OS ae SS ane. 2° J whi peeces, Cao Meee cocoa Ys ida Sao) 8d NOODLE eal! te SS. ‘3 5 4 a a 4 ; 4 ¥ LIBRARY OF THE = big Lad f a as al i ate! ~~ 2) ; - oo: ; 7 ' ’ ~~ J = | | Fy : , Re ss rast . : ’ ° he ge : tas, gee a we 4 4 t a tf oe). ; be od (ee ae ¥ HIGHMOOR FARM BUILDINGS THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT f ? . Maine Agricultural Experiment ation Oe Jos AA 59 $0 %lg 4 6 STATE OF MAINE. IQTC 3 The publications of this Station will be sent free to any address in Maine. All requests should be sent to Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. COwWeD BNP Sic PAGE ee eteabe NOTING ENE! SCATOME . . ic 10 ZG 202 is Vea Bite bs lab die ods 6 wb odalaielss wlan il PSMA TMCS NATE LTT SLUG ath sh caches cya anes oMedarist cape ves ai'el ade yaNe kaye eee ay apebelaaen cache oy sbens vi Tse CUMIN LES) wei siesm reais ie sates isace, svsielis ode suena raiavs cusie rons) sieiateharele, 2oeiteue'ce vii Notes on Plant Diseases, 1908 (Bulletin 164)..................05- I Ravaiieiny Neues: (CEI Giabn (OS) aeaenicomiqn Go 6 Sma Sinn 6 Don aoe Ob Oe 29 imhentance of Hecundity (Bulletin'r66)... 2.00550. 2 2c. ese wees 49 iield Experiments, 1906-8 (Bulletin 167) . 3.0... 0s. dence ces 85 The Fertility and Hatching of Eggs (Bulletin 168)................ 105 Two Epidemics of Potato Blight and Rot (Bulletin 169)........... 165 Apple Diseases Caused by Coryneum jfolaicolum and Phoma mali EMME EIT ZO) Werer ssi ces crate tays aretete ere Ane biar ek ncce S sole b atestete mente as 185 The Pine-leaf and Green-winged Chermes (Bulletin 171)............ 201 Peercaentiats Part, 1. (Bi 1lletigy 072 )iia pay. ah cle wiz becisye wletwle ly vie Sieyeisl a, 209 @hermesiof Maine Conifers (Bulletin 173) .........0.4..00.-000.- 277 Blackleg, a Bacterial Disease of the Irish Potato (Bulletin 174)..... 309 MERC Vn ESCHIETIEL LAS )ie. ov wis chalets cess e wys.s sts s/efas «6 wiv beclalate aces 8 329 Report of Treasurer (Bulletin 175) IiexeNGO OO, (SITE birder 7/5 he wee epost ceebeeel tA ole Sistelsid caralegs Sua clos s 334 ANNOUNCEMENTS. THE AIM OF THE STATION. Every citizen of Maine concerned in agriculture has the right to apply to the Station for any assistance that comes within its province. It is the wish of the Trustees and Station Council that the Station be as widely useful as its resources will permit. In addition to its work of investigation, the Station is pre- pared to make chemical analyses of fertilizers, feeding stuffs, dairy products and other agricultural materials; to test seeds and creamery glassware; to identify grasses, weeds, injurious fungi and insects, etc.; and to give information on agricultural matters of interest and advantage to the citizens of the State. All work proper to the Experiment Station and of public benefit will be done without charge. Work for the private use of individuals is charged for at the actual cost to the Station. The Station offers to do this work only as a matter of accommo- dation. Under no condition will the Station undertake analyses, the results of which cannot be published, if they prove of gen- eral interest. | CORRESPONDENCE. As far as practicable, letters are answered the day they are received. Letters seat to individual officers are liable to remain unanswered, in case the officer addressed is absent. All com- munications, should, therefore, be addressed to the Director or to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. The post-office, railroad station, freight, express and telegraph address is Orono, Maine. Visitors to the Station can take the electric cars at Bangor and Old Town. The Station is connected by telephone. EE ————, — = = e ny? 6061 ‘LZ MAPOLOO ‘WUVA WOOWHDIH ‘ALAIOOS TVOIOOTOWNOd ANIVIN ONILAAWN HISTORICAL NOTES FOR 1909. HicHMoor FARM. The Legislature of 1909 appropriated $10,000 for the pur- chase cf a farm on which the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station shall conduct experiments in orcharding and with corn and other farm crops. The committee on selection have decided upon Highmoor Farm situated in the counties of Ken- nebec and Androscoggin, and largely in the town of Monmouth, The farm consists of 225 acres, about 200 of which are in ~ orchards, fields and pastures. There are in the neighborhood of 4,000 apple trees upon the place which have been set from Io to 20 years. The fields that are not in orchard are well adapted to experiments with corn, potatoes and similar general farm crops. ‘The house is two-storied with a large wing and contains about 15 rooms and is well arranged for Experiment Station offices and the home of the farm superintendent. The barn is large; arranged for 32 head of cattle and 6 horses. The buildings are supplied with running water from a never failing spring situated on the farm. The Farmington branch of the Maine Central Railroad bounds the farm on the west and it is expected that a flag station will be made at the farm. The farm is purchased in the name of the State but by law “the Director of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station shall have the general management, supervision and control of the said farm and of all investigations thereon.” The property was acquired so late in the season that no inves- tigational work could be undertaken in 1909. It is planned to begin another season studies upon orchard management, corn and oat breeding and potato culture. The farm will be used not merely for practical field experiments in horticulture and agri- culture but also for studies of practical problems by the ento- mologists, plant pathologists and biologists of the Station. Vill MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. PUBLICATIONS. The Station is organized so that the work of investigation is distinct from the work of inspection. The results of investi- gation are published in the bulletins of the Station. These make up the annual report for the year. The results of the work of inspection are printed in publications known as Official. Inspections. These are paged independently of the bulletins and are bound in with the annual report as an appendix thereto. Miscellaneous publications consisting of newspaper notices of bulletins, newspaper bulletins and circulars which are not paged consecutively and are not included in the annual report are issued during each year. All of the bulletins issued by the Station are sent to the names upon the official mailing list prepared by the Office of Experi- ment Stations, to all newspapers in Maine and to libraries and to agricultural exchanges. Bulletins which have to do with general agriculture and the Official Inspections which bear upon the feeding stuffs, fertilizer and seed inspections are sent to a general mailing list composed chiefly of farmers within the State. The publications having to do with the food and drug inspection are sent to a special list including all dealers in Maine and other citizens who request them. ‘The annual report is sent to directors of experiment stations and to libraries. Copies of all publications are sent to the newspapers within the State and to the press on the exchange list outside of the State. BULLETINS PUBLISHED IN I9Q09Q. NON 1045 Notes onmlantDiseases) 19OS sana eres 28 pages INOS ETOS sj. out miNOtest jiatraccce ye ea ere ne 20 pages No. 166. Inheritance of Feeundity,in Poultry...... 36 pages Nom O74) Eielda kh xpentments in mOO0"8r) sen... 20 pages No. 168. ‘The Fertility and Hatching of Fggs...... 60 pages No. 169. ‘Two Epidemics of Potato Blight and Rot. 20 pages No. 170. Apple Diseases caused by Coryneum folli- COMM Bin JAIRO 0O) THOME 66 be oko od bok oe 16 pages No. 171. Pine Leaf and Green Winged Chermes... 8 pages INOW 72.0; Nunetis: Giaats, svat cline aniy seeeiee .. 68 pages INow172." (ChegmessomiViaime Comiiensse eerie oe. 32 pages No. 174. Blackleg: A Bacterial Disease of Potatoes 20 pages Nowi75:) Meteorology. Finances, ndexy. 9.) 1a: I2 pages —— No. =» 228. OD: . 340. RESAT 342. - 343: - 344. - 345. 340: - 347. . 348. - 349. 250, Reo GI B52 - 353: - 354- Soo." i. 350. 357: = 3250: - 359. . 360. PeaOk. =» 202. mau . 364. P3805. . 366. S307. . 368. . 3609. 370: HISTORICAL NOTES. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS IN 1909. Fertilizer manufacturers affidavit........ Gxiiieiall: STS ECHOING, at weve x auefeysiin Jee a7, PNDSELACIOT: TERM LOO oy eninge «ais 3 o> WOiicial TnsmectiGus: G. spo ae yu weno PO eIaL tS PECtOsIS «Cs taeretie «pei aioys's «coscke « INGPIGENOME MEA TAMOGS lait oral coe oa eats Sikieta MINS eCHONS LO... ee? atein ae daspencpav CrowinGallsor the: Apple. okie et cr ok shes Newspaper Notice, Bulletin 164......... TP ASte oka tHe tMIS es! on INE i ioe he ais 2 Newspaper Notice, Bulletin 165......... Newspapem Notice. Bulletin, 166... 5%... - fiistal nS peCHONS wLLK. tsa cpu a oes Newspaper Notice, Bulletin 167....:.... How to Keep Poultry Free From Lice... Diicial MniIsMmechonss 12... 8 ce vin ec ears ees Newspapeg notice, Circular 253.52... Deformed Apples in Maine..2..:..-.... Not printed. Orrineialy MISPECtHONS Te. acetates rapns oo Octal RINSPeCtOnS TAC ic! seer as wie be ea Tiger Moths and Woolly Bear Caterpillars SSE Gln ol Sue ate ae AM ST ea ee ye Re Gy iiaetale MnSPeCHOAS Lor Alan's ecrie sapien oo at Bield Bay atccuchmoor-Parme.....-..... PDS trace SEIT CLIN TTOO: enn mcs, wry aes yee aa 6 Not printed. BIOLOGY PUBLICATIONS, I900. I page 8 pages 4 pages 8 pages 16 pages page 28 pages I page I page I page I page I page I2 pages I page 4 pages 20 pages I page I page Lal 8 pages 40 pages 4 pages I page I2 pages I page 8 pages I2 pages I page I page 16 pages 8 pages I2 pages No.9. The Use of Atropin Sulphate in Anesthetizing Birds for Surgical Experiments. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. Vol. LII, pp. 382, 383. By R. Pearl and F. M. Surface. 1909. : x MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909Q. No. 10. Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl. II. Data on the Inheritance of Fecundity Obtained from the Records of Egg Production of the Daughters Ol 9 200-ege. leas. By ke Beanland be Me Sunaces » Mame Agr. Expt, Station, Bulletin No. 166, pp. 48-84. 1909. No. 11. Selection Index Numbers and their Use in Breeding. Byake Pearl anise Mey Suniaces: -simera Nat Vole llles nia: 385-400. 1900. ING, 12, lis wasre 2 (Cihanbllevenns Iirece Or Seleciiony IDs from the Study of Fecundity in the Domestic Fowl. By R. Pearl and F. M. Surface. Zeitschr. f. Abst.-u. Vererb.-Lehre. (In press). No. 13. Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl. III. A Case of Incomplete Hermaphroditism. Byker Pearl and VE Re Cunisns Biol Billetins Wolk pay lk gone 271-250) (elalieilnooo: No. 14. Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl. IV. Data on Certain Factors Influencing the Fertility and Hatching of Eggs. By R. Pearl and F. M. Sur- face, Maine Agr. Expt. Station, Bulletin: 168, pp. 105-164. 1909. ; NomiSa ee liniple WolkedmHoon mya ik. smears: Aoolme a7. (In press). ENTOMOLOGY PUBLICATIONS, 1909. No. 33.. Homologies of the Wing Veins of the Aphidide, Psyllidee, Aleurodide, and Coccide. Annals of the Ento- mological Society of America. Vol. Il. No. 2. pp. 101-129. 1909. No. 34. Pemphigus venafuscus n. sp. Entomol. News. p. 319. 19090. No. 35. The Desmodium Aphid, Microparsus variabilis n. sp. Entomol. News. p. 337. 1909. No. 36. Downy Psyllid of Alder, Psylla floccosa n. sp. Canadian Entomol. p. 301. I9g09. No. 37. The Pine-leaf Chermes. The Green-winged Chermes. Maine Agr. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 171. 1909. No. 38. . The Fungus Gnats of North America. Me. Agr. Expt. Station Bulletin 172. No. 39. Chermes of Maine Conifers. Me. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 173. HISTORICAL NOTES. Xi OFFICIAL INSPECTIONS, 1909. No. 7. Standards for beverages. No. 8. Bleached flour, benzoate of soda, sulphur dioxide, ice cream standards, flavoring extracts. No. 9. Fertilizer Inspection. Analyses of Manufacturers Samples. No. 10. Feeding Stuff Inspection. No. 11. Soda and cream of tartar, sweet corn, maple sugar, spices and pepper, sweet spirit of nitre, rice, alcohol. No. 12. Text of the laws regulating the sale of: Agricultural seeds, apples, creamery glassware, feeding stuffs, fertilizers, and foods and drugs. No. 13. Coffee, gelatine, sweet oil, honey. No. 14. Food and Drug Law Standards and Regulations. No. 15. Apples, catchup, cocoa, extracts, spirit of nitrous ether, oysters. No. 16. Thickeners for ice cream, jams, jellies, preserves, chemicals in food, whiskey, and rice. No. 17. Seed Inspection, 1909. No. 18. Analyses of drugs. The druggist and the law. CHANGES IN STAFF. June 30, 1909, Prof. F. L. Russell, resigned from the Station Staff to devote his whole time to teaching in the University. Doctor Russell had been a member of the Experiment Station staff since its reorganization and enlargement in 1888. Frank D. Sterry, Laboratory Assistant in Plant Pathology resigned from the Experiment Station June 1, 1909. Miss Joanna C. Colcord, Assistant Chemist; Miss Annie M. Snow, Clerk and Stenographer to the Director; Mr. R. C. Gellerson, Inspector, resigned from the Experiment Station staff June 30, 1g09, and Mr. Joseph F. Merrill, Assistant Chemist, resigned December 6, 1909. July 1, 1909, Mr. Albert G. Durgin, M.’ S., was appointed Assistant Chemist; Mr. Harry M. Woods, A. B., Assistant to the Director; Mr. Wellington Sinclair, Superintendent of High- moor Farm; and Mr. John Summers as Laboratory Assistant in Plant Pathology. Fan te ee ce ee ee waa Xil MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. September 1, 1909, Oscar A. Johannsen, Ph.D., came to the Station as Associate Entomologist, and Mr. Walter W. Bonas, B. S., as Associate Horticulturist. September 1, 1909, Mr. Charles J. Dunn of Orono succeeded Hon. I. K. Stetson of Bangor as Treasurer of the Station. BULLETIN No. 164. NOTES ON PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. W. J. Morse. In connection with the regular lines of investigation under- taken by the Plant Pathologists of this Station certain minor problems are encountered and studied which of themselves are not of sufficient importance to merit treatment in a separate bulletin. It also seems desirable to record observations upon the yearly prevalence and distribution of the more important plant diseases and any new or unknown troubles which appear, par- ticularly with reference to the apple and potato, around which the major part of the work in this department now centers. This bulletin has to do with certain subjects of this nature, based largely upon the work of the current year. The following topics are considered. eee Diseases Of the Years.¢.i. 0 kes ahe ces ees Dp. I Menara Miseases of the Year... 5.0... 0608 b ed. eee Dp. 3 The Development of Scab on Limed Potato Soils... ..p. 4 Self-boiled Lime-sulphur as a Substitute for Bordeaux MARGE VION APPLE SCAM At we) Geet t db Moet bec dfs Dp. 9 Weather Records in Relation to Winter Injury of Fruit re PS ILM ATS NE Ae tA Cn homey Sedo ey)n Dp. {2 Crotch Injury of Apple Trees Catise by Weather Con- SPIES NETS ei Laie Moke Redoute Kic sfeloe fw Da od ok p. Ly, Member Injury of the White Pine in 1908.........6... Pp 21 Potato DISEASES OF THE YEAR. Leaf Blights. Wate blight, Phytophthora infestans, did prac- tically no damage in Maine, even on unsprayed fields, during the summer of 1908. This was due to the fact that dry weather conditions prevailed over much of the State during the summer. 2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. However, in the portions of the State where potatoes are the main commercial crop this lack of rain was not enough to reduce the crop, but just sufficient to hold the late blight in check. Early blight, Alternaria solani, on the contrary found ideal conditions for development upon the plants already weak- ened by dry weather, and consequently did much damage on all but the most thoroughly sprayed fields. This was particularly the case in the central and western parts of the State where the drouth was more severe and spraying is less generally practiced. Stem and Tuber Diseases. Last year the occurrence of a stem and tuber disease new to Maine was noted and the appear- ance of the affected plants described under the name of Black- leg.* te It was stated that the evidence so far obtained indicates that the disease is of a bacterial nature. During the past summer, cultures of bacteria have been isolated from stems of potatoes attacked by black-leg, which are able to cause a rapid and com- plete decay of potato tubers and, on inoculation, have produced the characteristic black-leg disease of the stem, thus confirming the diagnosis. The organisms thus secured are now being studied. Another disease of the stem and tuber which is usually desig- nated as the Fusarium dry rot caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum, Schlecht. has been found for the first time in Maine during the past summer. It is well known that this dis- ease,.and it is probable that black-leg as well, is disseminated by means of seed tubers from infected fields, therefore, tubers from fields showing either of these diseases should not be used for seed. Fortunately neither disease is very widely distributed in Maine, and prompt measures taken at this time will restrict their spread and possibly lead to their eradication. Both the Fusarium dry rot and black-leg are fully described in a circular issued by the Station, entitled How to Fight Potato Enemies. This circular can be obtained by any potato grower or dealer on request addressed to the Experiment Station. Maine seed potatoes are probably as free from such diseases as any which are shipped South for planting and the writer believes that for many reasons they are much cleaner in this respect than * Me. Exp. Sta. Bul. 140, p. 323. = a PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 3 those raised for like purposes in many other parts of the coun- try. However, in order to have these conditions prevail growers and shippers of seed potatoes should at once learn to recognize both of these diseases and not knowingly ship potatoes intended for seed purposes from any fields showing either disease. If any doubt should arise as to whether either disease exists on a given field, specimens of the affected plants should be at once sent to the station. ORCHARD DISEASES OF THE YEAR. On account of the appointment of Dr. Charles E. Lewis as associate pathologist, beginning July 1, it has been possible to commence certain lines of work on orchard diseases which have been under consideration since the Department of Plant Pathol- ogy was established two years ago. Comparatively little was known as to the nature and extent of Maine orchard diseases, and preliminary to opening up studies of a more fundamental nature upon the fungi associated with certain apple diseases Doctor Lewis has isolated many cultures from spots on apple leaves, collected by himself and the writer, and representing nearly every part of the State were the apple is grown to any extent. From an equally representative territory cultures have - been obtained from decaying apples either on the tree or in stor- age. The more important results in connection with this work will be given by Doctor Lewis in a later publication. It is sufficient at this time to say that Maine appears to have in varying degree a relatively large number of the fruit rots which have been described as occurring on the apple in different parts of the United States. Among them may be mentioned those caused by the following fungi:—Sphaeropsis malorum Pk. (black rot), Glomerella rufomaculans (Berk.) Sp. & von Schr. (bitter rot), Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrt. (brown rot), Cepholothecitum roseum Corda. (pink rot), and species of Peni- cellium, Botrytis, Rhizopus and Alternaria. In addition at least 4 other apple rots have been encountered, a part of which are caused either by what are apparently undescribed species of fungi or fungi which are not listed as causing apple decay. Only preliminary work has been done in testing by inoccula- tion of fruit with fungi isolated from leaf spots, but at least 3 ; : 4 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. of these including Spaeropsis malorum, have been found to pro- duce decay of the fruit. On account of the general lack of spraying, apple scab, caused by Venturia inaequalis (Cke.) Alderh., probably does more to reduce the profits from Maine orcharding than any other dis- ease. During the winter of 1907-08 hundreds of barrels of Maine apples which were quite free from scab when placed in storage were found to be in the condition represented by Fig. t when taken out after six or eight weeks—quite thoroughly covered with small black specks, usually smaller than those shown in the photograph. This condition was new to the writer and none of the orchardists consulted had experienced a like trouble before.* Microscopic examination and cultures from the diseased spots invariably showed the apple scab fungus and nothing else. ‘This abnormal development of scab was doubtless due to several factors, the principal one being that the entire growing and harvesting season was very wet, and the vegetative development of the fungus continued up to and during the har- vest time. The moist apples, covered with spores, were then placed in rather warm cellars, resulting in the infection of the fruit and the formation of the small scab spots in storage. In view of all that has been written and published on the com- mon diseases of the apple, here mentioned, it hardly seems nec- essary to remind Maine orchardists that much of the loss result- ing from fungi is unnecessary and can be avoided by proper and comparatively inexpensive treatment. ‘To any who request the Station will send a circular on How to Fight Apple Enemies. THe DEVELOPMENT OF ScaB Upon Limep Porato Solts. In Bulletin No. 149 attention was called to the fact that while liming had proven very beneficial to the clover and grass crops in Aroostook County that it should be applied with caution to potato soils in short rotations on account of its liability to largely increase the amount of potato scab.t The following is a brief summary of an experiment therein reported. * Prof. F. C. Sears of the Mass. Agricultural College has lately told the writer that this development of scab in storage is not uncommon on stored apples in Nova Scotia. 7 Me. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 149, p. 316 (1907). — Fic. 1. Apple Scab Produced in Storage. Fic. 2. Crotch Injury of Apple Trees. PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 7 On the John Watson farm in Houlton a series of alternate half-acre plots? were treated by the application of 1000, 500 and no lime per plot respectively, and stocked with clover and oats in the spring of 1905, an untreated check plot lying between each two limed plots. In 1907 a strip sufficiently wide to allow the planting of 5 rows of potatoes was plowed across the middle of these plots and at right angles to them. At maturity the potato crop on these plots was harvested and carefully sorted for scab, care being taken to avoid as far as possible, any cross infection or mixing of soil in the different plots. The results obtained were as follows :— Treatment 1000 lbs. lime 500 lbs. lime no lime iPGicent Of Scab Of crop ......-.. 49 2, Lt The above results were so striking that it seemed worth while to continue the experiment for another year by replanting the same and also planting another equal strip, along side, which was in grass last season. ‘Therefore, one series of potato rows running across the lime plots at right angles was on land which since the application of lime had been one year in oats, one year in grass and clover, and one year in potatoes fertilized with 1200 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre and will be designated as the second year potato crop. The other given below as first year potato crop was on land adjoining and parallel to the first, like it in every way as to soil and treatment except that it had been one year in oats and two years in grass and clover since the lime was applied. As in 1907, untreated, clean seed tubers were used for plant- ing, and 1,200 pounds of high grade potato fertilizer applied per acre. On digging, the two rows at the junction of the potato plots were rejected as was the crop on all the rows for about 15 feet on either side of the junction of the limed with the check plots in the original grass land. In sorting, all tubers showing plainly marked scab spots were placed in that class. The follow- ing is a summary of the result obtained. {In the previous report the plots were given, through error, as acre plots, thus making the amount of lime per acre one-half what it really was. 8 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT S/TATION. 190g. SECOND YEAR POTATO CROP. Treatment 1000 lbs. lime 500 lbs. lime no lime Per CSME OL SCA Oil GRODaseo 5050 go 48 13.6 FIRST YEAR POTATO: CROP. Treatment 1000 Ibs. lime 500 lbs. lime no lime Per CSTE Ct SCA. CM SHO boce0000- 52 By 6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. As in the previous year the results were quite uniform as well as clean cut and conclusive on the different plots, there being very little variation in. plots receiving the same treatment. Taken together the figures cbtained during both seasons seem to point to the following definite conclusions with regard to the development of scab on heavily limed Aroostook potato soils. First, that the effect of the lime on the amount of scab is fully as great at the end of three years in grass as at the end of two years. In fact the amount of scab on the plots receiving 1000 pounds per acre was IO per cent greater on the land laid down for three years compared with the results obtained’ in 1907 on similar adjoining land laid down for two years. Adjoining plots receiving 2000 pounds of lime per acre, however, have practi- cally the same results 49 per cent and 52 per cent of scab the first year in potatoes, at the end of two and three years respect- ively after liming. Second that, on limed soils, scab is largely increased by plant- ing two successive crops of potatoes. In the present instance where a ton of lime per acre was used the per cent of scab increased from 49 per cent in 1907 to 90 per cent or almost double, in 1908, and where one-half ton of lime was used the per cent of scab increased from 27 per cent the first year to 48 per cent the second year on the same ground. In this connection it is interesting to note that on the unlimed plots there was only a slight increase in the amount of scab the second year in potatoes, and this fully within the limits of experimental error. However, this should not be accepted as conclusive evidence for it 1s a matter of common observation that the second crop in succession on infected ground is as a rule more scabby than the first crop. PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 9 The first year unlimed plots showed quite a marked falling off in the amount of scab as a result of the extra year in grass. The average for these plots was 6 per cent of scabby tubers as com- pared with 11 per cent in 1907 and 13.6 per cent in 1908 on the adjoining second year plots. For a discussion as to the methods of handling soil or seed to prevent the introduction of scab and the treatment of land already infested the reader is referred to the following publica- tions of this Station: Bulletins 141 and 149 and the special cir- cular entitled “How to Fight Potato Enemies.” The former bulletin is now out of print but the two latter publications will ° be sent on request. Another matter was noted in connection with the yields on the two portions of the field which is of practical importance to the potato grower. There was a marked falling off in the yields on the same land growing the second crop of potatoes in suc- cession as compared with that growing the first crop of potatoes, although 1200 pounds of high grade potato fertilizer had been applied for each crop. The former gave slightly less than 83 per cent of a full crop as compared with the latter, or 90 and 109 barrels per acre respectively. SELF-Boi,ED LIME-SULPHUR AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR BORDEAUX MIxtTurE FoR APPLE SCAB. Bordeaux mixture has been found to be the most effective agent as a treatment for and as a preventative of the common leaf and fruit diseases of the apple, but unfortunately it occasionally causes injury to fruit and foliage. This matter of bordeaux injury, or “spray injury” to apple trees as it is commonly called, has been made the subject of quite exhaustive inquiry by Hed- tick.* The reader is referred to his report on the subject for a detailed discussion of the nature, causes and prevalence of spray injury. With regard to the continued use of bordeaux mixture on apple trees he summarizes his conclusions as follows :— “Bordeaux mixture is the best fungicide known to the apple grower. Its use cannot be given up in fighting the apple scab, * Hedrick, U. P. Bordeaux Injury, Bulletin 287, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1907. IO MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Igog. even though it causes some injury, apple scab causes a far greater loss than Bordeaux injury.” At the same time there is need for a fungicide which will pro- tect fruit trees from fungus diseases and yet never injure the fruit and foliage. From the published results of preliminary experiments made by Scott of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, self-boiled lime-sulphur appears to have considerable merit in this respect.t In experiments conducted at Bentonville, Arkansas, the self-boiled lime-sulphur was found to be equally as effective as bordeaux mixture in treating the bitter rot of apple caused by Glomerella rufomoculans (Berk.) Sp. and von Schr. It also appeared to be effective in controlling leaf-spot caused by Sphaeropsis malorum Pk., and caused no injury to the leaves. Its use on the more tender foliage of the peach at Koshkonong, Missouri, produced no injury and at the same time was very much more effective in controlling peach rot and scab. Bordeaux mixture, applied at the same time, was so injurious to the peach foliage that most of the leaves dropped off after the second application. In view of the promising results recorded above it seemed advisable to at once make tests of this new fungicide as a pre- ventative of apple scab,—Venturia inaequalis (Cke.) Aderh.) Accordingly in 1908 a small orchard, consisting of about an acre, planted to four or five varieties of apples on land in Orono owned by Director Woods was very kindly set apart for these tests. As originally planned one-half of the orchard was to be sprayed with bordeaux mixture (3-3-50 formula) and one-half with self-boiled time-sulphur mixture using hot water in preparation. However, after the first application, a letter was received from Mr. Scott advising the comparison of hot and cold water in making the latter preparation.* Therefore, one- half of the lime-sulphur plot on the second and third application was sprayed with a mixture prepared with hot water and one- half with a mixture prepared with cold water. + Scott, W. M. Address before the American Pomological Society, Sept, 1907, Circula, No; 1m) Bureaw of Plant Industry, U.S DieAy April, 1908. * This, on account of the fact that he had found that where the lime is exceptionally good, enough sulphur can be brought into solution with hot water to slightly burn the foliage. et he lee cyan, # - PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. II The lime-sulphur mixture was prepared as follows :— 15 pounds of fresh stone lime was placed in a 50 gallon barrel and a 3 gallon bucket of boiling water poured over it with con- stant stirring. As soon as the lime began to slake 10 pounds of sulphur was poured over it and then another bucket of water added with continual stirring with a hoe, being careful not to allow the lime to burn. When the lime appeared to be nearly all slaked but while the mixture was still boiling violently the barrel was covered with several thicknesses of burlap and then with boards, and allowed to remain closed for one hour. The mix- ture was then diluted, strained? the same as bordeaux mixture, made up to 50 gallons and at once sprayed on the trees. In the letter already referred to Mr. Scott stated that later experiments showed that to pounds of lime to 10 pounds of sulphur served the purpose as well as 15 pounds, therefore the smaller amount was used in making the mixture for the two latter sprayings. The trees were sprayed three times,—May 14, just as the leaves were unfolding, June 10, shortly after the blossoms had fallen and again on July 6. A part of one row of trees in the center of the orchard was left unsprayed for a check. Neither spray produced any visible injury to foliage or fruit. Both adhered well to the trees, the bordeaux somewhat the best. Some of the spray in both cases could be seen on the limbs and leaves when the apples werc picked, and with the Bordeaux on some trees it showed so plainly that it was necessary to wipe the fruit. Unfortunately many of the trees of the varieties susceptible to scab failed to set fruit so that it was impossible to secure apples from several trees illustrating each treatment as was intended. The best that could be done was to select four Fameuse trees, one from «ach lot, bearing on an average some- what less than a barrel apiece. The fruit was picked and very carefully sorted by a class of University students under the direction of Professor V. R. Gardner. The per cent of fruit free from scab was as follows :— Treatment 3-3-50 Self-boiled Self-boiled Unsprayed bordeaux lime-sulphur, lime-sulphur, check hot water cold water Per cent of fruit free from scab 50 33 16 I +A strainer with the bottom placed at an acute angle was found particularly well adapted for this purpose. ee 12 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Obviously it would be unwise to draw very definite conclu- sions from the limited data provided above. However, taken in connection with the results obtained by Scott in treating bitter rot and leaf spot of the apple, it seems safe to conclude that self-boiled lime sulphur mixture has considerable value as a pre- ventive of apple scab. It is at least promising enough so that any orchardist who has trouble with bordeaux injury would do well to give the lime-sulphur treatment a thorough trial.* From the comparison of single trees the lime-sulphur mixture pre- pared with hot water was twice as effective as that prepared with cold water, the former approaching bordeaux mixture in efficiency. Attention should be called to the fact that the per- centage of scab free apples was low in all cases—even with the bordeaux mixture much below the average. In that respect the experiment was disappointing. Doubtless a 5-5-50 bordeaux would have produced better results. The large amount of scabby apples, 99%, on the unsprayed trees, indicates that the fungus was very prevalent in the orchard. If the trees had been given two extra sprayings—one early in the spring before the buds started and another about June 20—much better results might have been obtained. WEATHER RECORDS IN RELATION TO WINTER INJURY OF FRUIT TREES. It is well known that there is a wide variation in the ability of various plants to withstand low temperatures. Certain tropi- cal plants have been known to die of cold at temperatures of from +35° F. to +45° F., while some arctic plants have been known to withstand cold to the extent of —76° F. With fruit trees, particularly apples, we know that there is also consider- able variation in hardiness in different varieties of the same species. It is admitted that such factors as the condition of the * Sulphur can be purchased of wholesale druggists in Bangor for 5c. per pound in 25 pound lots and 4c. per pound in 100 pound lots, there- fore aside from the extra labor involved in preparation self-boiled lime sulphur mixture should cost but little more if any than bordeaux mix- ture. PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 13 soil, whether moist or dry, frozen or thawed, the amount of water in the tissues at the time low temperatures occur, the abruptness of temperature changes, the rapidity of thawing, the direction and character of preaviling winds, e. g. as influencing the rate of evaporation and conseuqent drying of the tissues, all enter into the question of winter-killing. It is true that these factors along with the intense cold doubtless more often cause the death of trees through stoppage of the upward water cur- rent and through its removal from the cells, or cell walls, thus bringing about conditions simulating those of drouth in summer, yet we cannot get away from the fact that: “The capacity of withstanding intense cold is a specific property of the pro- toplasm of certain plants*****.”* There is than a certain mini- mum temperature below which a given variety of apples, pears, or plums, cannot be expected to endure. Therefore it is a mat- ter of fundamental importance to the fruit grower, first to know as closely as possible the approximate zero point of a certain variety and, secondly, the probable lowest range of temperature of the region in which he wishes to plant, based upon recorded observations extending over as many years as possible. Unfor- tunately very little data of this nature is available, therefore it is hoped that the following article will be of some value in this respect. Maine being on the northern limit of commercial apple grow- ing not infrequently the orchards suffer from severe low tem- peratures and abrupt changes of winter weather. Prof. W. M. Munson notes that in the winters of 1903-04 and 1904-05 the orchards of the State experienced greater injury from condi- tions of this kind than during the twenty years immediately preceding.+ With only one year for recovery this was followed by the most disastrous winter in the history of Maine orchard- ing, that of 1906-07. The amount of this injury is indicated by the following, quoted from a report of a census of the injured orchards carried out under the direction of Prof. E. F. Hitch- ings, State Entomologist aad undertaken at the instance of Hon. A. W. Gilman, Commissioner of Agriculture :— * Schimper, Dr. A. F. W., Plant-Geography upon a Physiological Basis, English Translation, p. 41. Clarendon Press, Oxford, (1903). t Me. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 128, p. 73, 1906. = 14 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. mcreKck there were 950 orchards inspected with a total of 443,184 trees. The number killed outright was 24,613 or about 5.5 per cent. A safe estimate of the number injured would be at least 25,000 more. So that 11 per cent of the whole number of trees were killed or injured in 950 orchards.” + Farther than this many of the trees which were injured did not recover sufficiently, partly on account of a heavy bearing year, follow- ing, so that they were able to withstand the following winter of 1907-08, therefore, it is probable that if the census had been taken again in the summer of 1908 the percentage of trees killed _ directly or indirectly by the winter of 1906-07 would have been found to be much greater than above quoted. The writer has elsewhere discussed in some detail the causes which led to the large amount of winter killing in a single sea- son*.. It is sufficient for our present purpose to state that after a careful inspection of the weather records at Orono throughout the fall, winter and spring of 1906-7 it seemed that conditions which preaviled for a single week near the middle of January were responsible for the injury, although it was doubtless increased by the low temperature of —28° F and —25° F recorded on Feby. 24, and March 1, respectively. Figure 3 shows graphically the daily maximum and minimum fluctuations in temperature in degrees Fahrenheit during the last 23 days of this month. The observations were made at 2 P. M., using official instruments. As a rule the minimum record is the tem- perature of the early morning and the maximum that at about or a little earlier than the hcur of observation. Particular attention should be called to the fact that the two lowest records of the seascn —40° F. and —35° F., are only 7 days apart and midway between them come two consecutive days with records of +45° F. and +47° F. Moreover these changes were quite abrupt, particularly on the 21st when from 2 P. M. to sometime before sunrise the next morning there was a fall in temperature of 60° F., or in other words a change from 15° F. above the freezing point to 45° F. below the freezing point in 12 or 15 hours. Following this in 48 hours is the sec- ¥ Sixth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, p. 282, (Augusta, 1907). * Proceedings of the Maine Pomological Society. pp. 36-46. 1907-8. PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. Sram Fic. 3. Maximum and minimum temperatures in degrees 7 mana Me., fac? 14-31, 1907. 16 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. ond lowest record of the season, —35° F., another drop of 52° F. between observations. During the ten days following it will be seen from the figure the temperature ranged quite low, the mean for this period being only slightly above zero F. Iyxcept on the 25th these ten days were clear and the prevailing wind was northwest, although not excessive. The weather records at Orono for nearly 40 years, 1869 to December 1, 1908, inclusive give 23 months with a minimum record of -25° or lower, ‘these occurring in 15 different years. Only eight are -30° F. or below. January, 1878, with a mini- mum of -35° F. and December, 1890, with -36.3° F. are the only records through the period which in any way equal those of January, 1907, in severity. It is unfortunate that there are no authoritative records for winter-killing at hand aside from the winters of 1903-4, 1904-5, 1906-7 and 1907-8. We have the statement already quoted that the injury during the two first mentioned winters was greater than for 20 years previous. It is quite suggestive, however, to compare the records for these two winters with others in which no injury is reported. Twenty-six degrees below zero F. is given as the minimum for both January and February, 1904. Similar conditions, -27° F. for December, 1904’ and -30° F. for January, 1905, are recorded for the next winter. For six years previous there had been no monthly minimum below -23° F. and for 35 years previous to this only four years, 1873, 1887, 1894 and 1898, showed two con- secutive months with a minimum of -25° F. or lower, although a number of instances during the period are recorded where the minimum temperature for a single month was as low or lower than this. As has been said there are no available data to the amount of winter-killing during these years. During the winter of 1906-07 in Maine the Baldwin and Ben Davis, winter-killed much more than any other varieties, although Northern Spy, Greening and several other varieties suffered more or less severely, according to the location, slope, and drainage of the orchard. At Orono, where the weather records were taken, and at several other places, not even the hardy Russian varieties escaped without considerable injury. It should be recognized that the above data are valuable simply as a matter of record, and any attempt to draw general PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 17 conclusions from them would be fallacious. However, taken in connection with common experience it seems safe to say that it would be a matter of considerable hazard to invest much money in attempting to grow any but the most hardy varieties of apples in those portions of the State where the lowest winter tempera- ture frequently reaches or approximately reaches -30° F. Again it may be said that the grower who confines himself to Baldwins, and possibly Ben Davis, except in the mildest parts of the State, e. g., where the minimum winter temperature, repeated at frequent intervals, seldom reaches below -20° F., or at the utmost -25° F., must expect greater losses than his neighbor who plants most any of the other commercial varie- ties grown in Maine. , It is admitted that other states farther south frequently suffer nearly as much from winter killing of apples but it should also be remembered that this is probably due to frequent and abrupt _ changes from severe cold to mild weather, these changes being more common than is the case with the climate of Maine. Crotcu Injury oF APPLE TREES, CAUSED BY WEATHER CoNDITIONS. In the spring of 1907 the writer was called to Dover, Maine, to examine an orchard of about 1200-1500 trees from 8 to 12 years old. On the lower portions of this orchard many of the trees were plainly winter-killed, including 5 to Io per cent of the whole orchard. Quite frequently trees could be found with “frost patches” or portions of the bark killed and loose on the more exposed parts of the larger limbs and trunk, but the most characteristic thing about this orchard was the constant occur- rence of the crotch injury illustrated by Fig. 2. This occurred to a greater or less degree on probably 75 per cent of the trees in the orchard, the varieties being largely Ben Davis, and Stark. ‘The bark showed every appearance of recent death, with no invasion of fungi, neither were there any scars, cankers, or other evidence of past injuries of this kind. The dead bark was drying down and cracking away from the healthy portion— it was too early in the season to see evidences of attempts to heal the wounds. The owner, an_ intelligent and careful 18 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. observer—a business man who for the sake of out of door work had spent all of his spare time for several years in giving this orchard his personal attention and care—was confident that nothing of this kind had appeared on any of the trees before. Whetzel has shown * that not only can injuries to the bark and cambium which are usually called “sun scald” and “winter injury” be caused by the pear blight organism Bacillus amylo- vorus Burrill, but a crotch injury as well, which very closely resembles that which is here figured and discussed. It was thought at first that this was possibly the same trouble as he described, but careful observation followed up for two seasons leads to the conclusion that it is an entirely different trouble— simply an unusual form of “winter injury” or “frost patch.” In this connection it should be remarked that the thousands of apple trees in Maine which in the summer and fall of 1906 appeared perfectly healthy gave ample evidence in the spring and summer of 1907 that winter-injury or frost patches are very real things and can occur independently of bacteria or fungi.t In addition to the reasons already given the following may be cited as showing that probably adverse weather conditions and not fungi or bacteria are the cause of the crotch injury in this instance. Examination showed that crotch injury was almost universally found in previously healthy orchards which in the spring and summer following the severe winter of 1906-07 showed a large percentage of dead or dying trees. It was very common in hundreds of orchards where the injury was present largely in the form of frost patches on the limbs or trunks, but where there was every reason to believe the trees were perfectly healthy the season before. Orchards owned by the University and by Director Woods of the Station furnished excellent opportunity for personal observation upon this point. These had been given the best of care and attention. Both were in very healthy condition up to this time. There is positive evi- dence that there were no cankers, or dead areas on the limbs or in the crotches of these trees, previous to the winter of 1906-7. Both orchards had a large per cent of trees killed out- right and nearly all which were not killed were badly injured * Whetzel, H. H. Cornell Exp. Station, Bul. 236, 1906. + See pages 12-17 of this bulletin. PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 19 in the crotches and showed conspicuous dead areas on the limbs and smaller portions of the trunks. In the Woods orchard a solid acre of Spys about 8 years old which were perfectly healthy in the fall showed in the spring every tree, either killed or so badly injured that they put forth a few leaves and then died. Crotch injury and frost patches were a very constant occurrence on these trees. An adjoining acre of trees I5 or more years old, largely Mildings with some Russian varieties and a few pear trees, lost only a comparatively small number, but here again the crotch injury was very prevalent, more so than frost patches on the limbs. A very noticeable fact was that in this part of the orchard whole limbs or parts of the tree were killed only on the northwest side of the trees where most exposed to the cold winds. The bark on the northwest side of the trunks on nearly all of the trees in the northern row was entirely killed, while only a few like instances could be found in the remainder of this block of trees. Repeated attempts to isolate B. amylovorus from the injured crotches or limb patches only resulted in failure. Neither was there any constant association of a fungus with the patches, although various fungi, largely sapophytes, began to appear in the injured areas as the season progressed. The writer is per- fectly familiar with the appearance of bacterial blight of the pear, but after spending two and one-half years in Maine, has yet to see a case of pear blight in the State, and no specimens of this disease have been sent in to the Station during that time. This indicates that while the disease without doubt occurs in the State it is by no means common. At Orono all pear trees were killed by the winter but at Dov r there were several living pear trees growing along side of the crotch-injured trees. These showed no bacterial blight during the past two seasons which would not have been the case had the organism been present in sufficient quantities to cause the amount of crotch injury which appeared in the apple orchard. Since the crotch injury was coincident and almost invariably associated with the winter-killing resulting from the severe winter of 1906-07 and since it would seem that all other prob- able causes are eliminated it is fair to assume that it was in some way brought about by the same adverse weather condi- LDL 20 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I90Q. tions. Asa possible suggestion let us again refer to the weather records. We find a snow storm complicating matters just at the time of the thaw between the two low temperature records of the season. See Fig. 3, p. 15. On January 19 the maxi- mum thermometer read +20° F. and dropped off to only 2° F. toward night, when the weather changed and by 2 P. M. the next day the temperature was +45° F. Four inches of snow fell in the afternoon and night of the 19th, but with the rising temperature this was probably of such a consistency as to load up and adhere to the trees particularly in the crotches. The storm stopped before morning, ending with a trace of rain but not enough to dispose of the snow. ‘The thermometer dropped to +10 on the night of the 20th following the record of +45° F. On the day following it rose again to +47° F. only to fall degrees F. during the night to —13° F. It seems then that the loading up of the trees with soft snow which later thawed some and suddenly froze again two days in succession, the second a very severe drop in temperature, gives conditions which may account for the crotch injury. ‘The crotches would be filled with greater or less deposits of ice which radiated heat with more rapidity than the parts of the trunk not so covered and caused the injury described. aad Correspondence with Prof. W. T. Macoun of the Central Experimental Farms, Ottawa, showed that he had observed the same trouble in various parts of the adjoining Provinces of Canada coincident with its occurrence in Maine. Without knowing that the crotch injury was being studied by the other both Prof. Macoun and the writer arrived at practically the same conclusion as to the cause, as will be seen from the follow- ing quotations kindly furnished by Professor Macoun from the forthcoming report of his Department for the year 1907. “Crotch Injury.—The effects of crotch injury have been very serious in the Province of Quebec and in some parts of Ontario in recent years. On examination it is found that in the center of the crotch and on the branches diverging from it, but close to it, the bark is dead. As a result of this killing in the crotch the tree loses its strength there, rot sets in and eventually the tree is destroyed by the loss of one limb after another at the crotch. This crotch injury is probably due to ice lodging in the PT POOR Tiptree ee Dy < eer on 8 PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 21 crotch. There are several theories as to why the ice should cause the bark to die. One is, that it acts as a lens and concen- trates the rays of the sun, causing a scalding of the bark. The position of the injured limbs alone would seem to be sufficient to show that this theory is not a good one. It seems more likely that the injury is caused by the softening of the bark by the melted snow or water before freezing, and that after freezing the bark which is, even before this probably tenderer than at any other part, owing to its being most shaded there in summer, is subjected to a severe frost and it and the cambium are both destroyed. One of the best means of preventing crotch injury is to grow trees with as little crotch as possible, training with a central leader.” WINTER INJURY OF THE WHITE PINE IN 1908. Coincident with the large amount of winter-killing of fruit trees in Maine there has also appeared a diseased condition of the white pine, particularly of those young trees which are springing up over waste lands and abandoned pastures and which are leading to a natural reforestation of these areas. The matter has received considerable attention from the public and agricultural press of the State. This naturally led to wide- spread and general alarm among owners of such young pine growth, and has influenced many who were contemplating plant- ing of pines on waste lands, to either give up the project or put it off indefinitely. This trouble has been known popularly as “pine blight” and apparently the term has been used to cover every condition of the tree which the observer considered to be abnormal from the normal, yearly death and shedding of the oldest set of needles on the twigs to the troubles herein described. The general notion exists that the so-called pine blight is due to some parasitic agency, although the cause attribmted is as varied as the number of writers on the subject. Fungi, various insects, gases from the sulphite mills, etc., are some of the causes assigned by different individuals in articles, correspond- ence or in conversation. There appeared to be a lack of definite information on the subject, based upon careful observation of the trees in the field 22 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. over any considerable portion of white pine area of the State. Therefore, the writer has made it a point to investigate the con- ditions with regard to the white pine in every part of the State to which his duties called him during the past season. Many acres of pine growth were examined, distributed over and giv- ing a pretty fair representation of that part of the State lying south of the Canadian Pacific Railroad except Franklin and Washington counties. The data thus gathered leads to the following conclusions, namely: ‘There are two well marked leaf trouble of the white pine in Maine. One, which consti- tuted nearly all of the so-called “pine blight” of the State in 1908, is plainly due to adverse weather conditions and while it may occur again at any time is only temporary and need not be feared like a contagious parasitic disease. The other the writer has found only in a few scattered localities, and, so far as observed during two seasons, is not spreading, at least not to an appreciable extent, and no single fungus parasite could be found constantly associated with the diseased needles. The rea- sons for these conclusions will be given somewhat briefly. The reader is also referred to the report for the current year (1908) of the Hon. E.. E. Ring, Forest Commissioner, State of Maine.* The discussion which follows should be distinctly understood to be confined to what has popularly been called “pine blight” in Maine and is not based on observations elsewhere in New England, although correspondence and other available informa- tion indicates that some of the trouble elsewhere may be due to similar causes.t The common, or practically universal leaf and twig blight of the pine in Maine observed by the writer in the spring and summer of 1908 was characterized by the sudden wither- ing and death of tufts of entire needles early in the spring, which needles soon turned a deep, rich, reddish brown. In cases of severe injury where entire trees were killed it was impossible at a distance to distinguish from scorching by fire. Young trees were invariably more severely affected * Morse, W. J. White Pine Blight in Maine. Rept. of Forest Com- missioner for 1907-08, p. 20, Augusta, 1908. ¥ Clinton, G. P. Rept. 14. Conn. Exp. Sta. p. 353, 1907; Stone, G. E. Rept. 20, Mass. Exp. Sta. p. 125, 1907. WINTER INJURY OF WHITE PINE. Small branches photographed October 7, 1908. a-a Injured tips of the twigs from which she Bee needles ne fallen. b-b Tufts of cone needles adeh started out late in PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. bo or than old trees. In fact, all other things being equal, the younger the tree the more severe the injury. Large trees only showed scattering tufts of dead needles and _ these usually only on the more exposed sides. In severe cases the twigs themselves were killed back several inches. In fact acres of young trees in some parts of the State which were apparently healthy in the fall of 1907 were entirely dead by the last of May, 1908. The most characteristic thing about the trouble was that the injury was usually confined almost wholly to the north and northwest sides of young trees growing in the open or somewhat scattered. As a rule young trees occurring in clumps or otherwise protected were injured only on the more exposed parts. Young pines—2 to 4 feet high—were frequently observed early in May on exposed hillsides with the branches on the north and west sides of the tree and the entire top dead while the lower, more protected branches on the south side were still green and apparently uninjured. Young pines which were badly injured when first seen in the spring were kept under observation during the summer and except in the few cases described later in this article where the trees, like those at Brunswick, were plainly affected with an entirely different trouble, there was no sign of disease on the needles formed the present year. The old needles and injured twigs gradually dropped off, and many trees by the first of September had the appearance of being severely pruned off on one side. About July first it was noted that in almost every case adventitious buds were showing and little tufts of new needles were forming near the base of the injury on each twig. This is shown by the accompanying photograph (Fig. 4) taken October 7. The new needles are not so long as those put forth in the spring but they are now (November 1908) entirely healthy, with no signs of disease. Nor was this injury confined to the pines alone, for spruces and firs and some other conifers showed the same trouble and in the same manner. It was especially severe in the case of the arbor vite. Hedges of this tree were practically exterminated in some localities. Microscopic examination by means of sections of the needles of affected pines and other conifers failed to show any parasitic 26 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. fungus constantly associated with the disease. In fact dead needles collected from the trees early in the season usually showed no signs of fungi of any kind.* An opportunity came to examine the roots of trees dug up out of an arbor vite hedge early in May. ‘The hedge was apparently healthy in the fall before but now the foliage appeared practically dead. ‘The roots appeared perfectly healthy when dug up and the leaves showed no sign of fungi upon them. It seems to the writer only a logical inference to attribute the injury above described to adverse weather conditions par- ticularly when we summarize the observations. “Pine blight” in 1907-1908 was coincident with the most destructive winter injury of fruit trees in the history of Maine orcharding. A similar trouble appeared to a greater or less extent on other conifers. ‘The disease which constituted the major part of the trouble did not begin in particular centers and gradually spread outward from them, but appeared simultaneously in all parts of the State wherever the pine thrives. It did not appear on the young needles during the summer but came on suddenly in the early spring. Only the young and actively grow- ing trees were badly attacked and these very much more severely on the sides exposed to the prevailing cold dry winds of winter. While it is possible for frost coming late in the spring to cause the death of young needles,? it is very improbable that low tem- peratures alone were responsible for the injury in this instance. The fact that the injury recorded in 1908, the milder of the two winters, was by far the most severe and widespread is entirely against this interpretation. It is more probable that the trouble may be accounted for as the result of excessive transpiration * Pine needles lying on the ground were usually quite thoroughly infested with saprophytic fungi. Late in the season these fungi were found in some cases to have spread to the dead needles still adhering to the trees. Examination of needles on the same trees earlier in the season failed to show any pustules on them and no mycelium within the tissues, except in an occasional instance. Spots on the needles of pines in the State due to fungus attacks can be found quite frequently but these were by no means constantly associated with the trouble here described. : t Hartig, R. Text-book of the Diseases of Trees. English transla- tion, by Somerville and Ward. p. 111 (London, 1894). : 2m a —— re ne Seat eee NS ee ——- PLANT DISEASES IN 1908. 27 bringing about a condition in the plant tissues comparable to drouth in summer. Leaves on conifers remaining on throughout the year remove more or less water from, the tissues all winter by transpiration. In the case of young, shallow- rooted trees the ground may be frozen to the depth and often below where the roots extend, thus effectually cutting off the upward current of water to the branches. Now if the tree is exposed to severe and long continued dry winds, particularly if accompanied by bright sunlight during a part of the day, the tissues may become sufficiently dried out in this manner as to injure them beyond recovery. The fact that the larger trees are deeper rooted, and their trunks much better protected against the radiation of heat.and the consequent stoppage of the upward current in them doubtless explains in a measure why the large pines suffered only slightly as compared with younger trees. As has already been stated there is another well marked pine leaf trouble in Maine. The writer has seen a few trees showing this disease in Brunswick, Winthrop and Orono, and has received specimens of the same thing from Lewiston. The Orono trees have been under observation for two years. The disease appeared on the young needles the second year much the same as when first observed, and in this respect as well as the general aspect of the diseased trees the trouble is decidedly dif- fernt from the winter injury. At Orono branches of healthy trees, interlocking with those of affected trees did not develop the disease either season. This disease is very well described in a circular issued in May 1908 by the United States Forest ‘Service and entitled “Extent and Importance of White Pine Blight.” “Trees affected by the blight may readily be recognized from the characteristic reddish-brown color assumed by the newest needles. The-tip of the needle is always affected first and needles with the base or middle turned brown but the tip green are practically never seen. The extent of the decoloration varies greatly in the different nedles, and in different trees; sometimes only the tip is affected, sometimes the whole needle. Attacked trees look as if they had been scorched by fire, or as if the tips of the needles had been dipped in reddish-brown dye.******** A tree which is attacked one year appears rarely to escape the next.” 28 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. “Trees of all ages and sizes whether growing in the open or in closed stands seem to be almost equally affected, with two “apparent exceptions: (1) Large full crowned trees with a diameter of 18 inches or more, standing in the open, seem to be rarely affected; and (2) trees in the interior of a dense stand seem to be more rarely affected than those near the edge. Otherwise the blight seems indifferent to the health or to the situation of the tree or to the character or moisture of the soil in which the tree is growing.” In the summary we find the following :— “So far the disease has done but little damage, but it has now obtained such a foothold that if it proves to be infectious it may have serious results. The cause of the trouble is still unknown. The situation is not one which calls for alarm, but simply for watchfulness and investigation.” In the above discussion nothing has been said with regard to the relation of insects to the present trouble affecting the pines. Fortunately the Station Entomologist, Miss Edith M. Patch, was making the study of certain forest insects one of her impor- tant lines of investigation during the past summer. Conse- quently she had the opportunity and did make quite careful observations on the insects of tHe pine, particularly those found _ on diseased trees scattered over extensive and widely separated areas in the State. In Bulletin 162, p. 366 Miss Patch after discussing various insects found upon the pine makes the following statement: “On account of the precarious condition of white pine in certain parts of the State considerable alarm has been aroused by vari- ous insects found upon the pine this season and indeed it has seemed as though an unusual number of species had taken advantage of the pines this year. Besides the standard borers to be continually reckoned with, the pine sawflies and pine leaf eating caterpillars have made noticeable inroads, while spittle insects and plant lice (Lachmus strobi and Chermes pinicorticis have been unusually prevalent. None of these insects, however, have been the cause of the ‘white pine blight,’ though several of them Chermes pinicorticis and spittle insects, Aphrophora parallela, for instance, have been in some cases conspicuously associated with the ailing trees.” BULLETIN No. 165. : POULTRY NOTES—1908. RAYMOND PEaARL and FRANK M. SURFACE. The purpose of this bulletin is to present a brief report of the progress of the work of the Station with poultry during the year 1908. In this year a number of changes were made in the material equipment of the poultry plant, and in methods. It is desirable that a record of these changes be made, as well as the results of certain specific experiments carried on during the year. In this account there will be no discussion of topics which are to appear in other Station bulletins. TECHNICAL STUDIES ON PouLtTRy ALREADY PUBLISHED. A considerable portion of the more technical scientific work of the department of biology of the Station, which has in charge the work with poultry, is published in current biological jour- nals, not readily accessible to the agricultural public. During the past year two papers of this sort directly relating to poultry have been published. One of these papers? is the first install- ment of the results of an investigation which is being made into the special physiology of egg production. The laying of an egg is a very complicated physiological process of which only the most general features are known. ‘The attempt is being made to determine the exact part in the process played by the ovary and each portion of the oviduct or egg tube. In the paper under discussion it is shown that a hen may lay a perfectly normal egg after the removal of a considerable portion of that part of the oviduct which secretes the white of the egg. The second paper * referred to deals with a related question regarding the physiology of the oviduct or egg tube. In this + Resection and End-to-End Anastomosis of the Oviduct in the Hen, without Loss of Function. Amer. Journ. of Physiology. Vol. 22. pp. 357-301. * Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl. I. Regulation in the Morphogenetic Activity of the Oviduct. Journ. Exper. Zool. 30 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9OQ. tube the egg shell is deposited and given its shape. Hens are often found which lay misshapen or malformed eggs. This paper deals with the result of an analytical study of a case in which a pullet began by laying a very abnormal egg, and grad- ually came to lay a normal egg. This change from an abnormal shape of the egg to a normal shape was found to follow a defi- nite mathematical rule. Studies are now in progress to find out whether the change in size of pullets’ eggs with continued laying follows the same rule. ‘The character of the eggs laid by the pullet under discussion is shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5. Showing the change in the shape of the successively laid eggs of bird No. 183. All the eggs shown were laid by this same bird. ‘The numerical order of arrangement on the plate is: Top row (beginning at left) eggs I, 2, 3, 4. Second row: Eggs 5,6, 7,8. Third row: . Eggs 9, 10, 11, 12. Fourth row: Eggs 18, 30, 42, 54. The eggs of this bird were saved until nearly 90 had been laid but as there was no essential deviation from the normal shape in the later ones they are not figured. The figures given show clearly the gradual change in the shape of the eggs from the very abnormal No. 1 to the normal No. 54. CHANGES IN EQUIPMENT AND PLANT. The changes which have occurred during the last year in the material equipment of the poultry plant will be noted under three heads, viz: 1. New buildings. 2. Modification of brooder houses. 3. A new trap nest. NEW BUILDINGS. In the summer of 1908 it became necessary to make some provision for the storage of the surplus supplies of grain which had to be carried at the poultry plant for feeding purposes. The needs of the plant had outgrown the space available. To meet this demand for storage space a two-story building was erected between House No. 2 and House No. 3.* This new house is 40 x 40 feet and contains, besides a main grain storage room, and a loft for the storage of brooders, surplus supplies of fence wire, and other miscellaneous material, an egg sorting and storing room and a fire room in which are placed hot water * See Bulletin No. 117 of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station for description and location of these houses. POULTRY NOTES. Fic. 5. 31 32 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I90O9Q. heaters for providing water for the use of the poultryman and for heating the poultry laboratory. This poultry laboratory occupies the whole north side of the ground floor of the build- ing. It consists of three rooms especially equipped for carry- ing on experimental studies of a physiological character on poultry. ‘The grain storage house is built in direct connection with House No. 2 and House No. 3 So that there is now an uninterrupted indoor passage way between the extreme ends of these houses. During the summer of 1908 it was decided to abandon the old heated house belonging to the poultry plant. This house has been described in previous bulletins of the Station under the designation of House No. 1. It has not been used in recent years for any other purpose than the storage of cockerels dur- ing the winter months. It was not a satisfactory house for the carrying over of laying birds, nor could it be used as a breeding house. It was turned over to the College of Agriculture of the University of Maine in the summer of 1908. It was then torn down and the material was used in the building of the poultry plant used by the College of Agriculture for instruction work. This disposition of House No. 1 left the Station plant with- out any space for the carrying over of any special classes of birds other than what was provided in Houses 2 and 3. It was deemed necessary to have in connection with the plant some sort of house in which sick birds could be isolated from the rest of the flock. To provide for this need a so-called “hospital” house was constructed. This house is 36x16 feet and is divided through the middle by a solid partition. ‘The western half of the house is constructed on the curtain front plan like a single unit of House No. 2 or No. 3 and is used as an isolation pen for sick birds. Whenever any bird in House No. 2 or House No. 3, in an egg laying test, or in any other experiment, appears to the attendant to be ailing in any particular it is at once trans- ferred to this isolation pen. There the progress of the ailment may be watched and treatment given to the bird if it is thought desirable. In any event the danger of spreading a possible infection through the general flock is avoided by this procedure. If the bird recovers its health and returns to an entirely normal condition it may then be taken back and put in its proper pen in House No. 2 or House No. 3. POULTRY NOTES. 33 The eastern half of the “hospital” house is divided into two rooms, both tightly sheathed with matched boards on both walls and ceilings. ‘These rooms are intended for use in the carrying out of experiments of a physiological character with poultry in which it is necessary to confine individual birds in separate cages. At the present time these rooms are being used in a study of digestion in poultry. In building this hospital house a number of features were introduced which differ from the plans followed in the con- struction of the other poultry houses of the Station’s plant. The house is set on 10 concrete posts high enough so that there is from 6 inches to a foot clear space under the floor timbers over the whole of the house. Concrete posts are also used to support the plank walk which runs along the front of the house. It is believed that this arrangement will materially lessen the’ trouble arising from the rotting out of floor timbers which has always prevailed in the houses where the sills rest on a more or less tight stone wall. An attempt was made in the construction of the “hospital” house to make it rat proof by filling in with cement the space from the top of the sills up to the level of the top of the floor between the outside boarding and the floor timbers clear around the house. This makes a rim of cement around the floor about 4 inches wide and 4 inches deep. It is felt that it will be difficult for a rat to gnaw through this and get into the space between the sheaathing and the boarding of the walls. Time alone, however, will tell how successful this scheme is in abating the rat nuisance. ‘This “hospital” house is located about three feet to the west of House No. 2 and in line with it. The appearance of the house is shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Front view of new “hospital” house. 34. MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. A MODIFICATION OF THE STATION BROODER HOUSE. As has been described in-previous bulletins, the Station raises its chickens in small brooder houses. Each one of these houses contains two Peep-O’-Day brooders. While these houses have been found in general to be satisfactory, there are some minor points in which they have not been entirely so. What is shown by our experience to be an improvement has recently been made in these houses by providing for better venti- lation. When the weather is very hot there is no movement of air within one of these houses, even though the door and win- dows are open. The air within the house is practically stag- nant, and on account of its relatively small volume, becomes intensely hot and stifling when the temperature outside gets high. The effect on the chicks under such circumstances is bad. They retreat to the house to get shade, but only to be injured if not killed entirely by the hot, stifling air of the house. To remedy this difficulty a slot 2 feet long and 1 foot wide has been cut in the back of each house high up under the eaves. ‘This slot is closed with a wooden slide, running in grooves, which is put on the outside of the house. The opening is covered on the inside with a 2” mesh chicken wire. On very hot days the slide is pulled out completely, so to expose the whole opening of the slot. At night, or during a period of wet, cold weather the size of the opening is regulated to suit the conditions. It enables one to keep a current of fresh air through the house in the warmest weather. The effect on the well-being of the chicks during a period of hot weather is most marked and satisfactory. All of the Station’s brooder houses have been equipped with these slots. A NEW, TRAP NEST. All the laying houses of the Experiment Station’s plant are equipped with trap nests. Experience showed that the type of trap nest which was formerly used suffered from several rather serious defects so far as accurate experimental work was con- cerned. It was felt that these defects could be eliminated in another type of nest. During the past year a new and simpler trap nest has been devised which works in a very satisfactory way both in respect to accuracy, certainty, and ease of operation. POULTRY NOTES. | 35 This new nest has now been installed throughout the plant. A complete description of it is given in a special circular which will be sent to anyone who may apply for it. Notes on NEw MErHops. Every progressive poultry plant whether conducted for experimental purposes or commercially is continually trying to improve its methods of management or devising new methods to meet new conditions which may arise. Certain new methods worked out at the Station are deemed of sufficient general inter- est to warrant description here. METHODS USED IN PEDIGREE POULTRY BREEDING. There is an increasing tendency in all stock breeding work to give closer attention to pedigree records than has hitherto been the case. All progress in breeding depends on having carefully pedigreed stock. The importance of this has been generally rec- ognized for the larger domestic animals, like horses and cattle, but it has not been recognized that it is equally important for small animals like poultry. The moment one begins to make any systematic attempt to breed a desired character such as high egg production into a strain of poultry, the keeping of accurate pedi- grees becomes absolutely essential. Furthermore such pedigrees must be known for both sides of the ancestry. It is not sufficient merely to take account of the female line and let the ‘male line go, but it is necessary for successful work to know the individual ancestors of both sexes. The Experiment Station is carrying on investigations in breeding for egg production. In this work it is necessary to know the individual ancestors of every bird. This is known at the present time for one genera- tion. ‘The band numbers of the mother and the father of every pullet put into the laying houses of the Experiment Station plant in the fall of 1908 are known. In order to rear poultry of known pedigree it is necessary to have methods particularly adapted to this kind of breeding work. During the last year special study has been made in the direc- tion of devising such methods and putting them on a practical basis. A bulletin (Bulletin No. 159) has been issued giving a detailed account of the methods and devices which the Station 36 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. has found to be useful in pedigree poultry breeding. This bulle- tin included an account of methods of leg banding newly hatched chicks, of incubating pedigree eggs in such a way as to be absolutely certain of the pedigrees of the chickens when they hatch from the eggs, and of keeping pedigree records in general. Anyone interested in putting their poultry breeding on a strict pedigree basis so that at any time they can tell the ancestry of their birds may obtain this bulletin on application to the Director of the Station. LIQUOR CRESOLIS COMPOSITUS AS A GERMICIDE AND , DISINFECTANT. There can be no doubt that one absolutely necessary supply about every well conducted poultry plant must be some sort of disinfecting solution. Furthermore, such a disinfectant ought to fulfill satisfactorily several requirements. In the first place, it must be inexpensive. Further, it must be powerful and cer- tain in its action even in dilute solutions. Finally, it must be of such a character as not to injure the birds if it, by accident or design, comes in contact with them. There are a great many commercial disinfectants on the market. Some of the most successful and widely used of these have either a phenol (car- bolic acid) or a cresol base. Many of these preparations are excellent and their excellence is attested by their very wide popularity among poultrymen. There is one objection, however, to all of them. ‘That is, that they are relatively expensive. The farmer or poultryman who uses them pays a good round price for the manufacture of something which he could manufacture himself, the only cost in that event being the cost for the raw materials. With this consideration in mind, it was felt to be desirable to experiment with the making of disinfecting solu- tions at the Station until one could be found which would com- bine the advantages which have been mentioned above together with ease and simplicity of manufacture. A number of such experiments were carried out during the past year. No useful purpose will be served by a detailed description of all these experiments, but we may proceed at once to the final conclusion - reached, namely, that, on the whole, the liquor cresolis compo- situs of the United States Pharmacopoeia most closely meets POULTRY NOTES. a7 the need for an ideal poultry plant disinfectant of anything now available: Experiments carried out by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the Department of Agriculture* have shown that bulk for bulk a solution of liquor cresolis compositus made from the least effective kind of cresol is on the average one and a half times as effective a germicide as carbolic acid. The experi- ments showed that this solution was one of the most powerful known germicides and disinfectants. The experience of the Station shows that in addition to the germicidal value of a cresol * solution, it has a very considerable value as a poultry insecti- cide. It has even been used with satisfactory results to rid hens of lice by direct spraying of the birds. A very small application in spray was found to rid a bird of lice without harmful effect to the bird itself.* Furthermore in the experience of the Sta- tion it is, when applied as a spray, very effective in ridding the houses, nests, etc., of lice. Liquor cresolis compositus, or as it may for convenience be called, cresol soap, may be easily manufactured by any poultry- man. ‘lhe only requisite is a careful attention to the details in the process and a rigid following of the instructions given below. In order to make clear the reasons for the method of manufacture which will be outlined it may be well to give some account of the nature of the substance itself. The active base or cresol soap disinfecting solution is commercial cresol. This is a thick, sirupy fluid varying in color in different lots from a nearly colorless fluid to a dark brown. It does not mix readily with water, and, therefore, in order to make satisfactorily a dilute solution of it is necessary first to incorporate the cresol with some substance which will mix with water and will carry the cresol over into the mixture. The commercial cresol as it is obtained, is a corrosive substance, being in this respect not unlike carbolic acid. It should, of course, be handled with great care and the pure cresol should not be allowed to come in contact * McBryde, C. N., The Germicidal Value of Liquor Cresolis Com- positus (U. S. P). Bur. Amer. Ind. Bulletin 100, pp. 1-24, 1907. * We do not recommend this method of ridding birds of lice because of the danger that the bird will take cold as a result of the wetting. This experiment was performed simply to test the value of the cresol solution as an insecticide under the most unfavorable conditions for its action. 38 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. with the skin. If it does so accidentally the spot should’ be immediately washed off with plenty of clean water. ‘The price of commercial cresol varies with the drug market. It can be obtained through any druggist. On the day that this is written the quotation on cresol in the New York market is 24c. per pound. In purchasing this article one should order simply “commercial cresol.” Since cresol will not mix with water some method of making it do so must be found if it is to be used as a disinfecting solu- tion. The plan which has been adopted is to make a cresol soap which shall be, like other soaps, soluble in water and at the same time carry over into the solution a considerable amount of the cresol. This is done in the following way. Measure out 4 quarts of raw linseed oil in a 4 or 5 gallon stone crock; then weigh out in a dish 1? lbs. of commercial potassium hydroxide or caustic potash, which may be obtained from any druggist at a cost of from Io to 15 cents a pound. Dissolve this caustic potash in one pint of water; let it stand for at least 3 hours until the potash is completely dissolved and the solution is cold; then add the cold potash solution very slowly to the linseed oil stirring constantly. Not less than five minutes should be taken for the adding of this solution of potash to the oil.. For 5 hours after mixing the oil and potash mixture (soap) should be stirred thoroughly about once every hour and then left standing for 10 or 12 hours. By the expiration of that time saponification should be complete. The soap should then be stirred and broken up into small pieces and 54 quarts of com- mercial cresol should be added. The soap will slowly dissolve in this cresol. It may take 2 days for complete solution to be effected. The length of time taken in dissolving will depend on the condition of the soap which in turn varies with different lots of linseed oil. When the soap is all dissolved the solution, which is liquor cresolis compositus or cresol soap is then ready to use. This cresol soap will mix in any proportion with water and yield a clear solution. As has been said, cresol soap is an exiemslly powerful disin- fectant. In the Station poultry plant for general purposes of disinfecting the houses, brooders, brooder houses, incubators, nests, and other wood wock, it is used in a I or 2 per cent solu- a POULTRY NOTES. 39 tion with water. Three tablespoons full of the cresol soap to each gallon of water will make a satisfactory solution. This solution may be applied through any kind of spray pump or with a brush. Being a clear watery fluid it can be used in any spray pump without difficulty. For disinfecting brooders or incubators which there is reason to believe have been particu- larly liable to infection with the germs of white diarrhea or other diseases the cresol may be used in double the strength given above and applied with a scrub brush in addition to the spray. The first consideration ia choosing a disinfectant must be its effectiveness. It is a poor sort of economy to use a disinfectant which costs little and will kill few or no germs. Taking into account its effectiveness in dilute solutions liquor cresolis compositus is believed to be one of the best and cheap- est germicides and disinfectants available. The Station is using it altogether in its own work, and feels justified in recommend- ing it to poultrymen. EGG RECORD SHEETS. The purpose of using trap nests is to obtain records of the performance of individual hens. The records obtained from such work only attain their highest value if they are kept in such form as (1) to be easy of reference, and (2) to combine a maxi- mum of detail with a minimum of space on paper. If large numbers of birds are trap nested it is not feasible to use the house records as the permanent records. The original records made in the poultry house must be transferred to some form of permanent record sheet. In 1908 the permanent records of egg production were trans- ferred to a loose leaf system in conformity with all other records taken in the poultry work.* A loose leaf record sheet (5” x 8”) was designed for the purpose. This sheet is shown in reduced facsimile in Fig. 7. It will be observed that one sheet holds the daily egg record of one bird for one year, together with a considerable amount of pertinent data respecting the egg pro- duction of her ancestors, and her own egg production after the pullet year. Spaces are provided for totals and sub-totals at the right hand side of the sheet. * Cf. Bulletin No. 150. | AO MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909Q. House No. HATCHED Birp No. Pen No. VARIETY 8 | 9 | 10) 11) 12) 13) 146) 15) 16 | 17) 18] 19} 20 gee SEE al eT Rea Ae ee aeeee FATHER'S MOTHER als | SUBJECT—2np YEAR | YEAR REMARKS Maine Agric. Expt. Station.-EGG RECORDS. SUBJECT—3rp YEAR FATHER FATHER'S FATHER MOTHER'S FATHER Fig. 7. Facsimile of permanent egg record sheet. Reduced about one-half. For the house records a weekly sheet is used ruled to accom- modate 50 birds on each sheet. These sheets are 8$” x 15%” in size. They have a 2” margin on the left for binding. The heading and arrangement of columns on one of these house sheets are shown in facsimile (reduced) in Fig. 8 Flouse No. ....... Per No... MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION D—Deap DAILY EGG RECORD B—Broopy YEAR LETTER O—RELEASED M—MOULT BEGUN WEEK BEGINNING X—BROKEN EGG Fig. 8. Facsimile of weekly house egg record sheet. Reduced. The additional columns at the right of this sheet are for inserting notes. At the bottom of the sheet lines are provided for eggs laid on the floor, and for daily totals. The band num- bers of the birds are put in on these sheets with a hand num- bering machine. POULTRY NOTES. AI SpASONAL DISTRIBUTION Or EGG PRODUCTION. It is, of course, a well known fact that egg production is not distributed equally over all seasons of the year. In general there is a tolerably close accord between egg production and the four seasons of the year—spring, summer, fall and winter. The usual relation in the northern part of the country is that pullets hatched in the spring begin to lay sometime in the late fall, and lay more or less well during the winter according to a variety of circumstances. In the early spring they begin to lay heavily and keep this up usually throughout the spring. In the summer the egg production drops off and, finally, in the fall, molting occurs and the production drops very low during the early fall months. The details regarding the ‘ seasonal distribution are well brought out if the average production for each month of the year be plotted as a polygon. Such a diagram has been pre- pared for this bulletin and is shown in Fig. 9. This polygon is based on the Station’s egg records collected during the past nine years. The average production for each month as plotted in the diagram is the weighted mean production for that month based on all the normal records which exist at the Station. In calculating these general means the average egg production for a particular year is weighted according to the number of birds which were trap nested that year, or, in other words, according to the number of birds which made the average. 42 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. 16 50 s 14 ty > © Si 49 = iS) S Bes Q lo aN ir 9S Q ~ & 8 30 & . ry wo > 6 ae NS Ky By 20 8 : 2 eit Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb Mar Apr May. TUN Juv. Aug. Sep. Oct Fig. 9. Diagram showing the average egg production in each month of the year based on nine years trap nest records. The egg production curve is given by a solid line. The dotted line represents the average maximum New York price of eggs for each month of the year 1907 as taken from the Crop Reporter. The scale of egg production is given on the left hand margin of the diagram. On the right hand margin is given the scale of egg prices in cents per dozen. This diagram shows that beginning with an average produc- tion of between 4 and 5 eggs in November the line rises rather sharply to an average production of nearly 12 eggs per bird in January. The line drops slightly in February, then rises very sharply to a maximum of a little more than 16 eggs per bird for the month of March. From March on the line drops very steadily forming almost a straight line until it reaches a low point in October. There is a slight deviation of the line upward in August and September marking a summer rise in egg produc- tion. It has been thought a matter of some interest to plot on this same diagram with the average monthly egg production line, a POULTRY NOTES. 43 line showing the price of eggs in the same months. This price curve is given by the dotted line and is based on New York market quotations for the year 1907 taken from the April, 1908, Crop Reporter. It will be seen that as is to be expected, the price line looks very much like the egg production line turned upside down. In the months when the egg production is high, the price of eggs is low, and vice versa. It is of interest to note that while the general form of the price curve is similar to that of the production curve turned upside down, yet there is a lag of the price curve behind the production curve. The explana- tion of this lag, of course, lies in such factors as rate of ship- ment, movement of sold storage eggs, and similar things. It is usual to attribute the most strikingly marked features of such egg production curves as that given in Fig. 5 to climatic influences. It is commonly said that when it begins to warm up in the spring the hens begin to lay better and the relationship between climate and egg production is thought to be a causal one. There is a tacit assumption that it is because it gets warmer in the spring that the hens lay more eggs in the spring. As a matter of fact there is strong evidence to show that the shape of the egg production curve is based upon deep seated biological factors rather than directly on these climatic changes. It is not the place here to go into an extensive discussion of the evidence on this point. Such evidence will be presented later in another publication. Whatever the cause of the unequal seasonal distribution of egg production may be the fact of its existence must be granted by all. If this fact be granted it immediately raises the question as to whether it will not be advantageous in studying the prob- lem of egg production in general to endeavor to use a time unit which conforms to the natural periodicity displayed by hens. In recent years it has been the custom in the discussion of egg production to make the unit one year. This custom has been followed in the work of this Station; in the egg laying com- petitions in South Australia, which have excited world wide interest, and by many other institutions and experimentors. It ‘is safe to say, however, that all experimentors and students of the subject of egg production have felt that the year was not in all respects an ideal unit for such studies. A serious objec- tion to it is immediately apparent if one makes a close study of A4 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. individual egg records. The total number of eggs laid by a bird in a year gives an inadequate and incomplete idea of her egg producing ability. Birds which make the same yearly total records are by no means always equivalent as egg producers. This fact can be easily shown by examples taken from the Station’s individual trap nest records. Some such illustrative examples are shown in able I. In this table are given the monthly egg records of four individual birds, each of which was an unusually high producer. In addition to the egg records there are given also (1) the price of a single egg in each month of the year based as before on the 1907 New York market quotations taken from the Crop Reporter, and (2) the total worth of the eggs laid by each hen in each month calculated on the basis of these prices. TABLE I. Table Showing the Distribution of Egg Production and the Worth of the Eggs Lad by Four High Producing Hens. 5 (Raa | oS oN | roy ee a0 | ep | oo. | S| 3 ap a oO} ir oD ao. |) et Xa) oo | Pl eRe cena ileal bas Beer alee I Sill AN Shon mbs is er taeel ene FNM Ole Gl 2. is ld Ueda eral ea eA Ae ee eae |e Soe ssc ce a Selle Sa) [sos S| Se ios! || Te Ses, ||) Gea 2 one ° See | ia | ou Gigs || 2) |) ac Ha} & | as|4a! a [ee = ame) a peste Aa) Ales | | = | 7 7 | | 0 | 4%e | | 0 | 4%c 0 | November..| 15 | 43c ) .625 | OW ae | 0 0| 4% | 0| 21 | 4%¢ | .875 | December..| 19 | 44¢ | .76 | 19| 48 | .76 15 | 3c | .45 | 22) 3c | .66 | January...) 13} 8¢ | .39 |19 | Be | 57 18 | 24c | .48 | 21 | 2%¢ | .56 | February...) 16 | 2%¢ | .43 | 20| 23| .53 | | | 25 | 24c | .63 | 20 | 24¢ | .50 | March...... 20 | 2i¢ | .50 | 2| 28 | 05 | | 25 | 1#¢ | 44 | 21 | 12¢ | 37 | April...... 26 | 1g¢ | .455| 19 | 12| .33 31 | 1g¢ | .54| 15 | 19¢ | 26 | May 14] 19¢ | .245 | 22 | 13 | .385 | | | j | | 231) 1B | Cae | om nee as. || diene, oss oo 18 | 1%¢ ':.30 | 28 | 12/| .47 | 4 i 24)\"24e | 252 | 7 | 24e || 15) | July....2.-|| 15 | 28c) |. 325 | 27 | 2a eense 8 | 24¢ | .20| 11 | 23c | .275 | August.....| 14 | 24¢ |: .85 | 23 | 23 | 575 | | | | | 19 | 22¢ | alail 3) 2267) 22 September..| 15 | 22¢ | 40 | 13 | 22 35 | | | 0 | 3f¢ | 0 | 17 | 3% | .64 | October....| 18 | 3%¢ | .675 | 12 | 32] 45 pes ey { | | | 193 '84.24/184 | $4.85 203 85.455 | 204) |$5.055 | ] bd od Let us consider first the two hens whose records are given in the left hand half of the table. Bird No. 7 laid in her pullet year (November 1 to November 1) 193 eggs. In the same POULTRY NOTES. 45 period bird No. 46 laid 184 eggs, that is, 9 less. In spite of the fact that No. 46 laid 9 fewer eggs than did bird No. 7, her eggs were worth 61 cents more in the year. The reason for this somewhat paradoxical fact that the hen that laid the smaller number of eggs was the 1,ore valuable, obviously arises from the fact that bird No. 46 iaid more eggs when the prices were high than did bird No. 7. Bird No. 7 was an extremely poor winter layer. On the other hand bird No. 46 was a fairly good winter layer. A similar relation is shown by the two birds in the right hand half of the table. Bird No. 379 laid in her pullet year 203 eggs while bird No. 505 laid 204 eggs. No. 379’s 203 eggs were worth on the basis of the prices used, $5.46, whereas bird No. 505’s 204 eggs were worth only $5.06—a difference of 40 cents in the cash production of the hens during the year. This result again is due, as is apparent from a detailed examination of the table, to the fact that No. 505 was a poor layer when prices were high and only succeeded in making her high total record by laying at a time of the year when eggs were worth very little. It is instructive to compare No. 379’s record with that of No. 7. No. 379 laid 10 more eggs in the year than did No. 7. No. 379’s eggs were worth, however, $1.22 more. In other words, the 10 extra eggs laid by No. 379 were worth on the basis of these figures rather better than 12 cents apiece. The figures given in this table show how important from a purely commercial standpoint is a consideration of the distri- bution of egg production as well as of total egg production. In the breeding work of this Station it is felt to be very important, indeed absolutely necessary, to consider something besides total yearly records. The Station is endeavoring in its work to learn how to breed winter layers. In order to make any progress in this direction it is obviously necessary to consider the detailed figures for winter production as well as the figures for total production. Nothing is more certain than that a 200 egg hen is not necessarily a particularly good winter layer. Birds No. 7 and No. 505 given in T'able I are examples in point. It would be possible to take from the Station’s records many birds whose yearly record would not exceed 160 eggs yet which were better winter layers than either No. 7 or No. 505, both of which fall for practical purposes in the category of the 200 egg hen. 46 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Moved by these circumstances it has been decided to adopt a new set of units in future discussions of egg production records. in the work of the Station. It is impossible at this place to go into an extensive discussion as to the biological reasons for finally deciding upon the units which have been chosen. ‘The plan which is now followed in the discussion of the egg produc- tion work here is to break the year up into four parts. The first of these includes the months of November, December, January, and February. Broadly speaking this period is thus. seen to be the period of winter laying. ‘The second period includes the months of March, April and May. This, broadly speaking, obviously corresponds to the breeding season. ‘The third period includes the months of june, July and August and -is clearly the summer period. Finally, the fourth period includes the months of September and October and is the period in which molting and its associated drop in egg production com- monly occur. In future discussions of egg production it is pro- posed to consider separately the egg production in each of these periods. By this method it will be possible to compare for example the production in the winter laying period of different lots of birds, or their ability to lay during the breeding season, and so on. THe MEASUREMENT OF Ecc PropucTion. It has been shown in the previous section that the total yearly production of a hen is not always the most desirable measure of her egg producing capacity. A little consideration of the matter will show further that no absolute figures whatever are so significant as a measure of egg production as are relative figures. In making any statement regarding the egg producing ability of a hen the time unit discussed must always be held in mind. ‘This is apparent enough in the ordinary treatment of the subject. When one speaks of a “200 egg hen” the implica- tion is that a hen is meant that laid 200 eggs in 365 days. Almost any hen will lay 200 eggs if allowed long enough time in which to make the record. The time factor must always be taken account of in egg production work. It seems desirable to take explicit account of this factor by making the time involved an integral part of the measure of egg production used. The simplest method of doing this is to put all records of pro- POULTRY NOTES. 47 duction on a relative or percentage basis. This may be done according to the following rule. The measure of an individual hen’s egg production in any given time may be taken to be the percentage which the number of eggs actually laid is of the maximum number of eggs which might have been laid by the individual in this given length of time, assuming the production of one egg a day to be the maximum of which a hen is capable. According to this rule if a hen lays 20 eggs in the month of June (30 days) this hen’s egg production is 66 2-3 per cent for that month. Or again if « hen lays 31 eggs in the months of December and January (62 days) she would have a 50 per cent record in egg production for those months. Such a rule as this puts all egg records on a comparative basis. It will be recog- nized that this is a great advantage for the purpose of scientific discussion. On any other basis no records are strictly compara- ble which do not cover equal and the same periods of time. In order to facilitate the calculation of such relative or per- centage egg records Table II has been prepared. The purpose of this table is to show the number of days from (and including) the first day of any given month in the year to (and excluding) the first day of any other month. On the assumption that the maximum possible productivity of a hen is one egg a day the values in Table II give the maximum possible egg production for any specified period of a year. ‘These figures then may be used in calculating the percentage egg production. 48 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. TABLE II. Table Showing the Maximum Possible Number of Eggs Which Can be Laid Between the First Day of Any Given Month in the Year and the First Day of any Other Month, Assuming (a) that 1 Egg Per Day is the Maximum Rate, and (b) that February has 28 Days. | a) 4 ¢ | = a | i 4 ee pe & | 2 | i eI pom ou ee Cees | ei a] 8 2s 5 2 3 =| fs 7) Ss By || <3 7G (S) =I Q it ha ¢ 0) ~~ 9 | Os a) § 3 Ss a) &l os 41S Sl Sie a) eae) si si) i a] o 0 INOVeMm bere te sae ; 365) 30) 61); 92} 120) 151) 181) 212) 242) 273) 304) 334 | @ | Decembersla serene | 335 365) 31; 62} 90 121) 151) 182] 212] 243] 274) 304 0 | | CEIMOENAY Woseu se scsecooue 304| 334) 365 ee 59, 90! 120) 151) 181) 212) 243) 273 WElomieIAY We ookecossccece 273) 303) 334) 365 ell 59| 89} 120) 150) 181] 212) 242 | Manche e rw eee ees | 245 275| 306) 337) 365) 31) 61) 92} 122) 1538} 184) 214 { 0) Nori lees ah eae cere rnpe nese Sosa | 214} 244) 275| 306} 334) 365) 30) 61) 91) 122) 153) 183 | 0 Maye Sa EAR Ra Eo ca ates | 184) 214) 245) 276) 304) 335! 365) 31) 61] 92) 123) 153 | | | | 0 Sue easy vt wat ae ea | 153) 183) 214) 245) 273, 304) 334) 365 a0 61) 92) 122 Saly sheers) @ ee eres | 123] 153) 184] 215] 243) 274| 304| 335] 365 31) 62) 92 AUICUS till) ye ten Sere eee | 92) 122) 153] 184 212) 243) 273) 304) 3384) 365 a 61 | ' Septemberslenaan eres | 61} 91) 122) 153) 181) 212} 242) 273) 303) 334) 365 Ge Octobersl re eee eee | 31} 61) 92) 123 Apt 182| 212) 243) 273) 304) 335) 365 An example will show the use of this table: Suppose a hen laid 84 eggs between March 1 and July 1. What would be its percentage production? A glance at the table shows that from March 1 to July 1 there are 122 days. To determine the per- centage production we have then (84 X 100) + 122 = 68.9%. Similar calculations may be made with equal ease for any other period of a year. BULLETIN No. 166. DATA ON THE INHERITANCE OF FECUNDITY OBTAINED FROM THE RECORDS OF EGG PRO- DUCTION OF THE DAUGHTERS OF “200-EGG” HENS.* RAYMOND PEARL and FRANK M. SuRFACE. In 1907 the experiment of the Station in breeding Barred Plymouth Rocks for high egg production which had been going on since 1898 came formally to an end. There was planned for 1908 a new experiment designed to test from another standpoint the conclusions which had been tentatively reached from the earlier experiment. It had been noted, though never particu- larly discussed in the bulletins describing the breeding work of the Station, that the daughters of the so-called “registered hens (namely hens that had produced 200 or more eggs each in the pullet year) did not usually make high egg records. The “200- egg” birds which made up the “registered” flock came in most instances from “unregistered” mothers. It seemed desirable to determine exactly what would be the egg production of the daughters of “200-egg” hens, when these daughters were accorded the same treatment as is given to other pullets. Accordingly the Director of the Station and the late Professor G. M. Gowell outlined an experiment to test this point. The plan of the experiment was as follows: To hatch in the spring of 1907 as many pullets as possible from “200-egg”’ hens and keep an exact pedigree record on the mother’s side of each of these chickens. An exact pedigree record of the male ancestry * Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. No. to. This paper forms No. II of a series of “Studies on the Physiology sof Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl.” No. I of the series has the subtitle “Regulation in the Morphogenetic Activity of the Oviduct” and is published in the Journal of Experimental Zoology. Vol. 6. i 50 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909. was not kept. All male birds used, however, were so-called “registered” cockerels. They were cockerels in whose ancestry the females for at least seven generations had been birds laying 200 or more eggs in the pullet year. ‘These “registered” pullets were then to be housed and fed exactly in the same manner as were the “unregistered” * pullets. ‘The experiment as planned was begun by Professor Gowell and carried on by him until the time of his resignation from the Station in December, 1907. The continuation of the experiment was turned over to the department of biology along with the other poultry work. It. is the purpose of this bulletin to report the results of this experiment. The specific questions which this experiment was instituted to answer may be briefly stated as follows: 1. Will the daughters of high laying hens (“200-egg” birds) on the average produce more eggs in a given time unit than will birds of less closely selected ancestry ? 2. What data do the performance records of such selected birds afford regarding the inheritance of egg producing ability in the domestic fowl? PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. On the first of November, 1907, there were put into House No. 2 of the Station’s plant, 250 pullets. Each of these- was the daughter of a hen that had laid approximately 200 eggs in her pullet year. ‘These 250 pullets were divided into flocks of 50 each and were fed and handled in every way exactly in accordance with the usual methods of the Station (cf. Bulletin No. 144). ‘They were an even lot of birds and had the strong, vigorous appearance which has characterized the Station’s Barred Plymouth Rock stock. ‘They were to the eye slightly small for Barred Plymouth Rocks, and also gave the general impression of being slightly smaller than the “unregistered” pullets of the same age in the other houses. The smaller size of the “registered” pullets had been noted for some years in the breeding work of the Station. At the same time that these 250 “registered’”’ pullets (so-called because from “registered” mothers) were put into the house * That is, birds of similar breeding except that their mothers laid from 150 to 200 eggs each in their pullet years instead of over 200 eggs. EGG PRODUCTION. 51 there were also put in 600 other Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These were of the same average age as the 250 “regis- tered” birds and differed in their breeding only in respect to their mothers. They came from hens that had laid less than 200 eggs during the pullet year and more than 150. “Regis- tered” cockerels (from the “200 egg line”) were used as the male parents for all the pullets both “registered” and “unreg- istered.” ‘The 600 “unregistered” birds were divided into flocks as follows: ‘Two flocks of 50 birds each were kept in two pens in House No. 2 exactly like the pens in which the “registered” birds were kept. ‘The remaining 500 birds were divided into four flocks—two of 100 birds each and two of 150 birds each and housed in the four pens of House No. 3. ‘These pens are essentially like those of House No. 2, differing chiefly in the matter of size. The birds used in this experiment whether “registered” or “unregistered”? were not closely inbred. In the breeding work of the Station for many years Professor Gowell exercised the greatest care to avoid close inbreeding, which he felt to be wrong in theory and dangerous in practice. The breeding prac- ticed was what is known as “‘line-breeding.” ‘The important point for the present discussion lies in the fact that the “regis- tered” (‘‘200-ege”’) birds were, on the average, neither more nor less closely inbred than the “unregistered” birds. “Regis- tered” and “unregistered” were alike in this regard. Except in the matter of flock size the treatment and manage- ment of all the birds whether “registered” or “unregistered” was exactly the same. All were given the same feed and care in every way. All the birds were trap nested from November 1, 1907, to July 1, 1908. The trap nest records were stopped at the latter date owing to the necessity of giving the poultry houses a thor- ough overhauling and renovating. ‘The records obtained, how- ever, cover the major portion of the year and just that portion which is of most interest and significance in the study of egg production. COMPARISON OF ‘THE EGG RECORDS OF MOTHERS AND DAUGHTERS. In undertaking a discussion of the results of the experiment which has been outlined the proper starting point obviously is 52 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909G. the egg production and other characteristics of the mothers which produced the 250 so-called “registered” pullets. Then the egg production of each mother’s progeny may be compared with her own production. ‘The significant data on this matter are shown in Table I. This table gives in the first column the band number of each “registered” mother hen known to have one or more daughters among the 250 pullets. The second column of the table shows the number of eggs produced by each of these mother hens between November 1 of her pullet year and November 1 of the following year. The third, fourth and fifth columns of the table show the number of daughters which each of these mother hens had among the 250 birds. ‘The first of these columns gives the total number of daughters for each mother. The second column (rubric “Novy.-Mar.’’) gives the number of daughters of each mother which survived to March 1, 1908. ‘The third column gives the number of daugh- ters surviving until June 1, 1908. f The sixth column of the table shows the number of eggs laid by each of the registered mother hens in the experiment between November 1 and March 1 of her pullet year. In other words, this column gives the individual mother’s winter egg record. The seventh column gives the corresponding figures for the daughters. In this column there is set down the average egg production between November 1 and March 1 of the pullet year of the daughters of each individual mother. For example, it appears from the first line of the table that the 12 daughters of mother hen No. 7 averaged to lay between November 1 and March 1, 14.83 eggs each, while in the corresponding period of her own life hen No. 7 laid 33 eggs. The eighth column of the table gives the egg record of each mother hen between. March rt and June 1. of the pullet year. Finally, the last column of the table gives the corresponding figures for the daughters. In this column are the averages between March 1 and June 1 of each group of daughters coming from a particular mother. “registered mother’ hen. Band number of EGG PRODUCTION. TABLE TI. Showing the Egg Records of the “Registered” Hens and the Number and Egg Records of Their Daughters. ‘*mothers’’ repre- Total number of sented. ' Number of daughters =p of each ‘‘registered’’)Winter egg production.|Spring egg production. moO, hen in the experi- Nov. 1—Mar. 1. Mar. 1—June 1. £40 | ment. Bie 2 } moo = =F oe. # z | 2 | mage | ST avast al ade) a ? Daughter’s Daughter’s S525 Total. tal + |Mother’s.| average. |Mother’s.} average. S385 Evils a = 12 iP 12 33 14.83 81 47.75 8 8 8 30 13'.37 68 53.25 4 4 4 42 2D 59 42 .25 9 8 7 65 23 .87 45 38.14 3 3 3 64 1.88) 56 51.00 8 8 8 61 15.50 60 44.87 4 4 4 47 L520: 56 38 .00 i 7 6 46 13 .28 67 52.83 Dey VS 15 70 13 .47 54 | 44 .43 5 | 5 5 56 18.00 53 } 50.80 Zl 6 5 24 20.83 62 | 46 .20 Cheer eG 6 49 18 .83 69 43 .33 Sarat! 8 8 68 1, 2455 66 48 .12 Crh al 9 55 4.88 59 40.88 3 | 3 3 52 OT) BB} 62 55) 38) 3 3 2 69 0.00 59 12°50 2 2 2 55 19.50 56 62 .00 6 | 6 6 43 24 .00 68 44.16 } Ff 7 7 66 7.14 56 | 46 .57 10 10 10 48 17 .90 60 45 .80 6 6 5 58 17 .66 43 | 38 .00 7 ii 7 77 19.57 62 51.28 a 9 oF 64 11.00 55 50.33 0 = =e ee = = = a 4 | 4 63 24 .25 | 60 47 .50 3 ie ars 68 1400 51 53.00 4 4 Sy 29 18 .00 | 65 42.33 5 5 5 68 15 .20 49 53 80 8 | Ui if 60 14.14 49 59 .85 9 = = # & = Ae Gi | 5 4 66 2.40 68 47 .75 pa 4 3 51 10.25 55 of.a0 ca 4 83 T.25 60 29.70 & Z l haa |) Dae aa P 2 a a | eit | 2 E lee E « 2 | ro | Ds ” cr aud poe pd ee te ToTALs. S.2 STERS Pia We a= Go oe Why Pe BS as Big | ae" | srs | Bare 593 Spd CEB ch sees ull) pos exugtred pHO ooo ses os | alae 4 2 es 60- 65 4] 2) -) -| — 1) -|} -| -| -| -} -) -| -| -| -}-| 1) -| - 8 65- 70 Sy al 2d eit ea ea alg Apel Pap Ye fa 5 & 70-75 «§ 2) 2) -| 1) -| -| 1) 7 - -| | | -| -| -| =| -| - 6 eS SSS ee ee ee ee See | =| 1) =| — 2 & gs0-85 9 2) -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| - | -} -| -| - 2 4 85- 90 1| -|}-|-) - tT SP) S| Sf St 2 S) 90-— 95 —| 1) -| -| -| -| - -| -| -|-|) -) -| - -| - SS 1 3 95-100 | —| -— - = -|}- -) - pels Ss] Sil St al = 0 Seaton 105) 81) |=} == =P) =) =) =) = ee) hn 1 Ay | | | “ From 1908 records (Table II) r = —o.417+0.053. Pullets only. From 1909 records (Table III) r = —o.142+0.055. Pullets and yearling hens combined. From 1909 records (Table IV) r = —o.1270.071. Pullets only. From 1909 records (Table V) r = —o0.1390.087. Yearl- ing hens only. Translated into words these coefficients mean that the records under discussion show in general that there is a definite and significant negative correlation between the percentage of eggs infertile and the percentage of fertile eggs which are hatched. It will at once be noted that the coefficients do not show the same value in both years. In the 1908 records the correlation is approximately 42 per cent of perfect correlation. Perfect correlation would indicate an absolute and unvarying relation- ship between the two phenomena. ‘That is to say, if the corre- 118 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. lation were perfect high fertility would invariably denote high hatching quality and «ice versa. The relationship actually exhibited in the 1908 records is about half way between such perfect correlation, and the entire absence of correlation in which event the two phenomena are not in any way related. The 1909 records show a considerably smaller correlation than those for 1908. Here, however, the coefficient for the com- bined data is approximately 2.6 times its probable error and hence would have to be regarded, even when considered by itself as almost certainly significant. When the 1909 pullets and yearling hens are treated separately the coefficients are slightly smaller than when they are combined, and with the reduction in the number of entries in the tables the probable errors are increased in value. In both of these cases, however, the sign of the coefficient remains negative. Neither of these coefficients (1909 pullets only and yearling hens only) could be considered certainly significant in comparison with its prob- able error when taken by itself. Taking both years together there is no doubt as to the conclusion that, so far as the present data indicate, there is a small but still sensible correlation between fertility and hatching quality of eggs. In the long run, or on the average, it is to be expected on the basis of this result that 1f a hen under a given set of conditions produces eggs high im fertility the fertile eggs will also run high in hatching quality, and vice versa. It is to be understood that no wider generality is claimed for this conclusion than arises from the data on which it is based. It is not unlikely that the absolute degree of the correlation between fertility and hatching quality of eggs may be different for different breeds. The present data show that this correla- tion is different for different conditions of housing, treatment, etc. ‘The further analysis of the precise effect of these factors present interesting problems for further work in this connection. It seems unlikely, however, that under any circumstances the correlation would be turned about so that high fertility was associated regularly with low hatching quality and vice versa. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I19 VARIATION IN FERTILITY AND HaTcHING Quality oF Eccs. From the figures which are given in Tables II to V inclusive, it is possible to get some exact information regarding the degree and character of variability shown by the pullets under dis- cussion in respect to fertility and hatching quality of eggs. The important variation constants for these two characters are given in Table VI. TABLE VI. Constants of Variation in Fertility and Hatching Quality of Eggs. Calculations from the Data of Tables II-V inclu- sive. . Mean Standard deviation. CHARACTER. or | (A measure of average. | variation.) Per cent. of eges infertile, MOOSE Sere terete ra crave hee 21.71+0.96 15.00+0.68 1909, pullets and year- RETPMHEUSICOMPINEH wists Ne wleieisie er atv ke cieyetetele 14.1441.15 20.56+0.81 Per cent. of eges infertile, 1909, pullets only....... | 13.65+1.38 19.10+0.98 1909, yearling hens only) 15.09+2 ,01 22 .65+1.42 US. 8 Ome fertile eggs hatched, WO ORs She cock eye seers 37.2441.16 17.99+0.82 eee 1909, pullets and MeSMmNIICUNOTS COMME. jsjc)oe 6 a= «\eoeieyel’ oes pe + char 50.68+1.35 24.16+0.95 Per cent. of fertile eges hatched, 1909, puilets only} 47 .67+1.80 24.9241.27 1909, yearling hens CEN PMN MEW ee lolly «cr Poke oN rose! o chests euciecchd.tiecte a cheters 54.48+1.94 21.9141 537 From this table the following points are to be noted: 1. The mean or average percentage of infertile eggs shown in the breeding records of the 1908 group of birds is approx- imately 22. This is an unduly high percentage of infertility. It is to be explained, however, by the fact, pointed out above, that the breeding work in that year was done under unsuitable housing conditions. In 1909 the average percentage of infer- tility taking all birds of the year together, was approximately 14. This reduction of about 8 per cent in the number of infer- tile eggs is directly attributable to the improvement in housing conditions. ‘The figure for 1909 represents a very fair average condition of fertility, taking the whole breeding season through, and remembering that this represents returns on from 5000 to 6000 incubated eggs. If the early portion of the breeding season were left out of account the average percentage of infer- tility would be considerably reduced below 14, the figure given. 120 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. 2. The mean or average percentage of fertile eggs hatched in the 1908 season is seen to be approximately 37. This again is an unduly low value. One has a right to expect a consider- ably better hatching quality of eggs than this. Like the poor average record for fertility it is, however, to be explained chiefly by the unsuitable housing conditions under which the birds were kept in that year, and in small part by the fact that only pullet records are available. ‘This is shown to be the case by the 1909 figures where we have the percentage of fertile eggs hatched increased to 51 per cent in round numbers tak- ing all the birds of the season together. ‘This last figure would again be increased if the records of the early part of the breed- ing season were omitted. It is believed, furthermore, that by selection of breeding stock on the basis of hatching records it may be possible to improve the average hatching quality of eggs still more, (cf. discussion of this joint in summary). 3. The degree of absolute variability as measured by the standard deviation is seen to be in all but one case (1909 yearling hens only) somewhat greater in the case of hatching quality than in the case of fertility. The standard deviation is a precise measure of the degree to which a group of individuals conform to a type with respect to any character under investi- gation. The closer to type a given lot of individuals run the smaller will be the standard deviation exhibited by that lot. On the other hand the more widely the individuals are scattered about the type the larger will be the standard deviation. It is not necessary in this place to go into the matter of how the standard deviation is calculated. It suffices to say that it is a scientifically accurate measure of the degree of closeness to type. ; 4. While hatching quality appears from the present statis- tics to be absolutely a slightly more variable character than fertility, if we consider the degree of variation in proportion to the mean, the opposite is the case. This is shown if from Table IV the percentage which the standard deviation is in the mean is calculated for each of the two characteristics. Per- forming this operation the following results are obtained: 1908—Fertility: percentage of standard deviation in mean == (0,106. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. [21 All birds, 1909—Fertility: percentage of standard deviation in mean = 145.4%. Pullets only, 1909—Fertility: percentage of standard devia- tion in mean = 140.0%. Hens only, r909—Fertility: percentage of standard deviation iMumediy == 150.2%. 1908—Hatching quality, percentage of standard deviation in mean = 48.3%. All birds, 1909—Hatching quality, percentage of standard deviation in mean = 47.7%. ] Pullets only, 1909—Hatching quality, percentage of standard deviation in mean = 52.3%. Hens only, 1909—Hatching quality, percentage of standard * . . . deviation in mean = 40.2%. These figures show that in proportion to the mean of the characteristic, hatching quality is relatively much less variable than fertility. Both of the characters—fertility and hatching quality—are, so far as may be judged from the present statis- tics, highly variable as compared with other characters of poultry which have been studied in this connection. 5. From-the data given in the preceding paragraph it appears that in proportion to the mean the fertility of eggs varied much more in 1909 than in 1908, while in respect to hatching quality the relative degree of variability was substan- tially the same in the two years. ‘This would suggest that the difference in housing conditions of the two years had a much greater effect on the variability (as distinguished from the absolute average condition) of fertility than on that of hatch- ing quality. This, however, can, in the light of the present data, be only a suggestion, the correctness of which must be tested by further work. 6. From the data of Table VI it appears that in 1909 the yearling hens were superior to the pullets in regard to both the average fertility and the average hatching quality of their eggs. The difference between the two groups in mean fertility is, however, hardly significant. More data are needed before any final conclusion as to the relative ability of pullets and yearling hens as breeders may be drawn. 122 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900: THE RELATION OF THE HEN TO THE FERTILITY OF ECGs. There is a rather common belief that when hatching eggs run low in fertility the fault is chiefly or entirely in the male bird which is with the flock. For some reason which is difficult to understand very little influence is attributed in the popular mind to the females in causing poor results of this kind, the belief rather being that the male bird has an almost exclusive influence in determining fertility of eggs. It seems somewhat remarkable that this notion of the predominant influence of the male bird in determining the fertility of eggs among poultry should be so widespread, in view of the fact that the popular belief with reference to other domestic animals is exactly the opposite. For example, in cattle and horse breeding the fail- ure of the female to become pregaant (the equivalent in part of the fertilization of the egg in poultry) is commonly attrib- uted to some defect in the female rather than in the male. The - standpoint which the known facts of biology lead one to take is that in all bisexual animals the iafluence of the two sexes is in general equal in determining whether any given egg shall or shall not be fertilized. That is to say, there is on general grounds every reasoa to suppose that the infertility of eggs is as likely to be due to a defect of the female as to a defect of the male and vice versa. It seems desirable to determine with some precision whether this general statement is true for poultry or not. When the average fertility for a flock of hens runs low what proportion of this low fertility is to be attributed to the poor breeding performance of the hens and what proportion to the male birds? The practical importance of the question is obvious. If the man who is selling eggs for hatching can learn that one particular hen, for example, in his flock never pro- duces a fertile egg, it will be greatly to the advantage of his trade to eliminate that bird from those which are producing his hatching eggs. In order to bring out with completeness and precision the comparative influence of male and female birds on the fertility of eggs Tables VII and VIII have been prepared. These tables show for each breeding pen the following facts: (T1) The band number of the cockerel which was placed in that pen. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 123 TABLE VII. Percentage of Infertile Eggs Produced by Each of the Barred Plymouth Rock Pullets Making Complete Records in the Hatching Season of 1908. Arranged According to Pens and Cockerels. Z 8 c) ) Band number and per cent. of infertile eggs for each pullet 2 6.0.03 A g (Band numbers are in brackets; percentages unbrackeeted) gas eo SaaS ese8e 5 | D 70 | (19)24, (21)14, (858)32, (357)36, (393)9, (712)20........... 22.5 6) D 2 | (10)36, (27)8, (112)18, (160)42, (402)30, (705)34............ 28.0 GROTON (2929, (Si) lr, (B52) 14s "(Soa Py ACOA) LOH hers Wed. ein olay ate 2 19.2 8/|D 32 | (61)21, (122)15, (857)14, (374)22, (381)4, (406)24.......... 16.7 eID: 65 (12)19, (18)48, (38)9, (172)27, (866)13, (367)21, (414)7...... 20.6 10) D 5: | (39)26; (66) 12, (415)50, (438)45, (707)0. 3. ee. 26.6 11 De sol (20a. ALS) 125197) 12) (40718, 07 26)20 ner. «sae nek ere 27.0 Ta De peld os) 285) (428)20; ((709)20,.. (730) 31,6 (STIS. a eis aes. ye ee 22.4 TM eros a GOS) Lon (43 L) 10; (734) dames clakis < tie gates iene sie ties wutheeluns 9.7 Pe Oe Gn Chaban (152) Men 85) 15.) (224).L1, (432) 3787s l23- 207 23.0 15 Die Olnite (52) 5350099) $a-1 (168) 57) CCL) AO: Cld6) La eer ee ets clea | 29.0 16 D 35 -(429)48, (223)38, (382)8, (725)6, (728)12, (732)14.......... [eae O 17 | D_ 57 | (359)15, (389)29, (395)24, (743)82, (744)24................ 34.8 18 | D_ 17 | (877)16, (401)16, (405)32, (410)3, (411)14, (774)14, (784)47.| 20.3 19 | D_ 68 | (419)14, (422)15, (424)45, (745)41, (746)15-....0..0........ | 26.0 20|D 26] (388)50, (397)6, (4384)17, (441)33, (442)38, (749)4, (750)16,) | ’ (752)6, (753)46, (757)10, (768)20, (770)10, (T7A)IS... - + | 20.8 21 | D~ 31 | (400)16, (408)16, (409)4, (443)6, (444)8, (447)5, (450) 4, (758) 19, | : | | (759)12, (761)8, (762)10, (763)5, (764)13, (765)3, (766)5. | 8.9 (2) The band number of each of the pullets placed in that pen. (3) The percentage of infertile eggs produced by each of these pullets. (4) In the last column of the table are given the aver- age percentages of infertile eggs produced by all the hens run- ning in each pen. ‘These averages in the last column are, in other words, the only measures which it is possible to get of the relative ability of the individual cockerels in fertilizing eggs. They are pen or cockerel averages. 124 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. TABLE VIII. Percentage of Infertile Eggs Produced by Each of the Barred Plymouth Rock Pullets and Yearling Hens Making Complete Records in the Hatching Season of 1909. Arranged Accord- ing to Pens and Cockerels. ° an 2 Z Bes 50 iS 2 Band number and per cent. of inferile eggs for each female. oo 2.83 A 9 (Band numbers are in brackets; percentages unbracketed.) ae 8 g 5 ae Sera lau O 45.825 2|E 551 (125)3, (184)31, (212)2, (255)22, (287)4, (304)12, (296)0, (827)1, (343)93, (350)3, (354)2, (361)30, (415)0, (419)32. chia Bite 16.7 3 | E 552 | (201)0, (204)0, (229)3, (231)2, (238)25, (241)8, (250)15,(251) 12, | (270)10, (272)3, (280)4, (293)63, (295)6, (310)17......... 12.0 4 E 553 | (17)2, (92)36, (94)15, (186)21, (221)0, (239)6, (248)32, (2&8)0) | (303)0, (334)34, (882)21, (888)2, (406)14, (449)3........ Serial StL 2, 5 | E 554 | (8)0, (18)8, (160)44, (208)0, (224)4, (226)2, (228)38, (237)3, ; (266)2, (278)10, (324)8, (333)8, (852)12, (405)27......... 9.0 6 | E 555 | (74)5, (114)25, (155)0, (183)17, (202)2, (209)0, (232)20, (249)0, (302)0, (823)97, (325)0, (826)2, (377)2; (403)71......:... elas TE E 556 | (206)0, (207)5, (215)18, (225)14, (235)0, (257)20, (263)0,(276)4,| } (294)3, (385) 12, (420) 055 (42 OTe rei Roars eS ene ie me | 6.9 11 | D* 56 | (1063)0, (1069)4, (1070)12, (1071)100, (1072)28, (1073)0,| (1074)47, (1075)47, (1076)0, (1078)87, (1079)5, (1080)31, | COSI 239 082) OraGLOS3 Sane aes cede oe eee 29.8 ies eB) 11 (1005)2, (1046)0, (1047)5, (1050)63, (1051)20, (1053)9, (1056)2, | | (1057)7, (1058)32, (1060)5, (1062)24, (1065)0, (1067)0, CLOBSY OR aes ee Gee er nc Nghe Skee meta oe aes eae Leo (1003)0, (1024)0, (1026)27, (1027)0, (1028)2, (1030)0, (1032) 10, (1033)0, (1038)7, (1039)6, (1040)0, (1041)4, (1043)0, (1044)3,) (OAD 4 ACE ADTIN OCs Gates eco ae SaeA o eu O ae 3.9 14. D_ 31 | (# 220)0, (1001)5, (1006)0, (1008)0, (1009)18, (1010)4, Oe (1014) 10, (1016)0, (1017)5, (1019)0, (1022)0, (1023)40..... | 13 ei ED ees 58a From these tables the following points are to be noted: I. There is clearly a very great difference among different pullets in their ability to produce fertile eggs. The extent of such differences may be grasped by a detailed examination of the tables. Some examples on this point may be cited, taking Table VII first. In pen 9, one bird (No. 414) had only 7 per cent. of her eggs infertile. In the same pen, and hence with the same cockerel, another pullet (No. 18) -had 48 per cent of her * Males having band numbers prefixed by the letter D are cock birds, and those with the letter EK are cockerels. Females having band num- bers above 1000 are hens (hatched in 1907), all other females are pul- lets, (1908 hatch). i o Ks ty me 3 , > SRS Bee see ee a S gk eet Se, an i FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. {2 Cyt eggs infertile. It is difficult to see how anyone can attribute the infertility of the eggs of No. 18 to the cockerel (No. 65) when in the same pen No. 414 made such a fine record in respect to fertility. To take another example, in pen 10 No. 707 produced no infertile eggs. Every egg which this pullet produced between February and June—3o in all—was fertile, yet in this same pen and with the same cockerel, pullet No. 415 had 50 per cent and pullet No. 438 had 45 per cent of their eggs infertile. If one attempts to account for the poor performance of Nos. 415 and 438 in regard to fertility as due to some inherent fault in cockerel No. 5 he is at once confronted by the perfect record of fertility made by No. 707. In pen 11 again, there are wide extremes in regard to fertility. Pullet No. 197 had but 12 per cent of her eggs infertile while with the same cockerel pullet No. 20 had 73 per cent of her eggs infertile. In pen 18 pullet No. 410 had but 3 per cent of her eggs infertile, while pullet No. 784 had 47 per cent infertile. Anyone who will take the trouble to study Table VII carefully will find just as wide extremes of fertility shown by the pullets in other pens. The same thing is apparent in the data of Table VIII show- ing that this result is not something peculiar to one single season or set of birds. Thus in pen rr there were four birds (1063, 1073, 1076, 1082) that produced no infertile eggs throughout the breeding season, though the total numbers of eggs laid by these birds during the season were: 23, 26, 26, 36. Yet in this same pen 1071 had 100 per cent. and 1078, 87 per cent. of infer- tile eggs. The facts set forth in these tables make it absolutely certain that there are wide differences in the breeding ability (meas- ured by fertility of eggs) of different females, which are quite independent of the relative ability of the male birds running with the females as breeders. 2. An examination of the last column of the table indicates that there was proportionately much less variability among the cockerels used as breeders than among the pullets, in respect to their influence in determining the fertility of eggs. In 1g08 with the exception of three pens (Nos. 13, 17 and 21) the fer- tility performance of the cockerels runs very evealy. Further- more, a study of the table shows that in two out of these three 126 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. widely varying pens the deviation is to be explained as the result of too few hens on which to base a fair average. Con- sequently there is an overwhelming influence on the average of the performance of one exceptionally good or one excep- tionally poor pullet. Thus in the case of pen 13 (1908) the cockerel average of 9.7 per cent. of infertile eggs is based on the performance of only three birds, and one of these (No. 734) made (for that year) the very exceptional record of only 4 per cent. infertile eggs. Similarly in pen 17 the very poor cockerel record of 34.8 per cent. infertile eggs is largely due to the influence of one particular pullet (No. 743) 82 per cent. of whose eggs were infertile. When an average is based upon but 5 cases as in pen No. 17 and one of these deviates so widely from the others as does the record of 743 it is not remarkable that the general average is affected. The pen averages do not run quite so smoothly in 1909 as in 1908. - This is in part to be acounted for by the fact that in 1908 only young.birds (pullets and cockerels) are included in the table, whereas in 1909 pens II-14 inclusive were made up of birds hatched in 1907. In general the indications from both tables are that the male birds used in these two years were a fairly even lot so far as breeding ability is concerned. 3. The effect of the closed, heated house No. 1 in reducing the fertility of eggs is brought out in two ways by these tables. It is clearly shown in the data of Table VII alone. Breeding pens 20 and 21 (1908) were in the curtain front house No. 2. Breeding pens 5 to 19 inclusive of that same year were in house No. 1. The difference in the average infertility of the eggs from the two houses is shown in the following figures. Average from House No. 1 (pens 5-19 inclusive )=23.1%. Average from House No. 2 (pens 20 and 21)=14.8%. The bad effect of house No. 1 on fertility is, of course, further shown by comparison of the last columns ia Tables VII and VIII, the first 15 entries in this column in Table VII repre- senting data from house No. 1 and Table VIII data from house No. 2: It is noteworthy that the average fertility shown by the two breeding pens which were in the curtain front house No. 2 in 1908 (pens 20 and 21) is very nearly the same as the average fertility from all pens in the same house in 1909 (14.8% and FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 127 14.14% from Table VI. This indicates again how direct and important an influence housing conditions have upon the fer- tility of the eggs of breeding birds. 4. It is of some interest to compare the fertility records of the same male bird in his first and second breeding years, though the amount of data available for such comparison in the present statistics is small. The four birds D 56, D 11, ess, aid 31 appear in both Table VII and Table VIII. Their records of average pen fertility.of eggs in the two years are as follows: ; Average Percentage of Infertile Eggs. 1908. | 1909. Male bird. | (Cockerel year.) (Cock year.) D 56 27.0% | 29.8% Dit 22.4% 12.0% D 58 | 9.7% | 3.9% Tes | 8.9% | 6.3% | | Of these four birds only one (D 31) did his breeding under identical housing conditions in the two years. Ia this case there is practically no difference in the average fertility. In two cases (D 11 and D 58) there is a very considerable reduc- tion in the average percentage fertility, but this is probably to be explained almost entirely as the result of the action of the better housing conditions of 1909 on the breeding birds, par- ticularly the females. D 56 has a worse record for 1go09 than for 1908, but this bad average is due very largely to the effect of three hens, viz: 1071, 1078, and 1083, with 100, 87, and 85 per cent of infertile eggs respectively. This is a heavy handi- cap in an average based on only 15 birds. 5. An examination of these tables and of the detailed hatch- ing records on which they are based emphasizes the value of trap nesting breeding hens during the breeding season at least, particularly if one is to engage in selling eggs for hatching. A study of the records shows that it would have been possible to have thrown out early in the hatching season such poor performers as, for example Nos. 18, 415, 438, 784 in 1908, and 1071, 1078, 1083, 160 and 403 in 1909. These birds were 128 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. TABLE IX. 1909. Showing the Correlation between Fertility of Eggs and Winter (November t to March 1) Egg Production. Data for 1908. Per Cent. INFERTILE. 19 |G | co| ja] 10) SI] oo z cold at ntatd Acted s S/S ia/S SIS AAISZ/S = ] | | 0-5 =| 1)-| -| 4 -| | +] = j= as = 1 5-10 | - -}-)- -|-)-)-)-)-{-|-|-)- 0 . 10-15 ~ --— -|-) -| | - 0 Zz 45-90 f=] 1) 2) 4 = SS = 1} 1) 4) =) -| =| =| =| =| = 6 0225 eae tee = | =| | 5 5 25-30 —} 1) 1) 5} 3) 1} 1) 1; 1) 1) -| = 1) -| | -] 4] = - = 16 = 30-39 ee SG eld = 15 = 35-40 3 2) 2 ae) f Ul) ik) ile Th = 1 12 40-45 | 2) al ol] i) ales Slee) a Paps) Sle 12 Pr 45-50 | —| 1) 1] 3) 4] 2) - a) ad lj -|- - -} 11 > 50-55 J -| 3] -|-]|- 1) 1}-|-- -1- } -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -f 65 & 55-60 I -{ -| 3/ 3{ -— 1) 1] 2; 7-1-4 - | =| ea ros 60-65 § 1, 1) — 1) — = 1 —| 1) -| -| |---| -| - =| >) = 5 = 635-70 Te el SNe 1 = 70-75 1 1 ---1)1)-)1)--- - 4---|-|-f 5 4 75-80 - 1 }-| -|-| -| -| -| 4 - -)-| -|-f- 1 = 80-85 J -|-| 1) 1 1 -| -| =| - | -} 3 85-90 -| - -|-| -| -| -| -|-| -| -| -| -f 0 90-95 | -| - | -| -|-|-f 0 95-100 ff -) -| -| 1| — - =| Spa] -at =] =| Sl eae shears os | al Tea | | [Fee ene Sal | Totals... ..§ 3)14/12/23)13) 9 7 4) 5) 5 4 4 4 1) 9 0, OO, 1; O} 1f 110 J ) i } ! ) . only allowed to stay in the breeding pens throughout the season in order to learn just how poor a record they would make for the purposes of the present study. The principle should be clearly recognized that some hens are “shy breeders” just as are some cows. Any method by which such birds ‘can be thrown out and prevented from increasing the number of eggs which it takes in practical work to produce a living chick will be useful and profitable. THE RELATION OF WINTER Ecc PRoDUCTION TO THE FERTILITY OF Eccs. Admitting the fact brought out in Tables VII and VIII that there are great individual differences among different pullets and hens in respect to their ability to produce fertile eggs, the further problem is raised as to what influences are responsible for these differences. What underlies the fact that one hen in a breeding pen will have say 50 per cent. of her eggs infertile while another hen in the same pen will have none of her eggs FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 129 TABLE X. Showing the Correlation between Fertility of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatching Season 10 10-15 2 20-25 35-40 55-60. 0-5 25-30 30-35 40-45 50-55 0- 5 5-11 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-80 5 80-85 ; 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 aD bo ie | RR KN OOF OWOCON NR AIANOe wr Rmhow | Wee Leet | Pie Os) Se 0 Pt || fel GST Fi) cet Ue! Pas) = 57 | BL ant | wo [Sa eOoes = fete Viel tba Nie ane Littl l tl ews Lae Pee Tessie liay le Lief baat t Sete eect seu |e 58) es idea TES [ere NO Tet i] Petr rrr tt ied tow Litt tee | ee i PEA Tn heed aa nV PD eyes De Le LIND eet lie ES. Pe LES UTS TL Fat FA tN | Fe | eee eet Per Cent. INFERTILE. LI fe dhe ee fT |e [ton 1 | | ! ! | | Pal phar as Wa) ea Seed ane ce A eal SCS Ta sg Sh phe sthcte ! Ne STS TS Tia SIE TS IU AVM Vat TS PN Ta Tcl bo ay ail ft bt tet fmt bot ot ff mt ee pf] oo we STE TES Sette ee fle Thal Ved fet) bail aT eT ee Thest ESl isa] eal asf Re tal} (ies [eater eal ASA me) fi a Prat VS || Tila neaiiny | PTE Teale eo el | | I . a _ ) © (o) | | | | | | Totals...... |: 5] 8/15} 7] 8}20)10)15) 6) 9} 7| 7 6} 6] 1] 0 i 146 | eS pd infertile? There are undoubtedly a large number of factors concerned in this matter. The only hope of ever determining what all these factors are and what is the relative influence of each one is to make an analytical study of the facts. One factor must be taken at a time and its relative influence deter- mined. Proceeding in this way there is reason to believe that in time it will be possible to arrive at a more adequate under- standing of the matter than we now have. The opinion is very commonly expressed that the fertility of eggs during the hatching season, and in particular of pullets’ eggs, depends very largely on the previous laying record of the bird producing the eggs. It is contended that if a bird has laid very heavily throughout the winter her eggs will not run so high in fertility, on the average, as will those of a bird whose winter production has not been so great. From what has gone before it must be clear to the reader that the only way to make an exact test of the truth of this assertion, or in general to find Wet ee? 10 Po 2 T30 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQ09. TABLE XI. Showing the Correlation between Fertility of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatching Season of t909. FPullets only. WiInTER EGe PRODUCTION. 5-10 10-15 15-20 | 20-25 ~ 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 5-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 (o>) | Or | ar ae = i i) ivy) ih: PRrOOCOFPONOCOCOMH WOM MOO Or _ lo) eet sy el I ee AE TE 8 ll to | ft ot ot I Leen ee el ee | [ee] | Lot ot et ee | eI ole seat —sf) (eh a he eae Podl AP S eha| al Bea} Who ain wow bs bo no { {| = | ices sis [ee | ets [|e | Pobobo ob tt te |, bh ta ee VS Poet ee Roepe me] ll Per Cent. INFERTILE. . ie abel | a et | ho otke Wea ath ell | | ~I (os) ~I ou ES Uses TB gi La eh Ae Wei The the Th ei sft dh Gays) oe ee ey Pee ee me lo!l tlt ted a) ou © i) | ! [Eaieal | | | | SoTL estes Ase cont its Smeal Ue Mellel ah ab =e oll | tte ed vo) on i=) pea (=) j=) | CH i) ibe) 12 10) 5) 7) 6| 7; 8) 6) 6) 1) O| If 87 out the relative influence of this factor is to determine the degree of correlation which exists between winter production and fertility of eggs. Just as before, one must be sure that one understands the problem involved here. Will the indi- vidual hen which has laid heavily in the winter have on the average, or in the long run, a higher record for fertility during the hatching season than one that has not laid heavily, and vice versa? -'To answer this question it is necessary to con- struct a correlation table between the two variables—winter egg laying on the one hand and fertility.of eggs on the other hand. If there is any influence of previous egg laying on fer- tility of eggs we shall expect to see it manifested in this table and in the measure of correlation which can be deduced there- from. Such correlation tables between fertility of egg and winter production for the 1908 and 1909 seasons are presented in ae ae eee ae FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 131 “TABLE, XII. Showing the Correlation between Fertility of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatching Season of 1909. Yearling Hens oily. Winter EaGa Propuction. pol pene [pesche si palaataesn es 15-20 20-25 30-35 35-40 10-15 25-50 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 2€-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 Name) Me) De iin Ge TR ff in ge) TO tn) PT ad BET) FP) 8" | T(t FS PFS) be (St Ras! ih FR Ved CA et ied Pe OS) 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 Per Cent. INFERTILE. Pie Pe Fd Fis Ph Til Arie faced Det Ba falls Tah ET POPOL beret tol ee oT ee Phe} Peis sd Pe Sa be Pat lhe hel sec Neslhe the eS ieabst la tet 2 Rts) pest teats TE be Teale etmss] iN ee em Us Sh Fan a= ad Pe et Vs fA FY Kita Hoes aed ie fe ff pm Sad PAL STE 1) ond le TR fa [_ | 1 | Lie) a Ft Ps WPS) aC [ 1. | ! ow =) _ RPOONFONWNrHWO 10) Totals... Tables IX to XII inclusive. These tables have been con- structed by taking for each one of the birds under discussion the sum of the eggs laid by her in the months of November, December, January and February (winter egg-production) as one variable and the percentage of infertile eggs out of the total number of the same bird’s eggs set during the hatching season as the other variable. Table IX gives the data for 1908 and Tables X, XI and XII those for 1909. Just as before the 1909 data are given first for pullets and yearling hens combined and then for each of these groups separately. 132 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Examining these tables it is seen at cnce that there is no such evident correlation between the two characters as there was in the case of fertility and hatching quality of eggs. If there is any sensible influence of winter egg production on the fertility of eggs it obviously cannot be a very marked one. ‘The indi- viduals are apparently scattered over the table a good deal at random. ‘There is no general trend of the statistics evident to the eye to indicate a close relationship between these phenomena. However, as has been seen before, the only way to determine the nature and degree of relationship is to calculate the coeffi- cient of correlation between the variables. Doing this for Tables IX to XII inclusive we get the following results. Coefficient of correlation between winter egg production and percentage of infertile eggs during the breeding season: 1908. +r = 0.077+0.064. Pullets only. | 1909. 7 = —0.032+0.056. Pullets and yearling hens com- bined. 1909. 7 = 0.108+0.072. Pullets only. 1909. 1 = 0.009-++0.089. Yearling hens only. From these values it is apparent that the present statistics indicate no correlation whatever between winter egg production and fertility of eggs during the hatching season. The correla- tion coefficient itself is not sensibly larger than its probable error in either year and hence cannot be regarded as signifi- cantly different from zero. A hen with a very high winter production is on the average no more likely to have her eggs run low in fertility than is a hen whose winter production has been lower, and vice versa. As before no wider generality is claimed for this result than arises from the statistics upon which it is based. All that is asserted is simply that when very careful records were kept during the whole hatching seasoa for over 200 birds and over 10,000 eggs the returns show no rela- tion whatever between winter laying and fertility of eggs. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 133 TABLE XIII. Showing the Correlation between the Hatching Quality of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatch- ing Season of 1908. . oF Ferrite Eaos Harcuep. ean elclelele sd BROOCWR ORO Oe NNUAUAOOr _ Lehi pee pipet Winter Ecce Propuctrion. or se on or Pert tt tt ee pee tee Peal te eee ee Pelee Pei nt eee dtl Pt pbb bt) tee pore ttt Por tL tt eee TT eer I et Ln TSS STS [fet ete ef ead SS SST EPR 1 FS i a tS eT VTS TL VAS od ese ean Be | Fd ad ed a S| Ps tat Te i Re a oe | VWs bb tot oe bom bp Pp dt CES et ae Ta a FT Se a SO Oe ey | Por ot tte t ] | ee] Pi] et Ft a DY Marat ae i rae Ft Cy Ve pe es ad fod | Abe A Ee SA ae ef] BPrimtrtitier iti Pobeot t to] Oo] ee |] ero] | Wedel (eal ote Petal ea les eet leat Sire DR TD oti eee kody Thi tie t pepe teres | | 6) 5 } RELATION BETWEEN WINTER Ecc PRopucTion AND HatcHING QuaLity oF Eccs. It has been seen that the statistics show no relation between winter egg laying and the fertility of eggs subsequently pro- duced in the breeding season. ‘This result at once suggests the further question as to whether the same thing is true in regard to hatching quality of eggs. Will the hen that has laid heavily during the winter produce on the average more or fewer chickens from a given number of fertile eggs than will a hen ¥ that has not laid heavily during the winter? It is apparent that RS again this is a problem in correlation. A table must be prepared d and the correlation coefficient found betweea the two variables ‘ winter (November 1 to March 1) egg production on the one hand, and per cent. of fertile eggs hatched oa the other hand. X Such correlation tables for the two years 1908 and 1909 are shown in Tables XIII to XVI inclusive. The 1go09 data are given in three tables as in preceding cases. — aa or, pa ey ae call 134. MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. TABLE XIV. Showing the Correlation between the Hatching Quality of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatch- ing Season of 1909. Pullets and Yearling Hens combined. WINTER Ecc PRODUCTION. 20-25 25-30 30-35 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 85-90 90-95 Totals 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35—40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 ! = NORNNAOCHMHNONDNONOR SPW bo NN Lee | erm] | 3 Aa AE AS et ey] Voted ee Teel Re Wee | OWE 1 2 } eee] } te] L1H | ow] ety pico Deeeh | w]e | ele Per Cent. or Fertite Ecos Hatcuep. (aie Se Ea Tee Tee ae eh a a | ete tesa i Totals... . 20/10/15) 146 From an examination of these tables it is at once apparent to the eye that there is a closer relation between the phenomena here dealt with than was exhibited in Tables IX to XII inclusive. The general trend of the entries, particularly in Table XIII, from the upper right hand corner to the lower left hand corner is unmistakable. As has been seen above (p. 116) in the case of the correlation between fertility and hatching quality this general sweep indicates that a sensible correlation will probably be found. Calculating the coefficients for Tables XIII to XVI the following results are obtained: Correlation between winter egg production and per ceat. of fertile eggs hatched: 1908: +r = —0.252+0.060. Pullets only. 1909. r = —0.133-+0.055. Pullets and yearling hens com- bined. TQO9Q. = —0.010+0.072. Pullets only. 1909. r = —0.223+0.084. Yearling hens only. | FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 135 TABLE xv—Showing the Correlation between the Hatching Quality of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatching Season of 1909. Pullets only. WintER EaG PRopuction. mee | | | _}ip}o |i alte o}ieloleloliwa|o} Ea bad bl va bd Ua hed P| Tol }o}relo 1a] ob] 9 | 4] o | 19 | Pele lie (cui ces tiodke lamin het tcc cel hatt | | ° | } | 2 0- 5 | 1] - | —| -| 1] -| -| 1) 3} -| -| -| -| 8 im 5-10 —| -| =| -| | 1] 1} 1] -| - -| -| -| -| - 3 4 10-15 ff - - | —| 1 | =| =| } 1] =| -| -| 2 < 15-20 | - -| -| -| -| -| =| 1] -| 2] 1] -| =] -| - 3 = 20-25 -| -| -| -| | -} | 1} | -} 4] -} - 2 n 25-30 ff - | -| -| -| 1) -| -| -| -} -| -] -| -| - 1 2 30-35 #-| -| -| -| -| -| 2| 1} 1) -| =| 1} -| 1) - 6 g 35-40 = sll) a Se Ty) = IPSS Sipe Set 4 a 40-45 2 (1 -| =|-1} 1} =| 1) 21 =) -! -| 8 fe) 45-50 —| = URI N Stecol Ue SUAS A nh PPR 4 = 50-55 | —| 1} 3} 1} -| 1] -] =| 1/3] 4) -| - 9 ee 55-60 § =) 4) 1) =) a=) ap =a =|) pata 7 é LUST) a ei fe eA fit bata Fe UY a 9 4 65-70 § -| —|-| — | -| 1] -} 1] 1) -| -| -| -| -) - 3 5 70-75 ff -| -| -| 1] -| -| 1) -| -| -| -| -| -| 1) -| -| -| - 4 : 75-80. §' =| =| =| =| 1) =| 2)-a} =| 1) =| 1a) 1 =).=) =} = 8 SI 80-85 J -| -| -| - 1 1) -| - =| 1) 2) =| = 4 a 85-90 9 -| -| -| - -| -| -| -| - =| | -| - 0 o 90-95 -| | —|-| Ses] Shh les 0 rs] 95-100 | | —| =| -| -| 1] - | -| —| 1 a 100-105 ff - ar lial tat NSA Ra = ee ate 1 | [eae calmer | | TaBsLE xvi—Showing the Correlation between the Hatching Quality of Eggs and Winter (November to March) Egg Production. Hatching Season of 19090. Yearling Hens only. Per Cent. or FertireE Eaas Haicien. | | |r mlolmalolw is a) ola|n|~ || ~ faite 3 Tl ilofoldjwole o/St s S)nla}ala |x] x | \o}ag ; | I 1 | ¥, | | | | | | | c} 0-5 fF -| -| -| -| 1] -| -/| -| 1) -| 42) 1) 4) -| -| +] -] - 7 5 5-10 —| =| =| =| 1) =| -| - —| -| -| 2| - 1} -| - 4 5 10-15 f -| —| -| - =} =| i} 3} -| 2) 2) -| -| -| -| 1] - 7 a 15-20 ff -| -| -| -| -| -| 1] ef =| 2) =] 2) =) 0 DP ay apes 10 z 20-25 ff -| -| -| -| -|’-! -| -| 1] 1] 1} -| - 1} 1 -| 5 Ay 25-30 ff 2] —| -| -| + -/ Jj) -| -| 1) -| 1) 1 | - 6 9 30-35 ff -| -| 1] 1] - -| -| 1) -] 4}--| 1 8 BeeAea Bel |e (yeh = (bh ta ree es - 3 A 40-45 1] 1] 2| eet 1 ae 5 a 45-50 §-| -| -| -| -| -| -| -|-| -| -| -| -| -} 1) -/ -4 -| - 1 5 50-55 §-j -| -| -| -| -| =| - | 1 =I -| -| 1 tS 55-60 ff -| -| -| -| -| - | -| -| -| -| zi 1) -| -| -| -| -| -| - l = | | 136 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. These coefficients (cf. p. 134) indicate that the present statis- tics show in general a sensible correlation between the winter egg laying and the per cent. of fertile eggs hatched during the hatching season. The correlation coefficient for 1908 is roughiy 4 times its probable error, while that for 1909, all birds included, is 2.4 times its probable error. The 19c9 pullets alone show a very low coefficient, which, taken by itself, could only be regard- ed as not significantly cifferent from zero. It, however, is nega- tive like all the other coefficients. There is little doubt that this 1909 pullet correlation would have been higher, had there been data from a larger number of birds. All the figures taken together indicate with a high degree of probability that there is a real and significant relationship between the phenomena shown by the statistics. The negative sign of the coefficients indicates that the relation is of the sort that the higher the winter egg production the lower 1s the percentage of fertile eggs hatched and vice versa. Putting all the results together the present statistics show that while the high winter layer is not essentially different from the poor winter layer in regard to the fertility of eggs she is on the average distinctly inferior in respect to the hatching quality of her eggs. The hen that has laid heavily during the winter produces during the hatching season fewer viable chicks from a given number of fertile eggs. THE FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS IN THE PULLET AND £ SEcoND YEAR OF LIFE. In this section we have to do with the questions raised in paragraph 5 of the statement of problems in the introduction. The questions were: To what extent are the fertility and hatching quality of her eggs innate“unchangeable characteristics of a bird? Ifa pullet produces eggs shown above the average for pullets in either fertility or hatching quality, will the same bird’s eggs in the second year of life be above the average for yearling hens in these respects ? To answer these questions it will be clearly necessary to appeal again to the method of correlation. Correlation tables must be formed which have, to take fertility of eggs as an illustra- tive case, as one variable the percentage eggs infertile in the pullet year, and as the other variable the percentage of the FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 137 TABLE xviI—Showing the Correlation between the Pullet and Second Year Performance in Respect to Fertility of Eggs. ; Per Cent. INFERTILE—SECOND YEAR. iE o|S a 19|O}1D | O/1M} O]19 |O] W/O] W/O} |O|/ W/O }w/ SO] a a4 } FUE-a bli bid ea oD cad loa bra a bd ia ca eS (a He Te Nicsihics 19} O1191O J29d}O)ip|O}19 1 Jn] Oia Jo}wsl1sS ° k SIO |AIAIN | A] O| ol H | AH) DO] id| S/O |r] HO lal ala & 4 a ‘ 6 4 = O-5 | 3} 1) -|-] 1/1 - - -| -| -| - 6 : re 5-10) 5] 1] 2) —| =| 2) =| =) =| 1) =) =) =| -/ =} =| =| 1) =! 4 11 ; = tO =) 1 | Fd) UT SSS SE SS aS) Sa 12 : a 15-20 f 2) 1) =| -| 1] 1) = 1 - -| -| -| -| -| - 6 q iS 20-25 § 5] 3] -| -| - - =| — =\"— —| —| -| -| - 8 ; 5 25-30 ff 1) 1) -| 1 - ~ — ll) 3) Sfp Sy) =] Spe 4 7 ay 30-3 2) -| -| -| -| -|) -] - - -| -| -| -| -| - 2 3 | Gs eae |e a Pe A | 1 ; 8 40-45 ff -| 1) -| -| -| -] -| - = —| - -| — 1 , EE 45-50 ff -| - -| - -| - - - -| - 0 fe 50-55 ~ - — —| -| -| -| -| -] -| -| - 0 : fe 55-60 - -| - =| = = -| 0 Z 60-65 Ff -| -| — -| - - Sh S|) =| 1 SS} 0 : 65-70 §f -| -| -| -| -| -| -] -| -| -|-| -}-| --| -1-|-| 4 -| 0 | = 70-75 | —| -| =| —| —| -|.=| =| =| -| -| =] =] =| -| =| -| =] -| |] 0 A 75-80 ff -| -| -] -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -| -] -| -] -| -} -| - 0 ; o 80-85 § -| -| -| -| -.-| -| -| -] -| -| -] -| -| -|-| -] -| -| - 0 | ae 85-90 F- 1) -|-- 7-7-7 47-|47---}-}-f4-)-|- 1 A TABLE XvilI—Showing the Correlation between the Pullet and | Second Year Performance in Respect to Hatching Quality of Eggs. Per Cent. or Fertire Eaas Harcuep—SEconp YEAR TNN—-1N5 5-10 10-15 15-20 —2 25-30 Totals. 30-35 35—40 40-45 45-50 50-55 75-80 80-85 85-90 0-5 O- 5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 I ! I | | I I I ! 1 | Lobe tot l | | i = ! Pot [ete ee bee NOS ease lee ees eetied rh | I = | | | Pg a Et Wa | St et NT PG | Loeleate Meayia eso alun wie} ale aed PT bah PS FS whe PuLieT YEAR. foto Tees She ela t= eta en =a lel enw] | Leet Cte ot eremretie Hote TCV Tre Te at esstet Peete etal PLES pea es es le a el ROR NR RE KEN AUN WERWRN HO SAPS MTT OV) itd TS ot od bee 5 Pi) Fg fi eT et RTT aii fier JOseRS Tet Latino at isthe I Tefal (Petiefietee te ee efieveilef Pit tee) peor dt te folep hal ate fei ch Ee Jbaielt PS Pe ie ev ed) Ge OsT Pehl Solel eect le ee Sn Tes ees = hl tere [bse Per Cent. or FertiteE Eccs HatcHep Totals... . 138 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. same birds’ eggs infertile in the second breeding year. We have available complete records for two successive hatching seasons of 52 birds. The correlation tables for per cent. of infertile eggs and per cent. of fertile eggs hatched for these birds are given in Tables XVII and XVIII. From these tables the variation constants given in Table XIX have been calculated. TABLE XIX. Constants for First and Second Years’ Hatching Records of ° the Same Birds. CONSTANT. aT pec ea Pulletsyiear mean senst: sac ieloon c iavohia ke amuses 16.83+1.28 49 .81+2.03 nastandandideviatlon ee pricier 13.66+40.90 21.67+1.43 Secondivearsmeany tar ect ac an eee neo 14.42+2.00 51.63 +2.29 pastandand deviations iis-is- lv eerea ere 21.37+41.41 24.46+1.62 Coefiicientiofcorrelation enced cciciie eee —0.111+0.092 0.331+0.083 From these tables the following points are to be noted: I. ‘There is comparatively little difference in the mean fer- tility or mean hatching quality of the eggs of this group of birds in the two years, so far as the data enable any conclusion to be drawn. This result would seem to indicate that the sup- posed superiority of hens over pullets in breeding performance arises in the main from the fact that the hens kept as breeders the second year are usually selected, consciously or uncon- sciously with regard to their first year breeding records. An ' average improvement of about two per cent, such as is shown by this group of birds, is certainly not indicative of any marked tendency for a bird to be a better breeder in her second year than in her first. 2. ‘The variability, both in regard to fertility and hatch- ing quality of eggs is absolutely and relatively greater in the second year than in the first. 3. Having regard to the magnitude of its probable error the correlation in respect to the fertility of eggs in first and second year is probably to be regarded as not significant. In other words it would appear that, so far as may be judged by the FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 139 present statistics, on the average a bird whose eggs run high in fertility in the pullet year is as likely as not to produce eggs running low in fertility in the second year, and wice versa. This result is independent of the fact that the birds were with cockerels of generally equal breeding ability in the two years, as shown by their pen averages. 4. There is a significant positive correlation between the per- centage of fertile eggs hatched from the same group of birds in two successive breeding years. The coefficient here (0.331) is 4 times its probable error. This result means that in the long run the bird whose fertile eggs give high percentage hatches in the pullet year, will show the same characteristics in her second breeding year. And similarly the bird whose fertile eggs hatch poorly in her pullet year will on the average, make the same kind of a record in her second year. This result emphasizes the importance of a carefully kept hatching record when one is saving pullets for the next year’s breeding work or to furnish eggs to sell for hatching. ARE THE FERTILITY AND HATCHING QUALITY OF Eccs INHERITED CHARACTERS? In this section we shall undertake the discussion of a very interesting and, at the same time difficult point. Theoret- ically it is a simple matter to determine whether the two char- acters, fertility and hatching quality of eggs, are inherited. If the question be put in this form: “Will the daughters of a hen whose eggs are above the average (for mothers) in percentage fertility produce eggs which will in turn be above the average (for daughters) in fertility?” it is at once apparent that the necessary procedure is to form a correlationstable in which one variable is the percentage fertility of the mother’s eggs and the other the percentage fertility of the daughters’ eggs. The corre- lation coefficient determined from such a table should then be a measure of the degree to which this character is inherited from mother to daughter. The same line of reasoning and treatment of the data is also to be adopted to determine whether the hatching quality of eggs is inherited from mother to daughter. While the, problem is thus theoretically simple, actually there are a number of difficulties as will presently appear. 140 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. TABLE xx—Showing the Correlation between Mother and Daughter in Respect to Fertility of Eggs. Moruer’s Per Cent. INFERTILE. sg mes ean eis | Be pPNwWR RE wWoo te tes |] ts (Pte 1] tl wlwlo | | | | fees [fe Ue il Ue | te i= Tea We a elk hf Po aaa ha th Se a TE hp s(t Tate hae theo Pat aT PA eh tes ies) a a ee cl tate let | | | | | DaucutTpr’s Per Cent. INFERTILE on ros) Oo or BPR OSCOHONOCOCORHUWOMMOD theta tt he te tl PH lb il = | | edb eit TABLE XxI—Showing the Correlation between Mother and Daughter in Respect to Hatching Quality of Eggs. MoruHer’s Per Cent. oF FrRTILE Eaas HATCHED. bo ‘ e &£ 4 0-5 5-10 11 10-15 | - 15-20 1 20-25 | 1 25-30 | & 1 30-35 3 1 35-40 40-45 ff -| 1/1 | - 45-50 50-55 2 55-60 2 60-65 J -—|1/] 1 65-70 70-75 75-80 J.—|-| - | 80-85 heat 85-90 | - 90-95 95-100 =|) = 100-105 1 Re bho or FERTILE | me bb ee bo | | eR Ree (Petes tl bo | a Pw] Web ht a Eacs HatcuHen. me | Rb | ar Ne me] | eR bob bo | i pi — BPR OORMORWONO POR MRE NWWNHW OO DauGuTEeR’s Per CENT. bo a bo e S Totals...[ 0 AWS Oen oval ede |S. llr aen|lerole ele) er 4G) FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. IAI At the outstart it will be well to examine correlation tables such as have been described correlating mother and daughter with respect to fertility and to hatching quality of eggs. Such tables are given as Tables XX and XXI. The constants calculated from these tables are given in Table XXII. TABLE XXII. Constants Calculated from Tables XX and XXTI. Fertility, Hatching quality, CONSTANT. table XX. table XXI. MEOMMEnSeEINeEANe oF yb itacly sis Tele che cerca thee Dee 3 ee 13.88+1.49 52.96+1 .23 pe retandend deviation). 2).)/... 05.1224 | 20.61+1.05 17.00+0.87 ie coefficient of variation................ 148 .47+17.66 32.00+1.80 RP RLieKs mum CHa Mites, we a a asta enero 13 .65+1.38 47 .67+1.80 i Standard deviation...........-...-.| 19.10+0.98 24.9241 .27 ce coefficient of variation............. | 139.96+15.87 | 52.2743 .32 Coefficient of correlation..........:......2...-. —0.035+0.072 0.031+0.072 From this table we note the following points: 1. The figures apparently do not indicate that there is any correlation between mother and daughter with regard to either of the characters considered. Neither coefficient of correlation sensibly differs from zero. 2. The mothers, though a selected class are not less variable than the daughters so far as per cent. of infertility of eggs is concerned. ‘They are much less variable than the daughters in per cent. of fertile eggs hatched. In selecting pullets for breed- ing in 1909 (1. e., “daughters” of the present discussion) partic- ular attention was paid to the breeding records of their mothers as regards per cent. of fertile eggs hatched. This means that the mothers which are in the correlation tables XX and XXI are a selected group, whereas the daughters in these tables are not selected at all, with reference to their own fertility and hatching records. While some attention was paid to fertility of eggs in this selection of breeding stock, the selection was ot so close as in regard to per cent. of fertile eggs hatched. 3. There is a much more marked diminution of the daugh- ters’ mean below the mothers’ mean in the case of hatching 142 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. quality than in the case of fertility. This is again to be explained as the result of the closer selection with reference to the one character than to the other. The mothers’ mean fertility of eggs is not significantly above the general population mean. Hence the daughters’ mean shows no sensible lowering:as com- pared with the mothers. On the other hand the mothers’ mean percentage of fertile eggs hatched is well above the general population mean (52.96 as compared with 37.24) and conse- quently it is to be expected that there will be a relatively more pronounced reduction of the daughters’ mean. Let us now examine more particularly the result stated in paragraph I, viz., that there is no apparent parental inheritance of these characters, fertility and hatching quality of eggs. It is conceivable that the observed correlation coefficients have their values reduced by the action of various circumstances affecting the statistical material, not yet taken account of. In other words there may be a real inheritance of these characters, fertility and hatching quality of eggs, and yet it may be so masked by other factors as to show no trace of itself in the statistical table. It is necessary to determine, if possible, whether this is the case. First, let us see whether the selection of mothers may have been the factor which has reduced the parental correlation. It has been shown by Pearson * that when the selection of a parent is stringent with reference to any character, the correlation between parent and offspring will be much reduced. The formula covering the case which we have to deal with here is, wherein the significance of the letters is as follows, stated in terms of the present problem: Rw = correlation between mother and daughter after selec- tion of mothers has occurred. ‘This is the observed coefficient of correlation of Table XXII. s, — standard deviation of mothers after selection. a, Standard deviation of general population from which mothers were drawn. * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Vol. 200_A, p. 30. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 143 yz = correlation between mothers and daughters in the absence of (or preceding) any selection of mothers. We have the following observed values for these quantities. Fertility of Eggs. Hatching Quality of Eggs. Ru = —0.035 Rez = 0.031 Se 20:01 Sah 71.00 o, = 15.00 o, = 17.99 It is at once apparent that in the case of fertility of eggs there was no effective selection of the mothers. The variability of the mothers is actually greater than that of general population from which they were drawn. In the case of the hatching quality of eggs the selection was far from stringent, as meas-. ured by the variabilities. We get in this case nz = 0.034 This indicates that the small observed value of the parental correlation is not to be accounted for, except in an insignificant degree, by the selection of mothers. This is the result which was to be expected since the selection was so slight. So far we have discussed the inheritance of the characters fertility and hatching quality of eggs in the female line only, i. e., from mother to daughter. It is a pertinent question to ask whether these characters may not be transmitted through the male line. It is quite conceivable that this might be the case just as in dairy cattle milking qualities are transmitted through the male line. Unfortunately it is a very difficult matter to determine whether any character which only reaches its objective expression in the female is transmitted through the male line. The reason for this is obvious. It is not possible to get any good measure of the innate germinal constitution of a male individual with reference to any such female char- acter. ‘Thus a male bird may bear within its germ cells the tendency to produce good hatching quality in the eggs of its daughters and yet this fact cannot be distinguished except through the performance of the daughters themselves. These considerations make it necessary to adopt a somewhat different method of study than that which is used in the investigation of inheritance in the female line. The only practical measurement which can be obtained regarding male birds and which is pertineat in the present con- nection is the average fertility and hatching quality of the eggs 144 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. TABLE XXIII. Comparison of Fathers’ Average Pen Records of Infertility and Hatching of Eggs, with the same Characters in their Daughters. Average per cent. Average per cent.|Average per cent.| of fertile eggs |Average per cent. of infertile eggs | of infertile eggs |hatched shown by| of fertile eggs Cockerel |shown by females} shown by the’ |female mated with/hatched shown by number. mated with the |daughters of the| designated male. |the daughters of male designated. | designated male. (Father’s pen the designated (Father’s pen average of hatch- male. average infer- ing quality. tility.) D 31 8.9 9.7 | 46.0 41.2 D 32 16.7 0 | 44.3 61.0 D 60 19.2 (3,03 26.4 38.3 SD) alee 20.3 1.0 | 41.4 | 70.9 D 65 20.6 10.7 | 31.4 65.0 D 26 20.8 78.0 50.3 | 76.5 D 35 21.0 16.5 By Il 44.3 1D). au 22.4 49.6 33.8 40.5 D 70 22.5 6.0 36.5 60.1 | D 16 23.0 1.8 24.6 54.7 D 68 26.0 13.1 48.2 | 40.7 DD 26.6 Gall 26.2 33-0 D 56 27.0 3.0 25.6 | 35.0 D 61 29.0 25.2 31.4 | 38.4 D 57 34.8 10.0 34.2 | 36.2 laid by all the birds in the pen headed by each cockerels. Pro- vided sufficiently large numbers of females are used with each male in a breeding pen so that it may be supposed that they give a fair random sample of breeding females in general, the average fertility and hatching quality of eggs from the pen through the whole season may be taken as in some degree a measure of that particular male bird’s breeding ability. Assuming that the females represent average samples, differences in the average fertility and hatching quality of the eggs from different pens may be attributed to innate differences in the breeding ability of the cockerels, always provided other conditions are kept the same. Now this ques- tion may be raised: What is the degree of correlation existing between a male bird’s average pen fertility of eggs (such as is o> a en! ae — = ase £ oe, 3) %, vw. e [Se oe ae ee FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I45 56 rtile fe /n & Ge Prercenta 3! 32 60 17 65 26 35 iW 70 16 68 5 So 6l 57 Cochexe/ls ; Fig. 14. Diagram showing the relation between fathers’ aver- age pen records of infertility, and the average infertility of their daughters’ eggs. The solid line gives the average per cent. of infertile eggs shown by the females mated with each male. The dotted line gives the average per cent. infertile for the family of daughters corresponding to each father. given for example in the last columns of Tables VII and VIIT) and the percentage of eggs infertile and of fertile eggs hatched shown by the daughters of this male bird in the next season’s breeding? ‘To answer this question would obviously be to apply somewhat the same test to inheritance in the male line as we have to inheritance in the female line. It is impossible, however, to apply this test at present because of lack of sufficient material. The number of male birds whose daughters appear as breeders the second year is so small as to make a determination of corre- lation coefficients a waste of time on account of the magnitude of the probable errors which would be involved. It is possible, however, to get some little light on the matter in an indirect 146 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. way. ‘This can be done by comparing the father’s average pen fertility and average pen hatching quality of eggs as given in Table VII with the average fertility and hatching quality of eggs exhibited by his daughters. Such a comparison is made in Table XXIII and in Figures 1 and 2. The arrangement of the data in this table and the figures is fully explained in the legends. S trate hed _& S ac 8 fertile Eg ENG eo Fercenta in?) ey IG aes TE Ba ESS Baan ay 70 17 32” 3) 68 2 Cockerels P Fig. 15. Diagram showing the relation btween the fathers’ average pen records of hatching quality, and the average hatch- ing quality of their daughters’ eggs. ‘The solid line gives the average per cent. of fertile eggs hatched from the females mated with each male. The dotted line gives the average per cent. of fertile eggs hatched for the family of daughters corresponding to each father. From the table and the diagrams we note the following points; it must be understood that, on account of the meager- ness of the data, these results are simply suggestions to be tested by further work, rather than definite conclusions: 1. There clearly is no significant relationship, so far as the present data show, between the father’s average pen percentage of eggs infertile and the daughters’ average for the same char- acter. The zigzag daughter line in Fig. 14 shows no tendency to parallel the line for the fathers. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 147 / 2. With reference to the percentage of fertile eggs hatched the case appears to be somewhat different. Here, as is shown in Fig. 15, there is a distinct tendency for the zigzag line of daugh- ter averages to run more or less parallel to the fathers’ line. In other words, there is some indication of a distinct tendency for the daughters of a male whose average pen record for hatching quality of eggs is high to show the same characteristic themselves. Too much stress must not be laid upon the result, however, because of the small number of males included in the statistics. 3. These results, so far as they go, accord with those previ- ously obtained in so far as that there appears to be a difference in the behavior of the character “fertility of eggs’ as distin- guished from “hatching quality.” Fertility seems to be much more a matter of external factors than hatching quality, which appears to be very largely determined by innate constitutional characters. ‘This point will be more fully discussed farther on. We may now look at the question of the inheritance of these characters under discussion in still another way, namely from the standpoint of collateral inheritance. Let us turn to an examination of the so-called “fraternal” correlations respecting fertility and hatching quality of eggs. The question here is this: if one sister in a family has a percentage of fertility above the average will her other sisters (i. e., birds of the same family) tend to have fertility records above the average and vice versa? And similarly if one sister shows an unusually high percentage of fertile eggs hatched will the other sisters of the same family in general show hatching records above the average, and wice versa? It is plain that if sisters are in gen- eral alike in respect to either of these characters fertility or hatchipg power of eggs, it will indicate that to that extent these characters are inherited. In order to determine whether there is on the average a closer resemblance between sisters in respect to these characters than exists between individuals taken at random it is necessary once more to appeal to the method of correlation. In forming the correlation tables in this case, however, it is necessary to adopt a slightly different method than that which was used in the case of mother and daughter records. When the correlation between mother and daughter is determined we are dealing with two entirely separate classes of individuals belonging to differ- 148 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. TABLE XXIV. Showing the Correlation between Sisters in Respect to Percent- age of Eggs Infertile. Per Cent. oF Ecaas INFERTILE. ) 0 |] Ol mM] eo] }1olm |] eo] 6] eo] o] oe |. 2 cae wi Pelee pause pels | et.) = ri Sl) xe |S So/wmlolwol]olmo|e|lwlo ° S/O} alal alan] om] o;a| +] mo) 6) 6) oOo} = (=; S| C=5- | KO MIG WA OG] EG! 45O 7S P=} =f) == P=} =) 4 113 2 5-10 NaS ee Se Se DR ee hs 32 a 10-15 14°) — | 8 | =] 2 = | = 24+ S 15-20 § 6 | 2 | | | | 1 9 com 20-25 Gee 22 ee 1 1 13 R 25-30 Ae ea | ec | eka | pee ee 1 | | 10 o TOS NO yee ial aon | — 17 & 35-40 3h 25a le pal 1 | 8 ia 40-45 1 — 1 2 45-50 , —— (0) = 50-55 0 zZ 55-60 | - | 0 & 60-65 | | —|- 0) = 65-70 0 & 70-75 | 4 | 2 | 1 | — | —|- 7 | 13 j19 TABLE XXV. Showing the Correlation between Sisters in Respect to Per- centage of Fertile Eggs Hatched. PER CENT. OF FERTILE Eaes HatcHeEp. | of — |e) SPHiSpPsel Si Ms/Speypo pero oe l/ops) co pt (SIT TTT TTT PETIT LTTE city Se TE] LL] O)29) S 129] OS] | O29] SO 119) O] WO | O19] © 119} D119 ° SC) M|SIAIAIAl S| o|H|H/ Hl ww SIOIKIK|D I/D ala ic A | (ene iat | 3 0-5 NS) De Sp Sy 5h) Bi B-Ball Gl aL Hy = | al | SO) o 5-10 | —| 2 1 = 3 5 10-15 J 2 | 1 [2) 1) 4 2| — =| 9 a 15-20 1 Sf Seal aed 1 7 20-25 Ns) ie St) S| Sh il Dy) Bh it 2| 1 -f 11 a 25-30 | | | i) 2 So 30-35 2) —| -| 2} —| —| 2] 2) 3} =| 1] 2] -| -}| -| -| -| -| -| -] 14 a 35-40 | 1 1} 1| 2 ii) S)) Tah) Sh ye yp Sp SS =| | Q 40-45 HO) sh yy SP Sy) a Sai ie Ti, BP SS Sh pS ta = 45-50 Ay S| a a ay iY eae 2 1 -f 12 & 50-55 Sy) Sh a Say SP al uy ry at SS) Bl a SP Oy wp Se Sha) | Bo a 55-60 1) 2) 2) or} =) =) 2) 1 1 2| 4 1| 3 -| 18 a 60-65 6 DS 2213 2| 2 2| 2 —| 1f 26 a 65-70 itl) = = 1 2 2| 2 1 9 ° O=7s || Sl Sy SS) a at 1| 1 1 3 = 8 a 75-80 1| 1 | 1 PSS 2 Si 2192) 3) =) 2) =) = eas z 80-85 2 - 2 2| 2 DS -| of 14 & 85-90 —| —| -| -| -] -} =} =} -| -| = 0 90-95 | | = 0 e 95-100 1 | — 1 1) 1 1| 2 =|| = 7 a ! | (CS ET BY NE I I STE SO I TT ET Tots... 0 3 y 71 2/14{10|16 12)20)18\26 9| 8/18/14] 0] O| 7| 234 FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I49 ent generations. We may properly enter one set of individuals on one side of the correlation table, as the primary or + variable and the other set on the other side of the table as the secondary or y variable (cf., Table XXI). When we come to deal with pairs of sisters all of the same age, however, there is no good reason for taking one sister of a pair as the primary or 4 vari- able rather than the other. ‘Therefore, in such cases it is neces- sary in order to arrive at a correct result to enter each indi- vidual of a pair of sisters twice; once as the x variable and once as the y variable of the correlation table.* This has been done in forming the two tables XXIV and XXV which show the correlation between sisters in respect to fertility and hatch- ing quality of eggs respectively. In forming these tables every possible pair of sisters has been entered twice, with first one and then the other as the primary variables in the manner indicated. From these tables the following coefficients have been calculated : Correlation between sisters in respect to per cent. of eggs infertile ry = —o0.064+.062. Correlation between sisters in respect to per cent. of fertile eggs hatched r = 0.188+.060. From these values we note that: 1. There is no sensible correlation between sisters in respect to the percentage infertility of eggs. A bird having a per- centage of infertile eggs well below the average is as likely as not to have a sister whose percentage infertility will be above the average and vice versa. 2. In respect to the hatching quality of eggs (percentage of fertile eggs hatched) there is a definite and sensible correlation between sisters. This means that, in general, sisters of birds whose eggs are above the average in hatching quality have their eggs also above the average in respect to this char- acter. In other words, the data would indicate that there is a sensible degree of what may be spoken of as “fraternal” or * The necessity for dealing with material of this character is the way indicated has been dully discussed by Pearson in his memoir on homo- typosis, (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 197A, pp. 285-3790, 1901), and by Pearl in connection with a study of homogamy in the conjugation of Paramecium (Biometrika, Vol. 5, pp. 213-207, 1907). 150 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. collateral inheritance of the character “hatching quality of eggs” even though this character 1s apparently not inherited in the ancestral line. At first thought it would seem that there is a contradiction here in saying that there is collateral but not parental inherit- ance. How can sisters be more alike than a random sample of the general population except because of the fact that they are the progeny of the same parents? ‘The contradiction is only appar- ent and not real, however. It has been shown by Pearson * that we may expect to get relatively high coefficients of fra- ternal inheritance associated with low or insignificant parental coefficients, whenever the phenomenon of prepotency ia the ancestral line occurs. ‘This is exactly what careful study of the individual records shows to exist in the present material. The point is that the absence of parental correlations with respect to fertility and hatching of eggs shown in Tables XX and XXI does not mean that one of these characters at least (hatching quality) is not inherited. It merely means that the existence of such parental inheritance is masked by the exist- ence of varying degrees of prepotency with reference to this character amongst the mothers. The existence of such prepot- ency is perfectly apparent from (a) the study of individual records, and (b) the correlation between sisters as shown in Table XXVI, in regard to this character. In passing it may be remarked that this case well illustrates the danger of which lies in too hastily drawing conclusions from mass material without careful study of the individual cases. Putting all our material together it leads to the conclusion that the actual fact is that there is a definite inheritance amongst poultry of what has been called in this paper “the hatching quality of eggs.” Yet the manner of this inheritance is such that the fact of its existence is entirely obscured in the ordinary parent-offspring correlation table compiled to test the question. It may be mentioned here, though a detailed discussion of the point is reserved for a future paper, that this phenomenon of sensible fraternal correlations associated with the absence of parental correlation is exactly what is to be expected if the character studied is inherited in a manner similar to that * Pearson, K. On the Laws of Inheritance in Man. 1. Inherit.nce of Physical Characters. Biometrika, Vol. 11, pp. 357-462, 1903. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I5I observed in “pure lines” in plants (Johannsen) in the case of a sexually reproducing (i. e., not self-fertilizing) organism. 3. Fertility and hatching quality again are seen to behave differently. There is no evidence of any kind that the former represents an innate, constitutional character which is inherit- able. SUMMARY OF SECTION. Putting all the results of this section together it may be said that the data at present available indicate that the hatching quality of eggs measured by per cent. of fertile eggs hatched is an innate constitutional character which is definitely inherited in the female and probably also in the male line, though on the latter point more data are needed. On the other hand, there is no evidence that the character “fertility of eggs” is in any degree or manner inherited. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. The data represented in this paper lead to results which may be summarily stated as follows: I. So far as the present data indicate there is a small but still sensible correlation between the fertility and hatching quality of eggs. ‘This means that in general or on the average the hen whose eggs run high in fertility will also tend to show a high hatching quality of eggs (per cent. of fertile eggs hatched) and vice versa. 2. Conditions of housing have a marked and definite influ- ence on the mean or average fertility and hatching quality of eggs. In the experiments here discussed it was found that both fertility and hatching quality of eggs were very much better when the breeding was done in a “curtain-front” house, which furnished an abundance of fresh, pure air, than when it was done in what was formerly considered to be a highly desirable type of heated house, without curtain-front but with a sup- posedly adequate system of indirect ventilation. 3. The hatching quality of eggs is in general less variable in proportion to the mean of the character varying than is fertility. 4. ‘The variability in respect to both fertility and to hatching quality is markedly influenced by environmental conditions (particularly housing conditions). 152 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. 5. It is shown that the individuality of the female bird is a very important factor in the determination of the fertility of eggs. Different individual females have characteristic degrees of fertility of their eggs, independent (within limits) of the character of the male bird with which they are mated. This fact emphasizes the importance to the breeder of trapnesting through the breeding season at least. 6. ‘The present statistics indicate that there is no correlation whatever between winter (November to March) egg production and the fertility of eggs laid during the subsequent hatching season. In other words, the eggs of the heavy winter layer are not more likely on the average to be infertile than are those of the light winter layer, other conditions being the same. 7.) \iherey is jay distinct comrelation: (between | the wmrer (November to March) egg production and the per cent. of fer- tile eggs hatched during the subsequent breeding season. This correlation is of such sort as to indicate that in general the higher the winter egg production of a particular bird the lower will the percentage of that bird’s fertile eggs hatched probably be and vice versa. 8. The present statistics do not show any marked superiority of hens over pullets in respect to breeding performance so far as either fertility or hatching quality of eggs are concerned. It must be understood that this is merely a statement of fact and does not constitute any recommendation for the use of either pullets or hens as breeders. That question involves more than the two factors here under discussion. 9. There is no indication that the fertility of eggs in the pullet year and in the second breeding year are in any way cor- related. In other words, a bird whose eggs run high in fertility in the pullet year is as likely as not to produce eggs running low in fertility the second year, and vice versa, when mated with the same male or with males of essentially equal breeding ability as shown by their pen averages. 10. There is a significant positive correlation between the percentage of fertile eggs hatched in the pullet year and in the second breeding year. In other words, the bird whose eggs are of superior hatching quality in the pullet year will, on the aver- age, show the same characteristic in her second year. = y FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 153 11. There is no evidence that the character “fertility of eggs’ (measured by per cent. of eggs infertile) is in any degree or manner inherited. 12. The character “hatching quality of eggs’? (measured by per cent. of fertile eggs hatched) is definitely inherited in the female line and probably also in the male line. In considering these results as a whole there are certain mat- ters of general significance which need some further considera- tion. In the first place, taking all the results of the paper together it is evident that fertility and hatching quality of eggs are very different characters. While there are great individual differences among different females in respect to the fertility of their eggs, even when mated to the same male, it still remains the fact that this character, as compared with hatching quality of eggs, is to a very large degree influenced 'by external circum- stances. ‘Thus we have seen that the same relative degree of fertility is not characteristic of the same bird in two successive seasons; nor is this character affected by winter egg produc- tion. It is not inherited. On the other hand, the hatching quality of eggs is an innate constitutional character just as much intrinsic as any other physical character such as shape of body or length of limb. Relatively the same intensity or degree of this character is per- sistent in the same bird in successive breeding seasons. It is adversely affected by heavy winter egg production. It is inherited. These facts raise the question as to what the hatching quality of eggs depends upon. We have used as a quantitative meas- ure of this quality the percentage of fertile eggs hatched. But this measurable quantity depends on underlying innate biological factors. As to what these factors im detail are, data are lack- ing. It will, however, be of some value to attempt to list such general factors as are known to have some bearing on the case. At the start of such a list it can probably be safely said that any factor which tends to reduce or impair the general constitu- tional vigor of breeding birds in general tends also to reduce the hatching quality of the eggs from these birds. The relative “condition” or vigor of breeding birds may be impaired in variety of ways. For example, improper feeding may bring about this result. Houssay (1907) in his very thorough study 154 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. extending over six generations has investigated the effects resulting from feeding fowls a purely meat diet. He notes among other results an impairment of general constitutional vigor amongst his birds in the later generations, and also a greatly reduced hatching quality of the eggs. S The present study has shown that high winter egg production has, on the average, an adverse effect on the hatching quality of the eggs produced by the same birds in the subsequent hatch- ing season. ‘This again can probably be regarded as the result of a reduction of constitutional vigor following heavy laying. Continued heavy egg production involves great metabolic activ- ity on the birds’ part in the transformation of matter and energy and must fatigue the organism. It is not surprising that under such circumstances the developmental machines (fertilized eggs) produced are not absolutely perfect. The finding of a negative correlation between fecundity and hatch- ing quality (= germinal viability or vigor) is of some general theoretical interest. There is considerable reason to believe that a similar condition of affairs exists in man. High fecun- dity and high infant mortality (and probably also prenatal mor- tality) are very generally associated. And are not the causes probably very similar in the two cases? In those social classes showing the greatest fecundity, there exist, speaking broadly, bad conditions of housing and autrition all tending along with the organic fatigue incident to the high fecundity itself, to reduce the general vital condition or constitutional vigor, aad with it the viability of the developing germ and growing organism. Similarly adverse housing conditions most probably produce the bad effect which they have been shown (by Dryden, Stewart and Atwood, and others, as well as in the present paper) to have upon hatching quality by lowering the general vital con- dition of the fowls. To this factor of constitutional vigor as affecting hatching quality of eggs the data of the present paper add another, viz., inheritance. Hatching quality of eggs is in some measure a “Dred in the bone” character of poultry, and must be reckoned with as such. The existence of this factor manifests itself in two ways in our results: one by the persistence of relatively the same degree of hatching quality in the same bird in succes- FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I55 sive. years, indicating to what an extent it is a character innate in the individual, and the other in the actual inheritance of this character. But if hatching quality is inherited it means that it is a character which can be improved by selective breeding. This we believe to be the case and in the breeding work of the Station this idea is being put into practice.* The fact must not be lost sight of, however, that to be effec- tive this selection cannot be of the “mass” character. It has been seen that im the mass there is no sensible inheritance of hatching quality from parent to offspring. The point is that some individuals possess the capability of transmitting good hatching quality of eggs to their progeny, or are prepotent with respect to this character. Other individuals, «which may be themselves just as good in respect to hatching quality of eggs, totally lack the ability to transmit this quality to the progeny. Simply selecting birds indiscriminately on the basis of their own hatching records is as likely to get the latter kind of birds as the former, and will make no permanent improvement in the strain. But if a system of pedigree records is at hand an advance with each generation is possible because one by one those “blood lines” in which the transmitting ability or prepotency is absent can be discarded in favor of those in which it is present. In passing it may be said that these considerations apply with exactly the same force to breeding for egg production as to ‘breeding for hatching quality. This point will be more fully discussed in a future paper. The data presented in this paper emphasize the importance in practical breeding work of (a) the selection of breeding stock with reference to constitutional vigor or vitality, (b) the maintenance of the breeding birds in a vigorous condition by proper methods of housing and feeding, and (c) paying atten- tion to the actual breeding ability (as shown by hatching per- formance) of the stock and the exercise of selective breeding to improve this character. It is, of course, obvious that the present paper covers only a small part of the general subject of the factors which influence * Cf. a paper by the present writers having the title “Selection Index Numbers and their Use in Breeding” appearing in Amer. Nat. Vol. XLIII, No. 511, July 1909, pp. 385-400. 156 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. the fertility and hatching quality of eggs. There is need. for much further work on the subject. In particular a careful and detailed study of the biological factors which underlie the observed individuality of both male and female birds with respect to these characters would be highly desirable. Such a study needs to be undertaken from several standpoints. One of the most urgent needs here is for a detailed study of the mating and general sexual behavior of the domestic fowl. Is the reason for the infertility of a particular hen’s eggs some defect in the eggs themselves, or is it merely the result of a failure of the males ever to tread that particular hea? In other words, to what extent does preferential or assortative mating occur? Another question which needs study is as to what relation exists between frequency of copulation and fertility of eggs. Does the male whose copulations are very frequent produce a better average record of fertility than the one which treads the hens less aften? These, and many other related questions which they suggest are all problems which deserve and will receive thorough investigation. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS, 157 ANNOTATED BrBLIoGRAPHY OF LITERATURE DEALING WITH Factors INFLUENCING THE FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF Eccs. In preparing this bibliography the extensive literature deal- ing with incubation and with all of the factors which, acting during incubation, influence the hatching of eggs has been omitted as falling outside the limits of the present discussion. The attempt has been made here to include only original papers of intrinsic importance (i. e., such as really contribute some- thing to the subject). No effort has been made to include (a) general discussions of fertility and hatching which do not con- tribute. new data or ideas, (b) textbooks and general treatises on the embryology of the chick which incidentally disctiss the fertilization of the eggs (the only exception here is the latest and best of such works, viz., that by Lillie), (c) general treatises on poultry husbandry or some of its phases, (d) classical or medieval literature containing allusions to poultry. It is not to be hoped that, even in the restricted field covered, the bibli- ography is complete, but it is hoped that few contributions of importance have been overlooked. It is published simply in the belief that it will prove useful as a nucleus for a subsequent and more complete bibliographical resume of the subject treated. Anon. 1894. Ege Fertility. Agrl. Student, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 6 and 7 Data on influence of duration of mating on fertility of eggs. 1909. Experiments at Llangamarch Wells. Monthly Hints on Poultry (London, Eng.) Vol. IV, No. 35, July, 1909. 1909. Experiments at Llangamarch Wells Poultry Farm. Monthly Hints on Poultry. Vol. IV, No. 37, Sept., 1909. These two papers give detailed reports of some experi- ments carried out by A. J. Odam to determine very pre- cisely (in hours) the duration of the period elapsing between mating and fertility. In one case a chick was pro- duced from an egg laid 72 hours after mating. 158 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. 1906. Fertility of Eggs. Experiment Station Work, No. XXXIV (Farmers’ Bulletin Non 25) eppy 18-22. Gives an excellent brief summary of the published data on factors influencing fertility, up to the date of its appear- ance. Atwood, H. 19009. A Few Preliminary Experiments on the Effect of the Age of the Parents upon the Vigor of Chickens. Amer. Breeders’ Association. Vol. V, pp. 385-380. Comparison of pullets’ and hens’ eggs with reference to fertility and hatching quality. Barfurth, D. 1896. Versuche tber die parthenogenetische Furchung des Hiuhnereies. Arch. f. Entwicklungsmech. Vol. 2, pp. 303-351. Data on persistence of fertility after removal of male. Detailed account of the results of incubating “virgin” eggs. Data on the vitality of spermatozoa. Blount, Mary. 1907. The Early Development of the Pigeon’s Egg with Especial Reference to the Supernumerary Sperm Nuclei the Periblast and the Germ Wall. Biol. Bulletin. Vol. XII —————. 1909. The Early Development of the Pigeon’s Egg, with Especial Reference to Polyspermy and the Origin of the Periblast Nuclei sour Monpiole Vole Xexe Noss pps 2.04 This and the preceding paper deal with certain phases of the morphology of the fertilization of the egg in birds. Bimittine Vein TOOc: A Hatching Experiment. lel, lero, Jour, Wl, 12, ING: 2, ws Baz. Effect of ration on hatching of eggs, particularly influ- ence of feeding oyster shell. Obtained better results with- out it. Brows sdle snO@os Some Practical Observations on Fertile Eggs. Farm Poultuy, Volk XV lly No, 2p. 2o: General discussion. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 159 Buion. 1772. Histoire naturelle des oiseaux. 4 Paris. Vol.-ITT- “Le coq,” pp. 88-186. Pl. IJ. Has much interesting discussion regarding fertility, fecundity and incubation. Many references to medieval and classical literature regard- ing poultry. Gimiiece, ©. 1903. Poultry Experiments. Fe Expt Rept. for 1902). pp» 333-373. Data on fertility and hatching of eggs in different sea-_ sons of year. No very definite conclusions. Dryden, J. 1897. Poultry Experiments. Utah Agric. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 51, pp. 1-33. Gives some data regarding the influence of the following factors on “‘fertility:” (a) season, (b) age of breeding stock (females), (c) exercise, (d) length of time eggs have been kept. No statement as to whether embryoes dying early were distinguished from truly infertile eggs. Results not conclusive. 1907. Poultry Experiments. Utah Agric. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 102, pp. 203-237. Gives data on the effect of housing on the fertility of eggs. Féré, Ch. 1901. Réponses a quelques questions du questionnaire concernant les oeufs et incubation chez les oiseaux domestiques. Ornis, Vol. 11, pp. 425-426. Gilbert,, A. G. rgot. Report of the Poultry Manager. Canada Expt. Farms Rept. 1900, pp. 251-277. Conclusion is reached, but not supported by numerical data, that winter laying and confinement adversely affect the hatching quality of eggs. 160 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909Q. 1904. Report of the Poultry Manager. Canada Expt. Farms Rept. 1903, pp. 239-255. Some data on effect of housing conditions on fertility and hatching quality of eggs. 1905. Report of the Poultry Manager. Canada Expt. Farm Rept. 1904, pp. 283-311. Data on duration of fertility after removal of male. Maximum observed 11 days. 1906. Report of the Poultry Manager. Canada Expt. Farms Rept. 1905, pp. 233-261. Confirms earlier work. Gove, Hartley. 1907. Explain the Fertility. Rani sPoultmyen Wolwre Nowe p22 Records of very exceptional fertility of a small flock (12 pullets ). Gowell, G. M. 1902. Poultry Experiments in 1900-1901. Me. Expt. Stat. Bulletin No. 79, pp. 9-40. Data regarding influence on hatching quality of eggs of (a) method of keeping pending incubation, (b) shape and size of eggs. Also some data on relation of duration of mating to fertility of eggs. Number of eggs involved in the experiments not large. Poultry Experiments in 1902. Me. Expt. Stat. Bulletin No. 93, pp. 69-92. Data on variation in fertility of eggs, influence of hen, and of egg production on fertility of eggs. Poultry Experiments. Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bulletin No. 130, pp. 101-132. Data on the influence on fertility and hatching quality of (a) duration of mating, (b) previous egg production. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. I6I Graham, W. R. 1908. Hatching and Rearing Chickens. Ont. Dept. Agr. Bulletin 163, pp. 1-28. Contains mass of detailed statistics regarding fertility and hatching. Harper, EF. H. 1904. The Fertilization and Early Development of the Pigeon’s Egg. Amer. Jour. Anat. Vol. III. Detailed description of the actual process of fertilization (union of sperm with ovum) in the pigeon. Harvey, W. 1737. Exercitationes de generatione animalium. Lugduni Batavorum. Duration of fertility after mating. States that 20th egg after a copulation developed. (Cited after Barfurth.) Holmgren, F. 1872. Om Kottatande dufvor. Aftryck ur Upsala lLakare-forenings Forhandlingar. Upsala. In experiments with pigeons a bad effect of meat feed- ing on the hatching quality of eggs is noted. (Cited from Houssay. ) Houssay, F. 1907. Variations expeérimentales. Etudes sur six générations de poules carnivores. mnchezool exper. et een EV ¢ Ser, TOV; pp: 137-332! This important study contains a chapter regarding the effect of a purely carnivorous diet on the fertility and hatching quality of hens’ eggs. Jarvis, L. G. 18098. Report of Manager of Poultry Department. Ont. Agr. Col. & Expt. Farm Rept. 1898, pp. 193-196. Influence of duration of mating on fertility of eggs. Kionka, H. 1894. Die Furchung des Hihnereies. Anat. Hefte. Vol: X. p. 303 ff. Data on persistence of fertility after removal of male. 162 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Kirchstein, A., und Sweers, P. 1909. Zweite Bericht tiber die vergleichenden Kuckenaufzuchts- Versuche. Deutsche landw. Gefl. Ztg. Vol: 12, No. 42, p. 750. Data regarding fertility and hatching of eggs of different breeds under the same conditions of management. Kirchstein, A., Sweers, P., Brinkmann, E. 1go9. Dritte Bericht tiber die vergleichenden Kuckenaufzuchts- Versuche. Deutsche landw. Gefl. Ztg. Vol. 12, 44, p. 763. Continuation of preceding report. Wats tee ersoue Die parthenogenetische Furchung des Hihnereies. Inaug. Dissert. Jurjew-Dorpat. p. 50. Data on persistence of fertility after removal of male, and on vitality of spermatozoa. Kecaillongas G08: Sur les modifications qui peuvent se produire dans la structure de la cicatricule de ’oeuf non fécondé des oiseaux. Compt. rend. Soc. Biol. Vol. 64, No. 14, pp. 647-649. Sur les changements qui se produisent, aprés la ponte, dans l'aspect exterieur de la cicatricule, de l’oeuf non fécondé de la poule. Compt. rend. Soc. Biol. Vol. 64, No. 21, pp. 1034-1036. Billie Re sr908: The Development of the Chick. New York (Holt) pp. xi. and 472. Contains general account of the process of fertilization of the bird’s egg, with reference to the existing biological literature on the subject. Mains soos: Some Poultry Experiments. Penn. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bulletin No. 87, pp. 1-48. Gives statistics of fertility, hatching and weight of eggs for different breeds and months of the season. Meyer. 1909. Verpackung der Bruteier in Kartons oder Korben. Deutsche landw. Gefl. Ztg. Vol. 12, No. 44, p. 76a. Data on hatching of eggs kept in different ways pending incubation. FERTILITY AND HATCHING OF EGGS. 163 Nottage, H. P. 1904. Dry Feeding and Fertility. Farm Poultry. Vol. 15, p. 204. Percentage records for different years keeping hens and pullets separatd. Rablaud, E. 1899. De V’influence de la congelation sur le deéveloppement de Yoeuf de poule. CwewAc. Sei. Paris, Vol..128, py 1183: Effect of very low temperature prior to incubation on the development of the hen’s egg. Robinson, J. H. 1903. Confinement and Fertility. Farm Poultry. Vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 244 and 245. General discussion of topic suggested in title. Gives some pertinent data obtained from close observation of a few individual birds. Still Studying Fertility. Farm Poultry. Vol. XVII, No. 18, p. 395. Recounts some experiments relative to influence of sex- ual maturity of male on fertility. Saint-Loup, Remy. 1got. Quelques réponses au questionnaire concernant les oeufs et l’incubation chez les oiseaux domestiques. Ornis, Vol. 11, pp. 421-423. Silberstein, A. J. 1808. Facts vs. Theory. Poultry Monthly, Sept. 1898. Copied in Rel. Poult. Jour. Sept. 1909, Vol. XVI, p. 787 and 788. Some detailed data (from unofficial source) showing relation in a few individual instances between winter egg production and hatching of eggs. Stewart, J. H. and Atwood, H. 1Igoo. Poultry Experiments. West Virginia Expt. Stat. Bulletin No. 71, pp. 385-402. Data on the influence of free range on the hatching of ee eggs. 164 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Poultry Experiments. W. Va. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 88, pp. 147-162. Contains detailed data on the influence of (a) mash as compared with whole grain, (b) heavy feeding as com- pared with light feeding, and (c) animal foods on the fer- tility and hatching quality of eggs. (Symposium). 1902. Age and Fertility. Farm Poultry. Vol. 13, pp. 194, 215 and 240. Subtitle—“Are well matured cockerels more desirable than vigorous cock birds.” Wellcome wi 1OR= 1002: Heavy Laying and Fertility. Parm Poultry, Vol 13, Nevr7s p: i352: Rather general discussion. No definite figures but studied the fertility of individual birds. BULLETIN No. 169. TWO RECENT EPIDEMICS OF LATE BLIGHT AND BOP‘Or*POTATOES IN AROOSTOOK. COUNTY. W. J. Morss. The summer and fall of 1907 and that of 1909 presented ideal weather conditions for the development of late blight and rot of potatoes in Aroostook county and some other parts of Maine. As a direct result of these weather conditions and the conse- quent development of the blight, by very conservative estimate, the loss in diminished or damaged crops in each of these years amounted to several hundred thousand dollars. Much of this loss occurred on fields where the owners were attempting to spray with bordeaux mixture, and in many cases felt that they were spraying carefully and thoroughly. During the season of 1907 the writer was engaged in carry- ing on spraying experiments in Houlton and in Foxcroft, both to test the relative efficiency of thorough spraying as compared with that usually practiced by most growérs, and to test the relative efficiency of certain substitutes for standard bordeaux mixture. No such experiment was conducted in 1909 but dur- ing both seasons the conditions in various parts of the State were closely observed and carefully followed up as soon as weather conditions indicated that an outbreak was imminent. Repeated visits were made to the various potato growing sec- tions, particularly where blight was appearing and careful notes were made of spraying operations and the resulting successes or failures therefrom. The results secured from the experiments of 1907 and the field observations during the two seasons of severe epidemic blight and rot, taken in connection with results previously obtained by Director Woods of this Station under similar con- a 166 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. ditions, and at other experiment stations, particularly those obtained at the Vermont and the New York State Station lead to but one conclusion, namely: that from 75 to 95 per cent of the loss from blight and rot even under the severe weather con- ditions experienced during the two growing seasons under con- sideration 1s unnecessary and unwarranted. In fact there are few plant diseases which are so completely and thoroughly controlled by bordeaux mixture as the late blight of potatoes and the resulting decay of the tuber caused by the same fungus. Granted that the above statement is true, why has there been an apparent almost universal failure from spraying during the season of 1909, and to a somewhat similar extent in 1907, instead of universal success? There are several factors respon- sible for this condition of affairs, some of which it is proposed to discuss in some detail. The general lack of knowledge of the nature of the fungus causing the disease and its method of distribution, the intimate relation of the development of the disease to weather conditions, improperly made bordeaux mix- ture, inefficient or improperly constructed spraying machinery, resulting in imperfectly covering the foliage, too few applica- tions, or 1f the number of sprayings are sufficient, applied at the wrong time, digging and storing too early if blight gains a foot- hold on the foliage. RELATION OF FUNGUS TO PLANT AND SPRAY TO FUNGUS. The late blight of potatoes is caused by a parasitic fungus, a low form of plant life, which is made up of minute, almost colorless threads which permeate the tissues of the healthy leaf, killing the living cells of which the leaf is made and drawing its nourishment therefrom. In the summer when once estab- lished on a few leaves in a field it spreads very rapidly, if weather conditions are right, by means of little reproductive bodies called spores, which every blighting leaf produces by thousands, if not millions. Certain soluble copper compounds in exceedingly minute quantities are almost immediately fatal to these little spores as soon as solutions containing such copper salts touches them. The efficiency of bordeaux mixture as a fungicide depends upon * Me. ‘Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. 73 (1901) and Bul. 87 (1902). ‘) Aue er ee TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 167 the copper sulphate or blue vitriol used in its preparation. The lime when added makes a very finely divided, but temporarily insoluble compound suspended in water which we call bordeaux mixture. The lime forms with the copper salt, compounds which slowly become soluble and makes an adhesive mixture, when dry, which slowly gives up the copper—fast enough to kill the fungus spores but not fast enough to damage the potato leaves. A very weak solution of copper sulphate would have the same effect but it would have to be applied daily in rainy weather. Spraying then serves a two-fold purpose, primarily to cover the entire healthy leaf with a thin protective film of bordeaux mixture which is constantly giving up minute quan- tities of soluble copper salts which kill all blight spores which find lodgment thereon before they can germinate and enter the leaf, and secondly if the blight is already started the spray may at the time of application kill many millions of spores which are ripe and ready for distribution. The relation of the fungus to the disease is better understood by reference to Fig. 15, page 169. At the left is seen a section of an infected potato leaf, highly magnified. It will be seen that the leaf is made up of many irregularly shaped units or cells. Those above and below being flattened and forming a protec- tive layer. In the lower layer certain lip-shaped openings are seen. ‘These are the breathing pores or stomata through which the fungus most easily enters the leaf. It is possible, however, for the germ tube of the fungus to penetrate directly through the cell wall as shown in the illustration. Rusaning between the cells of the leaf may be seen the threads of the fungus. In the drawing these fungus threads, though naturally nearly color- less, have been colored to make them stand out more distinctly. Projecting downward from the underside are two different appearing bodies. The tapering, pointed ones are natural leaf- hairs. The others, thread-like and branched and bearing the knob-like bodies, are the fruiting organs of the fungus, each little knob being a spore. The top row at the right shows the stages in the development of a spore. After the spore is formed it may divide up into from 6 to 16 little swarm spores, each provided with two little hair like processes by which it is enabled to swim around in drops or films of rain or dew. Later these lose their swimming organs and begin to throw out a germ 168 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. tube. lf the swarm spore is lodged upon a potato leaf the tube usually enters the leaf through the breathing pores, branches and permeates the tissues, killing them as it goes. Thus it produces the characteristic blotches on the leaves as shown by Fig. 16, page 171. ‘The spores may be washed down into the soil also and infect the tubers in the soil, or if the crop is dug while the tops are still partly green, but blighting badly, the tubers may become infected at this time and the rot develop in storage as in the season of 1900. The remaining illustrations of Fig. 15, page 169, show the stages in the formation of swarm spores and how they finally germinate and enter the leaf. After a small dead area is pro- duced the fungus throws out the fruiting organs as illustrated on the large section of the leaf and the process already described is repeated over again. ‘This makes plain why it is absolutely necessary to cover each and every potato leaflet with a thorough protective coating of bordeaux mixture, and why spraying partially or improperly done may be practically useless. When potatoes are blighting badly, if the margins of blight- ing spots are examined on the under sides of the leaves a deli- cate white fringe may be seen. (See Fig. 16.) ‘This is made up of hundreds of little fruiting organs each bearing from one to several fruiting bodies, each of which will divide into from 6 to 16, usually about 10, swarm spores and each of these swarm spores capable, under proper conditions, of producing another blighting leaf or capable of causing the destruction of a merchantable tuber. It is thus easily seen how that one blighting leaf may produce sufficient spores to infect every hill of potatoes on an acre of land, provided all the spores produced could come in contact with these plants. This explains why a field, apparently free from blight, may be found to be badly affected only a few days later, and how potatoes showing a comparatively small amount of blight on the foliage before being killed by frost or before being dug, may develop a large amount of rot in the field or in storage as the case may be. In the first instance the blight existed for some days on the lower and more shaded leaves (where it would not be noticed by the ordinary observer) till a day or two of favorable weather occurred. Then a large crop of spores were produced which infected the plants on the whole field. In the case of tuber POTATO BLIGHT. (Phytophthora infestans.) SecTion or Porarto Lear Arrecteo wiry ree Buenr tnto the Leaf A Through Stoma B Through Cell-Wah Fic. 15. From drawings by De Bary, Ward and Jones. The fungus threads and spores, though nearly colorless, are colored in the drawing to make them stand out more distinctly. . Fic. 16. Potato leaf attacked by late blight, as shown by the dark- ened areas on the leaflets. One of the large leaflets on the right is turned bottom up to show the delicate fringe of spore producing organs. 4 ] TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 173 infection the blight may be well started on the leaves and a heavy rain wash the spores down onto the tubers in the soil, and decay at once starts up, or if the tops are producing an abun- dance of spores when the crop is dug, the weather cloudy or rainy, the atmosphere humid, and the tubers after being show- ered with millions of spores from the blighting leaves are at once picked up and stored in large bins without being allowed to dry off infection is almost sure to result as in the fall of 1909. WEATHER CONDITIONS AND THE DISEASE. Rain, dew, wind and insects are the chief agencies for dis- tributing the disease. So far as known the only way that the crop of any one year is first infected is from planting diseased tubers in which the fungus has remained semi-dormant over the winter. Hence the first blow to be struck in the fight against this disease is to plant nothing but healthy, sound tubers. Late blight revels in moist, cloudy weather and, contrary to the general notion, in relatively cool or moderate temperatures.* The spores are produced in greatest abundance in rainy or cloudy weather and are extremely susceptible to drying and hence one need never fear an outbreak in dry, hot, sunshiny weather. Wet weather is almost sure to bring it on unless spraying is kept up during the continuance of such weather. In fact there is no other disease of our common field or garden crops where a careful observer can predict with more accuracy its probable appearance or absence. From a financial stand- point this is a point that no progressive potato grower should overlook. While spraying operations should not be delayed till favorable conditions for blight appear, how thoroughly they are followed up may well be governed by weather conditions if one thoroughly understands the significance of the latter. In this latitude late blight seldom occurs to any extent before the last of July, hence the main fight against it must be con- ducted throughout August and September, even up to the very day the crop is dug or the plants are killed by frost. As will *“Humid, still days, with a temperature of about 73° F. Above 78° F. and below 50° F. there is practically no germination of the spores.” Fraser, Samuel, The Potato, p. 114, Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1908). 174 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. be seen later this latter recommendation is not in accordance with the most common practice where spraying operations are suspended much too early in the season. PROPERLY MADE BORDEAUX ESSENTIAL. In attempting to point out the factors which have been found to be responsible for most of the failures to secure complete protection from late blight and rot by spraying with bordeaux mixture, the methods of preparing the mixture, which are com- monly practiced, will first be considered. Unsfortunately lack of ability to implicitly follow directions is a common fault of humanity and the maker of spray mixtures is no exception to the rule. Bordeaux mixture as now recommended is the result of over 20 years of investigation and experimentation by some of the most careful workers in this country and in Europe and the formula recommended for potatoes conforms to the general consensus of opinion among these investigators. Anyone who departs from the formula, or who does not follow carefully the directions for preparing the spray should bear in mind that he alone is responsible if his bordeaux mixture fails to keep off the disease on account of being too dilute or, if unproperly prepared kills the foliage of the potato itself. A rather surprising state of affairs was discovered when the methods of making of bordeaux mixture by potato growers in Aroostook county was investigated. The amount of copper sulphate used for each 50 gallons of spray varied from 2 1-2 to 12 or 15 pounds. Very commonly indeed, with a desire to do more efficient work, the amount of copper sulphate is increased to 8 and 10 pounds to 50 gallons of spray without any attempt made to more thoroughly cover the foliage by means of more nozzles per row or better adjustments of the nozzles on the sprayers. Fortunately the potato plant is much less sus- ceptible to such strong sprays than fruit trees which would be ruined by such treatment. It is a common practice, also, to use much more lime than copper sulphate—the maker reasoning that lime is inexpensive and a considerable excess may do good and certainly will do no harm. The function of the lime is to unite with the copper sulphate and convert it into temporarily insoluble compounds, TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 7, on and it is doubtful if a large excess of lime adds to the fungi- cidal value of the mixture. Experiments have shown, however, that an excess of lime materially decreases the adhesive quali- ties of the mixture. ‘““Those mixtures are best in adhesiveness, and in efficiency, in which the approximation of equal parts of copper sulphate and lime are maintained.” * One season’s experiments conducted at this Station indicate that the prepared or hydrated lime will give equally good results as stone or lump lime used in making bordeaux mixture, judged by the appearance of the foliage and by the yield per acre at harvest time.** Guess work is very frequently substituted for weights and measures, and the amount of lime and copper sulphate, or the stock solutions of these ingredients in a given amount of spray varied with the ability or judgment of the maker. One remark- able case was found where the individual prepared his stock solution of copper sulphate as follows: 50 pounds of the crys- tals were placed in a sack and suspended in a 50 gallon barrel of water in the usual way and allowed to dissolve. Then as fast as 5 or 10 gallons of this stock solution were taken out an equal amount of water was put in to replace it and this con- tinued through the season. From time to time another 50 pounds of blue vitriol would be dissolved in the liquid. Thus it will be seen that except for the first lot of stock solution removed none used was of standard strength throughout the season. Bordeaux mixture prepared from such stock solutions cannot be expected to produce satisfactory results. Properly prepared bordeaux mixture should contain 5 pounds each of copper sulphate and lime to 50 gallons of water, and the ingredients should be weighed and measured. The copper sul- phate should be dissolved and the lime slaked in separate ves- sels. Never pour concentrated solutions of lime and copper sulphate together. ‘The most adhesive and satisfactory mixture is prepared by diluting each strong solution with half of the water and then these two dilute solutions should be united quickly and thoroughly mixed at once. Full directions for preparing bordeaux mixture are contained in a circular entitled * Crandall, C. S. il. Exp. Sta. Bul. 135, p:.218. ** Woods, C. D. Me. Expt. Sta. Bul. 98, p. 191-200 (1903). 176 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1900. “How to Fight Potato Enemies” which will be sent on appli- cation to the Maine Experiment Station. ‘ Properly prepared and applied bordeaux mixture is a remark- ably adhesive compound. If it once becomes dry on the foliage, which only requires a short time, it will be effective and resist excessive washings of rain for some time. The writer has preserved specimens of potato leaves taken at Foxcroft October 5, 1907, which are well coated with bordeaux mixture yet none had been applied to them for 38 days previously. At Orono during this period 6.66 inches of rain fell; 2.18 inches of this fell in 24 hours. ‘These leaves had been thoroughly sprayed 6 times during the season. If bordeaux mixture does not show these adhesive qualities there is some fault with the method of preparation which should be remedied. IMPROPER SPRAYING. During a four-day trip over several of the larger potato grow- ing towns in Northern Aroostook shortly after the blight had become well established, just two fields were seen which had been properly sprayed, yet some two or three thousand acres of potatoes were inspected. These conclusions as to spraying methods were arrived at by noting the condition of the fields, inspecting the spraying machinery and questioning the owners as to the methods of preparing the mixture, number of appli- cations, time of application, etc. The sprayers as a rule are deficient in that they do not carry enough nozzles and do not have sufficient adjustments. Bear- ing in mind the nature of the fungus which causes the disease, and the millions of spores which it produces, and bearing in mind also that each and every one of these spores is capable of infecting from one to several other leaves or tubers under right conditions, it will be seen that under some circumstances a sprayer which does not cover every leaf with a thin film of spray may be practically useless unless this defect can be reme- died. ‘The results obtained from such sprayers being so unsat- isfactory that spraying often becomes discredited with the user and is abandoned. The majority of sprayers in use are equipped with single nozzles to the row which cannot be raised much above the tops of the plants, when the latter are full grown. Such a sprayer used at the time when late blight is TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 177 rife, and when the tops cover the ground, covers as a rule less than one-third of the foliage. All the remaining leaves being unprotected are killed with blight and millions of spores are washed down into the soil to infect the tubers. No matter how many times or how often such a sprayer is used on a field the resulting rot may be as great in seasons like those of 1907 and 1909, as if it had not been used at all. EFFICIENT SPRAYERS AND SPRAYING. One nozzle alone to a row should never be used on a potato sprayer when the tops grow as large as they do in Maine, except when the plants are small. When the plants are large, two or more nozzles should be used to the row, so arranged that the cones of spray will interfere with each other as little as possible, thus covering the widest possible area, or a strip at least 3 feet wide when the foliage covers the ground. There should be an up and down adjustment, sufficient so that the whole battery of nozzles may be raised as the plants grow taller. A side to side adjustment, to be varied with the distance between the rows is desirable also. Those sprayers which have additional nozzles which direct the spray sidewise into the tops from between the rows possess a distinct advantage in that they not only tend to more thoroughly cover the leaves but they also tend to reach the very ones which are first attacked by blight— the lower and more shaded leaves and those resting on the ground. The finer the spray and the greater the pressure with which it is thrown the more effective will be the work. A very fine mist forcibly applied covers the leaf with a thin film which adheres, while even greater applications of spray applied in coarse drops may be less effective, first because it is not so evenly distributed and, secondly, because there is much more danger of the larger drops running together and dripping off the leaves. High pressure also tends to drive the mixture in among the leaves thus touching the lower leaves, and more effectually coating both sides of the leaves which is very important. The Vermorel type of nozzle appears to be the most satis- factory and is the one most used by our growers. New brass caps should be applied to these each year, however, as the small a -~ 178 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. holes in these soon become worn and throw too coarse spray as a result. In use these nozzles should be carefully watched to see if each and every one is constantly working and throws a spray of maximum fineness. If not the machine should be stopped and the difficulty corrected. In purchasing a sprayer care should be taken to determine if the pump is powerful enough to throw a fine mist when the maximum number of nozzles necessary are in use. Sprayers equipped with hand pumps and designed to cover three or four rows at a time as fast as a horse can walk are not recommended. In practice the pressure usually maintained on these pumps is much too low to do effective work. Unfortunately there has crept into our literature on potato spraying the statement, and the notion is quite firmly grounded in the minds of many of the potato growers and apparently in the minds of makers of potato spraying machinery as well that 50 gallons of spray per acre is a sufficient and proper amount to apply. A little thought will show how erroneous it is to con- duct spraying operations on such a basis when the object is to cover the entire foliage. When the tops are small 50 gallons will usually do this, but it is absolutely impossible to do thor- ough work with this amount of spray when the plants are full grown. Every leaf should be covered at each spraying, regard- less of whether it takes 50, 100 or 150 gallons of bordeaux per acre. In bad seasons like those under consideration it is advis- able during the times when conditions are very threatening to go over the field twice at each spraying, in opposite directions on the row. However on account of danger of loss from drip, the second application should not be put on till the first is dry. This procedure is by all means recommended in place of using a stronger mixture, if more thorough work is desired. WHEN TO SPRAY. Very commonly men were found who did not spray during rainy weather as they considered it to be useless. This also is a mistaken notion. As has already been pointed out it is during rainy weather that spore production is the most rapid and infec- tion is most sure to take place. Therefore, it is conceivable that one spraying during rainy weather may be more beneficial, even though it be washed off within a few hours as is supposed TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 179 to be the case by most people, than one applied during bright, clear weather. However, as previously stated, properly pre- pared bordeaux mixture is remarkably adhesive and will stand considerable washing if once dried on the foliage. Hence, never omit to spray on account of rainy weather, provided the rain stops long enough to apply the mixture and to allow it to dry on. . There is often no excuse for the man who loses his crop by blight on account of rainy weather. If everything is in readiness it is a very exceptional season when the rain does not stop long enough to spray at least a part of a field at a time and to allow the spray to dry on after it is applied.- In 1909 many failures can be traced directly to too few sprayings and in every case investigated the spraying was dis- continued much too early, considering the nature of the season. Large numbers of instances were found where the fields were sprayed but three times and cases where only two or even one application was made were by no means rare. Where these few applications were made, they were invariably made too early in the season, and while they doubtless did some good they were by no means distributed to the best advantage. If one thoroughly understands the weather conditions which are likely to produce late blight it is possible to so distribute 3 or 4 thorough ‘sprayings in such a manner as to give prac- tically complete protection to the crop in ordinary seasons, but it would doubtless be impossible in such seasons as those of 1907 and 1909. If oaly 3 sprayings are made in this section it would usually be best to wait till late in July or the first of August before beginning. However, for the general grower who has not the benefit of long experience or the advice of a trained observer on these poizts it is unsafe to depend upon so few sprayings in a season. It has been the policy of this Station to recommend that spraying be begun when the tops are 6 to 8 inches high and repeated every 10 days (every week, if the weather is very cloudy or rainy)* until the last of August or the first of September, or later if necessary. In the light of the experience obtained during 1909 the only modification * Cases might occur in exceptional seasons when the rains are very heavy and conditions very threatening where two or even three of the sprayings might be made at a less interval between. I80 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. of these recommendations suggested is to lay particular stress upon the clause “or later if necessary.” In ordinary years the tops are killed by frost early in September and there is enough spray still adhering to them to furnish adequate protection till this takes place or the crop is dug. This year the tops were partially killed late in August but much of them were untouched till digging time. As a result of inefficient spraying, combined with excessive washing of rain, these were slowly dying of blight all through September and showering millions of spores onto the water-soaked soil, which resulted in an abnormal amount of tuber infection. Hence, the tops should be protected by spray up to the day they are killed by frost or the crop 1s dug, particularly in rainy seasons. As far as late blight is con- cerned some of the earlier sprayings might be dispensed with, but these early sprayings are necessary as protection against the early blight and ravages of the flea-beetle. SPRAYING IS EFFECTIVE. Spraying must be looked upon as a form of insurance but records covering a series of years show that it is the most profitable kind of insurance. Long continued experiments at the New York and Vermont Experiment Stations show that spraying is seldom conducted at a loss, after allowing for time and materials, and frequently it is the means of saving a large per cent of the crop. Records of yields of sprayed and unsprayed plots side by side covering a period of 17 years show an average increase of 113 bushels per acre or 68 per cent as a result of spraying. The greatest increase in any one year was 224 bushels and the least was 32 bushels per acre.* The writer upon Commissioner Gilman’s farm in Foxcroft in 1907 secured’ an increase over unsprayed plots of 231 bushels of sound tubers per acre from 6 double sprayings, 162 bushels from 6 single sprayings, and 186 bushels from 3 double spray- ings plus one single spraying. He also secured from 6 double sprayings on the John Watson farm at Houlton 420 bushels of sound tubers on a measured acre with no decay following in storage, while fields in this vicinity either unsprayed or less thoroughly protected were showing from 25 to 75 per cent of * Jones, L. R. and Giddings, N. J., Vt. Exp. Sta. Rep. 20, p. 339 (1908). TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 181 rot. Other well sprayed fields nearby were equally well pro- tected. The plots at Foxcroft which had 6 double sprayings gave 0.6 per cent of rot while those at Houlton showed 9.1 per cent. There is no doubt that equally good results might have been obtained on nearly every field in Aroostook county in 1909 if they had all received as thorough spraying. In fact a few cases, particularly in the vicinity of Houlton, were found where spraying had been thoroughly done. Here the foliage was fully protected through the season and little or no rot was found on digging. Though dug early, two of these lots showed no rot and one other a slight amount after about three weeks of abnormally warm weather in storage. These demonstrations that thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture will give entire protection from the ravages of late blight are by no means new in Maine. Nine years ago Director Woods of this Station secured with four sprayings at Houlton increased yields valued at over $40.00 per acre at the current price of potatoes at an estimated expense of $2.50 per acre.* DECAY IN STORAGE 1909. The season of 1909 in Aroostook county demonstrated again on a large scale what has previously been shown to be true | experimentally, namely; that where potatoes are blighting it is unsafe to dig and store the crop for at least ten days after the tops are killed by frost, and even a longer delay will do no harm.** The crop on many fields where the blight had secured more or less of a foothold was dug early in September. In many cases these tubers were practically all sound when dug but the blighting leaves were producing spores abundantly which were showered on the potatoes. These potatoes on account of the excessive rains came out of the soil wet and in most cases were not allowed to dry off before being picked up and placed in barrels, thus furnishing ideal conditions for infection by late * Woods, C. D. Me. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 112 pp. 2-5 (1905). ** Jones, L. R. and Morse, W. J. Repts. Vt. Exp. Sta. 15, pp. 219- 223 (1902); 16, pp. 161-163 (1903). See also Proceedings Society for Promotion of Agricultural Science (1904). Woods, C. D., Me. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 112, pp. 2-5 1905). I82 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. 1909. blight.* They were then placed in storage or shipped to market. The weather following was quite warm and humid. As a result of this infection, much of the stock which went to market was a total loss, and in some cases the results in storage were nearly equally bad. If a repetition of this disaster is to be avoided, it will be necessary to first keep the blight off by thorough spraying such as has been previously recommended in this article. If blight does gain a foothold to any extent, if possible do not disturb the crop till at least ten days after the tops are killed by frost, two weeks will be better. There will be some rot in any event if the tops show much blight, but the net result of sound tubers in the end will be largely in favor of late digging. OTHER CAUSES OF DECAY. In closing this discussion it should be remarked that there are present in the State two other potato diseases which cause decay of the tuber and which cannot be prevented by any amount of spraying. ‘There is no evidence, however, up to the present time, that either of these diseases have been a coatribut- ing factor to the epidemics of tuber decay which have occurred in. Maine. One of these is the Fusarium dry rot which differs from the late blight rot in that it nearly always begins at the stem end of the tuber in the form of a brownish or blackened ring a short distance below the surface, and the later stages of the rot are more or less different also. The other tuber decay is a soft bacterial rot caused by the same organism which produces the Blackleg disease of the stem. Potatoes affected by the late blight fungus usually develop a soft, stinking rot in storage under moist, warm conditions, but the writer believes that most of this decay is due to a secondary infection by ordinary saprophytic soil bacteria which otherwise could not attack the healthy tubers themselves. * This is not a mere supposition for the writer has assisted in per- forming an experiment where these conditions were producted arti- ficially with identical results. See Jones, L. R. and Morse, W. J. Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 18, pp. 284-287 (1905). Director Woods also cites a similar experience as occurring in 1902. See Me. Expt. Sta. Bull. 112, p. 1 (1005). TWO EPIDEMICS OF POTATO BLIGHT AND ROT. 183 SUM MARY. Adverse weather conditions were responsible for severe epi- demics of late blight and rot of the potato in Maine, particu- larly in Aroostook county, during the seasons of 1907 and 1900) .(P! 165.) Blight is caused by a parasitic fungus which spreads through the leaves, killing the tissues as it goes. Each blighting leaf produces thousands of minute fungus spores each capable of infecting another leaf, or a potato tuber. (P. 166.) Bordeaux mixture forms a protective film on the healthy leaves, kills the spores which fall thereon, and also kills those produced on the diseased leaves at the time of application. (P. 166.) Much, if sot all, of the disease comes originally from plant- ing diseased seed tubers. Rain, dew, wind, insects, etc., are the chief agencies in disseminating the spores. (P. 173.) Late blight is most destructive in rainy or cloudy weather. Hot, dry, sunshiny weather is fatal to the blight spores, and outbreaks of the disease never occur under these conditions. (P. 173.) Much of the bordeaux mixture used is carelessly and improperly prepared. Only standard bordeaux mixture con- taining 5 pounds of copper sulphate and 5 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water should be used. The most adhesive mixture is nade by diluting the copper sulphate and lime solutions each with half of the water and then quickly and thoroughly mixing. The ingredients should be weighed and measured and the pro- portions should not be varied. (P. 174.) The sprayers carry too few nozzles per row and do not have sufficient adjustments of nozzles. Pumps should be powerful and sozzles in such condition that the spray will be delivered forcibly and in a fine mist. (P. 176.) Fifty gallons per acre is not enough spray to use when the plants cover the ground. Every leaf should be coated at each application. When conditions are very threatening, go over the rows a second time in opposite directions, after the first application becomes dry. (P. 178.) Never omit spraying on account of rainy weather, this is the one time when spraying is most needed. (P. 178.) 184 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPPERIMENT STATION. I1909.- Under Maine conditions it is necessary to begin when the tops are 6-8 inches high and spray every week or ten days till the tops are killed by frost or the crop harvested. If weather conditions are favorable, sprayings may be less frequent early in the season, but not through August and September. If the conditions are very threatening spraying at less intervals is advised. Much loss from blight and rot results from too few sprayings and stopping too early in the season. (P. 179.) Thorough spraying under very adverse weather conditions has been found effective both in Maine and elsewhere. ‘Thor- oughly sprayed fields in Aroostook county in 1909 showed very little loss from either blight or rot. (P. 180.) Much storage rot in 1909 resulted from infection at digging time. If blight has not been kept off the foliage wait at least ten days, if possible, after the tops are killed by frost before hapyvestina: (Ps reir) Two other tuber decays occur but these were aot contributing factors in the two epidemics. (P. 182.) | : — — BULLETIN No. 170. APPLE DISEASES CAUSED BY Coryneum foliicolum Fckl. and Phoma mali Schulz et Sacc. CuHarLES E. Lewis. Careful examination of the fungi associated with diseases of the apple in Maine shows that they may be divided into classes according to the extent of their parasitism. Some of these fungi have been carefully studied at a number of different places and have been shown to be the cause of disease under the conditions which exist in those localities, others have been repeatedly shown to be saprophytes, others have been either regarded as saprophytes or have not been studied sufficiently to determine to what extent they are parasites, and still others which have been usually regarded as parasites because of their association with diseased conditions are found in some cases to be saprophytes. Since under certain special conditions, a fungus which is usually saprophytic may take on a parasitic habit and a fungus which is a parasite under one set of conditions may lose the power to cause disease under other conditions, it becomes neces- sary to study the fungi associated with the diseases of any host plant in a given locality as to their ability to cause disease. In the studies of apple diseases which are now under way at the Maine Experiment Station, fungi have been isolated from diseased leaves, wood, and fruit and these fungi are being studied as to the extent to which they cause disease when the different parts of the plant are inoculated from pure cultures. Most of the results of this work will be givea in later publi- cations but at the present time it seems desirable to give the results of the study of two fungi. In the literature there is very little reference to either of these as a cause of disease, although each belongs to a genus in which there are species which are parasites of great economic importance. 186 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. Coryneum folicolum Fckl. This fungus occurs so’ commonly on leaf-spot of the apple as to suggest the possibility that, in some cases, it may be the cause of that disease. This species seems to be more or less widely distributed as it is reported as common in West Virginia by Hartley (3) and in New Hampshire by Lewis (4). Hartley suggests that it is probable that the fungus which has been reported from several states as Hendersonia mali Thiim, is really Coryneum folicolum Fckl. and, if this be true, the distri- bution of the fungus would be considerably widened. It would be very easy to confuse the two species unless sections were prepared to show how the spores are borne as the spores are very similar. On a single leaf-spot several of the fruiting pus- tules of the fungus may be found. Spores are produced from these pustules in large numbers and become piled up in black carbonaceous masses which somewhat resemble pycnidia. When sections of these pustules are examined, however, it is found that the fungus belongs to the Melanconiales as shown by Figures 28 and 29. Hartley (3) has made some study of Coryneum folicolum in connection with a more thorough study of Comiothyrium pirina (Sacc.) Sheldon. He grew the fungus in pure culture and made some inoculations but came to the conclusion that Coryneum is less actively parasitic than Coniothyrium. On account of the frequent occurrence of this fungus on leaf-spot in Maine orchards in 1908, the writer felt that further investigation was desirable. ‘This seemed more necessary when it was found that spores similar to those found on the leaf- spots occurred very frequeatly in cankers on apple branches. Cultures from these spores showed that the fungus in the cankers and the one on the leaf-spots were identical. INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS. Experiments were carried on to determine the extent of para- sitism of the fungus on leaves, wood, and fruit of the apple. Material from pure cultures was used in making all inocula- tions. The abundant production of spores ia culture, and the fact that the spores germinate in a few hours in water should make this fungus a favorable one to use in infection experi- ments. P By t. af iy i Tere oer Sp ee APPLE DISEASES. 187 For inoculation of leaves, seedlings grown in the greenhouse, trees one year from the bud brought into the greenhouse early in the spring and grown in pots, and both old and young leaves on branches of bearing trees in the orchard were used. Sterile water containing an abundance of the Coryneum spores was sprayed on the leaves with an atomizer. Seedling trees 3 to 4 months old bearing a few leaves were placed in a moist cham- ber and kept there for a few days after inoculation. The year old trees were also in some cases placed in a moist chamber made by using a tall bell-jar arranged as shown in Fig. 17 with tubing so connected that water dropped on sheets of blotting paper under the bell-jar at such intervals as to make a moist atmosphere. As a result of these inoculation experiments, it was found that C. foliucolum did not grow on uninjured leaves. Whea spots in the leaves were killed with a heated needle it was found that the fungus developed readily on the dead spots. One week after inoculation of such leaves there were numerous masses of spores on the dead spots which microscopic examina- tion showed to be spores of Coryneum. Observations of these leaves for several weeks showed that these spots did not increase in size by the invasion of the healthy tissue by the fungus mycelium. Neither did infections occur on other healthy leaves from spores produced on the dead spots. The results of these inoculation experiments are made more valuable by the fact that, at the same time that they were being carried on, the writer studied a number of other fungi com- monly associated with leaf-spot. Phyllosticta limitata Pk., Coniothyrium pirina (Sacc.) Sheldon, Spheropsis malorum Pk., and a species of Phoma probably Phoma mali Schulz. et. Sacc., were tested as to their ability to cause leaf-spot, and of these it was found that-only Spheropsis malorum Pk. caused the disease on uninjured leaves although the other fungi developed readily on dead spots in the leaves. The first inoculations made to determine whether C. foliico- lum could develop on living apple wood and thus cause cankers were made May 4, 1909, on a young tree growing in a pot in the greenhouse. Incisions were made in the bark on the branches in 7 places and material of the fungus consist- ing of both mycelium and spores from a young culture 188 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. were placed in the incision. ‘These places were then wie in moist absorbent cotton to prevent drying out. One week after the time of inoculation, it could be noted that there was some evidence of growth and at the end of 10 days there was a region of dead sunken bark around each of the inoculated places. The fungus continued to invade the healthy tissue to such an extent that May 20, 16 days after the inocula- tion, the branches were almost girdled in some places and com- pletely girdled in others. The regions injured by the fungus were 2 to 7 cm. in lengths The leaves on the girdled branches were wilted while those on uninoculated branches were green as shown in Fig. 18. Fig. 19 shows two of the cankers enlarged. On the dead bark little black pustules were observed which on examination proved to be the fruiting pustules of Coryneum foliicolum. Sections through these pustules were prepared. from which Figs. 28 and 29 were taken. A piece of one canker was cut off and placed in I-1000 cor- rosive sublimate for two minutes after which it was thoroughly washed with sterile distilled water. Eight pieces were cut from this canker at various places with a sterile scalpel and placed in plates of prune agar. After one week, the plates were examined and it was found that pure cultures of. Coryneum had grown from 5 of the pieces while the others showed Coryneum which was accompanied in one case by Alternaria, in another by Coniothyrium pirina (Sacc.) Sheldoa and in the third by what is probably a species of Torula. | Two of the one-year-old trees in the greenhouse were inocu- lated at 4 places each May 13, and two others in 4 places each May 18, the same method being followed that was used in the first set of inoculations. One check incision was made in each of the 4 trees. All of the places which were inoculated devel- oped well marked cankers. The small branches were girdled and killed in from 2 to 4 weeks but inoculations on the main stem did not girdle and kill the tree in either case although considerable areas of bark were killed. The check incisions to which no fungus was added soon began to heal over by the formation of callus. For comparison, inoculations were made May 13. with Spheropsis malorum on 5 trees which were kept under the same conditions as those which were used for Coryneum folucolum. eee APPLE DISEASES. 189 Spheropsis did not spread more rapidly than Coryneum and did not do greater damage to the young trees. In each case, some of the inoculations resulted in girdling the branch and killing the part above it, and, in some other cases with each, the spread of the fungus was checked by the development of callus. Some inoculations were also made with Coniothyrium pirina (Sacc.) Sheldon. This fungus did not invade the healthy tissue but grew to some extent in bark which was injured by the inocu- lations. In this my results agree with those of Hartley (3) who carried on extensive inoculation experiments with this fungus. Phyllosticta limitata Pk., Cylindrosporium pomi Brooks, and Epicoccum granulutum Penz. gave negative results, the wounds healing over almost as readily as the checks. Glomorella fructigena (Clinton) Sacc. was also used in mak- ing inoculations on 7 of the one-year-old trees in the green- house. Edgarton (2) has pointed out that there are two forms of this fungus, northern and southern, and that they differ in cultural characters. Inoculations made with material from cultures which agree with the southern form in the develop- ment of perithecia, both in culture and on the inoculated trees, show that this form is much more actively parasitic on the young trees than Coryneum foliicolum or Spheropsis malorum. The cultures of this form were obtained from an apple from a grocery in Orono. ‘The northern form which was isolated from both apples and cankers collected out of doors in Orono, grows slowly in culture, has not produced perithecia either in culture or in the cankers and does not spread so rapidly nor do so much damage to the young trees upon inoculation. Nothing has been done in comparing the two forms with Coryneum by inoculation of older trees in the orchard but it is Eapeuice that this can be done next year. In order to determine the extent to which Coryneum follii- colum is capable of causing disease of branches of apple trees in the orchard, inoculations were made May 21, 1909, in branches one to 3 cm. in diameter on bearing trees. The inoc- ulations were made in the same manner that has been described for the young trees, the inoculated places and check incisions being wrapped in moist absorbent cotton. On the day follow- ing the inoculations the cotton was wet and two days later rains and cloudy weather began which lasted two days. Examina- IgO MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. tion two weeks later, showed that of the 20 places inoculated, in all except 2, which seemed doubtful, the fungus was grow- ing and invading the uninjured tissue giving the bark a brown color and a somewhat sunken appearance. Observations from time to time through the summer -.showed that cankers were developing. ‘The bark was killed ia regions 3.to 5 cm. in length which in some cases. had almost girdled the branch by Septem- ber 1. The fungus began to fruit on the dead bark in 3 to 4 weeks after the inoculations. ‘The cankers shown in Fig. 20 were removed September 1. The bark on the affected regioa has a sunken appearance which comes about through the death of the cambium cells so that the wood and bark cease to grow. There was no dying of bark nor cankered appearance from check incisions nor from inoculations made with Coniothyrium pirina. June 24, 1909, inoculations were made on large branches of Ben Davis and Baldwin trees. Coryneum, Spheropsis aad Phoma were used. 16 inoculations were made with Coryneum, 6 with Spheropsis, and 11 with Phoma. 6 check incisions were made. When these trees were examined September 30, it was found that the checks were almost healed over by callus so that the appearance was healthy. Spheropsis had spread into the uninjured tissue and had formed well marked cankers in each case. Coryneuwm had spread to some extent in 14 of the 16 places but had almost healed over in the other 2. The places inoculated with Phoma showed about the same as has been described for Coryneum, one place was almost healed over and the others had spread to some extent. One point of importance which remains to be determined is the extent to which these cankers caused by Coryneum will spread from year to year. lit is intended to keep some of this years) canivens under observation so that this question may be answered. The results of the study of Coryneum foliicolum by means of inoculations of living apple trees show that this fungus is a parasite which is capable of doing great damage to young trees and the small branches of older trees. It has also proved able to keep wounds on larger branches from healing but it will be necessary to keep such branches under observation for a longer time to determine the extent of the injury. APPLE DISEASES. IQ! In connection with the statement that Coryneum folucolum is a parasite it is of interest to compare the parasitism of two other species of Coryneuwm which are of great economic impor- tance. C. beyerinckii Oudem. has been reported by a great many investigators in widely separated places as causing dis- eases of stone fruits. Recently, Smith (5) has made a careful study of “Peach Blight” in California and shows that the dis- ease is caused by this fungus which attacks both the leaves and twigs. The mycelium of the fungus is able to penetrate the bark of new shoots and kills small areas, causing spots. Spores lying about the bud scales produce mycelium which penetrates and kills outright both the bud and the surrounding bark, the spot extending from one-fourth to one inch in length. Butler (1) gives an account of a disease of the mulberry in India caused by Coryneum mori Nom. ‘This parasite attacks young trees in the nursery and the smaller branches of full grown trees. It enters through injured places in the bark but is not able to penetrate the uninjured bark. The treatment recommended for this disease is to avoid the making of unnecessary wounds, to prune in such a way as to make wounds which will heal over readily, and to burn dead and diseased wood after it has been removed. Coryneum foliicolum agrees quite closely with Coryneum mort in the manner of its attack on the host. In the inocula- tions for leaf-spot, where large numbers of spores were sprayed upon the young branches, no case was observed in which the fungus penetrated the bark and caused disease, therefore it seems probable that the fungus is able to enter only through wounds. The control of such a disease caused by a wound parasite should not be a difficult matter. The same methods carefully applied would also go far toward controlling diseases caused by certain other fungi. All dead and diseased wood should be removed and burned, as this would destroy to a large extent the material for infection. Care should always be taken to avoid unnecessary wounds or wounds which will not readily heal over. In connection with a study of apple decays, the writer has isolated fungi from a large number of decaying apples both by the poured plate method and by taking out material from decaying apples from regions which were either some distance IQ2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. from the point of infection or were on the border line between the decayed and the undecayed tissue with a scalpel which had been sterilized by heat and transferring to plates of agar. In no case has Coryneum folticolum been isolated from a naturally infected apple. In order to test the ability of the fungus to cause decay, two ripe apples were inoculated October 31, 1908. Only a very small amount of decay developed but that this decay was caused by Coryneum was proved by reisolating the fungus in pure cul- ture from the decaying tissue. Six green apples were inoculated August 24, 1909. The fungus grew to a slight extent at points of inoculation but did not spread into surrounding tissue to cause decay. Three ripe apples were inoculated October 5, 1909. A slow decay took place. At the end of two weeks the decayed region was about 1.5 cm. in diameter, and increased very slowly after that time. ‘“aree ripe pears were inoculated September 16. ‘There was a little growth at the points of inoculation but the fungus did not spread to cause much decay. These inoculations show that Coryneum can cause a slow decay of ripe fruit but when the decay caused by this fungus is compared with that caused by such fruit decaying fungi as Spheropsis and Penicillium it is seen that Coryneum is not of much importance as a fruit décay. CULTURAL STUDIES. When the spores of Coryneum folucolum from either leaf- spot or canker are placed under favorable conditions for growth they germinate readily. In hanging drops of sterile, distilled water nearly all of the spores had germinated at the end of 16 hours at 65° to 70° F. ‘The cells become swollen and rounded and germ tubes are produced from one or more cells as showa by Fig. 35. About the same characters are shown by spores germinated in hanging drops of prune decoction. When spores are sown in dilution plates of prune or bean agar, the germ tubes have begun to branch by the end of 24 hours and in 4 or 5 days the mycelium has begun to produce spores after the manner of the Hyphomycetes as shown in Figures 27, 33 and 34. If this fungus were classified according to its characters. ee i hae D5 - a me APPLE DISEASES. 193 when grown on prune agar, it would belong to the genus Clasterosporium of the Dematiacez. The fungus has been grown on a number of the common culture media. It grows well and produces spores abundantly in plates of prune agar, bean agar and potato agar. Consider- able zrial mycelium is produced in each case which differs in color on the different media being almost white on bean and potato agars and dark brownish gray on prune agar. The cen- tral part of the colony is wet and slimy in each case with no zrial mycelium. The spores are produced in such numbers as to form dense black masses. In the bean agar plates the black spore masses were formed in concentric rings. The fungus seems to fruit just as well when the colonies are crowded in the petri dish as when only one colony is present. Plates of prune agar were sown with spores so that from 30 to 100 colonies developed in a plate. The colonies did not merge together but were separated by quite clear-cut lines where they approached each other. The erial mycelium was well developed and these colonies formed spores. The mycelium of the fungus consists of large threads from which finer branches are given off and is shown well by Fig. 37 which is a photomicrograph of mycelium from a prune agar culture. The hyphe vary in width from 1.5 to 8 microns, and the length of the cells varies greatly, being from 11 to 80 microns for the most part although, in some cases, the actively growing terminal end of a hypha is seen which shows no cross wall in more than 200 microns. Not much difference can be noted in structural characters of the mycelium on different cul- ture media as measurements of hyphe from a number of media gave the same results. There is, however, considerable variation in the spores in culture as has been pointed out by Hartley for prune agar cul- tures. Smith (5) has shown that the same kind of variations takes place in the spores of C. beyerinkii and _ Butler (1) has described and figured the same thing for C. mori. The spores of C. foliicolum taken from either apple leaf- spot or canker do not vary greatly in size or number of cells. They are for the most part four celled and measure 4-5.5 x 13-16.5 microns. On sterilized bean pods, potato cylinders, and apple twigs in tubes, the spores are for the most part typical 194 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. four-celled spores which do not differ from the spores devel- oped under natural conditions. On potato agar in petri dishes, the spores are four celled but vary in size. On prune agar, bean agar, and in prune decoction, the spores vary in size and number of cells as shown in Figs. 31 and 32, all gradations can be easily found from typical four celled spores of the size found under natural conditions to those having as max as nine cells and measuring 9 x 43 microns. In prune decoction, the fungus grows eamidly and whea the cultures were 5 days: old a thick pellicle was formed over the surface of the liquid and large numbers of spores were being produced. Qn sterilized apple twigs, the fungus grows well forming a considerable amount of zrial mycelium which is brownish gray in color, some of the large hyphz being deep brown in color. The mycelium also grows in the liquid at the bottom of the tube. Spores are produced in black masses on the wood. When the spores are mature, they are mostly. broken off from the stalks on which they are borne, but in some cases they were found still attached and the stalks measured 18-22 microns in length. On_ sterilized bean pods, potato, carrot, and turnip cylinders, there is a considerable develop- ment of zerial mycelium which is light colored in young cultures but becomes dark in old cultures. Part of the spores exam- ined from turnip and carrot cultures were very abnormal, the cells being large and rounded and in some cases separated resembling the conditions seen in germinating spores. Smith (5) has made a study of the cultural characters of Coryneum beyerinckii Oudem. He found that spores of that species taken from the bark or from leaves did not grow readily in plate cultures and that made it somewhat more difficult to isolate the fungus in pure culture, but after colonies were obtained, the fungus grew very well producing a little mycelium and thick black crusts of spores on prune agar. ‘This differs from C. foliicolum in which spores taken from old cankers in the spring before the leaves open germinate in considerable numbers when sown in petri dish dilution cultures in prune agar or in bean agar. When such spores were placed in hanging drops of prune decoction, about one-half had germinated at the end of 18 hours at room temperature. aie % 4 APPLE DISEASES. 195 No other means of reproduction than by conidia has been observed either in culture or in nature. Smith did not find the perfect stage of C. beyerinckw Oudem. although Vuillemin (6) has described a species of Ascospora (A. beyerincku Vuil.) which he considered to be the perfect form of C. beyerinckit. Phoma mali Schulz. et Sacc. Another fungus which was isolated from leaf-spots from several sources during the summer of 1908 has been studied ia some detail. ‘This fungus did not occur with enough prom- inence on the leaves to suggest that it caused the disease but it was kept in culture for later study. The fungus did not fruit in culture for several months, although it grew very readily. In the fall of 1908, a fungus was isolated from decaying apples which agreed in cultural characters with the one from leaf- spot. Apples were inoculated October 31, 1¢08, with material from a culture of the fungus from leaf-spot. Only a few days were required to prove that the fungus was able to produce a distinct apple decay which spread at about the same rate as the decay caused by some of the well known apple decay fungi. In order to prove that the fungus with which the apples were inoculated was the cause of decay, plates were made for reisolatioa by taking material from the decaying tissue with a_ sterilized scalpel and transferring it to plates of agar. All the plates produced pure cultures. Figure 22 shows the extent of the decay in an apple two weeks after inoculation. Figure 23 is from the same apple cut open and shows that it was almost half decayed at that time. The condition of an apple 34 days after inoculation is shown by Fig. 24. The apple is completely decayed, is somewhat shrunken and wrinkled and numerous pycnidia as well as a considerable amount of white mycelium are seen on the surface. Microscopic examination showed that the pycnidia contained large numbers of hyaline, one-celled spores, which were two guttulate and measured 2.5-3 x 5.5-8 microns. Cultures were made from this apple both by making dilution plates using spores from a pycnidium and by transferring decayed tissue from the inside of the apple. In both ways pure cultures were secured and it was shown that the pycnidia belonged to the 196 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. fungus with which the apples were inoculated. Material from the apple shown in Fig. 24 was fixed, sectioned, and stained and the photomicrographs shown in Figures 39, 40 and 41 were made from sections of the pycnidia. When this fungus was grown on prune agar, in petri dishes the mycelium spread rather rapidly and in a few days had spread over the entire surface. Considerable white zrial myce- lium was produced. When the cultures were a few days old, little masses of closely interwoven hyphz began to appear which were arranged in concentric circles. These gradually increased in size and later drops of clear liquid exuded from them. The appearance of the fungus in plate cultures is shown by Fig. 38 which is from a culture 11 days old growing on prune agar from a piece of the decaying apple described above. At first, it was thought that the little masses of hyphz were early stages in the development of pycnidia but repeated examination failed to confirm this as no bodies resembling pycnidia and no spores were found. The mycelium consists of hyphe 5-7 microns in diameter which in plate cultures radiate out from the center giving off finer branches. The closely interwoven network made up of the finer branches includes hyphz some of which are less than 2 microns in diameter. ‘The length of the cells varies from Io to 35 microns in the large hyphe but terminal cells 50-60 microns in length have been seen in the small hyphe. The fungus has been grown on only a few common culture media. The growth on bean agar is very similar to what has been described for prune agar. On sterilized bean pods, the growth is good. The whole bean pod becomes covered by the mycelium and a fine, white, cob-webby zrial mycelium develops. After the fungus had been grown for several months on bean pods, the transfers being made each month, it began to produce pycnidia. The pycnidia here had very much the same appear- ance as those on the apple shown in Fig. 24. In some cases the pycnidia develop singly and in other cases 2-4 pycnidia develop in a sort of stroma. They always extend above the substratum and are usually covered by fine white hyphe. When the pycnidia are mature, the spores exude through an opening at the apex and adhere together in long chain-like APPLE DISEASES. 197 masses. ‘The spores agree in shape, size and appearance with spores from the pycinidia on decaying apple. On sterilized potato cylinders in tubes after 5 days, the slants were covered by the mycelium and some white zrial mycelium had developed. After 9 days small compact masses could be noted from which drops of clear liquid were exuding. ‘Tweaty days from the time of inoculation, mature pycnidia were found from which the spores were exuding in the manner described for bean pod cultures. On sterilized apple wood the fungus grew slowly producing a thin network of mycelium over the wood and later a small amount of white erial mycelium. The mycelium did not extend much into the liquid but formed a rather thick crust- like pellicle. Where the mycelium came in contact with the liquid, the hyphz took on a light brown color. Three weeks after the tubes were inoculated a few pycinidia had developed on the wood and compact masses of hyphz such as have been described as occurring on other media were seen. In June, 1909, small apple branches which were dying back were collected in an orchard in Orono aad also in Monmouth. On examination, a fungus-was found which agreed in its char- acters with the one described above. In order to determine the extent to which the fungus could cause disease of the wood, 2 of the young apple trees such as were used in the work with Corynewm were inoculated with material from pure cultures growing on bean pods, May 17, 1909. Nine places were inoculated and 2 check incisions were made. One week after the time of inoculation, it could be noted that the fungus was growing at all the places which had been inoculated except one which was as clean and bright as the checks. June 2, there were areas of dead brownish bark ° around the 8 inoculated places. June 9, it was noted that the areas of dead bark had increased to some extent; and that the cankers resembled those caused by Coryneum. A more care- ful examination showed that a few pycinidia had developed on the dead bark near the incisions and the spores in these pycnidia agreed with spores from decayed apple and from bean pod cultures. June 17, some of the branches were almost girdled but in some cases callus was forming which checked the spread of the fungus to some extent. August 2, the cankers were 2-5 em. in length and a considerable number of pycnidia were found 198 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 19009. on the dead bark. Some sections of these pycnidia were pre- pared and from one of these sections Fig. 42 was taken. The pycnidia develop in the bark and when they are mature the outer layers of the bark are ruptured and the pycnidia appt above the surface. Two more young trees were inoculated May 18 ia the same way and gave practically the same results. In order to test the parasitism of the fungus on old trees in the orchard, 12 places were inoculated June 4. In some cases, an inoculation was made ia a branch which had been inoculated with Coryneum. This fungus did not form as well marked cankers on these branches as Corynewm but showed that it was — able to grow as a parasite. Eleven places were inoculated on branches of Ben Davis and Baldwin trees in the orchard June 24. All but one of these places developed small cankers. Attempts were made to infect apple leaves with spores from pycnidia from bean pod cultures using the same methods which were used with Coryneum. In no case was there any evidence that the fungus attacked the living leaves. It has already been shown that this fungus causes a 1 decay of ripe apples. It is well known that some of the fungi which cause decay of ripe apples cannot cause decay of green fruit. To determine the effect of this fungus, 8 green apples were inoculated August 10, 1909. ‘The fungus grew at the points of inoculation but the decay did not spread to a great extent in any of the apples except one. In'this apple, some other fungus may have assisted in the decay but the pycnidia of the fungus with which it was inoculated appeared on the surface. The other 7 apples showed at the end of one month a small decayed region about .5 cm. in diameter as illustrated by Fig. 25. In September and October, 1909, inoculations of ripe pears and of apples which were ripe but not over-ripe were made using material of the fungus which had been carried in culture for more than a year. The pears decayed rapidly and the fungus mycelium broke out over the surface of the decayed part. After 10 days, pycnidia in large number were found among this mycelium. The decay of the apples took place at about the same rate that has been described for the apples inoculated in 1908. APPEE, DISHASES. 199 From my study of this fungus in nature, in culture, and by inoculations of fruit and wood of apple it shows the characters of the genus, Phoma. Several species of Phoma are described as occurring on apple branches. Phoma pomarum Thum. occurs on the fruit of the apple in Europe but the spores of that species do not agree with the spores of the fungus under consideration. Phoma mali Schulz. et Sacc. is described as haviag spores 8 microns in length. Phoma ambigua (Nits.) Sacc. agrees closely with Phoma mali having spores 8x3 microns. It has seemed best to the writer to refer this fungus to Phoma mali Schulz. et Sacc. depending on the description which has been given of the cultural characters and of the effects on inoculated apples to enable other students of apple diseases to determine whether or not they are working -with the same fungus. SUM MARY. Coryneum folicolum and Phoma mali cause disease of the wood of young apple trees and of branches of old trees. These fungi are more actively parasitic than Coniothyrium pirina. As wound parasites, they attack young trees in such a way as to do as much damage as Spheropsis malorum but do not spread so rapidly in the large branches of older trees. Coryneum causes only a slight decay while Phoma causes a rather rapid and complete decay of ripe apples and can attack the green fruit to some extent. Neither of these fungi has been found to cause disease of uninjured leaves, but, in common with a number of other fungi, they occur on dead spots in apple leaves. The distribution of these fungi can be largely controlled by removing and burning the dead wood on which they occur. LITERATURE CITED. 1. Butler, E. J. The Mulberry Disease Caused by Cory- neum mori Nom. with Notes on Other Mulberry Diseases. Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. Vol. II, No. 8, pp. I-II. 1909. 2. Edgerton, Claude Wilbur. The Physiology and Develop- ment of some Anthracnoses. Bot. Gaz. 45: p. 405. 1908. 3. Hartley, Carl P. Some Apple Leaf-spot Fungi. Science N. $. 28. 157-159. 1908. 200 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I90O9Q. 4. Lewis, Isaac M. Apple Leaf-spot. Report of the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station 20: 365-369. 1908. 5. Smith, Ralph E. California Peach Blight. Cal. Expt. Station Bulletin 191: 73-98. 1907. 6. Vuillemin. Titres et travaux scientifiques. 1890. Refer- ence in Tubeuf and Smith, Diseases of Plants, p. 211. [| i TYRES PIessrevisesie Fic. 17. Moist chamber used in part of leaf-spot inoculations. a Fic. 18. Young apple tree 22 days after inocu- lation of branches with Coryneum. Note the wilted leaves on upper branches. Fic. 19. Cankers on the branches of the tree shown in Fig. 18. Enlarged. Fic. 20. Cankers produced on branches of tree in orchard by inoculation with Corvneum. Fic. 21. At left, check incision which is healing over. Atright, branch which was inoculated with Phoma. Fic. 22. Apple two weeks after inocula- Fic. 23. Same apple cut in two to show tion with Phoma mali. \ extent of the decay. Green apple 3 Fic. 26. Ripe apple 2 weeks after inoculation with tion with Phoma. Coryneum. Fic. 24. Apple 34 days after in- Fic. 25. oculation with Phoma. Note weeks after inocula- pycnidia on surface. Fie. 28. Fic. 29. Fic. 30. IRE, Shile Fic. 32. a ee Sh. FLY ’ a Dp Spores of Coryneum from prune agar culture showing stalks on which they are borne. X4/75. Young fruiting pustule of Coryneum foliicolum from canker on tree shown in Fig. 18. xX 100. Old pustule from same source as Fig. 28 in which covering of bark has broken away. X70. Spores of Coryvneum from canker. xX 425. Spores of Coryneum from prune agar culture, X 475. Spores of Corvneum from bean agar culture. X 350. (om Fic. 33. Developing spores of Coryneum in prune agar culture. xX 480. Fic. 34. Coryneum from prune agar cul- ture showing how spores are borne. xX 480. Fic. 35. Germinating spores of Coryneum from hang- ing drop, sterile distilled water. x 300. Fic. 36. Colony of Coryneum 12 days old on prune agar. aw © Fic. 37. Mycelium of Coryneum. xX 300. Fic. 38. Plate culture of Phoma mali 11 days old grow- ing on prune agar. Fig. 39 Young developing pycnidium of Phoma from the apple shown in Fig. 24. x 180. Fig. 40. Pyenidium of Phoma. x 180. Fic. 41. Mature pycnidium of Phoma showing the cavity filled with spores. X 160. Fic. 42. Pycnidium of Phoma from one of the inoculated trees. Note outer layers of bark broken away. X 80. ee ne BULLETIN No. 171. THE PINE-LEAF CHERMES : ; AND THE GREEN-WINGED CHERMES.* EpitH M. Parcu. THe Pine-LEAF CHERMES (Chermes pinifolie Fitch). On account of recent troubles, varying in nature and impor- tance, of the white pine in Maine a close watch has been kept over the pine by people throughout the State, which has resulted in their becoming interested in many insects of the white pine heretofore attracting but little attention. Conspicuous among such insects during the early summer of 1909 was a dark reddish-brown plant louse, ‘“The Pine-leaf Chermes” shown in Fig. 43 in its characteristic position on the pine needles where it settles to lay its eggs. This Chermes appears upon the pine needle about the middle of June, and some years in conspicuous numbers. The past summer (1909) hardly a pine in the vicinity of Orono could be found that was not abundantly infested with these winged forms and that the same was true in other parts of the State was shown by specimens submitted to the Station. One such report from Gilead June 25, accompanying specimens, read “Millions of the flies on white pine.” The eggs of this species are not expelled from the bodies of the females. The insects attach themselves firmly to the pine needles with their heads toward the base of the needle and die there with the eggs held in the abdomen which is like a little sac protected by the wing of the parent Chermes. Sucha * Papers from the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station; Entomol- ogy No. 37. 202 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9Q0Q. cluster contains about 100 eggs. ‘These hatch in 8 or 10 days from the time the Chermes appear on the needle of the pine. The young settle about the new growth of the shoot and pierc- ing the tender tissue with their beaks, suck the sap. Where the infestation is heavy this causes a yellowish and sickly appearance of the new growth which is sometimes thus con- siderably stunted. The young, though exceedingly minute, can be located because they produce a. white flocculent waxy secre- tion which makes their presence discernable.* The Pine-leaf Chermes is one of those species of plant lice that have alternate “host plants,” that is, they pass one stage of their life on one plant and the succeeding stage on another species of plant. The winged Chermes that appear suddenly upon the needles of the pine in mid-June have not developed on the white pine but in a cone-like gall common on the Red Spruce aad Black Spruce, see Fig. 44. This gall is an abnormally developed shoot, the unusual form of growth being stimulated in.some way by the presence of the Chermes. The young Chermes can be found in these galls by opening the sections of the galls where little reddish brown objects will be seen,—the developing Chermes. These galls though sometimes very abundant in Maine are likely to escape notice as they are so cone-like in appearance as to seem to the superficial glance a normal part of the spruce. They were observed by Packard as common in Maine and the plant louse forming them was named abieticolens in 1879, the fact that they were the same species Fitch recorded for the pine needle not being known at that time.? * Another much smaller species of plant louse (Chermes pinicorticis) is frequently present on the trunk of the same tree in such numbers as sometimes to cover almost the entire trunk with a white down. { This species develops in a cone-like gall on the black and red spruces (in which connection it was named abieticolens in 1879 by Thomas and ‘subsequently merged by error with abietis in 1897), and migrates to the needles of the white pine (in which connection it had been previously named pinifoliae by Fitch in 1858, and merged by error with pimicorticis in 1869). This historical discussion with full reasons for resurrecting this doubly merged species under the original name of pinifoliae, which has been discarded for about 4o years, will be published presently in more technical form by the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. For the purposes of this economic bulletin it is not necessary to include either detailed descriptions or discussion. THE PINE-LEAF AND THE GREEN-WINGED CHERMES. 203 The full grown Chermes acquire wings about the middle of June when they leave the spruce galls and seek the white pine. Remedial Measures. ‘There would seem to be no practical method of combatting this insect in forest growth. With orna- mental trees, however, the galls could be removed from the spruce previous to the emerging of the winged form. Also if the species proves constantly troublesome it might be desirable not to plant the white pine in the vicinity of black or red spruce and vice versa. Spraying with whale-oil soap (1 pound to 2 gallons of water) would doubtless destroy the young on the white pine shoots, but it is doubtful that this would be usually worth while in Maine where Syrphus flies abound. The larve of these, little light colored maggots, have been found to feed industriously on the young Chermes. So numerous are these beneficial mag- gots at times in the midst of the white waxy secretion of the Chermes that they are sometimes mistaken by people submitting them for determination as the cause of the trouble. THE GREEN-WINGED CHERMES (Chermes abietis Linn). An entirely different sort of gall common in Maine on the White Spruce, and Norway Spruce, is caused by another species of Chermes which is here termed the “Green-winged Chermes” as the conspicuous and constant green tinge of the wings is a character which will readily serve to distinguish it from the “Pine-leaf Chermes” by those who would find a more technical comparison troublesome. Fig. 45 shows 3 of these galls together with 6 cones, about natural size on a white spruce twig. It will be seen that these galls differ from those shown in Fig. 44 in not being cone-like and in not being characteristically terminal on the shoot. These abietis galls do not usually cause the death of the shoot on which they grow but they do cause deformed branches and frequently ruin a small tree for ornamental purposes. Such galls are very abundant on the Norway spruces on the University of Maine Campus. ‘That they are troublesome on native spruce in this locality is shown by the fact that on a single white spruce 3 feet tall more than 990 of this season’s galls were counted August 1, 1909. Where so numerous, these galls are much smaller than those shown in Fig. 45. 204 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. These galls begin to open about August 15 in Maine. ‘The full grown pupz walk out on the spruce needles, where they molt their pupal skins. The newly emerged winged insect is yellowish with distinctly green wings and even the wings of the aged specimens retain the green color. Unlike the Pine-leaf Chermes, this Green-winged Chermes does not use alternate host plants. That is, it does not seek the pine or any different kind of tree to lay eggs on than that on which it produces the galls. Shortly after emerging from the gall it lays its eggs on the spruce and the young which hatch from them do not acquire wings but develop to a wingless form living solitary over winter on the twig. This is the form that lays eggs in the spring for the generation that causes the development of the gall which shelters them. Remedial Measures. Spraying the trees in April with whale- oil soap solution (1 pound to 2 gallons of water) has been reported as effectual. (34th Report Mass. Agric. College). The practice of removing and burning the galls will serve to control this species sufficiently on ornamental trees. At Orono great numbers of the winged forms are caught in spiders’ webs that are spun irregularly over the spruce twigs. pees SOE Sees rs ee Fic. EE ee A 43—The Pine-Leaf Chermes. Migrants from the spruce-gall to the white pine. Fic. 44—Black spruce twig with two cone-like galls caused by the Pine- Leaf Chermes. ee ee Fic. 45—T wig of white spruce with three “pine-apple galls” of Chermes abietis and six normal cones. alt ys BULLETIN No. 172. tae eVyYCE TOPHILIDA, OF NORTH AMERICA. AR Ra eles O. A. JOHANNSEN. It is the purpose of this paper to present a synopsis of the fungus gnats or Mycetophilide of North America, giving descriptions of and tables to all the genera and species, and life histories when known. As these flies are for the most part quite small, inconspicuous in coloring and retiring in habit, it is not strange that they, with the exception of a few species which have been brought into prominence by reason of their economic importance, have received but scant attention from entomologists generally. In this, the first part, the lower and economically less important subfamilies are treated, while in a subsequent paper the Sciophiline, Mycetophiline and the Sciarine will be considered. I hope to be able to show, in my work on the Sciarine, just what relation the larve of Sciara which are so frequently and usually so numerously present in rich soil, bear to the plants which grow there. I also trust that the descriptions of the imagines of the members of this genus will be sufficiently characteristic so that neither the Economic Entomologist nor the Systematist need so often designate a species as Sciara sp. as has been the case heretofore. Acknowledgments. To the members of the Entomological Staff of Cornell Uni- versity for their kindness in granting me the freedom of their laboratories, library, and collections I wish to express my *Papers from the Maine Agriculture Experiment Station: Ento- mology No. 38. 210 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I90O9Q. heartiest thanks. I am also under great obligations to Pro- fessors W. M. Wheeler, J. M. Aldrich, John Barlow, and Messrs. Wm. Beutenmueller and C. W. Johnson for the loan of their collections, to Mr. D. W. Coquillett in permitting me to study the specimens in the United States National Museum and to Dr. Samuel Henshaw for the privilege of examining the Loew types in the museum at Cambridge, Mass. I desire also to acknowledge my indebtedness to Miss Edith M. Patch of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Maine, and to Dr. Chas. D. Woods, director of the station, for encouragement and aid in making possible the publication of this paper in its present form. Of the literature upon the Mycetophilide which has been of greatest assistance I need only mention here Winnertz’s “Pilzmticken,” the “Centuries” of Loew from the Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift, and the papers of Adams, Aldrich, Coquillett, Dziedzicki, Grzegorzek, Lundstro6m, Marshall, Rtibsaamen, Skuse and Williston. Characters. The fungus-gnats are flies of medium or small size, and more or less mosquito-like in form. They are exceedingly. numerous both in number of individuals and in number of species, over fifteen hundred species contained in upward of one hundred genera, having been described from Europe, North America and Australia. Although entomologists have long been familiar with the earlier stages as well as with the adults of several members of this family, our knowledge of the life history is as yet very meagre. In 1864 Baron C. R. von Osten Sacken collected all the published records bearing upon the biology and the structural characters of the larve and published them together with some observations of his own. ‘This paper was reprinted in 1884 with a few additions. The larva is twelve segmented, footless, more or less cylin- drical, slightly tapering, smooth, soft, whitish in color and with a small strongly chitinized head, which is usually brown or black. The antennz are always very minute, almost vestigial. The mouth parts consist of a fleshy labrum, with a chitinized frame; flat lamelliform mandibles, indented or serrate on the THE MYCETOPHILIDA, OF NORTH AMERICA. 211 inner side; maxille with inner and outer lobes, the former usually serrate; and a small chitinized labium. The body of the larva is without hair or bristles except that in some genera there are two transverse rows of simple or bifid ambulacral setulze on the margin of each abdominal segment on the ventral side. ‘There are usually eight pairs of spiracles, which in some of the genera at least, are protected by small chitinized conical projections, the anterior pair being largest. The pupz are extricated, that is, not encased in the con- tracted skin of the larva. The legs are applied to the breast and venter, the antenaz are bent around the eyes, and extend between the wings and legs. The prothoracic spiracle is placed a little above the root of the wing and immediately behind the antenna. ‘The abdominal spiracles are distinct on both sides of the abdomen. ‘The pupa is smooth, white in color and frequently encased in a delicate cocoon. The pupe of those forms whose larve live in mushrooms are usually found in the soil and among the decaying parts of the plant. The larval and usually the pupal life also is of short duration, though the insect may hibernate as a pupa. ‘The time which elapses from the egg to the adult stage may not exceed two weeks in mid- summer. The imago may be distinguished from other flies by the following characters: Antenne usually 16 jointed, occasion- ally 12 to 17 jointed; palpi usually 3 or 4 jointed; ocelli present except in one or two genera. Thorax highly arched, scutellum small, setose. Abdomen with 6 to 9 visible segments, cylin- drical, conical or oval and laterally compressed; the male with complex hypopygium, the female with a short ovipositor with 2 terminal lamelle. In the male the seventh and eighth seg- ments are usually very small. The coxz are very strong and excepting in the Sciarine and a few of the lower genera, are much elongated; the femora are more or less thickened, later- ally compressed, often setose ; the tibiz usually slender, spurred, and setose; tarsal claws with teeth. The wings are usually oval, hairy or microscopically setulose, and without the cell tst M2 (discal cell). The wing venation is quite varied though it may readily be reduced to four types. The first and most primitive is that of Pal@oplatyura (fig. 70); in the second, Ceroplatine, Macrocerine, Ditomyia (fig. 71) the basal section 212 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. of the media is lost; in the third, Sciophiline (fig. 72) the M-Cu cross vein is wanting and Re+s is crossvein-like ia appearance; while in the fourth, Mycetophiline (fig. 73) and Sciarine, both the M-Cu crossvein and the vein Re+s have disappeared either by coalescence or atrophy. Below is given the Comstock-Needham terminology of wing venation which is used in the following text, together with the equivalent terms of the Schinerian system. Costan(©)) = Costa: Siereit Monae, = Subcostal or auxiliary vein. beost eubepsta co) Sena = Subcostal crossvein. ! Rade Jee ete es R: = First longitudinal vein. | Radial sector {R:+: = Anterior branch of third | vein. | Rets = Posterior branch of third t vein. Media (M) = Fourth longitudinal vein. Cubitus (Cu) = Fifth longitudinal vein. Anal veins (A) = Anal and axillary veins. Crossveins Subcostal (Se:) = Subcostal. Radio-medial (R-M) = Anterior crossvein. Medio-cubital (M-Cu) = Posterior crossvein. In this system each cell is given the name of the section of the vein immediately in front of it; thus the cell behind the costa is called the costal cell (or C); the cell behind the basal section of the radius is called R, that behind R: is called R:, etc. In the case of Sciophiline where R:+s is transverse in position, the small cell is called R: and the outer cell is Ret. Some writers, Winnertz among others, have erroneously coa- sidered the base of the radial sector as a crossvein, while they called the true crossvein the base of the third longitudinal vein (Rets). In the past the characters most used for generic classifica- tion have been derived from the wing venation while color characters have been most used in describing species. In the THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 213 future more attention should be paid to the structure of the palpi and antenne, position of ocelli, arrangement of sete on thorax and legs, relative wing and leg measurements, claws in some cases, and especially to the hypopygium of the male, for both generic and specific characters. The descriptive works of Dziedzicki, Lundstrom and Rubsaamen, are particularly excellent in regard to the last. For a proper study of the mem- bers of the Mycetophilide it is absolutely necessary to make a caustic potash preparation of the hypopygium. It is impossible from a pinned specimen to determine the form ofthe parts, owing to the fact that they are usually more or less retracted. I have found Lundstr6m’s method of preparation simpler than that of Dziedzicki. In this method it is merely necessary to relax the insect, cut off with a pair of scissors the apical seg- ments of the abdomen; immerse in a 10 per cent solution of caustic potash for twenty-four or more hours, soak in water to remove the potash, and finally preserve in alcohol in a tiny vial bearing the number of the specimen. Besides its sim- plicity this method offers a further advantage in that the abdominal segment which still is attached to the hypopygium offers a hold for the needles in manipulating and arranging the part under the binocular dissecting microscope. Slide mounts alone are not desirable since it is necessary to be able to turn the object in order to see it from all sides. The general shape of the hypopygium is that of a cup open- ing posteriorly, the cavity of which is the genital chamber. This cup, which is formed of the sclerites of the ninth segment, is so produced that its margin usually extends beyond the tenth segment which morphologically terminates the abdomen. The tenth segment bears the anus and is usually reduced to a small membranous lobe. Attached to the posterior rim of the hypopygium are several lobe-like appendages which are vari- ously formed or modified. ‘The body of the segment is made up of a dorsal, ventral and two lateral sclerites. From the floor of the genital chamber arises the penis with its variously modified guards. Although several hundred preparations have been made, owing to the complexity of structure I am not yet certain of the homologies of the parts of some of the genera and pending this investigation I must be content in the descrip- tive work which follows to confine myself to noncommittal 214 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. terms in the designation of the various appendages. Following Dziedzicki and Lundstrom I shall call the upper and lower lateral appendages respectively the upper and lower forceps; when the homology seems evident I shall use the terms eighth and ninth tergum and sternum as given by Snodgrass (’o4), otherwise shall speak of these appendages as the dorsal and ventral sclerites. Sometimes when one or the other of the lateral appendages are wanting or greatly reduced the remain- ing pair will be simply designated as the forceps. When there are appendages of sternum and tergum which require designa- tion they will be called respectively sternal and tergal processes or lobes. Habits and Economic Relations. As far as known most of the members of this family live upon and destroy mushrooms, not only the wild plants but on occasion the cultivated varieties as well. Many a mushroom though apparently sound, will, upon close scrutiny reveal tiny ‘black headed larve which within a few days grow to maturity and if numerous completely riddle the plant. If left upon the earth the larve when full grown will bury themselves, pupate, and within a short time emerge as adults. While but few references to the higher fungus gnats (Mycetophiline) are found in economic literature, nevertheless I may say from per- sonal observation that a large percentage of the wild mush- rooms are infested with the larve of Mycetophiline, particu- larly of the genera Exechia and Mycetophila, and in several instances have found them in company with the larve of Phora to utterly ruin a mushroom bed in the cellar of a grower. The larve of Mycetobia live upon decaying wood, particu- larly of the apple or peach tree, though probably without injury to the sound wood. The Ceroplatine and Sciophiline as far as known live upon fungi and decaying wood. As they are comparatively rare they are not likely to be of economic impor- tance. The .Sciarine on the other hand are frequently men- tioned by economic entomologists. Though often found in decaying mushrooms and in the earth in putrid vegetable mat- ter I have never found them to be injurious to growing fungi. They are frequently present, feeding on potatoes affected by scab or rot, in some apparently well authenticated instances THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 215 appear to be the precursor of some form of scab. ‘They are found in apples associated with the railroad worm; in bulbs of tulips, and are occasionally reported by florists as damaging plant roots. Professor Forbes in the 18th report of the State Entomologist of Illinois states that they are frequently noticed in rich garden ground and among potted plants, where they are accused by gardeners of eating the roots and hollowing out the bulbs. He also says “When the spring is cool and wet after corn planting, so that the softened seed lies long in the ground without sprouting, this is especially liable to certain kinds of injury; and it is under these conditions that the black headed maggot (Sciara sp) seems most likely to affect it injuriously. Rotting grain is, indeed undoubtedly preferred by this insect, but it has occasionally been seen to infest kernels which had begun to grow. It lives normally in old sod, feeding chiefly, or perhaps altogether, on decaying vegetation there, and will be found in noticeable numbers in corn fields only where the field was in grass the preceding year. These maggots penetrate ‘ and hollow out the kernel, often leaving nothing more than an empty hull. A score or more of them may infest a single grain.” Lintner in his 1oth report of the State Entomologist of New York says “A species (perhaps more than one) is noted in Europe, for its gregarious and migratory habits. It is there known as the army-worm or Heerwurm from its collecting at certain seasons in companies—sometimes consisting of millions —and traveling along in a body of often from 12 to 15 feet in length and 2 or 3 inches broad and perhaps a half inch thick. ‘M. Guérin Méneville observed columns as many as thirty yards in length.’ ‘The species has not been positively determined, but it is accepted as either Sciara Thome (Linn.) or S. militaris Now.—but probably the latter, according to the statement of Baron Osten Sacken. Similar gatherings have been observed in this country, one of which is narrated in Insect Life, iv, 1891, page 214; two others recorded by Glover in the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1872, p. I15, as observed in Virginia (figures of the larva and fly are given) ; and two others by Prof. F. M. Webster, in Sctence for Febru- ary 23, 1894, p. 109. With us they bear the name of ‘snake- 210 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QO9Q. worms, from the snake-like appearance and movements of some of the processions.” Nothing further need here be said concerning habits as it is proposed to discuss more fully the details of life history and of injury caused by any given form under the respective species. Remedial Measures. As a remedy against those species which feed upon the culti- vated mushrooms Lintner in his 1oth report suggests occasional ap] lications of pure and fresh pyrethrum in water, using it of the strength of one ounce to 4 to 8 gallons of water, as the larvae may be deeper beneath or nearer to the surface of the beds. As a preventive measure the cellars may be closely screened and the beds covered with small mesh screen frames. For those which are associated with scab or rot the measures taken in combatting these will also hold in check the ravages which may be occasioned by the insect. The remedies and preventive measures applied for the railroad worm or apple maggot and the codling moth will also control the apple midge. . TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES. a. Medio-cubital crossvein (M-Cu) present; i. e., a vein con- necting the media with the cubitus (figs. 70, 71), or these veins contiguous for a short distance at the place where the crossvein usually is. b. The radio-medial crossvein (R-M) distinct, not oblit- erated by the coalescence of a portion of radius and media. c. Radius with more than 2 branches, anterior branch of the radial sector sometimes short and cross- vein like. d. The M-Cu crossvein far proximad of the R-M crossvein, the cell M less or but little more than half as long as cell R. (figs. 74- 70). I. Sub-fam. Bolitophiline. dd. The R-M and the M-Cu crossvein nearly equidistant from the base of the wing, usually only one basal cell. e. The radius with 4 branches (European). Sub-fam. Pachyneurine. THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 217 ee. The radius with but 3 branches (figs. 77-81), 2. Sub-fam. Mycetobune. cc. The radius with but 2 branches (fig. 91). 3. Sub-fam. Diadocidine. bb. ‘The radio-medial crossvein (R-M) obliterated by the coalescence of a section of the basal portion of the radius and media at the point where the crossvein ' usually is. (Figs. 82-90). c. Antennz short, usually thick set and often flat- tened. (Figs. 82-89). 4. Sub-fam. Cerop- latine. cc. Antennz very slender, and nearly as long and often much longer than the body (fig. 90). 5. Sub-fam. Macrocerine. aa. ‘The medio-cubital crossvein (M-Cu) absent. b. The anterior branch (R:+s) of the radial sector dis- tinct, short, ending in R: and appearing like a super- numerary crossvein bounding distally the small rectangular or trapezoidal cell R: (fig. wa). 6. Sub-fam. Sciophiline. bb. Re+ts not distinct from R:+s, the cell R: thus open to the margin of the wing. c. Coxz much elongated, (fig. 56), the R-M cross- vein usually distinctly angulated from the second section of the radial sector; the cubitus usually forks noticeably distad of the base of the wing (fig. 73). 7. Subfam. Mvyce- tophiline. cc? Coxe not greatly elongated; the R-M crossvein in the same right line with the second section of the radial sector; the cubitus forked near the base of the wing. 8. Sub-fam. Sciarine. 1. Subfamily BoLrTOPHILINA. Bolitophiline Winnertz, Verh. Zool-bot. Ges. Wien, XIII, 657. 1863. Long slender species, with abdomen having 7 to 9 visible segments, 12 to 17 jointed antennz, coxz either long or short; wings long and rather narrow; radius 3 branched, both the 218 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QO9Q. basal cells R and M distinct and closed at the distal end by the crossveins or by the coalescence of the basal section of the media and cubitus; the cell M much shorter than the cell R. Table of genera. a. Rets shorter than the distance of its base from the cross- vein and shorter than R:+s. b. Antennz 17 jointed, slender (figs. 75, 76). ; 1. Bolitophila. Dba Aatennceer2s joimbedsa(iame74)). 2. Hesperinus. aa. R:+: much longer than the distance of its base from the R-M crossvein (fig. 79). Fossil genus- 3. Mycetophetus. t. Genus Bolitophila Meigen. Bolitopila Meigen, Syst. Beschr. Zweifl. I. 220. 1818. Messala Curtis, Brit. Ent. 581. 1836. Head hemispherical; 3 ocelli arranged in a curved line on the broad front; palpi 4 jointed; antennz filiform, in the male nearly as long as the body, of the female shorter, 2+15 jointed. Thorax small, highly arched. Abdomen slender, of the male with 8, of the female with 9 visible segments. Legs slender, tibial spurs short and weak. Venation as figured (figs. 75, 76). Table of species. a. Anterior branch of the cubitus disconnected at the base (fig. 76). I. disjuncta aa. Anterior branch of cubitus connected at the base. ly), Ike Gals im Ike Cae, 75). 2. cimerea. bb. Re+s ends in the costa. c. The subcosta ends at or distad of the base of the radial sector in the male. '| 3. hybrida. cc. ‘The subcosta ends noticeably proximad of the base of the radial sector. 4. montana. 1. Bolitophila disjuncta Loew. 1869. disjuncta Loew. Beschr. europ. Dipt. I. 19. 17. Male. Length 6 mm. Head cinereous, proboscis brownish, palpi yellowish; antennz about as long as the insect, fuscous, THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 219 scape and base of the flagellum yellow. Mesonotum with 3 broad cinereous stripes; the humeri, space between the stripes, yellow. Pleura, sternum and metanotum brownish. Abdomen wholly fuscous. Coxe and legs yellow, tibiz and tarsi slightly infuscated, fore metatarsus about .9 as long as its tibia, claws minute, apparently simple, pulvilli plumose, empodium like a stag’s horn. Wings (fig. 76) hyaline, distinct brownish stigma at apex of R:, subcosta ends in the costa less than the length of the R-M crossvein before the base of the radial sector, Re+s ends in the costa slightly distad of the tip of R:, base of Cur wanting, veins yellowish. Length of wing is 6 millimeters which is twice as long as the fore tibia. Halteres yellow, knob brown. Several specimens collected by Prof Aldrich, Julia- etta, Idaho. The specimen in the Loew collection at Cambridge is from New Hampshire. 2. Bolitophila cinerea Meigen. 1818. cimerea Meigen, Syst. Beschr. I. 221. Male and female. Length 4 to 6 mm. Antenne fuscous, yellowish at the base, shorter than the body; palpi yellow. Thorax light brown, grayish pollinose, mesonotum subfuscous with yellowish humeri, sometimes with indications of 3 longi- tudinal stripes; scutellum brown; abdomen brown. Coxe and femora yellow, the latter and the tibia sometimes subfuscous, tarsi brown, fore metatarsus is .85 times as long as its tibia. Wing (fig. 75) cinereous tinged, with brown veins and pale subobsolescent stigma, subcosta ends distad of the base of the radial sector, Re+: ends in R:, the M-Cu crossvein present, though short and stout. Length of wing is as long as the body which is about 1.75 times as long as the fore tibia. Halteres with brown knob. Several specimens. Ithaca, N. Y. May and September. 3. Bolitophila hybrida Meigen. 1804. hybrida Meigen, Klass I. 47. 1818. fusca Meigen, Syst. Beschr. J. 221. Male and female. Length 4 to 6 mm. Palpi pale, face, front and vertex brown, antennae brown, yellow at the base. Thorax pale brown, dorsum pale brown, or more yellowish 220 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9Q0OQ. with 3 brown stripes. Scutellum yellowish. Coxz and legs yellowish, tibiz and tarsi more or less brown; tibiz and tarsi of hind legs subequal in length. Wing cinereous tinged, veins and stigma brown; sometimes with indistinct spot just distad of the R-M crossvein; the subcosta ends in the costa distad of the base of the radial sector, at least in the male; the M-Cu crossvein present, though short and stout. Halteres with brown knob. White Mts., N. H. (det. Coquillett) and May- ield Cave, lad? (des Adams )y selkirk Mitts. Be ©) collected by J. C. Bradley. 4. Bolitophila montana Coquillett. I90I. montana. Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, XOGIIE IR EO2" Female. Length 4.5 mm. Dark brown, the base of the third antennal joint, peduncle of the halteres, coxe, femora and tibize light yellow, sides of mesonotum largely brownish yellow, mesonotum polished; wings hyaline, stigma elongate oval, gray; subcosta reaches only slightly beyond middle between humeral crossvein and base of the radial sector, Re+s terminates in the costa, the media at its base coalescing for a short distance with the upper branch of the cubitus. Mount Washington, IN|. JBL: Male specimen from Ithaca, New York, taken in September has the antennz over 3-4 as long as the body, and the fore metatarsus .9 as long as its tibia, which is half as long as the wing. It differs from the female in having a shining black mesonotum and dark brown pleura, and also in the length of the subcosta which ends somewhat distad of the point midway between the subcostal crossvein (not humeral crossvein) and the base of the radial sector. 2. Genus Hesperinus Walker. Hesperinus Walker, List*Dipt. Brit. Mus. I, 81. 1848. Spodius Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. I]. 108. 1858. Rather large, bare, blackish species resembling Bolitophila in habitus. Head small, round, palpi incurved, 4 segmented; antennz 12 jointed; eyes round, ocelli 3. Abdomen slender, with 7 or 8 visible segments. Legs long and slender, coxe not THE MYCETOPHILIDA) OF NORTH AMERICA. 221 elongate; femora somewhat thickened distally; tibize with small spurs; metatarsi lengthened, claws small, pulvilli and empodium distinct. Wings large and broad; Sc long, extend- ing beyond the middle of the wing; R:+s shorter than the dis- tance of its base from the R-M crossvein, the media rises at the base of the wing, the fork of the cubitus and the M-Cu crossvein equidistant from the base of the wing and far prox- imad of the R-M crossvein (fig. 74). Hespermus brevifrons Walker. 1848. brevifrons Walker. List. Dipt. Brit. Mus. I. 81. Female. Length 6mm. Wholly fuscous, legs, halteres, and center of tergum of each abdominal segment paler than thorax. Front broad, with 3 large ocelli arranged in a triangle, the middle ocellus most cephalad; palpi 4 jointed, the first and second but little longer than broad, the third more slender, about 4 times as long as broad, the fourth slightly longer than the third, each joint with 10 to 15 stout black sete as well as with very minute setulz which are arranged in transverse rows; antennz 12 jointed, the first and second broader than long, the third about 3 times as long as broad, the remaining 9 joints about as broad as long and only slightly diminishing in size apically, with few short sete. Antennz if bent back would scarcely reach scutellum. Thorax with indications of 3 broad cinereous stripes, almost bare. Abdomen with 9g visible seg- ments, nearly bare, ovipositor with 2 slender oval lamelle. Legs long but rather stout, tibial spurs very short, inconspic- uous and depressed. Fore metatarsus about .4 the length of the tibia, tarsal claws apparently simple, empodium pad-like, pulvilli conspicuous. Wings cinereous hyaline, veins pale fus- cous, except M-Cu crossveia which is paler, stigma faintly indicated; venation as figured (fig. 74); subcostal crossvein present, anal vein slender, rather faint but prolonged to the wing margin. Length of wing 6 mm. which is 2 2-3 times the fore tibia in length. Mt. Greylock, Mass. June. C. W. John- son, collector. ‘The species has been recorded. from Alaska, Canada, Colorado, and White Mountains, New Hampshire. The specimen in the U. S. National Museum determined as this species as I recollect seeing it, is the same as the one 222 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT ‘TATION. I9Q0Q. described above. In habitus it reminds one far more of the Bibionid genus Plecia than it does Bolitophila, from which it differs mainly in having 12 antennal joints and but 4 palpal joints. I believe it should be placed with the Bibionide. © 3. Genus Mycetophatus Scudder. Mycetophetus Scudder. Bul. U. S. Geol. Survey 93. 19. 1892. This fossil genus appears to be closely akin to Hesperinus, differing mainly in having a much longer R:+s. Venation as figured (fig. 79). Legs long and slender, the fore femora con- siderably longer than the thorax, the tibia longer than the femora, both abundantly spinose. Abdomen 8 segmented. The only species is M. intermedius Scudder, from Florissant, Colorado. 2. Subfamily MycETOBIINE. Mycetobune Winnertz. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wiea. XIII. 666. 1863. A group possessing in common the following characters; 16 or 17 jointed antennz; 3 ocelli on the vertex; wings rather broad, both the R-M and the M-Cu crossvein present and nearly equidistant from the base of the wing; radius 3 branched; legs long and slender and the tibial spurs: rather short. Table of genera. a. subcostal vein (Sc:) long, reaching at least 1-4 the length of the wing and usually ending in the costa. b. Rets and R+sts both arise at the R-M crossvein. (ines 7/7). 1. Mycetobia. bb. Rets and Rests separate distad of the crossvein. (Fig. 78). 2. Paleoplatyura. aa. Subcostal vein (Sc:) vestigial. _b. . The media forks distad of the base of Ret:. (Fig. 80). 3. Ditomyia. bb. The media forks proximad of the base of Ret. (Fig. 81). 4. Symmerus. THE MYCETOPHILIDZ OF NORTH AMERICA. 223 1. Genus Mycetobia Meigen. Mycetobia Meigen, Syst. Beschr. I. 229. 27. 1818. Head spherical, flattened in front, 3 ocelli arranged in a tri- angle on the front, the anterior one smaller; palpi 4 segmented ; antenne 2+15 jointed, almost annular, the apical joint very small. Abdomen with 7 plainly visible segments. ‘Tibiz with short and slender spurs, lateral setae of middle and hind tibiz small. Wing broad (fig 77); subcosta about 1-3 as long as the wing, subcostal crossvein wanting; R:+s arises at the R-M crossvein, R:+s ends near the tip of the wing, the costa is pro- longed a little beyond it, the media arises apparently at the M-Cu crossvein, though there is usually an indication of the true basal section of this vein in the form of a fold-like vein bisecting the basal cell; the cubitus forks slightly proximad of of M-Cu crossvein, anal vein ends in the margin of the wing. Mycetobia divergens Walker. 1856. divergens Walker. Insecta Saundersiana, Dipt. I. 418. 1867. persice Riley, Prairie Farmer 15 June. vol. 35. n. s., V. 19, p. 397 (Mycetophila). 1869. sordida Packard, Guide to study of Insects. 388. 1903. marginalis Adams, Kansas Univ. Science Bulletin II. Die 2s. Male and female. Length 3 to 4mm. Head black, subshin- ing, tip of palpi yellow; antenne black including the basal joints. Mesonotum black, shining, humeri, lateral and pos- terior margins, and scutellum with a reddish tinge, pile yellow, pleura and metanotum black, mostly shining. Abdomen vari- able, shining, basal segments usually more or less yellow, apical segments blackish, pile yellow. Legs yellow, tarsi infuscated at the tip, fore metatarsus 2-3 as long as its fore tibia. Wéings hyaline, subcosta ends in the costa proximad of the base of R:+s; venation as figured (fig. 77). Length of wing 3 to 4 mm. which is 3 1-3 times as long as the fore tibia. Halteres yellowish. Ithaca, N. Y.; Boulder, Col. (T. D. A. Cockerell, collector) ; Gardiner, Maine. In my specimens there is considerable variation in the amount of color on the abdomen, in other respects they appear identical. This variation has led me to believe that the synonymy given above is correct. 224 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT ‘TATION. 19090. Larva. Slender, legless, resembling the larva of an aquatic Ceratopogon, 12 segmented. Head yellowish brown, oblong, about twice as long as wide; labrum with rounded margia, setose ventrally; mandibles when extended, reach cephalad of margin of labrum, brown in color, apical half oval, margined with a number of blunt teeth, mesal margin also with toothed hook produced cephalad, maxilla fleshy, its palpus short, papil- late; hypopharynx setose; labium with brown margin, and with 2 pointed teeth on lateral cephalic margin; a few scattered setee on head; 2 eye spots. Body hyaline, whitish, the 2 main tracheal trunks open on the center of the lateral margin of the first thoracic segment and extend to the apex of the twelfth abdominal segment; they are connected by a strong commis- sure at the cephalic end of the second thoracic segment. At the posterior end the spiracles are surrounded by a fringe of setee which project out at right angles to the axis of the body. Length of full grown larva about 7 mm. Pupa. Brown; tapering, with a few caudad projecting spines from the thorax and each of the abdominal segments. Length 4 mm. Habit. This species has been reported a number of times by fruit growers as causing injury to the roots of apple and jeach trees. It has been found to occur in the rotting wood of these trees but it is extremely doubtful if it is able to cause injury to the sound wood. Both Riley and Walsh as well as Glover have recorded it and all are agreed as to the inoffensive character of this insect. ‘The specimens upon which the above descriptions were drawn, were sent to me by Mr. Gardiner, of Gardiner, Maine. 2. Genus Paleoplatyura Meunier. Paleoplatyura Meunier, Miscell. Entomol. VII. 164. 1899. Head depressed, front broad, ocelli 3 in number remote from eye margin, palpi 4 jointed; antenne 2+14 jointed, about as long as head and thorax taken together. Thorax arched, sete not prominent; abdomen of the male with 7 visible segments; hypopygium small, consisting of a pair of 2 jointed forceps, the basal joint stout, the terminal joint curved, about 4 times as long as broad, the apex toothed and densely ciliated on the inner side. Legs slender, tibial spurs about 1.5 times as long THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 225 as the diameter of the femur at the widest part; tarsal claws toothed, empodium prominent. Wings (fig. 78) broad, longer than the abdomen; costa produced beyond the tip of Rét,, almost reaching the tip of the wing; subcosta less than 1-3 the length of the wing, ending in the costa a little beyond the point where the radial sector begins; subcostal crossvein present or absent; R: ends about 2-3 the length of the wing, R:+s about as long as basal section of the radial sector and ends a little beyond the tip of R:, the R-M crossvein stout and very short, the media arises near the base of the wing and is represented by a delicate fold-like vein to the crossvein, beyond which it is strong, and forks about half way from the cross- vein to the base of Re+s; cubitus forks slightly proximad of the M-Cu crossvein; second anal vein may be produced to margin or may be abbreviated. Contains recent as well as fossil forms. Table of species. a. Wing immaculate; subcostal crossvein absent, anal vein not reaching margin of the wing. 1. aldrichit. aa. Wing with markings; subcostal crossvein present, anal vein reaches margin of wing. (fig. 78) 2. johnsoni a. sp. 1. Paleoplatyura aldrichii Johannsen. 1909. aldrichii Johannsen, Genera Insectorum, Mycetophilide. Io. Male. Length 4 mm. Head, face and antennx fuscous, basal joint of the last and palpi yellow; ocelli arranged in a triangle. Thorax pale brownish, including pleura, sternum and scutellum, the mesonotum with 3 confluent darker stripes, metanotum dark brown, humeri and supra-pleural stripe yellow ; black setze arranged in 5 longitudinal lines, 3 on the mesonotum and 2 on the lateral margin; scutellar sete fine and numerous, but little longer than those on the humeri. Abdomen brown, darker apically, with black setulae; hypopygium as described for the genus. Coxe and legs pale yellow, tarsi infuscated, fore metatarsus about .7 as long as its tibia; spurs yellow. Wings hyaline, with a very faint smoky tinge, heavier veins brown, slender veins more yellowish; subcostal crossvein want- ing, anal vein stout but not reaching margin of the wing. Hal- teres yellow. 226 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909 One specimen from Professor Aldrich. Friday Harbor, Wash. This species differs in several important structural characters from the following, though for the present they will be left in the same genus. 2. Paleoplatyura johnsoni n. sp. Male. Length 5 mm. Head subshining black; ocelli in a transverse line set low on the front, the median one smaller than the laterals. Face fuscous, oval margin produced and covered with erect black sete; labelle and palpi yellow, both of medium size, the latter with 4 joints of which the first and second are subequal, the third about thrice, the fourth 4 times as long as the first, all with a few black sete, those of the fourth small and inconspicuous; the scape yellow, the basal joints of the flagellum yellowish, the remaining joints fuscous; first flagellar joint about twice as long as wide, the other joints but little longer than their width; whole antenna if bent back would scarcely reach the metanotum. Mesonotum shining yellow with 3 brown stripes, the middle one widest, setz black, sparse, not - arranged in longitudinal rows; scutullum yellow, without promi- nent setz; metanotum and pleura except at base of the wing, brown. Abdomen brown, the apical margin of the segments, except of the first, yellow; sete black. Posterior end and hypopygium crushed in the single specimen, hence cannot be described. Coxe and legs yellow, tarsi more dusky, fore meta- tarsus slightly longer than its tibia, setae of middle and hind tibize small and inconspicuous, shorter than the diameter of the tibia; one spur on fore tibia, 2 subequal ones on each of middle and hind tibiae; empodium consists of a few short sete, the claws each with 2 short, stout, straight teeth proximad of the middle. Wings (fig. 78) grayish hyaline with markings as follows: an oval brown spot covering the R—M crossvein and extending distad to beyond the fork of the media with a tiny hyaline spot in it just distad of the crossvein; a small brown spot at costal margin and filling the space between R:t+s and apex of Ri; an elongate spot covering the apical end of Cuz and faintly merging into the posterior end of the subapical brown band which arises on the costa between the extremities of the branches of the radial sector and extends posteriorly more ~~ Se er) on THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 227 faintly over the branches of the media and beyond the anterior branch of the cubitus where it nearly or quite reaches the wing margin; subcosta ends in the costa well beyond base of the radial sector, the subcostal crossvein is situated half way, between the humeral crossvein and the base of the radial sector ; R:+: arises before the apex of R: but ends well beyond its tip; the costa is produced well beyond the tip of Rts but does not 1each the tip of the wing; the anal vein is produced to the wing margin; the apical end of the first section of the radial sector and of the media hyaline white, the remainder of the veins brown, the heavier‘veins darkest. Length of wing 6mm. One specimen from Burlington, Vt. taken in June by Mr. C. W. Johnson. °3. Genus Ditomyia Winnertz. Ditomyia Winnertz, Stett. Ent. Zeit, VII, 14. 3.° 1846. Head spherical, flattened in front; 3 ocelli, unequal, in a transverse line; palpi 4 jointed; antennz 2+15 jointed, the last very small, papilliform. Abdomen with 7 visible segments. Legs long and slender, tibiz with short spurs. Wings (fig. 80) large, hairy, subcostal vein short, incomplete; Re+s arises proxi- mad of the fork of the media; media arises apparently at the R—M crossvein, the basal section having been wholly obliter- ated; cubitus forks slightly proximad of the M—Cu crossvein; anal vein prolonged to the margin. 4 Ditomyia euzona Loew. 1869. euzona Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. XIII. 1. Male. Length 6mm, Head, scape, and base of first flagellar joint yellowish, flagellum and palpi blackish. Thorax yellow, dorsum with dusky vitte; scutellum except the base, fuscous. Abdomen yellow, each segment with a black posterior fascia which is dilated in the middle and on the lateral margins, hypo- pygium dusky. Coxz and legs yellowish. Wings hyaline, gray- ish tinged, with the following fuscous fasciz; the first near the base of the wing extends from the costa into the basal cell R, the second extends across the wing from near the apex of the subcostal cell to the posterior branch of the cubitus; the third widely covers the apex of the wing. Length of wing 6.2 mm. Halteres yellow. 228 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 19090. The type, from the District of Columbia, is now in the museum at Cambridge, Mass. Another specimen of this beau- tiful species is in the United States National Museum. 4. Genus Symmerus Walker. Symmerus Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Mus. I. 88. 1848. Plesiastina Winnertz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. XIII. 55. 4. 1852. Head, antennz, palpi, abdomen and legs as with Ditomyia. Eyes somewhat approximated on the vertex, ocelli 3 in number. Fore tibiz on inner side with several slender sete, the hind pairs as with Ditomyia. Wing venation (fig. 81) as with Ditomyia but differs primarily in having a shorter Rets, the base of which is somewhat distad of the fork of the media, and the costa ends.at the tip of Rs+s. Table of species. a. ,Thorax shining fuscous black; abdomen and _ halteres mainly black, the basal half of peduncle of the latter, yellow; length 5 mm. Eastern states. LT. braStise aa. ‘Thorax and usually halteres also, mainly yellow. b. Wings distinctly fasciate. c. Wing with a single slender fascia across the cross- veins; abdomen black, segments with yellow posterior margins; length 12 mm. Mexico. 2: lenis wate cc. Wing with two transverse fascia. d. Thorax with 3 shining black stripes; legs mainly yellow, hind femora, tip of hind tibie, hind tarsi and tip of middle tibia, black, 64-7 mm. Mexico. 3. bifasciata. dd. Thorax yellow, reddish in the middle; legs pale, starsi9 “muscous,) leneth™ sro) semard Mexico. 4. mexicana. bb. Wings not distinctly fasciate. c. Thorax shining yellow, abdomen yellow, segments with wide, black posterior margins; length 7-74 mm. Eastern States. 5. annulata. ec. Thorax yellow with blackish median fascia; dorsum of abdomen black, the segments with pale margins; length 4.5-6 mm. New York. 6. Jauta. THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 229 I. Symmerus tristis Loew. 1869. iristis Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. XIII. 131. 2. (Plesiastina ). Female. Length 4.5 to 5 mm. Head fuscous black, vertex and flagellum. of the antenna more purely black. ‘Thorax shin- ing fuscous black, pleura and metanotum a little paler. Abdo- men blackish, with black pile, the apical segment and append- ages yellowish. Legs and coxe fuscous, trochanters and the knees pale. Wings (fig. 81) smoky, the petiole of the media shorter than its anterior branch. Halteres black, stem yellow aiepase. D. C. (Osten Sacken); Massachusetts (W. M. Wheeler, col.). 2. Symmerus lenis n. n. (not gonata Stephens). 1890. zonata Giglio-Tos, Boll. Mus. Anat. comp. Torino. V. No. 84. (Ditomyia). Male. Length about 12 mm. Face, front and palpi pale yellow; eyes black, pubescent; 3 ocelli arranged in a transverse row upon a black spot; antennz yellow, longer than the head and thorax combined, the 6 apical joints black. ‘Thorax yellow, with yellow pile, with 3 vittz confluent posteriorly; pectus and metathorax black; scutellum yellow. Abdomen black, pilose, the first segment wholly and posterior margins of the others yellow. Legs yellow, hind femora fuscous at the base; the tips of tibiz,and tarsi blackish. Wing slender, longer than the abdomen, with a slender subfuscous transverse fascia which extends from R: across the crossvein nearly to the posterior margin of the wing following here the course of Cu. Halteres yellow. : Female. Smaller; antenne wholly testaceous, shorter. Abdomen sparsely pilose. Recorded from Orizaba, Mexico, by Giglio-Tos. 3. Symmerus bifasciata Williston. 1900. bifasciata Williston, Biol. Centr-Amer. I. 217. (Plesiastina). Male. Length 64-7 mm. Head yellow, the ocelli on small blackish spots; antenne longer than the head and thorax together, light yellow, the last seven joints black, the flagellum flattened. Mesonotum light yellow, with three broad shining 230 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. black stripes, the lateral ones abbreviated in front. Scutellum yellow, with the margin brownish. Pleura in part pitchy brown. Metanotum light yellow above, brown on the lower part. Abdomen: first segment and the venter light yellow; second to seventh segments, inclusive, shining black, with the hind margin yellow or yellowish, and clothed with yellow hair ; remainder of abdomen black, with less abundant yellow hair; hypopygium yellow, with the superior organs blackish. Legs yellow; 4 posterior coxze brownish; hind femora, tip of the hind tibiz, the hind tarsi, and the tip of the middle tibiz black; middle tarsi brownish; front tibiz with weaker bristles; all the tibiz with spurs, the hind pair with long and stout ones. Wings light yellow, with brown markings as follows: the whole of the costal cell, except sometimes a spot at the begin- aing of the yellow distally, the broad distal and narrow pos- terior margin, and a moderately broad band near the middle of the wing; the subcostal vein vanishes in a fold that ends about opposite the beginning of the radial sector; the radial sector forks before its middle, the media a little beyond the middle of the petiole of the radial sector; the costal vein ends at the tip of Rts. Mexico, Sierra de las Aguas Escondidas in Guerrero, 7000 feet. 4. Symmerus mexicana Giglio-Tos. 1890. mexicana Giglio-Tos, Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Torino. V. No. 84. (Ditomyia). Male. Length to mm. Face and front yellow; eyes black, 2--ocelli, distant, placed im a right line upon a black “spou; antennze yellow, subfuscous toward the tip, longer than the head and thorax conjointly. Thorax yellow, reddish upon the center of the mesonotum. Abdomen black, with yellow pile, sub- clavate posteriorly, the whole of the first, and the posterior margins of the second and third, yellowish. Legs yellow, tarsi fuscous, each tibia with fuscous apex. Wings yellow, sparsely tomentose; longer than the abdomen, with 2 fuscous fascia, the first filling the basal half of the costal cell and extending across the disk of wing between the crossveins and the base of the fork of the media; the second broadly covers the apex of the wing. Halteres yellow. Recorded by Giglio-Tos from Orizaba, Mexico. ss F THE MYCETOPHILIDAZ OF NORTH AMERICA. 231 5. Symmerus annulata Meigen. 1830. annulata Meigen, Syst. Beschr. VI. 294. 3. (Plesiastina). Male and female. Length 7 to 74 mm. Palpi and face yellow; front and vertex fuscous; antennz brown, the scape and sometimes the basal flagellar joints yellow. Thorax and abdomen yellow, shining, the latter somewhat compressed, with posterior half or two-thirds of each segment fuscous. Coxe and legs yellow, tarsi infuscated; fore tibia only slightly longer than the fore metatarsus; all femora ciliated beneath. Wings grayish hyaline, costal cell more ferruginous; veins brown; subcosta a mere tooth. Recorded from New Jersey and New Hampshire. 6. Symmerus lauta Loew. 1869. /auta Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr. XIII. 132. 3. ( Plesiastina). Male. Length 44 to 6 mm. Pale yellow. Flagellum of antenna fuscous black; vertex in large part black. Mesonotum shining with 3 black vitte, the median vitta paler anteriorly and divided by pale line; pleura immaculate. Tergum of each abdominal sclerite blackish with pale anterior and posterior margins, venter wholly pale yellow; hypopygium brownish, stout, superior forceps black, shorter than the inferior forceps. Legs pale yellow, tibial spurs black, tarsi infuscated. Wing tinted with cinereous; petiole of the media and M: subequal. Halteres yellow; knob infuscated. Recorded from N. Y. A feneetive specimen from Ithaca, N. Y., bears. the. date August 24. 3. Subfamily DrapocrpiIn&. Diadocidine. Winnertz. Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien. XIII. 656. 1863. This subfamily is distinguished from all others in having the M-Cu crossvein present and at the same time only 2 branches of the radius. Genus Diadocidia Ruthe. Diadocidia Ruthe, Isis. II. 1210. 1831. Macroneura, Macquart, Suites a Buffon I. 146, 1834. 232 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I909Q. Head rounded, flattened in front; ocelli, 3, subequal, in a triangle on the front; palpi 4 jointed; antennz 2+15 jointed, the apical joint papilliform. Thorax ovate, arched. Abdomen with 7 visible segments. Legs slender, femora somewhat thick- ened ; hind tibiz with 3 rows of delicate sete. Wangs (fig. 91) . hairy, large, with wide base; subcostal vein, long and ends in the costa; subcostal crossvein (Sc) present or absent; R: end- ing in the costa distad of the mid length of the wing; the radial sector unbranched and ending in the costa before its tip; second anal produced to the wing margin. Table of species. a. Recent species. b. Subcostal crossvein wanting; apex of R: far proximad of tip of Cu. Eastern States. 1. ferruginosa. bb. Subcostal crossvein present; apex of R: opposite the fp On Cue Ba © 2. borealis. aa. Fossil species. Colorado. terricola. 1. Diadocidia ferruginosa Meigen. 1930: “fernugmosa. Meigen, Syst. Beschi. "Vil «20 4a aaae (Mycetobia ) 1831. fiavicans Ruthe, Isis, II, 1211 (Diadocidia). 1834. Wintheni Macquart, Suites a Buffon. I. 147. 34. (Macroneura). Male and female. Length 3 mm. Front, vertex, face and antennze brown, base of the last and proboscis and palpi yellow. Thorax yellow, with 2 subcoalescent brown stripes, wanting in immature specimens; scutellum yellow; metanotum brown. Abdomen sordidly yellowish, darker apically. Legs yellow, tarsi infuscated; fore metatarsus nearly 2-3 as long as its tibia, hind tibia longer than the tarsus. Wing (Fig. 91) tinged with gray, with pale brown veins and gray setule ; subcostal crossvein want- ing. Halteres yellow. Ithaca, N. Y., August 10; Auburndale, Mass., July 16, (C. W. Johnson). Has also been recorded from the White Mountains, New Hampshire. THE MYCETOPHILIDA, OF NORTH AMERICA. 233 2. Diadocidia borealis Coquillett. 1900. borealis Coquillett, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sciences. II. 390. Male. Length 4 mm. Head and antenne dark brown, two basal joints of the latter, also the proboscis and palpi, yellow; thorax polished, yellow, the dorsum, except the front corners, dark brown; scutellum yellow; metanotum brown; abdomen dark brown, slightly polished, its hairs yellowish; coxze and femora light yellow, tibiz and tarsi brown, front tarsi slender ; knob of halteres yellowish brown; wings hyaline, densely cov- ered with short hairs, subcostal crossvein present, tip of R: about opposite apex of anterior branch of the cubitus. Lowe Inlet. Bac: , 4. Subfamily CrropLaTina. Ceroplatine, Winnertz. Verh. Zool.—bot. Ges. Wien. XIII. 684. 1863. The primary distinction possessed by the members of this subfamily is found in the wing venation. The R—M crossvein is obliterated by the coalescence of a section of the basal portion of the radius and media at the point where the crossvein usually is. The antenne are short, usually thickened, and often more or less flattened. Table of Genera. a. Face and proboscis prolonged, beak-like or snout-like. (figs. 46, 49 and 87). I. Asindulum. aa. Proboscis short, not beak-like. b. Antenne very much flattened, strap-like; palpi porrect, not incurved (figs. 47, 48). c. Ret ends in R: (fig. 82). 2. Ceroplatus. cc. Re+s: ends in the costa (fig. 83). 3.Cerotelion. bb. Antennz not conspicuously flattened, palpi incurved, and moderately elongate. c. Media arises at the base of the wing, basal section may be delicate and fold-like. d. R:+s ends in the costa (fig. 89). 4. Hesperodes. dd. R:+s ends in R: (fig. 88). 5. Apemon. cc. Media apparently arises at the crossveins; i. e., its basal section wanting (figs. 84, 85, 86). 6. Platyura. 234 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. 1. Genus Asindulum Latreille. Asidulum. latreille, Hist. Nat. Crust. Ins. XIV. 2900. 1805. Head transversely oval; middle ocellus smaller than the later- als; proboscis much elongated, deeply cleft (figs. 46, 49), palpi 4 jointed, incurved; antennz 2+15 jointed, apical joint small, papilliform. Thorax arched; abdomen with 8 visible segments. Legs slender, the femora, particularly the hind pair, stout, the tibiee with spurs and with delicate lateral sete. Venation (fig. 87) as figured, resembling that of Platyura. Table of species. a. Length § to 84 mm.; abdomen with the first 3 segments black, the remaining ones more or less yellow. N. Y., INS IBLE “Se 1Dy. I. montanum. aa. Length about 5mm. b. Abdomen wholly and thorax mainly black; fore meta- tarsus .8 as long as its tibia. Canada. 2. covale. bb. Abdomen and thorax more or less yellow. | New Hampshire. 3. flavum. I. Asindulum montanum Reeder. 1887. montanum Reeder, Wien. Ent. Zeit. VI. 116. Male and female. Length 8 to 85 mm. Black, epistome yel- low, proboscis (fig. 46) black, antennze fuscous-black. Thorax of the male black with yellow humeral angle and pleura; of the female and immature males yellow with three black longitudinal stripes; scutellum yellowish, often infuscated. The first three abdominal segments black, the remaining ones yellow though not infrequently more or less infuscated. Hypopygium yellow- ish brown; the inferior forceps lamelliform. Legs yellow, fore metatarsus # as long as its tibia. Wings (fig. 87) hyaline; api- cally especially on costal margin somewhat smoky. Halteres ‘yellow. White Mountains, N. H. (Cornell University collec- tion) ; Adirondack Mountains, N. Y.; and S. D. (Aldrich). 2. Asindulum coxale Loew. ikS00, COznilia, Io, leeilk, Iai, Zetec, CON, 137, a, Male. Length 5 mm. Black, including head, antennz, pro- boscis (fig. 49) and body pile. Anterior part of lateral margin 4 | vf ele A THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 235 of the mesonotum narrowly yellowish as well as the sides of the scutellum. Abdomen and hypopygium black, the superior forceps slender, the inferior pair broad, neither very prominent. Coxe and legs yellow, trochanters, tibial spurs and tarsi black- ish; fore metatarsus .8 as long as its tibia. Wang subhyaline, slightly more cinereous apically. Halteres yellowish, knob fuscous above. Recorded from Hudson Bay Territory. I have a specimen from Montreal. 3. Asindulum flavum Winnertz. 1846. flavum Winnertz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. VII. 17. (Macrorrhyncha). Male and female. Length 4 to 54 mm. Face, epistome, labellz, lower front, base of antennz, and occiput yellow; proboscis and remaining parts of the head black. Thorax yellow with 3 pale brown, sometimes obsolescent, stripes; scutellum with black hairs. Abdomen of the male with basal segments yellow, apical segments brown to black, hypopygium black; of the female yellow, anterior margin of each segment with a brown transverse fascia, terminal segments usually black; in immature specimens the fascia are obsolete. Coxe and femora pale yellow; tibiz pale brow; tarsi, spurs and sete of tibiz, brown; fore metatarsus # as long as its tibia. Wing yellowish. - Halteres whitish. The larve have been found in decaying wood. I have seen a specimen from New Hampshire. 2. Genus Ceroplatus Bosc. Ceroplatus, Bosc. Act. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris I. 1. 42. 1792. Head small, ovate; three ocelli arranged in a transverse curved line; palpi (fig. 47) not incurved, 3 -or 4 jointed; antenne shorter than head and thorax taken together, very broad and flat, compressed, strap-like, 2+14 joints, the inter- mediate joints much broader than long (fig. 48). Thorax ovate; abdomen with 7 visible segments. Legs long, lateral sete of tibiz either absent or very minute. Wings (fig. 82) shorter than’the abdomen; costa produced beyond the tip of Rit+s but ending before the tip of the wing; subcosta ends in the costa; subcostal crossvein, when present, basal in position; R:+s ends in R:; media with a short petiole; anal vein pro- duced to the wing margin. 236 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Table of species. a. ‘Thorax and abdomen black, lateral margin of abdominal segments whitish; wing with black mark; length Io mm. Carolina. ~ I. carbonarius. aa. ‘Thorax more or less yellow. b. Abdomen nearly entirely yellow; coalesced part of the media longer than the petiole. 2. terminalis. bb. Abdomen with distinct brown markings. c. Coalesced part of the media about equal to the length of the petiole; dark spot near apex of wing; abdominal segments more than half yellow. 3. clausus. ee) Coalesced™ part ‘ef ‘the media” about) /twicertne length of the petiole; no spot near apex of wing in male, and only feebly indicated in the female; yellow of abdomen confined to apical. third of each segment. 4. militaris. 1. Ceroplatus carbonarius Bosc. 1802-4. carbonarius Bosc, Nouv. Dict. Nat. Hist. IV: 543. Length 10 mm. MHead black; thorax black, smooth; abdo- men elongate, cylindrical, black, the lateral margins of each segment white; wing hyaline with black apex; legs dusky. Carolina. 2. Ceroplatus terminalis Coquillett. 1905. terminalis Coquillett. Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc. XIII. 60. Male. Length 9-10 mm. Light yellow; claws and ocellar area, black; vertex, a fine median line and 2 pairs of thoracic dorsal stripes of which the inner pair converge posteriorly, longitudinal pleural stripes, sternum, median spot on scutellum, lateral spots on first abdominal segment, knob of halteres, spot on sides of middle and hind coxe and their apices, antenne and forceps more or less brown. Antennz more dusky yellow than the remaining parts. Inferior tubercle of the first antennal joint subconical, over half as long as the diameter of the second segment. ‘Thoracic and abdominal sete black. Wings hyaline, veins yellowish brown, an oval yellowish cloud over Ret: extending into the adjacent cells, subcostal crossvein present; tf THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 237 coalesced part of the media a little longer than the petiole. Tibiz and tarsi appear infuscated because of the longitudinal rows of the black setulae; metatarsi of middle and hind legs sparsely ciliate on flexor surface with short sete. Described from a specimen from the Western states. ‘The species was — recorded from Kaslo, British Columbia, by Mr. Coquillett. 3. Ceroplatus clausus Coquillett. 1901. clausus, Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. XXIII. 594. Male and female. Length 7 to8 mm. Yellow, upper part of head brownish yellow, a black ocellar dot, the antennz, 4 indistinct vitte on mesonotum, I or 2 spots on pleura, a fascia at base of each segment of abdomen and knobs of halteres brown; antennz greatly compressed, the joints except last one wider than long; wings (fig. 82) hyaline, a grayish brown spot fills the cell R:+s and encroaches on the adjoining cells; sub- costal vein extends considerably beyond the base of the radial sector; subcostal crossvein close to the humeral, Ret: ends in R: at about its length before the apex of the latter, costa scarcely extending beyond the apex of R:+s, cubitus forks con- siderably beyond the base of the radial sector. Recorded from New Hampshire and New Jersey by Coquillett. I have speci- mens from Ithaca, New York. 4. Ceroplatus militaris n. sp. Male. Length 8mm. Face, palpi, posterior margin of eye, and arrow space over base of antennz, yellow; vertex pos- terior part of head, antenne, and a slender streak between antenne brown; ocelle area black; basal joint of antenna with tubercle below. Thorax mainly yellow, with 6 dark brown longitudinal stripes, the median pair’ meeting posteriorly and produced upon the scutellum, sometimes a slender median line between this pair, the latter sometimes connected by a transverse stripe anteriorly; the first laterals somewhat broader than the median pair; the second laterals on the margin of the mesonotum, narrow, and some- times interrupted, usually reaching the base of the wing, pleura with large brown spot, sternum and margin of the prominent pteropleural lobes infuscated; scutellum and metanotum yellow. Sete on thorax short, black and sparse; those on 238 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. mesonotum and scutellum rather more conspicuous. Anterior 2-3 of each tergum brown, posterior third yellow, venter mainly yellow, seventh segment nearly wholly brown, terminal segment yellowish; abdominal sete short, black, those on posterior mar- gin of first ventral segment most conspicuous; the forceps which are pale yellow consist of 2 small conical lobes. Coxe and legs pale yellow, extreme tips of coxe and immediate bases of femora brown, second and third coxe sometimes with a brown spot near middle; tibiz and tarsi appear infuscated due to the fine, black setulee which are arranged in longitudinal rows; metatarsi of middle and hind legs, sparsely ciliate with small setze which are less than half as long as the diameter of the metatarsus. Wings hyaline, faintly smoky, the cell Ret: some- what more dusky, veins brown; subcostal crossvein present, basal in position; coalesced part of the media about twice as long as the petiole, Halteres yellow with brown knob. Ithaca, New York. Specimens also from Intervale, N. H. (G M. Allen) ; Philadelphia (C. W. Johnson). A female specimen from Philadelphia differs in having a sug- gestion of a black cloud on apex of the wing and abdomen with greater extent of brown fascie. 32. Genus Cerotelion Rondani. Cerotelion, Rondani, Dipt. Ital. Prodromus, I. 191. 2. 1856. This genus possesses the characters of Ceroplatus but differs in having the anterior branch of the radial sector R:+s ending in the costa instead of in R: (fig. 83). As far as known the subcostal crossvein is absent and the claws have only 1 or 2 basal teeth. Table of Species. a. Thorax spotless, reddish yellow, pleura yellow; abdomen reddish yellow, base of basal segments and the whole of the apical segments black. Length 3.7 mm. Kansas. I. apicalis. aa. Thorax with stripes. b. Fore metatarsus a little longer than its tibia. Length 5 mm. Mexico, Pennsylvania. 2. bellulus. bb. Fore metatarsus 2.5 times as long as its tibia. Jength 6mm. St. Vincent. 3. longimanus. lua THE MYCETOPHILIDA OF NORTH AMERICA. 239 1. Cerotelion apicalis Adams. 1903. apicalis, Adams, Kans. Univ. Science Bull. II. 2. 22. (Ceroplatus). Male. Length 3.7 mm. Head brownish, anterior part of front, 2 basal joints of antennz, face and mouth-parts yellow; thorax immaculate, reddish yellow, the black pile very short, except on the sides, pleura light yellow, halteres with knobs slightly infuscated; abdomen reddish yellow, base of second, third, fourth, and remainder of apex wholly black; legs light yellow, apical half of tibize and tarsi wholly blackish; wings hyaline; smoky towards apex, subcostal, vein ends in the costa about midway between humeral crossvein and base of the radial sector, R:+s ends in costa about midway between tip of R: and apex of R:+s, furcation of cubitus almost opposite base of radial Bector. Kas. 2. Cerotelion bellulus Williston. tgoo0. bellulus, Williston, Biol. Centr. Amer. I. 219 (Ceroplatus). Male. Length 5mm. Head black, the narrow face and the palpi brownish. Antennz brownish-black, the first 2 joints somewhat yellowish; flagellum broad and flattened, about twice the length of the head. Mesonotum not shining, brownish in color; in the middle with 2 coalescent stripes, terminating acutely behind and separated from a moderately broad oblique stripe of the same color on each side by a slender V-shaped brown marking. Pleura light yellow along the noto-pleural suture and below the root of the wing, brown elsewhere. Scu- tellum brownish. Metanotum yellowish. MHalteres blackish, with a yellow stem. Abdomen brown, blackish at the tip; the anterior part of the fourth and fifth segments yellow. Coxe yellow, the distal half of the 2 posterior pairs brown; femora yellow ; tibia and tarsi brownish. ‘The tibia without bristles. Wings (fig. 83) tinged with brownish; subcostal vein strong, not connected with R:; the radial sector arising about opposite the middle of the distance between the humeral crossvein and the tip of the subcostal vein, R:+: oblique, terminating a little distance beyond the tip of R:, the costal section intervening not as long as R:+s; the costal vein extends a little distance 240 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. | 1909. beyond the tip of Rsts; prefurca of the media nearly as long as the first section of the radial sector. Mexico, Teapa in Tabasco. In Williston’s figure the palpi appear incurved, this, how- ever, may be the engraver’s error. I have a specimen from Pottstown, Pa. (collected by C. W. Johnson) in which the face and palpi are yellow; the coalesced part of the media is but lit- tle more than half as long as the petiole; and each claw has a tooth near the base. 3. Cerotelion longimanus Williston. 1896. JlJongimanus, Williston. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 258 (Ceroplatus ) Male. Length6mm. Face yellow, very narrow. Palpi and first 2 joints of the antennz yellow; remainder of the antennz dark brown. Antenne about as long as the dorsum of the thorax. Front narrow, the sides gently convex, black, except on the lowermost portion; the 2 large ocelli about equidistant from each other and from the margins of the eyes. Occiput black. Thorax yellow; the dorsum with 3 broad black stripes, enclosing 2 narrow yellow stripes, which are convergent pos- teriorly; the median stripe enclosing a slender yellow stripe, which does not reach beyond the middle; a large rounded spot on the mesopleura, another below it on the mesosternum, and the sides of the metanotum, dark brown or black, the middle of the metanotum brownish; scutellum brown. Abdomen slender, cylindrical, dark brown; each segment, save the first and last, with an elongate yellow spot on each side, reaching 2-3 of the way to the hind margin; genital organs yellow. Coxe light yellow, the hind pair with a brown spot; femora yellow, the base of the middle and hind pairs brown; tibize yellowish-brown; tarsi browa; no bristles on the front femora ; front metatarsi about 2.5 times the length of the tibiz; middle metatarsi a fourth or a third longer than the tibiz; the hind pair scarcely longer; hind tib’z2 with two spurs. Wings tinged with brownish; R:+: runs into the costa. St. Vincent Isl., 1000 meet THE MYCETOPHILIDA, OF NORTH AMERICA. 241 4. Genus Hesperodes Coquillett. Hesperodes Coquillett, Entomol. News. XI. 429. Igoo. Subcosta (fig. 89, diagrammatic) ends in the costa beyond the base of the radial sector; the subcostal crossvein is nearly midway between the humeral crossvein and the base of the radial sector, the latter forks beyond the apex of R:; the media originates near the base Of the wing and just before the union with the radial sector connected by the crossvein with Cu, and forking a short distance beyond the union with the radius; cubitus forking midway between the base of the radial sector and its union with the media; anal vein prolonged to the wing margin. Antennz about twice as long as the head and thorax united, cylindrical but tapering to the apex; 2+14 jointed, the first joint as broad as long, the second twice as broad as long, and the others twice as long as broad; proboscis very robust, shorter than the height of the head; palpi 4 jointed, eyes emar- ginate opposite the antennz ; ocelli wanting. Abdomen slender, more than 3 times as long as the thorax. ‘This genus, while superficially resembling Hesperinus in venation is a true Myce- tophilid and more closely allied to Apemon, Platyura, etc. Hesperodes johnson Coquillett. 1900. johnsoni, Coquillett, Entomol. News. XI. 420. Male. Length 12 mm. Reddish yellow, antenne and tarsi beyond the base changing to brown, legs destitute of strong lateral bristles, tibial spurs well developed; wings yellowish, becoming grayish hyaline on the posterior margin and at the apex, a brown spot at apex of Ri. Delaware Water Gap. N. J. July. 5. Genus Apemon Johannsen. Apemon, Johannsen, Genera Insectorum, Mycetophilide. 20. 1900. Resembles Platyura but differs in having a distinct, though delicate, fold-like basal portion of the media arising near the base of the wing, and in having no setz, but only fine hairs upon head, thorax, coxze and femora. ‘The sete of the abdomen, tibiz and tarsi very small and inconspicuous. Antenne 2+-14 jointed, flagellar joints cylindrical, under 20 diameter magnifi- 242 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQ09. cation only indistinctly pilose; ocelli large, arranged in a trans- verse line on the broad front, middle one only slightly smaller than the others; eyes pilose; palpi incurved, rather long, basal joint very small, second broad, about as long as broad, third joint about half as broad but twice as long as the second, fourth slender, about 5 times as long as broad; proboscis short. Thorax moderately arched, dorsum and scutellum provided only with hairs, those over the base of the wing and on the scutellum rather longer, pleura and metathorax nearly bare. Abdomen depressed, flattened, broadened apically, segments finely setulose, particularly on basal portion; male genitalia (fig. 97) small, simple, consisting primarily of two incurved lateral lobes, toothed at the apex. Legs moderately long; cox long, these and the femora short haired, setule of the tibiz less than + the diameter of tibia in length, spurs strong; fore metatarsus shorter than the tibia; all tarsi finely setulose, claws with teeth near the base of each; empodium conspicuous. Wings (fig. 88) resembling those of Platywra; media arises near the base of the wing; its first section is delicate and fold- like; Re+s joins R: near its apex; anal vein prominent, pro- duced to the wing margin. Table of species. a. Subcosta short, ending at or before the base of the radial SECON: b. Length 6mm. Abdomen yellow with anterior portion of each segment black. Le OnOGH Os bb. Length 8 to 12 mm. Abdomen reddish yellow, first segment black; female. 2. . pectoralis. aa. Subcosta ends distad of base of radial sector. b. Mesonotum and abdomen reddish yellow, pleura, metanotum and first abdominal segment black; male. 2. pectoralis. bb. Mesonotum black or with brown stripes. c. Abdomen in part reddish yellow. d. Mesonotum reddish yellow with 2 dark brown stripes; part of third, fourth and fifth abdominal segments yellow, other seg- ments black. 3. maude. dd. Mesonotum black, abdomen yellow, except first 2 segments. 4. pulchra. cc. Abdomen wholly black. 5. migriventris n sp. ~ wy ae a Se - THE MYCETOPHILIDA, OF NORTH AMERICA. 243 1. Apemon gracilis Williston. 1893. gracilis Williston, Kas. Univ. Quarterly II. 60 (Platyura). Male. Length 6 mm. Antennz black, much shorter than the thorax; first 2 joints yellowish. Head yellow, the vertex blackish. ‘Thorax, coxe, and femora yellow; the mesonotum more reddish with a fringe of black hairs above the root of the wings. Abdomen slender, not shining; yellow, the anterior portion of each segment brown or blackish. ‘Tibiz somewhat infuscated by the minute black hairs; tarsi blackish. Wings with a strong yellow or brownish tinge, the extremity with a blackish cloud; subcostal vein very short, terminating before the origin of the radial sector, the subcostal crossvein at about its middle; R:+s at some distance before the tip of R:; third anal vein wholly wanting. Washington. 2. floccus galls. In 48 hours 57 Chermes had oviposited on one and 117 on the other. These eggs began to hatch July 28. CHERMES SIMILIS Gillette. On July 9, 1909, my attention was called to some scraggly twigs of Norway spruce which proved to be deformed by Chermes. These galls resemble somewhat those of floccus but they are less regular. Fig. 142 pictures these. Winged specimens were emerging from these galls on date of collection. A search of white, red and black spruces resulted in taking the same galls onall these. These galls are very loose in structure and syrphus maggots freely helped themselves to their contents. Galls from all these spruces contained pupae practically ready to molt and become the winged form, and also a few very small apterous oviparous individuals which were laying clusters of eggs in little woolly masses. These apterous forms were also found with their eggs in woolly masses along the stem and in one case on the outside of gall of floccus (fig. 134.) They were reddish brown and were .5 mm. to 1.0 mm. long. The winged forms from the Norway spruce out of doors were migrating. On the other hand, the winged ones from 302 - MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. black spruce galls were settling and ovipositing freely on black spruce. They are a flocculent species and their wings showed dark against the woolly mass which covered their abdomens and egg clusters. What the life-cycle relation of the apterous oviparous forms is to the migrants appearing and ovipositing at the same time I do not know... They are here considered as samilis though their identity is not proven. The galls of szmlis, however, were the only ones discussed in this paper in which apterous oviparous forms were found. Professor Gillette also records apterous females and their egg clusters to be present in galls of semis. ° A cage test as to preference of spruces of the migrants was made. July 9, galls from black spruce were caged with unin- fested black, white and Norway spruces. By July 13 a few migrants had settled on the Norway and deposited but a decided preference was shown for the white spruce upon which they settled in plentiful numbers and deposited eggs, remaining for a time on the little white woolly masses. July 9, galls from white spruce were placed with uninfested white, black and Norway spruces. A large majority chose the white spruce. The eggs of this species hatched in about a week. On trees where the infestation was heavy the terminal shoots were sticky and the needles somewhat ruffled. (Fig. 144). In many places portions of the spruce needles turned whitish yellow giving a “‘blighted’’ appearance to the shoot. The winged form (fig. 113), varied exceedingly in size, part of the emerging ones being about 1.0 mm. long with a wing expanse of 3.0 mm.-4.0 mm. while the majority were larger, ranging from 1.45 mm. to 1.7 mm. with a wing expanse of about 4.8 mm. Color of body reddish brown, wings a little smoky. Wings much as in floccus with the veins havinga little more tendency to straightness. Antennae are more like those of pinifoliae than any other, both as to general shape of joints and the relative size of the sensoria. The wax gland areas are: head with dorsal surface nearly covered by the two anterior and posterior groups which nearly meet; prothorax with large lateral area, two anterior and two posterior groups; meso- thorax with lateral anterior group and two very large median CHERMES OF MAINE CONIFERS. 303 groups; metathorax with median groups extending nearly across the segment; abdomen with large groups on I-VI, median groups on I-VI being largest on I and graduated to smallest on VI; a group of wax pores midway between the median and lateral series on segments II-VI, those on IV-VI being much larger than those on I-II (the group on I, of 2 or 3 open- ings only, is sometimes missing). Certain striking resemblances of this Maine collection to szmz- lis as described by Professor C. P. Gillette* led me to submit bal- sain mounts, galls and illustrations to him. On the basis of this data he stated that he is unable to find any good distinguish- ing characters to separate this Maine material from similis. Professor Gillette’s courtesy in determining this species enables me to introduce szmilis from Maine. CHERMES PINICORTICIS Fitch. It frequently happens that trunks of the white pine in Maine are more or less covered by the white secretion of this minute Chermes which gives the bark a moldy appearance (fig. 146). The infestation has been particularly heavy during 1908 and 1909, but during the latter season so many syrphus maggots were present preying upon the Chermes that these natural ene- mies seem likely to check its increase. Though I have reared the winged forms of pinicorticis, I have made no special study of this species. Whether it con- fines itself to the pine or possesses an alternate host is not known. I have found the winged forms resting in abundance on needles of infested small white pines, from which they took flight at the slightest jar. Whether their destination was another species of plant or merely another white pine, the present knowledge of this species does not give basis to state. Hither the wing or the antennal characters of Chermes pini- corticis would serve to distinguish it from any of the 6 Chermes discussed in this paper, though its minute size alone would prevent confusion. The fullest account of this species is by Mr. Storment pub- lished in the Appendix to the Twentieth Report of the State Entomologist of Illinois. In Mr. Storment’s paper, as in others * Chermes of Colorado Conifers. 1907. 304 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I90Q. on pinicorticis since Mr. Shimer by error merged pinifoliae with pinicorticis about 40 years ago*, the NAME pznifoliae is confused with pinecorticis both in the discussion and bibliography. It is evident from the context, however, that neither Mr. Shimer, Professor Osborn or Mr. Storment had observed the INSECT pinifoliae and for this reason the mistake in synonymy is very easily corrected. : CONCLUSION. The present paper deals with six gall forming Chermes of Maine conifers. The gall host and the alternate host, where there is one, has been in each case ascertained. No attempt has been made to follow the development of the winter gene- ration. With three species of Chermes making galls on the white spruce and four on black spruce in one locality it is apparent that a detailed study of the winter generations could only be carried on- satisfactorily on conifers raised from seed under quarantine. A glance at fig. 134 where Chermes similis is seen ovipositing on galls of Chermes floccus is sufficient to suggest the confusion possible. Both the galls and the winged individuals give characters sufficient to determine these six species, however, and these have been figured in each case. Illustrations. ‘The photographs published are selected from many taken by Mr. R. L. Hammond and have been a constant aid in recording permanently certain changing phases of the work of these Chermes, and have been a necessary part of the study. The drawings were made by Miss Charlotte M. King who spent most of the summer of 1909 at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. The structural details for each form figured were worked out independently by Miss King. During the same time the writer studied carefully with each species the arrangement and number of wax gland areas, the character of the antennal sensoria, wing characters and other significant points and the drawings as they stand record both Miss King’s observations and my own critical interpretation, no detail that seemed important being left until sufficient material was exam- ined for a mutual agreement. *For discussion see pp. 277-289 in this present paper. CHERMES OF MAINE CONIFERS. 305 Technique. At the time these species were studied, live mate- rial was available both for the pupae and winged forms. The general form of the individual was sketched first from live material and such structures as could then be ascertained were indicated. Details were studied and drawings completed from balsam mounts., Live specimens in some cases were mounted directly in the balsam and a few desirable results obtained for immediate use. In each case, however, a large series of mounts was carefully made for study, drawings, and photo- micrographs. Total mounts were most satisfactory after the general method (modified according to size, readiness of pene- tration of the fluids, etc.) indicated as follows: Killed in hot 98 per cent alcohol, One hour in 80 per cent alcohol, One-half hour in 98 per cent alcohol, Ten minutes in 100 per cent alcohol, Ten minutes in tolu. Antennal details were taken from head mounts. Wings were in each species mounted separately. Where total mounts did not bring out clearly the wax gland areas of both thorax and abdomen, severed specimens were prepared to facilitate the more rapid and thorough clearing. This detailed account of the method of preparation is given in order that the character of the material used may be recorded. Certain groups of wax pores, for instance, were not rendered visible in one or two species except in dissected specimens and in most, a large series was necessary to settle the number definitely. Some variation occurs in the size and arrangement of the groups of wax pores, but individuals figured and des- cribed represent the typical wax pore areas as they were seen. As the wax pores are often difficult to see the most convenient specific characters will be found in the wing and antennal char- acters which are distinctive and within slightly varying limits were constant, for the extended collection in this locality at least. WING VEIN NOMENCLATURE. For the nomenclature of the wing veins used here the reader is referred to Homologies of the Wing Veins of the Aphididae, Psyllidae, Aleurodidae, and Coccidae, Annals of the Entomo- logical Society of America, June 1909. 306 MAINE AGRICULTURAL, EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. NEW SPECIES. It is possible that some of the species described as new may prove to be synonyms of European species, but as the incon- venience of a synonymy is so much less than the confusion of a composite species it seemed wise not to attempt comparison with European species until a careful study had been made of these Chermes as they occur in Maine. The first brief descriptions of floccus, consolidatus, and lart- ciatus were published in Psyche, December, 1909. CHERMES IN EUROPE. Many important and admirable studies of Chermes species have been carried on in Europe by such careful workers as Blochmann, Borner, Cholodkovsky, Dampf, Dreyfus, Mord-_ wilko, Nusslin. A comprehensive review of this work with bibliography appeared in Zoologisches Zentralblatt, Dec., 1909. Zusammenjfassende Ubersicht. Die neueren Ergebnisse und Auj- gaben der Chermes-Forschung von Prof. O. Niisslin in Karlsruhe. Host PLANTS. The host plants in the following key are recorded solely on the basis of one season’s careful collection in the vicinity -of Orono. ‘The list of host plants may need to be extended later but it is accurate so far as it goes. In recording the collections of the galls, the botanical distinctions between the red and black spruces has been observed, though entomologically these might pass for one species. Chermes at any rate does not pay any attention to the distinction. KEY TO THE CHERMES OF MAINE CONIFERS. A. Galls on black spruce (Picea mariana B. S. P.) and red spruce (Picea rubra Dietr.) Gall terminal. 1. Gall conelike, needles modified to thin scales. Ripening mid- June. Migrants ovipositing on needles of white pine. (Pinus strobus 1.) pinifoliae. + | CHERMES OF MAINE CONIFERS. 307 2. Scraggly deformed twig. Gall-needles not much abbreviated. Ripening first of July. Migrants ovipositing on spruce Picea sp. similis. 3. Gall usually well formed #-1% in. long. Needles not much abbre- viated. Ripening mid-July. Migrants ovipositing on needles of white pine. (Pinus strobus 1.) floccus. 4.“ Gall small, 3 inch or less, pink or pale green. Gall needles short. Ripening first of August. Species also found on larch (Larix laricina Koch.) consolidatus. B. Galls on white spruce. Gall terminal, , Scragely deformed branch. Ripening first of July. Migrants ovipositing on spruce (Picea sp.) similis. Call not terminal, 1. Pine-apple shaped. Ripening last of July. Migrants ovipositing on needles of larch. (Larix laricina Koch.) lariciatus. 2. Pine-apple shaped. Ripening mid-August. Winged form not migrating to oviposite. abietis. C€. Galls on Norway spruce, Picea abies (1) Karst. Gall terminal, Scragely deformed branch. Ripening first of July. Migrants Ovipositing on spruce, Picea sp. simulis, Gall not terminal, ” Pine-apple shaped. Ripening mid-August. Winged form not migrating to oviposite. abietis. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fig. 108. Chermes pinifoliae Fitch. Migrant from spruce gall to needles of white pine. Figs. 109, toga. Antenna. Fig. 110. Chermes floccus Patch. Migrant from spruce gall to needles of white pine. Figs. 111, 111a. Antenna. Fig. 112. Chermes floccus, pupa developing in spruce gall. Fig. 113. Chermes similis Gillette. Form which emerges from spruce gall. Figs. 114, 114a. Antenna. Fig. 115. Chermes abictis. Form which emerges from spruce gall. Fig. 116. Antenna. Fig. 117. Chermes abictis, pupa developing in spruce gall. Fig. 118. Chermes lariciatus Patch. Migrant from spruce gall to needles of larch. Figs. 119, 119a. Antenna. Fig. 120. Chermes lariciatus. Migrant on needle of larch with egg mass nearly completed and showing through the thin transparen wings. Drawn from living specimen. Fig. 121. Chermes lariciatus. Egg mass on larch needle. Fig. 122. Chermes lariciatus. Pupa developing in spruce gall. Fig. 123. Chermes consolidatus Patch. Migrant which develops in spruce gall. Figs. 124, 124a. Antenna. Notice two strong terminal spines. co 308 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Fig. 125. Chermes consolidatus, pupa developing in spruce gall. Fig. 126. Chermes consolidatus? Apterous oviparous form on larch. Fig. 127. Chermes pinifoliae Fitch. Migrants from spruce to white pine needles. Fig. 128. Chermes pinifoliae. Mature galls from black spruce still green and just before opening. Fig. 129. Branch of black spruce. A cone with tip broken, B. four normal spruce tips, C four young galls of pinifoliae. Fig. 130. Tip of black spruce. A cone which is purple, B normal tip, C deserted pinifoliae gall which is bright reddish brown. Fig. 131. Deserted galls of \Chermes pinifoliae on red spruce. Fig. 132. White pine showing injury to new growth by the young pinfoliae which may be located by the white secretion on twig at base, of new growth. Photographed July 23, 1900. Fig. 133. Chermes floccus Patch, migrants from spruce galls, oviposit- ing on white pine needles. Fig. 134. Galls of Chermes floccus on red spruce. The white objects on the outside of the gall are waxy secretions of Chermes similis, apterous forms, which are ovipositing on floccus galls as well as on the twig. ; Fig. 135. Gall of Chermes floccus from black spruce. Cross section. Fig. 136. Longitudinal section. Fig. 137. Twig of white spruce with galls of Chermes abietis. Fig. 138. Galls of Chermes abietis from Norway spruce. Longitudinal section of gall which does not enclose the whole twig. Fig. 130. Longitudinal section of gall which completely encircles the twig. Fig. 140. Twig of Norway spruce. Show deserted gall of Chermes abietis and the white molted skins along twig and leaves. Fig. 141. Twig of white spruce with galls of Chermes lariciatus Patch. Gall at right deserted. Gall at left not yet opened. Fig. 142. Galls of Chermes similis Gillette on Norway spruce. Fig. 143. Apterous flocculent oviparous females of Chermes similis showing white on stem of Norway spruce. Fig. 144. Twig of black spruce showing injury to young of Chermes similis. Needles sickly yellow and covered with white flocculent secretion of the Chermes. Fig. 145. Gall of Chermes consolidatus Patch on black spruce. Fig. 146. Chermes pinicorticis Fitch on bark of white pine. 1t4a Fig. 127 es Fig. 128 Chermes pinifoliae Fitch. white pine. Fig. 128, Ga Fig. 127, Migrants on lls on black spruce. Fig. 129 Fig. 131 Fig. 130 Cherimes pintfoliae Fitch. Galls on spruce. = . et . A vs 2 i 4 MW t wH ~ 4 . ; / a : Re Nid f Mf & . . \ — \ Ws Wy SS NOS : te om | a Z \ = SAN \ ; h, z f J Zo cw MAS SS ial & A iM , < oy: 5 J Zo . \ SS NY Be % if fy Z i a “a io Zi g Lp tg Z Fig. 132 Chermes binifoliae Fitch. Young in white secretion towards tips of twigs of white pine . : Fig. 135 Fig. 134 Fig. 136 Chermes floccus Patch. Migrants on white pine and galls on spruce Chermes abietis Linn. Galls on white spruce Fig. 137. Fig. 138 Fig. 139 Fig. 140 Chermes abietis Linn. Galls on Norway spruce (i a ay = x 77, — CB = if, ff Th CES LEAN 4 tof Galls on white spruce Chermes lariciatus Patch. Fig. 141. Fig. 142. Chermes similis Gillette. Galls on Norway spruce Fig. 143 Fig. 144 Chermes similis Gillette ag Fig. 145 Fig 146 Fig. 145. Chermes consolidatus Patch. Gallon black spruce Fig. 146. Chermes pinicorticits Fitch. On barkof white pine. BULLETIN No. 174. BLACKLEG. A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF THE STEM AND TUBER OF THE IRISH POTATO.* W. J. Morse. For the past three seasons the writer has had under observa- tion a stem and tuber disease of the Irish potato in Maine which in some respects presents rather grave aspects unless the growers and shippers of seed potatoes, in that part of the country where the disease has become established, take immediate and radical measures to prevent its propogation and spread. In this connec- tion it should be mentioned that it is only here and there that the disease has as yet, assumed such proportions as to produce appreciable loss in this territory, and then more frequently in wet seasons or on low ground, but careful examination of fields over a considerable portion of the potato growing area of the state shows that this is a malady of much more general distri- bution than was first supposed. Unfortunately, there is considerable reason to believe that the disease is conveyed to the new crop by means of infected seed tubers. While the majority of Maine’s 18 to 20 million bushels of potatoes are sold for table stock the seed trade with southern states has, in the past few years, reached such proportions that it cannot be ignored. So far as can be learned, blackleg assumes much more serious aspect in the states farther south, and this * Attention has been called to this disease in the following previous publications of this Station. Bul. 149, p. 323 (1907) and Bul. 164, p. 2 (1909). It was briefly described on page 6 of a revised edition of a cir- cular entitled “How to Fight Potato Enemies” (March 1908) and in September 1908 a newspaper bulletin was issued which briefly described the appearance, nature and cause of the disease and cautioned dealers against shipping seed tubers from fields affected with this trouble. 310 - MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQOQ. trade is demanding seed not only pure and true to name but also free from disease. The fact that most of the outbreaks occurred many miles from the laboratory presented certain difficulties such that the organ- isms associated with the disease were not isolated in pure cul- ture till late in the summer of 1908 when the disease was defi- nitely proven to be of a bacterial nature. The study of these organisms is not completed, but certain facts of practical importance to the seed grower have been ascertained. There- fore it seems best to issue at this time a preliminary bulletin upon the more practical phases of the subject as now known and leave the more technical studies and final conclusions for a later publication. . Blackleg in America as is shown later, is a disease of more than local distribution, doubtless occurring to some extent at least over a considerable area of the potato growing sections in Eastern United States and Canada. There is reason to believe that it has existed in some localities for many years but it is only very recently that it has been recognized and recorded in the literature of American plant diseases. So far as the writer has been able to determine the first mention of this trouble in this country as a distinct disease was when Jones recorded its occur- rence in Vermont in 1905,* and described in some detail the signs of the disease as it occurs in the field. Since its appear- ance in every way agreed with the Schwarzbeinigkeit.or “black- leg” which he had studied in Europe? he used the same term as a common name of the American form of the disease. The writer.was fortunate enough to see the field upon which Doctor Jones based his description. Since the appearance of the dis- eased plants as observed in Maine was identical with those seen in Vermont and since the term “‘blackleg’’ is especially applica- ble, suggesting the inky-black of the diseased stems it seems best to continue the use of this term. CAUSAL ORGANISMS. In July 4906 Harrison began the publication of a series of articles upon “‘A Bacterial Rot of the Potato, Caused by Bacillus * Jones, L.-R., Vt. Sta. Rept. 19, p. 257 (1906). 7 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. Pl. Ind. Bul. 87, p. 17 (1905). BLACKLEG. 311 solanisaprus.’* In this account he describes a disease of the stem and tuber of the Irish potato which he had under observa- tion in different provinces of Canada at least as early as 1900. He very carefully studied and described in considerable detail the organism responsible for the disease, which he called Bacillus solanisaprus, n. sp., differing in some respects fromm the description of B. solanicola Delacroix and B. phytophthorus, the latter of which is given by Dr. Appel as the cause of the Schwartzbeimgkeit in Germany.t Professor Harrison found his organism to be pathogenic on various varieties of potatoes, and also demonstrated its ability to produce soft-rots on a con- siderable number of unrelated vegetables. It is not the province of this article to discuss the relation- ship of the bacteria associated with blackleg in Maine with those already described as a cause of disease of the potato in America and elsewhere, or to take up in detail the morphological, cul- tural, physical and biochemical features of the organisms. When the studies now in progress are completed these questions will be discussed in detail but a general statement at this time may Dever Service. Pathogens from two different sources have been secured which are not identical in all respects in cultural characters, but it is doubtful if these differences are of sufficient amount to con- stitute separate species. One of these agrees in most respects, as far as studied, with the published description of B. solan- isaprus, except in its ability to ferment certain carbohydrates which Harrison says the latter does not ferment. Ordinarily . this would be considered sufficient to constitute a separate species. On the other hand, extended study of the fermentation of dextrose, lactose, and saccharose by the closely related organ-~ isms causing soft-rots of various vegetables indicates that with germs of this class fermentation of the carbohydrates mentioned is not strong and is very variable. Hence with this group it is a questionable character upon which to erect a species.+ More- * Harrison, F. C., Central. f. Bakt. II Abt. XVII, p. 34 et seq (1906). t Appel, Dr. Otto, Arb. K. Gsndhtsamt., Biol. Abt., 3 (1903), No. 4, pp. 364-432. t Harding, H. A. and Morse, W. J. The Bacterial Soft Rots of Cer- tain Vegetables. Technical Bulletin No. 11, Part 1. N. Y. Expt. Station (1909). 312 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQ0OQ. over preliminary work upon fermentation with an authentic culture of B. solanisaprus in comparison with the organisms isolated in Maine suggest the possibility that the differences in fermentative ability are not so great as was first supposed. The blackleg organisms differ in cultural characters and in their effects upon the host from Bacillus solanacearum Smith, the cause of the Southern bacterial disease of the potato and egg-plant. CHARACTER AND APPEARANCE OF THE DISEASE. Plants affected by blackleg are readily distinguished in the field by any close observer, even at a distance. However, at first sight the general aspect of the diseased plants does not differ materially from that produced from several other causes which injure or kill the parts below or at the surface of the ground, such as the-Fusarium disease, the Rhizoctonia trouble, or even mechanical injury to the stem. The affected plants appear more or less unthrifty and usually under sized, varying with the severity of the attack. The branches and leaves, instead of spreading out normally, tend to grow upward, forming a some- what more compact top, frequently with the young leaves curled and folded up along the mid-rib. Later they become lighter green or even yellow and the whole plant gradually dies. If the disease progresses rapidly, the stem may fall over quite sud- denly and wilt with very iittle previous signs of disease, other than the upward tend of the foliage noted above. The diagnosis of suspected cases is easily confirmed by pull- ing up the affected plants. Blackleg as its name indicates, is characterized by a pronounced blackening of the stem below ground, usually running up one, two, or even three inches above the surface. Sometimes under very favorable conditions, i. e. continued wet, cloudy weather, especially where piants are grow- ing on a naturally moist soil, the inky-black discoloration may follow up a portion of the stem for several inches above the ground.* During the active progress of the disease the invaded *Tnoculation of leaf petioles, or any part of a potato stem above or below ground with cultures of the bacteria isolated from diseased stems invariably produced the same characteristic black lesions. One plant was found in the field, however, which was affected with a rapid soft BLACKLEG. 213 tissues show a soft, wet decay. Preparations made from the tissues that are just being invaded, and examined with sufficient magnification show them to be filled with motile bacteria. Ususally the seed tubers attached to affected stems are entirely decayed by a soft rot, or have disappeared entirely, while those attached to surrounding healthy plants are generally quite firm. If young tubers have been formed before the complete invasion of the stem they are occasionally affected in the same manner, although, as a rule, there is a tendency for the disease not to follows out upon the branches which bear the tubers but upward on the main stem toward the surface. Apparently the disease works more rapidly or attacks the plants as a rule at an earlier stage in their growth than the Rhizoctonia or “potato rosette” disease described by Rolfs in Colorado and Selby in Ohio,* for there is less tendency to produce little potatoes as there described. Occasionally when the disease makes slow progress on account of dry weather this tendency to throw out new shoots above the affected region bearing many small potatoes has been observed, even to the extent of producing small green tubers upon the stem above ground. Out of a large number of affected fields examined only one indicated possible spreading in the field. This was in 1907. There was very little blackleg in the entire field of 20 acres except in one spot a few rods square where all the plants were diseased. It was first noticed near the center and gradually worked outward. The season was excessively wet, and the affected area coincided with a low pocket or depression in the field where water would stand for a few hours after each heavy rainfall, thus indicating how, in this exceptional case, the disease spread from hill to hill. In all other cases observed affected plants were scattered promiscuously over the field, always decay of the aerial portions of stem without discoloration. Several cul- tures were obtained from colonies on plates poured from this stem. In every case tried these have, when inoculated into plants im the green- house, produced not the colorless decay of the stem but the characteris- tic blackleg decay. It may be said, however, that the bacteriological studies upon this strain, so far as made, indicate greater variation from the published description of B. solanisaprus than others being studied. * Rolfs, F. M., Col. Exp. Sta., Bul. 70 (1902) and Bul. 91 (1904). Selby, A. D., Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 139 (1903). 314 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9Q09Q. more common and more severely attacked on the lower or more moist portions of the field. If one stalk from a given seed-piece was diseased any others coming from the same piece were invariably found to be affected to a greater or less degree also. As a rule the plants first begin to show signs of disease when they are 6 to 8 inches high and growing rapidly, i. e., in northern Maine at or soon following the first of July. The progress of the disease is markedly influenced by weather conditions. Very moist, cloudy weather may tend to favor rapid progress, result- ing in the early death of the young plants, so that only the dead stalks remain scattered among the healthy plants, within a month or six weeks, or even less time after its first appearance. A period of dry weather coming on after the disease is well started below ground may check its progress, but cause the death of the plant at an equally early period on account of its inability to withstand the lessened water supply. Again conditions between these extremes, such as existed during the summer of 1909, may prolong the attack well into August. In brief there is no evidence that blackleg under ordinary field conditions in Maine spreads from plant to plant in the field. The number of diseased plants appears to be determined by the number of infected seed-pieces planted, modified by conditions of the soil wet or dry. Infection of the growing plant always, so far as observed, begins below ground, usually at the junction of the stem with the seed piece, which probably decays or begins to decay before the stem is attacked. The rapidity of the pro- gress of the disease and its severity varies with the weather conditions, or amount of moisture in the soil, but a plant once attacked never recovers sufficiently to produce merchantable tubers. MEANS OF DISTRIBUTION. As suggested in the preceding paragraph there is every reason to believe that blackleg is largely, if not wholly, distributed by means of infected seed tubers. As yet this statement is not backed up by sufficient experimental data, but observations so far made all point to this conclusion. Some of these observa- tions are as follows :— The first case in Maine seen by the writer was on new land recently cleared of forest and never before planted to any agri- BLACKLEG. ans cultural crop. Here infection either came with the seed or existed on land never before under the plow, which latter seems improbable. A field of four acres on the University Farm in 1907 was planted with seed from 5 or 6 different sources. Along one side 3 barrels of selected potatoes, Green Mountain variety each from a different source were planted. The plants from one of these barrel lots showed quite a percentage of black- leg but careful search, several times on different dates, over the remainder of the field failed to reveal a single diseased plant. The disease had not been previously seen on this farm. Case after case has been seen on different farms where one field or part of a field developed the disease while another field on the same farm or a part of the same field did not show it. Inquiry has invariably resulted in showing that the seed tubers from the two different areas came from different sources. Several attempts have been made to trace the seed to see if the disease was present on the farm where its was produced. A few cases presented data of some reliability, giving an affirmative answer to the question. The too common practice of growers sell- ing their entire crop in the fall or winter and then picking up seed from mixed lots of local dealers, makes it impossible in most cases to trace the source of the seed. In describing the outbreak on the Station farm in Vermont, Jones makes the following significant statement:—‘“The field was planted with Green Mountain potatoes, the seed being from Houlton, Maine.”* This statement is all the more significant in view of the fact that as a specialist in the study of potato diseases he has conducted experimental work on this farm for twenty years, has had an intimate knowledge of the condition of every crop of potatoes raised thereon during this time, and this was the first recorded outbreak of blackleg. Professor T. C. Johnson of the Virginia Truck Experiment Station says:** “T examined a field in Augusta County, (Vir- ginia) in which some Maine grown Cobbler seed was planted, and also some home grown seed of other varieties. In portions of the Cobbler field the injury from ‘blackleg’ was as much as les chmpe e5ck ** In correspondence, September 1900. 316 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQOQ. 8 to 10 per cent. The average injury from the field possibly not being over 3-5 per cent. The portions of the field planted to other varieties of home grown seed had no ‘blackleg’ what- ever. I have not been able to find any ‘blackleg’ in the trucking fields in which home grown seed.was used. ‘The general opinion is that the disease was introduced with the seed potatoes but this has not been definitely proven.” Professor J. B. S$. Norton writes, in answer to an inquiry, that during the past season he has seen one case of blackleg on a field planted to Maine seed in Somerset County, Maryland. A letter from Professor G. E. Adams of Kingston, Rhode Island, states that in 1907 he found 5 hills of potatoes which appeared to be suffering from blackleg. “These potatoes were grown from seed which was obtained from England in the spring of that year.” This is interesting as suggesting the possi- ble origin of the disease in Maine. Harrison’s account of the distribution and amount of damage produced by this disease in Canada,* even though we disregard the large amount of bacterial soft rot of the tuber following invasions of the late blight fun- gus Phytophthora infestans and the ordinary decay caused by this fungus itself, which he has apparently attributed to the soft rot associated with the stem-disease, indicates that blackleg is a more common and destructive disease in certain provinces of Canada than in any section of the United States thus far reported. Importation of seed stock from England would naturally be more common in Canada than to the United States. Therefore, it is conceivable that tubers infected with this dis- ease have from time to time and at various places been intro- duced into Canada from England. Once in Canada, particularly in New Brunswick, the spread of the disease to Maine was a comparatively easy matter and a logical sequence, for Maine’s greatest potato district borders on this latter province and quite a percentage of the potato growers of this section are former residents of the adjoining sections of Canada. There is evidence that the introduction of the disease ixito some parts of Maine, at least, is by no means a _ mat- ter of recent date. Many practical men when the diseased *1.c., pp. 34 and 301. BLACKLEG. 317 plants are pointed out to them will say that they have seen occa~ sional hills showing this trouble several years past, but have looked upon it as something of minor importance. Usually the period given varies from 5 to Io years, but Mr. Borden Blackstone of Perham assures the writer that 30 years ago he observed something which he believes to be identical with this. Partiy DECAYED SEED TUBERS SPREAD THE DISEASE. In an attempt to artificially inoculate seed tubers in the spring of 1909 three bushels of tubers, Green Mountain variety, were used. One bushel was planted as purchased. The tubers of the other two bushels were liberally sprayed with a living, viru- lent culture of the bacteria which cause the disease. They were allowed to dry off while spread on the floor under an open shed away from direct sunlight, and covered lightly with builder’s paper. ‘Then one bushel of these latter was soaked in formal- dehyde solution as is customary in treating for scab.* About a week later all three lots were planted. There was a good stand on all three plots, and no blackleg was observed on any of them. This was somewhat surprising in view of the experience of the previous year which was as follows:—Attempts to isolate the specific organisms from plants growing at a distance of from 50 to 100 miles from the laboratory, generally with the disease in the later stages when found, only resulted in failure during 1907, and the early part of the summer of 1908. Then recourse was had to the following method. Seed tubers bearing short sprouts were planted in boxes on July 25. Before planting the tubers were wet with a watery extract made by crushing some diseased stems, and, after planting, this extract was poured over the soil above. On August 18 several of the young stems from these tubers showed well developed cases of blackleg. From these virulent organisms were isolated with ease. In this connection it should be said that the tubers in the boxes were kept constantly quite wet while the land on which the culture- sprayed tubers were planted in 1909 was exceedingly dry for some weeks following. Later experiments showed that the * Soaked 2 hours in a solution consisting of 8 fluid ounces of formalin (40% solution) formaldehyde and 15 gallons of water. 318 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. organism themselves were readily killed by drying. They were doubtless all dead before the tubers were planted. The writer is of the opinion that the disease starts as a rule, not from organisms resting on the unbroken skin of the sur- face of the tuber, but rather from those lurking in wounds, cracks or decayed portions of the flesh of the tuber where the disinfecting solutions may not penetrate. Hence seed treat- ment with any disinfecting solution should be supplemented by rigid inspection and the rejection of seed tubers which show any diseased or unsound portions. GEOGRAPHICAL, DISTRIBUTION IN AMERICA. The extent of the distribution of this disease in the United States is indicated by the records of the Plant Disease Survey of the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington. Mr. W. W. Gilbert, assistant pathologist, writes as follows: “I have looked through our records and find we have located the blackleg dis- ease of potatoes in the following places: In South Carolina, in the trucking sections in the vicinity of Charleston; in Virginia, about Norfolk, Portsmouth, and at several points on the Eastern Shore; in Maryland at Beltsville; in New York, on Long Island; in Colorado in the vicinity of Greeley; in Ohio at Plainsville, ‘and I find also a note of Mr. Orton’s which states that the dis- ease probably occurs in Oregon.” Answers to inquiries addressed to officials in experiment sta- tions in the following states: Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Caro- lina, Vermont, Virginia and Wisconsin, indicates that except in Virginia the disease is not common enough to attract attention, it only being reported from the states mentioned below: From Connecticut Dr. Geo. P. Clinton writes: “I think that ‘blackleg’ disease you describe is the same as that I mention in my 1904 Report, p. 324, questioning if it is the southern bacterial dis- ease.” In Maryland Prof. J. B.S. Norton reports one authentic case from Somerset County, but expresses the opinion that the disease is more common than this indicates. One doubtful case is reported by Dr. F. L. Stevens of North Carolina. In Rhode Island Prof. G. EK. Adams reports one case where the seed BLACKLEG. 319 tubers were imported from England.: In Vermont Prof. H. A. Edson states that it has only been observed on one farm where it was first introduced with the seed and reported by Doctor Jones in 1906.* In Virginia Prof. T. C. Johnson first reported the existence of the disease to the writer some over a year ago, and writing on September 27, 1909, he says: “The ‘blackleg’ is becoming somewhat general in this section of Virginia.” There can be no doubt as to the identity of the disease in Vir- ginia and Maine as Professor Johnson is perfectly familiar with its appearance as it occurs in the field in both states. In Maine, as has already been stated, the disease is not uncommon, but as a rule it occurs only as an occasional, isolated affected stalk scattered over the fields, though several cases were found during the two wet seasons of 1907 and 1909 where from 5 to 15 or 20 percent. of the plants were affected. These latter instances represented, with one exception, small fields of from one to 5 acres. The similar appearing trouble which Harrison has described in Canada he stated had been found throughout the Province of Ontario, its presence had been reported from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec, and one case reported from the North West Territory.t Economic ASPECTS. There is little evidence to show that blackleg has caused or is likely to cause serious and widespread losses on Maine potato fields although its occurence appears to be on the increase. While one of the worst cases found in I9g09 was on well- drained, elevated land, the soil was quite wet on account of excessive rainfall throughout the season. So far as observed it is only to be feared as a serious pest in this section upon low, wet lands or on higher ground during abnormally wet seasons. However, in localities where the disease is prevalent during wet seasons, occasioral affected hills are found upon the dryer soils and during years when the rainfall is not exces- sive. * See p. 310. fil Gx), 320 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. In Virginia so far as can be learned from correspondence, etc., the disease appears to assume more serious proportions wherever it occurs at all, and there seems to be a growing con- viction around Norfolk, and in some places on the Eastern Shore that it comes from and first occurs upon fields planted with northern seed. Inoculation into sound tubers with pure cultures of the organisms associated with the disease produces a rapid soft- rot, and no doubt some of the loss from wet rot in the field and in storage is caused by this organism. However, in the writer’s experience this is largely confined to the small tubers which have been formed in the hills attacked, before the stalks are killed. Even here only a small part of such tubers are found to be decayed. The disease appears to start from the seed piece, which is invariably decayed, and passes directly up the main stem. ‘The under-ground, tuber-bearing branches of the stem are cut off and the disease follows them out a short distance, but more frequently it stops before reaching the young tubers. If the young tubers are reached a soft, wet decay results. Out of a large number of plants grown in pots and inoculated with pure cultures of the organisms, at or near the surface of the soil, in only a very few cases did the disease spread downward and outward on the underground branches of the stem suffici- ently as to reach and cause decay of the young tubers. The fact that the organism so readily and rapidly destroys potato tubers when inoculated into them would indicate that in addition to producing a dangerous stem-disease it has poten- tial qualities for becoming a serious pest as a cause of tuber decay. However, there is iio evidence that this has been the case in Maine in the past. Epidemics of potato-rot are not infrequent, but these are invariably associated with and follow outbreaks of late blight, Phytophthora infestans De Bary, upoa the foliage and this fungus is invariably found in the decayed tubers. Even in seasons when the late blight is rife the rot is almost entirely controlled by proper and thorough spraying of the foliage which would not be the case if the blackleg organism was a contributing factor. In these epidemics of tuber decay following late blight while the rot as a rule shows the characteristics of that caused by the late blight fungus, there is associated with it very frequently BLACKLEG. 321 a soft, foul-smelling decay which is apparently of a bacterial nature. While there is every reason to believe that the black- ‘leg organism is capable of causing some of this soft bacterial decay the writer’s experience leads him to believe the great majority of it is caused by secondary infection by saprophytic bacteria following the invasion and killing of the healthy tis- sues by the-late blight fungus. Attempts to isolate bacteria capable of destroying healthy tubers from those so diseased have invariably resulted in failure. The removal of some of the soft, decayed tissue from such tubers and inserting it in sound tubers led to no decay of the latter, while the same pro- cedure where the decayed tissue was taken from a rotting tuber previously inoculated with the blackleg organism invar- iably produced a characteristic and rapid decay of the healthy tuber into which it was inserted. Moreover, this soft-rot of the tuber following and associated with the decay caused by Phytophthora infestans is familiar to all who have had much practical, field experience with out- breaks of disease caused by this fungus, and has been observed frequently by horticulturists and plant pathologists in this country upon fields which showed no evidence of blackleg upon the growing stems. If the organism was present in suffi- cient degree to cause material loss from tuber decay it would seem that its appearance on the stem could not have escaped notice. Harrison* apparently takes an opposite view to the abcve and seems inclined to attribute to his B. solanisaprus a much more active part in the cause of tuber decay in Canada. He asserts that the Experimentalist of the Ontario Agricultural College and others have confused the terms “blight” and “rot”, but fails to state distinctly that Phytophthora infestans not only causes the well known blight of the foilage but also is a well recognized cause of decay of the tuber often referred to as the “late blight rot.” He shows, in one instance, at least, where spraying for fungi was practiced, that the real cause of the rot was of a bacterial nature. However, the statements to which he objects such as “The potatoes. grown in the Experimental Department have been comparatively free from blight, although *1.c. pp. 34 and 3or. 322 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. in some parts of the Province the rot has proven very trouble- some in some seasons” and “results show that there was less rot on the potatoes on which Bordeaux ‘mixture and Paris Green were used” are not necessarily confusing. They might be made with propriety in referring to the late blight of the foliage and the infection and decay of the tuber by the same fungus resulting from spores being washed down into the soil from the diseased leaves, and in no way be confused with the bacterial trouble. To summarize, in no part of the United States has blackleg as yet produced widespread and severe losses to the potato crop. Such losses as have been experienced in Maine are largely confined to the killing of the affected plants before the tubers have reached merchantable size but the amount of this loss appears to be increasing. Little or no loss from decay of mature tubers by this disease has been observed in this state, but much loss from tuber decay in Canada is credited to B. solamsaprus. However, the distribution of the disease is becoming quite general, and it may become a serious pest under certain favorable conditions and in certain sections of the country. In Maine while the losses from diminished crops have not been and may not be great, the real danger is from the possible loss of a valuable seed trade from certain sections where the disease may assume more serious proportions than it does in this state. MEANS OF PREVENTION. The observations here recorded and the uncompleted bacte- riological studies of the organisms associated with the disease indicate that the introduction of blackleg into uninfected soils can easily be prevented. The organisms are readily killed by exposure to sunlight, even in December when the intensity of the sun’s rays is at its lowest ebb. They are also quite susceptible to dessication. Young, active, vigorous cul- tures spread upon small sterile, glass discs, allowed to dry at room temperature were found to be dead in less than half an hour after the moisture had disappeared from the surface of the smear, and thus far no evidence of spore formation has been observed in old cultures. They are, however, able to live a long time in the presence of moisture. BLACKLEG. 323 The introduction of small quantities of living, beef-broth cultures into tubes of sterile water containing formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate killed the germs, although the percentage of the two germicides used was many times less than that of the disinfection solution later recommended, and the exposure being for a much shorter period. The germs introduced into control tubes of pure sterile, distilled water at the same time were not killed. The fact that the organisms are readily killed by drying and, as already stated, (p. 317), no disease was produced by spray- ing smooth seed tubers with vigorous active culture and allow- ing them to dry several days before planting indicates that the germs are probably not carried over on the surface of the tubers. Very likely they live over winter in wounds or cracks in the seed tubers or in small decayed areas, there being suffi- cient moisture to keep them alive but the temperature of stor- age is low enough to arrest their active development till after the tubers are planted and begin to put forth shoots. Hence as a means of prevention: First, select seed, if pos- sible, from fields upon which the disease has not appeared. Second, discard for seed purposes all tubers which have wounds, cracks or decayed areas*. Third, disinfect all seed tubers with corrosive sublimate or formaldehyde before cut- ting. Spreading the seed tubers out in thin layers in a clean, dry place exposed to the direct rays of the sun for several days would be an excellent supplementary practice and tend to has- ten germination as well. The disinfection of seed tubers and the rejection of all such as show blemishes or diseased areas will not only prevent the spread of blackleg but also the propo- gation and spread of scab and most other tuber diseases which attack the potato in Maine. Merruops oF DIstNFECTING SEED POTATOES. . For disinfecting seed tubers for blackleg the same methods are recommended as for potato scab. Either of the following may be used. *This sorting out of the diseased tubers should always be done as far as possible before cutting on account of possible contamination of the freshly cut, moist surfaces of healthy seed pieces by germs carried by the hands or knives used in cutting those tubers where the diseased areas extended below where the disinfecting agents penetrated. 324 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Liquid Disinfection. No. 1. Corrosive sublimate 2 ounces Water 15 gallons. Immerse seed tubers for 14} hours in this solution. INO: 2: Formaldehyde (40% solution) 8 fluid ounces (4 pint). Water 15 gallons. Immerse seed tubers 2 hours in this solution. Corrosive sublimate dissolves readily in water, but wooden containers must be used on account of its corrosive action upon metals. On account of its poisonous nature the corrosive subli- mate solution must be kept out of reach of animals which might drink it, and the treated tubers should not be used for food: There is no danger from the use of formaldehyde, it is non- poisonous to the higher forms of animal life as ordinarily used. Since both of these solutions are effective No. 2 is recom- mended in preference wherever formaldehyde can be purchased, for the reasons given above. While no experiments have been tried upon the blackleg organisms to determine the germicidal effect of formaldehyde gas generated by means of potassium permanganate its suc- cessful use in destroying the bacteria associated with certain contagious diseases of man is well known. The writer has also found this method equally, if not more effective, in treating seed tubers for potato scab than soaking in the solutions already mentioned. ‘Therefore, if a large amount of seed tubers is to be treated at one time the following gas treatment is recom- mended. Disinfection with Formaldehyde Gas. Potassium permanganate 23 ounces Formaldehyde (40% solution) 2 pints The above is sufficient for each 1000 cubic feet of space. The disinfection with formaldehyde gas should be done before the sprouts begin to start on the seed tubers. Place the seed tubers in bushel crates or shallow slat-work bins in a room where all cracks have been tightly stopped and the door made BLACKLEG. 325 as near air-tight as possible, when closed. Spread the potas- sium permanganate evenly over the bottom of a large, rather deep pan or pail. If the quantity is large a small wash tub, or half of a barrel may be used. Pour in the formaldehyde and give the dish one rapid tilt to ensure thorough mixing; leave the room at once and tightly close from without. Keep closed for about 24 hours, or at least over night. The dish used for a generator should be placed in the middle of the room. To avoid injury from the strong gas as it ts liberated no potatoes should be placed directly above the genera- tor. It is also better to leave a clear space of at least three feet on all sides of the generator, and the slat-work bins or crates should be so arranged that the gas can circulate on all sides of them and mix with the air of the room before it comes in contant with the potatoes. Formaldehyde gas possesses about the same specific gravity as air, but when generated in this way the strong gas is driven off very rapidly mixed with hot, watery vapor and probably the most of it goes first to the top of the room, but it quickly diffuses and mixes with the air contained therein. Temperature is an important factor in disinfecting with formaldehyde. It is more effective above 80 degrees F. and ‘ disinfection with this gas should never be attempted where the temperature of the chamber used is below 50 degrees F. A certain amount of moisture in the air is also very essential, therefore just before placing the formaldehyde in the generator the floor of the disinfecting chamber should be thoroughly wet down with boiling water. However, no water should be placed on the tubers to be treated. The exposure of the tubers to the gas should not be made in sacks. It takes a large volume of gas and a long exposure to penetrate the sacks. Large quantites of the formaldehyde are lost by uniting chemically with the organic matter of the fabric, and the meshes tend to convert the gas into a solid sub- stance known as paraform. Upon completion of the time required to disinfect, the door of the room is opened and in a very short time the gas will have diffused outward sufficiently to allow the treated tubers to be taken out. There is absolutely no danger to human beings in working with the gas as here recommended. When first 326 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1900. going into the room it may cause some irretation of the mucous membranes of the nose and throat but this soon passes away. It should be mentioned that the amounts of formaldehyde here recommended and the length of exposure to the gas are far in excess of that. found necessary for disinfecting rooms for contagious diseases, and are doubtless considerably greater than are needed for treating seed tubers. However, experi- ments have shown that the large amount of gas and long expos- ure, if done according to directions here given, will not injure the germinating quality of the tubers and will control the scab ' fungus as well, therefore, it seems best to advise a treatment which will answer for both diseases at the same time. If it is desired to reduce the amount of solution and the time of expos- ure the writer would not advise going below 2 pints of formal- dehyde solution and a proportionate amount of potassium permanganate for each 1000 cubic feet of space and 12 hours for the lower limit of exposure. Whether or not the disease germs can remain in the soil for any length of time to infect later crops is still an open ques- tion. The fact that field observations show that the disease, as has already been stated, is almost invariably confined to scattered hills and to stalks which spring from decayed seed pieces indicates that most or if not all the infection comes from diseased seed. However, the somewhat closely related organ- isms which are associated with the soft rots of cabbage, cauli- flower, etc., apparently remain alive in the soil for some time at least. There is no reason why the blackleg organism should not do the same. Therefore, land upoa which a potato crop has been grown which was attacked by this disease should be kept in other crops, preferably grass, clover or cereals, for as long as possible before again using it for potatoes. The prac- tice of growing two crops of potatoes on the same land in suc- cessive years should be discouraged, and low, poorly drained soils should be avoided. Fields which show scattered affected stalks should be frequently inspected during the growing sea- son and all diseased plants and any tubers which may have formed on them dug up and burned. Under no condition should the crop from badly or even moderately affected fields be used for planting in Maine or shipped South for seed. Sev- eral of the leading seed dealers in Maine are doing their best BLACKLEG. 327 to comply with these recommendations and all growers should cooperate with them in their efforts to furnish stock free from disease. SUMMARY. Blackleg is a bacterial disease of the stem and tuber of the potato. A similar appearing malady caused by bacteria has been reported from Canada, and another from England, Ger- many, France and other parts of Europe. Preliminary studies of the organisms associated with the disease indicate that they are closely related to those already described as a cause of similar troubles elsewhere, but whether they are identical with any of the described species of bacteria is not fully determined. Pp. 309-312. - The attacked plants are usually unthrifty, light green or even yellow, and undersized. The branches and leaves have a tendency to grow upward forming a rather compact top, often with the young leaves curled and folded up along the mid-rib. The most characteristic thing about them is the inky- black discoloration of the stem, at or below the surface of the ground, but frequently running up the stem from one to sev- eral inches above ground. ‘The seed-piece from which the attacked plants spring is invariably attacked with a soft-rot, and the disease appears to start on the stem at its junction with the diseased seed tuber. The germs of the disease are capable of causing a rapid decay of the young tubers, and these are sometimes attacked also. pp. 312-314. The evidence thus far obtained indicates that blackleg is largely distributed by means of germs carried in wounds, cracks and decayed areas of seed tubers. On account of the readi- ness with which the organisms are killed by drying there is little to fear from sound, smooth seed stock, but this should be treated with a disinfecting solution as a matter of precau- tion. There is some reason to think that blackleg was intro- duced into Canada from England and from there to the United States. pp. 314-318. Blackleg is apparently becoming quite widely distributed throughout the Eastern part of the United States. In most states it is not common enough to attract attention, and in no region has it done much damage, although it may become a 328 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. serious pest in some sections. It is not believed that it is likely to do much damage in Maine, except in low, wet soils or during abnormally wet seasons. The similar appearing trouble caused by Bacillus solamsaprus Harrison is widely distributed in Can- ada and is there claimed to be of considerable economic import- ance as a cause of tuber decay. pp. 318-322. The propogation and spread of the disease probably can be controlled largely by the selection of seed from fields free from the disease, the rejection of all seed tubers which have wounds, cracks or decayed areas and treating the remainder with corro- sive sublimate or formaldehyde solutions, or with formaldehyde gas-as is done for potato scab. It is not known whether or not the disease germs will remain alive in the soil to infect future crops of potatoes, but as a precautionary measure the land on which the disease occurs should be kept in grass, clover, or cereals for as long a time as possible before planting it to potatoes again. pp. 322-320. ara wee! 4) METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. WateA4 54 2” N. Lon. 68° 40’ 11” W. Elevation 150 feet. The instruments used at this Station are the same as those used in preceding years, and include: Wet and dry bulb ther- “mometers; maximum and minimum thermometers; rain-guage ; self-recording anemometer, vane, and barometer. The observa- tions at Orono now form an almost unbroken record of forty- one years. 1909. 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Gp |proreres 86'T PLP 8h S 606 |28'T Me NEE CAG Ih > "G 8° ISG forse sess sss payour ur uoTyezpIdtooI1d [LAO], GE oCF «09°0Z = |SE off ST ofh JTS oLG |G0°oS9 |S0 oL9 |26° 019 |9F' 029 |99°o0F 10° 08% |98°o8t [02 091 | siuod [Pp oy oanqviodurs, uraypy BB of [09 086 JOT 68 08 o6F [SS oLG |0% 099 |0G°.99 JST o89 |00'o%S |S oOF [ZL 08% |LL700% |0Z o6L Joc aInye1ed ma} Ur, O'i= |} OG | OS | Oats | OE | Okay | Wate | Woks | Oot | Oa | Moi | Waite le tooo eo oo ree wooo oe oe 9.1NY VIVA U9} 4SOMOT 0'c8F | 0089 | O'c€8 | 0008 | 0026 | O'o16 | 0006 | 0062 | 07089 | O'oSF | O'o6h | O'okG |icct te ainyetod wo} 4SoysI TT to | op b cy a = b ta Sy Se | = o a S @ a ei a lanl kee = © = ct © 3 a = Ke) 19 & 5 a 5 = i 5 eH |e 8 8 s | & 5 . e ee | -8 F E leas B e B we | Fr SLs 606T ee ie ee | Se | *UO1}2}C quounsedxq Sule] 24} 7e Spey] suoteasrssqGg ‘6061 YOA AUVWIANS TWOIDOTOUOALAN Lal Se) Se) “ean g LIYE AA MSS ia ayy jo urpey[ NG AT qq uc ul ayy MOT peyidures SI a1qey aA0qeB a ‘UOIyR4s OT1IOI() ayy Moly] sanip a1 JO nondaaxea oud YIM sl SSP RIS eeT Li aT Cs AEA VATS EWA SS 123i fis NS) Malepa e O Cd SoA Tri yar eee eee MOTI | ng) 09°¢ 08 & 001 00 § 00 T 09% 08% ei a he ee tie Mano aah Peale “* Wong Usp F le & i 6L 1 PEG IT @ Ig ¢ 6P £ 0 F ol $ 1G aa ele an “BIB przoyarny U E83 I 891 bL% bE G S63 ol & 91% 40° iv, ieee ne SM hee nO a Sait puv pod A 61°F G 16 & Gh YD 0S °% 6L 1 PIG OL PF GLP G rd gets “eee ne UOT I © bI FP ths C06 68 1 LEG Il @ 13 @ lf f 86 G 6&8 G GAL F epee hs Ae mete : nha ae LO MOLD) an IL@ be 1 ST 9 IG 1 00% Gh G ace 89 € Sl & 61'S Noe hee ee le me : uoysPIg YIION =< 66 F 08 T OL 6 LO§ 60 § 16% cO'& BOLE PoP 9g °S cL a il beet iene Sh ere SS : 7. JeHOOUITEN = 10°F 99 1 FO OL 8 |89°% [BG 98 °% GLZ 16 & 08 & g°G OS “Eon ee le ie ee : : UOsIPeWN 4 61% P81 a) GT LPG 62% GSLZ 6¢°§ PIP 6c ¢ VER Yad sgn Wie des U0}SIMO'T Bt PEG GT A) G9'T ST % OG SS Meera 60 F 66% OLS Ao | “aaa eet dae ee cae Nw a ea ge Al cee et OC HOOT faa} LoF EL I 61 OL =|00'§ PEE 09 & LG GS FP 9L 08°F Shea ore aera Ae ae bea eS” Si lsupers) (e) 886 &8°1 6&9 69° T 61% 06% sce 18 & 16°§ [6 BIS Nee oe eas Gieah rs ogee kee Ce A San "* * “LOUIpIBE) 6 68 6 po PLL 09°% 90% OG ase seen a P6§ 66 § Ge 9 O26 See e a a ee a ee eae cones 00S UU y Sie See earl ollie ee ae tt 19T LTT lL 1 PEG Sb G S0§ &L% PG § TOG | See ea pak ce RE ieee PIPQAGY O 69'§ oC \0% 9 19° eats 691 9c T 986 O'S 9L °F DOR Lee Tie caer ae ea ee eco ee ME wR Hoes * W1OGYSBHT a 90% 1 |FS'S PEG b1& 993 £0 66 & 88 F 6L S LUTE a ic aN gee tek pee oat acne ce UBIO) 5 LLG [8-1 SE'8 Boy 99°% ee |! 86°F 11S a8°¢ 40-9 OTe eee a ea ae ieee arts ani og so eC QUC TG RF —_— 3 = J $ we i E: He ee ade! == je) | | oa ; : . . - Srasc ° ° @ | & E e mes i Nes ed Nt Bt 8 8 3 3 me il 5 BAe Shiga Pie ae e : lp ae z S| ow a 5 | 3 SNOLLYIG eI fete: mn a ; [eres He Sex ee least! g } = | ; é joumeuels ae st seller ilh : es | ee ee pat —T- “6061 289% 94} 4O¥ (urer se) uoneydise1g [enuuy pue ATWO . < _ REPORT OF TREASURER FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, IQgog. NATIONAL FUNDS. RECEIPTS. Hateh Fund.|Adams Fund.| Gen’! Acct. Balance syialy DIG Shee ee ce ere is ee I Mei lrags, te ol (ie ee ee $1,830 41 iRreasurenomUnitedmsuates eee eens | $15 ,000 00} $11,000 00 Galea eben aice-< el. RRR nM, OM ae der ee Ne ce pee or I ot 2,902 00 Toye [Ee Aiinctit a Siar neoneons Bike iin) ae EERE CAE Rou $15 ,000 OO} $11,000 00 4 ,732 41 DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries he aya een cba teem ice eaten bay cea y SSPE on erase | $8 647 97 $7 ,659 13 $1 404 50 1 IF of 0} DP cana SS ae reer ern nr neces nenTy © ere ne 244 74 24 60) 112 23 Publications ats eo On ee ee ee ee ae O35) (Gees Nee ere eee 1 00 Postageland) stationerys -- eee sees ae 367 58 7 70| 60 O1 Rreichtrandsexpresseiier ee eee eee 247 99 10 87) By TT Heatalichitiandipowene eer ieee AST SO) tse sree eels 306 65 Ghemircalusupplicsse eee ener eee td S@ 28 26 45 Seeds, plants and sundry supplies........... 340 68 955 74, 152 83 LOY gine fe) coeeenens eee Rca cachet ee ne Serres craic ncn ceel erate aigtans cceats 25} 321 79 MeedIN EES UTS Peres eis read eye ere es IZOO2ZAO4 Fires eeaee 693 09 LESSER ae ae SN URS CURE eg Lo eae? Nine 523 03) 441 77 Tools, implements and machinery...........- 594 11 1 49 14 11 PUTA oUKS Enel WEIS; soascrsgenscoastove TAMOT anne tees Setar 10 37 SGGMIMTE HjoyoMENHSGocacscescsacacesoudacte 134 75} 889 02 62 96 Piers CO CIE iran-s 2c oy tates alleys ise aeeuatas Pe ere) theese 531 45 6 90 5 25 Traveling expenses......--.. Sats Hea dic onataetole 712 05 436 41 78 06 Gonting entrexpensestee eee ee ieee eee 259) 98). 255 652) 5 ae eee eee Buildin gsi satenre eee hte ene Steevie acerca 750 00 529 86 313 51 Balance! Juness 0 OOO ss iss ectene ashe eee eee tee eoeep aes beter ed | ones reve cete a ee 1,137 83 PO Galle Ghee kent Users eenaece trey as $15 ,000 00) $11,000 00 $4 ,732 41 REPORT OF TREASURER. 333 ) REPORT OF TREASURER FOR STATE FISCAL YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1909. STATE FUNDS. RECEIPTS. Printing. Inspections. ARMS COD OTR els ewan epattcvetaie sto tel nalsltaiolsverct se aiet serene $4 500 00 $9 ,000 00 /NmRETERSER, TAGS GUO an bee EEO ORO OE ERC RC a ete eRe ener (BRR ee Cee 1 457 36 IRENE Oo utd boa cRNA OR CNCaE oe RCUERC DD RCICT aches em eoncitene CORE $4 500 00) $10 ,457 36 DISBURSEMENTS. Sie SUG) 9. crept oo en ONaee eae Be RRR RRR: PaO AO eng RE ee PeeRi ene CURA O EMRE NES] (Ree Sate BEAR) Soe $7 ,672 17 PTET CLINORE RO CMSES testy a sitrart er acre te eich thatar yah WR Sra SR pay Je ance 1,290 15 ETOLUPAN MEX NESS! eacite slateie aye oman wtek as Riad eats ties a ql eis em ae cltente Siok Wie PESIE TS DES ramasat sce. cicein orci aretha cesbecicices state week ie curate era eIet Gin ratenarit 607 52 arm tpeirr lM esa tiereris ices hema pr Mat melayc | .paheloaeteicteye cet coes, Suated| (A ich adg Satie @ueeyi ele 13233 EN EMATUOR Se SUIT ILES = oreeeteneta sna tat ea tts noha tare pejewehauatiai cel soci nto Menlo Geer oteyaya ta aua are 560 39 Prmtine bulletins and reports)... ..- 0... eases eee ee eae 2 932 44 ishllraae: 1DGOS Sil, TOA Aico cla bic o Gicwictoric Ge poles Goin abe 1 567 56 137 49 BUC eL Ley cieieyenal el sitisyels Sota COLO 'E Gunde) So canes aieINECO clsie Olonep Ole $4 500 00 $10 457 36 } X INGdel esr abirebtCOlensiaw One Ve ner ele mary any oe, Ulead ane ae Loy erst hn Verb arenes Mistecale Meche acca nencilce aN ED nce Me WU Strobgto bins ee dete a es wt oe md heh oaths ane a Scania Se VaN Gee) Wie Wen tes A ay AL AIM UN A ar seeds Fal aN dip, oa ee PE All Geni aria Soll attnc yy eMac tte ei ventana os: AS gaa Le aa IACONO I SOP iat ties cap bes tance Ue Ce ne Nt gO eae I PACHA) ieee ges Sere Pea Naa rere ACAD pa eG) Lia cole TAD AUT Le a ereeae tes ata arta Maneee RN ay SE To RAS Ee TOA V EMEILS bean 20s Cis ant airce ere centers rice are ec PE CLONE IS Seach eeree nee, een a tae re Lege aa TION Rtn G EA te a aren sunt ecUNei | Gaal geal il pal PND DLE ACIS CASES ur esters iac eet uny ATR Cmes Mi ete RGU ne Me Emr MMe 2, OM ae Cultimalistidiesie awe mci casera ee ee Inoculation: experiments mis Wee eee oe ee ee literature serte dasa xr he Gael meron Outre under a ae TOUS oP eisrate errs cetatings ane ceiletey ener ciel che siete re onlols Pec crsusuob at sreyaet ene meee nln SC allay, Myers. Maayh Maccgupayie ie carah a/c cahe tas rslsye ar aaa ARE RESTS ae a tees Walkected mb yanveatienun. as senate ante ee GCROLCH WAIN Uy Me Ne teachctar ee oe nt ne amnial te ats a anaes JATATLO Ud COMME MESS Saree ea sae aera eRe mM lp eS oR ara INS COSPOLAADEY ErlN Gali sea sciatic eee nan eee eet /ATHOXGR BUNUH Dalia Susteren eee Serer ee Ra ae rnc ce eon Nel aes eae Cia (CLO. 271 (MCN are eee am ATeI Mi Chae eM AME ENA SN es AMR i, VEL WATT yoo sas detec A a Tet Oe oe a SRN PTLO MCAD evs V asec vatroriap cis apes co aheterssei enero neec saeco eee erat emer Bacillsi amyl OVOmS aie: Se cet iensen cae aleve oaat a eae eae eae omen PlivitoplathOnusy nevi cso acai sere be ee es ener SO latrines latina ty hae ie ets eae se RR pe ee SOLAMISAP TUS oir hae Te SRE ee RES Bibltographyatertalitywand hatching Omesosus-eemeeae en. seen. RUSE HOC Oi APD, UiReATIMNEIM! 55 G40c000snd000G0Ls 00D bab Dab ODN Blackles: ol potatoman seme aims cher ae Coane eyehe i ere eee charactem) andy appearances rne neers ECONOMICKASPECES ae A Oe ee ieee veo raphical adistpibution: maser eas] ee teeee MNCAMG Ore GChistimloyotO soosscaccbsoo0ndcuce MACAITG. Oi jNFVESBIOIOIN ob agcroscvoesescooss spread by decayed seed tubers ............ ee ee INDEX. 333 PAGE PATE AUG TOL OLetHe- POLALON het. <¢te tence ecicated sca dla tae eb aes > I, 165 RESIS AN tp OLAtOESuasrcrhsts uncks Accls oid aalonanaacieht igen orate 2 Gn AREY TOR et Ge Se pares ee eae eee 218 TRTGIRSE| OEE Gots Gee ote Gee heme hes eats, eee AR 219 CIS] UITIC EAM Manas Air Aenea ae hat FL OE aol aate 218 TUBIOL) . chen OBOE Oe OS Dee STEER Sach esa 219 FN ribet Axor et Pek oss eos ada as Sen ternal a 219 PTLONUALALY aan he 2 Rimeey td auateNaiel a cliche} auctarehshiavabasenens niece-ei4 ie) si0 220 SPR RATTR UT ANCE M sy) oy jrer eek eet Svan esl ots dy Abarat haan ng betcha) ee awe, 3 217 BREPERLSCEL RARITIES ULI CH ep stv act cint sx akcl ane sh avotalelebel relat eabstirarnats Se Mae Soe 174 LOPRADP LEMSCalrpciey rkacvd tok a ores op taeeerelate acter 9 PRIMES) MOUMICATIONS:<)s-.:0)-0'2 so -t<'2 fous See fae. SNS E SG 34 Pe TE SEO UNOUMILEY a cise. scraclae au tier dea See tea ee PRUNES 3 32 MRE ALI iE apostolate SONS ehcp acy aaron sew iso Soha Aah Goan Bare J octw ws 233 0 PLLC sec. aoe 119 Witla ie ecto uteyu ak ic RCE Ome Ek EEC eee 30 Epicoccum: eraniulatum, : aoe once eee een one ee ene 1&9 Ep hROSWMel 7 sa. sacks essen beech Ce ee aad cle 265 Hecundityainshenswinheritancesotes- en ee eee Eee eee or 49 SAMDMCINEGS OF WEIN scococaccoucaacascnoccsve 81 IBSiewi hay ahaxal Jarue Teor Chi GAGS coousnuscdacssouusuanosaunadote 105 Fertilizer, experiments) with potatoes 2: -eelne asses see eee 85 Bertilizerss homesmixeds stormulasse= perro oesce eee a eee oEre 86 —lae INDEX. 327, PAGE RIMES ETINIENIS Ml TQOO-G. es. ccc acict cts a esi c'olec.s «MB dine bio.ae > 4 85 Serie IYV OC HOt ALACKIED wcrc alas acd pai tage sya aye es. ied gua wyoysie 2 324 Higa thees, attected: by, weather. =... 22 .06< ses s+ 0 tea dediecsce 12 RMS ALS CH ALACELG.,. carn = see's rare ease Doe os Biss eis as eas 210 habitspand\ economic telationS ----. 9 ..2.4.44- 214 INGGRMPAITLCDIGAI s-Setelo epee aks Meovalone, ate -areve ley Aakate 2 GPEMECAMIMEASTIMES des, crore ale sreremrars eich s ie Gi vs nel aete 216 TAME MOme Sli DMammTeS seicee- accc¥uclsepstess syccact = ainehe 216 CUT EMONSY'S POMmMe araisiievscs.s octtes tears @ clashes se sradceud aie: nro ais 2 allls OR DIG: gla Apri othe or IO AO ere cee Beare Ocha rene tes 203, 284, 290 Germicide, liquor cresolis compositus .................-- pitas oa 36 OME ae HUMLOMIOCUIANG: . 2). c as e- de 33 eran AE MINIS PCCILON). ea rales acct co ciotiatince D Gieiw oa sees bo Beles 17 RAUNT ACES. tel aee ancais. a cisbsts Se oo , Aw NS Deen aia Akt ARS 13 Pee RRL MONA er Meee ra cicvsiis) is ickcs anions haters oi Shae vale Hae isa oe eres Sows oaks 94 TRIGIEY 5 SSP ARE RGAE BOCs DEE Bee COO Se see ae 99 Weisel itech anidupnreSenves, Gr. sane ss Geloe.s celaels Scio Seles aces ease 156 Labeling goods from opened packages...........2.00c0ssceuees 9 BANA Geena Ke sctalO Lion ay PER cee ESS Lace be hd as Salen os dot 73 Maine Food and Drug: Regulations: ....cicc. secede ct el eeee ace IOI REE SERMEMS lie Mahe Pet nde ate Sepa at, slavaiere Asa hake cl obiere thaw Sida 5 meeulations for casbomated beverages... ........20.cces.sesenee 7 Rep CMe NC ee eGR em erate ch. han a ac wih Gidioicje svcic vers sre'wieiove fre wate clave 67 Seen OL INItTOUG MEGHeI a tiie iss costs 2. cee cielob oe cus eeleaweecs I5I By elas en OlMnGVGCEAPESMet irs sth jtihisicced save db ecu ceaccesc 2 PALS: LOL. OSCE Sater miue cases it cisones stud oF ~92 Dan > Bo: 0 SI-> Ay “punoy ~eSSis 1D OH SS ABR SSS BS BBs 25S 8 Ras AD SBR Or - oh G2 CLE OD oi SrA MHS AES ASH ANT MHN ABN BEN GWIHN COHN NON MOM BER “tS NMS |! —— = Sel _ aor fe aS a “s = . . _ =| : os. 5 agra sie cae : ‘poopuBIeNny) wi iS S's 'g sss sss SSS 3388 SSS sss ese (ii 118 SS: 8: er ra ot Oem 7B AS~ SOW SHH HOS WHO SHO BSS *§$:: ti6 Swot Nn: 7 ele a Ae ae Cy Ne TD EE SE IS Sri rot i eeeatiet a _ - . Nn pee | } O19 OOn Moa CORN WO ~ o on otro or mtn we fs *puno yy BROUSR SAS elcercn R08 INN see 4S BAH S58 S25 GRA SRS ERS oa mos a Gee 2D “ee ay tee , ae EN S Hoa eea A G35 220 Soe due Sas daniece see seq das sec ses koe ae : : oo oo So eo eco 2 : Z| 2] -pasyuereny ~SSS S88 SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SES SES SES ‘SE SE a a Or WHO MOM HOG WH DOR WD 00 OS BOR HOH WOH OMI5 Oo OO | == a a ei — a ea —) 3 COND PHO COTM NArD SHO 4c Or4109 nN Q 92MSs CHS AN AK I e *puno i, NON G1HH HOS wHi9r~ OAw RAs SSE Sue S35 £88 S88 S28 DOr ma ON ais OOS May MOE SHG AHH POD SH rHH POW Pre WoW Wes ros ~O OO 5 SIRS Se Sse eh Nee Soe Re se MES n mr HOM MAIO N+ ©1930 hon ANn wor > MON EOr DH WH Ins 1c Ss -‘aiqnposuy | ~SS5 SSS BAS SRY BRR SAA SAW GSR RAS SES BSH SHR AS SH or (au, ANN SCHMN HMA WAN AGH AND MMN HHH ANMN ANN BAN ANN ONS oa AN Sap OHO 19 CODD 191910 ea orm oD Kor ©0080 ‘a5 On: “pe yToAdyy ENIGHEA bls ad SEA On 19004 S24 BBR RSS BOW aes SRR ONS 1NGIN SreiliCNd) J Mee Cal b's WAH INSH AAD HN AND HON ANAN ADA HON ATA wm Awan AMA fac tN: Orn MON WoO AR 19MH WAN NAD m4 uD ke NK N OHH CHm fhe an: -ajqnjog wens Sawa HAL SAG SH ANS SIS ARE 222 S65 842 SSR SS “HE SS: Ot is I9OOD wBined Masis isin Oinis issn onmin insSK stint ines INH AHH NID - ENS Hw ‘'Oo OGS wares CMN GOS SOM NSM 8©OM SHD OOM OMS OO La oD “paoquereny OH OH Rae SO SO0 Sinh HOS DBS SNS BOS SOS SNS Om SBR —T—) al AHO HN MEM HM NNO NAN ANH CMH ANH BAN ANT ADNAN AH Nom AN 1s yes = : 2 2 z ° . = : sO NN Im Oo eel evar koa} 19 DOH AES WHOS ACK OS rn) on 00 a | “puno,y peas wns ‘OO Or Are oss SQN 85S BSS SSA NSS or B+ aS % AHO HN HOH HMO NAH ANN ANH BMH ANG ONAN ANG ADNAN AH Ano AN a : Sook pirat: Gece ewes i lerte yee ig Soa mine , eS me . . e : SND © *m COI ta AS oO ONO GHN MOO Od —) i) “2 +o Z eae AS S:S eo oD OD 283 Sas Sex Oinge age Oaids Sa= =D > ord mn ur ayqnyosuy mes Oss FNN Se BRO Cn HOOD CHO ONO HOH NSH FRR OF oe ets *IOVEM HOD Ho AMO LQ OnS HO CO 4 oD OD AMO CHM CHiN =) No AID ula Aas SBS +150 SEE IND Ont ONS Eh spey SoS M19 Moc NON AOM > = IDOD HS VG EVES) CONN Hin NA Ne SOO FARR BHO CHO HOO NHS SSO FANG AN oN co Tor) Inc 00 SAN SOHN OLD ROG AVMH MOK DMO mAM IWS EOD SHN om *Jaquinu u01yB}g pein ei8 Bisse wien Soe SS8 SSS SRE RR LEK LES SSR FBS BRS SSS SSS t Ree See KEK BRE BRE RRR Ree RRR RRR RRR RRR RRR RRR Ree REE Ss AS ORR OR ORR OUR OUR OUR RR OUR OUR OUR OUR ORR ORR ORR 22 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 190g. Descriptive List of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. . o cE 3 MANUFACTURER, PLACE OF BUSINESS AND BRAND. | a ~~ S DN 17965 LazarettopAroostook kotatolGuanopeecne een eee OEE eee 1797 || “azarettolCormiGuamoni. sical cis ce eiete he ere eae oe elo ee lene ais elas a rer eee ae eae 1798 | Wazaretto Hich GradevPotato) Guano.) .- 52 oe eee eens le cies oe eieieneeiene 1799") Lazaretto: Propellor Potato Guanmore ses dese ee ee oiiens co clolere a eal oe niet neuatene T8004) \Miuniatecof Potash ieee Ss javsua cite cia ar sic reac aU Pa EUs Nek aha ee Far ceea res Uo) a TSOL Gl tNitrate of SOc ae yee. acta acs cce ees tet e area s earana oe Re Bann aE Pars os ERT Ae CVE 1802/5 Otis? sPotatowMertilizery ye es ste cosh cae ees nae el ate a ane eor oienie- oi eT te aeltc een aN Pete 1803) (Otis 2Superplosp hate sy eos ce one oee sete iic see sae a ec te ea ete s TSR See SSC Ha ee eae 1804 | Pacific Dissolved Bone and Potash..........:..2....50s+cee reece este ete eneee 1805 | Pacific Grass & Grain Bertilizerse tts hee ce aii ois chs oie adi aia ees eee Rete oe Re 1806 | Pacific High Grade General Fertilizer... ...... 0.0.0.2 e eee eee eee eee tees TSOF. | Pacific Nobsque Guam neice ie ces ashes hse Se stead ay ars acl Pitostiaer Aiea eale calle) eset re Pe RS aE 1808) Pacific Potabo Special yes sei Mewohsipee seis ec ce eee con ire oicttebin rts reeset rekon ehst eee a 1809) Racker’siUnion#Animal Corn Hertilizersone see eae conc ee ec ene. 1811 | Packer’s Union Gardners’ Complete Manure..........-.0 0. cece eee ee tee eee 18125) sRackerzs Unionseotatoy Manureteeer yen ieer ote ie nies nicer kere nes 1813) ‘Packer’s) Union Universal=Hertilizer.2 os. oe oe velco cee cic oe aie eiein nenone 18140) Plain®Superphosphate severe dict ene igiaier sate Wola shienornreea are elas ace eee eae esa ekes He Anes 1815 | Quinnipiac Climax Phosphate for all Crops...:......... 00 cece eee ee ete eee ee 1816) | AOuinnipiacy CormManure seer eco ee eee eerie 1Sieae@uinnipiac MarketiGardensManure™ eis errs an cid rier sie erie 1818) MQuinnipiaeseRotatomManures soci ene oie oct era eae 18197) = Quinnipiac Potatosehosphatenmniecie se seine ictal reiieticee oie ie rere eee 18200) Reads: Marmiens) “Briand i: sc. cio: coscsrsue sro ee soc te shears alle eee ORI ee 18219 SReadvs Eich iGraderharmers) Priendsseicscts seein eae eine enone 1822: Read?sPotato; Mamures 72055 oer er eae coe ih ch otare la Wels Een gtas as en 1823 ReadlissPracticalvbPotatonspecial yaa nnmnn cies eee ie ene 1824) Read?s Standard’ Superphosphatekss sc cees see cone ee eis coe eieiee)eiieeeene teenies 1825) SReadvsiSure Catch shertilizert ane vy cece ee eae ara eeroe eel ah ieee 1826 | Read’s Vegetable & Vine Fertilizer... ................0 cc cee eee cette stares 1827) ‘Soluble ‘Pacifie (Guano 327 nee ee ee aaa Sohne oe eee Sa Ree eee 1§28°)) 4Standard Aw Bra Qe eer eo ce gent case atic ere eA SE ree eas SSNS eC a ibs) || Seeinckaxel Iwo Ce Ne bo oe Goundeocesducuasdsuboccecaddoccacbeoccdnodenc 1880 Standard. CompleteyManureme eee ester rer ion ators iia one caereetc ere Teeter 183k; 1) Standard Merbilaz eres esate key anneal nue tele aed aces ovel clears meisclesie sah cileitae er cdicy elma Spe SNe 1832 otandard Guano toralli@ropseem ane eee ee eee eee 18337 EStandardiSpecialifonsbotatoes) eee a me emer re one ec ce eerie 1834 | Williams & Clark Americus Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate...... Pobedoodces 1835 | Williams & Clark Americus Corn Phosphate................ 000 ee eeceeerseeeee 1836 | Williams & Clark Americus High Grade Special..... 2.2.2.2... cee eee eee eee 1837 | Williams:& Clark Americus Potato Manure...............-0--+eeeceesceeeees 1838 | Williams & Clark Royal Bone Superphosphate for all Crops.................+.. f ARMOUR FERTILIZER WORKS, BALTIMORE, MD. 1839 1) CATE Soh ee ee ee ee ya Sars a iter ates eet aaes ah a BN Ae Se a 1840/7) ArmourisiCompleterLotatone scenic eer eae aera 1841 | Bone, Blood & Potash : —) S Tm) —) Se Se 60 _ ) gge ee: eae sss 88 888 88 S88 SES oS SRS SER SSS HEE Ss SBE a | pssjuBrenyy Bins Cal GHN ANN OO COM BNR RIND GOO KHAN SAA ARR AGA ae A OT nm a ss - ol . es CO — 8 = = E = Mice ° =MO aM IDO DOH INT D 1m 19 sm Nam oo woo mo Ay | *puno sy SOD 1D 19 co om ore mm Sas an 1D wt CVD belle) onm'n Baw Cc. SEs SBA ra Sas ; HANS OD ONAN AKA Wr Own Aa MIG MHS WHA Oris Ame AMA ao NH ton - | * a ~ San 3: ° = 7 ;, = : os : ooo o BNI e thsal: aarti gO see ese es: ess sss see see sss see Sse ses = SEE | = . Son wane oc: 1I6SO OHO COFTK~ WOR COM BMS SOR CSS S OTe a | 8 anon! - mm pein ion —T = a a Poel — ———— — — = aa is ae z 2 = uss ss | 1 Orti~ OD ORO COnmre ON FROM AEM woHD BeM OSA ron Ao Om Cnt © MID * *puno yt Se sl SHAS AUG OFF Om WN WOO IWrr tot aD NOD RPS BOS a HOM % || ms HOM 4 SAN G2OSO AN HOO HOH SAN CHK CON BHO ABO GOR BOS tH SHS iNty re Sl ree ae ae hol Doe i oon ol ol - - oe _ Sel — - -— ol = | ; . | 5 : S oo oo oo —) —) = O’ =| m | *pooyuRrensy wSss Ss Sss sss S5 SSS S85 S58 S55 S88 SSS SSS S58 SSE 38s =} & | a2 » mao ONS NNO WHO C€HOH HOD WECH WOO HHO DWH CHWHD DNR HDHD DW DOW 7, S eg Paes a 3 coo © ON HAM KN FON BHO EON BNR SRS BAS SSa Vas SEN sm SEL , || “payoaayy LEAR 19 Ad SaR AN TAN AHS SS SAH 16 Nom Sat SNS BHO BH BOs os > || Or A ANH GAN HD SOHO COON HHH ANG ANTM ANH AGN MAN ANN DW ma Oo “aqqnyog ~wStS & Lam “trip © WAS ABS Aigo 1D 2COSH CSOnm HH Hine TH BOO par = | , Ios 19 ISOIS IMD IIH WHS SIGS HAIG WWM TnIn ININ| Mmmin wWinIn asin 1B mIwOo & Jp = = = == = a : ————— \| = : w SS || | Qae 2:8 828: ASS Ss FSA mo ScOoD DOS ANN COON ‘oo MLO LoS 7 on 2) S |] , *paojuBienyy EES 1) SY OT ON Soon a a eos SS SRSA rn KG fo Se s rd SHO NIA AN: OM AN ANOS AN MAN AMN CO ANS [OO NN NON BS NO Ay p 3 pe = was Mts E ml r= et = aes cee 2 = : : mo ‘SN ONS oOt19 On on 1919 «COD ons © nwa [em nen 7BAeSn FA END Siete e -panog | WESS Sim SS: SBR AY BSN WS Bee TES A ASA (88 SRL ASA A Hew 3 Sp SCnmM ND NN aOR ANN ANNA BN MNN AMA AR AN [MAN THAN NMN MOH — . fo} " = = = = ha eF°83 7 . : roe) = ooo 020 nN~eo oo ‘ON COND CMS A on Beek = Toye ress RB: 63 oo a Se ceios $8 S38 S4a & ZOOS ‘Se BRO RMS w 2Sa | & ul ayqnjosuy eS eb eters on Sono AN HHO oko ke heint) I) —T—r—) "(O60 CON CHAO CO BRAN . y y : umn on woo ~- Om RMN NO: NOY —T— ee dh edo) onc | Seis 3 SABA eS] Sete? VSR Ln BSA 5 252 INA Hey + s21N00 FS MOM MMO A Tr) | Ur TANS oon o& pin} nh) oONo oo moo “CoSO Ano BNO COO ono Ar onr Ne So mrIN : cot 00 = Sse 19 SO 2s HN wine NOS SAN Sse SHR SSn ASX BSS 2 B2o0 . S) Ss See Se ao AN ANN AANA CoD oDoD oD oS TOGUINU WOLZBPS S222 385 SS BAZ Mow Wom 000d CORK COC DWH HHH DOD DOD © BAD } ree ree ree 5 oe oe oe | ae Se Ae on ian el Se Ie el Sel noel Se Eh aoe ee Se | : 5 \ MANUFACTURER, PLACE OF BUSINESS AND BRAND. | 2) a | ~ ro) 1842 ebruitand) Root Crop Specials sets erie erro nTe ae erence eee ea 1843) "Grain Growers cist fc pale ds sok Seiivear ne actetsieiiey ORV CeSE Se eRe A eR ea 1844) Eich ‘Grade: Potato siieis eerie ess ae eae Na eae ERS Te One TRUE ea 18453“ Wibheat,-Corn.i& OatsiSpecialiius in yak <0 head tees Pcie Ae ae tec BOWKER FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. S46 Bo wkerzse bloods bone cseeObashe meio te ee eee ence er eae 1847.) Bowker!seBonel& Rotashy square brands. eee Ieee eee 1848 | Bowker’s Complete Manure for Potatoes and Vegetables................+.-.-05 1849):| (Bowker's'CornsPhosphatess 2.562: coed oe aa ee eee TSO bowkerss HarlvalotatoyManunres aesse ier ee eral cie einer nein ie eee 1851" ||| Bowker-:s Harm and«Garden’) Phosphatelsa. «cia ie a eis alias ee renee 1852))|sBowkers) BreshiGround: Bones sae) aotearoa ee 18530 |PBowkers eullceprill@ehosphatene semana noe noe oer eee nee 1854) Bowkerss Market) GardentHertilizers= 5 ase sien ei enn nn Son cinneier ene eer 1855 ‘| Bowker’s Potash? Bome 20nd sus hele aid ous Siena Shenstone Rie neces ee Ree 1856 | Bowker’s Potash or Staple Phosphate........... 0.0.0.0 e cece cece e ete e neers 1857 | Bowker’s Potato & Vegetable Fertilizer..............-...00- se eeceeeeuseuens 1858 | Bowker’s Potato & Vegetable Phosphate. ............-. 020s eee e eect eee ees 1859) |, Bowkeris Six Percent, Potato Hentilizerss om eae e oe cee aioe oie eae 1860") Bowkeris Superphosphate swith) Botashae ae oon. oeoe eee ee eee ene ARG610 || Bowkers|SurelCrop) Phosphate: one aeeeae ee eee ene 1862) Bowkerts dlenseercentMamune) sitet mee ieee ee ae eee eee 1864 Stockbrid¢ers# Manure Avior Potatoes aastee re oe eee 1865 | Stockbridge’s Special Complete Manure for Corn and all Grain Crops............ 1863 | Stockbridge’s Complete Manure for Potatoes & Vegetables..................... 1866 | Stockbridge’s Special Complete Manure for Quick Growth and Forcing.......... 1867 | Stockbridge’s Special Complete Manure for Seeding Down, Permanent Dressing |) lowed, Weg Mes ie.5- Ue one ace Ses © ie Iie Sie eb atria UAC) ey ethane GE APO ae BUFFALO FERTILIZER CO., BUFFALO, N. Y. 1868) | Butalorst Mour-Six-dreminy cate aie gee ee nea per te Ih ue TALE SU ATT esc ona A/a a rr V869) WeBufialo ho8 1 vegcue ite oi nas eR Ras ae aia eho CCA ro CTT Lt I COE-MORTIMER CO., NEW YORK. 1870 | E. Frank Coe’s Celebrated Special Potato Fertilizer........................... 1871 | E. Frank Coe’s Columbian Corn and Potato Fertilizer......................... 1872 | pe trankiCoers: Columbianseotatoyhenbilizers eee ee ee eee 1873 | BE. Frank Coe’s Double Strength Potato Manure...............-.-0-0+eceeeee 1874 Ey prank! Coezsuxcelsion Lotatorbertilizert oe eo ee ea eee 1875 | E. Frank Coe’s Famous Prize Brand Grass & Grain Fertilizer.................. 1876 | E. Frank Coe’s High Grade Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate................ 1877 | EK. Frank Coe’s High Grade Potato Fertilizer.....5...............:...4.-+.-.+), 1878 | E. Frank Coe’s New Engiander Corn & Potatu Fertilizer...................... 1879 | E. Frank Coe’s Red Brand Excelsior Guano..............2.0.000-eeeeeueeees 1880 | E. Frank Coe’s Special Grass & Grain Fertilizer.......................0-.--005 1881 | E. Frank Coe’s Standard P8tato Fertilizer............... 0.0.02. e cece eee eee DEEP COVE MANUFACTURING CO., EASTPORT, ME. 1961-\|' Tish and! Potash: Fi. 55 Sac een cee ceee eae ten eee aa UT a Ct RAE ESSEX FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. 1882 | Essex Complete Manure for Potatoes, Roots and Vegetables................... 1883" |) Hissex, MarketiG@ardent & Potato; Manures sec cele) cence iin eee eee 1884 | Essex Potato Grower OFFICIAL INSPECTION Q. Analysis of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. es, hl Sy : oo / oess & 888 SSS 88 858 S58 S85 S8S FS SB SRF SSS SSS SRS S SES a pesyuBIeny) MIBNS aS NEN INO NOH NON NSOoO row S OX HAN SON MOSM KHSO S oS n = . Smal ae = -_ Soe | — _ -_ - _ So | - = = E ~ e oO . ~ ~ * -] ~ e ‘pmnog | S832 8 SSS SSF [88 S5S BLS BS Sto S RS LSS LAB Rx ARR 2 Seb . mwNS ONS ALN IND AMH NON NOW roo SOD HNMD HON MOM KNS NAN SIS ar x. E ues Ss — - Se) a * Sen eel toon _ Sond - —_— _ — — oo —} = OAR 0 AK BAD ACK DOG ora asn are A ~R ABA DHH AAD aor ~o~ 8 Pape See a= tol = — = Se ° Pic) ANN CON ~ © ‘ - > 1D co Hr of a “punog —SNS S&S AGH SAY Bes SAR BAG BRS BRS S &k ASS BAS SIE BAZ A ANS : POR DM SND COD AHR DOS AGH Ora sor SOF ANH BOM DHN OND KF DORK 3 Io. UNS et = c= ee 2S. _ a uiamninennl — -—_ — _ : : : —) —) oo S || -pojuueny | eSSS S SBS SSS ‘8S 88S S85 SSS SSS FS SS SBR SSS SSR SRS S SES 2 2 ; Od ~ MOD WHO FD wo~OH BSS Wisi- Oot CS SH WNH Pr-O WHE DHS © BHD 8 2 Lae Ae vee Sa SES ae 2 \'3 OO CO INH RON FINnme DND KRHm MHD BHO 12 12m MOS WSR WHE NASM 2S sO a | > *puno sy aa are iG Sled ices Crees Recess Ce COT SNC eso CR ri I NS a ae Cc = ELAS : OOD ~K RHO OOO ‘OK HOD AOD DinK SOoIn 19 GO HAD ~HS PHD WAS © roe : = Q — = ————— Saal —_ —— ee — ——— 2 a) N roo NS ‘on Mine 2 Nao ~o oF ons eot—) an & “aqnyposuy ee =) ae aASs 09 SA ao S35 SAN a 83 Ss FAS =Ke 2oS 8 RAS Ay SHS N AEN AGN INA MNS AKA AnH CONN + ND ANN AND FANN ONR SO FiI6R IDIND Ht EOD CON “DN MMN ANS SOAK SHH 2 Sx Gro EES ORI ers oma “powoaryy IIS AN HOG AAO Ha AAW RM Worm WAS INS SH OO is Hiss Ron onrn nN aot Inco AON mn to as OO OD ON NON Nn NOD mAN Neo NAN FNS OO NOR 00 19 es Rae KOS ‘Rin wOl DO OPH Ox > oN 2D ON ini «DOD mre “ayqnyog SE EEN NLS CORSICA Cra Splosioey tnx CoS CHS bea cs eS ek! Teta Fo) : Sind 16 SHH NON Ton MAK NaH tt NNO N In RRO HOO InKK~ ROW oO HHH 191210 YSo Fey Ag ION: ANH Aan tz DO 19MM Or: HrROo ooo nS | *paojunienr) eT BeBe Cs See eens eye, IC eek tes SOC! SNe Oye CoG Oe ace ee ached Gh Tol _—= ie Ee = = < = - = : te Ea OL ee = A i) oD 00 oN HCO nN : o> ve) o =) mos = Poko eh=) a “punoyy ~weSs @ SSR BRS HIV SAS GS: SHA RRS 8 SN BBA RH: SSR BRE BS RAR % - and SO HHO HHH ANN SON ne » rot McnID A OH ett MAN + ANF MOM CO COIN (o) == ae en — ee = SSG £ 5 : ; ; . © oo *oD HOD . ~ nN Ho ano ac) o ps TOE | WOES age 4a2 RE CEE AS: RSE SRB BF SR SER AS Se ck REA a ut 9]qnposuTy Seto! NS etatee eres soi ton Seu eipiiet a wnt COS HO coo ‘co cee U oO Cot NSO: ‘OM ‘frm wwoD fe ee pois ES A BSB FRB RS SAS &: SS $32 = ZS NASin OF + 1565 +S oa) : 14 I S oso So Ana ono oe osc oc Coon trio o AN ROO Ne “oO id “on epee 1D SEO Ron aes IDO OD mT 19 S 2B CoN See ore eon a BEF . ° rad oS Eee EeEY SEE So TOQUINU UOI1ZBIS SS$SS SB SS 4HB BRS BHS Bas Eee SOD © OH DmD Hon Bowe SHH HF BS ane re 5 oe Oh oes Bh oe | reset See ree ree Soon Ih oon Mae) ree Se | ae ree ree ree soe Rae ome! _ Oe nied 26 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1QO9. Descriptive List of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. R | | ¢ 2 MANUFACTURER, PLACE OF BUSINESS AND BRAND. Ss ~ g DM | —— 1885) «| Missex: XOXO Mish & Po tashice i. ices coccotedehs ised a mecca soe cede UTE en ee HUBBARD FERTILIZER CO., BALTIMORE, MD. 1886) | -ubbards Blood ebonerc Potash nes ate einen nite s GAON a A eer 1887" |; Hubbard’s Bone and\Potash 10 and 2°00. 06h) tee) ee ee aa 1888 | Hubbard’s Farmers’ IXL Superphosphate.............- 0000 cece eee eee eee ee 1889 | Hubbard’s Five Percent Royal Seal Compound................00 0000 e eee eee 18903 SEtubbardiissRoyalebimsionmsseise es hoe rete cs ete eee ep etna an sro ee arr 1891 | Hubbard’s Special Potato Compounds eee eee etn ee eS EO ae aiclodict LISTER’S AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL WORKS, NEWARK, N. J. 18925)" ListersseAmimalaBomerdsseotasine i ce esis unpre creee eects tars cee eet ee 1960); Sister! s#Bone Mealy: Ss actie aot ccs Sate cuole nk te ca Rice Lee eee Sale Beyearsreietettene 1893) Sdeisteris-bhiohY Grader Specials: saa spratctel oo ieee uct eee chee ac bee coe eee ee 1894 | Listerss! Oneida Specials ees ccsas Gee a he Le ae a Ee 1805 | Wisters) PotabolManure sje cv bes 8s Motes ASN aed) ae es ee, San ee 1896 ee Wisterss) special Corn vbentilizerc arse ea eie eines eter cee esto ee eee 1897) elister:sispecialbotatoplertilizersicnssere ian ra see eee rai ue a ene eee 1'S898\" ly Wisters SUCCESS! ce yih ames imen mei ay ongemat Se slo mil eV ty OM agar Se Ace (Re an 1961 + Lister’s 10% Potato: Grower = evans nities ccs eae anual sie Bh eels aie ue tte ate eee Ree MERROW BROTHERS CO., AUBURN, ME. 1962),|. Merrow's'B ones Meals ae Ria ere CURE ecko A a a | MORRISON BROTHERS, BANGOR, ME. 18995) At eBrandeRotatonbertilizertsse ences sec teeta cetera ere oa occ elcattel aT aera ere 1900) | vAcid Phosphate tice) Gene ve hee ee tener ems cal eters tar ules PU ecco cot Ud nag Lan oa a 1901; | C- sBrand Hertilizemforalli@ropss ore toe eee ee ee ae eooee 1902))|" MurriatevofsRotash issn ans Ieee Wey ise 1 Ra ae att: Sen Ma nee 1903) Nitrate of Soca iy Cee si enc) Me PUI aad cok vdeo ON Nitrate 1904 | Sulphatevof Potash gs seni eh aie rie ad aan e tiee Fee rR Ue a So a ea eme | NATIONAL FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. 1905 | Chittenden’s Ammoniated Bone Phosphate. ............ 00.000 cece cece eee eee 19068 = Chittenden si:AToostoakas pecial armel ces etan te ele ta is ciel ie) siete is) ete are et 1907 | Chittenden’s Complete Root Fertilizer................ 0... 0002s eset wees nee | 1908.) (Chittenden: s Hureka Potato Mertilizerws sa. ce yeaa ye noe aes eee ee 1909 | Chittenden’s Excelsior Potato Fertilizer...................00 cece eee ences 1910 | ChittendencsuVarketuGardentBentilizernsn ite) eine eke see are roe | NEW ENGLAND FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. IAL WING Ke Jara ev avel Crornyo lene Wikkowors., GsoeocceocuucoanddacobuudouncGadcuosouoocse 1912) New: EnelandCornid& Grains Bertilizers nee. oe eee ea oe eee eee 19136 |) NewsHneland! Corny Phosphates ara ine ele oe slicer teen eee renee 1914 | New England High Grade Potato Fertilizer................ 0.0000. eee eee eeees 1915 | New England High GradeiSpecial Sc ies ee oc) Ge a Ra Re ae 1916 | New England Market Garden Manure csi. Wo iG uh) kee 19Ne New bnelandsRotatol Mertilizens emai seiecie eisai ieee cde cine ei eee eee 19183 New EnolandseotatonGrowenmi yew sei areata ie ecient a eee eas 19195 New EnclandiSuperphosplaite nese sete er) ee cae oe ee eer PARMENTER & POLSEY FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. T9200 AL AAC Bram tei 00 Me le rr BTR Nes Otte SER iat 8 ALL aa a 1921/4) Aroostook: Speciale s/s 22) Se le ee Se iy ee aii SRO, CUS! Sc A Bae ey eI 19997 iS Miainembotatombertilizen: dens rm ciee ura puri Se blero or ys ices he Une a eer team iene 1923 Flyeeueh ROC ea rears ee Pai Se a SE BA is gl cece a 1924 & PPotatomG ro were cece: bese cae te eee Pee ceeds sade ar ch Rep UE Aeiaes 1925 Soonial PotatowWertilazernny ce i seh naleg cn eeve hes cae Ree ney sus ice ctl Gees et Sth Boge ORTLAND RENDERING CO., PORTLAND, MAINE. 1926: | Bone ® Dust Mamaia ae 2 eye iche ta ean auenc teil csiiens sete otrostoaalac Peer reel (IME ese Pr eee * Sample taken from ware house at Portland. + Sample taken from ware house at Bangor. OFFICIAL INSPECTION 9Q. 27 Analysis of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. Nitrogen. | Phosphoric Acid. | Potash. Total. oer Available. | Total. — : eters E S 3 ae = se] =) c “ss oO . . o ov Oo euaery | 2 2 Bo hey oa ie 2 2 2 i=] © Q : =| © & Q pate re] m0 fe) ye r= Pes eee Sls eel et) ee |e ae ce eee os | So ee ee le ies PB | BS WB os meee |e | & | 6 ipa oul iS | Maal Na Bad a eas et) & | & | l Joule Fou} Go|, Fo. |. % % | %' | %1% | % | % |) % % | %G 1885 | 0.40 | 2.22 | 2.62 | 2.00 || 6.54 | 1.91 | 8.98 | 8.00 10.89 | 9.00 || 3.95 | 3.00 1886 | 2.02 | 1.10 | 3.12 | 3.82 || 6.62 | 2.14 | 1.21 | 8.76 | 8.00 | 9.97 | 9.00 || 7.20| 7.00 TESS || ye (eae ee [eee ae | (Ee Le 08: Mame ol Sethe LOKOON ees PLN Ie ae 2.00 1888 | 1.06 ; 0.90 | 1.96 | 1.66 || 7.35 | 1.43 | 0.96 | 8.78 | 8.00 | 9.74 | 9.00 || 2.53 | 2.00 1889 | 2.70 | 1.66 | 4.36 | 4.15 || 4.31 | 2.48 | 1.34 | 6.79 | 6.00 | 8.13 | 7.00 || 6.42; 5.00 1890 | 1.58 | 1.36 | 2.94 | 2.49 || 8.80 | 1.08 | 0.55 | 9.88 | 8.00 |10.43 | 9.00 || 4.55 | 4.00 1891 | 2.01 | 1.30 | 3.31 | 3.£2 || 3.96 | 3.01 | 1.40 | 6.97 | 6.00 | 8.37 | 7.00 ||10.14 | 10.00 RUDE eee i el eat. _..|| 3.30 | 6.81 | 4.12 |10.11 {10.00 |14.23 11.00 || 2.17} 2.00 TET) | a PROD OFGB ills wee Atle |e ec [ie ban Se ae 24.67 |23.00 ||...... | aera 1893 | 0.45 | 1.50 | 1.95 | 1.65 || 3.75 | 4.34 | 3.07 | 8.09 | 8.00 |11.16 | 9.00 |\11.16 | 10.00 1894 | 0.34 | 0.83 | 1.17 | 0.83 || 4.42 | 3.71 | 2.48 | 8.13 | 7.00 |10.61 | 8.00 || 1.16 | 1.00 1895 | 1.92 | 1.25 | 3.17 | 3.30 || 5.50 | 2.46 | 3.09 | 7.96 | 8.00 j11.05 | 9.00 || 7.22 | 7.00 1896 | 0.70 | 1.12 | 1.82 | 1.65 || 5.63 | 3.72 | 2.39 | 9.35 | 8.00 |11.74 | 9.00 || 3.66 | 3.00 1897 | 0.64 | 1.22 | 1.86 | 1.65 || 5.66 3.94 | 2.19 | 9.60 | 8.00 |11.79 | 9.00 || 3.52 | 3.00 1898 | 0.31 | 0.99 | 1.30 | 1.23 || 6.16 | 3.02 | 2.58 | 9.18 | 9.00 |11.76 |11.00 || 2.37 | 2.00 ROGUE eee tsi cause OO Ei eerie etree! [eat ant (EP a 6:00 eee TEOOM| | seems 10.00 | 1 | 02) i eae 8 eM te fs aaah hack acs cea |e stock B17510|S1400)}}| 302.4) sae te 1899 | 2.19 | 1.18 | 3.32 | 3.00 || 7.97 | 1.20 | 0.48 | 9.17 | 8.00 | 9.65 |...... 9.61 | 10.00 TRO eee gall ae | aa ea ie 14.29 | 1.54 | 0.19 115.83 16.00 |16.02 |......|]......]...... 1901 | 1.71 | 0.46 | 2.17 | 2.20 || 9.35 | 1.31 | 0.50 |10.66 {10.00 {11.16 |...... 6.45 | 6.00 | OPTE |b. 2h ACIS alot hal Or ere ee | aeons Bee fel Poti eeu 1 daraet Reco 50.00 | 50.00 ; LOG an | eeeeclics ek. FP 8995 TOO HII eed ea | atest sees ll eve nas | ee fieeehy caller Ste. I Sessathe eee { LED TT 38.3 ted (Sa oe aie chal ean | era a Po | Woe oe 8| tee are 50.66 48.00 TT GOE See el eee 1.85 | 1.65 || 6.23 | 2.78 | 3.33 | 9.01 | 8.00 (12.34 |10.00 || 2.34 2.00 1906 | 2.46 | 1.72 | 4.18 | 4.11 || 5.77 | 2.60 | 1.39 | 8.37 | 7.00 | 9.76 | 8.00 || 7.89 | 7.00 1907 | 1.71 | 1.73 | 3.44 | 3.20 || 6.51 | 1.49 | 1.78 | 8.00 | 8.00 | 9.78 |10.00 || 6.01 6.00 1908 | 0.85 | 1.78 | 2.63 | 2.40 || 4.19 | 1.46 | 1.75 | 5.65 | 6.00 | 7.40 | 7.00 |/10.48 | 10.00 1909 | 1.80 | 1.76 | 3.56 | 3.30 || 4.08 | 1.88 | 1.85 | 5.96 | 6.00 | 7.81 | 7.00 |/10.56 | 10.00 1910 | 1.16 | 1.26 | 2.42 | 2.40 || 3.70 | 2.49 | 2.17 | 6.19 | 6.00 | 8.36 | 8.00 || 5.63 | 5.00 1911 | 1.91 | 1.48 | 3.39 | 3.28 || 3.45 | 3.14 | 3.57 | 6.59 | 6.00 /10.16 | 7.00 | 10.04 | 10.00 1912 | 0.44 | 0.76 | 1.20 | 1.22 || 5.66 | 1.40 | 0.55 | 7.06 | 7.00 | 7.61 | 8.00 || 2.05 | 2.00 1913 | 0.76 | 1.02 | 1.78 | 1.64 || 3.85 | 4.93 | 1.33 | 8.78 | 8.00 /10.11 | 9.00 || 3.23 | 3.00 1914 | 1.28 | 1.20 | 2.48 | 2.46 || 5.65 | 2.38 | 2.16 | 8.03 8.00 |10.19 | 9.00 | 6.18 | 6.00 1915 | 2.32 | 1.40 | 3.72 | 3.69 || 5.38 | 3.53 | 1.17 | 8.91 | 7.00 | 9.08 | 8.00 ||10.54 | 10.00 1916 | 2.07 | 2.22 | 4.29 | 4.10 || 5.95 | 1.16 | 1.91 | 7.11 | 7.00 | 9.02 | 8.00 || 7.91 | 7.00 | | 1917 | 0.88 | 0.88 | 1.76 | 1.64 || 3.46 | 4.89 | 0.98 | 8.35 | 7.00 | 9.33 | 8.00 || 4.28 | 4.00 1918 | 1.38 | 1.16 | 2.54 | 2.46 || 3.45 | 2.59 | 2.40 | 6.04 | 6.00 | 8.44 | 7.00 |/10.33 | 10.00 1919 | 0.88 | 1.60 | 2.48 | 2.46 | 5.66 | 1.93 | 3.77 | 7.59 | 8.00 |11.36 |10.00 || 4.34 4.00 1920 | 2.11 | 2.44 | 4.55 | 4.10 || 5.938 | 1.86 | 1.67 | 7.79 | 7.00 | 9.46 | 8.00 || 7.64 | 8.00 1921 | 2.70 | 1.26 | 3.96 | 3.69 || 5.33 | 1.95 | 2.64 | 7.28 | 7.00 | 9.92 | 8.00 |!10.18 | 10.00 1922 | 2.38 | 1.26 | 3.64 | 3.20 || 5.10 | 0.90 | 1.85 | 6.09 6.00 | 7.94 | 7.00 10.90 | 10.00 1923 | 0.96 | 1.62 | 2.58 | 2.47 || 4.86 | 2.75 | 3.67 | 7.61 | 8.00 |11.28 | 9.00 || 4.11 | 4.00 OMAN cent oh, eA Gu IP vce eans aes tence eter: BiO0U ser ee | a ae 10.00 1925 | 2.00 | 1.36 | 3.36 | 3.29 || 6.09 | 1.0411.53 | 7.13 8.00 | 8.66 | 9.00 | 7.06 | 7.00 UDG a lave Moelle aa Read eHa7hi| [eeemetl leer celica acl eeck atlieeene TEVOIe | Mae50s eee neers 28 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1909. Descriptive List of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. 5 q 2 MANUFACTURER, PLACE OF BUSINESS AND BRAND. el & 3 mm PROVINCIAL CHEMICAL FERTILIZER CoO., ST. JOHN, N. B. 1928) |ialL0 SZ CompletesAroostools Rotator eee ie eects one iene nana 1929!) Special Potato re hosp lia tear cecc cycle sen ethane rani ea eg P. H. REED, FT. FAIRFIELD, MAINE. 1960':| Reeds sPotatolGrowerd seers 2 NS coy peeG ara HL enc) Ae ety. Grea Ee SAGADAHOC FERTILIZER CO., BOWDOINHAM, MAINE. 1930} )|- Acid MPhosphate ie eee eee eT er aces hece Guest ee ate oe ie eR 1931" | (Aroostook Potato Manure) ci oe eaieee co auch alse asitg ) sedeksns Ren eR ees 19327) | eDinicoMentilizen yen ee ky ie cea oh RS ase aehscact ala oe oRe 0 1933)" cMinimia te vot SPotashy es oi hes bai ac el ee ene lee ee era a na ah SUL ES 1984 keNitratenotSodaine Hes waaay sty Oe, Sea ee engabk Ge PO cn Go in 2 0.0/0.5 1935 | Sagadahoc High Grade Superphosphate.......... 0... ..0 cece cece eee eee ee eee 19364|\Hoacadahoe SpecialpeotatoHertilizers ewe eee eee ee eee eee 11939" | XOx ChemicaliMertiliger 2228.30 6 SOS ns i ee ee eee 938s WankeeyMertilizer. vse sooo eh oo OS hele ee tte eR ose Oe RUS gee 1939/0 3-6 and LO Mertilazens 2) eo8 3 eee GN ea ieee Sal icisou)) 2 tI OA ON ea 1940.) 4—Giandi10vMertilizer cos ries. Bak Ue ain ic eae ai eee eee SWIFT’S LOWELL FERTILIZER CO., BOSTON, MASS. 1941s A cid “Bhs babe ices este ee oles ncle soca eves -susal Sols gae lee lekte ss AIR atic cueueic bstect cee Netter aS eee 1949!) iMouumiatevofi Ro tashyite 2 6is a eee a a a Feet lien as le eae tee cee N94 35 UuNitratevotiSodadwy: Meck sees ee tipi ese niwiane et eiRiadh eo lale cheatin a RO 1944 iS waktzs)WowellwAnimails Brand) 20s sy 8 28 eae Si AS ONS Eesti ar 1945) SwattesuuowelleBonerlMertilizen.)2 np 2 -rssuas eerie cae ee ole eo enero eet A946 Swatt?s) owellkCerealehertilizersok wee oo oo ee bo oe eee eee ere 1947 | Swift’s Lowell Dissolved Bone and Potash..................0..-.ssc+eessuers 1948 i Swattss) owelllmpresssBrand:s sc -ciicneic -cncaeichicmniicias ciel icietae meee ere 1949) | Swittis Lowell Potato Growerejeae cise ooo ieee aioe Eee ern 1950R Siwatt-sLowelloRotatomlantunes ss eects ae ae ee cence ene eee 1951S SiwattiseloawelllPotatosehosphatepm ere cca inici ae ein crate ere eres 1952 SwattesulowelliSuperiorMentilizernsescraeinicl: = aceite ier ene neie ere ener 1953 | Swift’s Special Corn & Vegetable Manure............... 00 c eee e eee ence 19547 0S wittisiSpecialyPotatovblertiliizeryenis ie rics eel eee Pcie eae a ane TUSCARORA FERTILIZER CO., BALTIMORE, MD. 1955) || huscarorapAroostooks Specialise ely aise yrs min sts ry etree cena iete: thse ips es annie area 1956) Puuscaroral Completes eo tavore mmr miscreants ia eare eo cen ere entero ener eae TOE | Ae care Jniebuih Siaol IRM con oangndsoanonsedoandGounepuauvoucoaccnoacunoNS O58) “Pus carorvay Truce re cea ect aes w creas eek Saal sae bs Stati ia a Bh ay eee ov a UE ee JOHN WATSON & CO., HOULTON, MAINE. 1959 | Watson’s Improved Potato Fertilizer... 0.0.02. ee ee eee WHITMAN & PRATT RENDERING CO., LOWELL, MASS. 19637) Whitman Prattis) Commi Successes csicieciciceiccicioie chercicteicichercicio oleic eterno OG0G0 1964) iWihitmanid Pratics eotashy Specialenneeiaeee cee ee eee eee ars 1965 | Whitman & Pratt’s Potato Manure.............0...esccereccsercces 500000 f 1966) | Whitman’ dc ebratt~seeotatonb Oowamanericreicieiclelelciieleiciesieleiaietsiarioreeneioicratsieineienens 5 1967 | Whitman & Pratt’s Vegetable Grower...........c.cceccrccscccccecccccecss - 1968) Whitman’ & Pratt?s Alli@rop) Brandis cprieieeicis ielereicielel sie sieieiels:clchelonsretebeiele hina 29 SSS Ss 00 00 8.00 00 00 00 3.00 00 00 00 00 50 .00 .00 .00 00 00 00 00 00 00 7.00 10.00 00 00 00 00 00 OFFICIAL INSPECTION 9. Analysis of Manufacturers’ Samples, 1909. . . (+ Teas so . 6 P| poe}yUBLIeny) Bos +N SO DON SO Hoo AGS acS COI: ise nel ee oneena wh oeviees mn Pal Tos} nae coal — ae 9 uo Om 3 -. = = te ~~ . . 19 : ‘> oD : 15 62 oF 9 os 2 thal eee) Mee Re ese Se lene) bee een en Rees Smeg. oon 0 HH 3 Ht MOM SoS — HOH ANS HOO KPO GOR ~ KY MOI ae pete pe oid Sa mr) a - veaWeh Von) coal _ coal oe Lan Sas a er oS oe es co: .| -paquweny | 2:: 8 88S ::8 88S 88 8:: 88S SSS S85 SS S88 S$ FS SES S85 = oO Hr~o ‘™ 0000 ~~ & - SOHO SCO~ ODD OY OTD BM S SHD GSO | / 8 = * Sort re - _— aon J t= fof (o} . . . . Oo > & : Belted oO: nN Ra) oF on a HOOD 8 Ss -punog | ea S BSH 21:83 R85 BE AR: ER ASR QRZ SA SRR AA NG ~O 0 ODO ‘H OO woo 1: OOO HO~ OH DO DD OD GF COBH -:- bn | Seal i onl Sal rt rt. Sol Sl _— ste =a 5 t= ie = : ae . S > r=) So oats ee gas Sees as Sse See. 5 Bas Sse See Ss gsasn= Seece see | = Oo; mm IQ 1 RH OO AN: DO~ OTe KOK NO ~HO 0 OD HOM rOmD | | eee = aes = = - Srl | ° Fi C . a . ~ ‘ ie) iar) ~~ © > beac) eI > *puno reSR oH Sinn 3 aas oa 7) . BSB Sa Sa om Tair a) iB Boa aia C0 ~~ OMI (0 OHS HO nN: AHS SHO COM HEH HOD HD WO Mor | Q == a Mra deen Saet oe _ = Se a. E a = = n . . cm : Re} 6 oS 20 7 © HHw & ROnony | Rese eee Se Res Se 4% ben Ble Se Be lees ee ote | Ay on oc oon “oD HOD ae N : -: Ome mA Ane Se eel onmn- o oc NNeS | pe ee SS ety ens id ee Se eee Oo cha eee ee | el ‘ 2: Boat Fre) roe) o oo ON *payoAayy weer = BAs Bet) ts ooeoe aap oS Bees Capes Bais aaS S ASS i) Ss Aow on Ft NTN TAO IN RO ONS HN FANT NANG Ae FRO Oo BH MOH 5 oD oe 19m 1909 Oo om 1D at -aTqnyjog yee i) SoS io) SB:°8 BS S:: SRA ASS 19 OS S Doo a 16 Bit IDI O cored Oo oH Ge MO Si i Wimn ON Hidid IND Sig Mm Mm HOON 7) ie ON oD 00 OP HO RHO 4H AN +E 2 : “poeeyUBIeNnr) yes S i) re) sss za r) SER SAA =O NH OH 1S om On RRS 3 MA oO aH sta NO NCD 29 AMS AA AA OA AM wh HH PIN cDOON Ge) zs a ° = — Te A ely 5 ae Cie Se hous ij Wetee ake 5 oD ‘ Oaom oD © no © N EO case a 3 *punoy reas a 183 6S Sak 6s ‘6S rir) S58 on Sor Ke O Ree o So MN OD HAN B4 HOS NCO MQ ARS AA AND ON NG HH NN od KR = aS Tae ea Tee ss a5 ca “TOVeM 4 i ees = elle) N tron es I magi |e 8 BE 118 Bey BR | 1: RaQ Seq SSR 4B SSS 2S BAS TE: t ayqnposuy aaa tee ae [Od CO ono coo mOO HOH Cnn HO Fe NN COMO oe “IOVEM [0 Teves aie = ro 4c tte . > aoe ia ai P onxw aks uraqnog | wis SF sBS 8H SSR KS SRS RSA SHH BE FSX SS BIS ce: : 4 NN On AH AHO AN HOO CON CAN BAG HHO N CO SOR ft: 2 io a —_. Ss . . . | mS Sas Soe 29 BAe IND FORD SOHN MH WO © DR MAID Orw ‘yoquinu u0ye oR S BES SB Belo) Ininimd iD 161915 16 Hh OOO OOO et WMG | Nae = She She SSS oh She ASS sad sae Se SSR-8 = SSS See 30 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QOQ. (Continued from page 19.] manufacturer, etc., and for the convenience or other advantage incidental to their use. For many years this Station has not printed an estimate of the commercial value of the different brands licensed in the State. If anyone wishes to calculate the commercial value he can do so by using the trade values adopted for 1909 by the Experiment Stations of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island and Vermont. These valuations represent the average retail prices at which these ingredients could be purchased during the three months preceding March 1, 1909, in ton lots at tide water in the states named. On account of the greater distance from the large markets the prices for Maine at tide water would probably be somewhat higher than those quoted. TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS FOR I9QOQ. Ser saa INitrogenMinl imicnatese caesarean gets enue nas ee eee 164 IT VAAMIOMI A SALES <5 eerie can eee geeeel it7/ Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat and ‘blood, and in mixed fertilizers.... 19 shal 1onave> loyorme eevl (abel eketas edbg oo0004 6 19 inyeOarse Done and tankage:y. 22. 14 Bhosphoricvacids awater-soluplescme 8.7 b-) i eee 4 Citrate=solubblers an] Ae ae Ue a eee 34 in fine ground bone and tankage..... 33 in coarsespone, and tankagens 3) ser 3 in cotton seed meal, castor pomace anid ASHES acres cusses shares scone re eae 3 in mixed fertilizers, if insoluble in AhananCraiohia CUONES) an ga wianodas acc 2 Potash as high grade sulphate and in forms free from mieltmateOuuchloridesss eset. ye rkeretees 5 ASHAMUTIALC yh oe eetee eer eee ren UUN ot se seal toe 4+ OFFICIAL INSPECTION 9. 31 RULES FOR CALCULATING VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. The commercial valuation will be accurate enough as a means of comparison if the following rule is adopted: Multiply 3.8 by the percentage of nitrogen. Multiply 0.7 by the percentage of available phosphoric acid. Multiply 0.4 by the percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid. Multiply 1.0 by the percentage of potash. The sum of these 4 products will be the commercial valua- tion per ton on the basis taken. Illustration. The table of analyses shows a certain fertilizer to have the following composition: Nitrogen 3.30 per cent; Available phosphoric acid 8.00 per cent; Insoluble phosphoric acid 1.00 per cent; Potash 6.00 per cent. The valuation in this case will be computed thus: Nitrogen, Bop si30, $12 54 Available phosphoric acid, Oa7 << 81c0! 5 60 Insoluble phosphoric acid, OF ASX 11,00; 40 Potash, TsO

| 900) 2147 D | 43.00 | 41.00 | = / 9.00 2162 D | 41.40} 41:00 | — | 9.00 2171 D | 40.75 | 41.00 | = | 9.00 2562 D | 42.50 | 41.00} —-— | 9.00 2566 D } 41.82 | 41.00 | = | 9.00 2578 Di} 400754) 41400) |) sh) VOXOON mesos O 38.69 | 41.00 | 9.97 | 9.00 2799 D 42.00 41.00 - 9.00 2834 Battle Brand Choice Cotton Seed Meal... O 44.81 | 41.00 8.56 8.00 2234 W. P. Battle & Co., Memphis, Tenn... O | 42.81 | 41.00 | - | 8.00 2354 : O | 41.87 | 41.00 = | 8.00 2407 1D) Aa ey) ZG) |S S00) 2480 D | 41.50] 41.00; - | 8.00| 2481 D | 41.13 | 41.00 | - | 8.00 2519 O | 41.63 | 41.00 | = | 8.00 2606 } | Buck Eye Cotton Seed Meal........... 0 | 38.50 | 39.00 | 9.19 | = 2282 Buckeye Cotton Oil Co.............. D_ 42.00 | 41.00 | = ie ee oe 2750 ID) | Zoli |)