowire’ srmebaAnosy Bi rObes=262,28- Osheet oo Se ee ee 9. 00 Hagle feathers on lance and shield, 6 robes-_--______--_----_-__-_----- 18. 00 Shell ear ornaments and moccasins, 4 robes____-_____-_-_--------_----- 12. 00 19) 1 Ee es Oe ee ee. ee ee ee ee ee 189. 00 Both of the above dresses are principally of their own manufac- ture; yet if a trader wishes to purchase them he has great difficulty in doing so, even by paying the above prices in merchandise, of which they always stand in need; indeed, they seldom can be induced to part with them on any terms unless forced to sell to supply some reverse by loss of property which has happened to their families. The reason is that they are scarce, difficult to replace, and also it is the wish of the warriors to wear them during their lives on all public occasions and to be clothed with them when they die. Two tails of the war eagle of 12 feathers each would be worth two horses if wrought into a cap, or something more than a horse without. Usually the value of the tail feathers of this bird among any of the tribes of whom we write is $2 each in merchandise in this country, or 15 feathers for a horse. Ten ermine skins will also bring a horse among the Crow Indians, and 100 elk teeth are worth as much, there being but two teeth in each elk which are suitable, and the tail feathers of the war eagle are the only ones used. The elk are not killed in great numbers by any one hunter, so that much time and bargaining are required for an individual to collect 300, the number usually wrought on a Crow woman’s dress. The eagles are scarce and difficult to catch; hence the value of these two ornaments, 590 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 46 The men in their homes in their own country at night divest them- selves of their moccasins, leggings, and blanket capot (if any), retaining only the breech flap, and covering themselves with their robe or blanket; but when traveling, at war, in the chase, or en- camped on the borders of their enemy’s country no portions of cloth- ing are taken off at night; even their arms and accouterments are retained while sleeping. In the summer season the women lay aside their leggings and moccasins when going to bed, reserving only the petticoats, or cotillion, as it is called in this country, and covering themselves with the robe, but in the winter, or in traveling, no part of their clothing is taken off. Young unmarried and as yet un- touched women take the precaution at night to wind around their dress a strong cord, strapping the same tightly to their body and legs. This is done by some of their female relatives, the cord being well tied and wrapped around many times to prevent the consequences of any mistakes on the part of young men as to the location of their bed, which might happen if they entered during the night, or if they were guests. It is considered a great credit to a young woman never to have slept unbound as above previous to marriage. Saddles, billets of wood, and parts of clothing taken off serve as pillows for the men. Provision bales, wooden bowls, and baggage sacks answer the same purpose for the women. Rawhides, saddle blankets, apishimos,*° skins in hair, with grass and twigs beneath form the bed, which is seldom longer than two-thirds the sleeper, and about 3 feet wide. ORNAMENTS All Indians are excessively fond of display in ornaments. Indeed, as may have been gathered from the preceding, the value of their dresses depends entirely upon the nature and extent of these decora- tions. Small round beads of all colors are used in adorning every portion of their dress, as also agate for their ears, hair, neck, and wrists, but these are by no means as valuable as several kinds of shells or as their ornamenting with colored porcupine quills. A shell, called by the traders Ioquois,** is sought after by them more eagerly than anything else of the kind. They are procured on the coast of the Pacific and find their way to our tribes across the moun- tains through the different nations by traffic with each other until the Crows and Blackfeet get them from some bands of the Snake and Flathead Indians with whom they are at peace. These shells are about 2 inches long, pure white, about the size of a raven’s feather at the larger end, curved, tapering, and hollow, so as to admit of being strung or worn in the ears of the women, worked on the breast and arms of their cotillions, also adorn the frontlets °° This appears to be a word adopted from the Cree or Chippewa language. It means anything to lie on, as a bed. “ Toquois appears to be a loan werd. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 591 of young men, and are worth in this country $3 for every 10 shells. Frequently three or four hundred are seen on some of the young Crow or Blackfoot women’s dresses. The large blue or pearl Cali- fornia shell was once very valuable and still is partially so. It is shaped like an oyster shell and handsomely tinted with blue, green, and golden colors in the inside. One of these used to be worth $20, but of late years, owing to the quantity being introduced by the traders, the price has depreciated to about half that amount. These shells they cut in triangular pieces and wear them as ear pendants. Silver is worn in the shape of arm and wrist bands. Hat bands, gorgets, brooches, ear wheels, finger rings, and ear bobs are mostly in use among the Sioux, the upper nations preferring shells. Other ornaments consist of elk teeth, colored porcupine quills, and feathers of the white plover dyed. Feathers of ravens, owls, hawks, and eagles, furs cut in strips and wrought in various parts of their dress, besides a great variety of trinkets and paints furnished by the traders, among which are brass rings, brass and iron wire, beads, brass hair and breast plates, brass and silver gorgets, wampum moons, hair pipe, St. Lawrence shells, spotted sea shells, hawk bells, horse and, sleigh bells, cock and ostrich feathers, thimbles, gold and silver lace, etc. Parts AND Dyess The principal paints sold them are Chinese vermilion, chrome yel- low and verdigris. Out of all these an Indian can please himself, and either buy such as are mentioned, or use the shells, feathers, furs, etc., their own country and labor produces. The native dyestuffs for coloring porcupine quills and feathers are as follows: For yellow, they boil the article to be colored with the moss found growing near the root of the pine or balsam fir tree. For red, they in the same way use the stalk of a root called we-sha- sha, the English name of which is unknown to us. They have also some earths and ochers, which by boiling impart a dull red, violet, and blue color, but we are unacquainted with the process and their names in any other language except the Indian. Their native dyes, however, with the exception of the yellow, are superseded by those introduced by the traders, with all but the Crow Indians, who living near and in the Rocky Mountains find several coloring herbs and mineral substances unknown to the other tribes, which produce much better colors than these mentioned. At the present day they all mostly use the clippings of different colored blankets and cloth, which by boiling with the substance to be dyed, communicates the tint of the cloth to it in some degree. Thus rose, green, pale blue, and violet colors are obtained. For black they boil the inner papers in which Chinese vermilion is enveloped. 592 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 TaTrooinG Tattooing is much practiced by all these tribes, and a great variety of figures are thus painted, sometimes in spots on the forehead, stripes on the cheeks and chin, rings on the arms and wrists; often the whole of the breast as low down as the navel, with both arms, is covered with drawings in tattoo. It is a mark of rank in the men, distinguishing the warrior when elaborately executed, and as the operation is one requiring the pay of one or two horses, it proves the person’s parents to have been sufficiently rich to afford that mark of distinction imprinted on their children, whether male or female. It is usually done on females at the age of 12 to 14 years, is only exhibited on them in the form of a round spot in the middle of the forehead, stripes from the corners and middle of the mouth down to the chin, occasionally transversely over the cheek, and rings around the wrist and upper parts of the arms. On them it is merely de- signed as ornament. Men are tattooed entire after having struck their first enemy, but smaller marks of this kind are also only orna- mental. The material employed and the modus operandi are as fol- lows: Red willow and cedar wood are burned to charcoal, pulverized, and mixed with a little water. This is the blue coloring matter. From four to six porcupine quills or needles are tied together with sinew. These are enveloped in split feathers; wrapping with sinew, until a stiff pencil about the size of a goose quill is had, with the quills or needles projecting at the end. One of the priests or divining men is then presented with a horse and requested to operate. At the same time a feast of dried berries is prepared, and a consider- able number of elderly men invited to drum and sing. When all are assembled the feast is eaten with much solemnity and invocations to the supernatural powers. The person to be tattooed is then placed on his back, being stripped naked, and the operator being informed of the extent of the design to be represented, proceeds to mark an outline with the ink, which, if correct, is punctured with the instrument above alluded to, so as to draw blood, filling up the punctures with the coloring matter as he goes along, by dipping the needles therein and applying them. The drumming and singing is kept up all the time of the operation which, with occasional stops to smoke or eat, occupies from two to two and a half days, when the whole of the breast and both arms are to be tattooed; and the price for the operation is generally a horse for each day’s work. Bapces oF OFFIce There are no badges of office that we are aware of. These marks . belong to kinships and appear only in their dress in the different DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 593 dances, apart from which nothing is seen denoting official station. Rank is known by the devices drawn on their robes; that is, to a warrior who has struck an enemy and stolen horses is accorded the privilege of wearing a robe adorned with a representation of these acts; he is also entitled to make the impression of a hand dipped in red paint on his lodge or person, to wear hair on his shirt and leggings, and two war eagle’s feathers on his head. After making many coups he arrives at the degree of camp soldier ** and is known on public occasions by the addition to the above of the war-eagle cap or bear’s claw necklace, which, together with the advantage of publishing his feats in the dances and other ceremonies, establishes his standing among his people. A still further progress, so as to rank with chiefs or councillors, is not attended with any additional display or mark of distinction; indeed, in that event their coups are seldom boasted of, that being rendered unnecessary from the fact of the whole nation’s being aware of the cause of his advancement, and although chiefs and councillors generally have appropriate dresses, as already described, they never wear them unless on the most important occasions, such as a battle, council with other nations, great religious assemblies, or an ap- proaching dissolution. It is their greatest desire when arrived at the head of the ladder of fame to receive a flag or medal from some whites in power, which are worn or displayed on all ordinary convocations and councils. In like manner a sword would be the mark of a soldier in camp, but we see no other badges of office except what have already been referred to as existing in kins, which are laid aside as soon as the ceremonies which caused this display are concluded. Brarp As has before been observed, these tribes have naturally little or no beard. What few hairs and down make their appearance on the face and other parts of the body are extracted by small wire tweezers of their own make. They have no method of killing or dyeing the hair; they cultivate it, and consider to cut it a great sacrifice. It is only clipped short or torn out by handfuls in exces- sive grief, but is never shaved, and until modern times but seldom combed. INTELLECTUAL CapaciTy AND CHARACTER Laying aside the advantages of education, of knowledge acquired by conversation with superior men, and the increase of ideas gained in travel by the European, and drawing a comparison between the “This is the term explained in footnote 10, p. 436. 594 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 40 ignorant white and the savage, we feel bound to award preference to the latter. In all their conversation, manners, government of families, general deportment, bargaining, and ordinary occupations they exhibit a manliness, shrewdness, earnestness, and ability far superior to the mass of illiterate Europeans. Even their supersti- tions and religion present a connected, grand chain of thought, having for its conclusion the existence of a Supreme Power, much more satisfactory and sublime in the aggregate than the mixture of bigotry, infidelity, enthusiasm, and profanity observed in the actions and language of the lower class of Christians. An excellent oppor- tunity offers in this country to draw a comparison between the In- dians and the engagees of the Fur Company, and what can never fail to strike the mind of the observer is the superior manliness and energy of the Indian in thought, word, and action, as evinced in their patience, contempt of death and danger, reverses of fortune, in their affection for their children, government of their families, their freedom from petty vexations, and useless bursts of impotent passion. The Indian reverences his unknown God in his way. Though the principle be fear and the object Creation, it leads to reliance and resignation when his own resources fail, whereas the whites spoken of vent their displeasure for most trifling grievances and accidents in eternal curses on the Great Disposer, the Virgin Mary, and all other holy persons and objects they deem worthy of their execration. These Indians are capable of pursuing a logical train of reasoning to a just conclusion. If the subject be one with which by experience they have become acquainted, they can argue it point by point with any person. Even the Assiniboin, who are the most ignorant of all these tribes, can pursue a satisfactory mode of conversation. Clear sightedness is more observable in matters touching their own per- sonal or national welfare, the utility and expedience of war or peace, camp regulations, or the advantage of trade. Not many years since the Cree and Assiniboin combined against the Hudson Bay Co. at Red River for the purpose of forcing that powerful house into more reasonable prices for goods and a less distressful policy of trade or to abandon the country. The case was as follows: It was then and still is in a measure the custom of that company to make credits to those Indians in the fall for nearly the entire amount of their winter hunts, taking advantage of their necessities in putting exorbitant prices on the supplies thus advanced, so that when an Indian came to pay he found himself with nothing left to clothe his family or meet his wants; in fact, as poor as before, and consequently obliged to contract other debts on the ensuing year, being in this way kept always poor, more espe- cially so if by some accident his hunt should fail. penic] THE ASSINIBOIN 595 Even those who were not indebted bought supplies at such enormous rates as with difficulty to support themselves. In order, therefore, to reform these proceedings they assembled in council at various places, sent runners to all the camps in the two nations, and decided to convene at the Hudson Bay Co.’s fort and make known to them their determination, which was to hunt no more at such prices, or if they did hunt, to seek some other market for their furs on the Missis- sippi or Missouri. The company being aware of their proceedings and knowing the inexpedience of being forced into measures, besides dreading the effect such a large body of discontented Indians might have on the settlers and property, sent their half-breed runners to the different camps on the advance toward the fort with orders to turn them back with stories that the smallpox had appeared in the settlement. The fear of this terrible infection disbanded the expedi- tion, the Indians traveling in haste the contrary direction, which gave the company time to alter in detail their manner of dealing with them, apparently of their own accord. Things of this kind prove the Indians to be capable of looking into their own interests, also of acting in a body when they are concerned, in cases where rank is not interfered with nor subordination required, while gain is the object and public opinion unanimous. On subjects in which their actual experience and observation are at fault, even if supported with good arguments, they are suspicious and incredulous. They listen, doubt, but say little. On all such topics their minds receive a bias from their superstitions and lack of appreciation of motive. They can not conceive of any efforts made through motives of charity, benevolence, or pity, nor realize any other disinterested action, even if it be for their benefit, because all they do is in expectation of reward, and being destitute of the above principles of actions are disposed to attribute interested views to everyone else. In reviewing such subjects with them, and support- ing the moral principle by argument, they are silenced, though not convinced; they do not grasp it, but will not contradict, for the thing may be so. Hence their thoughtfulness and apparent apathy, also their uninterrupted deliberations in councils and conversa- tion, all arising from a desire to hear the subject in all its bearings, either with the view of forming an opinion or of the propriety of expressing it. Regarding their temperament, it is peculiar and general. We see none of those great differences in disposition observed among the European races. There appears to be a uniformity of individual feeling and action among them. Being all the same on like occasions, it would seem a national and natural feature, calling forth corresponding feelings 596 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 and actions with circumstances as they. arise, exhibited in overwhelm- ing demonstrations of grief or joy, in seriousness in business, cere- monies, and worship, excessive gayety in their amusements and lighter conversation, with earnestness in matters of personal inter- est. They have strong powers of memory and forecast, are of a re- flective habit, their physical propensities predominating over the moral, in their general conduct grave, can be and are very gay on occasions, but upon the whole are rather of a cold than a fervid temperament. We are unable to say whether their reasoning powers are brought out or strengthened by education, never having witnessed its application to any of these tribes, but see no reason why they should not be as capable of improvement in these respects as any other race of people. Their ideas are by no means groveling, nor is their form of government to be derided. Neither can we conscien- tiously assign to them a lower place in the scale of creation; per- haps not so low as any other race of uneducated sentient beings. We are not well enough acquainted with the capacity and history of the oriental stock to say whether these assimilate in any great degree; most likely the inference can be drawn from what has been written in these pages. We may state that as yet no person has appeared among them noted for his natural or acquired powers as a real physician, though many have risen to eminence in this department from their supposed super- natural powers in curing the sick. Neither does their history produce any person who has evinced ability as a linguist,** moralist, or in the cultivation of any of the exact or moral sciences. They use no studied maxims of expression in conversation, nor are there observed any compositions partaking of the nature of laments, unless the speeches made to departed spirits and the universal monot- onous mourning chant ** would be construed in that light. Their ordinary talk is pretty much the same as that of other men, though perhaps the Indians use fewer words in conversation, selecting only those which have a direct reference to the subject. They do not evince a quickness in repartee, even in their jokes, and all conversa- tion, except the obscene, is carried on more deliberately and concisely than among other races. The effect of their oratory is a great deal enhanced by the position, bearing, and gesticulation of the speaker, yet it is not without its merits; simplicity, clearness, and strength of language are its distinguishing traits. We have heard and under- stood some hundreds of speeches on every subject of interest among the Sioux, Assiniboin, and Cree Nations, and must confess we can not *3Denig seems to refer here to grammatie analyses rather than to the mere learn- ing of languages. “4The song for the dead contains a few words suitable to the occasion. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 597 discern the figures and tropes attributed to their oratory by fiction writers. Metaphor is sometimes used, but not often. Their elo- quence lies in the few words, bold assertions, and pointed questions with which they clothe their ideas, added to fierce expression of countenance and earnestness of gesticulation. Everything they say in a speech has a tendency to gain their ob- ject if they have any, and Indians seldom speak otherwise. No set forms are followed, their thoughts finding utterance as they arise, or vather according to their feelings, and consequently make an impres- sion on their auditors. The principal aims of the Indian speeches we have heard were to gain something or to impress the mass with the spirit of emulation, a desire for war or peace, and for the better regulation of their national affairs. One or two addresses of this kind have already been inserted and now follow two more, both heard and interpreted by myself and copied from our records. We fear in reading them a woeful disappointment on the part of novel writers and romantic authors of Indian tales, but such as they are they exhibit true samples of Indian eloquence at the present day, however much it may differ from that in the time of the celebrated Logan and others. In interpreting these speeches, the exact and entire ideas of the Indians are preserved, though the words chosen to express them are not always the same. We have had occasion to remark on this head before that no Indian language admits of being translated word for word; to do so, the purport desired by the Indian would fail, injustice be done to his ideas as realized by him, and a futility of words presented so devoid of order as to make no impression on the person for whom they are intended. Nevertheless it is not to be inferred that the ideas have been im- proved upon. They are entire, and only so because clothed in the only kind of words sufficient to convey the real extent of their signification. The occasion which produced the following speech by the Crazy Bear was this: In the summer of 1837 the Assiniboin, with other nations, were invited to attend the treaty at Laramie. It was with great difficulty any of them could be persuaded to go, as the road along the Yellowstone was beset with Blackfeet war parties; but this man with three others went in company with A. Culbertson, Esq., who was authorized to conduct them. The Crazy Bear was, while at the treaty, made chief of the Assiniboin Nation by Col. D. D. Mitch- ell, the United States commissioner, and on his return to his people repeated to the nation the stipulations of the treaty, together with the “talk” held at the rendezvous, but, as usual with Indians, was not believed. It also happened that in the ensuing spring, by some delay, the merchandise intended for the Indians and promised them 598 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 at the treaty did not arrive in the West in time to be forwarded, so that summer passed and the Missouri froze over without any ap- pearance of presents forthcoming. The Indians became dissatisfied, thought they had been trifled with, abused Crazy Bear and me for deceiving them, raised war parties, and bid fair to break the treaty and become more troublesome to whites than ever. Amidst all this clamor and disturbance the chief stood firm and, being supported in office by the fort, all hostile demonstrations were for the time averted. At this juncture, in January, 1853, Mr. Cul- bertson arrived from St. Louis with orders from the superintendent to supply the amount due the Indians as per treaty from the mer- chandise of the fur company in this country. The nation therefore being called together and placed in order in the interior of the fort, the goods as per invoice laid in front of them, the Crazy Bear rose and said: “ My children and friends: The clouds that have hitherto obscured the sky are brushed away and a fine day appears before you. The time has arrived when all the turbulent and discontented must be convinced that the whites have but one tongue; that our great father, the President, is rich and powerful. But a few days since most of you were violent in your reproaches against myself and the whites. If you have any more abuse left, heap it on now, disburden your hearts at once of all complaint, make the pile of your abuse as large as the pile of goods before you. The whites have kept their word and your heads should hang in shame. “When you were invited to the treaty you were afraid to go, some to leave their wives, others their children, others to cross the warpath of the Blackfeet. I went. I appeared among nations in your name and am the cause of the present smiling pile of goods being laid before you. “When I returned from the treaty after an absence of three moons and repeated to you the words of our Great Father, what was my reception? How was I listened to? When, by some accident the goods promised did not arrive, how did you act? What now do you think of yourselves? “T hold in my hands the words of our Great Father. They are scored on my heart, were poured into my ears, did not run out, and now is the most fitting time to repeat what I have so often told you without being believed. Your Great Father does not want your lands; he seeks your welfare. You are a few poor miserable beings; he is rich, his people are numerous as the leaves of the cottonwood. He desires to stop the bloody wars heretofore existing between Indian tribes, to make all one people, to enable all to hunt and visit together in peace and friendship. He wishes you to refrain from all ” pena] THE ASSINIBOIN 599 depredations on whites, respect your chief as a chief, and listen to his words. For this he sends you these presents which will be repeated every year for 15 years, unless by your misconduct you incur his displeasure. I have heard the words; they are true. I have seen his soldiers and know he has the power to punish those who have no ears. “A great deal of what you do and say is foolishness, the work and talk of children, not of men. Last fall in despite, you raised war parties, made threats against myself and the whites, gave me trouble. You now see the rashness of your proceedings. Who gives you these goods? “Do you pay for them? Have you traded them? Do you intend to recompense your Great Father in any way? If so, listen to his words. It has been said I have sold you to the whites—bartered for your lands. I now tell you it is no such thing. There are no stipulations made for your Jands in these papers. They were not even mentioned in the treaty. They are too cold for any persons except Indians, or any animals other than those with heavy hair. “The Blackfeet are yet your enemies, but are to be spoken to by our Great Father; therefore let us refrain from war upon them to advance the views of our Great Father. Since the treaty I have had a son and a son-in-law killed by these people, and all my horses stolen twice. I can count seven times damage they have done me and my nation, but still I am disposed to remain quiet so that our Great Father may be pleased. All of you do the same. The day is coming when the Blackfeet will have ears given them. “ There are many poor people in this assembly that will be greatly benefited by this distribution of goods. Indians are born poor; they are always poor. Whatever they get for nothing is a great help and they should be thankful. “T now appoint you six men, soldiers, for the equal distribution of these goods. Let all have a fair share. Your duty as soldiers does not end here. In the camp when you hear of war parties being assembled, stop them. “Tf any one breaks the treaty stipulations with regard to the whites or other nations I desire you to punish them. If you are not able to do so you are no soldiers, and such disturbers shall be taken down by the whites in irons. “The President of the United States has thought fit to appoint me your chief. Here is my medal; there are my papers. This makes some of you jealous. You should have thought of it before and plucked up courage enough to be seen at the treaty, that he could have chosen a better man than I, if there be one. As it is, as long as I 600 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH. ANN. 45 can stand and my voice holds good I shall never agree to what is wrong nor be deterred from doing what is right.*? I have spoken.” It is the custom of most of the upper Missouri tribes when at the fort for trading purposes for the principal men to make what are called presents; that is, a portion of the buffalo robes are brought into the office and with much ceremony laid at the feet of the gentle- man in charge of the fort, which action is followed by a speech. To a spectator only viewing the act as a gift, and only understanding the literal meaning of their speeches on the occasion, they would appear to be the most liberal people in the world, as often 100 to 150 buffalo robes are laid down and carried out to the store without any merchandise being produced in payment at the time, besides each Indian distinctly states many times in his speech that it is absolutely for nothing he makes the present. But unfortunately for this generous appearance it has quite the contrary signification. The trader during the course of this harangue receives hints enough as to the compensation for the present and the Indian fully expects both the honor done to the trader and the skins given to be paid for; in fact, requiring in return nearly double the amount in value had the skins been handed, as is usual by the mass of the Indians, to the clerk of the store without any ceremony. It is at these times that the principal men make the speeches, such as the one which follows, which, though not distinguished for beauty of allegory or force of argument, may serve to show their shrewdness and cunning, also their reliance on flattery to gain their ends. It was necessary to premise this much so that the speech could be understood in all its bearings. SPEECH OF LE CHEF DU TONNERRE TO THE GENTLEMAN IN CHARGE OF FORT UNION, JANUARY, 1850 “My friend, my Father, look at me. You see standing before you one of the poorest of his nation, but one who has a good heart and open hand. Our Great Grandfather, the Earth, is the parent of us all—Indians and whites. When Wakonda created man he made two sorts; one clothed, comfortable, rich, plenty to eat, and endowed with wisdom; these were the white men. The other he produced naked, in a cold climate, poor, ignorant, obliged to hunt for their meat. to labor, to starve, to suffer, to die; these were the red men. “Who receives the profits of their labor? The whites. Who pro- tects them from their enemies? Themselves. When your Great Grandfather across the sea sent you to reside with Indians, what did he say? Did he pour no good words into your ears? Did he not = Literally ‘““my road shall be in a straight line with my talk and not frightened to one side.” DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 601 tell you, you will behold a poor, naked, starved nation, have pity on them? I believe he did, he was a chief, a man of sense, a rich man, and no doubt said, ‘Give away a portion of your good things to the Indian, let him feel something soft on his back. He is not an ani- mal, his body is not covered with hair like the buffalo, but he is a man like yourself and requires clothing to protect himself from the cold. Are you not aware Indians freeze to death?’ ** “When this big fort was built, when the first whites opened the road up the Missouri, they found us with bone knives, stone axes, clay pots, stone arrow points, bone awls, and nothing but the bow and arrow to kill game; they had pity on us, and exchanged for our skins iron arms and utensils.** In this they did well; they bettered the Indian; they made themselves rich. They had sense. They also gave us good words, and I have recollected them; they have been handed down to us when children, and all good Indians remember. 1 was told if you meet a white man give him your hand, take him to your lodge, give him to eat, let him have lodging, show him the road. I have done so. “Tf you meet him while on the warpath, do not.steal his horse or rob him of his property. If others steal his horses, bring them back; if any of the fort property is damaged, pay for it. I have done so. I was told to hunt, make robes, trade the skins for blankets, arms, and ammunition. All this I have continued to do from my youth to the present time. My part has been fulfilled. Yet you see me before you still a poor man. I stand nearly alone in the village, like an aged tree whose tops are dead. The bones of my friends and relatives are piled around the fort or scattered over the plains. All the good, all the wise, all the handsome, all the brave were rubbed out by the smallpox. Young men are growing, but they are not like those of the old stock. “The road to the fort gates has been swept free of grass by the feet of my people in coming to trade. Each year we have loaded your boats with the skins of our animals, and I now bring a few more. The 10 robes laid before you are a present, for which I desire nothing. I wish to make your heart glad and to have my name remembered on the large books.** I know very well you are a chief and will have pity on me. Let me feel something soft over my shoulders.** Bestow some glittering mark on my back,*® cover my % Four Indians had at this time been frozen to death near his camp in a snowstorm. 37 When the trade of the Missouri was opened the Assiniboin were the poorest of all nations, and have remained so to this day. Jt is customary to keep a list of men who behave well and make large trades. ® A blanket is wanted. 49 Hint for a chief's coat. 88253 °—30——39 602 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 bare head * and let something gay *® appear there, that my young men may know that I am respected at the fort. “My leggings ** are worn out and the cold enters, and my breech flap no more covers what is beneath. My body ** and neck ** are laid bare in hunting skins in this cold weather. I lack some mark * of my standing with the fort to make my young men listen to my words to be good to the whites and hunt. If you wish many robes, recollect the young men are hunters and can not kill buffalo without ammuni- tion.“® The women have hard work dressing skins; their arms are sore; some beads and vermilion *’ would give them strength; and the tobacco * you will no doubt furnish me will be smoked by all my people in talking over matters for the good of the fort and in the councils for hunting. I know you are a chief and good father to your red children and will never refuse them what they ask. Remember our hardships, dangers, and exposures in hunting for you. Open your heart and lengthen your measure and reduce,*® if ever so little, on the prices of trade. Indians suffer for everything; even the tobacco chewed and spit out by the whites is picked up and smoked by them. Your store is large; let your heart be so also. Let me be able to sing your praise;°° your name is in the clouds; your father was a chief; you will be greater than he. Listen to the words of your poor friend. I have spoken.” The Sioux make better speeches and use more figures than the Assiniboin, but none of the many we have heard among both and other nations are as replete with metaphor as is represented by fiction writers. Either the Indians treated of by them were of a superior order or the speeches have been liberally interpreted. The foregoing presents their style as it now exists among all the upper Missouri tribes, though subjects of more importance, such as war, peace, or religious rites, are accompanied by a proportionate earnest- ness of oratory and boldness of gesture. They do not pride them- selves on making fine or flowery speeches, but bold, pointed, and sensible ones, and, if begging be the object, will descend to the grossest flattering of their auditor, and vainness of their own merits. “1 Hat desired. “Weathers desired. 43 Leggings wanted. 44 Shirt and meck handkerchief desired. 45 Medal or gorget. 46 Hint for general present of ammunition to the party. 47Some to each woman. 48 An intimation that tobacco is not only wanted but plenty of it. 49 This is an invariable request, and would be so no difference how long the prices were. 50 Whoever makes a liberal present to Indians has his name sung around the camp or fort in a song of thanks. DBNIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 603 Picrure WRITING Picture writing can not be said to be much practiced by any of these tribes, though it is to some extent by all, principally by the Crow and Sioux Indians. The former of these nations are incessant in the war expeditions against the Blackfeet, and in the absence of the warriors the camp from which they departed moves in quest of game, but pursue a direction made known to the warriors before they leave. It often happens that the trail made by the camp is effaced by rain or covered with snow before their return, also that they (the camp) are obliged to diverge from the route agreed upon, and in these cases leave intelligence in pictorial devices in some of their encampments as guides to the returning absentees, who, if they find them, can not fail to reach their friends by following the instructions 2 1 /| 2 oN v/| DS eae ttf 1 5 etter Figure 35.—Picture writing. Key: “ We are a camp of 13 lodges (1); encamped on a creek above the forks (2); started hunting with eight horsemen (3) and two women on foot (4); slept two nights out (5); found buffalo beyond the second creek from the camp (6); killed some, and made travails (7); and slept but one night on our return home (8) pointed out by these means. (Fig. 35.) Another occasion where it is useful is where a war party, after having made an attack, whether successful or not, have reason to believe more of their own people are out for like purposes, wish to convey to them the intelligence that their enemies are on the alert, and prevent if possible their falling into their hands, as would happen if they attempted to steal the horses before the late excitement caused by their own appearance had subsided. The information, together with the success or failure of their own expedition and any other matters they wish their friends to know, are pictured in some place likely to be found by those for whom it is intended. There is, however, this danger in these records, that if they are stumbled upon by their enemies in their war excursions they are as certain a guide to them as to their own people, and this is one of the reasons why it is so seldom done. But the Crow Indians, who rove through the spurs of the Rocky Mountains, frequently making 604. TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [WTH. ANN. 46 long and rapid marches, are compelled to leave such marks behind, or some of their warriors would ramble about for months searching for their homes, which would be extremely inconvenient should they be driving before them a herd of their enemies’ horses. The in- formation conveyed by this system of writing is complete as far as it is intended, which is only to represent leading and general facts, and is not nor could it be applied to minute details. All warriors read and understand the devices of their enemies and most of them practice it when necessary, but the direction to war pursued by the Cree and Assiniboin in the summer, being over plains, there are no places noted as their usual encampments, and timber is seldom found; they therefore practice this manner of writing less than the others, owing to the probable uncertainty of their being found by their friends. In the winter, however, it is occasionally done by them when their way lies along some river, and their encampments are found by the small forts in which they have slept every night being left standing. The same species of intelligence is sometimes left in hunting grounds with the view of announcing to any of their own nation who are supposed to pass the same way that the game, as denoted by the carcasses round, has been killed by friends, not war parties of enemies, intimating to them the direction and situation of their camp, that meat may be had there, that a juncture of forces is de- sirable, etc. The number and kind of game taken are not painted as the heads of the animals around would show that, but it, too, could be explained if wished. These devices are generally drawn on some dry tree without the bark, the characters being cut in the wood and filled up with vermilion mixed with grease to prevent it being washed off by rain. Pieces of bark and portions of skins are used, and in default of either soft stone will answer. Powder dissolved in water is used to mark on the skin, the impression being made with a pointed stick, inked and pressed forcibly on the skin. ; The meaning of every mark is fixed and exact, understood by the mass of warriors of all tribes, not confined to or practiced by the priests unless their situation in traveling be the same as the warriors or hunters and they desire in hike manner to convey some information to the nation. The foregoing purposes in different forms are the only ones to which we have had the opportunity of witnessing the application of these devices. Perhaps they are the only cases as yet necessary for their present operations, but there would be no diffi- culty in their picturing the passage of whites or other nations through their country should it be required, and the same be intelligible to them. DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 605 Another form, and the one in which this manner of writing appears to be of more importance among them, is the devices drawn on the robes, exhibiting their standing as warriors whenever they appear. The height of distinction in an Indian, and his greatest ambition, is to impress upon his own people or strangers the idea of his being brave, of his having done acts that entitle him to appear among men, of his superiority in this respect over others in the crowd; therefore the actions which lead to these impressions are pictured on his robe; his biography is carried on his back so that “ he who runs may read.” It insures him respect through life, an honorable shroud at his death, and is believed to merit reward in futurity. A further use these devices are made to serve is the representation of monsters said to be seen by them in dreams, and supposed to have the eftect when painted on their lodges of averting strokes of lightning, disease, ete. In like manner buffalo heads are pictured to bring those animals in the direction of the camp, besides a great variety of smaller devices are seen on their shields, drums, medicine sacks, and enve- lopes of their amulets, to all of which appropriate and general mean- ings are attached corresponding with their superstitious belief or to insure success in domestic affairs. In conversation with most elderly Indians regarding locations, travels, or to explain battles and other events, resort is had by them to drawing maps on the ground, on bark with charcoal, or on paper if they can get it, to illustrate more clearly the affair in question. In this way the chief of the Crow Nation three years since made and left with us a map (pl. 77) of his intended travels during the entire fall and winter suc- ceeding, embracing a circumference of 1,500 miles, with the different encampments to be made by that nation in that time, and so correct was the drawing that we had no difficulty in finding their camp the following winter in deep snow, one month’s travel from this place. It is regretted that those Indians are not now in this neighborhood, as in that case some specimens of their charts and devices could be in- serted, but in default of better we present in this place some Assini- boin drawings, with their explanations, which will serve to give a general idea how they are managed, and other pictorial devices are attached in several parts of this work. These are the only forms the pictorial art of the Indians takes. It is more largely applied to the designs represented on their robes and mythological subjects when appearing on their lodges, fetish envelopes, etc., as has been stated. Songs can not be recorded in this or any other form. The value it may be to a people who are without letters is mostly apparent in the instances where it denotes the rank and standing of individuals when painted on their robes. The in- 606 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 formation intended only for their friends when cut on trees is liable to be interpreted to their disadvantage by enemies, which would consequently be a bar to its general practice. None of their draw- ings are executed with neatness, but occasionally have some pre- tensions to proportion. It appears to be the meaning only that is desired, for paintings done by whites correctly are not more appre- ciated as work of art, perhaps not so much, as their own rude repre- sentations, but are looked upon with more superstitious dread. The explanation of the drawing (pl. 78) would be as follows: ““We were a party of 20 men (1) and stole 39 horses (2) from the Blackfeet ” (see the 29 horse tracks so marked going away from the camp). “The camp turned out, killed one of us” (see the picture of a hand pointing toward their enemy’s camp (3) and a scalped man drawn) “and recaptured from us 14 horses (4) ” (see the 14 tracks going back to camp, each track always standing for a horse). “We forted and fought with them” (see (1) representing a brush fort and the men therein; the guns pointing toward the fort (5) are those of their enemies and the others signify the firing kept up by themselves). “In the battle three of us were wounded and six horses killed ” (see 6 representing a wounded man, and six horses stationary, seven; that is, going neither way, proving them to be unable to travel). “We got off with 19 horses ” (8) (this being the tracks of horses leay- ing the fort); “the first night we encamped on the plains near a spring ” (9) (the dotted line shows the path, and 9 is intended to rep- resent a small fort or sleeping place, with another dotted line to the left where the spring (10) is marked). “In the encampment we left a wounded man (6) ; we made two more encampments after that, when we now leave this painting and intend pursuing our course home to the right. A band of buffalo (11) was seen on the opposite side of the river on a creek while the battle was going on, which are all we have yet seen.” (These marks mean buffalo tracks.) The end of the dotted line is as far as they have then gone, and other marks show the road they intend to pursue, but if they expect to get home without sleeping the dotted line is made as far as the lodges, Explanation of Plate 79.—‘* We are a party of 10 men (1), have stolen 21 horses (2) from the Blackfeet and taken a scalp (3), but lost one of our own party. The first night we forted on a creek (4), the second night we slept on the prairie in a small fort at the foot of some timbered hills (5), the third night we slept at a lake (6), the fourth at a spring (7) where we are now. We intend to make three more encampments to get to our lodges, which are on the head of the next river (8). These figures (9) represent the lodges of their enemies, and the horses’ tracks going from the lodges, indicating BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 77 q i=} ar Map of tue north dee of the Nussoury river prem Jot Une, mowh of the Urtlew Stine, te Fre Benton monk “ te name. drasun by cay AStmubeune worrnay at Sort Unew Seo. 27,1855. Joa artist wes mat acquauten with the Crwntin, on Tae tow. ude of te Tre, Yu dotted Une their wnat wer pod te de Modhek . Sfowss event Fe, wr iTn as oud tew, Thesseurd R, i wader Wis discktn ond tyler ctor . 4 aE Union MAP OF REGION ABOVE FORT UNION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 78 vy? ( a? DIAGRAM OF A BATTLE FIELD qai7al4 3ILLvVg Vv AO WvHSvVId VVVyy re” Oy Tee rrty ASOTONH.LA NVOINSWY JO NVaYNNA 6£ ALVId LYOdaY WONNV HLXIS-ALYOA FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY S ‘3 = SS Se a aS a 3)po5 sr a “a : ils Ws SSS SS SS . FP Soon y 99 a ES J a PH) . e pare S oe ce _ <. ut IC cy ac! fel 4 ~ / \ wo ¢ Wie = oe oe Loa Drum Head, \ y i? er ae \ss at f)octar's Rati, oN ay ; y, 7 a as | : a = sia LA MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS DENIG] THE ASSINIBOIN 607 them to have been stolen, each single mark (10) counting a horse. The guns, bows, and lances show the party to be 10 (1). The hand pointing the direction in which they are traveling and toward a scalp (11) intimates that they have killed an enemy. The hand pointing the other way with the scalp (12) explains they have lost one of their party. The dotted line is their path home along a river and only extends as far as they have traveled to the place where the painting was left. The number of days they expect yet to travel to reach home are indicated by these characters (8, 10), the one a brush fort, signifies the number of encampments, and the horse track with it means it is the road they intend to travel.” Myru TELLInG As has been several times mentioned in these pages, one of the principal ways of passing time at night in an Indian camp is the recital of fables for their amusement. Most old men and women can recount these stories, but there are some particularly famed for their talents in this respect, and these are compensated for their trouble by feasting, smoking, and small presents. At night, when all work is over, a kettle is put on containing some choice meat, tobacco mixed with weed prepared, the lodge put in order, the family collected, and the story-teller invited, who often prolongs his narrations the greater part of the night. Some of the tales are of a frightful kind, and to their impression on young minds is no doubt mainly to be attributed the fear of ghost monsters and other imaginary super- natural powers exhibited by most Indians when grown. We have taken some pains to call together a few of the most famed and sensible story-tellers and listened with much patience to a great many of their allegories, but find nothing in any of them bearing on their ideas of a future state.°' The circumstances and actors por- trayed do not reveal the actual notions of the tribe on their religion as it now exists but are founded on their ancient mythology and handed down complete in their details through successive genera- tions, and their real signficance, if they ever had any further than amusement, is now lost or absorbed in their manner of worship as referred to in these pages. Nevertheless, we can discern in them a probability of their being the real belief of their ancestors in their primitive ignorance, before their superstitions and religions had assumed a systematic form and tangible shape. This much may be inferred by the tacit acknowl- edgment of their truth apparent in the auditors and the unwilling- 5 This inference on the part of Denig indicates that he was not cognizant of the facts, poetically expressed, conveyed by native Indian myths, and so he reached the false con- clusion that all myths are no more nor less than simple fictions, when, in fact, except in their verbal dress, they are true. He failed to interpret rightly the metaphorical diction, 608 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [BTH. ANN. 46 ness evinced by all to hear them ridiculed or contradicted. We think the truth of the matter is these tales were believed and formed a portion if not the greater part of the religion of their ancestors, are reverenced for their antiquity and originality, together with a lingering uncertainty as to their having actually transpired in times long passed. This may be deduced from the evident venera- tion with which some of them are regarded, and from the fact that there are no new fables made at the present day, nor any one who possesses or professes the character of a myth maker. These stories are not added to or diminished, for if in the telling the least cir- cumstance be omitted the narrator is reminded of the error and corrects it. In none of them is the creation of animals or other objects, animate or inanimate, reasonably attempted, though such things are alluded to in many absurd forms and grotesque imagin- ings according with the general tenor of the tale. These, though often trifling in their details, present a connected chain of events and often contain a kind of moral, that is, a double meaning as observed in the one relating to the formation of the Ursa Major and Polar Star, before inserted. None of these serve to demonstrate to the young the power and ubiquity of Wakonda.** This awful principle is too much feared to be lightly introduced in common conversation or connected with amusing tales, though inferior demons and minor supernatural pow- ers with a great variety of figures of the imagination, such as mon- sters, ghosts, giants, beasts with reasoning powers, transformation, and works of necromancy, are represented. There does not appear to be much useful instruction conveyed by any of these oral tales, but they are resorted to as a source of amuse- ment. Stories related by us to them from books, such as the fables of Aisop or those from the “Arabian Nights,” are listened to with great attention and sought after as eagerly as their own fiction. Moreover, they can, when these fables are plainly narrated, not only comprehend the literal meaning but appreciate the moral when it is pointed, not in its moral sense but as a necessary conclusion arising from the circumstances related. The only objection to recording many of these tales is their interminable length, one frequently occu- pying two or three hours in its recital. So remarkably long are they that the auditors are apt to become sleepy, and the narrator, if not responded to occasionally to convince him of their attention, breaks off and abruptly takes his leave. We now subjoin some of these stories that may serve to show the scope of imagination involved and that others may form their own opinions regarding their interest and utility. 52 This statement is highly questionable, since these Indians show a deep reverence for Wakofida, the highest God of their pantheon, aS may be learned from various passages in Denig’s own report. DENI] THE ASSINIBOIN 609 FABies RELATED BY “THE Ear Rrincs or Doe’s TEETH,” AN Otp ASSINIBOIN A long time ago there lived a great chief of a powerful nation, but he was a fearful and desperate man. He had killed six of his wives at different times in fits of passion, and at the time of our story had separated from his people, being jealous of his wife, and placed his lodge alone on the bank of a small stream. His family consisted of his wife, a boy say 12 years old, and a girl about 10 years, both his children by the woman now with him. The man went out hunting, and the game being far off did not return for several days. In the meantime the woman continued her domestic duties at home. Being in the timber in quest of wood, she struck her ax on a hollow tree and a great many snakes came forth, one of which * was large and handsome, had a fascinating eye and horns upon his head, spoke sweet words to the woman, and in the end succeeded in seducing her. Her husband returned and inquired of her “ What had become of the paint on her face, which he put there before starting? She made some hesitating answer and he suspected all was not right and determined to watch. In the course of a few days he gave out that he was again going hunting and might be absent some time, as he had not yet seen game. He as usual painted his wife’s face and departed. In place of going to hunt he hid in the bushes to watch his wife, who made her visits to the snake’s nest, striking on the tree and calling on the horned snake in terms of endearment to come forth. The snake came out, and the husband witnessed the infidelity of his wife. He remained a day or two near the place, and each day observed his wife to repair to the snake’s den for like purposes. He then returned home. She was absent, but returned in a short time. “My wife,” said he, “I have killed a deer some distance off; go and get the meat.” After having received instructions as to where the meat was to be found, the woman departed with her dogs to bring it. In the mean- time her husband went into the bushes, struck with his battle ax on the snake’s house, saying, “ My husband, come forth,” imitating the voice of his wife. The reptile sallied out with all his family and the Indian destroyed them all with his battle ax. Gathering up the snakes, he carried them home and cooked them by boiling them to a jelly. His wife returned without finding any meat (as indeed there was none), and found her husband sitting down sharpening a huge flint ax. He invited her to sit down, and observing that she must be hungry after such a long travel, poured into a bowl the mess of snakes, which he handed to his wife, who, thinking it was some 5s The Fire Dragon or Mateor—Son of the gods. 610 TRIBES OF THE UPPER MISSOURI [ETH ANN. 46 other kind of meat, ate the whole. After she had feasted, the man said, “* You have eaten your beloved husband, the snake, and now you shall follow him.” He rose up and cut her head off at one stroke of his sharp ax. > =-5-<-52255-<--2iues 487 custom regarding killing of-..-__.-.---.- 412 destruction of skeletal remains by 363 ANTELOPE, hunting of-_-- ANTHROPOLOGY, PHYSICAL— western Eskimo, notes on----- 213-228, 228-250 pyre rth i. See OR ee eee eee 149 ANTHROPOMETRY— St. Lawrence Island_-_---------- 30, 238, 251, 252 "DATIBTIN Ses snes ann 22 nc daone nee 44 western Eskimo-_-_--.------- 228, 238 et seq., 250 629 630 INDEX 2 ANTHROPOMETRY—Continued. Page Page 150 | ARMSTRONG, 218, 219 413,414 | ARMY MeEpicaAL Museum. 235 ANTIQUITY— 191 of Eskimo =<. <2 --22s2s22-0 5222 -cn8 169, 181,238 | ARROW AND BOW, used in buffalo hunting___ 542 ofman Alaska=— sa. 5.2-2-s-sness-oee ee 362 | ARROW POINTS, ivory— of remains, Little Diomede_ below Paimute: S:-=-= an ee 67 of Yukon Indians_---_- ASNIWIK=2-s222ss-== discovery_- 127 Eskimoid features_ - 56, 59 Influenza 133 population -__ sickness at. 60 56 APACHE, Eskimoid features among----_----_- 82 APKHUN Pass. 127 191 APOON? PASS 2222 co Sees seeereceen tee sasees 195 ARCHEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS— donated by Thomas Berryman--_-------- 99 donated by George Goshaw--_-_- 3 98 donated by Merle LaVoy-_- donated by Lomen Bros. = alive placed on deposit_ ARCHEOLOGY OF ALASKA_ 33, 84, 88, 101, 102, 181, 149 Barrows 24 ee eS ee et ee 166, 206 Bering Sea Bonasila Point Hope --- 102, 205, 206 St. Lawrence Island__--.-.-------------- 210 St.eMiichsellTsland===- ===> ees 170 Seward Peninsula. ---..----_----+--+---< 202 Shishmaref. 202 Tanana.__..-- — 43 Wainwright_- == 2» 106 Wiales:..-2=4252=2 93, 197 western Eskimo region_____ 165, 167, 362, 363, 366 workmanship___ 173 —— ~ 227, 256, 357 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 364 266 268 migration of. 405 pottery of 413 ARM STRETCH— Eskimo 239 western Eskimo-__- 251 Ghost Creek___ ARROW POINTS, stone__ 173 ARROws, game played with____ 570 ART, curvilinear— 174 363 fossil ivory 362, 363 Paleolithic, of Europe, resemblances to that of Bering Sea 175 ASHIVAK a 187 AsIA— cultural affinities with Alaska__._______. 175 living remnants in, of stocks that peopled Americas»... > s2.-=in=5 Se i eee 29 origin of Eskimo in____ 330, 333-339, 356, 359, 361 ASIATIC— affinities of western Eskimo-_-__ 214-227, 240, 250 American connections 197 cultures, influence of. -- 145, 146, 173 Bskimo::.--... seetsap see 226, 234. 237, 361, 364 Ast1atic Coast, northeastern— archeology: -*=--- 2-2". athens scene 88, 363 connections with America 96 crania 254, 257, 259, 364 sLeSsnle aoe 93, 96 168, 169, 170, 171, 210 visibility ofs--2": soa) os eee 93, 96 visits to, from St. Lawrence Island______ O77 ASIATICS, visits of, to America. ___.__.------- 96, 97 ASMUSSEN, P. 367 ASSIMILATION, by the tundra— of remains 77 79, 97, 111, 118, 136, 172, 184, 195 ASSINIBOIN INDIANS— advancement ofsas espana en see eee 579-580 attitude of, toward debts.-.___-___-_____ character of_-.----- characteristics of___ discussion of method of dealing with___ 470-474 etymologic interpretations of the name__ 381 intellectual capacity of__ -- 593-602 intertribal relations of-_ TUAINOS 0 fo nae eee ee ee origin of progress of. strength of, compared with white man’s _ territory occupied by.=-...-.-----_-_-- 396-397 traditional origin of__ ATHAPASCAN stone ax___- ATONEMENT, no conception of. AUDUBON, assisted by Denig-_-_-_-_- AUK INDIANS, southeastern Alaska---_-_-_-- 33 INDEX 631 Page . Page AUK Port, Indian remains--. =. 88 | BEAR, THE, revenue cutter._..--_.-.---....- 30, AURIGNACIAN, affinities with Eskimo, Indian. 357 86, 88, 90, 91, 104, 112, 117, 119, 120, 123, 172 AXES— BEARD— anuble-BdPAd <2. a. wice avnassweos 82, 135, 147-149 CXLPACHONOl= saree heres ane nnessaee 593 i --- 67, 69, 82, 87 western Eskimo--.-.--.------------ 213-227, 249 149 | Brauty— jadeite, near Barrow..--..--------------- 319 SING soo apace cnenne cee aeneeenee 107, 213 on the Yukon, at Burchell’s- 46 Tndian,, wikon=. -<.cssti ae See ess 151 48 mative culldren’— —4—. anes scene 59 148 | BEAVER, trapping of_...........-.---.--.-- 411, 538 43 | BercHey, F. W 134, 135, 145, 146, 147,148 | Benavior, western Eskimo-___-___---------- 92, 200 94, 107, 134, 213-228, 240, 250 197 | BELIErs— 89, 197, 200 concerning animals_.......----.--------- 487 89 concerning astronomy-_--.-------------- 414-418 BAcKLUND, CHARLES__..-------- 75 concerning crime---------------------- 479-483 Bap ANIMAL, Assiniboin war leader. vit 402 concerning future life_ -- 418 LUNA OR St ge eee eer eee 367 concerning Great Spirit......------------ 397 LN ee earn eens 334 concerning prehistoric animals__-.------- 412 Barriy LAND— concerning territorial rights. 476-478 basiofacial diameters....--------------- 280, 281 concerning the earth__-- 406 Cranin es a oe BELKOFSKI.-_-.--=--<- 189 Eskimo-_...------ BRU, Mace Soho s eee eae eee eee eae 219 LTC oe IBERG, He o-eece 31, 104, 108, 113, 118, 119, 120, 123, 172 facislianples= 2 2222 2635--s222222e-oseunas BERING, Cart. I. I. (or V.).----------------- 209 S70 Seu See Ce ee a ers BERING SEA— BAKER CREEK---- amphitheater of migrations from Asia_ 93, 95, 96 PB AKME VDARGUS. oon nemonkanmaseae 178, 181, 184 archeology 2. s2ne-s2sec see 144, 168, 363, 366 BALDWIN; REV. .....=---n<50% 31, 87, 90, 172, 175, 181 Grama eS. sence chek cease ae eee 260, 364, 365 BALL GAME, described_--..---.------------ 565-566 islandSi2=-=sncssdss=eeceressseseeeee ene 255 Bancrort, H....---- --- 150,218 | BrrING SEA EskIMO. -.....--------------- 227, 359 BAND, composition of--.--- eee ook home Ofs22222-2=s=2- SR ee 238 BANKS, cutting of, by streams__------------- 136 | Brrine StRAIT— BARNARD, LIEUTENANT--------------------- 128 cranigs=eeen2sts i tesssescaazesdeeteene 233 BarRRIck, GRACE P 225, 226, 227 BARROW.—<0-=-=5=-55- 38, 167, 211 Codi hl. a AGO. U 73) MB REIRES= 5902225. es- = PSEA SES 116 i BERRYMAN, THOMAS.---------------- 31, 98, 99, 167 BESSELS, E_..-.---- 367 BETHEL- -- 192 BTSCH Om ee Se See een ee oe 31, 70-72, 17 (Ue 9) pees oo Ce eee ee eee 80) || BETTING; On-TaceS!===2-22ss=ss22=222--5-——0 566 BARROW CRANIA__ 254, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264 | Bia Lake, Yukon Delta, Eskimo-- 226, 227 basiofacial diameters__----------------- 279-282 | BIL.ines, J., CAPT., Map-_----------- ee ZK) hub Soe ees Sa ME COON PBIMIUD Soe Sana 8 a ea ee esa eee 198 LACT Co ee eee Sey 285 | BioLocicaAL SwrveEY, explorations of, in 29 55 edt itt) yp kee ee ee See 37, 83, 136, 170 Barter, native__ - 91, 93, 102, 103, 145 63, 70 BPO GN ELON Bes a aie ee ee LO2T) Pe Finthousessscrecc cee ke 82 PAAR TRET Ih OAPI eo - osncnasepsomneoas) LOT mal PP On iacts Ole ateas cece aces reset cetcee 142, 170, 178 Basketry, Indian PAMTHENMEDO, CHUKCHOG-lOSKINO...-----s- BO Llie || = ‘pamess2-=-soscsesorencs loo cek lee 91, 94, 95, 110 TO MULE 5 I eee sels Se meee ret: list of, eaten by Indians- --- 583 BEACHES, archeological remains on RWibH) Pens ee een coneeoom= 115 Braps— BirKet-SMITH, K---------------- 331 Russian glass-..---------------- 61, 136, 178,863 | BisHors Rock-.----------------------------- 52 usé Of.___...-.--------------------------- 590 | Back RooT, medicinal use of_------------ 425-426 BrEAR— BLACKFEET, migration of claws of, worn as necklace__-_.---------- 553 | BLEEDING, practice of. -.-------------------- dead, invocations to-- 499-500 | BLOOD, Eskimo ----.-.--.-------.---------- (IBTOSSOMy fie Wl Sa eneaemen ae BLvE THUNDER, Assiniboin warrior_ 402 Da) Ao ee a ee eer meee 196 632 INDEX 4 Page | BurraLo—Continued. Pago BLUMENBACH, J, F_..-.----------- 330, 333, 334, 367 parts of, eaten raw.-..--.-.----cecescnene 581 BAS ARs eee ee eek EAE oe 150, 227, 228, 229, 231, See also GAME; HUNTING. 235, 237, 256, 258, 331, 333, 346, 347, 357, 367 | BULKLEY, CHARLES S 128 Boats— BULLS’ DANCE, described _-__- 562 Dpreakdowile-.-s------<--- sees eee 71 | Buiu’s Dry Bones, doctor and soothsayer_. 422 Eskimo: .2:=-5-4--2s=> - =< sec anoenconsacnon= 298 like Eskimo of “mounds” near Barrow. 318, 323 of head, western Eskimo__--------- 240, 249, 251 GREENMAN, M. J.-------- venels sitting, Eskimo. GREETINGS, of the Indians._........--.------ 524 sitting, western Eskimo GREYLING RIVER— skull, western Eskimo------------------- oranlas Ses atseeeenc eee TB Stal) PEROMAY Voc sman ie iee r Mca Sete eee SO 58,81 | HERENDEEN, village. Gros VENTRES— HeEkrvE, G_------- ceremonial scarification of-....---------- 499 | Hicspy, Mr_- ROLCLOT TONG Of oe oe erro eee care 522 | HOEVEN, J. v. d_...----------------------=--= women and children spared by-.-------- 551 | HoGANs, resemblance to semisubterranean Gros VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE— dwellings in Alaska-.------------------a--= oe HOLMBERG, ALEC----.---------------------- 65 HOLMES, ———- - --------------------------- 333 HOLy Cross- ----- 61, 64, 66, 81, 127, 129, 130, 136, 141 GRounp, frozen HoMOGENEITY, Eskimo -- 358 Groups, anthropological, of the Eskimo-_--- 274 | Hooper, C. L - 168, 171, 221, 322, 329 Le a Te ii ie: Cee eee et Ce Beane 369 | Hooper, W. H------------------------ 214, 219, 369 GuL¥ oF ALASKA, archeology---------------- 32 | Hooper Bay EskImo-_----------------- 238, 251, 252 Guns, manner of using---------------------- 555 basiofacial diameters - - ---------------- 280, 281 GurtTLeER, E. C_--_---- -- 31,69, 70 i GUETLEE 5 PUAUK~.--- oo eeceenea aoe 69, 70 ASU a STA Nag! SS ep oer et eres 369 Hasirat, of the Assiniboin---.--.---------- 406-410 Hasits, Eskimo, changing------------------- 366 HAI-KEES-KAK-WEE-LAH, Assiniboin wife of N0S0...------------ 2-2-2 n= === === == 268-270 E. T. Denig-.. 17 198) ee ee ee na eer eee 274 640 INDEX Hooper Bay Eskimo—Continued. Page Page skeletal parts: -5 =. oscaas-cceueseoeoe 314-317 | HYPEROSTOSES, mandibular. See LOWER Skulls ofichildren<=2---2--es--e = eee 295 HORSEFLIES- -_-_----.----- 41, 47 HORSE RACES, trickery in_---...-...-.--...- 566 HoRSES— a cause \of warfare_-.-..-.-_28=--24_ ce 470 disposal of, at owner’s death 479 introduction/of- <2: 2.5.2. _- 412 sacrifice of- 222 22-=-5 ee 491 stolen by war party 547 | “IGLooO’’ REMAINS, See BARROW. WaluBlOls2s— 22-5 .=-25- ene cssce ee ee 471 | IKALIGVIGMIUT. wealth estimated by..-..-.-------_.2--.- ATA’) UATE ecen once neeo hee pee HospItauity, INDIAN— IKALIKHVIG~---..--- affairs settled through---_---_----_-__... discussion of self-interest in----.-------- HOT SprRINGS, on the Tanana-_- fossils at HOUGH, JW ALTER 22352-5223 ces ee 148 Workin AJaska® = 22-22-22 =-22-.22.. #4 30 Houskgs, native, modern, Savonga___-_-_____ 92 HOUSES, native, semisubterranean— Donasila..-=--.22485. =... 2 ee 142 character of, in general_-__.__..-___._-.__ 172 Elephant Point _-_-__- So eel Golovnin Bay ---- -- 116, 118 Ring sland 25-25-25 ==2- =p Ah See 183 197 101 170 90 172 ees 168, 169, 182 46, 58, 60, 82, 137 JHOUSING, (ESKIMO = 22 one as seees eens semen conn 366 (EGR DRIOIA VAS= =~ — oe ee 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 230, 237, 240, 295, 306, 308, 312, 313, 316, 333, 357, 369. WoOrkiinvAlaskavecccos sees ssee ecessoemes Tuse practiced by - HUDSON BAY CRANIA_____- skulls of children___ Hupson Bay Eskro___- 230, 357 Hupson Strait, Eskimo-_-_-_-_-_-.-----_-- 219 IUMERUSS====2-2--25-- = ee 156, 158, 160, 164, 165 WES LOIN skiINO Ssenes pesos a eos eeeeeeee 314-317 HUNTER— dress of. - 2292 < = 2 eee te ee 586 precarious life of. === sseso 32s eon eee, 504 HUNTING— instruction ino -ensnees=-a-= anaes seer 542 laws.conneécted with.....-----------+--use 455 ‘S0aSON fOL ~~ == 5 seen 87, 197 knives with animal figures___._.--_-_._-- 175 visits to Nome in summer---_ 97 STINT AR ot 189 KINSHIP; t6rms Of: =.= =5-=<==-25=5— =e een 503 KIPNIAK 198 Kirsy, 219 Kivas, resemblance to kashims-_-- KVIDLOW?cocsco. sae ee ase ee eeecee eee KAW ADLIRS . 525 225<-s555-325-5 ss s2< seen KLAATSCH, H_- KRENKARYAIUH =~ 22352355 tense aeee KLuTscHak, H. W KGNIKH ARGS os ocean sone nee eee KNIVES— ATO a ee 61 ivory, with animal effigies___ 175 St. Wichaglo-s-sosesaee == 170 steel) old form: -==22-2-2-25- 222 -- eee een 51 stone, on the Yukon, Ruby-_..---------- 48 stone, slate, Eskimo territory -- KNOCKERS, stone KOBOLUNUK: << ===<===-=-:-= KOBUK. RIVER-------------- -- 134, 144, 146 exploration: <=-2=2::-5=~=222--225,2-2--5 Sade? oso oo eeenn ee jadeite tools KopiaAk ISLAND_---------- childrenifrom:. 2-5-2. <5 so ace ee 37 crania old sites ICOGANED WV oo) ooo eee IKOGIUN Ro osn nana a3 3- sen eee KotyMa, fossil ivory culture IKOLY MAUR IVER Ne be 3-226 == See sesso oe IKONGIGAWAK Se nn en eee Kontak, KANIAGMIUT, skulls_ EO OGHIKS== Sant. SESE ee oe ne basiofacial diameters-....------------ 279, 282 dental arch KOYUKUK TRAIL, from Burchell’s__------_-- 46 KOYUKUK VILLAGE..-.-----.-- 62, 137, 138 KOYUKUK-KHOTANA.. 2229180 KRAUSE, A-.---------. -- 331, 333, 343, 370 IGRIEGER, | H. Wiee esse = 144, 153, 154, 158, 174 KRUSENSTERN, Cape------------------=--=-- 99 KUALING WSO: (0) eh ea ee ee ae = 163091 ip LE Pare eR ee KUIUKUK.- KUJULIK. KUKAK.. KeuRUDIAR: 2-22 esechecc—.- IKiURU RAK ose eeeee soeene IGULULIN -2oecee KULVAGAVIK KukZ, FREDERICK, Denig discussed by_--_ 384-386 IKUSHUNUK: 9S. 2-8 o-oo sees ae 70 KUSKOKWIM Bay--- - 191,193 KUSKOKWIM RIVER- ~1Gil archoology:2. 222 222<2-2en-ese ee 165 Kskimos\ i252 teehee sess eesest explored inquiries about -sessss-- 2-9 aoe 49 natives from, on the Yukon_------------ 67 oldjsitess*-6. 2-0. << -=- =woa7t portage to Yukon_ = 27, KUSKOVAK-.-------- - 192 KAVLIUGNAK--_- 142 IGVICHAK. 2-5 190 RIGA 25852 see 194 KVIGATLUK 194 KVIG-MIUT 200 KVIGUK 199 KVIKHTAG 196 KVINKHAK - 200 IS WIGU Reese eee ae ee eee 199 ISSA on pee 198 KWIKHPAK---.---------- aay aee (RSW INGA Kia ooo eh) KWIKPAK- a) Tigh yf pW sarees Se SER PEC REECE eo Sten 191 INDEX 643 . Lasor— Page | LopGes—Continued. Page attitude toward_- Jang Oo See also EARTH LODGES; COUNCIL LODGE; division of___---- .- 463, 505 SACRED LODGE. Lasprapor, ESKIMO 138 differences of, from Yukon_-__----..---.-- SOME EME ss een eewcene mannan 86 skeletal remains. ----.--- - 323,364 | LoMEN, CarL--- 174, 181, 202 “pe lei) (ibe) ao), AC ee es ee Se TS ed Ss 31, 86, 87 Bl, 86. 87, 17 18) |) OMEN) RAT PH Sooo one 332, 333, 351, 370 | LOMEN BROTHERS. eee sae SCRE Eee ot RE eee IP) ONG kts ele ete atte ewan an nee eee . 147 | Lona BonEs. See BONES, LONG. Little Diomede__ ae 95 | Lone Harr, Crow chief, mention of------.-- 479 ornate, stone____- 34, 55, 136,173 | LONGEVITY, of the Indians____--._---------- 513 REAM HOEROR. LUOCY sco cccces ee Wr a ESM TE oe pa pee a dat el aes 150 LANCE Pornrs, large, slate_--..-..-.--------- Go) eOWD EN, ON eee se terete aneanasase 50, 51, 136 Lan, rights to LOWER JAW— LANGUAGE, of the Assiniboin angle Fee ce ea ea ae LANGUAGES— : Eskimo___.---------------------------- American, origin of, in Asia_._..____.--- 175 Faia SOR preservation of---...-------------------- 405 Wokonikakinoal LARAMIE TREATY— Yukon Indians__ (BE YC ee eS eS Ce Nera a rt PA lle ee NS 431 | Lumpar CURVE, western Eskimo. Lamson BAY. .-..--------------------------- 186 LuscHan, F. v LarkteET, E-------- 888/870 || Tithe Po ee LatcHaM, R, E_-...-.---.------------------ 370 LYING, a common custom Latuam, R, G-_------- 214, 215, 330, 333, 334, 352,370 | Tyon, GF 218, 348, 370 La Voy, MERLE_.--.-- 31, 101, 103, 106, 112, 114, 167 | \7,cCuRpy, G. G_._-----_-----_-- 174, 332, 333, 351 LAWRENCE, Harry. -- 81, 55, 60, 61, 64, 144, 158 MACKENZIE RIVER, Eskimo-_-_-_-__---------- 219, 229 UAWHENCE,, W _>~-->=--S:--io<2aho=on 330, 333, 334 Maal, Macrmrut, MAxkKI___-_ 130, 131, 142, 153, 154 pede Rovce,a branch of the Canoe In- MAHLEMUTES__---.-----__- 89, 150, 162, 217, 218, 227 Lr CHEF DU TONNERRE, speech of-__. ae Mitten xl wie Wee ot Le Gros Francois, Assiniboin chief----_..- Ren in es ea ee Le Hon, Pha e=* "beeen aaa REAR ABIA eer eee ee 129 LectuREs, by AleS Hrdli¢ka— Wien on the Alaskan trip_ - 35, 36, 39, 49, 59, 87 ae eae She WO 26 OER Ee 7 on the Bear-....----------------------- teeth and -bonesivc. S280 AS 48, 58 second, at Noms.- 5 = Mav, prehistoric, remains of_--------------- 41 talk to natives, Wainwright--.-...-.---.-. 107 | pana nie asia ae E: Lee ceremonial scarification of - -..----------- 490 Ea re ae sis |), aan : heh Lip SERA S ar bp aaa eight : selé-toxturswiicoves: 2s 2k 2eUS2= 522 LEwWIs AND CLARK EXPEDITION, Mention of.. 395 Loss, in western Eskimo... 213-228, 249 SNEED Sele oe eee eee ee 236 Lirs— (RAISIN es on aoe os ce mcneenesaesa eGo 161 WES bert MKTG = nnn eee ane 213-227 Liquor, bad effects of.....-.---s2-=----+- 530 LISSAUER, A..-.---- 370 LI NIK - -- -- : oeety 1184 LitTLE DIOMEDE-.---- 115, 117, 121, 166, 182, 183, 210 LitTLE DIOMEDE CRANIA._ 256, 257, 259, 261, 262, 263 basiofacial diameters. - 279-282 MANDIBLE. See LOWER JAW. MANDIBULAR HYPEROSTOSES, ‘See LOWER JAW. IMANOUVEIER, Li soucsasessscesese—weww sue 278, 316 MANSFIELD LakE, village. ....-.------------ 125 WEARTEGAZZA Prone Seed ceneweee = 311 Maps— Billings & Gall’s, 1811_....-.-----.-.-.-. 176 Dall’s, 1877. Geological Survey, Geodetic Survey, Bu- reau of Education --- 181, 196 Kokrines-Koyukuk . ---.---------------- 137 Koyukok-Lolkis. — 2-2-8 5---==2-=----c2ee eoaeee eee 189 MOosQuitToEs 41, 47, 52, 56, 57, 60, 61, 64, 71, 72. 73, 77, 78, 112, 129 MOTHER-IN-LAW TABOO--.---------------- 503-504 IMOUND, of-elk horns) —~-2- cece eee eee ede 398 Mounps— absencelof. {52.2852 222 2 eect 576 in Alaska___ _. 172, 183, 184, 206 near Barrow22-2-22-5---- Fs 166, 169 on Grand Island = 2-22 2co2asoe est eee 71 skeletal remains of2---.J222-2--0-- 222-225 318 MOUNTAIN VILLAGE— plow Paimutell2si2 ees eer eS 68, 81, 141 lowestiyiuikon2 22 aes See eee 73 MOURNING CUSTOMS 556, 571, 572, 575 Movuta— Indian <2 222 ss2ss2s--2 JN see ees 243, western Eskimo----------- 213-227, 243, 249, 252 MOYER; ©. D s2222so52555 t= SS 102, 114 MOZEE; B2:B222222 Eee ae eee 31, 36 MO ER, A., ornate stone lamp-_--__ 34, 55, 136, 173 Mummies, natural— eee eee eneeresonceesctos 319 nee SO ee 36 Be tab etsocncnce Geom stpo re desobne 190 257, 259, 262, 263 279-282 Madedeeweges2sssaso ssa eee 275 atccsecossauszersewso SAS 266 facial angles_ 285 means-_-- 286 nose__.- 268 orbits__---- 274 skulls'of'children's...2222202-0.52 2220 295 MurDER— Indian beliefs concerning ----...---------- 480 punishment forss====---2=s- eres oo = 329, 333, 371 IPETROR 0 2)--- 2-22-22 124, 130, 131, 132, 133,177, 181 PHOTOGRAPHING, at night_-____...-..----.-. 98 PHOTOGRAPHS, Indians, Yukon.......------ 151 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS— Anchorage Anvik__- Cordovass-=3-22. 5-25 So differences in, carried from Asia_ SRAM O ben os oe oo oe ae Kuskokwim_ IN@NANA - < 205 | Port HEIDEN 189 PINOSHURAGIN 208 | Port MOLLER 189 PETES ISD Olimar ie win awn 413 | Port SAFETY 196 Pit DWELLINGS, Alaska, Pueblo__ 82 | PortaGE— Le Tot ee ene eee ree eoeeee 207 Yukon-Kotzebue Sound_-_-.-.---.------ 127 Prin) apa 2 OE ROE Soe ee ee ee 326, 371 Sulkon-Kuskok win, ---2.2-s-s-nnampienn= 127 IPUANTS, WDOISQNOUS! <2 non--— 06 eens nee 129 | Post, FATHER. Point BARROW..-----.--------- DORs Lats 200,200. 2008) BOUL ACGH = eeeen = ono = anaes ane eee (Shi ( ae ee ee 215, 218, 226, 227, 230 Lye Se ee eee 42, 44 TUPRSUN SGI US seme os a a ee 228 | PoTTERY— IIR Sen oe oe eed 205 58 skeletal parts-.._.-...--...-.. 313 319 strange group of Eskimo near. 318 Bonasila__.-------- _. 58, 60, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147 Pornt BARROW CRANIA-...------------------ 236, Doghsh: Villages sion -c22=2-5scces ep 69 P 237, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263 in Eskimo region- 173 basiofacial diameters----- ithe DiomsbdG--— = ase 95 Nunivak Island -- 121 of the Arikara-__- 413 Paimute, below-- 67 Pastolik__-.--.- 78 Hivissism Mission. 2-25 -2- nese ean 147 total, all averages......-.---------------- Wwknnie cs sc cee eres 46, 82, 135, 145, 147 POINTLOPE: = = =-.-s---5= 101, 113, 207 | PRAIRIE FIRES, effect of-..--.------------- 408-409 archeology -- 166, 173, 363 | PRayers— burials_--.------------------------------ 183 Ghiech fics. toss. nae anaes DOSING = = oe a no nn aa 226, 230 of a warrior. excavations by Eskimo---------------- 167, 205 to ghosts fossil ivory culture___- 174 | Presents. See Girts. old remains __--------------------------- 205 | Prisitor ISLANDS.....---------------- 122, 238, 361 population -------------------- oo2----=-- 2008 | SERIGHARD, J. Oocsces se --eecncanne= 330, 333, 340, 371 ridges of ruins 2S 172,205 | prrests— Point HOPE CRANIA__- 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 basiofacial diameters-_- 279-282 (1) EE See Sseepeeaene (! RkBisial DAR eee Ce eer ne tenements 314-317 IPOINMMSP ENCE Reon ae eee enema == 197 Pornts, spear and arrow, ivory--_------------ 46, 60, 63, 67, 88, 144, 146, 170, 173 * POLISHED STONE IMPLEMENTS.-.-------- 135, 144, 148 PonceAU, Du 340 PHPORARY sees stcssceneeeeeerssoseces—- nc 192 POPULATION— affected by smallpox.....-.-------------- 465 causes of reduction in___ 625 effect on, of intoxicating drinks- .-- 465 12217021": je = Rae ar enh a 181 increase of-- 405 of the-Assiniboin= ~~ ==. -—----~e--. 396-397 A 1 ric pete, eR a ae eee a 130-132, 133 PORCUPINE QUILLS, use Of. ---------------- 590, 591 IRORT CHARENCK <6 --ssq6aneananoeancnnn 89, 117, 121 0S 197 Ae VSL TT Te ees eS ees 313 Port CLARENCE CRANIA -_---- 257, 259, 260, 262, 263 basiofacial diameters. 279-282 dental arch 276 pics Ae ae eee 266 facial angles 285 po ee ee ee eee 286 See also Doctors; DIVINING MAN. PRIMOGENITURE, among Assiniboin-----.-- 478-479 PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND, copper ‘‘shield’’_ 35 PRINCE RuPERT Bay, Indians of__---------- 33 PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND. - 181, 213 (eg te oe Se ee eee ene 233, 286 Old sites. 5 oe on Sees nae eee kee 184 Skolotaliremains -— == 9 nese eee eee 36 PRISONERS. See CAPTIVES. PROBLEMS, of archeology, Bering Sea and U.\2 | ea ee eee ee 174, 175 PROFANITY, lack of, among Indians_.--...-.-- 482 PROGNATHISM— AKUMO....sceceaskt Seceeas ee seen dance 282 RATKON AN Gian: con -see eee ese e eee ana 152 PROPERTY— loss of, as result of crime_.--------------- 480 of the deceased, disposal of 3 iO placed with the dead-------- Mee AGHY PROPERTY RIGHTS, discussion of- - -- 474-476 PRosPECcTS, of finding ancientremains, Yukon 40 “ PROTOLITHIC” INDUSTRY, Bonasila_---- 60, 82, 144 PROVISION STEALERS’ DANCE, described_---- 564 PRUNER-BEY, 331 PUBLIC CRIER, duties of......-.-------------- 442 82 147 648 ; PUGUVILIAK PULSE, western Eskimo-__ PUNISHMENT— for violations oflawa-s--2-2sncnesseee mene 445 Offer inte anes see ser eee eee eens 479-483 See also RETALIATION. IRUNUEGISLANDS= =~. 22s o- ease 93, 101, 123, 210 mapped __ 176 mendnins see se 172 PUOTIN Bay, crania_ 286 Putnam, F. W 228 QUARTZ, QUARTZITE, implements 173 QUARTZ CREEK, Site at 90 QUATEERAGES) (AC (DE eee ate nese sees een 175, 234, 237, 330, 332, 333, 338, 348, 354, 371 QUILLS, PORCUPINE, use of___-.------------ 590, 591 _ Race, Eskimo— purity 22205 == =55-25 365 unity or plurality 356 yellow-brown_- 357 Races, betting on_ 566 107 156, 160, 164, 165 WwesternubiskimOs= eens ee een 314-317 VAR 0 ss ae eee TUAMEP ART Ese 222 FSO a eee bane RANK, insignia of. RAPE, punishment for_ RASMUSSEN, K______-- RATTLE, made of hoofs os RATTLESNAKE, cure for bite of_____--__---- 425-426 RATZEL, F_ 333, 339, 371 VEST ACO (at eye ES 173 work on Alaska-_--- 32 Ray, J 233 Ray, P. H RAYKOND; | O7 Wie eee ee 128 IRECHE OS erewee eee see eerie eee eee 371- Rep Root Inp1ans, a branch of the Canoe Dridigns == een seen ne ee eee 430431 REDEPOSITION of human remains on the Wilko Ose re ee ee eens naan 68 REINDEER lll camps, Norton Sound. -_------=__-=2---2 80 camps; Point Hopes eee enee eee 101 TH Oo ie eee Sa Ceeremersese cos 80, 91, 92, 116 RELATIONS, GOVERNMENTAL, with Indians, GLISCOSSIOM Ofsere see nea res 470-474 RELIGION— discussion of attempted change in----- 468~469 of the Upper Missouri Indians-_-_--_-- 481-483, 486-493, 594 See also CRIME. REMAINS— Little Diomede--- Yukon, reassortment of. IREPLOGUE) CiSS==< 2-2 oes RESPIRATION, western Eskimo. Résumé of survey of Yukon-_--_-_----------- RETALIATION, among the Assiniboin___.__- 452-455 RETREAT, in warfare, attitude toward --_---- 560 ReEtTz1us, A 371 REtTz1Us, G 372 RETzIvUs, 8 372 Page REVENGE, justification of____------.--------- 481 See also CRIME; RETALIATION. REVENUE CUTTERS, and science______-------- 93 Riss SSsese22e eS Sees 159 RICE, WILD, use of 584 RICHARDSON, A RICHARDSON; Drone enone ne eee eee 150, 215, 218, 219, 329, 330, 333, 352, 372 RICHARDSON, W. P___ 128 RICHARDSON TRAIL_ = 36 RICKETS_--=--2_- 362 RmGeEs, of ruins. PTZ 183 (RINKS ee oe ee eee eee 329, 331, 333, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 344, 345, 346, 354, 372 PRINCHTE SG seen en eee ene nn eee 313 RIVER OF THE MOUNTAIN MEN 124 RIVET ee eee ee eee eee 284 ROBBERY, among the Indians-_-_-___----...---- 476 See also THEFT. ROLLET_-_--__ -- 316 Romie, J. A- 31, 36, 37 Ross, CApTain_ 31, 86, 117 Ross, J 348 Rossg, I. C UR Yea 135 ROA INOS Ofna ee 172, 173 richness of, archeologically - 173 RUNNING, speed in 529 Russtan— 136 early observations in America-_-_--.----- 29 explorations’, Yukon and affluents_ 123, 127, 128 anfuen COs = s— sss eee 46, 49, 55, 58, 61, 63, 116 142 be SSeS Sansa = 108! = 93 massacre at Nulato_ Lon snuffboxes-_ =, » 4386 traders----- 123, 127 Russian Mission. 67, 70, 71, 81, 176 archeology-_. 134 established 127 0 GA i pe ee a ee ee 147 RussIANns, discoveries by— Norton Sound tao snss--- =n ae 126, 127 =e lee 127, 128 31 SACRED LODGE— ceremony of construction of 488 SACRIFICE— amputation of fingers as---.------------ 427-428 made by hunters----- - 535 to the river------- 536 to Wakonda. 489 St. LAWRENCE ISLAND--- 121 age census of burials ---- 322 anthropometric data__.------------ 238, 251, 252 AUILDTOPOMOUL Vise =— aaa n ae na ee 30 SY CHOOO RV ance a nee sae eee 117, 173, 174 collections - = 30 discovery of- 209 arly 8D O lees ee sean esse eee eee 93 Hrdlitka’s trip to_...-.-..-...- = co CU EG CSIC C7 2 oo 88 MADY OP sean stccss eee ane 176, 181 DR RMEEARR EN oe tae 209 sites, dead villages... -.-..=-=-2-=-.- 209, 210 skeletal parts___ Blcu 9 * Sosa een BU skulls of children Wiglb tO Sanaa eae cae meee a 8 St. LAWRENCE ISLAND CRANIA__-_-------_-- 254, 256, 257, 259, 261, 262, 263 basiofacial diameters____.__.....----__- 280-282 compared with Greenland ___---_-...___- 298 dental arch Pasig eens Piss asa asese eae eure PARMAR fe croc ne ee 285 BONOBNIS Ser Pert nn oer ER? PS Ly 286 OP ihre ce pe eee Soe SSR ay ee 268, 270 OUDIER Baa 438 5 gs se | 271, 274 St. LAWRENCE ISLANDERS_______-_-_-- 162, 164, 167 CAVUNFAUION Of 2 22 << feos sar ses ed 92 homogeneous. --___- 358 not mixed with Indian-_________-_____.. 365 St. MIcHAEL ISLAND_--_______ archeology_______- discovery of--_---- trade station of the Aziags St. MICHAEL ISLAND CRANIA.-_ 257, 259, 260, 262, 263 55, 57, 116 70, 71, 116 BAG DAKE See co sos2a-escdsseeeec 86, 117, 118, 202 i 260 all ef 167 92 BAUER, Ma ees tenscadsecostacacsecazeoeee 372 SAVONGA____-- -- 92, 121, 173, 210, 212 BAWRYRUOMS a: <=.) op2s-—- cnc nencoe ee 146 SCAFFOLD BURIALS— HERCHIP MON Of 293-225 e eo ene 572 disintegration Of =~. 2<? sass 2s bas 34, 55, 136, 173 SNUFFBOXES BROWE, A dans eth le <: 150, 229, 230, 231 SoLDIERS— BONE AGE, Walon: 25-2 58 OntlesohS nay ees = si) ee Let 442,448 | STONE HOUSES OR DWELLINGS— organization of___ 436 Domedoss-2st= 6 (159 VESSELS, CLAY, for cooking 581 WEIRORIA, (Ti occas eweeweneumaanaae 86 VILLAGES— LUPUS b+ aE REE seer see epee 136 CONES t les, = ata en el ea cre a 40 183 Eskimo, Lower Yukon_- 67, 129, 132, 361 Indian, Tanana--------- -- 124, 125, 126 inland 2).-----~---- -- 182 SERGIO MOG Oe septa ae eee 136 native, on the Yukon, instability.....--- 59 Nome, west of. 89 UNE oR a ee 134 sites of, distinguishable 183 RISD. Sen Soo aie 182 summer camps 182 superposition__--_- 183 western Eskimo---.--------------- 168, 176, 184 MO ee ee ae ee 130-132, 134 MIRCHO Wit ncn ann 301, 306, 307, 309, 311, 326, 330, 331, 333, 345, 373 653 Page VIRGINITY— precautions to insure_--.-...-.....------ 590 violation of, of captives___..--.-.-.------ 553 VOCABULARIES, recorded by Denig-.---.-- 382-383 Wau-HE’ Muzza, Assiniboin chief____._.__-_- 395 WAINWRIGHT. Wie eater). SSS OU SE ee eee eee WaAKONDA— PROC reatOl sae ee ere aeons 414 the supernatural power-__.-.-------- 486, 487-488 WVATAR PAG: S55 5028 ann hana sonmanclenn hana 208 WALES........ --- 176, 197, 201, 202 archeology _--- 32, 88, 93, 166, 173, 197 Bf a 1111) Ses 2 es ae ee eee oe 227 fossil'ivoryienlture. +--+ 525 sasaneackens, (Lie trade aboriginal with Kotzebue____------ 89 tip €0:2- 22 eee e Se ee eco 30, 93, 117, 121 WALES CRANIA-- ~ 257, 260, 262, 263 dental archi= aoa ee oan ones 276 Gaia) 5. foo cee none se scecnaccsacensaaens 266 2 eS ee ee eee eer 268, 270 Orbits = s2sc2 = ees nae ee 271-274 WALK, western Eskimo--_-_-.....---- %.. 29 WALKER WO .(P2 == 2202 172, 181, 184 et seq. WATE SIM. = Sa See eee secesn 31, 64 WARS ooo SW eee oS a atetoe 104, 106 ivory, worked by Eskimo--_-__--.-- 84, 117, 121 War— a means of advancement----_._...------- 525 made to steal horses__.------------------ 644 made to take scalps___--------.---_ 544, 548-551 object of. 544 Wars, Eskimo-Indian, ete__ 86, 117, 118, 170, 171, 358 WAR CHIERS, power Of. --- == -ncscchacccmnon 449-450 WAR (CLUB, stone, Use of... 5. sacs 555 WAR EXPLOITS, recounting of___ 559-560 Wak LEADER, responsibility of......-.-.---- 443 Wak PARTY— attack by, described__......-....__---- 549-550 insubordination in___-.------------.----- 552 Organization of--9— ~~~ == oso 26e. Ses 544-45 return Of. | = 52 soo oe 547-548 TACTICS Of = ete ton seco a eer 545-47 WiAK WHOOP; US Of: ... == -- <2 cs zccht- essences 551 WARFARE— attitude toward retreat in Causes Of- 25 -=--==.=--== causes of failure in_ customs of____----- means of preventing__---.--.----------- 470471 precautions taken in___-_-_---_----------- 549 IARETOR, |burial\ofs Jc... ---e-eoe eee sen 570-571 WARRIORS— Ancini bolts: list Often anew ano 401402 dress of_-=-2—-- . 553-554, 586, 589 GtMpIMGNt Ol 9-9 ose ae eee ee enn 548 Pee tai: 01) eee nae Sreiie See ean, ee oe 593 TAattOOUne Of oa — 58 naan oen ans ceo 592 WARUSCHEIN, A__- 373 WATERING, THE DORG=-- -~— pecan an =a ose 115 VV. To) AN EAL eS ee ie ee 31 WEAPONS, described 555 WEAR, ofteeth. See TEETH. 146 Vy tpt Bes a ae 108, 119, 120 654 INDEX WEGNER, MR WEIGHT, in western Eskimo WIR LORE Ree eee WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH CO_-__-_-_-_--- 128 WETTSTEIN, E 373 Wrwikoe 5 oe 207 WHALE IsLANnD_ -- 84, 165, 170, 195, 199 WHALEBONE,= 22 = 2525-2 5-o2-cscsnena- enone 173 ribs, jaws, used in house construction___ 168, 182 WHIP DANCE, briefly described _-_.-___---_-_- 564 WHISKEY CREEK 50 WHISTLES, use of, in hunting 537 WHITE CRANE DANCE, described 563 WHITES— comparative data on____---------_...---- 2A0, intermarriage and mixture with Eskimo__ 102, 106, 111, 151, 362 mixture with Indians, Yukon___-__------ 151 SWAELY APD Ro ne 128, 150, 333, 335, 373 WICKERSHAM, J 31 WIDOWERS, remarriage of. 511 Winows remarriage Off nee ot ee 5 611 suicide among 522 WILD RICE, use of__ - 584 WILKINS, Capt__ Som 38 WiiiaMs, F. P 31, 75, 80, 116 WILSON, D____ 231, 232, 237, 331, 332, 333, 335, 342, 373 WILson, T 373 WIRELESS, at Barrow---- 108 IWISSLER;) ©! x-2 se ee 166, 331, 333, 347 Wistar INstiTUTE, Philadelphia_______ 255, 318, 320 Witcucrart, beliefin___- WOLFF, (PT once WOLVES, trapping of______ ““WoMAN CHIEF,” account of WoOMEN— Durial Of. = et 573 Clothing Of2--=2-232-0 st See 587 customsregarding--—-~ 222-222) SS 524 Indian and Eskimo, Yukon SPe161 Vist of names Off =---s3sss sess oou 22 SE SSE 519 marriageable age of ._ 611 statusiofeseas 2 =e _-- 433, 451, 455 treatment of, as captives. - 551, 552, 553 (WOrKi Of-~ 2a sone seers ee 444, 505 WOMEN’S DANCE, briefly described_ WOMEN’S GAME, description of. Woop— hewheesss=. - 2c s aa soc eee 183 in'burials, decay:-...2=5-=-=28=S2esse4see0 184 preservation, in old houses__ ae gtss TOONS; O60 oon eee ee epee see eee 173 Page WOOLEN Goops, introduction of____-_-____ 464-465 WOOLEY; ‘CAPE; site atiaces- see WOSNESENSEI Wovunpbs, recovery from___- g WRANGELSL, i. Poss 2252 127, 130, 150, 330, 333, 334 WrMan, J__... 150, 151, 152, 162, 217, 232, 233, 234, 237 YAKUTAT, copper mask__- 34 YorK Mountains 93 YuKoN— ancient remains---__ anthropology of archeology at and below Tanana_--_----.-_--________ 42,45 changes in!! 2 81 characteristics, scenery --_-------------- 126, 129 explorations of eee 123-129 first white settlement on_ ee lr! gold rush and decline_ 126, 128 - 169, 195 Sel) old settlements 133 ornate stone lamp 34 population 130 role in peopling of Alaska 81 survey, geodetic_____- m=y, eo survey of- 2222 se. se villages and camps---_- —y 00 villages and sites enumerated__ - 136 YUKON De va, Big Lake Eskimo_ B23} basiofacial diameters__......--.-------- 279-282 (cig:h0t: eee as a 254, 257, 259, 262, 263 dental .arch2<.. -.--scse 25-2 ene nea ren eee 276 266 285 286 268, 270 - 274 129, 132, 361 crania__...-.- 150, 161, 225, 232, 239, 256, 257, 259 YuEON INDIAN— BN Q UG Yon eae eee 83 census.___- 132, 133 crania--__ 150, 151-155 LY DG sos eceeae 83 variety and names____-_ 129 YUKON TERRITORY, Observations in_ 123 YUKONIKHOTANA 130 YUNNAKA-KHOTANA---___--_- 130, 131 Yurts, Asiatic, affinities of, to summer houses.in Alaska. 2 no oe on nee 182 ZAGOSEIN; (i: A. = oo osconcsenccannencesaseee 57, 89, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 150, 176, 181, 196, 202 ZELENY, 8.1 127 O i i a el 7 MS . 4 A . = Cy a Z 2 - = - i | 6 , _- 7 a att : 6 jae be 7 4 : 7 e os ‘ iy ‘ 2 - Hs - i} — +E ois one — : * *