Soret a * re ahd, Bo bd 66/9 i / 2 : AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, MAINE. Organization July to December, 1911. THE STATION COUNCIL. PRESIDENT ROBERT J. ALEY, President DIRECTOR CHARLES D. WOODS, Secretary CHARLES L. JONES, Corinna, \ d SAMUEL W. COULD, Skowhegan, CORTENGE Oi OSCAR R. WISH, Portland, Board of Trustees JOHN P. BUCKLEY, Stroudwater, Commissioner of Agriculture EUGENE H. LIBBY, Auburn, State Grange ROBERT H. GARDINER, Gardiner, State Pomological Society RUTILLUS ALDEN, Winthrop State Dairymen’s Association AND THE HEADS AND ASSOCIATES O!* STATION DEPARTMENTS. THE STATION STAFF, ADMINIS- | 5r ANCHE F. POOLER, Cler One TRATION 1 ; : erk and Stenographe GEM M. COOMBS, ‘Stenographer (RAYMOND PEARL, Pu. D.,, Biologist PEUGEIN iar SEIUMBIERAS per Dy): Associate BIOLOGY 3 MEAYIN TER. “CURTIS, Ac ME: Assistant | WALTER ANDERSON, Poultryman [ LOTTIE. E. McPHETERS, Computer JAMES M. BARTLETT, M. S., Chemist HERMAN H. HANSON, M. S., Associate . CHEMISTRY + ALBERT G. DURGIN, M. S., Assistant | ALFRED K. BURKE, B. §., Assistant | HARRY C. ALEXANDER, Laboratory Assistant OSKAR A. JOHANNSEN, Pu. D., Entomologist oy i EDITH M. PATCH, Px. D,, Associate ALICE W. AVERILL, Laboratory Assistant c eae aes W.BONNS,B.S., Associate Horticulturist WARNER J. MORSE, M. S., Pathologist < Paaro Be { CHARLES E, LEWIS, Pu. D, Associate VERNON FOLSOM, Laboratory Assistant HIGHMOOR FARM, WELLINGTON SINCLAIR, Superintendent ROYDEN L. HAMMOND, Seed Analyst and Photographer ELMER R. TOBEY, B. S., : Inspector ALBERT VERRILL, B. S., Inspector EDGAR WHITE, Inspector CHARLES S. INMAN, Assistant 2 The publications of this, Safes will ie sent ee to Maine. All requests should be sent to nee | Agricultural Experiment si o CONDE NES: ob eat ke >AGE BES ecizationn OL the Station jo... cee esau es ce decree demas tees 11 BE MeN EMINCTIES. aio ane wes oy etee dlc nints SUR ee Meo ed on eee Vii Meeiasect, Notes for 1910 (Bulletin. 187) .:..........-.. BERG Wied is oak I # Variety We mot@ats (CBullettiaprSS)) eee eC te eeeeec: 5. fete nee See Hieh: vs. Modified ridge for potato growing (Bulletin 188) ...... 29 Orchard Spraying Eaxpermocms (isles WO) 6.5 cedscbecceaune 33 _ Two speeiesof Macrosiphum (Bulletin 190) ---..-....-...-..-. 81 _ Method for Determining Weights of Parts of Eggs (Bulletin 191) 93 Breeding Poultry for Ege Production (Bulletin 192) See a 113 aeiiligve Notes (Bulletin 193): . iis sae... ce tinegaeare sce see ees Raid SIZ. Control of Blackleg Disease of the Potato (Bulletin 194) ........ 201 Insect Notes for TOM TEN GS Cll etna MO Sp mre ey eer sa cee ec areiitec nee See EZ) _ Fungus Gnats of North America Part TI (Bulletin 195) Bera 24G) Mercoaaloen: (bulletin: 107): . 2). 26 ease sce eee ced es ese 8 32 Mecnonion Treasurer (Bulletin 107) 0.200.203. .ee ese e ees eee 332 ANNOUNCEMENTS. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATION. The Maine Fertilizer Control and Agricultural Experiment ‘Station, established by Act of the Legislature approved March 3, 1885, began its work in April of that year in quarters fur- nished by the College. After the Station ‘had existed for two years, Congress passed what is known as the Hatch Act, estab- lishing agricultural experiment stations in every state. This grant was accepted by the Maine Legislature by an Act ap- proved March 16, 1887, which established the Maine Agricul- tural Experiment Station as a department of the University. The reorganization was effected in June, 1887, but work was not begun until February 16, 1888. In 1906 Congress passed the Adams ‘Act for the further endowment of the stations estab- lished under the Hatch Act. The purpose of the experiment stations is defined in the Act of Congress establishing them as follows: - “Tt shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to conduct original researches or verify experiments on the physi- ology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they are sev- erally subject, with the remedies for the same; the chemical compcsiticn of useful plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued un- der a varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of manures, natural and artificial, with experi- ments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic ques- tions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other researches or experiments bearirg directly on the agri cultural industry of the United States 2s may in each case be ANNOUNCEMENTS. Vil deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective states or territories.” The work that the Experiment Station can undertake from the Adams Act fund is more restricted and can “be applied only to paying the necessary expenses of conducting original researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States, having due regard to the vary- ing conditions and needs of the respective states and territories.” INVESTIGATIONS. The Station continues to restrict its work to a few important lines, believing that it is better for the agriculture of the State to study thoroughly a few problems than to spread over the whole field of agricultural science. It has continued to improve its facilities and segregaté its work in such a way as to make it an effective agency for research in agriculture. Prominent among the lines of investigation are studies upon the food of man and animals, the diseases of plants and animals, breeding of plants and animals, orchard and field experiments, poultry investigations, and entomological research. INSPECTIONS. The inspection of food and drugs, the inspection of fertilizers, the inspection of concentrated commercial feeding stuffs, the inspection of agricultural seeds, the inspection of fungicides and insecticides and the testing of the graduated glassware used in creameries, are entrusted to the Station through its director, who is responsible for the execution of the public laws relat- ing to these matters. ‘The cost of the inspections is borne by fees and by a state appropriation, and the examination of chemical glassware by a charge for calibration. OFFICES AND LABORATORIES. The offices, laboratories and poultry plant of the Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station are at the University of Maine, Ororo. Orono is the freight, express, post, telegraph and tele- phone address for the offices and laboratories. Visitors to the Station will find it convenient to leave the steam cars at Bangor or Old Town, as the railway station at Orono is a mile from the University. Bangor and Old Town Vill MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. trolley cars pass through the campus. ‘They pass the railway station in Bangor 5 minutes after the hour and half hour, and the railway station in Old Town, 20 minutes after and 10 min- utes before the hour. HicHMoor FARM. Highmoor Farm, purchased by the State for the use of the Station, is located in the twon of Monmouth, 2} miles from the Monmouth station and the same distance from the Leeds Junction station. It is on the Farmington branch of the Maine Central Railroad. A flag station, called Highmoor, is on the farm. Monmouth is the post, telegraph and telephone address for Highmoor Farm. Both Leeds Junction and Monmouth are freight and express addresses. Visitors are always welcome. Granges, Farmers’ Clubs and others desiring to visit Highmoor Farm are requested to arrange dates in advance. Tue AIM OF THE STATION. Every citizen of Maine concerned in agriculture has the right to apply to the Station for any assistance that comes within its province. It is the wish of the Trustees and Station Council that the Station be as widely useful as its resources will permit. In addition to its work of investigation, the Station is pre- pared to make chemical analyses of fertilizers, feeding stuffs, dairy products and other agricultural materials; to test seeds and creamery glassware; to identify grasses, weeds, injurious fungi and insects, etc.; and to give information on agriculturai matters of interest and advantage to the citizens of the State. All work proper to the Experiment Station and of public benefit will be done without charge. Work for the private use of individuals is charged for at the actual cost to the Station. The Station offers to do this work only as a matter of accommo- dation. Under no condition will the Station undertake analyses, the results of which cannot be published, if they prove of gen- eral interest. CoRRESPONDENCE. As far as practicable, letters are answered the day they are received. Letters sent to individual officers are liable to remain PUBLICATIONS. ix unanswered, in case the officer addressed is absent. All com- munications, should, therefore, be addressed to the Director or HO sEMICS Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine. PUBLICATIONS. The Station is organized so that the work of investigation is distinct from the work of inspection. The results of investi- gation are published in the bulletins of the Station. ‘These make up the annual report for the year. ‘The results of the work of inspection are printed in publications known as Official Inspections. ‘These are paged independently of the bulletins and are bound in with the annual report as an appendix thereto. Miscellaneous publications consisting of newspaper notices of bulletins, newspaper bulletins and circulars which are not paged consecutively and for the most part are not included in the annual report are issued during the year. All of the bulletins issued by the Station are sent to the names upon the official mailing list prepared by the Office of Experi- ment Stations, to all newspapers in Maine and to libraries and | to agricultural exchanges. Bulletins which have to. do with general agriculture and the Official Inspections which bear upon the feeding stuffs, fertilizer and seed inspections are sent to 2 general mailing list composed chiefly of farmers within the State. ‘The publications having to do with the food and drug inspection are sent to a special list including all dealers in Maine and other citizens who request them. The annual report is sent to directors of experiment stations and to libraries. Copies of all publications are sent to the newspapers within the State and to the press on the exchange list outside of the State. BULLETINS ISSUED IN torr. No. 187. Insect Notes for 1910. 24 pages, 36 illustrations. No. 188. Field Experiments. 8 pages. No. 189. Orchard Spraying Experiments. 48 pages, 23 illustrations. No. 190. ‘Two Species of Macrosiphum. 12 pages, 14 illustrations. No. 191. Method for Determining Weight of Parts of Eggs. 20 pages, 3 illustrations. No. 192. Breeding for Egg Production. 64 pages, 9 illustrations. No. 193. Poultry Notes. 24 pages, 8 illustrations. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. . 104. 5 IOS. . 106. . 197. MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Control of Blackleg Disease of the Potato. 28 pages, 1 illus- tration. Insect Notes. 20 pages, 5 illustrations. Fungus Gnats. Part III. 80 pages, 148 illustrations. Finances and Index, 12 pages. OFFICIAL INSPECTIONS ISSUED IN: toi1. 20. 30. BM, Fertilizer Inspection. 36 pages. Oysters, Pork Sausage, Clams, Imitation Beer. 8 pages. Feeding Stuff Inspection. 20 pages. Changes in Inspection Laws. I2 pages. Fertilizer Inspection. 32 pages. Spices, Prepared Mustard, Honey and Gluten Flour. 16 pages. Food Sanitation. 12 pages. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN Gomme No. No. No. No. No: No. No. No. No. No. No. - No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 308. 399. 400. AOI. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. AIC. Ani. AT2. 413. 414. AI5. 416. AI7. Ai. Poultry Diseases and Their Treatment. 216 pages. Maine Apple Diseases. I page. Papers from Plant Pathological Laboratory. I page. Four Insect Pests. 24 pages. Suggestions for Woodlot Owners in Maine. 28 pages. Notice of No. 402. I page. Seed Test Register. 1 page. List of Publications in 1910. 1 page. The Typhoid Fly and Its Allies. 8 pages. Flea Beetles and Early Blight of Potatoes. 4 pages. Plant Lice of the Apple in Maine. 12 pages. ‘Cut Worms in Maine. 4 pages. Notice Relative to Publications. 1 page. Notice Relative to Publications. 1 page. Note Regarding Variation in the Single Combs of Fowls. 8 pages. Notice of Poultry Diseases and Their Treatment. 1 page. Notice of: Poultry Diseases and Their Treatment. 1 page. Available Bulletins and Reports of the Station. 4 pages. Packing Food under the Maine Pure Food and Drug Law. 4 pages. Notice of Four Insect Pests. I page. Laws Regulating the Sale of Agricultural Seeds, Feeding Stuffs, Fertilizers, Drugs, Foods, Fungicides and Insecti- cides. 12 pages. Directions for Taking Samples of Fertilizers. 2 pages. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Agri- cultural Seeds. 2 pages. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Com- mercial Feeding Stuffs. 8 pages. BIOLOGY PUBLICATIONS. X1 No. 422. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Com- _ mercial Fertilizers. 4 pages. No. 423. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Fungi- cides and Insecticides. 4 pages. No. 424. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Drugs. 4 pages. - No. 425. Requirements Under the Law Regulating the Sale of Foods. 22 pages. No. 426. Free Aanalyses of Feeding Stuffs. 2 pages. No. 427. .Manufacturer’s Certificate, Feeding Stuffs Inspection. I page. No. 428. Manufacturer’s Certificate, Fertilizer Inspection. 1 page. No. 429. Manufacturer’s Certificate, Fungicides and Insecticides Inspec- tion. I page. No. 430. Certificate of Registration. 1 page. No. 431. Orchard Spraying Experiments. 1 page. No. 432. Experiments at Highmoor Farm, 1911. 6 pages and map. No. 435. Proper Growing and Handling of Potato Seed Stock. 16 pages. No. 436. Notice of Potato Seed Stock. 1 page. No. 437. On the Accuracy of Trap Nest Records. 10 pages. No. 438. Breeding Poultry for Egg Production. 1 page. No. 439. Poultry Notes. 1 page. No. 440. Breeding Poultry for Ege Production. 1 page. No. 441. Poultry Notes. 1 page. No. 442. Control of the Blackleg Disease of the Potato. I page. No. 443. Station Publications. 1 page. POLOEN. PU BUICALIONS) ol, In the numbered series of “Papers from the Biological Lahoratory:” No. 24. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology: Their Significance and Limitations. By Raymond Pearl. Scientia (Bologna), Vol. X, 5th year (1911), XIX-3, pp. 101-119. (A French translation of this paper was also issued). No. 25. Inheritance of Fecundity in the Domestic Fowl. By Raymond Pearl. Amer. Nat.,- Vol. XLV, pp. 321-345. (This paper is reprinted as Part IV of No. 32 below). No. 26. The Mendelian Inheritance of Certain Chemical ‘Characters in Maize. By R. Pearl and J. M. Bartlett. Zeitschr. £. Abst. u. Vererb. Lehre, Bd. VI, pp. 1-28. No..27. An Accurate Method for Determining the Weight of the Parts of the Eggs of Birds. By Maynie R. Curtis. Me. Agr. Exp. Stat. Ann. Rpt. for 1911, pp. 93-112. No. 28. Biometric Arguments Regarding the Cenotype Concept. By Raymond Pearl. Amer. Nat. Vol. XLV, pp. 561-566. No. 29. The Personal Equation in Breeding Experiments Involving Certain Characters of Maize. By Raymond Pearl. Biol. Bul., Vol. XXI, pp. 339-366. Xil MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. No. 30. On the Accuracy of Trap-nest Records. By Raymond Pearl. Me. Agr. Exp. Stat. Ann. Rept. for 1911, pp. 186-103. No. 31. A Note on Certain Biometrical Computations. By Raymond Pearl and Lottie E. McPheters. Amer. Nat. Vol. XLV pp. 756-760. No. 32. Breeding Poultry for Egg Production. By Raymond Pearl. Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Ann. Rept. for 1911, pp. 113-176. Papers published-but not in the numbered series: a. Poultry Diseases and Their Treatment. Compiled by R. Pearl, F. M. Surface and M. R. Curtis. Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Circular — 308, pp. 1-216. b. A Note Regarding Variation in the Single Combs of Fowls. By Ry Pearl. eo Mendel Som Vol. iy) pp. 180-195 c. Some Recent Studies on Variation and Correlation in Agriculture Plants: By Re Pearly Amer iNet Vol Saha pp, 45-425) d. Opportunities for Corn Breeding in Maine. By R. Pearl. Ann. Rept. Me. Seed Imp. Assoc. for 1910, pp. 146-152. e. Poultry Notes—1o1o. By R: Pearl. Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 193 Pp. 177-200. ENTOMOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS. No. 45. Paedogenesis in Tanytarsus. O. A. Johannsen, Science XXXII, 768. No. 46. Insect Notes for 1910, O. A. Johannsen, Me. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 187, pp. 1-24. No. 47. Two species of Macrosiphum. Edith M. Patch, Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 190, pp. 81-02. No. 48. Insect Notes of 1911. O. A. Johannsen and Edith M. Patch, ; Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 195. pp. 229-243. No. 49. Pemphigus tessellata on Alder and Maple. Edith M. Patch, Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 195, pp. 244-248. No. 50. Fungus Gnats, Part III. O. A. Johannsen, Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 106. pp. — CIEUAINGS.S) UN) SIN IMIOUNE S SRA March 1 Dr. Frank M. Surface resigned as Associate Biol- ogist to accept a research position in the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. From March 1 to December 31 Dr. Eugene P. Humbert was Associate Biologist at which date he resigned to go to the New Mexico College of Agriculture and experiment Station. Gem M. Coombs began work as stenographer in May. June t Henry A. Millett resigned as Assistant and was suc- ceeded by Charles C. Inman, and in September John Summers resigned as Assistant and was succeeded by Vernon Folsom. BULLETIN NO. 187 INSECT NOTES FOR 1010.* O. A. JOHANNSEN. Following the custom of former years, notes of a miscella- neous character comprising new observations, new locality refer- ences, etc. of insects taken by us or sent in during the season are given here. Compilations and remedial measures are both avoided, and the statements are often the mere transferral of notes from the Station records. Insect notes of more popular character are given in more detail in other bulletins and circu- lars issued by the Station. The lot numbers quoted are refer- ences to our Station records, inserted for our own ‘convenience. The parts on the Aphidide aud Psyllide were written by Miss Edith M. Patch, to whom the new species must be credited. EE IPD Cue INMEIRAY, As usual by far the largest number of species concerning which complaints are made and also sent to the Station for identification this year, belong to this order. Those most fre- quently sent in were Anisota rubicunda, Diacrisia virginica, Hyphantria cunca, Euproctis chrysorrhea, and Tmetocera ocel- lana. ‘The following species are noted here primarily for the locality or food plant records. Apatela americana. Mountain ash. Seal Harbor. Sept. Balsa malana. Apple. Orono. May. Noctua clandestina.: Hollyhock, strawberries. FE. Sumner. May. Cucullia convexipennis. Cult. aster. Orono. Sept. Rhodophora florida. Evening primrose. Orono. July. Pheosia dimidiata. Balm of Gilead. Orono. July. Euproctis chrysorrhoea. Strawberries. Bath. June. Paleacrita vernata. Apple. Orono. May. *Papers from the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station: Entomol- ogy No. 46. 2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. Alsophila pometaria. Apple. Monmouth and Orono. May. Epicnaptera americana. Apple. Orono. July. Eurycyttarus confederata. (Fig. 2.) Cambridge. June. Plodia interpunctella. Packed raisins. Portland, Orono. _ Coleophora fletcherella. Apple. Orono, Monmouth. April. Bucculatrix canadensisclla. Birch, alder. Many localities. Bucculatrix pomifoliella. Apple. East Corinth. Tischeria malifoliella. Apple. Monmouth. June. Hyphantria cunea (Fall Web-worm). Of all insects submitted to us for identification the web-worm was most frequently sent in, and in this region at least its work was the most conspicuous. Many different kinds of trees and shrubs were affected, the apple being particularly subject to injury. Fig. 1 illustrates one of several apples which were taken from a web-worm nest. The caterpillars had peeled the apples. Heterocampa guttiwitta (Saddled prominent). After 3 seasons of very severe infestations these insects have suddenly disappeared. We have seen no specimens nor have any been sent in. In response to letters sent to people living in districts most severely infested in former years we learn that no insects of this species have been observed. Bucculatrix canadensisella (Birch leaf Bucculatrix) as a leaf miner. This insect was reported and the larva described in Insect Notes for 1909. This year the adults were abundant in June upon the birch leaves. Though some cocoons were found upon the trunks and branches, most of them were seen upon dried leaves, sticks and grass underneath the trees and among rubbish in fence corners. Some flat, translucent objects, resembling the eggs of the codling moth, though of course much smaller, were seen on the under side of the leaves, which may have been the eggs of the Bucculatrix. Early in August no larve had yet been observed externally upon the leaves, but many leaf miner trails, each with a minute larva within, were seen. Several leaves containing miners were carefully examined to be sure that there were no larve upon the surface, and placed in a cage. INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. 3 After a few days all the larve had left the mines and were feed- ing on the surface. Examination proved them to be the larve of B. canadcnsisclla. ‘Thus it is seen that this species passes the first 2 months of its existence as a leaf miner in the same manner as the Apple Bucculatrix. The young larva is rendered quite conspicuous by the promi- nence of the black ganglia of the ventral nerve cord, visible even when within the leaf mine. The full grown larva has 3 pairs of claws on each of the intermediate abdominal prolegs, but in the earlier stage there is but one pair. The nerve ganglia become less noticeable as the larva increases in size. Fortunately for the birches, the larvae do not reach their ereatest development until late in August, so that there can be but little permanent injury done to the tree. In the region about Orono, Betula populifolia and papyrifcra as well as the cultivated B. alba show the greatest amount of injury, while B. Ienta and lutea are less severely treated. The alder (Alnus imcana) when near a birch tree may also be attacked, though the injury to the leaf is not so great. DIPTERA. From among a number of observations upon the biology of various species of Diptera and reserved for publication else- where, the following have been selected as being of general interest. As in former years, Rhagolctis pomonclla (Apple maggot) heads. the list of the more injurious Diptera of Maine. Parthenogenesis and Pedogenesis in Tanytarsus. Notes on the pzdogenetic reproduction of Tanytarsus dissi- milis have already been published in Science (Nov. 25, ’10). To the observations made there may be added that although many adults were reared this year no males were among them. One female, accidentally held captive by its wings in its own pupal skin, was observed to lay eggs. ‘These eggs were trans- ferred into distilled water, but unfortunately immediately dis- integrated. Later more eggs were obtained which had been laid by newly emerging females. The eggs in each string, about 60 in number, are arranged side by side, but lie somewhat obliquely in a single row, surrounded by gelatine. Each egg is 4 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. — elongate oval in outline, flattened on one side. About 2 days after deposition the larve emerge through a longitudinal slit. The nearly transparent larve, within a few hours begin the con- struction of their cases or tubes. As the insects were confined in glasses with tight fitting covers, and no males have been bred © this year, we have demonstrated here a case of pa:thenogenetic reproduction. Simulium and pellagra. The two species S. hirtipes and venustwm, so common in various parts of the northeastern states, were abundant during the spring and summer in this vicinity. To those who have camped in the woods or mountains where Simulium is abundant, the bite of this short-bodied, hump-backed little fly is only too well known. The females only are blood-thirsty. They are a veritable scourge to the hunters and fishermen in Maine. Re- cently some German veterinarians have shown that they are the cause of a serious disease in cattle. More recently still Dr. L. W. Sambon of England makes the claim that S. reptans is the transmitter of the disease Pellagra prevalent in the south of Europe, which in the last 2 or 3 years has excited physicians in the southern states. Sambon states that the disease follows water courses and only persons much in the open are attacked. These facts are peculiarly significant and here is the clue by which a link may be added to the chain of circumstantial evi- dence to establish the guilt or innocence of the gnat. The insect breeds only in water which is shallow but at the same time swift. If the larva be transferred to still water it will die in a very few hours, but it may live for several days in a situation kept moist by trickling water. The larve are found on rocks and debris, particularly in little brooks. and the adult flies are never found at a great distance from such localities, rarely entering houses. If Sambon is correct in. his view we must assume that a person afflicted with pellagra has been in the open in the vicin- ity of a brook or stream where Simulium abounds, at a com- paratively recent period prior to his infection. Simulium reptans, the species which is accused of carrying the infection in Europe, has been thus far only recorded from Greenland on the western hemisphere. ‘This, however, in itself would be no bar to the acceptance of the theory, since we know that in the case of malaria several species of Anopheles are con- cerned in the transmission of the disease. INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. : 5 Another theory is the one recently advanced by Alessandrini in his paper, “Pellagra due to Filaria in drinking water from shallow wells,” in Policlinico (June 26, 1910). He claims that the sea shore and mountainous regions are exempt, and that the disease ceases to spread where artesian wells are substituted for shallow wells and surface drinking water. As Simulium is particularly common.in the vicinity of small streams in moun- tainous regions, and cannot breed in quiet surface water or shallow wells, the views of this investigator are decidedly op- posed to those of Sambon. Though laboratory methods are necessary to finally establish the fact whether or not this little gnat is concerned in trans- mitting pellagra, the peculiarities in its breeding habits give the physician living in regions where the disease is preyalent a basis upon which to work. Psila rose (Carrot rust fly) on parsnips. This insect has occasionally been reported from Canada and also from Maine and New York as injurious to carrots and celery. ‘This spring some parsnips which had been in the ground over winter, were pulled, and found to bear the characteristic “rust spots” of the carrot rust fly. The pupal skins were found in the ground, not adhering to the roots. The larve form cavi- ties, especially in the upper third of the root, the cavities not exceeding 14 inch in depth. As a number of larve were found it appears that part at least hibernated in this state. Adults emerged the first 2 weeks in May. Many parsnip roots exposed for sale in the markets in this vicinity at this time were found to be similarly affected. Eurosta solidaginis. See Eurytoma gigantea under Hymenoptera. Phorbia fusciceps (Fringed Anthomyiian). In a market garden in Orono many bean plants were affected by the larvz of this insect mining in the cotyledons and stems early in June. Though at first the plants seemed severely in- jured, after the larve had pupated most of the plants fully re- covered, apparently unaffected by the earlier injury. Some complaints were also received from farmers in Aroos- took County claiming injury to seed potatoes. Specimens sub- SS 6 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. mitted were badly decayed and infested with the larvee of this fly. It is quite possible that the infestation by the fly occurred after decay had set in, as some decayed tubers were found free from larve. ‘The flies emerged the latter part of June. Phorbia (Chortophila) cinerella. A number of specimens, both male and female, were reared from larve associated with Musca domestica from horse manure, the flies emerging about September 1. This insect was first described by Fallen and redescribed by Meigen under the name of pusilla, under which name it is given by Schiner (II. p. 638). The description by Rondani in Dipt. Ital. Prodromus VI. p. 220 is most characteristic. Hematobia serrata (Horn fly). This insect has been recorded from Maine in the Report of Maine Agr. Expt. Stat. in 1892 and again in 1896. These pests were very abundant this year during August, upon the University herd. ‘Musca domestica (Typhoid fly). Many specimens were reared from nearly fresh, non-ferment- ing horse manure. The eggs were deposited about Aug. 20, the flies emerging September 8-10. Associated with this species were the larve of Spherocera subsultans, Borborus geniculatus, and Phorbia cinerella. Phormia regina. The larve of this widespread species were found early in July, in decaying water melon rind. Adults emerged July 29-30. In the key on p. 342 of Williston’s manual (3d Ed.) the last line reads, ““Mesonotum flattened behind transverse suture.” This does not apply to Phormia regina. See also Townsend’s state- ment in last paragraph on page 123, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 51, and Thompson’s note, last paragraph on page 213, Psyche, Vol. XVII. ta Ly Ns ey Pay Se INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. 7. COLEOPTERA. Beetle injuries most frequently noticed this season were those caused by Saperda candida (Round-headed apple-tree borer), Conotrachelus nenuphar (Plum Curculio) on the apple, and Pissodcs strobi killing the terminal shoots of young pine. Other injurious species are those noted below. Amphicoma vulpina. Mr. John C. Parlin of Norridgewock sent in some specimens of this species with the statement that he had seen large num- bers of them clinging to oat heads and flying over the field near Buckfield, Maine. He writes further, “ * * * the owner of the farm told me that in June he found in a corn field adjoining the grass field a great number of brownish grubs which they called ‘little grubs’ to distinguish them from the ‘white grub.’ * * * He said they were about the diameter of a lead pencil, shorter than the white grub. Of course he does not know that these grubs were the larvae of Amphicoma but when he found the beetles so abundant just off that end of the corn field he connected them in thought even before I spoke of them. He said there were thousands of the beetles in the field.” Mr. Par- lin states in a later communication that the corn field was an old run out June grass field the year before. He also had seen the beetles in great numbers in the vicinity of Norridgewock flying over a newly mown field. Callidium antennatum (Black horned Callidium). The larva of this species was noted by Harris, and later by Packard, living in the trunks of pines and junipers. It was again noted in Bulletin 148 (Me. Agr. Sta.) numerous specimens having been found at Athens in the attic of a new house, the inference being that they emerged from the pine timber. Spe- cimens were also found in Orono resting on cedar trunks. This year some specimens were sent in August Io from East Holden, Maine. Lots 18 and 1294. Saperda obliqua (Alder borer) infesting birch. A number of specimens of this species were found in Orono in the small branches (14 to I inch in diameter) of the European white weeping birch (Betula alba). At the time of pupation, 8 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IOQIT. the latter part of June, the branches containing grown larvae and pupae were broken off by the wind, the break occurring near the cell containing the insect. The larvae are white in color. Adults were obtained about 2 weeks later. Lot 1229. Otiorhynchus sulcatus (Black vine weevil). This « -cies has been recorded by Professor Forbes, Mr. Swartz, and also by Doctor Fletcher of Canada upon corn, ferns, and the cyclamen. In March of this year Mr. Wm. Miller of Bar Harbor sent in specimens for identification which were said to be nibbling the flowers while the larvae were doing much damage to the roots of cyclamen. As the species works by night some difficulty was experienced in catching the culprits. Lot 852. HYMENOPTERA. Lophyrus abietis (Fir Sawfly) This year there have been no complaints made to the E-xperi- ment Station concerning this insect which for several seasons has been so injurious to the firs in some parts of the State. Emphytus canadensis (Violet sawfly). Some larvae answering Dr. Dyar’s description of the above mentioned species were found July 2 in Orono, feeding upon pafisies. This insect has been reported from several northern states and: irom Canada.” In Bul27, mn: si, Uz Ss: Dept eae Div. Ent. p. 26, is given a full account of this pest. Lot 1236. Aulax glechomae and Torymus flavicoxa. Spherical galls were very common this summer upon plants of Nepeta hederacea (Ground Ivy) which grow abundantly along the roadsides near the University campus. ‘The galls (Fig. 4) which are usually green, though sometimes tinged with red and yellow, were full grown by the end of July and by the middle of September had become dry. They do not appear to differ from Connold’s figure in “British Vegetable Galls.”” The gall maker is an Aulax in the sense of Kieffer (Genera Insectorum) and answers Cameron’s description of A. glechomae in his “British Fhytophagous Hymenoptera,”. excepting that the abdomen is uniformly dark brown and shining. Some plants with galls 4 i * INSECT NOTES FOR IQI1O. 9 _ upon them were transplanted to the Insectory in June. In Sep- tember, when examined, each gall was found to contain a single mature, fully developed Aulax; while all galls gathered from plants growing in the open at this time were found to contain larvae of Hymenopterous parasites. Galls gathered in the fall of 1909 and kept over’ winter produced only parasites (Torymus fiavicoxa, lot 767) which emerged in June. Eurytoma gigantea. Is this species a true gall maker or is it parasitic upon the larvae of Hurosta solidaginis? ‘The galls in which they are feund cannot be distinguished externally from those inhabited by the Trypetid excepting possibly by their slightly smaller size. The cavity within the gall, however, is irregular in shape, discolored and darkened, and filled with frass, differing in this respect from the cell of the dipteron which is clean and oval in shape. Larvae of various sizes of the Hymenopteron were found in the smaller galls collected March 29, while only pupae of the Trypetid were present in the larger galls. In August galls were again gathered and examined. Each contained a half grown Lurytoma larva and in none was there evidence of it hay- ing been inhabited by the Trypetid. The fact that the frass seems to be of plant tissue, that the gall cell is irregular in sEape, and that half grown larvae are found, all lead one to believe that this species is not parasitic. HETEROPTERA, Blissus leucopterus (Chinch bug). Complaints have been made that some insects, spoken of as “ground fleas” kill the grass in large patches on the lawns in Bar Harbor and in Bangor. An examination showed that the injury was due to the nymphs of the Chinch bug which were present in large numbers. Some years ago this trouble was more wide spread. ‘The details of these former occurrences and the remedies suggested will be found in the Reports of the Maine Station for 1892 and 1894 and also in Bulletin 91 (1903). ot. 1270. IO MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. . IQIT. HOMOPTERA. Gossyparia spuria (Elm bark louse). Badly infested twigs of the American Elm were sent in from Castine, Maine. Several trees upon the University campus at Orono are also affected. Lot No. 1208. Phenococcus sp. Some specimens of what may be P. dearncssi with the descrip- tion of which they agree, were sent in from Wiscasset, Maine, ir June. The white downy secretions make this insect a conspic- uous object. They were found under the bark of an apple tree. Lot No. 1244. Eulecanium canadcnse. This species was abundant on the branches of an elm tree in Bridgton, Maine, June 9, 1910. Lot No. 1207. Chionaspts lintnert. One tree of Betula populifolia, was found in Orono in August badly infested with this scale. Lot No. 1300. JE SPALL Va Le. EDITH M. PATCH. So little attention has been paid the psyllids in New England that a group of 6 species taken in Maine during the summer of 1910 has been of interest to the collectors. Two of these, at least, Psylla pyricola and P. striata, from the character of the host plants are of real economic importance, the one being at times a serious pest of the pear and the other when abundant being injurious to the new growth on shade birches. Besides these 6 species, a blackberry psyllid is sometimes abundant in Maine but we have at present no material to work up for this. For the study of structural characters, the admirable paper by Mr. H. B. Stough* has been of great aid and the species here briefly recorded were worked over with reference to that pub- lication. For the Comstock-Needham terminology of psyllid *t910, H. B. Stough. The Hackberry Psylla. Pachypsylla Celtidis- mammae Riley. A s'udy in Comparative Morphology. The Kansas University Science Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 9. INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. Ik wing veins (Fig. 18) the reader is referred to “Die Fossilen Insekten”** and to “Homologies of Wing Veins’*** for the interpretation of Sc and I. Psylia pyricola. Apparently the first record of an infestation of the common pear tree psyllid in Maine was given by a correspondent in Camden, Maine, September 10. ‘The pear leaves submitted were badly discolored both by the psyllid work and the attendant hon- ey dew fungus. Nymphs, pupae and adult psyllids were abun- dant at this date. Psylla- floccosa. The downy psyllid of the alder was very abundant upon the new growth of Alnus incana (L.) Moench, this spring. This species was described in The Canadian Entomologist Vol. 41, pp. 301-303. For the sake of comparison with the two new species of this genus which follow a few characters of floccosa are here given. Head. ‘The head is broader than the prothorax, and of prac- tically the same type as that of galcaformis. ‘The epicranial plates are distinctly separated by a median suture and the 3 ocelli are arranged as in galeafornus. Like the 2 other representa- tives of this genus here described the antennae are normally 10- jointed and a single distal circular sensorium is borne upon joints IV, VI, VIII and IX. The terminal spine-like setae are nearly equal in length. Slender setae are present, but not num- erous, on joints III-X inclusive. The antenna is about 2.5 mm. long and filiform and the tip extends nearly to the genital seg- ment of the abdomen. Fig. 8 gives the head in cephalic aspect. Wings. Fig. 5. The wings are colorless but in form and venation they are exceedingly similar to galcaformis, and the stigma though indicated is very narrow and pale. The wing is abort 4.2 mm. long. Gemtalia. Male. ‘The supra-genital plate is somewhat cylin- **1T905-1908. A. Handlirsch. Die Fossilen Insekten und die Phy- ‘ogenie of Rezenten Formen. *ETAOG, Edith M. Patch. Homologies of the Wing Veins of the Aphididae, Psvllidae, Aleurodidae and Coccidae. Annals of the Ento- mological Society of America, Vol. 2, No. 2. 12 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQrt. drical and without lateral processes. At the geniculation the copulatory organ is enlarged and knob-shaped. From a lateral aspect the forceps widen out near the tip. The tip on the inner surface has 2 blunt processes not claw-like as in galeaformis, and the inner setae at the tip are much more numerous than in’ galeaformis. Fig. 7 will give an idea of some of these charac- ters. Female. ‘The lateral aspect of the genital segment (Fig. 6) shows the following characters for the female. The dorsal line of the supra-genital plate is nearly straight to near the tip where» the end of the plate is abruptly and conspicuously turned up. The setae of this plate are scattered but long, and they are not present at the tip. Numerous setulae, small and blunt, give the plate a pebbly appearance when viewed through a 1-6 in. objec- tive. Circum-anal wax glands are present. The subgenital plate has a pointed end and the surface is very sparingly supplied with setae the length of those upon the supra-genital plate. The ovipositor and the very broad sting-palpi extend beyond the upper and lower plates. Fig. 6. Psylla galeaformuis n. sp. Specimens of this species have been taken from the leaves of the Alder, Alnus incana, July 26, 1905; August 17, 1905, and September 1, 1910. In head and wing characters it is so much like floccosa that they might easily be taken for the same species. These 2 alder species can, however, be definitely separated on the characters of the genitalia as will be seen from the accom- panying descriptions and figures. The frontal cones of galea- formis are relatively shorter and blunter than in floccosa and the wings are yellow which distinguishes them from the hyaline, colorless wings of floccosa. The general body color of a well colored specimen is pale yel- lowish brown beneath and dark brown dorsally. Head reddish orange dorsally, rest pale yellowish brown. Thorax with lobes reddish amber marked with white curved lines, the lobe of the metathorax being redder than the others.. Legs are pale yellow- ish brown. The fore-wings are transparent and a pale golden brown in color with veins brown except at base, where they are greenish. Abdomen with about 7 dark brown transverse heavy INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. 13 bands, between the first and second of which is a deep rich red band. The genital segment is dark brown. Head. ‘The head is broader than the prothorax. The cephal- ic aspect (Fig. 13) presents 2 sub-quadrate epicranial plates, the dorsal margin of which gives a decided concave curve. A distinct median suture separates the plates. All 3 ocelli are visible in this view of the head. The front ocellus, situated at the ventral end of the median epicranial suture, is just at the median dorsal angle of the frontal lobes. The frontal cones are large, triangular processes, their combined bases extending the full breadth of the head ventrad the compound eyes, and in length the cones are nearly equal to the length of the epicranial plates from the same aspect. The distal tip of the cone is di- rected ventrad. The setae of the cones are longest and most numerous near the tips. The antennal sockets are about on a line with the front ocellus.. The antennae are about 2.75 mm. long, reaching if extended backward far along on the abdomen. The antenna is 10-jointed. III is longer than any other joint, IV to VIII are subequal, IX and X combined are about equal to VIII. Joints IV, V1, VIII and IX each bear a single distal circular sensorium. ‘There are a very féw scattered slender setae on the antenna and X is armed with two stout terminal spine-like setae not quite equal in length. Wings. In form and venation the wings of galcaformis are typical of the genus Psylla. The stigma is distinctly indicated but narrow, appearing like a mere widening of the costal mar- gin. Fig. 9 gives a more adequate idea of the venation than a description. The wing length is about 4.1 mm. Genitalia. Female. The genital segment is long and taper- ing, from the lateral aspect. The supra-genital plate has a slight concave curve in dorsal outline, the tip is rounded and semewhat hood-shaped and is bristling with long setae. Setae of the same sort are present but less numerous along the dorsal line of the supra-genital plate back from the tip and along the lateral surface are small but stout spine-like setutae which are visible through a 1-6 in. objective. The subgenital falls far short of the supra-genital plate in length. The tip is pointed and splinter-like. Along the ventral surface are long setae and on the lateral surface are short, stout spine-like setulae, both I4 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. setae and setulae being practically the same as those of the upper plate. The ovipositor slightly exceeds the supra-genital plate in length. The sting-palpi are narrow, compared with those of Psylla floccosa. Fig. 12 represents this segment, Male. ‘The genital segment (fig. 10) is of the same general type as that of foccosa and it would be difficult to separate these two species on that segment without a dissected mount. A re- liable character is found, however, in the forceps of the sub- genital plate. When viewed from the caudal aspect each arm of the forceps is seen to be tipped with two acute claw-like pro- jections in contrast with the blunt forceps of foccosa. ‘The terminal inner setae of the forceps are not so numerous as in Hoccosa. Fig. 11. The color notes are taken from the living specimen, and the structural details from balsam mounts. Cotypes collected from Alnus incana (L) Moench. July-September, at Orono, Maine. @uot=1 326) Sbs3)) Psylla striata n. sp. The tips of birch shoots were very commonly covered by in- conspicuous woolly masses in the new growth during the spring of 1910. Concealed in this protective covering were psyllid nymphs. Late in June the mature forms appeared. ‘The fresh- ly molted specimens had greenish thorax and abdomen and yel- low wings. Among the older well colored individuals the fe- males had 3 distinct, abruptly marked color divisions, the head and thorax being amber yellow, the abdomen vivid green to the cephalic edge of the genital segment which was dark yellowish brown. The wings were amber in tone and darker than the head and thorax. In the male the head and thorax were pale amber yellow, the wings a darker yellow and the abdomen pale green. ‘The eyes of both male and female were dove gray. Head. The head is broader than the prothorax. The ce- phalic aspect (Fig. 16) presents the following characters. The 2 epicranial plates taken together are heart-shaped, the dorsal line being a concave curve and the line from the posterior ocelli to the front ocellus being a convex curve. A distinct median suture separates these plates. The frontal lobes are prominent but are relatively shorter than in floccosa and galcaformis and are more rounded. ‘They are supplied with setae. The anten- INSECT NOTES FOR IQ10. 15 nae are relatively shorter than in floccosa and galcaformis. They are 10-jointed. III is the longest joint. IV to VIII are sub- equal. IX and X together are about equal to VIII. A single distal circular sensorium is borne by each of segments IV, VI, VIII and IX. ‘The 2 terminal stout spine-like setae of X are unequal in length, one being about 34 the length of the other. ‘The antennal length is about 1.55 mm. Wings. In form and venation the wings of striata (fig. 14) are the same general type as those of foccosa and galeaformis except that in the striata wing the stigma is relatively much wider and more strongly indicated. The wing length is about 2.65 mm. Genitalia. Male. ‘The supra-genital plate is somewhat coni- cal with the anal opening at the distal tip a little flared. This plate is about evenly and thickly supplied with setae. The for- ceps of the subgenital plate are also thickly setous, the setae becoming shorter and more spine-like at the tip. The tip of each branch of the forceps is armed with 2 strongly chitinized claws. Fig. 15 gives a very good idea of these structures. Female. From the lateral aspect, well shown in Fig. 17, the genital segment of the female shows the following characters. The supra-genital plate is fusiform at the end. ‘This fusiform portion is without long setae and the margin is striated. A few scattered setae are present along the dorsal line and numerous stray blunt, very short setulae thickly stud the lateral surface of the plate. A well defined circular area of circum-anal wax glands is present at the cephalic portion of the plate. The sub- genital plate is broader than in galcaformis and floccosa and the tip is gently curved up. ‘There are a few setae present chiefly along the ventral line and the lateral surface of the plate is thickly set with strong setulae similar to but longer than those of the upper plate. ‘The lower plate is considerably shorter than the upper. A little cephalad the tip of the lower plate the ovi- positor takes a sudden bend dorsad and the tip of the ovipositor touches the supragenital plate, but does not extend to the end of the plate. The color notes are from living material and the structural details are from balsam mounts. Cotypes collected from Betula, June, at Orono, Maine. (Lot 1228) 10 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQTttl. Aphalara veazici n. sp. A green bodied psyllid with amber yellow wings was collected in great numbers in the vicinity of Orono. The vegetation swept by the collecting net was Solidago and Myrica aspleni-. folia L.. (sweet fern) in one locality and grass, Solidago and other growth in a second locality. The nymphs were not found and the host plant is as yet unknown. ‘The species was most abundant in late June and early July, though a few specimens were taken in the same localities July 27. Head. The head is broader than the prothorax and nearly twice as broad as long when viewed from the dorsal aspect. The cephalic aspect of the head (Fig. 19) shows 2 approximate but separated quadrate epicranial plates (ep). ‘These are raised and very distinct. At the latero-caudal angles of these plates are situated the posterior ocelli. In a triangular enlargement of the suture between the 2 epicranial plates at their mediocephalic angles is situated the front ocellus (fo). ‘The ventral aspect of the head (fig. 20) shows the frontal cones (fc), ovoid in outline placed one on each side the frons (fr). The frons is also rather ovoid and about the size of the frontal cones. The distal end of the frons projects caudad. The antennal sockets are about on a line with the front ocellus and are situated in an angle caudad the frontal cones and mesad the compound eyes.. The antenna, if extended backward, would reach a little caudad the base of the first pair of wings, their length being about 0.8 mm. There are 10 joints. III is longer than any other. IV to VIII are subequal, each being about half the length of III. [IX and X are shorter and broader than the preceding joints. X with two stout terminal diverging spines, one of which is slightly longer than the other. Joints [V to VIII inclusive each bear a single distal, laterally placed, circular sensorium fringed with delicate hairs. These resemble somewhat the terminal sensorium of the fifth and sixth antennal joints of the aphids. The antenna is not setose. Wings. ‘The wings are amber yellow in tone and are with or without pale brown flecks which when present give the distal portion of the wings a mottled appearance. The variation in the flecking of the wings is perhaps due to differences in the age of the individuals, as psyllids are uniformly paler when young than the more highly colored individuals. The distal end of the INSECT NOTES FOR 1910: U7, wing is rounded and the veins are stout. There is no stigma, RI striking the margin at a point a little nearer to the base of the wing than to the distal end of Rs. The cephalic branch of R touches very nearly the extreme tip of the wing. ‘The wing length is about 1.85 mm. Fig. 18 gives a typical wing of this species. ore Gemtalia. In the male the abdomen is abruptly constricted just cephalad the genitalia. The suwpra-genital plate (sa) is a fleshy upright structure attached to the dorso-cephalic portion of the subgenital plate. It ends distally in a membranous ring which is the anus(a). Extending caudad from the lateral areas of the supra-genital plate are two lateral processes (Ip) of this plate. In a lateral aspect these plates are triangular in form, the cephalic portion being attached to the upright portion of the su- pra-genital plate. ‘The distal portion of these lateral processes touch the lateral surface of. the forceps when the forceps are di- rected cephalad. ‘The supra-genital plate is armed with short spine-like setae which are visible through a 1-6 in. objective. Those near the region of the anus are longest and stoutest. The arms of the forceps (f) at the caudal extremity of the sub-genital plate (sg) are from the lateral aspect largest at the distal end which is blunt and somewhat rounded. Each arm (Fig. 24) is supplied on the inner surface near the tip with a large strong claw-like process. The forceps when examined through a 1-6 in. objective are seen to be sparsely supplied with setae. At the base of each arm on the cephalic surface is a strong spine-like seta. Figs. 21, 22 and 24 represent these parts. The genital seement of the female is somewhat. wedge shaped and is less than the combined length of the 3 preceding ventral -segments. The supra-genital plate (sa) is gently up-curved at the distal tip. The dorsal portion is supplied with long setae plainly visible through a 2-3 inch objective. Its lateral surface is thickly beset with very short, stout setulae visible through a 1-6 inch objective. Near the base of this plate at the dorsal median line is a region of circum-anal wax glands. These were difficult to locate in the ordinary dissected balsam mount. The subgeni- tal plate (sg) is not so long as the upper plate, being about the length of the 2 preceding ventral segments. Its surface is 18 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. LO sparingly supplied with small setae, larger however than the setulae of the supra-genital plate. The brown highly chitinized pointed tip of the ovipositor ex- ee to the tip of the supra-anal plate (sa). Fig. 23 gives good lateral aspect of this segment. * The color notes are from live specimens and the structural notes are from balsam. Cotypes collected in June and July at Orono and Veazie, Maine. (Borsa 222 ander 220. othe). Trioza obtusa n. sp. This species was bred from nymphs developing on Amelan- chier canadensis (1,.) Medic, the winged forms appearing July 6, 1910, and later. A male of the same species taken from Amelanchicr is in our collection with the date August 1, 1906. In general coloration this species varies from pale green bodied freshly molted individuals with colorless hyaline wings, to older deeply colored individuals with bodies of ochre yellow and wings very dark and smoky. The mesonotum is roundly pointed ce- phalad and more elevated than pronotum. ‘Head. ‘The frontal cones are not vertical but are distinctly visible from above. They are widely diverging, the mesal line being convex and the lateral line concave. ‘The tip is rather acute. A dorso-cephalic aspect of the head (Fig. 29) shows 2 quadrate epicranial plates with a median suture between them. All 3 ocelli are visible in this aspect. ‘The antennae are short and 10-jointed. IX, X and distal VIII are darker and some- what broader than the preceding joints. IV, VI, VIII and IX each bears a distal circular sensorium. Two very unequal setal spurs terminate X, the shorter one being about half the length of the longer and thicker. The antennal length is about 0.85 mm. Wings. Fig. 25 sufficiently represents the form and venation of the fore wing. They are sometimes very dark and 3 char- acteristic black dashes are present at the wing margin, one be- tween the cubital branches, one between the branches of media and one between media and cubitus. The wing is roundly pointed at the apex between the branches of media. The vena- tion is a good Trioga type, the main vein branching into R, M, and Cu at practically the same point. There is no stigma. The wing length is about 2.63 mm. Genitalia. Female. The genital segment ends in an obtuse point. Fig. 26 represents a slightly dorso-lateral view. The supragenital plate has no long setae at the tip but some very smal! setulae. A circum-anal area of wax-glands is present at the cephalic portion of this plate. The deep hollow subgenital plate is pointed at the apex. There are numerous stout setae scattered over the surface but none at the distal tip. Male. ‘The abdomen of the male is strongly constricted just cephalad the genital segment. The supragenital plate consists of an erect portion ending in a circular opening,—the anus. Extending nearly from the base but not quite to the tips of this portion are two broad lateral processes. ‘These processes are concave on the dorsal line and bluntly rounded at the tip. They are very thickly set with setae. A row of very long, strong lash-like setae fringe the concave line of these processes and are thickest at the tip. The forceps of the subgenital plate are strong structured enlarged and blunt at the end, and consider- ably constricted about midway their length. Fig. 27 shows this segment. The nymphs of this species were found in all stages upon the leaves of Amelanchicr canadensis. ‘They were collected by Mr. William C. Woods, July 6 to July 27, 1910. They fed-upon the ventral surface of the leaves where their presence was readily detected on account of the beautiful white floss-like wax fila- ments that curled softly up from the margin of their bodies. These wax filaments are secreted by wax glands which extend im a single marginal row in the earlier stages but which in the later instars occur both on the margin and for a considerable distance mesad on the dorsal surface of the body. A crescent shaped area of wax glands surrounds the anus in all the nymphal stages. Nymph. First instar. Fig. 30. ‘The marginal wax tubes are cylindrical and are arranged 8 on each side of the head cephalad the eye, one on each thoracic segment at the caudal angle, and about 12 along each side of the abdomen. Second instar. Fig. 3x. The marginal wax tubes are cylin- drical and are arranged 10-13 on each lobe of the head cephalad the eye; a single prothoracic waxtube situated caudad the eye, 7 along the mesothorax, 3-4 on the metathorax, and about 18 along each side of the abdomen. INSECT NOTES FOR IQIO. 19 .20 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQI1T. Third instar. Fig. 32. The marginal wax tubes are not quite uniform in size. They are arranged 14 on each lobe of the head cephalad the eye, a single one on the prothorax just caudad the eye, 15-16 on the wing pad of the mesothorax, 4-5 on the — wing pad of the metathorax and about 30 along each side of the abdomen. 3 Fourth instar. Pupa. Fig. 33. The marginal wax tubes are vasiform and vary in size. Upon the head the wax tubes are thickly situated over an area nearly the breadth of the eye. There is one prothoracic marginal wax tube just caudad the eye. The marginal wax tubes of the mesothoracic wing pad number about 60 while others are present extending mesad, and the mar- ginal tubes of the metathoracic wing paca number 10-12. On the abdomen are about 60 marginal tubes and a thick triangular atea of dorsal tubes extending cephalad. The thorax and abdomen of the prpa are pale green with pale yellowish brown broad transverse bands. The head is of a pale yellowish brown tint, with dark eyes. The antennae hardly reach the wing pads which are creamy white. Entire body with a stiff but delicate white fringe of long wax filaments in an unbroken and perfectly regular row. Cotypes collected on Amelanchicr canadensis (1.) Medic, in July at Orono, Maine. (Lot 1238). APHIDIDAE. EDITH M. PATCH. Mindarus abietinus Koch. (Schizoneura pinicola Thomas). On July 12, 19c9, the tips of white spruce, Picea canadensis (Mill.), and balsam fir, Abics balsamca (1.) Mill., in the vicin- ity of Orono were noticed to be very generally and very seriously affected. No cause for the trouble could at that date be found. In the growth of mixed young balsam fir and white spruce the new shoots of the fir were entirely killed, having withered after making a growth of about one-fourth inch. The spruce tips were much ruffled and in many cases also dead and it was sur- mised that the same cause might be responsible for the trouble of both these conifers. (Lot 759. Lot 760). It was not until May 25, 1910, however, that the explanation ae poe eT ae be a 4 a eee E INSECL NOMS TOR 1O 10: 21 of this fir and white spruce trouble was chanced upon. At this date the new growth of both these conifers on the Maine Cam- pus was noticed to be badly ruffled and upon examination found to be thickly packed with Mindarus abictinus. Only apterous viviparous forms were present, those on the fir being mature and already producing, while those collected on the spruce molted on the night of May 25 and were producing by the 27th. The ten- der new growth was the only part of the tree infested, the aphids feeding upon the shoots and the needles becoming curled, rough- ened, and uneven from the disturbance. The infestation was so severe that these trees could not be touched without a heavy shower of honey dew ensuing and the branches were wet with the sticky globules. | In the vicinity of Orono these aphids were so very generally attacked by Syrphus maggots that by the first of June scarcely a Mindarus could be found, and in their stead hungry syrphids were vainly seeking for food. Practically the whole infestation in this locality was therefore wiped out about two weeks before the usual time* for the development of the winged forms and their migration from white spruce and fir. The 1910 growth of both white spruce and fir retained their ruffied appearance during the season and many of the twig tips died. Typical work of Mindarus was received July 8, 1910, from Caribou, Maine, from the owner of a fine spruce hedge who reported that it had made excellent growth for about 12 years but that this present season the tips of nearly all the upper branches were dying. The work of this insect is illustrated by Figs. 34-36, these photographs being taken July 11 of spruce and fir twigs which were thickly infested late in May. Specimens of Mindarus abictinus upon Abics balsameca were sent from Highspire, Pa., on May 25, with the comment that they were present in 4 different localities. ‘These were winged which would indicate that the migrants develop some 3 or 4 weeks earlier in that region than in Maine. The summer generations of M. abictinus have not been found in Maine. Of special interest in this connection is the record by Doctor Felt (25th Report) of the abundance of pinicola Thomas *Me. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 182, p. 244. 22 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, I9QII. upon the roots of white pine seedlings, and the fall migration thence. (Aphid Nos. 21-10, 22-10, 53-10, 54-10). RECENT LITERATURE ON MINDARUS ABIETINUS KOCH. Felt, E. P. Schizoneura pinicola Thomas. 25th Report of — the State Entomologist (1909) 1910. pp. 80-81. Niisslin, O. Zur Biologie der Gattung Mindarus Koch. Bio- logischen Centralblatt., (Bd. XXX, Nt, 12) and 735° 15. esjame und 1, Juli 1910. Patch, Edith M.-. Me. Agric. Expt. Sta: Bul. Nes 1e2gipm 2D AE ee SV ONON bie Tullgren, Albert. Aphidologische Studien I. Uppsala 1909. Pp. 59-61. Aphis sedi Kalt. The Garden Orpine, or Ljive-for-ever, Sedum purpureum — Tausch., along the Orono roadsides was observed to be badly de- formed in June, the stem terminating in a rosette of abnormally small leaves (Fig. 3). The aphid concerned with this deforma- tion corresponded to Aplus sedi Kalt as presented both by Koch and Buckton and there seems no reason to consider it a different species. This species has not previously been recorded for America. (Aphid 24-10). . Eucallipterus tihae (Linn.) From September 5 to 29 collections of &. tiliae were made from the ventral surface of leaves of the basswood. Tilia ameri- cana L. at Orono. During this month, apterous viviparous, alate viviparous, apterous oviparous females and alate males were taken. (Aphid 110-10). Pemphigus rhois (Fitch). Sumacs in Bangor, Me., were rendered particularly ornamen- tal this fall by virtue of great numbers of the large beautiful galls of P. rhois on the leaves. The aphids in one gall were counted on October 2, and 141 apterous viviparous forms, I150 winged viviparous forms besides numerous nymphs and pupae were present in a single gall. (Aphid 145-10). Sait vee wu Ee i eee wie ata INSECT NOTES FOR I910. 23 Hyalopterus arundinis (Fab.) An especially heavy infestation of H. aruwndinis occurred on a variety of large green plum trees at Orono this season. Later in July the leaves on the ventral surface were so thickly packed that there was “beak room only” for the aphids present, the rest of their bodies being pressed out from the leaf and supported by one another. No tendency of leaf curl was manifested, the leaves remaining perfectly flat. (Aphid 79-10). ? Tetraneura graminis (colophoidea). Through a misprint on page 208 of Bulletin 181 of this Station the name of this insect appeared written as a trinomial. Colo- phoidea should have been enclosed in braces as it here appears. Chermes cooleyt m New England. Typical large, well-formed galls of Chermes cooleyi Gillette were received from Manchester, Mass., in September I9g10, where they were taken on Colorado Blue Spruce. . As this tree is not generally grown in the east the infestation is of especial interest. In Chermes of Colorado Conifers, Proceedings of the a: Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1907, Professor Gillette states that in Colorado this species migrates to. red fir, (Pseudotsuga mucronata) and that he finds the galls most numer- ous in parks or lawns where the blue spruce and red fir are for its possible economic bearing. In plans for landscape gar- dening in the east which include the Colorado Blue Spruce, it would seem wise not to plant the red fir or closely allied varie- ties on the same or neighboring estates. clustered together. This fact in the life history is significant ~ 24 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQIT. AWE INGSWANINUNBUAY Smynthurus albamaculata (Garden flea). A correspondent from Newport Farm, Maine, sent in speci- mens of this insect with the statement: “ * * * they eat up everything in sight. I am also sending you a sample of their work on peas and onions. As for small seedlings such as beets, carrots, and spinach, they eat them as soon as they break ground.’ Accounts of the habits together with the description of this species were published in the Report of the Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station for 1896, pp. 124-126. See also notes in Bulletins No, 123, p. 220, and No. 134) p. 225. sles No. 1152. 1, Webworm injury. 3, Work of Aphis sedi on Live-for-ever. 4, Gall of Aulax glech- omae on Ground Ivy. 2, Bag worm (Eurycyttarus confederata). — sah Psylla floccosa. 5, Fore Wing. 6, Caudal segment of female; lateral aspect. Note that the supra genital plate has an abrupt upward turn at apex. 7, Forceps of male; caudal aspect. Note blunt tips. Compare with fig. 11. 8, Head, cephalic aspect. Psylla galeaformis. 9, Fore wing. segment of female; lateral aspect. Io, Caudal segments of male; lateral aspect. 11, Forceps of male; caudal aspect. 12, Caudal 13, Head, cephalic aspect. Psylla striata. 14, Fore wing. 15, Caudal segment of male; caudo- lateral aspect. 16, Head; cephalic aspect. 17, Caudal segment of female; lateral aspect. oka | a Alphalara veaziei. 18, Fore wing. 19, Head, cephalic aspect. 20, Head; ventral aspect. 21, Caudal segment of male; dorso- lateral aspect, forceps retracted. 22, do.; lateral aspect. 23, Caudal segment of female; lateral aspect. 24, Forceps of male; cephalic aspect. Trioza obtusa. 25, Fore wing. 26, Caudal segment of female; dorso-lateral aspect. 27, Caudal segment of male; lateral aspect. 28, Marginal wax glands on wing pad of pupa. 29, Head; dorso- cephalic aspect. Trioza obtusa. 30, First instar. 31, Second instar. 32, Third instar. 33, Pupa. Work of Mindarus abietinus. 34, On Spruce (Picea canadensis) . 35, 36, On Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). a a : z 4 4 , BULLETIN NO. 188* IPOD EXPERIMENTS: REPORTED BY CHARLES D. Woops. VARIETY TEST OF OATS, IQIO. According to the Yearbook. of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture the oat crop in the State of Maine for r909 amounted to 4,558,000 bushels. The value of this crop on December 1, 1909, iS given as $2,661,000. Only two other crops, (potatoes and hay) exceeded oats in the total amount of wealth produced in the State. Nevertheless it is clear that the majority of the farmers in the State devote but little attention to oats as a grain crop. It is seldom that one finds a farmer who plants more than a few acres and these are often cut green and used for hay. Yet the ease with which the oat crop can be seeded, its resistance to late frosts, its adaptability to our climate and soil conditions and the high price which the grain brings in the eastern market, recommend it as a profitable crop. More attention to cultural methods and to seed selection are practical- ly certain to yield greatly increased returns with this crop. On account of the importance of this crop to the farmers of the State, the Experiment Station has long desired to under- take some experiments relating to better methods of culture than those usually practiced and better seed. The acquisition of Highmoor Farm for experimental purposes made it possible to start some of this work in 1910. Many of the poor yields of oats are due to poor seed. For this reason it is proposed to undertake some breeding or seed improvement work with oats. The aim of this work will be to obtain varieties which are better adapted to our conditions and which will yield a greater number of bushels per acre. * Experiments on top dressing mowing land and the effect of differ- cut methods of culture of potatoes were begun in 1910. These will be reported when completed. 20 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. As a preliminary to definite breeding operations it is neces- sary to determine some of the varieties which are best suited to Maine conditions. Accordingly during the past season a num- ber of varieties have been tested. Thirty-one plots were plant- ed, each containing one-tenth of an acre. ‘Twenty-five different varieties were used. In the case of the Kherson, Regenerated Swedish Select and Banner oats two or more plots were planted with the same variety. In these cases, however, each plot rep- resented seed from a different source (cf. Table p. 27). The iand selected for the test was to all appearances verv uniform. it was a light sandy loam soil sloping gradually towards the east. The land had been summer fallowed the year before to kill out the witch grass. It was disked twice in the spring be- fore the oats were sown. This gave an excellent seed bed. The grain was put in with a disk grain drill and sown at the rate of 2 bushels (by measure) per acre. Commercial fertilizer carrying 3.3 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent available phos- phoric acid and 7 per cent potash was applied at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. ‘The field was rolled after the grain was sown. Notes were taken on each plot during the growing sea- son. The grain from each plot was cut and threshed separately. Before planting the seed oats were given the formaldehyde ‘treatment for smut. As a consequence the entire field was free from smut, except for one small patch in one of the plots, where some untreated seed was planted by hand to fill out. Here smut appeared. It is impossible to give accurate figures regarding the matter but the annual loss to the State from oat smut must be large.. This loss is entirely preventable. One needs only to treat the oats with a weak solution of formaldehyde before planting. Full directions for carrying out this treatment have been published by the Station as a circular bearing the title “Oat Smut and Its Prevention.” A copy of this will be sent to any resident of Maine upon application to the Director of the Station. The treatment is simple and easy of application, and costs almost nothing. One pint of commercial formaldehyde should cost not to exceed 20 cents anywhere in the Sie and it will treat 50 bushels of seed. Vee ae OL, eee oe AS CU ae ee A Sere nse es YIELD KNPERIMENTS. 27 _ Table Showing Varieties of Oats, Sources of Seed and Yields Per Plot and Per Acre. SS es = aoe = é = é i a a P Ye Ele a ao ! (P)4! en ce BE(ESIB | & { . s | - s mn = ; to ai bp §| Variery NAME, © PURCHASED FROM of | ce I8s | REMARKS. a : Peer oh 2 Se iseigs| 2 ome | oS | 69 jaa eS) Ay | | eG ae joa! oO wa aa 1 ha eo B: 1|Danish Island..... W. A. Burpee. ___|Late in a : Philadelphia, Pa........ 935.25 |149,95\46.6|White .| maturing. P 2/Burpee’s Welcome, W. A. Burpee. say kel mt. Philadelphia, Pa.........|231.75 |181.95,56.6| White .| a 3|/White Tartar King, W. A. Burpee, | ‘ Philadelphia, Pa.:......-/260.75 |195.95)57.9) White .|Closed head- 4\Tartar King....... J. Levasseur, : ae “ : Tessierville, Quebec..... 297.50 |215.50)67.3| White . , 5/Black Tartarian...|Towa Seed Co., a - Des Moines. fowa........ 963.50 |911.50\66.1|/Black. .|Closed head- > 6|Kberson Griswold Seed Co., a | . (Univ. No. 1)....| Lincoln. Nebr.......... 250.25 |999 95\69.4| Yellow. Barly. 7|Kherson......--... Towa Seed Co., 3 ¢ Des Moines, Towa... ..... 934.00 |203.50,63.6) .ellow.| Early. ; 8\Irish Victor....-.. lowa Seed Co... aie x » Des Moines, Towa........./312.00*|995 50/70.5) White . | a 9|Early Champion. ./Towa Seed Co.. aks ; Des Moines. Towa........ 964.50 |911.50/66.1) White .| Karly. 10|Prosperity......... Towa Seed Co., : Des Moines, Iowa........ 987.50 1909.50.65.) V bite - | a 11|Silver Mine.:...... lowa Seed Co., lee - Des Moines, Towa........ 278 00 |227.00|71.0| White . c JOAN Cin C@lWoe i Ss eepeaures Towa Seed Co., age a Des Moines, Towa...-.... 299.00 |224.00/70.0| White . : 13|Regenerated Garton-Cooper Co., er % Swedish Select..| Chicago, Tl...........--- 284.25 |930.75/72.1|W bite . a 14/Regenerated Griswold Seed Co., ie E Swedish Select..) Lincoln. Nebr.........., 279.50 |292.50)69.5| White . 15|Regenerated L. L. Olds' Co.. Paes 7 Swedish Select..) Madison. Wis............ 280 00 |934.50|73.3| White . a: 16|Swedish Select....)L. L. Olds Co., : a Madison. Wis....-....- ».1245.25 |209.75|65.5| White - PHPTeSident-is 22.22. Garton-Cooper Co., a Ge Ghicacos lille eeee tin: 261.75 |218.95)/68.2| White . AGSISCHATOR sews =< 01 Garton-Cooper Co., , Ghigaroullleeeerees ess _./248.75 |171.95/53.5| White .|Closed head. BG VALCUOTHeniavaieycss v:e'a's =< Garton-Cooper Co., (Cline, Willlagseecnos cone 261.50 |190.50|59.5| black. . -20/Old Island Black..|/E. EB. Arsenault, Urbinville, P.E.1....... 244.50 |178.00\55.6|Black..;,Weak straw- 4 21)White Wgyptian...|/T. J. Wigginton. by | me Bridgetown, P. H.I...... 989.75 |181.95|56.6| White .|Closed head. a 22|Newmarket........ C. R. Gies, Hidelberg. Ontario...... 254.00 |213.50,66.7| V hite - 23\Imported Seotech |H. 1. Goltz. a gcctlae ae Rardsville, Ontario...... 243.00 |192.00/60.0| Yellow. |Farly. é 24\Early Blossum...../D. Innes. ants i a Tobique River, N. B..... 286.25 |178.75|55.8| White .|Closed head. An 25|Unnamed White, |Geo. B. Haskell Co., “hy! ta Maine grown....| Lewiston, Me...........- 222.95 |193.95,60.4| White .|Mixed — = 26 (BaNNEeY.........+.. W. HH. Pawsen, a varieties. Dy Cooldale. Alberta........ 248.50 |226.50|70.8| White . 4 PAU) 200 SC) Dae eee Geo. Koyee, hy Meridale, Ontario....... 254.50 |208.0045.0| White . 28)Banner...... ... |W. M. Black, 2 By g Creelman, Saskatchewan|253.50 |221,50)69.2| White . oe OES AINTION oa.ccccy. ses W. E. Palmer, a Da Scotch Lake, N.B....... 245.25 |206.75/64.6) White . ‘a 30|/Ligowo............ D. Carmicheel, i West Lorne..Ont......... 277.50 |212.50)46.4| White.) 31/Unnamed White, |Prof. G. H. Hamlin, Mixed, earty Maine grown... | Orono, Me............ .-. (242.75 |210.25|65.7|Mixed.| and late. PASV CLE GS vaverainmiasieleielayersisisiaie les, sieieele 262.48 Spe salsa | * Straw a little damp when weighed. 28 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QII. The table on the preceding page gives for each plot the name of the variety, the source of the seed, the number of pounds of straw obtained from each, the number of pounds of grain and the calculated yield per acre. Data relating to color of the grain and the time of maturity are also given. The weights of the grain and straw were obtained at the time of threshing and be- fore the grain had been recleaned. The number of bushels per acre are calculated on the basis of 32 pounds to the bushel. The seed for Plot Nos. 4, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 31 was purchased from members of the Canadian Seed Growers Asso- ciation. SUMMARY. From this table the following points are to be noted: 1. ‘The average yield over the whole piece was at the rate of 64.2 bushels to the acre. ‘This can only be regarded as very satisfactory when it is remembered that for the State as a whole the average yield of oats per acre in 1909 (Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr.) was but 37.0 bushels. In the same year the state showing the highest average yield per acre was Montana with 51.3 bushels. The high yield obtained in the experiments here reported shows what it is possible to do under average Maine conditions with proper attention to quality of seed and cultural conditions. 2. The highest yielding variety in the test was Regenerated Swedish Select, with an average of 3 plots at the rate of 71.6 bushels to the acre. The highest yielding single plot was No. 15, the Regenerated Swedish Select plot planted with seed from Wisconsin. There was, however. no significant difference be- tween this plot and No. 13 planted with Garton-Cooper seed. 3. The plot yielding at the lowest rate was No. 1, the Danish Island oats, with 46.6 bushels to the acre. This was an end plot, and probably does not represent the relative worth of this variety. ‘Taking the yield as it stands, however, it is nearly Io bushels (exactly 9.6) more to the acre than the generai average for the State in 1909. 4. The Kherson oats, which are so popular in ceriain parts of the West, yielded very well in this test, somewhat contrary to expectation. They are a small oat but with a relatively low percentage of hull, which enhances the feeding value. FIELD EXPERIMENTS. 29 s. The Senator oats (Plot No. 18) made a very rank growth in the field, and were to the casual observer before threshing the best in the test. The straw was heavy, the leaves broad, and the grains very large and plump. Because of the ijarge per- : centage of hull, however, this variety proved upon threshing to 4 be next to the lowest in rate of yield of all those in the test. 4 6. From the table it appears that but one plot (No.1) yield- q ed at a rate lower than 50 bushels per acre. Six plots out of s the 31 (Nos. 8, 11, 12, 13, 15 and 26) yielded at the rate of 70 | or more bushels to the acre. 7. It is of some interest to examine the yields of the 4 plats of Banner cats, because the seed from which they were planted represents such a wide geographical range. It was thought at the outstart that the New Brunswick seed (Plat 29) would be likely to give a better yield than seed of the same variety from the far west. ‘The climatic conditions in New Brunswick are very similar to those obtaining in Maine. As a matter of fact, however, the two plats planted from seed from the Canadian Northwest (No. 26, Cooldale, Alberta, and No. 28, Creelman, : Saskatchewan) each produced at the rate of about 5 bushels 7 more per acre than plot No. 29 from New Brunswick seed. : It is to be understood that these statements are simply based ¥ upon the experience in 1910. ‘They are not offered as definite : conclusions regarding the relative merits of the varieties con- : cerned. To reach such conclusions it is necessary to conduct d such variety tests over a period of years. It is expected that a these experiments with oats will be continued in 1911. Hicu Rice vs. Mopiriep RIpGE CULTURE FOR PoTato Grow- ING IN AROOSTOOK COUNTY. “S.A Cag eR The method of ridge culture is almost universally used by potato growers in Aroostook County. Probably over go per cent of the farmers practice what might be called extreme ridge culture. The ridging begins at the time of planting. The plant- er most used has a plow so constructed that it makes little more than a mark cn the soil unless it is very light, instead of a fur- row, then the disks at the rear of the machine cover the seed by throwing up a ridge perhaps 4 inches high so that the seed at the very start is practically on a level with the surface be- 30 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. tween the rows. A few farmers make a practice of going over the field with a weeder and somewhat flattening the ridge but the number that do this is comparatively few. The method most usually followed is to go between the rows with the cul- tivator perhaps 8 to 10 days after the potatoes are planted and © then as soon as they begin to break the ground go over with the horse-hoe and bury them up also burying the weeds at the same time and thereby raising the height of the ridge. This kind of cultivation is continued until the tops are too large to pass through without injury. By this time an A shaped ridge has been formed about 12 to 15 inches high and, of course, the surface between the rows has been dropped by the continual scraping up of the soil so that the tubers growing in the ridge are considerably above the surface between the rows. Tt can readily be seen that in a dry season a field so handled must suffer considerably from lack of moisture. Of course, in a wet season as is frequently experienced in Aroostook County no lack of moisture is felt and the drains between the rows are an advantage rather than an injury, but in an extremely dry sea- son it would seem that the drainage is too great. The ridges being high and narrow dry out very quickly and it would ap- pear therefore the crop must suffer more from lack of moisture than it would if the roots of the plants were below the level as they are when modified level culture is practiced. The two dry seasons of 1905 and 1906 were somewhat disas- trous to potato fields cultivated with the high ridge and the crop was considerably below a normal crop in the dry sections of the county. For this reason experiments were undertaken in 1907 for the purpose of comparing a more nearly level cul- ture such as is practiced in southern New England and some dryer sections of the country with the ridge method common in Aroostook County. Mr. Oscar D. Benn, who lives a short distance out of Houl- ton, has practiced a modification of a ridge and level culture for several years and reports it as successful. He plants the seed as deep as possible with a Robbins planter and keeps the field free from weeds by frequently going over it with the weed- er, in three different directions—crosswise, lengthwise and diag- onally. In this way he claims to keep the weeds down during the first stages of growth without injury to the plants more FIELD EXPERIMENTS. 31 cheaply than he can by the ridge method. The weeder is used until the plants get too high for a weeder, then the cultivator is run between the rows until the plants are 8 to 9 inches high. At this time the horse hoe is used to throw up a low ridge which is broader and flatter on the top than the ordinary ridge and is not more than half as high. ‘The horse hoe is used only once and this is usually the final hoeing of the field. Mr. Benn claims that the potatoes are more easily taken care of by this method; more easily harvested, and in a season that is at all dry, better crops are obtained than by the method of ridging. EXPERIMENT IN 1907. The season of 1907 proved an extremely wet one and unfa- vorable for this experiment so that the modified method of ridge culture could not be strictly followed. Six acres on the farm of Mr. John Watson, Houlton, were given to the experiment, three acres being used alternately for the modified ridge and three check plots were cultivated by the method of high ridge. The yield on plot 2 is much below the others but this was apparently not due to the method of culture but to the soil. There was a strip of several rods on the upper part of this lot where the tubers were very scabby and only a light yield was obtained. This condition extended slightly into plot 3 reduc- ing the yield of that plot somewhat but not nearly to such an extent as on plot 2. For this reason in the comparison plot 2 is omitted. Yield of Merchantable Potatoes Per Acre. 1907. - Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 2 Plot 4 Plot 5 Plot 6 Full ridge. Modified Full ridge. Modified Full ridge. Modified ridge. ridge. ridge. 366 bushels 231 bushels 297 bushels 308 bushels 312 bushels 355 bushels “HE Rete Howe VUE Gees GUNN Seocoaeeen) |ueas sa pagonanoodoods scnodopeaCdepods 325 bushels. avetare formodinied ridge culture, plots4 and 6........0.0: csc cscs ese eeeene 333 bushels. EXPERIMENT IN 1908. For the modified culture experiment this year 90 rows, nearly three acres, were planted on new land on the northwest part of Mr. John Watson’s farm in Houlton. The plan of planting in a solid piece instead of in strips as in 1907 was adopted for con- venience in cultivating early in the season when it is desirable to run the weeder and smoothing harrow crosswise to keep down the weeds. 32 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. While July was rather dry for the high ridge culture, the potatoes did not appear to suffer much from the drought. Abundant rains early in August insured the crop. ‘The yields were as follows: . Yield Merchantable Potatoes 1908. Pull srideer check: plot, ta. % ae pee seer a arts eee: 314 bushels. Moditiedsridice 2ralcyes came y ee setts treat: OOD) ieee Full’ ridge *check plot Eerie Gerais cee Ge 268 ea Averavewtorecheck. plots ar aa: eR een rgs a Bo aahede oa 291 in ayyeiaiers santos! Collin DCIS a - 5862 Ver Sa aes 301 = EXPERIMENT IN 1909. This year about three acres were selected for the experiment of fairly uniform land which was in grass the preceding year. Other than part of the field carried a good deal of witch grass it proved to be a good piece for the purpose. ‘Two acres of the middle section of the piece were taken for the low ridge cul- ture and a half acre on each side were planted to check plots and given the high ridge culture. The spring proved to be cold and wet and the field was not planted until May 31. The whole season had abundant rainfall even too abundant for the high ridge culture during the sea- son. Because of the continued cold and wet the potatoes did riot break through the ground until June 18. ‘The potatoes were so late planted and so slow to come up that the vines were still very green and tender when the first frost came early in Sep- tember. On this account the yields were very materially re- duced. They were as follows: . Yield of Merchantable Potatoes 1909. Hulliridge per acne, average two) plots. .eae0 ee 204 bushels. Moditiedtiid sen permackennr nite sii ee enn aee 210) 2 oem The average for the three years was Wow, rides ctiliite c 4 cap ane eee 273 bushels per acre. Modihed aidwescultiiness it access 283 bushels per acre. In these three years there were, therefore, practically noth- ing to choose between the two methods so far as the yield was concerned in Aroostook County. *The plots were strictly comparable as to area but were a little less than an acre each. BULLETIN No. 189 | ORCHARD SPRAYING PROBLEMS AND EXPERI- MENTS: A REVIEW OF, AND A CONTRIBUTION TO PREVIOUS DATA. W. W. Bonns. The spraying of economic plants for the control of insect and fungous enemies has markedly increased within the past decade. This is largely due to the work of experiment stations in demon- strating the effectiveness of the operation and the profit attend- ing it. Great improvements in spray machinery and materials have helped much towards the adoption of spraying as an annual farm operation, and especially is this true of the fruit growing industry. The progressive orchardist today recognizes the ne- cessity of timely, thorough and intelligent application of in- secticides and fungicides in order to sell his fruit in the best and most profitable markets. Spray INJURY. The increase of spraying operations has, however, been ac- companied by serious problems for the solution of which the erower turns to the experimenter. The use of bordeaux mix- ture, for many years the standard orchard spray, and even today recognized as the best all-round fungicide known, has been ac- companied by injury to fruit and foliage. Complaints of such injury have been increasing with each season and are not confined to any section of the country. ‘The severity of the injury varies in degree and in different seasons. It has long been known that bordeaux mixture cannot be used with safety on the peach and Japanese plum when the tree is in leaf, although Cordley and Cate report the use of 5-6-50 and 3-6-50 formulae on peach foliage without injurious results.* * Cordley, A. B. and Cate, C. C. “Spraying for Peach Fruit Spot.” Oregon Agric. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 106 (1909), p. II. i 34 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. On the apple and pear the injuries have manifested them- selves in two ways,—burning and spotting of the leaves and russeting or “corking”’ of the fruit. The leaves so affected show dead brown spots, similar in gen- eral appearance to some leaf spots produced by fungi and espec- . ially to those of the fungus causing black rot and canker of pomaceous fruits (Sphaeropsis malorum, Pk.). These spray injury spots are generally circular or roundish, though often irregular. Frequently the areas are large, as if a number of smaller ones had coalesced. Occasionally the margins of the leaves show the characteristic dark brown or blackened dead tissues (Fig. 47). Such foliage injury is very frequently followed later in the season by yellowing and premature leaf fall. This occurs early or late according to the severity of the injury; in some seasons it is absent. ‘That this phenomenon is the direct result of using bordeaux mixture or other sprays has not been fully proved, but the frequency with which it accompanies spray injury tends to establish a correlation between them.* On the fruit the injury is first seen as small, dark, fly-speck like spots. These are not to be confused with infections of the scab fungus (Venturia Pomi (Fr.) Wint.) or with the fly speck ‘fungus (Leptothyriwm Pomi (Mont. and Fr.) Sace.). The for- mer are regular, smaller,—about one millimeter diameter,—and not sunken. The final appearance of the fruit is well known to nearly all orchardists with experience in spraying. The skin is washed or splashed with a rusty or russet colored coat- ing which materially detracts from its appearance. In very mild cases of injury fruit of a naturally good color may, it is said, practically overcome a slight russeting as the season de- velops. Such instances have been reported in this State this year. In more severe cases the apple has been stunted in growth and has suffered malformation, while the russeted sur- *Mr. F. C. Stewart also reports spotting and yellowing of leaves following the use of an arsenical without bordeaux. “Two Unusual Troubles of Apple Foliage.” New York Agric. Exp. Sta. (Geneva). Bul- letin 220, Part ID, p: 226. Woodworth and Colby also ascribe leaf yellowing and early leaf fall to injury from Paris green. California Agric. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 126, jh us + ((arstoisy)); ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 35 face may be greatly roughened, corrugated, or show pustule or teat-like formations. In very severe cases the skin may crack and exhibit V-shaped clefts in the flesh of the fruit (Fig. 50). BorDEAUX Injury; Literature and Commeni. The toxic action of copper compounds on plants has been a fertile field of investigation for botanists and plant patholo- gists at home and abroad, but the most recent important con- tributions to the literature of bordeaux injury are those of ome. Eledrick, New York,* Prot. C. S: Crandall, Illi- nois,** and Dr. B. H. A. Groth, New Jersey.*** Hedrick’s extended investigations and experiments developed the following points: Spray injury is prevalent in all sections of the world where bordeaux mixture is used. Excess of lime is not a preventitive, nor improperly made bordeaux the sole cause of injury. Injury increases proportionally with the amount of copper sulphate used. Wet weather following applications is a favorable condition for the production of injury. Yellowing and leaf fall are dependent upon the amount of injury. Different species vary in susceptibility to injury; the peach, apricot and Japanese plum being most readily affected, the com- mon plum, quince and apple showing more resistance. Varieties within the above groups vary in susceptibility to injury. Somewhat similar injuries occur on trees not sprayed with bordeaux, and are ascribed to factors of frost, fungi, arsenicals and the lens or “burning glass” action of drops of water on the fruit in intense sunlight. * Hedrick, U. P. “Bordeaux Injury”. New York Agric. Expt. Sta. (Geneva), Bulletin 287 (1907). ** Crandall, C. S. “Bordeaux Mixture”. Illinois Agric. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 135 (1909). *** Groth, B. H. A. Ceoninniton to the Study of Bordeaux Injury on Peaches.” New Jersey Agric. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 232 (1910). + Nore.—Attention is called to Hedrick’s classification of apple va- rieties in relation to their susceptibility to spray injury which is given on pp. 346-349, of Bulletin 185 of the Maine Station. 36 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. Changes in the chemical nature of bordeaux are produced by weather conditions and by atmospheric moisture in particular. The injurious action of bordeaux is ascribed to the solvent action of the cell sap and of meteoric waters following spray- ing, upon the copper hydroxide of the mixture. The copper thus left in solution is the toxic agent. , No great importance is attached by Hedrick to the nature of the lime (air slaked or freshly slaked), used in making the mixture as a factor in producing injury. Crandall, after a series of carefully controlled experiments covering a number of seasons, arrived at the following conclu- sions: Air slaked lime in bordeaux gives more injurious results than when freshly slaked lime is used. Equal and full dilution of the two ingredients gives least injury. Excess of lime is advantageous only as a subsequent spray and not as an addition to the bordeaux. Properly prepared bordeaux gives injury under unfavorable weather conditions ; rain and dew are important assisting factors. Small amounts of copper become soluble soon after the ap- plication of bordeaux, and this solvent action increases more rapidly with meteoric waters than with water artificially applied. The physical condition of the leaves bears a relation to the amount of injury. Lesions produced by insects and fungi ren- der foliage more susceptible to injury. Recurrent leaf yellowing epidemics have no direct relation to weather conditions, and evidence of bordeaux as the sole cause of yellowing is not established. Copper sulphate solutions, however, when injected directly into trees produce yellowing, the degree of injury depending on the strength of the solution. Groth’s work was confined to the peach after some prelimi- nary work which included the apple and the plum. His experi- ments, conducted both in the field and under control conditions under glass, led him to a theory of spray injury involving, among the chemical and meteorological factors previously recognized, a physiological one. He finds: Bordeaux injury is independent of the density of the appli- cation. Copper is the toxic agent. 74 ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 37 Apples are more resistant to injury than peaches. The factors necessary to the production of injury appear to be water on the leaves, high atmospheric humidity, shade and an excess of plant respiration over carbon dioxide assimilation. His theory is, that under proper conditions of minimum light intensity, the carbon dioxide of respiration exceeds that of assimilation and escapes through the stomata where, dissolving in water on the leaves, it brings the copper of the bordeaux mixture into solution. Such solvent copper enters the leaves by diffusion through the stomata and causes death of the cells. The solvent action of plant secretions upon bordeaux mixture mentioned by Hedrick as a possible causative agent in bordeaux injury of the apple is doubtless offered on the strength of an- alogous experiments of Schander* with bordeaux in its relation to Fuchsia and Oenothera and also with Phaseolus multiflorus. This work is cited by both Hedrick and Crandall. Schander ascribes all bordeaux injury to the action of secretory organs upon the copper hydroxide. Crandall, in commenting on this, points to the fact that no proof of the solvent action of secre- _ tory organs upon bordeaux has been demonstrated in the case of the apple. The possibilities, as Crandall notes, are in favor of a combination of many of the factors heretofore. regarded as solvents of the copper in the mixture; the physiological fac- tor recently submitted by Groth appears to be a vital one in arranging experiments where the conditions of control shall be well assured. Leaf injury has in all cases, so far as known, been ascribed to the entrance of copper in solution into the leaf tissues. How this toxic agent comes in contact with the tissues finally de- stroyed is a question regarding which there is a difference of opinion. One theory of imbibition and osmosis held by a group of prominent foreign: investigators is opposed to the chemotactic theory’ of others.** Crandall has rightly emphasized the necessity of isolating and determining, if possible, the group of factors now held responsible for injury under the general heading of atmospheric *Schander, R. ‘‘Ueber die Physiologische Wirkung der Kupfervit- riolkalkbrithe.” Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbitcher 33, pp. 517-584. (1904.) **For a detailed account of these theories and the experiments on which they are based, see Crandall (loc. cit. pp. 228-232). 38 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. conditions, and Groth’s experiments have been along this line. In addition, as Crandall again points out, the physical condition of the leaves as related to injury demands experiments to de- termine this point. Clark* considers that*the amount of injury done to a species is dependent upon the following conditions: The specific susceptibility of the protoplasm of the plant to the toxic action of copper. The solvent properties of the cell sap on the copper hydroxide. The permeability of the epidermis or cuticle to the cell con- tents under favorable exosmotic conditions. Weather conditions following spraying which provide con- ditions for exosmosis of a portion of the cell contents. Obviously, if these are the necessary conditions, there is an- other important physiological factor to be considered. This is the nature of the cell content of the leaves, which will regu- late the degree of permeability. Such cell contents will depend largely upon the conditions that affect the metabolism of the leaf. Nothing makes this appear more evident than the strik- ing differences in the amount of injury produced under identi- cal conditions on trees of varying degrees of thriftiness. CHOoIcKE OF INSECTICIDES. The use of insecticides has not to date given rise to such serious problems. Insoluble arsenicals have been the common agents employed, usually combined with the fungicide solution. Paris green was the form of arsenic originally used and is still adhered to by some. Although effective, it has been very large- ly superseded by arsenate of lead which combines equal effi- ciency with increased adhesiveness and greater safety to foliage. The tendency of arsenate of lead to undergo chemical change when combined with the fungicide, and the nature of such change when it does occur, are questions now before station chemists. Of late arsenite of lime has been recommended by *Clark, J. F. “On the Toxic Properties of Some Copper Compounds with Special Reference to Bordeaux Mixture.’ Botanical Gazette 33: pp. 26-48. (1902.) aT a ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 39 Prof. J. P. Stewart* as a cheaper and chemically more stable form of arsenic to use. Stewart’s data indicate a slower rate of decomposition of this material in combination with lime-sulphur solutions than either Paris green or arsenate of lead. Its ad- hesive properties appear to be less than the latter’s. No field experiments are cited to support the recommendation. Experi- ments of the season just past have shown that arsenite of lime is less desirable than arsenate of lead.+ Whatever the differences of opinion regarding the actual method of injury, the fact accepted by all investigators in this field is that copper is the injurious element in bordeaux mix- ture. Recognizing this fact, an effort has been made in recent years to eliminate the copper containing solutions in spraying plants of proved susceptibility despite their recognized high fungicidal efficiency, and to find a satisfactory substitute. SULPHUR AND SULPHUR COMPOUNDS AS FUNGICIDES. In this effort attention has chiefly been turned to solutions of sulphur in chemical combination. Pure sulphur in powdered form has long had a place among fungicides. Flowers of sulphur has been used for the control of powdery mildew of the grape (Uncinula necator (Schw.) Burr.) and is effective in greenhouses against rose mildew (Sphaerothea pannosa (Wallr.) Lév.). A lime-sulphur paste is also mentioned by Duggart as a means of control of this greenhouse fungus. “Curiously enough, however, as early as 1833, before the gen- eral use of fungicides, Dr. Wm. Kenrick§ recommended for mildew on grapes a mixture of sulphur (1% pints), quicklime (a piece the size of the fist) and boiling water (2 gallons). This mixture, after cooling, was diluted with cold water and *Stewart, J. P. “Concentrated Lime-Sulphur. Its Properties, Prepar-- ation and Use.” Annual Rept. Pa. State College (1908-1909) Part II, PP. 292-203. 7Mr. L. Caesar of the Ontario Agricultural College reports severe injury in some cases this past season from the use of arsenite of lime. In general the results were markedly inferior to those obtained with lead arsenate. tDuggar, B. M. “Fungous Diseases of Plants’? (1909), p. go. §The New American Orchardist (1833), p. 328. 40 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. allowed to settle. The clear liquid was then drawn off and diluted to make a barrel full before using. In 1885 Wm. Saunders* also recommended for pear blight a self-boiled lime and sulphur wash consisting of 8 pounds sulphur and one-half bushel of lime with boiling water, the mixture to be applied as — a whitewash with brushes, and for mildews he advised appli- cations of the clear sulphur liquid drawn off from this wash and greatly diluted.”** This was the forerunner of Mr. W. M. Scott’s now well known “self boiled” lime sufphur preparations. In spraying peach trees in the Pacific Coast States with boiled lime sulphur solutions for the control of the San José scale it was found that this insecticide also served in some way as a fungicide, in that a winter application acted successfully as a preventative of peach leaf curl (Exvoascus deformans ( Berk.) Fuckel) the following spring. Possibly it was this fact that furnished a hint of the availability of lime-sulphur solutions for other fungous parasites. Experiments at the New York (Geneva) Scions in 1902+ developed the fact that lime-sulphur applied in early spring for the control of San José scale had an apparent fungicidal effect in controlling apple scab. (Venturia Pomi (Fr.) Wint.) Later work at this station also took into account the fungicidal value of the early lime-sulphur application as a substitute for the first bordeaux-arsenical spraying.t As this application was made before foliage developed it gave no indication of the value of the sulphur solutions for summer use. Summer spraying at a strength sufficient to control San José scale on Japan plums was injurious to the trees. Experiments in making a lime-sulphur wash without boiling were reported without data as to trials.§ *Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, 1885, pp. 43-44. **Scott, W. M. “Self Boiled Lime Sulphur Mixture as a Promising Fungicide.” U. §. D. A., Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 1, (1908). tLowe, V. H. and Parrott, P. J., “San José Scale Investigations IV. Part 1.” N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. 228 (1902), pp. 405-407. tParrott, P. J., Beach, S. A. and Woodworth, H. O. “The Lime- Sulphur-Soda Wash for Orchard Treatment.” N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta., Bull. 247, (1904). Parrott, P. J., Beach, S. A. and Sirrine, F. A. “Sulphur Washes for Orchard Treatment.” N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 262, (1905). SLowe, V. H. and Parrott, P. J. Joc. cit. Part III. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. AI Previous EXPERIMENTS WITH LIME-SULPHUR AS SUMMER SPRAYS. Two forms of lime-sulphur sprays have been employed as fungicides since 1907—the self-cooked or so-called “‘self-boiled” preparation devised and first used by Mr. W. M. Scott of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. D. A., and the boiled solution first tried as a summer spray by Prof. A. B. Cordley of the Oregon Experiment Station.* The results obtained have proved an incentive to further work along these lines by the Federal Department of Agriculture and station workers in sev- etal states where the fruit growing industry is of considerable importance. Scott’s work in 1907** carried on in Arkansas and Missouri, was a comparison of his self-boiled with the cooked lime-sul- phur and with bordeaux in the control of bitter ret (Glomerella rufomaculans ( Berk.) Spauld. and von Schrenk), apple blotch (Phyllosticta solitaria, EK. & E.), peach brown rot (Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schroet.) and peach scab (Cladosporium carpophilum, Thum). The self-boiled mixture was of the 15- 10-50 formula.; Both cold and hot water were used in the making. The 5-3-50 formula was boiled for 45 minutes. Weather conditions were favorable for spraying, and 3 appli- cations were made. . Results: Bitter rot, a serious trouble in southern apple regions, was successfully controlled by self-boiled lime-sulphur, as indicated in the following table. * Note.—The commercial lime-sulphur preparations do not differ in nature to any extent from the properly prepared home-boiled concen- trated solution. **Scott, W. M. Joc. cit. 7Nore.—In referring to the composition of lime-sulphur solutions in this bulletin, the first amount represents pounds of lime, the second pounds of sulphur, and the last gallons of water. For the dilutions of concentrates the first figure represents concentrate in gallons, the sec- ond water. For bordeaux mixture, copper sulphate in pounds is given first, lime in pounds next, and water in gallons last. A2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. Table tf. Per cent Sound Fruit. Ben Davis. Givens. Lime-sulphur self-boiled ..........-.....secceeeeeeeees 90.96 to 92.72 96.90 to 99.02 ISOIMNGISEWER oo Souowo oma cag subagsupsodaosbedsbnsuaoodsaxoaL 91.65 to 96.40 89.12 to 99.80 WM SPL iO Gisvescves che aseyesuveaisiayersislecosepaxes coe eteistae oe cere 9.50 to 19.08 37.79 to 60.66 Apple blotch on Ben Davis trees was satisfactorily controlled with the self-boiled spray without leaf injury. The boiled 5-3-50 solution gave considerable leaf scorch and some defolia- tion, but no injury followed the use of the self-boiled spray. Apple leaf-spot was held in check and peach brown rot and peach scab were both well controlled by the self-boiled solution. No data were taken on the control of apple leaf spot (Sphae- ropsis malorum, Pk.), but observations showed no infections after applications were begun. No experiments in controlling apple scab were made at this time. Concentrated lime-sulphur at 1-25 did no injury to apples, but no effective strength was found that was not harmful to peach trees. Cordley* was the first to record the favorable results of using a concentrated boiled lime-sulphur. His first work was with a stock solution of home preparation showing a specific gravity of 1.27 (Beaumé 31°) and an analysis of 2.38 pounds ot sulphur per gallon. This was used on apple, peach, pear, plum, prune, quince, grape, potato and celery. The results indicated that a dilution of 1-15 could be safely used on all of these plants except the peach. His experiment on Yellow Newtown apples for scab control yielded the following results. Table 2. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Slightly Badly Spray Clean. Scabby. Scabbed. Injury. Wisely ove nneyell We araonoonsceds 19.9 28.7 51.3 0 Bordeaux, 3 applications. 49.1 35.4 15.5 31.9 Lime-sulpbhur 3 applica- TOMS Rear aeen eet 79.3 15.3 5.3 10) * Cordley, A. B. “Lime-Sulphur Spray to Prevent Apple Scab.” Better Fruit. Sept. 1908, p. 26. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. A3 A very great superiority of lime-sulphur over bordeaux in scab control is here shown on this one variety for that particu- lar season. It is more valuable as an indication of lime-sulphur efficiency per se than as an index of its superiority over bor- deaux as a fungicide. In 1908, using both kinds of lime-sulphur sprays and bor- deaux on the same block of trees, these results were obtained. Table 3. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Slightly Badly Spray Clean. Scabby. | Scabbed. Injury. Unsprayed Lon Rea peRGeeres 15.1 iU7/pal | 67.1 (0) Selfboiled Lime-sulphur 2 applications .......... 50.0 16.5 33.3 0 Bordeaux 3-3-50, 2 appli- ; (CE NUKOLIS oo Aaa See raiae 55.9 8.0 | 35.9 52.1 Boiled Lime-sulphur 2 ap- OIKKORITONOS Sane eeranenen O86 18.8 11.3 0 Here again we find a greater efficiency in scab control of boiled lime-sulphur over bordeaux. Especially noteworthy is the high per cent of spray injury ‘te fruit sprayed with bordeaux, and its entire absence on both lime-sulphur plots. This immunity was not shared by the foli- age. The same diltition used without any bad effects .in 1907 seriously injured the leaves in 1908. Cordley accounts for this by the difference in climatic conditions in these seasons. He would endow a greater resistance to injury to the foliage pro- duced under the favorable conditions for growth that existed i 1907. In 1908 a greater precipitation and lower tempera- tures produced, according to his explanation, “a growth which was less vigorous, less hardy, more edematious and more sus- ceptible to spray injury.’’** In 1907 and 1908 Cordley and Cate*** tested. bordeaux and concentrated lime-sulphur (home-boiled) on peaches for the control of peach fruit spot. Bordeaux of 5-6-50 and 3-6-50 *Cordley, A. B. “Lime-Sulphur Spray Preventive of Apple Scab.” Better Fruit, April, 1909, pp. 33-35. **Cordley, loc. cit. p. 35. errcondiey, A. B..and Cate, C. C. loc. cit. 4A MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. strengths were used, and lime-sulphur (Beaumé 20°) at dilu- tions of 1-10, 1-18, 1-20, and I-20 in successive applications. 3ordeaux caused no injury in either season. In 1908 the 1-18 lime-sulphur of the second application resulted in very slight injury; the third at 1-20 inflicted noticeable damage. The fourth spraying at the same dilution had no further bad effect. In point of efficiency Bordeaux was pronounced slightly. bet- ter on the basis of actual figures, with a difference in its favor’ so small as to leave open the question of its superiority. In 1908 Mr. W. J. Morse* of this station attempted the con- trol of apple scab with the self-boiled mixture of Scott’s for- mula prepared with hot and with cold water, and bordeaux mixture, 3-3-50, making 3 applications. Several varieties fail- ing to set fruit, the data were confined to 4 Fameuse trees in each plot. Scab-free fruit was as follows: Table 4. Bordeaux Selfboiled Self-boiled Treatment. 3-3-50, Hot Water. Cold Water. Unsprayed. Per cent. clean fruit...... | 50 | 33 | 16 | 1 No definite conclusions were drawn. Observations pointed to the prevalence of the disease in that season, as indicated also by the high per cent of scabby fruit. The increased strength of lime-sulphur prepared with hot water is indicated in its greater control compared with the cold water preparation. ' Scott’s experiments in 1908** were made in Georgia, Arkan- sas, Nebraska and Illinois and in New Hampshire in coopera- tion with the state experiment station. Results showed self- boiled 10-10-50 and bordeaux 2-4-50 to be equally effective in controlling cherry leaf spot (Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.) on Montmorency. Self-boiled 6-6-50 and commercial concentrates at 1-40 gave slightly less control. Attempts to determine the relative effectiveness of the sulphur sprays and bordeaux for apple scab on Winesap in Arkansas had to be abandoned early * Morse, W. J. ‘““Notes on Plant Diseases, 1908, Maine Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 164, (1909). “Scott, W. M. “Lime-Sulphur Mixtures for the Summer Spraying of Orchards”. U. S. D. A. Bureau Plant Industry, Circular 27, (1909). aoe ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 45 in the season, but estimates pointed to bordeaux, commercial lime-sulphur and self-boiled mixture as effective in the order named. In Nebraska the efficiency of commercial lime-sulphur for scab on the Winesap variety equalled 3-3-50 and 4-4-50 bordeaux. Dilutions of 1-25 produced slight leaf injury. Self- boiled mixture caused no damage, was less adhesive and less effective, preventing only the early infections. Bordeaux caused fruit russeting but no leaf injury. The experiments of Prof. Brooks* at New Hampshire, co- operating with the Bureau of Plant Industry, embraced, in ad- dition to the home-prepared, commercial lime-sulphurs and bor- deaux mixture, commercial bordeaux and a so-called unboiled lime-sulphur mixture; in preparing the latter the lime was slaked and diluted to half the final volume, and the sulphur added to the remaining 25 gallons. These were then united to form a purely mechanical mixture of 50 gallons. ‘Trees used were McIntosh. Results were as follows. Table 5. | Per cent. Per cent. Times Badly Slightly Per cent. | Sprayed. Seabbed. Scabbed. Clean. Self-boiled L. S. 15-10-50. | 5 2.9 45.0 52.1 Lime and Sulphur Mix-) ture, 9-6-50........ .... 5 10.2 57.8 32.0 Boiled Li. S. 2-1-50........ 5 3.8 42.6 53.6 Commercial L. S. 1-24....| 5 0.9 9.4 89.7 Commercial L. 8. 1-49....| 5 1.3 16.5 82.2 Bordeaux 3-3-50........+. | 5 2 18.2 80.6 Commercial bordeaux... .. 5 16% 24.5 73.8 Self Boiled L. S. 15-10-50... 4 9.5 55.8 34.7 Lime and Sulphur Mix: | UTE; 9-650)... ee 4 Toll | 46.4 | 46.5 Bordeaux 3-3-50..... .... 4 1.2 | 9.4 | 89.4 Bordeaux 4-4-50.......... 4 Bot 5.6 91.7 Wmsprayedu.css.+-2+-. cc: [eae 21.9 | 45.2 | 32.9 The percentages here again indicate an efficiency of the self- boiled lime-sulphur considerably lower than the commercial or * Brooks, Chas. N. H. Expt. Sta. 19th and 2oth Reports (1908). Re- port of Dept. of Botany, pp. 385-380. 46 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQIT. home-made concentrates. Bordeaux was most effective and commercial sulphur sprays were superior to the home made. The mechanical lime-sulphur mixture was highly inefficient. No injury was effected by the sulphur sprays. “In fact while there was occasionally an apple on the bordeaux plots whose appearance had been damaged by spray, the apples on the lime- sulphur plots were smoother and apparently more waxy and more highly colored than on the check plots.’’* Prof. R. K. Beattie** of the Washington State station in a comparative test of bordeaux and lime-sulphur on Jonathan and Ben Davis trees obtained the following data. The proportions of lime-sulphur indicated were obtained by diluting commercial concentrates to the desired strengths. Table 6. [ Per cent. Spray. Clean Fruit. LAIN S-SUUhoINUNe Be es Soo pe ooon nods enanoGoeene DoD noe oooCo soe oeorsasvoNSsenRS 95 irae sul ol anne Abs). 5 5 oo osoenocebe spo odG DOs DoONEAsOODDIDODDADODOODCOORS 93 ITE HSN| ODE Oy ooo ood oso nodo nO ddeoD cone sooo sDoSaND OSD F4OneSIaesaS 88 Lime-sulphur ist and 2nd applications ..........-.++.0......--- +e eee eee 89 Lime-sulphur 2nd and 3rd applications...........--.........--ee-e sees eee 94 Lime-sulphur all three applications...........-2..2--- 1... eee ene e nee neee 92 IhaNE- Sully Nl SOMOS, soos cogdeanoboso de DDE D esd segUunsneooospeouscuS: 91 BOLdealixe waive TMIOLe lem@7ZiLesaetetet treble te tetettetete ieteletsteieleletetetete etait 52 IBOrd eauban wad Deb OnG Ca UixXenO7/7il Cental estonia eter eee ee ele | 40 IRYORO LSA MMOS Wyalsin TMS CYP MIME .58 soc poe dace quacceoscne os na oohssbescDe 48 Bord ea uxsm ade nwaiia birmle swe be Ws crept tate etelode ater =yatetet ate etatne=seletetefetere aleletetaist=t-tt=ti=b> 39 Bord eausrall Mine Sra eee erect ee rasteieias alaraleleletevole siete le teieteletet areas nee 44 UM SPT AY S Mise etipctasetts weateienaale oe eee ere Penne ee eee eee eee eee ete tee rreees 37 The last application, made just after the petals fell, was on a rainy day. No injury to fruit or foliage occurred with the lime-sulphur sprays, but fruit russeting resulted from bordeaux; such fruit was classed as unmarketable and was not included in the above table. * Brooks, C. loc. cit. ** Beattie, R. K. ‘‘Lime-Sulphur Wash for Apple Scab.”” Western Fruit Grower. Jan. 1900, pp. 6-7. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 47 At the Delaware station Prof. C. A. McCue* in 1908 sprayed several varieties of peaches with commercial and both home- made sulphur sprays, sulphur water and benzoate bordeaux. He did not consider his results the basis for definite conclusions, and merely pointed out the promising possibilities of the lime- sulphur sprays as fungicides for the peach. Benzoate bordeaux and sulphur water he declares unsafe, as well as undiluted lime- sulphur, irrespective of its time of boiling. Although control- ling brown rot with the self-boiled spray, he could not obtain peaches free from a heavy coating of lime. The season of 1909 witnessed an extension of experimental work along the lines in question. At the Michigan station Taft and Wilken** compared commercial and home-made concen- trates on apples, pears, cherries and plums. At 1-25 the pro- prietary sprays caused foliage injury and had to be reduced to 1-40. Home-made concentrate of 12-15-50 formula reduced to one-fifth of that strength for summer use did practically no damage to foliage. At Cornell University, Wallace’s work was concerned with the control of peach leaf curlt and apple scab. One form of a commercial lime-sulphur solution was employed. On peaches strengths of 1-9, I-12, 1-15 and 1-20 were used. The per cent effectiveness was arrived at by choosing limbs with the eyes closed and counting the leaves thereon. Results are given in the following tables. LONE He JACKSONVILLE ORUHARD, EAST SIDE, SPRAYED AI’RIL 9, 1909. Number of Per cent, Treatment. Number of Limbs Diseased of Diseased Trees. Selected. Leaves. Leaves. UMEPLAVed acess csee. -.nes 4 | 14 660 58.9 Niagara Lime-sulphur 1-9 6 22 18 0.9 i * McCue, C. A. “Spraying for Brown Rot of the Peach, 1908”. Dela- ware Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 85, (1909). ** Taft, L. R. and Wilken, F. A. Mich. Agric. Expt. Sta. Special Bull. 48, (1909). + Wallace, E. “First Report Niagara Sprayer Co. Fellowship on Peach Leaf Curl and Its Control.” Cornell University 1909. See also Bull. 276 (1909) N. Y. (Cornell) Expt. Sta. by E. Wallace and H. H. Whetzel, which gives additional data obtained by practical growers. % Adapted from original. 48 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QII. Table 8. JACKSONVILLE ORCHARD, WEST SIDE, SPRAYED APRIL 12, 1909. | | Number of Per cent. Treatment. Number of Limbs | Diseased of Diseased Trees. Selected. | Leaves. Leaves. Unsprayed RMadsossesaseeD 4 15 | 584 34.3 , Niagara L. 8S. 1-12......... 4 26 106 4.1 Niagara L. S. 1-15......... 5 22 46 2.3 Niagara L. S. 1-20......... 5 30 204 6.1 Table 9. ITHACA ORCHARD, SPRAYED APRIL 7, 1909. Number of | Per cent. Treatment. Number of Limbs Curled of Curled Trees. Selected. Leaves. Leaves. ~ Unsprayed.............6.. 4 28 | 920 41.8 Niagara Lime-sulphur 1-S 4 27 | 213 5.9 | Niagara Lime-sulphur 273 5.3 METS Sepantnck ace mines ware 4 35 Bordeaux 3-3-50......... 5 37 | 427 8.3 According to this data, increase of control does not show an absolute relation to amount of dilution. Lime-sulphur is some- what more effective than bordeaux. In the case of this disease, however, this is practically of no importance, since, according to Duggar,* it has been definitely established that for control spray- ing must be done before the buds open and later sprayings are of little importance when the early one has been made. Hence the question of leaf injury from bordeaux does not enter into this problem. The advantage of using one form of fungicide throughout the year is of course obvious, but the absolute supe- riority of lime-sulphur over bordeaux in controlling this disease remains to be established. Wallace’s work on the control of apple scab** brings out more points of interest. The same commercial concentrate was used as in the peach experiments with 2 pounds arsenate of lead to 1 OG. cit, py eZ: *k Wallace, E. “Second Report Niagara Sprayer Co. Fellowship on Apple Scab.” Cornell Univ. 1909. 2 oe ee , ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 49 56 gallons. The variety tested was Rhode Island Greening, with the following results.* Table tro. Number of Treatment. Number of| Apples Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Trees. Counted. Sound. | Russeted. Scabby. WAST aye Gees etesete sic tare sion ako Treo TN a! 1,663 2.5 29.7 42.3 | Lime-sulphur, 1-30+ lead]. | RITEIOGILG, oo aconidomecmom etre 5 2,632 52.0 3.7 3.6 Bordeaux mixture+lead | HUECMENIE coco oopnaabcoeceune 6 | 2,332 9.9 82.2 3.0 Wallace also gives a table showing the effect of applications at different times. According to this, one spraying of lime- sulphur after the petals fall was superior to bordeaux used at that time or before the blossoms opened, both as to scab control or freedom from spray injury. Only one tree was used in each division of this experiment and the results must be considered with this fact in view. It is also proper to note that the other experiments involved a small number of trees per plot. Prof. Bethune** reports the results of commercial lime-sul- phur for controlling apple scab and pear scab (Venturia Pyrina (Aderh.) Snow apples received 3 applications at the usual times of 1-25, I-40 and 1-40 respectively. The results gave 99 per cent of unaffected fruit. In one block where the second spraying was omitted 85 per cent was scab free. The first ap- plication caused slight tip burn of foliage but no fruit was rus- seted. Flemish Beauty pears received 4 successive applications of 1-9, I-25, 1-40 and 1-40, entirely controlling the fungus. The 1-25 strength caused slight leaf injury; 1-4o did no harm. Spraying with bordeaux proved less effective. * Adapted from original table. ** Bethune, C. J. S. Rept. Ontario ene College and Experimental Farm (1909), pp. 34-35. 50 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. Professors Melander and Beattie* as a result of their trials recommended for apple scab boiled lime-sulphur at 1=1-5, with- out further dilution. This is practically the concentrated stock solution, and is far too strong for eastern conditions according to experiments so far on record. Such strength, however, they report as very effective without causing serious leaf injury. The experiments of Scott and Ayrest in 1909 consisted of a trial of the 8-8-50 self-boiled wash on peaches on a commer- cial scale, using it alone or with arsenate of lead, for controlling peach brown rot, scab and curculio. Very large numbers of trees were included in these trials and the results were in all cases markedly successful, the yield of marketable fruit being increased in some cases by one hundred per cent. In another case the yield of marketable fruit was Io times that from the unsprayed plot. Reports are also made in this connection of the commercially successful use of this spray in peach orchards of from 15,000 to 35,000 trees. Spray injury resulting from its application was so very small in amount as to be considered negligible. For apple scab in Arkansas, Virginia and Michigan Scottt used 4 commercial concentrates of 31° to 33° Beaumé density, both kinds of home-prepared lime-sulphurs and bordeaux. These were tried alone and with arsenicals. The tests were made on II varieties in the several regions. ‘The commercial sprays were used at dilutions ranging from 144-50 to 214-50, with arsenate of lead 2 pounds-50 or Paris green 6 ounces-50. - The results showed considerable differences, both in respect to foliage and fruit injury and scab control, the variations evi- dently depending largely upon the atmospheric conditions at spraying time and the varieties treated. Greater injury was ob- tained with Paris green than with lead arsenate. The commer- cial solutions used alone were more injurious to foliage than when combined with lead arsenate. 114-50 appeared to be the maximum strength consistent with safety. Bordeaux was some- * Melander, A. L. and Beattie, R. K. Wash. Agric. Expt. Sta. Pop. Bull. 28. + Scott, W. M. and Ayres, T. W. “The Control of Peach Brown-Rot and Scab.” U. S. D. A., Bureau Plant Industry Bull. 174 (i910). £ Scott, W. M. “The Substitution of Lime-Sulphur Preparations for Bordeaux Mixture in the ‘Treatment of Apple Diseases.” U. S$. D. A. Bureau of Plant Industry Cire. 54 (1910). ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 51 what behind the boiled sprays in per cent efficiency, while the self-boiled mixture ranked last. ‘The latter caused neither leaf nor fruit injury, while Bordeaux produced russeted fruit in some cases. Slight russeting of fruit is also reported where the stronger commercial sprays were used. Mr. M. B. Waite* has recently reported the results of several new fungicide combinations for the apple. In these iron sul- phate or calcium sulphate is combined with standard bordeaux mixture or one of the forms of lime-sulphur solutions. These have been compared with the standard bordeaux, neutral bor- deaux, both kinds of lime-sulphur sprays and a combination of the boiled lime-sulphur with bordeaux; all of these used with lead arsenate. Promising results are given for the first year’s work. ‘The noteworthy facts are the fruit russeting of at least one variety (Ben Davis) by all the copper containing fungicides; the appar- ent reduction of injury by the addition of sulphur compounds to bordeaux and the promising action of a combination of iron sulphate and self-boiled lime-sulphur. Parrott and Schoene** have recently reported the results of a large number of cooperative experiments conducted in 1910 by practical apple growers in New York with the home-made lime- sulphur concentrates. These results are almost unanimously favorable to the use of the spray as a substitute for bordeaux. Slight leaf injury and fruit russeting are noted, but of a nature entirely negligible in view of the general superiority to bor- deaux. But one case of severe injury was experienced. Of the 20 orchardists conducting this experiment on a practical basis 19 purpose using the sulphur sprays the coming season. Wallace’s work during the season just past enlarged consid- erably on his previous field work. About 90 plots, embracing 5 varieties of apples, 4 varieties of peaches and 2 varieties of pears were included in the experiments. ‘The sprays used were * Waite M. B. “Experiments on the Apple with Some New and Little- known Fungicides.’ U. S. D. A. Bureau Plant. Industry Cire. 58, *AGOLO) zo < ** Parrott, P. J. and Schoene, W. J. “Experiments with the Home Made Concentrated Lime-Sulphur Solutions.” N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. (Geneva). Bull. 330, (1911). ‘+ Wallace, EB. “Lime-Sulfur as a Summer Spray.” N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. (Cornell). Bulletin 289, (1911). 52 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QTI. boiled lime-sulphur at. several dilutions with and without arseni- cals, self-boiled mixture, bordeaux mixture with lead arsenate, and the latter used alone. The results reviewed as a whole again demonstrated an effi- ciency of the sulphur sprays equal to bordeaux in fungus con- trol and reduction of injury to foliage and fruit. Some leaf injury was obtained, but serious defoliation occurred in but 2 cases—one when arsenite of lime was used with lime-sulphur, the other when lime-sulphur with lead arsenate was applied to peaches with the carbonic acid gas sprayer. Russeting was noted on apples, but of a degree no greater or even less than that effected by the weather on unsprayed fruit. Wallace regards foliage injury from lime-sulphur* as entirely distinct from that produced by bordeaux mixture, because of the differences in chemical constituents. He is also of the opin- ion that injury from the former is limited to short periods fol- lowing the application of the spray, and that injuries appearing a considerable time after spraying may be ascribed to the arseni- cals used. In other words, in bordeaux as applied the copper is in the insoluble (hydroxide) or harmless form and cannot cause injury until certain changes occur. In lime-sulphur solu- tion on the other hand, the sulphur is applied in the soluble form, which is then many times more caustic than at any time after it has once dried. _ Wallace also emphasizes the conditions of the leaf as affected by insects and fungi and the vigor of the trees as important factors related to the degree and amount of injury inflicted. The amount of spray applied, according as this is excessive or moderate, is also regarded as bearing on the amount of injury. In connection with the above field experiments laboratory studies of the fungicidal properties of lime-sulphur alone and in combination were made.** Spores of peach brown rot, apple scab and apple canker were employed. The results show that equal concentrations are not equally efficient for different fungi. Arsenate of lead appears to have * Wallace, E. “Spray Injury Induced by Lime-Sulfur Prepara- tions., N. Ye Agric! Expt, Sta, (Cornell), Bull) 288) (orm): ** Wallace, E., Blodgett, F. M. and Hesler, L. R. “Studies on the Fungicidal Value of Lime-Sulfur Preparations.’ N. Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. (Cornell). Bulletin 290 (1911.) ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 53 some fungicidal value, both laboratory and field tests indicating increased efficiency of the sulphur sprays when lead arsenate is added. The effect of carbonic acid gas, used in a gas sprayer, is worthy of note. With lime-sulphur solutions alone the re- action of the gas was not of a nature to produce injurious re- sults. Such reaction where lime-sulphur was used with lead arsenate did result in injury to peach foliage. The results ob- tained by Wallace do not warrant him in recommending the use of a gas sprayer in applying these materials when combinel. The addition of lime to lime-sulphur solutions gave no con- clusive results. Laboratory tests indicated increased fungicidal powers by the addition of iron sulphate to the lime-sulphur ; the use of the two combined with lead arsenate was less effective than when the iron sulphate was omitted. EXPERIMENTS AT HicHmMoorR Farm, Marne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, IQIO. The increasing evidence of spray injury and the results of the preceding season in the orchards at Highmoor Farm made it desirable to test out the lime-sulphur sprays as substitutes for bordeaux mixture in this State. The experiment aimed at determining the following points: 1. ‘The comparative efficiency of the lime-sulphur sprays and bordeaux mixture as fungicides, especially for apple scab. 2. A comparison of these sprays in regard to possible injury to foliage and fruit on a variety especially susceptible to spray injury—the Ben Davis. 3. The effectiveness of arsenate of lead in combination with lime-sulphur solutions. 4. The relation of possible leaf and fruit injury to the com- bination of sulphur sprays with lead arsenate. The experiments as originally planned included a study of arsenic in other forms combined with the sulphur sprays and a - trial of the latter without arsenicals. ‘The number and condition of trees available this season for such a study made it necessary to confine it to the points aforementioned. ‘These cover the really important questions in the lime-sulphur problem. It is, after all, of very secondary importance whether or not lime-sulphur 54 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. as a fungicide may be advantageously substituted in the orchard for bordeaux. ‘The question of paramount importance is the determination of its relation and action in conjunction with a reliable insecticide. From the standpoint of general economy for the grower the onty solution of the spraying problem will be a safe and effective insecticide-fungicide combination. An orchard of 128 Ben Davis trees from 20 to 25 years old, of fairly uniform size and condition, and promising a moderate yield per tree, was divided into 12 plots. Plot 1 contained 9 trees. The remainder consisted of 12 each, excepting Plot 9 which contained 11.* The following table gives data of treat- ment. Table 11. ) | | Amount lead arsenate Average in 50 gals. water. Density Amount used | Plot. Treatment.| Manufactured | Degrees in 50 gals. | by Beaumeé. water. | © First Second and | Applica. |third Appli- tion. cations. | 1 Unsprayed... | | Niagara Sprayer, 2 Lime-sulphur| Company...... | 34 PES EBD ISG coa5 cconcasc 12 NDSYe creme 3 Ibs. Bowker Insecti-, | 3 Lime-sulphur| cide Co........| 34 AA PAlS.es is Phases Dulbs.gatees 3 lbs. Sterling Chemi-| | 4 Lime-sulphur| calCo......... 31 WESC) Sieemeeh ane nboe 2 WOSa. see 3 Ibs. | | Grasselli Chemi-| | ; 5 Lime-sulphur| calCo......... 33 PLB aoal Sy ase Soayeceesessie 2 MD Seyersieeeete 3 lbs. Jas.A.Blanchard | 6 Lime-sulphur| Company...... 32 Rs aU SH esviere etese nia atew PeilSeaueoes 3 Ibs. | 7 “Sulfocide” ..|B. G. Pratt Co...| 40 BS GaP osdosanec soe 2 Mos oo5 3a. 3 lbs. 8 Intensified | | | Self Boiled | Lim e-s ul p- 10 lbs. lime........ Fi ; Inher aobo ee Home made..... /10. Ibs. sulphur....|/2 lbs....... 3 lbs. 9 Boiled Lime- | [2h Ibs. lime ) ax sulphur.....;Home made..... 31 5 lbs. sulphur j 21 DSteaeer ere 3 Ibs. 10 Bordeaux | 4 lbs. copper sulp- mixture ....|Home made..... hate. 4 lbs. lime/2 Ibs....... 3 lbs. . | | 11 Bordeaux | 3 Ibs. copper sulp- mixture ....;Home made..... | | hate. 3 lbs. lime/2 lbs....... 3 Ibs. 12 Unsprayed... | | | | * The third application of ‘‘Sulfocide”’ was 3, gallon to 50 gallons water. ** Boiled with a constant volume of 10 gallons water and used at same dilution as commercial concentrates. * Two trees in Plot 12 were accidentally sprayed on one side in the second application and were omitted from the final count. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 55 In making the self-boiled lime-sulphur, hot water was used and an attempt made to secure a large amount of sulphur in solution by making it in a small 10-gallon cask, conserving the heat by a covering during the process, and allowing it to stand for about 45 minutes before using. The lime was high grade and quick acting. Sulphur flour was used.* _ The lime of the boiled concentrated spray was slaked with a thin paste made of the sulphur in hot water, more water being added up to a total volume of 10 gallons. This volume was kept constant while the solution boiled for one hour. After cooling and straining it showed a density indicated in the table and was used at the same dilution as the commercial solutions. Arsenate of lead was not added in any case until the time of application. | Time oF APPLICATION. Owing to the nature of the experiment, a hand pump outfit was used. The applications, made with Mistry Jr. nozzles, were exceedingly careful and thorough, and occurred on the follow- ing dates: ist. When fruit buds began to show pink, May 13 to 16. and. After the petals fell, June 7 to 9. Bade itily 15 to 18. WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING AND FOLLOWING SPRAYING. Weather conditions at the time of the first application were most favorable. The days were bright, mild and warm, and remained so for at least a week after spraying. The second application was interrupted and followed by weather of the kind most favorable for the production of spray injury, according to previous experiences with bordeaux mix- ture. Showers interrupted and followed the spraying. The temperature and’humidity changes were great and sudden. Cold, rainy periods were followed by bright, hot, humid ones. Un- *It should be noted that the above method of making this mixture is in reality not the “self- boiled’? preparation of Scott’s recommendation, but an intensified modification, whereby more sulphur than Scott ad- Vises goes into solution. In making the self-boiled mixture the direc- tions at the end of this bulletin should be followed. 56 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. fortunately meteorological apparatus had not been installed at this time and the observations in this regard are of necessity general. Fair weather accompanied and followed the final ap- plication. RESULTS. Effect on Foliage. No injury to foliage occurred between the first and second applications. Observations made 2 to 15 days after the second application showed leaf injury on all the sprayed plots except that treated with self-boiled lime-sulphur. This injury appeared as light reddish-brown spots, in many cases greater in area than bor- deaux spots, and frequently seen on the marginal portions of the leaf. As the season progressed these dead areas became darker in color and brittle. In many cases the spots were small and round, being comparable in size and shape to those found on bordeaux injured foliage. The number of such areas per leaf was, however, considerably less. The degree of injury varied but little on the several sulphur plots. Plot 2 was slightly better than Plot 3 in respect to free- dom from injury. In the latter division the injury appeared to be confined to the smaller, less developed leaves. Plots 4 and 5 were both slightly superior to 2, and Plot 6 ranked equally with the latter. Of all the lime-sulphur sprays the home-boiled preparation showed the greatest amount of leaf injury, and this was more apparent after the third application. (Fig. 48.) The actual amount of damage was slight. A fair estimate would be 2 per cent, compared with one-half to one per cent from the com- mercial sprays. In all cases, however, the injury had no appar- ent later effect. Foliage and wood growth were unchecked, fruit developed well and the functions of the tree seemed un- impaired. Indeed, as the season progressed, close observation was needed to detect any foliage injury whatever. (Fig. 57.) The leaves remained notably green and vigorous and hung on until long after harvest. The “Sulfocide” plot showed leaf scorching of the most severe kind shortly after the second application. Leaves were so badly burned that the affected tissues were crisped (Fig. 49). De- oo ] ee | a | = & CLEAN / Fig. 37. Plat 1. Unsprayed, Clean 58.3%, Scabbed 41.6%, Wormy 13.7%, Deformed 1.9%. SCABBED | DEFORMED} Fig. 38. Plat 2. Niagara Lime Sulphur plus Lead arsenate. Clean, 92.7%, Scabbed, 7.2%, Deformed 2.2%. — ee ee ee ee eS ne a ee Ee ee 58 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. foliation was marked and from the general appearance of the plot at the close of the season it may be assumed that the vigor of the trees was considerably impaired (Fig. 56). Injury was increased by the final application, although this was at a greater dilution than the weakest strength recommended by the manu- RAC HUI Cia Sea In comparison with the lime-sulphur sprays the bordeaux plots showed a markedly greater degree of leaf injury, estimated - at 25 per cent. The characteristic leaf spotting was produced (Fig. 47), followed by a moderate amount of yellowing and leaf fall to a lesser degree. (Fig. 58.) No difference in effect on foliage was noted between the two strengths of bordeaux. The foliage suffered markedly in comparison with the lime- sulphur plots, after allowing for differences in appearance due to the color of the two sprays. The adhesive quality of all the commercial solutions as well as the home-boiled concentrate was excellent on leaves and fruit, and compared well with bordeaux. The self-boiled mixture was inferior in this respect. Effect on Fruit. Contrary to the experience of most investi- gators, all the plots showed injury to fruit.** Not even the self- boiled sulphur plot was free in this respect. The injury was of two kinds; one a russeting, roughening and pustulation of the skin, frequently accompanied by malformation and practically identical with the several degrees of bordeaux injury. The most severe injury on any of the lime-sulphur plots was some- what less than the greatest injury from bordeaux (Fig. 51). No cracking or folding of the skin accompanied the former, and while russeting was quite common, it was of a nature in cases where malformation was absent to detract but slightly from the market value of the fruit. The other form of spray injury, confined to fruit sprayed with sulphur solutions, occurred without exception at the calyx end, and will be designated as calyx injury. *The manufacturer’s directions accompanying ‘“‘Sulfocide” give Paris green as the insecticide to be used with it. Lead arsenate was used in this experiment to determine its action, as no field test of such combi- nation seems to have been reported. **Note.—It should be borne in mind that the Ben Davis is especially susceptible to spray injury,.as compared with some other varieties. oy =" —— e- es DEFORMED! Fig. 39. Plat 3. Bowker Lime Sulphur plus Lead Arsenate. Clean 93.3%, Scabbed 6.6%, Deformed 3.5%. SCABBED DEFORMED a Fig. 4c. Plat 6. Blanchard Lime Sulphur plus Lead Arsenate. Clea 91%, Scabbed 8.9%, Deformed 1.6%. VES A oe eee ee Ree 60 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QT1. When this fruit was about one-third full size a dark brown discoloration of the tissues immediately surrounding the sepals was observed. This was on the average one centimeter in di- ameter and fairly regular and circular in outline. As the season advanced it did not increase noticeably in size, but became blacker. Such tissue was hard, tough and very resistant to pressure; an axial section showed that the injury was confined to the skin and to a very minute part of the sub-epidermal tis- . sues. The macroscopic appearance of such tissues was in ac- cord with the descriptions of “‘corked” tissues on other parts of bordeaux injured apples. When this injury first became noticeable it was invariably accompanied by a bright carmine aureole upon the edge of the basin. This was the certain. index of calyx injury on fruit hanging high enough on the tree to obscure the other indications. This aureole disappeared entirely with the growth of the fruit. The blackened areas become somewhat depressed and fre- quently showed a tendency to separate = curl away slightly from the normal skin adjacent. In rare cases this form of injury spread well into the basin, was irregular in outline and confined to one side of the calyx. Two examples of the more severe type of calyx injury are shown (Fig. 52). Cases where the splitting of the skin at the edge of the injury gave opening for fungous infections resulted a little before har- vest in the production of a very small amount of rot. Injury from bordeaux mixture was of the nature indicated by the illustrations (Fig. 50) and tallied with the description of such injury previously given in this bulletin. Both bordeaux and calyx injury were evidently vafieres by the second application of the spray. No further effects were noted after the final spraying. The fruit on the “Sulfocide” plot suffered injury commen- surate with that of the foliage, both in amount and degree. The burning appeared at the same time as the calyx injury already mentioned, but in this case the last application, although diluted beyond the specified recommendation, produced addi- tional injury. Here also the damage inflicted was chiefly at the calyx. It was vastly greater than that previously described, and more- ee Fig. 41. Plat 7. “Sulfocide” plus Lead Arsenate, Clean 94.4%, Scabbed 5.5%, Deformed 44.3%. Fig. 42. Plat 8. Intensified Self Boiled Lime Sulphur plus Lead Arsenate. Clean 84.5%, Scabbed 15.4%, Deformed 2.1%. 62 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IOI. over was not confined to the fruit basin or restricted to that part of the apple. The sides of the fruit were likewise affected and frequently deep clefts in the flesh occurred in conjunction with the burned skin. The injury when confined to the basin resulted in many cases in a marked shrinking and depression of that part. In addition, the fruit was stunted in growth and frequently misshapen. In color, texture and general characters the injury on these apples corresponded to that of calyx injury. © It was, as may be seen, (Figs. 53 and 54) greater, and it also extended deeper into the sub-cuticular tissues. Rot of injured fruit at harvest was also greater on fruit from this plot. In examining the fruit of the unsprayed plots we find evi- dence that must largely modify the conclusions to be drawn from this year’s results. Fruit removed as completely as pos- sible from the liability of catching spray from the other plots showed injury of the kind illustrated (Fig. 55). Aside from this, fruit not deformed showed a cansiderable amount of rus- seting, also of varying degree. A comparison of fruit from the several plots as to general appearance was notably in favor of all the lime-sulphur sprays. The apples from such plots were larger, of better color and had an attractive waxy bloom. In this respect fiuit from Plots 5, 6, 8 and 9 was especially noteworthy. The “Sulfocide” plot produced smaller apples but on the average of still higher color. The fruit from the bordeaux plots was decidedly inferior in finish and color to any of the mest Effectiveness in Fungous Control. The early part of the season was favorable for infection by scab and fruit spot (Cylindrosporium Pomi, Brooks), as indi- cated by the check plots and unsprayed trees in the vicinity of the orchards. A prolonged drought in June and July doubtless served as a check on late infections. The leaves on the unsprayed trees were nevertheless consid- erably affected by scab, infection being estimated at 70 per cent, of which 50 per cent was severe. The self-boiled lime-sulphur showed least fungous control of any spray used. Here the per cent of foliage infection was e oe Fig. 43. Plat 9. Home Boiled Lime Sulphur plus Lead Arsenate. Clean, 85.2%, Scabbed 14.7%, Deformed 1.3%. SCABBED Fig. 44. Plat to. Bordeaux Mixture 4-4-50 plus Lead Arsenate. Clean, 83.2%, Scabbed 16.7%, Deformed 6.7%. 64. MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQIT. estimated at 50 per cent, but none of it was of a degree severe enough to materially affect the functions of the tree. In the other divisions control, so far as careful observations showed, was excellent and practically equal. The foliage was not entirely free from the fungus, but the infections did not be- come sufficiently established to do any evident damage. Such scabby foliage averaged from 4 to 8 per cent on the different plots. In estimating the efficiency of control on the fruit, scab alone was considered. No gradations of scabby fruit were made; the resulting data therefore do not show the amount of fruit which was very slightly affected. This in practically all cases was more than 50 per cent of the scabby fruit of all sprayed plots, and should be taken into consideration. Effectiveness of Lead Arsenate. The results obtained indicate an almost perfect control of insects affected by arsenicals. The unsprayed plots were thor- oughly infested during the season by codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, L,.), yellow-necked caterpillar (Datana ministra), tussock moth (Hemerocampa leucostigma) and fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea). ‘The last was extremely prevalent in Maine this season, and the check rows and unsprayed trees in the neighborhood were covered with the caterpillars. Not only leaves but fruit as well were attacked by them in Plot 1. | On the other hand, practically no trace of any of the afore- mentioned pests could be found on any of the sprayed plots. The cigar-case bearer (Coleophora fletcherella) and bud moth (Tmetocera ocellana) were present in all the orchards in the spring; the first spraying was not early enough to check the work of either insect, and some injury was done by the latter. It should be noted that almost every fruit classed as wormy was in the case of the sprayed plots injured by the plum cur- culio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) and not by codling moth. The control of the latter pest was therefore practically absolute. Russeted fruit as such was not included in the following data, as this was common to checks and sprayed trees alike, but se- vere deformity with russeting is given as an index of the amount of severe injury incurred. No distinction has been made between picked fruit and windfalls, as nearly all the fruit hung on the ai I ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 65 trees until a few days before picking time, when a quantity of fruit dropped during a wind storm. The windfalls were pre- vented from rolling by a deep cover crop, and no difficulty was found in assigning the dropped fruit to its respective plot. Table 12. Per Per Density | Number] cent. Per Per cent. Per Plot Treatment. Degrees - of without} cent. cent. Calyx | cent. Beaumé.| Apples. scab. |Scabby.*|Detormed. Injury.|Wormy. 1 |Check, Unsprayed 3 3,102 58.34 41.65 1.96 13.79 2 |Niagara Lime- sulphur......... 34 7,736 | 92.70 7.29 222, 1.75 0.63 3 [Bowker ‘Lime- sulphur......... 34 5,040 | 93.33 6.66 3.5% 1.07 1.54 4 |Sterling Lime- sulphur........ 31 7,765 | 89.96 10.03 1.37 0.06 0.81 5 |Grasse11ifLim e- Swiholiwhepeneseae 33 9,563 88.53 11.46 1.81 3.21 9.53 6 |Blanchard Lime- sulphur.:....... 32 7,699 91.08 8.91 1.64 0.61 1.02 7 |Pratt ‘“Sulfocide’| . 40 33660 94.42 5.57 44 .39** 0.16 8 \Intensified Self | boiled Lime- sulphur......... 3,181 84.59 15.40 2.13 1.03 1.03 9 |Boiled Lime-s ul- | LUT ae eelete hee eine 31 6,551 85.25 14.74 iL. et 0.09 1) 2B 10|Bordeaux 4-4-50. . 7,185 | 83.29 | 16.70 6.77 1.51 11| Bordeaux 3-3-50.. 5,215 85.95 14.03 5.79 1.97 12|Check, Unsprayed 6,092 59.24 40.75 2.47 7.33 * On sprayed plots 50 per cent. of respective amounts so slightly scabbed as to have fair market value. ** Deformity and calyx injury sufficiently coincident to combine in one count. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Examination of the above data shows a small balance of scab control in favor of the lime-sulphur sprays as against bordeaux mixture. ‘The “Sulfocide” plot shows the highest degree of scab control, but the points to be discussed later do not incline one favorably towards its use, at least with arsenate of lead. In general the chief significance of the foregoing table is the demonstration of the high fungicidal efficiency of the lime-sul- phur sprays. The per cent variations are all within the range 66 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. of experimental error, and their use in making comparisons between individual plots cannot serve as the basis for warranted conclusions. Neither of the home-made sulphur sprays were quite as ef- fective as the commercial concentrates. On the basis of former experiments, some reduction in fungus control was to be ex- pected in the case of the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The con- clusion, however, that home-made lime-sulphur concentrate is - inferior to the commercial sprays, must not be drawn from one year’s results, especially in view of the many experiments al- ready cited, pointing to the contrary. We believe that this fall- ing off, compared with the commercial solutions, may be partly accounted for by the greater foliage density of the trees of this plot. - It is reasonable to suppose that with equal care in appli- cation, such increase of leaves, especially towards the center of the tree, would not only make control of the fungus more diffi- cult, but the greater shade and reduced aeration would render propagation easier. The same explanation, although to lesser degree, may hold for Plots 10 and 11. Plots 9 to 12 inclusive consisted of somewhat larger and denser trees which had not been quite so heavily thinned in the pruning of the preceding winter. In general, however, we may consider this year’s data confirm the consensus of results obtained elsewhere as to the practical efficiency of lime-sulphur sprays in the control of apple scab and other fungi. Injury to Foliage and Fruit. “We have already seen that the lime-sulphur sprays proved immeasurably superior to bordeaux in their effect on foliage, and this under seasonal conditions at spraying time that put all materials used to the most severe test. On the question of in- jury to fruit, caution is needed in drawing conclusions. This is obvious when we consider the per cent of deformed fruit on both unsprayed plots (Table 12) and note its appearance (Fig. ss). These amounts run sufficiently close to the per cents indicated for the lime-sulphur sprays to warrant the assumption that the unknown agencies classed as weather conditions were this year responsible for much of the damage on the sprayed trees. Whatever these natural agencies may be, they were this ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 67 year widespread throughout the country, as shown by reports of injury to sprayed and unsprayed fruit. We cannot, however, concur with the view taken by some workers in this field, who, on the basis of their results, do not credit lime-sulphur sprays with ability to produce fruit injury. We incline to the belief that positive results such as ours are more significant than those of a negative nature. The fact that spraying trees with lime-sulphur has resulted in no injury to fruit may mean no more than the absence of conditions neces- sary for producing it with the spray in question, or that in some cases it has been used on varieties not especially susceptible to spray injury. A comparison of the injured apples from the check plots (Fig. 55) and those from the lime-sulphur plots (Fig. 51) brings out the point at issue. The unsprayed fruit shows a good amount of russeting and remarkable deformity. But laying the fact of deformity aside, we do not find on the unsprayed plots the very evident pustulation or “pimpling” of the russeted surfaces so clearly evident on fruit from the lime-sulphur plots. This, be it noted (Fig. 51), is practically identical in appearance with a moderately severe case of bordeaux injury. Injury from lime-sulphur has moreover been reported in other states. Parrott and Schoene* recognize the russeting of apples sprayed this season with lime-sulphur. Two of the coopera- tive experimenters report severe russeting, although less severe than where bordeaux was used. Others report such injury to lesser degrees, and in general always less than the damage caused by bordeaux mixture. Prof. Cordley reports fruit injury of a nature similar to our experience. In experiments conducted by him in the Willa- mette Valley no injury could be obtained on fruit “without using the spray at a strength sufficient to seriously injure the foliage. = * * In the Hood River Valley, where we con- ducted certain experiments, entirely different results were ob- tained. No injury whatever to the fruit was produced by the application, which was made at the time the blossom buds were opening, nor by the second application which was made after the petals fell; but serious injury to the foliage and fruit did * Parrott, P. J. and Schoene, W. J. loc. cit. 68 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. result from the third application, which was made between May 23 and May 28, and which was followed immediately by a few excessively hot days—so hot in fact that some sunscald of the fruit occurred in orchards which were not sprayed. The injury in question occurred in two forms. From 2 to 5 per cent of the fruit, principally upon the southwest side of the trees, suf- fered seriously from what appeared to be sunscald, but which | was more abundant in orchards which were sprayed with lime- sulfur than in orchards which were sprayed with some other combination. ‘There later developed upon a considerable por- tion of the fruit, which at the time showed no injury, a form of ‘russeting’ very similar to that caused by bordeaux. Just what the explanation of this injury is, | am not prepared at this time to say, but the evidence points strongly to the conclusion that we should warn fruit growers against the use of lime- sulfur, at least at the strength at which we have been using the sclutions during very hot weather.”* Fruit russeting following the use of lime-sulphur on apples has also been reported in Ohio this past season.** These results would seem to be somewhat in accord with those obtained in Maine. The weather conditions, however, were different, and the injured fruit in our experiment was not confined to any particular side of the tree. It was, moreover, found equally on trees of thin and dense foliage. Neither does the fact that some fruit injury was found on the intensified. self-boiled lime-sulphur plot prove said -injury to be solely due to weather conditions, when we recall that the mixture in this case was made with a view to getting the max- imum amount of sulphur into solution. The injury produced by bordeaux shows that it was from 2 to 5 times as great. It was also more severe. In this respect the results of this year agree with those of preceding investi- gators as to the evident reduction of serious damage by the substitution of lime-sulphur for bordeaux mixture as summer sprays. We believe that further work along this line will con- tinue to furnish evidence warranting the substitution of lime- sulphur for bordeaux as a fungicide for all fruits most sus- ceptible to spray injury. * Cordley, A. B. In correspondence, Nov. 14, 1910. ** Selby, A. D. Ohio Agric. Expt. Sta. In correspondence. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 69 We are furthermore of the opinion that when weather con- ditions are right for the production of spray injury, no spray material now known can be relied upon to counteract or avoid it; and this will be especially true when said conditions produce injury on unsprayed fruit, as in the past season. Indeed it is highly probable that the fruit injury obtained this year (if we disregard the one kind that was undoubtedly caused by the arsenical), was due to the application of a spray, irrespective of its composition. In other words, under the unusual conditions at spraying time, the addition of moisture may have increased the degree of injury which the natural agents alone were capable of inflicting. Future experiments may prove that satisfactory ’ fungicidal effects may be secured with greater dilutions at re- duced risk of injury. Effectiveness of Lead Arsenate. This point has already been fully discussed. The results cor- rcborate those of experimenters previously mentioned regarding the entire efficiency with lime-sulphur sprays, irrespective of the chemical changes occurring when used together. The check plots indicate that insects destructive to fruit were not especially numerous. Codling moth, as previously noted, was perfectly controlled. “Sulfocide”’ and Calyx Injury. The fact that calyx injury was found on neither check nor bordeaux plots, together with the very severe injury of similar nature on Plot 7 inclines us to the belief that this was the result of a chemical change whereby the arsenic was set free in some form capable of causing the results. The injuries already de- scribed and more particularly those on Plot 7 bear a very strik- ing resemblance to descriptions of a similar injury noted by Tay- lor at the Missouri Fruit Station on apples sprayed in a rainy season with bordeaux and Paris green. Between the second and third applications ‘‘apples were noted in the Paris green plot with blackened areas about their blossom ends. ‘These black- ened areas increased in size and became more conspicuous as the apples grew. By picking time some of the areas now shriy- eled had extended about the blossom end until it covered over a third of the surface of the fruit. In some cases the burned tis- 7O MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. LODE: sue at the end of the apple had dried and separated from the normal portion and fallen away, leaving the seeds exposed at the bottom of circular cup-like depressions. Some apples less seri- ously burned showed deeply depressed calyx basins.”* Nearly one-fourth of the picked fruit from these trees treated with Paris green were reduced from first class, and many to cull grade from this cause. Trees treated with arsenate of lead de- veloped one per cent of apples blackened at the blossom end. . Rainy weather was held accountable for the intensity of the damage inflicted. Paddock** also reports an attempt to control an alternaria rot on apples described by Longyear,*** which affected the fruit at the calyx end. Paddock concluded that much of said alter- naria injury was really due to spraying with improperly pre- pared arsenicals, and emphasizes the necessity when using ar- senite of lime on Ben Davis and Gano of spraying during fair weather only. Scott and Quaintancey+ noted injury to leaves and fruit of the peach produced by lead arsenate in their 1908 experiments. Mr. J. P. Stewart of the Pennsylvania Station has observed a similar burning of peaches following the use of bordeaux and lead arsenate. Cordley has indicated the differences in chemical reaction be- tween lime-sulphur and the two kinds of lead arsenates, netural and acid, showing that the amount of soluble arsenic in mixtures of the fungicide with the acid arsenate is 4 to’7 times greater than when the neutral kind is used.t -These facts are significant in view of the aforementioned in- juries of this season. It is unreasonable to ascribe to a com- mon cause injuries so much alike as the russeting from lime- *Taylor, E. P. “Spraying Apples for Curculio and Codling Moth”. Missouri State Fruit Sta. Bull. 21 (1909). p. 69. ** Paddock, W. Rept. of Field Horticulturist. Colo. Agric. Expt. Sta. Press Bull. 43 (1907). *« Tongyear, B. O. “A New Apple Rot”. Colo. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. to5 (1905). + Scott, W. M. and Quaintance, A. L. “Control of the Brown-Rot and Plum Curculio on Peaches.” U.S. D. A. Bureau of Ent. Cire. 120 (1910). *Cordley, A. B. “The Lime-Sulphur-Arsenate of Lead Mixture.” Better Fruit, May, 1910, pp. 37-41. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 71 sulphur and bordeaux mixture and this other form of damage, so markedly different, so distinctly localized and entirely absent on trees sprayed with bordeaux and lead arsenate. Evidently the answer must be sought in the reactions of the arsenates and the sulphur sprays.* Relations of Density of Concentrate to Injury. The degree of injury to fruit and foliage varied only in a general way with the density of the concentrates. Allowing for the factor of experimental error, the results are in accord with the present practice of increasing the dilution with the density. CONCLUSIONS. The experiment here recorded is the result of the first sea- son’s work and should be regarded as preliminary rather than the basis for final conclusions. In general the data presented show that lime-sulphur preparations may be efficiently used as summer sprays, and that with weather conditions liable to pro- duce spray injury lime-sulphur does less damage than bordeaux mixture both qualitatively and quantitatively. Further data are needed regarding variation in the effect of sulphur sprays on different varieties. Other questions are those concerning the minimum effective dilution and the action of ditf- ferent arsenicals in combination with them. Arsenate of lead proved as effective with lime-sulphur as with bordeaux mixture. The use of a neutral lead arsenate is rec- ommended in order to reduce any tendency to arsenical injury. “Sulfocide” with lead arsenate gave unfavorable results on * Note.—This is indicated by tests made by the chemists of this station. “‘Sulfocide’ and an acid arsenate of lead used in the orchard experiments were mixed in the dilutions used in spraying, and allowed to stand. At the end of half an hour 100 cubic centimeters of the mixture after filtering showed 94 milligrams of soluble arsenious oxide. After standing for three days an equal volume yielded 104 milligrams, largely in the form of sodium arsenate. The same test was made with the lead arsenate and one of the com- mercial lime-sulphur concentrates. Practically no arsenic was found in solution. Nevertheless the calyx injury on the commercial lime-sul- phur plots must be ascribed to a reaction between the concentrate and the arsenate. 72 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IOQITI. foliage and fruit. Its use with Paris green was not attempted. Favorable results have in some cases been reported by growers when used with the latter arsenical. Unusual conditions favorable to the production of injury were prevalent this season. It is believed that future work with more dilute solutions will furnish still better reasons for the use of lime-sulphur as an orchard fungicide. ‘The many experi- ments referred to, as well as the favorable reports of practical ~ orchardists throughout the country, warrant Maine fruit grow- ers in giving the new sprays a thorough trial. Aside from the experimental plots, this Station purposes using home boiled lime- sulphur of 31° to 34° Beaumé density at a 1-40 dilution on all its orchards. The additional advantage of the sulphur sprays lies in their combined insecticidal and fungicidal powers. ‘The same stock solution used to control fungous diseases in summer is success- ful at greater strength as an insecticide for sucking insects against which arsenicals are ineffective. Such strengths must be applied when the tree is not in leaf. Homer Mabe vs. ComMMErcrAL LiME SULPHUR. Commercial lime-sulphur preparations now on the market are not superior to concentrated home made stock solutions when these are properly made and stored. The former are, moreover, considerably more expensive. At present prices of material the home made concentrate can be made at a cost of one-third to one-fourth that of an equal volume of a commer- cial solution if the materials are bought in quantity. This does not include the original outlay for a cooker and barrels for storage. The commercial preparation is a convenience, requir- ing nothing but a knowledge of its density before diluting. The home made concentrate can be made at any time and if properly barreled and kept from freezing can be stored indefinitely. Home made lime-sulphur can also at present be made cheaper than the home-prepared bordeaux mixture, so far as cost of in- gredients are concerned. The choice on grounds of economy is, therefore, merely between the expenditure of money or time and labor. ORCHARD SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. 73 DrrREcTIONS FOR MAKING LiME-SULPHUR SOLUTIONS. The materials necessary for making these sprays are a good stone lime, free from grit or dirt, testing not less than 90 per cent calcium oxide and not more than 5 per cent magnesium oxide, and sulphur. Sulphur may be in the form of flowers of sulphur or sulphur flour. Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur.* Use 10 pounds sulphur and 10 pounds of good stone lime to 50 gallons of water.** These quantities may be increased to any desired amount provided the proportions are maintained. “Place the lime in a barrel and pour on enough water (about 3 gallons to 20 pounds) to start it slaking and to keep the sul- phur off the bottom of the barrel. Then add the sulphur which should be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps and finally enough water to slake the lime into a paste. Consider- able stirring is necessary to prevent caking on the bottom. Af- ter the violent boiling which accompanies the slaking of the lime is over the mixture should be diluted ready for spraying, or at least enough cold water added to stop the cooking. Five to 15 minutes are required, according to whether the lime is quick acting or sluggish. The intense heat seems to break up the par- ticles of sulphur into about the physical condition of precipi- tated sulphur and the violent boiling makes a good mechanical mixture of the lime and sulphur. Only a small percentage of the sulphur—enough to improve the adhesiveness of the mix- ture—goes into solution, but if the hot mass is allowed to stand as a thick paste the sulphur continues to unite with the lime and at the end of 30 to 40 minutes enough of the reddish liquid is produced to burn peach foliage and even apple foliage in some TAGs, a The mixture should be strained through a sieve of 20 meshes to the inch in order to remove the coarse particles of lime, but all the sulphur should, be worked through the strainer. The amount of water required to make the best mixture de- * Adapted trom the several publications of W. M. Scott, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. D. A. **& An 8-8-50 formula is recommended by Scott in his latest report on peaches. 10-10-50 is doubtless none too strong for the apple. 74 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. pends largely upon the lime. Some grades of lime respond quickly and take a large quantity of water, while others heat up slowly and are easily ‘drowned’ if too much water is added at once. Hot water may be used to good advantage in preparing the mixture with sluggish lime, but with quick-acting lime hot water is not necessary and is more likely to bring too much of the sulphur into solution. If desired the mixture may be kept for a week or more without deterioration, but should be thor- - oughly stirred before using.” In applying the self-boiled mixture the spray pump should be equipped with a good agitator, as the mixture settles to the bot- tom of the tank. In order to be evenly applied it must be well agitated. It is to be noted that this mixture has been found less effect- ive for apple scab than the boiled preparation. Home Boiled Concentrated Lime-Sulphur. Silly aap or eee Oe ne a IIo pounds. ies besten ade. PATCH. Because of their similarity and the consequent lack of satis- factory specific characters in descriptions, many of the aphides belonging to the genus Macrosiphum have become confused both as to their status in literature and in collections. Some 12 years ago I questioned one of our most careful aphidists concerning M. pisi and he replied with a laugh, “Pisi! Well, that’s a composite species ali right. All big green Macrosi- pha not otherwise easily placed are pisi.” A few years ago a second aphidist who has spent many years working over these insects told me with a half whimsical shrug of despair, “If an aphid-is a Macrosiphum, then I do not know the species.” It was with this confusion in mind that a critical examination of solanifolii was undertaken for characters which would sepa- rate it from closely allied species. I found that this aphid has been listed as “pisi’”’ in certain aphid collections and presume that it may be mixed with “pisi”’ in literature. What pist Kaltenbach is I do not know. There seems to be no reason to be sure that pisi has not been a composite species in Europe as well as in America both in collections and in literature. It is on account of this uncertainty that in this paper the whole pisi proposition is relegated to Europe where it should first be straightened out and “the destructive green pea-louse” of *Papers from the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station: Ento- mology No. 47. 82 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. America is discussed under the name of M. destructor (John- son) which is conservative and safe for the present. Both destructor and solanifoliu may be characterized as large green Macrosipha with not infrequently color varieties of bright pink or soft yellow. For the most part the characters which separate them are relative, as destructor is in general larger with longer, more slender cornicles and a longer cauda. The antennal characters differ somewhat, the most distinctive difference being in the sensoria of the spuriae, this form in solamifolit having the sensoria of III about 3 to 6 and arranged at the base of the segment more in a row than in destructor, the spuriae of which have the very few sensoria (1 to 3 or 4) of III rather bunched at base of segment. But the most defi- nite and easily observable of characters which will serve to differentiate these two species is the presence or absence of reticulation of the cornicles, a character mentioned by Sander- son (1910a) in his interesting and suggestive comparative study of European and American specimens of “pisi.’ Mr. Sander- son, however, did not consider this character to be of specific importance although he mentions the presence or absence of ‘reticulations in his descriptions and figures of the cornicles with reference to this character, and gives (Sanderson 1901a p. 74) reticulata as a variety name to those Macrosipha (chiefly from lettuce) having reticulated cornicles and more numerous sensoria on antennal segment III of the apterous viviparous form, (Sanderson 1901a p. 38). - Whether reticulata Sanderson may prove to be solanfolu or not, I have at present no biological evidence to indicate; but the structural characters of antennae and cornicles would separate reticulata from destructor and show that it is at least closely. allied to solanifolu. What the full synonomy of any of these similar species of Macrosiphum may be it would be folly to guess until the whole group is more thoroughly under- stood; but it does not seem futile to attempt to characterize destructor and solanifolii so at least that these two species may not be confused regardless of the host plant upon which they are taken. Mr. Sanderson in concluding his careful and valuable paper (1901a pp. 38-39) writes: “For the present, therefore, from the material studied, we are obliged to consider all of these TWO SPECIES OF MACROSIPHUM. 83 specimens as varieties of N. pisi Kalt. A larger series and further observation of their life histories may reveal specific distinctions. ‘The present account is published merely to show the extreme variability of this species (or, as it may prove to be, the likeness of several species), and the necessity of a care- ful study of it and allied species.” The purpose of this present paper is merely to add one more chapter toward the interpretation of two similar species, a chap- ter that seems necessary in connection with the biological and food plant data of these species which is needed before the economic status of these insects can be clearly understood. In regard to the need for further host plant data Mr. Chittenden (1909) writes: “The subject of alternate host plants is an important one, since the pea, being an annual, is not available as food for this aphis during the winter. It is desirable to ascertain all of the host plants of the pea aphis, and more especially the weeds, as some one or more of these may be factors of importance in the life economy of the species. It might be necessary in the future, should the depredations of this insect increase, to limit the growing of clover and other legumes, as well as their alter- nate host plants, if such be found, in the vicinity of pea fields. If all of the principal alternate plants could be discovered this might furnish a solution of the problem of how to deal with the insect.” The futility from an economic standpoint of compiling a series of host plants for a “composite species” is apparent. The descriptions of destructor in the Bibliography appended with especial reference to the beautiful figures (Folsom 1909) - in the Illinois Report are still easily available and suffice, to- gether with Miss King’s figures of the cornicles in this present paper, sufficiently to characterize the Destructive Green-Pea- louse. The imbrications of the cornicles extend clear to the tip in both apterous and alate forms, there being no terminal area of reticulation as is the case in solanifolu. This imbricated character of the destructor cornicle holds good in forms much diversified as to color and size, as both pink and green varieties are alike in this structure. It also holds good for the progeny individuals transferred from pea to shepherd’s purse and clover. The distinctions between the 84 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. reticulated and imbricated cornicles of any species of Macrosi- phum come out only in the mature insect and do not hold useful for the nymphs. In general Macrosiphum solanifolii* is a large, active species, usually green but very often pink, and sometimes yellowish, especially the young of the pink individuals. Decidedly pink individuals occur both with the winged and apterous viviparous females. At Houlton, August 17, 1905, a pink-winged viviparous female was taken with 12 young, 7 of which were decidedly green and 5 decidedly pink. About 20 pink viviparous specimens collected at Maple Grove, August 19, 1906, were placed upon potato in the insectary. Some were winged and some were apterous. On August 29 the young of these were all found to be pink, though many were toning into pale yellow. The insectary specimens of oviparous females were largely pink, though many were yellow, and a few dis- tinctly green. Macrosiphum solamfolu. Winged viviparous female.—Head yellowish green. Antennae, proximal segments pale green, dis- tal segments dark; length of segments: III, .88 to .96 mm.; INie276: to" 29 anime VE (OA to 272 nai) Vo ONO 92 iadtadee ia alee .96 to 1.12 mm.; total length I to VII, 3.6 to 4.05 mm. Pro- thorax and thorax light yellowish green. Wings hyaline, veins dark brown, very slender, stigma pale brown. Total wing ex- pansion 8.1 mm. Legs with proximal part of femora and tibiae pale, tarsi and distal part of femora and tibiae dark. ‘Tarsi .16 to .2 mm. Abdomen light green unmarked dorsally or ventrally. Cornicles, with proximal portion green and distal portion dark brown, imbricated along the center but strongly reticulated at tip, cylindrical, length .95 mm. or about five times length of tarsus. Cauda light green, ensiform, length .48 mm. or about one-half length of cornicles. Total length of body to distal tip of cauda and exclusive of antennae 2.9 to 3.37 mm. Winged viviparous female, pink individual.—Head light yel- lowish. Antennae with I and II light yellowish, rest dark. Prothorax and thorax light yellowish pink. Abdomen pale pink. Cornicles light yellow with tips dusky and strongly reti- culated. Cauda pink. * For a fuller discussion of this species the reader is referred to Bulletin 147 of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. TWO SPECIES OF MACROSIPHUM. 85 Apterous viviparous female.—Color as with the winged vivi- parous form. Antennae, length of segments: III, .8 to .96 mime 72 to oo mm, V, 50 to .72 mm., VI, .16 to .2mm., VII, .96 to 1.2 mm., total length of segments I to VII, average about 4.05 mm. Cornicles .g6 to 1.04 mm. in length, and strongly reticulated at tip. Cauda .56 mm. Total length of body to distal tip of cauda and exclusive of antennae, 4.05 mm. Apterous oviparous female—Head pale, nearly white. An- tennae with proximal joints pale, distal half dark. Length of segments: III, .68 to .88 mm.; IV, .56 to .68 mm.; V, .52 to .64 mm.; VI, .16 mm.; VII, .96 to 1.04 mm.; total antennal length I to VII average about 3.6 mm. Prothorax and thorax pale like head. Legs with femora and tibiae, proximal portion pale, distal portion dusky. Tarsi dark, .16 mm. long. Hind tibiae conspicuously darker and much swollen and thickly set with sensoria. Abdomen light salmon pink. Cornicles pale at base, distal half dark and reticulated at tip; length .6 to .8 mm. Cauda salmon pink, ensiform, length .32 to .4 mm. Total body length to tip of cauda, antennae excluded, 2.13 to 2.15 mm. The size of the hind tibiae of this form makes it readily distin- - guished from the apterous viviparous form and young, even to the unaided eye. The pink variety has been described because these predomi- nate among the oviparous females. The color scheme of the green and yellow forms can be determined merely by substi- tuting these colors for the salmon pink of the individual de- scribed, the dark coloration being the same for all 3. Winged male——Head and antennae dark brown. Length of antennal segments: III, .72 to .8 mm.; IV, .48 to 64 mm.; Weereetowomm.- Vi,.16 mm; VI, 1.04 to 1.28 mm.; total antennae length I to VII, 2.93 to 3.60 mm. Prothorax and thorax dark brown. Wings deflexed, hyaline, veins dark and very slender, stigma pale brown. Legs brown, darker at tips. Abdomen brown. Cornicles pale brown, dark distally and reti- culated, cylindrical, ‘48 to .56 mm. long. Total body length exclusive of antennae and cornicles, 1.12 to 1.57 mm. The thorax is large and strong, the abdomen much shrunken and is rendered conspicuous only by the long cornicles. The male is described from specimens in copulation, in order that no mistake as to the identity of the species might occur. 86 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. Insectary Host Plant Tests for M. sonalifolii. (July-October, 1907.) By planting potatoes in the insectary often, the plant lice were supplied with fresh plants which were colonized by the individuals which deserted the plants they had rendered sickly. Buckwheat was sown among the potato plants in the insect- ary and about 200 young and clean plants of shepherd’s purse were put into trays. Peas were also sown at the same time. By the time the buckwheat and peas were well up about 100 fresh potato plants were available, and the M. solamifolu, de- serting the older potato stalks, colonized thoroughly the fresh potato vines, pea vines, and the shepherd’s purse apparently with no preference. Both winged and wingless forms were found for the rest of the season rearing contended progeny upon potato, and shepherd’s purse, and also upon the young pea vines. Except for stray individuals which, of course, would be found upon everything in the crowded insectary, the buckwheat remained apparently untouched. Whether M. so- lanifolii would have accepted the blossom tips of the older buckwheat or not was not demonstrated, as the buckwheat, although it lived, did not make much growth. October 11. Insectary search showed the Macrosiphum eggs near some of the oviparous forms both upon potato and shep- herd’s purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris). Many of the eggs were glistening brownish black of well hardened eggs but some were pellucid green, showing that they had very recently been deposited. They were upon the plants indiscriminately on leaves and stalks. Males and oviparous females were present upon both these plants. The appearance of the oviparous females and the deposition of eggs with the uncaged material at practically the same time as that of the forms that had been prisoners for 2 months would indicate that these dates are about normal. In the insectary the migration from overcrowded potato stalks to fresh plants seemed to take place irregularly and not at any stated times, the condition of the infested plant apparently influencing these movements. The fact that they seemed to seek the fresh po- tato plants almost as readily as the peas or the shepherd’s purse might seem to indicate that if a similar succession of new pota- TWO SPECIES OF MACROSIPHUM. 87 toes were supplied them in the field they might not seek another host even there. As it is a wholesale migration has taken place each of the seasons these plant lice have been under observa- tion. The fact that M. solanifolu colonized readily upon garden peas in the insectary while M. destructor refused the potato (see page ) is not without interest. Insectary Host Plant Tests for M. destructor. (July-August, 1908.) The plants used for these tests were grown from seed and were kept in quarantine for the purposes of this test so that no infestation of the plants by other than the desired aphides was possible. From Peas to Red Clover. Pisum sativum L. to Trifolium Pratense. (a) July 21. -A lot of mature specimens and nymphs, re- moved from peas to red clover. July 27. Mature individuals all dead. Nymphs feeding along the clover stems. Aug. Io. One winged form developed. Several living nymphs present in clover. Aug. 12. Aphides all dead. (26-08.) (b) Aug. to. A lot of 15 alate forms which had deserted peas (to migrate) and were present on cloth ceiling of pea- vine cage were transferred to red clover. In less than an hour these had deserted the clover as they had the peas and had gone to the sides and top of cage. No young were produced on the clover. (50-08.) (eee. 12. A lot of 10 migrants from peas placed on clover. ‘They deserted the clover at once and did not produce. (50-08. ) From Peas to Potato Vines (Solanum tuberosum L,). (d) July 15. A lot of 20 nearly mature apterous indi- viduals transferred from peas to potato plants. July 17. All 20 dead. No feeding on the potato took place. They would not remain on the potato but deserted it. (26-08.) (e) July 21. A lot of 50 mature apterous individuals 88 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQIT. transferred from peas to potato. All died without feeding or producing. (43-08.) (f) Aug. 12. A lot of 14 alate individuals (migrants from peas) placed on potato. All died without feeding. No pro- geny. (50-08.) (g) Aug. 25. A lot transferred from peas to potatoes. All died without feeding. No progeny. (50-08.) (h) Aug. 25. A lot of apterous adults and half grown nymphs transferred from peas to potatoes. All died without feeding. No progeny. (26-08.) L From Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris (L.) to Potato. (i) Aug. 11. A lot of 5 alate individuals removed from shepherd’s purse to potato. These died without producing. (43-08. ) From Peas to Shepherd’s Purse. (j) July 17. A lot of apterous viviparous individuals and nymphs transferred from peas to shepherd’s purse. In 15 _ minutes nearly all the aphides had already settled on the plants and begun feeding. July 21, Old aphides dead. Stalks fairly well covered with nymphs. July 31. Nymphs thriving though of a yellowish color. Aug. 6. Mature apterous and alate forms are present. These are hardly more than one-half the size of the parent. forms from peas. Aug. 25. This colony still represented by alate and apterous forms feeding on shep- herd’s purse and producing. (26-08.) (k) July 21. A lot of mature apterous individuals trans- ferred from peas to shepherd’s purse. July 27. Mature indi- viduals all dead. Good thrifty colonies of greenish yellow nymphs present. Aug. 11. Seventeen winged forms present — and some pupae. These are much smaller than their parents from peas. Five of these alate forms removed to fresh shep- herd’s purse where they at once settled and began producing, and by August 25 had developed a few winged and mature ap- terous descendants which were producing yellowish nymphs. (43-08.) Aug. 11. Five of the 17 alate forms (see the fore- going Aug. 11) were transferred to young pea vines where they settled, fed and produced. (43-08.) TWO SPECIES OF MACROSIPHUM. 89 Ge Adics 12). dot of 30 alate imdividuals’ transferred from peas to shepherd’s purse. Aug. 25. The progeny of the foregoing are small and yellowish but a healthy, vigorous colony. - From Peas to Various Plants. On Barley. (m)—(x). ‘Twelve tests were made attempting to transfer M. destructor from peas to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The barley was 6 inches high at time of tests and’ growing well. The aphides deserted the barley and crawled to the sides of the cage where they died within a few days. On Wheat. Four tests were made attempting to establish colonies on wheat. ‘Two lots of 10 apterous adults were transferred from sweet peas to wheat July 27. July 31 these and their progeny were dead. One lot of io alate aphides was placed on wheat July 27 and by July 31 these had died. August 10 several hun- dred specimens were taken from peas and transferred to wheat. August 11 scarcely any aphides could be seen on the plants. August 15, aphides all dead. Wheat was 6 inches tall at time of test and growing well. On Oats. July 27, a lot of 10 apterous adults transferred from peas to oats. July 31, aphides all dead. On Purslane. July 17, a lot of 15 apterous adults transferred from peas to common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.). July 21, adults all dead. No young to be found. On Beets. August 10, a lot of 15 alate individuals which had migrated from peas to cloth on the cage were transferred to beets in small cage. These did not remain on the beet plants but flew to sides of cage where they died before August 15. gO MAINE, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. On Squash. August 11, a lot of 15 alate individuals transferred from peas to squash. They died within a few days without starting colonies on the squash. Test repeated with 30 nearly grown nymphs, all of which died within a few days. *k x * * 2K k x As a check against the foregoing tests, 7 lots under the same conditions in other respects were transferred from garden peas to sweet peas and from sweet peas to garden peas. All these lots established healthy colonies and thrived. While failure to establish colonies under these conditions is not a conclusive proof that M. destructor never feeds on the _ plants refused in these tests, it is certainly strongly indicative in that direction. On the other hand, there is no reason to believe that any species of aphid will establish thriving colonies on a plant in confinement that it would not accept in the open. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Figs. 59 and 60. M. solanifoli. Cornicle of male and tip of same, showing reticulation. No. 22-07. Figs. 61 and 62. M. solanifolii. Cornicle of apterous oviparous fe- male and tip of same, showing reticulation. No. 22-07. Figs. 63 and 64. M. solanifoliu, pink variety. Cornicle of alate vivi- parous female and tip of same, showing reticula- tion. No. 106-06. Figs. 65 and 66. M. solanifolii, green variety. Corniclé of apterous viviparous female and tip of same, showing reticu- : lation. No. 50-05. Figs. 67 and 68. M. destructor. Cornicle of apterous viviparous fe- male and tip of same, showing imbrication. No. 19-07. Collected from garden pea. Figs. 69 and 70. M. destructor. Cornicle of alate viviparous female : and tip of same, showing imbrication. No. 19-07. Figs. 71 and 72. M. destructor. Cornicle of alate viviparous female and tip of same, showing imbrication. No. 104-06. Collected from sweet pea. (Figures were drawn by Miss Charlotte M. King.) Ce aera ee ee ee eee ee Ore A TA Oe ‘Ow pS be = aes ae =A saeaee| meee ee ae ae: CS os ees wos Macrosiphum solanifolii and M. destructor Figures 59 to 72. Q2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQITI. BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the purposes of this paper the following references are of chief importance. 1900. Johnson. Nectarophora destructor. Can. Ent. Vol. 32, pp. 56- 60. Figs. 4-6. Original description. 1900. Sanderson. Nectarophora pisi. Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 49. 1901. Chittenden. Nectarophora destructor. U. S. Dept. Agric, Bu- reau. of Entomology, Circular No. 43. 1g01a. Sanderson. Nectarophora pisi. Can. Ent. Vol. 33, pp. 31-39 and 74, figures. 1901b. Sanderson. Nectarophora pisi. 12th Ann. Rept. Del. Col. Agric. Expt. Sta., pp. 169-186. Plate II. 1909. Chittenden. Macrosiphum pisi. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Ent. Circular No. 43, 2nd ed. 1909. Folsom. Macrosiphum pisi. In the 25th Report of the State Entomologist on the Noxious and Beneficial Insects of Illinois. 1882. Ashmead. Siphonophora solanifolii. Can. Ent. Vol. 14, p. 92. Original description of apterous, viviparous form. The de- scription of so-called “male” is some other species. 1905. Fletcher. Nectarophora solanifolii. Ann. Rept. on Expt. Farms for 1904, p. 228. 1907. Fletcher. Nectarophora solanifolii. Ann. Rept. on Expt. Farms for 1906, p. 210. 1907. Patch. Nectarophora solanifolii. Me. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bulletin 147, Pp. 235-257. Figs. 25-33. BULLETIN No. 191. AN ACCURATE METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE WiitC rik Ona Dib OARS Obs PETE EGGS Ol IsRvS. BY Maynigr R. Curtis. During the past four years the biological work of the Maine Experiment Station has included a considerable amount of biometrical work on the egg of the domestic fowl. In 1910 an investigation of the size relations and proportion of the parts of successive eggs of the same individual hen was undertaken. This work when completed will include a study of all the eggs laid during the first or pullet year by a flock of over twenty Barred Plymouth Rock hens. In this work it is necessary to get accurate determinations of the weight of the albumen, yolk and shell of each ege, In order that the data for this study might be accurate it was essential at the outstart to determine satisfactory methods, first, for preserving eggs for a few hours with practically no change in weight and, second, for accurately separating the parts of the egg. Since the results of the entire investigation cannot be published for some time, and since the methods worked out have proved useful in other investigations now in progress in this laboratory, it seems advisable to publish a dis- cussion of them at this time. MertTHOD FOR PRESERVING Ejccs To INSURE A Minimum Loss IN WEIGHT. It is often impossible to take data on eggs as soon as they are laid. In order to have comparable data it is therefore necessary to reduce as much as possible the error due to loss of weight from unequal evaporation. The amount of loss by *Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. No. 27. Q4 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQII. evaporation depends upon several factors. The most impor- tant of these are: first, the length of time which has elapsed since the egg was laid, second, the humidity and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere and the rapidity with which the air surrounding the egg changes, third, the character of the shell, and, fourth, the amount of exposed surface, i.e., the size of the egg. It seemed reasonable to suppose that the loss from evapora- tion would be reduced if the eggs were placed in small sealed jars immediately after laying. A preliminary experiment was performed to compare the loss of weight of eggs so preserved with that of eggs kept in the open air. September 9, 1910, twenty eggs were brought to the laboratory soon after they were laid. These were all Barred Plymouth Rock eggs laid between 8 and 11 o'clock on that morning. No two, of course, were from the same hen. The eggs were divided into two groups of ten each. The first group was numbered from 21 to 30 in- clusive. Each of these eggs was sealed in a half pint Lightning fruit jar. Each jar contained a small amount of cotton to keep the egg from breaking when it was dropped into the jar. The ten eggs of the other group were numbered from 31 to 40 in- clusive, and were placed in a wire basket on the laboratory table. The eggs were weighed* each day for four days, being removed from the jars just before and replaced directly after weighing. The weighing was begun at the same hour and pro- ceeded in the same order (according to serial number of the eggs). At the end of the fourth day the eggs which were sealed in the jars were used in the separation experiment de- scribed later, but the eggs kept in the air were weighed also on the fifth and sixth days. Table No. I shows for each egg kept in the open air, (a) its daily weight; (b) its loss at each weighing from the first weight; (c) its loss in each 24 hours and its mean daily loss for both four and six days; (d) the mean loss for the ten eggs on each day; and (e) the mean daily loss on them for four and for six days. ‘Table No. II gives the same data for the eggs kept in sealed jars except that it in- cludes data for only four days. *A chemical balance was used in all the weighing of eggs and parts of eggs. 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Sa Bra pores et Oe pee Eo ea RICE Teen 160 7 SSMVDDSIP <0 0 0 LUE TERE See eRe er ce 2d Bemeepmeninice. diarrhea oe. 2 oe. ce. uieakt oa ceeds batten bee es 186 Reeteat ie mEN NCU OSIS ca 0 ocr s hain ceeehak oe cloaca babe on whos s 5 SRSGIUEEA 5 a oie, eta RRER eta one ge OD nee on ee 147 “Tread [bistae® Gar oe df a iene aac aa 145 Beem OMO UM IMICT CULY 2-2, 0.2 Glace’ coe wien e b dey vd Sareuebdey hens 2 (2 PLR ooo 0 GCC EE RRR Sen REA Io IRR tect are RE RN SEE Ce 53 BepteT PMMA COMO Ob. <0, - lero ia Sa asus tte neous oto eene bool gop aca oaseoubtce 114 UICMRVIESSEISMEUDLUTOS Of — ov. edo s ook ehuleu vo Dak Ste weeh salle pa wiee 113 UD paGcilyp. GULISETIN EE gai eam a ee a 40, 44, 51, 79 PACS MOUSMUD EL SS: oS Sovlivence vis cnecan ocuwgenecs cokes ene oie. 177 a Mle SMM Ts Sess oes) stele, 8 alae Oh Sek had Sian ides 144 “ove ES, DERG Gad) RoE RMI a Ra ea 203 210 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. PAGE Books onspoulltnydiseasesiwas eae ee cee rar ee eee 2 Brain .COMPEStIOMs icc aicinereie sss syake oom aene Seiten A LORE ar 119 Hemorrhage Ole wdek eo Saray Le ince eee ana sateen 118 POStMOLteml appearance Olsasee sn ee ee eee eee ee 118 Breakingwotmes ominnovidtictuaeanantrecricn cee nee 174 mpl SNR evel ead Konia bernie ore a erera eis aterm alr emi RN Anta seers a REET al cin bed 179 Breedincestormelnealth manasa Oia seers seins aan ein ae ee 6 IBCO SM [OMNES 25 o4¢o0085n Se eiey ile meric ney mae teen teres ree ete ee cae aa 203 BY HONOUR nes TERMI Cearae secur NOC es orien Ear aan meee pA ACM a 2 88 Buinab ll CRO Otago aes sO Sees ee ee 202 KG alone sf s jose ick Coa yee ae Ie pen ae tee ea ee 28 (Ga SS he Beate cee ea apleees Seana He ee abs ange CARE al nla eae 55, 163 AIM E Beises oh fo eee eo te NBR Rata pa ete hae eee op Renee ST ee Ph a a gO, 103 Castor oiler ee ek cid at mene EES rhea een aan gr Anat thc ea 28 K@ AT EMIOMATOSISE © 5 erie os eis asee Bas acetals Sn aie ee neat ie Reka rea 55 (Gorey cic niea gel eee wR here Re en Gr geen a Qi ee US a PCR ARCRMN SS ni 5 87, 90 (Sahnercl ott i eet auaeee ears mpl c anes ceeee Mes. neat Un SU Mr rarect RRO Bn 28 (Cay enmenshne ae Steer areeh eae eyai es ee hone ae erm eee oO ig 28 Ceca, post-mortem appearance Of...............eeee eee e ee eeees 186, 188 ‘CenGOMONMaSIS = Sacco See ee oe ae Se OR ne ee 55 Chirekemsp ox vive ai Sa aa ce eon nn at en toe aN ae - 150 Chickens; diseases Olt esc cies ee leks Soe ara Stee ee 181 Go Sr ae see rae ee eee ae ae eae SR TR yea 66 ‘Cinculatony system diseases oleae nnn crac see oe ae ae 112 (Gleailiness) 25 pee ek ee Sine Sac ee oe 0) CHO ACIETS te te ONC te mh eee use eo Nee ea terse ae 177 ocerdian ge poke Cees eRe Gale monte thas alomme sett ces oe eee 53, 185 Coccidiosis:;aintestinalic we ia eee bone eee 183 ‘Coceidium, life historyohe. ..24. Seniesa ok oe tase eee 185 OO RP aa Re Ron Be Se reer meester eee aici Rete pe er pet ns gt an See eee sate 87 Combe tTOz eta oe nak eee ao a a oe ee 203 WADE Oli save ce seams las Aye amcor unite t laleme om one ey os ck espana Ais gr aera 147 Congestion Oty lungsse sheers crocus ato eae San hae co ee 107 Constipation ss ax iets comes Paice oe Sons Nee ae 37, 41, 42 eConstitution, breeding fOnaoe 4a aces a ee eee 6 ‘Contagious catannh wee coc eee nace eae een ee ee 90 Wonivallstonsseciincce oe ose kot Oe 44, 45 IC Oppel, POISONING he yy. Reet ke Cee lee eee ee ee 44 Wren atlOm= se oh ees en ge OAS le tance Oe eee 20 Cresoludisiniectantaaseneiee see wou cmon ee ee Se Oe ee 12 ‘Crop enlarge dic ee Ween a dN Oe ae 36 IMMpacte dren eee te ORs nui eh ees 32 milamimattom- Of Gs iece ae Oe ok eee se ee 34 ‘Cropping poultry Tangesn oaccei eon Geen ee ee ee 18 HOT OUP hee De Hage Sela See eo eh En ORS ee Oe eee 88 Ciits:e treatinentgols sivas «fc od cia ae Satan aan eco een ee ee 201 Cytodites MUAUS. cS cate eRe eee ee eee ta ee 110 he ed INDEX. 211 PAGE DaaDM@ss 4 den deldeoos ogee sags wooum ons ono es dodbe sinus coadnac 15 Wancdelions tor liver troubles. gac0. 22... +722 ec ss 51 Dead! iiedls, GhGneselk Wigs e¥raescccenpeoovocoodseocaame speared 20 Demltnnime ccabiess jack 22 229- soe ee ne ese es sete 142 eM SSS LONWINAG S.A wee le ees ee ee eee 133 TiaAw@n@siS. Oi GIGEISS 3. vanseeoas cusses e soo spon ccoTeeooeNeoeGe 22 UDyiciigtelne mee ero eee etic yen dec ese ise oe pea a etetiee, Soe 34, 40, 42, 44, 45, 48, 67 Diarsineal, SWMWe> So eooeon ob oben bee moc Gobh ooo tude tone amimcad 181 "Si@innGRe — a beccae saan oon gue cde euCe mb Oc on a ome ono ccnt 90 MDM MTN ee TH OLIPE ataers 8 ae) sea oes oe ass Saree Sats dae seuss tse ee 90 [Dissitemlieetbionn SS Saisie eee nee teeters en eileen ni eat et at OPER aa I DISSE C OMe Oundle erences eric oy ey cle chan fo urelats situa suaeace 25 DN strc pene ets een aaah oe Reset See a tasc tala epehoucinit a Goats cess eyeta eels 89 Wonmleramcd: triple wolkedveges.. ose. 2. hes we os eine ee eee 176 TENGRGE COS: LOOSE Sa care ee ae eae gee eats ee Sa ee 145 Drepanidotaenia ...... id eT URC Sagara eR Mat oes ns oh gS Sane 77 MD rp ital caitiaemm ral eT apse Sees s,s arcaceares ses) cher Slate, atte Wve upely «relevapevsaernone 16 Droppimesm appearance Of monmaless...s9-94e- os eee eee 38 SHEET relented aS ate ae na Renna nr eat Pc een pice eoe 67 IDIEGID SG 5 0 5.0: Re RSENS Re oe NCE ee UI > ae era i ee ova 73 IDSC Chayamernrny eect ote Tuer earns bee ic ectee cr wrat nm genet seca ore mea 39 IDR PSSST Be cane oes an cae eet ere Soa ee NG UA PRIETO RS ele Rae ere 2; PESresrrmmm nV CIR se ree rd nes Wc RAM oe Nee Bat alta, earas Misha abe osaiee eons 169 Reason @ bi OVACUCE: ace ne sc Colston aranate due eia ene steer 174 AVM OED My SIOLO GY mOtm sei eies ames aise ae is Sha sn cess 159 Eggs, abnormal ..... Reece ss gle Payee Cae iat Eel es Ry SU VR GO RTs L75 AN Ovigtal © Mia OMe cua ere ac area et pre Mu lenn, AR Calas tides hana ee 164 doublesandstniplesyolkederem. snc. ccie ao ae a ae 176 [AUS AMLST OUTST gn ae ene gO Rae ica a fee re ee 177i TRANS Nef) Gitar sien fe Pee norma RO aS al a & 177, 17 SURAT 5s Sen Bie SOON ca mca IS eR een Ne ne scare rp uperieg Re armor ne ee A 170 GROIE STEIN a Lec ee aa erate eno ee be PSO een Enna Aah yaa 175 SYDKONEGS TAY sig GA ea Ee es reer a Nee co SR SU aR 177 SHON IIS S cent Nescel retell iene ere eRe Mier en enn MLC eae RO aT aS 176 EE pia DUS (ELEOUTD Eig CER ee RM ee Se Di Sh ago oe oP Cay gt 194 LCoLdiccarclittits.” SiG Saetees se pee eee Rt nana cae ee ee aT ap 112 ES MEM TMMCMMEMON TLC ATL Otc, che wis in chaos ees has ase ats Ge a ioe aang was 113 IITA 3 he QS UM tr fey 0 Oa eA 50 ESUPEIFUCUS 5 Cg iopuD eRe gaa cots. Sea aS er RT ae a ca 39 MRuOMepabitis: AMfeECtiOUs ... «6s. sce 2.scakeeca Gobelccesecces 53 UL ELEGY 2s a oid Oech Re Nee ree pa mn 119 ene MiMinicnCONtAPTOSUM. Co Shia tcces eva cues osde ed a vvesetieca den 150 Be icantly. 05 nS Dh aes ey wee a Mans Mp fe 89 LESS STE SUS ~ 5 So IRA RR SSR te aC aL a 28 Pees UMPASMETTO ISOM .*2 olcfxPacciee ok) Ovsse lv R ors baie elas Nome ee 45 [ECPEIPSING i Gl GRIT Cla pM eae ne eles er en ee aa 167 TSLELICTINE e/a 2 dae Cachan eee as DS a 20 ZNZ POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. PAGE Esctermaly wpanaSites ccs eeioe cnen warn teuctc teen abelian eee Re 124 Sct ra Chol Gap Co WiODM stereo oe cea crane hate mene sans, she Deen woe ane eae 200 SES OUP Ot cr tata tacts oe Gens ake Seneca ee oe aches ee ee ena 94, 100 In Gh SMGineNENONN (OMe INVES. onan gdccoAbachoousestonaebooud peters si TIARAS nities toy oe chee feos cides kame Ste Leal tis tps Ia et cum wae eae noe 147 eediing My eemie. a Acee chs s's oe Oaaiee caren are nian ine ae ete “15, 40 EIS inte ey he eee lean Cae ee a et cancers ee ioe 145 TEWE I tote ert nn wets Ain ree a el a AE ea MO re ae Pea ee EES NSA Be G6 83 Hollicleetatlunertocnupeumen. < oe. sesso eens een ree ree ~ 165 Bormaldemyde GliskiieenOm ssoccccouascc0cc0cdccc0cdgevcnounc 12 FEMROZE Mee COMM Ae. ele en ee CURE ere RR A Ge Sana 203 Tecopateooter aires) (Oa eile ee ee UMN AR A ONE Nate OMe URINALS yee tt Gc =" 203 STS UIiT (Gut ate rea ntact a atte eee eae at odin ene Slee eee mea 3 105 GeISihEMlen Ors OVIGUCh scare eetince y cree wae rr ea ate Paes arenes. Mae 174 CPi GVe Shee PRINT earn ai Gat wear iien eats aI GR r tA icM eAe MR mena 4h Ao 195 (PRISE MPa arate eR Nn og ME miele RE giclack aS Rea Ne ea 36 GCC ReViCn bate er yon enamel a enor uaries are ciel pours Pptnetearnes b= eerie (GIGS EHNA ec cyl Drag nee pes hae AR MRED eR? ect Aa CLS a ee 205 GOMODES GISSUINIUS a 88 sae a eye EEO ace UM ee aR AR Ny OA g 127 ROE NR Oe aa A ARS SEE At se rnlece eterna eo Le Meat rctearicr, Antena Ga rn DaRAC AN See Se Tai AVALON CDH Rete ghCee cea ego kine siege Aram Uastien onra randy ern eR IREE See aie A! Gon. 5. 121 VATS C Otel Ae Re Ue eer aer cadence enka ok. acre ate irc T21 GRE ete ATO PMMA eevee nce re rate escuela I cal arte ete pn 67 Greene OO Gear eater van tee ee det eh ne Tech a Biased Merce eames A 16 (Gari DyDIS.s9 om pen ecto lence ee eh ek ok Sanka remote epee nna Semin ni COW emer festa 89 TEI ENO ES IONaN Re mer trae ents eaicrnie warnia ty STEP ENT ode ma acoA nian Pepe Ol Gi dina 'o cc 145 icalthprecditie tor acer tens vice shee ey ce ee ee 6 essere lis beni Coa sears core Me me RSL ee, et GIR rat Ne cay 8 7 leant mpenlatee erm emty Ode 8 oe sec ria hoe ateee eras Sree tare eas eee 113 DOSEN NE ANSENMCS Ol Soecssssonesss 00. 68, 112, 113, 115, 121 Heart sac, dropsy of ........: Ser pea Crary oe an gece eek py 112 MOUCH GIES: DEP SP UCILLUMUD ae ciscks ees = iyo ayers cao ae wie tee oe Ria ae er oe 83 SEH USI Ot e's cen Cre an osaaerar sees ase Sin cone Sue ciate 10 Uy Seer © overs cle Mame cA. me SUL h etter a SER seas ; 8 ESS embialiS roan nee eeu Matis Neier ts ain ay en ee eee ae 21 TW PeTEROPMycOn IVER No takes cn euro nee 0 Su ee i eee ae ee coe SiO ee eats acorn, eo wi vi Ment ae a rs arias G5 0 A ChWTSTOMS UUM ESOS ee eke neko Cane poe Mechs ecg ee een MNCS HOM resid a aceite tatcurier ete ian ia Sc cAe ce et cone koh cer a ee LAMTSCEMOMG CMESROMNE DANS SooccosucoooucodunnondoodnaccoKob‘OS leulksalennitayen “3 en eee cates. coe ens Shape eee ere Iiatalayommamancioysr Ort TOM aoa ea decemsn bond oan neS abo sb RAN Gena OMIGU CEs eS Ua eae ees eee) Sete RIG etaal ea ce cae Ray cnaean ak ras see recat Gaa lew aetna Jt eae Imoculation: ‘forscholerdy cs hhc ces ee eee ae lnibentrale parasites. <2. aasenie ge coos eae eee eae Ree eee 5 nbestinall ACOCCIMIOSIS sey eee eee ee ie cee ce ey aa [NDEXS: 213 PAGE LMMPSSHIMES. poneeocecuy os uo made Onne ton cher cliaen de Bon pODmmUn CG 37 post-mortem appearance of. .40, 50, 62, 68, 79, 115, 121, 188, 194 Jawad@liee. “so cob ceed asec se pened juvlecor asm Sobre dau ecm mn oan 52 Kidmaaeys, GiScASes Ok sob dotlentan bode csces sooo seotoueeednsonts. 121 “Kidneys, post-mortem appearance Of...............-.... 68, I13, 121, 188 EEMMOOCOPUOS THUS “go bo oe eRe boob oS Son bo tubo cube pb oodooun 138 yr MER es gtr ste Recueil See Stet aetky MG adath aualiovaifesoepat sede eee 8 18 Ligad 21S DOIUSGI Secs ae neeiern rece enn thea mnemenct aeton 8 45 ‘Lag WCHEMGESS: Go bn ak ne HR Omue et on cane Sdn Bano mere inc eatone 192 iL@ulka Qamia,, SuOPSC ROI eerire specie Hind Demerara crc tnic 114 LCOS 0 0 6 SHS REP EE ITE CHC LD nate Dc ales Pere eer ae ema a 125 INO NGC Tete acetates ey kanes Ars. Seo ONS Rae tea ao aelae aeats een 130 Reems EOtaye VOL COCCIGIM I 8) 226. yciuieicieta ee articjutegerselr 6 cub dienyeie 185 MPa MIE oeeie rhs Snel dS vary sae aie sheguaisia Doeunrans oiiarsioih ie cca Siete wate a 14 TL alam be iPIM@CIE ise ciaal ROG ira rela cater nr Bate ey ty Rc a ee PS 123 Lipeurus variabilis ..... Beak Magininoe SU eran Meme RN Gated nai eet 127 TL AWBEGTE © -o.0 6 bo SESE EO CI CUS EE eran cae rte rade 15 ILARGXE, - BUPTRO NDI SOLES sesees ene eck aes eer retin eae, aie sneer teste ae eae 52 HORUS COM a aed sen enarsh ny SET RESIN na ta warn tobe Gone eka Re Cee 47 MM AMG EMAE TE YO awereicins Secreta se ane gear e ete eed acne a a Be ele 50 ects AAR CO CTIET ATION Olin spalsescs dase oe Rin ees eee ee SA lsial selec 51 Fan geste fiTgONp vgs OW eapceay SU cesta sia a peedeca Sy cslsgaser ns Moree tose eR 50 post-mortem appearance of 40, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 68, 113, II5, 121, 188, 1904 WMS hes. A ROG BRUCE SCREN Ae pect Cee La RO ACN EP esi RRS Adc 85 COMBAT EMO NOT rey ae se teed ee nae es Re Ree ae at ne a 107 post-mortem appearance of............ 104, 108, 113, 116, 188, 194 ILSRD BUS. DOMROL cet cay eae ee mec CHC Ee ey ca one Seer ne ara AA Male reproductive organs, diseases Of..........2.-.e cree ceeees 180 IM allit@pplenayeees saat Ga Suse eel ace rr corer ea BI ee ta ere ee 125 LNDRSS, DOGG hea eae aa se era om Sienna tea Ac 144 IMLS SI STURE®SS 5 ok 5 ches Bose BMGT CHE OAPI IGE op EN EP rer UP be MDa Le nay BO ti 31 ibe SVeiVS, obo LUGAR UR AN pe eS nea eccentric eat Pre Pe PE ae ; 28 OMA IO WIN <1 Ne Oe alee w Sle elena sieve wets sine siaiecierd baie a bales 126 eerie een OTIS NL Tal LO Oik see, soars ah acai Savas ervine oo Sis ae 6 ne alee iolalelarsters core 2 IMSS EMME SS. ik svecc as ce cea nde ges EB et aloe ter NRE ete 177 WEE aI SAC Aik. eee ws Sr te io eMti ie en Ten Bick Rh ER PISA coe ak _ THO IES — os & 6 SiG) Se este Ra eat etn et NE ia 132 WMONOCEVCONVONAS GallNGrUM oo... c ccc ce cc dee sce twee ceueesecs f 55 MOG MRI MMTMALIOM OL 7s '.acnlevet ceils le’ 4 crue tlalyarcieice as odgiecs Gas ns 102 i OSismOlbMe Alt: PASSAGES sila gah se ceels sib p ee ue teble os 104 MIG eC IGMONDMEMETICICA siavis dae sce wes cy dieiellisees ceelbaowe wren 113 MerMotsnGy Sten CISCASCS OL .. csc ce veh cee eeceuibecedcceaen 118 neo MESO Mc FAS. POISON... disc cia ces gcc side he Wlceie tee Cae vem eee 4A INNES, OE toes Ae Pues Meo ea Reet: CA Ma > al RM ae ORM SOS SEN ane 128 INodiildpetaentasis ...0. 0.0 ei ..4.t: Uk Ee ek RR Aan Dae aa aac rte Rak 78 We EMOMM OM VOVACUCE ein ci ajewe svecsaeuaeie Gale of wists capes ce sees 169 VG Li reat cmatpn etcs crate Te NA Gre AUS DUG so aaCeReoane Cece ee ra Nae ahve Sewislie ne 41 214 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. PAGE (Ossi ra (eon eee mw eee Tae Re seat Ones tie ne Os NEY ae Ee TG crea a 30 OMoeNOn, wor “Cas Inowlnel SH eoecobcoscscdsscesocsascshoon as I7I imMipacked=-drOpie aise ct eek eee IS 34 Owariany timOnsess wate ee eee eee yes A 163 @wvanyatrop my Motes. Cite nce ie eee a elie eer niclnk ets cee eae rreieees 160 GIS CASE SiO 2 acs acca se Ra ea Dias hea an Ce ST 160 TAN GMEMEe.- O Peceman te meee asim oat ae eee tee eee ence cae ae 163 POSt-mMorten appearance Ole. 44.0.6 = 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 (Qh e CG al ney ee ees mares a arm CE aKa nl MIR Ree Ram eeealcn bis 2'o 15, 48 Ovid et MHSCASeS! OR A Se seiencte Riis eke ose sie ein eeeestnias a toe eee vera raeae 165 GASKETS HON seis goes eects sets AE Ben Ge icy oso 174 MMA TALON. TOP = -svrsnyanders Steels edge oeeeseega ce eneawe ne ee aa 165 OWSHAUIELIOM Ol coocacconouncovcbovnss ete cee eee e beens 169 PROLAPSECO Ae GSE eae ae po oe nh creeataseanslarcr ei aaay eee 167 TiMPEUTE Ota oats aa nha emits Aint ares ee ere EAs 173 ST LCAT MitaSy Moraes cert csph neck ORE Rete mee ai eeea oe tereete cca eee 112 REGIPOMIETS is tical eee tastes oe Searane Bk al he yr eee SUBITS a Flies a Pee pee 22 PSRIAMAEMENS, (DOUASSMEMIM Goocopounavocdscdaabaoccensacacucecce 16 Phosphonusvas spolsOm, “sccm ome oe cin cisis eee ones Oe ce 45 Physiology of reproductive organs .................-.-- Bk 155 FEspiratony OTSaMs: eavcciecees sce qees eee 85 Pee ee NAL RAIN Rae 9 ek PrTO2 PAu MOM YOOIS, Wh Conk Soogosceoeescsausccoascassuecuscuce 193 | BTOIAD I OaNG IA) be Rinear ee eeu Peta enh tctee tet ont ieee ind Peon nC esne Gt Sic 108 IPOS oN asyreae ee ciegta cetera ootirs. Erevan cine tea win ene eB eetlg Giale co’ 6 44 IPoisonolisMplants G.n\c uence wane ae cee Mid ee eee ee ee 46 Post-mortem appearance of braim....................+..++-es-: 118 GECae as Sioa eiGaeesee oe ee ee 186, 188 HEAT ta esta nense ce eciemrorces 68, 112, 113, 115, 121 intestines ...40, 50, 62, 68, 79, 115, 121, 188, 194 KidHeyS Sis cee hola eee 68, 113, 121, 188 Iver meen: 40, 47, 49 to 56, 61, 68, 113, 115, 121, 188, 194 hung’s 720 eee 104, 108, 113, 116, 188, 194 OMAR YM caches oo seein ee ee 160 to 165 Spleen cnc ett mane 40, 61, 113, 121, 188 ~Post-mortems, how to make ............0.0..-0.0e00e0cs0escse 22 IPOVRISSICNAN jDSTHANENMEIMNANKS “5 ooscconocccenoenbsonbesouccseocaboac 16 Rowlity eSUTneeny: lalate: pase cre eke oe Noes SI oe oye a 201 Pow. dena dice: ans he oy ae epee oa eae acide gee 130 Preventionioticholera co. Sa. nse id oa Smaart ae 70 GISCASE Sa ceth woe Late ndiph ee tne OCC ie ener 5 Brolapse Sot voOvrduet ick accliaa coud cake a cot oy se esate ee ies bee ee ae 167 Pettey onload seco es ae ea et ecto ae sw eee anid sed 15 Rotation, cropsrandsemckens) se ae ise see ea ee 18 Reproductive organs, anatomy and physiology of............. 155 NGHSEASES OF ia oe ace Soe ao oe ee 155 INDEX. 215 PAGE imespitatony system, anatomy = ..0..........6:-.---.- ey Aye 85 GISGASES OW seodesoeccsnscedousesseogoums 85 RUS TINAD EIS Irate es esercie saaracie Noreen vos Ste ar enen ae yonmierns Tarclar ecdbathiexs ieee unelG 12 TPcoyaatcenll POS ANG See veces Sens SE cee 82 ROMp. ss... re ee OM a i hy oe es ncn, bias 90 HUM OnMMtmeAGMeINC Ls cy tete ey cuctehe le eet ee Sosleraene a sais Shaves « sls 5 EAMUEUGOMOMUDIOOGM VESSEIS. ay. cia. ciel coe ln ec seed bs winie wieie 0 2 Shee eoahele 113 IN@AMG Umerene re Cares i rates ere uti adeliors tors, cp ni saeneas eet ate mos paraceneeos 113 OspLClLTG bagi 2 eee ae ec caterer eirsue acre arscueg ra NU lcs Svaneae eons 173 SORE cS (SVG ISVOID ye echelon se one ee aie e e ree 44 SELES. TROG ofjpere GS ea A gee he ceca ere ee 28 Srretatiomes: fen. se ss se pa rana Seer RS OEE EEE Ce W arate a) ee 8 'S Za EOMELLOSIS a a SO ee an a ea RS ere 55 SEPEOPHES NOESY Sah ae SOE OAR TAO eR 142 eM COMECE MIMIC ot 5 See. ee ec a cine eka Ghee ewe oe awe 142 CODE GEE o-oo. Gy Re BRR OREN ect ee eri aa Sy a 135 SHCIMOSR, SOAS ION a stl esinre chert on oe carers tee rate me pear recente eae 21 Shem, . GCHSSDSESS Cue ee ties cee a aca erate aa 147 Sina nemesis. yicne bee. eee SU ences aha BR Penta daa ah Ae eR 176 Gott-snelled epes os che ees Beh fa esetie CtR ner NAI ea aces OR 175 CTE LORE) 5 5 ocean ater cee pe eae er 150 Spleen. post-mortem appearance of...........2....5- 40, 61, 113, 121, 188 <2 TVEIAS (URL GOPEIS Cae CR ec oe ae 177 SEBASTES {ROUSSE eee RRS est re er er en P 43 Stomach, inflammation of ....... Bere eae Pa ncaa ect reseed ke RE 36 SUEACIANG ~ 5 a GAR cee RSI Ee SRO EDR fe i Ce ee EL eat 45 “SUPERIOR Pee ee a ae 201 PME MUAH LOG GY SEUCOUG.: o/c. ass MC eo len 2 lod ov nun vue eulet 144 ema MIKE MEAD O Loe so. es, ckrceanfoR anon teed bseiaiee Dveae he 23 BRCM MET UGCHWEQIUS. oo ons cave ss Gee cce beeen es UO Gomera nee 196, 197 PRAMS MES ATNP LOIS) (55.55 Sak ns ig de Sela o Mie, Soto vinl wale Oe heels 23 TD PIDISIES 5 6 5 0 ciate aE PURI oe UB Oe a See ne aC a a eT are oO ACEI ECoG CT IS er 78 RT MCT NTC rence os AN chain ey nin ho wt ee ta 19 DRE TIALISIRPENE oh Sco Sea stc a Sarees iden ode ghee US Lis oe oe 7 ee MERE AP IMEMUm Oona: Bias sae Un teens Wale dae A Katalin ine Se wes 201 | NELISTE) 5 coe o/c Fc 52 ea oR A a 103 aa i. as ae See on la Mae Rh ohn bnee 43 S tukS TNS STS oo hy be Male Caner Ra ea alge te a ese 57, 100 MIStHDULLO My Ob ease aes chelel oe oe ee 57 Si ete PO en eo a eee DEM. ha tae v da awe ewes 55, 93, 163 eR RC MRS osc o cserels o alacecT vc Bahn wow cgbandowd ga wana. 177 TE on 0.0.0) CXS Ea 119 Vigor, breeding for ....... Ses ted Meso aN a tatesar cone Baal chop hiae hovers! miskat 6 RE ME ISG ere rie id clade icocrers rsvorecerele'e dn arene de oho he 121 FALL? 5 ou h Si RCN Ren a 35, 45 ne reese CMS ght = ch ce Soy og Sax lor star idy ones w lovee wuraietn Sew wae he 52 210 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. PAGE Wratersaipimlcimote ts cya roves ey cee anata aay: Ble ote at renee 16 AIAELIES: SEO ZEM paki aie ake tastes eae mesons s eeoncacate mene en ego) OREN ee pen aes 203 Weights eaten aint oc Ne and mt Rae BLAM Se ee eee Ee, Ama 31 AVAVA Sil conch ounil oa repN ane Meat tea eon rol here eanrunre heat gs NURI er nln ea Ben 147 Witte: Walesa ine aiecrs te ree i Teter i pena ara g carn aneiurar coe ei Uae ast i ol eee 181 Wihnites diarnhieawbacillarys. mera See etree ere can ee 186 Wane Ghareringa, ChaeAMOSIG Ol scoucoosocnstcscccvsocucunacsoens 189 PREVENtION MOLi ricci ks oe cee ween eee 192 EREATIMENt TOPs iets ore, otal cet Meus et eee 190 AK Ope aulcperrc mates Gear A eh mete nA eset e eae hae eR nia une cam 75 PIU Se AR ar eri Pen san hati cee eet cont Wa) Wh) hala Sea 83 TOMLIN CLS Sea Ra tee coe tec itaganeke Grebe ade Rocnaaa ace ects eid ous oie eae ee 82 CAP Caer tote iecnel cheaters cea Casto pene or es Ay One se age 76 LREMIALO Ce aes b iteachue coon rata eusee oe toetae a ostaee avers mae eee 83 Wro uid sostrea tame itt Ot cx ccc ae se evar titer ea cen agate ter ened ee 201 Miollkewhypertropliy, soc os 4 han oe eee ae eet 4 ini eee ee 164 SViolklessreges (hier iiare tie wa na ie etait intemal was ac ee 176 TESSINEP I DXOS ICYD AUU ON oo a errant neues eh Ones mnY Aiea prom eels LA SS G'S 6 45 (402-1-11) University of Maine MAINE ° AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, MAINE. CHAS. D. WOODS, Director STATE DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AUGUSTA, MAINE EDGAR E. RING, Commissioner. SUGGESTIONS FOR WOODLOT OWNERS IN MAINE ; by Joun M. Briscor, Proressor oF Forestry, } UNIVERSITY OF MAINE. Over eight years ago, Mr. Gifford Pinchot called the attention of the people to the necessity of protection and management of the then existing forest areas in the following words: “The true way to save the forests is not to plant new ones, but to protect and rightly use those which are standing now. The extension of the forest to regions which are without it is a most important task, but it must no be confounded with the conser- vative use of the forests now standing. For such use there is no substitute whatever.” That this sound and simple advice has been accepted by the American people is evidenced by the tremendous strides that the forestry movement has taken in this country during the past dec- ade. The demand for more detailed information is steadily in- creasing, and has, up to the present time, been supplied chiefly through the Forest Service. Much of this information applicable to any particular region is scattered through numerous bul- letins and circulars which have been issued from time to time, and some of these are no longer available for general distribu- tion, or are out of print. (>= as eee SS Lawes TT ee ee Sed 8 "i, ne Sime KE: a 2 It is therefore the purpose of this paper to collect and present in concise form for the use of the people of Maine the important facts already established as to the proper use of the existing woodlands, and the best methods for extending or re-establishing them, rather than the presentation of any original data. Tur Matneé Wooptort. Almost every farm in Maine has its woodlot from which logs, posts, and fuel-wood are taken as they are needed. The wood- lot therefore, constitutes one of the component, and by no means least important parts of the farm. As such, it deserves at least a pro rata share of the attention that is given to the other parts such as the corn field, the potato field, or the market garden. Like each of these other parts of the farm, it furnishes a regu- lar supply of a very necessary commodity, the only difference being that the returns from the latter are annual while those from the woodlot are usually periodic, occurring sometimes only at long intervals. ‘The very fact that the crop is a long time one, is all the more reason for giving it the same kind of careful and thoughtful attention that is now given to the management of ag- ricultural crops. While the average woodlot is rather small and can not be de- pended on to yield any very large or very regular supply of tim- ber, and the quality of the product is sometimes not as good as that of virgin stands, yet the size of the tract devoted to the growing of timber can often be increased to advantage, and the quality of the wood produced may be greatly improved by more care in the method of cutting and a better understanding of the treatment required by the different kinds of trees forming _ the stand. The extensive practice of forestry, it is true, can not be profit- ably undertaken in any large way by the average individual and must, therefore be left chiefly to the State and National Govern- ment; yet every land-owner, resident or non-resident, can prac- tice good forestry on a small scale by using a little care and forethought and by the observance of a few simple rules. SILVICULTURE. Silviculture is as important to the up to date farmer for the management of his woodlot as is agriculture for the rest of his farm. The former, moreover, requires but little outlay of either — ai 3 time or money, and this little will be amply repaid ; while agricul- ture requires ‘a constant investment of both, but, on the other hand, yields quicker returns as a rule. The chief reason that silviculture is not more generally practiced by the individual is in most cases due to lack of information on the subject, and the engrossing attention required by other kinds of farm work. The woodlot will stand more neglect and abuse than any other part of the farm and still yield a fair return to the owner, and a well managed woodlot is a decidedly profitable form of invest- ment. The truth of this statement is well demonstrated by the white-pine woodlots in the south-western part of the State which today bring large prices and are yearly growing more valuable. The proper application of the principles of silviculture by the individual means the securing of the greatest yield, and this of the best quality, in the shortest time and at the least expense. Surely this is what every farmer and land-owner wishes to ac- complish, but very often he is not sufficiently acquainted with the methods of procedure that are necessary in order to bring about the desired results. Very often the idea of perpetuating the woodlot does not oc- cur to him till after the best of the timber has been cut, or in some cases, not until the entire area has been clear-cut. It is then that the unsightly appearance caused by the loss of the trees causes him to wonder what to do with the area, and how it can ever again be made productive. In many cases, the soil is thin and poor and the site is of little or no value for the production of agricultural crops. There are many thousands of acres of land of just this kind in the State of Maine.: Some have but recently been cut-over, and others have been lying idle for some time and have, in the meantime, grown up to a tangle of worthless vegetation and weed-trees, which in time may be followed by tree growth. This natural process, if unaided by man, is a very slow one and never gives the best results. The practice of cutting only the best and largest trees without leaving any provision for seed-trees of the more dlesir- able species to seed up the ground has also been decidedly detri- mental to many of the woodlots. As a consequence of this prac- tice, there is a gradual deterioration of the woodlot, not only as to the number but alsoas tothe kinds of valuable trees; and the value constantly decreases not only on account of the lack of the 4 available supply of merchantable timber, but also on account of the lessening of the percent of valuable species in the stand. Today, most of the best woodlots in Maine are composed chiefly of white-pine, and these are situated, for the most part, in the south-western part of the State, thought there are, of course, many excellent woodlots outside of this part; but the growth is not so rapid, nor are the economic conditions as favor- able for the growing of timber on small areas outside of that section. . Many farmers by giving a little care and attention to their woodlots have profited by thousands of dollars even within the past decade, and the prospects of good financial returns from growing timber are today better than ever. Clear-cutting with- out making any provision for the replacement of trees of any kind on the area is a great mistake, for much of the land now occupied by woodlots is absolutely unsuitable for agriculture, and can be profitably utilized only for tree growth. It must always be borne in mind, that, besides producing timber,. for- ests build up the soil, conserve water, and help to prevent ero- sion. Burning over recently cut areas is generally a mistake, for it destroys the natural condition of the forest floor, exposing the soil to the excessive drying of sun and wind, and greatly de- creases the chances for securing reproduction of the better species; while the light, winged seeds of birch and aspen are blown in and soon take possession of the area, finding on the exposed mineral soil the most favorable place for germination. It is possible that some of the land owners in the State may not be familiar enough with the laws of the State to know that two bills to encourage planting have already been enacted. One ~ passed in 1872 and revised in March, 1909, provides for an ex- emption from taxation for 20 years for all lands planted with not less than 640 trees to the acre under certain prescribed condi- tions; and the other passed in January, 1909, (Senate Doc-_ ument No. 160.) provides for the distribution of prizes at stated periods for the best plantations in the State. This latter is known as the Benj. C. Jordan fund and consists of five cash prizes ranging in value from $500 to $25. Complete informa- tion as to the terms required of competitors for these prizes may a ee ee ee eee PS 5 be obtained on application to the Forest Commissioner by whom the awards are made. . For the individual owner of woodland in Maine, there is no tree better suited either for regeneration by methods of natural reproduction or for planting, than the white pine; and, there- fore, its chief characteristics will be described in detail and direc- tions will be given for the best methods of treatment for this species in particular. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PINE. ‘(Pinus strobus, L.) Form and Sise: On suitable sites, white pine grows to be one of the largest of the Eastern conifers, often attaining a height of from 1co to 150 feet and a diameter of from 3 to 5 feet, and often reaches an age of 250 or more years. Very little virgin timber is now left in the State, however, and present stands do not as a rule average over 12 or 18 inches in diameter. Trees grown in forest form, that is close together, have straight, column like trunks clear of branches for 50 or 100 feet from the ground and open, irregular crowns while trees grown in the open have a more branchy and irregular form. - The bark near the base of old trees is dark-brown and deeply furrowed, but it becomes thinner, smoother and of a lighter color further up on the trunk and also on young trees. Local Range: White pine will grow throughout the whole of Maine, and its chief advantage for cultivation as a timber tree lies in the fact that though it makes its best development and most rapid growth on fresh, deep, sandy, well drained soils with a porous subsoil, yet it readily adapts itself to either dryer Or more moist situations. It will grow on the dryest sands and on steep, rocky slopes, and also on moist clay flats; but it will not grow in low swampy places that are subject to periodic flood- ing. It will make excellent growth on non-agricultural lands, and is the best tree for reforesting burned or cut-over areas in this region. It will also make a very satisfactory wind-break or shelter-belt in exposed situations. It is wind firm and frost- resistant to a remarkable‘degree, but it should not be planted too near the sea coast since it can not well withstand the strong, salt-ladened sea breezes. 6 Types: In the natural states there are three distinct types of white pine stands in this State. They are: 1. Pure white pine stands such as are common on old fields where over 80% of the trees in the stand are White pine. é 2. White pine mixed with other conifers, spruce and fir being most common in the mixture. 3. White pine mixed with hardwoods, birch, maple and beech in old stands, and poplar and aspen in young stands. The first type is found chiefly on abandoned fields that have been reforested by natural regeneration, and this is the type that is most common in the south-western part of the State, south of the Androscoggin River. The other two types are general in their distribution. ‘Ability to Endure Shade: ‘The seedlings, when young will endure and in fact will profit by considerable shade; but after the first few years, the trees require full light for their best development. They should, therefore, never be planted with any other trees that have a more rapid height growth for these latter would eventually overtop the pine and kill it out by ex- cessive shading. Rate of Growth: Figures taken from growth studies of plantations throughout New England show that the growth of these stands is more rapid than it is in the virgin forest of the same species, averaging from 1-4 to 1-3 of an inch each year. At this rate saw-timber may be produced in 60 to 70 years, and timber suitable for the making of box-boards, pails, and match stock in about half that time. Quality of Wood: White pine is one of the best of our east- ‘ern species for general construction, but the supply for this purpose is no longer equal to the demand. It-is light colored, easy to work, does not warp or twist, and has a moderately soft, smooth, straight grain. Second-growth timber is apt to be more branchy and the lum- ber from it is therefore more knotty than that from virgin stands, but even this lower grade lumber finds a ready market for box-boards, pail-staves, woodenware, straight-staved cooper- age and match stock. Being mostly sap wood, it is not as dur- — able in the ground or in exposed places as the older pine. : —s : Gulag OM oe ee ee ee ee ee ae rst eee eee ae ee a a ae ee 7 Complete utilization is possible, the edgings being made into kindling and the shavings baled and sold for bedding. Enemics: Young stands are susceptible to severe injury from fire on account of the thin bark of the trees at this stage of their development. It is necessary, therefore, to carefully exclude fire from plantations or areas being restocked by methods of natural regeneration. Older trees are more resistant but fire injures even these to a consiclerable extent. After the trees are a little older, say from 5 to 20 years old, the greatest cause of damage is the white pine weevil, (Pissodes strobi, Peck.) a small snout beetle which in the larvae stage buries itself under the bark of the leading shoot. It seems to prefer the best and most thrifty specimens in the stand. These tiny white worms eat their way through the living cam- ~bium which is between the wood and the bark, and by so doing usually succeed in girdling the shoot which is as a rule the lead- ing shoot, causing it to turn brown, wither, and die. A side shoot then usually takes the place of the injured leader, but this causes a.crook in the tree at this point, making a deformed stem right in the most valuable part of the tree, (the butt log), and thereby greatly lessening the merchantable value of the tree. The only remedy is to cut off the affected shoots and burn them while the grubs are still in them. This will prevent them from spreading to other trees, but will not, of course, save the af- fected trees. Spraying with a preventive wash consisting of one pound of whale-oil soap dissolved in 100 gallons of water with a little paris-green added, may keep off the weevil. Animals should not be allowed to graze on planted areas or on those about to be reforested by natural methods. The dam- age done by them is chiefly in breaking and trampling the young seedlings and in packing the soil, since they seldom eat the pine tops on account of the resinous material contained in them which is distasteful to most animals. Reproduction: White pine does not sprout but reproduces only from seed. ‘The seed is in the cone or “burr” as it is some- times called. These are borne on the under side of the branches and near the end and they consist of many scales arranged spirally on a central stem. On the upper surface of each fer- tile scale, two seeds are developed, each having a film-like wing attached to it. This wing is about four times the length of the 8 seed itself, and acts as a sort of sail thereby facilitating the distribution of the seed by means of the wind when the cones open. The length of the seed with the wing attached is from 34 of an inch to 1 inch in length and from 1-10 to % of an inch in thick- ness. It takes two years for the seed in these cones to mature, and the mature cones are from 4 to 6 inches long. The cones are usually borne only on 3 or 4 whorls of branches at the top of the tree, but trees grown in the open produce more seed than those grown in the forest. Trees may bear seed when 20 years old, but these seeds are not usually very fertile, and crops of good seed are not produced as a rule before the trees are from 30 to 35 years old. After that age, some seed is usually produced each year, but large crops of seed occur only at intervals of from 5 to 7 years. The year of abundant seeding is called a seed-year, and it is impor- tant to note when these occur when methods of natural repro- duction are being used. During the last week of August or the first of September, two-year-old cones turn brown and begin to open, most of the seed escaping by the middle or end of Septem- ber. Most of this seed falls within a few hundred feet of the parent tree, but with a strong wind some of the winged seeds may be borne as far as half a mile or even a mile in some cases. About 80% to 90% of the fresh seeds germinate under favorable conditions. The seed may also be kept over tor several years, but the germination average is very much reduced, being only 40% to 50% in the second year and less each year after. It is, therefore, very desirable to procure only fresh seed for planting. MANAGEMENT OF THE WOoDLOT. Besides protection from fire and grazing, the practice of good forestry by the individual resolves itself into the observance of a few very simple rules of management. The method of treat- ment used will, of course, vary considerably with the present condition of the stand and the purposes of the owner. The lat- ter must first be decided upon by the owner in each particular case; but for a better understanding of the former, stands may a be divided into three groups: Young stands, varying in age from 20 to 40 years. Middle aged stands, from 40 to 80 years old. Old or mature stands, 80 years old or over. - YOUNG STANDS, 20 TO 40 YEARS OF AGE. In young stands the trees are usually too much crowded for thrifty development. There are too many trees to the acre, and many of the trees of the better species are being choked . and suppressed by the quicker growing but less valuable ones. In this case thinnings, or improvement cuttings as they are more properly called, are beneficial to the growth of the trees that are left in the stand. They are advisable, from a financial stand- point, only when the material taken out in the cuttings is large enough to be utilized in some way. In the improvement cutting, all trees that are dead, all that are hopelessly. suppressed, and all those of inferior species that are interfering with the develop- ment of the better trees should be removed. The chief purpose of all thinnings of this kind is not to produce merchantable ma- terial, but to improve the growth and development of the re- maining trees. By the removal of certain trees, the remainder have a chance to expand their crowns and also have the benefit of all of the available nourishment that is in the soil, and are therefore able to make faster growth than if they were crowded and hampered by their undesirable neighbors. For this reason, thinnings of this sort shorten the time needed to grow the trees to a desired size. They may, therefore, prove to be a good and far sighted policy even in cases where the material removed is not valuable enough to pay for the operation at the present time. MIDDLE AGED STANDS, 40 TO 80 YEARS OLD. Later on in the life of the stand after the improvement cuttings have been made or the natural law of the survival of the fittest has been allowed to run its slow course, slightly heavier thinnings are made in order to provide additional growing space for the remaining trees. In this thinning all dead and down trees, all crooked, sup- pressed, dying or badly injured trees should be removed. This opening up of the stand to more light and growing-space will greatly accelerate the diameter growth of the remaining trees. 10 Care should be taken not to open up the stand too much, but : to maintain a complete crown cover for the forest floor, so far as itis possible. If too many of the trees are removed, the stand is subjected to several dangers, for if the protection afforded by the surrounding trees is suddenly removed, the trees are much more subject to be thrown or broken by the wind during severe storms. ‘The exposure of the soil to drying by wind and sun is also increased, and even if the trees are not affected by any of these causes, they are apt to become branchy and of poor form | for merchantable logs. Pruning: Pruning the live branches of white pine or of coni- fers in general is never advisable since it is not only an economic waste but is often positively injurious. The pruning of dead branches does no harm to the tree, but ir is seldom advisable. In fully stocked stands this process is taken care of by nature, and it is not necessary if the pine is to _ be cut for box-boards, pail, or match-stock. The expense of the operation may, however, sometimes be warranted if the tim- ber is to be grown for the purpose of producing saw-timber at the age of from 70 to 80 years. In such cases pruning is usually done when the stand is from 25 to 40 years old. The branches should be cut off smooth and as near the main stem as possible without injuring the bark of the stem. ‘They may be cut with an © upward blow of an axe or marking hatchet, and are usually re- moved about as far up on the stem of the tree as a man can conveniently reach. Thinning: Methods of thinning are shown in the illustra- tions. The descriptions and the figures follow. Se If Ficure 1. Pure stand of White Pine. Diameter, 5 to 10 inches; height, 45 to 55 feet. ‘The stand is in need of simple improvement cutting. The trees to be removed on this prin- ciple are numbers 2, 4, 5, 7, and 9, all of which are either sup- pressed or partially. suppressed, but still restricting the crowns of the better trees beside them. ‘The trees left are vigorous erough and thick enough to restore the cover in a few years. The lower diagram shows the stand before thinning, and the upper diagram the same stand after the trees marked for cut- ting have been removed. Ficure 2. A stand of White Pine mixed with Gray Birch. Age, 25 to 30 years; diameters, 4 to 7 inches; heights, from 30 to 35 feet. The treatment is the removal of inferior trees which are crowding the better individuals. The Gray Birches, besides having almost reached maturity, are crowding the more valu- able Pines. White Pine 2, 3, and 5 should be cut to relieve I, 4, and 6; 9 to relieve 8 and 10; 11, 12, and 14 because they are either overtopped or falling behind. Gray Birches 1, 2, and 3 should be taken out to release the better trees which they are crowding. Lower cut before cutting; upper cut after cutting. 12 Dee / 6 10 Wf WHITE oa "RE 8 ee PINE HITE | e WHITE WHITE PINE We 9 PINE P. Z J PINE INE WHITE ( PANE 7 WHITE : { | WHITE WHITE I PINE For description of figures see page ITI. ee ee r3 2 GRAY BIRCH For description of figures see page 11. Ficure 3. Mixed White Pine and Oak. Diameters, 5 to 8 inches; heights, 30 to 35 feet; age, 30 to 4o years. This stand furnishes a good example of the need for cutting both in the dominant and the subordinate class of trees. Of dead, sup- pressed, or partially suppressed trees, the best of which are already succumbing to the main crop, White Pines 1, 2, 3, 5, -and 8 and White Oaks 1 and 2 are cut to relieve the leading individuals beside them and to utilize the wood before it decays. Of the dominant trees, Red Maple 1, a comparatively inferior species, is cut because it is beginning to overtop White Pines 6 and 7, both thrifty trees, and together more valuable than the Maple. The decision in such cases must depend on the relative health and value of the upper and lower trees. 15 / RED OAK For description of figures see opposite page. Ficure 4. White Pine in mixture with White Oak. Domi- nant trees 4 to 7 inches in diameter, 30 feet in height, and 25 to 30 years old. The treatment required is a light improve- ment cutting of a stand too thick for its best development. Such are White Oaks 1 and 3, Black Oak 1, and White Pine 6. In all these cases the trees cut are not sufficiently behind the others in height and development to be unmistakably in need of re- moval, but they are all either defective or so placed that the crowns of adjacent trees will be able to utilize the room. The Icwer diagram shows the stand before, and the upper diagram the same stand after the cutting recommended. 17 For description of figures see opposite page. 18 MATURE STANDS, 80 YEARS: OLD OR OLDER. In old or mature stands, cuttings should be made in such a way that natural reproduction will quickly follow in the open- ings made throughout the stand. If possible these cuttings should be made the year before a good seed-year in order to ob- tain the best results and to insure the succession of the right species. If the openings are made too long before a good seed- year, grass and weeds soon come in and sometimes also the less desirable tree species, and take complete possession of the ground, In the final cutting or harvesting of the crop, some provision should be made for the leaving of seed trees to assure the natural replacement of the old stand by young pine seedlings. Nearly all of the white pine woodlots are at present cut clean and the logs sawed by a portable mill placed at a convenient point on the lot. This is the best and cheapest method and in- cludes in some parts of southwestern Maine the working up of the tops for fuel. Very rarely is any provision made for the natural seeding of the ground cut over. This is the point of vital importance for Maine, because pine land is of little value for agriculture and should be made to yield crop after crop of pine. Most of our waste lands here are just as good quality as the forest lands of northern Germany or the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and they can be, and should be made as productive. Although the present owner of the pine land may not himself cut the second crop of timber, he will have the satisfaction of knowing that the value of his land is constantly increasing while if left to itself it would soon deteriorate and be- come almost worthless “waste land.” ; Cutting so as to get a natural replacement of the pine by young - pine seedlings costs the owner but little if any outlay of time or money, while it makes sure another crop of trees instead of al- lowing the land to become barren or to support only a scanty growth of bushes and gray birch. This waste condition that is so frequently seen throughout the State arises directly from the — lack of trees to provide natural seeding. There are two methods of cutting, either of which may be used successfully on the woodlots of Maine. The Scattered Seced-tree Mcthod: Every acre of a pine woodlot has usually two or three trees on it that are short- see ees) ene ‘< - s 7. 19 boled and low-branching because they began growing in ad-. vance of the. rest and received full sunlight. . Very frequently. these few trees did the original seeding for that land. They do not pay for cutting and sawing or at best bring a very small return. Such trees, however, have a very great value as seed-trees, since they are wind firm and will not die from ex- posure after the others have been cut down. Spindling, slender trees if left for this purpose will surely die or be blown down. Four or five pines are sufficient to seed one acre, provided they are sufficiently old to bear plentifully. They should be left on the western half of the acre, if possible, since the prevailing winds are westerly during the time of year that the seed escapes from the cones. If it is desired to burn up the branches and tops after lumber- ing, the debris must be removed from the foot of the seed-trees, If there is little danger from fire these tops may remain and will scon decay after the young growth gets started. A light growth of birch may first occupy this cut-over land but this will serve as a protection to the tender pine seedlings which will appear later beneath them. The birch should, however, be removed when the young pines are well established. The Strip Mcthod: This method may be used to advantage where the woodlot is a large one. Successive strips of the for- est are cut, beginning on the east side of the tract-and working west, or in other words, at right angles to the prevailing winds; Advantage may be taken of a seed-year for the time in which to cut one strip. The seed-years can be judged by the presence of little cones in the tops of the trees during the previous year. The strips should be not more than two or three times as wide as the trees are high if a complete seeding of the ground is desired. The wind will blow the seed from the adjacent woods over the newly cut land and after a few years, the seedlings having appeared, a new*strip may be cut and so on until the land is all lumbered and naturally re-seeded. The natural prin- ciple on which this method is based may be understood by noting the thick reproduction of pine in pastures or old fields on the easterly side of any pine woodlot. Where no method of establishing a new stand by natural re- production can be practiced, planting will have to be resorted to. This involves a greater expenditure at the outset but will often 20 be a profitable investment. However,’ anyone following these few simple rules may be reasonably sure of a fair profit on the investment which he has left in his woodlands, and he may, moreover, have the satisfaction that is felt in knowing that every part of his property is being put to its best use. Very frequently open, scattered stands of white pine repro- duction with short, branchy trees may be greatly improved by inter-planting with seedling stock between these trees in order to form a complete stand. As the newly planted trees grow, they will gradually shade out the lower branches of the older trees and the value of these trees will be increased as well as the gen-. eral increase in the value of the stand on account of being fully stocked. While in this case an absolutely uniform spacing between the trees will not usually be possible, an attempt should be made to have all the trees in the stand about six feet apart at the time of the planting. -When considering the advisability of using any sort of prac- tical forest.y in the management of a tract, the question which very naturally arises is: How long a time will it take to pro- duce merchantable timber, and what will this timber be worth when ready for the market? In other words, what kind of an investment is the practice of forestry for the individual from a financial standpoint? The following figures, taken from the United States Forest Service Bulletin No. 63, will best answer these questions. The data from which these figures were ob- tained were collected from actual stands of white pine in the New England States, and they are the most authentic and au- thoritative figures obtainable at the present time. 21 Rate of Growth in Diameter of Dominant White Pine- l | Diameter in- Average annual Age. side bark, one growth for foot high. each 10 years. a — Years Inches Inches 10 ibe 0.13 | 20 5.8 45 | 30 9.3 .85 40 11.8 .25 50 13.8 .20 60 15.8 320) 2 70 17.4 16 | Average time required to grow one inch. oo DH Orci co bo Volume of Single White Pine Trees. Volume ; Volume Diameter : Diameter 5 P excluding. : excluding 43 ft. high. ia. 4% ft. high. janie. Inches Cords Inches Cords 4 0.025 11 0.215 5 039 12 -260 6 .045 13 805 y .065 14 2305 8 .090 15 415 9 120 16 -490 10 ANGE) we llabooooagnosapeculboudondsenagadas Vield of Fully Stocked Stands of Sccond-Growth White Pine- Merchant- Age of | Average} Total trees Yield stand. | height. | per acre. ae ECS per acre. Years Feet Number Number Cords 10 5 DADAO MI Aiferstenevetercicioncpeversselisvantaretayetereiereevere 15 9 HEA? Chose G oo Obe toto arco rtaoooun a5 D0 7 4 ALSO ie Ml cbristes aan pape ost Seale Sete pioteeetelaee 25 | nee 1.310 400 11 30 32 1,090 510 21 35 45 885 620. 30 4) 64 690 540 38 45 G2 ae, 510 460 45 50 68 400 380 53 55 72 800 800 65 60 76 260 260 80 22 Possible Profits To Be Derived from an Acre of Second-Growth ~ White Pine of Various Ages. { PROFIT. Value of Age. Yield. nee Total cost wood. to date. Average net = Total. annual %. Years Cords Dollars Dollars Dollars Percent. LORS) Sl eeecne shasta 400%" | BESO alte teeta meee [seis Sele oer ile RNS Veseeer nA ae: | 4 00 | GBT aE io oe nck Yon Ae ee 20 ef oles tae aan Os 4 00 | 7 94 le paso shady eno | cesses eee 25 i1 59 00 9 69 | 49 31 10.9 3 21 109 00 21 04 87 96 11.0 35 30 154 00 43 81 Ho DO) WE 10.0 40 38 194 00 80 33 | 113 67 8.8 45 45 229 00 133 55 | 95 45 Uses 50 53 269 00 207 26 61 74 5.7 55 65 829 00 807 95 | 21 05 3.4 60 80 404 00 446 37 |\eyaiesasiasere ie ave (ofeye,e1 bral che tefeleietatele tetas I | *It is assumed that the land is worth $4. and that until the stand is 25 years old it has no greater value. From that time on the price that the wood will bring is added. { This figure is the value of the land plus 12 cents per year paid for ten years, with interest compounded annually at 5%. { This and succeeding figures in this column are 3% of the value at the end of the preceding period, paid for BY years with interest compounded annually at 5%. These figures show that the profits in second-growth white pine may be as high as 11 per cent per year where the land is valued at not over $4 per acre, the annual outlay is not over 12 cents per acre, and the stumpage price of the wood is not less than $5 per cord. ‘The interest rate culminates at about the thir- teenth year, yet the lot pays a good profit up to she time it is 50 years old, and many owners prefer to hold their timber for the higher returns, though the latter years do not yield sO mee a rate of interest as the earlier. In considering this question of profit it should always be re- -membered that a low initial cost always prolongs the time dur- ing which a profitable rate of interest can be earned. In other words, if land in this section is worth only $2 per acre instead of $4, the interest accumulates more slowly, and profits are pro- longed in proportion. Further, these figures must be taken only as indicative of what white pine lots may yield in New England. The actual returns from any tract may be higher or lower, according to the local conditions and the way the owner counts the annual costs. 23 PLANTING. All methods of securing reproduction by means of natural regeneration presuppose the existence of a mature stand of the desired species, or at least seed-trees of that species. \Where these are absent, planting must be resorted to. As to which of these two methods of reforesting is the most desirable will de- pend on a number of local circumstances in each particular case, the most important of these are the soil, the site, and the eco- nomic conditions in the locality where the reforesting is to be done. While planting costs more in the beginning, many arguments may be advanced in favor of this method. The results are surer and the stand is established in a single year while natural re- generation is a slow process requiring a period of years, usually ten or more to be successfully accomplished. Furthermore, in planting, the distance between the trees is equal from the start giving all the trees in the plantation an equal chance, while in the natural method the seedlings are usually more or less scattered in patches or groups which may be very thick in some places but of unequal distribution over the area. The equal spacing established by planting gives equal root and crown space for the development of the small trees and makes all of the fur- ther operations in the management of the stand much easier. Plantations should be started from nursery grown stock rather than from seed sown on the area direct. Direct seeding is ex- pensive and is not usually very successful here. Never plant the cones. Very often they have no fertile seeds left in them and if they have it is a wasteful method. Where only a few hundred plants are needed, it is usually cheaper and always easier to buy them from a nurseryman than to raise them. There are now in this country many dealers in forest tree seeds and seedlings who make a specialty of this kind of stock. A list of these dealers will be sent on request to all applicants. (Ad- dress the request to the Department of Forestry, University of Maine, Orono, Maine.) It is probable that within the year a forest tree nursery will be established in connection with the State forestry department which will be able to supply seedlings at the actual cost of pro- duction to prospective planters in the State. Stock purchased from dealers should be secured in the early 24 spring just at the time that it is desired to set out the plantation. On arrival, the seedlings should be unpacked immediately and note taken of their condition. Careless packing and delay in transportation may have injured some of the seedlings so that they are not fit to plant. In this case, claim should be made on the shipper or the transportation company whichever is at fault. After being unpacked, the young seedlings should have their roots dipped in a pail or puddle of thin mud. If not plant- ed immediately, the plants should be “heeled-in.” This heeling- in process consists of having their roots and stems entrenched and well covered with earth firmly packed down over them, care being taken not to cover or injure the foliage or tops of the trees. They should never be allowed to dry out, but in a shady place the plants thus treated may be kept for several weeks if necessary awaiting a convenient planting time. Two or three year old seedlings are sufficiently large for plant- ing in most cases, but two year old transplants, that is seedlings that have grown one year in the seed-bed and have then been transplanted for one year’s growth in a transplant bed, have as a rule better developed root systems and are therefore better plants for use under less favoable conditions of soil or site. METHOD OF PROPAGATION. If many thousand plants are to be used by one owner or in. one neighborhood, it is cheaper to raise them from the seed. If the trees are to be grown in a home nursery, the seed may be pur-- chased, but a large saving may be made by collecting it in the neighborhood, if this can be done. Cones should be gathered. during the latter part of August or in September before they begin to open. ‘They may be picked from standing trees, or from felled trees if lumbering operations are being conducted nearby. When gathered, the cones should be spread out on a sheet or floor, where they will be exposed to the sun, yet pro-. tected from wind and rain. Within a week they will open and — allow the seed to drop out. A thorough stirring will separate- the seed ; after which the cones may be raked away. One bushel of cones will yield one-half a pound to 1 pound of clean seed, which will average from 29,000 to 30,000 seeds per pound. Seeds may be stored over winter by placing them in small sacks. and hanging the sacks in a cold, dry place. 25 The most successful method of raising seedlings is by sowing the seed in nursery beds. Seed beds should be composed of fine, oose, fairly fertile soil, moderately moist but always well drained. The soil must not be too rich; otherwise the seedlings will suffer when transplanted to the less favorable conditions of the perma- nent site. A convenient size for seed beds is 4 by 12 feet, with a path about 18 inches wide between the beds, so that the plants can be weeded and cared for with ease. The seed should be sown in drills 4 to 6 inches apart, or broadcast over the beds, -and lightly covered with fine earth. Sowing should not begin until the ground is warm enough to cause rapid germination. Seed may be safely sown at the time garden vegetables are planted. After a seed bed is sown the surface should be “firmed” with a board or light roller. The plants will begin to appear in from 3 to 5 weeks. Like other conifers, they will require partial shading during the first season, but subsequently can endure full sunlight, especially in New England. A shade frame of lath supported 18 inches above the bed will serve the purpose. One pound of white pine seed is sufficient to sow 500 linear feet of seed drill, or about 200 square feet of surface, with drills ‘6 inches apart. Even with proper care some seeds may fail to germinate promptly, but about 10,000 plants may be expected from every pound of fertile seed sown. White pine seed retains ‘its vitality for several years, and when kept in cold, dry stor- age a fair percentage has been known to germinate after five years. Fresh seed, however, is always to be preferred. Two years after sowing, the seedlings should be transplanted in the spring from the seed bed to nursery rows, in order to -develop a good, fibrous root system. They may be set out 3 inches apart, in rows from 12 to 18 inches apart. The roots ‘should be set slightly deeper than they were before. The best ‘method of transplanting is to open a shallow trench of the proper depth with a spade, and set the plants by hand, carefully cov- ering the roots of each plant with fine soil and gently firming it. Transplants, if thoroughly cultivated and weeded, will be ready for final planting at the beginning of the fourth season. At this age they should be frorn 6 to 9 inches high and have a well-de- veloped system of fibrous roots. In the early stage of the white pine a very injurious fungus 26 must be guarded against. If the soil becomes soaked, or suffi- cient light and air are withheld, ideal conditions for the action of the fungus exist, and the result is the “damping off” of large numbers of the young trees. In shaded seed beds, when the quantity of rain is sufficient to endanger the young trees, the damping off may be checked by so raising one side of the shade frame that it acts as a partial roof. Dry sand sprinkled over the seed bed will usually tend to hold the fungus in check. Birds and field mice are often very troublesome around con- iferous seed beds. If danger from such sources is expected, the seed may be coated with red lead mixed with linseed oil be- fore sowing. ‘This is distasteful to most birds and rodents and is usually quite effective. Another method is to protect the beds by wire netting and similar devices until the seedlings are suffi- ciently developed to be free from danger. SETTING IN THE FIELD. White pine seedlings should be planted on the permanent site in the early spring when the ground is dry enough to work. In most cases the site will not need preparation previous to planting. The roots must not be allowed to become dry during the plant- ing. Even brief exposure of the roots to the sun and air will cause the plants to die. The distance apart at which the plants should be set depends upon the character of the site and whether the pines are to be planted in mixture with some other trees or in a pure stand. The usual distance is 6 by 6 ft. apart. In this region white pine 1s usu- ally planted in pure stands, but it also produces excellent forest conditions in mixture with a number of other species, the chief of which are, European larch, Norway spruce, red oak, and hard “maple. When planted in mixture with larch, the pine should constitute two-thirds of the stand. Mixed with the other species, the stand should be composed of an equal number of white pine and the associated species planted alternately. On account of the increased danger from ~ insect and fungus enemies, it is advisable not to start planting operations too soon after logging. 27 CARE AND CULITVATION. Cultivation’ in this region is unnecessary. Persistent dead branches should be removed when possible, but it is not advisable to prune live ones. When there is a demand for small material, the stand may be profitably thinned, as described in detail, at the age of from 20 to 30 years, removing at the same time all sup- pressed or intermediate trees which are not needed in the stand to shade the ground or to assist in naturally developing the large trees. . Fire must be kept out of these stands, since the bark of the young trees is thin and easily damaged, and injuries from this source cause rapid decay. Information regarding general nursery practice and plant- ing may be obtained from the publications of the Forest Service, which may be procured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for a nominal price. Insect damage, if serious, should be reported promptly and specimens of the affected parts sent to the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, where they will be identified and measures suggested for their control. SOME PUBLICATIONS FROM WHICH ADDITIONAL INFOR- MATION MAY BE OBTAINED. Bi-annual Reports of the Forest Commissioner of the State of: Maine. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book 1899, 1905 and others. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 42, The Woodlot. (Now out of print. ) U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 45, Planting of White Pine in New England. Price 2oc. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 63, The Natural Replacement of White Pine on Old Fields in the New England States. roc. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 76, How to Grow and Plant Coni- fers in the Northeastern States. U. S. Forest Service Circular No. 67, White Pine Planting Leaflet free on application to the U. S. Forest Service. U. S. Dept., Agri. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 228, Forest Planting and Farm Management. Free. U. S. Dept., Agri. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 173, A Primer of Forestry I. U. S. Dept., Agri. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 358, A Primer of Forestry II. - So) 4 5 See sa er a c i iid od ie A wore se ee . ~ ~ "q a te «Ei