State of New York ~ Forest, Fish @ GAME (“OMMISSION Seventh Report Hs PS \ oS. = Ben " iG ‘Cc Y a 8 ioe fa) i 5 ales » an : 5 t Oo id fet i g Wy SS UUlY, Sel * > A wa de Ot S De tl ‘ yy 4 NY a ‘| & Ve Ad > Y so 4 . wat is 7 WY . i eae) ) Tabla! Co sane ~ Ys '- x3 ™ at - rrr oy w S'S mas) ae ay 99 ? ae cae - 1 y eon J Whe nl mi ait, cLe RY ¥ ; ‘ } Hs) i ei 2 Ca ans (a 5 ity Wile : ; er fn ig | THE MOOSE Seventh Report of the Poorest, Fis and (jame (Commission of the State of New ork. > ~ a3 J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS _ALBANY, NEW YORK. Seventh Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission. Albany, N. U., Janaary 30, 1902. Hon. 5S. Frederick Nixon, Speaker of the Assembly: Sir:—We have the honor to submit herewith, as reqaired by law, the official report of this Commission for the year ending September 30, 1901. Very traly yoars, Timothy L. Woodraff, Dewitt C. Midd{eton, Chartes H. Babcock. State of New ork. Forest, Fish and Game Commission. Timothy L. Woodruff, President, . - - E = = Dewitt C. Middleton, - - - - - = = 4 Charles H. Babcock, - - - - - - - - 5 Forestry, - - - - - - - - : - Commissioner Middleton. Fishculture and Hatcheries, - - - . - - Commissioner Babcock. Shellfisheries, - - - - - - - -. Commissioner Woodruff. Assistant Secretary. John D. Whish, - - - : = : < Z 2 Saperintendent of Forests. William F. Fox, - : - = = = a a - Chief Game Protector. J. Warren Pond, - - - = - - = = 2 Saperintendent of Shetlfisheries. B. Frank Wood, - - - - - = 2 = = - Brooklyn, N. Y. Watertown, N. Y. - Rochester, N. Y. - Albany, N. Y. - Albany, N. Y. - Albany, N. Y. - Jamaica, N. Y. Table of Contents. PAGE. PREFACE, - - - - - - - - - - - 15 REPORT OF COMMISSION, - - - - 17 REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF FORESTS, - - - - 19 AREA OF THE PRESERVE, - - - 19 ADIRONDACK PARK, - - - - - - - 20 LAND CLASSIFICATION, - - - 21 ANNUAL PRODUCT, - - - - - - - 24 PRODUCT OF THE CATSKILL FOREST, - 25 INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS, - - - - - - 28 TREE PLANTING, - - - - 28 FOREST SURVEYS AND WoRKING PLANS, - - - 30 LAND SURVEYING, - - - - 31 Forest Fires, - - - - - - - - 32 ADIRONDACK DEER, - - - - 34 ELK AND Moosg,- - - - - - - - = 38 LirIGATIONS AND Lawsuits, - - 39 [LRP IEUANC NSCS yee we ueshe Alarm Weer pee mee eee 40 EMPLOYMENT .OF FORESTERS, - - 41 TREE PLANTING, . - - - - - - - - 42 Extract from the Report of the Assistant Superintendent. THE St. LAWRENCE RESERVATION, - - - - - - - - - 53 REPORT OF THE CHIEF GAME PROTECTOR, - : - - : : : = 54 REPORT OF THE GENERAL FOREMAN OF HATCHERIES, - - - - - - 58 FisH DISTRIBUTION, = & = 2 = 5 o = = = = - Go 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SHELLFISHERIES, - - - FINANCIAL STATEMENT, - - - - - = = c é Tue St. LAWRENCE RESERVATION, - - - - - - - By Arthur B. Strough. CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, - - By E. A. Sterling. THE Economic VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE, - - - - - By Frank M, Chapman. TREE PLANTING ON STREETS AND HIGHWAYS, By William Ff, Fox. Mooss, - - - - - - - - - - 2 - = By Madison Grant. Tue Wapiti (Cervus canadensis), - - - - - = = By W. A, Wadsworth. THE ADIRONDACK BLACK BEAR, - - - - - - = = By George Chahoon. Foop AND GAME FisHEes OF NEW YORK, - - - - = = By Tarleton H, Bean. Tue Future WaTER SuPPLY OF THE ADIRONDACK MouNTAIN REGION, By George W. Rafter. InsEcTS AFFECTING Forest TREES, - - - - - - = By £. P. Felt, State Entomologist. PAGE, 63 68 71 87 115 177 225 243 251 461 479 List of Ilastrations. a PAGE, Moose, - - : - - - - - - - - - - Frontispiece. THE WapIiTI, - - - - - - - - - - - - Facing 15 ONE OF THE FAITHFUL, - - - - - = - o = 2 16 A SUNSET, - - - - - = - = = = 5 a 17 READY TO START UP THE MOUNTAIN FoR A Day’s PLANTING, - - S 28 TRAIN LOADED wiTH CHRISTMAS TREES, - - - - - - « 28 Wer Boots, - = : - . : i is x . : “ 26 THE DEER, - = - = 2 Z S . “ = ‘ i « a A GENTLEMAN, - - - - - - : = = 2 5 E 4z Seconp-GrowTH WHITE PINE NEAR PHENICIA, - - - - - & 44 ARRIVAL OF SEEDLINGS, - - - - - = - = 0 = a 46 INSPECTING STOCK, - = - - - = = = & = ce 46 VILLAGE OF PHENICIA, - - - - - = = = 5 - “ 48 ARKVILLE, DELAWARE County, N. Y., - - - - - - - ue 48 DrEap TREES, - - : - - - - - = - = 2 2 A FIsHING INCIDENT,~— - - - - - - - = = - ss 2 Raitt Birp SHOOTING, - - - - - = = = S S ee 54 Duck SHOOTING, - - - - - - - = = = - ne 56 CURIOS WIGS IE ee oS os ae Ss Ss A “57 Bass FisH1ne, - - - - - See i - - - o se 58 SALMON FIsHING, - - - - - a = = = = : ee 60 QUAIL SHOOTING, - - - - = = = 2 = = = gs 62 PounD FIsHING, - - - - - = = = = = a = O: 64 AFTER Sorr CLams, - - - - = : = 2 Z - 67 In OcrToBeEr, - . - > - = < s = = < os 69 IMMIGRANTS AT SEA, - - = = = 5 = é : = 70 LookinGc EAst FROM SMOKE IsLAND, - - - - - - - s 2 On WELLS ISLAND, - - - - . = 2 : ~ : ce 2 Lost CHANNEL— CANADIAN ISLANDS, - - - - - - - ep 74 Canoe Point — Pusiic PavIticn, - = = = = < = 2 76 Type or Private YacuT In Use sy CofTaGERs ON THE St. LAWRENCE, - 76 On Warterson Pointr—STATE RESERVATION, - - - - - ne 76 A Tourist STEAMER, - = : : - - = - = = i: 76 CEDAR Point —STATE RESERVATION, - - - - - : = ss 78 ~I co LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, Krinc PoiInr—STATE RESERVATION, - - 2 : LooKkING SOUTHWEST FROM HART IsLAND, - - s TuHousanpD IsLtAND YACHT CLUB HoussE, - = A SUMMER RESIDENCE ON ONE OF THE ISLANDS, 1 ' ' In Camp AT THE THOUSAND ISLANDs, - = - = Sr. LAWRENCE RIVER STEAMER, - - - - - STAMINATE AND PISTILLATE FLOWERS OF THE PARAGON CHESTNUT, CHESTNUT BuRS SPREAD ON THE GROUND TO Dry, - PARAGON CHESTNUTS, NATURAL SIZE, - . - - NATIVE PARAGON, - = = - - : - = A YounGc CHESTNUT GROVE, - = = = - - Distant VIEW OF ONE OF Mr. SoBEeR’s CHESTNUT GROVES, GENERAL VIEW IN THE “GROVE” OF THE ALBION CHESTNUT COMPANY, A CHESTNUT “ORCHARD,” - : : : : é z Sprouts BrFoRE GRAFTING, - = = é é . THe “Wuie” or “ToncuE” GRAFT = : = = ’ GRAFTS FOURTEEN Days OLD, = = : = 3 - Tue Best METHOD, - - = = < = S = Tree GRAFTED Last SPRING (1902), Tue “WEDGE GRAFT,” = : : : : = < A “Wuir GRAFT” 21 YEARS OLD, - - = - FrRoM THIS TREE 300 YOUNG Burs WERE PICKED ’ A NorMAL YIELD, - - = = : = 5 = CHESTNUT WEEVIL, - - - > = - = _ CHESTNUT WEEVIL— NATURAL SIZE, - - - - CHESTNUT (CASTANEA VULGARIS), — - - = = “ Rep-TaiLeD Hawk AND COOPER’S HAWK, - - - SCREECH OWL, - - : = = = e = = BLAcK-BILLED CUCKOO AND YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER, PILEATED WOODPECKER AND DOWNY WOODPECKER, NIGHTHAWK AND Wutp-Poor-WILL, - - - - KINGBIRD AND PHBE, - - - - - - - TREE SPARROW AND SNOWFLAKE, - - - + - CepAR Wax WinG AnD RED-EVED VIREO, - - - Biack AND WHITE WARBLER AND AMERICAN REDSTART, CHICKADEE AND WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH, - - - GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET, RuBy-CROWNED KINGLET CREEPER, - - - - - - - ‘Voop THRUSH AND Hermit THRUSH, - - - - HARD MaPLeEs, - - - - - - - - PoPLAR STREET, ROCHESTER, N. Y., - - - - - BROWN Facing ir “ “cc “ec “ “ “c “ “cc LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. GINKGOS— AVENUE LEADING TO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASH- INGTON, D. C., - - - - Sc : = a E THE Eunos or LENOX, - - - = - = = 2 2 “ Trees Have FLOWERS ALSO, - - - = 2 = 2 : THe Oaks OF FLUSHING — PIN Oaks - - - « = : = DousLe Row or SyCAMORES— INDIANA AVENUE, WASHINGTON, D. C., LinpDENS — MAsSACHUSETTS AVENUE, WASHINGTON, D. C., - = = WHITE BiRCHES—ROCHESTER, N. Y., - - - - : = = A TREELESS STREET, - - - . - - - - = = : TreES ARE BEAUTIFUL IN WINTER AS WELL AS IN SUMMER, - - STREET WitH TREES PLANTED INSIDE THE WALK—WatTeERTOWN, N. Y., Maples AND ELMs—New York AVENUE, WASHINGTON, D. C., - - METALLIC FRAME FOR YOUNG TREES, - - - - : = : Wire NETTING, = = = = = = = = = = = A WELL-PLANTED HiGHWAY — JEFFERSON CounTy, N. Y., - - - PORTABLE ENGINE AND PUMP FOR SPRAYING TREES, ALBANY, N., Y., - Tree Usep as A Hircninc Post, ALBany, N. Y., - - - - - AN UNPROTECTED TREE, - - - - - = - 2 z STUDIES IN TREE Hapit: ComMMoN AMERICAN CHESTNUT, Horse CHESTNUT, - - = - 5 © = 2 = HarpDy CATALPA, WuiteE Asn, - - - - - - = = = S Honey Locust, - RED Oak, - - = = = 2 < 2 = = Norway Mapte, WHITE MAPLE, - - - - - = = = = = Harp Map.Le anp Rep Oak, - - - - = : : = 2 CHESTNUT AND WHITE MAPLE, - - - - - - = = Tutie TREE, SWEET GUM AND SCARLET OAK, SASSAFRAS AND PEPPERIDGE, - - - - . - - - - Rep Mapie, TAMARACK AND WHITE PINE, - - - - - - Basswoop, WHITE CEDAR, FLOWERING DoGWwoop AND SHAGBARK Hickory, WuitE EL_m, Rep Sprucr, BEECH AND WHITE ASH,~— - - - - ASPEN, WHITE Oak, BatsAm Fir, YELLOW BircH AND WHITE WILLOW, - Moose KitLep 1892, wirH UNnusuaL DEVELOPMENT OF BRow ANTLERS, PropasLy LAarGest KNown ALAsKA Moose Heap — KENAI PENINSULA, 1899, - - = - - 2 E : E = = = Facing “ce “cc “ “ “ “ “ “é “ “ “ a “ “ “ “ PAGE. 180 180 184 185 187 187 190 Igo 194 199 228 ice) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE, “BierstaDt’’ Heap — KitLtep 1880, BounpARY OF NEw BRUNSWICK AND MAINE, - - - - - - - - - - - Facing 232 Maine Moose, Asout 1890, - = - - = - - - S 232 AuaskA Moosrt Heap SHOwING UnusuAL DEVELOPMENT OF ANTLERS— KENAI PENINSULA, - - - - - - - = = = ss 236 YEARLING MOosE, - - - - - - = - = 5 = “ 236 A Goop SHOT, - - - - - - - - = > = - 238 DreR Heap, - - - = : = < x = 2 S $ 239 WESTERN ELK, - : - = 5 = - z 3 3 5 te “ me Younc Cow ELk, - - = - = 2 = istes 5 > ps “ 240 ALERT, - - - - - - - = 2 c - = s & 240 ALARMED, - . - - - - - - - = = = G 240 Tur HasBiraT OF THE WaApPIiTI, - - - - - - - - c oe 242 Tue BLack BeEaR— URSUS AMERICANUS, - - - - - - sf 244 ADIRONDACK BEAR, - - : 2 - . E 2 3 A “ eaG BouNCE, THE BEAR Doc, - - - - - - - - = 248 Tue Biack BEAr, - - - - - = = = - é = U3 248 THE CRAPPIE, . - - - - - - - = = = 250 Tue Carico Bass, - - - - - - = - = = = 260 GREAT SEA LAMPREY, - - - - - - = = = = 261 CoMMON SKATE, - - - - - = = - ° = = 262 SPOTTED SKATE, - - - - - = = < = = = 263 Barn Door SKATE, - - > - - - = = = = 3 264 PADDLE Fisn, - - - - = « = S = 2 < 265 COMMON STURGEON, - - - - = = : = = S = 266 LAKE STURGEON, - - - - - - - < = . = 267 SHORT-NOSED STURGEON, - - - - - - S ~ = = 269 CHANNEL Cart, - - - - - - - - - : = 270 Lake CATFISH, - - - = - . = = S = = 5 271 Lonc-JAWED CATFISH, - - - - - - - = - < 273 WHITE Cart, - - = - - - - = = = < = 274 Hornep Pout, - - - - - - - - = = = 275 Biack BULLHEAD, - - - - - - S = = = = 276 STONE CaT, - : - - - - - - = = = = 277 LonG-NosED SUCKER, - - - - - - = = = = 278 CoMMON SUCKER, - - - - - - - . = = = 270 CHUB SUCKER, - - - - - = . = = . ~ = 281 STRIPED SUCKER, - - - ° - - = = > = . 282 Wuitre-NosEpD SUCKER, - - - - - - - - ° = 283 FALLFISH, - = - - s = = = = = “1 iS 285 HornepD Dacr, - - TENCH, - - - - GOLDFISH, - - - CARP, - . - - BEL, - - - - CONGER, - - - - MOONEYE, - - - GizzARD SHAD, - . SEA HERRING, - - SKIPJACK, - - - Hickory SHAD, - - Hickory SHAD, 1 ' BRANCH HERRING, - Guiur Herrinc — Matz, Giut HERRING — FEMALE, SHAD, - - - - MENHADEN, - - RounD WHITEFISH, - CoMMON WHITEFISH, - SMELT, - - - - LAKE HERRING, - - MOooNneEYE CISCO, - - Lone Jaw, - - OUTLINE OF FisH, VIEWED TULLIBEE, - - - KING SALMON, - - ATLANTIC SALMON, - TAHOE TROUT, - - Lake TaHor Trout, STEELHEAD, - - - Brown Trout, - - Locu LEvEN TROUT, - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FROM ABOVE, - - Rainsow TRoutr— ADULT MALE, Rainsow TRrour— YOunNG, LAKE TROUT, - - Brook Trout, = - SunaPEE Trovt, - SMELT, - - - = BANDED PICKEREL,~ - BANDED PICKEREL, - 5 LirtLe PICKEREL, - Facing “ “ CHAIN PICKEREL, - CoMMON PIKE, - - MASCALONGE, - - MASC ALONGE, - - SILVERSIDES, - - STRIPED MULLET, - WHITE MULLET, - ComMon MACKEREL, CHuB MACKEREL, - TUNNY, - - = BONITO, - = - SPANISH MACKEREL, - CERO, - = - KINGFISH, - = = SWORDFISH — ADULT, SwoRDFISH — YOUNG, YELLOW MACKEREL, CREVALLE, - - - ComMON PoMPANO, BLUEFISH, - - - Crap EATER, - - Harvest Fisy, - - BUTTERFISH, - - CRAPPIE, - - - Caico Bass, - - Rock Bass, - - WARMOUTH, - - Lonc-EARED SUNFISH, Lonc-EARED SUNFISH, BLUE-GILL, - - - SUNFISH, - - - SMALL-MouTHED BLAck LLARGE-MouTHED BLACK PIKE PERCH, - - YELLOW PERCH, - WuiteE Bass, - - SrripeD Bass, - WHITE PERCH, - - Sea Bass, - - SEA Bass, : - - FLASHER, - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, Facing “ PAGE, 355 357 358 359 362 - 363 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 Si 372 372 373 375 377 379 RED SNAPPER, - RED SNAPPER, PIGFISH, = - Scup; Porcy, - Scup, - = - SartLor’s CHOICE, SHEEPSHEAD, WEAKFISH, = SporrepD WEAKFISH, YELLow Tait, Rep Drum, = Spor, - = CROAKER, - - KiInG FisH, - Drum, - - FresH-WATER Drum, BERGALL, - - Biack FIsuH, - SPADE FIsuH, - ROSEFISH, = WHITING, - . POLLACK, - TomcopD,~ - E Cop, - - Happock, - - BuRROT, - = Wuire HAkrE; COMMON SourrrReEL Hake, Cusk, - - - HALIBUT, - RouGH Das, - Four-SporreD FLOUNDER, SAND Dap, - FLATFISH, = Work or Bark Borers, BATH-ON-HupDsON, ANAL PLATE OF LARVA OF DENDROCTONUS DENDROCTONUS TEREBRANS, Work or Bark Borers, BATH-ON-HuDSON, HAKE, LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TEREBRANS, Facing “ “ I4 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Work OF COARSE WRITING BARK BEETLE IN WHITE PINE, PupA OF DENDROCTONUS TEREBRANS, - - - - - ‘TOMICUS CALLIGRAPHUS, — - - - = 2 a : 2 Decuiviry oF TOMICUS CALLIGRAPHUS, - - - - - WHITE Pine KILLED BY BARK BORERS IN 1900, LANSINGBURGH, N. Y., Harp PINE DEFORMED BY WoRK OF WHITE PINE WEEVIL, SALEM, N. Y., Work or Coarsrt WritING Bark BEETLE IN WHITE PINE (TWO PLATES), DEcLivity or Tomicus CACOGRAPHUS, - - - - - Work oF Pine Bark Borers, - = = = 2 3 DecLiviTy OF TOMICUS PINI, - : - - - = = Work oF BARK Borers IN WHITE PINE (TWO PLATES), = DECLIivity OF TomICcUS CAELATUS, - - = - = - Borers AND INSECT GALLS, - = = = 2 2 FS Work OF PITYOPHTHORUS SPECIES IN WHITE PINE, = = - RHAGIUM AND PyrHo, - = 2 - = = = z XYLOTERUS BIVITTATUS, : = n= B = - s GNATHOTRICHUS MATERIARIUS, - - - - = - GALLERY OF GNATHORICHUS MATERIARIUS IN PINE, - - - INSECTS AFFECTING HarD PINE, - = > r = Z INsecrs AFFECTING WHITE PINE, - - - - - - POLYGRAPHUS RUFIPENNIS, - - = - : - - Spruce Bark RatrHER BADLY EATEN BY POLYGRAPHUS RUFIPENNIS, SPRUCE BarK BapLy EATEN BY POLYGRAPHUS RUFIPENNIS, - XYLOTERUS POLITUS, - - - = - - = = = MONARTHRUM MALI, - - - - - - - - GALLERIES OF MONARTHRUM MALI IN MAPLE, - - - - AMBROSIA OF MONARTHRUM MALI, GREATLY ENLARGED, - DECLIVITY OF ‘TOMICUS BALSAMEUS, - - - - - - CENTRAL CHAMBER AND EGG GALLERIES OF TOMICUS BALSAMEUS, GALLERIES OE TOMICUS BALSAMEUS, - - - - - - WorkK OF BALSAM BARK BORER IN BALSAM, - - - GALLERIES OF TOMICUS BALSAMEUS, - - - - - - SpLir Twic, - - - - - - - - - - OPERATIONS OF LARGE BLACK CARPENTER ANT, - - - PHLZOSINUS DENTATUS— ADULT GALLERY AND EGG NOTCHES, PHLAOSINUS DENTATUS—SMALL GALLERY AND LARVAL MINEs, Insects AFFECTING Oak, - + - - - - - THE END oF THE Day, - - - - - - - - Facing “ ee ay oe “ ce 6 “cc oe “ “ ce PAGE, 480 481 482 482 482 482 484 485 486 487 488 489 yo) 491 492 495 495 496 498 5°04 523 yy sya 516 517 518 518 520 520 520 520 521 eu 522 923 923 520 534 WAPITI, OR ELk Saiz n JUN lished in tg01 as directed by law, is supplemented in this volume by articles on various subjects relating to forests, fish and game. Some of these papers were written by officials connected with this Department ; the others were contributed by well-known authorities in response to the solicitation of the Commission. The thanks of the Commission are due to Mr. Madison Grant, Secretary of the New York Zoological Society, for his article on the Moose, which has an especial interest at this time on account of the effort now being made to restock the Adirondack forests with this.species of big game; to Maj. W. A. Wadsworth, Presi- dent of the Boone and Crockett Club, and late President of the New York State Forest, Fish and Game Commission, for his paper on the Wapiti, or so-called American Elk, a timely paper, also, in view of the carloads of elk recently liberated in the North Woods; to Hon. George Chahoon, late Senator from the Adirondack district, for his interesting description of the Black Bear, the protection of which is now urgently demanded by sportsmen and by residents of Northern New York, and to Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, Chief of the Department of Fish and Game at thé World’s Fair, St. Louis, who contributed the article on the Fishes of New York The colored plates depicting the various species of fish are by Mr. S. F. Denton and are fully up to the high standard of artistic work displayed by him in illustrat: ing the previous reports of this Department. The illustrations of large mammals are in the best style of Mr. Oliver Kemp, while numerous text and full page illustra- tions are from the fine drawings of Mr. Henry S. Watson. For the many figures illustrating the article on the Food and Game Fishes of New York the Commission I5 16 PREFACE. is indebted to the courtesy of Hon. George M. Bowers, U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, who furnished the original plates for reproduction in this Report. Especial attention is called to the highly instructive and valuable paper on the Economic Value of Birds to the State, kindly furnished by Mr. Frank M. Chapman, Associate Curator of the American Museum of Natural History, whose professional qualifications as an ornithologist of national reputation render him fully competent to discuss this phase of the forestry question in an authoritative manner. In order that Mr. Chapman’s article might be properly illustrated, the State Printer secured the services of Mr. L. A. Fuertes, the famous bird painter, who presents here a series of beautiful pictures that form a valuable addition to the text. The Commission desires to acknowledge, also, the co-operation given by Hon. George W. Rafter, of the State Water Storage Commission, who prepared the paper on the Future Water Supply of the Adirondack Region; and Prof. E. P. Felt, State Entomologist, who continues his series of papers on insects injurious to forest trees. The publication of this volume has been attended with considerable outlay ; but the instructive character of its pages and beauty of its illustrations must surely commend it to the public as worthy of the expense. ONE OF THE FAITHFUL. loo, of the Porest, Fish and Game Commission. To the Honorable the Legislatare of the State of New Gork: N presenting its annual report, as required | by law, the Forest, Fish and Game Commission summarizes the work of a year characterized by activity, economy and accomplishment. The consolidation of the departments dealing with forestry work has, to a consid- erable extent, increased the duties of the Commission; but the many important prob- lems arising in connection with those duties have been attacked with energy and settled in whole or in part to the advantage of the State. Particular attention has been given by the Commission to the planting of trees on denuded tracts of land, where barren areas have been caused either by an unwise harv- A SUNSET. esting of the native timber crop, or by fire, or both. AThere are many of these denuded areas on State land, and the extensive experiments made by the Commission have shown that, at a remark- ably small expense, these barren places can in time be replaced by a healthful and valuable forest growth. Thousands of trees have been successfully planted in 2 i 18 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND’ GAME COMMISSION. the Catskill region, and preparations have been made to plant hundreds of thousands in the Adirondack region, and it is believed by the Commission that this work has successfully solved one of the great problems in connection with the Forest Pre- serve. The experiments show that large appropriations will not be necessary to secure an extensive renewal of the forest. In this connection, attention is particularly called to the report made on the tree-planting work by the Assistant Superintendent of Forests. Unfortunately his services will not be longer available to the State, as he has been recently called to fill a much more lucrative position. The beginnings made by the Commission through him will, however, be continued in the future, and the State will have the advantage of the work which has already been done and the provisions which have been made for carrying it out. The Commission regretfully announces the loss of the State Fish Culturist, Mr. A. N. Cheney, who died suddenly at his home in Glens Falls on August 16 last, after a brief illness. Attention is respectfully called to the appended reports of the Superintendent of Forests, the Chief Protector, the Superintendent of Shellfisheries, etc. The following recommendations are made for your consideration: That a constitutional amendment be provided for the application of scientific conservative forestry to State lands. That a constitutional amendment be provided to permit the leasing of smal! camp sites within the Forest Preserve. That a constitutional amendment be provided which will permit the sale or exchange of detached parcels of land outside the Adirondack Park, not in the Catskill region, for land within its boundaries. That steps be taken, through the purchase of forest lands, to prevent the cutting of hardwood for commercial purposes, and especially for acid factories within the Adirondack Preserve. That spring shooting of wild fowl and birds of all kinds be prohibited. That a license fee of fifty dollars be imposed on non-resident hunters, excepting members of organized clubs in the Adirondacks who shall present certificates of membership, and Adirondack landowners. That provision be made for the licensing of guides. BY THE COMMISSION. Joun D. WHISH, Asszstant Secretary. Reportof the Saperintendent of Forests. To the Forest, Fish and Game Commission: URING the past year the work of the Forestry division of your department LD has included the operations incidental to forest protection, the prevention and extinguishing of woodland fires, the suppression of timber stealing and trespasses, land surveying, forest surveys and timber measurements, map making, tree planting, land classifications, litigation of land titles and settlement of dis- puted claims, eviction of objectionable squatters, the purchase of forest lands, the collection. of statistics showing the yearly output of forest products in the State, and the various other duties connected with the care and maintenance of the Forest Preserve. Area of the Preserve. The official list of public lands mentioned in the last report has since then been completed and published. This volume, containing 367 octavo pages, shows the location, lot number, acreage, and source of title of 5,934 separate parcels of State land, each of which has its own surveyed boundary and distinct chain of titles. The greater part of them are one-half mile square, containing 160 acres each; of the others, many contain 200 acres each. Then there are various smaller parcels ranging in size from 10 to 160 acres; and, in some instances, where a township has not been allotted, the parcels vary from a quarter to an entire township, which in the Adirondack region contains from 25,000 to 30,000 acres. From the list of lands scheduled in this publication, together with additions made since its issue, it appears that the area of the Forest Preserve is as follows: ADIRONDACK PRESERVE. COUNTIES. ACRES. Clinton, - - - - - - - - - - - 20,105 Essex, - - - . . - - - - - - 231,764 Franklin, - - - - - - - - - - - 159,633 Fulton, - - - - - - - - - - - 21,426 Ig 20 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE COUNTIES. ACRES. Hamilton sty a c= = =i 5 oe 578,349 Herkimer, - - - - - - = = = 146,733 Lewis, - -/ - - - - - - - - - 4,530 Oneida, - - - - - - - - - - - 6,637 St. Lawrence, - - - - - - - - - - 34,683 Saratoga, - - - - - - - - - = 11,588 Warren, - - - - - > - - - - - 108,283 Washington, - - : - - - - - - . 2,129 1,325,851 CATSKILL PRESERVE. Sa Delaware, - - - - - = : - - - - 12,936 Greene, - - - - - - - - - - - 4,269 Sullivan, - - - - - - - S - - - 888 Ulster, - > - - = 2 - - - - - 64,237 82,330 SUMMARY. a Adirondack Preserve, - - - - - - - - 1,325,851 Catskill Preserve, - F - - - - - - - 82,330 Total Forest Preserve, - = - - = - - 1,408,181 Adirondack Park. The area of the Adirondack Park, of which the State owns only a part, is 3,226,144 acres. So many persons are apt to think or speak of the Adirondack Park and the Forest Preserve as being the same, it may be well to state that, of the 1,325,851 acres in the Forest Preserve lands of Northern New York, 1,163,414 acres are situated within the Park, and the remainder, 162,437 acres, are outside the boundary or “blue line” as shown on the last edition of the Adirondack map issued by your Commission. The actual acreage of the Adirondack Park is greater than the area indicated by the figures given —how much so it is difficult to say. The statement of area as reported here is based on the assessed acreage of each lot, which, as we have learned by experience, is generally less than the real acreage when determined by a careful survey. Most of the lands in the Adirondacks are bought and sold by the assessed acreage, the old conveyances specifying the number of acres and always qualifying the statement with the words “more or less.’ Whenever we have found it neces- sary to make a careful survey and chaining of a lot, parcel or township, we have FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 21 discovered almost invariably that there was a surplus, that the lot “ overrun” the acreage called for in the various deeds, and on which the assessment is made. This condition is largely due to the loose methods of work in use by the old surveyors who made the original allotments. They used a drag chain, and ran the lines as fast as they could, some of them being paid by the number of acres sur- veyed instead of by the days worked. Whenever, in their haste or carelessness, they failed to tally a chain there was a corresponding increase of unrecorded area; and, in some instances, as stated in their field notes, the colonial surveyors ‘“ threw in a few chains for good measure.” It would be difficult to estimate, even approximately, how far such methods have contributed to the difference between the assessed and actual acreage; but a careful study of the facts, together with many years experience in these land statis- tics, leads me to believe that the lots will, in the aggregate, overrun the old surveys at least five per cent; and that while the officially assessed acreage of the Adiron- dack Park is placed here at 3,226,144 acres, the actual acreage is not far from 3,400,000 acres. and Classification. For several years there has been a constant need of some specific information as to the amount of merchantable timber left in the Adirondack Park, and the area of virgin forest that remains; also, some definite statistics as to the acreage embraced in each of the various classes of land. This becomes necessary, not only as a matter of general information regarding the industrial resources of the region, but also in order that the Department may have a proper knowledge of the various kinds of land intrusted to its care and management. This work would have been undertaken long ago had there been anything in our forestry law providing for the appointment of competent foresters to carry it on. Fortunately, at the last session of the Legislature a law was enacted — chapter 326, Laws of 1901——which enabled the Commission to commence this important part of its forestry work and complete it, so far as the more important details were concerned. After a careful study of the subject it was decided that, in making the classifi- cation of the various kinds of land, it would be advantageous to classify under the same descriptive terms used by the State Comptroller in his circular letter of instructions to the town assessors; viz., forest, lumbered, waste, burned, denuded, wild meadows, improved and water. The advantage in this arrangement was that the assessment roll of each forest town, as required by law, is filed each year in this to i) SEVENTH REPORT OF THE office; that the character of the lands in each town is presumably well known to the men who make the assessments; and that, although the description of the assessors might not be accurate in all cases, it would, when supplemented by the ‘field work and personal examination of the foresters, enable us to make a final classification that would be accurate, or approximately so in a close degree. Foresters Bryant, Williams and Knechtel were assigned to the work. After several weeks of steady application a tentative classification, tabulated lot by lot on large blanks printed for this purpose, was obtained from the assessment rolls of 1g00. With these sheets in hand they went into the forest, where they verified or amended the description of each lot. This field work occupied several months, during which the foresters worked diligently and intelligently, as may be seen from the large pile of neatly tabulated sheets now on record here. On returning to the office the areas of the lakes and ponds were obtained by tracing their outlines with a planimeter ona map. In this latter work the sheets of the United States Geo- logical Survey were of great assistance, the large scale on which this map is made conducing to greater accuracy so far as the area of the water surfaces is concerned. Before entering upon their field work the foresters were instructed that the fol- lowing definitions of the various terms in the classification must be observed : Forest. EEmbraces all forest lands from which no timber has been removed except white pine which on many townships had been cut forty years or more ago, at a time when the lumbermen took this species only. Also, lands which were lum- bered for spruce over eighteen years ago and on which there is now a good second cutting, because the lumbermen at that time did not cut below twelve inches. Lumbered. Under this head are included all lands from which the evergreens or softwoods — pine, spruce, hemlock and balsam—have been taken, but on which there is still a good forest covering of hardwood timber, the latter species generally forming over sixty-five per cent of the original growth. Some lands on which the lumbermen left the hemlock and balsam were also included in this class. Waste. Includes wild lands on which there isa scattered growth of small poplars, scrubby hardwoods or stunted conifers. Burned. Wands that have been burned over within a few years, and on which the timber was all killed; or ground covered with old, charred fire-slash. Denuded. Sand plains; barrens; ground covered with ferns, huckleberry bushes and brier patches; abandoned farms and old clearings. Wild Meadows. Grass lands, such as the Indian Plains on the South Branch of the Moose River; beaver meadows; and river flats on which wild hay is cut by resi- dents of the vicinity. FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. to ios) Improved. Cultivated farms and inclosed pasture lands; hotel property, and village lots. Water. Lakes, ponds and reservoirs. From the recapitulation of the foresters’ classification the obtained: following summary is ADIRONDACK PARK. CLASS. Forest, - - Lumbered, Waste, - - - - - - - Burned, - - - = = = s Denuded, - - - = = = e Wild meadows, - = 2 - 2 : Improved, - - - : - 4 Water, - . - - - - - - Total, = - - - E = ACRES. 1,158,054 1,671,139 48,551 43,165 56,682 22,529 100,980 The ruled columns of the blank forms used by the foresters in making their tabu- lations provided for a classification by ownership, we obtain this result : OWNERSHIP, State, - - - = - - - Private preserves,* - - - - - Individuals or companies, - - - ‘hotals | = - - - - - - as well as character, from which ACRES. 1,163,414 And the footings of the descriptive columns furnish this information : PRIVATE INDIVIDUALSOR CLASS. STATE ACRES. PRESERVES. COMPANIES. IRQINASS = a 455,415 257,186 445,453 Lumbered, - - - - - 592.630 368,115 710,394 Waste, - - - - - - 10,275 22,483 15,793 Burned, - - - - . 14,617 5,301 23,247 Denuded, - : = = é 15,739 13,555 27,388 Wild meadows, - - - - 9,961 380 12,188 Improved, - - - - - 4,642 6,239 90,099 Water, - - - - - 60,135 32,055 32,254 Totals, - - - - - 1,356,816 1,163,414 705.914 * Not including preserves outside the Adirondack Park, 24 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE No classification has been made as yet of the 142,913 acres of Forest Preserve lands in the Adirondacks which are situated outside the park line; but this work will be undertaken and completed during the coming year. The brief statistics given here, valuable as they are, give little idea of the amount of field work and clerical labor involved in arriving at these figures. There were 8,331 separate parcels of State and private lands which were tabulated, one by one, on the large, closely ruled sheets used in preparing and completing these records. If each lot or parcel had belonged entirely to one class the labor would have been comparatively easy. But a large proportion of the lots were of a mixed character, and hence each of them had to be divided into separate areas corresponding to the respective kinds of land embraced within its boundaries. Annual Prodact. In connection with the foregoing statement showing the forest resources of the State it may be interesting to note the yearly product obtained. The output of sawed lumber, pulpwood, and other material for the past year cannot be given at this date; for the collecting of the statistics relating to them cannot be undertaken until the year has closed, after which considerable time and travel are necessary to obtain and compile the information in proper form for publication. And so, as is customary in our preliminary reports, we submit the statistics for the previous year — 1900 — which have not been published as yet, the final report of the Commission for that year being still in the hands of the printer. From the written reports received at this office from each sawmill and pulpmill in the State, the logs and timber obtained in 1900 from the forests of Northern New York amounted in the aggregate as follows: FT., B. M. Spruce (sawmills), - - - - - - - - - 166,614,856 Spruce (pulpmills), - - - - - - - - 230,649,292 Hemlock, - ! - er a OSE - 48,377,575 Pine, = - . - - - - - - - - 54,948,590 Hardwood, - - - - - - - - - - 32,748,759 Total, + - - - - - - - - . 533339,072 Shingles, - . - - - - - - - - - 32,734,000 Lath, - - - - - - - - - - 56,840,550 With few exceptions, the pulpmills in making their returns sent in their figures expressed in cords, as their purchases of timber are made that way, most of their FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. ho On logs being cut in lengths of 4 feet. In contracting for their stock some of tue pulpmills bought by the standard or market log, which is 13 feet long and 19 inches in diameter at the small end. The buyers generally estimate three markets as equivalent to a cord, and pay the same price for either. As three standard logs contain 549 feet by Doyle’s rule (3 X 183 — 549), the 420,108 cords reported by the pulpmills were converted into feet accordingly. The returns from the pulpmills, though correct, do not always indicate the capacity of a mill or amount of its product, for some of them are stocked in part, or wholly, from Canada. In 1900 the pulpmills of this State received 151,157 cords — equivalent to 82,985,193 feet board measure — from the Canadian Provinces. It is interesting to note that the amount of spruce used in making paper has increased annually, until it now exceeds greatly the amount cut for lumber. In 1890 the spruce used by the pulpmills was reported at 51,966,262 feet. Last year the amount reached 230,649,292 feet. Prodact of the Catskill Forests. Hitherto, in my annual reports, the output of the Catskill sawmills has not been included, as it was supposed that, owing to their small size and limited product, the information would have no special value. In the annual report of the Forest Com- mission for 1885 some statistics were submitted showing the number of mills in each of the Forest Preserve counties,* from which it appeared that there were 90 sawmills in Ulster and Sullivan, of which 72 used water power and 18 used steam. But the water mills, which were all small affairs, were shut down most of the year, and so their product attracted little attention. As more definite information regarding the forest products of that region seemed desirable, Mr. A. B. Strough, a special agent of this Commission, was instructed to make an exhaustive examination of the entire district embraced in the four Catskill counties, and collect all the statistics possible relating to the industries which are dependent on the forest for their supply of raw material. From the written statements furnished by the various mill owners, it appears that the lumber product of the Catskill forests for the year 1900 is as follows: *At that time Delaware County had not been included in the law defining the location of the Forest Preserve. 26 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FT., B. M. Spruce, - - = = = > = = = 3 = 2,730,780 Hemlock, - - - - - - - - - - 18,659,026 BIMG =)" ie =) Gee |e? ie nso SOs as Hardwood, - - - Q = - - - - - 25,876,089 Total, - - - - - = - - - - - 56,606,343 Shingles, - - - - - - - - - - 4,871,500 Lath (pieces), - = - - = - < - - - 5,158,700 Of the sawed hardwood, a good proportion is composed of chestnut and oak, species which do not enter at all into the Adirondack product, but which are abundant in the Catskills, where they are sawed largely into railroad ties. In addition to the lumber output, the chemical mills, which manufacture wood alcohol and acetate of lime, consumed during the year 103,449 cords of four foot wood, equivalent to 56,793,501 feet. All kinds of hardwood or broad-leaved trees, large and small, are available in this industry. In the manufacture of excelsior the mills used 4,175 cords—equivalent to 2,292,075 feet — mostly basswood and poplar. The mills engaged in this industry manufacture excelsior and nothing else. The furniture factories reported 1,330 cords as used last year, equivalent to 730,170 feet. Most of it was hard maple used in the chair factories at Chichester and Shandaken, in Ulster county. The two pulpmills in the Catskill district consumed 2,503 cords, or 1,374,147 feet, mostly poplar mixed with second-growth pine and basswood; not much spruce. The pulp from these mills is not used for making paper; it is dried and pulverized for use as a carbon and absorbent in the manufacture of dynamite; and, also, as a substitute for cork in making linoleum. The combined product of the Adirondack and Catskill forests amounted in 1900 to 651,135,308 feet, or more than the entire Canadian lumber import of that year to the United States.* As the figures may convey little or no meaning to persons who are not familiar with the lumber business, it may be well to explain, as done in a * The total Canadian import for 1899 was: Logs and round timber, - - - - - - - - - - 198,135,000 feet Hewn and squared timber, - = - - = - - - - 1,593,504 ‘* Sawed lumber, board, plank, ete., - - - - - - - - 423,705,000 ‘* 623,433,504 iS) “SI FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. previous report, that this product would load 62,000 cars, making a train over 400 miles long. There are no statistics showing the number of tanneries, for there are none left in the Catskills. The hemlock included here in the sawmill returns stands for logs that were cut for lumber, and not for bark. At one time the tanneries were numer- ous in these counties, owing to the vast amount of hemlock standing there. But this industry is now extinct in that region, the tanneries having been abandoned here and there as the supply of bark became exhausted. Some little hemlock was left standing in places, but it was so remote and inaccessible that it could not be cut with any profit. But, influenced by the present high price for this kind of lumber, the sawmill men are picking up what few lots are left, and hence the quantity 18,659,026 feet — shown in the returns. In a few years the small amount of hemlock remaining in the Catskill region will be gone, and the species will become extinct there with the exception of what may be found in the forests of the State Preserve. There is another industry connected with the Catskill woodlands which may be mentioned here, although it is one that is not regarded favorably from the forester’s standpoint; and that is the annual cropping of the small evergreens for Christmas trees. The market demand for this young growth is enormous, although there is little profit in the business for those who are engaged in furnishing the material. Its bad effect on the future timber supply of these merchantable species is readily apparent, as the continued destruction of the young growth must result eventually in the extinction of these desirable kinds. If these woodlands were under a proper, conservative management no harm would be done; for the yearly thinnings from the entire forest would satisfy the market for Christmas trees. But under the present methods entire areas are completely stripped of the young spruces and _ bal- sams, thereby changing the future composition of the forest and converting it into a hardwood stand of less valuable timber. The annual output of the Adirondack forests shows no diminution, the product for 1900 being largely in excess of the previous year, although not quite equal to that of 1898. Aside from the State holdings, there are now about 700,000 acres of forest land in the Adirondack Park that have not been lumbered, or from which a second cutting of spruce can now be obtained. Each year, recently, the softwood timber on 80,000 acres or more is cut and removed by the lumbermen or pulpwood operators. This would indicate that, if the present rate of cutting continues, these industries will exhaust their supply of raw material in ten or twelve years, after which they will have to depend on the State forests or Canadian imports for a further continuance of their business. At to lo“) SEVENTH REPORT CF THE present the Empire State leads all others by far in the number of its pulpmills and amount of product; but if it expects to hold its supremacy in this industry it must make some prompt and intelligent provision for a future timber supply. In discussing this question some of our lumbermen and woodpulp operators point to the great Canadian forests and the «inexhaustible supply of spruce which they claim is standing there. But the Province of Ontario has already put an export duty on logs and round timber that is intended to be prohibitory; and the Province of Quebec evidently will do the same whenever the supply of spruce in New York and New England is gone. Our people then will not only have to go to Canada for their raw material, but will have to take their mills and workmen with them. The millions invested throughout New York in the great manufacturing plants belonging to the lumber, pulp and paper business will be non-productive, and these industries will be paralyzed. Industrial Statistics. Aside from those engaged in our forest industries, but few people are aware how largely these industries have conduced to the commercial supremacy of the Empire State, and of the great necessity for making some prompt, intelligent pro- vision for a future supply of the raw material on which their permanence depends. In the year 1900 the lumber industry of this State employed 8,616 men in the sawmills and lumber camps, the total wages paid amounting to $3,537,9160.* The total capital invested in the business amounts to $20,236,352. The pulp and paper mills employed 9,872 men, and paid out that year $4,958,433 in wages. New York leads all other States of the Union in the number of its paper and pulp mills, the capital invested in these plants amounting to $37,349,390. Tree Planting. The limitations imposed by the forestry clause in the State Constitution prevent the undertaking of any forestry work similar to that carried on in European coun- tries and at some places in the United States. -The Department is prohibited by law from harvesting the matured or decaying timber on the Preserve; no work of forest improvement can be done if it involves the use of the axe in thinning or pruning the woods; neither can any timber be sold or removed from the windfalls or fire-scorched areas, although the sale of such material would furnish no small revenue, *Twelfth Census of the United States. READY TC START UP THE MOUNTAIN FOR A DAY’S PLANTING. TRAIN LOADED WITH CHRISTMAS TREES. (11,000 TREES.) UTSTER & DELAWARE RAILROAD, FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 29 There remains, however, one important branch of silvicultural work which the Commission can undertake with a reasonable prospect of success, and which can be carried on without violating any provision of the Forestry Law. Tree planting can be done; the denuded acres of the preserve can be reforested. Actuated by a praiseworthy desire to undertake some experimental work along this line, Mr. J. Y. McClintock, the Assistant Superintendent, accompanied by For- esters Bryant and Knechtel, began some small plantations in the Catskill Preserve during the last year. Although no appropriation had been made for the purpose, they succeeded in obtaining from the State College of Forestry a donation of several thousand seedlings which they planted, the work being done at times when they could be spared from their other duties in that region without detriment to the work on which they were regularly engaged. For information as to the details of this work you are respectfully referred to the accompanying report of the Assist- ant Superintendent, which gives an interesting account of the inauguration of what, ° it is believed, will in the future form an important branch of our Department work. While it is not proposed at this time to undertake the reforesting of the many thousand acres of waste or denuded iands in the preserve, it seems advisable that some small portion of this area should be planted each year, and that a suitable appropriation should be made by the Legislature for such purpose. The work, if done in a judicious and conservative manner, will not necessitate any great annual expenditure, and it undoubtedly would receive the approval of every one who is interested in the forest policy of our State. A small nursery for raising seedlings should be established. at some convenient locality within the preserve, and placed in charge of one of our professional for- esters. In order that a thorough knowledge may be gained of everything per- taining to the technical work involved it is recommended that the seeds used in this business should be gathered from our forests instead of purchased; and that every detail of the business, including the collection, preparation and planting of the seeds in the nursery beds, and the subsequent transplanting, be done within our own lines, not only with reference to future growth, but with the intention of acquiring all the practical and technical knowledge necessary in carrying on svch work. After making a careful estimate of the necessary expenses it is suggested that the Commission ask the Legislature to appropriate the sum of $4,000 annually, to be devoted to the maintenance of a forest nursery, and the reforesting of the waste lands within the preserve. 30 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE Forest Sarveys and Working Plans. Some forestry work of an expert character has also been accomplished in the way of timber measurements, forest surveys, and the preparation of working plans on Townships 5, 6 and 41, Hamilton County, an area embracing about 70,000 acres. The cost of this work was provided for by an item in the supply bill last winter, which appropriated the sum of $3,500 “ for continuing the work, and for the pay- ment of the expenses of experts furnished by the United States Bureau of Forestry, and for estimating of standing timber and the securing of other information by them regarding the land and trees within the Forest Preserve.” Under an arrangement made with Mr. Gifford Pinchot, the forester at the head of the United States Forestry Bureau at Washington, a party of experts was detailed for this work, payment for their salaries and services being made by the general government, while the camp and traveling expenses, together with the pay of the woodsmen and camp attendants, were defrayed by the New York Commis- sion out of the item in the supply bill just mentioned. The party, numbering 26 men in all, foresters, students and laborers, was placed under the charge of Mr. Ralph S. Hosmer, forester, and Mr. Eugene S. Bruce, lumberman, both of the United States Forestry Bureau. The work performed by this party was similar to that done on Township 40 in 1900. Full information as to the details of what was then accomplished will be found in Bulletin No. 30, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, a copy of which can be obtained by any one by writing to the United States Forestry Bureau at Washington. The bulletin containing the results of the investigation of Townships 5, 6 and 41 has not been published yet, as considerable time is needed for compiling and tabulating the data obtained, and making the necessary maps to accompany this report. An idea of the actual value of the timber on some of the Adirondack tracts may be gained from the fact that it can be safely asserted that the matured timber on the tract formed by these four contiguous townships (including Township 40), the standing spruce, 14 inches in diameter or more, can be sold for over $500,000. As the 14-inch spruce does not form over eight per cent of the forest, it is evident that its removal would inflict no injury to the timber, or impair the protective functions of these woodlands. In fact, the State has to-day on its Adirondack Preserve 1,366,245,000 feet of large spruce, with a stumpage value of over $2,700,000; and, whenever the law will permit, this timber can be sold for that amount and removed without any injury to existing forest conditions. ‘SLOOP LAM =v et ee, ae ge eS Se Pee ees et Ree ee et ee Se a Oe we ee ee eee ae Pee a FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 31 Land Sarveying. In addition to the technical operations involved in what is termed forest surveys, which are made for the purpose of obtaining information as to forest conditions, a large amount of work has been performed during the year in the line of land survey- ing, in order to ascertain or re-establish the boundaries of certain State holdings on which trespasses had been committed, or to settle disputes as to the correct location. This work has been in charge of Mr. J. Y. McClintock, Assistant Superintendent, whose experience as a civil engineer and surveyor, supplemented by several years work on Adirondack lot lines, rendered him especially competent to look after this branch of the business of the Department. A considerable part of his time was spent in surveying the boundaries of State lots in the Catskill Preserve where there had been some timber cutting on certain lots. Owing to the lack of plainly blazed lines it becomes necessary to make extensive surveys in order to re-establish the old boundaries, and thereby arrive at the extent of the timber cutting which had been done within the lines of the State property. The survey of the John Brown farm and surrounding State property, which was undertaken by Mr. McClintock and his engineer corps of 1900, was completed this year, together with a large map showing correctly for the first time the allotment of that region as related to its topography. I cannot speak too highly of the excellent work done by Mr. McClintock and his assistants in connection with this important survey, involving as it did the correct location and boundaries of several thousand acres of State land in the vicinity of North Elba. Another important survey was made in township 27, Franklin county, in the vicinity of Ampersand Pond, this work becoming necessary on account of the litiga- tion of the State’s title to lands in the northeast quarter of this township, and the fact that a lumber company, claiming title to a portion of this land, had made an extensive timber cutting there. This survey, and that at North Elba also, was accomplished through the co-operation and assistance of Hon. Edward A. Bond, State Engineer and Surveyor, the expenses being defrayed from an appropriation made for his Department. It is not deemed necessary here to recount in detail the various land surveys which became necessary in the course of the Department work during the past year, all of which were placed in charge of Mr. McClintock; but attention is respectfully called to the importance and value of this part of the work devolving upon the Commission, and the necessity of a suitable appropriation by the Legislature is urged to insure its continuance. 32 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE Forest’ Bires. Among the various duties devolving upon any forestry department, however wide their scope may be as to silvicultural work or the harvesting of woodland pro- ducts, there is none so important as the protection of forests from fire. It is with feelings of something more than ordinary satisfaction that the attention of the Commission is called to the fact that, while during the past year forest fires have been numerous and destructive in almost every other State in the Union, the wood- lands of the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves have been remarkably exempt, and that the damage from this source during the past season has been less than in any former year on record. It is true that the season was a favorable one, but it would be unjust to the Chief Firewarden and his corps of assistants to attribute the exemption to that source in any great degree. In no previous year has there been so much intelligent and efficient work expended in organizing the force of fire- wardens, in making judicious appointments, in dividing the various towns into districts, and in properly locating the district firewardens. From the reports received at this office from the various towns the Chief Fire- warden has compiled the following summary: Number of acres burned over, - - - - - - . 7,780 Of which the State owns, — - : - - - 7 - 454 Number of days’ labor fighting fire, - - - - - = 1,498 Value of standing timber destroyed, - - ; - 2,835 Value of cordwood, logs, fences and buildings burned, = $1,145 As remarked in previous reports, the value of timber destroyed may seem dis- pivportionately small as compared with the number of acres burned over. In explanation of this seeming discrepancy it should be stated that a large number of the fires reported occurred on waste or barren lands, on which there was no mer- chantable timber and but very little tree growth, the ground being covered largely with ferns, bushes, and berry patches. But the wardens are required by law to report all fires within their towns, irrespective of the amount of damage, and so these were reported as well as others, the loss in such cases being placed at a nomi- nal figure only. The greater part of the burned areas were situated outside the Adirondack Park, less than six per cent of this burned land being ewned by the State. Of the men who were warned out to fight fire most of them received $2 a day ; some of them less. The firewardens are allowed $2.50 per day while engaged in FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 3 Loe) fighting fire. Hence the expense for labor was something over $3,000, of which the State refunds one-half. In reviewing the work of the firewardens the most encouraging feature is the very large number of incipient fires which were promptly extinguished, and which in former years would have resulted in destructive conflagrations. For instance, in the town of Johnsburg, Warren County, the firewarden, Mr. William Merrill, reported 27 fires, each of which was extinguished so promptly that no damage to the forest occurred. Of the 130 forest towns in the Adirondack and Catskill regions, fires occurred in 71 of them. That the total damage from these fires amounts to only $2,835 speaks well for the efficiency of the force. This matter would be better understood if one were to make a study of the numerous fires in other States, as recorded almost daily in the public press, and note the large amount of damage to forest property caused by them. Believing that the firewardens would attain greater efficiency if they had some more definite knowledge as to their duties, a printed circular containing full instruc- tions was sent to each one. The text of this circular is of interest to all owners of woodlands, and copies can be had on application to the office of the Commission. While on this matter I would respectfully call the attention of your Honorable Board to the active and efficient work done by Mr. Lester S. Emmons, the Chief Firewarden. He has been busily employed during the whole year in the work of organizing the large force under his control, which, counting both town and district firewardens, numbers 617 men. Whenever the evidence would permit he has promptly instituted prosecutions and collected penalties for violations of the State Fire Law, his efforts having conduced materially to suppress the carelessness and lawlessness which hitherto have been the cause of so much evil in this respect. He has carefully examined all the bills for fighting fire as sent in by the various towns, one-half of which is a charge against the State, and as a result there are fewer items for doubtful services. He has attended to the printing and distribution of 7,000 placards relating to the use of fire in our forests. During the year he visited per- sonally 97 towns, and in the discharge of his duties traveled 11,016 miles. 3 34 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE Adirondack Deer. From the returns made to this office by the American and National Express companies it appears that the number of deer shipped out during the hunting season of 1g01 exceeded that of the previous year, the shipments between September 1 and November 15 amounting to 1,062 carcasses, 103 saddles and 121 heads. As com- pared with the previous year, the figures are: YEAR. CARCASSES. SADDLES. HEADS. TOTAL. 1900, - - - = - = = > 1,020 89 95 1,204 IgOl, - = = = - - - - 1,062 103 121 1,286 Reports received from each locality indicate that for every deer shipped by express four more are killed, which are eaten in camp, consumed by the residents, or hauled out on wagons to the numerous towns and villages situated near the out- skirts of the forest. As a matter of interest to all hunters and sportsmen familiar with the region, the following statement is submitted showing the number shipped from each railroad station: Carcasses of Deer Shipped from Points in the Adirondack Region— Season of 1901. MOHAWK AND MALONE RAILROAD. RAILROAD STATION. CARCASSES. SADDLES. HEADS. Beaver River, N. Y., - - - - - = = gi A Io Big Moose, N. Y., - - - - ° - - 45 Brandreth Lake, N. Y., - - © - : - - 3 Childwold, N. Y., - - : - 2 - - 8 Clearwater, N.Y., - - . > © - - - 53 I I Eagle Bay, N. Y., - - - © - - - 9 I Fi Floodwood, N. Y., - - © - - = - - 19 2 Forestport, N. Y., - - - : - - - II 6 2 Fulton Chain, N. Y., - - - . - - 5 36 A inckley, N. Y., - - - - - - = : 2 Horseshoe, N. Y., - - - - - . 2 Ss 3 Lake Placid, N. Y., - - - - - : - 3 = = 5 Little Rapids, N. Y., - - : ° < 2 - I Long Lake West, N. Y., - - - - - - 37 4 I Ibfoyopn IL eWKes ING Way - - - - = . - Io = - I McKeever, N. Y., - - - - . 2 = Io 2 2 slhel(G|- >, AOVAONOYIOYV a , Awe Neer sat) FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 35 RAILROAD STATION. CARCASSES. SADDLES. HEADS. Minnehaha, N. Y., - . - : - “ : = 1 Mountain View, N. Y., - - : + 2 = 5 Nehasane, N. Y., - - - - - - - - 2 I 10 Onchiota, N. Y., - - - 2 : = - : t Otter Vakes Ne You - - = z E “ = 5 Raul Smith's; Ni ¥.; 7 = - - = = = = 20 12 4 Piercefield, N. Y., - - - - - - - - 32 2 5 Pleasant Lake, N. Y., - - - = = = = I Bilands N; Yi. = = Z = 2 z = x ’ 17 Es s D Raquette Lake, N. Y., - - - - - - - 27 14 Saranac Inn, N. Y., - - - - - = : I 2 Saranac Lake, N. Y., - - - - : = 2 2 2 Tupper Lake Junction, N. Y., - - - - - - 49 2 2 White Lake Corners, N. Y., - > = - - e 5 = i I Woods Lake, N. Y., - - = : = = = 2 18 Total, - > - - - cs - - - 527 64 50 NEW YORK AND OTTAWA RAILROAD. Bayeeond, N. Yo 5 = = < = 2 z = 2 ¥ Z 7 ' Childwold, N. Y., - E : - E : é 2 Derrick, N. Y., - - - - : - = : - 15 é I Dickinson Centre, N. ¥., - - - = - 2 I Kildare, N. Y., - - - : - : ss = 2 Madawaska, N. Y., - = - - = - - 7 Santa Clara, N. Y., - . - - - > 2 6 Spring Cove, N. ¥. 9 = - - - - = = ca St, Regis Falls, N.Y. - - - - = z Z 3 3 4 Tupper Lake, N. Y., - - - - : : : 3 , 5 Total, - - = - = - - - - 50 I II LITTLE FALLS AND DOLGEVILLE RAILROAD. Dolgeville, N. Y., - - = : = 2 é 8 NEW YORK CENTRAL AND HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD Fonda, N. Y., - = = = = ¥ z 2 2 a Little Falls, N. Y., - - = : : = = I nN Total, - - - = 5 5 A 2 z, SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FONDA, JOHNSTOWN AND GLOVERSVILLE RAILROAD. RAILROAD STATIONS. Gloyersville, N. Y., Johnstown, N. Y., - Northville, N. Y., Total, = - Malone iN; Ya, 9 = Winthrop, N. Y., - otal - ROME, Canton, N. Y., - = Edwards, N. Y., Gouverneur, N.Y., - Potsdam, N. Y., - otal a we Alder Creek, N. Y., Benson Mines, N. Y., Boonville, N. Y., - Carthage, N. Y., Castorland, N. Y., Glenfield, N. Y., Harrisville, N. Nes Jayvalle, N. Y.;- - Lowwvilles Ni Ya - Lyons Falls, N. Y., - Morristown, N. Y., Natural Bridge, N. Y. Newton Falls, N. Y., Oswegatchie, N. Y., - Port Leyden, N. Y., CARCASSES. SADDLES. It init HEADS. 25) 25 OGDENSBURG RAILROAD. to I AND BLACK RIVER RAILROAD. 3 36 FOREST, FISH AND GAME’ COMMISSION. ios) N RAILROAD STATIONS. CARCASSES. SADDLES. HEADS. Prospect, N. Y., - - =eig = - . - - 22 = = I Remsen, N.Y., - - - - - - - = 3 Total, - - = = = - - es 3 228 15 7 DELAWARE AND HUDSON RAILROAD. Chubbs Dock, N. Y., - - - - - = : 5 Crown Point, N. Y., = = : - = Z 2 an Dresden; N.Y, - - - : Se 2 5 BladleyawNa Yen > - - - - cs . 2 - I Loon Lake, N. Y., - - - - - - = = = > 2 4 Lyon Mountain, N. Y., - - - - - - - I : I Worth ‘Creek, N. ¥., = = - - - - - 99 Io I Port Henry, N. Y:, = - - - - > - - 9 - A 4 Riverside, N. Y., - - - - - - - - 3 : 4 Stony, Creek, N: Y., - - - - - - - = 8 5 e I The Glen, N. Y., - - = - : - - - I Thurman, N. Y., - = - - - - - - I Ticonderoga, N. Y., - - - - - - - I < : 2 Westport, N. Y., - = - - - - - - 2 = 5 Total, - - 5 - = = - - - 130 ie) 22 RECAPITULATION. NAME OF RAILROAD. CARCASSES. SADDLES. HEADS. Mohawk and Malone, - - - - - : = 527. 64 50 New York and Ottawa, - = = 2 S = 50 I II Little Falls and Dolgeville, - - - - - - 8 New York Central and Hudson River, - - - 2 Fonda, Johnstown and Gloversville, - - - - 87 II 25 Rutland, - - - - - - = - = oe : s 5 Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg, - - - - 25 2 I Utica and Black River, - - - - - - 228 15 7 Delaware and Hudson, - - - - - - - 130 10 22 Total, - - - - - - - = = 1,062 103 121 For the interesting information contained in the foregoing statistics the Commis- sion is indebted to the courtesy of Mr. John L. Van Valkenburg, Superintendent of the American Express Company, and to Mr. T. N. Smith, Superintendent of the G2 ioe) SEVENTH REPORT. OF THE National Express Company, under whose instructions the agents at the various rail- road stations compiled from their books the figures submitted here. As in previous years, the weights entered on the shipping bills of the express companies show that the Adirondack deer compare favorably in size with these ot other hunting grounds. The deer this season, so far as observed, were larger and in better condition than usual, which may be due in some extent to the fact that 1901 was a beechnut year. A buck was shipped from Big Moose to Charles Philmore, Remsen, N. Y., which weighed, on the scales of the station agent, 267 pounds, dressed weight. By adding one-fourth, according to the usual well-attested rule, we have 33334 pounds, as the live weight. The shipments from Dolgeville included a deer that weighed, dressed, 237 pounds. This would indicate 296 pounds as the live weight, or over 300 if the car- cass had dried out by hanging on the pole at camp for a few days. This deer was consigned to F. Shaad, Little Falls, N. Y. From Mountain View a deer was shipped to J. Robb, Malone, N. Y., whose dressed weight indicated a live weight of 281 pounds or more; and the express agent’s returns from North Creek include a carcass of 230 pounds dressed weight (live weight estimated at 288 pounds), which was shipped to L. Stadaro, Albany, N. Y. Mr. Frank S. Partridge, of Oneonta, N. Y., shot a deer near Goldsmith’s, in Franklin county, that weighed, according to report, 310 pounds before it was dressed. Only a part of this animal was shipped out by express. The statistics furnished by the express companies are interesting and valuable so far as they go. But the deer which are killed and not shipped out are so much more numerous than those which are transported by rail that some definite informa- tion is also needed regarding the former. In order to legislate intelligently for the protection of this kind of game some specific statement is necessary as to when, where, and how many are killed. It would be well to ascertain also the proportion of does. Elk and Moose. Through the generosity of Mr. William C. Whitney a carload of live elk was brought into the Adirondacks and liberated in Township 40, Hamilton county, on the carry leading from Raquette to Forked Lake. Early in June last I went to Mr. Whitney’s Preserve, situated on October Mountain, a few miles from Lenox, Mass., and made the necessary arangements for the shipment. Mr. Whitney has over 120 elk on his preserve, and from this number a small herd containing 5 bulls and 17 FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 39 cows were set aside for shipment to the Adirondacks. As the animals were very wild, considerable difficulty was experienced in driving them into the wagon vans for transportation to the railway station, six miles distant. When the elk were safely on board the cars, they were left in charge of Game Protectors Courtney and Winslow, who accompanied them to Raquette Lake, where the animals arrived in good condition and none the worse for their journey. The car containing them was run upon one of the railroad scows of the Raquette Lake Transportation Company and towed to the Forked Lake Carry, where the elk were turned loose into the woods. The general character and feeding grounds of the Adirondack forests are so dif- ferent from the usual habitat of these animals that their introduction is largely a matter of experiment. There have been no elk in the Adirondacks within the memory of any one now living; but, so far as heard from, these elk seem to be doing well, and will probably increase in number. Unfortunately, the cows resemble the deer greatly'in their general appearance, and so may be killed by hunters who mistake them for does. True, they differ in color and are of a much greater size; but these differences would not be apparent when the animal was standing breast high in the underbrush. — About one year ago an association of sportsmen was formed in the city of New York for the restoration of moose to the Adirondack forests, its organization being due largely to the efforts of Mr. H. V. Radford, editor of Woods and Waters. The association, in furtherance of its objects, prepared a bill which was introduced in the Legislature by Hon. Frank J. Price. This bill, which became a law, carried an appropriation of $5,000 for the purchase of moose, and provided for their protec. tion by a penalty of $250 fine,and imprisonment of not less than three months nor more than one year. The expenditure of this appropriation having been entrusted to the Forest, Fish and Game Commission, contracts have been entered into with persons who deal in this kind of game to furnish moose at prices varying from $100 to $150, delivered free of freight at such railway stations within the Adirondack region as the Commission may designate. Litigations and Law Saits. The most important litigation of the year was the suit of Benton Turner against the State, which was tried before the Court of Claims. When the State bought the lands in Township 21, Franklin county, situated near the north shore of the Lower 40 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE Saranac Lake, title was acquired to the land only, Mr. Turner having a timber right which included the spruce and hemlock on this property. In compliance with a numerously signed petition from the inhabitants of Saranac Lake village and vicinity, the Commission condemned the timber in order to prevent it from being cut, and tendered Mr. Turner $50,000 in payment for the same. He refused to accept this amount and instituted a suit before the Court of Claims to recover $126,656.25. The Attorney-General, assisted by the Hon. Merton E. Lewis, appeared for the State, and the case was tried last spring, the principal evidence on the part of the State being furnished by the officials of your department. The award granted by the court to Turner allowed him $46,862.50, which was sub- stantially less than the sum tendered him by the Commission for the value of his timber. He appealed from the decision, and the case has been sent back to the Court of Claims for additional evidence on certain disputed points. A large number of suits have been commenced during the past year for the eviction of squatters, actions which became necessary in order to protect the State’s title and remove any cloud from the same that might arise from a claim of adverse possession by these occupants. With few exceptions judgment was taken by default in each of these cases; but at Raquette Lake several parties who have cottages on State land, and who dispute the State’s ownership to that township, have entered a defense. At this date the cases have not yet come to trial. Land Parchasces. Although no appropriation was made by the Legislature at its last session for the purchase of land, a large addition was made to the Forest Preserve by the con- veyance of various tracts which were bought during the previous year, but which, owing to delay in perfecting title, were deeded or conveyed during the year Igol. These conveyances include 36,458 acres in the Adirondack Park, the aggregate cost of which was $140,384.40, or $3.85 per acre. In the Catskill region the conveyances amounted to 5,605 1% acres, costing $12,581.31, or $2.24 per acre. In the appendix to the preliminary report of the Commission, January 30, 1902, will be found a list of these lands, showing in detail the name of the grantor, loca- tion of lot, number of acres conveyed, price per acre, and total amount paid. In some instances the grantor conveyed several lots of different values, the price per acre representing the average value. For instance: in the case of William Harris, who received $6.50 per acre, it should be explained that the lands conveyed by him were appraised by the inspectors at various prices ranging from $2 to $14 per FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 4I acre, and hence the price noted in the schedules may not indicate the value of a particular lot. The price is properly understood only when taken in connection with all the lots conveyed by any one grantor. Employment of Foresters. During the past year the expert foresters who were in the employ of the Com- mission have rendered efficient and valuable services. Some of them, induced by offers of a higher salary than this department could pay, owing to the limitations of the annual appropriation, have accepted positions elsewhere. One of them, Mr. H. S. Meekham, a forester and land surveyor, received an appointment under the United States Forestry Bureau. Mr. Grant B. Bruce and Mr. Ralph S. Bryant accepted positions from the United States Forestry Bureau in the Philippine Islands, and are now engaged there in forestry work. We shall lose also the valuable ser- vices of Mr. McClintock, the Assistant Superintendent, as he has recently been appointed commissioner of public works in the city of Rochester. Yours very respectfully, WILLIAM F. FOX, Superintendent of State Forests. A GENTLEMAN. Tree Planting. [Extract from the Report of the Assistant Superintendent.] Plantation No. 1. AST spring I was engaged, in company with Forester Bryant,* in making an examination of lands in the Catskills preparatory to their purchase by the State. We were deeply impressed by the burned and barren condition of some of the prominent mountain tops and slopes, which are a source of disappointment to the large and increasing number of people who come here for summer enjoyment and mountain scenery. As a result of this denudation of the mountain slopes the brooks, where the speckled trout once found a natural home, have become in places a succession of mere pools separated by the dry rocky bed of the once unfa‘ling stream. These unsightly areas are not due to any lack of soil or suitable forest conditions, but are the result of fires, which in the old days were often deliberately set, after the cutting down of the great stand of hemlock, from which only the bark was taken; in fact, it is a legend of the locality that the boys used to celebrate the Fourth of July and election by burning a mountain. From a close examination of some of these burned places it appears that nature does not reclothe them directly with valuable species. Ferns, pin cherries, and trees of inferior value come up first, to be followed after a lapse of time by an unevenly distributed growth of more valuable trees. A long period of years is often necessary for the slow change of composition of the forest, and the return of valuable species. First, poplar, with light seeds easily carried by the wind, and pin cherry, the seeds of which are probably carried by the birds, come in from a long distance. *Mr. Ralph C. Bryant, F. E., the first man graduated in the N. Y. State College of Forestry, to whom the writer is indebted for assistance in making the plantation and in preparing this report. 42 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 43 These are comparatively short lived, and are gradually crowded out by trees of greater value and longer life. That nature can be effectively assisted in selecting is shown by the following facts: The variety of forest growth in the Catskills is great. The variation in elevation from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level, with a mild climate, affords a congenial habitat for a large number of species, the special limitation being upon those trees which seemingly thrive best in moist places. The slopes are generally steep and the valleys narrow. The following species have been noted in good development: White pine, Norway pine, Red spruce, Hemlock, Balsam, Hard maple, Red maple, Mountain maple, Striped maple, Yellow birch, White birch, Black birch, American beech, White oak, Red oak, Chestnut, Shell-bark hickory, Mocker-nut hickory, White ash, Black ash, Sycamore, Basswood, Poplar, Aspen, Black cherry, Pin cherry, Pinus strobus. Pinus resinosa. Picea rubens. Tsuga canadensis. Abies balsamea. Acer saccharum. Acer rubrum. Acer spicatiune. Acer pennsylvanicum. Betula lutea. Betula papyrifera. Betula lenta. Fagus americana. Quercus alba. Quercus rubra. Castanea dentata. Flicoria ovata. Fficorta alba. Fraxinus americana. Fraxinus negra. Platanus occidentalis. Tilia americana. Populus grandidentata. Populus tremuloides. Prunus serotina. Prunus pennsylvanica. 44 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE Hornbeam, Ostrya virginiana. American elm, Ulmus americana. Pepperidge, Nyssa sylvatica. Dogwood, Cornus florida. The ash makes a fine development. We noticed one two feet in diameter, and have been reliably informed of one 36 inches in diameter on the southerly slope of Hemlock Mountain. Of spruce, we saw one on West Kill Mountain, one of the highest peaks of the Catskills, which was 36 inches in diameter, with a short bole. A red oak 30 inches in diameter was seen on the Bryant tract, at an elevation of 2,000 feet; andasplendid second growth of this species was found on top of Timothyberg Mountain. Pines attain a large size here: we measured perfect specimens of second growth, 24 inches in diameter. The different species are very unevenly distributed. In some of the small valleys or cloves many of them are entirely wanting, while in some places, like the beautiful West Kill Valley, nearly all are found in a thrifty condition. The mountain tops show the least variety, although upon some of them can be found most of the different kinds of trees. There is nothing which indicates that the existing older trees, or the second growth coming up, are the ones best fitted to the con- ditions. In fact there are many indications that nature could be easily and advantageously assisted in the early life of the forest growth needed to cover up the bare, rocky slopes. It is commonly believed that the succession of short lived trees like the pin cherry, birch, and poplar, following ferns, fire-weeds, and blackberries, which come in after a burning, is necessary to form a soil suitable for the more important species. From an examination of many of the burned slopes we believe this to be an error, and that on almost all there is enough good soil held in the crevices between the rocks or on the rocky shelves to sustain any of the varieties of trees which will endure the climate. Some of the trees do not appear to be able to thrive on exposed tops and slopes, because of the high winds and occasional ice storms. This is especially true of the birch and most of the hard woods, even the oaks. A splendid growth of hemlock has until within a half-century covered nearly all the Catskill slopes and the tops of many of the lower hills. It does not make as valuable timber as spruce and pine, and does not generally come up in second growth, except on small areas. It appears probable that any wood of even age and even distribution would better withstand the effects of high winds and produce straighter trees. It is well worth while to try all the various kinds of trees which promise to succeed here. mee a. eh TT ee — aR ree Te ite? ene HOENICIA. Pp NEAR WHITE, PINE r*ROWTH G SECOND LOWER BRANCHES THE FOREGROUND CLEANED OF PHE TWO TREES IN SHOWING PROCESS, NATURAT sy FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 45 We determined to take advantage of the opportunity afforded us to begin the experiments which will be necessary to discover the best means of re-foresting. So, although many species are available, we decided that white pine and spruce were the most readily obtainable, and upon application to Dr. B. E. Fernow, director of the New York State College of Forestry, he kindly sent us 500 white pine and 500 spruce seedlings. These were three years old, and were raised upon the experimental grounds of the college, which are situated at Axton, in Franklin County. The seedlings, which were from 6 inches to 12 inches long, came by express, nicely packed in bundles, with damp moss and green balsam boughs around them, and appeared to be in good condition. The history of the seedlings is given by Mr. Edward Hagger, forest manager for the New York State College of Forestry, as follows: They are Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) and white pine (Pus strobus) raised from seed planted in the nursery of Heins Sohne Holstenbeck, Holstein, Germany, in the spring of 1898; one year in the seed bed and two years transplanted. Shipped to Axton in the spring of 1901, and were one month in transit. Arrived in good condition and were considered extra good selected stock. They were raised in a sandy soil, almost of the character of a loamy sand. In selecting a place to plant we had two points in mind: /7rst. To secure a place which would fairly represent the average soil conditions of the mountains, and places which had been burnt, so that if our plantation grew and showed a favorable development, the result would have a bearing on the selection of other places. Second. A prominent location was also desirable in order that this plantation might serve as an object lesson, and create a greater interest in the preservation of the forests in that region. The site selected for the plantation was upon the northerly end of the top of Simpson’s plateau, a spur of the Wittenburg mountain, between Woodland valley and Cross Mountain streams, having an elevation of 2,250 feet above ocean level, and 1,100 feet above the adjacent valley. It can be seen from the turnpike in the Esopus valley. It lies partly upon the flatter slope of the top and partly on the precipitous northerly slope. The slope of the whole hill is very steep, with numerous vertical ledges and narrow intervening shelves which retain the small amount of remaining soil. It was covered originally with a thick growth of large hemlocks which were cut about fifty years ago, since which time fire has run over it repeatedly. The present imperfect covering consists of a tangle of pin cherry, hard maple, soft maple, red 46 5 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE oak, elderberry, poplar and blackberry bushes, mostly dead and bent over by wind and snow. In places there is no soil over the rock; in others the only covering is moss or forest duff, with roots and decayed leaves; while in spots the rich soil is several inches deep and underlaid by a few inches of sandy loam which appears to be rock decomposed “in situ.” Using a pickaxe and grubhoe we thoroughly stirred up the earth, and then packed it around each seediing. In fact it was necessary in many cases to scrape up with the fingers all the soil within reach, in order to make a fitting bed for the little trees. The plan was to space the trees six feet apart, as nearly as possible; but the difficulty in finding soil made this vary, so that goo of the seedlings are spread over about two acres. One hundred of the spruces were placed on the flat top of the plateau about 1,000 feet farther south, on the west side of the old bark road, which is used as a trail up the Wittenburg, where the soil and second growth conditions are about the same, except that in spots it is inclined to be wet. Here were several spruce trees growing naturally four or five feet high, and looking thrifty. The planting was done on May 1, 2 and 3, 1901. It required one whole day and part of two other days for both of us, with the aid of one man, to set out the 1,000 seedlings; equivalent to two full days for three of us. We put more work upon them than would usually be required, and it seems reasonable to estimate that under average conditions two men can set out 1,000 trees a day. As indicating in a small way perhaps the future possibilities of our little plantation we will say that we have noted in the Catskills a white pine 22 inches in diameter, 77 years old; another 20 inches, 75 years: old; another 28 inches, 290 years old; and for spruce, one 1 inch, 25 years old; one 15 inches, 100 years old; one 17 inches, 100 years old; one 22 inches, 125 years old; one 24 inches, 155 years old. Plantation No. 2.* Last fall 5,000 trees were placed upon the eastern top and slope of Timothy- berg mountain, in the town of Shandaken, Ulster County. It is the usual practice to plant conifers in the spring in preference to the fall, and this is encouraged by experienced nurserymen. It seems to us that this selection comes from expe- rience of the difficulties in shipping trees from the nurseries in warm weather and getting them into the ground before the roots have been dried out or the *In making this plantation and the report of the same I was efficiently assisted by Mr. A. Knechtel, F. E., a graduate of New York State College of Forestry. Thirty residents of the vicinity helped us to set out the plants. ARRIVAL OF SEEDLINGS. PACKED IN BASKETS AND BUNDLES. La Er FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, 47 plants have begun to heat; and also from the fact that most nursery trees are set out in cultivated land where, in the fall, the action of frost tends to throw out the seedlings, which have not begun to take hold of the ground with their roots and suckers. The conditions of tree planting in uncultivated soil are different. The soil is less compact, is largely made up of roots and partly rotted leaves and wood, and is generally covered with a litter of leaves from the small growth, if not from the scattering large trees already standing. It is often noticed that frost penetrates the forest floor but little distance, while upon neighboring cultivated land it goes in several feet. The advantages of fall planting in forestry work are: that it adds to the length of time available for doing the season’s work; that it makes the necessary skilled labor more effective and economical ; that there is less chance of the plants being killed by drought. When planted just before the usual fall rains the plants may be considered as heeled in for the winter, the earth becoming thoroughly packed around the roots and suckers so that when spring opens they are ready to enjoy the full benefit of the genial warmth and invigorating moisture. While our planting was in progress, after 3,500 trees had been set, there was a good soaking rain, and two days after the work was finished there was another rain, with some snow, The Catskills afford such a healthful and attractive summer home to the vast population living within a few hours’ ride that the district is destined to become a resort with an ever-increasing number of visitors. It is reasonable to expect that it will become literally a great park, as much larger than the celebrated new system of parks around Boston as those are larger than the little city squares formerly con- sidered as parks. The mountain tops and steep slopes will be covered with a mag- nificent forest, crowding down to the narrow strips of meadow and garden reserved for fruit, vegetables and dairy products to supply the tables of the cottages, hotels and boarding houses which will line the finely improved roads skirting the delightful streams. The forests will be restored to decorate the mountains which so beautify every view with their variety of curves and slopes; to revivify the air; to keep the cold springs full; to preserve the rushing streams through the hot summer, renewing the former conditions congenial to the trout, and refreshing all. And yet under forestry management they will furnish regular employment to many people and form the basis of permanent local manufacturing industries, and finally be a source of profit, like the forests of Europe, similarly situated, where there is a local market for all the limbs and twigs which will not bear the cost of transporting far. 48 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE The original forest which covered all of these mountains was mostly a dense growth of great hemlocks and pine, with some spruce and balsam in places, and a large variety of hardwoods. The hemlock occupied the slopes with a dense growth of large trees. The pine grew upon the flats and lower slopes, and occasionally showed their tall heads breaking the even outline of the hardwood growth on the mountain tops. A few spruce slopes were to be found, while the balsam occupied mostly the higher ground. The conifers have been removed, with the exception of a few isolated patches. The mountains, though yet beautiful, have largely lost the pleasing color and form that the hardwoods gave. The light green of the hardwoods, with the darker shades of pine, spruce and balsam, and the deep, dark green of the hemlock has given place to the colors of the hardwoods only. The hills have also lost, to some extent, the health-giving qualities of the soft woods, with their fragrant germ-destroying odors, the efficacy of which in curing disease is universally admitted. ; The softwood groves were the habitations of the deer, the rabbit, the squir- rel, the partridge and other animals where they took shelter from the blasts of winter. The most of the hemlock was cut down for the bark alone. There are still large areas covered with old rotten trees which were peeled and left in the woods. The pine, the spruce and the balsam have been taken for their lumber with no care for the perpetuation of these species in the mountains. Small conifers, mostly balsam, are now being taken each winter in train loads from the woods to be used in the cities as Christmas trees. In 1900 thirty carloads passed through Phcenicia. To be sure, this would be a proper use of the young trees provided they were selected with regard to the benefit of the forest. Under proper forestry manage- ment thinnings are sometimes necessary. These thinnings, not only from the balsam, but from the pine and spruce, would furnish many trees for such purposes. Their removal as carried on at present, however, with no care for the good of the forest, only continues the destruction of the softwoods. Mills for dry wood pulp, excelsior mills, and mills for the manufacture of wood alcohol in addition to a large number of sawmills, make a local market for literally all the trees, large and small. The mills which mannfacture dry pulp consume a large amount of young timber, mostly small pines, poplar and basswood. VILLAGE OF PH@ENICIA. THE HEART OF THE CATSKILLS, ARKVILLE, DELAWARE COUNTY, N. Y. THE WHITE SPACE ON THE MOUNTAIN SHOWS WHERE LUMBERING HAS BEGUN FOR AN ACID FACTORY, IT EXTENDS TO THE LINE OF THE STATE FOREST ON THE TOP. FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 49 The mountain south of Arkville shows a white, clean spot on the mountain side, where lumbering has just commenced for the new acid factory, which it is expected will consume about 5,000 cords per year. The existing acid factories in the Catskills will use about as much wood as will grow on 70,000 acres of well- stocked forest. Fire has run over many of the hills time and again destroying the coniferous growth, while the hardwoods have been able to withstand in some degree its ravages. The hardwoods have now almost entire possession of the hills. They reproduce themselves much more easily than the conifers, and will hold possession unless softwood seedlings are planted, or the hardwoods thinned and conifer seeds sown. To be sure, on the flats at the base of the hills are to be found groves of white pine (pumpkin pine). The trees seem to reproduce freely, especially wherever there is mineral soil at the surface, and, if cared for, this species would no doubt continue to be a feature of the valleys. But if it is ever again to occur in any considerable quantity on the sides and tops of the mountain it must be planted. It is only with very unusual and violent gusts of wind that the seeds are blown up the hill side. Once planted, however, the trees when they bear fruit will scatter their seeds later- ally and down the slope with ease. Then with the care of the forester, favoring the pine to the disadvantage of the hardwoods, groves of this valuable species may again clothe the hill sides. And what is true of the white pine in this respect is true also of the other conifers that we have planted. A large number of the people who visit the Catskilis come by the Ulster and Delaware Railroad up the valley of the Esopus Creek from the Hudson River to Phcenicia, where there is a junction with the railroad extending into the valley of the Schoharie. This place is literally in the heart of the Catskills. It is situated at the foot of the westerly end of a lofty and irregular ridge, the southerly slope of which is skirted by the Esopus Creek along which runs the railroad, and a splendid improved State road, one of the finest rides in the State, extending from Kingston about forty miles through the mountains. This ridge is called Tremper mountain on the westerly end, and Timothyberg mountain on the east end. A site was selected for a plantation upon the southerly slope of the easterly end of Timothyberg mountain. From this mountain has been taken hemlock, basswood, chestnut and poplar, and it was lumbered for oak bark twenty- five years ago. Fire burned over it in 1881 and again in 1888, since which time there has been no further burning. On the same lot, but on the north slope. 4 50 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE of the mountain, there is a forest standing having the following composition per acre : 34 ash from 5 inches to 10 inches. 28 beech from 5 inches to 18 inches. 12 birch from 6 inches to 18 inches. 10 hemlock from 8 inches to 16 inches. 56 basswood from 6 inches to 20 inches. 28 chestnut from 6 inches to 10 inches. 30 maple from 6 inches to 28 inches. 4 oak from 8 inches to 14 inches. 8 hornbeam from 4 inches to 10 inches. Upon the top of the mountain beyond our plantation there is a forest having the following composition per acre: 5 beech from 2 inches to 4 inches. 18 birch from 6 inches to 15 inches. 38 hemlock from 6 inches to 30 inches. 3 maple from 5 inches to 8 inches. 47 red oak from 8 inches to 24 inches. A number of oak stumps mark the places where valuable trees once stood. Mr. H. B. Hudler, supervisor of the town of Shandaken, stated that in 1862 he carried out a contract with J. H. Simpson for removing 400 cords of hemlock bark from the upper west slope of Timothyberg mountain, and at that time nearly all the original and exceedingly dense growth of hemlock which covered the mountain had been taken off. A grove was planted upon the extreme top, and another at the bottom, with a narrow strip connecting the two, planted up the slope. The grove on top of the mountain is about 2,300 feet above the ocean, and about 1,200 feet higher than the lower grove, so that the plantation as it grows will become a sightly object to people traveling on the railroad and on the State highway. That the plantation will be an object of interest, and will help to increase the interest of the inhabitants in the improvement of the forests, is shown by the fact that the people in Phoenicia and along the State road to Mount Pleasant expressed commendation of the experiment; and we were assisted in the work by a large number of citizens who gave their services without charge. FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 51 The seedlings included 1,200 white pine, 1,800 Norway spruce, and 2,000 Scotch pine. They were three years old and raised from seed in the nursery of the New York State College of Forestry at Axton, in Franklin County, and were secured from Dr. B. E. Fernow, director of the college. They were shipped from Tupper Lake on Saturday, October 5th, and arrived by express on the 7th, in fine condition, packed in German baskets and bundles, and inclosed in damp moss. The selection of the white pine needs no explanation. It is well known, however, that the white pine without a mixture of some other species will not clean itself; that is, the lower branches as they die will not break off easily, and the lumber resulting will be full of knots. If some other species, and especially a species which grows more slowly than the pine, be mixed with it, the tops as they are blown by the wind will strike against the dead branches of the pine and break them off. The Norway spruce was selected, not only for this purpose, but for its own qualities as a timber tree. Its wood is as good as that of our spruce. It has been planted extensively in this country as an ornamental tree, and has thriven under many conditions of soil and climate. It has an advantage in the matter of reproduction as its cones are large and the seeds many. The Scotch pine for lumber will take the place of the hemlock. It is a hard pine, and like the hard pines will be suitable for rough lumber. It is a fast growing tree, while the hemlock grows very slowly. It is not exacting as to mineral substance, accommodating itself to any description of soil from shifting sand to clay. It Europe it thrives under any condition of moisture from very dry soil to swampy ground. In Great Britain it ascends the mountains to 2,200 feet, while in the Alps it reaches an altitude of 6,000 feet. The seedlings were planted between October 8th to 14th, inclusive. Holes were made with pickaxes and grubhoes, and each plant was carefully placed in its hole and packed about with the fingers. The plantation extends from the foot of the mountain to ‘the top, a distance of about one mile and a quarter. The adjacent rows of trees were generally of different species, the arrangement being more definitely shown in the accompanying sketch map. The trees were generally spaced from six to eight feet apart, although parts of the two groves were placed closer. The soil varied in character from a rich black loam, with somewhat clayey subsoil at the lower end, to a thin earth consisting of decomposed rock on the top of the mountain. On the intervening slope the only soil was in the fissures of the rock, in some places yellow decomposed rock, and in 52 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. others simply charred duff, moss, and small roots. The rock formation consists of shales in thin layers, the surface being covered with flat, angular fragments. We found it possible to plant the trees even upon the. apparently bare rocky slopes by digging down among the rocks and collecting with the hands enough of what appeared to be mostly ashes. Immediately below the surface these slopes seem to retain moisture; and, if a tree can once get started, there appears to be sustenance for it in the crevices which the roots can reach. No doubt some of the trees will die from lack of good soil conditions; and it should be stated that before the planting was completed we noticed that the trees in one of the baskets had begun to heat. It was only the Scotch pine, however, and not more than 500 of these were so affected. The surface of the ground is now generally shaded by a thrifty, thick, small.growth of chestnut, oak, witch-hazel, birch, sumach, huckleberries, and ferns, with many other species represented. J: Ys McC LINGOCKs Assistant Superintendent of Forests. DEAD TREES. “INAGIONI ONIHSIA V ‘Enea bawrenee Reservation. INCE the last report, several improvements intended to make this reservation easier of access to the public and better suited to the general requirements of visitors, have been completed. The dock at Lotus Island in now in excellent condition, having been perma- nently repaired according to plans prepared by Deputy State Engineer Judson, at an expense safely within the original estimate. At a comparatively small expense, three acres of land have been added to the reservation at Burnham’s Point. This addition gives room for very desirable sites for camping. The State Engineer is preparing plans for a dock at this point, which construction is considered desirable, as this is the only place where there is no landing, and the location is a highly popular resort with the public. A small appropriation will be required for this improvement, and application has been made for the same. A roadway has been built from the public highway down to the park grounds, thus giving the first real entrance to the reservation. This is a convenience which will be appreciated by every person visiting the park, and already has been the subject of favorable comment. The pavilions, which were completed late last season, did not have a full trial in operation by which their popularity might adequately be judged; but their constant use during the past season has amply demonstrated the value which the public places upon them, and has shown that the expense incurred in their erection was an excellent investment on the part of the State. The experience of the past season has also shown that some provision should be made for the care of the grounds. Thousands of people visit this reservation each summer, and the slight expense required to police it properly will be amply repaid by the increased convenience experienced by the public. The very large number of visitors on the reservation during the past summer is ample proof of the growing popularity of the reservation, and the favorable comments made on its present condition is sufficient proof that the people appreciate what has already been done here. 53 Report of the Chief Game Protector. To the Forest, Fish and Game Commission: Y report for the year might properly include a detailed account of many actions brought and many suits won in the interest of the State, of thousands of letters written in explanation of mooted questions about the Game Law, or of statements of many raids made upon persistent violators of the law in various parts of the State. These details would, however, be cumber- some, and the results show for themselves to an extent that would seem to make such a review unnecessary. . The work of this department is increasing steadily, and the money turned into the State Treasury shows for itself in the monthly reports. The notable events of the past year were the suits brought against the Arctic Refrigerator Company, which stands practically convicted of having game out of season in its possession amounting in value to many thousands of dollars. It is suggested that if game is found in the close season outside of warehouses where a record is had of the same, or illegally possessed, a law should be enacted declaring that when a seizure is made, after the game has served its purpose as evidence, it should be turned over to some charitable institution instead of being allowed to -go to waste, thereby benefiting some one without laying any one liable, and last but not least giving the officer making the seizure something definite under which to act. Several large trespass cases have also been prosecuted during the year, notably that of the Moose River Lumber Company, which is still pending. Very many smaller cases, mentioned collectively in the accompanying detailed report, attest the vigilance of the department. I submit them with the other matters for your consideration, and make the recommendations hereafter stated. During the year the protectors seized and destroyed many nets and devices that were being illegally operated. The total of the individual seizures was 803 fyke nets, 443 trap nets, 416 gill nets, 76 squat nets, 20 seines, 335 set lines, 7 spears, 16 eel 54 “OINTLOOHS (uId TIVY re, UP i hae pa vel er ‘ ey u SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, 55 weirs, 8 wire nets and 2,637 tip-ups. The total number of illegal devices destroyed was 4,761, which represented a total money value of $25,820. Actions were begun against 348 persons. Of these 317 were convicted or judg- ments taken, and the total sum imposed as fines and penalties amounted to $9,856.75. Of this amount the sum of $8,526.70 was collected and deposited with the State Treasurer as the law provides. The remaining $1,330.05 was retained by attorneys, justices and constables in cases where their fees were deducted before remitting to this department. There were also fines imposed to the amount of $938 where no recovery was had, and the persons upon whom these fines were imposed served time either in penitentiaries or jails, one day for each dollar, which amounted to 938 days served. The remaining 38 cases resulted as follows: 19 acquitted, either by court or jury; 6 cases on appeal; 4 actions withdrawn, and 2 where there was insufficient evidence to hold the accused. Toe much cannot be said in favor of the law of 1899, which prohibited for a term of years the hounding of deer. It was an undisputed fact that, with the advantages of numerous railroads penetrating the Adirondacks about that time and the many people becoming interested in hunting, the deer of the State would surely become exterminated. The Legislature of 1901 should be commended for its legislation along this line, as a law was enacted which forbids for all time the hounding of deer. There is not a question, from the best information obtainable, but that deer have increased in the last five years fully fifty per cent, and they can be found in abundance through the main woods, and also in all the little detached parcels of forest land in every county adjoining the Adirondacks. If this law can remain on the statute books together with the act of 1888, which limited the number one could kill or transport, there is no prospect of the deer becoming exterminated, although the advantages of reaching nearly every portion of the Adirondacks are much greater. With the increase yearly in the number of people who are desirous of hunting, it might be well to shorten the season, making the close season October 31st instead of November 15th. The past two years have shown that more deer are killed during the last ten days of the open season than in the two months prior to that, on accouut of the snow which facilitates still hunting ten fold. I would respectfully suggest that while it is not advisable to make too many alterations in our Game Law, for fear of confusing the public mind, it would be both advisable and expedient that the following changes in the law as it now stands should be made during the present session of the Legislature : 1. Increasing the force of protectors to fifty as against the present thirty-eight. Several localities are now practically without any protection and too remote from 56 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE the location of the present protector whose expense account is insufficient to permit him to travel any distance beyond his immediate locality. This is true of all that territory lying east of the Hudson River from Lake Champlain to Long Island Sound, which embraces six counties. On account of the increased acreage of forest land and the reservations made for lumbering, much time also will be required to prevent the inadvertent cutting of timber outside of that reserved, to say nothing of the constant necessity for checking the general tendency of many people to plunder on the State land wherever an opportunity presents. : 2. Continuing the present close season for deer in the counties of Delaware, Ulster, Greene and Sullivan absolutely for a term of years, or, if this is not possible, then not allowing more than two weeks open season in these counties. The State has stocked this territory with deer at a considerable expense, and the results of the work have been highly gratifying. The continuation of the present close season, as suggested, will materially aid the work and be beneficial to everybody concerned. 3. Amending section 36 of the present law so as to place in the hands of the Commission the granting of certificates to take birds for scientific purposes, instead of the matter being as at present in the hands of “any society of natural history incorporated in the State or by the Regents of the University.” The reason for this suggestion is that the Commission can readily ascertain through the protectors in their several localities the exact standing and the full object of persons making application, which would prevent an abuse of the law that might very easily arise under the present system. 4. Establishing a system of licensing guides, thereby placing upon the list of those available to the public a much more competent class of men as compared with the many inexperienced so-called guides of the present day, who are not familiar enough with the woods to render efficient service. 5. Enacting a law charging a license fee to non-residents for the privilege of hunting in this State, thereby in a measure reserving the game to the citizens of the State who are paying a large amount annually to propagate and protect it. This proposition may meet with some objection from a few hotel keepers, but it is no more than justice to the taxpayers who are called upon to pay a license in nearly every State into which they may go to hunt. It is particularly true of Canada where many of our citizens who go hunting are compelled to pay a large license fee for that privilege. The revenue derived from this source and from the licensing of guides should be placed at the disposal of the Commission to further aid in carrying on the work of protection. 6. Prohibiting the sale of woodcock, grouse and quail killed within this State, ‘ONILOOHS MONG ba ore aebeatetlo Wh fae Pan) RES ia Ge TRE Sato aoe Rye ee SP mist ia eys “befial as) FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. on S| and compelling dealers who are handling any game from outside the State during the open season to keep a record and be ready at all times when a proper demand is made to furnish an invoice of all game received or sold. 7. Repealing all supervisor laws on Long Island relating to fish and shellfish. The Legislature should enact laws for that locality as it does for other parts of the State. By reason of the fact. that the supervisors have been legislating independ- ently since 1840, their laws have become confused, and in recent years to my certain knowledge they have not conformed to the State law. There is no question but that a majority of their present laws are in such a confused condition that they cannot be enforced, notwithstanding the fact that this department is called upon frequently to prosecute under those laws. Several years ago the Legislature empowered all the boards of supervisors throughout the State to pass laws further restricting the taking of fish and game. Each county availed itself of this, and matters became so mixed up that, in 1895, the Legislature at the request of the general public repealed the law, except as to the power given to the counties of Long Island in relation to the taking of fish and shellfish from salt water. J. WARREN POND, Chief Protector. CURIOSITY — WHAT IS THAT? Report of the General Poreman of Hatcheries. To the Forest, Fish and Game Commission: HEREWITH present my report for the year ending September 30, 1901, show- ing the number of fish distributed by the Commission, the number of each kind of fish and the size, from which hatchery and hatching station distributed and where the fish were planted. There were 1,631 applications received by the Commission — of these 1,259 were granted for various amounts each, 173 were rejected, and 179 carried over to be filled in the current year. Included in the rejected applications are 92 for black bass, 27 for pickerel, 4 for bullheads, 4 for rock bass and 3 for catfish. With the exception of a very small number of black bass that are usually taken out of the Erie Canal when it is drawn off in the fall, the Commission has none of these varieties for distribution. The remainder of the applications were rejected for various reasons. Many of them were duplicates of applications already granted, and in some cases the waters were not suitable for the fish for which application was made. A few of the applications were withdrawn. Your attention is called to the large number of fingerlings and yearling fish that have been distributed during the past season, which exceeds by far any previous distribution of these sizes ever made by the Commission. In order to obtain some information as to the result of the Commission’s work in planting fingerlings and yearlings, at the close of the season about fifty circular letters were sent out which read as follows: “Since 1896 the Commission has been rearing and distributing to the public waters of the State, yearling and fingerling fish, as well as large numbers of fry. Some of these fish have been planted in your section of the State upon applica- tions made by yourself and others. I would like very much to learn the result of the efforts of the Commission in stocking various waters, and if you will kindly write 58 BASS FISHING. LANDING A DOUBLE, A SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, 59 me a letter advising me of what the result has been in your section, the Commis- sion would appreciate it. Thanking you in advance for any information you Cain ine, Wee fo cnosseoaccce In response to this circular letter between thirty and forty answers were received, and with scarcely an exception the replies were most gratifying, showing results beyond all expectations. In almost every instance where fingerlings and yearlings had been planted the fishing has very materially improved, and in many instances the fishing for the past season had been better than ever before. As you will note from the tabulated report, a very large number of fish have been sent to the Adirondacks and Catskills, aside from those reared at the three Adirondack hatcheries, all of which were planted in Adirondack waters. The question is very frequently asked of the Commission and its employees, “What is meant by fingerlings and yearlings?” In answer, it may not be out of place to quote a clause in the Superintendent’s report of 1897: “Tn referring to fingerlings it may not be out of place to explain the term a little by giving the age and length. At about four to five months we commence calling the young trout fingerlings, and continue to designate them as such until they are from eleven to twelve months old, when we call them yearlings up to eighteen months old, when they are classed as eighteen months or two-year-old fish. The average length of a brook, brown or rainbow trout four months old is about two inches. At eight or nine months old they will average three inches, and at one year old five inches. These figures are exceeded at some hatching. stations in the State. Lake trout grow faster than the other species, and at twelve months old will average six inches long. Fish at the same age are not always the same size. Sometimes the larger ones are capable of swallowing the smaller ones of the same hatch.” To the above it might be added that brook trout, like lake trout and brown trout commence hatching about the first of January, and rainbow and black spotted trout hatch out in the spring months. All of the above are called fingerlings between the first of July and the first of January, after which they are called yearlings. As a greater part of the applications made to the Commission are for fingerlings and yearling fish, it is suggested that additions be made where practicable at the various hatcheries to enable us to rear a greater number of fingerlings and yearlings. It is apparent that the increase in applications, for fingerlings particularly, is going to be very much greater than any possible increase in the facilities of the Commission 60 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE On account of an insufficient appropriation some necessary repairs and improve- ments were not made during the past season, and these should be made during the coming season. As the Commission is about to build a hatchery in Delaware County, I would recommend that the hatchery at Rockland, Sullivan County, be abandoned and disposed of, if it is within the power of the Commission to dispose of it. The water is insufficient, very uncertain, and of very poor quality. Some changes have been made at the Old Forge Hatchery, and some contem- plated improvements there the coming season will, I believe, very materially increase the output at that hatchery. Your attention is called to the recommendation to the previous Commission that an additional pipe be put in at the Adirondack Hatchery. This would necessitate an expense of some $1,500, but would double the present capacity of the hatchery, and enable us to raise a very large number of fingerling fish. It is recommended that the site selected last winter for a hatchery in Delaware County, near Hobart, be abandoned, for the following reasons: Insufficiency of water, danger of contamination, and lack of sufficient fall in the water. The United States Commission, as usual, have been very liberal in their allot- ment of eggs to this Commission, particularly of shad, and much credit is due them for what they have done and are doing in keeping the Hudson River thoroughly stocked. The taking of muskellunge for propagating purposes at Chautauqua Lake was carried on this year, and a very satisfactory number of eggs were taken and fry distributed. The foreman in charge of the work there was instructed to count each day the number of muskellunge taken in nets, and he reported 1,693, of which 27 had spear marks on them. It is to be regretted that spearing through the ice is permitted in Chautauqua Lake, as it is apparent that the number of fish taken and the size of the fish are growing smaller each year. If the work is to be carried on at Chautauqua Lake some improvements should be made in the facilities for doing so. The stocking of the larger bodies of water in the State with whitefish and pike perch is being carried on on as large a scale as the facilities of the Commission will permit. If a larger output is desirable increased facilities should be obtained, if funds are available for that purpose. At the last session of the Legislature an appropriation of $1,000 was made for the purpose of making exhibits of fish at the State Fair and at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo. The exhibit at the State Fair, though not a large one, was a very creditable SALMON FISHING. NOW GIVE IT TO HIM. a ake vel a i oy ac) ‘ t a ; se Teh ae y ee ‘ ; es 4 ‘ 4 r} i | { ¥ 1 t} ac i cf ; > ye ; ‘ ‘ , ae + "Fi encS? A i ; ul Se i . C . J ‘ ‘ i fs j 4 cy 4 . - % “ é . ra r 2 = > FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 61 exhibit, and attracted a large number of people, many of whom had never seen the different varieties of trout and game fish of the State. The exhibit at the Pan-American Exposition was made by the United States Fish Commission, W. de C. Ravenel in charge, and was without exception the finest exhibit of the kind ever made in this country, being much better than your Com- mission could have made with the limited facilities at their disposal. We rendered all the assistance possible in the way of supplying the United States Commission with every variety of fish for which they asked, which necessitated an expenditure of $241.16, leaving an unexpended balance of $828.43 of the amount appropriated. I regret to report that there is apparently a very large increase of carp in many waters of the State, and in many instances they have nearly ruined the fishing, principally by the condition in which they keep the water. They apparently mul- tiply very much faster than any other fish, and it is to be regretted that they were ever introduced into the waters of this State. In conclusion your attention is called to the very liberal courtesies extended to the Commission by the railroads of the State, particularly the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, and Ontario and Western, the Delaware and Hudson Company, and the Buffato, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railroad, for transportation furnished free to the State fish car and the messengers in charge of the fish, and in returning the empty fish cans. Pheasants. The raising of pheasants at the Pleasant Valley Hatchery has been carried on during the past year on a limited scale, on account of our not having an appropri- ation for that purpose. An appropriation of $1,000 or $1,500 would enable us to more than double the output. Very gratifying reports of results have been received from those to whom the birds have been sent during the past season, and it is suggested that when appli- cations are granted, notice be sent to the persons receiving the birds that they must be liberated at once, and not kept in confinement. The birds are strong and hearty, will stand all kinds of weather, and do very much better free than when kept confined. Many instances could be cited where large broods have been raised by birds that were liberated, and other cases where few if any birds were raised when they were kept in confinement. Respectfully submitted, RICHARD COTCHEFER, General Foreman of Hatcheries. Fish Distribation. Sammary, for the Gear Ending September 30, Shad, - : = = Whitefish, - - - = Biker mets t 5 eae eee Muskellunge, - = 5 Frost fish, - - = Shrimp, : = - = Ciscoes, - - - - Tom cods, - : - - 3ullheads, - - - Perch, - - - - Bass, ; - - - Lake trout fingerlings, - Lake trout yearlings, - Rainbow trout fingerlings, - Rainbow trout yearlings, Brown trout fingerlings, - Brown trout yearlings, - Brook trout fingerlings, = Brook trout yearlings, - Lake‘trout fry, - - - Rainbow trout fry, - - Brown trout fry, - - - Brook trout fry, - = Scotch sea trout yearlings, - Red throat trout, r year old, Steel head salmon, 2 years, Red throat fingerlings, - Lake trout, 4 years old, = Rainbow trout, 2-5 years, Brown trout, 2-5 years, - Brook trout, 2-5 years, - Total, - - - - 62 19ol. 19,675,000 32,250,000 46,900,000 4,520,000 4,900,000 158,000 100,000 35,000,000 50 4,500 1,500 399,210 46,450 132,325 109.975 131,600 102,475 351,500 65,368 2,405,000 20,000 1,187,000 2,262,000 1,700 13,350 12 22,000 12 76 Bo 646 150,760,256 “SNILOOHS ‘IIVAO Report of the Saperintendent of Shellfisheries. To the Forest, Fish and Game Commission: HAVE the honor to present a report of the business of the Shellfish Depart- ment, which, under the general supervision of the Shellfish Commissioner and of the Commission, has been assigned to my management as superintendent of shellfisheries. The hydrographic surveys and the preparation of maps of lands under water, initiated by Hon. Eugene Blackford in 1887, and continued to the presnt time, have, during the past year, been carried forward by Charles Wyeth, C. E., surveyor of oyster lands, under my direction. Mr. Wyeth has been connected with this department for eleven years past, and his work, which calls for the exercise of more than ordinary skill and precision, has been performed in the most satisfactory manner. The records of this office show a constantly increasing business. During the year 137 applications for lands under water for shellfish cultivation have been received, and after due advertisement the lands applied for have been leased to the highest bidder, as provided by law. A total of 2,467 acres has thus been added to the lands heretofore granted by the State for shellfish culture. The grants made during the year cover lands under the waters of Long Island Sound, East River, Hempstead Harbor, Jamaica Bay and Raritan Bay. On December 1, 1901, there were under lease 6,055 acres, and under franchise 20,005 acres, a total of 26,060 acres now in use for shellfish cultivation. Sixty-six applications, 8 being for lands in Hempstead Harbor, and 58 for lands in Manhasset Bay, covering 1,044 acres, are now pending and are not included in the above total of lands in use. The jurisdiction of the State over lands under these waters (Hempstead Harbor and Manhasset Bay) is disputed by the town of North Hempstead, which asserts its own jurisdiction and ownership under colonial patents. Upon receiving the first applications for lands in these localities, the superintendent, under the direction of 63 64 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE the Commission, requested from Hon. John C. Davies, Attorney-General, written opinions concerning the questions at issue. The Attorney-General, after consider- ing a formal remonstrance filed in support of the claim of the town, prepared opinions which in both cases asserted that jurisdiction is in the State, and that the Forest, Fish and Game Commission has authority to lease such lands for the pur- pose specified. In pursuance of these opinions, and of a resolution adopted by the Commission, at its meeting in the month of May, a tract of land under the waters of Hempstead Harbor was advertised, surveyed and leased to Messrs. Olson and Weber, who at once entered into possession as lessees of the State, whereupon an action of ejectment was instituted by the town for the purpose of ousting said lessees. This action is now pending but, as the people of the State were not made a party, it cannot be expected that a judgment in the proceeding will determine the real issue. In the matter of the claim of the residents of the village of Noank, in the State of Connecticut (to which allusion was made in my last annual report) that they have from time immemorial fished for lobsters in the waters of “ The Race,” southwest of Fisher’s Island, in the State of New York (by far the best lobster fishery of this State), and have gained by prescription a right to fish therein, a test case (the People against Morgan) was made, resulting in a decision favorable to the contention of the People. It may be added, however, that Hon. Harrison 5S. Moore, county judge, in his opinion stated that the question of the defendant's prescriptive right was not properly before the court. It is, therefore, probable that this issue will be again raised. Few persons other than those actually brought into contact with it, are aware of the immense and growing proportions of the shellfish industry of the State, which, it is estimated, amounts to at least $7,000,000 per annum, in seed oysters, marketed oysters, clams and lobsters. The justly celebrated oysters from Blue Point, Jamaica Bay (Rockaways), East River and other Long Island localities are eagerly sought by consumers and always command a ready market. Little Neck clams also are in constant demand, all of which means business, work and money for those engaged in the cultivation, handling and exportation of these valued shellfish. The principal export trade is with England, though quantities are shipped to the continent of Europe, and a recent demand has sprung up in the West Indies. A shipment of oysters to Santiago in October brought $20.80 per barrel. An increased trade is occasioning a constant betterment of facilities; many small sailing craft are rapidly being replaced by steamers and others are being remodeled POUND FISHING. EMPTYING THE POUND FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 65 and fitted with modern motive power. From comparatively small beginnings the urgent necessities of the rapidly expanding industry of shellfish cultivation led, a few years ago, to the adoption by the State of a system of control of lands under the public waters suitable for the business; a system which includes a unification of laws; an elaborate plan of surveys, based upon the triangulations of the United States Coast Survey; the establishment of numerous intermediate coast signals and the preparation of necessary and carefully prepared maps and charts, together with grants of leases and franchises under well-defined boundaries. Thus has the older plan of control by localities, so palpably inadequate, been outgrown. The obsolete local plan contemplated a right to the farmer or citizen whose lands happened to be adjacent to or near a bay or sound, to take a small piece of land under water, in size ranging from a fraction of an acre to three acres, upon which he might dredge or rake a few bushels of shellfish for domestic consump- tion, or upon'which the bayman owning a small boat could dredge the natural growth oysters for market. The laws of a given locality were sure to differ from those of every other locality, the point of greatest resemblance being that these rights were confined to residents of the particular town or community. In one large bay the land granted to an individual was limited to three acres at an annual rental of five dollars per acre, while in another bay the limit was five acres at three dollars per acre, an effort always being made to increase the revenues of the town or community by the income from these grants, while nothing was done by the town to protect its lessees in their rights. No hydrographic surveys were made. Lessees fixed their own stakes or buoys marking the boundaries of the lots. These marks being constantly removed by tides, ice and storms led to con- tentions between adjacent owners. Larceny of planted shellfish was a crime almost impossible of punishment, property lines being uncertain and the visible marks unreliable. Under that expensive system doubtful or experimental ground was not taken. Extensive growers requiring grounds in different localities suitable for different stages of shellfish growth were obliged to use subterfuge and employ men resident in each locality to rent grounds as though for their individual use, when in fact they were to be used by the larger planters. Under the local system efficient means for destroying the enemies of the shellfish, involving the use of steamers, was out of the question. Under the present system of State control the planters may obtain sufficient lands; employ capital to advantage; combat the natural enemies of the shellfish and have the benefit of proper surveys and boundaries, the lines being accurately fixed and easily relocated when necessary. 66 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE When we consider this vast industry, so necessary to the welfare of the State, a business employing thousands of our citizens, which amounts to so great an annual sum and supplies our population with an unsurpassed food product, we cannot wonder that this better system has developed, and the experience of the past leads us to look forward to increased progress and greater improvements. The tomcod planted in Jamaica Bay during the season of 1900 have thriven and are now to be found all over the bay. Hundreds of these fish were cast upon the beach during the severe storm which occurred on Saturday, November 30, 1901, and were gathered up by fishermen residing in the vicinity. Under section 114 of the Forest, Fish and Game Laws, the boards of supervisors of Queens, Nassau and Suffolk Counties are given power to pass laws regulating and controlling the taking of fish and shellfish in the salt waters of such counties. This power has from time to time been availed of in these counties, resulting in the passage of numerous laws, imperfectly published and of doubtful authority. Com- munication is now being had with these official boards for the purpose of ascertain- ing which of these laws should be preserved with a view to having them embodied in the statute law of the State. During the past summer certain newspapers have devoted considerable space to the net fisheries of Great South Bay, strongly intimating, though not actually asserting, that these fisheries are in violation of the Forest, Fish and Game Laws. It was said that the number of bluefish have annually decreased until the fishing in the bay is almost destroyed, that “ Bluefishing in Great South Bay has been ruined by the net. Fifteen years ago this was the finest body of water in the world for fishing.” The Superintendent has made several visits to Great South Bay for the purpose of investigating this alleged condition and has conversed with boatmen, whose livelihood depends upon taking out parties of anglers, and with residents of the locality representing both sides of the controversy. As a result it has been ascertained that the pound-nets are not placed in the main channels of the bay, that there is no obstruction or hindrance in these main channels to the entrance of fish from the ocean, that the pound-nets are placed in the minor channels and shoal waters of the bay, and that bluefishing by hook and line has not been better in any season during the past fifteen years than in the season of 1901, anglers having had no difficulty in securing well-filled baskets. While it appeared that the nets might interfere to a certain extent with the navigation of the bay by small yachts and sailing boats, it was asserted, on the other hand, that at night, in foggy weather, the lights maintained upon the pounds were of great assistance to navigation. The question of navigation is without the FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 67 province of this Department, and these Great South Bay fisheries, upon which, to a considerable extent, our markets depend for fresh fish, are not in violation of our law. The menhaden season of 190! has been, it is believed,a satisfactory and profit- able one. These fisheries extend along the entire length of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. In company with several gentlemen connected with the Commission, the Superintendent visited a factory of the Fisheries Company located at Promised Land, Long Island, for the purpose of ascertaining in what quantities, if any, food fish are taken in menhaden nets. We inspected, upon the wharf, a lot of fish, said to amount to 300 barrels, which had been discharged from one of the company’s fishing steamers, and failed to discover any fish other than menhaden. Respectfully submitted, B. FRANK WOOD, State Superintendent of Shellfisheries. AFTER SOFT CLAMS. Financial Statement. Statement of Expenditares for the Fiscal Gear Ending September 30, 1901. FORESTRY ACCOUNT. To land purchased in Adirondacks, - - = - - - $173,841 To land purchased in Catskills, — - = - - - - 16,273 Salaries and expenses of superintendent of forests, inspectors, clerks, etc., - - - ; - - - = - - 12,721 Traveling expenses of Commissioners, - - - - - 458 Services and expenses of attorneys, = - - - = 17,838 Printing, surveying, searches and miscellaneous office expenses, 3,504 Rebates paid towns, account fighting forest fires, - - - 20,183 Firewarden and foresters, salaries and expenses, - - - 5,456 United States expert foresters’ expenses, - - - - 3,518 FISH PROPAGATION. Maintenance of hatcheries and hatching stations and collection and distribution of fish and fish fry, - = - - = $50,463 Salary and expenses of State fish culturist, - - - - 3,940 Salary and expenses of general hatchery foreman, - - 1,303 Delaware County hatchery site, : - = = - = 500 FISH AND GAME PROTECTION. Salaries and expenses of 35 protectors and clerk, - - - $38,500 Moieties paid complainants from fines recovered, - - - 3,161 Justice, constable and witness fees, - - - - - - 1,699 Attorney fees and expenses, - - - - - - - 5,283 Surveying, measuring timber, boat expenses, etc., - - - 2,478 39 86 06 56 55 tele) 03 mom w Ww won A oO $253,796 80 56,207 17 51,123 38 Forward, $361,127 35 68 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. 6a SHELLFISH DEPARTMENT. Brought forward, $361,127 35 Salary and expenses of superintendent of shellfisheries, — - - $1,097 89 Salary and expenses of oyster protector, cashier and clerk, - 6,670 55 Office expenses, rent, etc., - - - = - = - - 2,656 92 10,425 36 MISCELLANEOUS. Commissioners’ salaries and expenses, - . - - : $11,487 81 Assistant secretary and clerks, - - - - - - - 6,949 ©o State reservation St. Lawrence River, - - - - - 4,165 35 Office expenses, printing, stationery, etc., - - - - - 5,041 17 State fair and Pan-American exhibit, - - - - - 241 16 Printing extra copies game law, - - - - - - 225 00 Salmon River fishways, - - - - - - - - 450 00 Wild moose and elk transportation, - - - - - - 153 90 29,504 39 $401,057 I0 ¥Y- Sowalson: IN OCTOBER, IMMIGRANTS AT SEA, The St. bawrence Reservation or International Park. By ARTHUR B. STROUGH. URING the year 1883, and for a great many years previous, nets were used for catching fish in the waters of the St. Lawrence River in the State of New York. It was illegal to take fish in that manner; but no attention was paid to the law, and no officer was there to enforce its provisions. All kinds of fish were taken in this manner, mostly Black Bass and Wall-eyed Pike, as they were by far the most valuable. Sportsmen were continually dragging their baited hooks on the nets, and any one that has ever had such an experience is conscious of the fact that the inclination to use profane language at such a time is almost irresistible. Comparing notes at the end of a day’s outing on the river, a number of sports- men who had poor success in landing fish, and undesirable results in catching nets, resolved, orally, to rid the river of the illegal devices used by lawless fishermen. Raids were planned, steamboats chartered, and guides employed, with the result that hundreds of nets were taken from the water and burned. At the close of the season, after considerable discussion, an organization for continuing the work of clearing the river of illegal fish nets, and for the promotion of such means as would advance the interests and pleasures of tourists among the Thousand Islands, was incorporated under the title of “The Anglers’ Association of the St. Lawrence River.” This Association petitioned the Governor of New York to appoint a game protector at the Thousand Islands, a request which was complied with. Several members of the Association placed their private yachts at the disposal of the pro- tector, whereupon an active, aggressive and effective warfare was made upon the net fishermen, resulting in the destruction of most of the obnoxious nets. As a further result a large number of the men employed in netting adopted other vocations, and the game fishing soon showed signs of improvement. Although the main object of the Association seemed to be accomplished, strong social connections had been formed in the meanwhile, and the other work, the 71 2 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. development of the Thousand Islands as a pleasure resort, was taken up earnestly. Thus the organization was kept intact as a protection to the sporting interests of the Thousand Islands. Some of the members of the Association were Canadians, who were not without influence with the Dominion Government. Originally the Indians owned all the islands of the St. Lawrence River, on both sides of the national line. The State of New York, however, acquired title to all islands south of the national boundary more than a hundred years ago, and this title has passed down through various owners to the present occupants. The timber was cut off for building purposes or fuel prior to 1850, and such of the islands as were large enough and of suitable soil were cleared up for farming purposes. Sometime in the sixties this locality commenced to develop as a summer resort. The attraction that first acted as a magnet to draw people of leisure from their city homes to this place was the fishing with hook and line, popularly known as “angling.” The first visitors made their homes at such hostelries as a rural farming community usually provides, where the fare was of the quality generally found at country hotels. There were two hotels at Clayton and one at Alexandria Bay; but their patronage was a mixed one, made up of commercial travelers, farmers, etc. The sportsmen soon found the climate highly beneficial to health; the water, purified in Nature’s own laboratory, of unexcelled quality and transparency, and, to the user of the contaminated water of the city, a tonic of alterative quality. Thus, from being simply a favorite place for sportsmen, it became a health resort. To accommodate the constantly increasing numbers that flocked there to take advantage of its natural attractions, hotels were erected at conveniently located places until the patronage each summer included many thousands. As usual in such cases, in company with the sportsman and health seeker, finally came the pleasure seeker, and then, of course, larger, more pretentious, and more attractive hotels were erected. Now, there is such a variety of hotels and boarding houses, with various rates, that all classes of society may readily be accom- modated. Following the usual course of development at resorts of this kind, many of the patrons of the hotels that made a vacation at the Thousand Islands an annual matter, soon desired places of abode of a more private character than can usually be obtained at a public house. Many such people, desiring facilities for entertaining friends and guests, each purchased an attractive island or a point of land of a few acres and erected a cottage or villa suitable to the individual needs of the per-' son, in many cases at an expense which would not be possible to any other than the multi-millionaires of these modern times. Not content with providing palatial residences, comfortable and roomy grounds have been made from unsightly areas ; ‘dNVISI AMONS WOU LSVA ODNIMOOT - - ‘ ae < 2 “hae - > » it. : > - a = ‘ Y a + te “ s : - t ‘ Ps ' ; ok S mn , 7 * % * x ~ - . . , * j r ’ - : \ > J ‘ 5 : << a i : z - ¢ \ ‘GNVISI STTAM NO “OLOHd ‘AMALNI OW *O °D THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION. St ios) rocks have been blasted away in places, or artifically arranged in others ; castles and outbuildings have been built and artificial ruins erected, imitating, or at least recalling, the sightly, interesting and historic places in foreign lands. Artists and architects have been called into service, and sometimes it seems as though an attempt was made to outdo all previous efforts in beautifying the surroundings of private cottages. Of course, but a few places have been ornamented with a view to gratifying the eye of the traveling public; but, while building and beautifying for themselves, they have incidentally created a fairyland which cannot be kept from the view of the passing tourist; for the water which flows at the very doors of the private cottages is a public highway, and all that desire may enjoy the outward attractions provided by the fastidious residents for self and guests. While many islands and points of land have been occupied in this manner, and improved for exclusive private use, those not desirous of living apart from others, or not having the means to maintain such elaborate villas, have developed villages, locally called parks, which, in most instances, are laid out symmetrically in avenues or streets, with many of the conveniences of city life —post office, telegraph and telephone service, running water in each cottage, and an efficient sewerage system. At these places may be found a general store, meat market, and the ubiquitous dealer in Indian baskets or souvenirs of local interest. At these parks nearly as much variety of architecture, may be observed as in a city, eliminating, however, the tenements of the laboring class, and, also, the marble residence of the man of means. The population of some of these parks embraces many thousands. Few people remain long at this resort without taking advantage of the excel- lent fishing. No fishing picnic is considered complete without landing at some shady place, where the party indulges in a specially prepared fish dinner cooked by the guide, or “ oarsman”’ as he is locally called. A man is not considered a compe- tent guide unless he can properly prepare an outdoor dinner, including fish which are caught during the forenoon. To prepare such a meal a fire is built, fuel being generally found in some nearby woodland in sufficient quantities for that purpose. Now, one of the results of these outdoor dinners was the littering of the grounds nearby with the refuse of the meal, including in many instances broken glass, entrails of fish, and remnants of vegetables. The owners of the places where land- ings were made sometimes objected to the practice of preparing dinners on their premises, not so much at being annoyed by trespassers as at having their groves endangered by fire and their grounds left in an unsightly condition. In some 74 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. instances notices forbidding such trespassing were posted, and, occasionally, a dinner party was driven off the grounds. The summer population of this vicinity has increased rapidly during the last ten years. The number of parties partaking of outdoor meals as a matter of course increased in proportion; and in solving the question of providing suitable free places for dining, where fires for cooking meals might be lawfully kindled, the Anglers’ Association has taken the initiative. In connection with co-workers in Canada an effort was made to establish small public parks for the free use of all who desired to camp out, or to build a fire in order to enjoy a characteristic out-of-door fish dinner. In this connection it is proper to note that the seasons established by law, dur- ing which game fish might be taken, were not uniform on both sides of the national boundary, which, by the way, divides about equally the islands between the State of New York and the Province of Ontario. A Legislative Commission from New York, in company with members of the Anglers’ Association, some of whom resided in Canada, visited Ottawa and conferred with the Dominion Government in relation to forming an International Park of the Thousand Islands and creating uniform fish and game laws for the same. Nearly all of the islands of the Canadian side at that time were in a state of nature, although many years ago much of the merchantable timber was stolen from the same and rafted down the river to Quebec. The Canadian Government, owing to an ancient agreement with their Indians, did not dispose of the title to their islands, although some of the larger ones were occupied by agriculturists. At some time during the eighties a new arrangement with the Indians was made, under which the Dominion Government proceeded to dispose of the islands. Many were purchased for building sites by persons who have erected or are erecting cottages of ornate design and further embellishing their property with beautiful boat houses and outbuildings. Development of the resort in this manner, however, is not nearly as far advanced as on the New York side of the river. As a result of the mission to Ottawa, the Dominion Government set aside, or withdrew from sale, a number of its desirable islands, and the same are to be always open to the free use of the public for camping, dining, and picnic purposes. Uni- form fish and game laws have not as yet been enacted, but the close seasons for fish and fowl have been brought nearer together than they were formerly. A license fee of $5 was at one time exacted of our people when fishing on the Canadian side of the river; but this obnoxious restriction was suspended as a concession or move- SSANVISI NVIGVNVO— THNNVHO LSOT THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION. 75 ment towards international comity. Carrying out in part the ideas advanced by the mission to Ottawa, the Legislature of New York, in 1896, enacted the following law: CHAPTER 802 OF THE LAWS OF 1896. AN Act for the establishment of a State reservation upon and along the Saint Lawrence river in the State of New York. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: SECTION 1. All that part of the river Saint Lawrence, lying and being within the State of New York, with the islands therein, is hereby constituted an interna- tional park which shall be known as “The State Reservation on the Saint Lawrence.” . Section 2. The said state reservation on the Saint Lawrence shall be under the control and management of the board of fisheries, game and forest, who shall have the power to make and enforce ordinances, by-laws, rules and regulations for the management of the property of the state within the borders of said reservation and for the orderly transaction of business not inconsistent with the laws of the state ; to designate one of the present fish and game protectors as a superintendent, who shall be subject to the order of said board, who shall have the authority of a fish- eries and game protector and of a police constable in criminal cases within the limits of the state reservation. ; Section 3. It shall be the duty of the said board of fisheries, game and forest to report to the next legislature of this state what laws, in their opinion, should be enacted for the government and control of said state reservation, so as to make the same the most useful to the people of the state as a part of an international park upon the Saint Lawrence river, comprising the whole of said river. Section 4. This act shall take effect immediately. Thus an International Park was established, although as regards the American islands it was on paper only. The State of New York did not own a foot of land and could only reciprocate the action of our Canadian friends by purchasing in the usual manner islands or points of land suitable for public purposes. The Fisheries, Game and Forest Commission, in pursuance of the law quoted, visited the St. Law- rence River, and, after making a careful study of the matter, urged “ the propriety of providing small pieces of land at convenient places to be owned by the state and to be kept free for the public use, and to provide boat landings, camping and 76 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. picnic sites.” The Legislature, in 1897, accordingly appropriated $30,000 for the “purchase of islands, points of land on the main shore, or on islands within such reservation” and for “building wharves, piers and necessary buildings on the lands so acquired, and for otherwise maintaining and improving the lands of the state within such reservation.” The succeeding Legislature made an additional appropriation of $10,000 for the same purposes. With these funds there were procured for the Reservation or International Park nine parcels of land, seven of which are in Jefferson County and two in the County of St. Lawrence. Describing briefly these park lands in the order in which they may be found, commencing at the upper end of the group of islands, there will first be noted BURNHAM POINT, about three miles from the village of Cape Vincent on the main shore. This attractive place contains 7.37 acres of land, on which is a pretty grove. It has no docks, but it is connected with the public highway by a road, and the place is much used by the people of Cape Vincent and surrounding country asa picnic ground. The next piece of State land is CEDAR POINT, sometimes called Percy’s Point, having been owned a great many years by a Mr. Percy, from whom it was pur- chased. It contains 13.09 acres and is also located on the main shore about midway between the thriving villages of Clayton and Cape Vincent. A large part of this point is covered with a thrifty grove of trees of various species. The State land includes a lane to the highway. The point had been a favorite place for camping and dining ever since the development of the Thousand Islands as a resort for sportsmen. The river at these two places is more exposed to wind than at most other points; and, as Cedar Point is partly formed by a cove or inlet, easily entered when the winds were high, it was a favorite place for dinner with many parties fish- ing up stream from the hotels at Clayton and below. As the place is easily reached from the highway it is used extensively by residents of the surrounding country and nearby villages for camping, fishing, and general picnic purposes. Proceeding down the river the next State parking is what is now known as CANOE PoINT. The American Canoe Association occupied this place several years in succession as a meeting place, and hence its present name. It is also known as Delany Point. It is situated at the lower end of Grindstone Island. It contains 70 acres, and consists of three points of land locally known as “ Picnic,” “ Squaw,” and “Canoe Points.” Picnic Point is the most popular place for dinner parties. It has been used for that purpose constantly during the fishing season for more than thirty years. Squaw Point is covered by an attractive grove, both that place and Canoe Point providing excellent places for tenting. Canoe Point is well wooded on SRG RRR, A. B. STROUGH, PHOTO. CANOE POINT — PUBLIC PAVILION. » en Ronee A. B. STROUGH, PHOTO, TYPE OF PRIVATE YACHT IN USE BY COTTAGERS ON THE ST. LAWRENCE. ON Se eA iS ye x wt oo wie NY i \ : WATTERSON POTNT— STATE RESERVATION. A TOURIST STEAMER. a a . B. STROUGH, PHOTO, . SPROUGH, PHOTO, “s THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION. Wii the northwest shore. On this part of the reservation is what is known as “ Big Hill,” one of the highest, if not the highest, point in the Thousand Islands. It is cleared of trees at the summit, where the view, east, north and west, is worth going many miles to enjoy. The shore line of this property, including the three points, is at least two miles in length. Next in order is WATTERSON POINT, an attractive, shady, and convenient place for dining and camping, on the north side of Wells Island. It is in close proximity to the most beautiful of the justly celebrated Canadian island scenery. It contains 6.15 acres of land, is the smallest of the reservation lands, and has water on three sides. On this same island, located on the shore of a land-locked sheet of water, known as Lake Waterloo, is DEWOLF PoInT. In this piece of State reservation land there are 10.11 acres of ground. It was purchased for the accommodation cf the fishing parties that leave the large hotels at Alexandria Bay in the morning for a day’s outing at Lake Waterloo. Going down the river to a point nearly due north of, and about two miles distant from, Alexandria Bay, is MARY ISLAND. This attractive place, containing 12.50 acres, is separated from Wells Island by a very narrow strip or passage of water, just large enough to allow the passage of a fishing skiff, as the boats in general use there are called. It is said that at one time, not many years ago, Mary Island was a part of Wells Island. This place is well shaded and has been a favorite resort for Sunday school picnics for a number of years. In its vicinity, on the New York side, are some of the finest of the summer residences or cottages belonging to prominent city people. Next in order proceeding down the river is KRING POINT. It was bought from aman by the name of Kring, who owned it many years, and whose name was con- nected with it, as is customary at the Thousand Islands. It is a part of the main shore and partly surrounds Goose Bay. It contains 34.35 acres of land and is next in size and importance to the reservation which includes Canoe, Squaw and Picnic Points. It has considerable shade, and is used very extensively by boating parties from Alexandria Bay and the numerously populated islands and parks in that locality. It has a long shore line, and frequently during the open season a dozen or more fishing parties may be seen occupying desirable places for dining in the open air. A few miles farther down the river is CEDAR ISLAND, lying in front of Chippewa Bay. The State Reservation here, containing 10.11 acres of land, occupies about one-half of the island. The balance of the island is used for hotel and summer 78 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, cottage purposes. In the immediate vicinity, in and about Chippewa Bay, are many islands, large and small, on a number of which cottages have been erected within the last few vears. The reservation land at this place is well shaded, and isa pepular outing place. The next and last piece of State park land is found at Lotus ISLAND, below Ogdensburg, in one of the famous rapids of the St. Lawrence River. The State owns 20 acres of land here —about one-half of the island. The waters at this part of the river, being constantly in motion, are a favorite place for Black Bass, and they are much sought for here. This reservation is used continually by sportsmen and picnic parties. The island is well shaded, and the part outside the State hold- ing is occupied by cottagers. One building and a steamboat wharf is on the portion purchased for park purposes. In addition to providing these several places for public use, a tasty open pavilion has been erected on each reservation except Lotus Island. On Canoe Point there are two such structures — one on Canoe Point proper, the other on Picnic Point. In these pavilions there are tables and benches for the accommodation of picnic parties who may desire to take their meals there. If a fishing party is caught out in a storm, as is sometimes the case, the pavilions are a great convenience, as the fisher- men can eat and have good shelter while waiting for the storm to subside. At con- venient places stone fireplaces have been constructed, with a specially designed iron top and front on which meals may be cooked expeditiously and without endan- gering the surrounding groves. When fires for preparing meals are built between small heaps of stones a forest fire is sometimes started which does great damage. These fireplaces have proved very popular with guides and campers, and are used very generally during the open season. Sufficient fallen timber or dead wood may usually be found for cooking purposes, although some guides take a supply of fuel with their other materials when starting out for a day’s fishing. Portable tables and benches for seats are also placed near each fireplace. These are in general use, although each guide has a small folding table as a part of his professional outfit. But the folding tables which can be carried in a fishing skiff are very small, and hence they are not used when park tables can be obtained. At each of the park places, excepting Burnham Point, docks of sufficient size with a proper depth of water have been constructed for the use of parties landing from steam yachts. These, also, are a great convenience for steamers to lie at while parties are fishing in the neighborhood. In addition to the yacht docks, small landings of proper size and height have been constructed for the use of parties coming in fishing skiffs. These small docks are also used by guides for landing their CEDAR POINT—STATE RESERVATION. A. B, STROUGH, PHOTO, KRING POINT—STATE RESERVATION. ~ « a Q > 4 fd L > aptiors THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION 79 boats while their parties are at dinner, being much more convenient for that purpose than the rocky shore or gravelly beach. Many small buoys have been placed on shoals in waters navigated by yachts and launches. The constantly increasing population, and the desire for better transportation facilities by cottage owners, have caused the use of steam yachts and launches, with which all parts of the river and bays are navigated. The National Government does not place buoys on any of the shoals that are not near the main routes of travel, and therefore it was thought best to place small buoys on some of the shoals in parts of the river frequented by launches, but which were out of the main steamboat channel. One of the regular game protectors, as required by the law creating the park, was detailed as superintendent, and much of the work of building and maintaining the ‘replaces and buoys is done by him. In a codification of the New York Forest, Fish and Game Law, in 1900, the act creating this Reservation or International Park was repealed and in place thereof, in that part of the codification relating to public parks in charge of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission, was placed a section, as follows: Section 218. Sazut Lawrence Reservation— All that part of the river Saint Lawrence lying and being within the state, with the islands therein, and such lands along the shore thereof as are now owned byor shall hereafter be acquired by the state, is hereby constituted an international park which shall be known as the “ Saint Lawrence reservation.” The elevation of this Thousand Island region at some prehistoric time was much higher than now. It is probable that, instead of being an island and water region, it was a valley or rather a low but rocky depression in the mountain system extending from the present Adirondack plateau to a similar upland wilderness in Canada. The line of ridges even now extends across a comparatively level and fertile stretch of country in the counties of St. Lawrence and Jefferson. The land on each side of this rough territory is of entirely different character from the island and rocky region, as even a casual examination plainly shows. A surprisingly simi- lar formation in the land on the Canadian side of the river adjacent to the Thousand Islands is observable. When this ridge of rocky, mountainous formation was at its maximum height, many thousand years ago perhaps, it was a part of the shore line of Lake Ontario, which then emptied into the ocean by way of the Mohawk and Hudson River Valleys. Interesting evidences of a great prehistoric waterfall are noticeable at Little Falls, in the Mohawk Valley. In the progress of the earth's changes this eastern shore of the then Lake Ontario sank gradually until the waters of that great 80 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. lake commenced to flow over the barrier. Before the present level was reached the . lake had ceased discharging its water by way of the Mohawk Valley, and discharged by way of the St. Lawrence Valley. Thus, it will be observed, this section before flooding was of a character similar to that of the Adirondack region — rocky, ridgy, and of a generally hilly and broken character. When finally flooded, the waters, flowing out and down between hills and ridges, carried with it most of the loose material, and formed what are locally called ‘‘ chan- nels.” Two of these are of sufficient size and depth to permit navigation by vessels of very large size, and form now a part of the water route for freight from Chicago to Montreal and European ports. The passage along the south side of the river is called for convenience the American Channel; the other one, north of the main body of islands, is called the Canadian Channel. The former hills and ridges became islands, and the rocks that were covered by water are our present shoals. At the foot of Lake Ontario, and at the head of the river, is the town of Cape Vincent, in New York, and the city of Kingston, in Canada. Between these two places at the west, and the village of Brockville in Canada at the east, are situated most of the Thousand Islands. At the west end the river is fifteen miles across while at Brockville it is one mile from shore to shore. This body of water is some- times spoken of as the Lake of the Thousand Islands. How many of these islands there may be is a question continually propounded by tourists. Although said to be one thousand in number, some claim to have counted nineteen hundred of them. Now, the exact number of the islands cannot be stated with any degree of accuracy. There are rocks that are mere isolated points projecting above the surface of the water for only a few inches. Technically, these may be called islands. There are other areas of rock and soil only large enough to form a landing place for fishing skiffs. These, also, may be called islands. Many of them are below the surface of the water — weeks at a time— when the river is at its highest; and, on the other hand, the tops of many rocky shoals are out of the water for months when the river is low. Hence, while it is probable that there are not more than a thousand of the islands when the river is high, there may be two thousand of them when the river is low. Anent the rise and fall of the St. Lawrence it is noted that the distance between high and low-water mark is about three and a half feet. An interesting fact in this connection is that the seasons seem to have very little, if any, effect on the height of the water. During flood times of all the streams emptying into Lake Ontario from the north and south, and into the St. Lawrence, that river is as liable to be near its low-water mark as otherwise; and sometimes during protracted local ‘GNVISI LUVH WOU LSAMALNOS DNIMOOT “OLOHd ‘AUALNI DIV ‘0 ‘D ~¢. [o,) = THE ST. LAWRENCE. RESERVATION. droughts the river is near its highest. The water there is usually at its highest stage some time during the months of June and July; and at its lowest, some time during December or January. In some years it seems to vary more than in others ; and it is believed that the flood conditions of the great basin draining into the upper lakes and eventually reaching the St. Lawrence have more effect on the height of water there than local floods and droughts. It has been observed that a gale of wind from the west on Lake Ontario raises the water in the river nearly a foot; while on the other hand a strong northeast wind on the lake lowers the water in the river correspondingly. There is an excellent variety and good supply of fish in these waters. First of all in the estimation of the sportsman is the Small Mouth Black Bass (Wecropterus dolomieu). It is not intended here to offer any dissertation on fish; but it seems proper to mention that many sportsmen consider the Black Bass of the clear, cold running water of the Thousand Islands the gamiest fish of its size that swims. As they spawn during the latter part of May and in June, depending on the tempera- ture of the water, fishing for them is not allowed here until the tenth of June, when, generally, the most of them, or at least the older ones, have spawned. The weather here, as at other places of the same latitude, is two or three weeks earlier in some years than in others, and the temperature of the water is affected materially by that of the atmosphere. If the water reaches the temperature of 65° by the middle of May, Black Bass will be found on or about the gravel beds and shoals, where they make their nests. If the water is not that warm until in June, bass will not spawn until that time. This much is said in relation to this species of fish as it is a question discussed continually by the guides, sportsmen and law makers. The Large Mouth Black Bass (WZicropterus salmotdes Lacép.) also inhabits these waters. They are not often found in the main part of the river, but may be found in shallow bays and grassy bottom tributaries. They grow to greater size than the Small Mouth Black Bass, are a coarser fish, and not considered desirable here. The next fish that we note as being a denizen of this water is the Wall-Eyed Pike or Pike-Perch (S¢zzostedion vitreum Mitch.). This fish is quite as plentiful as the Black Bass, although but few of them are taken. They stay in deep water, thirty. feet or thereabout, and hence, on a lower level than the bass and other game fish. To catch them one must fish in the current where the water is deep, and usually near the head of some shoal or island. As they must be sought for in water below the level of other species, rarely will any fish other than Wall-Eyed Pike be landed. Their habits are much the same as those of the Small Mouth Black Bass, which belongs to a nearly related family. The waters of the Thousand Islands region 6 82 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. have shoal and gravelly bottom for the most part, over which the water is con- tinually in motion, thus forming a natural breeding ground for such fish, and many © believe that the most of the Bass and Wall-Eyed Pike caught in Lake Ontario are bred here. The Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens Mitch.) is found here also. In many localities they are considered valuable game fish, and, in most places, desirable for food. They are so numerous and so easily caught here that most sportsmen consider them of no account. The fishermen usually return them to the water, using language that would not look well in print. The Pike proper (Lucius ductus Linn.) sometimes called Great Northern Pike — locally and erroneously called Pickerel—are here in countless numbers, although many sportsmen do not like to catch them. Still there are but few who are not pleased when they land one of these strong, beautifully marked denizens of this clear cold river. Their spots are peculiarly distinct here, as is the case with most fish grown in transparent running water. Many are taken that weigh from five to ten pounds; and, occasionally, a fifteen pounder is landed. The next fish to be noted is the Mascalonge (Lucius masguinongy Mitch.). They are plentiful here, but not many are caught. The only fish that attains a greater size in this locality is the Sturgeon. The average weight of the latter seems to be about twenty-five pounds. A few years ago one was brought in that weighed fifty-six pounds. During the last four or five years some Mascalonge have been taken that weighed ten to fifteen pounds, and it seems probable that the catching of these smaller ones is due to the extensive plants of fry from the State Hatchery made since 1895. It is only occasionally that Mascalonge are fished for exclusively ; usually if caught at all it is when fishing for Bass or Pike. In addition to the abeve-mentioned game fishes are to be found the following food and coarse fish, viz.: Bullheads, Catfish, Eels, Suckers, Sunfish, Sturgeon, Rock Bass, Alewife, Dogfish, Gar Pike, and some other small species of little value. These fish have increased rapidly since the use of nets was prohibited; and it is a question whether some means for keeping them down will not have to be devised if the angling for game fish is to be maintained to any satisfactory extent. Minnows, such as usually inhabit northern fresh waters, are also found here. The clear, cold running water is peculiarly prolific of live fish food, such as is required by Bass, Pike and Mascalonge. The late Hon. A. N. Cheney, State Fish Culturist, visited the place a few years ago and reported that a surprising amount of fish food was to be found on every hand. It is not entirely the fishing that first made the region famous among sportsmen, “€aSNOH €NID LHOVA GNVTISI GNVSNOHL OLOHd NI SOW *O ‘5D THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION. $2 as many were going there in the fall of each year to hunt ducks. The following kinds are found here, viz.: Redhead, Black, Wood Duck, Black Coot, Whistler, American Widgeon, Broad Bill, Sprig Tail, Sheldrake, Goosander, Hooded Mer- ganser, Shoveler, Bufflehead, Old-Squaw, Mallard, Canvas Back, and Blue and Green Wing Teal. Duck hunting is probably not as good as it was fifty years ago, because the birds were allowed to be taken during the breeding season. A recent law protects them during the spring and summer months, and as a result the number found now is considerably greater. The sportsman will also find in this region Grouse, Woodcock, Plover, Canada Geese, Loons, Gulls, Divers, Curlew, Cranes, Kingfishers, Bittern and Snipe. The St. Lawrence River has been a favorite route of travel for seventy-five years. Long before the building of the railroads through northern New York a large through passenger traffic had grown up between Montreal and Ogdensburg at the east, and Lewiston at the west. Large side-wheel steamers, rivaling in size even the modern steamers of Lake Ontario, were built and they did a lucrative business. Many of them were constructed at Clayton, and the old residents of that town relate with pride various incidents connected with the construction and operation of these large, palatial boats. There were two lines—-one American, the other Canadian. Some of the steamers of the Canadian line are still in service, although new and larger ones have recently been put on the route for the lake and island part of the travel. The steamers of the American line were, some of them, sold to the National Government for transport service during the Civil War, and the others were dismantled upon the building of railroads. Succeeding the American line, in part, came the Northern Transportation Company, operating about thirty steamers between Ogdensburg and Chicago, stopping at Clayton and Alexandria Bay for passengers and wood. They were propellers of convenient size, seaworthy, and made a daily line during the open season, nearly as reliable in the hour of arrival and departure as a railroad service. However, the building of the railroad to Cape Vincent, and later to Ciayton, brings the matter of tourist travel nearer to the times and subject of which we write. At first one small steamer accommodated the tourist travel from the railroad, and nearly all of the arrivals were at Cape Vincent. Some time after the building of the line to Clayton the connection down the river from Cape Vincent was discon- tinued, and now the principal part of the arrivals for the many hotels, parks and cottages are at Clayton, a line of half a dozen steamers being required to meet all the trains at that railroad terminus. Some people find it more convenient to go to the Islands by way of Morristown and Ogdensburg; some go to Charlotte or to Oswego. 84 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. and thence by steamer through Lake Ontario to the Islands, while the Canadians go by steamer from Toronto, Kingston, Gananoque and Brockville. Inquiry is often made as to the best way in which to see the Islands. Some of those who make this inquiry intend staying there but a day or so, being on a tour of perhaps the whole northeastern United States and Canada. It seems as though such a person were living this life altogether too fast; but if the trick of doing this resort in one day seems necessary, one of the specially constructed excursion steamers or observation yachts, which make a regular business of traversing the Islands for sight-seers, may be taken at any of the principal hotels. A fascinat- ing ride of nearly fifty miles through the intricate water passages of both the American and Canadian Islands will unfold to the traveler a very good, but alto- gether too brief, vision of this fairyland. There are three steamers employed almost exclusively on these excursions. If the trip is made in the forenoon it is probable that the route will be up the American and down the Canadian side of the Islands. A trip is usually made in the afternoon in the opposite direction by one of the boats, and every one should make this trip, even if they have no time for anything more. The passages between the Islands will not be the same ones traveled in the morning. In this manner a variety of scenery, a combination of nature and art in buildings and landscape views that rival any scenes of foreign travel, will be unfolded to the eye. In the evening a ride should be taken on some one of the steamers which carry a powerful searchlight and pass through both the principal channels. Nearly all the larger villas and their grounds will be found illuminated in an artistic and unique manner, while the natural beauties of the islands and shores are brought in full view by the expert manipulator of the searchlight. These three sight-seeing rides may be made in one day, and there is no other way of learning so much of the Thousand Islands in so short a time. But all who can should stay longer; for not less than a week should be devoted to this interesting locality. Most people who go there*will want to fish for a few days, or at least enjoy one of the famous out-of-door fish dinners. A side trip to the interesting old city of Kingston, in Canada, should not be missed. The ancient fortifications, the shops and the penitentiary, are points of particular interest. The beauties of the several populous parks can be realized only by going to each. If one is a camera expert some delightful opportunities for views of villas and island scenery, combinations of unique architecture, land and water, are to be had everywhere. One of the most interesting sights of the place is the variety of water craft passing almost continually to and fro. The substantial cottager usually has a pri- SGNWISI AHL AO ANO NO HONACGISAY WAWWAS *OLOHd ‘ANALNIOW *O 'D ‘SSGNVISI GNVSNOHL AHL LV dNVO NI “OLOHd ‘AYALNI OW ‘O 'D THE ST. LAWRENCE RESERVATION, 85 vate steam yacht, these boats varying in size and cost according to the needs or bank account of the islander. While they are not usually of sea-going size, some represent an investment of a hundred thousand dollars. Many of the occupants of the smaller but substantial cottages have naphtha launches fitted out with elegant roomy cabins, and some have sailing yachts. One can see here sailing craft of all sizes, from the famous St. Lawrence fishing skiff, rigged with a sail, to cabined yachts that tour the Great Lakes. Regattas are held each season, in which the rivalry and interest is as keen as among salt water yachtsmen. A few years ago a small type of boat, about twenty-five feet long with two bat-wing sails, carrying a crew of five, called the St. Lawrence racer, developed a speed unequaled by any sail boat of its length on record. Then, again, there are the large freight steamers carrying grain from Chicago to Ogdensburg, great hulks with cargoes that will fill half a dozen freight trains; and, increasing the variety and interest, occasionally is seen an old- fashioned picturesque lake schooner with three masts, fore and aft rigged, or some old-fashioned barges —belated specimens of a rapidly passing style of fresh water architecture. The better class hotels, being conducted for the higher class of tourists and pleasure seekers, provide entertainment of as high order as is found at any summer or winter resort. Fine orchestras are provided, and usually the manager arranges a series of hops or other social functions for the pleasure of his guests. In many instances the occupants of the neighboring cottages are welcomed at such entertainments. There is much social intercourse between the summer residents, with many private and semi-private picnics, or other affairs of local interest occurring in which the yachts and house boats of the cottagers are brought into use. Family friend- ships and alliances are frequently created, which in many instances continue in the city homes of the people. Matrimonial affairs, sometimes of romantic interest, are contracted. The searchlight of a passing excursion steamer many times, almost every night, reveals to the tourist a glimpse of lovers whiling away the evening hours along the shores or swinging in hammocks. A person of literary inclina- tions will find abundant material on which to base fascinating stories of a romantic character. If the tourist is interested in historical matter, much will be found in this locality that will occupy his or her time. It was the early through highway of discovery for the pioneer voyageurs of the French before the English occupation, and having been the national frontier between two nations in three wars, and a favorite location with the Indians, historic places and incidents are many. It is claimed, also, that a 86 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. station on the underground railway of the Abolitionists was located on one of these islands. The air of this region is pure, clear, humid and at all times invigorating, forming one of the attractions and sources of pleasure to the tourist just from the heated, noisome atmosphere of an overcrowded city. As soon as the sun lowers in the west the temperature drops, and be the day ever so hot the evening is cool, the atmosphere tonic. People from inland places who are suffering from insomnia, generally experience little or no trouble in obtaining refreshing sleep with its resultant health and strength. Other matters of interest, of which no mention is made here, will occupy much of the time of the tourist. A week soon passes, and still there are many places to see, many pleasures to enjoy. The visitor who is not pressed for time, but is intent on vest and recreation only, will linger in this charming region, finding with each day some new pleasure and attraction. The traveler leaves it regretting that he cannot make a longer stay, but cherishing the pleasant hope that he may visit it again. ST. LAWRENCE RIVER STEAMER, Chestnat Caltare in the Northeastern a iMnited. States. BY Ar soil haleiING: ONTINENTAL EUROPE, by reason of its long-established civilization, density of population, and development of its natural resources, is able to teach a much needed lesson in conservation to the wasteful young nations, among which the United States is a fair sample. Especially in the development of the various branches of forestry, most of the old world countries have taken marked precedence over us; and everywhere abroad a more complete utilization of all major and minor forest products is found, together with a more careful provision for the future needs of the people, than in this country. Chestnat Caltare Abroad. As it is the chestnut with which we are now concerned we must look to Italy, Spain, and parts of France for our lesson, as there will be found the highest devel- opment of this branch of forestry, or horticulture, whichever it deserves to be called. In Italy the chestnut has long been of great commercial value, ranking in many parts with the grape and olive as a source of revenue, but more often serving as a cheap and nutritious food supply to the poor peasant than as an article of com- merce. Wherever found in the countries bordering the Mediterranean, whether growing naturally or in cultivated orchards, the chestnut is highly prized, both on account of its finely flavored nuts and its valuable wood. In the uses of the chestnut the Italians are connoisseurs, and from them we have much to learn as to the methods used in preparing it for food. Their ability to dry and preserve the nuts so that they retain all of their original flavor and sweetness, without becoming dry and unpalatable, is an unpracticed art with us, but one which necessity will soon compel us to acquire if the nuts continue to grow in popular favor. On the streets of many foreign cities the nuts are sold by street venders the year around, as peanuts are in American cities, while among the com- 87 88 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. mon people the bread made from chestnut flour is a staple article of diet. The nuts, too, are often cooked as a vegetable, made into a soup or prepared as a pudding, and when candied have a ready sale as an article of confectionery. The wood finds ready sale for a variety of purposes, as in this country. The bark yields tannin, the coppice makes first-class vine stakes, while the large tree trunks furnish wood material of various kinds, suitable wherever durability is desired. It is asserted that there are chestnut trees on the slopes of Mt. A&tna which bore fruit when Homer was a boy. The Chestnat in America. Turning to our own country and our own State we find the chestnut occupying relatively a much less important position than abroad, the reason, perhaps, being in the fact that because of the greater diversity of valuable tree species there is less need of giving especial attention to any one. Another reason may be found in the certainty that the chestnut is not yet fully appreciated, nor its many virtues and capabilities fully known. Among the broad-leaved trees it is hard to find its equal. It is a rapid grower on soils of good or medium quality, forms a vigorous coppice (root sprouts), yields a wood which, because of the tannic acid it contains, is very durable in contact with the ground, and is very valuable for fuel, fence-posts, cross- ties, telegraph poles and interior house furnishing, while last, and perhaps most important, it yields a fruit in the form of a very valuable nut. Until quite recently the nut has not been accorded anything like its true value; it has been considered as a luxury rather than as a valuable food product or article of commerce. In clearing away the virgin forest the chestnut, along with the wal- nut and hickory, has sometimes been left in the pasture lots and fence corners for the sake of the wholesome crop of nuts which were sure to result. Trees, too, have been planted near gateways and along roadsides for the sake of both shade and fruit; but anything like the systematic planting of chestnut orchards on a com- mercial scale has not been extensively attempted until within the last decade. The nuts which were produced on the native trees scattered through the pasture lands and along the edge of the wood lots were not generally looked upon by the farmer as possessing any value worthy of his attention. The squirrels and the children were usually the ones most interested, and it was often a question as to whom fell the greater share. The squirrels, with an eye to the future, and a knowl- edge that the chestnut is a valuable article of diet, assiduously stored away large quantities of nuts where they would serve as a granary during the midwinter star- CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 89 vation period. The children, on the other hand, being assured of a winter food supply from other sources, gathered the chestnuts partly for pleasure, and, in part, to obtain pin money. Pleasure and profit were thus well combined, because for a merry band of young people to wander through the autumn woods in search of nuts was a pleasure which cannot be readily appreciated by the dwellers in urban commu- nities. The nuts thus collected, which were not dried and kept as winter compan- ions for the apples and cider, were usually sold to the local storekeepers who forwarded them to city commission merchants, whence they found their way to the city markets. Occasionally when nuts were plentiful, agents traveled through the country districts and bought them in large quantities for shipment to the centers of consumption. Of late there has been an increasing interest in the growing and marketing of both exotic and native nuts, and active steps have been taken to improve existing varieties and introduce new ones. By thus insuring a steady supply of first-class nuts new uses for them have been found, and growers are now reasonably assured of a steady and growing demand for the fruit product of the chestnut tree. The American Chestnat. Castanea dentata, Marsh. The generic name Castanea was probably derived from Kastanea, a city in Pontius, Asia Minor, where the chestnut is a native, or from the town of Castanea in Thessaly where it is believed it was first brought into Europe. Some botanists affirm that the European chestnut is indigenous to the British Isles and the conti- nent of Europe; but most authorities agree that it was introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, thence carried to Italy by the Romans, whence it was dissemi- nated throughout Southern and Western Europe. Its introduction took place so long ago that chestnut trees have been growing apparently wild in Spain, Italy, France, and Great Britain for centuries. The history of the European chestnut has been noted somewhat carefully because it is a question whether the American nut is worthy of a place as a distinct species, or is only a variety of the European. From a purely botanical standpoint there is little difference between the two, yet the pomological variations are so marked that certain authorities give the American nut specific rank on this basis alone. De Can- dolle, Asa Gray, Apgar and Loudon hold to the opinion that the American chestnut is but a variety of the sweet chestnut of Europe. Prof. Sargent and Mr. Sudworth, on the other hand, prefer to dignify our chestnut as a distinct species. The most gO SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, striking characteristics which distinguish the native from foreign chestnuts are found in its taller, straighter trunk, less rounded crown, thinner, smoother and more pendent leaves, and smaller, but, invariably, sweeter nuts. The differences in all cases are slight; hence, in this discussion we shall be as patriotic as possible, and follow the nomenclature of the school which regards our chestnut as a distinct species. The specific name dentata was determined by Mr. Sudworth to be the earliest name identifiable with it, and by this it is generally designated. The Indians of New York State called the chestnut ‘“ O-heh-yah-tah,” which meant prickly bur. Castanea is distinguished by its broad spreading habit when grown in the open; its long, sharp-pointed, coarsely serrate bright green leaves; and its wealth of creamy-tinted, fragrant catkins, which burst into bloom in midsummer and give color to the landscape long after the apple and cherry trees have scattered their petals to the winds, or the red maples have matured their keys and the elms their samaras. The staminate flowers are. borne in the axils of the alternate leaves, on cylin- drical catkins six to eight inches in length, which-appear only after the leaves are nearly grown in June. The male flowers proper appear in 3 to 7 flowered cymes in the axils of minute bracts on the rachis of the pendent ament. The pollen is abundant and fragrant, and is liberated readily, so that wind fertilization is easily effected. The pistillate flowers appear singly or in groups of two or three within a short- stemmed involucre of closely imbricated green bracts, in the axil of a bract borne on the base of the erect pistillate ament. This involucre grows rapidly and eventu- ally develops into the bur which incloses the nuts. At the time of blooming the female (pistillate) flowers, including their burs, are about half an inch long, and are borne on stiff spikes that grow from the axils of the leaves of the newly-formed shoots. Usually only 3-4 flowers at the base of the spike produce fruit. The lower part only of the shoot supporting the immature burs becomes woody, as the portion beyond shrivels and drops off, leaving the burs at maturity as a terminal cluster. Botanically the fruit is a hard prickly cupule (bur) which splits at maturity into four valves. Just what the bur of the chestnut is has puzzled botanists not inconsiderably, and remains yet an undecided question. It is thought to be a whorl of metamor- phosed bracts. The chestnut is strictly monoecious, yet in most individuals the staminate cat- kins mature before the pistillate, thus making cross fertilization a necessity. Why STAMINATE AND PISTILLATE FLOWERS OF THE PARAGON CHESTNUT. * * " oe MS te’ CHESTNUT BURS SPREAD ON THE GROUND TO DRY. CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. gi this provision is necessary in trees which produce perfect flowers of both sexes on one individual is a problem for the evolutionist ; while to the arboriculturist the fact is significant only in that it shows him that his chestnut trees should be grown in groups and not singly in order to secure a full crop of nuts. In growing the various native and exotic varieties many advocate a mixing of varieties as well as of individuals. Few long-lived trees equal, and none surpass, the chestnut in rapidity of growth and ease of propagation under ordinary conditions. In New Jersey* a chestnut tree is recorded which had a diameter of 60 inches at the age of 70 years, and which in one year increased its diameter by t inch. Inthe same State several trees 35 years old ranged from 24 up to 34 inches in diameter, with a height of 40-50 feet. The rate of growth is governed to a great extent by the nature of the soil, the thinner soils being less favorable to rapid tree growth than the deeper red sandstone lands. The above figures are remarkable, for the average growth of the chestnut is probably not over one-half as rapid. A diameter of 8 inches at 20 years and 12 at 30 is what may be reasonably expected as fair. Coppice should give trees of a size suitable for cross-ties and telegraph poles in 25 to 35 years, and large enough for posts in 15 to 20 years. Our native chestnut is broadly distributed throughout the Eastern United States, and is found at varying elevations from sea level in Massachusetts, to 4,500 feet in the mountains of North Carolina. It occurs also on soils of very diversified nature, from almost pure siliceous sand to coarse, gravelly soil or shale, or even on lime- stone; on the latter, however, it is found only when the strata of the underlying rock is tilted. In general the dry rocky land of the glacial drift is preferable to the richer, more compact alluvial soil of low lands. The soil best suited for its growth is a retentive clay containing some sand. The tree does not require a rich soil. In its more definite geographical distribution the chestnut is found from South- ern Maine southward through New England; most abundant in the valley of the Merrimac River south of Concord, and in the Connecticut valley as far north as Windsor, Vt.; common in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and along the coast as far south as Delaware, except where exposed to the direct winds from the sea. In Canada it is common in the Province of Ontario. In the Middle States it is common in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Southern New York and parts of Mary- land, and southward it is found all along the Alleghany Mountains to Alabama, and westward to Michigan, Indiana and Tennessee. The chestnut tree attains its greatest development in Western North Carolina * New Jersey Geological Survey. Report on Forests. 1900. 92 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME CCMMISSION, and Eastern Tennessee, where specimens 13 feet in diameter and 120 feet high have been found. This size, however, is exceptional. The average size at maturity in regions of favorable growth is a height of 60 to 80 feet, with an average diameter of 5 feet, although much larger specimens not infrequently occur. Near the northern limit of its range, which is about 44° latitude in the United States, the tree is decidedly smaller and sprouts less readily from the stump than farther south. During the tertiary period Castanea flourished from Greenland and Alaska, and traces of it are found in the miocene rocks of Oregon and Colorado. In New York the chestnut is plentiful throughout the valley of the upper Hudson, in Saratoga, Warren and Washington Counties, and along the slopes of the foothills belonging to the Catskill uplift. It has not been observed anywhere on the northern Adirondack plateau, and is scattered only sparsely throughout the western portion of the State. In the Adirondack region it is too cold for the chest- nut to mature its annual shoots, but in the western part of the State its sparseness is due rather to unfavorable soil conditions than to climatic variances, the rich alluvial soil of Western New York being little suited to its best development. The tree‘ attains its best development in that part of the State between the Delaware River and the Catskills, along the glacial hills which are a continuation of the Kitta- ’ tinny Mountains and the northern “ Jersey Highlands,” a country famous for its oak and chestnut. This region, although well settled and cleared, is dotted by many large wood lots, and here lie most of the New York “chestnut hillsides,” in which, because of their small value for other purposes, lie the opportunities for the profit- able chestnut culture to be described later. In Saratoga and adjoining counties there also exist splendid possibilities for chestnut orcharding. Within the limits of its range the chestnut occurs either singly or in scattered groups or groves, usually most abundant on the high, gravelly, well-drained land of hillsides and ridges, seldom growing in pure stands, but usually mixed with oaks or other hardwood trees. It has been stated on good authority that the “ chestnut is almost unknown on red shale land;” but in Central Pennsylvania it is certainly found growing well on almost typical red shale soil. Groups of young seedlings are found only in the pasture lands or open forest, where there is plenty of light, since, as the chestnut when young is essentially a light-needing species, it cannot grow in the lower story of a high, dense canopied forest. The mature tree is moderately shade enduring. The chestnut is further handicapped in its struggle with more tolerant species, by its characteristic trait of not unfolding its leaves until most other trees are in full foliage, thus giving the earlier trees something of a monopoly of the available light and space. CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 93 Forest, park, or pasture-grown trees differ widely in general form and habit. The tree of the woods, because of its crowding neighbors, soon loses its lower branches and is stimulated to thrust its crown upwards towards the light, where it remains supported by a long slender trunk, which is the form most desired for tele- graph poles, cross-ties, and the general uses of the lumberman. In fact it is a natural characteristic of the chestnut when grown in mixtures to shed its lower branches quickly, and develop a smooth, straight bole. When grown from stump sprouts several of these tall, tapering trunks are often found with their bases touch- ing or even united, and all the product of one stump. Started in the open and given plenty of room in which to spread itself in all directions, the chestnut devolves from its tall slender habit and forms a tree noted for its short stable trunk and broad spreading crown. Upon a short trunk, 4 to 8 feet in diameter, is often supported a crown from 40 to 60 feet high, with a spread of branches equaling, or often surpassing, the tree in height. Many of these spread- ing pasture trees rank among the most magnificent specimens of arboreal growth which are found in the Eastern States, and to a man who has spent his childhood in the freedom of the country the sight or recollection of these “spreading chestnut trees” will awaken in his mind many happy memories and associations of those blithesome, unappreciated boyhood days of long ago. The exact extent to which the native chestnut has been improved by cultivation and extended beyond its natural range by artificial propagation is rather hard to determine. Certain it is, however, that experiments along this line have not been very comprehensive, nor the results sufficiently encouraging to warrant their con- tinuance. American horticulturists and nurserymen are not slow to follow up a line of work which promises even mediocre returns; hence, the mere fact that our chest- nut has received little attention from them is in itself proof that its cultivation as a shade or nut-bearing tree is not exceedingly profitable. This refers only to the wild native chestnut, and not to the improved or acclimated foreign varieties. In the South nothing has been done further than utilizing for timber the magnifi- cent chestnut trees of the Appalachian Mountains. In the North and West half- hearted attempts, with fair success, have been made to extend its range in the suitable soil of mountains and hillsides just beyond the range of natural growth. When carried too far north the new shoots fail to ripen before they are nipped by the early autumn frosts. On stiff alluvial soils the trees make a fair growth, but are short-lived and fail to produce fruit abundantly. It is thought that the presence of lime or alkali in much of the prairie soil is responsible for the poor growth. On very rich soil the growth is too vigorous and the tree is liable to be unproductive 94 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. and winterkill. More potent than extremes of heat and cold as sources of injury to the chestnut are hot dry winds, and in its susceptibility to them is found, perhaps, the principal reason why it will not thrive on the western plains and prairies. In New York the region of growth can be extended northward towards the St. Lawrence Valley between the western edge of the Adirondack Mountains and Lake Ontario, and westward to the boundary of the State. The region of most favorable growth is from the southern boundaries of Herkimer, Hamilton and Warren counties in the Southern Adirondacks, southward to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. In the southeastern corner of the State the chestnut is decidedly at home and can be grown successfully in almost any part. The western half of the State, because of its lower elevation and less favorable soil, does not offer such a promising field for planting or grafting operations; yet even here the rough hillsides offer opportunities which should not be slighted. The chestnut is reported as growing well under cultivation as far north as Saco, Maine; in Central Vermont; westward to Michigan, where plantations have been made by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad along its right of way; and at several points in Wisconsin. ‘In most of the Central and Southern States attempts to grow the chestnut have proved unsuccessful. Despite the fact that our native chestnut does not possess the qualities which make it pre-eminently desirable from a pomological standpoint, it should not be overlooked that as a forest timber tree, to be grown as such, it takes high rank. The wood for railroad ties is considered almost the equal of white oak, and about five per cent of the ties used are of chestnut, while for fence posts and telegraph poles it has no eastern rival except the white cedar. Its rapid growth and tendency to reproduce by coppice makes it an exceptionally valuable tree for these uses. It reproduces readily from seed as well as coppices. The seeds, immediately after they ripen in the fall, may be planted in the places where the trees are to grow permanently, or they may be layered in damp sand during the winter for nursery planting in the spring. If planted in a nursery the trees should be transplanted at the end of the first year to the permanent plantation. Planted in mixtures with the white pine and red pine the chestnut is a most excellent species to use in reforest- ing the waste lands of Southern New England and New York. To summarize, under the head of the “ American Chestnut” it may be said that on the whole the attempt to improve its quality by cultivation, and its range by planting or transplanting, have proved unprofitable. The nuts produced are too small, and the time required for a tree to come into bearing too long to induce a hustling American to grow it for the nuts alone. Its greatest value for nut culture CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 95 lies in its root sprouts, which furnish most excellent ‘‘ stocks” upon which to graft the most desirable European varieties. As a shade and timber tree, or source of nuts for home or local consumption, it will always hold an esteemed place with the American farmer; but the horticulturist or orchardist who wishes to produce nuts on a large scale must turn to the larger, more rapid growing European and Japanese varieties, or greatly improve the native nuts if success is to be assured. With commendable and characteristic American energy horticulturists long ago began experiments with imported chestnut seedlings and nuts, so that now, at the time when conditions seem ripe for extensive commercial planting of nut-bearing trees, there will be no need in choosing varieties or in growing scions or seedlings, as the nurserymen have the problem well worked out, and can supply the increasing demand for the best Japanese and European chestnut trees which have been pro- duced up to date. The complete history of the introduction of exotic chestnuts in America is a long one, and can only be briefly summarized here. The Earopean Chestnats. It would be neither safe nor advisable to attempt to give the exact date at which seedlings or nuts of the European chestnut, or “ Spanish Chestnut,” as it was popu- larly called, were first planted in American soil. Certain it is, however, that the introduction took place nearly a century ago, and that imported trees have been bearing fruit in this country for over fifty years. It was in the region around Phila- delphia, Pa., Wilmington, Del., and Trenton, N. J., that the first general introduc- tion took place, and from here has occurred the eventual dissemination of the different varieties to other parts of the country. The initial introduction of foreign nuts was not, as would be expected, the work of horticulturists who wished to propagate them for economic purposes, but the result of efforts made by wealthy individuals to secure rare and interesting trees adapted for planting on their new world estates. To the French “ Marrons” is accorded the credit of being among the first to introduce the European chestnut. Irenee Dupont, the founder of the now famous powder mills bearing his name, was a recipient as early as 1802 of chestnut seed and young trees from France. Most of the seed failed to grow, but records show that a few trees became established in his garden, and flourished for years, no doubt serving as a center of distribution for the surrounding country. Although the non-professional tree growers took precedence as to point of time, it was the nurserymen who inaugurated the first systematic work of introducing and 96 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. improving foreign varieties of chestnuts. Most of these men lived and carried on their experiments within a radius of fifty miles of Philadelphia. For some years there was a mania for importing trees and nuts, and each importer expected to find the one tree which would be par excellent for this country; but the failure on the part of most of the imports to withstand the change of climate eventually curbed the interest and checked the importation. The chestnut will not grow true to seed, but often it varies only slightly ; hence, selected nuts of both foreign and native varieties were frequently planted in the hope of securing from the seedlings a nut in which large size and good quality would be combined, and which at the same time would be able to endure the vicissi- tudes of our climate. In most cases the attempts resulted in failure, although ina few instances desirable trees were secured. The same was true with the many imported seedlings. The greater number of the imported trees proved frost-tender, and otherwise unsuited for their new environment. Of the large number planted probably not over one in a hundred has been retained as possessing desirable characteristics. Good quality rather than quantity in the acclimated varieties seems the most difficult to obtain. Trees which bear large sized nuts in abundance are many, but few of them produce a finely flavored nut. The European nuts are usually less bitter and astringent than the Japanese; but neither of them can approach the small native nut in sweetness and delicacy of flavor. The nurserymen have still before them the task of producing by judicious selection and crossing a large nut of fine quality. A large number of European varieties are listed by nurserymen, but the experi- ence of practical growers indicates that only a small proportion of these are worthy of propagation. The best are: PARAGON. Undoubtedly the best variety for general planting produced up to date. The original tree, according to Thomas Meehan, was grown by W. L. Shaffer, of Ger- mantown, Pa., from a nut produced on one of the old Spanish trees growing in a Philadelphia garden. H. M. Engle, of Marietta, Pa., was the first to discover its exceptional value, and by him it was first grown extensively and introduced to the public. It is the variety now exclusively grown by Mr. C. K. Sober, of Lewisburg, Pa., who owns a promising grove of 300 acres near Shamokin, Pa. The nuts are large, three-fourths of an inch in circumference, and somewhat pubescent. One average specimen will cover a silver dollar, while thirty-two selected nuts will weigh one pound. The tree is hardy within the range of the native chestnut, ripening moderately early in Central Pennsylvania about October 1, comes into bearing very “NOSINVdNOD YWOA NMOHS SI NIOD TAMSIN LNAO AAA AHL “NOOVUVd “HAILVN ‘UZIS TVAINLYN—SLOANLISHHD NOOVUVd ET ¢ r - * we rey ) « . t ; ‘ ri , ‘eins 0 ] , CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 97 young, and is exceedingly prolific. Jn fact, the young trees are such heavy bearers that it is almost a drawback to their value, as they will exhaust their vitality and die, or lose their vigor of growth if unrestrained, Paragon grafts take exceedingly well in American stocks, and have been known to grow well when grafted upon red oak sprouts. While not free from insect attacks the Paragon is much less affected by the weevil than are other varieties. A not serious reduction of its many good qualities is the tendency of the burs to remain closed and fall to the ground with the nuts still retained. They open readily, however, if spread in the sun; hence the only detriment is a slightly additional cost in harvesting. It saves, on the other hand, however, the loss and difficulty occasioned by picking the nuts from the grass and debris beneath the trees. For planting in this State the Paragon can be safely recommended above all others. NUMBO. Bur medium; nut large, bright, slightly pubescent and of excellent quality. It is extensively grown, and is deserving of second place in the list of valuable varieties. Its greatest fault is that it is not sufficiently prolific. The original Numbo seedling is a vigorous tree still growing on the nursery grounds of Mr. S. C. Moon, at Morrisville, Pa. At present it is a tree with a diameter of about three feet, and a rounded symmetrical crown with a spread of branches of about 60 feet. The history of the Numbo, as given by Mr. S. C. Moon, is that it is one of the seedlings imported from France or England by his father, Mahlon Moon, about 1850. Of a large number imported, beth at this time and later, this tree turned out to be the best one of the few good ones which were retained. Many scions have been taken from it, and the Numbo is now known and grown in various parts of the Middle States. It is not a Japanese seedling, as many suppose, nor is Numbo a Japanese word; but is rather an abbreviation of the name Magnum Bonum, which the elder Moon first applied to the variety. RIDGELY. Bur medium, nut smaller than Paragon and less pubescent at tip. The skin is astringent, but the flavor of the nut is good. The tree is hardy and a very prolific bearer. The original seedling was sprouted by Irénée Dupont, Wilmington, Del., and sent to Henry M. Ridgely about 1822. Because of its hardiness it is worthy of experimental propagation in New York State. It bears a very large nut, bright in color, and of attractive appearance. It isa very heavy producer and is among the 7 98 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. earliest to ripen. Because of its beauty and earliness it brings a high price in the market, and should be grown in quantities sufficient to supply the early demand. The Japanese Chestnats. The Japanese chestnuts are of more recent introduction than the European; but from the limited experience with them it seems certain that they are a valuable acquisition. The limits of the range to which they are adapted is uncertain; it seems probable that their distribution may comprise the area covered by the American chestnut. Judge Andrew J. Coe carried on experiments some years ago, near Meriden, Conn., which seem to show that Japanese varieties are hardy in this part of New England. In low land where frosts were very severe he grafted several newly imported varieties upon native stocks, and found that they not only made a close union and rapid growth, but were uninjured and bore well after frosts of unusual severity. Compared with the American and European varieties the Japanese chestnut is a smaller tree,—a semi-dwarf, with a compact crown, slender branches and small buds, apparently, though not actually opposite. The leaves are long, narrow, usually pointed, with sharp teeth and a white tomentum underneath. At a short distance the tree is quite peach-like in appearance. The burs are small, thin, with large nuts, free from pubescence; but the meat is covered with a bitter skin, which should be removed before eating. Are very early to ripen. The nuts are of poor flavor when raw, but excellent when cooked. The foliage is comparatively free from the com- mon leaf fungi, making the tree very desirable for ornamental planting. Will proba- bly succeed better south than north. The wood is rather slow growing, but Japanese scions have a close affinity for American stocks, and hence take well when grafted. It has been asserted that because of this affinity they are more desirable for grafting on American stocks than the trees of European derivation. This has been found to be an unjust criticism when comparing the two, because the best European varieties, of which the Paragon and Numbo are fair samples, take readily on American wood. In New York the grafting of Japanese chestnuts on native stocks has been reported as successful in Washington and Yates Counties. In Rockland County both whip grafting and budding have given fair results. The first introductions were the outcome of efforts made by several nurserymen to find and naturalize valuable Japanese seedlings. The climatic conditions of parts of Japan are not widely different from those of the Eastern United States, and as CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 99 other trees and shrubs had been introduced successfully, it was inferred that the chestnut could be added to the list. The first recorded importations were by Mr. L. B. Parsons, of Flushing, N. Y., in 1876. These trees received very little care, but, nevertheless, grew and soon came into bearing. In 1882 the late William Parry, of Parry, N. J., began their importation on a large scale, and has done much toward improving and disseminating the best varieties. Probably no one has done more to arouse interest in chestnut culture and put it on a commercial basis than Mr. Parry. For years he was engaged in importing chestnuts, propagating new varieties and improving the old, and several valuable varieties have originated in his nurseries. Mr. J. T. Lovett, of Little Silver, N. J., also imported trees and nuts extensively in the earlier 80s, and has produced several new varieties. He now prefers European varieties, however, and has at Emilie, Pa., a fine Paragon orchard of about 1,200 trees from four to thirteen years old. The number of Japanese varieties offered by nurserymen is very large, but are much confused as to nomenclature, because of the distribution of seedlings under various good selling names, such as Mammoth, Giant, etc. Those recommended as of tested value are the following: ALPHA. First in importance as well as name. Originated by William Parry, of Parry, N. J. Claimed to be the earliest known variety of chestnut, and especially valuable on this account. Ripens at Parry, N. J., about September 10. Tree an upright, vigorous grower, and very productive. The original tree began to bear when three years old, and has never failed since to produce a full crop. Burs rather small, somewhat flattened; spines thick, short and stiff; nuts large, averaging two or three to the bur. Quality only fair, but it commands a high price in the market because of its early appearance. RELIANCE Another one of Parry’s seedlings. Tree a semi-dwarf, low spreading and droop- ing. Comes into bearing remarkably early. Scions not infrequently mature fruit the first year they are set. This should not be allowed, however, as the early bearing injures the future vitality of the tree and reduces the size of the nuts. Burs medium, with three to five large nuts to the bur. Ripens from September, 20 to October 1, in New Jersey. HALE. Originated from seed imported in 1886 by Luther Burbank. Now grown by J. H. Hale. Tree low, of spreading habit, with narrow pointed leaves of a very 100 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. glossy dark green color. Burs with thin peppery shell, each normally containing three nuts of medium size and rich brown color. Is very prolific, and, from experi- ments of Hon. Andrew J. Coe, in Connecticut, very hardy. PARRY. One of the best productions of the Parry nurseries. It is the original “ Parry’s giant,’ also called “ Japan giant.” Tree large for a Japanese chestnut, open, spreading, very prolific and an early bearer. Burs very large, containing usually one, sometimes three nuts. Nuts largest known, sometimes two inches across; ridged ; bright mahogany color, and of fair quality. If exceptionally large nuts are desired this is the variety to plant. To attempt a close discrimination based on the general qualities of the Japanese and European varieties of chestnuts is rather difficult because both groups have many good qualities, and each, unfortunately, several bad ones. For each, too, can be found men who earnestly advocate the propagation of their favorite group to the exclusion of the other; hence, to favor one is to produce enmity. The difficulty is that few growers have experimented with more than a few varieties of each group, and they are inclined to make sweeping assertions on a limited experience. If the general characteristics of each group, as far as known, be listed and com- pared the balance of favor would give the Japan nuts first place. If, however, the two or three best and most widely grown varieties of each be compared, the imports from the far East are immediately reduced to second place. The experience of practical growers corroborates this view, and men who were once heavy importers of Japanese seedlings are now planting only European trees in their commercial orchards. When the Oriental varieties were first introduced it was thought they would be the money makers in either groves or orchards; but to-day it is hard to find them grown on a large scale. As an ornamental tree the Japanese chestnut is of undoubted value because of its freedom from disfiguring fungi and insects, and its large beautiful nuts. From the purely financial standpoint, however, as well as for horticultural reasons, the more enduring, better flavored European varieties are to be recommended for extensive propagation in New York and the Northern States. It is advisable, never- theless, for all growers to experiment to some extent with varieties of uncertain value, so that they may find the ones best suited to their local conditions. CHESTNUT CULTURE: IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. IOI Systems of Management. Two distinctive methods of chestnut culture are in vogue in the Eastern United States. The one is the method of grafting young native chestnut coppice (sprouts) with the scions of Japanese, European, or native varieties, and depending on the roots of the old stump, and the new roots which are developed, to afford nourish- ment and give the necessary mechanical support. Where the natural stump sprouts are thus grafted the resulting growth is called a “ chestnut grove.” The other method is to grow young plants from seed, graft them in the nursery when two or three years old and the following year set them in orchard rows in cleared or cultivated ground. When nursery seedlings are cultivated in this way they are described as a “ chestnut orchard.” The propagation of chestnuts in groves by the grafting of numerous young sprouts is decidedly the most advisable, both from an economic and purely horticul- tural standpoint, in a country where native trees are at all common. If only a par- tial stand of sprouts can be obtained, they should be encouraged and grafted, and seedlings planted in the blank spaces between, other species of course being cut out. The grafted sprouts by virtue of the old established root system are furnished an abundant supply of nourishment and make a surprisingly rapid growth, often bearing fruit profusely when only three or four years old. One little Paragon graft in Mr. Sober’s grove matured 56 large burs when only two years old. Trees three to five years old bear several pints of nuts annually, while their crop when more than five years old may be counted in quarts. Paragon grafts when ten to twelve years old produce on an average a half a bushel or more of nuts. With a chestnut grove there is, too, less liability of failure in obtaining a full stand of trees, as the loss attendant upon transplanting is eliminated, while the great number of sprouts which spring up in a newly cut-over chestnut forest gives an abundance of stocks upon which to graft the scions. With experienced men there is little loss in the grafting process, and under favorable circumstances ninety per cent of the grafts may be expected to take. By grafting a large number of sprouts per acre there is sure to be left, after deducting for all probable loss, a thick stand, which may be thinned as conditions require, thus keeping the ground continually covered, and production, even at the outset, at its maximum. The newly grafted sprouts which are removed to make room for others furnish a fine supply of new scions, if cut in the late fall or winter. The trees which are ultimately to cover the ground and produce the fruit should 102 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. not be allowed to mature burs while less than five or six years old; but since the original stand is to be thinned eventually, it is possible to mark, at an early date, those intended for, removal, and allow them to fruit while young, thus securing early returns without working permanent injury to the grove. Financially the chestnut grove is to be preferred to the orchard for several reasons. First, the cost of cutting off the old stand and grafting the sprouts does not greatly exceed the expense of producing seedlings and grafting them in the nursery, and, in addition, the chestnut timber removed is usually of considerable value for fuel, poles or railroad ties. Secondly, the ground which produces the sprouts is usually of little value for agricultural purposes, being mostly rough waste land; while in setting a chestnut orchard land is required which would be of con- siderable value for general agricultural purposes. Thus the cost of the first invest- ment is in favor of the chestnut grove rather than the orchard; hence, from the latter it would be necessary to realize a greater income in order to pay interest on the large capital tied up in the more expensive land. Asa third condition there is an appreciable loss in time—and, hence, in revenue—in the chestnut orchard; because seedlings, especially when retarded by an early graft, do not come into bearing nearly as early as do the grafted sprouts. A vigorous stump sprout will be a tree eight to twelve feet in height when five to seven years old, and will produce several quarts of nuts annually. A grafted seedling does not attain this size, nor bear to the same extent until eight to twelve years old. The seedling, however, has the advantage of longer life and less liability of deterioration. With the rough, idle chestnut hillsides and flats of New York, as well as other States, it is a question of raising chestnuts or waiting through a long period of years for the timber to mature. Even then the most desirable timber trees will not grow unless planted,’so great is the power of worthless species to crowd out the more valuable ones. On the fertile soil of the plains or uplands where most of the chest- nut orchards are located, it is a question of raising chestnuts, pears, apples or other common fruit; hence the loss in case the chestnuts fail is much greater. In the latter case chestnut culture becomes merely a branch of horticulture, to be governed by much the same rules as apply to apple and pear orchards. When the sprouts on a worthless old hillside are grafted and made to producea valuable crop of nuts, as well as timber, the work is surely entitled to a place as a branch of forestry, since the essential elements of a tree forest are all present, and are preserved rather than disturbed. In addition it is an important step towards the solution of the great problem of reclaiming the worthless waste lands which at present are a menace to the surrounding forests, and which show a lack of the Yankee ingenuity that has A YOUNG CHESTNUT ‘ GROVE.” TREES SIX YEARS OLD. PARAGONS GRAFTED ON NATIVE SPROUTS, DISTANT VIEW OF ONE OF MR. SOBER’S CHESTNUT GROVES. NERAL VIEW IN THE ‘‘GROVE” OF THE ALBION CHESTNUT COMPANY. THE TREES ARE NINE YEARS OLD, MOSTLY NUMBOS, A CHESTNUT ‘‘ ORCHARD.” CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 103 solved the problem of “ complete utilization” in nearly every branch of commercial activity, except forestry. The chestnut orchard, it is true, often has the advantage of location, accessibility to market, freedom from underbrush, and lessened danger from fire, while as an additional advantage the purely artificial orchard may be started in a region where the chestnut is not indigenous. To the man, however, who is after the largest returns in the shortest time, the chestnut grove, produced by grafting the coppice sprouts in the natural chestnut forest, provides the most. A combination of the two may perhaps be profitably effected under certain conditions. The Chestnet Orchard. Although chestnut orcharding in its extreme form is not considered as profitable as the grove system, yet the method of procedure is here briefly outlined for the benefit of those who wish to grow chestnuts and yet do not have the native sprouts upon which to start their scions. The first step is the starting of the seedlings in the nursery. These may be grown from native or imported nuts, it being immaterial which so long as vigorous seedlings are produced. The seeds (nuts) may be planted in the fall or spring in nursery rows four or five inches apart in the row and covered one to two inches deep. Fall planting is advisable if the nuts can be protected from mice and squirrels. If planting is delayed until spring the nuts should be kept over winter, layered in damp sand. In one year they should have attained a height of six to twelve inches, and in two years stand two to three feet high. The third spring they should be grafted while yet in the nursery rows, and the following spring trans- ferred to the orchard rows. Tongue or whip grafting is the most successful method. Budding, grafting one year olds at the collar, and root grafting as done with apple trees, have all been tried, but with little success. As a variation on the above, the two or three-year-old seedlings are sometimes first transplanted to the orchard rows and then grafted. This, however, results in a loss of time because the trees must be allowed to get their root system firmly established before setting the scions, otherwise they will not have sufficient vitality to withstand the shock of both grafting and transplanting. The trees are usually set thirty feet apart each way; but with the smaller Japanese varieties they may be set as close as twenty feet. In the New Jersey orchards the ground is kept cultivated for some years, during which crops of corn or potatoes are raised between the rows. Mr. R. Williams, of Riverton, N. J., tried the 104 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. experiment of setting native seedlings, four to six feet high, in rows twenty feet apart, cutting back the limbs to the two-year-old growth, and inserting scions of Japanese varieties. The plan is not advisable because it makes the crown too high and heavy to be safely supported by the long slender trunk. No case is known where grafted seedlings have been set in brush land. The first cost would be somewhat greater; but there seems no evident reason why such treat- ment would not be successful. If seedlings will thrive equally well in cultivated or brush land, one of the objections to chestnut orcharding would be removed. The long time element remains, however, an unchanging disadvantage in such management. The Chestnat Grove. Given a mixed stand of coppice chestnut and oak and other hardwoods, to trans- form into a nut-bearing grove of improved exotic varieties. The system applied in the best groves of Pennsylvania and New Jersey is practically as follows: In the late fall or winter all trees and brush are removed from the area under management, care being taken to cut the chestnut near the ground and leave smooth stumps. From these stumps there will spring up during the following sum- mer a vigorous growth of sprouts, usually several around each stump, which in one year reach a height of four to six feet, and a diameter from one-fourth to three- fourths of an inch at two feet from the ground. Experience has shown that sprouts of this size are the best for grafting; hence it follows that the second spring after the timber is cut off grafting operations may begin. Grafting may be commenced when the buds first start; but it is better to wait a little later, until the sap flows freely. May is the best month in which to graft, although it may be commenced as early as the middle of April. The tongue or whip graft is the method which should be exclusively used. Budding, cleft (wedge) grafting, prong grafting, crown grafting and many other methods have been tried, but experience has shown that they are in general impracticable. The cleft or wedge graft can be set in stocks of a size up to several inches, and usually succeeds to the extent of making a union; but it seldom heals smoothly, and usually leaves an opening between the scions which becomes a source of infection and point of structural weakness to the whole tree. With the small spreuts and the whip graft the union is seldom discernible after a few years. The scions should be cut early and kept dormant ina cellar or ice house until the buds on the stocks are well swollen in the spring. It should be remembered SPROUTS BEFORE GRAFTING. THE PLACE WHERE THE SPROUT IS GRASPED BY THE FINGERS SHOWS THE HEIGHT AT WHICH IT SHOULD BE CUT OFF AND THE SCION INSERTED. THE “WHIP” OR “TONGUE ™ GRAFT: i ' . l at a, iit in Se | - a ve ? as i. i GRAFTS FOURTEEN DAYS OLD. SHOWS METHOD OF WRAPPING WITH MUSLIN. CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 105 that the sap of the chestnut does not start as early as that of apples, pears and other succulent fruit, and hence grafting should be done later. The stump sprouts should be cut off and the scions inserted some three to four feet from the ground, so as to keep the heads low. Where there is a circle of sprouts around a stump the ones which start nearest the ground should always be chosen, because they root in more firmly and are less liable to damage by the wind. In a group of sprouts, such as spring from one stump, only one or two are grafted: but the rest are left during the first year as a protection to the young grafts. Where sprouts are plentiful grafts should be put in every 12 to 15 feet or from 200 to 400 per acre, care being taken to leave no open spots or any unnecessary group- ing. As the trees grow and expand the poor and crowded specimens should be removed to make room for the better trees. If small seedlings appear they should also be grafted. Many mistakes have been made in grafting, and as it is a most important phase of chestnut growing, in fact, the basis of success, too much care cannot be given to this part of the work. If well done ninety per cent of the grafts should live. An experienced man should set 250 scions per day, and do it well. In whip or tongue grafting the stock and scion should be of as nearly the same diameter as possible, and the cut on each long and smooth and made with a thin, very sharp knife. Each should then be cut vertically so as to leave a wedge-shaped piece on the face of each cut, so that the tongue of the scion may be forced firmly into the cleft of the stock. The union should be exact, so that the inner side of the bark on each will coincide at least on one side. The joint should be thoroughly waxed, and as a further precaution wrapped tightly with waxed muslin. The muslin holds everything firm, thus hastening the union of the cambium layers. It excludes air from the cracks in the wax caused by the expanding sprout, and gives a mechanical support which prevents breakage of the joint by the wind. The yearly growth of grafts when thus treated is quite remarkabie. When two months old they are often two to three feet in length, while it is recorded that one specimen grew in one year a linear distance of 54 feet, counting the main axis and all the lateral branches. The writer measured one graft which had been inserted 14 days and found it to be ten inches long. The first year’s growth is inclined to assume a fan-shaped form, and not make a well-rounded crown; hence it has been found advantageous to cut back the first year’s growth in the fall so that only a stub three to four inches long, contain- ing two to three buds, remains. The following year these buds will grow into a well-rounded head. An interesting fact is that many of the European chestnuts will grow equally 106 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. well if grafted upon oak sprouts or seedlings. In France and England the chestnut has been grafted upon the English oak (Quercus robus) for years. In this country the U. S. Division of Pomology found by experiments that several varieties of European chestnuts, including the Paragon, Numbo and Ridgely, grow well on our chestnut oak (Quercus prinus). In Central Pennsylvania the Paragon has been seen grafted upon red oak (Quercus rubra) with evident success. This adaptability of the chestnut to thrive on oak stocks materially increases its range and possibilities. It is essential that a good grafting wax be used if success is to be attained. An excellent wax is the following from an original formula by Mr. C. K. Sober, Lewis- burg, Pa.: Resin, 2 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; beef tallow, % pound. The whole to be melted together and worked into a wax upon cooling. Another wax recommended by the U.S. Division of Pomology for nut trees is: Linseed oil or tallow, 1 pound; resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, I pound. Melt all the ingredients together, pour into water to cool, and knead into balls of convenient size. As to species it is hard to say anything definite, because local conditions so greatly affect species and the final results. The Numbo, Paragon and various Japanese varieties take well on American stocks. From the experience of the prac- tical men in the business, and from personal observation, it seems, however, safe to recommend the Paragon as the best for general propagation in chestnut groves. With whichever variety is chosen for the main crop, trees of another variety should be mixed in so that cross-pollinization may be effected, although there is some uncertainty as to whether this is absolutely essential. Harvesting. With the exception of the Paragon the imported chestnuts have burs which open when the nuts are ripe, allowing them to fall to the ground, where they may be col- lected. It may be mentioned here that the frost performs no direct function in ripening the nuts, although there exists a widespread notion to the contrary. The process of ripening is gradual, and is usually finished before frosts occur. The part the frost really plays is in checking the growth of the tree, and thus causing the withdrawal of the sap from the twigs and burs. This reduction in moisture results in a shrinkage in parts of the bur; the outer, thinner, and more exposed portion drys more rapidly than the thicker inner part around and at the base of the nuts. It is this unequal shrinkage which causes the involucre to open. A long rain, fol- lowed by drying weather, is often equally effective in opening the burs. “NIISOW XVM ILLIM HOVE LI TNO OL a M AKC IS SHdVL AHL {dVUM SI NO GNV MOOLS AHI. AO NOLLONAL wn. (2061) ONINdS LSWI GULAVID AANL ‘GOHLAN LSA& AHL ne | 5 “ONILAVUD AO GOHLAW AUAdOUd AHL “‘dOHLAW DNOUM V ‘GTO SUVHA 12 ,, LAVAD dIHM;s, V « LAVYD ADGHM,, AHL CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 107 In the case of the Paragon the burs must be picked from the trees by hand, or, by waiting, they may be gathered from underneath the trees, as the closed burs soon fall. Ripeness is indicated by the yellow color of the bur, and a slight cracking open at the end, disclosing the nut within. The collected burs if spread in the sun a few days will open fully, and liberate the nuts. Care of the Crop. Having secured a crop of nuts the next step is their proper care and disposition. Those sold immediately need no special care, and from present indications prompt sale of a large crop will not be difficult. There is a growing demand for large, sweet chestnuts, especially in the Middle West, and dealers are usually on hand to buy up the crop even before it is harvested. Prices for the best nuts range from five to twelve dollars per bushel. On the streets of Philadelphia, Paragon nuts sell readily at forty cents per quart. If not immediately disposed of the nuts should be subjected to some treatment to prevent their getting hard and being destroyed by weevils. Probably the best treatment is the scalding method. By this plan a quantity of nuts are put ina tub, or other water-tight receptacle, and covered with boiling water. If stirred for a few minutes the wormy, and otherwise defective ones, will come to the surface and may be removed and destroyed. The good nuts in the bottom should be allowed to remain for ten minutes, so that all eggs and larve may be killed, then removed and dried. Nuts thus treated will not get flinty hard when subsequently dried for winter use. Another plan is to put the nuts in cold storage as soon as harvested, removing them only as required for market. Those which are to be planted the following year should be treated with carbon bi-sulphide to destroy all insect life, and then layered in sand during the winter. s Uses. Mention has already been made of the extensive use of chestnuts in many foreign countries, notably France, Spain, Italy, Korea and Japan. In all of these countries the chestnut is considered, not as a luxury, but as a staple article of diet, to be prepared and used as such. It is said that Paris alone consumes twenty million pounds of Marrons (table or desert chestnuts) annually, while the consump- tion of nuts and meal in France as a whole is so great that, despite the enormous production within her own territory, several million dollars worth of nuts are 108 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. imported from Italy and Turkey yearly. Nor is the consumption confined to the peasant classes, who use the flour almost exclusively for bread; but chestnuts roasted, steamed, puréed, as a dressing for meats, and as vegetables, are served extensively on the tables of the rich. In this country the variety of food stuffs is so great, and their production so easy, that necessity has never taught us the value of nuts as food. The great grain fields of the West are looked upon as the one legitimate source of the “ staff of life,” yet the fact remains that chestnut flour makes an equally palatable and a more nutritious bread. The chestnut when raw is not easy to digest; but in cooking the starch grains are broken up, making them readily digestible. Prejudice, coupled with ignorance and lack of appreciation of its good qualities, are the factors which to-day retard the adoption of the chestnut as one of our staple articles of diet. In chemical composition and relative food value, the chestnut differs widely from other nuts, since it contains a large percentage of the carbohydrates, especially starch, and less proteine matter and oils. In this respect it quite closely resembles wheat flour. Since the carbohydrates are the chief source of the energy used in maintaining the vital processes of the body, it follows that the chestnut, by reason of its high percentage of these carbohydrates and the comparatively small amount of nitrogenous matter, is a better balanced and more nutritious food than other nuts, or even many of the cereals. It may be that when the wheat lands become less productive and the margin of profit lower that men will turn to the idle, untilled woodlands of the East and util- ize them for the production of nuts as a substitute for cereals. A change in our bread-making material, if ever made, will come slowly, since public taste and long- established customs are slow to alter, and new introductions are looked upon with distrust. The growing realization that the fine white bread in use at present is lack- ing in nutriment, and is injurious to the digestive organs, and the general crusade against it by physicians and health food advocates, will, however, rapidly turn public attention to new cereals or substitutes for them. An acre of land will grow 35 bushels of wheat in a year if properly cultivated. A like area of chestnut trees will produce many times as many bushels of equally nutritious food yearly for an indefinite period, and require no outlay for cultivation, replanting or fertilization. More than this, the spring frosts, beating rains and sum- mer droughts, which are a constant menace to a wheat crop, work no injury upon the chestnut tree or its fruit. Why then is wheat grown on millions of acres, while we fail to produce even enough chestnuts to supply the now limited demand, and allow Southern Europe to exact large tribute from us annually for the nuts we FROM THIS TREE 300 YOUNG BURS WERE PICKED; 200 WERE LEFT ON THE TREE TO MATURE. A NORMAL YIELD, CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 109 import for consumption in their raw, unwholesome form. With the exception of the occasional Thanksgiving turkey stuffed with chestnut dressing, chestnuts in their many appetizing cooked forms seldom appear on the bill of fare of the Ameri- can people; and yet housewives are constantly complaining of the lack of variety in the foods obtainable. Why not try chestnuts? Mrs. Rorer gives several excellent recipes which any cook can follow or enlarge upon at will. If given a fair trial the chestnut cannot fail to commend itself for general table use, and when once gener- ally introduced new uses for it will be found, and its permanent place among our valuable food products assured. Insects. Enemies in the form of fire, thieves, or wind may be fought and controlled, either wholly or in part; but when we consider the insect pests in their relation to chestnut culture, a more serious problem presents itself. Insects are so subtle in their work- ings, so mysterious in their many forms, and present such vast numbers, that man with his limited powers must stand more or less powerless in the event of their extended ravages. The chestnut as a tree is not seriously injured in either leaves or trunk by any form of boring or defoliating insect; but unfortunately the nuts furnish a breeding place and food supply to a very destructive larva known as the “chestnut weevil.” So great has been the destruction wrought by this weevil in parts of the country, especially in the South, and on the more susceptible varieties, that many growers have ceased the commercial propagation of the nuts because of the annual reduction of profits by the ravages of the weevil. It must be admitted that the tribute of one- half to three-fourths of the crop, which weevils sometimes levy, is decidedly dis- couraging; but these extreme cases are usually the result of unwise choice of species, or an unfavorable location of the grove or orchard. Improved varieties suffer most in or near native chestnut forests. Japanese varieties suffer less than European, and of the latter the Paragon is least affected. Insect pests on apple, peach and other fruit trees have been controlled, and it seems reasonable to suppose that if chestnut culture assumes sufficient proportions, remedial measures will be found for the chestnut weevil. At present the danger of an annual diminution of profits from wormy nuts is the one drawback to extensive culture of improved chestnuts, especially on cut-over chestnut land. The control of this pest is a question of vital interest to growers and entomologists, and upon its proper solution depends, to a great extent, the ultimate success of chestnut culture on waste land. With the Paragon and other I1O SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. varieties which are least susceptible, the margin of profit left after the worms destroy a considerable portion of the crop is sufficiently high to induce many to invest in the business, even when possessed of the certain knowledge of this annual loss. If this damage by weevils can be decreased or made nil, the profits, which even now are high, will of course increase in like proportion. The whole question of damage by weevils is at present something of a lottery at best, since not only orchards and groves but individual trees of the same variety are infested in widely varying degrees, and to a different extent each season. One plantation may be seriously injured during a season, while another a few miles away remains exempt; or one portion may be affected and the remainder left uninjured. The same is true of individual trees, although there are varieties, as the Cooper, which seems a special prey for the weevil at all times and places. The chestnut weevil is of the beetle family of insects, and is one of the several species of curculio which infest nuts. The genus Balaninus, to which it belongs, includes seven species, all of which are nut weevils; but only two, viz., B. carya- trypes and LB. rectus, work serious injury to the chestnut. It is the larval form of the insect which works within the chestnut and renders it unfit for use. The larva or grub is footless, white or cream colored, with a red or yellowish head, and a cylin- drical body about half an inch long. The larve of B. rectus are of smaller size than those of B. caryatrypes. The adults are yellowish in color with rusty lines and spots on the wing covers, and are characterized by their extremely long and slender snout or beak. Their powers of flight are rather limited. Inthe male beetle the beak is about the length of the body; in the female it is twice as long as the bedy. The function of the beak is to pierce the immature burs and nuts and prepare a place for the reception of the eggs. The life history of the insect, briefly stated, is as follows: The winged beetles appear about the time, or soon after, the trees begin to bloom; but egg laying is delayed until the staminate catkins drop, and the young burs are of considerable size. Then with their long beaks the beetles pierce a hole through the thick bur and into the tender nut itself and excavate a tiny cavity, in which the female deposits from one to four eggs. The tiny wound in the nut soon heals over com- pletely, thus effectively protecting the eggs and grubs within. Eggs are often laid in different parts of the same nut; hence we frequently find the mature nuts har- boring several grubs, sometimes as high as fifteen or twenty. As soon as the eggs are laid the winged beetles die, there being only one brood each season. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larve live and work within the growing nuts, reaching maturity about the time, ora little after, of the autumn ripening and falling of the “UWnd AWALVWNI “ATVWGIA AHL SHLVOIGNI MVAL ONOT AHL “aZIS TVANLVN— TATUM LONLSHHD (uemayog sadlgvtims snumong) TATAM LOANLSAHO CHESENUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Mer nuts. The time required by the larve to reach maturity is not fixed, but is gov- erned by the time of ripening of the nut, which acts as host. In different varieties the grubs are always full grown when the nuts mature, even though the varieties ripen many weeks apart. The full grown larve bore out through the shell and enter the ground soon after the nuts fall, where they change into a pupa state, in which condition they remain dormant all winter. In the spring, after another transformation, they emerge in the adult beetle form, thus completing their cycle of existence, and are ready to perform the one function for which they were created, the reproduction of the species. The full control of this weevil pest is as yet an unattained result. As with many other pests of this kind preventive measures, rather than remedial ones, are most effective. The one plan which aims to reduce the injury after it is done, is the scalding method already described under instructions for the care of the crop. This method, if immediately carried into effect upon the maturing of the nuts, makes most of the crop available for market, and kills all insect life in the gathered nuts, thus reducing the number which would prey on next year’s crop, and saving a second resorting of the nuts before marketing. If left a few days without scalding, a basket of nuts often shows twice as many wormy ones as when set away, since many larve mature and leave within that time. The holes in the shells are always made from the inside by emerging larve. Sound nuts never become infested when mixed with wormy ones, because the larvee pass the pupa state and winter in the ground, not in the nuts. The preventive measures which may be practiced are many and are all good, since anything which reduces the number of insects will lessen the injury done during the subsequent year. To keep large flocks of guinea hens, turkeys and game chickens foraging among the trees is an excellent plan, as the number of adult insects and larve they will destroy is enormous. In order to prevent the larve from escaping into the ground the nuts and burs should be gathered the moment they are ripe, and immediately sorted and the defective ones destroyed ; or, if left unsorted, they should be thrown into tight bins or boxes to prevent the escape of the larva. Even the immature burs which fall early should be gathered and burned, and every precaution taken to destroy all existing larve. The Paragon burs which are picked and dried in the sun should be burned as soon as the nuts are extracted. It has been suggested that the curculio be shook from the trees into sheets, as is done with the plum curculio; but this would prove practicable only where the orchard or grove is small. A better method is to plant throughout the plantation varieties, like the Cooper, which are especially sought by the weevil, and destroy all Pr SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. burs which form on them. Whenever possible the orchard should be located some distance from native chestnut woods, or, if a grove. all the trees should be cut off and grafted. Some means should also be taken to trap the winged beetles during the egg-laying period. As far as known no attempts have been made to spray the young burs with a solution which would kill or drive away the adult beetles. It is worthy of experiment. The various treatments just enumerated can be applied most advantageously in the chestnut orchard. The chestnut grove, however, if kept clean and free from underbrush also responds readily to treatments which help to reduce the beetles. The Coppice Forest. To those not sufficiently interested, or not so situated as to make the growing of chestnut trees for their nuts advisable, there still remains a profitable and interesting field of operations in the growing of the native tree for timber or fuel. This work may be loosely conducted or made intensive as desired. Two systems present themselves. The one easiest of control and offering the quickest returns is the “coppice system.” Under this system the forest is cut over clean with a rotation of about thirty years, the time depending on the use to which the timber is to be put. From the stumps thus left a new growth of sprouts spring up which are the basis of the new crop. The cutting should be done in the fall or winter, when the vital functions of the tree are at a low ebb and most of the sap is withdrawn from trunk and limbs. The stumps should be cut low and smooth. The sprouts which result from this system of forest management are very rapid in growth, and will furnish poles, posts ani cross-ties in twenty to thirty years. The forest when once started may be left to itself; but it can be greatly improved by making thinnings and improvement cuttings, while the material thus removed can be utilized for fuel. This involves the removal of defective and crowded trees, and likewise those of other species which are of little value, or are around the more valuable trees. The other system which may be recommended is that of “coppice with standards.” This system is essentially the same as the one just described, except that in addition to the sprouts a number’ of seedling trees are left, or, if needs be, planted. These seedlings are not to be cut when the sprouts mature, but are left through two or three rotations of twenty or thirty years, so that they may attain a size suitable for lumber. The number left per acre may vary from 30 to 50, CHESTNUT CULTURE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Le Sammary. Our native chestnut, although of unsurpassed flavor, is not desirable for general culture because of the small sized nut, irregular and non-prolific bearing, damage by weevils, and long time required to come into fruit. Asa timber tree it is of recog- nized value and responds readily to several systems of forest management. Many varieties of chestnuts have been introduced from Europe and Japan, but of the large number imported but few have been found which are suited to our climate or possess commendable characters. Those retained are a valuable acquisition, and in size, productivity and rapidity of growth, are far superior to our native chestnuts for cultivated plantations. The Paragon, Numbo, and Ridgely of the European, and the Alpha, Reliance, and Parry of the Japanese varieties, are the most valuable. Two general systems of chestnut culture are practiced, designated respectively as the “chestnut orchard” and the “chestnut grove.” The first is composed of grafted seedlings set in orchard rows on cleared, usually improved, land. It offers advantages of location, ease of cultural control, and greater freedom from insect pests; but in general it is too expensive. The other system is an attempt to utilize waste forest land for the production of nuts. By this system a natural forest, in which the native chestnut is the predominant tree, is cut over, and the following year the one-year-old sprouts which spring up from the stumps are grafted to improved varieties. The Paragon stands first in general favor. In this system of culture the whip or tongue method of grafting has proved most successful. Returns from a grafted grove are early and the income large if no detrimental element enters. Insects and fire are the worst enemies, the former being the most injurious and hard- est to control. The American people have not yet learned the full value of chestnuts; but it seems probable that with a larger supply and an improved quality there will come a better appreciation of their food value, and a greater demand. In many European countries the chestnut has long been recognized as a cheap and nutritious food, and as such is extensively used. Chestnut culture in the United States is truly in its infancy as yet; but interest is rapidly being awakened, and in the near future a rapid advancement of the industry may be expected. If followed for pleasure, few branches of arboriculture possess greater fascination or offer a broader field for experimental work. If conducted as a business enterprise for profit only, there is offered a reasonably safe investment with quicker and higher returns than are assured by any system of forest management, while but few branches of horticulture are equally profitable. 8 114 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND’ GAME COMMISSION. In conclusion full credit must be accorded to the several men who aided the writer so materially in his investigations of the latest methods of chestnut culture, and without whose assistance the data and photographs herewith presented could not have been obtained. To Mr. Coleman K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa., and Mr. Sam- uel C. Moon, Mooresville, Pa., especial thanks are due for their hospitality and valu- able information regarding methods of grafting and general care of chestnut groves and orchards. From Prof. Nelson F. Davis, Bucknell University, many timely notes have been received, and by him many of the accompanying illustrations have been obtained and contributed. To nurserymen and horticulturists generally, who ver- bally and by correspondence have contributed to this article, the thanks of both the Commission and the writer are extended. oe nes Eo JESSUP COL., NO. 290. CHESTNUT (CASTANEA VULGARIS). Economic Calae of Birds to the State. By FRANK M. CHAPMAN ASSOCIATE CURATOR OF MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. The Bird and the State. HE bird is the property of the State. From this fundamental conception of the bird’s legal status there can be no logical ground for dissent. If a certain species of bird is conclusively proven to be injurious to the agricul- tural or other interests of the State, no one would deny the State’s right to destroy that species. If, on the contrary, a species is shown to be beneficial, then the State has an equal right to protect it. Indeed, we may go further and say it is not only the right, but the duty of the State to give to its birds the treatment they deserve. Here is the great Commonwealth of New York with agricultural and for- estry industries which annually yield products valued at $266,000,000. In the closest relation to the welfare of these industries stands a group of animals represented by some 350 species and millions of individuals. Obviously, then, it is the first duty of the State to learn definitely in what way or ways the presence of these incalculably abundant creatures affects its crops and forests. If they are harmful how are they to be destroyed? If they are valuable how are they to be preserved? In short, the State should take all necessary steps to appraise its vast possessions in bird-life. The government at Washington realizes the importance of this subject and in 1886 it established, in the Department of Agriculture, a Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, with the object of learning accurately the economic relations of birds and mammals to man. Illinois, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and New Hampshire, among the States, have made investigations with the same end in view. Now the South is awakening to the vital importance of this practical side of natural history research. At the Annual Session of the Texas Farmers’ Congress, held at College Station, Texas, July 17, 1902, Professor H. P. Attwater, a prominent ornithologist in the State, was invited to make an address on “The Relation of Birds to the Farmer.’ In commenting on this address Zhe State, 115 116 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, a newspaper of Meridian, Miss., says: “Bird protection is going to be made an economic issue in every Southern State before many days, and the army of senti- mental advocates will be reinforced by the utilitarians, who, while caring nothing for the beauty of the feathered songster or the music he makes, are very much alive to his usefulness in exterminating insects that kill crops, and are determined to stay the hand of the snarer and wanton bird-killer before it is too late and the insects ee have taken possession of the land. * Wherever common sense prevails this cause will find advocates, and 7he State would like to see Bird Protection made an issue in Mississippi politics.” No “issue,”’ however, can be successfully promoted unless the facts involved rest on the firm, incontrovertible foundation established by exact research. The Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York State, in calling the attention of the citizens of the State to the economic importance of birds, desires to present, there- fore, the results of the investigations of economic ornithologists into the food habits of our birds. But before giving in detail the studies of these specialists it will be well to outline in a general way how birds may be valuable or injurious to man. What the Bird Does for the State. Birds are of value to the State chiefly through the services they render in (1) eating harmful insects, their eggs and larve; (2) in eating the seeds of noxious weeds ; (3) in devouring field mice and other small mammals which injure crops; (4) in acting as scavengers. The appended outline of the bird’s relation to the forester, fruit-grower, farmer, and citizen will enable us to appreciate its economic importance. THE BIRD AND THE FORESTER. The agriculturist, in producing an artificial condition in the plant world, creates also an unnatural state of affairs among the insects that find a new food in the * outcome of his husbandry and among the birds that prey upon these insects. But between birds and forests there exist what may be termed primeval, economic relations. Certain forest trees have their natural insect foes to which they furnish food and shelter; and these insects, in turn, have their zatwral enemies among the birds to which the trees also give a home. Here, then, we have an undisturbed set of economic relations: (1) the tree; (2) the insect which lives in the tree, preys upon it, and may assist in the fertilization of its blossoms; (3) the bird which also finds a home in the tree and, feeding upon insects, prevents their undue increase. Hence, it follows that the existence of each one of these forms of life is dependent ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. Te ly7 upon the existence of the other. Birds are not only essential to the welfare of the tree, but the tree is necessary to the life of the bird. Consequently, there has been established what is termed “a balance of life” wherein there is the most delicate adjustment between the tree, the insect, the bird and the sum total of the condi- tions which go to make up their environment. The more trees, the greater the number of insects, and, hence, an increase not only in food supply for the birds, but an increase in the number of nesting-sites. Destroy the trees and the insect finds new food in the crops of the farmer, but the birds, although food is still abundant, lose their home when the tree falls, and, lacking the nesting-sites and protection from their enemies once found in its spreading branches, they soon perish. What we may call artificial forest conditions are to be found in parks, squares, village streets, and in our gardens. Here forest trees may 4nd a suitable soil, but birds are often less abundant in such localities than in the forest, and consequently the trees growing in them are notably less healthy than forest trees. It is in these semi-domesticated trees that a scourge of injurious insects most often occurs, occa- sionally to be followed by’ a marked increase of their bird enemies, which are attracted by the unusual abundance of food. Such an instance is recorded in Lzrd- Lore for October, 1899, by Caroline G. Soule, who writes: “Last year, at Brandon, Vermont, the tent-caterpillars were so abundant as to be a serious injury and annoyance. They lay in close rows, making wide bands on the tree trunks. They spun down from the upper branches and fell upon the unfortunate passers-by. They crawled through the grass in such numbers that it seemed to move in a mass as one looked down upon it. Under these circumstances, birds might be expected to do strange things — and they did. “The pair of Downy Woodpeckers which lived near us were frequently seen on the ground picking up the crawling tent-caterpillars. They seemed to prefer taking them from the ground to taking them from the trees, though there were more on the tree-trunks than on the ground even. And the Woodpeckers seemed to have no difficulty in moving on the ground, though they moved more slowly than when dodging around a tree. “Two mountain-ash trees on the place, were infested by borers, though only slightly and only near the ground, and at the foot of one of these trees the Downy Woodpeckers made many a stand, while they probed the borer-holes with their bills. “ The Cuckoos came boldly into the village and fed and fed, flying about quite openly. The Nuthatches flew toa band of caterpillars on a tree-trunk, and were so 118 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. busy and absorbed in devouring the crawlers that I could put my hand on them before they started to fly, and then they merely flew to another tree close by, and attacked another mass of caterpillars. “Blackbirds waddled over the grass by the sides of the streets picking up the crawlers, and even a Woodcock spent several hours in the garden and on the lawn, apparently feasting on tent-caterpillars, but I could not get near enough to be sure. | “ The Vireos— White-eyed, Red-eyed and Warbling — the Cat-birds, Cedar-birds, and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks did good service to the trees and human beings, but the most evident destruction was done by the Chipping Sparrows when the moths emerged late in the summer. The moths were very abundant after four o’clock in the afternoon, flying about the trees to lay their eggs,and then the Chippies became fly-catchers for the time, and flew straight, turned, twisted, dodged, and tumbled ‘head over heels and heels over head’ in the air, just as the course of the hunted moth made necessary. A quick snap of the beak, and four brownish wings would float down like snowflakes, and their numbers on the walks, roads and grass showed how many thousands of moths were slain. In spite of the unwonted exercise the Chippies waxed fat, but not as aldermanic as the Robins, which, earlier, gorged themselves on the caterpillars until, as one observer said, ‘their little red fronts actually trailed on the ground.’”’ The extent to which trees are subject to attack and their consequent need of insect destroyers may be more clearly understood if we consider fora moment the life of a tree in connection with the insects that prey upon it. Let us take, for example, the oaks of the genus Quercus.* At the very beginning, before the acorn has germinated, it may be entered by a grub of the nut weevil (Ga/anznus) which destroys it, and the more or less empty shell becomes the abiding place of the larva of the acorn moth. Should, however, the acorn be permitted to grow, the roots of the young tree may be attacked by the white grubs of root-boring beetles. Escap- ing these, the oak carpenter worm (Prionoxystus) lays its eggs in cracks and crevices in the bark. On hatching, the worm or borer “ perforates a hole the size of a half- inch auger, or large enough to admit the little finger, and requiring three or four years for the bark to close together over it. This hole, running inward to the heart . of the tree, and admitting water thereto from every shower that passes, causes a decay in the wood to commence, and the tree never regains its previous soundness.” (Fitch.) Other borers (Buprestide@) feed upon the bark, eating the soft inner layer and * See Packard, Forest Insects, Fifth Report U. S. Entomological Commission. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE, 119g the sap, over twenty species of borers and miners being known to infest the trunk of the oak. The limbs and twigs are affected by the larva of certain beetles (Cer- ambycide) which act as girdlers or pruners, sometimes severing limbs ten feet in length and over an ‘nch in diameter. (Fitch.) The weevils also bore into the twigs, making an excavation in which the eggs are laid, and the seventeen-year locust stings the branches, making perforations from one to two feet long for the receipt of the eggs. The limbs and twigs are also affected by tree hoppers (AZembracide) and oak blights (Aphidide), which puncture them and feed upon their juices, exhausting the sap. Some ten species of scale insects, or plant-lice, are known to infest oaks, and over a hundred different species of gallflies are parasitic upon them. Oak buds are eaten by the larve of certain noctuid moths, and oak leaves are injured by caterpillars, basket worms, skippers, miners, weevils, phylloxeras, galls and plant-lice of nearly one hundred and fifty species. Altogether over 500 species of insects are known to prey upon the oak, and it is consequently obvious that if they were not in turn preyed upon, oak trees could not exist. But, thanks to the services of birds, as well as to predaceous and parasitic insects, the insectivorous foes of the oak are so held in check that, as a rule, their depredations are not attended by serious results. Remove these checks, however, and we: may expect an immediate and disastrous increase in the enemies of the oak which they so successfully combat. Without here attempting to go into detail we may at least mention one or two instances illustrative of the value of birds to trees. Weevils, borers, caterpillars, scale insects and plant-lice are all devoured by birds, but it is in eating the eggs of the enemies of the trees that birds perform a service of inestimable value. Prof. C. M. Weed, of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture, in studying the winter food of the Chickadee, has found that it feeds largely on the eggs of plant-lice. Thus the stomach of a specimen taken December 9, in a mixed growth of pines, maple, willow, and birches, was found to contain 429 eggs of plant-lice, together with insects of several species. The stomach of another Chickadee taken February 26 in a growth of pines and birches, contained 454 eggs of Aphides, an equal percentage (44) of what seemed to be dried castings from the old nests of tent-caterpillars, spiders’ eggs, and eggs of the canker-worm. Additional statistics of the forest haunting birds’ food are given under the proper head, but we should call especial attention here to the great value to trees of our Cuckoos in devouring caterpillars. Over 48 per cent of the food of Cuckoos has been found by Professor Beal, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to con. 120 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. sist of caterpillars, the stomach of a single individual containing the remains of 217 web-worms well known to be one of the most destructive forms of insect life to trees. These are only two illustrations, among the hundreds which might be cited, of the service rendered by the birds to our forest. Birds are of value to the forest, however, not only as the destroyers of their insect foes, but the birds with the squirrels, help plant the forest by distributing seeds. The seeds which are encased in a pulpy covering, those of the berry or fruit- bearing trees, are voided unharmed by the birds often at a point far distant from the parent tree, the bird thus acting as their distributor. Acorns, beech-nuts, and chestnuts are frequently dropped or hidden by birds, and the seeds of pines are released and scattered by the birds that seek them in their cones. In short, we believe it can be clearly demonstrated that if we should lose our birds we should also lose our forests. THE BIRD AND THE FRUIT-GROWER. In considering the relations of birds to the fruit-grower we encounter an artificial set of conditions which renders an attempt to determine the birds’ position exceed- ingly difficult. In growing certain fruits, for example pears and apples,a natural forest environment is closely approximated, the trees furnishing a home for the birds which are not attracted by their fruit but by the insects that prey upon them. With smaller fruits (¢. g., berries), however, exactly the reverse occurs, that is, they furnish food but no shelter for the birds which, during the periods of fruitage, tempted by an abundant food supply, abandon their usual fare and may prove positively harmful. Catbirds and Robins in the cherry trees and strawberry beds, and Orioles in the vineyards undeniably cause considerable loss to the fruit-grower. There are two sides to this question, however, and no species of birds should be condemned for the depredations of one month until we know its value during the remaining eleven. The bird, we repeat, is the property of the State, not of the indi- vidual. The State seeks to secure the greatest good for the greatest number of its citizens, and if it can be shown that a Robin or Catbird, in spite of its fruit-eating proclivities, is, on the whole, far more valuable than harmful, then assuredly he should not be sacrificed. It does not necessarily follow that the fruit-growers’ complaints are to be ignored. Their cause should be thoroughly investigated by qualified experts under the super- vision of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission in order that no hasty or undesir- able measures may be taken. In the spring of 1900 the peach trees of the Hudson Valley were visited by large ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. I21 numbers of birds which destroyed quantities of young peaches. The peach-growers took the law into their own hands and killed these birds by the thousand. Subse- quently, and perhaps as a result, an unsuccessful attempt was made so to amend the Game Law of the State of New York that a fruit-grower might kill any bird which he believed to be injurious to his crops. The birds in this case were Red Crossbills and White-winged Crossbills, which, as a rule, feed exclusively on the seeds of coniferous trees. Owing toa failure in their food supply for the season of 1899-1900 they came south in excepticnal num- bers and were common throughout the winter in places where they are rarely seen. The writer, in twenty years’ experience, has not witnessed such an invasion of these boreal birds, and it is probable that they may not be as numerous again for twenty years more. While, on this occasion, Crossbills undoubtedly did much damage to the peach crop, the facts in the case render it improbable that they may again be destructive to peaches in the present generation. In their own range, under normal conditions, Crossbills are of value to forestry as distributors of the seeds of conifers, and it obviously would be a poor economist who would condemn a species for a few weeks, wrong-doing when its previous record showed it to be uniformly beneficial. The death penalty is an extreme measure to inflict on birds when the verdict is based on evidence from only one side. The planting of early Russian mulberries, which birds are more fond of than strawberries and cherries, is one way of protecting these fruits without harming the birds. Again, nets and various devices, including the discharge of firearms loaded only with powder, may prove as effective as the actual killing of the bird. With pear and apple orchards, as has been said, this question of fruit-eating does not exist, and the service rendered them by birds has been most convincingly demonstrated by Mr. E. H. Forbush, from whose observations, published in the Massachusetts Crop Report for July, 1895, the following extract is taken. Selecting an old, neglected orchard, he made an especial effort to attract certain birds to it with the most interesting results. Mr. Forbush writes: “The orchard itself is a typical old orchard, such as is often found on small farms. It has suffered greatly from neglect.. Two-thirds of the original trees have died or are in the last stages of dissolution. This is largely the result of neglect and improper pruning. Dead limbs and hollows in the trees have offered nesting places for such birds as the Wren, Woodpecker and Bluebird. “For three years, from 1891 to 1893, inclusive, the trees were trimmed and cared for. They were sprayed or banded to protect them from canker worms, and the ‘nests’ of the tent-caterpillar (C/éssocampa americana) were removed. The result 122 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. was a scanty yield of apples from most of the trees. One or two bore quite plentifully. “Tn order to observe the effect of the feeding of birds in the orchard no care was taken in 1894 to protect the trees. During that year the tent-caterpillars were very numerous in the vicinity, and it became evident also that a great increase in the number of canker worms was taking place in the neighborhood. Although these insects made considerable inroads upon the trees, they did not seriously injure the foliage anywhere except in one or two instances. No attempt had been made pre- vious to 1895 to foster or encourage the birds in the neighborhood, except that a few nesting boxes were put up in 1894, which were occupied in one case by a family of Wrens, and in another by the English or House Sparrow. We were careful, how- ever, to destroy the nests of the House Sparrow. “Tn the fall of 1894 it was noticed that immense numbers of the wingless females of the fall canker worm (Axzsopteryx pometaria) were ascending nearly all the trees and depositing their eggs; also, that the eggs of tent-caterpillar moths were numer- ous on the twigs, promjsing a plentiful supply for 1895. “ Traving allowed the insects one year to increase unmolested by man, we began in the winter of 1894-95 to encourage the presence of birds in the orchard. “Tn 1894 a small tree in the center of the orchard had been inclosed by a high board fence. The tree thus inclosed was used as an cut-door experiment station for observations on the breeding and habits of the gypsy moth. During the winter of 1894-95, Mr. C. E. Baily made frequent visits to this tree to ascertain whether or not the birds were destroying the eggs of the gypsy moth. Incidentally, Mr. Baily observed many interesting things in connection with the feeding of birds on the eggs, larvee and pupa of insects which winter on the trees, and I am greatly indebted to him for many interesting notes on the feeding of birds in this orchard. He is a careful, conscientious observer, and is intimately acquainted with most of our native land birds. “Hunters and trappers are aware that many species of winter birds, such as Tit- mice, Woodpeckers, Crows, Jays and Nuthatches, are attracted by a skinned carcass suspended from a limb, and will remain in the vicinity until all the bones are picked clean, or until, with the approach of spring, insect food becomes more accessible. “ Believing from my own observations that the Chickadees (Parus atricapillus) were feeding on the eggs of the fall canker worm, I asked Mr. Baily to attract the birds, if possible, to the orchard, by suspending pieces of meat, bone, suet, from the trees. These food materials are good for birds at times when the trees are covered with snow or ice, and when, lacking such nourishment, they might starve. Although ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 12 ios) birds will frequently visit bait provided for them and in time will eat a considerable portion of the meat, they do not depend entirely on this aliment, but spend the greater portion of their time in searching for eggs and insects in the immediate vicinity. “Finding a plentiful supply of food, the Chickadees remained about the orchard most of the winter, except for a week or two, when the meat gave out, but they were lured back again later by a fresh supply which was placed in the trees. Not only were the Chickadees attracted to the orchard in large numbers, but other birds came also. A pair of Downy Woodpeckers (Dryobates pubescens) and two pairs of Nuthatches (Sztta carolinensis) were frequent visitors, and a few Brown Creepers (Certhia americana) came occasionally. All these paid frequent visits to the meat and suet, and also thoroughly inspected the trees in search of insect food. They made excursions also to the trees in the neighborhood, but the greater portion of their attention was confined to the orchard in which the bait was suspended. As they became more accustomed to Mr. Baily’s presence, they grew quite tame and could be viewed at a distance of a few feet. Indeed the Chickadees frequently alighted on his person and occasionaily took food from his hand. He was thus enabled to determine accurately (without killing them) what they were feeding upon, and was soon convinced that they were destroying the eggs of the canker worm moth in large numbers, as well as the hibernating larve and pupe of other insects injurious to trees.” Investigation showed that this was the case, the stomachs of four birds containing no less than 1,028 canker-worms’ eggs, while one Chickadee had eaten 41 canker-worm moths. As the moths at this season contained, on the average, 185 eggs cach, it is probable that this single bird destroyed over 7,000 canker-worms’ eggs in a day. Details of this interesting experiment are given in the statistical portion of this report, here we may turn at once to Mr. Forbush’s results. In the spring “it soon became evident,” he continues, that the neighboring orchards which had not been under the birds’ care, “would be entirely stripped ‘of their leaves, while the old orchard retained its full foliage. Thus it was seen that the trees to which the Chickadees had been lured during the winter had been so well protected that the summer birds were able to destroy the few remaining larvae, while the trees at a distance from these contained so many larve that the birds were not numerous enough to dispose of them or to make any effective reduction in their numbers. .. . “During the month of May an attempt was made to render the place as attrac- tive to the birds as possible. The undergrowth, which previous to 1894 had been trimmed out, was afterward allowed to grow, and in 1895 several low thickets had 124 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. been formed; the mulberry trees were stimulated by judicious trimming, and bore a considerable crop of early fruit which ripened in advance of the cherries, and served to attract them to the vicinity of the orchard. Ten nesting boxes were put up for the Wrens and Blue-birds; but as the Blue-birds were very rare this season none came to the orchard. Two families of Wrens, however, were reared in the boxes in place of one family last year. Nesting materials —strings, hair and straw —were hung in the trees and scattered about. Several marauding cats were killed, and an attempt was made to keep nest-hunting boys away from the neighborhood as much as possible. Thirty-six nests of birds were discovered in the neighborhood, as follows: “Three red-eyed Vireos, ten Robins, four Baltimore Orioles, three Cuckoos, five Chipping Sparrows, three Least Flycatchers, two Redstarts, two Yellow Warblers, two Chickadees, two House Wrens. “Of these all but three were destroyed, probably by boys, the nests being torn down and the eggs missing. The three which escaped destruction were two wrens’ nests, which had been built in boxes upon buildings, and a robin’s nest in a maple tree within ten feet of a chamber window. This wholesale destruction of nests discouraged several pairs of birds, and they disappeared from the neighborhood. Those remaining built new nests, and after a second or third attempt a few succeeded in rearing young. One nest of Orioles escaped the general destruction, and the birds were busy for a long time carrying canker-worms to their young. One of them was noticed to take eleven canker-worms in its beak at one time and fly with them to the nest. The Vireos, Warblers, Chickadees, Cuckoos, Orioles and Chipping Sparrows were particularly active in catching canker-worms, and the Eng- lish Sparrow killed them in considerable numbers. “Tf the thirty-six pairs of birds whose nests were found had succeeded in raising their young it is probable that they would have disposed of most of the canker- worms in the neighborhood. Five thousand of these larve are sufficient to strip a large apple tree. One hundred and eight would have been reared had each pair of birds raised three. According to Professor Aughey’s experience sixty insects per day as food for each bird, both young and old, would be a very low estimate. Suppose each of these one hundred and eight birds had received its sixty insects per day, there would have been 6,480 caterpillars destroyed daily. The destruction of this number of caterpillars would be enough to save the foliage and fruitage of one apple tree. In thirty days the foliage of thirty apple trees could have been saved, or 194,400 canker-worms destroyed. This does not include what the old birds themselves would have eaten.” ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 125 Mr. Forbush concludes: “At the present time, July 23, 1895, the trees in the orchard appeared to be in good condition. They have not suffered from the slight pruning of their foliage which was effected by the few caterpillars and canker-worms which survived. The fruit is well set and it here remains to be seen whether the birds will have any considerable effect in preventing the ravages of the coddling moth. No other orchard in the neighborhood will produce any fruit this season, with one exception.” Not the least valuable part of Mr. Forbush’s report is his description of the methods employed to make his orchard attractive to birds. We shall return to this later, but such vitally important steps as the leaving of some undergrowth and killing of cats cannot be urged too often. THE BIRD AND THE FARMER. In the growing of field and garden crops, of grains and vegetables, the farmer produces a more artificial state of affairs than that which is occasioned by the fruit- grower, or, at least, the orchardist. The nature of his crops, their frequent tilling, and often early reaping, all combine to make them afford poor nesting-sites, even for such birds as would be likely to select them. To most insectivorous birds, however, areas devoted to farming purposes do not offer suitable nesting places, and it follows, therefore, that where the farmer most needs the services of insect-eating birds there these birds are deprived of surroundings in which they might find shelter and rear their young. ; We shall later see how, to some extent, these conditions may be remedied. In the meantime we may inquire more closely into the relations of the bird and the farmer. Birds are of value on the farm (1) as insect-eaters, (2) as seed-eaters, (3) as mouse or rodent-eaters. Birds are injurious on the farm when they attack the crops, such damage being essentially restricted to corn, rye, and other grains. As in other cases, it is our object to learn what species are beneficial and what injurious, and to determine whether the harm done by certain species at certain seasons is outweighed by the good they do at other seasons. The value of birds as insect-eaters is so obvious it will be unnecessary to dwell here on this phase of their relations to agriculture. One instance, however, may be cited in which birds preserved a crop through the destruction of its insect foes. It came under the observation of so excellent an authority as Prof. F. E. L. Beal, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from whose address before the New Jersey State Horticultural Society I quote as follows: ‘Field observation and stomach examination both show that the Rose-breasted Grosbeak makes the Colorado potato 126 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. beetle the principal part of its food whenever it can be obtained. A case which came under my own observation will show how thoroughly they do their work. A small field of about a fourth of an acre was visited by a pair of Grosbeaks as soon as the potatoes were fairly above the ground. At first the beetles increased faster than the birds could destroy them, but after the young of the birds had hatched the beetles began to diminish, and by the time the young were able to fly the field was clear — not a beetle was to be found.” * This illustrates also the tendency of birds to prey upon some insect which, in becoming unduly abundant, offers them an unusual supply of food. Birds, for example, have been known to gather in great numbers to repel, as it were, an inva- sion of grasshoppers. Quoting again from Professor Beal’s address: “ Ground- feeding birds eat these insects at all times when they can be obtained; but in the month of August, which is the month when they attain their maximum abundance and frequently become a pest, nearly all birds, no matter what their usual food habits may be, come to the ground and eat grasshoppers. Such birds as the Balti- more Oriole, and the Cuckoo, which normally find their food upon the trees, change their habits in August and leave the trees to forage upon the ground. A few years ago, when the western part of the country was devastated by the Rocky Mountain locust, it was found that nearly every species of bird, even the larger Hawks, and Ducks and Geese, fed upon them to a considerable extent.” One of the notable achievements of the economic ornithologist has been to emphasize the value of seed-eating, birds, the Sparrows, Doves, Blackbirds and others. It is a common error to believe that birds are of service to man only as insect-eaters, and that the non-insectivorous species, if not harmful, are, at least, of no particular use. But the fact is that these same insignificant looking Sparrows are the farmers’ best allies in his never-ending warfare against weeds. During the winter weed seeds form practically the entire fare of a number of species of Sparrows; the seeds of amaranth, crab grass, ragweed, and pigeon grass being the kinds devoured most frequently. Dr. S. D. Judd, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who has made a special study of the food habits of seed-eating birds, states that 1,000 pigweed seeds were found in the stomach of a Snowbunting killed at Shrewsbury, Mass., in February, and that 700 seeds of pigeon grass were taken from a single Tree Sparrow; and the investigations of Professor Beal in the State of Iowa show that this species during the period of its presence, from October until April, destroyed eacn year about 875 tons of weed seeds. * Proc. Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting New Jersey State Horticultural Society. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 12 “I Further practical evidence of the seed-eating ability of birds is furnished by Dr. Judd, who writes: “On a farm in Maryland, just outside the District of Columbia, Tree Sparrows, Fox Sparrows, White Throats, Song Sparrows and Juncos, fairly swarmed during December in the briers of the ditches between the cornfields. They came into the open fields to feed upon weed seed, and worked hardest where the smartweed formed a tangle on low ground. Later in the season the place was care- fully examined. In one cornfield near a ditch the smartweed formed a thicket over 3 feet high, and the ground beneath was literally black with seeds. Examination showed that these seeds had been cracked open and the seed removed. In a rectan- gular space of 18 square inches were found 1,130 hayseeds, and only two whole seeds. Even as late as May 13, the birds were still feeding on the seeds of these and other weeds in the fields; in fact, out of a collection of 16 Sparrows 12, mainly Song, Chipping and Field Sparrows, had been eating old weed seed. A search was made for seeds of various weeds, but so thoroughly had the work been done that only half a dozen seeds could be found. The birds had taken practically all the seed that was not covered; in fact, the Song Sparrow and several others scratch up much buried seed.” * To the recent researches of the economic ornithologist we must also turn for exact information concerning the food of Hawks and Owls. No birds have been more maligned and misunderstood than these birds of prey. The misdeeds of two or three species have brought all the members of their family into disrepute. Because one Hawk has been seen to catch a chicken all Hawks are “ Chicken Hawks,” and, consequently, to be killed whenever opportunity offers. Not only is no protection afforded these birds by law, but in some States a bounty has been given for their destruction. Indeed, a law of this nature was passed by the Massa- chusetts Legislature, and the history of the so-called “Scalp Act” in Pennsylvania furnishes a convincing illustration of the direct pecuniary loss which may follow igno- rance of the economical value of birds. Quoting from the report for 1886 by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Chief of the Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture: “On the 23d of June, 1885, the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an act known as the ‘scalp act,’ ostensibly ‘for the benefit of agriculture, which provides a bounty of fifty cents each on hawks, owls, weasels and minks killed within the limits of the State, and a fee of twenty cents to the notary or justice taking the affidavit. “ By virtue of this act about $90,000 has been paid in bounties during the year *Birds as Weed Destroyers. Year Book of U.S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1898, p. 226. 128 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. and a half that has elapsed since the law went into effect. This represents the destruction of at least 128,571 of the above-mentioned animals, most of which were hawks and owls. “ Granting that 5,000 chickens are killed annually in Pennsylvania by hawks and owls, and that they are worth twenty-five cents each (a liberal estimate in view of the fact that a large portion of them are killed when very young), the total loss would be $1,250, and the poultry killed in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence it appears that during the past eighteen months the State of Pennsylvania has expended $90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875. But this estimate by no means represents the actual loss to the farmer and the taxpayer of the State. It is within bounds to say that in the course of a year every hawk and owl destroys at least a thousand mice or their equivalent in insects, and that each mouse or its equivalent so destroyed would cause the farmer a loss of two cents per annum. Therefore, omitting all reference to the enormous increase in the numbers of these noxious animals when nature’s means of holding them in check has been removed, the lowest possible estimate of the value to the farmer of each hawk, owl, and weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 ina year and a half. “Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State in destroying 128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its agricultural interests of at least $3,857,130, or a total loss of $3,947,130 in a year and a half, which is at the rate of $2,631,420 per annum. In other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 for every dollar saved! And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for the slaughter of such a vast number of predaceous birds and mammals is almost certain to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase in the numbers of mice and insects formerly held in check by them, and it will take many years to restore the balance thus blindly destroyed through ignorance of the economic relations of our common birds and mammals.” Detailed results of the analysis of the stomach contents of our Hawks made by the ornithologists of the U. S. Department of Agriculture fully substantiate this claim of the economic value of most of these birds and are given beyond. Owls, because of their nocturnal habits, are even better mousers than Hawks. It is their habit to disgorge, in the form of pellets, the fur and bones of their prey, and in 675 such pellets, from the Barn Owl, taken in one of the towers of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, Dr. A. K. Fisher found the remains of 1,119 meadow or field mice, 4 pine mice, 452 house mice, 134 rats, and several other species of small mammals, together witha few small birds of no especial economic importance. No farmer whose corn in field or granary, whose potatoes and other crops have ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 129 been damaged by the destructive field mice, can fail to realize on reading these figures what a powerful ally he has in Owls. In the face of all these benefits conferred by birds as insect, seed, and mouse- eaters, we perhaps can view more charitably the depredations of the Crows and Blackbirds in our corn and grain fields. The tarrihg of corn proves an effective means of making it unpalatable to Crows, but no such convenient means has been discovered for protecting fields of grain from the ravages of the hordes of Black- birds which are attracted to them by the bountiful supply of choice food they offer, and in this instance man has so far disturbed nature’s balance that the scales have been turned against him, and the bird has become an enemy rather than a friend. THE BIRD AND THE CITIZEN. While, indirectly, the citizen of course shares in the services rendered by birds to our agricultural interests, birds have an additional claim upon his good will. Birds destroy many undesirable insects, mosquitoes, for example, some species of which have recently been found to be so inimical to the health of the human race. Birds further increase the healthfulness of the world by acting as scavengers. It would be difficult to overestimate the value of the Buzzards, Vultures, and other offal-eating birds to the countries in which they live. In most instances the eco- nomic importance of these birds is too obvious to be overlooked, and they are, there- fore, protected by law, and, by what is far more powerful than law, public sentiment. In our Southern States the Turkey Buzzard and Black Vulture, or “ Carrion Crow” have become so numerous and tame as a result of the protection there given them that they walk around the streets of the towns and cities in great numbers, and with no more evidence of fear than is shown by poultry. Every one realizes that a living Buzzard is of infinitely more value than a dead one, and in many years’ experience in the South I have never seen a Buzzard molested. In New York, it is true, we have no Buzzard, but on the waters of our seacoast, harbors, lakes and larger rivers, their place is taken by Gulls of several species, which, in feeding on the forms of aquatic life which, in dying, come to the surface, perform a sanitary service of the first importance. While a discussion of the economic relations of birds might be supposed to con- fine us to a consideration of the material side of their lives, he would indeed be lacking in imaginative power, in ability to appreciate the usefulness of beauty, who did not find in these pre-eminently graceful, musical, attractive creatures a source of pleasure to mankind deserving our serious attention from the physiologic, and hence, economic standpoint. 9 130 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. The pursuit which takes us afield and gives us rest and exercise combined, and increases our resources by broadening our interest in nature, is not merely a pastime, but a recreation benefiting both mind and body, and better preparing us for our duties as citizens of the State. No one would think of asserting that the value of New York’s game animals was to be reckoned in the terms of the bill-of-fare. A few thousand dollars would express their wealth to the butcher or restaurateur, but to the true sportsman they are an exhaustless mine of wealth. A day with dog and gun, rod or rifle may bring small return from a pecuniary point of view, but who can calculate the amount of physical good and pure enjoyment it has afforded ? Game bag and creel may, indeed, be empty, while our mind is full of stimulating experiences, all increasing our eagerness to take to the field again. So the hunter of birds with opera glass and camera finds an even deeper pleas- ure in his excursions into their haunts and study of their ways; a pleasure which no accounting of the value of birds to the State can ignore. What the State Does for the Bird. In view of the economic importance of birds to our agricultural interests it may now well be asked what is the attitude of the State toward creatures whose welfare is so closely connected with that of its citizens? Does it take proper measures to protect them? Does it urge the employment of methods designed to aid in their increase ? It is true that the State formally recognizes the value of its assets in bird-life by the passage of laws intended to give birds legal protection, but no adequate means are provided for their enforcement. Where one person is prevented from killing a bird a thousand commit murder unchecked; nor can this evil be remedied without a material increase in the force of game wardens. The latter, as their official title implies, are appointed chiefly to enforce the laws relating to game while the laws concerning the far more numerous, and economically more valuable, non-game birds are generally dead letters. So-called sportsmen shoot these birds in pure wantonness, pot-hunters slaughter them for market, foreigners kill them for food, milliners’ agents collect them to supply fashion’s demands, boys find them a tempting mark for bean-shooters and air-guns; while birds’ eggs are taken as the legitimate prize of nearly every child who finds a nest. To these unnatural and remediable causes for the destruction of our birds should be added the ravages of the so-called domesticated cat. There are probably not less than two million cats in the State of New York. While many of ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. I31 them are well-fed pets, the larger proportion are to a greater or less extent dependent on their own efforts, often preferably so, for food. A single cat has been known to catch sixty wild birds in a season, and a well-known naturalist and authority on the birds of New England estimates that at least 1,500,000 birds are killed annually by cats in the New England States. It is unnecessary here to dwell on the decrease in bird-life following the clearing of forests, draining of land, accompanying the growth in our population, for this, in a measure, is unavoidable, it being my object only to show that so far as the State assumes an attitude towards the birds, that attitude is one of destruction. What the State Shoald Do for the Bird. It being demonstrated that, in the main, birds are of great value to the State, it follows that the State should spare no effort to afford its citizens of the air the protection they deserve. How, then, may we most effectively prevent the great destruction of bird-life which occurs in this State? The most rational methods would appear to be: (1) Enforcement of the law; (2) licensing of cats and destruc- tion of all non-licensed cats; (3) teaching children to realize the economic and zsthetic value of birds; (4) leaving hedge rows, undergrowth, and clumps of trees as resorts for birds. The laws of the State of New York relating to birds are so well drawn that their enforcement would give our non-game birds complete legal protection from their enemy man. But, as has been said, the present force of game wardens is far too small to afford our birds the protection which is their due. What is needed, however, is not an addition to the number of game wardens, but a new officer who shall be known as a é7rd warden, and whose especial duty shall be to enforce the laws designed to protect non-game birds. Such officer should not only prevent the illegal killing and trapping of birds, but should examine the stock of milliners and others who offer plumage for sale. The growing interest in the study of nature and the establishment of nature study courses in our schools, in connection with the admirable campaign to teach the people the value of birds, inaugurated by the Audubon societies and the American Ornithologists’ Union, has already created a sentiment in favor of bird protection without which the best of laws are practically ineffective. Teachers have been quick to realize that the inherent, universal interest in bird- life can be made of great educational and moral value in the training of children. No force at the State’s command could effectually prevent boys from robbing nests and killing birds. Nor should the boy be prevented by force from giving this wholly 132 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. natural exhibition of traits inherited from savage ancestors. The remedy here is to be applied, not by the State’s bird wardens or police, but by its teachers. A nor- mal, healthy boy should want to hunt birds and their nests, but a very little of the right kind of instruction at this stage of his life will often so broaden his interests that he soon finds living birds more attractive than dead ones. As for the destruction of birds by cats, there can be no doubt that it would be largely decreased by the passage of a law requiring the annual licensing of cats, and authorizing the proper authorities to kill all non-licensed cats. Such a law should be supported not only by the friends of birds, but by the friends of cats as well. By the former because the restriction of the cat population to the well-fed tabby of the fireside would not only greatly reduce the cat population, but would do away with its worst element, the cats who hunt for a living. It should be supported by the latter because its enforcement would put an end to the existence of the many starving felines of our cities whose happiest fate is sudden death. If birds are of value, as we believe them to be, we should not only prevent their decrease, but we should take such measures as seem calculated to assist their increase. We have seen that in destroying our forests we deprive many insectivo- rous birds of their homes, while in clearing hedge rows we often rob seed-eating birds of the protection the undergrowth affords them. With comparatively little trouble we can add greatly to the attractions of our farms and gardens from the birds’ point of view. Clumps of trees left in the fields and rows of trees along the hedge rows will prove paying investments, and wherever it does not seriously inter- fere with the tilling of the land the undergrowth should be spared. During the winter food in small quantities may be used to attract birds, and in the summer water for bathing or drinking is always welcomed by them. Wren and Bluebird and Martin houses should be erected in suitable positions with the hope of securing bird tenants, who will pay a most profitable rental. The Facts in the Case. Thus far the results of the work of economic ornithologists have been alluded to only in a general way. It is now proposed to take up systematically the economically more important of our birds and present the known facts regarding their food-habits. In the first place, however, due mention should be made of the sources whence this information is derived and some description should be given of the manner in which it is obtained. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 133 How A BiIrRD’s VALUE TO MAN Is ASCERTAINED. To learn with scientific exactness the nature of a bird’s food and then to deter- mine whether it is an injurious or beneficial species requires especial training on the part of the investigator. He must not only be an ornithologist but he must also have a knowledge of botany and entomology. Three methods are employed by the economic ornithologist in studying a bird’s food: (1) The bird may be caged in order that its dislikes, likes, and preferences, as well as the quantity of food it will consume in a given time may be ascertained; (2) the bird may be studied in nature, and (3) the contents of a bird’s stomach may be examined. The last- named method yields by far the most definite and satisfactory results and is the one most frequently employed. While the individual student may, unassisted, make the best use of his opportunities to learn the character of a bird’s food, the food habits of a species can be properly determined only through the analysis of a large number of stomachs taken at places throughout its range and representing all the seasons. Our most important investigations into the food habits of birds have, therefore, been made by specialists in the employ of the State who could secure the co-operation of others. Economic ornithologists representing the States of Illinois, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Nebraska have con- tributed largely to our knowledge of the food habits of birds, but for the greater part of our exact knowledge of the economic value of our birds we are indebted to the Biological Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture at Washington. It is from the sources just mentioned then, and especially from the publications of the Biological Survey, that the following facts, based in the main on stomach examinations, are taken: Statistics of Food Habits. WATER BIRDS. As yet practically no systematic study has been made of the food of water birds. It is known, however, that Gulls are of great service as scavengers feeding on aquatic animals which, in dying, come to the surface. The truth of this statement was very forcibly impressed on my mind, when, some years ago, I visited the lower harbor of New York Bay to see the Gulls which were attracted there by the garbage which each day at high tide was deposited on the water by the scows of the Street- cleaning Department of New York City. The number of Gulls present on this occasion was beyond calculation, but certainly exceeded three hundred thousand. Before the scows began to discharge their cargo most of the birds were resting on SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME. COMMISSION. = Oo aS the water, but at the sound of the whistle giving the signal to dump, they arose in clouds and clustered thickly over the wake of each of the eleven scows to feed on the vegetable and animal matter thrown overboard. It was a most impressive object lesson in the economic value of these birds, which, until recently, have been destroyed in enormous numbers for millinery purposes. In our interior States, Franklin’s Gull, the Ring-billed Gull, and Black Tern feed largely on grasshoppers at certain seasons, and it is their habit to follow the plough in search of the grubs it exposes. A common sight in parts of the west, therefore, is a flock of Gulls and Terns hovering thick about the ploughman. “The Snipe, Sandpipers, Plovers, Phalaropes, Curlews, etc.,” Prof. Lawrence Bruner remarks,* “are great destroyers of insects. Moving, as many of them do, in great flocks and spreading out over the meadows, pastures and hillsides, as well as among cultivated fields, they do a large amount of careful police service in arresting culprits among the insects. They even pry them out of burrows and crevices in the earth where these creatures lurk during the daytime, only to come forth after nightfall to destroy vegetation. The large flocks of Eskimo Curlew that formerly passed through Eastern Nebraska did magnificent work during years when the Rocky Mountain locust was with us, as did also the equally large flocks of Golden Plover. The Bartramian Sandpiper [Field or Upland Plover] even now is a great factor each summer in checking the increasing locusts on our prairies.” LAND BIRDS. GROUSE AND QUAIL. Family Galline. Ruffed Grouse: Partridge (Bonasa umbellus)—““ Of six specimens examined two had eaten 24 caterpillars; one, the grub of a beetle, one, 2 grasshoppers, one 7 harvest-men; one, fruit; one, foliage; one, seeds; one, partridge berries; and three, buds. “A young chicken | Partridge], probably not over a week old, had in its stomach 13 caterpillars, the grub of a beetle and 7 harvest-men.” + While Partridges often feed on the buds of trees it does not appear that the habit is an injurious one, a certain amount of pruning being not undesirable. Quail: Bob-White (Codinus virginianus).— “ The Eastern Quail or Bob-White,” writes Dr. Judd,t “ does much good by destroying weed seeds in fields where grain has been cut and a rank growth of weeds has taken its place. Seeds of rib grass, * Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. Proc. Nebraska Ornithologists’ Union, Igo1, p. 21. + King, Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds. Geology of Wisconsin, I, 591. } Birds as Weed Destroyers. Year Book, Dept. of Agriculture. 1898, p. 231. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. W285) tickfoil, and berries of nightshade (Solanum sp.) are sometimes eaten, and pigecn grass and smartweed are frequently consumed in large quantities. The amount of grain found in the few stomachs thus far examined is surprisingly small, while the proportion of weed seed is astonishingly large, in some cases crops and gizzards being literally gorged with hundreds of seeds of ragweed.” Quail also eat potato-beetles and grasshoppers, and in Texas their food in the fall is said to consist “chiefly of various seeds and Mexican boll weevils, which are so disastrous to the Texas cotton fields.” * DOVES. Family Columbide. Mourning Dove: Carolina Dove (Zenaidura macroura).—‘ The Mourning Dove is abundant throughout much of the United States, and is especially common in stubble fields and waste places, grown up to weeds. It is pre-eminently a seed-eater, and although at times turning its attention to grain, it nevertheless consumes an enormous amount of weed seed. The crop of one Dove secured in a rye field in Warner, Tenn., contained 7,500 seeds of Oxalis stricta [Yellow Wood-sorrel].” (Judd.) “Tn the stomach of one kind I counted 4,016 seeds of the pigeon grass and 12 small snails; the latter were probably taken as gravel.” (King.) HAWKS, FALCONS, ETC. Family Falconide. It was because of the widespread misunderstanding of the food habits of our Hawks and Owls, and because of their unusual economic value, that one of the first acts of the Division of Economic Ornithology, now the Biological Survey, of the United States Department of Agriculture was to undertake a careful and elaborate study of the food of Hawks and Owls in order that their status might rest on the sound basis of observed facts. This work was intrusted to Dr. A. K. Fisher, Assistant Ornithologist of the Survey, a naturalist of wide experience, who has won for himself a well-deserved reputation as a most careful and conscientious investigator. After several years passed in accumulating material and in examining the contents of the stomachs of nearly 2,700 Hawks and Owls, Dr. Fisher concluded a volume of 200 pages in which are fully set forth the results of his studies. This volume forms Bulletin No. 3 of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, and it is considered to be one of the most valuable contributions to economic zoology *Schutze. The Summer Birds of Central Texas, p. 2. 136 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. ever made. From it the following statistics in regard to the food of our Hawks and Owls are quoted: Red-Shouldered Hawk: Chicken Hawk (Suteo lineatus).— This and the follow- ing species are the commonest Hawks in the State and the ones to which the names Chicken Hawk and Hen Hawk are generally applied. The loud screaming ée-yer kée-yer of the Red-Shoulder as he sails far above the earth is a familiar sound and usually, though wrongly, associated by the farmer with depredations in the poultry yard. Summary of Contents of 220 Stomachs of the Red-Shouldered Hawk. (from Fisher.) 3 stomachs contained poultry. 12 stomachs contained other birds. 102 stomachs contained mice. 40 stomachs contained other mammals. 20 stomachs contained reptiles. 39 stomachs contained batrachians. g2 stomachs contained insects. 16 stomachs contained spiders. 7 stomachs contained crawfish. stomach contained earth worms. = iS) stomachs contained offal. 3 stomachs contained fish. 14 stomachs were empty. Red-Tailed Hawk: Chicken Hawk (uteo borealis).—This species, of which a figure is given, is decidedly larger than the preceding. Its note is a long squealing whistle. Summary of the Contents of 562 Stomachs of the Red-Tailed Hawk. (From Fisher.) 54 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 51 stomachs contained other birds. 278 stomachs contained mice. 131 stomachs contained other mammals. 47 stomachs contained insects. 8 stomachs contained crawfish. I stomach contained centipede. 13 stomachs contained offal. 37 stomachs contained batrachians or reptiles. 89 stomachs were empty. UPPER FIGURE, RED-TAILED HAWK LOWER FIGURE, COOPER’S HAWK ABOUT 2% NATURAL SIZE. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 13 “NI Broad-winged Hawk (Auteo platypterus).— The name “ Chicken Hawk” is also applied to our Broad- winged Hawk, a somewhat smaller species than the two pre- ceding, but closely related to them; but examination of 65 stomachs of this bird failed to show that one bird of the number had eaten poultry. The Broad-wing’s note is a high, thin, long-drawn, piercing whistle. Summary of the Contents of 65 Stomachs of the Broad-winged Hawk. 2 stomachs 15 stomachs 13 stomachs II stomachs 13 stomachs 30 stomachs 2 stomachs 4 stomachs 7 stomachs (From Fisher.) contained small birds. contained mice. contained other mammals. contained reptiles. contained batrachians. contained insects. contained earth worms. contained crawfish. were empty. Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius)— When we study the food of our so-called Sparrow Hawk, we find it is a truly insectivorous bird as will be seen from the appended table: Summary of the Contents of 320 Stomachs of the Sparrow Hawk. (from Fisher.) I stomach 53 stomachs 89 stomachs 12 stomachs 12 stomachs 215 stomachs 29 stomachs 29 stomachs contained a game bird. contained other birds. contained mice. contained other mammals. contained reptiles or batrachians. contained insects. contained spiders. were empty. Marsh Hawk (Circus hudsonius).— A Hawk frequently observed, because of its habits of hunting in the open, is the Marsh Hawk; he may be known by the white patch at the base of his tail above, which shows conspicuously as he flies. This species is a mouser, as stomachs: appears from the following summary of the contents of 124 138 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. Summary of the Contents of 124 Stomachs of the Marsh Hawk. (From Fisher.) 7 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 34 stomachs contained other birds. 57 stomachs contained mice. 22 stomachs contained other mammals. 7 stomachs contained reptiles. 14 stomachs contained insects. I stomach contained indeterminate matter. 8 stomachs were empty. Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooper’).— This and the following species are the real culprits among the Hawks; for their sins all the members of the family have been made to suffer. Compared with the mouse-eating species of the genus Suxteo they are long, slim birds (see plate), which, as a rule, never scream nor soar, but lurk quietly in ambush as becomes true hunters. Comparison of the appended tables with those giving the food of the so-called Chicken Hawks will readily show how this name has in truth been misapplied. The question is, how are we to distinguish these bird-killing Hawks from those which should be preserved. It is a difficult matter. Probably the only safe way to give justice to whom justice is due is to kill only the Hawks we actually see taking our chickens, and not murder indiscriminately every member of the Hawk family. Summary of the Contents of 133 Stomachs of Cooper's Hawk. (From Fisher.) 34 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 52 stomachs contained other birds. I1 stomachs contained mammals. I stomach contained a frog. 3 stomachs contained lizards. 2 stomachs contained insects. 39 stomachs were empty. Sharp-Shinned Hawk (Acczpiter velox).— This species closely resembles Cooper’s Hawk in color and in habits. It is, however, so much smaller that it cannot prey to much extent on poultry but lives chiefly on small birds. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 139 Summary of the Contents of 159 Stomachs of the Sharp-Shinned Hawk. (From Fisher.) 6 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. gg stomachs contained other birds. 6 stomachs contained mice. 5 stomachs contained insects. 52 stomachs were empty. OWLS. Family Bubonide. Owls, because of their nocturnal habits, prey on small rodents, themselves nocturnal, to an even greater extent than Hawks and are therefore more valuable. We continue our extracts from Dr. Fisher’s work previously mentioned. Barred Owl: Hoot Owl (Syrnium nebulosum).— A common species much oftener heard than seen, its deep-voiced whoo-whoo-whoo, too-whoo, too-whoo-at, resembling the distant “ whistle for crossing” of a locomotive, being a familiar sound to dwellers near woods. Summary of the Contents of rog Stomachs of the Barred Owl. (From Fisher.) 5 stomachs contained poultry or game. 13 stomachs contained other birds. 46 stomachs contained mice. 18 stomachs contained other mammals. 4 stomachs contained frogs. I stomach contained a lizard. 2 stomachs contained fish. 14 stomachs contained insects. 2 stomachs contained spiders. g stomachs contained crawfish. 20 stomachs were empty. Short-Eared Owl (Asvo accipitrinus)— The Short-Eared Owl, a species which lives in our marshes, is a famous destroyer of meadow mice, as may be seen from the appended statement : Summary of the Contents of the Stomachs of tor Short-eared Owls. (From Fisher.) If stomachs contained small birds. 77 stomachs contained mice. 7 stomachs contained other mammals. 7 stomachs contained insects. 14 stomachs were empty. 140 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, Long-Eared Owl (Aszo wi/sonianus).— Even the excellent record of the Short- Eared Owl is excelled by that of the present species. Summary of the Contents of 107 Stomachs of the Long-Eared Owl. (from Fisher.) 1 stomach contained a game bird. 15 stomachs contained other birds. 84 stomachs contained mice. 5 stomachs contained mammals. I stomach contained insects. 15 stomachs were empty. Dr. T. H. Montgomery, Jr.’s study of the food habits of four individuals of this species, which roosted in an arbor vite tree growing at his home near Philadelphia,* showed that the food of each individual averaged nearly two mice per day. Screech Owl (JZegascops asio)— It has been shown that among our Hawks some species feed so largely upon insects as to be classed among the insectivorous birds, and so among our Owls we find that certain species subsist to a great extent upon insects. This will be evident on examination of the following summary of the food of our little Screech Owl: Summary of the Contents of 255 Stomachs of the Screech Owl. (From Fisher.) I stomach contained poultry. 38 stomachs contained other birds. gi stomachs contained mice. 11 stomachs contained other mammals. stomachs contained lizards. to 4 stomachs contained batrachians. I stomach contained fish. 100 stomachs contained insects. 5 stomachs contained spiders. 9 stomachs contained crawfish. 7 stomachs contained miscellaneous matter. 2 stomachs contained scorpions. 2 stomachs contained earth worms. 43 stomachs were empty. * The American Naturalist, 1899, p. 563. SCREECH OWL OF PLUMAGE PHASE LOWER FIGURE, RUFOUS FIGURE, GRAY PHASE, UPPER ABOUT 3@ NATURAL SIZE. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 141] Great Horned Owl (ubo virgintanus)— While this large Owl feeds on both poultry and game birds it also preys upon mammals, some of which may be injurious. As a rule, however, the bird is so uncommon near civilization, and so quickly disappears with the fall of the forests that its relations to man are at the best indirect. Summary of the Contents of.127 Stomachs of the Great Horned Owl. (From Fisher.) 31 stomachs contained poultry or game birds. 8 stomachs contained other birds. 13 stomachs contained mice. 65 stomachs contained other mammals. I stomach contained a scorpion. 10 stomachs contained insects. 17 stomachs were empty. CUCKOOS. Family Cuculide. Cuckoos, of which we have two species, the Yellow-billed and Black-billed, are great destroyers of caterpillars. In Farmers’ Bulletin No. 54 of the United States Department of Agriculture, Professor Beal writes of them as follows: “An examination of thirty-seven stomachs has shown that these Cuckoos are much given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those covered with hair. In fact, Cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there, so that when the stomach is opened and turned inside out, it appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur.” Black-Billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus)—“ An examination of the stomachs of sixteen Black-billed Cuckoos, taken during the summer months, showed the remains of 328 caterpillars, eleven beetles, fifteen grasshoppers, sixty-three sawflies, three stink bugs, and four spiders. In all probability more individuals than these were represented, but their remains were too badly broken for recognition, Most of the caterpillars were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree. One stomach was filled with larve of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other larve were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a special fondness. The beetles were for the most part click beetles and weevils, with a few May beetles, and some others. The sawflies were all found in two stomachs, one of which contained no less than sixty in the larval stage.” (Beal.) 142 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, Yellow-Billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus).—‘ Of the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, twenty-one stomachs (collected from May to October, inclusive) were examined. The contents consisted of 355 caterpillars, eighteen beetles, twenty-three grass- hoppers, thirty-one sawflies, fourteen bugs, six flies, and twelve spiders. As in the case of the Black-Billed Cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belong to hairy species, and many of them were of large size. One stomach contained twelve Americar. tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. The beetles were distributed among several families, but all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were two Colorado potato beetles; in another were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several other large beetles; besides ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and three crickets. The sawflies were in the larval stage, in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists, and, perhaps, this likeness may be the reason the Cuckoos eat them so freely. The bugs consisted of stink bugs and cicadas or dogday harvest flies, with the single exception of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten, unless the spiders be counted as such.” (Beal.) KINGFISHER. Family Alcedinide. Kingfisher (Cery/e alcyon)— Our one species of this family is rated destructive by fishculturists and is denied legal protection. We must remember, however, that value of birds to man which cannot be expressed in dollars and cents. The King- fisher is far too interesting and characteristic a feature of our ponds, lakes and waterways to be exterminated. Admitting that certain individuals of the species are injurious, it does not follow that the whole race should be condemned. WOODPECKERS. Family Picide. “Farmers are prone to look upon Woodpeckers with suspicion. When the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark, and fresh holes are found in the tree, it is concluded that they are doing harm. Careful observers, however, have noticed that, excepting a single species, these birds rarely leave any important mark on a healthy tree, but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring larve, and insects they are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured. In case the holes from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied and enlarged by colonies of ants, these ants in turn are drawn out and eaten.” (Beal.) Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens)— This our smallest and most 4 Yyury; Clg siz Gi cvlés j OU OFF UPPER FIGURE, BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO LOWER FIGURE, YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER ABOUT 34 NATURAL SIZE 5 ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 143 common Woodpecker, is also the most beneficial. Professor Beal* states that 75 per cent of its food consists of insects, including ants, beetles, bugs, flies, caterpillars, and grasshoppers. King found in the stomachs of this species wood-boring grubs, larvae, caterpillars, ants, beetles, and other insects. The species also feeds to a small extent on wild fruits. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus)— This, species resembles the preceding in color, but is longer. According to Beal 68 per cent of its food is animal matter 21 per cent of the whole food being caterpillars. The same writer states that F. M. Webster saw this species peck a hole in the cocoon of a cecropia moth and devour its contents; only 2 out ef 20 cocoons examined being uninjured. King found 11 larvae of wood-boring beetles and 12 geometers in the stomach of one Hairy Woodpecker; another contained 13 larve of long-horned beetles and 4 cockroach oodtheca. Flicker : Clape: High-hole: Golden-Winged Woodpecker (Colaptes auratus).— In some States this Woodpecker is ranked as a game bird and its killing is permitted at certain seasons. Study of the bird’s food, however, shows that it should at all times be protected. While feeding on wild fruits, the bird’s chief economic value is derived from its destruction of ants which, Professor Beal states, constitute 43 per cent of its whole food. In each of two stomachs of the Flicker examined by this investigator were found over 3,000 ants; Bruner states that the stomach of a Flicker killed near Lincoln, Nebraska, contained nearly 1,000 Chinch bugs. Pileated Woodpecker : Logcock (Ceophlwus pileatus).— This fine large species is now confined to the most heavily forested portions of the State. The trunk of a white pine, fallen but as yet externally sound, which I examined in Vermont, showed twelve cavities made by this bird in its search for wood-boring larve. The largest was twelve inches long, four inches wide, and eight inches deep. The heart of the tree proved to be riddled by the passages of the borers which the Woodpecker, when alighting on the tree, had doubtless heard at work. While most of the wood-borers eaten by this species are obtained from dead trees, the borers begin their work in living trees and any agent which tends to hold them in check is therefore of value to our forests. Red-Headed Woodpecker (MWelanerpes erythrocephalus)—‘ The Red-Headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) is well known east of the Rocky Mountains, but is rather rare in New England. Unlike some other species, it pre. * Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers. Bull. No. 7, Biological Survey, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 144 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. fers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a foraging ground. Its food, there- fore, naturally differs from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult beetles and wasps which it frequently captures on the wing, after the fashion of flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of the food. The Red- head has a peculiar habit of selecting very large beetles, as shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest species in the stomachs. Among the beetles were quite a number of predaceous ground beetles, and unfortunately some tiger beetles, which are useful insects. The Redhead has been accused of robbing the nests of other birds; also of attacking young birds and poultry and pecking out their brains, but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional.” Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius)—It is this species which is responsible for the numerous rows of holes so commonly seen in the trunks of apple and other trees. They are made to supply the bird with sap and when numerous may result in the death of the tree through girdling. The Sapsucker also feeds upon the insects which are attracted to the sap flowing from the punctures it has made, but that the bird is primarily a sap-eating rather than insect-eating species is apparently shown by its brushy, instead of spiny-tipped, tongue. The Sapsucker, then, may become an injurious species when it pays too close attention to one tree, riddling a section of its bark so thickly that circulation is destroyed and death follows. NIGHTHAWK AND WHIP-POOR-WILL. Family Caprimulgide. Both the Nighthawk and Whip-Poor-Will feed exclusively on insects, and feeding at dusk and by night, when other birds are sleeping, they do unusually good service by devouring species which might otherwise escape. Nighthawk (Chordetles virginianus)— The food of the Nighthawk consists of moths, beetles, including June bugs, ants, grasshoppers, flies, mosquitoes, and crickets. Mrs. Bailey mentions one bird of this species, the stomach of which contained 573 large winged ants, parts of 72 small winged ants, and 16 grasshoppers. In the south, where the Nighthawk is known as Bull-bat, it is often shot for so-called sport in large numbers, though the facts show that no bird is more deserv- ing of protection. Whip-poor-will (Axtrostomus vociferus)— The Whip-poor-will feeds nearer the ground than the Nighthawk and is more often seen than heard. It eats ants, grass- hoppers, potato beetles, June bugs, moths, and other winged insects. UPPER FIGURE, PILEATED WOODPECKER LOWER FIGURE, DOWNY WOODPECKER ABOUT }4 NATURAL SIZE. UPPER FIGURE, NIGHTHAWK 4% NATURAL SIZE. LOWER FIGURE, WHIP-POOR-WILL % NATURAL SIZE. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE, 145 SWIFTS. Family Micropodide. Chimney Swift (Chetura pelagica)— No detailed study of the food of the Chimney Swift appears to have been made. The species, however, so far as known, is exclusively insectivorous and in view of its abundance is doubtless of much economic importance. HUMMINGBIRDS. Family Trochilide. Ruby-Throated Hummingbird (7vochilus colubris)— The juices of plants, spiders, plant-lice, and other small insects constitute the food of the Humming- bird, which also may be of service in pollenizing the flowers it visits. FLYCATCHERS. Family Tyrannide. As their name indicates, the birds of this family are insectivorous. The food habits of only four species appear to have been more than superficially studied. Kingbird (Zyrannus tyrannus)—“In its food habits this species is largely insectivorous. It isatrue flycatcher by nature, and takes a large part of its food on the wing. It does not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the Kingbird is that it preys largely upon honeybees; and this charge has been made both by professional bee keepers and others. Many observers have seen the bird at work near hives, and there is no reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony. One bee raiser in lowa, suspecting the Kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives, but when the birds’ stomachs were examined by an expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found. “The Biological Survey has made an examination of 281 stomachs collected in various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing remains of honeybees. In these 14 stomachs there were in all 50 honeybees, of which 40 were drones, 4 were certainly workers, and the remaining 6 were too badly broken to be identified as to Sex. “ The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are noxious species, largely beetles — May beetles, click beetles (the larve of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and grain, and a host of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. During summer many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hop- pers and other bugs, are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies 10 146 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. — insects which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. It is thus evident that the Kingbird by destroying these flies actually does good work for the apiarist. Nineteen robber flies were found in the stomachs examined; these may be consid- ered more than an equivalent for the four worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly belonging to the group commonly known as cut- worms, all the species of which are harmful. About to per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some twenty common species of the roadsides and thicket, such as dogwood berries, elder berries, and wild grapes. The bird has not been reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubt- ful if this is ever the case, for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that might have come from cultivated places, and they were found in but few stomachs. “Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of the King- bird —(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly injurious species ; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not result in any great damage ; and (3) that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. These facts, taken in connection with its well-known enmity for Hawks and Crows, entitle the Kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds of the orchard or garden.” (Beal.) Phoebe (Sayornis phabe).—‘ The Phoebe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs showed that over 93 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders, while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to various species and include many click beetles, May beetles, and weevils. Grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable extent, while wasps of various species, many flies of species that annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten. * * * “There is hardly a more useful species about the farm and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is unnecessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed or nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and other marauders.” (Beal.) Wood Pewee (Contopus virens)—“ Of forty-one specimens examined, eighteen had eaten 66 small beetles, among them 7 metallic-green beetles and several lamelli- corns; fourteen, 41 dipterous insects, among them 12 large crane-flies. * * * “T have seen one Wood Pewee capture and feed to its young, which had recently left the nest, 41 insects in the course of 41 minutes. Several of these insects were moths.” (King.) UPPER FIGURE, KINGBIRD ABOUT }4 NATURAL SIZE. LOWER FIGURE, PHOEBE ABOUT % NATURAL SIZE, ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 147 Least Flycatcher: Chebec (Zimpidonax minimus)—“Of twenty-three speci- mens examined ten had eaten 30 beetles —among them 2 squash beetles (Diabrotica vittata), a lady-bird and 2 weevils; four, 18 dipterous insects; one, 2 small heterop- terous insects, equal in size to Chinch bug; four, 39 hymenopterous insects, 2 small ichneumon flies and 37 winged-ants; two, 3 caterpillars; one, a moth; two, 4 small dragon-flies; and one, a small spider.” (King.) LARKS. Family Alaudide. Horned Lark (Ofocoris alpestris)— The Horned Larks, including this, the winter visitant form and the Prairie Horned Lark (0. a. praticola), which breeds throughout the central portion of the State, are of economic value as weed-seed eaters; while the latter also eats various species of insects. No detailed study of their food has been published. CROWS and JAYS. Family Corvide. To the members of this family are attributed numerous misdeeds, and although much attention has been given to their food habits, their injurious habits are said to be so nearly balanced by beneficial ones that it is difficult to determine which outweighs the other. Crow (Corvus americanus).— “ That he [the Crow] does pull up sprouting corn, destroy chickens, and rob the nests of small birds has been repeatedly proved. Nor are these all of his sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads, salamanders, and some small snakes, all harmless creatures that do some good by eating insects. With so many charges against him, it may be well to show why he should not be utterly condemned. “The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all the fore- going accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light somewhat different from that derived solely from field observation. It shows that the birds-nesting habit, as in the case of the jay, is not so universal as has been supposed; and that, so far from being a habitual nest robber, the Crow only occasionally indulges in that rep- rehensible practice. The same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is able to carry off none but the very young ones, and his opportunities for capturing them are somewhat limited. Neither are many toads or frogs eaten, and as frogs are of no great practical value, their destruction is not a serious matter; but toads are very useful, and their consumption, so far as it goes, must be counted against the Crow. Turtles, crayfishes, and snails, of which he eats quite a large number, may be considered neutral, while mice may be counted to his credit. 148 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. “Tn his food, however, the Crow makes amends for his sins in the rest of his dietary, although even here the first item is against him. Predaceous beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season, but the number is not great. . May beetles, ‘ dor-bug,’ or June bugs, and others of the same family, constitute the prin- cipal food during spring and early summer, and are fed to the young in immense quantities. Other beetles, nearly all of a noxious character, are eaten to a consider- able extent. Grasshoppers are first taken in May, but not in large numbers until August, when, as might be expected, they form the leading article of diet, showing that the Crow is no exception to the general rule that most birds subsist, to a large extent, upon grasshoppers in the month of August. Many bugs, some caterpillars, mostly cutworms, and some spiders, are also eaten—all of them either harmful or neutral in their economic relations. Of the insect diet Mr. E. A. Schwarz says: ‘The facts, on the whole, speak overwhelmingly in favor of the Crow.’ “ Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and by pulling the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself extremely obnoxious. Observa- tions and experiments with tame Crows show that hard, dry corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had, and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged. The reason Crows resort to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the moisture of the earth, and probably become more palatable in the process of germi- nation, which changes the starch of the grain to sugar. The fact, however, remains that the Crows eat corn extensively only when it has been softened by germination or partial decay, or before it is ripe and still “in milk.’ . Experience has shown that they may be prevented from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed, which not only saves the corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects. If they persist in eating green corn it is not easy to prevent the damage; but no details of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented, and it is probable that no great harm has been done. “Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most part to wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the different kinds of sumac. They have also a habit of sampling almost everything which appears eatable, especially when food is scarce. For example, they eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter, or pumpkins, turnips, and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected ; even mushrooms are sometimes taken, probably in default of something better. “In estimating the economic status of the Crow, it must be acknowledged that he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should receive much credit for the insects which he destroys. In the more thickly settled parts of the country the ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 149 Crow probably does more good than harm, at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly planted corn against his depredations. If, however, corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders, if hens and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods at a distance from farm buildings, losses must be expected.” While, from the nature of the case, birds’ eggs and young birds can form but a small portion of the annual food-supply of the Crow, I believe it to be indisputable that during the nesting season they constitute a large percentage of the Crow’s food. Nest-robbing is not occasional but is the characteristic habit of the Crow. Not only do they eat eggs and young birds, but they feed their offspring on them. Doubtless few Crows live through May and June without preying on smaller birds and the possibilities are that almost any one of the birds destroyed (either in the egg or out of it) is of greater economic value than the Crow. The Crow, therefore, in addition to the direct damage it may do our crops, robs us of the services of birds far more desirable than itself. Even if the Crow, aside from its cannibal-like propensities, was wholly beneficial, it would not, it seems to me, render us as great a service as would have been performed by the birds it destroys. In short, in my opinion, the Crow is one of the worst enemies of our small insectivorous and seed- eating birds, and as such it is undeserving of protection. Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata)—‘“ The Blue Jay is a common bird of the United States east of the Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its range, although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern States. During spring and summer the Jay is forced to become an industrious hunter for insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of the nesting season are over. “ Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a considerable portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs and young of small birds, and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn to an injurious extent in the fall. While there may be some truth in these accusations, they have almost certainly been exaggerated. No doubt many Jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds, but thousands have been seen that were not so engaged. “Tn an investigation of the food of the Blue Jay 292 stomachs were examined which showed that animal matter comprised 24% and vegetable matter 76% of the bird’s diet. So much has been said about the nest-robbing habits of the Jay that special search was made for traces of birds or birds’ eggs in the stomachs, with the result that shells of small birds’ eggs were found in three and the remains of young birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient to controvert 150 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. the great mass of testimony on this point, but it shows that the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds and their eggs, the Jay eats mice, fish, salamanders, caterpillars, snails, and crustaceans, which altogether constitute but little more than 1 per cent of its diet. The insect food is made up of beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and a few species of other orders, all noxious, except some 344% of predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19% of the whole food consists of harmful insects. In August the Jay, like many other birds, turns its attention to grasshoppers, which constitute nearly one-fifth of its food during that month. At this time, also, most of the other noxious insects, including caterpillars, are consumed, though the beetles are chiefly eaten in spring. “The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is grain. Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2, all constituting 19% of the total food. Corn is evidently the favorite grain, but a closer inspection of the rec- ord shows that the greater part was eaten during the first five months of the year, and that very little was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant. This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after harvest, except what is stolen from the cribs or gathered in May at planting time. “ The Jay’s favorite food is mast (7. ¢., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins, etc.), which was found in 158 of the 292 stomachs and amounted to more than 42% of the whole food. In September corn formed 15 and mast 35%, while in October, November and December corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity, and mast amounted to 64, 82 and 83%, respectively. And yet in these months corn is abundant and every- where accessible. The other elements of food consist of a few seeds and wild fruits, among which grapes and blackberries predominate. “The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the Jay eats many nox- ious insects; (2) that its habit or robbing the nests of other birds is much less com- mon than has been asserted; and (3) that it does little harm to agriculture, since all but a small amount of the corn eaten is waste grain.” (Beal.) Personally, my attitude toward the Jay is that which I hold in regard to the Crow. It is not unusual for the Jay to eat birds’ eggs, and in so doing he does an injury which the good deeds to his credit are far from balancing. As with the Crow, any one of the insect or seed-eating birds killed by a Jay would doubtless have been more desirable than the Jay itself, and where a single Jay, as often happens, destroys a whole nestful of eggs it becomes a positively injurious species. I believe, therefore, that the Blue Jay is no more deserving of protection than is the Crow. Both birds, however, are far too interesting to be exterminated, but no steps should be taken which will result in their increase. Belonging to a family ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. I51 noted for the intelligence and adaptability of its members, Crows and Jays can adjust themselves to the changes incident to civilizaticn far more readily than many of the birds which become their victims, and, in cases of this kind, man should help to restore nature’s balance by according protection to the weaker species; not to their enemies. STARLINGS. Family Sturnidae. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris).— The Starling was first successfully introduced into this country by Mr. Eugene Schieffelin, under whose direction 80 birds were released in Central Park, New York City, March 6, 1890; and 40 more on April 25, 1891. There was evidently room in this new environment for these birds for they so thrived that their descendants are now numbered by thousands; flocks containing several hundred being frequently seen in the upper part of New York City and east- ward along the sound. The Starling, therefore, is now firmly established in this country, and if it continues to multiply at the rate already shown to be possible, it will in compara- tively few years become one of our most abundant birds. Whether this species will prove to be beneficial or injurious it is difficult to surmise. In its own habitat it is said to be on the whole economically valuable ; but under wholly new surroundings, where its relations to other species are as yet undetermined, one cannot predict what its place in nature will be. There can be no question, however, that the present is the time to give this matter serious consideration. In a few years Starlings will be as far beyond control as English Sparrows are now. BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. Family Icteridae. In this family are included several species reputed to be the worst enemies, among birds, to the farmer. The Blackbirds, of several species, are especially condemned as grain destroyers. Raising only one brood they begin to flock early in July and before the grain is harvested have gathered in enormous bodies which unquestionably do much damage. It is, therefore, not without cause that our law refuses Blackbirds protection at all seasons. The question is, shall we go further than this? Shall we attempt to reduce the numbers of these birds? On this point Professor Beal writes : * “In a treatise on the destructiveness of grain-eating birds it is natural that the reader should expect at least a suggestion of a remedy. Unfortunately it is much *Birds that Injure Grain, Yearbook ef the Dept. of Agriculture, 1897, p. 353. 152 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. easier to point out the evil than to prescribe the cure. Stomach investigation shows conclusively that birds do not subsist upon grain alone, even at times when it is possible to obtain it. Moreover, the greatest amount of grain is not eaten at harvest time, but during the winter months, when other food is scarce'and waste kernels can be picked up in the fields. If any kind of grain is preferred by a certain species, we should expect the bird to subsist upon that grain almost exclusively when it can be obtained, that is, at harvest time. That this is not the case is shown by the fact that many birds of the same species have been shot at the same time in a grainfield, and while some stomachs were full of grain, others were only partly filled, and still others were wholly filled with other food. So many cases of this kind have occurred that it seems practically certain that few birds willingly subsist exclusively upon any kind of grain for a considerable length of time. With many species this is in notable contrast to their marked fondness for the seeds of certain useless plants, upon which at some seasons they subsist almost. entirely. “Tf it be admitted that birds do not as a rule display an inordinate appetite for grain, the question naturally arises: What is the cause of the tremendous ravages they sometimes commit? Both stomach examination and field observation point to the same answer: Too many birds of the same or closely allied species are gathered together within a limited area. “As already pointed out, the Upper Mississippi region presents such excep- tionally favorable breeding grounds for Blackbirds, especially the Redwing and Yellowhead, that they swarm there in countless numbers. Settlement and cultiva- tion have not yet encroached materially upon their haunts, but have added a source of food, which, coming before the great natural supply, has served to render the race more vigorous and prolific. “An attempt to exterminate these species would be not only ill-advised but hopeless. States have offered bounties for their destruction without perceptibly thinning their ranks. Is there, then, any remedy for the evil? The writer is forced to confess that he has none to suggest, except in the case of Crows and Blackbirds that pull up sprouting corn. This can be prevented by thoroughly tarring the seed, which, if properly done, neither injures its vitality nor prevents the use of machinery in planting. There is, however, some hope for the future, though per- haps a distant one. While the advance of civilization has thus far not affected these birds or their haunts, the time must surely come when it will. Increased density of population will broaden the area of cultivation, and this in time must lead to the draining of the smaller marshes and ponds, thus turning over to agricul- ture much land that has heretofore been worse than waste, since it has served asa ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE. 153 breeding ground for the birds that have destroyed the crops. With the breeding places more restricted and an environment otherwise changed by increased popula- tion, the number of birds must surely decrease, and in time the proper equilibrium will be restored. *In the meantime, it behooves the farmer to apply such remedies as the exigencies of the case suggest, and where these gregarious species are over- abundant it might be well to exempt them from the general protective laws, in order that each landholder may be free to protect himself as best he can.” Crow Blackbird: Purple Grackle and Bronzed Grackle (Quescalus quiscula et @neus.)—“ Crow Blackbirds are fond of grain, and being of good size and abundant, evidently have the power to do great harm. Moreover, the examination of more than 2,000 of their stomachs shows that grain formed 45 per cent of the food of the year, and that corn alone constitutes 35 per cent. From this it might be expected that they would attract much attention from grain growers, and such is the case. Hundreds of communications have been received testifying to their destructiveness ; yet many of these acknowledge the fact that Blackbirds eat a large quantity of insects, especially during the breeding season, and that many insects are fed to the young. This last is also borne out by stomach examination. A review of the yearly diet shows that the greater part of the corn eaten is taken during the fall and winter months. That eaten in winter and early spring (March and April), except the small quantity taken from corncribs, must be waste grain, or picked up in places where grain is left in the shock for a long time. No one will begrudge the birds the corn gathered from the hog lot or about the cattle crib, but when they attack the ripening grain in September it is a different-story, and in cases where the birds are so abundant that they take a large part of the crop, it will be difficult to persuade the unfortunate farmer that they did enough good earlier in the season to pay for this loss. There can be no doubt that in many parts of the country these birds are too numerous for the farmer to realize the best results from their serv- ices.” (Beal.) Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phaniceus).— In investigating the food habits of the Red-wing over 700 stomachs were examined. These were collected in every month of the year, and show that a little more than 13 per cent of the year’s food is grain. This is a remarkably small percentage when it is considered that this bird has been the subject of more complaints on the score of grain eating than any other species. In order to understand thoroughly the grain-eating propensities of the Red-wing, a special study of its food for the five months from May to September, inclusive, has been made. Of the stomachs taken in May, 46 per cent contained grain. This percentage falls to 11 in June and then rises in July and culminates in 154 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. August at 72, after which it decreases rapidly. The average for the five months is 46 per cent, that is, in every 100 birds taken 46 have eaten grain. If now we examine the grain-eating record as exhibited by the quantity of that food the results are quite different. In May grain constitutes 21 per cent of the food by bulk; in June it decreases to 5 per cent; in July it rises to its maximum of 42 per cent; in August it falls off slightly, after which it rapidly decreases and disappears. The average consumption of grain for the five months is 25 per cent of the whole food. Again, if the two months of July and August are considered alone, it is found that out of every 100 birds 68 have eaten grain, but that the grain constitutes only 40 per cent of the total food for the two months. 434; pll., 100. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 267-271. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 181-200. Barrows, Walter B., Food of the Horned Larks or Shore Larks (Ofocorzs). Ibid., pp. 193-197. Beal, F. E. L., Food Habits of the Cedar Bird (Ampelis cedrorum). Ibid., Pp- 197-200. Fisher, A. K., The Hawks and Owls of the United States in their Relation to Agriculture. Bull. No. 3, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 209; colored pll., 26. Merriam, C. Hart, Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pp. 227-234. Barrows, Walter B., Food Habits of the Kingbird or Bee Martin (Zyrannus tyrannus). Ibid., pp. 233, 234. Merriam, C. Hart, The Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in North America. Yearbook of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 203-214. Fisher, A. K., Hawks and Owls as Related tothe Farmer. Ibid., pp. 215-232. Beal, F. E. L., The Crow Blackbirds and their Food. Ibid., pp. 233-248. 1895. 1897. 1897. 1897. 188. 18098. 1808. 1898. 1898. 1898. 1898. ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE STATE, Wyss Barrows, Walter B., and Schwarz, E. A., The Common Crow of the United States. Bull. No. 6, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-08. Beal, F. E. L., Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers. Bull. No. 7, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-39. Forbush, E. H., Birds as Protectors of Orchards. Bull, No. 3, Series of 1895, Mass. Board of Agriculture, pp. 20-32. Judd, Sylvester D., Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. Year- book of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 405-418. Beal, F. E. L., The Meadowlark and Baltimore Oriole. Ibid., pp. 419-430. Fisher, A. K., Food of the Barn Owl (Strzx pratincola). Science, III, pp. 623, 624. Forbush, E. H., The Crow in Massachusetts. Bull. No. 4, Series of 1896, Mass. Board of Agriculture, pp. 24-40. Palmer, T. S., Extermination of Noxious Animals by Bounties. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 55-68. Beal, F. E. L., The Blue Jay and its Food. Ibid., pp. 197-206. Merriam, Florence A., How Birds Affect the Farm and Garden. Forest and Stream, 1896; also printed separately, 16 mo., pp. 32. Beal, F. E. L., Some Common Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. Farmers’ Bull. No. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-40. Merriam, C. H., Chief, Biological Survey [Report of Work of]. Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 115-122. Bealy ies es Birds that Injure Grain. Ibid., pp. 345-350. Judd, Sylvester D., Methods in Economic Ornithology, with Special Refer- ence to the Catbird. Am. Naturalist, pp. 392-397. Palmer, T. S., The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 87-110. Judd, Sylvester D., Birds as Weed Destroyers. Ibid., pp. 221-232. Weed, Clarence M., The Feeding Habits of the Chipping Sparrow. Bull. 55, New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 101-110. Weed, Clarence M., The Winter Food of the Chickadee. Ibid., Bull. 54, pp. 85-098. Rhoads, S. N., ‘‘ Noxious” or “ Beneficial”? False Premises in Economic Zoology. Am. Naturalist, pp. 571-581. Forbush, E. H., Nature’s Foresters. Bull. No. 1, Series of 18098, Mass. Board of Agriculture, pp. 27-40. Beal, F. E. L., The Food of Cuckoos. Bull. No. 9, Div. Biological Survey. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 7-14. SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, Judd, Sylvester D., The Food of Shrikes. Ibid., pp. 15-26. Merriam, Florence A., Birds of Village and Field. A Bird Book for Begin- ners. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Contains much information regarding food of birds. Nash, Charles W., The Birds of Ontario in Relation to Agriculture. Reprinted from the Report of the Farmers’ Institutes of Ontario by the Ontario Dept. of Agriculture, Toronto, pp. 1-32. Palmer, T..S., A Review of Economic Ornithology in the United States. Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 259-292. Beal, F. E. L., Economic Relations of Birds and their Food. Proc. Twenty- fourth Annual Meeting of the N. J. State Hort. Soc., pp. 1-27. Grant, Annie M., Birds. Report R. J. Board of Agriculture for 1899, pp. 33. Montgomery, Thomas H., Jr., Observations on Owls, with Particular Regard to their Feeding Habits. Am. Naturalist, pp. 563-572. Praeger, Wm. E., Birds in Horticulture. A paper read before the State Horticultural Society at Springfield, Ills., Dec. 26, 1899, pp. 1-12. Beal, F. E. L., How Birds Affect the Orchard. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 291-304. Judd, Sylvester D., The Food of Nestling Birds. Ibid., pp. 411-436. Chapman, Frank M.. The Value of the Bird to the Commonwealth. Report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture of Connecticut, pp. 41. Brown, John P., The Relation of Birds and Forests. A paper read before the Audubon Society of Indiana at Indianapolis, March 19, 1901, pp. 3. Bruner, Lawrence, Birds in their Relation to Agriculture. Proc. Neb. Ornithologists’ Union (Lincoln, Neb.), pp. 18-29. Judd, Sylvester D., The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. Bull. No. 15, Div. Biological Survey, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 1-98. Weed, Clarence M., and Dearborn, Ned, The Food of the Myrtle Warbler. Attwater, H. P., The Relation of Birds to the Farmer. An address delivered at the Annual Session of the Texas Farmers’ College Station, Texas, July 17, 1902, pp. I-12. Bailey, Florence Merriam, Handbook of Birds of the Western United States. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Contains much concerning the food of birds. Judd, S. D., The Birds of a Maryland Farm. Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Weed, Clarence Moores, The Mission of the Birds. Nature Study Leaflet No. 2, N. H. College Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 15-24. Weed, Clarence M., A Partial Bibliography of the Economic Relations of North American Birds. Ibid., Technical Bull. No. 3, pp. 137-179. Tree Planting on Streets and Highways. Bye VWViEO ELAN Es Ox REE PLANTING is one of the best expressions of altruism. The man who 12 plants trees is thinking of others rather than himself. He enables people to gratify their love of the beautiful, to enjoy better health, to become more prosperous; he makes the world better and happier. Trees purify and cool the air, increase the value of surrounding property, and are pleasing to the eye. They should be placed along the highways, on our village and city streets, on lawns and in parks, on schoolhouse grounds, on the farm, in the dooryard, and wherever shade or shelter may be needed. Planted in commemora- tion of persons or events, they become living monuments that endure when the inscriptions on the yellow, moss-covered marbles of the churchyard are no longer legible. Highway Planting. Trees should be set out along every road for shade. In addition, the farm lanes can be lined advantageously with fruit or nut-bearing trees that will bring money to their owner and add to the attractive appearance of his surroundings. Objections may be made in some localities to placing trees along a public road, because their shade would tend to make it wet and muddy. If such conditions exist, the fault is in the road, and not in the trees; there are some very muddy highways along which nothing has been planted. Although a row of trees may retard somewhat the evaporation of moisture at the surface of the roadbed, at the same time they drain its foundation by the rapid absorption of water through their roots. Whena roadbed is properly constructed, drained and ditched, the trees will do no harm; on the contrary, they will furnish a grateful shade to the traveler, and prevent dust without creating mud. There are roads along which no trees are allowed, because some resident argues that the sun is needed to dry up the mud and sloughs which in spring make travel- ing slow and difficult. But in summer the sun-baked mud is pulverized under the wagon wheels, creating clouds of dust that are worse than the mud. With a well- built highway, shaded by trees, both of these nuisances would be avoided. Evena 12 177 178 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, poor road will permit of one row of trees, which should be placed on the south or west side, as its direction may require, to temper the heat of the afternoon sun. One of the finest, smoothest roads in the State may be found in the Adirondack forest — from St. Hubert’s Inn to the Ausable Lakes —; and yet it is well shaded by trees that meet overhead, shutting out the sun except where the road is flecked with light that streams through the small openings in the leafy cover. But this road was constructed in proper shape, and of suitable material. Some States— noticeably New York and Massachusetts—have made large appropriations recently for good roads, and these annual expenditures will not only be continued but will probably be increased. With the money thus provided long lines of stone highways with perfectly drained roadbeds have been constructed, and with each succeeding year many more miles will be finished. We are entering on an era of good roads. But the good work of the road-builders will not be com- plete until trees are planted at proper distances on each side of the highway. In his Annual Report for 1901, Hon. Edward A. Bond, State Engineer and Surveyor (New York), states that the actual cost of 134 miles of stone macadam roads was $7,055 per mile. Now it takes 196 trees to plant each side of a highway for one mile; and the cost of the planting will be less than two per cent of that of the road construction. Having expended over $7,000 on the roadbed, there surely should be no objection to paying $150 more in order to have a cool, shady driveway. Of course, “dirt” roads have been constructed in some localities under the Good Roads Law at a much less cost per mile; but the argument still holds good, in that the work will not be complete until the trees are planted. Why not amend the law so as to include the tree planting ? Highway Law. The law of 1869, which is still in force, provides that any inhabitant liable to highway tax who shall plant by the side of a public road “any forest shade trees or fruit trees” shall be allowed in abatement of his highway tax one dollar for every four trees set out. Similar laws for the reduction of road taxes, or for the payment of a bounty, have been enacted in other States — Massachusetts, Connecticut and Pennsylvania. In New York the law specifies that Elms must be planted, at least seventy feet apart; that Maples “or other forest trees’’ shall not be set nearer than fifty feet, except Locusts, which may be set at intervals of thirty feet. Fruit trees must be planted at least fifty feet apart. Proper penalties are prescribed for any one who shall injure a tree, or who shall hitch a horse or any animal to, or leave the same standing near enough to injure a tree used for shade or ornament, at PHOTO, TOCK, IBAR IOXSIAN ASN, ING We 1; STR POPLAR MAPLES. HARD ROAD NEAR JEFFERSONVILLE, VT. COUNTRY TREE PLANTING ON STREETS AND HIGHWAYS. 179 “any schoolhouse, church, or public building, or along any public highway.” The kinds of trees mentioned in the law referred to are well adapted to highway planting ; and the distances apart at which they must be set are based on the space which each species is known to occupy. While the distances specified in the State law are correct as regards highway planting, shorter intervals may be used in cities, where trees seldom attain a height and spread equal to that of the same species when grown in the open country. Setection of Trees. Nothing has been found that will equal our American Elm and Hard Maple for wide roads and double rows. As our Elms often attain a spread of one hundred feet it is evident that the seventy feet demanded in the law is none too wide a space. The trees should be allowed to assume their full size and natural shape without crowding or interfering with each other. Transplanted, or “second growth,” Hard Maples along a country road attain a large size and beautiful appear- ance, which require all of a fifty-foot space. Other species — Oaks, Basswood, White Ash, Locust, Willow, Horse Chestnut, Black Cherry, Buttonball, Beech and the two Soft Maples—can be used with good results in order to obtain variety, By planting the Scarlet Oak, Red Maple and Pepperidge, the brilliancy of the autumn coloring can be enhanced by the bright reds displayed by the leaves of these species. In some localities the Elms have been killed or seriously injured by insects; and these pests have wrought a widespread destruction recently anong the maples in the Adirondack and Catskill forests, and in village streets. The Horse Chestnuts also have been defoliated; and it may be that other species will be injured in time. While it is difficult to check the ravages of insects when large forest areas are attacked, this evil can be controlled, if not prevented, where the trees along our highways and streets are endangered, as shown by the successful use of spraying apparatus or other remedies. The planting of any particular species should not be discontinued merely because the trees may be attacked at some future time by insects. The good work should go on, and if, in years to come, there should be a recurrence of this evil we can safely trust to the remedies prescribed by our ento- mologists for the prevention or abatement of the pest. There are some forest trees which are not adapted to roadside planting, because they assume a different form when grown in the open, the branches growing lower down and the trunk failing to reach its usual height, although it may attain a large diameter. For this reason, the Birches, especially the Yellow Birch, are not desir- able for streets or roadside use. 180 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, Nut-bearing trees, the Chestnut, Butternut, and Hickories, are available for highway planting. They are handsome, large trees, each species having peculi- arities of habit that make it worth the notice of an observant traveler, particularly in winter, when the pleasing arrangement of their limbs can be better seen and studied. Their branches may suffer to some extent from boys in quest of nuts; but that is liable to happen wherever these trees may stand. In some European countries the roads are lined with fruit trees. But there it is well understood that the fruit, though it overhangs the highways, belongs to the farmer, whose property is respected accordingly. In this country, where widely different ideas prevail, it might be necessary to concede the traveler’s claim in case fruit trees were planted along or within the “right of way.” Street Planting. There are many reasons why trees should be planted in cities and villages. During the hot days of summer the streets which are shaded by trees are preferred to those which lack this protection. The temperature is much lower; and as the pavements are not exposed to the glare of the sun, there is less of reflected heat. The streets that are lined with shade trees are more attractive to the eye; and their superiority is readily apparent when compared with those on which there are no trees. The shaded streets being cooler they are more desirable for residences, and, other things being equal, property is more valuable and commands higher rents. The air is purer by reason of the foliage, which inhales carbonic acid and exhales oxygen. The leaves absorb the poisonous gases generated in hot weather by the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, and thus an active source of disease is eliminated. During hot summer days the diseases incidental to that season are not so prevalent in streets and localities which are protected from the heat of the sun by large overhanging trees.* At a meeting of the New York Medical Society a resolution was passed in which the opinion was expressed that “one of the most effective means for mitigating the intense heat of the summer months, and diminishing the death rate among children, is the cultivation of an adequate number of trees in the streets.” The city of Washington is justly known as one of the most beautiful cities in America on account of the seventy thousand trees that adorn its streets; and there are many New England towns famed for their attractive appearance, due largely to *See ‘‘ Vegetation a Remedy for the Summer Heat of Cities.” By Stephen Smith, M. D., LL. D. Appleton’s Popular Science Monthly, February, 189g. A. G. VARELA, PHOTO, GINKGOS. — AVENUE LEADING TO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE ELMS OF LE} TREE PLANTING ON STREETS AND HIGHWAYS. 181 the beautiful trees planted by village improvement societies. It is said that Paris has 80,000 shade trees, and that $60,000 are expended annually in caring for them and planting additional ones. Both Washington and Paris have nurseries in which seedlings of desirable species are propagated with special reference to the require- ments of street planting. Poorly developed plants or saplings are discarded, and only the straight, thrifty ones are selected for use on the city streets. In street planting care should be exercised to select species which, when. fully grown, will be of a size suitable to the width of the street; and in making a choice only such should be selected as are best adapted to the peculiar conditions which influence their growth in cities. Some trees that can be safely used for road planting in the country are too susceptible to the deleterious influences of the smoke, dust, gas, and pavement of our towns. Along country roads or village streets, saplings transplanted from some neigh- boring grove or forest may be set out; but for city streets nursery stock alone should be used. In fact, it would be better to buy nursery trees for village planting also, unless compelled to use the other for economical reasons. If one must go to the forest for young trees, pains should be taken to obtain as straight, thrifty and perfect specimens as possible. Selection of Species. In making a choice the first thing to be considered is the width of the street; also, the width of the sidewalk or nearness of the houses. Some trees, the Elm for instance, will injure the foundation walls of a house by the pressure from its far- spreading roots. Where the house stands near the curb, trees with a tap root are preferable. The following list includes all, or nearly all, the species which are desirable for street planting, most of which are quite common throughout New England and the Middle States. They are named in the order of their desirability, although in some instances their preferment is somewhat a matter of taste, concerning which any discussion would be a waste of time. Wide streets. Narrow streets. American or White Elm. Norway Maple. Hard or Sugar Maple. White or Silver Maple. Tulip Tree. Red Maple. Basswood (Linden). Ailanthus. Horse Chestnut. Cucumber Tree. 182 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION, Sweet Gum. Ginkgo. Sycamore (Buttonball). Bay Willow. White Ash. Pin Oak. Scarlet Oak. Red Flowering Horse Chestnut. Red Oak. Black or Yellow Locust. White Oak. Hackberry. Honey Locust. Hardy Catalpa (speciosa). American Chestnut. Lombardy Poplar. In any attempt to secure a comprehensive variety it should be remembered that, includirg the conifers, there are over five hundred native species in the United States and Canada, and that there are over ninety in the Middle and New England States. Many of these are used in forestry work, but are not adapted to streets and highways; and many others are desirable for lawns or parks but nowhere else. The Elm stands first on the list by right of its superior size, beauty, and adapta. bility to street planting. It is rapid in growth, withstands transplanting and prun- ing better than most other kinds, and will grow on almost any soil. Its habit is such that any pruning of the lower limbs is seldom necessary, a valuable feature in a street tree. It thrives not only on country roads and village streets, but also in our larger towns. New Haven has attained national fame as the “ Elm City,” on account of the many beautiful trees of this kind which line its streets. There are various forms of the American Elm. Emerson, in his “ Trees of Massachusetts,” describes three distinct shapes. The most desirable one for a shade tree is that with the umbrella-shaped top, and slender, pendant branches on its outer edge. In trans- planting or in giving orders to a nursery, care should be taken te secure this particular form. The English and Scotch Elms have been planted extensively in some places; but as these species are inferior in appearance-and much more liable to attack from insects their use should be discouraged. The English Elm retains its foliage longer each fall, but that is all that can be said in its favor; in fact, all the species introduced from Europe hold their leaves when most of our native trees are bare. The Hard Maple or Sugar Maple is so well and favorably known as a shade tree that it is unnecessary to dwell here upon its beauty and symmetrical proportions. It is seen at its best in village streets and along country roads, where the condi- tions are better suited to its fullest development. In the crowded streets of large towns this species, in some places, has been unable to withstand the effects of smoke, dust and other unfavorable conditions. But it can be planted with good results on streets where the houses stand on large lots, with plenty of ground or wide lawns TREE PLANTING ON STREETS AND HIGHWAYS. 183 around them. On city blocks, where the houses are in solid rows, preference should be given to the Norway Maple, a nursery tree which resembles the native Hard Maple closely, although not so large. The Norway puts on its leaves earlier in spring, and retains its verdure later in the fall. The varied and brilliant autumnal colors displayed by the leaves of our native Hard Maple make this species desirable for ornament as well as shade. No other tree combines so many shades of color in the fall —scarlet, orange, yellow, and green. These different hues may be seen on one tree, often on one branch, and sometimes on one leaf. The Tulip Tree will compare favorably with the Hard Maple in height and beauty. In favored situations it attains a height of 125 feet or more, with a diameter of six to eight feet. It bears transplanting well, grows rapidly, is very hardy, and is free from destructive insects. The constant, tremulous motion of its broad leaves gives it a lively, attractive appearance. The limbs of the mature trees are more or less curved, producing a beautiful effect, which is heightened by the straight lines of the tall mast-like trunks. In the latter part of May it decks itself with terminal flowers of a dark, rich yellow, streaked with green and orange. The Tulip Tree cannot be transplanted successfully except when it is of a small size. The Basswood, or American Linden, commends itself to the lover of trees by its ample shade, fragrant flowers and bright green foliage, which in spring contrasts well with its dark colored branches. In the fall its leaves assume a rusty hue that detracts somewhat from its appearance then, especially as most of the other trees are displaying their autumnal coloring at that time. In the excurrent character of the trunk and arrangement of its branches the Linden displays a graceful habit after the leaves have fallen, making it an attractive and desirable tree in winter. The curious, ribbon-like bract to which the pea-shaped seeds are attached makes it in early summer an interesting study to the passer-by. The Linden is extensively planted as a shade tree in Holland and some other European countries. In Berlin one of the principal avenues, Unter den Linden, takes its name from the trees that shade its walks and driveways. Botanists are apt to regard this tree with a peculiar interest, for the father of Linnzus, the Swedish naturalist, took his family name from a large, beautiful Linden, or Linn, that stood near his home.* The Horse Chestnut is the earliest of our trees. Before the buds have opened on many of the others, and while the willows are showing only a “green mist” the Horse Chestnut unfolds its cunningly packed leaflets to the sun, a welcome sight to those who are waiting and watching for spring. Its large leaves afford a shade more *At that time many of the Swedes had Christian names only, and when they wanted a family name it was customary to adopt that of some natural object in the vicinity — Berg (hill), Strom (stream), etc. 184 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE FOREST, FISH AND GAME COMMISSION. dense than that of any other tree. In parks and on lawns, where its growth is not restricted, this tree assumes a grand, massive appearance that always arrests the eye. In early spring it is gay with large white and pink flowers whose erect panicles standing on the upturned tips of the branches are suggestive of a leafy candelabra, an effect that is heightened when one remembers the peculiar appearance in this respect of the tree in winter. In most-families of plants, the order of opening in the flowers is either from the bottom upwards—or from the top downwards — proceeding to open regularly up or down. Mr. Joseph Meehan observes that in the Horse Chestnut there are open flowers simultaneously on every portion of the thyrse or spike, so that the tree seems to be covered with flowers as if by magic in a growth of but a few days.* Objection has been made to the Horse Chestnut because at times there is too much litter on the sidewalks under it. But if people sweep their sidewalks daily there need be no trouble from this source; and if they do not keep their walks clean they will neglect their trees also, in which case it is imma- terial what species is planted. The question of insects is discussed later on. The Horse Chestnut, like the Ailanthus and Lombardy Poplar, is not indigenous. to the United States, having been introduced here in 1746. In April of that year John Bartram, writing to Peter Collinson, acknowledges the receipt of the seeds, of which he had hopes, as “some seemed to be pretty sound.” Gen. Brisbin notes that the first tree is said to be still standing on the estate of Mr. Lemuel Wells, Yonkers, N. Y.{ John Evelyn, in his famous Silva, written in 1662, says that the Horse Chestnut derived its name from the fact that the fruit was used for “ curing broken-winded horses, and other cattle, of coughs.” But the peculiar shape of the scar left on the twig by the fallen leaf, which resembles the track of a horse’s hoof and imprint of the nails, is very suggestive when taken in connection with the trans- lation of Lippocastanum, its Greek or botanical name. The Sweet Gum, or Liquidambar, so named from the fragrant balsam which exudes when the trunk is wounded, is an crnamental tree of about eighty feet in height and two feet in diameter, attaining in some localities a much greater size. It is a rapid grower and thrives on almost any soil. Its glossy, star-shaped leaf makes it a favorite with all students of leaf forms. The tree is interesting in winter also on account of the corky ridges or wings attached to the twigs and smaller branches which give it a peculiar appearance. In autumn its foliage changes to a deep *Meehan’s Monthly. Philadelphia, Pa., May, 1902. + Memorials of John Bartram and Humphrey Marshall. William Darlington, M. D., LL. D. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston. 1849. ¢Gen. James S. Brisbin, U. S. A. Trees and Tree Planting. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1888. —— SS a a COURTESY PROF, A. S. BICKMORE, fo) op 5