DDDDnDDDDDDDDDaDnDDDDDaDnDaDDDDa ^tKSl UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY S 73 E3 V. 23-24 1910-11 D D D □ D D DDDDDDaDDDDDDDDnDDDDDaDaDanaDnDn Date Due — 1[% ^ft "MB — (*^ rminwiHU^^ 4 ^^ . 1. l^ 10 -I I Public Document No. 31 TWENTIJiafflLANNUAL REPORT MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I Being Part III. of t!&u FtjSt^ -liighth Annual Report OP THE Massachusetts Agricultural College. Jandtary, 1911. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1911. Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusehs agricultural Experiment Station. Part I., Being Part III. of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1911. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1911. Approved by The State Board of Publication. TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Part I. DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. INTRODUCTION. In accorJaiicc with the provision of the act of the Legislature relative to the pnblication of the reports of the Massachusetts Agricultnral College, the report of the experiment station, which is a department of the college, is presented in two parts. Part I. contains the formal reports of the director, treasurer and heads of departments, and papers of a technical character giving resnlts of experiments carried on in the station. This will he sent to agricultural colleges and experiment stations and to workers in these institutions, as well as to libraries. Part I. will be published also in connection with the report of the Secre- tary of the State Board of Agriculture, and will reach the gen- eral public through that channel. Part II. will contain papers of a popular character, and will be sent to persons on our mail- ing list. WM. P. BROOKS, Director. CONTENTS. Part I. PAGE Station organization, 11 Report of the director, 13 Clianges in staff, 13 Lines of worlv, 16 Dissemination of information, 16 Publications, 16 Publications during 1910, ... .... 16 Publications available for free distribution, .... 17 Circulation of publications, 18 Correspondence, 20 Lectures and demonstrations, 20 Future provision for extension work, 20 General experiments, 21 Co-operative experiments with alfalfa, 22 Research, 23 Asparagus substation. Concord, 24 Breeding experiments, 24 Fertilizer experiments, 25 Chemical work on asparagus roots, 25 Cranberry substations, 26 ^ — ' Fertilizer experiments, 27 ~" Lisect work, 28 Control work, 28 Fertilizer law, 28 Dairy law, 29 Feed law, 29 , Inspection of apiaries, 30 '^ Buildings, 30 ' Report of the treasurer, 32 Report of the agriculturist, 34 Comparison of different materials as a source of nitrogen, . . 34 Muriate compared with sulfate of potash, 36 Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for garden crops, . . 38 Relative value of different potash salts, 40 Comparison of different phosphates, 42 Manure alone compared with manure and sulfate of potash, . 44 Average corn fertilizer compared with fertilizer richer in potash, 45 South acre soil test, 46 8 CONTENTS. PAGE Report of the agriculturist — Con. North acre soil test, 47 Top dressing for hay, 48 Winter v. spring application of manure, 49 Report of the chemist, 51 Correspondence, 51 Numerical summary of work in chemical department, . .51 Laboratory work of the research section, 52 Research work in animal nutrition, 53 Tabulations, 53 Report of the fertilizer section, 54 Fertilizers licensed, 54 Fertilizers collected, 55 Fertilizers analyzed, 55 Trade values of fertilizer ingredients, 56 Summary of analyses and guarantees of licensed complete fertilizers, 57 Commercial shortages, 59 Quality of plant food, 60 Grades of fertilizer, 60 Composition according to grade, 61 Unmixed fertilizers, 63 Miscellaneous substances, 63 Nitrogen compounds, 65 Potash compounds, 65 Phosphoric acid compounds, 66 Miscellaneous work, 66 Report of the feed and dairy section, 67 The feed law, 67 Analytical work, 67 Compliance with the law, 68 New law, 68 Definitions, 69 Weight of sacked feeds, . . . • . ' . . .69 The dairy law, 69 Examination of candidates, 69 Examination of glassware, 70 Inspection of Babcock machines, 70 Creameries, 71 Milk depots, 72 Milk, cream and feeds sent for free examination, ... 72 Analysis of drinking water, 72 Miscellaneous work, 73 Testing of pure bred cows, 74 CONTENTS. 9 PAGE Report of the botanist, 75 Diseases more or less common during the year, . . . ./"'TSs Report of the entomologist, i 77>- Goessmann, Charles A., tribute to, ."^"^0 Studies in milk secretion, SG The effect of protein upon the production and composition of milk, 86 The determination of arsenic in insecticides, 122 Methods, 122 Iodine method, 124 New processes 125 Practice at Massachusetts station, 127 Iodine methods for arsenates, 129 Purification of insoluble fatty acids, 131 Distillation of the fatty acids in vacuo, 131 Crystallization from alcohol, 132 Distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, 133 The soluble cai-bohydrates in asparagus roots, 135 Seed work, 1910, 141 An outbreak of rusts, 144 Sweet pea troubles, 145 A spinach disease new to IMassachusetts, 146 Abnormalities of stump growths, 149 Description of mosaic disease, 150 Relation to mosaic disease, 154 Experiments in inoculation, 154 Relation of root area to intensity of disease, . . . .156 Chemical tests of abnormal leaves, 157 Conclusions, 159 Peach and plum troubles, 161 Brown rot, scab, gummosis, etc., 161 Chmatic adaptations of apple varieties, 177 I. Introduction, 177 II. The causes of varietal variation, 179 Cultural variation, 179 Soil variation, 180 Climatic variation, 180 The mean summer temperature, 182 III. The development of the apple, 183 IV. The perfectly developed apple, 186 V. The individuality of the tree, 194 VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the apple, 199 On form, 199 On size, 204 10 CONTENTS. PAGE Climatic adaptations of apple varieties — Con. VI. The modifying effect of climate on the development of the apple — Con. On general development, 205 Apple belts in North America, 205 Distribution of varieties, 207 The relation of temperature to development, . .221 The mean summer temperature, . . . .221 The winter minimum, 221 The heat of summer, 222 The effect of low and of high mean summer tem- peratures, 222 The optimum mean summer temperature, . . 227 Chemical determinations, 232 VII. Summary, 243 Compilations, 246 Analyses of fodder articles and dairy products, .... 247 Composition and digestibility of fodder articles, .... 249 Fertilizer ingredients of fodder articles, 266 Analyses of dairy products, 272 Coefficients of digestibility of American fodder articles, . . 273 Analyses of agricultural chemicals, refuse salts, phosphates, guanos, ashes, lime compounds, marls, by-products, refuse substances and animal excrements, 304 Chemicals and refuse salts, 306 Phosphates and guanos, 308 Ashes, lime compounds and marls, 310 By-products and refuse substances, 314 Animal excrements, 322 Insecticides, 323 Analyses of fruits and garden crops, 324 Fruits, 325 Garden crops, 327 Relative proportions of phosphoric acid, potassium oxide and nitrogen in fruits and garden crops, .... 334 Composition of some Massachusetts soils, 339 Description of types, 339 Miscellaneous soil analyses, 341 European standards for comparison, 346 MASSACHUSETTS AGEICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THB MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. T\yENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. Part I. ORGANIZATION. Committee on Experiment Department. Charles H. Prestox, Chairman. J. Lewis Ellsworth. Arthur H. Pollard. Charles E. Ward. Harold L. Frost. The President of the College, ex officio. The Director of the Station, ex officio. Station Staff. William P. Brooks, Ph. D., Director, 28 Northampton Road. Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Vice-Director, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer, Mount Pleasant. Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian, Mount Pleasant. Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Chemist, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Edward B. Holl.\nd, M.Sc, Associate Chemist, in charge of Research Division, 28 North Prospect Street. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist, 44 Pleasant Street. Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, In charge of Fertilizer Section, 87 Pleasant Street. Philip H. Smith, B.Sc, In charge of Feed and Dairy Section, 102 Main Street. Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant, 19 Phillips Street. James C. Reed, B.Sc, Assistant, Nutting Avenue. Joseph F. Merrill, B.Sc, Assistant, North Prospect Street. Clement L. Perkins, B.Sc, Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Joseph P. Howard, Collector, North Amherst, Mass. Harry J. Allen, Laboratory Assistant, 89 Main Street. James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition, North Amherst, Mass. Department of Agriculture. William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Agriculturist, 28 Northampton Road. H. J. Franklin, Ph.D., In charge of Cranberry Investigation, Wareham, Mass. Erwin S. Fulton, B.Sc, First .\ssistant, North .\mherst, Mass. Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Second Assistant, North Amherst, Mass. 12 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1911. Depaxtment of Horticulture. Frank A. Wauoh, M.Sc, Horticulturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pornologist, Mount Pleasant. Jacob K. Shaw, M.Sc, .\ssistant Horticulturist, 1 Allen Street. David W. Anderson, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology. George E. Stone, Ph.D., Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist, Mount Pleasant. George H. Chapman, M.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 13 Fearing Street. SoMNER C. Brooks, B.Sc, Assistant Botanist, 28 Northampton Road. Department of Entomology. Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomoloaiist, 44 Amity Street. Burton N. Gates, Ph.D., .\piariat, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Arthur I. Bourne, B.A., As.sistant in Entomology, G6 North Pleasant Street. Department of Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Department of Meteorology. John E. Ostr.^nder, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist, 35 North Prospect Street. Charles M. Damon, Observer, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Other OflBcers of the Experiment Station. Miss Rose J. Brown, Secretary to the Director, Draper Hall. Miss Je.ssie V. Crocker, Stenographer, Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, Sunderland, Mass. Miss Harriet Cobb, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, 35 North Pleasant Street. Miss Bridie O'Donnell, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Hadley, Mass. Miss Alice M. Howard, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, North Amherst, Mass. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Changes in Staff. The exi^criment station staff during the past year has suffered the loss of two of its oldest and strongest men: Dr. C. A. Goessmann, who died in September, and Dr. C. H. Fernald, who retired on a Carnegie pension at about the same time. Dr. Goessmann had been connected with the experiment sta- tion from the very tirst inception of station work in the State, in 1882. He w^as director of the State Experiment Station until it was combined with the station later organized under the Hatch act, in 1895. Dr. Goessmann, however, although giving up his duties as director at that time, retained active supervision of the inspection of commercial fertilizers and the general work in the fertilizer and soil laboratory until his retirement in 1907. Subsequent to retirement he was retained as consulting chemist, and continued his active interest in the station and its work until almost the end of his life. Goessmann was one of the great pioneers in the work of agricultural investigation. It seems eminently fitting, therefore, to present at this time a brief account of his life and work. Dr. J. B. Lindsey, vice-director and chemist of the station, one of Dr. Goessmann's pupils, pe- culiarly fitted through long and close association with him to Avrite such an account and estimate, has at my request kindly prepared a tribute which will be found in following pages. Dr. Charles H. Fernald, head of the entomological depart- ment of the college and station, became connected with the sta- tion work at the time of organization under the Hatch act, and continued at the head of the entomological department until his retirement, the first of September last. Dr. Fernald's work was of great value to the station. Of him, as of Goessmann, it is largely true that to a considerable extent his work was of a pioneer character. He was one of the earliest station entomolo- gists, and as such he had much to do with the establishment of a 14 EXPERIMENT STATIOx\. [Jan. general i^olicy for station entomological work. It was in con- siderable measure due to his influence that the policy that orig- inal descriptions of insects should not be published in ordinary station bulletins was adopted. During the early years of his station activities he devoted a large amount of time to the study of the gypsy moth, and the. recognition of this insect and the scientific work connected with it were due to his efforts. His work in connection with the gypsy moth greatly strengthened the entomological department of the station, and resulted in mak- ing its work better understood and appreciated. Dr. Fernald's bulletin on household insects is believed to have been the first of its kind ; but the value of such work was promptly recog- nized. His monograph papers, which have been published as station bulletins, are constantly quoted as standard works on the subjects of which they treat. He was the first to undertake in- vestigations on cranberry insects, and the work he did in rela- tion to them proved of great value to cranberry gTowers. His work in systematic and economic entomology has been extensive, and he instituted numerous lines of investigation which have since been greatly extended and developed by others better situ- ated to prosecute them. "While Professor Fernald did a very large amount of strong original work, I think it will be generally admitted by those who know him and his influence that his great- est work was in the line of stimulating others by his personality to accomplish what he himself had no opportunity to do. The death of Dr. Goessmann did not involve important changes in the chemical department as his services during the past few years had been simply advisory, and, owing to failing health, largely nominal during the last year or two. On the retirement of Dr. C. H. Fernald, his son. Dr. H. T. Fernald, was made head of the entomological department. The retirement of the elder Fernald imjx)sed additional duties on his son, and some reorganization of the department became neces- sary. Mr. John N. Summers, a graduate assistant, who had been giving one-half his time to the experiment station, retired, and in his place, Mr. A. I. Bourne, P. A., who has had a valu- able experience in graduate and investigational work, was made assistant. Mr. Bourne is allowed a certain amount of time for 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 graduate study, but lie will give uearly all his atteution to the work in the experiment station. His employment relieves Dr. H. T. Fernald of almost all of the routine work of the entomo- logical department, and of the necessity of giving direct personal attention to the experimental work in its simpler phases. This will make it possible for Dr. Fernald to devote a very large pro- portion of his time to research work in entomology. In this connection attention should be called to the extremely valuable work which Mrs. C. IT. Fernald, with some clerical assistance, carried on for a period of more than twenty years, ii; editing the index cards with references to entomological litera- ture. The work of Mrs. Fernald has been characterized by ex- treme accuracy and thoroughness, and up to the present time no less than 50,000 cards, with many times that number of ref- erences, have been prepared. A large proportion of the entries on these are in Mrs. Fernald's own hand. Advancing years have led Mrs. Fernald to desire to be relieved of this work, so important to all investigators in all lines of entomology, and arrangements have been completed whereby it will be continued under Dr. H. T. Fernald's supervision by his stenographer and clerk. Miss O'Donnell. The retirement of Dr. H. D. MacLaurin, referred to in my last annual report, left a vacancy in the research division of the chemical department. This place was filled in January by the temporary appointment of Fred W. Morse, Ph.D., for many years chemist of the New Hamj^shire Experiment Station. His appointment was made permanent in July. Mr. Morse is de- voting himself entirely to research problems connected with the nutrition of crops and the productive ca^^acity of soils. The staff of the station has been strengthened by the addition of two men; David W. Anderson, B.Sc, has been made gradu- ate assistant in the department of horticulture ; Sumner C. Brooks, B.Sc, has been made assistant in the department of botany and plant pathology. The appointment of these men relieves their superiors in these departments of routine work, and will enable them to devote their time in larger measure to research. The work of the station has been broadened in scope and fur- 16 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ther strengthened by the appointment of Dr. B. X. Gates, Ph.D., as apiarist. It is the expectation that Dr. Gates will devote about one-quarter of his time, so far as possible consecutively, to research work on problems connected with beekeeping. Mr. James Alcock replaces ]\Ir. I\oy Gaskill in charge of the animals used in feeding and digestion experiments, and Clement L. Perins, B.Sc, has taken the place of Carl D. Kennedy as assistant in the chemical laboratory. Lines of Wokk. There has been no essential change in the character of station work during the year. It covers a field of constantly broaden- ing scope and increases steadily in amount. As heretofore, our efforts may be classed under the following principal heads : gen- eral experiments, research, control and dissemination of infor- mation. The relation of the lines of work which come under the last class to the possibility of adequate attention to and of financial support for the experiment and research, for carrying on which the funds for the support of the station which come from the federal government are designed, is so vital that while in logical sequence these lines of work would seem to come last, they will be considered first. Dissemination of Information. The principal methods whereby the station now endeavors to serve the public by dissemination of information are by means of its publications, through private correspondence, through lec- tures by members of its staff and by demonstrations. Puhlicaiions. — Our publications are of three kinds, an an- nual report in two parts, bulletins and circulars. The follow- ing tables show the publications of the year 1910 and those still available for distribution : — Pitblications during 1010. Annual report : — Parts I. and II. 338 pages. Bulletins: — No. 132. Inspoplion of Commercial Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and J. C. Reed. C-1 pages. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17 No. 133. Green Croi)s for Summer Soiliui;', J. B. Liiidsey. 20 pages. No. 134. The Hay Crop, William P. Brooks. 68 pages. No. 135. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizeis, H. D. liaskins, L. F. Walker and J. F. Merrill. 7(3 pages. Meteorological bulletins, 1'2 numbers. 2 pages. Circulars : No. 26. Fertilizers for Potatoes, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. No. 27. Seeding Mowings, William P. Brooks. 8 pages. No. 28. Rules relative to Testing Dairy Cows. S pages. No. 29. Chemical Analysis of Soils, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. Miscellaneous circulars (unnumbered): — Fertilizers for Corn, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Home-mixed Fertilizers, William P. Brooks. 4 pages. Fertilizers for Turnips, Cabbages and Other Crucifers, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Daii-ymen losing Money on Low-grade Feeds, J. B. Lindsey. 2 pages. Orchard Experiment, William P. Brooks. 2 pages. Summer Soiling Crops, P. H. Smith. 1 page. Balanced Rations for Business Cows, J. B. Lindsey. 2 pages. Corn for the Silo. 2 pages. Publicationt) Available for Free Diatribuliun. Bulletins: — Glossary of Fodder Terms. Fertilizer Analyses. The Imported Elm-leaf Beellc, Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses. Cranberry Insects. Seed Separation and Germination. Fungicides, Insecticides and Spraying Directions. Bee Diseases in Massachusetts. Shade Trees. Insects Injurious to Cranberries and how to tight them. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1908. Meteoi-ological Summary — Twenty Years. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1909. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1910. Green Crops for Summer Soiling. The Hay Crop. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1910. No. 33. No. 68. No. 76. No. 83. No. 84. No. 89. No. 90. No. 103. No. 113. No. 115. No. 121. No. 123. No. 124. No. 125. No. 126. No. 127. No. 130. No. 1.31. No. 132. No. 133. No. 134. No. 135. 18 p:xrERLAlENT STATION. [Jan. Xu. l.'}(). Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1911. Tc'clniical Bulletin No. 2. The Graft Union. Teclmieal Bulletin No. 3. The Blossom End Rot of Tuuintocs. Index to bulletins and annual reports of the Hatch Exi>erimeut Station previous to June, 1895. Index to bulletins and annual rei:)orts, 18SS-1907. Annual reports: 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 20th, 21st, Part II., 22d, Parts I. and II. So far as our publications treat primarily of the results of station observation, experiment and research, they are to be looked upon as a necessary and important feature of station activity, — indeed, to be the crowning result of such activity ; but the demand for bulletins and circulars of information of a general character, already wides})read, is most active, insistent and growing, and the force of circumstances has seemed to com- pel us to make at least some effort to meet it. To fully do so has been imjDossible ; indeed, must probably be recog-nizcd as in the very nature of things always likely to remain so, since noth- ing less than a complete library covering every conceivable agri- cultural topic would enable us to meet the demand. A considerable share of the contents of the popular part of our annual report (Part II.), most of our circulars and some of our bulletins have, however, aimed to furnish information of a more or less general character on topics of immediate interest to the public. These papers have, it is true, been based upon our own observations and experiments in so far as possible, and to that extent are to be regarded as legitimate station ])ublic-a- tions. To a considerable extent, however, they are of a general character. United States funds cannot be used in their publica- tion, and since the demands for other purposes upon the rela- tively small appropriation which comes to the station from the State are heavy, and since, further, furnishing this literature is rather extension than experiment, provision to carry the costs should be made in the extension department of the institution. CirntJaiion of Fuhlicailons. — In accordance with an act of ourXegislature Part I. of our annual report is printed with the report of the secr(>tary of the State Board of Agriculture, and those on the mailing list of that Board will receive this publica- tion. Five thousand copies of Part I. of our annnal report also 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. '61. 19 jirc i'liniislied to the station. Those arc sent to libraries and directors of agricultural experiment stations, to presidents and libraries of agricultural colleges, to the public libraries of Mas- sachusetts, and all other libraries on our mailing list, to the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture and to those on our exchange list. This part of our annual report contains technical monographs giving the results of re- search work, and a large number of copies are reserved to meet future demands. Part II. of our annual report, which contains the more jjopular papers, and our bulletins are sent to all those on our general mailing list, to the public libraries of the State, to those on the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture likely to be interested, and to experiment stations and agricultural colleges. It is our aim to reserve a consider- able number of each publication to meet subsequent demands, l)ut the demand has grown so rapidly that the supi)ly of most, as will be noted from the above list of available publications, has been exhausted. The meteorological bulletins are sent only to agricultural college and experiment station libraries, presidents and directors, to the Department of Agriculture and Ofhce of Experiment Stations, to newspapers and to libraries and indi- viduals who have especially requested them. Our circulars are printed for use in connection with the cor- respondence of the station. It is only by the use of such cir- culars that we are able to give information and advice on the many problems on which we are consulted. These circulars are sent only as above stated or on request. An abstract of all ini- ])oints, however, seem to be sufficiently well established to deserve mention. The field contains 40 plots of one-twentieth acre each. The crop of 1910 was rather seriously injured by frost, but it was nevertheless fairly satisfactory as to quantity and quality. The past season was the fourth since the plants were set. The first cutting was made on April 23, the last on June 29. The total yield of all the plots was 9,020 pounds and G ounces. Attention is called to the following conclusions, based upon results, as of possible. interest : — (1) The use of fertilizer made up of a combination of ni- trate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, in addition to an application of manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre, has not materially increased the crop in whatever quantity applied. (2) The nse of nitrate of soda in addition to manure at the rate above named, in quantities ranging between the rate of from 811 pounds to G22 pounds per acre, has not increased the crop. (3) The use of nitrate of soda in addition to a fairly liberal application of acid phosphate and muriate of potash has some- what increased the crop, but a quantity in excess of 311 pounds has not resulted in further increase. Chemical Work on Asparagus Boots. — It is a part of the plan of the experiments with fertilizers to study the effects of varying treatment upon the composition of the roots. This in- vestigation on the chemical side is being carried on by Prof. F. W. ]\Iorse, who will in due time report fully upon the results of the analytical work. It was thought that a study of the re- serve material stored in the roots in the autumn might offer results of especial interest and inqiortance, and although the 26 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. investigation is not jet completed, this expectation has been largely realized. The s])eeial object in view in the first collec- tion of roots made was to study the effect of the varying use of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda npon the reserve mate- rial in the I'ciots in the antnnm. The following points appear to have been well established by the analyses so far made: — The amount of nitrogen in the roots in the fall: (1) is in- creased by application of nitrate of soda; (2) is gi-eater where nitrate w^as used at the rate of 4GG pounds per acre than where it was used at the rate of 311 pounds per aero; (3) is not greater where the nitrate of soda was used at the rate of 622 pounds per acre than where it was used at the rate of 40G pounds per acre. It is believed, although this has not yet been proved, that the crop of the following season must bear a rather close relation to the amount of re^^erve material in the roots in the fall. If this be so, and if further investigation gives results in agree- ment with those already ol)tained, the conclusion that the use of nitrate of soda among our growers is not infrequently in excess of the most profitable quantity would appear to be justi- fied. This conclusion should, however, for the present be re- garded as tentative rather than fully established. Ceanbeery Substations. During the past year our work in the interest of cranberry gi'owers has been put upon a much more satisfactory basis than heretofore, through a special appropriation by the Legislature to provide for the work. The amount of this appropriation was i/ $15,000. A bog containing about 12 acres, lying near Specta- cle Pond in East Wareham, with a small amount of adjoining upland, two small buildings and a powerful gasoline engine and pump, were purchased for $12,000. A building to contain screen and storage rooms, living and office rooms for an assist- ant, and a small laboratory will be erected early this year at a cost of about $2,000. The balance of the appropriation will be used f«tr the purchase of additional upland to ]irovide readier access to the building above referred to, in the making of needed 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27 improvements in the 23um2)ing macbiuerj and in preparations for experiments. The cranberry bog purchased is planted with Early Black and the Howe varieties. It lies a little above the usnal level of the water in Spectacle Pond, the lift required to flood it usually varying between about 3 and 4 feet. The capacity of the power and pumping machinery is such that the bog can be completely flooded in about six hours. The area of Spectacle Pond is nearly 100 acres, and the supply of water is constant and abundant. Being a " great pond " the waters are under State control. Only one other bog, and that a relatively small one, draws water from the pond, so that there must always be water enough for any possible need for all kinds of experimen- tal work. The bog when purchased was in exceptionally perfect condition. It is one which has the reputation of more than average fruitfulness. The crop last year^ as was the case with most of the bogs in the cranberry districts of Massachusetts, was moderate, and the net revenue derived from it was snuill. It is, however, confidently anticipated that the product of the bog will, over a series of years, be sufficient to produce a con- siderable net income, which will be used in helping to meet the expenses connected with our experimental work. The crop of the past season brought $1,255 more than the costs of ordinary maintenance, harvesting, packing, etc. The net sum available towards the costs of experimental work, however, was substan- tially $100 less than this, that being the amount which we were compelled to pay for taxes, since the bog had not been the prop- erty of the Commonwealth on the first of ]May. It will be remembered that our cranberry work thus far has followed two principal lines of inquiry relating (1) to the fer- tilizer requirements of the crop; (2) to insects affecting it. Fertilizer Experiments. — The fertilizer experiments begun four years ago in Red Brook bog at Waquoit have been con- tinued. The bog, however, gave only a very small crop during the past season, — a result which we believe to have been due in large measure to the efi^ects of frost. The variatious in yield caused bv uneven amount of frost damas^e were so great that it 28 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. was impossible to draw conclusions as to the specific effects of the different fertilizer combinations. The fertilizer experiments in the Red Brook bog at Waqnoit will be continued during next year, but meanwhile similar experiments will be begun in the Spectacle Pond bog. It is believed that it will be best to dis- continue the Waquoit experiments after next year, since they lie at such a distance from the station bog in Wareham as to make jjroper attention to the work somewhat difficult and ex- pensive. Insect Work. — Dr. Franklin has devoted himself with great enthusiasm and faithfulness to observations and studies on the insects having a relation either injurious or beneficial to the cranberry industry. He has accumulated a large amount of valuable data, but his work is not advanced to the point where ])ublication seems called for. Control Work. Detailed reports concerning the various lines of contr<^l work carried on by the station, prepared by the chemists in cliarg{% will be found in the later pages of this report. Fertilizer Law. — We have found it impossible during the past few years to exercise an efficient control over the trade in fertilizers and to publish the reports without expending an amount exceeding the sum brought in by the analysis or license fees required by our law. The expenditure in 1!)09 exceeded the amount of the license fees to the amount of nearly $1,000. To provide for this excess expenditure by the use of other sta- tion funds seriously reduces the amount available for experi- mental work. Accordingly, the amount of analytical work in connectiou with the fertilizer control during the past year has been somewhat restricted, and the size of the bulletin giving the results has been reduced. These reductions, while for the time being necessary, are undesirable, and for this reason, as well as for other important reasons, it has been decided to ask for a revision of our fertilizer law. The preparation of the new draft has required a great deal of study and many conferences with parties affected by ihe law. Th(> more inqiortant of the 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 changes which it ])rovides are an increase in tlie analysis fee })er fertilizer clement from $5 to $8, and bringing the various grades of agricultural lime within its scope. The other changes which have been made have been designed to remedy defects from the standpoint of administration which the execution of the old hiw had disclosed, and to make it more definite and ex- plicit on a number of rather important points. The fertilizer law at present in force requires us to publish the dealer's cash price and the percentage of difference between this price and the commercial valuation of the fertilizer. It is not proposed to retain this provision in the new law, as it is felt that it is on the whole likely to prove misleading to the farmer, almost inev- itably unfair to dealers, and from no point of view apparently serves any important use. Dairy Law. — Much time has been spent during the past year also in studying and rewriting the so-called dairy law. Besides various perfecting changes, the most important modili- cation is to bring milk inspectors and the Babcock machinery and apparatus which they use within the scope of the law. There would seem to be equal reason that steps should be taken to insure accuracy of work on the results of which, if unfa- vorable, the milk dealer or farmer may be prosecuted for in- fringement of one of our State laws, as for bringing those test- ing milk and cream for determining its value within the scope of the law. Feed Lair. — The increasing number of feedstuffs in our markets, and the increased extent to which materials of com- plex character are purchased and used by our farmers, have greatly increased the amount of work required to exercise effec- tive control over the trade in feedstuffs, and we find it to be impossible at the present time to properly execute the law and to publish the results of our inspection for the sum of money provided by the State legislative appropriation for the purpose. It will be necessary, therefore, in the near future, to ask for a revision of this law. The amount of the appropriation should be moderately increased to provide for the much greater amount of work now required than was necessary when the amount of 30 EXPERIMENT STATlOxN. ' [Jan. the appro]jriatioii was lixcd sonic eight years ago. In the ease of this law, also, practieal experience in its execution has made it apparent that some perfecting amendments are necessary in order that it niay operate smoothly and effectively. Inspection of Apiakies. The great desirability of the passage of a law providing for the inspection of apiaries, with a view to the eradication and control of contagious diseases of bees, was set forth at some length in my last annual report. It seems proper, therefore, in this report to refer to the fact that the Legislature of 1910 k passed such an act. The execution of the law, however, was placed with the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, but the experiment station and college are Avorking in harmony with the secretary. lie has named as inspector of apiaries the apiarist of the college and station, Dr. Burton N. Gates, whose appointment has already been referred to. Buildings. The new building for the departments of entomology and zoology has been completed during the year and has been occu- jDied since September. It is a commodious, fireproof structure, costing $80,000, and paid for by special appropriation. It pro- vides ample accommodations for the experimental work in en- tomology. The hothouse, a comparatively new and modern building used in connection w'ith the old insectary for experi- mental work, has been moved on to new foundations and is con- nected with the new building. The necessity for increased accommodations for the research chemical work of the station was pointed out in my last annual report, in which it was stated that ])lans for enlargement and modification of the old building for the i)urpose of securing the increased accommodations needed were under consideration. ]\Iature study of the ])rol)lem as to the best means of providing the needed room, in connection with more exact estimates of the cost of so enlarging and modifying our old laboratory as to meet the requirements, has led to the conclusion that it is un- Avise to make the relatively large expenditure required for such 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31 enlargement and modifieation. It sceni.s clear that the old build- ing, however enlarged and improved, mnst still fail to be en- tirely adeqnate or satisfactory, and that therefore it is wiser at this time to make only the few absolntely necessary changes, involving relatively little expenditure, leaving full provision for onr needs until such time as the State shall grant the money needed for a new building, which the growth of our work will render imperative in the very near future. WM. P. BROOKS, Director. 32 EXrEULMENT STATION. [Jan. REPORT OF THE TREASURER. ANNUAL REPORT Of Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Experiment Station op the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College. For the Year ending June 30, 1010. The Uniled States Approprialions, 1909-10. Hatch Fund. Adams Fund. Dr. To receipts from the Treasurer of the United States, as per appropriations for fiscal year ended June 30, 1910, under acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887 (Hatch fund), and March 16, 1906 (Adams fund), Cr. By sahiries, hibor, jjublications, .... postage and stationery, freight and express, heat, hght, water and power, chemical supplies, . seeds, plants and sundry supplies fertilizers, .... feeding stuffs, .... library, tools, implements and machinery, furniture and fixtures, . scientific apparatus, live stock, .... traveling expenses, contingent expenses, building and land, . Total, $15,000 00 ,184 81 264 74 49 75 95 12 7 43 250 19 348 61 406 48 47 44 117 00 123 75 48 00 56 68 $13,000 00 $9,918 15 817 05 19 00 13 35 149 47 114 41 496 08 95 01 6 45 328 50 892 02 105 51 45 00 $15,000 00 $13,000 00 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 33 State Appropriation, 1909-10. To balance on hand July 1, 1909, .... $5,538 50 Cash received from State Treasurer, . , . 13,500 00 from fertiUzer fees, .... 5,970 00 from individuals (cranberry con- tribution), 544 17 from farm products, . . 3,208 73 from miscellaneous sources, . . 6,387 84 Cash paid for salaries, $8,434 28 for labor, 9,447 30 for publications, .... 2,313 60 for postage and stationery, . 928 20 for freight and express. 381 42 for heat, light, water and supplies. 341 94 for chemical supplies, . 542 26 for seeds, plants and sundry supplies 2,348 15 for fertilizers, 532 83 for feeding stuffs, .... 1,468 03 for library, 188 46 for tools, implements and machinery 26 70 for furniture and fixtures. 240 95 for scientific apparatus. 1,018 52 for live stock, 80 38 for traveling expenses, . 2,299 51 for buildings and land, . 358 33 Balance, 4,198 48 i,149 24 $35,149 24 34 EXrEULAlEXT STATION. [Jan. REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST. WM. P. BROOKS. The work in tlic (Icpartiiieiit of agriculture during the past year has been of abont the usual scope and extent. The i)r<)l> lenis which are being investigated are for the most ])art related to questions connected with the maintenance of fertility. Vari- ous questions connected with the selection, adaptation and methods of application of manures and fertilizers are being in- vestigated. Most of our experiments have continued for a con- siderable number of years. Some indication is afforded of the amount of Avork in progress by the following statements. The nundjer of field jdots on the station grounds used in ex})eriments the past year was 356. Our vegetation experiments have in- volved the use of 352 pots ; while as a check upon the work in the open field, and as a method of throwing light upon a few special problems, 167 closed plots have been used. ]^o attempt will be made in this report to discuss the work in detail. Attention is called, however, to a few of the more strik- ing results. I. COAIPAKISONS OF DlFrEKP:KT IMaTEKIALS AS A SoUKCE OF NlTKOGEN. These experiments, which are carried on in Field A, were begun in 181)0. The nuiterials under comparison as sources of nitrogen are manure, one ]ilot ; nitrate of soda, two ])lots ; dried blood, two plots; and sulfate of annuonia. three plots. Xitrate of soda and dried blood are used on one plot Avith muriate of potash; on the other with sulfate. The sulfate of ammonia is used on two plots in connection with muriate and on one in con- nection with sulfate of potash. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 35 The different materials furnishing either nitrogen or potash are used on the several plots in such amounts as to furnish, re- spectively, equal quantities per plot of nitrogen and of potash; two of the three no-nitrogen plots which serve as checks receive potash in the form of muriate, the other in the form of sulfate, and all the plots in the field receive an equal liberal application of dissolved bone black as a source of phosphoric acid. The crops grown in the order of their succession have been: oats, rye, soy beans, oats, soy beans, oats, oats, clover, potatoes, soy beans, potatoes, soy beans, potatoes, oats and peas, corn and clover for the last three years. The clover crop of the past year, as was true of the two preceding years, was considerably mixed with grass. The seed was sown early in August, 1909, and just previous to the sowing of the seed one-half of each of the plots in the field received a dressing of lime, at the rate of a ton and one-half to the acre. It was thought that such an aj)plication of lime would increase the efficiency of the sulfate of ammonia as a source of nitrogen, and to some extent this ex- pectation appears to have been realized. The differences, how- e\'cr, between the limed and unlimed halves of the plots were relatively small, and the yields on the two halves were not sep- arately determined. The best crop of the past year was produced where nitrate of soda was nsed as a source of nitrogen ; but the yields on dried blood and on sulfate of ammonia used in connection with sulfate of potash were not much inferior. On the basis of 100 for nitrate of soda, the relative standing of the different nitrogen fertilizers and the no-nitrogen plots as measured by total yield during the jiast season was as follows : — Per Cent. Nitrate of soda, 100.00 Dried blood, 93.73 Sulfate of ammonia, 95.53 Barnyard manure. . . . . . . . . ,94.75 No nitrogen, 91.79 The relative standing of the different materials as indicated by total yield for the twenty-one years during which the experi- ment has continued is as follows : — 36 EXPEULMENT STATION. [Jan. Per Cent. Nil rale of soda, 100.00 Barnyard manure, 94.07 Dried blood, 92.38 Sulfate of ammonia, 86.87 No nitrogen, 71.96 On the basis of increase in crop as compared with the no- nitrogen plots^ the average of the twenty-one years shows the following relative standing: — Per Cent. Nitrate of soda, 100.00 Barnyard manure, . . . . . . , . .78.85 Dried blood, 72.82 Sulfate of ammonlM, ......... 53.17 Xitrate of soda has given a much larger increase in crop than any of the other materials, and since the pound cost of the nitrogen of nitrate of soda is usually less than the pound cost in any other chemical fertilizer, the superior economy of its use is apparent. II. ]\Iui;iATE COiSIPAKED WITH SuLFATE OF PoTASII. Our long-continued experiments comparing muriate with high-grade sulfate as a source of potash have continued on Field B. It will be remembered that the two potash salts are used in such quantities as to furnish equal actual potash per acre. These experiments were begnn in 1892. Five pairs of plots are under comparison. From 1892 to 1899 the potash salts were used in quantities (varying in different years, but always in equal amounts on the two members of pairs of i)lots) ranging from 350 to 400 pounds per acre. Since 1900 the quantity used has been uniform on all plots, and at the rate of 250 pounds per acre annually. Fine ground bone has been annually applied to each plot throughout the entire period of the ex])eriment, and the rate of application is GOO jiounds per acre. The season of 1910 is the nineteenth year of these experiments. The crops during that year were potatoes on one ]y,\n- of plots, oats on one piiir. and asparagus, rhubarb and blackberries. The rates of yield ])er acre on the differcMit ])otash salts are shown in the following tables: — 1911, PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 37 Muriate of potash, Sulfate of potash, Rate per Acre (Pounds). Asparagus. 5,604 4,143 Rhubarb. 24,587 25,856 Blackberries. 2,661 2,821 Rate per Acre. POTATOES (bushels). Merchantable. ■Small. Oat Hay (Pounds). Muriate of potash Sulfate of potash, 204.6 255.4 11.15 13.02 3,716 3,345 These figures call for but little comment, as they are in gen- eral in full agreement with results previously obtained. The asparagus gives a larger yield on the muriate of potash, which indicates the correctness of the ordinary practice of asparagus growers, who usually employ the muriate as a source of potash. The rhubarb gives a slightly larger yield on the sulfate, and it was noticed during this year, as it has usually been in pre- vious years, that the proportion of leaf to stalk is greater on the sulfate than on the muriate, the figures for this year on total weight of leaf being at the following rates per acre : — Muriate, Sulfate, Pounds. 18,410 20,560 No explanation can at present be offered for this difference. The blackberries gave a larger yield on the sulfate, but the difference is not great. This, however, is in accordance with our observations in the case of most fruits^ strawberries alone excepted, that sulfate of potash gives a better yield than mu- riate. The difference in yield in potatoes on the two plots amounts to rather over 50 bushels. Such differences have been common in our experiments in earlier years, not only in this field, but in others as well. The difference in character of foliage of the potatoes on the two plots was strikingly evident from a period very early in their appearance above ground. The foliage of 38 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. the potatoes on the mnriate of potash plots was lighter in color, it may be described as a pea green, while that on the sulfate of potash i^lot was of a much darker shade. An attempt has been made to demonstrate whether there is a difference in the amount of chlorophyl developed in the foliage produced, respec- tively, by the different potash salts, l)nt the efforts so far mkuIc have not demonstrated such a difference. It is perfectly clear, however, that the muriate of potash as compared with sulfate is distinctly unfavorable to the production of starch in the tubers, the percentage of this constituent being almost inva- riably considerably higher than in the potatoes produced on the muriate. The yield of oat hay on the muriate is consiaerably heavier than on the sulfate, and this result seems to be somewhat in harmony with results which we have previously obtained with corn, in the case of which grain the yield of stover on the muriate appears to be usually heavier than on the sulfate nnder otherwise similar conditions. III. ISTiTEOGEN Fertilizers and Potash Salts for Garden Crops. Three different nitrogen fertilizers, sulfate of ammonia, ni- trate of soda and dried blood, and two potash salts, uiuriate and high-grade sulfate, each salt being used with each of the nitro- gen fertilizers, are under comparison on Field C. In coimec- tion with the fertilizers named dissolved bone black was used in liberal amounts, which are the same on all plots. The com- parison of these different fertilizers in this field was begun in 1891, but up to 1898 they were used alone. Since that time all plots have received annually a dressing of stable manure, at the rate of 30 tons per acre. The nitrogen fertilizers are usootash plots by only GOO pounds. The average yield of rowen on the potash plots exceeds the yield on the no-potash jdots by about 1,000 pounds. These figures indicate that the grasses, timothy and redtop, which make up the bulk of the first crop, are not dependent in very high degree upon an application of potash, and the much larger increase in the yield of rowen on the potash plots is clearly to be attributed to the fact that clovers make up the greater part of the rowen. (2) The kainit, while favorable to the grasses, such as tim- othy and redtop, and therefore giving a first crop nearly equal 42 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. to the average for the iDotasb salts, is distinctly inferior to any of the materials supplying jDotash in its effects npon the rowen. This is nndonbtedly due to the large proportion of chlorides which kainit contains. (3) It will be noticed that the yield of rowen on muriate of potash is considerably less than on either of the sulfates, the nitrate or the carbonate. We have noticed in our experiments that the muriate almost always proves distinctly less fav(jr;il)lo to clovers than the sulfates. On the other hand, this salt a]i- pcars to be highly favorable to the timothy and redtop, as is indicated by the relatively high yield of hay. (4) The yield of rowen is highest on the low-grade sulfate of potash^ and there is a noticeable difference in its favor in the yield of hay also. It is jwssible that the magnesium con- tained in this salt is proving of value for the hay crops. The most marked result of the substitution during the past few years of feldspar for the silicate of ])otash used in the earlier years of the experiment on Plots 8, IG, 24, '52 and 40 has been the rapid disappearance of clover from these plots. This fact indicates that the claim of the manufacturers that the potash of the feldspar has been rendered available by the treat- ment to which it has been subjected is not justified by the facts. After two years the clover has disappeared from these plots almost as com])letely as from the plots to which no potash has been applied throughout the entire period of the experiment. Y. Comparison of Different Phosphates. Ten of the leading materials which may be used as a source of phosphoric acid have been under comparison in one of our fields since 1807. The different nmterials are apj^lied to the sep- arate plots in such quantities as to furnish equal amounts of actual phosphoric acid to each. There are three check plots to which no ])hosphate whatever has been applied during the entire ])eriod of the ex]ieriment. All tli(> ]ilots receive annnnlly ('(|nal and liberal quantities of materials sup])lying nitrogen and pot- ash in highly available forms. The field has been used for a large variety of crops, the succession having been as follows: corn, cabbages, coi-n, oats and Hungarian grass (followed by 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 43 rve ])lowo(l under), onions, onions, cabbages, corn, mixed grass ami clover three years, cabbages and soy beans. The crop this year was jwtatoes. The results are shown iu the following table : — Comparison of Phosphates. Plot. Fertilizer. Yield Merchant- able Potatoes per Plot (Pounds). Yield per Plot (Pounds). Yield Merchant- able Potatoes per Acre (Bushels). Loss or Gain per Acre (BushelsJ. Small. Rotten. 1, No phosphate, 2,148 94 6 286.4 - 2, Arkansas rock phosphate, . 2,170 89 12 289.3 +40.9 3, ,South Carolina rock, . 1,986 .53 23)i 264.8 -1-16.4 4, Florida soft rock. 1,761 107 24 234.8 —13.6 5, Phospliatic slag, . 1,841 76 18 245.5 —2.9 6. Tennessee phosphate. 1,773 109 34 236.4 —12.0 7, No phospliate, 1,831 53 3632 244.1 - 8, Dissolved bone black, 1,859 90 1252 247.9 —0.5 9. llaw bone meal, . 1,941 140 12 258.8 + 10,4 10, Dissolved bone meal, . 1,982 121 15 264.3 + 15.9 11, Steamed bone meal, . 1,964 101 II' a 261.9 + 13.5 12, Acid phosphate, . 1,929 120 9^2 257.2 +8.8 13, No phosphate. 1,610 107 IIJ^ 214.7 - The yield, as will l)e seen, was good on all plots. The aver- age on the three check plots is 244:. 8 bushels of merchantable potatoes per acre. It will be noticed that the only one of the phosphates used which has given any very considerable increase in merchantable potatoes is the Arkansas rock phosphate, but I am convinced that the superiority of this phosphate is more apparent than real. The field declines somewhat in fertility from Plot 1 to Plot 13. It will be noticed that Plot 1 without phosphate gives a yield of merchantable tubers larger than any of the phosphate plots, with the exception of tw^o, and that the crop on two is practically the same in amount as on one. The superior yield on these two plots is in my judgment merely a consequence of the fact that the soil texture in that part of the field is more favorable to the cro]!. The conclusions to which I would call particular attention may be stated as follows: — (1) The potato would appear to be a crop relatively inde- 44 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. pendent of a supply of iimuediately available phosphoric acid. The result with potatoes offers a striking contrast to the result obtained in 1908 with cabbages, with which the crop on some of the best phosphate j)lots was more than six times greater than that produced on the no-phosphate plots. (2) Although the })hosphate used affected the total yield but little, it was noticed that during the first few weeks of their growth the vines on the plots to which the more available ])hos- phates had been applied (phosphatic slag, dissolved bone black, dissolved bone meal and acid phosphate), made a much more rapid growth than on the other plots. The nse of a little phos- phoric acid, therefore, in highly available form, seems likely to prove a distinct advantage by pushing the crop more rapidly forward, so that it may better resist attacks of insects or nn- favorable conditions which may occur later. It seems likely, further, that where the crop is cultivated for an early market the nse of moderate amounts of highly available })hos|)lioric acid may prove beneficial. (3) The potatoes produced on the plot to which phosphatic slag has been annnally applied for so many years were very scabby, although the seed planted was treated with formalin, as was that planted on the other plots also. So serious was this trouble that the market value of the crop was very greatly reduced, and the conclusion appears justified that a free nse of phosphatic slag in the same season that land is to be planted with iX)tatoes must in general prove highly undesirable, ^^lag meal is a strongly alkaline fertilizer, and this is undoubtedly the cause of the very scabby crop produced, since the scab fungus is known to be most troublesome in soils which are alkaline. VT. IManure Alon^e compakeb with Manure and Sulfate OF Potash. This experiment, which occnpies what is known as the south corn acre, has been in progress since 1890. The field is divided into fonr plots of one-fonrth acre each. Good barnyard mannre from milch cows, at the rate of 0 cords per acre, has been ap- plied annually, with the exception of those years when it was 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMExXT — No. 31. 45 feared so doing would cause the newly seeded grass and clover to lodge, to two of these plots. JManure at the rate of 3 cords per acre, together with high-grade sulfate of i)otash at the rate of 100 pounds per acre, was applied to the other two plots from 1890 to 1895. Since the latter date the manure has been applied to these plots at the rate of 4 cords per acre in connec- tion with 160 pounds of high-grade sulfate of ])otash, and whenever, for the reasons above stated, the a])plicati(in of ma- nure has been omitted from the other two i)lots, both the numuro and the potash have been withheld from these plots. The plan of cropping this field for the last twelve years has been corn and hay in rotation in periods of two years for each. During the i^ast season the crop on this iield has been hay, and the average yields per acre have been as follows : — Pouuds. Manure alone : — Hay, 4,4,S() Rowen, . 1,050 Manure and jjutash : — Hay, 4,400 Rowen, 940 The rowen crop of the past season was very small, owing to the marked deficiency in rainfall. The corn crops raised in this field throughout the entire period of the experiment have been very nearly equal under the differing manurial treat- ments. The hay crops have usually been somewhat larger with the manure alone. The difference during the past season is considerably less than the average. VII. Average Corn Fertilizer coMrARED avitii Ferti- lizer Richer in Potash. These experiments occupy what is known as the north corn acre. They have been in progress since 1891. This field, like the south corn acre, is divided into four plots of one-fourth acre each. Two of the plots receive a mixture furnishing ni- trogen, phosphoric acid and potash in the same proportions in which they are contained in the average corn fertilizers offered in our markets. The other two plots annually receive an ap- 46 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. plication of a lioiiic-iiiadc luixturc, containing much less phos- phoric acid and more potash than is a])plied to the other plots. For the past fifteen years corn and hay, two years each, have regularly alternated. The croj) of the past season was hay. Owing to the marked deficiency in rainfall already referred to the rowen crop was almost an absolute failure. The average yields were at the following rates per acre : — Pounds. On the foililizer imcIi in pliosplioric acid and low in potash : ^ — Hay, ;5,2(i() Koweii, .......... 330 On tlie i'crliiizc'i' low in i)liosi)lioric acid and rich in potasli: — Hay, 3,r)()() Rowen, 240 The residts of the jiast season are similar to those Avliich we have usually obtained, except that owing to the protracted drought the production of rowen on the plots receiving the larger proportion of potash is much lower than usual. In an average season the yield of rowen on these plots has invariably l)een greater than on the others. VIII. South Acre Soil Test. The crop raised in the south acre soil test which has continued in this field since 1889 was corn. The succession of crops grown on this field from the beginning of the experiment up to the ])resent time has lieen as follows: corn, corn, oats, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn (followed by nmstard as a catch crop), rye, soy beans, white mustard (plowed in), corn, corn, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, corn, corn, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, oats and clover, buckwheat ]»lowe(l nuder, corn. During the continuance of the experiment the field has Ix^en limed at the rate of a ton to the acre three times. The results of the past season with corn were entirely similar to those wlncdi bav(> usually been o])taiued with that cro]>. Pot- ash is still the dominant element. The average yield on the no- fertilizer plots, three in nund:)er, was at the rate of 4.05 bushels per acre. Muriate of ]iotash alone increases the crop to nearly 23 bushels. Nitrate of soda alone gives a cro]) of 9 bushels. Dissolved bone black alone c,ives a yield at the rate of 4.21 lyil.j PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47 bushels. The a\erage increases clue to the ap})lic'ati()n of the clitferent fertilizers (used in each case on four plots) were as follows : — Bushels per Acre. Nitrate of soda, . • ♦ 3.2 Bone black, ^-8 Potash, '-^8.3 If we represent the average increase in grain due to the ni- ti-ate at 100, that due to the bone black is 212, that due to the l)otash 880.9. Similar figures for the stover are: — Pounds per Acre. Nitrate, 186.'2 Bone black, 406.5 Potash, 1,922.7 IX. North Acke Soil Test. The soil test in this field was begun in 18U0, and the crojts grown since that year in the order of succession have been as fol- lows : potatoes, corn, soy beans, oats, grass and clover, grass and clover, cabbages and turnips, potatoes, onions, onions, onions, potatoes, grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, soy beans, grass and clover, grass and clover, grass and clover. The crop the past year was soy beans, for which the potash appears to be the dominant element. In this field onedialf of each of the plots, which are long and narrow, has received three applica- tions of lime, respectively, in 1899, 1904 and 1907. On the limed portion the increases due to the application of single fer- tilizer nuiterials for the muriate of potash alone was 10.22 bushels per acre; for the nitrate of soda alone, 0.12 bushels; for the dissolved bone black alone, a loss of 4.45 bushels. The muriate of potash in combination with the other fertilizer ele- ments did not give as large an increase in the crop as when used alone. The results will not be discussed in full at this time, but I may add that they are such as to suggest that the soda of the nitrate of soda is to a considerable extent either rendering the natural potash compounds of the soil available, or is itself to some extent taking the place of potash in the economy of the plant. 48 EXl'J'lUIMKNT STATION. [Jan. X. Top-j)Ki:ssiXG FOR Hay. The experiments in the prodnction of hay, by using in rota- tion as top-dressing barnyard mannrc, wood ashes and a mixture of bone meal and muriate of potash, have been conliiuied during the past year in the nine-acre field whore these experiments have been in progress since 1803. The average yield for the entire area this year was at the rate of 5,853 pounds per acre. The yields on the difFcrent materials used in top-dressing were at the following rates per acre : — Pounds. Barnyard manure, ......... 5,641 Fine ground bone and niuriate of potash, ..... ti,076 Wood ashes, 5,523 The crops this year were lighter than usual, as a consequence, without doubt, of the marked deficiency in rainfall already re- ferred to. The average yields to date luider the different sys- tems of top-dressing have been at the following rates per acre : — Pounds. Barnyard manure, ......... 6,343 Wood ashes, 5,789 Fine ground bone and muriate of i^otash, ..... 6,159 The average yield of the 9 acres from 1893 to 1910 inclusive has been at the rate of 6,134 pounds ])er acre. The rates of ap- plication per acre are : — 1. Barnyai'd manure, ....... 8 tons. 2. Wood ashes, 1 ton. Ground bone, (iOO jiounds. Muriate of potash, 200 pounds. XL WiNTKK V. Spring Application of Manure. The experiments in progress for the ]mrpose of testing the relative* advantages of applying m;inur(> in the Avintor or in the spring were begun in 1899. There are five pairs of plots. In each pair the manure is applied to one plot some time during the M'inter. At the same time sufficient mHnur(> for the other and of the same qualify is placed in a large heap, from which it 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 49 is spread in the spring. The Held in which these experiments arc in progress has a decided slope lengthwise of the plots, which lie side by side. The nianui-o which is pnt on in the winter is applied to the varions plots at different times. The crop of the past season was hay, mixed timothy, redtop and clovers. The supply of manure for use in the experiments this year was not as large as usual and Plot 4 was not top-dressed. The results on this plot, therefore, for this season illustrate simply the residual effects of the two systems of applying manure. It nuist be pointed out, also, that owing to the relatively slow accumulation of manure used in this experiment the quantity available for Plot 3 was not sufficient until the last of March, so that this year the manure was applied both to the north and south half of this plot on the same date, March 31. The results are shown bv the following tables. Yield per Acre (Pounds). North Half. Winter Application. South Half. Spring Application. Plot. Hay. Rowen. Hay. Rowen. 1 6,312 534 6,925 1,009 2 6,252 1,049 6,826 950 3 7,004 811 6,905 1,068 4 5,857 534 6,114 752 5 8,904 930 8,.52S 1,563 Relative Yields (Per Cent. ). North Half. Winter Application. SotJTH Half. Spring Application. Hay. Rowen. Hay. Rowen. 1 100 100 109.7 188.9 2 100 100 109.2 90.6 3 100 100 98.6 131.6 4 100 100 104.4 141.0 5 100 100 95.8 168.1 50 EXPERLMENT STATION, [Jan. Ilay mid Rouen {combined). — Average Yields. North Half. Winter Application. South Half. Spring Application. Plot. Per Acre (Pounds). Per Cent. Per Acre (Pounds). Per Cent. 1 2 3 4 5 6,846 7,301 7,815 6,391 9,834 100 100 100 100 100 7,934 7,776 7,973 6,866 10,091 115.9 ' 106.5 102.0 107.4 102.7 lyii.l PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51 KEPORT OF THE CHEMIST. JOSEPH B. LINDSEY. This report is intended to give aji ontline of the work ac- complished and in progress in the department of })hint and animal chemistry for the year 1910. 1. Correspondence. There have been substantially 5,000 letters sent out during the year ending Dec. 1, 1910, the estimate being made on the basis of stamps used. The correspondence divides itself into (a) answering letters of inquiry, (6) the execution of the fer- tilizer, feed and dairy laws, (c) the testing of cows, and {d) the ordering of supplies. 2. Numerical Summary of Work in the Chemical Lab- oratory. From Dec. 1, 1909, to Dec. 1, 1910, there have been received and examined 101 samples of water, 459 of milk, 2,799 of cream, 151 of feed stuffs, 223 of fertilizers and fertilizer mate- rials. 44 of soils and 48 miscellaneous. In connection Avith experiments made by this and other departments of the station, there have been examined 247 samples of milk^ 115 of cattle feeds and 300 of agricultural plants. There have also been collected and examined 890 samples of fertilizer, in accord- ance with the requirements of the fertilizer law, and 1,055 sam- ples of cattle feeds, in accordance with the requirements of the feed law. The total for the year has been 6,432. This sum- mary does not include work done by the research division. In addition to the above, 10 candidates have been examined 52 EXFERLMENT STATION. [Jan. and given certificates to operate Babcock machines, and 4,047 pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested for accuracy of graduation, of which 41, or 1.01 per cent, were inaccurate. 3. Laboratory Work of the Research SECTioisr. Messrs. Holland and Reed have continued work on the prep- aration of chemically pure insoluble fatty acids, and on the perfecting of methods for their quantitative determination. In- vestigations have also been continued relative to the cause of rancidity of fats, and upon the composition and preparation of chemically pure insecticides, particularly Paris green, arse- nates of lead and arsenite of lime. Papers entitled ^' The Purification of Insoluble Fatty Acids " and " The Determina- tion of Arsenic in Insecticides " are presented elsewhere in this report^ and likewise in the " Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry." Mr. Morse has devoted his time to studying the effect of fer- tility on the chemical composition of asparagus roots, and pre- sents a preliminary paper in this report and in the " Journal of the American Chemical Society " entitled " Soluble Carbo- hydrates of Asparagus Roots." Chemical analyses showed clearly that there was a marked increase in the total nitrogen in the roots, produced by the addition to the soil of different amounts of nitrate of soda. Low applications of nitrate gave an increase, medium still more, but high applications did not appear to be more effective than medium ones. The carbohydrates in the reserve material of the roots con- sisted mainly of a soluble sugar, made up of fructose and glu- cose, the former decidedly in excess. ISTitrogenous fertilizers apparently had no direct effect on the carbohydrates. In gen- eral the increase in protein accompanied a lower proportion of total carbohydrates, including fiber. Seventy-six samples of roots were gathered in November to repeat the nitrogen series and to extend the investigations to the effect of phosphorus and potassium. Mr. Morse has also done some preliminary work in studying the character of the drainage waters from miniature cranberry bogs constructed under the direction of Director Brooks. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 At intervals study has also been given to the chemistry of the soils on Field A, in hopes of ascertaining the cause or causes of clover sickness, but no definite results can be reported. 4. Reseaecii Work in Animal Nutrition. Work is in progress to study the effect of lactic and butyric acids upon the digestibility of food. It has been shown that molasses is responsible for a decided digestion depression upon the foodstuffs with which it is fed. It being recognized that such material in the digestive tract is a large yielder of organic acids, it seemed at least possible that it is these acids which check the further action of the micro-organisms, and prevent their attacking the more difficultly digestible fiber, pentosans and gums. A paper is presented elsewhere in this report attempting to show the protein requirements of dairy animals. Most dairy animals respond to increased amounts of protein over a protein minimum. By minimum is meant the amount required for maintenance plus that required in the milk. An excess of 25 per cent, over the minimum seems to give very satisfactory results, and is sufficient under most conditions. Two experiments with dairy cows have been completed to note the comparative effects of corn meal, dried beet pulp and dried molasses beet pulp for milk production. Another experi- ment with corn meal versus ground oats has also been com- pleted. The results have not been worked out. The complete records of the station herd have been tabulated from 1890 through 1909, giving such data as food cost of milk ]iroduction, dry and digestible matter required to province defi- nite amounts of milk, total solids and fat, relation of grain to roughage, etc. The food cost of 5 per cent, milk for 1909 was ^..'j cents per quart. TahidoHons. There has been prepared and will be found elsewhere in this re]ioi-t the following tabulations : — 1. Analyses of all cattle feeds made in this laboratory throuoh 1910. 54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. Important ash constituents in cattle foods. 3. Composition of dairy products. 4. Digestion coefficients obtained from experiments made in the United States. 5. Composition of fertilizer materials and of natural and waste products. G. Fertilizer constituents of fruit and garden crops. 7. Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and ni- trogen in fruit and garden crops. 8. Composition of some Massachusetts soils. 5. Repoet of the Fertilizer Section. Mr. H. D. Haskins makes the following report : — The principal work of this section has had to do with the execution of the fertilizer law of the State. Our experience this season indicated a very active demand for both chemicals and factory-mixed commercial fertilizers. There was a larger num- ber of brands licensed than ever before. The inspection did not include the collection of as large a number of samples as during the previous year, although about the same number of lu-ands were analyzed. It has been necessary to curtail somewhat, in order to keep as nearly as possible within the income derived from the fertilizer analysis fees. The expense of the inspection work has increased from year to year, and necessitates a larger income. It has also become evident that the old law requires many changes in order to make it applicable to present condi- tions. An attempt to improve the law is now under consid- eration. Fertilizers licensed. During the season of 1910 analysis fees have been paid by 88 manufacturers, importers and dealers, including the various branches of the American Agricultural Chemical Company, upon 465 distinct brands of fertilizer, including agricultural chemicals and by-products. Five more cei'tifieates of com])li- ance have been issued, including ?A more brands than during 1909. Thev mav be classed as follows: — 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55 Complete fertilizers, ......... 316 Fertilizers furnishing phosphoric acid and i)otash, ... 14 Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, ..... 53 Chemicals and organic compounds furnishing nitrogen, . . .82 Total, 465 Fertilizers collected. With but few exceptions, representative samples of every brand of fertilizer sold in the State have been secured. The collection work was in charge of Mr. James T. Howard, the regular inspector, assisted by Mr. A. B. Harris. As a gen- eral rule an effort has been made to collect samples of the same brand in different parts of the State, and to make one analysis of a composite sample made up of equal weights of the several samples. It is believed that this method will prove more sat- isfactory than when the results are based upon the analysis of a single sample. In all cases at least 10 per cent, of the num- ber of bags found present were sampled ; in cases where only a small amount of any particular brand was found in stock a larger percentage of the bags was samplal (often 50 to 100 per cent.), and in no case were less than five bags sampled without the fact being stated on the guarantee slip which is sent to the station laboratory with every brand of fertilizer sampled. One hundred and fourteen towns were visited, and samples of fertilizers were taken from 291 different agents. Eight hun- dred and ninety samples were drawn, representing 487 distinct brands. Some of the brands represent private formulas which farmers have had manufactured for their o^vn use. The analy- ses of such brands were published in the bulletin in a table by themselves. Fertilizers analyzed. A total of 612 analyses was made in connection with the inspection of 1910. They may be grouped as follows: — Complete fertilizers, 418 Fertilizers furnishing potash and phosphoric acid, such as ashes, superphosphates and potash, 21 Ground bones, tankage and fish, ....... 71 Nitrogen compounds, ......... -^0 Potash compounds, .......••• 3'-^ Phosphoric acid compounds, 20 Total, 612 56 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The analyses were made in accordance with methods adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The analysis of a composite sample was made whenever possible, and in instances where such an analysis has shown a brand to be seriously deficient in one or more elements, a new portion was drawn from each original sample collected and a separate analy- sis made. This was done to determine whether the shortage was confined to one sample or whether it was general in case of that particular brand. Twelve sam})les of lava fertilizer, so called, were analyzed. Although these materials have not been offered for sale in Massachusetts, considerable literature concerning them has been circulated, and it was thought best to have representative samples examined and the results published. Thirty-two more analyses were made than during the pre- vious year. Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredientfi. The following table of trade values of fertilizer ingredients was used. It was adopted by the experiment stations of New England, New Jersey and New York at a meeting held in March, 1910. For purposes of comparison the 1909 schedule is also given. Cents per Pound. Nitrogen: — In ammonia salts, ........... In nitrates, ............ Organic nitiogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood, and in high- grade mixed fertilizers, ......... Organic nitrogen in fine ' bone and tankage, ..... Organic nitrogen in coarse ' bone and tankage, ..... Phosphoric acid: — Soluble in water, Soluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (reverted phosphoric acid),' In fine ' bone and tankage, ......... In coarse ' bone and tankage, ........ In cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and ashes. Insoluble in neutral citrate of ammonia solution (in mixed fertilizers). Potash: — As sulfate, free from chlorides. As muriate (chlorides), . As carbonate, .... ' Fine and medium bone and tankage are separated by a sieve having circular openings one- fiftieth of an inch in diameter. Valuations of these materials are ba.scd upon degree of fineness as well as upon composition. 2 Dis.solved by a neutral solution of ammonium citrate; specific gravity 1 09 in accordance with method adopted by the .\H.s()oiation of Official .Agricultural Chemists. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 57 These trade viilues will be found to correspond fairly with the average wholesale quotations of chemicals and raw materials as found in trade publications for the six months preceding March 1, plus about 20 per cent. They represent the average pound cost for cash at retail of the various ingredients as fur- nished by standard unmixed chemicals and raw materials in large markets in New England and New York for the six months ])receding March 1, 1910. The cost of the mineral forms of nitrogen (nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia) has been somewdiat lower than for the previous year, which has led to a more general use of these forms of nitrogen. Nitrogen from organic sources has been a cent higher than for the season of 1909. The cost of phosphoric acid was one-half cent higher than for the previous season. There was no material change in the cost of the various forms of potash. Siinirnari/ of Analyses as compared ivUh Guarantees of Licensed Complete Fertilizers. „ o Manufacturers. m •o -S2 6 =3 a ? o fe«^ -2^ G a j2 t< g 2< ■Z 2; s& oS oi fe o » ~-2 ^ ^ ? $ 'l^l I. 3 0 ^ o a %'i% ■^ss ■Sss c- ^ £^3 aao 3WU y^ z 1 1 19 3 4 - 2 - 2 - 1 - 7 2 2 - 6 1 3 3 5 3 2 - - - a a 3o W. H. Abbott American Agricultural Chemical Company, Armour Fertilizer Works, Baltimore Pulverizing Company, . Beach Soap Company, .... Berkshire Fertilizer Company, Bonora Chemical Company, Bowker Fertilizer Company, . . . Joseph Breck & Sons Corporation, Buffalo Fertilizer Company, . Coe-Mortimer Company, Eastern Chemical Company, . Essex Fertilizer Company, R. & J. Farquhar & Co.,. . . . The Green Mountain Plant Food Company, 3 78 n 4 5 8 1 30 3 8 13 1 12 3 1 1 55 11 3 6 21 1 1 6 1 4 1 1 58 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Summary of Analyses as compared iviih Guarantees of Licensed Complete Fertilizers — Con. Manufacturers. C. W. Hastings Lister's Agricultural Chemical Works, . James E. McGovern, Mapes' Formula and Peruvian Guano Com National Fertilizer Company, New England Fertilizer Company, Olds & Whipple Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Company, R.T.Prentiss Pulverized Manure Company, W. W. Rawson & Co., .... Rogers Manufacturing Company, . Rogers & Hubbard Company, Ross Bros. Company, .... N. Roy «fe Son Sanderson Fertilizer and Chemical Company M. L. Shoemaker & Co., Ltd., Swifts' Lowell Fertilizer Company, W. G. Todd Whitman & Pratt Rendering Company, Wilcox Fertilizer Works A. H. Wood & Co En 1^ ^""O '■ 9. a [5 . I. t' o O 'I' « The above table shows that 306 distinct brands of licensed complete fertilizers have been collected and analyzed. That 140 brands (45.75 per cent, of the whole number an- alyzed) fell below the manufacturer's guarantee in one or more elements. That 104 brands were deficient in one element. That ?)0 brands were deficient in two elements. That 0 brands were deficient in all three elements. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 59 That 24 out of the 300 brands (7.85 per cent, of the whole number) showed a commercial shortage; that is, they did not show the amount and value of the plant food as expressed by the lower guarantee, although the values of any overruns were used to offset shortages. The deficiencies were divided as follows : — 60 brands were found deficient in nitrogen. 80 brands were found deficient in available phosphoric acid. 71 brands were found deficient in potash. When the data furnished by the above summary are compared with those of previous years, it is clear that greater care has been exercised on the part of the manufacturers, the guarantees being more generally maintained. More brands were deficient in potash than during the pre- vious year, a fact which may be due to temporary shortage in the supply of German potash salts in this country and corre- spondingly higher prices. These conditions were due to Ger- man legislation, which prevented the carrying out of contracts with German mine owners held by American fertilizer manu- facturers except on payment of heavy production taxes. Commercial Shortages. The brands having a commercial shortage were much fewer in number than for 1000, and the amount or value of the short- ages was much less, as may be seen from the following table : — Commercial Shortages in Mixed Complete Fertilizers for 1910, as Com- pared with the Previous Tear. Number of Brands. Commercial Shortages. 1910. 1909. Over $4 per ton, Between $3 and $4 per ton Between S2 and S3 per ton Between $1 and $2 per ton Under $1 but not less than 25 cents per ton, .... None None None 6 18 1 2 5 14 35 60 EXPEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. There were a few brauds showiug rather serious deficiencies in some element of plant food, but which did not suffer a com- mercial shortage on account of an overrun of some other ingre- dient. Such brands, of course, may be seriously out of balance, and while not excusable, the manufacturer evidently had no intention to defraud. Quality of Plant Food. As a general rule the ])()tasli and phosphoric acid were fur- nished in the forms guaranteed. It is hoped that methods of analysis may soon be perfected so that it will be possible to indicate the relative availability of the organic nitrogen in mixed fertilizers. The importance of this may, in a measure, be realized when it is remembered that nearly 45 per cent, of the nitrogen used in the complete fertilizers this year was derived from organic sources. Grades of Fertilizer. The following table shows the average comparative commer- cial values, the retail cash prices and the percentages of difference of the licensed complete fertilizers analyzed in Massachusetts during the season of 1909 and 1910, grouped ac- cording to commercial valuation. Those having a valuation of $18 or less per ton are called low grade; those having a valua- tion of between $18 and $24 are called medium grade; and those having a valuation of over $24 are called high grade. High Grade. Medium Grade. Low Grade. 1909. 1910. 1909. 1910. 1909. 1910. Average ton valuation, $27 63 $28 81 $20 69 $21 04 $15 32 $15 61 Average cash price, . $39 05 $38 40 $33 85 $33 51 $29 51 $27 80 Average money difference, $11 42 $9 59 $13 16 $12 47 $14 19 $12 19 Percentage difference. 41.33 33.28 63.61 59.26 92.62 78.05 The percentage of difference column becomes a convenient method of comparing the commercial worth of fertilizers of the same grade and cost, and usually indicates fairly the most eco- 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 61 noinical fertilizer to purchase. It should never be interpreted as representing only the profit which the manufacturer makes on his fertilizer. It must include not only the profit, but all other expenses connected with the manufacture and delivery of the goods, such as grinding, mixing, bagging, transportation, agents' profits, long credits^ interest and depreciation of factory plants. Composition according to Grade. — The following table shows the average composition of the complete commercial fer- tilizers, according to grade, as sold in the Massachusetts mar- kets during 1910: — , ^^•^ S Per Cent, of a o 3 z d Phosphokic Acid. J3 Grade. ■V a 2 03 S & 2 s (2 SI o .3 Oh 'So o o ^ a s u a ^ a o".s J2 a 3 3 .2 '3 > O Z (i( Oh M tf < &( fc High 151 44.67 4.22 3.88 3.26 7.14 7.63 18.99 Medium 120 35 50 2.65 4.86 2.81 7.67 5.06 15.38 Low 67 19.83 1.77 4.55 2.46 7.01 3.06 11.84 A study of the above tables shows : — 1. That the percentage difference or percentage excess of the selling price over the valuation in the low-grade fertilizer is over twice what it is in the high-grade goods. 2. That with a 38 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes over 84 per cent, in- crease in commercial value. 3. The average high-grade fertilizers, with a 14.6 per cent, advance in price over the medium-grade goods, furnishes about 23 per cent, more plant food and about 37 per cent, increase in commercial value. 4. That with a 38 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes more than Y8 per cent, increase in available plant food. 5. The medium-grade goods cost about 20 per cent, more 62 EXPEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. than the low-grade goods and furnish over -34 per cent, greater commercial value. G. That the per cent, of nitrogen and ix)tash is very much higher in the high-grade goods than in the low or medium grade. 7. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about 49 pounds more nitrogen, 21/^ pounds more available phos- phoric acid and 91 pounds more actual potash than does a ton of the low-grade goods. 8. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about 31 pounds more nitrogen and about 51 pounds more potash than does a ton of the medium-grade goods. Table showing the Comparative Pound Cost, in Cents, of Nitrogen, Potash and Phosphoric Acid in its Various Forms in the Three Grades of Fertilizer. Element. Low-grade Fertilizer. Medium-grade Fertilizer. High-grade Fertilizer. Nitrogen, Potash (as muriate) Soluble phosphoric acid, .... Reverted phosphoric acid Insoluble phosphoric acid 35.62 7.57 8.01 7.12 3.56 31.85 6.77 7.17 6.37 3.19 26.66 5.67 6.00 5 33 2.67 This table emphasizes the marked increase in the cost of plant food wherever the low and medium grade fertilizers are purchased. It shows that nitrogen has cost 8.96 cents, avail- able phosphoric acid about 2 cents and potash 1.9 cents per pound mo7'e in the average low-grade fertilizer than in the high- grade goods. It shows that nitrogen has cost 5.19 cents, the available phosphoric acid 1.11 cents and the potash 1.10 cents more per pound in the average medium-grade goods than in the average high-grade fertilizer. A com])arison with the previous 3'ear shows that more high-grade brands have been sold this season than for 1909. There is, however, altogether too large a proportion of low and medium grade brands sold at present (55.33 per cent, of the whole). It is evident that too many purchasers select a fertilizer for its low cost, and without much 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 63 regard for the plant food which they are getting. The object in buying a fertilizer should be to get the largest amount of plant food in the proper form and proportion for the least money. The high-grade goods approach as near this ideal as is possible in case of factory-mixed fertilizers. It costs just as much to freight, cart and handle the low-grade fertilizers as it does the high grade. Nitrogen and potash in low-grade fer- tilizers cost from a third to a half more than if obtained from high-grade goods. The farmer cannot afford to buy low-grade fertilizers. Unmixed Fertilizers. Miscellaneous Substances. — Ground Bone. — Thirty- nine samples of ground bone have been inspected and analyzed. Nine were found deficient in phosphoric acid and 5 in nitrogen. None of the brands, however, showed a commercial shortage of 50 cents per ton. The average retail cash price for ground bone has been $31.13 per ton, the average valuation $29.75, and the percentage difference 4.64. Ground Tankage. — Twelve samples of tankage have been analyzed. Four were found deficient in nitrogen and 4 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $31.82, the average valuation per ton $31.28, and the percent- age difference 1.73. Nitrogen in fine tankage has cost on the average 20.34 cents, while nitrogen in coarse tankage has cost 15.25 cents per pound. Two samples have shown a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. Dissolved Bone. — Two samples of dissolved bone have been analyzed and both were up to the guarantee placed upon them. The average retail cash price per ton has been $20.67, the aver- age valuation $26.17, and the percentage difference 13.37. Dry Ground Fish. — Twenty-three samples of dry ground fish have been examined, of which 5 were found deficient in nitrogen and 4 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $39.65, the average valuation $38.89, and the percentage difference 1.95. Nitrogen from dry ground fish has cost on the average 20.39 cents per pound. Two brands have been analyzed, which show a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. 64 EXPERBIENT STATIOxN. [Jan. Wood AsJies. — Thirteen samples of wood aslies have been aiiiilyzed, of which 1 was deficient in potash and 2 in phos- phoric acid, although none of the samples showed a commercial shortage. Three samples put out by II. C. Green & Co., im- porters, were simply guaranteed " Pure wood ashes." The agent for three cars of these ashes, Ross Bros. Company, AVorccster, Mass., stated that the ashes were of such poor qual- ity that no charge would be made for them. Under present conditions of price and quality, the purchase of wood ashes is of questionable economy. They should never be bought with- out a guarantee of potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Ground Rock. — The Farmhood Corporation of Boston, Mass., has offered a product called '' Farmfood " which is un- questionably a ground mineral. It was guaranteed 2 per cent, phosphoric acid and 5 per cent, potash, both " in bond," mean- ing presumably associated with silica and not soluble. An analysis reveals the i^resence of 2.55 per cent, phosphoric acid, of which only .38 per cent, was available (dissolved by neutral citrate of anunouia). Only .50 per cent, of potash was found soluble in lx)iling water, and only .66 per cent, was found solu- ble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The commercial value of the product was $1.65 per ton, which would hardly pay cartage. The I^cw England Mineral Fertilizer Company ^ of Boston, Mass., has put out a product called " New England mineral fertilizer," which is apparently largely ground rock. The ma- terial was guaranteed .23 per cent. ])hosphoric acid and 1.50 per cent, potash. Our analysis showed .18 per cent, phosphoric acid, .10 per cent, water-soluble potash and .35 per cent, potash soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The ])\iu\t food in a ton of this material is valued at 24 cents, although $17 is the adver- tised price in ton lots. Aside from the guarantee of potash and phosphoric acid, the firm makes a claim for a given percentage of soda, lime, magnesia, iron, sulfur, silica, chlorine and alumina. Although some of these elements are essential to the growth of plants, yet they are found in most soils in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of growing vegetation, so that they ' The New England Mineral Fertilizer Company, 19 Exchange Place, Boston, should not be confused with the New England Fertilizer Company, 40 North Market Street, Boston. The latter is an old company which has done businessin Massachusetts for many years, and disclaims any connection with the New England Mineral Fertilizer Company. lUli.J rUBLlC DOCLMENT — No. i^l. 65 lia\o iio particular .significance in this connei'tion. The extrav- agant claims made hy tlio (company for this " New England mineral fci-lilizer '' are overdrawn, and border somewhat upon the ridiculous. A^iTKOGEN Co.Mi'oCiNDs. — ^Siilfdlc of A)iuit onUi. — Two saui" ])les of sulfate of ammonia have beeu analyzed and found well up to the guarantee. The average cost of the pound of nitrogen in this form has been 15.05 cents. Nitrate of Soda. — Sixteen samples of nitrate of soda have been analyzed and only 1 was found deficient in nitrogen. The average cost of nitrogen i)er pound in this form has been 1G.5G cents. Dried Blood. — Three samples of this material were exam- ined, 2 of the brands showing a considerable overrun and 1 a slight deficiency in nitrogen, the latter containing, however, considerable jihosphoric acid. The average cost of nitrogen from blood has been 20.10 cents per pound. Castor Pomace. — Six samples of castor pomace have been inspected and the guarantee was maintained in each instance. The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 22.29 cents per pound. Cottonseed Meal. — Nineteen samples of cottonseed meal used for fertilizer have been examined. These were licensed by 0 companies doing business in Massachusetts. Nitrogen from cottonseed meal has cost on the average 28.47 cents per pound. Seven out of the 19 samples anah'zed showed a com- mercial shortage amounting to over 50 cents per ton. Potash Compounds. — Carbonate of Potash. — Only 1 sample of carbonate of potash was analyzed during the season. It sold so that the pound cost of actual potash was 7.54 cents. High-grade Sulfate of Potash. — Nine samples of high-grade sulfate of potash have been examined and the potash guarantee was maintained in every instance. The pound of actual potash in this form has cost, on the average, 4.64 cents. Potash-magnesia Sulfate. — Seven samples of double sulfate of potash and magnesia have been examined, and all have been found well up to the guarantee. The pound cost of actual -poi- ash in this form has been 5.46 cents. Muriate of Potash. — Eleven samples of muriate of potash 66 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. have been examined, and only 1 deficiency was fonnd. The ponnd of actual potash as muriate or chloride has cost on the averac'c 4.0 (> cents. Kainit. — Two samples of kainit have been analyzed and found well up to the guarantee. The pound of actual potash from kainit has cost 4.21 cents. PiiosiMioiac Acid Compounds. — Dissolved Bone Black. — Three samples of dissolved bone black have been examined. Two of these were found somewhat low in avaihible phosphoric acid, although only 1 showed a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid from this source has cost, on the average, 5.91 cents. Acid Phosphate. — Ten samples of acid phosphate have been examined, all but 3 being found well up to the minimum guar- antee. No commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton were noticed. The pound of available phosphoric acid from acid phosphate has cost 5.76 cents. Basic Slag Phosphate. — Five samples have been analyzed, and the phosphoric acid ran low in 2 instances. There were no commercial shortages of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid (by Wagner's method) from basic slag has cost, on the average, 5.01 cents. The complete results of the fertilizer inspection may be found in Bulletin 135. Miscellaneous ^yorl\ During the early part of the year some two months were devoted to the detailed mineral analysis of asparagus roots, in connection with fertilizer experiments carried on by the agri- cultural department. There has also been examined a number of cases of abnormal soils due to over-fertilization ; such condi- tions are found particularly in greenhouse and tobacco soils, and in the latter case is confined to 'soils possessing an impervious subsoil, which will not permit of the free circulation of soluble saline materials. In addition to the above work the fertilizer section has an- alyzed home mixtures, chemicals, by-products, soils, insecti- cides, etc., for farmers and farmers' organizations. Wo have insisted that all such material be taken according to furnished directions, which is more likely to insure representative sam- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67 pies, without which an analysis is of little value. In case of soils, but few complete detailed analyses have been made, and those only when abnormal conditions pointed to malnutrition or over-fertilization. In many cases tests were made to deter- mine the relative amount of organic matter present and the acidity. Advice as to the use of fertilizer on any particular soil has been based more particularly upon the general charac- ter of the soil, previous manurial treatment, crop rotation, cul- tivation, and upon the crop to be gTown. In the analysis of by-products, refuse salts and materials used as fertilizers, the report has included the relative commercial value of the material and the l)est method of utilizing the same. During the year 300 miscellaneous analyses w'ere made for citi- zens of the State and for the various departments of the experi- ment station. They may be grouped as follows : — Fertilizers and by-products used as fertilizers, .... 223 Soils, 44 Miscellaneous materials, . .33 Total, 300 As in the past, co-operative work was done in connection with the study of new methods of analysis for the Association of Offi- cial Agi'icultural Chemists. Much time and study were also given to perfecting a suitable method to determine the relative availability of nitrogen from organic sources in mixed fertil- izers. Tests w'ere also made on 80 brands of fertilizer selected from the 1910 official collection, to ascertain the efficiency of the improved alkaline-permanganate method in detecting the presence of low-grade organic ammoniates. 6. Report of the Feed and Dairy Section. 'Mv. P. H. Smith reports: — The Feed Law. During the past year 1,055 samples of feedstuff s have been collected by Mr. James T. Howard, official inspector. These samples have been analyzed and are soon to be published, to- gether with the necessary comments. Analytical Worl: — The analytical work has consisted of 68 EXPEULMENT STATION. [Jan. protein and fat determinations on all samples, a fiber estimation in many cases and a microscopic examination when further in- formation seemed desirable. A protein and fat guarantee are required by law. It is felt, however, that the protein and fiber content of a feedstuit" are a much better index of its true value. Protein is the most valuable constituent, while fiber is of least value, and it is a fact that any feedstutf which contains a rela- tively high fiber percentage is quite apt to contain some infe- rior bv-product. For this reason more fiber determinations have been made this year than ever before. Compliance ivilh the Law. — Fewer violations of the law have been noted than in previous years. Reputable manufac- turers and dealers are coming to believe that the statute works no hardship in honest products. The time is not far distant when to neglect to brand a feedstuft' will make the purchaser suspicious of its merits. In the future, violations of the feed- stuffs law will be placed in our attorney's hands for settlement. In several instances this has already been done, and one case, where goods were not guaranteed, has been taken into court.' The dealer entered a plea of guilty and the case was placed on file. It is not the intention of those having the enforcement of the law in charge to be overbearing in regard to this matter, but any law which is not enforced soon l^ecomes inoperative. The benefits of the law are so obvious as to render it unwise to allow it to become a dead letter. New Law. — At the time the present law was passed it was not possible to secure the requirement of a fiber guarantee. Since that time other States have enacted statutes which not only require a protein, fat and fiber guarantee on all feedstuflfs, but in a(hlition a statement of composition in the case of all compounded feeds. It is believed that IMassachusetts should enact a law requiring every package of feedstuff sold or offered for sale to have attached the following information : — 1. The nund)er of net pounds in the contents of the package. 2. Xame, brand or trademark. 3. Name and principal address of the manufacturer or job- ber responsible for placing the commodity on the market. 4. Its chemical analysis expressed in the following terms: 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 69 ((() ininiinum percentage of crude protein; (h) minimum per- centage of crnde fat; (c) maxininm })ercentage of crude fiber. 5. If a compounded or mixed feed, tlie specific name of each ingredient therein. A revision of the present statute is now under consideration which will include the above requirements, together with such changes as have from time to time suggested themselves. Definitions. — At present there is more or less confusion be- tween difi"erent States and different sections of the country in regard to names of commercial feedstuffs. A feedstuff which is recognized by one name in the west may be known by an entirely different name in the east. Again, manufacturers of low-grade goods often attach names which are misleading or at best mean nothing. The jSTational Association of Feed Control Officials is considering uniform definitions for the different commercial feedstuffs. Such a group of definitions, if adopted by the feed control officials of the dift'erent States, will be of great benefit to the retailer and manufacturer. Weight of Sacl-ed Feeds. — There is a growing tendency on the part of some manufacturers to state the gross weight of a package instead of the weight of the contents. Others state both net and gross weights. The State law calls for the weight of the contents of the package. Purchasers who buy sacked feeds should see that they are getting full Aveight. The dif- ference between gross and net weight will amount to about 1 pound per sack. Co-operation. — It is a difficult matter to enforce the provi- sions of the feedstuffs law without the co-operation of both re- tailers and consumers. Consumers should refuse to buy goods which are not guaranteed, and retailers should refuse to handle goods which are received without a guarantee. TJie Dairy Lav\ The work required by this act is divided into three natural subdivisions: (1) the examination of candidates, (2) the testing of glassware, and (8) the inspection of machines. (1) Examination of Candidates. — During the past year 10 candidates were examined for ])roficiency in the Babcock test. ro EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. All candidates are refused a certificate who fail to show profi- ciency in manipulation or who do not have a good working knowledge of the principles underlying the test. Eight candi- dates passed the examination at the first trial, and 2 certificates W'ere withheld until further proficiency was acquired. The idea has been prevalent that the experiment station gives instruction in Babcock testing. Such is not the case; all candidates must, before presenting themselves for examination, have acquired a thorough knowledge of the test. (2) Examination of Glassware. — During the past year 4,047 pieces of glassware w^ere examined, of which 41 pieces, or 1.01 per cent., were inaccurate. This is the lowest percent- age of inaccuracy found during the ten years that the law has been in force. Following is the summarv of the work for the entire period : — Ykak. Number of Pieces tested. Number of Pieces condemned. Percentasre condemned. 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905. 190G. 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, Totals, 5,041 2,344 2,240 2,026 1,665 2,457 3,082 2,713 4,071 4,047 29,686 291 56 57 200 197 763 204 33 43 41 1,885 5 77 2.40 2 54 9.87 11 83 31 05 6.62 1.22 1 06 1.01 6.34> The passage of this law has prevented 1,885 pieces of inac- curately graduated glassware, representing 6.34 per cent, of the entire numl)er tested, from coining into use. (3) Inspecilon of Babcoch Machines. — Since the 1900 in- spection 1 creamery has suspended operations. During the present inspection, recently completed, 28 places were visited, of which 15 wore creameries, 12 milk depots and 1 a chemical laboratorv. Ten of the creameries were co-operative and f* ' Average. 191LJ PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. were proprietary. The 12 milk depots were in every case pro- prietary. Twenty-eight machines were examined, 2 of which were condennied, but on second inspection a few weeks later they were found to have been put in good condition. Those in use are 10 Facile, 6 Agos, 5 Electrical, 4 Grand Prize, 2 Wizard, 1 unknown. The glassware was, as a whole, clean, and wath two exce})tions Massachusetts tested. Where untested glassware was found in use, the provisions of the law were made plain, and it is not expected that there will be a repeti- tion of the offense. Unless machines are set on firm founda- tion and the bearings kept well oiled, the required speed cannot be maintained economically, and machines will not give satis- faction. The Babcock machine should be as carefully looked after as the cream separator in order to give efficient service. The creameries and milk depots where machines were in- spected are as follows : — 1. Creameries. Location. Name. President or Manager. 1. Amherst Amherst VY. A. Pease, manager. 2. Amherst Fort River,' .... E. A. King, proprietor. 3. Ashfield Ashfield Co-operative, Wm. Hunter, manager. 4. Belchertown, Belchertown Co-operative, M. G. Ward, manager. 5. Brimfield, .... Crystal Brook, F. N. Lawrence, proprietor. 6. Cummingtou, . Cummington Co-operative, D. C. Morey, manager. 7. Egremont Egremont Co-operative, . E. A. Tyrrell, manager. 8. Easthampton, . Hampton Co-operative, . W. S. Wilcox, manager. 9. Heath, .... Cold Spring F. E. Stetson, manager. 10. Hinsdale Hinsdale Creamery Company, W. C. Solomon, proprietor. 11. Monterey, .... Berkshire Hills Creamery, F. A. Campbell, manager. 12. New Salem, New Salem Co-operative, W. A. Moore, president. 13. North Brookfield, . North Brookfield, . H. A. Richardson, proprietor. 14. Northfield, Northfield Co-operative, C. C. Stearns, manager. 15. Shelburne, Shelburne Co-operative, I. L. Barnard, manager. 16. Wyben Springs, Wyben Springs Co-operative, . H. C. Kelso, manager. Pays by test. Testing done at Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. 72 EXPERIiMENT STATIOx\. [Jan. 2. Milk Depots. Location. Name. Manager. 1. Boston, 2. Boston, 3. Boston, 4. Bost) the better farming trolley special; (c) an exhibit for several of the Massachusetts fairs; ( d) an ex- hibit for the New England Corn Show. 5. It has conducted an investigation in connection with cases of alleged arsenic poisoning of horses through eating sulfured oats, with negative results. 0. In connection with the experimental work of this and other departments of the experiment station, this section has made analyses of 247 samples (if milk, 115 samples of cattle feeds and 300 samples of agricidtui-al ])lants. 74 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Testing of Pure-hred Cows. The work of testing cows for the various cattle associations continues to increase. Such work is a tax upon the time of the head of this section, and, owing to the uncertainty of steady em- ])loyment, it is often difficult to secure men to do the work. Two men are now employed permanently in connection with the Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire tests. The rules of the above associations require the presence of a supervisor once each month for two consecutive days at the farms where animals are on test. The milk yields noted by the supervisors at their monthly visits are used in checking the records reported by the owners to the several cattle clubs. The Babcock tests obtained at that time are likewise reported, and used as a basis for computing the butter fat yield for each month. Up to June 1, 1910, the supervisors were only required to spend one day in testing Guernsey cows. At the annual meeting of the American Guern- sey Cattle Club, in May, 1910, the rules were changed so as to require a two-day monthly test. While this practically doubles the work for this breed, it is felt that a two-day basis is much more accurate in computing tests. During the past year 1 214-day test and 44 yearly tests with Guernsey cows, 10 7-day and 88 yearly tests with Jersey cows, and a nundjer of yearly tests with Ayrshire cows have been com- pleted. The Holstein-Friesian tests usually cover periods of from 7 to 30 days, and require the presence of a supervisor during the entire test. During the past year IG different men have been employed at different times in conducting these tests, which give rather ii-regular employment during the winter months. On account of the uncertainty of the work such men are diffi- cult to o])tain, l)ut thus far it has not been necessary for the ex- periment station to refuse an a])i)lication. For the Holstein- Friesian association 112 7-day, 5 14-day, 11 30-day, and one semi-official year test have been completed. There are now on test for yearly records OG Jersey, 28 Guernsey and 8 Ayrshire cows. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMExXT — No. 31. 75 REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. G. E. STONE. The routine and research work of the botanists and assist- ants for the past year followed similar lines to those of other years, except that perhaps the routine work has had a tendency to increase, leaving less time for research work. This has been remedied to a considerable extent, however, by the addition of ]\lr. Sunnier C. Brooks as laboratory assistant. Mr. Brooks was graduated from the class of 1910, and his appointment as assistant relieves Mr. Chapman of much routine work and gives him time for research, for which he is well fitted. Miss J. V. Crocker has, as usual, been of much service in attending to the correspondence and records, and has given valuable as- sistance in the seed testing. Much assistance has, as formerly, been obtained from the undergraduate students, and Mr. E. A. I.arrabee and Mr. Ray E. Torrey have devoted all their spare time to the department, and were employed during the whole summer vacation. Diseases Moee or Less Common during the Year. The season of 1910 opened unusually early, as is shown by the meteorological records and by the blossoming of trees, shrubs and flowers. The season was, on the whole, rather dry, and crops suffered to some extent from drought, a condition which was emphasized by the severe droughts of the two pre- ceding years. The peach leaf curl, which naturally follows a cold and rainy period, was quite common. Some frost occurred in May, and in some localities it was reported in June. The effects of this showed on asparagus, and frost blisters were common on apple foliage. An unusually large amount of apple foliage was sent in to this department for examination in early sura- 76 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. iiicr. This was affected not only with frost blisters, but con- siderable injury was caused by a mite, the effect being in many cases similar. An early outbreak of apple scab was also noticed on apple foliage. Strawberries were of poor quality, and considerable rot of the fruit occurred, owing to excessive rainfall. The foliage of rock maples and oaks was affected to an unusual extent with Gloeosporium. In many sections maples in general were af- fected with this fungus, causing a browning of the leaf and much defoliation, and many in(piiries were received concern- ing this trouble. Some of the diseases which were more common are as fol- lows : hollyhock rust, sweet pea trouble, apple rust, hawthorne rust, quince rust, black rot of grapes, crown gall, sycamore blight, blossom end rot of tomatoes, pear blight and pear scab, corn smut and maple leaf spot (Rhytisma). Considerable in- terest is also manifest in the chestnut disease, which is becom- ing more noticeable in this State. The following is a list of the less common diseases reported during the year: ash rust, bean rust, rose rust, pea mildew, rose mildew, currant Anthracnose, Anthracnose of melon, rust on strawberry leaves, cherry leaf spot (Cylindrosporium), potato rot, horse chestnut blight (Phyllosticta), apple scab, cane blight of raspberries (Coniothyrium), blackberry Anthracnose and cherry leaf blight (Cercospora). Besides these may be men- tioned troubles with which no organisms are associated, namely, frost blisters, frost effect on asparagus, sun scald and sun scorch, malnuti'ition of cucumbers and aster yellows. lyil.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — i\o. 31. 77 REPORT OF THE ENTOxMOLOGlST. II. T. FERNALD. The year 1910 has beeu marked by numerous changes in this department. The resignation of Prof. C. H. Fernakl in -Tune, as station entomologist, marks the first change in the head of this j)ortion of the station work since the department was established in 1888. The resignation, at the same time, of IMr. J. IST. Summers from his connection with the station, and the poor health of the writer during the early part of the year, neces- sarily seriously affected the work accomplished, and the time taken in the fall by moving into new quarters has practically j)revented anything besides routine work. The development of a new line of investigation has been uuide possible by the appointment of Dr. B. N. Gates as station apiarist. Dr. Gates's work will be, at least for the present, en- tirely under the Adams fund. Mr. Arthur I. Bourne has been appointed assistant in ento- mology, and is, in general, in charge of the correspondence and of considerable of the experimental work. His appointment will enable the head of the department to devote more time to the larger problems relating to insects in this State, both in general and in connection with Adams fund projects, than has heretofore been the case. It has proved to be impossible to obtain an orchard near the station in which to continue the observations on the size and importance of the different broods of the codling moth. The movement for better fruit in INfassachusetts has been nowhere more evident than in Amherst, and the results, though most desirable in general, have been disastrous for the continuation of this series of observations, which must now be discontinued. A lonu' delay in moving the greenhouse to its new site, and in making it ready for use, has prevented taking up this year the 78 EXPEllLMEXT STATION. [Jan. experiments on the resistance of muskmelous to fumigation. These can be resumed during 1911, however. Further tests of methods of controlling wire worms attacking seed corn have been continued on Mr. Whitcomb's farm. The results of the tests already made were referred to in the last report, and were also publishcMl in the '' Journal of Economic Entomology " for August, I'JOl). It Avas distinctly stated in the latter publication that these methods Avere still in the exper- imental stage, but that it seemed desirable to test them on a larger scale in different parts of the country. Several of the agricultural papers suggested this to their readers, and the re- ports received as to results varied from excellent to failure, by preventing germination. A few cases of failure have been in- vestigated, and in every case so far appear to have been due to the use of coal tar instead of gas tar, or to giving the corn such a heavy coating of the tar as to, of itself, prevent germination. On the whole, the treatment can hardly be considered as having been fairly tested in all cases. One objection to the method is that the seed must be treated first with tar and then with the Paris green. During the past season it has been attempted to avoid this, while ol)taining equally good results, by the use of arsenate of lead. The par- ticular brand used in these experiments was disparene, which comes in paste form. This was diluted till about as thick as paint. Then the corn was added and the whole thoroughly stirred. The corn was then spread out till dry. Unfortunately, wire worms proved to be few in the fields where the treated corn was planted, so that the value of the test was restricted to a determination of the effect of the treatment on the germination of the seed. From this standpoint, however, it was a success, having no injurious effect whatever. Plans have idready been made to continue this work another season, and fields badly infested with wire worms are to be made use of, so far as these can be found. Dates of the hatching of the young of the oyster-shell scale, the scurfy scale and the pine-leaf scale have been continued as far as possible. The object of this has been stated in previous reports, and it need only be nddcd hove that the observations 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 79 should be continued for several years, if averages of value are to be obtained. Nearly ten years ago a study of the Marguerite fly, a pest too familiar to many florists, was begun, but was soon dropped for lack of material. More having been obtained, this investi- gation has been resumed, and it is hoped that the entire life history of the fly may now bo learned, together with effective methods for its control. Observations on the distribution limits of insect pests in Massachusetts have been continued as opportunity has offered, and some interesting facts on this subject have been obtained. Work of this kind must, from its very nature, be fragmentary for a long time, and for years the gathering and preservation of the observations made are all which it will be possible to accomplish. As the time required for this is but a few mo- ments i:)er week, or even per month, however, the results are well worth the trouble. Investigations on the importance of the Sphecidse as para- sites have been continued, and a number of additions to our knowledge of the group have resulted. The subject is a large one, however, and the amount of time available for this pur- pose has been much less than could be desired. Experiments with insecticides have been almost at a standstill from their entomological side, waiting for pure materials of known compo- sition to be provided by the chemical department. Some of these have been satisfactorily obtained during the fall and the tests of them can be begun in the spring of 1911. The chemical results of this work will be reported upon by that department. 80 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. CHARLES ANTHONY (iOESSMANN. Charles Antliuiiy Goessmann, chemist, hivestigator, teacher and jihil- osopher, passed to the higher life Sept. 1, 1910. Karl Anton Gossmann was born in Nanmburo-, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Germany, June 13, 1827. He was the son of Di'. Heinrich Gossmann, who was a fellow student of the noted chemist Frederich Wohler. When the boy was seven or eight years of age the family moved to Fritzlar in Hesse and here young- Gossmann spent his boy- hood days. His father wished his son to become a pharmacist, and he received training in pharmacy previous to his becoming a university student. He entered the university of Gottingen in 1850, and studied chemistry, botany, physics, geology and mineralogy. He received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1851 for a dissertation on the " Constituents of the Cantharides." Wohler early recognized the ability and industry of the young chemist, and made him assistant in his laboratory, and upon the appointment of Limprecht to a jsro- fessorship, Gossmann became a privatdocent and Wohler's fii"st as- sistant. He assumed charge of the chemical laboratory, and lectured on organic and technical chemistry as well as to students of pharmacy. His American students during the i)eriod were Chandler, Marsh, Joy, Nason, Caldwell and Pugh. During his stay at Gottingen he received a number of flattering offers from other institutions, and made the acquaintance of Schonbein, the chemical physicist who discovered gun cotton and ozone; of Schrotter, noted for his researches in phosphorus; of A. W. von Hoffmann and of the celebrated French chemist Sainte Clair Deville. Tn 1857 Gossmann left Gottingen on leave of absence, and visited the luiiversities and a number of manufacturing establishments in Germany, Austria, France and England, and then journeyed to the United States upon invitation from Eastwich Brothers in order to become scientific director of their large sugar refineries. It was his intention eventually to return to Germany and teach technical chem- istry, but he became so interested in the new country, and observed such a wide field of future usefulness for the technical chemist, that he decided to make the Ignited States his permanent home. After completing his work at Philadelphia he went to Cuba in order to study the methods of handling sugar then in vogue. On returning to the United States he was engaged as chemist by the Onondaga Salt Comiiany of Syracuse, a position which ho retained until 1S69. a.^. ^/y^- Born June 13, 1827. Died Sept. l, 1910. [Brief sketch of life, page 80.J 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. :;i. 81 AVliile in its employ, he visited and examined the salt springs in Canada, Michigan and Louisiana. During the latter jiart of this Syracuse jjeiiod he spent a portion of eacli year as j^rofessor of chemistry and physics at tlie Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, and he was invited to occupy the position permanently. In 1868, at the earnest solicitation of his friend, the late Col. Wil- liam S. Clark, he accepted the professorship of cliemistry at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and held it continuously until his retirement in June, 1907. He was placed at the head of tlie Massachusetts Experiment Station, a private enterprise started in 187S, and was instrumental in securing" the establishment of the Massachu- setts State Agricultural Experiment Station in 1882, being made its director and chemist, — jjositions which he held until it was merged with the Hatch Experiment Station by act of the Legislature in 1895. Professor Goessmann served as chemist to the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture from 1873 until his retirement, and for many years also acted as associate analyst of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. He became the first president of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and Avas a charter member of the American Chemical Society, which he also served as president and vice-president. He was a member of the German society of naturalists and physicians, of the Physico-Medical Society of Erlangen University, a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a mem- ber of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and of the Massachu- setts Meteorological Society. In 1889 Amherst College conferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Laws. In this connection space forbids any extended reference to his work. Briefly it may be classified into four periods : — 1. The Gottingen Period of Seven Years, 1850-57. In addition to his work as teacher in the university he found time to make and publish the results of twenty-five distinct investigations, all of Avhich may be found in the "Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie." Among the most important of these papers may be mentioned the discovery of arachidic and hyi^ogteic acids in the peanut oil, the con- stituents of the cantharides, the composition of cocoa oil and the constitution of leucine. This latter paper was considered of so much importance that it drew fortli a letter of commendation from Wohler to Dumas and secured for Gossmann membership in the Physico- Medical Society of the University of Erlangen, an honor which he highly prized. 82 EXl'KKLMKNT STATION. [Jan. 2. The Amerkun I'eriod of Eleven Years previous to the Massachu- setts Aijricullural Colleye, 1858-69. lie made a number of con! libut ions to the "American Journal of Science" on tlie chemistry of brine and salt, and while in the em- l)loy of the salt company at Syracuse devised a process for the re- moval of calcium and magnesium chlorides from salt which was of incslimable value to the salt industry of the United States, He also contributed papers to the ^' London Chemical News " on sugar refining. o. The Massachusetts First Period, 18G9-86. During this i)eriod. in addition to teaching, Professor Goessmann made a study of the agricultural conditions in the State, was a fre- quent contributor to the agricultural press, and gave numerous lec- tures before the State Board of Agriculture. His more prominent investigations may be briefly referred to under the following headings : — (a) Beets for Sugar, and Siigar Beets as an Agriculturcd Enterprise. — He carried on investigations with the sugar beet both in the field and laboratory, and demonstrated tiie feasibility of growing beets for sugar in certain sections of Massachusetts, and concluded that, with the proi)er education of the farmer and capitalist, the i)roduction of sugar from the beet should prove a profitable American industry. (Rei)orts of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1871. 1872, 1873, 1874, 1876.) {h) The Value of Early Amber Sorghum as a Sugar-producing Plant. — His study of the plant as a |)ossible source of sugar led hiin to conclude that " the presence of a large amount of grape sugar in all the later stages of growth ... is a serious feature in the com- position of the juice, impairing greatly the chances for a copious separation of the cane sugar by simple modes of treatment." This %>rophesij has been literallg fulfilled, in spite of the later efforts to utilize this plant as a commercial source of sugar. (c) Peclamalion of Salt Marshes. — Goessmann made a tlioi'ough investigation of the condition of the marshes in southeastern Massa- chusetts, and embodied his results in a number of valuable papers before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. His studies included the chemical conditions of the soils, and he recommended diking when necessary, suitable fertilizers and especially thorough drainage and cultivation. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1874, 1875, 1876.) (d) The Application of Chcmislri/ to Fruit Culture. — His studies were devoted particularly to the composition of the ash of different fruits, and to the influence of the various forms of mineral fertility upon yield and quality. He emphasized the need of a thorough study of the functions of the several mineral elements in plant growth, a 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 83 subject still calling for much careful iiivesdgation. He proved (o his own satisfaction that muriate of potash promoted particularly the growth and improved the quality of fruit; and, further, that an in- crease of potash was accompanied by a cori-esponding decrease in lime and phosphorus. lie called attention to the fact that the young branches of jjeach trees affected with "yellows" contained excessive amonnts of lime and i)liosphoric acid, and tliat a judicious pruning, together with liberal applications of muriate of potash, restored the aft'ected trees to a vigorous growtli, which contained normal amonnts of potash, lime and phosphoric acid. (Twenty-seventh and thirty- second reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.) (e) The Chemical Composition of Different Varieties of Corn, and the Preservation of Corn in Silos. — Goessmann gave considerable at- tention to the value of corn for cattle, and in a comprehensive paper l^ublished numerous analyses of diiferent varieties of the entire corn plant, as well as of the stalks, ears and cobs. About 1880 attention was being given to the method of preserving corn in the silo, and the claim was made by Dr. J. M. Bailey and others that corn thus pre- served (ensilage) did not suffer loss by the process, but was actually sui^erior in feeding value to the original product. Goessmann in tw-o admirable papers explained and discussed the princii>les of animal nutrition founded upon the researches of German investigators, showed the place of corn in the animal economy, pointed out the changes that took place during the process of fermentation, and made clear the relative mei'its of the dry and preserved corn. His statements concern- ing the relative value of silage and dry corn, made in 1880, hold true at the present time. (Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1879-80, 1880, 1881.) (/) TJte Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers. — Goessmann Avas instrumental in securing the passage of a law authorizing the inspec- tion of commercial fertilizers, which became operative Oct. 1, 1873, and as State Inspector of Fertilizers under the new law he made a preliminary re^wrt the same year. (Twenty-first report of the Mas- sachusetts State Board of Agriculture.) It is believed that this was the first law' enacted in the United States requiring an otlicial inspec- tion of fertilizers. He found many of the materials offered to be of uncertain composition, and to vary greatly in price; "these same articles cost the farmers . . . about one-half the amount more than they ought to ". His work along this line fi'om year to year cor- rected most of these abuses, and was miquestionably of great pecuni- ary value to the farmer's of the State and nation. 4. The 2Iassachusetts Second Period, 1886-1907. The Massachusetts State Agncultural Experiment Station was es- tablished by act of the State Legislature, and Goessmann was made 84 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. director and chemist. The yearly grant of $5,000 was soon increased to .$10,000, and in 1885-86 a new chemical laboratory was completed. 11(! rcliiHiuished most of his college work, and devoted his energies to a thorough organization of the station. The chief lines of work pursued by the station under his guidance are mentioned under the following general headings : — 1. The free analyses of fertilizers, refuse materials suitable for fertilizing purposes, coarse and concentrated feeds and drinking waters, 2. Exi)eriments Avith dairy cows to test the relative feeding values of home-grown fodders and of conunercial feedstuffs. 3. Feeding experiments with soiling crops, and the introduction and testing of new fodder crops. 4. Experiments with pigs to determine the rations best suited for pork production. 5. Feeding' exjieriments with steers and sheep to determine the cost of beef and mutton, and to study the rations best suited for such pur- poses. 6. Field exijeriments to determine the nitrogen-acquiring power of the legumes. 7. Field experiments to study the best fertilizer combinations for market-garden crops. 8. Field experiments to ascertain the relative values of different forms of phosphoric acid. 9. Fertilizers best suited for ])('rni;nient grass lands. 10. The effects of various forms of plant food in modifying the (jualily of the product. 11. Compilation of tables of analyses of fertilizei-s, cattle feeds, dairy products and fruits made at the station. lie devoted himself to the executive work of the station, and care- fully supervised all of the experimental Avork as Avell. While not a i-apid Avorker, he succeeded in accomidishing a great deal because of his steady and long-continued application. Since 1886 practically al! of his i)ai)ers Avere published in the annual reports of the expcnmcnl station. After the merging of the State and Hatch stations, in 1895, advanc- ing years made it necessary for liim to reliiisuni6 in Die Ernahrung der Landw. Niitzthiere, E. Wolff, 1870. ^ Beretning fra den Klg. Veterinser. og Landhohoiskole Lab. for landokonomiske Forsog. Koponliagen, 1892; R^.sum6 in Centralblatt f. .Agricuitur Chemie, 22 Jahrg., 1893. s. G04. < Maine Experiment Station, reiwrts for 1885-86, 1886-87; New York Experiment Station, Bulletin 197, 1906. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 87 varying tho proportion of the milk constituents. Arnisby/ as well as Wliitclier and Wood,- lias drawn similar conclusions. Morgan et als. conclude from numerous investigations that protein is without specific influence in the formation of milk fat.'"' Kellner,"* in summing up the results of numerous ex- periments, es])ecia]ly of (Jerman origin, says '' in so far as it is possible by means of food to effect the action of the milk glands, the protein of the several food groups exerts a very pronounced influence. This influence is esp(H'ially noticeable in increasing the quanlUij of the milk. Only after the long- continued feeding of a ration known to be deficient in protein does the water content of the milk increase, and the dry matter and fat show a noticeable decrease." This station from time to time has conducted a number of experiments to observe the infiuence of difl^erent amounts of protein in increasing the quantity of milk, to note the protein requirements of dairy animals and also to study its influence in modifying the proportions of the several milk ingredients. Some of these results have been published in reports of the station. It is proposed to briefly summai-ize the results already given publicity, and to describe somewhat in detail our more recent observations. Experiment IJ' — 1805. This experiment was undertaken with six cows by the re- versal method. The animals were from fi\'e to ten years of age, had all calved in the early autumn, and none had been served when the experiment began. Weighing Animals. — The animals were weighed once l)e- fore feeding and watering at the beginning and end of each half of the trial, and once each week during the continuance of the ex]">erinient. It would have been better to have weighed each animal for three consecutive days at the beginning and •Wisconsin Experiment Station, reports for 1885-86, New Hampshire Experiment Station, Bulletin 90, pp. 12-14; Bulletin 18, p. 13. ' Ibid. 3 Landw. Vers. Stat., 62 (190.5), nos. 4,5; pp. 251-286; Abs. Experiment Station Record Vol. 17, p. 286. * Die Ernahrung d. Landw. Niitzthiere, erste .\uflage, p.510; also, fiinfte Auflage, p. 539. 5 Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125. 88 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. end of the experiment; the weights, however, were probably sufficient to give an accurate average iveight of each animal. Sampling and Testing the Milk. — A composite samjile of each cow's milk was made for five consecutive days, and pre- served with bichromate of potash. Great care was used to se- cure representative samples. The total solids and fat were determined l)y approved gravimeti-ic methods. Dates of the Experiment. Dates. Days. High Protein. Low Protein. Oct. 24 through Nov. IS, 1895, . Nov. 28 through Dec. 23, 1895. . 26 26 Cows I., IV.. VI. Cows II., III.. V. Cows II., III., V. Cows I., IV., VI. At least a week elapsed after the animals were placed upon full rations before the experiment proper began. Areragp Daih/ Fat ions fed to the Six Cows (Pounds). Character of Ration. Wheat Bran. Chicago Gluten Meal. Corn Meal. Hay. Sugar Beets. High protein Low protein, .... 3 3 5.83 5.83 15.17 16.17 12 12 Each of the cows received 3 pounds of bran and 12 pounds of beets daily. One of the cows, Ada^ received only 5 pounds of corn or gluten meal per day, while the others received each 0 pounds. The amount of hay fed differed slightly in the case (if individual cows, dc])onding upon their ability to utilize it. The hay was of good quality, containing 0.73 per cent, of crude protein; the bran 10.20 per cent.; the gluten meal 42.73 per cent., and the corn meal 11. 30 per cent., all on a dry-matter basis. Tt will be seen that the basal ration consisted of hay, beets and brnu, nnd thnt the vni'iable factor was the corn or gluten meal. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 89 Average ]Veiy]it of Animals and Average Digestible Nutrients in Daily Rations {Pounds). Weight of Animal. Digestible Nutrients. Character of Ration-. Protein. Fat. Fiber and Extract Matter. Total. Nu- tritive Katio. High protein, .... Low protein 941 938 3.07 1.46 .59 ,52 10.23 12.45 14.06 14.43 1:3.86 1:9.43 Three of the cows varied in weight from 800 to 900 ]>oiiii»ls, and three others from 1,000 to 1,0C0 pounds. During the high- protein period the cows gained in total 101 pound.s, and during the low-])rotein period there was a total lo.ss of 0-1 pounds. The average weight of the herd during each of the two halves of the experiment was substantiallv the same. The figures for digestible nutrients were secured from actual analvsis of the feedstuffs used, together with average diges- tion coefficients, actual digestion tests not being made. The total digestible nutrients consumed was the same in case of each of the halves of the experiment, the difference being in the excess of digestilJe protein and the corresponding deficit of carbohydrates. The high-protein ration had evidently too narrow a ratio, and the low-protein ration too wide a ratio for the best results. Vrotein Balance (Pounds). Protein Protein Protein Exces.s over Main- tenance and Milk Require- Character of Ration. Cows. Protein digested. required for Main- tenance. contained in Milk (N.X6.25). ments. Ada, . 69.16 14.56 20.31 34 29 Una, . 79.56 16.38 18.66 44 52 Bessie, . 81.12 15.60 26 03 39.49 Hi^h protein, . . ] Beauty, 84.24 18.98 22,28 42 98 Red, . 82.16 19 24 24 26 38 66 Spot, . 82.16 17 94 28.00 36.22 Ada, 33.54 14.56 17.84 1.14 Una, . 36.40 16 12 17.84 2 44 Bessie, . 37.96 15.60 22 51 — .15 Low protein. Beauty, 40.82 18.98 17.92 3.92 Red. . 39.00 18.72 22.08 — .1.80 Spot, . 39 00 18 20 20.72 .08 Total high, .... _ 47,S 40 102.70 139.54 236 16 Total low, .... - 226.72 102.18 118.91 5 63 Average per cow, high, _ 79.73 17.12 23.26 39 36 Average per cow, low. - 37.79 17.03 19.82 .94 ' Calculated by allowing .7 of a pound digestible crude protein per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 90 EXPKIILMEXT STATION. [Jan. In this ex])eriiiient the percentage of protein in the milk was not determined, and the average figures secured for the exper- iment immediately following were employeil. (Calculations show that in the high-protein ])cri()d there was a surplus of nearly fOO (97.')) per cent, of digcslilile ])r()lcin over that re- quired for maintenance and milk productiun, while in the low- ])rotein ]>eriod the total digestil)]e protein consumed and the auioiiut required were about equal. Influence of Protein on the Milk Tielcl. Herd Results in Pounds. Character of Ration. Average Weight of Cow. Yield of Milk. Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance and Milk. Protein Excess over that required for Main- tenance and Milk. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein, . 941 938 4,241.5 3,095.5 478.40 226.72 242.24 221.09 236.16 5.63 97.5 2.3 It is quite evident that the ration with th(^ large excess of digestihle protein exerted a marked influence on the milk-secret- ing organs, causing an increase of approximately 15 per cent, in the milk yield. The average daily milk product per cow during the high-protein period was 27.2 pounds, and during the low-])rotein ]ieriod 28.7 pounds, and it therefore may he said that both rations produced a fair yield. The period was too short to note the effect of the larger amount of protein on the general condition of the animal ; it is believed, however, that if such an amount had l)een fed for a long ]ieriod of time, the result would have been over-stimulation, indigestion and a re- fusal to eat the large amount of gluten meal. Effeet of the TUilions on the Composition of the Milk (Per Cent.). Character of RATtoN. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. High protein Low protein 13.67 13.45 4.51 4.28 9.16 9.17 1911.1 PUBLK^ DOCUMENT — Xo. 81. 91 Composite samples of each cow's milk were secured for five days of each week. These composites were averaged, and this avei'age represented the composition of the milk of each cow for the period. The a\'erage percentage |)roduced by each cow was multipled by the pounds of milk slie produced, thus secur- ing the weight of total solid matter and fat yield by each uni- nud in the herd. These totals were added and the amount di- vided by the total anioinit of milk given by the herd, and ilie quotient represents the average percentage of total solids and of fat, as stated in the table. The results indicate that during the low-])rotein period, the cows produced milk containing .23 per cent, less fat than in the period when the high protein was fed. The diiference is not pronounced and may be considered within the limit of a reason- able experimental error. Experiment II} This experiment immediately succeeded experiment T. nud was conducted with the same cows, excepting that cow IT. (Fna) was replaced by Guernsey. The general plan of the experi- m.ent, methods of caring for the cows, feeding and sampling of milk were all identical with the ])receding experiment. Dates of the Experiment. Dates. Days. High Protein. I>ow Protein. Jan. 27 through Feb. 16, 1896, . Feb. 29 through March 20, 1896, 21 21 Cows I., II., VI. Cows III., IV., V. Cows III., IV., V. Cows I., II., VI. It will be seen that each period lasted twenty-one days, with a preliminary feeding of seven or more days. Average Bail if Bat ions fed to the Six Coics {Pounds) . Character of R.\TION. Wheat ^h'^^fSO Linseed Meal. Corn Meal. Hay. Millet and Soy Bean Silage. High protein, . Low protein, . 2 83 1.92 3.00 1 92 5.a3 10 33 10 .33 28.33 28.33 ' Niath annual report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 100-125. 92 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The bran contained 18.87 per cent., the Chicago ghiten 39.75 per cent., the old-process linseed meal 41.99 per cent, and the corn meal 11.86 per cent, of protein in dry matter. The silage was a mixture of barnyard milict and soy beans, the latter being quite well podded; it contained about 81 per cent, of water and 12 per cent, of protein in dry matter. Each animal received from 9 to 11 pounds of hay, 20 to 30 pounds of silage, during each half of tli(» ('X])orimont. In the high- protein ration from 2 to 3 pounds of bran were fed, 3 ]iounds of gluten and 1.5 to 2 pounds of linseed meal. In the low- protein ration 1.5 to 2 pounds of bran were given and 5 to 0 pounds of Porn meal. The above tal)le shows the averages. The cows ate their rations clean in evcrv case. Arerarje Weiqlii of Animals and Areraqe Dipesliljlc Xiitrients fed daihf ( PolOlds ) . Character of Ration. Weight of Animals. Protein. Fat. Fiber and Extract Matter. Total. Nutritive Ratio. High protein, . Low protein, . 899 900 2.85 1.45 .65 .54 9.96 11.44 13.46 13.42 1:4 04 1:8.85 The individual weight of the individual cows varied from 7G3 to 1,004 pounds. The cows changed very slightly in weight during each half of the experiment. The digestible nutrients were calculated from the analyses of the feed, with the aid of average digestion coefficients. The liigh-protein ration contained substantially twice as much di- gestible protein as the low-protein ration. The fat varied but slightly, and the diiference in the amount of carbohydrate mat- ter depended naturally upon the difl'ei'ont amounts of protein fed. The total nutrients consumed in two rations were the same. 1011.1 rUBLlC DOCUMEiNT — No. 31. 93 Protein Balance (Pounds). Periods of Twenty-one Days. Char.^ctbr of R.VTION. Cows. Protein digested. Protci n re(iuired for Main- tenance. Protein contained in Milk (N X6.25I. Protein Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Rcriuiie- nicnt. High protein, . . j I Low protein. Ada, Guernsey, Bessie, . Beauty, Red, Spot, Ada, Guern.sey, Be.ssie, . Beauty, Red, Spot, 50 61 60.61 61 53 62.58 62.58 62.58 25.20 31.50 30 24 31.29 31.29 32.55 11 21 12.60 12.18 14.41 14 91 13.86 11.34 12.30 12.09 14.07 14.70 13.84 15.42 19.52 18.98 16.22 17 37 20.29 12 83 16 36 15.90 15.08 16.05 16 65 23.98 28.49 30 37 31 95 30 30 28.43 1.03 2.84 2.25 2.14 54 2 06 Total high Total low Average per cow, high, . Average per cow, low, . - 360.49 182.07 60.08 30.34 79 17 78.34 13.19 13.06 107.80 92.87 17.97 15.48 173 52 10.86 28 75 1 81 Infiuence of Protein on Milk Yield. Herd Results in Pounds. "o Ji! 11 tat Character of To ji ■6 bO 03 £g '3 d ^3 g 4) 0) "■3S Ration. ^ a a. T3 1-. (u^ w«g Si Ic3 o 2 g gS.9 rotein that Maint Milk. a < >-i Q Ph Pt, ^ Ph High protein. 899 3,261.0 25.82 360.49 186.97 173.52 92.8 Low protein. 900 2,877.0 22 . 73 182.02 171 21 10.86 5 1 It will be seen that on the higli-protein ration the cow.s re- ceived 92.8 per cent, more digestible crude protein than was required for niainteiiunce and for the milk produced, while in low-protein ration the excess was only 5 j^er cent., the amount digested and the amount fed being substantially equal. The figures show that for a period of twenty-one days, while not changing in M^eight, the herd produced 13.3 per cent, more milk on the high-protein diet, showing very distinctly the in- fluence of the excess of protein. This experiment exactly con- firms the ex})eriment immediately preceding. 94 EXrEULMKXT STATION, [Jan. Composition of the Herd 3Iilk {Per Cent.). Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent. Ilijih protein Low protein 13.82 14.10 4.83 5.02 8.99 9.08 .526 .518 3.28 3.23 The samples were taken and averages secured in the same way as in the previous experiment. Here we have a direct reversal of the results, the low-protein ration showing a trifle higher average fat percentage than the high-protein ration. This may also be regarded as within the limit of error. The percentage of nitrogen in the milk produced during each half of the experiment is substantially the same, and this in sjiite of ihv fact that ihe low-protein ration contained but 1.45 pounds of digestible protein, and the high-protein ration 2.85 pounds. Ex'pcr 'uncut 1 11.^ This experiment was one of a series designed to study the effect of food stuH's ujxm the composition of milk and of butter fat. Only that ])()rti()n of the exjieriment is here published which shows the influence of protein upon the yield and com- position of the milk. It was planned on the group system, five cows composing each group. The first two ])t'riods of the experiment only are needed in this connection. Duration of Experiment. Periods. Dates of Experiment. Length We'dka. First period: both herds standard ration, o J „ ,:„j. /Herd I., standard ration, . 1 Second period. | jj^^^ jj _ cottonseed ration. / Nov. 17, through Dec. 7, 1900, Jan. 5, through Feb. 8, 1901, 3 5 ' See r6sum6 in fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 162-168. 1911. rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 95 Avenuje Dailij L'dliuns (Pounds). First period: botli herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Standard Grain Ration. Cotton- seed Meal. First-cut Hay. Rowen. Herd I., Herd II 9 9 - 8-12 8-12 10 10 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration. Herd I Herd II., 9 5 3 8-12 8-12 10 10 The standard ration consisted of 3 pounds of wheat bran. o pounds of ground oats and lA pound each of cottonseed and iihiten meals. The cottonseed meal contained some 9 per cent, of oil and o-i:.i)-i: per cent, of protein in dry matter. Average Dry and Digestible Xutricnis in. Daily Ilativiis {Pounds] First period: both he(;ds, standard grain ration. Herds. Dry Matter. Protein. Fiber and Extract Matter. Fat. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Herd I., . Herd II.,. 26.15 26.97 2.14 2.49 12.84 13.25 .68 .69 15 95 16.42 1:5 8 1:5 9 Second period: Herd I., standard grain ration; Herd II., cottonseed ration. Herd I., . Herd II 25 00 25.69 2.34 3.20 12.27 11.62 .66 .73 15.27 1:58 15.55 1:4 1 The digestibility of the standard grain mixture was asccr- lained by actual exi)erinient. Average coefficients were used for the other feeds. Both herds received substantially the same amounts of protein and total digestible nutrients in the first period. Each herd averaged in live weight about 950 pounds. In the first period the amount of digestible j^rotein was ample to enable the cows to do good work. In the second period Herd II. received .86 of a pound more of digestible protein than did Herd I. 96 EXrEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. Total and Average Daily Yield of Milk {I'ounds), First period: lx)th herds, standard grain ration. Hebds. Total Herd Average Yield. DaUy Yield. Herd I Herd II 2,332.5 2,405.3 22.2 22.9 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration. Herd I Herd II 3,856.3 3,898.1 21.9 22.2 In the first period Herd II. produced o.l per cent, more milk tlijin Herd I., and in the second period 1 per cent. more. It Avould appear, therefore, that the amount of protein fed in the fir.st i)eriod was ample, and that the increase given to Herd II. in the second period was not needed and did not increase the milk flow. In the first period Herd I. gained (5 ])ounds in live weight, and Herd II., 83 pound.s. In the second i:)eriod Herd I. lost 87 pounds, and Herd. II., 73 pounds. Average ComposHion of the Herd Milk {Per Cent.). First period: botli herds, standard grain ration. Herds. Total Solid.s. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent. Ash. Herd I., . Herd II.. . U 15 11.27 5 00 4.93 9.15 9.31 .538 .546 3.36 3.41 .73 .72 Second period: Herd I., standard ration; Herd II., cottonseed meal ration. Herd I., . Hord II., . 14.16 14.30 5.06 4.98 9.10 9.32 .550 3.44 .562 3.51 .73 .71 The analyses for the first period represent the average of 3 separate samples, each covering a period of five days ; those for the second i)eriod represent the average of 5 separate samples, each covering a period of five days. Each five-day composite represented the average composition of the herd milk for one week. The sejiarate analysis of each cow's milk was not made. 1911.1 rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 97 lu tliG lii'st period the milk of the two herds showed itself to be practically identical in composition. In the second period the sidjstitution of o pounds of cottonseed meal for 4 pounds of the standard ration, thereby increasing the digestible pro- tein in the ration .80 of a pound, had no etlect whatever in varying the proportions of the milk. It is well to remember in this connection that nearly a month intervened between the lirst and second periods ^, and that the period itself covered five weeks. It is possible that, if the standard ration had contained a pound less of digestible protein daily, some diiference may have been observed in the com})osition of the milk produced by the two herds in the second period. Influence of I'rotein on the ISLilk Yield {Pounds). Herd Results, Second Period. ^ o o >°1 S S TS -a ^ °^^ 8 Character of [v o -T3 .i2 (U s S £ g Ration. "^ .Si ■n ^§ a W S g 1 M .• kH a fl2 a .9^.= ^ rt o o 2^ 0) 2 rote tha Ma Mil g < H Pui e.. Oh Cl, Standard, . 946 3,856.3 409.5 115.5 132.6 161.4 65.0 Cottonseed meal, 939 3,898.1 560.0 115.5 136.8 307.7 122.0 In so far as this experiment throws any light on the protein recpiirements, it indicates that Herd I. Avas receiving ample protein (05 per cent, above the minimum requirement), and that the addition of more protein (122 per cent, above the minimum) was without any noticeable influence upon the milk yield. Experiment IV. This experiment was completed during the winter of 1897- 98, although the results have not been published. It was conducted on the reversal method, with twelve mature grade Jersey cows, all of which had freshened the previous summer and autuiun. Weifjhiiif/ Animals. — Each animal was weighed for three ' This excessive lapse of time was due to some of the cows not being in best of condition. 98 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan, consecutive days, before feeding in the afternoon, at the begin- ning and end of each half of the experiment. Weighing and Sampling the Milk. — The weight of each milking Avas taken on a spring balance sensitive to 1 onnce, and the weights preserved on prej)ared record sheets. The milk was sampled for five consecutive days by the usual method, as described in accounts of the many feeding experiments given in previous reports. It was preserved with bichromate of potash and analyzed by gravimetric methods. Character of Feeds. — The feeds used were all of good qual- ity and of average composition. The hay was composed largely of Kentucky blue grass, sweet vernal grass and a liberal admix- ture of clover. Dates of the Experiment. First Half. Dates. Weeks. High-protein Cows. [ Low-protein Cows. 1 Nov. 13, 1897 to Jan. 14, 1898, 9 Guernsey, Midget, Susie, Beauty, Sadie, Alice. Bessie, Mary, Mildred, Nina, Blossom, Jennie. Second Half. Jan. 24 to March 27, 1898, . 9 Bessie, Mary, Mildred, Nina, Blossom, Jennie. Guernsey, Midget, Susie, Beautj', Sadie, Alice. It will be observed that ten days were allowed fur changing tile feeds given the animals. A i-crcKjc Daily L'atinns f cd to Each Coic {Poiiiuh). Chauacter of R.wion. Wheat Bran. Gluten Feed. Corn Meal. English Hay. Corn Silage. High protein, .... Low protein 3 3 5.5 1.5 4 10.9 11.0 25.7 25.7 It will be seen that the two rations were practically identi- cal. ex('ci)tiug that 4 pounds of corn meal were substituted for a like amount of gluten feed. Different cows received from 10 to 12 pounds of hay and from 20 to ^50 ]iounds of silage. Each animal received exactly the same amount of grain daily. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ol. 99 AvcrcKje Drj and Digesslible Nutricnlfi in Daily Rations {Pounds). Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Chakacter of Ration. Protein. ( 'arbo- hyilrates. Fat. Total Nu- trients. High protein Low protciu, .... 24.17 24.24 2,10 1.67 13.00 13.70 .50 .53 15.60 15.90 1:6.7 1:8.9 The licrtl averaged about 900 pounds in weight. The amount of dry matter and of total digestible nutrients fed in each ration was substantially the same; the high-protein ration contained about .4 of a pound more digestible protein than the low-protein ration. The excess over the low-protein ration is not marked and is very much less than that fed in experiments I. and II. , previously mentioned. Herd Gain in Live Weight (Pounds). Character of Ration. Gain or Loss. High protein, Low protein, -}353 -f223 Both rations caused a gain in weight, the excess being in favor of the high-protein ration. This may have been ex- pected, as the low-protein ration had rather too wide a ratio to be productive of the best results. Protein Balance (Pounds). Herd Results; Periods of Sixty-three Days. Ch.ir.\cter of Ration. High protein. Low protein. Protein digested. 1,587.6 1,262.5 I'rotein required for Main- tenance. 476.28 476.28 Protein contained in Milk (N.x 6.251. 591.76 563.23 Protein Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Require- ments. 519.6 223.0 100 EXrEULMENT STATION, [Jan. Influence uf Protein on Milk Yield. Herd Itesults in Pouuds. CHAnACTKR OF Ration. Average Weight of Cow. Yield of Milk. Daily Yield of Milk Per Cow. Protein digested. Protein Excess over that required for Main- tenance and Milk. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein, . 900 900 16,257 15,347 21.5 20.3 1,587.6 1,262.5 519.6 223.0 48.6 21.4 The average amount of digestible protein fed daily per cow in the high-protein ration — 2.10 pounds — could not be con- sidered excessive, although it was 48.6 per cent, more than was rc(iuired for milk and maintenance. The average amount of digestible protein fed daily per cow in the low-protein ration was 1.G7 pounds, which was 21.4 per cent, above that neces- sary for milk and maintenance. The high-protein ration, being 48.6 per cent, in excess of the protein minimum, pro- duced 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration made up of similar feedstuff s which was 21.4 per cent, in excess of the minimum. Such a difl'erence in an experiment extending o\'er a i)eriod of sixty-three days is believed to be too pronounced to be attributed to an experimental error, and is evidently the result of the increased amount of protein fed. In this con- nection it may be remarked that if the practical feeder pur- chased all of his grain, it would be to his advantage to buy gluten feed rather than corn meal. If he produces his own corn, the feeding of one-third bran, one-half corn and cob meal and one-sixth gluten feed would be advisable. Composition of the Herd MilL (Per Cent.). Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Nitrogen. Protein Equiva- lent (N. X6.25). Ash. High protein, . Low protein, 14.55 14.44 5.11 5.01 9 44 9.43 .58 .59 3.64 3.67 .75 .74 1911,] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 101 Samples of milk from oaeli eow were taken weekly for five consecutive clays, and tested for total solids and for fat. The average percentage prodnced by each cow for the nine weeks was mnltiplied by the amonnt of milk prodnced dnring the same period, and the amounts of total solids and of fat pro- dnced by the entire herd on each of the two rations calcnlated. These amonnts, divided by the total milk yield, gave the aver- age percentages of 1otal solids and fat pi'odnccd by each herd for the entire period. The product of each milking of the six cows receiving the Iwo different rations was also mixed, and composite five-day samples tested for total solids, fat, nitrogen and ash. In case of total solids and fat the average resnlts varied less than .1 })er cent, from those seenred l)y the other method. The average resnlts stated in the table al)ove represent those secnred by the last-described method. It will be seen that the two rations prodnced milk of snb- stantially the same composition. While the excess of protein appeared to have noticeably inflnenced the amonnt of the milk prodnced, it was withont inflnence on its composition. Experiment T. — 1S98. This experiment was condncted on the same plan as experi- ment IV., and the conditions were snbstantially the same. Nine cows only were nsed, being divided into herds of five and fonr. Dates of the Experiment. First Half. Dates. Days. High-protein Cows. Low-protein Cows. April 4 to April 29, 1S98, 26 Blossom, .Jennie, Bessie, Mary, Mildred. Beauty, Alice, Guernsey, Midget. Second Half. May 8 to June 2, 1898, . 26 Beauty, Alice, Guernsey, Midget. Blossom, Jennie, Bessie, Mary, Mildred. Nine days elapsed between halves, and the halves themselves la^^ted twenty-six days each. The " cow balance " was hardly 102 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. satisfactory in this exporinient, five cows receiving one ration at the same time fonr were receiving the other, and vice versa. These were the only animals at the time that were in suitable condition. Average Daily Bat ions fed to the Nine Cows (Pounds). Character of R.-vtion. Br^n* Gluten Feed. Corn Meal. English Hay. Rowen. High protein Low protein 3 3 5 1 4 9 3 9.3 9.3 9.4 These two rations differ only in that 4 pounds of corn meal took the ]daf'e of a like amonnt of gluten feed. Average Dry and Digestible Nvtrients in Daily Fat inns (Po^nc/s). Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Char.^cter of Ration. Protein. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Total Nu- trients. High protein Low protein 23.62 23.44 2 41 1.96 11.97 12.39 .43 .44 14.81 14.79 1:5.4 1:6.8 In the so-called low-protein ration the herd received sultstan- tially 2 pounds of digestible protein daily; in the high-protein ration this was increased .4 of a pound. The total digestible nutrients fed were the same in each case. The cows averaged 970 to 000 pounds in live weight during the two halves of the experiment. Tn Ihe low-protein ration the amount of protein fed was sufficient to give satisfactory results. Herd Gain in Lire Weight {Ponnds). Character op Ration. Gain or Ixjss. Higli prolein, I>ow protein, + 70 + 115 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 'SI. 103 Protein Balance (Pounds). Herd Results; Periods of Twenty-six Days. Character of Ration. Proti'in digesteil. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein contained in Milk. Protein Exce.ss over Main- tenance and Milk Reast Calf dropped. with Calf. Beginning of Test. Blanche, Grade Guernsey, . 10 October, 190.5 57 Daisy, Cirade Jersey, 7 August, 190.'') 79 Fancy Grade Jersey, 6 Augu.st, 19K) 79 Gladys Pure Jersey, . .3 December, 190.5 - Maude Ciraiie Ciuernsey, . 2 December, 190.5 18 May, firade .Jersey, 10 July, 190.5 68 Betty r;rado Jersey, 2 Noyember, 190.5 - Dora, Grade .Jersey, 12 A\igust, 190.5 - May Rio J'ure .Jersey, . 3 October, 190.5 64 Molly (irado .Jersey, 10 July, 190.5 - Red II Grade Jerse.y, 10 Noyember, 1905 20 Samantha, .... Grade Jer.sey, 3 August, 1905 51 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 105 WelgJiiiig Cows. — Each eow was weighed for three con- secutive days at the beginning and end of the period proper, before watering and feeding in the afternoon. These weights were also taken twice during the intervening time. Sampling Feeds. — Samples of hay and silage were taken at the beginning of the period, and every two weeks thereafter. In case of the hay, forkfuls were taken here and there from the entire amount to l)e fed for the day, run tlirongh a feed cutter, subsanipled, the final sample brought to the laboratory in glass-stoppered bottles, dry-matter determinations made at once and the sample saved for a composite. The silage was similarly sampled, excei)ting that it was not run through the cutter. The grain was sampled daily, preserved in glass- stoppered bottles, and at the end of the period analyzed. Sampling Milk. — The milk of each cow was sampled for five consecutive days in each week by the usual method, and the composite tested for fat, total solids, nitrogen and ash. Batefi of the Experiment. Preliminary Period. Herd. Character of Ration. Dates. Weeks. Cows. r.. . II., . Low protein, . High protein, . January 27 through February 2. January 27 through February 2. 1 1 Blanche, Daisy, Fancy, Ciladys, Maude, May. Betty, Dora, May Rio, Molly, Red ir., Samautlia. Period Proper. I., 11., Low protein. High protein. February 10 through April 27. February 10 through April 27. Blanche, Daisy, Fancy, Gladys, Maude, May. Betty, Dora, May Rio, Molly, Red IL, Samantha. Average Daily Rations consumed by the Two Herds (Pounds). Preliminary Period. Herd. Character of Ration. English Hay. CJorn iSilage. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Ciluten Meal. I., II Low protein. Low protein. 12 6 12 6 22.5 22 2 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 - Period Proper. I.. II., Ix)w protein. High protein, . 12 6 13 0 22.2 21.0 3.4 3.7 3.3 1.2 22 100 KXrEllLMEXT STATION. [Jan. The amount of hay fed to the different cows varied from 11 to 15 pounds; silage, from 20 to 30 pounds; bran, from '3 to 4.5 pounds; corn meal, from 3 to 4.5 pounds, and gluten meal, fi-om 2 to 3 pounds daily. Average Amounts of Drij and Difjestihle Matter consumed hy Each Cow daily (Pounds). Preliminary Period. Hkrd. Character of Ration. Dry Matter. Pro- tein. Fiber. Ex- tract Matter. Fat. Total. Nu- tritive Ratio. I II Low protein, . Low protein. 21.75 22.51 1.22 1.27 3 58 3 03 8.39 8.68 .42 .43 13 01 14 02 1:10.6 1:10.4 Period Proper. I II Low protein, High protein, . 21.70 22.18 1.22 1.76 3.58 3 00 8.37 8.14 .41 .41 13.58 13 91 1:10.5 1: 7.2 Herd T. averaged 912 pounds and Herd 11. 903 pounds in live weight. On the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight. Herd I. would be receiving 1.34 pounds of digestible protein and 14.9 pounds tntnl digcstilde matter, and Herd II., 1.95 pounds digestible protein and 15.4 pounds of total digestible matter daily in the period proper. The digestible matter was calcu- lated from actual analyses of the feeds, and average digestion eoefficient.s. It seems probaiile that the results are a trifle low, and that more material was actually digested than the calcula- tions show, for the animals appeared well nourished. Herd I. gaining 225 pounds, and Herd II., 215 pounds during the ehnen weeks of the period proper. The low-]u-otein ration was (■vid(^ntly somewhat deficient in protein and too wide. The high-protein ratiou must have satisfied the protein require- ments, and on the basis of 1.000 ])ounds live weight, it con- tained .0 of ii ])ouud mure of dig(»stible ])roteiii daily than did the other ration. 101 l.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. :]1. 107 Wei(j]tl. of Animals at Beginning and End of Experiment {Pounds). a J Herd. -6 o o a a '5 a -a 4 3 ^ >. 2 o "o T3 2 o CL, m U f^ O S S « M S :^ Ph O I.. . Beginning, . 1,167 837 835 732 778 1,010 - - - - - - End, . 1,230 892 865 707 813 1,077 - - - - - - +225 f Beginnini;, _ _ _ _ _ _ 072 843 758 1,018 1,007 l.OK! _ "■•■ I End, . ~ ~ " ~ ~ ~ 712 877 808 1,088 1,003 978 +215 Judging from the above weights it would appear that hoth herds were well nourished and able to add slightly to their live weight. Crude Protein Balance (Pounds). Preliminary Period: One Week. Character of Ration. Protein digesteil. Protein for Main- tenance. Protein for Milk. Protein Deficit. Per- centage Deficit. Low protein. Herd I., High protein. Herd II., 51.3 53.3 30.4 30.4 27.18 28.66 —0 . 28 —5.76 —11.0 —9.7 Crude Protein Balance (Pounds). Period Proper, Ek-ven Weeks. o a h:^ a o •d -o -73 fo £S^ h8 Mc -o a Herd. ■SfS 2 s 3 a ^1 t, a oi 0) oi g to a c a s M „ a 3 2 is o a 2 3 S c S (-1 O O Oh Ph Ph W (S • Betty, . 118.58 37.30 45.87 35.41 42.6 Dora, 124.74 46.35 53.55 24.84 24.9 -May Rio, 128.59 42.20 49.82 36.57 39.7 II.. . High protein, j Molly, . 133.21 56.76 52.48 23.97 21.1 Red II., . 174.02 55.79 70.01 48.22 38.3 Ramantha, 133.21 53.68 56 54 22.99 20 9 Blanclie, 104.72 64 68 43.55 —4.51 —4.2 Daisy, 99.79 46.62 44.20 0.97 7.7 Fancy, . 92 40 45.82 49.49 —2.91 —3.1 I.. . Low protein, ] Gladys, . 93.90 38.81 50.88 4.21 4.7 Maude, . 77.77 42.85 34.98 — .06 ± May, 96.25 56.27 49.49 -9.51 —9.0 108 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Influence of Protein on dlilk Production (Pounds). Preliminary period: both licrds, low-protoin ration. "o C >i •5-9 i >i fl '3 2-3 «2-g 2 P rs 0) s Ration. JD 5 o .lis. ercentage or Excess over nients. o |2 1? o o "3 01 6. < Q PL, H <; ^ >H fH Low, - 1.22 —11.0 747.8 17.80 108.95 37.97 27.18 Low, - 1.27 —9.7 821.3 19.55 115.66 40.67 28.66 Percentage excess. Herd IV. over - - - 9.8 - 6.20 7.00 5.50 Herd L Period proper: Herd L, low protein; Herd H., high protein Low, High. . 912 903 1.22 1.76 ± 31.3 7,415.6 8,906.5 16.05 19.28 1,102.10 1,294.80 398.90 473.00 272.60 328.30 Percentage increase, high over low. - - - 20.1 17.50 18.60 20 00 It was hardly pos.sible, with the cows at our disposal, to select two herds of six each that would produce substantially equal amounts of milk. It will be seen, therefore, that Herd II. in the preliminary period was producing nearly 10 per cent, more milk and from 5.5 to 7 per cent, more ]n'oteiii and fat than Herd I. In the second or period proper, covering eleven weeks, this percentage was increased from 9.8 to 20 in case of the milk; substantially similar increnscs were also noted in case of the milk ingredients. Otherwise expressed, Herd II., receiving the high-protein ration, nearly maintained its flow during the second period, while each cow in Herd I. showed an average daily decrease of 1.Y5 pounds, or practically 10 per cent. In the preliminary period both herds were receiving from 10 to 11 per cent, less ]U'otein than was actually needed for maintenance and milk. In the second period the low-protein herd had approximately reacluHl a balimce between income and outgo, while the high-protein herd was receiving 31.3 per cent, of crude protein in excess of requirements. The effect lull. PUBLIC DOCOIENT — Xo. ;51. 109 of this extra })rotein may be clearly seen in maiiUaiiiiiig' the flow of milk. It would be of interest to know whether it would have maintained its inflneiiee throughout the entire milking l)eriod. The herd receiving the shortage of protein was obliged to adjust itself to the low-protein diet. It was able to increase somewhat in live weight (fat-^), but its milk flow was of necessity noticeably checked. It is quite probable that some cows of pronounced ability as milkers would not shrink as rapidly as others on a low-protein diet, but for a time would have taken the needed protein from that stored in the body. Effect of Protein on Average Composition of the Milk {Per Cent.). Herds. Period. Character of Ration. Total Solids. Fat. Solids not Fat. Protein. I I.. . I., II., . Low protein. Low protein, 14.57 14.86 5.08 5.38 9.49 9.48 3 63 3 69 Increase, - - .29 .30 ± .06 II II I., II.. . Low protein. High protein. 14.08 14.54 4.95 5.31 9.13 9.23 3.49 3.69 Increase, - .46 .36 .10 .20 The above average figures were secured by taking the average of the weekly analysis of the milk produced by each cow and multiplying it by the pounds of milk j^roduced, the result being the pounds of the several ingredients produced by each cow. These were addeil, and gave the total milk and milk ingredi- ents produced by each herd. The total ingredients divided by the total milk produced ga\e the average j)ercentages. The fact that the milk produced by each herd did not show the same composition in the preliminary period prevents a direct com- parison. It will be observed, however, that in case of Herd I. the milk in the second period changed but little in composition from that produced in the first period, the principal difference being a slight increase in the fat, due evidently to the ad- vance in lactation. Herd II. produced milk also with only slight variations in the two periods. The fat increased .36 of 1 110 EXrEKLMKNT STATION. [Ian. per cent., being about the same increase as with Herd I. The protein showed rather more of an increase than in case of Ilerd L, and this may possibly be attributed to the inliuence of the extra protein in the food. It must be remembered that Herd 1. received a ration deficient in protein, and the increased amount given to Herd II. may have had a slight effect upon the milk ])rotein. With this exception it is safe to state that the ])rotein was entirely without influence upon the coni2)osi- tiou of the milk. Experiment VII. — 1007-08. This ex})eriment was conducted with six cows, the only ones available at the time, and was by the group method. The object of tlte cxperiinent was primarily to note the effect of rations low and high in protein (a) upon the condition of the animals, (b) upon the yield of milk, and (c) upon the rela- tive milk shrinkage. The plan of the experiment consisted in dividing six cows into two herds of three each, which were known as Herds D and E. The first ten days were regarded as preliminary, to accus- tom the two herds to their distinct rations. Herd D received the low-protein ration and Herd E the one high in protein. Weighing Cows. — Each of the cows was weighed for three consecutive days at the beginning and end of the experiment, and every fourth week during its ])rogress. They were weighed in the afternoon before being fed or watered. Snnipling Feeds. — The hay was sampled in the usual way at the beginning of the experiment, and every two weeks there- after. The urain was sam])led daily and ])roserved in glass- stop])er('(l bnltles, and eventually tested for dry nuitter and for the ordinary ingredients. Character of Feeds. — The liay was a mixture of grasses, the finer varieties, such as Kentucky blue grass, predominating. It contained a noticeable admixture of clover. Sampling Mill\ — The cows were milked twice (biily, and the single milking of each cow in each herd was poured into a common receptacle, mixed and the herd mixture sauqded. This method was continued, for five consecutive days, each single lull. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. Ill sample comiwsited, and eventually tested for solids, fat and nitrogen. It will tlierefoi-e be seen that herd samples only were analyzed, and not the product of individual cows. History of Cows. Herd. Cows. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Days with Calf at Begin- ning of Trial. D. . E, . . . Samantha, . May Rio, Daisy, . Fancy, Gladys, Red HI., . Jerscy-Holstein, . Pure Jersey, Grade Jersey, Grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, Grade Jersey, 4 4 8 7 4 2 September 3 September 12 August 23 September 1 October 7 October 27 8 Duralioii of the Experiment. Herd. Character of Ration. Dates. Number of Weeks. Cowa. D, . . . E, . . . Low protein, . High protein, . Nov. 23, 1907, through May 8, 1908. Nov. 23, 1907, through May 8, 1908. 24 24 Samantha, May Rio, Daisy. Fancy, Gladys, Red HI. Bations consumed daily by Each Cow {Pounds). Herd. Character of Ration. Cows. Hay. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Gluten Feed. D, . E, . . . Low protein. High protein. Samantha, May Rio, l Daisy, [Gladys, . Fancy, . [Red III., 20 20 20 22 16 3.40 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.40 2.50 4.50 4.00 4.00 3 90 4 60 3 40 Average, Herd D, Average, Herd E, - - 20.7 19.3 3.13 2.97 4.16 3 97 The difference in the two rations consisted in the suhstitu- tioii of corn meal for gluten feed. The latter, as is well known, 112 EXrEULAlKNT STATION, [Jan. is a by-product of the former, hence the general character of the two variables was the same, and particularly the protein. Digestible Matter in Daily Ilalions [Pounds). Character of Rjition. Cows. Digestible Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. HliUD. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Total. D, . E, . Low protein. High protein, . f Samantha, "i May Rio, [ Daisy, [ Gladys, . Fancy, . [ Red HI., 1.44 1.29 1.29 1.88 2.14 1.58 .48 .43 .43 .38 .43 .31 14.27 12.87 12 87 12.23 13.65 9.97 16.19 14.59 14.59 14.49 16.22 11.86 1:10.7 1:10.6 1:10.6 1:6.9 1:6.8 1:6.6 Average, Herd D, Average, Herd E, - _ 1.34 1.87 .45 .37 13.34 11.95 15.12 14.19 1:10.6 1:6.7 The abo\'e figures were secured from the actual analyses of the feeds and average digestive coefficients. It is clear that Herd 1) received a ration with a very wide nutritive ratio, while Herd E received a ration with a medium ratio. Average Weight of Coivs at Beginning and End of Period (Pounds). Herd D. Herd E. Daisy. May Rio. Samantha. Fancy. Gladys. Red in. Beginning, End, 920 923 898 907 1,003 1,063 973 1,013 810 SIS 680 782 Total gain. Herd D, 69 pounds. Total gain, Herd E, 150 pounds. Herd E made a larger gain than Herd I), but this a])])ears to be due largely to the gain made by Red III., a heifer with first calf. Crude Protein Balanee (Pounds). Herd. Character of Ration. Average Weight. Protein digested (N.X6.25). (Protein ro(|uiro(l for Main- tenance (N.X6.25.) Protein required for Milk (N.X6.25). Protein Excess or Deficit. Per- centage Excess or Deficit. D, . E, . Low protein. High protein, 935 832 675.36 942.48 328.00 291.75 351.50 389.37 —4 14 261.36 — .6 38.4 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 113 The total protein digested was calculated from the amount digested daily multiplied by the number of days of the experi- ment. The protein for maintenance was calculated from the average weight of each heixl, allowing .7 of a pound of digesti- ble protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. The protein in the milk was calculated from the actual analj^sis of the milk. It is admitted that the above results are only approximate, being secured partly from average figures, and on the basis of crudt; in j)lace of true j^rotein. They indicate, however, that Herd I) was receiving a ration rather deficient in protein, and that Herd E was receiving at least 38.4 per cent, over that required for maintenance and milk. Milk Yield and Milk Shrinkage. Character of Ration. Milk produced .\nd Shrink.^ge. Herd. Total Yield (Pounds). First Week (Pounds). Last Week (Pounds). Per Cent. Shrinkage. D E Low protein, High protein, 9,287.1 11,161.5 446.3 514.5 368.8 401.6 17.4 21.9 In spite of the fact that the three cows comprising Herd D received hardly sufficient protein for maintenance and milk produced, they did not shrink as much during a period of twenty-four weeks as did the three cows in Herd E, which re- ceived substantially 38 per cent, protein in excess of supposed requirements. Such a result can only be explained on the ground that the animals were too few in number to give accu- rate results by the group method, and that individuality rather than food appeared to be the controlling factor. See also Exper- iment VIII. Experiment VIII. — 1908-09. This experiment was planned primarily to study the protein requirements of dairy animals. It will not show ihe effect of protein upon the chemical composition of the milk. Plan of the Experiment. — Inasmuch as the cows in the herd ' calved at different times, the experiment was planned with pairs of cows, i.e., each pair of cows, when ready, was started, 114 EXPERLAIEXT STATION. [Jan. one on a diet approximately sufficient to furnish protein for maintenance plus that contained in the milk, and the other on a diet containing some I/2 pound more protein daily than the nuiintenance and milk requirements. Duration of the Experiment. — The experiment was planned to continue substantially through a milking period, or until the animals were so far advanced in lactation as to cease to respond to the influence of food. Weighing the Coivs. — Each animal was weighed for three consecutive da^^s at the beginning of the period, and for three days each two weeks thereafter. Sampling Feeds. — The hay fed was sampled at the begin- ning of the period for each pair of cows, and each two weeks thereafter. The samples were placed in glass-stoppered bottles, taken to the la])oratory and dry-matter determinations made at once. The method of sampling has been described in preced- ing experiments. Each kind of grain was sampled daily during the process of weighing out, and the composite samjjles preserved in glass- stoppered bottles. Dry-matter determinations w^ere made once each month, and the monthly samples composited. Character of Feeds. — It was intended to procure one lot of hay of the same quality sufficient to last during the entire experiment. Owing to several unfortunate circumstances this was not possible. Three different lots w^ere secured, and com- posite samples of each analyzed. The digestibility was not determined, but approximate coefficients applied, depending upon the analysis and general appearance of the hay. The several grains were procured in large amounts and average digestion coefficient applied. Sampling Milk. — The milk of each cow^ w^as sam]>led for five consecutive days at the beginning of the period, and each two weeks thereafter. It Avas tested for total solids, for fat by the Babcoek method in duplicate, and for nitrogen by the Ivjeldahl method. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 115 Ilislorij of the Cows. Pairs. Cows. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Daily Yield at Beginning of Ex- periment. Pounds. I II.. ..... . . I .v.. . . 1 v.. . . 1 Minnie, Mary, . Samantha, Chub, . Betty, . May Rio, Daisy, . Cecile, . Red III.. Betty II., Grade Holstein, . Grade Holstein, . Jersey-Holstein, . Grade Holstein, . High-grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, . High-grade Jersey, Pure Jersey, . High-grade Jersey, High-grade Jersey, 8 10 6 10 4 6 11 4 2 2 September 12, September 5, August 27, September 1, September 25, October 13, October 22, October 10, October 30, 26.0 20.0 26.0 20.0 26.3 27.5 28.7 25.7 29.0 Duration of Experiment. Cows. Preliminary Period began. Period Proper. Number of Days. Minnie October 10, October 17 through April ,30, 196 Mary, October 10, October 17 through April 30, 196 Samantha, October 10, October 17 through May 28, 224 Chub, October 10, October 17 through May 28, 224 Betty, October 24, November 14 through June 11, 210 May Rio. . October 24, November 14 through June 11, 210 Daisy, October 31, November 14 through May 28, 196 Cecile, October 31, November 14 through May 28, 196 Red III., . November 28, December 12 through June 11, 182 Betty II., . December 17, December 26 through June 11, 168 liG EXrEllLMEXT STATION, [Jan. L'alionn cousuuted dailij J>u K(uh Cow (Pounds). Character of Ration. Number of Days. Cows. Hay. Wheat Bran. Corn Meal. Gluten Feed. High protein, . Low protein. 196 224 210 196 108 196 224 210 196 182 Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, Samantha, May Rio, Daisy, . Red III., 21.4 17.6 19.4 17.0 16.4 20.0 22.0 19.6 19.3 19.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 .80 .43 1.00 3.51 3.90 4.80 4.00 4.00 3.93 3.51 3.87 3.48 3.00 .51 .44 .41 Average, high protein. Average, low protein. - - 18.4 20.1 3.0 3.2 .74 4.10 3.56 .45 The substantial difference in the rations of the two lots of cows consisted in the fact that the high-protein cows received the gluten feed and the low-protein cows the corn meal. Dry and Digesiihle Matter in Daily Ixations (Pounds). Dry Matter. Digestible. Character of Ration. Cows. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Total. Nu- tritive Ratio. High protein, . Low protein, . Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, . Samantha, May Rio, Dai.sy, . Red III., 25.1 21.3 23.9 21.1 20.7 23.8 26.0 24.2 22.7 23.7 2.05 1.79 1.95 1.74 1.61 1.47 1.44 1.36 1.34 1.36 .55 .38 .43 ,38 .38 .42 .43 .44 .39 .41 12.26 10.41 12.04 11.06 10.32 12.23 12.90 12.70 11.01 12.63 14.86 12.58 14.42 13.18 12.31 14.12 14.77 14.50 13.34 14.40 1:6.57 1:6.28 1:6.66 1:6.84 1:6.93 1:8.95 1:9.02 1:10.51 1:9.30 1:9.95 Average, high protein, Average, low protein. 22.4 24.1 1.83 1.39 .42 .42 11.22 12.41 13.47 14.27 1:6.65 1:9.61 It will be seen that the cows vccciving the larger amount of protein did not receive by .8 of a pound as much total digesti- 1911.1 PlIBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 117 ble matter as the low-protciii cows. Tlio amount of food fed daily to each cow was gauged partly by the appetite of the animal. The high-protein cows received only .44 of a pound more digcslihlc protein than the other herd. Influence of Ilaiions on Weight {Pounds). Character of Ration. Cows. Average Weight. Weight at Beginning. Weight at End. Total Gain or Loss. High protein, Low protein. Mary, . Chub. . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II., Minnie, . Samantha, May Rio, Daisv, . Red "III., 1,074 1,011 809 80.5 743 971 1,008 820 8.30 837 1,047 9.55 843 783 742 923 995 825 798 807 1,102 1,007 «95 827 ■ 745 1,018 1,142 827 862 867 +55 -f-112 +52 +44 +03 +95 + 147 +02 +64 +60 Herd average, high. Herd average, low. - 900 906 874 869 927 943 +266 +368 The cows receiving the low-protein ration gained rather more in weight than the other herd ; whether this wa.s due to the character of the ration, or whether it simply depended upon the individuality of the animal, it is difficult to say. True^ Protein Balance {Pounds). Char.^^cter of Ration. Cows. True Protein digested. Protein required for Main- tenance. Protein found in Milk. (N.X6.25). Excess over Main- tenance and Milk Require- ments. Per- centage Excess. High protein, . Low protein. Mary, . Chub, . Betty, . Cecile, . Betty II.. Minnie, Samantha. . May Rio, Daisv, . Red III., 350.97 368.24 380.61 316.38 256.82 277.15 320.40 284.48 259.20 247.13 147.35 158,52 127.74 110.45 87.37 133.22 167.46 121.42 113.87 106.63 143.10 124.71 156.35 136.07 114.69 143.73 168.14 136.07 140.52 119.58 60.52 85.01 96 52 69.86 54.75 00.20 —15.20 26.99 4.80 20.92 20.8 30.0 34.0 28.3 27.1 + —4.5 10.5 1.9 9.2 The high-protein cows received an average of 28 per cent, of protein over maintenance and milk requirements, while in case of the low-])rotein cows the percentage varied from an actual shortage of 4.5 per cent, to a surplus of 10.5 per cent: ' Amines were determined and deducted from the total protein, the above results being ex- pressed as true albuminoids. 118 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. (^ 1 CO CO '^. 0 05 >n t~ 0 -* ■^ < us 02 S a m ^1 i o " "5 00 0 d « r* CM d 00 0 0 Ci ■^ ■^ CO CI CM •^ rr CO H ^1 PL, Q I^ t^ t^ r^ rt « •* .- 0 ■* J^ U5 c^ «» 0 -.r CO I" ■^ 0 U5 .sis S 1^ O 02 •< H ^ CO >o CO tr> 0 "5 q t- 05 <3i J a r^ CO o> CO d f,^ CO (-^ >ra CM O g oo o> CO CO 0 Q «5 ■«< lO us ■ -.»" CO CO 2 ^"C (2^ 0 1^ » *** ■* •* 00 CO en CO *** ■.* C3? CO CO 00 _; _J 00 CI 0 1 1 o CO 0 0 ^^ *"■ CM CM CM CI CM CM CM o ^^ p 0 O & m Tj* CO ^ •^ 0 ^^ trs t^ C7i ■ra 2^ CO CO 05 •0 00 ci i^ 1 1 M •.J^ •^ 0 00 C) 0 »o >-I CI CO CO CO CO S Pi* t^ ^^ o ^ CO CO 0 0 U5 CO 1 1 1 •<»* ■.*< CO r>- >o CO d CO CO d C-l 00 CO 00 CM ■* O CO o CO CM_ CO CO <^ H -»J*^ CO •^ CO CO " ■.J^ TT CO CO m ca -a 0 & p >> 0 ^ 6 '5 .9 a 03 a ^ -0 .a o 1 P3 J^ OS CO Q Pi b. c K ?i , u o . ■5 a J3 ',5 B 2 . „ o $. 0 bC 03 0 C3 .a » u 0 Si < W ►3 < 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 119 Influence of Protein on Milk Shrinkage {Average Itcsults). Chauacter op Ration. Weight of Cow (Pounds). Digestible Protein consumed daily per Cow (Pounds). Percentage Excess of Protein over Kequire- ments. Total Shrinkage (Per Cent.). Weekly Shrinkage (Per Cent.). High protein, Low protein, 900 906. 1.83 1.39 22 3 34.7 33.9 1.4 1.4 The average amount of digestible protein consnmed daily by each of the high-protein cows (1.83 jxmnds) was not qnite as high as intended, hence the difference between the low and high protein rations was not particularly pronounced. Never- theless, one would expect if the conditions were reasonably satisfactory that the low-protein cows would have shrunk in their milk yield (over an average of two hundred days) rather more than the high-protein cows. Such, however, was not the case, the shrinkage of both herds being substantially identical. The only explanation that can be offered is the undue influence of individuality and the small number of cows in each group. For example, Mary shrunk 49 per cent, during the experiment, it being characteristic of this animal to dry off quite rapidly after she had been four months with calf; Daisy also had such a tendency. The individuality of each animal, as well as its age and condition, all have a pronounced influence, especially when the experiment is extended over a long period of time, and in order to arrive at the truth a large number of animals must be used with as near similar conditions as it is possible to secure. Is it probable that if an animal receives sufficient protein to supply the daily demands of her body (maintenance) and of the milk produced, she will not shrink in her yield during a milking 'period any more than when she is receiving 25 to 50 per cent, protein in excess of the actual re- quirements ? In other words, is it not possible that the excess protein acts as a stimulus for a time, after which the in- dividuality of the animal becomes the more pronounced factor ? 120 EXl'KULMENT STATION. [Jan. Conclusions. The following general conclusions may be drawn from tlie experiments reported : — 1. A large excess of digestible protein (1.5 pounds, or 100 per cent.) above the protein minimum increased the flow of milk some 15 per cent, in experiments extending over periods of i()\\r weeks. 2. ]S"o particular difference was noted in the milk yield in case of two herds of cows receiving the same amount of total digestible matter, one receiving 65 per cent, and the other 122 per cent, of digestible protein above the protein minimum. Such a result indicates, at least, that the former excess was s^ufficient. 3. A 50 per cent, excess of digestible protein daily above the protein minimum in an experiment by the reversal method, extending over a period of nine weeks, produced some 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration with 21 jier cent, excess protein. 4. Under similar conditions an excess, above the minimum, of C5 per cent, digestible protein produced 7.4 per cent, more milk than did an excess of 39 per cent, (experiment covered twenty-six days). 5. In experiment VI., extending over a period of eleven weeks with twelve cows, by the group method, an excess of .54 of a jiound of protein, or 31.3 per cent., over the protein minimum, produced an apparent increase of 10 per cent, in the milk yield. In experiment VIII., extending over periods of twenty-four to thirty weeks with ten cows, by the group method, the cows receiving the protein minimum did not shrink any more than those receiving each .44 of a pound, or 28 per cent., protein above the minimum. 0. The group method of experimentation is best suited for conducting experiments where a relatively large nund)er of ani- mals — twenty or more — is available. With a less number the influence of individuality is altogether too pronounced. 7. An excess of 30 per cent, of digestible crude protein above the ]u-otein minimum (equal to 1.80 pounds of protein per 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 121 (lav) will be productive of satisfactory results in case of cows weighing' 900 pounds and producing daily 12 quarts of 4 per cent, milk.^ An excess of 50 per cent, of digestible crude protein above the protein minimum is believed to be ample for all ordinary requirements. 8. Protein in excess of the above suggested amounts may temporarily increase the milk yield, but it seems probable that in many cases the influence of individuality is likely to be more pronounced than the efl"ect of the protein consumed. 9. Under the usual conditions, varying amounts of ]irotein ajipear to be without influence upon the composition of the milk. ' Armsby, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, United States Department of Agriculture, expresses substantially the same idea in allowing .05 of a pound of digestible true protein for each pound of average milk, in addition to the maintenance requirement of .5 of a pound of digestible true protein per 1,000 pounds live weight. It is possible that animals can even do very good work with .04 of a pound of protein for each pound of milk. 122 EXPKIUMEXT STATION. [Jan. THE DETERMINATION OF ARSENIC IN INSECTICIDES. BY E. B. HOLLAND, During the past three years the writer ^ has given considerable time to the study of arsenical insecticides, with special reference to their manufacture, composition and use, — the main object of which was to provide the entomological department of this station with chemicals of known composition, suitable for an extended investigation to determine their effect in practical ap- plication under varying climatic and atmospheric conditions. Eor more than a decade the analysis of arsenicals has received marked attention because of the high value of a number of these salts as insecticides. The sale of inferior, adulterated or imita- tion products lacking in efficiency, or causing severe injury to foliage, has rendered necessary a certain amount of supervision by the agricultural experiment stations of the country. In sev- eral States special laws have been enacted to regulate the sale and to provide for an inspection of such materials. Arsenic as trioxide or pentoxide is the active constituent of these com- pounds, and various methods of several distinct types and nu- merous modifications have been proposed for its determination. Some of the methods are applicable to arsenous acid and others to arsenic acid. Methods.- As the work ]ilanned liv the entomological department would require many analyses, it was desirable that the methods adopted should be reasonably short and simple, though accuracy would be the controlling factor. The literature on the determination of arsenic was reviewed at some length. The results, while somewhat overwhelming, can be roughly summarized under gravimetric methods, volumetric methods and processes for the elimination of substances liable to affect the determination. A > Assisted by Dr. R. D. MacLaurin, Prof. S. F. Howard, C. D. Kennedy and J. C. Reed. 1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 123 classiticatiou of this cliaractor is opcu to criticism, Init M'ill serve the purpose intended. The gTavimetric methods include the hydrogen sulfide pre- cipitation of arsenous acid ^ weighable as arsenous sulfide after removal of the excess sulfur ; the Neher modification - of the Bunsen method,^ precipitating arsenic acid with hydrogen sul- fide, weighahle as arsenic sulfide ; the modified Levol method, precipitating arsenic acid with " magnesia mixture," weighal)le as magnesium pyro-arsenate ; and the Werther method,'* precijii- tating arsenic acid with uranyl acetate, weighable as uranyl P3'ro-arsenate. The inherent faults of the sulfide methods render them impracticable. The modified Levol method, the most l)rominent of the gravimetric, is complicated, tedious and tends towards low results. All of these methods are time consumers, and none of them appear to have met with favor, having of late been almost entirely superseded by volumetric. The volumetric methods include the Kessler method, •'' oxidiz- ing arsenous acid with potassium bichromate and titrating the excess chromic acid with standard ferrous sulfate, using potas- sium f erri-cyanide to determine the end point ; the permanganate method, titrating arsenous acid with standard potassium perman- ganate to a rose color ; the Mohr method, titrating arsenous acid with standard iodine in the presence of sodium bicarbonate, using starch paste as indicator ; the Bunsen method,*^ based on the diiference in amount of chlorine evolved from hydrochloric acid by a given weight of potassium bichromate in the presence of arsenous acid, the gas being conducted into potassium iodide and the free iodine titrated with standard sodium thiosulfate, using starch paste as indicator ; the Krickhaus method/ reducing arsenic acid to arsenous with hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide, and titrating the free iodine with standard thiosulfate ; the Bennett modification ^ of the Pierce method,^ precipitating arsenic acid with silver nitrate and titrating the silver in the precipitate with potassium sulphocyanate, according to Vol- hard; ^"^ and the Bodeker method, ^^ titrating arsenic acid with 1 Freseniua, Quan. Chem. Anal. 8 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 431 (1899). 2 Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., 32, 45 (1893). » Proc. Col. Sci. Soc, Vol. 1. • Ann. Chem. Pharm., 192, 305. >" Liebi^'s Ann. Chem., 190, 1 (1878). * Jour. Prakt. Chem., 43, 346 (1848). " Ann. Chem. Pharm., 117, 195. « Poggend. Ann., 118, 17, Series 4 (1863). 6 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 86, 290. ' Engin. and Min. Jour., 90, 357. See Sutton for earlier references. 124 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. standard uranyl nitrate, using potassium ferrocyanide to deter- mine the end point. The Kessler and Bodeker methods are ob- jectionable in their requirement of an " outside " indicator. The Buiisen and Bennett methods are lengthy, and demand very careful manipulation. The permanganate titration is not as sensitive as the iodine, and the Krickhaus method oifers no ad- vantages in its application to arsenic acid over a similar reduc- tion and titration with iodine. In other words, the iodine titra- tion method (Mohr) seemed to us rather superior to any other in point of accuracy, manipulation and time, and was adopted for the work in \'iew. There arc a number of processes that are noted more particu- larly as a means of eliminating impurities likely to effect the arsenic determination, among which may be mentioned the dis- tillation processes of rischer,^ Piloty and Stock,- Stead. '"^ and Jannasch and Seidel,^ using hydrochloric acid in connection with reducing substances such as ferrous salts, hydrogen sulfide, and potassium bromide and hydrazine hydrochloride. The above list of methods is far from complete, but attention has been called to practically every type applicable to commercial products. loDixE Method (Mohr). x\s previously stated, the iodine method appeared to offer the greatest advantages, and was selected. A clear understanding of the character and limitations of the reaction underlying the method is necessary at the outset. Iodine is an indirect oxidizer, acting on the elements of water with the formation of hydriodic acid and the liberation of oxygen. AS2O3 + 41-^2 H2O = AsoOr, + 4 HI. The oxidation cannot be conducted in an acid or neutral solu- tion because of the reversible action of the hydriodic acid. If the latter is neutralized with sodium bicarbonate as rapidly as produced, the reaction will proceed to completion. Caustic alkali or carbonate cannot l)o employed, as thoy absorb iodine, the former being especially active. The reaction between starch > Ztachr. Analyt. Cliem., 21, 266 (1882). 2 Ber. Deut. Chom. Gcsell., 30, 1649 (1897). ' Sutton, Vol. .\nal., Edit. 9, 159 (1904). * Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 43, 1218 (1910). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 125 and iodine in the presence of hydriodic acid or solnble iodide is one of the most sensitive in analytical chemistry, forming the characteristic blue iodide of starch. A more delicate indicator conkl not be desired. Sin(;e the method was first applied to the analysis of arsenicals numerous modifications have been devised to insure complete solution of the arsenic, to prevent oxidation, to eliminate or render innocuous substances that mii>ht efi'ect llu^ titration, and to enhirge its field of application so as to readily include the arsenates. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists began work on insecticides in 1800 and has rendered valuable service. !N"ew Processes. The introduction of the Thorn Smith process ^ marked a turn- ing point m the analysis of arsenicals. It was intended particu- larly for Paris green, and is the official method for that sub- stance. Solution of the arsenic is eftected by boiling the sample with a slight excess of sodium hydrate, which readily unites with the free arsenous acid, and also with the combined after displacing the copper. In presence of a reducing substance like sodium arsenite, the copper is precipitated as cuprous oxide and a portion of the arsenous acid oxidized to arsenic. This oxida- tion necessitates a subsequent reduction of the filtrate with hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide (hydriodic acid), and the removal of the excess iodine with thiosulfate. The solution is neutralized with dry sodium carbonate, an excess of sodium bi- carbonate added, and titrated with iodine. The process is accurate, though the double titration is objectionable. Avery and Beans devised a very ingenious process - noted for its simplicity. The Paris green is pulverized, solution eftected with concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, neu- tralized with sodium carbonate, the precipitated copper redis- solved with sodium potassiiun tartrate and titrated as usual. The copper held by the alkaline tartrate colors the solution but does not eft'ect the titration. Hydrochloric acid, however, is a poor solvent for free arsenic, and unreliable, which constitutes a very serious objection to the process. Avery noted this error and advised ^ that samples showing a tendency to separate white « Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21, 769 (1899). 3 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 25, 1096 (1903). 2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 23, 4S5 (1901). 126 EXPERLAIEXT STATION. [Jan. arsenic should be treated with X/2 hydrochloric acid, 5 to 10 cubic centimeters for each .1 of a gram, and boiled gently. In case arsenic remains undissolved, a cold saturated solution of sodium acetate, 3 grams salt for each .1 of a gram of substance, is added, and boiling continued until solution is effected. By another modification ^ suggested by Avery, and reported by Thatcher,^ 1 gram sample is boiled five minutes with 25 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate solution (1-2), dissolving the free arsenic which is removed by filtration. The residue is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid and both solutions titrated. Haywood attempted, in several ways,^ to modify the original A\'ery-Beans process so as to insure solution of the free arsenic. After treating the sample with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid at laboratory temperature, sodium carbonate was added and the solution boiled. In another case sodium bicarbonate was employed, but the results were unsatisfactory in both in- stances, due to more or less reduction of copper and accompany- ing oxidation of arsenous acid. Accurate results were secured, however, by filtering off the hydrochloric acid solution and boil- ing the residue with 5 grams of sodium bicarbonate, titrating both solutions. Haywood proposed still another modification ^ which might be considered a simplified Avery-Thatcher process ; ^ .4 of a gram sample is boiled ten minutes with 25 cubic centimeters sodium acetate solution (1-2) to dissolve free arsenic, and con- centrated hydrochloric acid carefully added until solution is effected. After neutralizing with a solution of sodium carbonate, avoiding an excess, alkaline tartrate and sodium bicarbonate are added and titrated as usual. The Avery, Avery-Thatcher and Avery-Haywood processes cmi)loy the same reagents, differing only in their application. The co-operative investigation ^ of the association in 1004 showed that the three above modifications, together with the Haywood, gave closely agi'eeing results, with little, if any, advantage in the ' Optional official method, Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem.. 20, 196 (1903). 8 .Tour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 25, 9R3 (1903). * Proc. Assoc. Ofif. Agr. Chem., 20, 197 (1903). Optional official method of the association. ' Loco citato. « Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 21, 98 (1904). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127 two-solution processes over the one. In 1905 the results ^ with the Avery-Thatcher and Aver y-II ay wood modifications were not as satisfactory though the average difference was not excessive. In weighing the merits of the Thorn Smith process and various modifications of the Avery-Beans, with apparently little choice as to accuracy, the Avery or Avery-Hay^vood process, with one titration of a single solution, certainly appeals to chemists in " control " work from the standpoint of manipulation, possible mechanical losses and time. This does not warrant any less care in conducting the analysis, but, if anything, demands greater attention. The essential features of the Avery-Haywood process have been employed at the Massachusetts station for the work on arsenites, though considerably modified as to detail. Pkactice at MxVssachusetts Station". Having adopted Thatcher's suggestion - as to ratio of sample to acetate solution, 1 to 25, and finding 25 cubic centimeters rather inadequate for jH'oper boiling and agitation, double quan- tity of each is taken. To prevent slight loss of sample in trans- ferring to flask, due to both adhesion and dusting, boats of folded filter paj^er are employed, and found very serviceable, particularly for Paris green and arsenic for standard solution. After boiling the solution five minutes with acetate, the direc- tions call for the careful addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid imtil solution is effected. Such a procedure in our hands gave extremely variable results and generally a low test for arsenic. This error necessitated several w'eeks of experiment- ing, and was found to be due to the addition of concentrated acid, dilute acid (1-3) giviiig uniform results in practically every instance, and a higher test. Probably this has been one of the sources of trouble vrith the chemists reporting on association samples by the above process in past years. Neutralizing with sodium carbonate, in dry form or concentrated solution, will introduce an error if added in excess. The use of sodium bicar- bonate is preferable for the purpose as the latter salt does not absorb iodine and eliminates an unnecessary reagent. As con- « Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 22, 27 (1905). 2 Proc. Assoc. Ofif. Agr. Chem., 21, 99 (1904). 128 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. centration has a certain influence on titration, it is advisable to maintain approximately the same volume in every case. The tendency of some solutions to become muddy on titration can often be relieved by additional bicarbonate, though the condi- tions involved seem to have no appreciable influence on the results. The quality of all reagents employed in the determina- tion should be proved Ia' blank tests, which should not exceed .10 of a cul)i(' centimeter iodine solution for the amounts em- ployed. Some lots of bicarbonate have been found unfit for such work. Due recognition should be given the blank in calcu- lating results. Considerable trouble is often experienced in determining in- soluble matter with hydrochloric acid, due to the splitting ofl" of white arsenic, especially with Paris green. To oflset the diffi- culty it was found advisable to combine the determination with that of preparing the arsenic solution by simply filtering oft" the residue. The points noted above may be briefly summarized : — Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 50 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate (1-2), to a 500 cubic centi- meter graduated flask, and boil five minutes. Cool under tap, add about GO cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (1-3), and shake until solution is effected. ]\lake to volume and filter. Pipette 25 or 50 cubic centimeters into an Erlenmeycr flask, neutralize with dry sodium bicarbonate, add 25 cubic centimeters of sodium potassium tartrate ^ (1-10), to redissolve precipitated copper, approximately 3 grams of sodium bicarbonate, water sufficient to make a volume of 100 cubic centimeters, 2 cubic centimeters starch paste (1-200), and titrate with ]S[/20 iodine to a permanent blue color. Toward the end of the reaction cork the flask and shake vigorously, to insure proper end point. Cal- culate results as arsenous oxide. The residue in the graduated flask is brought onto the filter, well washed, calcined in a porce- lain crucible and weighed as insoluble matter. The above process has given excellent results with copper aceto-arsenite, copper arsenite and calcium arsenite. Sodium acetate does not prevent hydrolysis of copper and calcium arse- nitcs, as in the case of Paris green, but serves to take up free ' Used only with the copper areenites. I'Jll.j PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 129 arsenic. The presence of such impurities as cuprous and ferrous compounds, sulfuroiis and nitrous acids or other oxidizable sub- stances is a source of error by the iodine titration method. Iodine Method for Arsenates. The increasing use of lead arsenate as an insecticide resulted in a demand for a rapid volumetric method for the determina- tion of the arsenic acid. The Gooch and Browning process/ as modified by Haywood,^ serves to readily reduce arsenic acid to arsenous, in which form the iodine titration method is applicable. The process in our hands did not at first prove satisfactory, but eventually yielded concordant results after minor changes. As the differences are largely a matter of detail, not involving- principle, only the modified process will be given. Transfer 2 grams of finely ground sample, together with 60 cubic centimeters of nitric acid (1-3), to a 500 cubic centimeter graduated flask ; bring to boil, cool, make to volume and filter. Pipette 50 or 100 cubic centimeters into a 150 cubic centimeter Jena Griffin beaker, add 10 cubic centimeters of sulfuric acid (2-1), evaporate, heat in an air bath at 150-200° C. to expel last traces of moisture, and then on asbestos board, to the appear- ance of dense white fumes, to insure complete removal of nitric acid. Add a small quantity of water, and when cold, filter through a sugar tube under suction into a 300 cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, and wash to about 150 cubic centimeters. Add 10 cubic centimeters of potassium iodide (165-1,000) and boil until free iodine is expelled, — solution practically colorless, — with the reduction of arsenic to arsenous acid. AsoOo + 4 HI = AS2O3 + 4 I -f 2 H2O. Dilute, cool immediately, neutralize approximately three- quarters of the free acid with 20 per cent, sodium hydrate solu- tion, add starch paste, and if any free iodine remains, add dilute (iSr/50) thiosulfate carefully, with vigorous shaking, to the absence of blue color. 2 1 + 2 Na2S203 = Na2S406 + 2 NaT. 1 Amer. Jour. Sci., 40, 66 (1890). 2 Proc. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., 2.3, 1G5 (1906). Provisional method of the association. 130 EXPEULMENT STATION. [Jan. Make up to about 150 cubic centimeters, add excess of sodium bicarbonate and titrate as usual with 'N/20 iodine, rei3orting as arsenic oxide. The residue in the graduated flask is brought onto the Alter, washed, calcined and weighed as insoluble matter. Care should be taken to have sufficient sulfuric acid to cover the bottom of the beaker when heated on asbestos. A decided excess of acid is also necessary when boiling with potassium iodide to insure vigorous action and rapid volatilization of iodine. Undue concentration should be avoided. If free iodine persists add more water and continue the boiling. The use of caustic soda is permissible under the conditions described. The livdrate is a much more convenient and rapid agent than the carbonate. Practically no difference was noted in the titration when the lead sulfate was allowed to remain, but the data at hand do not cover a sufficient number of samples to warrant a statement that this will always hold true. The iodine method, as modified for arsenitcs and arsenates, has been given a careful study, and proved repeatedly, in the work at the Massachusetts station, to yield excellent results in the analysis of the insecticides mentioned, if reasonable attention is paid in following the details. While no radical changes in the method have been recommended, this article is offered in hopes that some of the points noted may prove of assistance to other analysts working along similar lines. I'Jll.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 131 PURIFICATION OF INSOLUBLE FATTY ACIDS. I3Y E. B. HOLLAND. Workers in oils and fats experience the same difficulty in obtaining chemically pure products as investigators in other lines of organic chemistry. The best insoluble fatty acids on the market — judging from our experience — are unsatisfactory in both physical characteristics and neutralization number. In general appearance the acids that are offered resemble granu- lated curd, though varying in color from white to yellow, and contain considerable dust and dirt. The molecular weight, as measured by titration in an alcoholic solution, may deviate from the theoretical by 10 to 15 points. These statements apply to chemicals marked " C. P." and bearing the name of a reputable manufacturer or dealer. The writer required stearic, palmitic, myristic, lauric and oleic acids for certain tests, and, finding it impossible to purchase them of the desired quality, was forced to undertake a study of various methods for their purification. As the character of the unsaturated acids is so unlike that of the saturated, only treat- ment of the latter will be considered at this time. The methods that seemed the best adapted for the purpose were (a) distilla- tion of the fatty acids in vacuo, (6) crystallization from alcohol, and (c) distillation of the ethyl esters in vacuo, and all were given extended trial. A. Distillation of the Fatty Acids in Vacuo. Direct distillation under reduced pressure was successfully employed a few years ago by Partheil and Ferie,^ starting with Kahlbaum's best acids. Upon careful test the writer found that the method possessed certain objectionable features which render it rather impracticable for ordinary use. If it was merely a » Arch. Pharm., 241, 545 (1903). 132 EXPERLM1-:XT STATION. [Jan. question of distillation of the acids the process would be less difficult, but for fractionation, using a Bruehl or similar type aj^paratus, it proved almost impossible, in case of the higher acids, to prevent solidification in the side neck (outflow tube). The danger arising from a plugged apparatus at the high tem- jierature involved has also to be taken into account. An attempt Avas made to heat the tube and keep the acidsdiquid by means of a hot-water jacket, also by an electrically heated asbestos cover- ing, but neither process fully met the requirements of the case. The slow distribution of heat in vacuo is, of course, one of the obstacles in the way. 'For the distillation of solids of high melt- ing point Bredt and A. van dor Maaren-Jansen ^ devised an elaborate piece of apparatus having a flask and receiver of spe- cial construction, and an overflow tube heated by electricity, but it is hardly suited for a general laboratory or for handling any considerable quantity of material. There are two other conditions necessary for a successful dis- tillation of fatty acids, namely, absence of moisture and a cur- rent of hydrogen or carbon dioxide to prevent bumping and to lessen decomposition. Overlapping of the acids in difl^erent fractions cannot be obviated entirely, and if an unsaturated acid was present in the original, it will probably appear in nearly every fraction. Students under the direction of Professor Burrows of the University of Vermont have applied this process for a partial separation of the insoluble acids of several oils with a fair meas- ure of success. With all due allowance for the possibilities of the method in the production of pure saturated fatty acids, the inherent difficulties render it inadvisable in most instances. B. Crystai^lizatioi^t from Alcohol. Crystallization in this connection is practically limited in its application to the removal of a small amount of impurities, especially unsaturated acids. It can hardly be considered other than a supplementary treatment, though excellent for that pur- pose, to follow either of the distillation methods. Dry neutral alcohol suitable for such work can be prepared by distillation after treatment with caustic lime. In dissolving the acids care « Liebig'a Ann. Chem., 354, 367 (1909). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 133 should be taken to avoid heating to a higher temperature than is required for solution, or to prolong the heating unduly, as it will cause the formation of esters. Several minutes' boiling of the ditfercnt fatty acids in alcohol caused the following loss in neutralization nund)cr: — Stearic acid, ........... 1.70 Palmitic acid, ........... .56 Myristie acid, 2.24 Laurie acid, ........... .89 Oleic acid, ........... .28 Esterification undoubtedly causes a serious error by this process of purification. Under more careful treatment the change is not as rapid as shown above, but is evidently cumula- tive and may even exceed the figures given. Further study may warrant the substitution of a more stable solvent, such as acetone. For the filtration a w'ater or ice jacketed funnel is almost neces- sary, particularly for the acids of low melting point, and suc- tion is a time saver. Repeated crystallization is needed to bring out the true crystalline structure and silvery luster of the leaflet. Vacuum drying at a low temperature is one of the most efficient means for removing adhering alcohol and traces of moisture without injuring the structure. Crystallization as a whole is wasteful of acids and solvent unless both are recovered, but is essential for the production of a superior product. C. Distillation of the Ethyl Esters in Vacuo. As ethyl esters distill freely in vacuo, the process admits of a more ready application, and to products of a greater range of purity, than does a distillation of the acids. After considerable exi:)erimenting it was found that the esters are easily prepared by heating in an open flask equal parts (100 grams) of fatty acids and alcohol, together with a small quantity (10 cubic cen- timeters) of concentrated hydrochloric acid, using capillary tubes to prevent bumping. The reaction requires about thirty minutes, after which the excess of hydrochloric acid can be removed with a separatory funnel. The distillation is con- ducted in a 500 cubic centimeter " low " side neck flask, with a small (8 inch) Liebig condenser and a large size Bruehl frac- 134 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tionatioii ajji^aratus. Heat is furnished bv means of a linseed oil bath, and suction by a pumjj of any type, using a mercury manometer to prove constancy of vacuum. The neck of the flask from the shoulder to an inch or more above the side tul.>e should be wound with asbestos paper to prevent cracking, due to sudden changes of temperature. The condenser should be kept full of water, without circulation, to serve as a hot-water jacket. The vacuum should be as high as the flask will safely withstand, but above all uniform, otherwise the fractions are of questionable value. The temj^erature range of an ester also varies with the distance between surface of liquid and side tube. At least one redistillation of like fractions is necessary. As the esters are very stable, more difficulty was experienced in finding some means for their quantitative decomposition than in any other portion of the work. Heating with mineral acids hydrolizes the fatty acids very slowly, even nnder pressure. Tf, however, the esters are first sai:)onified ^ by heating over a naked flame with twice their volume of glycerol and an excess of caus- tic potash until all the alcohol is expelled, and then the result- ing soap dissolved in water and heated on a water bath with a slight excess of sulfuric acid, the separation is readily accom- plished. This plan was suggested by the Leifmann-Beam sapon- ification for volatile acids, and after extended trial proved the most thorough and rapid means for decomposing the esters. The resulting acid should be washed in a separatory funnel with boiling water until clear, and the cake allowed to drain. As previously stated, several crystallizations are necessary if a crystalline product of satisfactory melting point and neutrali- zation number is to be secured. When crude acids are employed it is also advisable to crystallize at the outset to exclude a major ])art of the unsaturated acids, which otherwise would prove troublesome. To summarize: saturated fatty acids may be purified by dis- tillation of the acids or their ethyl esters. The latter method is less hazardous and easier to manipulate, although more steps are required. Crystallization is a finishing rather than an ini- tial process of purification. 1 Observing the usual precautions piven for the determination of insoluble fatty acids, Massa- chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, twenty-first report, p. 130 (1909). 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 135 THE SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES IN ASPAR- AGUS ROOTS. BY FRED W. MORSE, This paper is a simple statement of progress in a study of the composition of the asparagus plant, and is part of an investi- gation of the fertilizer requirements of asparagus now being conducted at this agricultural experiment station. The nutrition of asparagus shoots in early spring necessarily depends on the material stored in the roots, since the mode of growth of the young shoots up to the time of cutting for the table renders assimilation from the atmosphere nearly impossi- ble. Hence, roots were selected as the first portion of the plant to be studied. A search of the literature of asparagus failed to show any- thing about the composition of the roots beyond a few scatter- ing ash analyses and a brief article by Vines ^ on the reserve proteins. Very recently, however, Wichers and Tollens - have reported an extensive study of asparagus roots, and called attention to similar work by Tanret," brief abstracts of whose articles had been overlooked. Since the work has been wholly independent of that just men- tioned, it is believed that this report of progress will be of value at this time. All the material for the work here reported was prepared in other divisions of the department, and consisted of finely pul- verized samples of individual root systems. All of the plant below the surface had been dug up, freed from earth and dried 1 Proc. Royal Soc, 52, 130-132: Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc., 64, 431. 2 Jour. f. Landwirth., .58, 101-116. ' Bui. Soc. Chem. (4), 5, 889. 893; Compt. Rend., 149,48-50; Abstr. Jour. Chem. Soc. (1909), Abstr., 634; Chem. Abstr., 3, 2677. 136 EXPERDIExXT STATION. [Jan. at about 50° C. The roots were secured in Xovember of the second year after setting, when translocation from the tops was believed to be comj^lete. For subsequent study of the effects of different fertilizers the indixidual samples were separately analyzed ; but for this report detailed results are unnecessary. The average i)roximate composition of the dry matter of 10 roots was as follows : — Per Cent. Protein (nitroijon x 0.25), ........ 11.03 Fat 1.00 Fiber, 15.39 Nitrogen- ficc extract, ......... 0G..34 Ash,' G.24 The proximate composition showed clearly that the soluble non-nitrogenous matter included most of the reserve material of the roots. The methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists - for sugars, starch, pentosans and galactans were em- ployed for estimating the different carbohydrates in the reserve material. An examination of 25 roots showed 12 to contain no reducing sugars^ while most of the others had only traces present ; there- fore reducing sugars Avere not estimated, but were reckoned with total sugars. The latter were especially abundant, and ranged from 26.4 per cent, to 50.8 per cent., only two samples contain- ing less than 35 per cent, calculated to dry matter. Pentosans were determined in 16 samples, and ranged from 7.32 per cent, to 10.68 per cent, in the dry matter. Galactans were determined in 4 individual samples and in a composite sample, but were insignificant in amount, averaging only 1.04 per cent. Tn the estimation of starch by the diastase method, it was found that there was no more glucose obtained than w^as account- able from the diastatic extract. Subsequent examination re- vealed starch in only microscopic traces. Six different sam- ples, after having undergone the diastase treatment as for starch, • Ash determinations were made in the fertilizer division of the department. • Bulletin No. 107, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, pp. 38-56. 1911.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 137 were filtered and washed, and the residues then subjected to two hours' boiling under reflux condensers, with 100 cubic centi- meters of HCl of approximately 6 per cent. After cooling the solutions they were nearly neutralized with NaOH, and niade up to 250 cubic centimeters. The reducing sugars were then determined by Fehling's solution and the weights of copper cal- culated to glucose. The 0 samples averaged 8.G per cent, of glucose by this hydrolysis; but since the same samples averaged 8.67 per cent, of pentosans, reckoned from furfurol-phloi-o- glucid, it is improbable that there are any hydrolizable carljo- hydrates unaccounted for by the usual analytical methods. From these different analyses it was found that the dry mat- ter of 16 roots contained — Per Cent. Sugars calenlated as invert sugar, 41.43 Pentosans, 8.78 Galaclans, 1.04 The carl)ohydrate forming over 40 per cent, of the dry matter was at first assumed to l)o sucrose. The analytical procedure had shown it to be soluble in cold water and inactive to Feh- ling's solution until hydrolized, which was easily accomplished by dilute acids. Repeated attempts to recover sucrose by means of strontium hydrate ^ resulted in securing only very small quantities of a straw-colored syrup which could not be crystal- lized, but did not reduce Fehling's solution. Methyl alcohol was found to extract considerable quantities of the sugar from the roots, which suggested raffinose ; but no mucic acid could be obtained by oxidation with nitric acid, although a parallel test with lactose under the same conditions yielded it in abundance. Osazones were prepared from both methyl alcohol and water extracts, before and also after inversion. The characteristic yellow, crystalline precipitate was easily obtained in every case. Five such precipitates had their melting points determined, and they ranged between 203 ° and 210 °, and were accompanied by an evolution of gas. Glucosazone was evidently the only one formed. » E. Schulze, Zeitschr. Physiol. Cham., 20, 513-515. 138 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. About 100 grams of roots were extracted by cold water and the extract concentrated on the water bath to a thick, black, tenacious syrup, which was strongly reducing to Fehling's so- lution. Heat and ijrobably acid salts had brought about a nearly complete hydrolysis during the evaporation. This ex- tract failed to yield mucic acid, but oxalic acid was readily formed. Portions of the syrup were subjected to distillation with HCl of LOG specific gravity, and yielded a small quantity of furfurol. The furfurol-phloroglucid, after being dried and weighed, was found to lose about two-thirds of its weight by solution in hot 93 jx?r cent, alcohol, indicating that it was largely niethyl-furfurol. The action of polarized light was observed upon freshly pre- ])ared water extracts of two different roots, and upon three syrups which had been fractionated by strontium hydrate. The solutions were clarified by lead subacetate, and the readings were made in a Schmidt and Haensch triple shade sacchari- meter through a 200 millimeter tube. The solutions were then inverted and again polarized, together with two solutions of the dense water extract above mentioned. Subsequent to the readings, the actual strength of sugar in each solution was determined with Fehling's solution. The solutions were necessarily dilute, because the roots on moisten- ing swelled to a large volume and small charges had to be used. The three syrups were small in amount, as before mentioned, and the black syrup from the water extract was difficult to clarify to a i)oint where light would pass through it. Polarization he fore Hi/drolysis. SuKar in 100 Cubic Centimeters (Grams). . Saccharimeter Reading. Specific Rotatory Power (Degrees). Root 34, . 1.738 +0.5 +5.0 Root 40, . 2.259 —1.4 — 10.0 Syrup A, . 2.G23 +2.88 +18.9 Syrup B, . 2.775 —1.6 —10.0 Syrup C, . .858 zero zero 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 139 Polarization afler Hydrolysis. Invert Sugar in 100 Cubic Centimeters (Crams). Saccharimeter Reading. Specific Rotatory- Power (Degrees). Root 34, Root 40. Syrup A, Syrup B. Syrup C, Extract 1, Extract 2, .893 1.189 1.381 1.4C1 .452 .930 2.350 -2.33 -4.10 -3.45 -5.25 -1.30 -3.00 -7.80 The action on polarized light both before and after inversion exclndes the possibility of the carbohydrate being pure sucrose, while the failure to secure it with strontium hydrate renders its absence probable. Fructose w^as clearly demonstrated by the osazone and the negative optical activity, also by fine reactions with resorcin and hydrochloric acid. Glucose is indicated by the osazone and the fact that the specific rotatory power of the inverted solu- tions is not high enough for pure fructose. Fructose (dearly predominates over the glucose, and the non-reducing property before hydrolysis indicates some condensation product formed between them. The behavior of individual root extracts does not point to any fixed proportion of the two sugars. These results are, on the whole, in close agreement with those of Wichers and Tollens. There was, however, a marked differ- ence in the behavior of the water extract of the roots, which con- tained the sugar-like carbohydrate. Wichers and Tollens used boiling water, and state that only a portion of this carbohydrate was soluble in water when extractions were made on the water bath. Their solutions also reduced Fehling's solution before hydrolysis. My extractions were all made with water at 20° C, and until hydrolized, had either no reducing action or precipitated no more than traces of copper. This diiference in solubility and reducing action is doubtless 140 EXPEIIIMEXT STATION. [Jan. due to the stage of development of the roots, since Wichers and Tollens worked upon roots gathered in April and July instead of in Xovember. Tanret isolated two distinct crystalline carbohydrates from the root sap, one of which had a rotation of — 85.1 and the other + 80.8. Syrnps A and B fractionated with strontium hydrate showed opposite rotations before inversion, but lack of material has given no opportunity to confirm further his obser- vations. Grateful acknowledgment is luade of suggestions received from ])r. Josejjh B. Lindsey during the progress of this inves- tigation. lUil. PUBLIC DOCUMExNT — No. 31. Ui SEED AVORK, 1910. BY G. E. STONE. The seed work for 1010 includes seed germination, scjiara- tion and the testing for purity. The number of samples of seed sent in for germination exceeded that of 1909, the total num- ber being 296. This germination Avork seems to be on the in- crease from year to year, and a great many more varieties of seed are tested for germination than has been the case in the past. Of the total number of samples sent in this year. 152 v.'cre miscellaneous seeds, a tritle over 50 per cent, of the total number. The number of sam})les of onion seed sent in was a little less than in 1909, and tobacco averaged about the same. The average germination of the tobacco seed, 95 per cent., was slightly better than usual. The lowest germination of any sam- ple of tobacco seed sent in was 89 per cent. On the whole, onion seed last year did not seem to be up to the previous year's standard, as the average germination of all samples was only 77.4 per cent., as against 82.2 per cent, in 1909. The germina- tion of the tobacco seed, with a lowest percentage of 89, tends to prove the theory that large seeds produce large plants ; there- fore in succeeding years better crops are obtained, and, as a result, better seed. Table 1. — Records of Seed Germination, 1910. Number of Samples. Average Per Cent. Per Cent, of Germi- nation. Kind of Seed. Highest. Lowest. Onion, Tobacco, Lettuce, Cucumber, Alfalfa, Clover, Red clover. Miscellaneou 3. 75 7 41 10 4 4 3 152 77.4 95.0 77.7 93.7 98 2 93 0 100.0 66.0 100 0 99 0 100.0 99.0 100.0 97.0 99.5 100.0 3.0 89.0 15.0 85.0 97.0 88.0 98.5 Total, 296 - - - 142 EXFEllLMEM STATION. [Jan. The work in seed separation for lUlO was carried on as usnal, and although a smaller number of samples was separated than in lUOD, the total amount of seed separated, 1,552 pounds, was greater. Of this^ 1,18.'3 pounds were onion seed. The princi})al varieties of seed separated were onion, tobacco and lettuce. The separation of onion seed also tends to show that the seed was not as good this year as it was in 1909, as the average percent- age of good seed was only 88.7 per cent., while the amount of discarded seed w^as slightly larger than in 1909. As in years past, several growers have requested that this station tost the germination of seed both before and after separation, and the results this year resemble those of previous seasons so closely that they will not be inserted in this report. In the case of the separation of lettuce seed, the grower sending the seed often rcHpiests that a certain amount, sometimes in excess of the actual need, be taken out. This, however, is believed to be a good practice in the case of lettuce or tobacco seed, as it is certain that better germination results from removing more than is abso- lutely necessary. Table 2 shows the records of seed separation for 1910. Table 2. — Records of Seed Separation, 1910. Kind of Seed. Number of Samples. Weight (Pounds). Per Cent. of Good Seed. Per Cent. of Discarded Seed. Onion, Tol^acco, ...... Lcltuce, 40 C2 13 1,183.82 44.96 323.45 88.7 89.6 74.4 11.3 10.4 25.6 Total 115 1,552.23 - - ISTo eifort has been made on the part of the station as yet to establish and maintain a seed-control laboratory for the purpose of testing the purity of seed, and therefore in the past year the number of samples of seed sent in for examination as to their ])urity has been small. In all, some 80 samples have been ex- amined ; mostly clovers and grasses, but as this work takes con- siflerable time, no grass mixtures have been examined for purity. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 143 The statiou is always glad tu receive samples of seed for ger- iiiination, and it is b(>]ieved that if the fanner would send his seed in for examination for purity also, he would very often save himself a great deal of trouble and expense, as much of the seed sold in this State is full of weed seeds. It is believed that there should be a seed-control act in Massachusetts, as has been stated in our previous reports, and the sooner this comes the better the farmer will be ser\-ed by the seedsmen, since they are ])erfectly willing to handle good seed if it is w^hat the farmer wants and demands. All samples of seed to be germinated or separated should be addressed to G. E. Stone, Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Amherst, INfass., and the express or freight on these seeds should be prepaid. 144 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. AN OUTBREAK OF RUSTS. BY G. E. STONE. For the j)iisf tlii-oe years certain rusts have increased mate- rially in this State as well as in other sections of the United States. The rnst on the apple, which has been scarcely notice- able for years, at least on our cultivated fruit trees, has become quite common the last three seasons. It was particularly prev- alent three years ago, and quite a little of it has been noticed on apple leaves the past two years. The hawthorne (Crataegus), a i)lant closely related to the apple, has shown a much greater tendency to rust in the period above mentioned than formerly, and some anxiety has been felt by nurserymen who have had to contend with this in their nurseries. The ash rust, which is supposed to have as one of its hosts the grass known as Spartina, has occurred much more com- monly than usual during this period. It is to be found on young growths of ash trees, distorting the twigs. There have also been severe outbreaks of the bean rust lately, although this has given little trouble in former years ; and the hollyhock, rose and quince rusts have been much more common than formerlv. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145 SWEET PEA TROUBLES. BY G. E. STONE. One of the most unsatisfactory types of troul)les with wliieli the pathologist has to deal is that having no specific organism as its primary cause. It is especially difficult to diagnose such diseases where the conditions of growing the plants are almost entirely unknown, and this is the case with most of the miser- able, sickly looking sweet pea jilants sent into the laboratory for diagnosis. There may be well-defined troubles associated with sweet peas, but from 90 to 100 per cent, of them may be ])revented if the grower has even an elementary knowledge (»f the conditions required by this plant. When sweet peas are planted in poor soil, without care or preparation, unfavorable results may be looked for. That such is too often the case is evident from an examination of the ma- terial which is sent in for examination. To obtain a good cro]) of sweet peas unusual care should be given to preparation. A light soil is better than a heavy, compact soil. It is impossible to grow this crop without a good depth of garden loam, and, if this is not available, it must be secured by deep trenching and heavy manuring. Most skillful gardeners maintaiji that the best results are obtained by having a soil which the sweet pea roots can penetrate deeply, and in which they can develop luxuriantly. A trench lVi> to 2 feet deep and the same width, filled with manure and loam, is usmilly sufficient. If a good depth of root development is desired, it is best to sow the seeds in trenches 4 to n inches below^ the surface, and as the ]dants mature the soil can be gradually hoed around the stems. The many speci- mens which we recei^'e from growers testify to the poor condi- tions in which the plants have been grown, there being little root or stem development, and often tubercles on the roots are lack- ing. Proper conditions count very much in gi'owing sweet peas, and when these are given, many so-called " diseases " peculiar 1o this plant disappear. 146 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. A SPINACH DISEASE NEW TO IVIASSACHU- SETTS. BY HARRY M. JENNISON, B.S. Earlv in the spring of 1010 the writer's attention was at- tracted to a plot of winter spinach growing on the college, grounds Avhich had been practically mined by a fungus causing a Slotting of the leaves. The olivaceous color of the spots on the diseased leaves suggested the possible presence of a Clad- osporiuni as the causal organism, but upon microscopical exam- ination the fungus was determined to be Heterosporiuni varia- Ue, Cke. This organism is closely related to that causing the lleterosporium disease of cultivated carnations, known as " fairy ring." It was su]iposed that a disease which could so comjdetely devastate this crop would have been extensively reported, but ujjon thorough search of the literature only a few references to this particular spotting of spinach could be found. In 1905 Clinton ^ reports having collected in the open market in New Haven. Conn., specimens of spinach leaves affected with the above-mentioned fungus, and he refers to it as " leaf mold." IIalst(Ml - in his investigations on ihe fungi attacking the si)inach pbint does not include Ifrfcrospnrlin)! in his list. Since 1!)0S lieed ^ has been studying its occurrence and injurious effects in the truck crop regions of N^irginia, where it causes hirgc losses nnniially to the truck farmers of that State. At Amherst the disease was found infecting winter spinach, grow- ing on two widely separated ])lots. Immediately adjacent to one of these was a considerable area set with young spinach • Clinton, O. P., Connecticut Agriciiltural Experiment Station, report for 1905, Part V., p. 275. 2 Halstead, B. D., New .leraey Aa:riciiUural Experiment Station BiiUetiti No. 70, 1890. ' Reed, H. S., in Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station circular No. 7, revised edition, p. 80, 1910. ■^llo\vin,^- JI,trn>s/i,,ri'>iii Disi'asr of SpiiKicli. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 147 plants for the late spring crop. Careful examination, however, failed to reveal any indications of this disease on the young ]»lants. As has been suggested, this fact seems to indicate that ihe causal organism is not a true parasite, and that it cannot iufcct healthy, vigorous jdants. being more probably one that is ca])al)le of infecting its host only after the latter has become weakened by adverse climatic conditions, or injuries produced by other causes. Further observations upon this interesting phase unfortu- nately could not be made, but in a recent text-book on the " Dis- eases of Economic Plants" ^ the following statement is found: " The disease does not seem capable of attacking healthy, vig- orous plants, but usually follows injuries produced by other agencies." The first indications of the presence of the disease are sub- circular areas of dead tissue from % to Vj, of an inch in diam- cler and brownish in color. (See cut.) These spots soon become more noticeable by the development of a greenish-black felt of fungous mycelium, 1)earing conidiophores and conidia, (Ui l)oth the upper and lower sides of the leaf. The spots are frequently more numerous toward the apex of the leaf, and by the time the fungus felt is well developed, the intervening leaf tissue is yellowed and presents a sickly appearance. Often the leaf is so badly infected that the diseased areas coalesce, leav- ing very little of the leaf tissue visible. The market value of the crop is lessened if the leaves are at all spotted, and when badly diseased it is not salable. Even if the whole plant does not collapse from the effects of the fungus, it is greatly injured, and trimming off" the injured leaves necessitates extra labor and expense at harvest time. Since the disease is new to this locality, and there ha^■e been M'.ch limited opportunities to study it and the factors responsible for it, it is impracticable to offer any remedies at present. If the disease is sporadic, and caused by adverse conditions, the proper remedy- would be to find out what those conditions ar(> and remedy them. On general lines, however, it would be well > Reed, in Stevens & Hall's" Diseases of Economic Plants, — Heterosporiose," p. 288, 1910. 148 EXPERLAIENT STATION. [Jan. to cin])loy sanitary iiiethod.s in growing the crop, to use seed from healthy and vigorous phints. and try to prevent injuries from insects, etc. Additional IJiokkkknces. Reed, Science, ii. s.. Vol. ;51, j). 038, 1910. Cooke, Grevielea, Vol. 5, p. 123, 1877. Tubeuf & Smith, '' Diseases of Plants," !>. oW, 18!)7. "Market Gardener's Jounial" (Louisville, Ky.), Vol. 7, No. 5, 1910. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 149 ABNORMALITIES OF STUMP GROWTHS. BY GEORGE H. CHAPMAN. For the past few years there have been called to our attention on stump land and burned-over wood lots various malformations and abnormalities of the leaves of sprouts growing from the stumps ; and in connection with other physiological work being- done in the laboratory,- these conditions were studied, with the idea of discovering, if possible, the cause and relationship 1o other physiological diseases, such as those arising from mal- nutrition ; also mosaic disease, overfeeding and crdema. These diseases are all ditferent in character, but it might be well to give a brief description of them at this point. Overfeeding, particularly with nitrates, may be recognized l)y a slight increase in size of leaf, the color 1)eing darker and the leaf stitfer in texture. The cells of the leaf, with the ex- ception of the bundles, are normal in form and are larger, but the bundles are distorted, and this causes a distortion of the leaf, due to the form of the l)undles. The leaf is usually some- what larger than normal, and the distortion curves the edges of the leaf downward, i.e., rolls them toward the under side. All investigators agree that the mosaic disease is purely a physiological one, but there seems to be much dou1)t as to whether it is infectious or contagious in character, or both. There seems to be some difference in opinion, also, as to the direct cause of the disease. In tomatoes it is always produced when the vines are heavily pruned, and in the work here it has been sho\vn that it is connected in no way with methods of transplanting the young i)lants, and only results from subse- quent pruning. It has been found that tobacco is much more susceptible un- • Presented as part work for degree of M.Sc. 2 Dept. of Veg. Phys. and Path., Mass. Aer. Exp. Sta. 150 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. der contlitioiis whifb tend to produce the disease thau is the tomato. In tlie ease of tobacco, A. F. Woods ^ found that when a ])lant was grown in soil containing small roots of diseased plants the disease occurred in a short or long period of time, as the case might be. In our observations on the tomato we have been nnable to verify this statement, as in no case has the disease appeared when normal ])lants were grown in soil which con- tained roots of plants which had been badlv diseased, and in the gi'owing of tomatoes year after year in the station gretin- houses there has never been the slightest evidence of infection arising from the soil. In the case of the tomatoes grown under glass, the disease did not make its appearance when the plants were left normal, but occurred wdien the plants were pruned. These conditions held time for soils in which there were diseased roots as well as for those in which tomatoes had not previously been grown. The appearance of mosaic disease has been described by many investigators, and nearly all have described it in a similar man- ner, but more particidarly with reference to tobacco than to the tomato. The general characteristics of the disease are the same for both plants, but some difference is found in its appearance in extreme cases on the tomato, as will be noted from the following description. In the first stages of the disease the leaf presents a mottled appearance, being divided into larger or smaller areas of light and dark green patches. At this point, however, no swelling of the areas is nftticciiblc, l>ut as the disease progresses the darker portions grow more rapidly, while the light-green areas do not grow so rapidly, and leaf distortion is brought about. In the case of tomato, the light-green areas become yellowish as lh(» disease ])r()gresses, and in badly afFoctcnl jdants become finally a pur])lish red color. This ])urplish coloration is found principally on plants which are exposed to strong light, but does not always occur, as it has been found that sometimes, even in badly infested plants, the dis(»ase may reach its maximum without showing any reddish coloration whatever. The reddish » U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Plant Itul., Bui. No. 18. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 151 r.ppearaiicc is iioticeablo only on the upper surface of the leaf, and appears to extend only through the palisade cells. As yet no investigation has been made with reference to its character, but from its appearance under the microscope it is thought that it may be due to the breaking down of the chlorophyll granuk^s as a result of the diseased condition of the leaf. Under all conditions of disease, however, the leaves are mucli distorted and stilf, and often very badly curled, usually with the edges rolled up over the leaf, and never possessing the flexi- bility of healthy, normal leaves. CEdema is perhaps the least liable to be confounded with other physiological troubles as its appearance is more strongly characteristic. Only a brief description will be given here, as this trouble does not enter into the discussion in this paper. Usually the leaves, as a whole, hang pendent, but the leaflets curl strongly upward ; on close examination it is found that the veins, midrib and surface of the leaf show elevated more or less frosty areas, somewhat rescndjling the masses of conidia of some of the Erysyphsc ; although in mild cases this condition is not striking, but the leaves usually have a more or less pearly luster at some stage of its development. The epidermal cells are very much enlarged in these areas and turgid, and the chloro- phyll-bearing cells are also greatly changed. For a detailed description and discussion of this trouble no better work can be found than that of G. F. Atkinson.^ It can be seen from these brief descriptions that unless care were exercised it might be easy to confound these troubles, espe- cially in the case of the first two. Keeping this in mind we will pass on to a more detailed description of the malformation of stump growth subsequent to the l^urning off or cutting do\\nr of large trees. The malformation appears to be worst in the first two or three seasons' growth, the sprouts outgrowing the trouble as their age increases. From our observations this trouUe appears to occur in two distinct forms : first, as an abnormal growth of stem and leaves, they sometimes reaching a size five to ten times that of normal young plants of the same species. This form of the > N. Y. (Cornell Univ.) Agr. Exp Sta., Bui. No. 53, "(Edema of Tomato." 152 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. leaf was especially noticeable in such sprouts as ash, ])oplar aud plane tree, aud sometimes occurred also on chestnut and oak, although it may be mentioned that they were occasionally very much distorted. When the leaves were simply abnormally large it was found that the structure of the cells and their relative positions were analogous to a healthy, normal leaf, but that they were rela- tively much larger, and w^ere of a stilfer texture than the nor- mal specimens. Very often it was found that the cell contents, especially the coloring matter, were brought into undue prominence, richly colored red leaves being of frequent occurrence. Occasionally, also, leaves having a decided yellow color, but otherwise ap- pearing strong and healthy, were observed. This excessive col- oration was evidently due to the abnormal deposition of pigment or activity of colored cell sap. When the leaves were green, the color seemed to be deeper than that of normal sjxH-imens. The second form of the malformation has much the appear- ance of that caused by overfeeding, or excessive use of nitrates ; i.e., a severe distortion of leaves, but in this case accompanied by excessive production, usually smaller in size than the normal, but thickly clustered. Distorted leaves did not usually show much abnormal coloration, but occasionally a reddish or yellow- ish color was observable. Usually the leaves were much more numerous and very badly distorted, the veins and ribs being especially twisted in various ways. The texture of the leaf was very stiff, nuich more so than in the case of the abnormally large leaves, the tissue having hardly any elasticity, and breaking easily, with a crackling- sound. Plates I. and II. (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) show the tw^o forms of this trouble better than mere description. There is a remarkable dearth of literature bearing on this specific trouble, although much has been written in a general way on somewhat similar physiological troubles, but dealing ])rin(*i])ally with field crops and forced plants. In the reports of the various experiment stations will be found more or less lit- erature on physiological troubles, and Woods,' Suzuke,- Stur- > U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. 2 Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV., repts. for lono. Fiu. 1. — Cliostnut (Casfanca dentata), showing Diseased (Left) and Ilealtliy (Right) Shoots. •Ked Oali {Quercus rubra), showing Diseased (Left) and Healthy (Riglit) Shoots. PLATE I. Fig. o. — l'(>|ilar i /'"/iii/ii>: (jiudididetitnta), sliowiiii,'- Disc.-iscil (Ki;;lit) ;iud Healtby (Left) Slioots. Fig. 4. — Mosaic Disease on Tomato. PLATE II. Fig. .5.— White Oak, sliowinj Diseased Shoot. PLATE III. Fig. 1. — Mature pycnidia, showing a few unicellular hyaline spores and orifire from which they have been expelled. Fig. 2. — Xearly mature pycnidia, with attached AHcrnaria spores. Fig. 3. — Mycelium threads giving rise to Alternaria spores and an immature iiycnidium. Fig. 4. — Common type oi AUernaria. Fig. 5. — Conidial form of Cladosporium developed from microsclcrotia found on gummy excre- tions. All from camera lucida drawings. PLATE III. lyil.j PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 153 gis,^ Cziii)ck,- Stone/' Atkinson'* and others have dealt wilh various physiological troubles more in detail. From our observations and experiments in the field and green- house we have come to the conclusion that it is a well-developed form of malnutrition, using malnutrition in its broadest mean- ing, i.e., to include any physiological ti'ouble which is causetl by an excess or lack of any one or more nutritive substances necessary for the normal metabolism of a plant^ and is allied to the phenomena exhibited in a severe case of overfeeding. Logically it is what one would expect when a large tree is suddenly cut off or the top killed, and practically all transju ra- tion, respiration, or, in short, all photosynthesis and leaf metab- olism, is suddenly arrested. We have a violent disruption of the normal metabolism of the tree. The balance bet^yeen root ab- sorption, photosynthesis, etc., and the metabolic processes of the leaves is suddenly broken, and we have the roots, which are still alive, attempting to do their normal work without the aid of the leaves ; starch formation is arrested and carbon assimila- ti(m cannot take place. In the roots there remains a great re- serve store of food and during the winter no root pressure. As most woods are cut in the fall and winter, the trees are dormant, and forest fires also occur largely in fall and spring during this dormant period. Xow, when spring comes and circulation starts, the adventitious buds are called upon to produce new shoots for the utilization of the reserve food in the roots. This they try to do in the manner we have described, by producing abnormally large leaves or a great number of small and dis- torted leaves. This distortion will be discussed later. Of the trees which have come under our observation, maples, oaks and chestnuts seem to be the most susceptible to leaf dis- tortion, while such trees as the ash, poplar and plane usually have abnormally large leaves with very little distortion. IL)W- ever, in some cases both conditions are observable. The theory which has been advanced above as to the canse of the disease has been borne out by experiments carried on in the ' Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1808, and others. 2 Biochemie der Pflanzen (general). ' Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. reports. * N. Y. (Cornell Univ.) Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 53. 154 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. iiekl and laboratory. The results of these experiments will be diseussed later in the paper. Relation to Mosaic Disease. It was at first thought that there might be some relation be- tween the so-ealled " mosaic disease " and this, but from onr observations we have been able to find only a superficial rela- tionship, i.e., as regards the distortion of the leaf in its first stages. Other investigators,^ as has been previously menti A. F. Woo.ls, U. S. Dept. Agr., R>ir. Plfinl Ind., Bui. No. 18. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 155 Table 1. Series A. — Showing Eesults of Inociilalion of Heallhy Young Grawlh ivilh Tissues from Malformed Plunls. Plant. Number inoc- ulated. Number dis- eased. Remarks. Maple (.4cer rutr«m), 10 None. The terminal bnd died in two cases, but this was due to mechanical in- Chestnut (Casta nea dentala), . 10 None. jury. Oak {Oucrcus alba), 8 None. Poplar [Populas tremuloides), 10 None. The terminal bud died in three cases, but this was due to mechani(!al injury. Series B. — Filtered Juice used for Inoculation. Plant. Number inoc- ulated. Number dis- eased. Remarks. Maple {Acer rubncm). 14 None. Chestnut (Caslanea deittala, Borkh.), 11 None. Oak {Quercus alba), Poplar {Populus tre.muloides). 10 10 None. None. Inoculated twice two weeks apart with juice. Ash (Fraxinus Americana), 5 None. The appearance of the leaves of " mosaic " f)lants is usually different from that of diseased shoots in the case under discus- sion. In mosaic these are flattened areas of cells which are lighter in color than the normal areas, and which are also smaller in size, growing more slowly than the normal cells, this causing a general unevenness or distortion of the leaf. On the other hand, in the trouhle under discussion, where ahnormality occurs, the tissue of the leaf itself is not so much distorted as the vessels and veins. These are usually curved more or less, and thus distort the leaf. The leaf, also, is always of a healthy dark-green color, and shows no division of cohn* into light and dark areas. Plate II. (Figs. 4 and 5) shows a ty])ical mosaic leaf and some from affected sprout growth. The cause of mosaic is not exactly known, but it has been produced repeatedly by severe ]U'uuing in the case of tomatoes, 156 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tobacco and other allied plants. It occurs ou tobacco, also, without pruning in the Held, due to some functional disarrange- ment in all probability; but in the case of tomato we have not been able to find a case in which the disease occurred on a plant which was allowed to grow normally, that is, without pruning. Plants in the field are also not so susceptible to it. and it is rather difficult to conceive just why it is that under similar conditions, but with different plants, we sometimes get the char- acteristic mosaic disease and sometimes only a condition such as the one under discussion. Relation of Root Area to Intensity of Disease. In the course of our ex])erinients it was observed that in the same locality, with the same kinds of trees, there was a marked difference in the intensity or severity of the malformation. It was thought that the size of the original tree and its correspond- ing root area might bear some relation to the severity of the disease. Rough estimates were made of several root systems from which first-year sprouts were growing which were dis- eased, and in general it was found that the larger the root area the more distortion of the leaves. This seemed to l)e the gen- eral rule, but from the limited number of observations we were able to make it would be unwise to make a positive statement as to the absolute truth of this observation. When young trees had been cut downi or killed by burning, there was not such severe distortion, but more of a tendency to produce abnormally large leaves. As a result of our observa- tions it may be stated that there is a relationship existing be- tween the amount of active root surface and the severity of the trouble along the lines we have pointed out. It has been stated elsewhere in this article that the severity of the disease diminishes from year to year as the plant grows older, and it would be natural to ex])ect such a recovery for two reasons : first, the shoot is larger the second year than the first, thus having more leaf surface to effect transpiration, respira- tion, carbon assimilation, etc. ; and secondly, some part of the root system, owing to lack of food (available), which the first year's leaves have been unable to su])ply, has died from general lUli.J rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 157 wf akciiiiig ; thus the second year, and so on from year to year, we have a general attempt to bahince up the root system and the leaf system. It is believed that this view is in accordance with the truth, although no specific work has been done here to jirove it other than general observations. Chemical Tp:sts of Abnormal Leaves. In view of the fact that physiological diseases in general are principally caused by derangement of the function of some organ of a j^lant. as a result of poor nutrition (lack or excess of some necessary plant food), it was thought that it would be well to obtain, in a general way. an idea as to the presence and ab- sence of certain sid^stances in the leaves of diseased plants. Owing to pressure of other work it was necessary to use dried s])eciniens for examination. The specimens, however, were not over one or two months old when the examinations were made, therefore no great change of constituents could have taken place, with the exception of loss of water, and this was not of iuiy importance. A com])lete analysis was not made of the leaves, but comparative tests were made, comparing the sub- stance in healthy leaves with the same amount of diseased leaves. The substances tested for were principally nitrates, enzymes and starch. As Woods ^ in his bulletin on mosaic disease advances the theory that it is caused by an excessive amount and increased activity of oxidizing enzymes, such as oxidase and peroxidase, equal amounts of leaves from healthy and diseased leaves were tested to see if there was any increase or decrease in the relative amounts present. It was found that in general there was usually present in diseased leaves a slightly larger amount than in the healthy leaves, but it was not necessarily so, as in five cases out of eighteen there was less present ; but this may pos- sibly have been due to individual variation in the leaf itself, as the method of taking equal weights of leaves for examination has some drawbacks, but no better method has as yet suggested itself. It was found that catalase, another enzyme which was discov- ' Loc. cit. 158 EXrElilMEXT STATION. [Jan. ered iu connection with tobacco by Loew/ was present in both healthy and diseased leaves in comparatively small amounts, but that there was practically no ditlerence in the amounts pres- ent. Twenty samples of licallhy and diseased leaves were tested, and below will be found a table containing the averages of these tests. The comparative amounts present were repre- sented by the oxygen developed from a standard solution of liydrcigen 2)eroxide, which contained o })cr cent. H2O::. Table II. — Amount of Oxygen developed from Healthy and Abnormal Leaves. lAverages of twenty .samples.] Number of Samples. Amount of Oxygen developed. Time. 20 20 118.5 114.0 30 min. Healthy 30 min. The sain pie.? were shaken during the test, as this has been found to increase the amount of oxygen developed. Fifteen grams of leaves were used in each case. Individual variations were found in most cases between leaves of different kinds, but not sufTi- cient to warrant distinctive mention. Thus, in respect to the amount of catalase present we liiid that there is a difference between this disease and mosaic, for in the case of mosaic disease there is less catalase present in the diseased leaves than in the healthy ones.- Colorimetric tests of healthy and diseased leaves were made to determine the relative amounts of nitrates present, and it was found that in the case of diseased leaves a deeper color Avas obtained than in the case of healthy specimens. The test for nitrates used was the well-known diphenyl amine reaction. Only approximate results were obtained, but sufficient to show that nitrates were more abundant in diseased leaves than in normal specimens. This tends to confirm the idea that this dis- ease is more a form of malnutrition or overfeeding than a spe- cific trouble, such as " mo.snic." Aside from Ihc direct work on the disease it was observed in some few cases that diseased leaves were more liable to the 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Report No. 68. 2 Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. report, 1908. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 159 attacks of leaf-sucking insects, such as aphis, etc., as in a few instances specimens of diseased shoots were obtained which showed the effects of these insects, and some aphides were found also. Xo insects were observed, however, on healthy shoots, or to so great an extent on shoots which had only a slight indica- tion of the disease in question. It appears from our observa- tions that the disease renders the shoot more liable to the attacks of insects on account of its weakened condition, in some respects it being far more normal ; also, the attacks of insects intensify the disease by taking from the leaf a large amount of proteids and sugars. The effects of insects have been noted by various authorities, among which may be mentioned Woods ^ and Suzuki.- More specific and interesting facts on this point might be brought out by further observations and detailed study in conjunction with entomologists, but this is without the sco])c of the present paper. It is, however^ true that insects seem to prefer a diseased leaf to a healthy one under these conditions. More purely chemical w'ork would undoubtedly be of great interest in connection with this interesting disease, and no doubt will find a place in a future report, but it is thought that enough has been done wath the disease to bring out several new points in regard to it. Conclusions. (1) The abnormal condition of leaves, showni by severe dis- tortion and increase in number, and also sometimes in size, may be classed under the malnutrition diseases, due to functional derangement, as no fungi or bacteria have been found associated with it. It must therefore be due to internal conditions, such as an abnormal metabolism. (2) It is allied to those pathological conditions which may be brought about by excessive use of nitrates or overfeeding. (?>) Tt is not allied to mosaic disease, which it somewhat re- sembles, as this is capable of transmission from one plant to another, and in no case have we been able to bring this result about by inoculation with tissue of malformed leaves. (4) From our observations it is not of a permanent character, ' U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. No. 18. ! Gen. Bui. Col. Agr., Tokyo, Vol. IV., No. 4. IGU EXPEliLMKNT STATION. [Jan. as the sliout will outgrow it in from tliree to live years, and does not seem to suti'er any serious ill effects from the trouble. (5) It is caused by a sudden disruption of the metabolic processes of the tree, all leaf activity being suspended ; and there being no normal relationship between root metabolism and leaf metabolism, the new shoot is unable to properly bring into avail- able form the food supplied for the nourishment of the tree. In other words, th(>re is an attempt on the ]y<{vt of the leaves to cor- relate their functions with a root area many times larger, and consequently a pathological condition is set up within the tissue, due, as has before been said, to imperfect metabolism. 1911.1 rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. oi. IGi PEACH AND PLUM TROUBLES. L!V lIAVilOND DKAN WHITMAh'.SJI, K.S. ]\rany diseases of the pliiin and peach have Leon known and (iescribed for years. Standing probably first among the most serious of the fungi are " brown or fruit rot," or Monilia {Scle- rotinla fructigena (Pers.) Schroet.), and scab (Cladosporiuvi carpopTiyllum, Thiimen). These fungous troubles have been very noticeable in the peach and plum orchards at the college during the past year or two. The writer began investigations early in January, 1900, mainly to determine the cause of so much gum flow on the l)each, almost every tree being affected to a greater or less ex- tent. In connection with this study nearly every phase of the above diseases as they are described by various writers was noted, and a brief resume of their characteristics and methods of treatment is given here, with observations on '' gummosis " of the peach. This paper has been prepared under the supervision of Dr. G. E. Stone of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and to him I wish to express my heartiest thanks for his many sugges- tions, criticism of manuscript and verification of observations. Browx Eot or Fruit TtOT, ^Ioxilia {Sclerotinia frucUgena (Pers.) Schroet.). Distrihufion and Host Plants. — This disease is reported In- Saccardo as being found in Germany, France, Austria, Italy. Belgium, Great Britain and the Ignited States, where it is known as Monilia fructigena, one of the " imj^erfect fungi." Tubeuf and Smith speak of the disease as being very common in the United States and Great Britain. It was first described in the United States bv Dr. C. H. Peck in 1S81 ; since that time 162 EXPERLMENT STATlOxN. [Jan. a great many investigators have been at work on it. Finally, I'rot'. J. V). S. Xorton in 1002 succeeded in giving iis itvS life history in full, having found the ascospore stage. Within the United States, at least, the greatest damage is caused to the stone fiMiits. t^ijmptonis (on Fruit). — The first indications of the disease on the fruit are hrown spots of a leathery appearance, which enlai'ge rapidly, and after the niyceliuni has become mature, the conidiophores break through the epidermis and give to the spots a downy, dirty, g•rayish-bro^\^l color, due to the great (puintity of conidia produced by the fungus. The fruit then shrinks and withers to a thin, tough pellicle. In this '' munnnied " condi- tion it hangs on the trees over winter or falls to the ground, where the fungus remains dormant until the right conditions of moisture and temj>erature cause it to become active and attack its host the following spring. The dormant or sclerotium form of this fungus occurs where the " mummied " fruit has laid on the ground over winter, co\'ered by a thin layer of soil. These sclerotia give rise to apothecia, which are funnel-shaped, re- sembling small toadstools. The asci line, the cup-shaped por- tion of the apothecia and each ascus, contains eight ascospores. So far as I know this has not been found by any of the Massa- chusetts Experiment Station staif. The fungus will attack the fruit at different stages of its growth, but it makes the greatest headway on fruit that is almost mature. If the fruit has been attacked by the curculio, or injured in any way. the fungus readily takes advantage of the injury to get in its deadly work. It might be said, however, that although it attacks the fruit most readily where it has been injured, it will also attack the ])erfect fruit should the humidity and the temperature of the atmos]>herc be right. In the case of plums the fungus may have been working for some time within the tissue without being outwardly noticeable. This fact has put many shippers to gi'eat disadvantage and caused them umch loss. On Flowers. — The fungus usually first attacks the flowers just after the petals fall, but it has been known to attack them previous to that time. The first indication that the fungus is present is a slight brown discoloration on some part of the 1911.] rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 1(33 Huwcrs. This rapidly spreads until it aliects the whole flower, and frequently extends into the pedicles. These diseased flow- ers often remain on the tree several weeks, until a heavy rain or damp weather comes, when they begin to fall, and as they are very sticky, owing to their decaying condition, they adhere very eftectively to leaves and fruit, and serve as a new place of infection. They nuiy remain in these new locations for some time before they are washed to the ground. When the fungus from the flower penetrates the i)edicle. we have w^hat is com- monly called "• twig blight." On the Ticigfi. — One form in which the fungus attacks the twigs is connnonly known as twig blight, and it is apparently a result of the early attacks on the blossoms. I have noticed it attacking both the peach and plum, but more often the former. The fungus penetrates the pedicle and into the tissues of the twig, causing a flow of gum. This fungus often works around the entire stem, cutting ofl" all source of nourishment from the distal portion of the twig, causing it to die. The gummy por- tions and girdling resend)lo quite closely the symptoms of an- other disease, known as canker. In summer and early fall, as well as in spring, we often find this blighting of twigs, the source of infection being the fungus from the decaying fruit. This bores through the pedicle and then ramifies through the stem, often girdling it, as in the case of the blight, where the source of infection was the flowers. The injury in both cases nearly always is confined to a point near the attachment of the fruit or flowers. When the girdling is complete the leaves l)(\vond the point of attack dry up and die. Another form in which I have noticed it might be called the " brown spotting of twigs." This phase of the disease has been descril)ed by Dr. G. E. Stone of the IMassachusetts Agricultiu-al College. The spotting occurs on the new shoots, and was not noticed except in the ease of the peach. These spots may be single, or several may come together, forming a more or less irregular mass. In these spots we find Monilia, which presents similar characteristics to the one found on the fruit. The prin- cipal distinction between this and the common Monilia of the fruit consists in the smaller spores of the former. !N'umerous 164 EXrEKLMENT STATION. [Jan. cultures and conii)arisons made of the two types of Monilia — that on the fruit and on the stem, made by Dr. Stone — show that the spores of the one on the twig are always smaller when grown in any media than those of that on the fruit, and the two species react quite differently chemically when grown in solu- tions on different media. ^ On the Leaves. — In wet weather, es]>ocially. one often no- tices s})ots on the leaves. These are found on Ixith the u})pcr and lower surfaces, but are generally most conspicuous on the ui)per. During wet, warm weather, if one examines these spots carefully he will find here and there small grayish masses of powder, which are in reality the conidia of the '' brown rot " fungus. Spores. — The spores, more or less oval shaped, are one celled, and their contents are quite noticeably granular. These spores germinate readily in water, producing a mycelium whose contents are granular, as in the case of the spores. The myce- lium is broken up here and there by cross w'alls. The spores are produced in chains by a sort of budding, the last one of the chain being the newest one. When grown on culture media (prune agar) these spores form much longer chains than on the fruits out of doors. Means of Spore Dispersal. — The influencing factors in the spreading of this fungous disease are wnnd, rain, insects (espe- cially plum curculio), etc. Many minor ways in which the spores are disseminated might bo enumerated, but the three above-named methods are probably by far the most influencing. Methods of Control. — I would suggest the following ways in which to lessen the attacks of this disease. Destroy all " mummied " fruit w^hich hangs on the trees or has fallen to the ground. Cut off and burn all twigs that are infected with the fungus mycelium. Keep the trees pruned, so that there wall be a free circulation of air and plenty of light, because a tree which is crowded wdth cross limbs and has in consequence too much foliage acts as a convenient forcing house for " brown ' Dr. Stone hag observed this species on the twig for many years in Massachusetts, the twig sometimes lieing very badly spotteci. Monilia iaalno sometimes associated with C^nrfosporjww?, but the Monilin by far predominates. Where lime and sulphur has been used as a spring spray these spots have been entirely absent, with a much better annual growth of the twig as a result. (See Nineteenth .\nnual Keport, Massachusetts .Xiiricultural Experiment Station, p. 166.) 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 165 rut." Tbiu the fruits so that they do nut at least come iu cun- tact with one another. By using the above precautions and ai)plying tlie following spray mixtures for " brown rot," " scab " and " plum curculio " I believe that the fungus can be almost entirely controlled. For the Elberta, Belle, Reeves, and other varieties of peaches of about the same ripening season, the fol- lowing is advised: (1) about the time the calyces of shucks are shedding, spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. In order to reduce the caustic proper- ties of the poison, add milk of lime made from slaking 2 pounds of stone lime. The date of this treatment is too early for scab, and ordinarily no serious outbreaks of brown rot occur so early, so that the lime sulphur may be omitted with reasonable safety ; but during warm, rainy springs, especially in the south, the lime sulphur will doubtless be necessary in this application. (2) Two or three weeks later, or about one month after the petals drop, spray with self-boiled lime sulphur ; 8 pounds of lime, 8 pounds of sulphur and 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons of water. (3) About a month before the fruit ripens, spray with the self-boiled lime sulphur, omitting the poison. For earlier maturing varieties, such as Waddell, Carmen and Hiley, the first two treatments" outlined above would probably be sufficient ordinarily, but in very wet seasons varieties sus- ceptible to rot would doubtless require three treatments. Late varieties, such as Smock and Salway, having a longer season, Avould not be thoroughly protected by three applications. In view of the results obtained on midseason varieties it seems likely that three treatments will ordinarily be sufficient for the late varieties. Black Spot or Scab {Clados'porhim carpopliyllvm, Thiim.V History and Disirihuiion. — This fungus was first noticed in 1876 by Von Thiimen of Austria, who was at that time botanist to the Austrian Experiment Station. In the year following, 1877, he described the fungus, giving it the above name. Since that time it has been met with quite commonly in this country. In Saccardo's " Syllogo Fungorum " we find a copy of Yon 1G6 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Tliiimen's description, which mentions only that it was found in the locality of Klosternenbiirg, where the Austrian Experi- ment Station was located. •On tJie Fruit. — Suuill, round, hhickish spots on the skin of the fruit arc the first indications of the disease. These spots usually appear when the fruit is ahout two-thirds grown, most frequently on the upper side of the fruit, and if the spots are vei-y numerous they will, as they grow, coalesce aiul form a large, irregular, diseased area. AVhen the fruit is thus attacked it hecomes one-sided, due to the fact that a corky layer of cells is formed by the fruit nnder the diseased area as a protective layer. This corky layer is incapable of further growth, and hence we get, as a result, the ill-formed fruit. The corky layers are often ruptured, leaving deep cracks, which furnish an ideal place for the growth of the spores of Monilia, which are always ready to take advantage of such injuries. Hence we often find both troubles on the same specimen. This disease attacks the fruit much in the same way as the scab of apple and pear. Its attacks are generally most noticeable on the late varieties of fruits, and it thrives most luxuriantly during damp weather. On the Leaves. — This fungus causes a shot hole appearance of the leaves. The first indications one has of the disease upon the leaves are scattering brown spots. These spots, as a rule, spread over the leaf, and as the fungus matures the tissues dry up and the diseased portion falls out, leaving a circular opening. This fungus seems to prefer the part of the leaf between the veins. The spores of the fungus attacking the leaf agree with those groAving on the fruit, with the possible exce]ition that they are somewhat smaller, but no doubt this slight variation is due to the environment rather than being a specific character. On iJip Tii'Ujs. — Sturgis gives an account of this fungus at- tacking the peach twigs. He states that the twigs are nuirked more or less abundantly with circular spots, somewhat resem- bling in appearance the '' birds' eye rot " of grapes {Spaceloma ampelinvm; DeBary). Frequently the spots join together and cover the twig so thoroughly as to destroy tlie pinkish-brown color of the Imrk. Although not having seen this phase of the 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 167 disease, it apparently resembles in outward appearance very much the spotting that I described as due to the brown rot fungus.^ Peach Leaf Curl {Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fuckel). This disease is found commonly in Massachusetts, and, as a matter of fact, more inquiries are sent to the station in regard to this trouble than any other peach disease. It is found in almost all parts of the world where the peach is grown to any extent, and has been seen by the writer in great quantities in the large orchards along the shores of Lake Erie. It attacks the leaf buds just as they begin to open in the spring, also the tender shoots, flowers and young fruit, but is not so noticeable as on the leaves. The leaves become very much swollen, wrinkled and curled, and a little later take on the appearance of a moldy gray covering. In the earlier stages of the disease the leaves often show red or pinkish blotches, but they turn a brownish color as they grow older and fall to the ground. Cold and damp, or rainy, weather in the spring greatly favors this disease, and in fact determines the degree of severity of the attack. It often defoliates the trees to such an extent that they are not able to lay up sufficient material for their needs, or ripen the wood properly, so that when winter comes the trees are often found to be much weakened. In some cases the disease has been so severe that the trees were not able to endure the cold of winter, and consequently were winter killed. It was previously thought that infection took place only by perennial mycelia, but this theory has gradually been discarded. Infection may take place by perennial mycelia, but most writers and observers now agree that infection is due almost entirely to the spores, which live over winter on the bark of trees and in other places. The Elberta peach is one of the most susceptible varieties to the attacks of this fungus, but all varieties seem to be more or ' For other points of interest in regard to tlie fungus not given in this paper see Arthur's and Chester's writings. 168 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. less subject to the disease. Trees injured by other agencies, and consequently weakened, seem to be more suscei)tible to at- tack than healthy, vigorous trees. It will be readily seen that it is probably useless to spray the trees after the leaves become infected, but since the spores live over winter on the bark, the trees should be sprayed in the spring, while the spores are still dormant. It is generally accepted by all the largest and best growers that the lime sulphur wash, used for the control of San Jose scale, is by far the best remedy for this trouble, although some prefer Bordeaux and others copper sulphate solution, where the scale is not present. Since there is nearly always danger from scale infestation, how'ever, it seems wiser to use the lime and sulphur, which is undoubtedly of great fungicidal value, as well as one of the best remedies for the scale. The spray should be applied to the trees from one to two weeks before the buds open, if possible on a quiet day when the atmosphere is free from moisture. If the abo^'e directions are followed, this treatment should suffice for the leaf curl and the San Jose scale. For this spray mixture use 10 pounds of good fresh stone lime and 15 pounds of sulphur to each 50 gallons of water. Make up the above spray solution as recommended b}' Quaintancc. Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third of the total quantity of water required. When the water is hot, add all the lime and at once add all the sulphur, which previously should have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has slaked, about another third of the water should be added, preferably hot, and the cooking should be continued for one hour, when the final dilution may be made, using either hot or cold water, as is most convenient. The boiling due to the slak- ing of the lime thoroughly mixes the ingredients at the start, but subsequent stirring is necessary if the wash is cooked by direct heat in kettles. If cooked by steam, no stirring will bo neces- sary. After the wash has been prepared it mnst be well strained as it is being run into the spray pump or taid\. The wmsh may 1)0 cooked in large kettles, or, jireferably, by steam in barrels or tanks. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 169 l*Li'.\i I'ocMvKrs [I'J.codscLi.s J'nnii, Uiickd). The organism causing the disease known as " plum pockets " is closely related to that causing peach leaf curl, although not occurring on the peach. It Avas previously thought that tlie source of infection was only through the hibernating mycelium in the twigs and branches, but from what can be learned in re- gard to this more investigation seems to be needed on this point. A short time after the young fruit forms, it becomes yellowish, much swollen and stoneless. These hollow, dropsical-like plums are often streaked with red at first, but after a time they take on a moldy, grayish ap- pearance, similar to the peach leaf curl, and soon fall to the ground. This moldy covering is composed of sacs (asci) which contain the spores. The attacks of this parasite are generally local, possibly only one tree in a large orchard being affected, and the treatment given for peach leaf curl would probably suffice here. Black Knot (Plowrightia morhosa (Schw.) Sacc). One often notices in small family orchards containing a va- riety of trees, where little care is given them, that some of the plum trees show signs of a disease kno^vu as black knot. The knots often extend entirely around the limbs, and as a conse- quence the more distal parts of the limbs receive but little nour- ishment, and finally die. Black knot, if given no treatment, usually destroys the value of the tree Avithin a year or two, even if it does not kill the tree in that time. Almost all varieties of plums are subject to this disease. The first noticeable indication of the disease in the spring is the enlargement of limbs and branches afl"ected. The bark then breaks open, and this new surface soon becomes cov- ered with a moldy, green-like substance which contains the spores. This is followed by black knots containing s]X)res which become mature before the next spring. The spores evi- dently ol)tain a foothold on their host through cracks or injuries caused by various agencies. It is therefore essential in the care 170 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. of an orchard that one should be careful not to bruise or injure the trees. The wind is probably the greatest agent for conveying the spores from tree to tree. Remedial measures consist in prun- ing off the knots and l)urniiii:, iiud it has been advised that they l)e cut out when young, and the exposed area coated with paint. Observations and experiments have showm that early spring spraying materially lessens the infection. Plum Leaf Spot or Shot Hole (CyVindrosporhim Padi, Karst). This disease causes spots on the leaves somewhat circular in outline, which often become joined. These affected parts usually have a reddish outline, and finally the diseased tissue turns dark browai and falls out. The leaves turn a yellowish color and often begin to fall in July, but the most severe defo- liation usually occurs in August and early in September. The great loss from this disease is caused by defoliation before the tree stores up sufficient starch and ripens its wood enough to enable it to stand the cold of winter. Continual attacks very mu(di weaken the tree and eventually kill it, but if lime sul])hur is used thoroughly, little trouble will be experienced from this disease. This same disease also affects the cherry. Peacti Shot Hole (Cercospora rlraim.n]})hur mixture. On the addition of the arsenate of lead to the lime sulphur, a dark-colored mixture is obtained. If the mix- ture has been properly made there will be very few settlings, and very little, if any, sulphur floating on the surface. The ingredients of this mixture ought not to settle for nearly half an hour. The above mixture should be strained into the spray tank and the tank filled with water. The solution is then ready to be sprayed on the trees. 176 KXFEKLMENT STATION. [Jan. CONCENTKATEU LlMK-SULPlIUK SoLUTIOJ^f. The iiicoiiveiiieuce exj^ericnced in preparing the linic-sn][»liiir Avash \)y cooking with steam or in open kettles at home has been one of the principal objections to this spray. Certain manu- facturers have therefore put on the market concentrated solu- tions of lime-sulphur wash which have only to be diluted with water for use. These commerci:il washes have ])roved to be- about as effective in controlling the scale as the well-cooked lime- sul])hur wash, and. although somew'hat more expensive, have been adopted by many commercial orchardists in preference to the home-pre])ared spray. They are especially useful for tlie smaller orchardist, whose interests do not warrant the construc- tion of a cooking plant. In other ways, too, they possess ad- vantages; for instance, those using the commercial washes may always have <)n hand a stock solution, so that the spray luay ])e quickly prepared and advantage taken of favorable weather conditions. These ]n'eparations should usually be used at the rate of 1 gallon to 10 gallous of water. Literature Cited. 1. Saccardo. P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. IV., ]). .34, 1886. 2. Tubeuf & Smith. Diseases of Plants caused by Cryptogamic Para- sites, p. 497, 1897. 3. Peck, C. H. Thirty-fourth Report of the New York State Museum, p. 35. 4. Norton, J. B. S. Transactions of the Academy of Science, St. Louis, Vol. XII., No. 8, pp. 91-97. 5. Stone, G. E. Nineteenth Ainmal Report, Massachusetts Agricul- tural Experiment Station, p. 16(i. (i. Scott, W. M. and Ayres, T. Willard. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 174, pp. 24, 25. 7. Saccardo, P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. IV., p. 353, 1880. 8. Sturgis, W. C. Twentieth Annual Report, Connecticut Agricul- tural Experiment Station, p. 269. 9. Arthur, .J. C. Indiana Bulletin No. 19, pi>. 5-8, 1889. 10. Chester, F. D. Delaware, Eighth Annual Report, pp. 60-63, 1896. 11. Massee, George. Kew Bulletin, p. 1, 1 pi., 1899. 12. Qnaintance, A. L. Bureau of Entomology, Circular 124. The San Jose Scale and its Control, pp. 12, 13. 1011.1 PUBLIC DOCLAIENT- No. :\L 177 CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF APPLE VARIETIES. liY J. K. SHAW. I. INTRODUCTION. The conditions of soil, climate and culture under which our nianv varieties of fruit succeed are little understood. Most of the publications dealing with varieties concern themselves with histories and technical descriptions, and but very little with the conditions under which the planting of this or that variety is to be recommended. As a result of this lack of information a given variety is ]ilanted under widely varying conditions, under some of which it does well and under others it does poorly. At the present time fruit growing, more especially the grow- ing of apples, is entering a new era. The increased demand re- sulting from the lessened production during the past decade; improved methods of culture, especially a better understanding of the combating of insects and diseases, and better business methods have stirred up growers all over the apple regions to a renewed interest in the business. This movement has had its origin in the Pacific coast and intermountain regions, but will soon, if it has not already, become general over a large portion of North America. This movement will result in more or less change in the rela- tive importance of commercial varieties, some becoming less esteemed and others gaining in favor. The consumer will come to prefer varieties of better quality and those better suited to varions purposes. The same is true within a variety, where specimens grown to more perfect development will receive pref- erence. To attain the highest degree of success it will be more neces- sary than in the past for each grower to choose those varieties which he can grow, under his conditions of soil and climate, to 178 EXPEULMENT STATION. [Jan. their liigliest perfection. A mistaken elioiee will lie a serimis thing, and one that will reqnire valnable time and mneh expense to correct. The present pa})er is the resnlt of a study, carried on for the past four years, of the eifect of varying climatic ct)nditions on varieties, and an atternjjt is here made to lay down certain prin- ciples as to the climatic adaptations of varieties. Questions of soil and cnltnre are given only incidental consideration. For the former there has not been snfKcient opportunity, and a con- sideration of the latter wonld lead into the whole field of ondiard management. Many samples of different varieties, grown under Avidely varying conditions, have been examined pomologically, and some of them chemically, and a study made of the pomologi- cal and meteorological literature available. This paper docs not make specific recommendations of varie- ties for any section of the country or for the country in general. That is more or less a local problem into which enter (piestions not considered here. Among them are those of soil, market demands, methods of culture to be followed, the individual preferences of the grower and many others. If the conclusions of this jiaper are sound, they should aid in such choice, for many varieties that might otherwise be considered are excluded as not being suited to the clinuitic conditions of the locality under consideration, while from those that are adapted climat- ically, the ones best suited to soil and other conditions may be singled out. The subject under consideration is a large one. To under- stand at all fivlly the relations of apple vai'iatiou to el i unite will require prolonged study and experiment. This paper is, in a large degree, introductory, and may contain errors and omissions whi(di should be corrected. The Avriter will greatly appreciate any suggestions as to corrections or additions that should be made. The work has been done as Adams fund research, and at the same time in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de- gree of Doctor of Philosophy from the ]\rassachuPetts Agricul- tural College, Tt has been done under the direction of Prof. F. C. Sears, to whom the thanks of the writer are extended for 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 170 advice and criticisiu, and to Prof. F. A. Waiigli as well, wlio lias given many helpful suggestions. The chemical work has been under the direction of Dr. Charles Wellington, and assist- ance in the analytical work has been rendered by ^Ir. E, L. Winn and ]\lr, B. Ostrolenk of the senior class in the college. Many experiment station horticulturists and fruit growers in many sections of the country have aided by giving information and by furnishing samples of apples. It is impossible to name them all here, but their many favors are here acknowledged and hearty appreciation extended. II. THE CAUSES OF VARIETAL VARIATION. The causes of the great ditlerences in apple varieties may 1)0 grouped under three heads: those arising from (1) cultural conditions, (2) differences in soil types, (3) difierences in climate. Cultural Variations. 1'he methods pursued in the growing and in the care of the trees have great influence on the character of the fruit. It is alfected in every way, in size, form, color, k(^e])ing quality, ship- ping quality and dessert quality. These variations have been given only incidental investigation of such jdiases as relate directly to the climatic differences that have been the special object of study. A few of these may, however, be given pass- ing attention at this point. Every orchardist growing any number of trees is aware that there are great differences in the individuality of the trees, even Avhen grown in the same orchard and under ajiparently identical conditions of climate and soil. One tree may be very produc- tive and its neighbor only moderately so. The apples may differ in nuiuy of their characters. Further along in this paper some data are presented bearing on this question (see page 194). These individual differences have been ascribed to various causes, the principal ones of which are. perhaps, those of bud \ariations or varietal " strains." and that of the influence of the stock. The method of handling the soil has great influence on the fruit, especially whether the orchard is in sod or is cultivated. 180 EXPEULMEM' STATION. [Jan. This has been shown in various bulletins from clillcrent experi- ment stations. The Baldwin seems especially inHuenced by con- ditions of orchard culture, and other varieties more or less so. CV'rtain experiments at this station ' have shown inai-ked ef- fects from the use of different fertilizers. This question has been little investigated, but no doubt great variation in fruit may be produced by the fertilizer used on the land. Differences in pruning also have their effects. A tree kei)t with an <)i)en top will admit an abundance of sunshine, resulting in a higher colored fruit ; in many other ways the effect of pruning may be shown in the character of the fruit. Many fruit growers have discovered, to their grief, that Bor- deaux mixture has a decided effect on many varieties, by pro- ducing russeting. On the other hand, the lime-sulphur prc])ara- tion has frequently been found to render the appearance of the fruit better than when not s^n-aycd at all. Soil Val-iatiox. It has been shown that the nature of the soil has great effect on the character of the fruit. Red apples are likely to be higher colored on sandy soils than on clayey soils, xsot enough is known regarding this question to make any very definite gen- eralizations on the subject. H. J. AVilder has determined the soil adaptations of various varieties, and shown that different varieties have decided preferences as to soils. ^ The (piestion of the ada])tation of varieties to soils is much comidicated l)y the question of stocks already alluded to. Xo doubt varieties have soil preferences which are general to the variety, and not seri- ously mo(lifi(Ml by differences in stock, l^evertheless, the writer is satisfied that much greater uniformity would be found in the adaptation of varieties to soils were they groAvn on their own roots. Cm:\rATic' Vaktattox. Tn a broad way, the limits of a])])le growing are governed by climatic conditions. The a])ple is a fruit of a tem])erate cli- mate, and does not flourish in the far north nor in the warmer ' Report, Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, Part II., p. 10. ■ Proceedings American Pomological Society, 31, p. 13S (1909). 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 181 sections of the temperate zones. The apple achipts itself under cultivation to a considerable range of rainfall, and in districts of deficient precipitation irrigation is practiced. Therefore, the question of rainfall has comparatively little weight in the general cultivation of the apple. Sunshine has considerable; effect, but it is not a limiting factor anywhere in the apple belt. The great clinuitic factor which limits the distribution of apples in general, and of the different varieties in particular, is tem- perature. Over the greater part of the i^orth American continent the northern limit of successful apple growing is fixed by the min- inuim winter temperature. Different varieties of the common a})ple vary greatly in their ability to withstand minimum win- ter temperatures, and the condition of the tree, particularly as regards moisture content at the time minimum temperatures occur, has great influence in determining whether the tree survives. Very few, if anv^ varieties will withstand a tem- perature much below — 40° F. without being killed back more or less. In many cases a considerably less severe temperature is fatal to even the hardiest varieties. With the possible excep- tion of the extreme northern Pacific coast, under conditions of a maritime climate, there is nowhere in ISTorth America a region where certain varieties will not produce fruit in summer, pro- vided they can withstand the cold of winter. In other words, the summers are warm enough to mature fruit of short-season varieties, provided the winters do not kill the tree before it has reached the bearing age. The a]iple does not succeed in the southern portions of North America, although fruit may be produced in every State of the Union, and probably in portions of Mexico. The diffi- culty in the way of the southern extension of apple growing seems to be largely the heat during the summer. The trees fail to grow during hot periods in the growing season, and fail to set, or at least to mature fruit. The latter is especially true of winter sorts, and many varieties grown in the south are short- season ones, which are able to mature fruit before the hot pe- riods of Tulv and August arrive. 182 - EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The Mean Suinntei- Tcmpcralure. For this work we have used as a lueasiire of the sinniner heat an average monthly mean for the growing season. This has been taken as ciniiprising the montlis of ^lareh to September inclusive. The niunthlv means for these seven months, as given in publications of the United States Weather Bureau and Can- adian ]\rete()rologieal Service, are averaged. This gives, for ]ioints within the a])ple-growing regions of Xoi-th America, tem- ]iei'a1ures varving from about 52° to about TU^ or 72^. Sum- mer means have been computed for a great number of staticms, and from these the isotherms given in Tig. 10 are drawn. This ma}) is intended prinei})ally for study in connection Aviili llie matter given later in this paper, but it may be proper to explain it at this point, and to discuss the variations in the summer mean that occur and the causes thereof. In connnon with other questions of temperature, the sunnuer mean for a given section is determined by a imniber of considerations. Among these are the following: (1) latitude, (2) elevation, (3) site and as]ioct, (4) soil, (5) culture, (6) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine. The first two require no explanation. Temperatures vary inversely with the latitude and altitude, l)ut, owing to the in- fluence of the other features mentioned, no ratio can be biid down that is of any value. With regard to slope, little need be said. The sunnuer mean on a noi'th slojie may be several degrees lower than that of a corresponding southerly slope, though we have been unal)l(^ to find any data showing the amount of difference. Slope must be considered in estimating the probable temperature of an orchard site. Soils containing a large proportion of sand will not only be warmer than clayey soils, but will also influence the air temixTa- ture in the orchard to a considerable degree. Hedrick found that the soil in a tilled orchard was from 1.1° to 2.3° warmer than a corresponding ])lat in sod.^ This nnist have an influence on the air temperature in ihe orchard. Prevailing winds influence the sunnuer mean. These are de- » Bulletin 314, New York Experiment Station. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. :U. 18:3 terjnincd by nioiintain ranges aud other topographic features, by the temperatures of bodies of water over whieh the air may liave passed, aud })erhaps by other considerations. The prevalence of a large proportion of sunshine will operate to raise the temperature in the orchard. The effect on the protoplasm of the tree will, owing to the heat absorptive powers of the dark colored bark, be even greater. This has been shown by Whitten. He also found that in peaches the color of the bark modities in a marked manner the thermal effect of the sun.^ The temperatures on which this work is based were presumably all taken in the regulation shelters of the Weather Bureau, wdiere this effect would be less than in the orchard. The prob- able amount of sunshine should be taken into consideration in estimating the sunnner mean of an orchard. III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPLE. For convenience in discussion, the life history of the apple (fruit) may be somewhat arbitrarily divided into four periods: (1) that of growth, which extends from the blossom to the attainment of full size; (2) that of ripening, which covers the period from the termination of the first until the apple is picked from the tree; (3) that of ''after ripening," extending from picking until the apple is in perfect eating condition; and (4) that of decay, covering the subsequent deterioration and break- ing down of the fruit. Various fungous diseases may enter in during these periods and terminate the life of the apple at any time. These are not considered in this discussion. The second and third periods are scarcely differentiated in summer apples, these being ordinarily fit for immediate consumption on pick- ing. In winter apples, on the other hand, there is a distinct jieriod of ripening following the picking of the fruit. Inasnuich as the discussion of these periods of growth will be largely from a chemical stand jx)int, it may be well to consider briefly the chemical composition of apples before discussing their development. Apples vary widely in chemical composition, according to variety, stage of development and conditions of growth. They ' Report American Pomologieal Society, 26, p. 47 (1900). 184 EXPEIUMEXI^ STATION. [Jan. contain ordinarily from 80 to 88 ])cr cent, of water, most win- ter varieties when niaturing averaging perhaps abont 84 per cent., the remainder of the frnit comprising the total solids. The solids consist of the following snbstances: first, starch, of wlii(4i there may be 8 or 4 ])er cent., in growing apples; second, sugai-s, of which there may be from 5 to 12 per cent., averaging pei4iaps 8 or 10 per cent. The total sugars are made np of at least three distinct compounds : sucrose, of Avhich we may find from none to 0 per cent.; and a mixture of dextrose and levu- lose, of which there may be from 5 to 10 per cent. These two latter sugars are separated in the laboratory with some diffi- culty, and comparatively few figures are available to show their relative pro]iortions, but it is evident that the levulose in apples is in excess of the dextrose, a condition not usually found in plant substances where these two sugars occur together. Of organic acid we may find from .12 to 1.50 per cent., presumably as some form of malic acid. The foi-egoing solids are all soluble in water. The insoluble solids are largely of a carbohydrate nature, and consist of cellu- lose and pentosans for the most part. In the chemical work reported in this ])aper determinations of the total insoluble dry matter have been made and given as insoluble solids, and consist of those portions of the apple not dissolved by hot water under the conditions prescribed in the method of the Official Associa- tion of Agricultural Chemists.^ Aj^ples, particularly in the green state, contain small amounts of tannin. In the work here reported no determinations of this have been made, but a few analyses are available from other sources, giving the percentage present. The characteristic flavor and aroiua of a])])les are due for the most part to certain esters or flavoi'ing oils. These exist in the apple in very minute quan- tities, and though they are of great importance in determining the value and quality of the fruit, no attempt to determine the amount has ever been made, so far as the knowledge of the v/riter goes. Indeed, it is probable that, owing to the minute quantities present, their determination would be extremely dif- > United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 107, revised. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 185 ficiilt, if not absolutely impossible. We can judge of their presence and abundance only by the taste and the aroma of the fruit. Return ing now to a consideration of the changes in the fruit during the four periods of development already mentioned, wo find them taking place somewhat as follows. During the period of growth the amount of total solids of course increases greatly. This increase may continue into the ripening period, but after that there is a relative loss of total solids. The percentage, also, of total solids increases during the period of growth and during at least a part of the ripening period, but after that its changes are much dependent upon conditions. The percentage of acid in the fruit is largest in the early stages of growth, and decreases more or less steadily during the entire history of the fruit. The percentage of starch increases during the early part of the growth, and at varying points, under different conditions, it begins tu decrease, and disappears during the ripening ])roc- ess. The sucrose increases pretty steadily until the period of after rii)ening is complete, and then more or less rapidly de- creases, and frequently entirely disappears in the process of decay. The point of maximum of sucrose content may be taken as the point of full maturity of the fruit, with a fair degree of accuracy in most cases. The reducing sugars, dextrose and lovu- lose, increase during the period of growth, and may or may not increase slightly during ripening. In the later periods of ripen- ing and decay they in most cases tend to increase, at least until the final stages of decay. Comparatively little can be said regarding the behavior of the insoluble solids during the periods of growth and ripening. During the periods of after rij)ening and decay they pretty steadily decrease. Probably fhey are at their maximum during the early stages of ripening. The stage of development of the insoluble solids of the apple is of great account in determining the quality and condition of the fruit ; they compose for the most part the cell walls of the fruit. During the later stages of develojunent of the fruit the mii' ripeninu'. It would seem, however, that they devehtp duriuii' the later stages of the ripening period and through the jjeriod of after ripening, and tend to disai)pear as the stage of decay progresses. Little, also, is known regarding the behavior of the tannin of the fruit, but it is ])i-()bably highest during the late stages of growth. It may be connected with the development of color in red apples, and inasmuch as it seems to disappear during the ripening stage, when the apple is taking on color, it may be that it contributes in some way to the formation of pigment in the epidermal cells of the fruit. IV. THE PERFECTLY DEVELOPED APPLE. In the course of investigation herein reported, the writer has made a somewhat careful study of some twenty varieties of ap- ples, chosen from among the more ]U'ominent and wid(dy dis- tributed sorts. From five to fifty or more samples of each variety have been received from many different localities scat- tered over the entire apple-])roducing portions of North Amer- ica. These apples have been carefully examined and their char- acteristics noted, and from two to twenty samples of each variety have been subjected to chemical examination. In the case of the Ben Davis variety, during the past four years nearly two hun- dred samples have been received, and fifty or more of these have been gi\'en a more or less complete chemical (>xa mi nation. These samples have varied widely in physical appearance and chemi- cal composition. These variations are dealt with in a later division of this paper. The study of these varieties, added to other general observations, has enabled the writer to form a faii'ly definite conception of them, when developed to their highest perfection in a])]iearance, quality and chemical compo- sition. The point of perfect development is taken as that where > Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 94, p. 92. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCOIRNT — No. 31. 187 tilt' at(('i'-ri})('iiiiiii st;ii;o is (•(»iiij)lcic and het'ore any signs of dete- vioi'alioii ap[)ear. A variety in this condition is at (lie point of hiiilu'si dessert qnality. Especial consideration will be given in this discnssion to the cpiestion of high (piality in each variety. Before entering into this discnssion, it may be well to con- sider the relation between chemical composition and qnality. In the first phice, it may be said that qnality is nscd with sev- eral ditferent meanings. It may refer to the dessert cpiality of the fiMiit or to its valne for kitchen purposes. The a})))le of high dessert qnality is ditferent from the apple of high kitdien qnality. We also speak of the shi])ping quality of frnit, and high shipping qnality is in a measnrc opposed to high kitchen, and even more to high dessert qnality. The apple which ships v.ell will usually be a fair keeper, but these two qualities are by no means coincident. The chemical determinations which throw the most light on qnality are those of the sugars and acid and of the insoluble solids, the latter being of greater impor- tance than is usually considered to be the case. The apple of high dessert quality is low in its content of in- soluble solids, this signifying a tender flesh and proljably thin- walled cells. It is high in sugars, more particularly sucrose.' The amount of acid is proportional to the quantity of sugars ; the higher the content of sugars the higher must be the content of acid, in order to 1)ring an agreeal)le blending of these two constituents. If a large proportion of the sugars is sucrose, the pro]iortion of acid needs to be larger than if the proportion of sucrose is low, in order to give the same quality. The ratio of acid to total sugars most favorable to high dessert quality will vary greatly with individual tastes. Some prefer a sAveet ap])le, and, on the other hand, many like a fairly acid fruit. If the sugars are in the proportion a])proximately of two-thirds reduc- ing sugars to one-third sucrose, the following may 1)0 taken as a fair estimate of the varying ratio of total sugars to acid for different flavored fruits. These ratios will not hold for fruits that have entered into the stage of physiological decay. 188 EXPERBIF.XT STATION. [Jan. Total Sugars to Acid as Malic. Sweet apples Mild sub-acid, Sub-acid Acid, Very acid, 1 : .010 to .025 1 : .025 to .035 1 : 035 to .045 1 : .045 to .060 1 : .060 to .085 It has been said lliat a low ])orcentage of Insolulilc solids is necessary for high quality in dessert frnits. For cooking pnrposes this is of minor importance, and the ratio of sngars to acid is narrowed; that is^ the relative amount of acid should be larger than in dessert frnits. Ajjples of good shipping quality have invarialdy a high per- centage of insoluble solids, and as this is opposed to high dessert quality, it follows that we should not ex])ect to tii!o .2"a £t3 3 o o o o o o o C3 O « o KHg-^ "-• '-' '-' ■-' '^ '^ '-' '^ '^ •^ •-' •-^ '-' — ' -^ ^ '-' -^ ^ J} " a o CO m r.\ .o fn Cs -t- .n CO ,, ,, ^ ^ CO rli •<3' ■Tj* ■* :s-^ <'^ o o c.-> o 2S O M '-' •— ' o CO CO (M CO o (>^ ^H ,_J ^i § CO o o> !M CO t^ CJ o ■^ ^^ CO o 05 ^ CO t-H .-( ^H T(l (>» CO 1 ,_, oo f^ -o o O ^ ^ C^ .-( r^ c^ ^^ 00 00 00 CO 00 >o o 00 CO i Ol •M >o -r^ (M ^H CO >o CO -^ CO c-t »o 1^1 fM IJ GJ ,_( CO -.** ^J OO o >o C5 ^H t^ _4 rv| (^ '— ' CO CO CO CO f- •"^ t^ CO O §■3 (M M C^ M O) CM " (M < ^ M tf « >^ H 190 EXPERLMKNT STATION. [Jan. Wo may now proceed to the discussion of each <>[' ihesc varie- ties, and will endeavor to set forth the ai)pearance and quality of these varieties when grown to their highest perfection. The conditions under which perfection is attained, and the effect of unfavoralile conditions, are discussed in detail in a later section of this ])aper. These descriptions are not intended to be com- plete descriptions of the variety, hut should be read in connec- tion with a technical desci'iplinu, if one is not already familiar with the general appearance of the variety. WcallJiij. — Well-grown Wealthies should be about 75 to 80 millinieter.=5 in diameter and well colored over the entire surface. The color should be a deep, rich red, (listril)ut('d in the form of sti'ipes ami s])lashes, deepening to a blush on the sunny side. Poor color is a sign of imperfect development in this fruit. The a])})lc should be very symmetrical in form and a])pearance. It is altogether a handsome fruit when well grown. The chem- ical analysis shows that the variety is low iii total solids, a con- dition that we find in most summer and early fall varieties. Ft is low in all the constituent solids except acid. This high ratio of acid fo sugar makes it a good cooking a])])le, l)ut its low con- tent of insoluble solids makes it acceptable for the table, in s})ite of its rather low content of sugars. Maiden Bluif about the same size as the Wealthy, of a chnir waxen yellow color, with a generous bright red blush on the sunny side. It is fairly high in solids, and, for a fall apple, is especially high in sucrose. The total sugars are, however", ratluu- low, and the insoluble solids and acid high. Its chemical analysis indicates it to be a good cooking ai)ple and fairly good for table use for tlmse pre- ferring an acid fruit. Famciise. — Fameuse should attain a diameter of at least 70 millimetci's. and a deep rc^l, almost ci'imson color, over nearly its entire surface. Its chemical analysis shows its excellent table quality, although the percentage of insoluble solids is some- what liiub. Tho relation of sugars to acid is good. It is re- ]uavkid)ly low in sucrose and not ]tart icularly high in total sugars. Mcintosh. — The Mcintosh should grow a little larger than 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — i\o. 31. 191 the Eaijioiise, reaching about SO millimeters. The color should be a dec}), rich crimscm, a little lighter on the shady side and showing sometimes rather obscure splashes and strip(>s. This variety is one of the most highly esteemed as a dessert fruit. The low content of insoluble solids is in accordance with this estimate, though it does not express fully the excellent texture of this variety. Xeilher does the analysis give indication of its agreeable aroma and flavor. The content of sugars is good for a variety of its season and the ratio of acid is excellent. The analysis in many ways closely resembles that of the Fameuse, thus indicating the relationship considered to exist between the two varieties. Jonaihiui. — This is a favorite table apple of high quality. It should attain a diameter of 70 to 75 millimeters and be of a deep rich straw yellow, almost completely covered with a deep, I'ich crimson blush. It is a very handsome api)le when Avell grown. Its tender flesh is indicated by its low content of insoluble solids. It is only fairly high in sugars even for a variety of its season, and on this account lacks the richness of flavor of the Grimes and Ivoxbury Kusset. Its ratio of sugars to acid places it among the sub-acid varieties. Grimes. — Grimes when well grown should reach a size of 75 to 80 millimeters or more, and should be, when rijie, a clear waxen yellow, and may be covered with a slight russeting over the entire surface. When grown in dry climates this russeting may appear in only a slight degree or not at all, a condition which perhaps adds to the good appearance of the fruit. The Grimes is remarkable for its high content of total solids, largely in the form of sugars, and of these a large proportion is in the form of sucrose. The last fact, together with its rather low content of acid, accounts for the almost sweet taste of this variety. King. — The King when well grown should be not less than 80 to 85 millimeters in diameter, and may be quite variable in form, but should be colored over its entire surface with a deep, rich red, somewhat splashed and mottled. Inasmuch as only two samples of this variety were analyzed, less dependence can be put on the figures given than could be if a larger number had 192 EXPERLMKXT STATlOxX. [Jan. been cxuniined. Its high (jiiality is sho\vu in its analysis, but it is clue to no one constituent. The King is good in every respect. It is a more acid apple than the Grimes, although the ratio of sugars to acid is the same. This is due to the fact that a smaller proportion of the sugars is in the form of sucrose. Rhode Island Greening. - — The Rhode Island Greening should reach a size of about 85 millimeters and possess a clear, greenish-yellow skin. It may show a faint red blush on the sunny side, although this character may not api)ear in fruit that is otherwise well developed. It is generally considered a variety of excellent cooking quality, and this is shown in its high ratio of acid to sugars and in its relatively high sucrose content, while its high content of insolulde solids does not detract from its value for this purjxtse. Northern Spy. — The Northern 8i)y is rej)uted to be one of the highest quality of winter varieties. It should reach a size of 80 to 85 millimeters, and be well covered with bright red stripes and sjilashcs. Spies of poor color are frequently, though not always, of inferior quality, depending on the nature and cause of the inferiority. The low content of insoluble solids of the Sjiy is in accordance with its well-known tenderness of flesh and the readiness with which it bruises. BalduAn. ■ — The Baldwin should reach a size of 75 to 80 mil- limeters, and be of even deeper color and more evenly distrib- uted. It is a better shipping apple than the Spy, but hardly as good for the table. This condition of affairs is indicated in its higher percentage of insoluble solids. It is also higher in su- crose and in the ratio of acids to sugar. Esopiis. — This variety should reach a diameter of 75 milli- meters at least, and the skin should be a deep, rich straw yellow, almost completely covered with deep, rather dull red splashes and stripes. This, like the Jonathan, often a]ipears with a poor color, indicati\T of imperfect dovelo]>ment. T1h> Esopus stands among the best as an all-round high quality variety, and its chemical analysis is in accord with this. It is about medium in its content (d" insoluble solids, indicating that it is sufficiently firm of flesh to ship and cook well, but not enough to seriously lUll.j PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 193 injure its tal)le quality. It is about medium in sugars and the relative amount of sucrose is fairly high. Its ratio of sugars to acid places it among the more acid table fruits and less acid cooking varieties. Yellow Newtoivii. — The Yellow l^ewtown should be from 80 to 85 millimeters in diameter, of a clear, greenish-yellow color, sometimes slightly blushed on the sunny side, and may often show over a considerable portion of the surface a grayish scarf skin characteristic of the variety. Its anal3'sis indicates it to be of somewhat firmer flesh than the Esopus and somewhat less acid; otherwise, it is very similar in its constitution. ^yillcsap. — The "Winesap should be about 75 millimeters in diameter, and should be dceidy colored, although the color is hardly as dark as that of Jonathan. It should, however, v.'hen well gro-svn, show little or no signs of the ground color of the fruit. Its analysis places it in the highest class. It is rather high in insolulile solids, but very high in sugars, being exceeded only by the Roxbury and Grimes. However, a smaller portion of the sugar is in the form of sucrose than in either of the other two sorts. Stnyman yS'incs'i}). — This variety is quite similar to the Winesap. It should reach a little larger size and is not quite as red in color. The i-atio of acid to sugars is somewhat higher, but this excess of acid is obscured by the higher amount of sucrose, so the acidity of the apple is about the same to the taste. Rome Beaiifi/. — As only three saui]iles of this variety have been examined wo do nut feel like venturing on any very posi- tive statements in regard to it. It would seem to reach a size of 80 millimeters and a color somewhat less marked than other red varieties. It shows a relatively high proportion of sucrose, but is only fair in the amount of total sugars. It is rather high iu insoluble solids to be a good table fruit, and altogether the analysis is not indicative of very high quality. Smith Cider. — The same remarks concerning the studv of the Rome Beauty will apjily to this variety. Very foAv sam- ples have been examined, and how typical the analysis given is. 194 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. the writer does not feel conliclent. It is remarkably high in insoluble solids, but whether this eharacteristic is constant or not will require further study to determine. Roxbury Russet. — The lioxbury Kusset should reach a size of To to 80 millimeters. The amount of russeting is dependent on climate. A moist atmosphere during the early stages of growth seems to contribute to the increase of russeting. Its analysis shows a high content of sugar, a large proportion of which is in the form of sucrose. It is also high in acid, but in view of the amount and form of the sugars it is not partic- ularly acid to the taste. It is high in insoluble solids, indicat- ing firmness of flesh and good shipping qualities. Altogether, it is one of the high quality varieties, as indicated by its chem- ical composition. York Imperial. — The York Imperial should reach a size of about 80 millimeters, and be of a clear waxen yellow, partially overlaid with a pinkish red. Sometimes this over color deepens to a moderately dark red, but this is not necessary to the attain- ment of high color and pleasing appearance. Its analysis indi- cates its sub-acid flavor, and it shows as low a ratio of acids to sugars as any of the varieties here reported. Ben Davis. — The Ben Davis should attain a diameter of 75 millimeters, and fairly deep red color over almost its entire surface. Partial coloration in this variety is a sure sign of imperfect development. It enjoys the reputation of being one of the best varieties to ship and keep, and one of the poorest for both kitchen and table uses. This o]iinion is supported by its chemical analysis. It is especially high in insoluble solids and low in everything else, although the ])ro])ortion of sugar in the fftrm of sucrose is fairly high. The total sugars, however, arc low for a winter variety. Its serious deficiency as a table fruit is its high insoluble solids content, and as a kitchen fruit its low ratio of acids to sugar. Y. THE TXDTYIDUALITY OF THE TREE. Tlio question of the individuality of the tree has already been mentioned (see page 179). The careful measurements that have been made of the apples from several Ecu Davis and Baldwin 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMExXT — No. 31. 195 trees for the past three years afford some interesting data on this point. The trees are on nearly level land at the top of a slope. The soil is a uniform iii'a\-('lly. clay loaiii, and the trees are of the same age, and vary only a little in size. In the years 1908-10, every a])])le borne to maturity hy these trees has heen measured, as described in the last report of this station,^ and the results for the individual trees are presented in Table 2. • Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 1910, p. 198. 196 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. E°^ 1^00 CO x-»o»o oocD — r- ccco CKQ I ^ ^H r^^ ^ oo -h'-h' gS; coo M M ■«' ^ ooco ^ « -H 4) ^ CO c^ ^^ ^ c —■CM O 00 t^od OOCM — 00 t^C5 o >^ t^OO oo ■h'-h' 1,1 OiO "0 1--5 M !•- -H OO 1-^ Cft ^H CM C^J r-( T-1 T-H CM CM -HC -H -H -H OOOf^ OO'J'CM oc-i H r^ CO CO —11^ 1 00 ^ * O O ■^Ci o o; CO m 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 197 A study of this table shows some positive signs of individual- ity in the trees in the characters of size, form and productive- ness. Size is of course considerably aifected by the number of apples borne, though not as much as usual in this case, as the trees have not matured a very heavy crop during the period of observation. The marked seasonal fluctuation in size will be considered later. We can say that llm Davis trees 7 aud -2 show a tendency to bear large a]i|)les and trees 3 and 5 a tendency to bear smaller fruit, though in 1910 tree 5 l)ore the largest fruit of any, but at the same time the crop was lightest of all. Among the three Baldwins, the rank has l)een the same each year, in spite of the fluctuations in productiveness. In varia- bility there are no constant difl'ereuces. In the Ben Davis there seems to be a relation between varial)ility aud nundjer of apples produced, the greater the nund)er of apples the greater the standard deviation and cocflicient of varial)ility, — a relation that is to be expected. In form, the situation is much the same. Ben Davis tree 7, which produced the largest apples, has invariably borne the flat- test ones, usually by a considerable margin. Tree 2 shows a fairly constant character of producing more elongated ap})les than its fellows. In the Baldwins, also, there are signs of slight differences between the trees. The variation in number of apples borne by the difi'erent trees is great. Ben Davis tree 8 has averaged about three times as many apples as tree 5, and they have been larger. A part of this difference is due to the fact that tree 8 is somewhat larger than tree 5, but the difference in size is not enough to account for all the difference in productiveness. Productiveness is one of the most important qualities of a variety or individual tree. If the tree does not produce at least a fair crop of fruit, all other valuable qualities it may possess lose their attractiveness to the commercial grower, while great productiveness covers a multitude of deficiencies. Other inves- tigations, and common observations as well, have shown very marked differences in the bearing ability of different trees.^ In our opinion, these differences, as well as any others which may occur, are generally due to one or more of four influences: ' See Macoun, Report Central Experiment Farm for 1903, p. 102. 198 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. (1) differences in soil, (2) differences in aspect or exjx)siire, (3) some inherent quality of the tree_, (4) the influence of stock. ^ That the first two of these cause difference no one will dis- pute, but there are nianj variations which can hardly be ex- plained by differences in soil or site. It has been assumed by numy that variations in productiveness arise from within the tree, and arc transmissible. We know of no direct evidence to support this view. Inheritable variation in color and form has appeared in certain varieties. The Collamer, Banks and pos- sibly (Jauo apples are instances of the former, and a probable case of the latter has been reported by the writer.- Whether the sliiiht differences in form and size reported here are trans- uiissible by bud is by no means certain. We are of the opinion that they are not, for it seems possible to explain these and the other variations in productiveness, not attributed to soil and site by reference to a different cause. Waugh has shown that in plums different stocks produce marked modification in the trees grown on them.'"' Apple stocks do not differ as widely as do the plum stocks, above referred to, but the observed differences are also less marked. Every apple tree of a named variety is growing on a stm*k of a different, unnamed variety, i.e., a seedling. These seedlings differ to a considerable degree. May not the slight differences observed between individual trees of a variety, growing under apparently similar conditions, be largely due to the influence of the seed- ling root ? We know of no direct evidence to support this view, but to us it seems a more promising theory than that of indi- viduality of the different buds. If this supposition is true, it is probable that the production of the most desirable trees of a given variety would be favored by growing on a particular known root; thus the Baldwin grown on ro(»ts of S]W. Wonltby or Siberian Cvnh might be an especially desirable tree, while if grown on Tolman or Iving ^ it might be less desirable. Different soils and localities might be 1 There are, of course, large seasonal fluctuations in productivonoss due to conflition and ])roniising lino of investigation. VI. THE MODIFYING EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE DE- VELOPMENT OF THE APPLE. Ox Form. In the last report of this station ^ the question of the variation in form of the Ben Davis was dealt with to some extent, but without arriving at any very definite conclusion as to the cause, further than that it was climatic and closely related to the near- ness of large bodies of water. Since this report was written, two years' further work have been completed, which serve to emphasize the conclusions mentioned above, and to show, fur- ther, that there are large seasonal fluctuations in the index of form. The following figures from a few selected stations will illustrate this : — Table 3. — Seasonal Variation in Form. Number of Apples. Mean Index Standard Coefficient of Variability. of Form. Deviation. Charlottetown, P. 10. I.: — 1907, 74 1.0511±.0049 .0019±. 00.34 5.88±.31 1908 122 1.1 250 ±.0052 .0858 ±.0037 7.63±.33 1910, 135 1.0557 ±.0043 .O744±.O031 7.05±.29 Abbot.sford, (Jueliec: — 1907, 151 1.1788±.0039 .0735 ±.0028 6.23±.24 1908 129 1.1739±.0041 .0683 ±.0029 5.82±.23 1909, 184 1.1986±.0031 .0628±.0022 5 24±.21 1910 115 1.1356±.0029 .0455±.0021 4.01±.18 Isle la Motte, Vt.: — 1907 203 1.1547±.0024 .0735 ±.0024 6.28±.27 1908 170 1.1406 ±.0027 .0.526 ±.0020 3.74±.15 1909, 148 1.1475 ±.0033 .0590±.0023 5.14±.24 .\inherst, Mass.: — 1907 284 1.1656±.0023 .0.581 ±.0017 4 98±.14 190S 2,321 1.1515±.0OO8 .0589 ±.0006 5.29±.05 1909 1,866 1.1338±.0009 .0527 ±.0006 4.65±.06 1910, 2,914 1.1238±.0007 .0504 ±.0004 4.48±.04 Storra, Conn.: — 1907, 147 1.1557 ±.0030 .0534±.0021 4 62±.18 1908 131 1.1423±.0041 .0689 ±0029 6 03±.21 1909 146 1.1330±.0035 .0622 ±.0025 5.49±.24 Marblehead, Mass.: — 1908, 192 1.1021 ±.0029 .O598±.0O21 5.42±.18 1910, 176 1.0982 ±.0033 .0651 ±.0023 5.93±.22 Sandwich, Mass.: — 1908, 162 1.1281 ±0021 .0407±.0015 3.67±.14 1909 143 1.1167± 0036 .0654 ±.0025 5.86±.24 * Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 22, p. 194 (1909). The reader is referred to thia paper for the methods used in measuring and studying thia variation in form. 200 KXPEllLMEXT STATION. [Jan. This has led to a study of the diilerences in the climatic conditions in the ditterent years. The apple during its early stages of gTowth, following blossoming, is relatively more elon- gated than is the mature t'niit. During the later periods of growth it enlarges in cross diameter relatively more. A study of the temperature during the latter part of the summer failed to show any diiferences correspcmding to the vai-iations in form. An rxamiualiou of the dally mean temperatures for a ])eriod at and following the blossoming ])eriod gave more ])ositi\e re- Ttnp V 5 5 7 ? 1 1 1 n 3 1 3 1 7 1 P 2 1 2(3 25 IT UJ 1 1 29 1 >3 70- 60- v50- 40- ::^ \ V k- / V" y — ■ 1 — / — ' y y / / \ f ~. . — '-' \ -^ ■~~ _ 1503. lUDtX Off^ORn 1.1315. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 70- 6 0- 40-» ^ \ \ / s. / \ , ■ - \ / \ V \ ■^ ■"^v / \ y- '■ 1 '^ ■^ ^-~ * A / ^ ■ — , 909. inOtX offORn I.l336 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 70- 60- f 40- . ZJ s. ^ _ ^ > N — ^ V — ^ =-" 2 &= — — ^ 5«S ^ ^ ^ ' ■^ ?^ ^ -Ss- 5 — A ^ — — — — — — — — _ 1510. mt>tX ofF-ORn 1.1256 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 inARK.:^ DATf- or f-tX offORn 1.1547. _ 1)11111111 - 1 60- 70- 60- JO- 1 1 1 — ^ iJ ■ ,, h = \ — /T^ s > s / ,/ s ^ \ t' > s\ ^N ^ — K.ifc^ U/- , ^ r— — •' ^•^ / ^— ^ '^^LVI 1 1 1 1 1 ^/ \ \ i N^ -J— — \KZ '^ _i_ , I 908. in^tXoff-ORn 11406.^ — — r- 1 r 1 J r 1 1 1 1 1 1 ro- 1 1 _ ^ J -J , _ — _ - _j — — — — _J — — — — I— — — ^ — 7^ -™ ^ ST — — — ' — ' — ' — _ _ _ _ L 1 ^ >»= _J ^^^- — — *"" •s; ^^^^ — — — — -U 60- -p — 3 □ — 1 r l!j — 1 — ^Xi"/! 1 — — ' — — — ^ p ~" " ~ ~ ~ ~^ ^ 1 otA o^ roR 1 1 1 1 u — i— — — — — — ~ — — — _ 1909. in 1 1 1 1 1 1 — — — — — — — I 1A0K.S tATt Of rULL BLOOM _, , ~ ' -J _J _J 1 1 \ 1 L_ l_ _ 1 1 . t 1 1 1 — ' LJ Fig. 2. do not know the date of l)l(poni in 1908. but it was probably not far from June 8. In Fig. o the temperature data are from Ttnf> ro- 60- 50- 40- " 5 )■ T ' ) 1 1 ' A > JIL 5 1 \ 1 9 J 1 23 f 2 ^ 9 yv ' J.:->^^ i y ^ r ^A ! /• \^ yS. y X —- -♦^ \ A J / \ / N y ^^ ^ 1 V / ' ^' 1 ' _ V S. / 908. mt>tx ot^r.oRn 1 1 1' 1 1 1 1 I.I 7v5S. J 1 1 j\ ^ s / /' L / 's Y ^ / \, // 50-J 40- ■^ / ^ ,-.-- / ^ N,^ y . / y A/ ■ / ' -^. / \ f y ^ •^ 1 — ' -^ — ~ >sS ^ ^y V y ^ 910. mi>E:^ o^ fORn 1.155a, _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 I HARKS DATE o^ pgLL BLOOH 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 L_ ..-. Fig. 3. Salem, Ind., and the apples from Mitchell ; in Fig. 4 lx)th a])ples and temperature data are from Bentonville, Ark. An examination of these charts shows a reasonably clo.so agreement with that for Amherst. A period of cool weather, 202 EXPEHLMEXT STATION. [Jan. l)robablj during a space of two or three weeks, results in greater elongation of the fruit, presumably through a prolongation of the period of relatively greater axial elongation before re- ferred to. This theory explains not only the seasonal variations biit the greater elongation in the vicinity of large bodies of water, for the fact that in such locations the weather is relatively cool during the s])ring needs im discussion. Tn this connection we have observed that the seasonal fluctuation in form is loss near nORTHWDILRh ARKAHMO. Fig. 4. the great lakes and the ocean than at a distance from them, this showing the influence on the form of the apple of the equalizing effect on the temperature of the large bodies of water. In gathering the apples from the trees under observation in Amherst, they have been divided into four lots, by bisecting the tree with a perpendicular plane running east and west, and again with a horizontal plane al)out midway of the head of the tree. This divides the tree into quarters designated upper south, lower south, upper north and lower north. The sections of each tree have approxinuitely equal amounts of bearing wood. Fi-om the first the^e difl^erent portions of the ti-ee have shown differences in form which have been meaningless and confusing uutil the theorv of the temperature following 1)lossomiug was 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31. 203 proposed. If this is the correct solution we ought to expect the upper south i)ortious of the tree, owing hirgelj to its exposure to the warmth of the sun, to give the flattest apples, and the lower north to give the most elongated ones, with the other two portions intermediate. The calculations for the three years 1908-10 are shown in Table 4. Table 4. — Variation in Form in Different Parts of the Tree. Number of Apples. Mean Index of Form. Standard Deviation. Coefficient of Variabilitj'. Ben Duiu Upper south: — 1908, . 1909, . 1910, . Lower soutli: — 1908, . 1909, . 1910, . Upper north: — 1908, . 1909, . 1910, . Lower nortli: — 1908, . 1909, . 1910, . Baldwin. L'pper south: — 1909, . 1910, . Lower south: — 1909, . 1910, . Upper north: — 1909, . 1910, . Lower north: — 1909, . 1910, . 518 552 707 714 .S79 893 414 305 576 076 287 869 467 235 290 137 327 168 86 1.1643=*=. 0017 1, 1390 =t. 0015 1.1299=*=. 0013 l,1512=t.0015 1.1302±.0018 1.1249=t.00U 1.1 553 =t. 0020 1.1333=1=. 0020 1.1216=t.0016 1.1406=1=. 0016 1.1338=1=. 0021 1.1171=*=. 0012 1.1877±.0019 1. 1955=4=. 0O24 1.1688=1=. 0020 1.1792 =±=.0031 1.1809 ±.0020 1.1792 ±.0030 1.1586^ 1.1717=1 .0026 .0044 .0593=*=. 0012 .0520=*=. 0011 . 0500 =t. 0009 .0619 ±0011 .0516±.0012 .0489 ±.0009 .0607 ±.00 14 .05<)9±.0014 .0544±.0010 .0644±.0011 .0529 ±.00 15 .0505 ±.0008 .0606±.0013 .0537 ±.0016 .0,500±.0014 .0536±.OO22 .0548±.0014 .0575 ±.0021 .0522±.0019 .0602±.0031 3.61±.07 4.57±.10 4.43±.09 4 19^ 4 57=J 4. 35=1 3 91±.08 4 40±.14 4 S5±.10 4.58=' -4,67=1 4 52=i 5.10±.13 4.49±.16 4. 28 J 4.57^ 4.64 = 4.88= 4.51^ 5.14 = The relati\o rank of the different parts <>f the trees of the Ben Davis is as follows: — 1908. 1909. 1910. 1. Most flattened, . 2, . . . . 3, . . . . 4. Most elongated, . Upper south. Upper north. Lower south. Lower north. Upper south. Lower north. Upper north. Lower south. Upper soutli. Lower south. L^pper north. Lower north. 204 EXPERIMENT STATIOxN. [Jan. It is seen that the upper south quarter of the tree yielded the flattest apples each year, and usually by a considerable margin, while the most elongated fruit comes from the lower portion of the tree, and, in two of the years under consideration, on the north side. On the whole the figures for the different parts of the ti-ee support the theory already presented that the elongation is due to relatively cold weather, and gives support to the idea that the heat of the sun has much to do with the tem])erature of the tree itself ;:iid ])i-obably the (Icvclopment of the fi'uit. In the Baldwins the relative i-ank is as follows for both years: n])p('r soutii. n])])er north, lower south, lower north. Ox SifE. The size of an a]iple is deteruiiucd l)y several factors. Each variety has its iudividuality in this respect. C^dturc is impor- tant, an abundance of nitrogenous fertilizers and an abundiint supi)ly of moisture being favorable to the attainment of large size. An excessively heavy crop prevents the development of full size of the individuals, 1)ut a light crop does not seem favorable to any larger fruit than a moderate one. Young trees usually bear larger fruit than mature ones, while in very old trees the fruit is comuionly iuferior in size. The differences due to age are pr()bal)ly in considerable degree at least due to the influences already nienti(med. Aside from these influences the summer temperature seems to have considerable influence. Some evidence on this point was presented in an earlier paper.^ Table 4 (page 203) gives further data on this point. The mean summer temperatures at Amherst were as follows: 1908, .58.8°; 1009, .50.7°; 1910, .58.9°. The size of the a]i])les is in a general way in accordance with these temperatures. Tu 1910 the apples were unich larger than in 1908. while the teni]»ei'atin-e was practically the same. This may be due to lucreased amounts of fei-tili/er which have been a]iplied. The orchard was lined in the spring of 1909, and this may have had » Report Massacluisotts Experiment Station, 22, pp. 204, 2n (1900). 05 It ■n- ib- 3W )e- of ie- ty m- nt 3r- ris :er Qd rn he ■a, he ir- of de les he to he FIG. 6. — APPLE BELTS OP NORTH AMERICA. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 205 an effect by liberating increased amounts of i)bint food. It does not seem possible to account for the increased size by tem- perature conditions. Data from other localities similar to that previously pub- lished might be presented, but inasmuch as they show no new features, it is deemed unnecessary to do so. On General Development. The question of variation in form and size having been espe- cially considered, we may now proceed to a consideration of the differences in the general development of different \'arie- tics, with more particular reference to color, keeping quality and table quality. These are the characters of paramount im- portance in determining the commercial value of a lot of apples. In order to discuss these questions we have found it convenient to divide the country into belts. Apple Belts of North America. We find in pomological writings frequent mention of differ- ent apple " belts," such as the Baldwin belt or the Ben Davis belt. This term is understood to designate a certain area over Y.'hich the variety named is the leading one grown. We find many other varieties referred to a given belt, as the Northern Spy and Rhode Island Greening, which are ref(M-red to the Baldwin l)elt. In connection with the work herein reported, and for convenience in the discussions, the writer presents the division of Noi'th America into apple belts, shown in Fig. 5, 1. The northern belt, in Avhich the Fameuse is the most char- acteristic sort. 2, The north central belt, ]icrhaps the most recognized of any. It is characterized by the Baldwin, Northern S})y, Bhode Island Greening, Hubbardston and numy others. It comprises the oldest and in some ways best understood portion of the a]iple region of North America, '*). The Annapolis valley, in which we find varieties similar to the second belt, but where the season is shorter and many of the varieties of the second belt do not mature well. 206 EXPKULMENT STATION. [Jan. 4. The northwesteru belt, coiiiprising' the iStates of .Miniiesota and Wiscousiu and adjacent territory; somewhat like the Jiald- win belt to the east, but having winters too severe for many of the varieties of that belt. It is characterized by the Oldenburg, Wealthy, Ililjernal, Northwestern Greening and many others. 5. The central belt, which is of less importance. There is no one variety that 2>redonii nates over the whole of this territory. In castci'ii sections we find the Yelhtw Xewtown, Smith Cider and Fallawater, and west of the mountains the Koine Beauty. 0. The south central belt, one of the largest and most im- portant. There are three varieties that are quite generally spread ov(u- this belt, the Ben Davis^ AVinesaj) and ^'ork Impe- rial. The Grimes is quite general and important in the western part, also the Jonathan. Y. The southern belt, which extends to the southern limit of apple growing, and is characterized by the Yates, Terry, Shock- ley and Horse as leading varieties. The figure shows these belts somewhat roughly. They de- pend on latitude and altitude more than anything else. Inas- much as the altitude along the Appalachian Mountains is varia- ble, it is impossible to show the belts Avith entire accuracy. Each belt will dij) further south than is indicated in the higher elevations of this region. Some varieties are found generally distributed through the entire range of its belt from cast to w^est. Others do not extend the entire length. The western portion of the territory covered has a smaller preci])itation. and this may aifect some varieties. More important than this, how- ever, arc the higher summer temperatures which prevail, and which cMiiuot be successfully withstood by some varieties grown in the east. Other varieties succeed even better in this warmer summer climate than they do in the cooler and more humid east. The dotted liiu^s in the figure show a possible division of the belts, but such division is not very definite nor of great value. ]^o attempt is made to map the Rocky ^Mountain and Pacific Coast apple region, owing to the fact that the distribu- tion of varieties there is governed largely by elevation, and would be xcvx difficult to map, especially on so small a scale as the figure shows. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. lil. 207 Di.slrlhuliun of Varieties. A few varieties^ most of tlicm well known and of i-atlier gen- eral distribution, have been selected for u s])eeial study in con- nection with this work. We nuiv now proceed to a discussion of the distribution and sonic of the characteristics of these varie- ties. Oldenburg. — This variety extends over almost ihe entire ajjple-gTowing region of North America. AVe find it recom- FiG. 6. ' mended as a commercial variety in some region of every apple belt shown in Fig. 5, with the possiljle exception of the south- ern. The two principal reasons for the wid> ' _^^. \ \J~--L~~^r'^ — { ^.P ^ ^\ I / t — — X^:^ ,«^ •^ ~~ "§» ^Ai^ L ^ ^At1t.<^5t \/ \ ^ MAlOtM EiLySM Fig. 8. favor. It is grown with success as far north as Long Island and southern Connecticut, and west through southern Indiana and central and southern Illinois. It does not withstand the dry climate of the plains as well as some others, but reaches as far west as eastern Nebraska and Kansas. It is cultivated suc- cessfully south into the mountains of Virginia. Gould says : — On Cecil sandy loam, at 900 to 1.000 feet elevation, it is inclined to rot severely, but on the more clayey soil of the Piedmont regions it does well. Its season of ripening varies considerably, ranging from summer to early fall. In the middle Piedmont orchards it would probably ripen in August or early September. At one point in North Carolina having an altitude of 3,500 to 4,000 feet, with rather less friable loam, some very fine s]iecimens have been seen the middle of October.^ 1 Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 135, p. 38. 210 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. It will be seen that the Maiden's Blush belongs to the central belt and the northern part of the sonth central belt. Fameuse. — The Famense is one of the most northern of commercial a])])les. It is grown in most parts of the northern belt, also in northern Indiana and Illinois and in sonthern Michigan, though in these regions the variety does not attain the quality of the St. Lawrence and C'hamplain valleys. It becomes a fall ap])le, and is of poor color and inferior flavor. Specimens received from Prince Edward Island were dull red and green, and small in size, while those from southern Quebec were very good specimens of the variety. ndnrosH Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 133. 212 EXPERLA1P:NT station. [Jan. the south and more acid, the latter being a quality that is appreciated by some, inasmuch as in the south the variety has a mild subacid flavor. Gould says : — An orchard twelve to fifteen years old in Bedford County, Va., on Porters clay, at 1,500 feet elevation, with southeast exposure, produces fruit of unusual excellence, notable for its good size, fine yellow color, crisi)ness of texture, and rich, spicy flavor. This orchard has had hardly fair care. The fruit of this variety from it reaches edible maturity early in October, but i:)ossesses good keeping qualities for the variety. On the same farm, at a point having somewhat lower eleva- tion and a looser type of soil, it matui'es considerably earlier, and is not of such excellent flavor as from the location above mentioned. Produced at elevations of 2,000 feet in the upper sections of the Blue Ridge region, it may be kept under fairly favorable conditions until early winter. ... At points south of Virginia, at the elevations of the Pied- mont region, it is inclined to drop prematurely, but when grown at points having not less than 1,500 feet altitude it is highly prized in its season. One grower in the southwestern part of North Carolina has this variety at 2,500 to 2,800 feet elevation, and also at an altitude 400 to 600 feet higher. It is his experience that the fruit grown at the latter elevation will keep two months longer than that from the lower level. The fruit is also finer in appearance and more satisfactory in every way at the greater elevation. For best keeping qualities it should not be allowed to become too mature before iiicking.^ Favorable reports on it have been received from certain localities in l^ew York, but in general as grown in this State it does not develop in size, color or quality as well as it does in more southern latitudes, and there is a high percentage of loss from drops and culls.- Tompl'ins King. — The King is a variety found over a limited portion of the north central Ix^lt. Tt is a standard apple in western Xew York, and is grown in southern Ontario and to some extent in Michigan. It is also a favorite variety in Annapolis A'alley in Nova Scotia, where it succeeds to a high degree. The tree is weak, and requires high cultivation and good care. Tt is scarcely known west of Lake Michigan, and is met with scatteringly as far as Virginia, where it is found in the higher levels of the Blue Kidge. The tree is > Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 36. 2 Beach, Apples of New York, Vol. 1, p. 154. 1911.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 213 e\ideiitly not able to withstand the hot dry summers of the middle west. Esopus. — This is an old v^ariety, but one that has never been very largely cultivated. This may be partially accounted for by the fact that the tree is not particularly vigorous nor es- pecially productive, and is somewhat susceptible to diseases. The apj)le is of superior quality, being much better than ihe Baldwin, which it considerably resembles. It has been grown somewhat in the Champlain and Mohawk valleys. It is an apple of limited cultivation for the Baldwin belt. Gould says, regarding its behavior in Virginia and Korth Carolina : — At lower levels it usually drops prematurely, and even on Porters black loam at 2,000 feet elevation it often rots and dx'ops seriously. At 3,000 to 3,500 feet altitude in North Carolina, on a rather loose loamy soil with porous subsoil containing more or less red clay, it develops more satisfactorily, keeps well into the winter, and does not manifest in any marked degree the defects observed at the lower levels.^ It has recently attained high favor with the growers in cer- tain portions of the Pacific northwest. In our opinion this variety is deserving of wider cultivation inasmuch as it is an excellent variety for all purposes. In fact, so far as the fruit goes we believe that none of the better known varieties of com- mercial ap])les answers so Avell the requirements of a general purpose market apjDle. When well grown it is of good size and attractive appearance, and is adapted for both dessert use and cooking. It is also a reasonal)ly good shipping apple. It re- quires the better care and higher cultivation which orchards are destined to receive in the near future. Rhode Island Greening. — The distribution of the Rhode Island Greening is very similar to that of the Baldwin, but is perhaps adapted to somewhat wider range of conditions ; being a green apple it does not call for conditions adapted to the pro- duction of good color necessary for the Baldwin, It attains better size and appearance than the Baldwin when grown towards the northern limit of its culture. It is possibly some- what hardier in tree. It is grown all through the north central « Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 34. 214 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. licit, and exteiids scjiucwliat further .>*^in 1 \ ORK IflP, •= Fig. 10, in the south it rots badly and (Ir(ii)s, noi' does it attain the high color and (puility that characterize it in its more northern home. Baldwin. — The Baldwin is the standard winter apple of the northeastern United States, It is distributed all over the north central belt, and is so nearly confined to it as to lend its name to that zone. It is also grown to a consideral)le extent in the Annapolis valley and very sparingly in the central belt, although it rarely attains any commercial standing in this re- gion. It is not grown west of Lake Michigan, owing to the extremes of maximnni and niiniiimni tcni])eratnres which there 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 215 prevail. In the llol•lllwe!^lel■ll belt the winters are too severe and the trees winter-kill ; while sonth of this region the summers are so warm that the variety ripens prematni-ely and is apt to rot and drop. These same remarks will apply to many other varieties of the Baldwin belt, most of them being too tender to withstand the winters west of Lake ]\liehigan. The Wealthy, which is very well adapted to the Baldwin belt, is an exception to this, and grows to perfection in both regions. We have ob- served the Baldwin for several years in an orchard growing on the higher elevations of the Green Mountains. Here it occa- sionally matures pretty well. In other years it is small, dull Or— -T--T^ ^ /^n,^^ Zjl^^ \ \ LJ r?i^ \ J-^ '>-A:^~ M^~7 ft: -~^^L- ^Z r/i" ^'v-N xht-^ — ^ A R.I. r()titable sorts. This apjjlies specially to locations in Rap])ahaiinock ("ounty, in close proximity to the mountains. In the Blue Kidge region above an elevation of 1,200 to 1,500 feet premature dropping is gen- erally less severe than it is at lower points. Especially satisfactory re- sults have usually been obtained on Portei's clay at these middle eleva- tions, where very heavy crops are expected, at least in alternate years. If heavy dropping occurs in such cases, a sufficient quantity of fruit htwTown pit>P>n Fig. 13. usually remains to result in a heavy ci-op. At the higher altitudes this is considered a valuable variety, especially in North Carolina, where it has grown at 2,500 to 3,500 feet altitude. . . . The contrast between this variety and Winesap in the manner in which they respond to the in- fluence of elevation is of interest. The elevation at which Winesap begins to deteriorate and above which it becomes more inferior as the elevation increases appears to be about the point below which York Imperial is inclined to manifest certain faults which tend to disappear at higlier altitudes.' Yellow Newioirn. — This variety is one of restricted culti- vation. The only region in the east where it can be said t(^ have ' Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 13'), p. 49. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 219 cuiniiieirial stand iiig is in the Hudson Valley and Long Island, and in the U2)i)er Piedmont and lilue Kidge sections of N'ir- ginia and North Carolina. It has also attained favor in certain sections of the Pacific northwest. It is therefore an apple of the central belt. The climatic conditions, particularly the mean summer temperature, of the several regions where this variety is cultivated are even more alike than is indicated by the temperature nuip. The tree makes a slow growth and is rather late in coming into bearing. The variety requires better care than do many of the leading commercial sorts. The tree is evidently nnable to withstand the conditions of the western plains, and apparently does not succeed west of Indiana. We are confident, however, that if given good care it will do well in many places in Pennsylvania and central Ohio, provided, also, that the soil conditions are right. Gould devotes consid- erable space to a discussion of the behavior of this variety in the southern Appalachians, mostly with reference to its soil loreferences. He concludes that it requires a soil or high fertil- ity and of a loose, friable texture ; and a subsoil comparatively open and porous. Bearing on climatic conditions he says: — This apple is found iirincipally in the mountains, at various altitudes and in coves where Porters black loam abounds, often at elevations not exceeding the general level of the Piedmont. Even these lower points, where the drainage is good, are favorable places for this variety, though the higher altitudes are to be preferred.' In Nelson County, Va., the slopes of the mountains and hills at elevations of 1,000 to 1,500 feet are considered desirable locations. In northeastern Georgia premature dropping was observed. In Fig. 13 the solid line shows where the varietv is generally recommended, and the dotted line includes additional territory where we believe it would do well in favorable loca- tions and with good care. Ben Davis. — ■ This variety has been quite fully dealt with in a previous publication." We have little to add to the statements made at thflt time. Many other samples of the variety have » Bureau of Plant Industry, BuUotin 135, p. 48. • Masaachusetts Experiment Station Report, 1910, p. 197. 220 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. been studied and additional data as to variation Jn form and size have been secured, and these are set forth in an earlier portion of this paper. It cannot be grown to its full develop- ment north of southern Pennsylvania, central Ohio and In- diana, north central Illinois and central Iowa, although it is often a profitable commercial variety further north than this. It is, however, inferior in most respects to the variety grown south of that line. It is apt to be hard and astringent and ])o(»rly colored, and undersized unless grown under relatively high cultural conditions. The map given in Fig. 14 shows the Fig. 14. distribution of this variety. This shows it extending farther north than the map given in a previous report. It should be borne in mind that the previous map shows the area over which it is the leading conunercial variety and the present map the area where it may be said to rank as a valuable commercial sort. ShocMey. — Shockley is a variety belonging almost exclu- sively to the southern belt. It flourishes in regions where the summer heat is greater than that favorable to most commercial varieties. It is recoiumeuded for cultivation in the hill and pine belt regions of South Carolina, and west through northern and central Alabama to northeastern Texas. Gould gives the lyiL] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 221 fulluwiug concerning its behavior in the southern Appalachian Mountains : — At 1,500 feet altitude in Albemarle County, Va., on Porters clay, this variety is not considered of special value, but at the same elevation in Georgia on a soil containing rather more sand than Porters clay does, with good culture it conies to a high degree of perfection, and when held until midwinter it generally brings very satisfactory prices in local markets. In the southwestern part of North Carolina, at 1,700 feet elevation, on a friable, porous loam, with good culture it bears annual crops of highly colored fruits, which develop to a larger size than under most conditions. In North Carolina at 3,500 to 3,800 feet, while the Shockley bears heavily and colors well, it is usually too small to be of much value, especially as other more desirable sorts succeed at these elevations. The clay and clay loam soils of the Piedmont region, with the usual elevations of those soils, may be expected, as a rule, to produce this variety in a fair degree of perfection.' The Relation of Temperature to Development. The Mean Summer Temperature. — There is a close relation between the mean summer temperature and the development of the fruit. For every variety there can be determined a mean summer temperature at which it reaches its highest and most satisfactory develoi^ment. Any departure from this mean re- sults in greater or less inferiority of the fruit, the degTee of in- feriority depending on the amount of the departure, and the variety. For the successful growth of the tree the mean sum- mer temperature is of little significance, but the major control- ling factors are the minimum winter temperature and the mean of the hottest part of the summer. Other factors enter in, but Ave believe that these are the principal ones and must first bo complied with if a variety is to succeed. The Winter Minimum, — The temperature which a tree of a given variety can withstand cannot be stated with definiteness. It depends not only on the degi'ee of cold, but also on the con- dition of the tree and the rapidity and amount of the fall aud subsequent rise of the temperature. In the northwestern belt this is the gi-eat problem of apple culture, and much study has been given to it. The Minnesota Horticultural Society men- > Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 135, p. 43. 222 EXrEULMENT STATION. [Jan. lions tbe following varieties as of sufficient hardiness to endure the severe winters of that State : ^ — Of the first degree of hardiness, Oldenburg, Hibernal, Charlamof!, Patten, Okabena. Of the second degree of hardiness, Weallhy, Tetofski, Malinda, Peer- less, Northwestern Greening. J\lany other sorts thrive in the more favorable parts of this belt, but the great bulk of the varieties grown in localities of similar summer temperatures in the east perish from winter- killing. The mininmm winter temperatures in this territory, according to the records of the Weather Bureau,- are around — 40° F., which may be considered a degree of cold which any tree of Pyrus malus can rarely endure without injury (see Fig. 15). It should be borne in mind that this temperature must be taken in accordance with the methods of the Weather Bureau and with correct instruments, else the figures obtained are likely not to Ix^ comparable. The Heat of Summer. — A glance at the figures (Figs. G-14) giving the distribution of varieties shows that some extend the entire length of its belt, while others succeed well only through the eastern portion. There are three differences between the eastern and western portions of these belts. In the west we find (i) lower humidity, (2) less precipitation, (3) more severe heat during the summer. Probably all these have their influ- ence in limiting the western spread of certain varieties, for their eifects on the plant are similar, in that they tend to dry it out. In relative importance the greater heat is probably of the great- est significance followed by rainfall and humidity. The Effects of Low and Hirjh Mean Summer Temperatures. — The effects on the fruit of a low summer heat, as indicated by the mean summer temperature, are as follows: — 7. Greater Acidity. — It is shown that the acidity of the fruit steadily decreases all through the stages of growth, ripen- ing and decay. It naturally follows that if the fruit does not have time to mature ])roperly It will be acid, and this is clearly shown in the table of analyses. ' Report, 1907, p. 34. ' United States Weather Bureau, Bulletin Q. FIG. 15. — ISOTHERMS OF MINIMUM WINTER TEMPERATURE. 222 tioiis til the sev( Of th. Patten, ( Of tlie less, Nor Man,) belt, bii similar killing. accordi) —40° ] tree of . 15). I be takei and wit not to b The. giving 1 entire L the eas1 eastern (1) lov heat dn ence in effects ( In relat est sig-n The . — The l\y the 1 ' 7. G. fruit st( ing and have til shown i FIG. 16. — ISOTHERMS OF MEAN SUMMER TEMPEBATUEB. 22 ti< th Pi let be si ki ac ti- ll ])( ai IK gi ei tl ei ( h ei e I ei 191i.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 223 2. A lligJier Content of Insoluble Solids. — The analyses show that there is a decided teudeney for the insoluble solids to decrease during the stage after ripening. The figures do not show just when the content of insoluble solids is highest, but it must be at or before the time of picking. The analyses also give clear indication of the immaturity of the fruit when grown too far north. This is especially marked in the case of the Ben Davis, doubtless owing to the fact that some lots of this variety came from the far north of the region in which it matures prop- erly, and it falls far short of full maturity. It shows an average content of 2.97 per cent, for the Ben Davis belt and 3.60 per cent, for the specimens from north of this region. Other sorts show similar dilierences. 3. Greater Astringency. — All apples in an immature state doubtless contain small amounts of tannin. Xo determinations of tannin have been made in connection with this work, nor have we discovered any report that shows conclusively just what changes in tannin content go on in the growing and ripening fruit. Xevertheless, it is evident to the taste that green apples have greater astringency than do ripe specimens, and we have repeatedly observed a markedly greater astringency in northern- grown apples than in the same sort grown farther south. Jf. Less Coloration. — It is well known that plants exhibit brighter, more intense coloration when grown in high latitudes and altitudes. This is true of the coloration of red apples. In the north we find bright intense reds, which become duller towards the south, with a tendency toward a pinkish red towards the southern limit. The ]iroportion of the fruit covered, how- ever, behaves in a different way. We find the greatest pro- portion of color near the middle of a distribution, with a decrease to both the north and south. We find then, near the center of a distribution of most varieties of red apples, fruit well covered with fairly bright color, which is brighter and more intense in northern varieties than in those of the south. 5. Decreased Size. — When the season is short or cool it is natural that a variety should not reach the maximum size. Tt is somewhat difficult to determine, in lots of varying size, how much of the difference is due to climatic causes and how much 224 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. to cultural inethod.s and conditions. However, in the case of the Ken Davis a study of the table on page 199 shows clearly not only the general influence of the different regions on size, hut also that of different seasons, and almost invariably a lower suninior mean is accompanied by decreased size. 6'. Scnlding in Storage. — It has been shown by Powell ^ and Beach ^ that immature apples are more likely to scald in storage than are those that have been well matured on the trees. In order to keep longest in storage an apple should have fully com- pleted the stages of growth and ripening on the tree, and been picked and without delay placed and kept in a temperature barely above the freezing point of the fruit. In practice it is necessary to allow a margin for safety, owing to possible lack of uniformity of the temperature at different times and in differ- ent parts of the storage rooms, but the better the control of the temperature the closer may the ideal conditions be approached. It is prol)able that scalding may also appear on fruit that has been poorly grown, but still has reached full maturity. The chemical work here reported indicates that fruit matured on poor soil or under unfavorable cultural conditions may be in some respects similar to immature fruit. The poorly grown fruit is lower in most of the soluble solids. When a variety is grown where the summer mean tempera- ture is excessively high we note the following effects : — 1. Uneven Bipening. — Summer and fall varieties always show a tendency to ripen unevenly, making it desirable to make two or more pickings as the different specimens reach maturity. Late fall and winter sorts show less evidence of this, though a difference in the maturity of specimens in a lot of winter fruit may be detected without difficulty. Inasmuch as the result of growing a variety south of its natural range is to cause earlier maturity, and fall varieties tend to become sunnner varieties, it is to be expected that the uneven ripening characteristic of sum- mer sorts should follow. This is not marked with winter varie- ties unless they are grown a considerable distance south of their most favorable localities. • Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 48. ' New York Experiment Station, Bulletin 248; Iowa Experiment Station, Bulletin 108. I'JU.J rUliLlC DOCUMENT — x\o. ;U. 225 2. rrciiudure Dropping. — It is but natural that dropping of ripened fruit should follow uneven ripening, and this is commonly observed to be the case, ^^'e tind, also, that apples may droj) even at immature stages when the summer heat is too great for the liking of the variety, particularly when the heated period closely follows the period of blossoming. 3. Eoding on tJte Tree. — This is another sign of summer heat too gr(>at for the variety, which is right ahjng the line of those already mentioned. It occurs with most varieties only when the heat is excessive. The Jonathan is especially subject to this trouble, because the margin between temperature that will give the maximum size, color and quality and one that will cause rotting seems to be narrow, and })erhaps within the range of seasonal fluctuations. Therefore there is great danger that the apples will become o\'erripe and decay before being picked. Jf. Poor Keeping Quality. — This defect of southern-grown specimens is also along the same lines of those already dealt with. The apples mature to the end of the ripening or after- ripening stages, and being still subject to high temperature, con- tinue rapidly on the road to decay. It is probable that in many cases this difficulty might be largely overcome by picking the apples at the proper stage and placing them at once in cold storage. I am informed by ]\rr. W. A. Taylor of the Depart- ment of Agriculture that Baldwins grown in West Virginia kept in a satisfactory manner when handled in this Avay. The chemical work here reported shows no material difference in the chemico-physiological processes of the growth and maturing of the fruit of a given variety^ whether grown in the north or in the south, but only in the degree of completeness with which they are achieved. The converse of this proposition is that northern-growni fruit, if well matured, will keep better than that variety grown far- ther south, and this indicates that any variety should be growm as far north as possible to fully mature it in the coolest seasons that are likely to occur. The progress of the stage of after ripen- ing may be easily controlled if the proper facilities are at hand, but it is an advantage to have the air temperature low at this time unless it is desired to hasten instead of retard this stage. 226 EXPERLAIEXT STATION. [Jan. o. Lack of Flavor. — The basis of flavor in apples has already been discussed. The leading element of flavor for discussion here is that of the flavoring oils. It appears that for high de- velopment of these a relatively cool atmosphere is desirable. Summer and early fall varieties do not, as a rule, possess high flavors, and any late fall or winter variety grown so far south that it ripens before the cool weather of autumn comes is likely to be inferior in the development of flavoring oils. 6. " Mealiness." — This is another sign of overripeness that is an indication that the variety is grown in too great summer heat. ]\lention has already been made of the softening of the middle lamellae, which is the cause of this mealiness (see page 186). The result is that when eaten the cells separate from each other without breaking open and releasing the juices contained therein, and the apple is said to be " dry," whereas it probably contains a normal amount of water. Some varieties, the Jona- than, for example, do not show this characteristic in marked degree, but most varieties do if they can be kept long enough without parasitic decay, and the warmer they are the shorter the time necessary to bring al)out this result. 7. Less Intense Color. — A red variety grown to the south of its normal range is apt to show a less intense color, though it may be pretty well spread over the fruit. There is often a decided tendency toward a pinkish red, which may appear pale or faded in extreme cases. Bright sunlight during the ripening period of the fruit has much to do with the attainment of high color, especially if at this time the nights are cool and frosty. But in order for these influences to have their full eftect the a]>ple must- have been brought to the proper stage of development by a sufficient amount of heat during the period of growth. Under- developed apples do not take on a satisfactory color, no matter how favorable the conditions may be during the ripening ]>eriod. 8. Smnller Size. — This cfi"ect does not manifest itself unless the variety is grown far to the south of its most favorable region. The signs of overripeness show themselves much sooner as one goes south over the distribution of a variety. Nevertheless, in some cases, at least, it is evident that a variety may fail lyil.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 227 to reach its normal size on account of too severe summer heat. It is probable that this occurs most noticeably in the extreme south of the apple region. We have seen evidences of it in the Ben Davis and Winesaj) that were grown about as far south as these varieties are much cultivated. The Ojjtinium Mean Summer Temperature. — It is evident from the foregoing discussion that the development of the high- est i)crfection in any given variety is closely related to most favorable mean summer temperatures. In Table 5 is given a list of varieties, with an estimate of the optimum temperature for each sort, and in ..ome cases of their possible range and hardiness with respect to the cold of winter. The list of vari- eties includes all those that are given the double star, indi- cating highly successful varieties, in the list of the American Pomological Society, with a number of additions of varieties that, for various reasons, seemed worthy of consideration. In- asmuch as we consider keeping quality of considerable account with most sorts, the policy has been to prescribe about as low a temperature as will suffice to thoroughly mature a variety, leaving a margin of about 2° for seasonal fluctuations; that is, we believe that any variety may be matured when the sum- mer mean is 2° lower than the one given. This applies more particularly to the fall and winter varieties. We believe, on the other hand, that any increase in the summer mean for any variety, unless it be the earliest ones, will be a disadvantage, though a very slight one, if the rise is not more than 1° or 2°. Up to a certain degree the overmaturity of the fruit in a too warm climate may be overcome if the grower will pick at the time of full maturity and put the fruit at once in cold storage. If the heat is too great, however, even with this method the fruit will be inferior in flavor and color, and, in very ex- treme cases, in size. We believe that a departure of more than 2° in either direction from the temperatures given will be a noticeable disadvantage with any of the winter varieties. This remark will apply less to the fall sorts and still less to the sum- mer varieties ; or, to put it in other words, the earlier the variety the greater may be its range of temperature without marked deterioration of the fruit. There are doubtless errors in the case of some varieties, concerning which we have limited infer- 228 EXI'EUIMENT STATION. [Jan. luation. It is hoped that these may, in time, be corrected, us we arc able to learn more concerning the behavior of these varie- ties under different conditions. In Table (J these same varieties arc grouped under their op- timum temperatures for convenience in reference. In Table 5 there is also given for some varieties the range of temperature which they can stand without serious deterioration. This is, as already stated, closely connected with the season of the variety, being wide with early sorts and relatively narrow with most winter sorts. Just how much difference there is be- tween the ranges of varieties of the same season is ditiicnlt to say. It is complicated with a variety of related questions. Tn the case of a few of the varieties given in Table 5 an at- tempt is made to give their hardiness with respect to the winter cold. Inasmuch as the ability of the tree to withstand cold de- pends on a variety of factors other than the temperature, it is of no use to attempt to state this in degrees. The designation Ex. H. is used for the varieties equal in hardiness to those classi- fied as of the first degree of hardiness ; the desigiiation V. H. for those of the second degree of hardiness (by the Minnesota Hor- ticultural Society) ; and the designation H., ]\r. and T. for vari- ous degrees of hardiness below these two classes. Many of the more southern sorts arc not growm far enough north on account of a lack of snniuioi- heat to test thcii' winter hardiness in a satis- factory manner. Therefore it is impossible to make any state- ments regarding them, nor w'ould there be any practical value in such statements were they possible. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 229 Table 5. — Mean Summer Temperatures. 2 ft-i Ckl^. Is E % Hg H5« SO 0 — i „ .§£ si Ciil "5 bC •5 '5 ■s a 1-4 ■i^ a a >- a.*^ a 03 a.>^ cs ce O « w O « K Red Canada, 59 M. Tolman, 56 M. H. Red June, 58 M. Tompkins King, . 56 M. M. Rhode Island Greening, 50 M. H. Twenty Ounce, 58 M. Ribston, 55 N. Twenty Ounce Pippin, 58 Rolfe 56 H. Roman Stem, 61 Wagener, 59 Rome Beauty, 60 Walbridge, 54 H. Roxbury Russet, . 57 W. H. Washington Royal, 56 Wealthy, 56 W. V. H. Salome, .... 55 H. Westfield, 56 Scott Winter, 55 V. H. White Astrachan, . 54 Shiawasse, 55 H. White Pearmain, . 62 Shockley, 65 N. White Pippin, 61 Smith Cider, 61 Williams, 57 W. Smokehouse, . 60 Willow, .... 64 Stark, .... 62 M. H. Windsor, 55 H. Stayman VVinesap, 63 Winesap, 64 M. St. Lawrence, 54 Winter Banana, 58 Sutton, .... 56 Wolf River, . 54 M. V. H. Swarr, .... 58 Swazie, .... 55 N. Yates 67 Switzer 58 Yellow Belleflower, Yellow Newtown, 61 60 W. V. N. Terry, .... 67 N. Yellow Transparent, 53 W. V. H. Tetofski, 53 V. W. V. H. York Imperial, 62 M. Titovka. 56 H. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 231 Table G. — Optimum Temperatures hy Group 52°. 53°. 54°. 55°. Hibernal Arctic Alexander Black Gilliflower Okabeiia Baxter Blue Pearmain Blenheim Oldenl)urg Bethel Fameuse Cox Orange Bietigheimer Foundling Gravensteiu Bismark Gideon Mann Borovinka Jewett McMahon Charlanioff Malinda Newell Dudley Milwaukee Northwestern Greening Pewaukee Red Astrachan Patten Tetofski St. Lawrence Pomme Gris Yellow Transparent Walbridge Ribston White Astraclian Salome Wolf River Scott Winter iShiawasse Swazie Windsor 56°. 57°. 58°. 59°. Baldwin Babbit Bailey Sweet Benoni Early Harvest Boikeu Cabashea Delicious Early Pennock Bough Early Joe Esopus English Russet Chenango Early Strawberry Haas Golden Russet Fnll Harvey Ewalt Jonathan Lowland Raspberry Fall Orange Fall Pippin July Mcintosh Holland Pippin Flushing Spitzenburg King David Milden Holland Winter Golden Sweet Kinnaird Northern Spy Hubbardston Green Sweet Red Canada Ontario Jefferis Kent Beauty Wagner Peerless Lady Sweet Keswick Rhode Island Greenin; g Longfield Lady Rolfe Melon Lowell Sutton Monmouth Mother Titovka Plumb Cider Peck Pleasant Tolman Porter Red June Tompkins King Primate Swarr Washington Royal Roxbury Russet Switzer Wealthy Williams Twenty Ounce Westfield Twenty Ounce Pippin Winter Banana 1 60°. 61°. 62°. 63°. Cooper Market Lankford Akin Arkansas Black Dominie Maiden Blush Grimes Fanny Fallawater Ortley Huntsman Stayman Winesap Hagloe Roman Stem Ingram Hyde King Smith Cider Payne McAffee White Pippin Ralls M inkier Yellow Bellflower Stark Newtown Spitzenburg White Pearmain Rambo York Imperial Rome Beauty Smokehouse Yellow Xewtown 64'. 65°. 66°. 67». Ben Davis Arkansas Buckingham Terry Gano Beach Buncombe Yates Lawver Bonum Horse Missouri Pippin Cannon Pearmain Limbertwig Oliver Collins Shockley Paragon Willowtwig Winesap 232 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Chemical Detenninations. The work here reported is based iu eonsiderable degree on chemical work done in the hiboratury of the college. During the past two years over 150 samples of apjjles have been snb- j exited to partial analysis, the results of which, so far as they are deemed worthy of i)ublication, are presented in Table 7. The names and locations of the growers are as follows: — As a rule the samples represent about the best type of the various varieties grown in the different localities. The samples received varied from a half dozen to a barrel, and from these from six to tweh'c good sjiecimens were selected for analysis. They were ground in a food chopper, and after weighing a sam- ple for sugar determinations, were preserved in a glass jar with formaldehyde. The methods of analysis followed were those of Ijiillelins on and 107 of the Ijureau of Chemistry. The determination of total solids was made l)y drying 2.5 grains on ituinicr' in n wnter o\-ou at 05^ to 08° for twenty 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 233 to twenty-two liour8. This probably gives results too low, but this method seemed the best with the facilities at hand. Insol- uble solids were deternuned by washing 25 grams with 500 cubic centimeters hot water on muslin iilters. and drying on ])umice fonrteen honrs at 95° to 98°. The reducing sugars wei-e determined by reducing Fehling's solution and weighing the precipitate as cuprous oxide ; the sucrose, by means of the polariscope; and malic acid, by titrating with X/10 alkali with phenolphthalein as an indicator. Most of the analyses were made during the winter of 1910-11. All samples, save those from Amherst, Avere shipped direct to cold storage in Ilolyoke, Mass., and transferred to Amherst a few samples at a time, as needed, where they were held as cool as possible. The Amherst samjdes, as well as all those of 1910, were kept in an excellent cellar storage at the college. The lab- oratory nnmbers were given in order of analysis, work being begun with Xo. 1 in November. 1910, and completed about ]\rarch 1. 1911. The samples of 1910 were analyzed in March, and while no notes of their condition were taken, it can be said that they were in excellent condition, most of them eating ripe. These analyses form the basis for the chemical side of the discussions of the diiferent varieties in this paper. There are, however, certain questions not dealt with elsewhere which may receive consideration at this point. Nearly all the differences in analyses between the different samples, aside from those fairly attributable to the unavoidable errors of sampling and analysis, can be traced to one of two causes: (1) varietal differences; these are brought out in Table 1; (2) those attributable to different stages of maturity of the fruit. The chemical changes occurring in the growth and ripen- ing of the apple are clearly brought out in the work of the Bureau of Chemistry, reported in Bulletin 94 of the Bureau, and the reader is referred to that publication for a discussion of this question. During the past winter analyses were made of four samples in November and again in February. These were : — 234 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Greening, Baldwin, Xovcniher. Febniury. No. 4 No. 1 No. 93 No. 98 Baldwin, Mcintosh, November. No. 2 No. 27 Februarj-. No. 97 No. 102 Refereuee to the analyses of these samples will show that thoy are in entire accordance with the resnlts reix)rted in the above- mentioned pnblication. A stndy of the figures given shows that, as a rnle, varieties grown to the north of their natnral range exhi])it the characteristics of innnatnre frnits. The analysis of the Ben Davis, sample 91, indicates an apple that failed to matnre on the tree, and has gone down in storage after the manner of immature frnit. In general, the analysis of this variety shows that the more northern-grown specimens are low in solids and sugars and high in insoluble solids and acid, and the same is generally true of the other varieties. 1911. 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S o > '4, .SP ja 2 > :5 O 03-3 o o o _0 J3 o is >> sS> O^ o S O O O OJ o O =*H O O a OSS (1, pL, fL, O O XXX »0 00 CO 00 QO xxxxxxxx ■XJ^-OOGOCSOO'^CI: X X x X X ^ ^, Oi _ cr CI _ -^ cri CI _^ CI to '^. t^ CO t M "^ ^ ■^ ^ CO 00 CO ^ o> CO C3 o ^ OO 00 c^ ■^ 00 o »o CO CO ^^ C^l -H ^-4 C- ^ '^ (M ^ CO CO CO M CO CO CJ o ^^ CO 3 IM o ^ >o M lO 00 Oi t^ OO ^ 3 lO -* ira c» tri t^ n ^ CO CO CI *^ Ol to CO 1^ CO •^ ■^ "^ t^ CO 00 •^ ■^ «^ o *" "" t^ C32 _ „ _ f^ ^, 05 ^ 3 ^ CO _ 00 -* CO ■^ •f? CO t^ c^ GO CO lO 2 ■o ■ra :i; 23 CO CO CO -»• CO CO ■* 2 - - o ^ 2 ^ 05 _, 'M „ 35 CO -^ 00 •7 „ CI c= o ■* CO C4 M o CO ^H o -^ t~- CO o OO 05 D; 05 ■^ 2 ;2 CO CO ^ 2 2 1^ 2 ■o ■.*< ■<** iO i:; CO _ CO _^ ■o lO r. en o _ 1^ o CJ s » s s Q Q .,- H W 3 2 8 2 ? S > O c3 J ^ ^ Q s a T? ■» S o < s < « 242 EXPEllIMExNT STATION. [Jan. 3 s 1 .& •^ 0 q3 1 J 6 ;?: JS .a •0 )S a 2 '5 S 1 1 u d '3 no .2 a IS s 0 6 a. >> 2; a 8 a 5 tc 1 > 03 © u ■3 £ 0. 1 e c 0 3 J IS p 0 1 a •S. flj ? S3 i _o 2 '5 _2 c3 ■T3 1 .1 -0 2 5 -0 '3 :=■ i«^ 0 1 1 0 11.^ "3 01 fe < > J?; w 0 > c > S •. -0 •d 0 0 (i> 0 u 0 ^ > > fl i 8 8 q6 J3 q 0. 9 0 ■3 1 d 01 12 '0. 3 3 '6 0 § "3 .. 0 a ^ 0 c: -d .. .. +3 M 0 iil 13 -0 j2 _bf 03 C^ ■ M a M -2 bT; (0 l^ S.b btb "S -e >, IT T3 •T3 0 'a ■^ ai ^ ^j 0 0 *C3 0 (^ fc. > > « 0 > fe c5 a a _3 g W5 g 0 s 5 0 § •0 ■5 01 2 X X X X X X X X X a 0 t^ 0 00 t>. ?! g '^ CO 00 t^ 00 ■^ 00 f^ "? 0 N o ■^ C-l •o CO "^ ■^ s '^. pioy o'l^W •(•■jnso jaj) ^ " 00 0 ^ IM ■* CD 01 § sjB3ns iinox o» 0 w 0 oi 0 0 00 OJ 0 •("luao i3j) 00 CO ■o 10 CO CO "^ 03 ■o CO U5 t^ asojong CM CO "^ CO CO CO CO '* ci m ■(•?nao jaj) ^ "^ >n ■o ^ « ^ ■^ a ejBSng Suionpa^ as '^ u:> 0 CO CO CD t-^ t^ cd •(•■jnao jaj) IM g ;:2 CO s s OJ 0 ^ 0 epilog oiqniog «' S2 ^ c^ « CO t- CO CO IC spiios l«10X iO 2 CO 10 X5 •0 10 to • •0 CD •aaquin>j •M 00 3 3 s 00 N 00 0 ■>»1 S XjcnBJoqB^ 0 M d r 0 6 1 , , 0 I ": .. , d . ^ ^ •< 0 5; d a a" "3 Q M a' d OS ■a < 1 ■a 0 > 3 3 p. 0 0) -a 0 0 •-> bii .2 Q. C3 2 a ) culture, (6) prevailing winds, (7) sunshine. 14. The optimum mean summer temperature for different va- rieties may be determined with fair satisfaction, and some deter- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 245 iniiiatioiis are shown in Table 5. A departure of over 2° from this mean will result in less desirable fruit, though this may not be marked in short-season varieties. 15. A summer mean too low for a variety results in (1) greater acidity, (2) increased insoluble solids, (3) greater as- tringency, (4) less coloration, (5) decreased size, (6) scalding in storage. 16. A summer mean too high for a variety results in (1) uneven ripening, (2) premature dropping, (3) rotting on the trees, (4) poor keeping quality. (.5) lack of flavor, (6) " meali- ness," (7) less intense color (8) decreased size. 246 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. COMPILATIONS. Inteoduction. BY J. B. LINDSEY. A compilation of the chemical composition of fodder articles, agricultural chemicals and manurial residues was first made by Prof. C. A. Goessmann and his assistants in 1887, and published in the fifth report of the Massachusetts State Agricultural Ex- periment Station, pages 181-227. This compilation included all analyses made by Goessmann and his co-workers since 18G8. It was later enlarged to include compilations of the analyses made at this station of dairy products, fruits, garden cro})s and insecticides. The parties largely responsible for the details of the several compilations were W. H. Beal, C. S. Crocker, J. I>. Lindsey, H. D. Haskins, E. B. Holland and P. II. Smith. In 1896 the classification of fodder articles was considerably modi- fied and improved ; the present compilation of agricultural chemicals and manurial residues has undergone a similar re- arrangement, and the available analyses have been added to the compilation of fruits and garden crops. Naturally a few mate- rials, being no longer of interest, have been omitted. The tables of compilations are as follows: — Table I. Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles, pp. 247- 265. Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles, pp. 266-271. Table III. Analyses of Dairy Products, p. 272. Table IV. Coefficients of DigestibiHty of American Fodder Articles, pp. 273-303. Table V. Analyses of Agricultural Chemicals, etc., pp. 304-323. Table VI. Analyses of Fruit and Garden Crops, pp. 324-338. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 247 COMPILATIOISr OF ANALYSES OF FoDDER ARTICLES AND Dairy Products, made at Amherst, Mass., 1868-1910.^ p. H. SMITH AND J. B. LFNDSEY. Table I. — Composition and Digestibility of Fodder Articles. I. Green fodders. (a) Meadow grasses and millets. (b) Cereal fodders. (c) Legumes. (d) Mixed and miscellaneous. II. Silage. III. Hay and dry, coarse fodders. (a) Meadow grasses and millets. (b) Cereal fodders. (c) Legumes. (d) Straw. (e) Mixed and miscellaneous. IV. Vegetables, fruits, etc. V. Concentrated feeds. (a) Protein. (b) Starchy. (c) Poultry. Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles. Table III. — Analyses of Dairy Products. Explanation of Table I. Under composition the figures mean that each 100 pounds of the fodder contains so many pounds of water, protein, fiber, etc. Water. — The approximate average which is likely to occur in the material is stated. Ash refers to the residue which is left behind when the material is burned, and consists of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids. Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter; it corresponds to the ' lean meat in the animal, and may be tei'med • Part III. of the report of Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. 248 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. "Vegetable meat." It serves as the exclusive source of flesh, as well as a source of heat or energy, and fat. Fiber is the coarse or woody part of the plant. It may be called the plant's framework. It is a source of heat or energy and fat. Nitrogen-free extract represents the sugars, starches and gums. It is the principal source of heat or energy and fat. Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains and coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It is also termed ether extract because it is that portion of the i:>lant soluble in ether. It serves as a source of heat or energy and body fat. Under digestibility the figures mean that so many pounds of protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract and fat in 100 pounds of the fodder are actually digested and made use of by the animal. No feed is entirely digestible; concentrates are more digestible than coarse fodders. The data under digestibility have been worked out by actual experiment. In cases where no figures appear, data as a result of experiments are lacking. Net Energy Value. — The entire amount of heat or energy contained in a feeding stuff is termed its total heat or energy value. All of this heat or energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the purposes of maintaining its body in a state of equilibrium, or for aiding in the production of growth and milk. The several losses may be enumerated as follows: (a) the undigested material, i.e., the faeces; (b) the incom- pletely used material of the urine; (c) the work required in the proc- esses of digestion and assimilation in preparing the nutrients so that they can be used for maintenance and for the production of growth and milk. These several sources of loss expressed as energy, deducted from the total energy, leaves the real or net energy value. The calorie is the unit of energy measurement. The small calorie represents the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of water 1° C. The large calorie represents the amount of heat necessary to raise 1 kilogram (1,000 grams) of water 1° C. The ther-m, a name proposed by Armsby, represents the amount of heat I'eqnired to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1° C. It is to be pre- ferred to the small or large calorie as a unit of measurement be- cause it can be expressed in fewer figures. In the last column of the following table, headed net energy value, is given the number of therms contained in 100 pounds of the different feeding stuffs, based on the results of very carefully conducted experi- ments by Kellnei', a Gei-man investigator.* ' For a full explanation of the components of the animal botly.the composition of feeds, the different ways in which the food is used in the animal body and the explanation for using the therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United States Department of Agriculture, prepared by II. P. Armsby. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 249 S o- y y •(suiiaqx) san 1 1 1 05 1 1 1 en •* 1 1 1 0-. -IBA ASaaug ^a^ CO N CO e-j ■»BJ o o o o •■»3BJ^X3 1 1 o 1 1 o o 1 1 1 r- .J aajj-u33oj)if^ ■^ n H CO .-H 00 00 o ■wqu ■.J^ ' ' ■* CO ' •* Q OT C^ en o •nia^OJj o '^ o —^ CO 05 to •o CO •^ CO ■* ■* 00 ■^ M* CO •»> •;bj o o o o o o o o o o o c^ o o •pBjjxg aajj-aaSojii^j ^ t^ ^ "5 o ^ t^ "5 >o t. t^ (N ■^ ■>»( z CO 2 ■»»< o o OS o O o - o O - o o> •* 00 o ^ •* o 00 cq CO -J< o OJ to •wqij; ao o o CO ,^ ,^ t^ to o CO to CO CO H to o », ■a 1-H o O •uia^OJjj '^ o» ■M "^ -^ " o -^ '^ '^ "^ "^ o "" "* ^ CO o to Tl* IM r)< (M ^^ e^ ■* (M t>- •qsy '^ C<1 '^ '^ '^ '^ '^ ^ "^ '^ '^ ^ ^ "" s ^ ^ O o o o o o •M^^M 00 oo 00 ■sas^lBuy -. r^ •* CO - - ^ CO 2 - -H - M 00 JO wquinf^ 5 s S3 • 3 :5 •2 H "S ■ Q 0 a ^ -J' "a s S m O &^ m m » •§ 5 ;~ . 3 a, c- < 3 -<: 1 g s 3 a a 2 o 'a "3 'e s g Oh' 3 E d e ta -« .J ■*«« K _^ ^ o J* 5" a t3 1 O g 3 s a; E 1 S j-^ ■^ 1 "H 1 bC a 'p. o S _2 J2 '£ bi bC bc d o s a C3 5 d 0) .3 a _2 s E bC 0 a 01 d eJ 's T3 a J3 •2 1 s S 1 O d d 4 s oa e3 1-5 03 d cu •e^anra ^ o H ■BianilU IIBVXOJ njoo-uiooig m 250 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o ■(s uijaqx) Bon 00 t^ ra o CO 00 =-. -I^A •^■lana 13^ 00 o - - " CO CO '* M CM CO CO •^ •>cj o o O O o o o H H •?DBJ>X3 00 00 00 o 00 CO 1 CM H ^^JJ-u^3oJ^I^^^ ci o: CO ca 0) M ■^ t-» ^H ■* 00 o 00 •■i^qijl ■^ "5 •^ CO CM CO CM G to M 00 •* o o ^^ •aia^ojj o c^ ^^ *" " •^ '"' e-i ■* t^ 1^ » CO 00 e^ CO •^ CO ■* n US •?«J o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 39JJ ua3oj^it.j rt M to (N »o 00 o "5 t^ ■^ r- ^ 00 to z o o o S IM - 22 ^ - CM ^ CM ^ s o ^^ ■>J< w o o IM in o to ,, OS o CO o ••laqia CO I^ o> w ■* to to to •o •V o ■»< •^ -»J* H 01 2 ■* M c-> o c= c^> to 00 o t^ — c to 00 r^ o O •uia^ojj " '^ M c-1 "' " n ^ CM " " '"' '- " •* ^ rt CJ t^ t- •^ o o o Ct o „ •qsv '^ ^ (M '^ o o iM '"' "^ o ■■^ "^ *"* o •ja^^M § o OO lO o s o s s s s s 8 § •sasXitJuy « CO -. - ^ to ^ ■^ CM CO - •o - to JO jaqujn^vj 0 o U 1 S to 1 w 0 k, s •< Q i s S 'S ■l a 8 1 c Q a o o 5?; O s 3 3 2 w ■0 13 1 *3 13 41 P 2 c« 6 M a i 01 J3 s ^" 3j t 03 > 0! 1 1 > I P3 i«5 C3 -a o a 3 a, 0) a fi ■M » -M -13 T3 ■S ;^ 0) 3 J3 T) •T3 T) T) ■n ■rt fci § >. >> (U _s ^ ^ £ ^ s .2 a a a a d a e a a a 0°^ -1 0 o o o o o o o 0 o i « o u U U U U U U U O 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 2,51 00 Oi O 00 -^ — * O -t OS O CO '^ CO lO o o o o* o o M .^ 00 00 -^ O r^ C^ (M •**< »0 '<** CO CO -* 05 r-- CO ^ o O O C^ ^^ CI »C CO d d coiO<:oco-^"^iOoot-'r^oo « CO ^ M t-~ -f o IM O u? to »< O 00 o to ^ to t^ ci s Oi ^ CO o 2 ^ ^ "5 CO ■^ a> QO 05 o 05 o c^ o t^ "5 03 •^ to ■M o CO o to 02 ^_, to o O O '"' o ^^ ^^ •M ^^ ^ "^ ^ " ^ *^ o "^ "^ o CA C-1 o o o o OO 00 00 00 -H rt — < (M lO »0 to O iO »o to -< -H -< O O Q 00 00 00 ^ r-1 -.t< to ^ •* ■* ^ = ^ ^ S S H 8 -^ < £ a _Q _2' ^ i*! n s s a a 3 i S s cl ■=. Oi a > s g es tS oJ M CO o o o o 5 5 w O O O O tf S < K 252 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. w 8 S a •(Buuaqx) san 1- Cl O t- CO ^ o CO ^ C-. CM « -\v\ XSiana ^3^ Cl o o " _, ^ _ „ « CO « CO •* CO CO CO ^ ■^ ■>»< ■* CM •;m o o o o o o o o o o o o >* "joBjjxa o M lO o =-'. c^ 1 CO 1 CO o •o o -H J oajj-ua3ojji^ •iJ ■O "5 '~ U5 P3 H ■^ 00 O t>- 1— t C5 •* o CM 00 *-H 0 •■laq!^ IM e^ IN M CM _l CO CO CM CO CO CM Q C^ CO ^ "5 o CO ■* o •>1< CO W3 ^_^ •uiajoij n CO CO CO CO CO CM CM CM CM CM CM o >o >rt ,^ o CO ira >o ■"I* CO CO CO t^ CO •»»< •icj o o O o '~' o o o o o o o © o o •^OBJixg oajj-aaSonjiv; 00 CO t^ cs o o "O CO o> 00 o o o •O" CO •^ r^ r* 00 00 00 oo '^ 00 00 Ci o - '^ CO z IM o o o ^ (M ■^ o 00 ^ ^ o CM CO tn o •■laqijl O lO U5 o ■^ ■^ •o CO >o •o ■o' CO r* CO CO H o o ^ C-1 O lO 00 CO CO rt o M CO lO 00 00 00 •uia^ojj ■»< ■<1< ■^ •.J* CO •4< CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CM O M lO CO CO m CO CO 00 OV 00 ^ o> CO m o •t^sv (M IM ■M ■M Ol « (N CM *" *^ CM *"* CM '^ C-J o g s o •« o •J8?B,W 00 •easXjBuv 00 - >o OS c. ■* 00 ^ * CO CM CO ■M •»J< CM JO jaquin^ (3 1 a CD c<^ • a 0 I . B i _g . < Q 0 s 3 Co •3 -a 3 ■a' a a c o ■V s 3 'a "fl 7! 'a S' e c E^ a X! 3 ■v o ^ o S * f. ^ s c -0 t-. a _c u § e ^ M bl) CiD tK S a T! T) -B -o 0 B H s B s b-( M a iii o a 3 3 ■3 3 1 3 3 "o o B B B 3 B 3 s 3 s 3 ^ a e S B s fci ij _g .id £ ■X3 -0 a) -s "S > t». a a n1 Si a SI i a si 03 o a ti § JD JD ^ s> J3 £: > > > > > > > is >, >> >, O o o n o o o eg •^ 0 s ^ ■^ O c o o u o u 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 253 O CO o CO 00 00 I t I I 1 o o o W CO C^ C CI I I r I I O O CO Oi (III! I I ^ -^ »0 tH "^ lO c^ <:^ dddddddddo CO CD CO 050COlO»0'-Ht^^^'^ iOi0^cOC^cO-*-<*.^COC^ 000Ol-^O0I>.GOCO00O0QO ^H 00 C^ CO r Cl -fl fl O •o V. es 254 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. *-* c) ■(8U1J3HX) ssn o to •^ ,- -Ye\ X3wa3 ja^vj o a> o - Tj- c^ CO ■»< •?^d '*" o o o o •?oiu;xa M .^ o <;» o J 3ajj-ua3oj}i{.i O >o >o o> lO 09 H 00 CO •<1< OS .-N •wqii ' ' ' CO ■* •* ^ us o "5 t~ CO ■«< lO t^ o 02 _ CO ■?M o o o CO o o o o o o o o o o •^OBJixa Tj< -* a> o •o o 00 o ■* 00 „ CO o> CO z o o o 00 » 03 00 o> 00 oo 00 - o CO o n (M lO 00 lo o « CO o •.I* o in CO ■i^VA tr> >o «5 t- us' o CO o 50 CO CO c< CS| C-1 H O B. •? •^ t^ •* 'J* ■* ^ O •niajojj Oi o 00 r^ 00 "5 •ra r- o 00 00 CO CO „ en •qsy ^ "" "^ -^ "^ "' " " '^ " "" o o Tf •ja;t5M g § g o 00 § g s g g g g s o 02 00 •sasXiBuv « - ■* -H c. - ^ - » - M. CD - - JO jaqmn^vi a o a O 1 3 a> a Q u a "S :? a o < •2 Z a O o •a |5< 1 > o o : ""* m & oj & T ?, ^ § ii 13 a 03 & J . Ji s. T) 1 _2 OJ a in m ii u " 1 a 6 8 a s 5 a a 8 & 1 1 o i 13 d oi 1 d OS s 1 c cs ja o 1 13 a c3 J3 o "S > > a 1 C8 e o a 0) ■q. a < 3 a 1 IS bC 3 CO 03 XI 6 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 255 I I I .41 CO ;0 OS O M U) U3 t^ 000 / 00 .-i I I I ITS r» ift (MO t^ — < r- 00 CO -i O O o rt 00 t~. C^ Oi tfi t^»^C00St^00i0O-<*< . J O W O W b< 256 EXPERIMENT STATIOxN. [Jan. o H rt < « -J w X Q « a O l^ X! O f^ 3 o O, ^ c t-i hfi n H a r/) W n, O Q 3 o p m ;^ ^ 1 CO — o ■j^qij ^ ' (^ o OO t^ t^ « ' ' « CJ ^^ " '" " " o o O o =" OO •* •aiajojcj CO >o •o CO •^ 1^ ■^ CO CO o ^ t^ ^ •JDBJJXa n o ^ O CO rt o CO C^ O M l« ^ -H 00 o aajj-uaSoj^ij<[ 2; M o 02 C-1 -* CO eo ■* •»< O ij* in — (M O ■^ o o> o o a> o rt CO ■* CO ■^ o ■•laqij: f>i _, ^. H s CO CO a. P 00 »-* c<> ■* CO ■* m 00 o •^ »— 1 T-t o 00 CO 0 •uia^ojjj •ra « 00 00 00 CO CO CO —. t^ O ,^ CO CO U " _ o M M OJ CO CO CO ^ lO •* o ■* CO M •iisy ■^ 00 t^ to "5 M< •* rj< •* CO CO t>- t^ t^ 00 -* ■* ■<*< ■* -* ■* •* •* •* Tt< ■* ■* CO CO CO •i&i-e^ ■eaeAimiy t^ -^ 00 eo ., ^ CO ^ ^ CO ■* CO C^ -H JO jaquin^ e 1 a o 01 CJ K H 1 Q ■2 '^ O fs > H ■^ •2 r^ e BS <: 0 O 5 O 1 ? b e s 1 ^ 3 u 3 2 ■ 5 i ■S Q a < >< (J 3 o e 1 I Q^ ^ 5" 3 e e ^ f o O o 3 s .3 s •2 1 3 C 3 60 Cj Q '1 K _o^ 73 a C3 Q S S C5 C3 d s S jlj m c3 oi k' 2 s -^ '"J i; t4 feb r Si J3 a «*-) Hi tn — ^— ' — ' . , ^ f4 a •T3 a a a t<< a s P3 fa O •a 03 ^ W J o o T3 -a 3 3 1 1 a c Pi •B^aniM !q qi;;,' 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 257 CO CO CO CO CO CO C4 C^ O t^ -^ iO OO 00 t^ «o o o o o GO O OS o d '-i o ^ CD t^ CD o d ^' lO W> 00 d d '-^ o o Cl t-- ^ ^ ^ CO c!l - 00 t^ oa r^ t>- .-ti-loO^^OOSCiOOOOS if5 _( ,-( f, t^ CD *0 1-i ^" Csi -H »4 ^ iM 05>i- r)< CO m >n C-l CO ^^ •* ^ M" CO e-1 5^ s ci ■.*< to (M CO (M o IM ca CI CO s ■* lO •* I-^CO-^ifS'ttf^HOt-'fMC^ ddt^iocot^oo*oio^ -(J* CO '-' 00 o o •* CO 00 ^ o a> o Ol c^ a> CO f. ^ IM t« CO ^ o t^ CO 00 ■* U5 ■* -^ CO CO CO lO CO CO ■ra a> 00 o '^ "^^ -H C^ (M Ol ^ T-t p O iO ^ tM 1-1 CO CD CO \fi \o *C) CO i-t 00 lO »0 fcO t-H tH to •S 2 P B S ^ £ 3 .a -^ -3 •= -M S S :?:<:< S S S S 258 EXrp:KLMENT STATION. [Jan. 3 g {Biujoqx) ^^""^ •}«J oojj-ua3oj}if>i ■jsqid: •nTa}OJ(j •?M Daij-na3oa}i{. o lOcor^cOMcocid coo CO 00 ^' CO o CO ■* ed cj — OD»-«'-'COCOCO»O»O»J0 »0»OlO"^iO»C»0 d— 'CO'Hrt— < — — < cqcjrt-.jico'*'"-" OS — Q 3 S S fe g § a > ■S -2 -S I cJ ■§ W i2 S ^ S O Pn > ^ ^ 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 259 lO CO a> a> CO t^ IM t- ' ' ' to o (^ f^ ,_4 ' ' _, OS "~ « .-4 M (M lO in o K o O o «5 U5 M t>. 00 00 CO 00 o O to to in CO W M 05 CO o Ol o o o "^ ^^ Ui us O o o o ■>»< 00 •* ■^ "^ « '"' "^ "^ OJ oo lO « ^ „ (M C) IN to ^ ^ ^ (M ^ (M CO 00 t^ ca ^ o o o o o o o o o O o o o o '"' o o ■* to to CB to U5 lO tn 00 la lo O lO CO (M o to 00 to t^ -J- •^ Wl to 00 o (^ U5 f^ 00 00 U5 to US to tr> oo to OS 00 CO U5 ^ a> o o> _, M 30 O U2 CO i^ o 00 OS cq (M >o 00 ^ t^ o> o 00 to CO o o ^^ "^ o ^^ o o o '^ '^ o ■^ o o CO CO CO U3 m to ■^ r^ I^ 00 00 IM - t^ n ■<< - "5 - >o - s UO CO - lO - - C<1 - m C) a a m D U* « o Uh u J a. a g < H a H t> S5 O 0 H D > > 4 J3 > J3 I ■0 o s i d o -§ 1 i 13 (D s •a 1 s d J2 d" "a a < i o 1 a 2 g a Q. '3 2 d I 2 § a 1-3 < a) C3 260 EXPEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. « -7 a Cm 3 O 2 H n O _ Q 3 ^5 u, O H rn O Oi *5 o O n ■(B uijaqx) 83" r^ 1 1 ■* C-l » oo M N -[B^ X3jOUa }3^ en o - a CO g <1< _^ ■* t>. o CO "i^d CO •O '"' CO Ol t^ t- co CO = H 3 •?3BJ^Xa „ ■«• ,- o ,^ o <» CO o CO 39jj-na3oj;i^ o S «5 CO OJ cs CO s 5 !n a H u to O ^H CO o N 00 lO ts. •wqij ' to M rt' (N t^ OS CO CO ^ Q ^~* „ CO ■* CO j^ tn 05 N ^ CO ^ •niaioij ' ' ,_ CD „■ QO . "* o /- r- •^ CO S2 aajj-uaSoJiij^ « o M 00 00 00 to e^ o (M o _ »< •<* s 5 O CO ■.** • •* o CO ■jaqj^ii n o CO C« C5 h- rt u ■^ " " to •^ ^ to ,, c^ t. c-> t» ,^ CO IM CO CO r- •qsy •>J< lO M « o n ■ 00 00 •ja^BM •eaBAysny n -H CO 2 -H c^ CO « CO s CO - - - « JO jaqinnN J • Q a • • d » (^ d 8 a O 1 • ' F u s o •z Is. a. OJ ^ i Sa" 1 "3 .2 u > d J i 1 o e 1 1 1 .2 e § 1 1 u J J a 1 3 1 s 1 3 a 1 s o O 1 S 13 P. o d o '5 T3 1 "3 3 d' 1 d d ■g Ml T3 *c -0 _2 1 >> CQ £ 3 CQ J s 6 6 0! Q (5 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 261 r* cc ■* -^t* •-I OO 05 00 CD to 00 CO ^- O C^ (>» CO CQ OO M O M" C-l (M O iM 1-t O 1-H (M »0 U5 -H O CO CO d o CO od o CO c^ *-< ^ O O CO Tj< ^ ^ cq o ra _ CO "5 00 OS CO o rt r^ o o CVI 05 2 >o 00 00 IM 00 o - C-i - Ci ^^ CO CO o CO r^ OO O 00 00 o t^ 00 "5 ■* CO ■* l>- CD 05 00 OJ (M «5 o 00 00 00 00 OS •rj CO o CO e^ to CO " CO o (M to 2 S2 2 C) •.^^ -.»* 00 ^ to •^ Oi o r* O O 1-H - t^ **i lO >0 t^ CD CO »o O lO o lO OO 05 03 lO o o o o CO -H O 00 OS o o o o o o o o CO 00 -- C0^C^01C0(M(MC0C0C^-«J<^HCi'<* SS "5 to 1 05 to 1 to 1 1 1 ' 1 n H H m 05 CO o 00 o •Mqij •* CO Ml CI O •* ' _ ' Q j^ Tj* C^ CO j^ o CO •uiajojj •" £J « ^ ^ o to M •* o a> ^ CO OO t^ lO CO ••J' t^ „ 00 •IB J CO •<»< >« (M r- U5 '^ O o CO Cl 0 ■>}< "^ •^oBJixg «o CO to O t^ o to CO r^ =^ «o 00 f^ o> oajj-naaoj^!^ in s? •ra m lo to to o to to to ■»*< s •i U5 o >o to ^ CO 1^ to ^ ■* CO „ >o a> y •jaqij ira o o CO o o lo 00 •* f^ 0 to 0 »o o 0. M —1 ^ CO CO o T>< .~ CS ^ <» 00 ■<»* 0 o •ni8:>ojj c^ to to m o oc rt o Ci 0 OS 0 ■^ on U o to ■>}< o eo CO •o c-> ■"* ^ to 00 o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 •ja^BAV o o o o CO CO 22 o CO C^l C-l ^ t^ ira •gae^jBuv t- .9 a a "a i 6. "3 n. 1 ■3 -3 2 a g e d s 2 C3 1 a 8 1 5 m 3 T) "3 Si i J3 J3 1 J3 i 1 03 1 tH 1 1 is u 3 8 0 :s 5^ :s :? :s n « u U n n 0 0 0 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 263 ir> a> «5 ^ to ' to 00 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' * ' CO Oi ' ' ' to c^ ■* 00 ^ e^ o >o (M o „ 0 M eo o eo CO CO Tjf M CO '^ o "5 M rt IM t. o 00 0 s ' ' ' C^ t^ to 01 t>. ' ' ' ' •w o »o CO Ol O •<»< rt o to 00 r- o CO o to ■ra to IN 00 tK to to ^ Oi -* 00 iO o ■* to to t~ >o to "5 o ■.*< to 03 CO CO IM f. oo >o o 'J' ^ I« e^ 0 'J' t^ to U5 05 ■<*« o CO CO CO t^ CO CO •* -.J^ ^ (M '^ CO e^ 00 CO CO 10 ^ CC 00 oo ^ O CO 05 OS 00 c» •V -* to o r^ en •* a> e CO to >o 05 s ,_, S Ol f^i c^ OS s " r^ r- to to '^ CO •* CO (M "3 ■.»< c^ t. O o -<»i 05 CO CO 00 o r>. 0 0 ^ (M rt r-^ to r^ ^ CO to (M c^ - 00 ^ CSl 05 CO 0 to 0 ■^ t- ^ '^ o 00 00 00 •O ^ to ■^ CO ■<*< CO CO U5 « 02 00 ^ " ■^ l« M 0 to 0 ^ ^ a CO oo o ■* ■* CO CO OJ o X5 rt o ^ to 05 ^ rt m o> to CO c^ o (M *"* ^ ^ *"* "^ CO CO CO "*< c-1 IM *"* CO C<1 e^ CO c^ CO to o o o 00 o o o o o o o <3 o o o oo o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 " ^ lO 00 CO o> to e» CO •.f OS 00 lO - lO - •* - i - ■* - « >> >> d C3 J 1 d "O a (3 a s a i 8 d 1 a 8 a 03 a a a a a 1 a a 13 a 8 1 i ■0 a oi d 13 J 1 ■a la ea d _2 d 1 d ■2 T3 d OJ 1 d" d 'd £ d ■3 d R a S "3 d 1 d 0 1 >. d 1 •0 d 0 'e c3 >> d s 2 i 03 o o 0 o o o ^ o o 0 o o 0 0 0 03 u u O U O U U 02 O o u U U U U u (4 w s S m s 264 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. o •(smjaqx) san t^ C*) OS (M u:! r- o CO -jB^ XSjaua ?a>i CO l^ ^ CO CO OO § _ „ 00 t^ U3 «o CO "«*< r^ o> o (M •iBj n n M '^ ■^ lO - '^ 05 ■«< •UIOJOJJ o o « CO Ci ■* *" o o c» o CO OO CO o O CO CO ^_^ o o e^ CO lO o> •?''J •^ "*" IM "^ ■* •"• CO o CO J2 »o *l 00 r^ CO ^ CO CO CO ^ 00 CO „ •Jaqi^i OO OO ,^ to o s o o o CO ,_ CO c^ c^ H M (M c^ CO *"• to o a< ^ >o cc O »— i M o 'J' UO OO o •uia^ojj oi ci ,^ o ,, 00 CO ^ rt „ ■O" 00 « u " ""^ " " " o o li W5 ■>(l t^ •>»■ CO t^ C-) CO OJ 00 .^ t^ •qsy CO CO •o >o •D C4 ■M o « 00 CO CO ^^ '^ '"' o o o o o o ■<*< o o o o o o o 0 •lQXRf\ ,_, (N t^ ,_, Oi ,_. ,_, ,^ ,_t 00 e*< 00 CO e^ n ^ •^ „ 03 to in « -H CO Tj< ^ ■>i< ■* 00 o 05 to 05 05 to to C 266 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table IL — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles.^ [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.] Name. 5-^ I. Green Fodders. (a) Meadow Grasses and Millets. Orchard grass, Millet Barnyard millet, Hungarian grass, Japanese millet, (6) Cereal Fodders. Corn fodder Oats Rye (c) Legumes. Alfalfa, Horse bean, ...... Soy bean (early white), . . . . Soy bean (medium green), average, . Soy bean (medium green), in bud, . Soy bean (medium green), in blossom, Soy bean (medium green) in pod, Soy bean (medium black), Soy bean (late) Alsike clover, Mammoth red clover, . . . . Medium red clover, average. Medium red clover, in bud. Medium red clover, in blossom, Medium red clover, seeding, Sweet clover, ...... White lupine, Yellow lupine, ...... Canada field peas, average, 0 43 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.33 0.39 0.72 0.27 0.44 0.41 0 57 0 64 0.66 0 64 0.72 0.70 0.60 0 53 0.50 0.52 0.58 0.51 0.61 0.43 0.45 0.40 0.50 0.56 0.43 0.67 0.42 0.22 0 30 0.56 0.57 0.31 0.21 0.55 0.53 0.58 0.60 0.52 0.50 0.68 0 50 0.272 0.57 0.71 0.58 0.65 0.40 0.26 0.44 3.08 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.13 0.19 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.05 0.09 0.12 1 Many of these analyses were made in earlier years by the Massachusetts State Experiment Station. The percentages of the several ingredients will vary considerably depending upon the fertility of the soil, and especially upon the stage of growthof the plant. In the majority of cases the number of .samples analyzed is too few to give a fair average. The figures, therefore, must be regarded as close approximations rather than as representing absolutely the exact fertilizing ingredients of the different materials. (J. B. L.) * Evidently below normal. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMExNT — No. 31. 267 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or pouads in 100.] Name. 2< I. Green Fodders^ Co/i. (c) Legumes — Con. Canada field peas, in bud, Canada field peas, in blossom, . Canada field peas, in pod, . Cow pea, average Black cow peas, Whip-poor-will cow peas, . Flat pea, Small pea Sainfoin, Serradella Sulla Spring vetch Hairy or sand vetch, average, . Hairy or sand vetch, in bud. Hairy or sand vetch, in blossom. Kidney vetch, Average for legumes, .... (d) Mixed and Miscellaneous. Vetch and oats, Apple pomace, Carrot tops, Prickley comfrey Common buckwheat, .... Japanese buckwheat, .... Silver-hull buckwheat, . . . . Summer rape, ...... Sorghum, Teosinte II. SlLAQE. Corn, Corn and soy bean Millet Millet and soy bean, 0.50 0.45 0.52 0.45 0.40 0.49 0.75 0.40 0.68 0.36 0.68 0.36 0.55 0.52 0.65 0.44 0.53 0.30' 0.21 0.69 0.37 0.44 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.26 0.47 0.42 0.65 0.26 0.42 0.44 0.32 0.37 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.32 0.31 0.57 0.37 0.58 0.45 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.28 0.44 0.30 0.12 1.08 0.76 0.54 0.53 0.39 0.78 0.29 1.18 0.39 0.36 0.62 0.44 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.20 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.13 0.12 0.16 0.08 0.12 0,14 0.02 0.13 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.11 0.90 0.13 0.35 a 0.14 0 11 ' Too low; 0.43 nearer correct. 2 Evidently too high. 268 EXPERBIEXT STATION, [Jan. Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.] Name. d 1 1 1.29 2.88 1.29 1.79 1.12 1.19 1.20 1.54 0.93 1.98 1.23 1.60 1.16 1.47 1.07 0.95 1.20 1.42 1.34 1.61 1.72 1.58 1.06 0.87 1.18 0.95 1.05 0.64 0.69 0.92 0.92 1.22 2.451 1.90 2.26 2.10 2.14 1.162 2.21 2.42 0.95 2.03 0.69 1.04 0.68 1.73 1.29» 1.27 0.87 1.87 0.54 1.37 0.61 0.56 0.26 1.18 III. Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. (a) Meadow Grasses and Millets. Barnyard millet, ...... Hungarian grass, Italian rye grass, Kentucky blue grass, Meadow fescue, Orchard grass Perennial rye grass, ...... Red-top . , Timothy English hay (mixed grasses), . . . , Rowen, Branch grass, Fox grass, ........ Salt hay (variety imcertain) (b) Cereal Fodders. Corn stover, from field. Corn stover, very dry, Oats Alsike clover. Mammoth red clover. Medium red clover. (c) Legumes. {d) Straw. Barley, Soy bean, Millet (e) Mixed and Miscellaneous. Vetch and oats, Broom corn waste (stalks). Palmetto root, Spanish moss, White daisy, 0.43 0.52 0 53 0.39 0.37 0 38 0.53 0 33 0.33 0.32 0.48 0.19 0.18 0 23 0.20 0.26 0.65 0.63 0.52 0.47 0.19 0.25 0.18 O.CO 0.47 0.16 0.07 0.41 ' Too high; 1.90 nearer correct. 2 Evidently below normaL 8 Too low; 1.80 nearer correct. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 209 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.] Name. IV. Vegetables, Fruits, etc. Apples, ....... Artichokes, ....... Beets, red, Sugar beets, Yellow fodder beets, . . . . . Mangolds ^-n- Carrots, Cranberries, ...... Parsnips, Potatoes, ....... Japanese radish, Turnips, • Ruta-bagaa, V. Concentrated Feeds. (o) Protein. Red adzinki bean White adzinki bean, . . . . . Saddle bean, Soy bean, Blood meal (Armour's), . . . . Brewers' dried grains, . . . . Cottonseed meal, Distillers' dried grains Gluten feed, Gluten meal, Linseed meal (new process). Linseed meal (old process). Malt sprouts, Bibby's dairy cake, Sucrene feed Pea meal Peanut meal, Proteina, ....... 1 1 1 3 1 2 167 20 106 46 21 56 12 1 1 1 1 1 80 0.12 0.46 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.15' 0.16 0.08 0.22 0.29 0.08 0.17 0.19 3.27 3.45 2.08 5.61 13.55 3.68 7.08 4.50 4.13 5.87 5.97 5.35 4.32 2.94 2.62 3.04 7.84 3.04 0.17 0.48 0.44 0.52 0.56 0.34 0.46 0.10 0.62 0.51 0.40 0.38 0.49 1.55 1.53 2.09 2.12 0.18 0.86 2.05 0.31 0.40 0.21 1.42 1.30 2.00 1.67 2.08 0.98 1.54 0.58 0.01 0.17 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.09 0.03 0.19 0.08 0.05 0 12 0.12 0.95 1.00 1.49 1.82 0.26 1.06 2 90 0.61 0.77 0.55 1.79 1.66 1.56 2.07 0.55 1.81 1.27 1.02 270 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- tinued. [Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.] Name. V. Concentrated Feeds — Con, (a) Protein — Con. Rye feed Wheat middlings (flour) Wheat middlings (standard), Wheat mixed feed, Wheat bran, ...... (6) Starchy. Ground barley, Buckwheat hulls, Cocoa dust, Corn cobs, Corn and cob meal, Corn kernels Corn meal, Corn and oat feed (Victor), Corn, oat and barley feed (Schumachers), Cotton hulls, ...... Hominy meal Common millet seed, . . , . . Japanese millet seed Molasses (Porto Rico), . . . . Dried molasses beet pulp, . . . . Oat kernels, Oat feed, Oat feed (low grade), Peanut feed Peanut husks Louisiana rice bran llye middlings Damaged wheat, Wheat flour, (c) Poultry. American poultry food Meat and bone meal Meat scraps, 11 44 103 282 116 1 1 1 8 29 13 3 2 1 3 125 2 1 1 1 1 14 15 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 10 4 2.36 3.06 2.88 2.72 2.59 1.56 0.49 2.30 0.52 1.38 1.82 1.92 1.38 1.80 0.75 1.65 2.00 1.58 0.51 1.60 2,05 1.26 0.88 1.46 0.80 1.42 1.87 2.26 2.02 2.22 5.92 7.63 1.08 1.01 1.28 1.44 1.45 0.34 0.52 0.63 0.63 0.46 0.4ff 0.34 0.61 0.63 1.08 0.76 0.45 0.35 3.68 1.47 0.75 0.70 0.79 0.48 0.83 0.82 0.51 0.36 0.52 1.60 1.65 2.06 2.57 2.79 0.66 0.07 1.34 0.06 0.56 0.70 0.71 0.59 0.83 0.18 1.27 0.95 0.63 0.12 i 0.16 0.48 0.35 0.23 I 0.13 1.70 1.28 0.83 0.35 0.98 14.68 8.11 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 271 Table II. — Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodder Articles — Con- cluded. (Figures equal percentages or pounds in 100.) Name. 'S a 1 ui6 ■3. 0 VI. D.viRY Products. Whole milk. 297 86.4 0.57 0.191 0.16 Human milk, 3 88.1 0.24 - - Skim milk, . 22 00.3 0.59 0.182 0.20 Butter milk, 1 91.1 0.51 0.05 0.04 Whey, . 1 93.7 0.10 0.07 0.17 Butter, 117 12.5 0.19 - - ' From Farrington and Woll. s From W'oU's Handbook. 272 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. t3 a o « >> < Q o <1 P5 « t^ s •qsy o O '"' 1 1 1 1 Cl •5I«S 1 1 1 1 1 cc 1 M 00 M* - to (ez'o X -N) lO ■^ 00 1 I 1 ^ spiajojj (N o o> (M s n CO •* ^ H O o o 03 M < •uinuiinij^ rt ^ CO o d o U5 era oe CO IM « o= o c-q 00 « ■<}< o •uinmini]^ o o ^ t^ to od 00 t^ «2 >o O) W5 00 to 00 ^ to U5 t^ ■* 00 00 CO •uinuiixcj^ oi CC ^' o c^' ■^ in CO a> 00 - n M a> 03 ■^ •sasA'pay cn CO CO o 22 JO jsqiun^ o" • 1 g a o, ■< >> Z a e M 0. X 0) 1 U ■d ^'' a ^ jM a £ "3 E d H 1 15 'a ^-' '-' -^ 1 03 a 3 1 o 3 a 3 3 c: W O M « o M m 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 273 Table TV. — Coefficients of Digestibility of American Fodder Articles. Experiments MADE IN the United States.' J. B. LINDSEY AND P. 11. SMITH. Experiments with Euminants. Experiments with Swine. Experiments with Horses. EXPERIJIENTS with POULTRY. Experiments with Calves. Complete through Aug. 1, 1910, Explanation of Table IV. The fii'st compilation of all digestion coefficients resulting from ex- periments made in the United States was made and pubhshed by J. B. Lindsey in 1896." Jordon and Hall also published very comi^lete data in 1900.^ Since then the writer and his co-workers have revised and published similar tables in 1902^ and 1906.^ The present publica- tion is intended to be complete to December, 1910. By coefficient of digestibility is meant the percentage of the ingi'e- dients which the animal can actually digest. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of total protein in 100 pounds of Timothy hay, experiments have shown that 48 per cent., or 3 pounds, are digestible. The figure 48 is the digestion coefficient. The average coefficients determined have been applied to the average fodder analyses in Table I., and have enabled us to calculate the average amount of each fodder constituent digesti- ble. 1 Being a portion of the report of the Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. 2 Ninth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. Xhl-llQ. 3 Bulletin 77, United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. * Fourteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 19.5-216. s Eighteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 224-248. 274 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. -a^^ o,?o »o »o ^ o c^ »o to to o iO to -t IS IS I o CO r^ 00 -- CO c3 CO r^ CD t^ I O jo I CO It- I CO I lO r- t— »o -t* ^ CO CO O CO CO -< I »»4 I rt s ^ o =ln 3 2" u £ft CL^ IIS °ia 2 Q QO CO CO r-^ cc «o »o o lO r- o i'- IS IS IS IK IS IS -.* Q — . — .- »o o CO •-< Oi to CO »0 CO CO CO I^ I CO I 40 1 O fOO> -s o a H o o o o ^ ^ a 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 275 o 1^ t^ 00 00 ■* -f '^> CO CO 00 c^ CO iO i^^ Ts i^ IS I- I« X- 1- 1 CO 1 CO ci^ l>t Ps i^ I« CO 55 CO t~ !>• t^ CO >o s 00 t^ o -* CD a> CO Ifl M CO r^ t^ 00 00 00 CO [- t^ 1 <31 i- i- o i^ cl» Tk i- i^ cl- CO i^ i^ OO u? r-' r* t>- t— CO 00 r* CO o ■^ CO o CO O >o s »o I- IS J§ Ts 1 O Ts fs Ts 00 IS Ts Ts Ts 00 Ti^ 1^ CO 00 t~ c^ I^ T)< rt< CO rj* ■^ o CO >o lO o CO CO t~ lO •^ 00 CO OS GO 00 3 r^ OO CO o CO CO iO CO CO ^ o Ts OO ■^ 1 -*< 1 ^ i- 1 f^ 1 '^ 1 CO 1 CO 1 CO C>) 1 f~ f CO CO »o 1 s 1 CO 1 CO 1 o X'^ 1 o 1 "5 1 !>. 1 s -l"^ O 00 o O Cv) CO lO "^ CO TlH >o CO o en 00 o o o o O o> ^ 1 1 Ts Ts h tco CO lO CO CO x^ Ts 155 1 1 f^ Js 1 1 1 1 tK CO c^ •K m 00 ■* iM •* CO •^ CO CM M ^ lO 05 >o t^ o 1 (M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 —1 1 1 Tim 1 IM 1 1 1 1 1 t>. co 1 t^ CO 1 CO ■* CO a 6 3 2 o S a i a a a o •B Ph 3 d -0 o a c3 1 1 bB d 1 m 2 bO d a" i o jj" ^ ^ ^ ^ Q ^ ^ ^ ^ . "S -J^ a 3 d a a a a 3 d d d fl d 3 o o ^ „ C t4 o •a o -d t4 -§ C ■d t4 o o -d fe u 1 8 3 c3 -d ■d n o o o o a 0) OJ © 0 o t7 £ "d -3 -t) -T3 tj •73 -c ■d ■d -d -d -d -d •d 3, •w -3 -d 73 "^ T3 "d •d ■d -d -d -d -d ■d a 3 <2 >2 o O >2 ^ ■2 o ■2 •B o ^ •2 •d ■2 •d .2 a a a a a d d a d a d d d J3 L^ u u Ui u o bO 6 a o O o a a a •a O O o U a o O a 1 >> O a3 276 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. u ■a Oh J r^ o oo OS :s o O o ,^ CD (N CD ^~ »o u:> to o CD i 3 o oL" i^ i- tis J^S Ts IS CO i- I- 1- o CO >o ■^ Tji CO OO OS ■rt< M O d S r^ 00 CD CO S£i:u i CO 1 ^ J.^ 1 CO 1 t^ 1- I^ I- 1 oo 1 t^ to IS J" i" g «| •^ t^ (^ •^ to t^ r- to s u «"" • oOi-: CI n tn CO o CO 00 CO Tt* -rt* c<> 3 u. a 1 "2 ^ I" 1 o T5 T'- 1 "5 «o 1 o 1 CO I (^4 ?" To li OJ (U 1 »o to I"' !■* 1 •* U3 1 m 1 U3 1 lO 1 to o^u - 1- 1 <» 1 ^* 1 »^ 1 «^ 1 ■« 1 'O 1 ■* ■* 1 1^ 1 t^ 1 t^ t. 1 o 1 to 1 to t^ u£s 00 CO 00 ■* tl. CO n t^ w to t^ t^ to s Oh t4 o^''^^ n o 00 •o oo 3 a T o ?M Is 1 1 1 1 1 "5 (M too 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1^ ■* ■>*< 2 o ^upn ^ t^ CO CO 05 o (M to ifei 1 1 1 1 1 T§ to I- Ts 70 to 1 1 Ts Ts T^ (-1 *^ _'-^ s lO 00 o CM o-^u to to to to CD to t^ s fe-^ ai ^^ 05 t^ r^ f^ >>^^^ to o to CO o Q2 3 1 K5 CO — ' 1 1 1 [ 1 1 1 tn 1 1 1 to 1 1 1 to 1 OO 1 to to 1 to \ to to 1 to o (M ■o to ■gO to to to to to to ^ ^' ^_^_. v^^-^ . . . _^^ . . ^^_- . _, V - ,_^.^ ^^^-, ® m S'.a ■* to "^ C<1 IM c^ (M CO (M »l icH S « -2 "s i°s3 CJ CO "^ *^ '^ '^ -^ ^^ " '"' c~l Ol 2 Q a a o g a « H Q Q O 1 tn a H Q Q O 1 a 8 o bB a a i ti tL, •a ■a 0. 3 "3 2 a 0 0 " §> ■ J2 m ^^ ^ * p^ t£ J2 ►^ a a" 3 i a* m Q 55 "e s o- '3 '3 ^ g a* o t£ 55 »- O a! ^ 8 o 2 a i a" J 3 e _o 3. a a '3 S Ui > S3 a 3 a 3 S 3 bO a 3 3 3 B a" 1 .2 1 •T3 13 13 2 05 > .2 > a ■3 £ a" o .1 't-l 3 >> 13 «2 >2 o m m m m 13 o >• S a a a a O u h 03 C3 c3 C3 C3 3 C3 (U o o o U u u u o, J3 E? -a s J2 J2 >> j2 >> Q § > 0 o !> o & o o o o o o o OQ 02 < M M M M 3 o O 5 o 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 277 »o S o ■M (M >o lO CO c^ ■o CI CJ Tl* ■^ 00 iO CO 00 «5 cl^ Ts IS Ts 1^ 1 CO Ts 1 =» 1 "O .4^ J^OO I" Ts 1^ Ts Ts o "5 CO ■* -.i. cs ■* -* o o t^ U5 00 CO CO ' 1 00 CO 1 00 1 ^ 1 CO 1 s 1 t^ 1 K K 1 t^ 1 00 1 CO 1 00 1 I^ 1 t^ 1'^ !=" r- ■o OO o ■^ -^ ^ CO to *^ S o lO 00 o CO >o •ra CO CO "5 CO 1^ s C. I^ CO CD CO oa U5 s c^ lO 05 '»< g "O lO Tf? s I« CD lO Ts lO »o 1 ^ 1 1 1 t^ I '^> 1 ^ 1 ■* 1 ™ 1 CO 1 <^ 1 " 1 «» 1 CO 1 ^ 1 -a. 1 "5 1 "5 1 >o 1 "5 1 X3 ■* 1 *.** CO a> ■r*. o to CO lO ■* "S •o CO ■ct< •.*< CO OS o CD 1 '-' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■'5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 CI 1 r^ 1 CO 1 CO CO >o 00 t^ 5 lO ■* r^ CO CD OS 03 CO OS CI t^ CO CD I-^ CD CO r^ CO t-^ 00 00 1 1 ^ 1 IM T'"' 1 CO 1 1 1 OS 1 M 1 00 1 "^ 1 o 1 1 o CO CO 1 CO 1 CO 1 t^ CO 1 CO CO 1 CO I^ M o C^ 50'^ »o 00 CO «5 OS CO CO CO CO ^-- — -^ —^ -— - ^-- — ' ■—- ' — - ■^^ ■—- ^ — - •— ^ —• ^ —■ ^ —^ C^ ^ CO C<1 *i* o M ■* c^ CI C-J "Jl CO US us - - c>q - 'Jf ., - CO - - - (M - c CO • a o " o a o 3 o * 13 o ■3 o 3 fe CO g a l« M 53 1 e ^ H o a i 1 • -a s e "§ ■5 . "a ■a g o a a" •u 3 £ 2 0 S 3 o % c8 a 3 a 8 j2 .a "3 g o a "a, 1 a s J 13 8 a* 0) >> C4 p. 1 i^ b a 3 0 1 ^ n. ^ s g 3 a a 'a 3 ■3 1 2 1 s 03 a o 13 c3 j3 s -a d T3 C3 -a •TS -a c3 c3 to a s a C3 >> J2 g C3 -0 3 a cS a c3 03 I^ ,=5 Q. a "a a "3 — s 2 2 J 2 03 C3 03 i3 O O M < « « M S s H o o o 278 EXPERIAIENT STATION. [Jan. 2^ c Ig I S3 \lz IE; I ca ^ »0 CO -»' IS cl- i- J" r- i>- OO CO 09 Oa Ts Ts IS i§ r- o Cd o ^^ CO lO 5l I >o I c —.-HO Is IS l§ I 00 CO O r)t CD -^ .1 . c3 , S •# a a "3 .3 *fcH 03 a .2 J J3 s[ S 0 "d ?5 6 ja >i 03 i a '3. o 1 a > i > s S a ^ 3 a .3 > C3 n - s > 03 6 •a cS >> a M cS c3 0 a bi a a 's 03 2 "o 0 -3 s s 'i > 03 "3 t > 03 03 i t a S _C3 1 -i a b4 t5 .-3 o — o 280 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. u g S to o C3 o CO 2? f- 3 o <:0 00 ^2 00 CO i- 1 to i- I- J.S .1° I- J^S d^ I" CO Ol g Ol 00 •^ K (O »0 '" 1 '~- a -^ ^ O O fl r^ t^ 00 o CO ai S e eto 3— X t. "? _ t^ t~ CO

o CO J,- T05 1 "O J,"" I- 1 U3 r i- c< "3 lO «o lO IM w lO CO Oj u Crude Ash (Pe Cent.), o >n CO eo ,,_, 1 1 1 1 1 1 fco r 1 1 1 1 1 M CI 1 1 1 1 I' ca ,oO^ ^ 'o"^*J o 1^ Sj t. r1 1 1 1 1 ^s 1 1 1 1 1 1 i- ci- CO 1 1 Is 1 00 1 CO CO "5 CO «o CD S CD 0^^ hT*; «5 -* M (M o CD oo <2 00 "?^ t^ l^ t^ lO CO ? CO QS,a> "* 1 1 CO 1 1 1 '^ 1 —I 1 00 1 >n 1 "O To T t^ [ CO 1 >0 t>. 1 to 1 CO 1 lO 1 CO 1 CO 1 >o 1 CD CO o t^ ■^ ** iO t^ w to to lO CD >o W3 s O uj ^— ^—^ ^— ^ -— ' ^— - — -^ — ^ -— ' -— - -— - "^•1 2 d 3 a 3 a d 3 s d' 3 > ^ >. s 1 ■3 0 s 1 a "S 2 0) ■S 1 .« a a 'a a 1 s 't-< 03 <» 0 0 > a 'm bC c3 ^ 3 © oT aT 6 o °? =9 o !n lO >o U5 1 ^ i- Tco 1 — ' 1 CO i^ CO Too IM 05 I '"- 1 o^ 1 CO ) — 1 t^ 1 to 1 o 1 to ■^ 1 to O -* 1 «o -n lO 1 o 1 lo aa to o to ^ to lO to '^ '<** >o ■^ CO ■* CO tX CO CO 00 to to to to to " iO "5 ia o ■^ <3> to C) ■* o >o >o ■^ lO to Ts T Ts 00 ti- 1 "^ 1 '^ I CO 1 => 1 o Tt< 1 o 1 ^ lO ■* to "*• cc >r3 00 ^ oo •ra >o •^ •«t* to • in C<1 >n ■* r^ o s CO CO CO CO r~ fe u ^^2 -* o CO c^ 1 tl< CO 1 to to to •o CO CO 0) oi,^ to C -J Sog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 to 1 1 1 i v! to lo to lO CO in Ts QSS 1 -* 1 f^ 1 "M •* 1 *" 1 CO 1 '- 1 "5 1 «3 1 o lO 1 >o 1 o 1 to lO 1 to 1 m 1 CO in 1 1^ o 05 ■* -^ o> oo in s to »o >o s m •* v_^_- _^_. ^ ._ ^_^ ^.^ _^,^ _^_ ._^_- ^^_ O B 11 ^ r^i^ in M 2; Q S I C3 o • o CO O E ^ m a I 8 a o a 3 a •^ ^ ^ t3 K o ;;^ 3 g s. G> Q a 0 a IE « o o c 1 5, c 1 "3 ■a '3 o to a •3 3 "S s. g o 2 CO C cJ a S g O (H i .o g 2 3 "c _B o •a c3 to a Q • 2^ i _2 s o a .3 ri fc/" 8 i cj O o 00 e! JS O > ca a M > a a a 2 a 3 _o & & fe c3 -§ a 03 03 6 O i^ T3 0) ■n o O -3 > 2 j3 _i< _i< g « S ^ •eion!i\[ f^ s s Z 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 283 Co s I- 1° i- 1- i- i° I- 5 s i- 4.- J>- '* 3 CO l^ lO lO ^ ^ ■.*< en 05 C5 t-- 'O CTi in CO 1^ ■o CO CO o I- 1 o> 1 Ci 1 » 1 "» ■* 1 =o iO i< 1 '^ 1 ■« 1 CO •.** CO t- 1 o ■o o >o 1 >o »o t-^ CO CO 00 00 CO C4 o t^ r^ § o ■o 'O CO CO CO r^ c^ CO >o CO CO 1 1 f^* T- 1 ■* % 1 — 1 CO C35 Ts o CO oo °f -H 1 o 1 oo a> 1 >o L 'J' 1 CO lO 1 CO 1 CO CO ci •.i* OO o ^ CO -*i 1> CO CO CO ^t< ■o M CO 1^ 15 h IS T^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ o 05 tK -.11 o CO § -* 00 5 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■o CO 1 1 CO CO I 1 — * 1 "^ I ^t* ■o I CO >o ira o 1 CO 1 O CO Oi CO s s in s 00 o (M CO CO ■o Is CO 1 s 1 "2 "]■-# CO 1 "» i^ -^ CO CO CD 1 =■ 1 r 1 1 I CO 1 r- 1 CO 1 o iO 1 CO lO ■* co -rj< ■* 00 CO CO O >o >o -— — -^ -— ' •— ^ -— ' ^— -— ^ •— ^ -— - ^--- . >. § 3 ^ s ja u a t-4 > — o 3 o SO ID g 2' o o "a a "3 >> .o 'to J3 o ^ M W) bp C5 -^ ja =0 J3 _£3 .3 _rt a 5 § ID to ^ m ^ "rt "3 o g -^ o C3 ^ ^ C3 5 9, i a ti C3 ? O c3 ,s "3 1 a ID ID O > O a i i c3 c3 i §. to _>. cS o3 cS CS t: :3 ClJ t-t q a CI a bi] tc M to bb to 'i •^ c3 rt c3 c3 a .ij» c3 -3 -3 -^J a> to a ^ 13 -3 -a T3 a o t-^ t-t L-< .2 o a ct c C3 d 03 C3 o _g ^ c3 3 'C ■-^ o o k; > > > ;— ; 2 " 'TJ ■^ '3 -d 1 ^ ^ !l 2: o z E^ ^ o o o ^cj o o 1 o 284 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ^ OJ o t^ M2 ■^ »o M o CO IM r^i5 IIS Ts Ts Ts 1 >o 1 1 s Ts to l§ i wg 3 >o ira o iO o oo J^ o r-^ ^ <_, ^ QO M ^ CJ ^ ■T3^-.J »o CD to to to to to to S t, s f- o o Is i- i^ I^ i- i- i- cl" 1 1 o 15 cl^ ira -^ 3 •♦ to ■o CO ■<*« s --:. J3-9fl „ lO „ M to o g ^ (M 00 ■a 0) 5 tp I- ■^ to ■^ CO CO 2oO 1 00 'S I- Is I^ i"" 15 CM I- 00 IS 1 IM ^CO o o o '^ CO CO CO w CM 6i b. ■S(£2 ^H Cfl o o r-t ■^ 00 s oo o r^ to m r^ to 1 o> 'S J,3 IS 1 o> I- I" 1 o> ^s CO T?3 1° o to »o to N CO CO ■O" QJ oCW • r- Si CM So| 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Tg Ts to 1 » 1 >n to 1 1 1 1 tT-",^ CO o^o m ■* "5 s u g^ c^ J^ 00 to to to ^_, IM to UO ^ -4-S U3 s lO »o to to to to ■o Q^g 1 to i- Jl- I "^ ■* 1 1 05 1 '^' o »o 1 1" CM i"' 1 S 1 lO 1 U5 ti"" tl"* lO JjlO >o ■* •o «o »o Ui •* "5 lO ^** -- — ^ — ^ — ^ ^-^ ^^ ^-— —■^ ^-^ ^-^ ^-^ II U5 O M ^ c to 00 [:; -^ oo c^ e, b: •^ > bO ^ Q ^ S ja to CM Q ;2 (0 « -<• •a 5 '3 •■5 1 § 0 0 O S 1 •S a s 3 J2 ■X3 a -0 Q 3 ^. t a CJ 3 i a W Q < g ■§ e 2 3 5 2 2 a 1 a c ts a. O £ X 1 o Q •A s 8 SI a S 8 B a 3 ffl 1 'u o cm o o 2 I -^3 d j3 a M >, ;^ v2 >> _C3 a rt >< ja J3 J3 ja .d ^ o c3 S m E fa » 60 3 O o O e a o s o a o a ■a tBq ?IB3 H H H H H H 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 285 f" c!,'' g i- Vco Is 5 'S 1^ ? T^ CO Is CO ol^ 1 ^ •»< 1 0 ti- 1 0 1 r^- ^ ■"X t>- t^ Cl CO 10 CO ■* to to >o 00 to 05 0 0 0 to lO f to 1 >a t^ 1^ Ts 00 IS CO Is I- I^ S 'S Is Is 1 to CO 1 to 1 to s Jl- Ts I- lO 0 to CO "O uti "5 to to "3 >o to s M* CO ■* :^ •^ -:»< CO ■^ ■^ I- Ts to tp 1 '^^ 1 >« 1 CO T >o 1 00 1 — * 1 CO T<^^ 1 t^ I- 1- I CO 1 ^ 1 o ■* CO CO s 1 t'- (M 1^ 1 — ' T- 1 CO 1 1 0 T"" To. 1=^ 1 "3 Too Id To !« 1 => 1 '" o 1 -f 00 •.J* ub CO 0 CO CO -* " •0 ■* "^ e^ ■^ CO o CO •^ 0 10 ■* 0 c-> oL"* 1 1 1 I^ 1 1 1 1 1 =5 CO c^ <3J to r-4 CO M CO s _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <^^ M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 to J^tO to s CO C-1 «5 0 ■s t-; 0 S to 0 ■^ fs 10 lO 0 to to Ts I- t^ 1 ^ 1 <^« 1 <^ 0 1 10 1 "^ 1 1 1 t^ 1 "M 1 »~^ 1 to 1 tH 1 ITS 1 ^ ■o 1 0 1 10 1 •a 1 to ^ _l^tO J^>o 1 to •* ■ra 00 r*H 00 •>»< ■* ■^ ■^ "5 ■* 0 to to >o 10 0 10 « IM c<» IM Co ■* - 0 CO - - - - 0 - - - c, 1< .. - 0 - ^ s • Is s C3 ■3 "a "3 "^ 'u , >, >> >; 3 ^^ ^ J '■J > cj j^ "ca . 00 S- Si ^ 3 -a 0 &■ 0 'TS c3 0 tH 1 a 03 a 1 s 1 a 1 a 13 3 a" 8 (3) s 3 i 2 [*, 5; c3 1 T3 13 a -a 1 >. 3 0 J 2 0 Lh 03 a 0. 1 1 S a a 2 2 2 2 2 o> '? & IH s a a a 1 0 8 0 u 0 0 C d 0 ~S & 03 a a .§ a ja ja ja ja ja > -a 2 bil ja M 0 +^ ^ -^ ^ '% w ■& '% ■& 'S _o 0 1 a 0 13 0 1 a 1 •2 13 ■a a) 2 -0 T3 a a >> c3 1 1 s ^ a tT >, >. >. >. >» >. & a 2 J T3 ■n ■X} ^ ^ .^a J3 ja J3 jd a ui 3 0 0 0 a 'a bK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 s d la 6 a a a a S J a 1 0 R &: g 1 0 0 286 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ^^ ^^3 .-^ o 1—1 o t^ (N. o lO o CO lO »o (TJ CO o oo I» 1- \T~. ci^ J^S IS i° 1 •* 1 o i- cl^ I- I- CO "O CO CO CO s. 00 K " a -w -J o « c M CO CO in 3 3 CO oo CO CO M « C3 S «^ •o t^ o I- CO ostu F— ' 1 "^ 1 « 1 ''" 1 c^ C3 o> i- 1 '^ 1 CO 1 W 1 CO 1 "5 1 "3 ■O 1 o 1 ■« 1 CO 1 s 3— X ^ co'"" 1^ CO CO 3 lO S «;S '^ o o O iO >o >o o CO "5 lO t4 a* . Ji^^T CO o ^^ CO M ■* >n 1 1 CO I- 1 —1 I- I •* T'* T-^ 1 CO i CO 1 f~ 1 t^ 1 t~ CO CO 1 CO 1 1^ en 1 o o 1 CO o 1 -K 1 UO t^ i^ lO lO iO 1^ CO CO CO CO CO P^ ^ <».9^ CO en CO >ra 00 oo ^ ^ CO C-1 o N •B 3 S t^ I- lO I- o CO 2oO "is To 1 t^ Js 13 Ts? I" 1^ 1 ?J Ts IS IJJ -* >o cr- CI CO o ira •o ■^ >o >— ' '-< U3 lO (U kl CO o CO kO If? lO CO -t T^ Ira no ira 2^fl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — ' 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Oi 1 o o CO i ^ -:f< ■o lO r^— "" Oi j"~^^ t^ t^ Ts lo io 1 o 'To 1 t^ 1 •* 1 <" I- 1 "5 1 •« 1 CO 1 «» 1 00 P^g 1 t^ 1 CO 1 m 1 o >o 1 lO CO 1 >n 1 lO CO s CO > o 3 o C3 w B5 Q X < 3 "S s a 3 a 1 a ■a 1 w "3 C5 o CS 'p. 3 a a 3 a 'a J3 "a 3 a a J3 'E 3 a a c u tT C ^ ^ ^ tl t7 t7 t. u o o o o > > > > ■^ ■a 2 o o o o 1 o o o a a a a a a a a a a a a u u t4 ^ u (-• Lh o o o 6 o o o o o o o o U O O o u o o o U O 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 287 s o c^ U5 '^ >o o to W3 ■»J* "^ 1< >o ■^ CO o s 95 to o -t< oo CO CO »o CO I CO 1 30 1 o 1 o 1 => 1 t^ 1 <» J>- 1 ^ 1 05 1 t^ 1 o 1 w 1 t^ 1 00 1 to 1 CO CO to 1 «o «o 1 to 1 ^ r^ ^ CO to ^^ ■^ o " r- •o t^ »o CO lO CO CO ■»J< »0 lO o c^ '^ CO fs! to ■^ Ts 1 >o 1 -o I- f^ ?^ 1 CO T^ CO IS s -)< to s? 1 CM T^ Ts ^ 00 30 rH ■* C3> -* CO o o m U5 -1< CO M •* tH CO K5 to s •* C<1 CS ■o CO o to I- >o 1 « 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 '^ CO -1< 1 l^ 1 t^ tji 1 00 1 CO 1 C^ 1 1 ^ ■* (N 1 ^ CO CO 1 CO 1 c^ "0 ■o ■o o " ■^ CO lO CD CO ira lO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "^ -* 'J* 1 "^^ 1 1 1 "O 1 «ra o J^S 1 o o 00 ■^ •o ^ lO o oo o CO (M CO C3 s o ■T) to to 1 3 lO to 1 '" 1 = 1 '■= 1 '■'' 1 to CO 1 "^ 1 -^ ■^ 1 '*' 1 35 1 1 1 o 1 -o 1 -o 1 to 1 o 1 r~ 1 'O to m 1 o >o o ■o 1 lO o Ci :S CO Ol CO to ■o lo •o t^ o o •* ■»!< O ^^^'^ ■-' -- — ^ --^ — ^ ^■^ --- -—- ^-^ --- •— - ~^^ -— - •* C^J (M c^ ^i* (M Tt< ^ '"' lO CO ^ o 2 CO CO - - - - o» - - - - ., c Tt< to ■rl< - - * ^ .s tn d 'C .3 < ^ d J >> is 1 m 1 o X! o d 3 1 a CJ bO Lh d .2 a d a o cj x: "iz 3 "*~* d "C J2 i 1 3 o o 2 o C3 o > o d 2 o o -a o C ■a -d IS o 0) ts "d a 4) t-, o <0 13 d a d 3 'b. > o 2 > > > > > M t^ i ? o o 2 o o 1 o o o 8 >, >> >^ a a a a a a 0 a t4 S6 1^ SE L< J J J t-4 ■4^ 3 to 3 "bC O M o o o o o o ,^ cj 03 c3 c3 c3 c3 ^ o O O O c o o w w w >> o o o o 288 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ^ r^ »o ■^^ *o o o M o Oi ^ P CO CO 2 i' Too Ts § 1° Ts J' C-l •c e-i , '^ g ti ,^ o o ^ M o J^ ^^ ■* •^ III? r^ CO o I>- cS CO s CO « U5 t^ o . ocL^^ o U5 CO CO w Ol 00 Ta^tl • CO "5 OO CO "5 to 3 t. a Ts s ci- 1 =o I^ ci^ 1 •* A"* CO d- i° 1 10 0.^0 eo »-( * M CO ^ ■* to •>(< CO s -^ 1 <=" 1 00 ■* i^ 1 «=" 1 «» o I t^ 1 t^ CO 1 CO 1 t^ r- 1 CO 1 CO C5 CO s s § CO s s CO eti ^ © "-^ r^ OS Oi ^ lO o 3'~'a 1 1 1 1 -^ 1 c^ T '*** T» ?"' J^co o 1 1 1 C<1 1 1 1 o 1 -^ 1 CO 1 M «3 •* ."r J3 a> •o tfj s fcj o p-l^ o c^ 1^ o CO ira CO ■^ l« CO >o CO CO IS o 5^ I- 1 CO To 1 o 1 o 1 1 CO 1 o 1 "^ ^3 ^^ CO U5 lO >o lO CO lO 10 irH ra ^_- — ^^-^ ■ — ,— • • -—.^ ■ — -^ — -^ ^v ■ ^-^-- •—^^ S t" ''o'S (M ,_, CO t^ e-1 <^^ M CO o (M 05 a> a-2 CO M 00 MH » S ^^ y-K c» CO ^ _^ _ _ 6 HH a g « to C4 d ■3 0 d 3 3 C3 OS d ■& ^ .5 & 0 0 > 0 bO bO "cS "3 "d "d "cS "3 3 >. ^ O c§ < < 5 < < < 5 eg 0 c 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 289 >o lO W3 c^ -^ I CO I ^ IS I CO I o O 1 I-- 30 -H I o I o It r- 00 o g fs CO I -.1^ I -H I O >0 ^H OS f2 IS IS IS O »o O IS I 00 t^ "-^ oo ^ 00 to *0 CO o I r- 00 CO CD O iO CO 3 I t^ ^H -H IC — < rt -H O (M ^^ -H -4 ^H w^ o u u o « o u 290 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. u , ^ ci CS 0 1^ CO »0 f^ J^ 00 CO 0 CO 0 3 fl 0 1 oc 1 «*> >n 1 0= 1 C5 1 CO I ^^ C^ 0 1 CO 1 so oc 00 1 I- J^o 1 0 1 Co 0 0 Sg 00 s •0 oe s'"'' CO r^ ^ fl -»^ -t^ O O fl 0 CO 0 >o 0 fcT o c3 o 0 « I- CO CO »o 2 2S0 "5 1 <= is CO 1 <» 1 c 1 ^ 1 =0 r^ r '^ "5 1 0 o •0 1 s 1 10 1 0 0 i.'' 1 CO 0 ! -o 0 -s* CO g «^ 10 "5 ■^ U5 « CO '^ 0 0 u 1> . iua<„ ■^ 0 CO -1^ 0 t^ -i* ■a -3-^ 10 10 to CO 3 J- a «> 0 T t^ f^ 1 «) 1 o> •^ 10 1 00 CO 1 c-^ 10 >o 1 CO •^ •»j* ^ "5 •* 1 >o •o 1 1 CO •^ 1 ->< u.ia 00 >o 0 00 0 (M CO 0 •^ ^ CO f=^ ^ «.9S ■* 0 0 CO CO _ <» f^ 00 10 I- CO t^ CO eo s 1 cs Tco 1 ui 1 •« 10 I CO 1 -^ 00 1 cs -* 1 ■* ■0 1 1 t^ J^CO 1 0 CO 1 CO 1- »o 1 ' 1 f^ I \ CO 0 10 1 t^ 1 ■*! r^— 0 0 ■^ CO o«o N 10 I- CO o CO r-^ 0 00 >."^^ to 1 0= I- •^ CO I- CO 1 — ' 1 tn 1 '^ 00 Ts T--= oc 10 QS§ U5 1 Tf< 0 10 CO 1 >.o 10 1 CO 1 LO CO CO -r 0 ^U ■^ ■^ CO 10 >o xn •<*' CO >o S -2 o5 -— - —--' -— ' ~— ^ ^— - —— ^—' ^— ' ^--^ "Mis 00 10 CO C5 10 CO 1^ rj 10 t^ CO CO M c-q .a-E WH « P> ^ £ t^ r°i^ CO C<1 " C^ CO •^ ^" ^ CO M a: Q Ci 0 1 3 «! 0 « U H Q 1 0 0 [g 2 Q a g *^ 0 03 ^ a (f. m U 0 ^ 1 1 "2* 0 0 0 ^ ^ 1 ^ "o S Q "a 0 si -0 -3 1 ■3 1 •3 CO C3 -3" ^" 9 0 > > a. 0 > ■3 C S 5 s K 8 1 8 ^ 0) 3 i "3 fl "o i >-; .M tn T3 -3 -3 -a ■3 -3 S. i a > — •3 ^ 0 ^ (— i a 1 fl c i fl i fl •3 C -3 fl C3 ■3 fl C3 •3 3 C c3 41 0 ij 2 2 0 0 2 2 m 2 ■~ c! _o 0 0 0 0 0 0 c3 -* a a "rt :— — :— U u 0 U 0 0 0 0 0 0 ■2 ■$■ I^ ^ 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 291 I o> I c I IM I GO -T"^ Qi o 153 153 is IS; If: 13 is IS '' I io IS lit 1-tO o 12 M 00 -H CO I -J" I CO I ' ^H CO CO to r- IS lO CO CO o to 1:0 05 00 -^ CO O O M 16 00 00 loj Iro ito it^ Im loo loo loo t CSOOOOCiOOOCOOr^ II II II II Tft T? -^Jl »-H »-« 10 o J§ 1?5 Is O CO (M O rt I o I 00 It- I en 00 CO >o o II II -H ■>*( IS 1!^ 15 \l t^ CO "i* --I <=> I ;i 'I 10 -« rt ^H 00 IS I M l-l 1 2 1 a 'a 3 0 > .2 C3 i s a -3 0) H 0 a 0 u >. '3 T3 s ■g a d g 3 3 0 B u 1 B '5 bO a ."2 S 1 0) E 1 C3 < J3 o -s n ?> .'° ti t] 2 J3 3 0 a CZ2 a cl 0 5 0 .0 0 5 8 5 a> m 3 a 3 0 292 EXPEUBIEXT STATION. [Jan. o w l-> , 0 0 0 O ^'— ^ •o 0 *o 0 0 05 00 00 00 0 C» op 00 0 0 1 1^ 00 i^ I» § IS .1° Is 7§ TS i" d- l§ CO t^ 10 C»*-t 10 eo 0 W3 o^o CO 00 00 s cs 00 o5 00 0 -^ rogen ree tract Cent. o CO CO ^ 0 s 8 10 CO f^ (M lO ■o c» c» t^ t^ C5 CO i° IS cl^ g 1 00 g IS Ts J_S Js IS 1 0 *3'*-' X I Q 0 CO s OV g «| S CO '^ 0 t^ 0 CO CO 0 t^ + o O s ,^ >o CO '^ w-^ CO I" ■^ 3 I- a 1 '^ IS 1 "> co" 1 1 ■* '§ 1 1 IS? -** 1 1 I- 1 1 U-SO CO CO o fe ^ oSS o o CO 0 CO 0 CO 0 CO 0 ,^ go" 5j >o CO CO 00 CD 00 1^ 5: CO S I« 1" ri* x^ oL" 00 iS i- I- CD t- 00 t- f^ CO 0 10 CO CO i~i o^^ Oi -a^-' ^ t» ?^|=' 1 1 1 1 1 th 00 1 1 1 1 1 IS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .^J3 V c= o^o 00 j- H^^ X5 CO 1^ iO £3^^^ Cs CO CO Ci IsS 1 1 1 1 1 =^ i« 1 ^ 1 ■« 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 r J^CO 0 1 t--. 1 0 1 0 l~ co OS^ 00 CO 00 s ^^ o CO 0 C3 CO CO ,_, >o 0 Cl CO >>'~'*i o 0 CO c:^ >o CO 1 o fus 1 i:*^ 0 'Tco J CO 'Tco 1 ^ 1 10 1 O' I 0^ 1 CO QSS 1 o 1 -o 1 w 0 1 t^ 1 CO 1 w 1 0 0 1 i^ 1 l^ t^ 0 CO 0 ^u o ui CO CO CO 0 CO CO 10 t^ s _^_^ ^^— • — ,-^ ^^_- — . — • — ,-- --^-- ^^— • ^-^— ^^^ — - — ,- ^ m "ylj (M c^ (M (M c^ IM C> t4 0 o K H O 5 1 . 0 -13 jd bO 0 0 0 -a bD CJ <0 T3 s bO ja bf 1 ci d ■3 bO fl 73 2 13 0 _o _o 2 bC '2 bC o3 i "a 1 "i 1 1 1 ■ 9 t3 .2 T3 ^ > (^ t-, S 0 0 0 0 0 HH *M 'C § ■o -d -a ■a T3 -a -3 -!3^ 'O x) T3 a i s § § (U s's J "s "m fl 3 s S a s d 3-a _a) _o ■3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 b r3 r2 a *^ -tj +j^ .b *j <^ tn o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o^-" i5 • -* 0) U 0 u u 0 0 0 0 Q Q P a 1911, PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 293 o CO en "M 00 o g '* r^ o> ,^ 0 CO Oi O c^ >o 0 t^ en en i- 1 ^^ 1 03 1 CO o 1 f"^ i§ 1 '^ 1 "5 1 ^ 1 "* 1 0 1 ^ 1 00 1 en oo 00 o 1 00 1 Oi 1 -O 1 CT >o o 'i^ Oi 1^ t^ OJ t^ -n 05 ^ CO ^ cy> -^ ■?_ 00 en oo 0 s 00 o 1 OO 1 00 -f 1 CTi o en 1 ^ 1 •« 1 ^ 1 -f r "^ 1 CO 1 CO 1 CTi 1 03 1 CO 1 1- 1 CO 00 CO 00 J_00 1 cs 1 33 A "^ 00 1 00 J5 co c^ to '^ 0 0 CO 00 t^ 3 s " c5 00 00 + o ^ g o o o r- 0 ira CD **< i>. CO CO IS ' 1 I- I- 1 1 ^ CO I- I- I^ 1 ^ J,S 1 1 «3 CO 'J' OJ CO c^ C^l CO CD CO CO CO "J" to CO >o iM t^ OJ o» CO CO 00 M I^ IS 00 i- i "^ 'S s 8 IS 1 '^ 1 00 i- i- !!'' 1 CD 00 00 ira 00 (31 tr> 00 0 CO C» C3 00 00 00 CO *> 1 '^ If 1 » 1 " cq 1 ^ 1 •* 1 es 1 "^ 1 "5 1 CO 1 CO 1 00 1 t^ 1 oo 00 o 1 oo 1 CO 1 en 1 00 CO 1 5 1 00 1 00 u? CO 00 00 00 CO CO " M ^^ —^ -— ^ —^ ^— — — - --^ -^ --- ^-- -—- - —^ ^— ' 00 00 CO CO en ^ ^ CO O) ^ cq e5" C3 ta -a rt . C3 o p— 1 to > C3 c3 "m a s ft a> § o 3 •73 -0 1 o ft o CI O ft s J 13 o -a" i zi 'a •T3 a C3 a cj .0 >1 a 3 "a > 8 3 a O 3 3 3 3 s 3 S 0 Ph ft< 0 rt p 294 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. O 12: Hi bl . CO o 00 c^ CO U) r^ a» 1 a> 1 r^ 1 00 o|c3 00 fj »o 05 "5 00 oo C5 o CO lO '^ '~- a -^ J 4) On O O oo ■^ o ■* CO M O C3 3 oo o 1~ 00 S o> 22 $y i^ 1 "5 To 1 » CO 1 "^ 1 -" 1 >o I CO 1 C4 i- 1 O '^ 1 I^ CO 1 CO ol- 1 00 1 a 1 o g «(S to t~ oo '~ CO 3 Cl 00 00 — l^ »" • oO,^ o o cs o >o CD CO ■d^'^j I" CO CO C5 2sg 1 ''* 1 t- 1 1 o 7c~) 1 '•* 1 '" r o 1 «= 1 ■* 1 f 1 to 1 C-J 1 to I- 1 lO «5 IM CO ^ ■^ >o (^ ^ ^■S^ C) 05 O ^ Cft CO ^ O o ■* T3 4) S OO o> to CO c:^ 00 2SU 1 'JS 1 f^ t^ 1 <=> oo 1 ^ I CO 1 "5 1 CO r '^ 1 *** 1 I- 1 I^ 1 I^ 00 \ to 1 1- 00 r- 1 00 ^i; o ■^ ira QO Ol to 00 ■^ r- 00 CO o 00 fS ' — U4 ? a Cf3 Ol CO •^ (^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO oo 1 1 I" 1 1 1 1 CO c^ i -t-S r- to to t^ asS 1 <^ CO 1 "^ 1 'M 1 CO 1 oi 1 o> 1 O^ 1 1 1 1 1 ro 1 to to 1 to 1 00 1 t^ 1 to 1 t^ 1 00 r- 1^ 00 o r^ ^u (o o to w t^ lO t^ 00 > O 1 to d J 8 d a t^ 2. o3 > a J2 i S 53 1 'a J s 1 'd % c3 .2 Si 3 .jj 4-3 _^^ _^^ ^^ -u •^ J^ ,jj ^ . lO »0 00 OO CO >0 CO C^ Tt< »-« g 15 IS 1^ 1^ IS Is 13 I- I 5! IS 12 IS IS IS > CD CO CO »o ob O CO -i) CO cib is- c^ 4«c-i lO to ^ •* o lO CO i° JL° i° 1^ 00 -H 1^ IS I lO ^ CO CO OO CO CO CO 00 CO »0 C^ ^H o 1^ 1-^ Iw loo loo OiOO loo 30^ IS I CO ■-<|-*GOl'-C3 0050 OOOO CD CO O CO "M fO UD 15 IS IS TS IS IS IK S I CO OT CO O Oi ^H •— I ^ »o lo 00 oo 00 00 O I ^ 11^ oo I 00 00 I 00 It— "^C^C'JCI— 'CO »0 lOO r~^ CO t-~ ^O '^ ^n t^ CO ^^—H O 1^ 1-^ l-l* 1-^ I"* |C^OtJ«| too I'-C 1-^ 2 I* i== J,'' J,-' i^ 4,^- o c 4,co « i^ j^« *0 CO o Oi Oi a> o> oo CD 1 =0 =1- s i^ i° ^s ci^ 1 ^ 1 CO l^ i^ 00 .l« _IS IS j_3 CO 00 * oo s CO o X5 00 Tt* fO r^ lO en 'rji at 00 OS a> o> Oi Ci I- 1" ?J l» i^ i^ i^ x^ I» i^ 05 00 i" IS Ts J,g •o OJ CO " oo 00 o> oo C» 05 a> n o CO Oi CO uo o Ci ■»< CO U5 1- cq 00 UO i« Jl« CO J,^ I- 1 c^ 1 1 k^ J,^ s i^ S ' 5' 1^ ' c-» c-» rl< oo ■* •^ M 05 C^ oo IC5 lO c^ O 00 t^ CD '9 CO 00 CD 00 1 °> 1 1^' X5 a> I- 1 Cra CO CO 1 00 1 CO 1 oo r^ oo w t^ CO 1 00 -** CO oo 00 oo CO CO CO to t^ >o 00 CO CO CO CD 00 o •* ■* CO CO C5 CJS ■* o T^ 1 1 1 1 1 0° 1 1 1 '-' 1 <^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "^ ^ \ <=> 1 CO e^ 1 f-1 1 rt CO 1 >o (M n s? 00 o t^ s O o M 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ t" 00 o 00 00 s s ^— ^— -— ^ —- ' ^-— - ^— — - ^~— ^- -—^ ^-- ■—^ -^ ^-- CO CO CO c^ M O) CJ o> C^l cq o> m C>) > a 3 -T3 t3 a s bfl Q 3 6 bO o -a a a > a > 03 1 1 "rt c3 'uJ ci tu o "? Is 0) >> o « ■a o X a> i > a) ii S 3 1 CD d a o 1 i "o a o a a (D O a a o 1 g 3 o ^3 1u 1 a 3 c3 a 3 a C3 b o3 a o "o "o -!3 O O 03 O «S (2 s s K a a a 02 M 3 Q ^ -3 ^ 1 298 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ^ 11 O OJ-i tM CM CO -oO-( -iJ 00 OO U3 IS oo o i^ s 0 § 1 s 0 1 1 Tf2 CO ~ a *i *i o o a -rj* CO 0 M « al S 00 O) 1 "^ o 1 "" ■* CM CO ■^ CO 1 ^^ 1 CO 00 1 oo oo 1 c» 00 a> 0 OJ t- 00 00 1 to 04 m 0 z"~"t£ 00 OS 00 >o u o . OCU" ■* o 00 0 3 V- a OJ 1 '^> 00 Tos c» CO 00 1 0 0 Ts 1 °> •^ -■ i " 1 CO t« 0) QJ o CM •0 CM § E ^^ 2oO Q o >o 0 en 1 «» Oi 1 oo to 00 0 ■^ 0 0 1 c^ 1 "" CO 1 oo 1 00 00 00 1 t^ 1 I^ o ^ oo 00 '~ tt f>1 1 Ts 1 1 1 1 Oi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r ,h;-d u 00 O.o i-t ^ o^ IsS o 1 1 CO 1 "^J r^ 1 CM 1 1 1 CO 00 J_cn i^ Oi o^o S § a> o 0 00 o t^ o Tt^ CO I o CO CO 0 r^ 1 f^ 1 CD QSg 00 1 1^ oo 1 CJ i^ c» 0 CO 1 t~ 1 to to o ■^ M* J" '" 00 '^ 10 »^. -__- _,.^ .___. . ^ CM T** r-- CM CI fl--- .1^ h WH 1 L i°5j ^ '-' -^ CM •^ — ' '-' — ' " —' '^ '^ :^ Q « -' a i a 3 o tj Ui 0 b >J O a y. TO s ^ m 3 W O C. 0 •5 •0 ■a "o ^ ■n -a 1 "3 o a -T3 "a! a u o 1 1 E 1 i ^ 2 0 0 J3 (U lU aj a) '6 s 2 1 ? 0 0 03 d '3 ■3 '3 0 c3 0 ^ A J3 X. J S S S W cS (2 ^ ^ & ^ 1 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 31 299 O w "r?0 r>- 1^ OO CO !>- Tf OO t^ '- o o S Ojo -H O CO .-< I" 1- ,j. I _, ^ -, 1 ^ CD « c-1 I o •'i* 2 Q 300 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. . U^O OO 3 CO ca 00 OO oo t- 00 00 , -i trogen free xtract ■Cent fc. g J.* I» IS i^ 1 o 1 1 ' 1 «5 x^ tl- 00 s >.-5 N Od 00 oo o o o O 00 oo u OOh" >o (M /5 h-. in M< ^ •<*< ^ 00 T3 tn 0) r- !§ I- Is: CO o 00 Is 00 1° ^ o ■^ tr- >o Ci to CO 5j t^ a, o o^o 00 CO OO I.H S ^ cS_:. >'"^II Q 2 « ' 1 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^U '^ —..-■ >_^.^ — ^- ■ — .^ _^^ ^^- -^-^ w_^_- • — ^^ ■ — .— -— -^-^ _2i 31 "tJ)"^ ^ d a a" a a i£ ifi rt OJ i i & o o o o o Cj rt 0) 0) C3 d o o o u u U U w M ;^ m o o O 1911.1 rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 301 OS 1 « ■5 1^ IS IS t^ CO r^ to to C5 ^ T- T^ 1 CO 00 ^ r^ rt ^ c-i oo CO >o ■.** o t 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ t^ oo oo x-^ 1 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO CO CO g 03 a a "o 03 n § "^ ^ & OS si cj 03 ej li Jd jd J3 J o ^ if ^ •s o I "5 I "C I 0> I o: II II II II I I II II CO iO II II II C-t ^^ -^ r^ O -' 15 H & £3 ci ^ rt M 302 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Average Digestion Coefficients obtained with Poultry.^ [German and American Experiments.] Kind of Fodder. Number of Experi- ments. Organic Matter. Crude Protein. Nitrogen- free Extract. Fat. Bran, wheat, Beef scrap, . Beef (lean meat), Barley, . Buckwheat, . Corn, whole, Corn, cracked. Corn meal, . Clover, . India wheat. Millet, . Oata, Peas, Wheat, . Rye, . Potatoes, 46.70 80.20 87.65 77.17 69.38 86.87 83.30 83.10 27.70 72.70 62.69 77.07 82.26 79.20 78.33 71.70 92 60 90.20 77.32 59.40 81.58 72.20 74.60 70.60 75.00 62.40 71.31 87.00 75,05 66.90 46.94 85.09 86.99 91.32 88.10 86.00 14.30 83.40 98.. 39 90.10 84.80 87.04 86.70 84.46 37.00 95.00 86.30 67.86 89.22 88.11 87.60 87.60 35.50 83.80 85.71 87.*89 80.01 53.00 22.60 * Compiled by J. M. Bartlett, Bulletin 184, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 303 Literature. The following publications liave been consulted in compiling the foregoing tables of digestibility : — Colorado Experiment Station, Bulletins 8, 93. Conneetieut (Storrs) Experiment Station, reports for 1894-96, 1898; Bulletin 43. Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletins 43, 58. Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletin 103. Louisiana Experiment Station, Bulletin 77, second series. Maine Experiment Station, reports for 1886-91, 1S93, 1894, 1897, 1898, 1900; Bulletins 110, 184. Maryland Experiment Station, Bulletins 20, 41, 43, 51, 77, 86. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, rej)orts for 1895-99, 1901-05, 1907; and Digestion Experiments, Series XII., XIII., XIV., XV., unpublished. Massachusetts, State Experiment Station, reports for 1893, 1894. Minnesota Experiment Station, reports for 1894-96; Bulletins 26, 36, 42, 47, 80, 99. Mississippi Experiment Station, report for 1895. Nevada Experiment Station, Bulletins 64, 66, 71. New York Experiment Station, reports for 1884, 1888, 1889; Bulle- tin 141. North Carolina Experiment Station, Bulletins 80c, 81, S7cl, 97, 118, 148, 160, 172. Oklahoma Experiment Station, Bulletins 37, 46. Oregon Experiment Station, Bulletins 6, 47, 85, 102. Pennsylvania Experiment Station, reports for 1887-94, 1897, 1898, 1900-01, 1903-04, 1906-07. South Dakota Experiment Station, Bulletin 114, Tennessee Expei-iment Station, unpublished data. * Texas Experiment Station, Bulletins 13, 15, 19, 104. Utah Experiment Station, Bulletins 16, 54, 58. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In- dustry, Bulletins 56, 106. "Wisconsin Experiment Station, report for 1889; Bulletin 3. Wyoming- Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 78. 304 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. Table Y. — Compilatiox op Analyses of Agri- cultural Chemicals, Refuse Salts, Phos- phates, Guanos, Ashes, Lime Compounds, Marls, By-products, Refuse Substances and Animal Excrements. H. D. HASKINS AND L. S. WALKER. A. Chemicals and Refuse Salts, (a) Nitrogen chemicals. (b) Potash chemicals. (c) Refuse salts. B. Phosphates and Guanos. (a) Natural phosphates. (&) Dissolved phosphates, (c) Guanos. C. Ashes^ Lime Compounds and Marls. (a) Ashes. (b) Lime compounds. (c) Marls. D. By-products and Refuse Substances. (a) Abattoir products. (b) Fish products. (c) Seaweeds. {d) Vegetable products. (e) Wool products. (/) Miscellaneous substances unclassified. E. Animal Excrements. F. Insecticides. As a rule, the analyses reported in the following' compilation were made at this laboratory.^ Some of them were made many years ago. Ecfuse prodncts from various manufacturing in- dustries are likely to vary more or less in composition, due to frequent changes in the parent industry. The revision of the » In the compilation of analyses of seaweeds, five of said analyses were taken from Bulletin No. 21 of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 305 coiiii)ilati()n every five years, however, insures quite reliable figures in most instances. In case of the agricultural chemicals and by-products which are commonly known to the fertilizer trade, the present compilation includes the samples collected by our inspectors during the last five years, as well as those samples sent by farmers and farmer organizations. In all cases where samples are forwarded for analysis, they are taken according to printed directions furnished from this office, which is a reason- able assurance that the analyses are representative of the mate- rials samjiled. In many instances extremely wide variations occur in dift'erent analyses of the same product. This empha- sizes the importance of careful sampling as well as the purchase of such materials on a specific guarantee of plant food which they furnish. In the majority of instances only the highest, lowest and average percentage of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid are given in the tables, but it should be remembered that blanks do not imply the absence of the other ingredients. 306 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. < 'A < •JOJicn oiqn[osni o o 00 CI a* CO CO •anuoiqo 9.74 .50 41.56 20.64 6.63 •ppv oiaoqJBO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 •ppv aiJi^H^PS 12.46 00.00 .50 20.25 31.94 •BaptsQ ointui -n[V puB oiiJaj[ 2.10 apuQ ujnisauStjj^ 19.52 13.19 6.37 8.79 •(arai^) apixQ uinpiBQ 63.19 29.30 2.37 12.45 •apixQ lunjpog 35.50 7.66 18.97 5.27 •pioy opoqd -soq j aicinioeuj 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pov oijoqd '-«oq j pojjaAOji 43.86 •piDV oiJoqd -soqd aiqniog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o H O 0 3 HA. •aSBaaAy 43.86 "uinuiiuii^ I . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •uinmtxBi^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■JD <: H o •aSBjaAy 44.20 63.02 19.24 13.68 17.30 13.07 8.42 •mnuiiaij^ 43.48 55.68 18.48 10.90 •uinunxBj^ 45.62 67.20 20.00 16.50 W o o « H 2 •aSBjaAV 19.00 22.23 12.57 15.38 12.00 9.11 10.87 20.91 •iunui!nij\[ 11.42 14.14 8.42 19.44 •uinuiixBi^ 14.58 16.57 9.88 22.72 - •qsy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ajn-jsioj^i .71 1.58 1.76 5.88 .78 6.05 1.01 2.25 18.22 .45 3.04 4.82 •Bas.^IBay CO--iOO-<^T-iio COMM.-l^— . .-H CO CO c^ o\ i « N H K (a) Nitrogen Chemicals. Calcium cyauide, Carbonate of ammonia, .... Nitrate of soda, Nitrate of lime, Nitrogenous chalk Sulfate of ammonia, (6) Potash Chemicals. Carbonate of potash, high grade. Carbonate of potash and magnesia, . Carnallite, . . . Hard salts, Kainit, Krugite 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 307 C^ lO to o C^ CO "• 1 CO lO 1 1 o 1 to 1 I 1 t^ 1 »o CO l>. c^ ^ CI 05 to >o CO c^ o to -* o — Ci S s — 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 = »o = iO = = 1 1 ' ' IM — 1 • ' 1 1 1 1 r 1 __- — I ' I 1 00 »o to CO O CO GO 00 <-n (M o> to r-> m (^ ' .^ CO tM (M nn o o -i< lO to O lO (TO ' ,_, ■■^ '^ fM en oo ' ^H r^ r- ' ' ' ' cq (M U5 Oi ^_, 1 ' ' 1 ' ' (m" 1 t CO .52 (M .—I o = = = = 1 1 1 1 1 o ' 1 1 1 1 1 t^ rM *o CO to - CO ■.** QC CO CO CO ^ -^ CO •^ _ r^ ^, _^ _ rM ^, ^ "" • cT • (B -0 a •^ • M CO 3 ^ M -a -* £ J3 J3 a el ^ C3 . w . u; r^ a ja J3 a d 03 c! C3 'u C C. O Q> a a oT a a a a n 03' g g ca R J3 O o ® O d O o 0) 03 a 0! c Q) a 3 ^ .— CS 3 3 Z 1^ tin M yj Oi > u M c» m 308 EXPEUIMEXT STATION, [Jan. zn ~ o ^ ^ a < 7J P -d O n Q a Z < m 6J) H H fl < tn u. (i< a r/J , O cj a ^ © w bC ta •J8M«H aiqnjosnj .96 3 64 6.46 4.50 9.14 •aauojqQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 II •pioy oiaoqiBQ 2.51 •pioy Dunqdjng 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •sapixQ oiuica -n[y puB aujaj 16.18 •apixQ uinisaaSBjY 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II ■(anin) opjxo ninpiTJQ 41.27 52.12 44.89 44.33 •optxo ninipog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II •pioy ouoqd -soq j o[qniosni 33.09 31.89 .36.62 22.40 22.90 24.60 1.92 2.79 •ptoy ot.ioqd 2.09 4.07 .10 .85 1.66 3.40 4.62 14.17 ■pioy ouoqd -so'q J aiqnpg 9.53 §2 < « ft o •aSBjaAy 35.18 25.10 9.54 35.96 28.28 35.21 36.72 23.24 24.56 35.89 26.62 27.97 16.07 18.08 ■ranuitaijij 32.62 28.38 16.50 33.10 20.00 11.60 •ninuiixBif 37.74 39.14 30.54 40.34 31.87 19.44 a CO o — . CO »o ^ CO CX) CO CO lilt I I I I »0 lO ".1^ t^ q ^ ^- H fe W 'S n -^ ^5 _g _o -X -r; -^ Ci. a o o o I?; (2 p c Q (i; t3 o o o o o 310 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. o « O o O U •jajlBK ^nnjosai t— S O IM O ■«r g «o ■* o § ?^ o ■* !>. 00 o 00 00 ■^ •aaijoiqo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 >o 1 r •piDV oinoqjB^ ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 OO o 1 1 1 1 1 ' •pioy oi-i'^'I'JlfS 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■sapixQ oiuira s ^ g -n[v puii 3UJ3j[ ' ' ' ' ' ' ■* OJ ' r^ r^ t>. CO •apixQ mniBoaSBj^j 1 1 1 1 1 -; 1 1 1 1 •(8UII1) CO §8 ?§ s C-J g s § « •>»• s § s § apixQ uinio[B3 '-' '- S t- b^ CO g ?; >o s CO »- CO »o •apixQ lunipog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 1 1 •pioy o'-ioqd S -soq j aiqniosai -' ' ' ' ■piDy ot-ioqd s -soqj pajjaAS'jj to •ppV o'Joqci -soqd aiqnpg ■^ j^ (M CO J^ ~~OJ~" ,^ "^ to Q •83BJ3Ay 00 •0< -J" 1 t^ -^ t^ o lO OO CO ■*< 00 ■* 00 IM e<> o> t^ CO r- CO CO •ainaiiuii\[ '^ '-' (M to t-^ «^ ^ _, (^ CO CD ,_ CO OO •uinuitxBj^ '°. O >r5 CO (M CT> CD ^ '~ — CO o CO ^* C^J »o rvl CO 1^ ^ t^ ■a3i?j3Av ■* O '"• -* '"^ w eq 00 O C<) o CD -< •lanuitnti^i ^ PM 00 O .H CO OO •oinraixBi^ 1 1 CO t C^ 00 CO 1 ' 1 1 CO Tt* 1 OO »o ■8§BJ3AV 1 "^ '^ Z ^H o 0 « •mnaiiniiv 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 •uinui!X'Bi\[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 ' 1 OO •qsy 1 r 1 s 1 1 r I T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-^ „^ •OJTHBIOJ^ ^ ■<}< 3 o 3 I^ •sos^I'Buv '- ■^ " -' (M OJ lO CO - -^ " '^ CO ■* -^ 10 < » M H -d 13 M § SI E o O a S 3 ■c O & 3 8 h 3 -a c o 3 s 0) a 'a ■s 1 -a a cj a S 1 1 s -o" s J2 J2 £l j: a o M -3 J3 M — 2 s s 01 ^ ^ Si J J5 .3 ,3 .3 j3 J3 ^ ja j3 .3 ^ *< <; < o o t^ - CO • - 1 1 1 _-, CO tz> 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 ' 1 1 ■ 1 1 CO t-- o ' ' -- ' ^) CO CO . ^o Ol OO f^l »o —1 Oi CO CO ■^ o o lo Oi CO lO CO -* C5 iO o CI ■^ O '^ '"' cs ^^ fM ■* CO "^ CO -' >o uo s >o 1 1 o - 1 - ' 1 «D I^ ■^ 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 1 1 co' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 -.j^ 1 = o 1 = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 1 »o "5 (M t-^ a t^ o ■•J* CO GO t^ CO CO -* ^^ *— ' '- CO CI o a -j< CO - CO ^ '-' CO '- ■?) 00 o ^ (M M> ^ ^ ro ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ „ ^ ^ CJ '~ c3 tT w u e 3 3 uT a H T3 S ^ a § o a cj a M g ^ . -- 2 c3 "o 43 2 s i i .2 -a a 2 tJ C c3 O 3 d ci XI a ^ o i 3 -3 a i a 03 7? 1 3 <0 a 3 (1) o d n -0 8 fs -3 O 1 o a 'a "3 a 'g 3 1 ca o :S "o "o a o a fi i § 1 S >. ?' ?" S" S S S S S ^' ?" S ?" 2? ?" ^^ o -a 3 J3 i ^ x\ ^ ja J= "m ~ J2 J3 ja j3 ja ^ OJ o ^.r. i; < <; < < <) < < < < < < < < <; <; < < <1 :s < e3 312 EXPERIMExXT STATION. [Jan. o m 2 A — ' « < Tt I— ( ■n (^ a 3 O H ;?; H CO rh o ■ra CV) ' 00 ' ' ■»*< CD 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 CO 1 00 CO -^ O 1 CO r-t o o to o CD CT. CD o a> M '-* «-> CO ^3* »o o ^H t^ Ci — c:> o ' ' ' <— . 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 cr~ === o o v^ CO ' 1 I ' o 1 1 t- o -■ 0 ^ ^ « -^ -- -^ -^ r- - ffq -^ 05 o a _: a 'Si > s cs" "3 > ^ E 'S ■a a a IT, 3 cj a s o -3 '5 "cj o c 0) M C3 C3 o > « ^ » S - - - - - a 8 rt cj C3 PL| !< o OO § •lunuiiuii^ ' o 1 1 1 -* r 1 1 1 1 1 Oi c-i •luniuix-Bj^ 1 1 1 1 "^ 1 1 1 * 1 1 1 CO CO CO •qsy ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CD o 00 o 1 ' 1 •ajrusioj^ 00 o CO ■o i^- O oo I 00 OO d o d CO CO a: 0 .S . "s s5"o3'^''S ^ ■ « ' ■ ■ ■ i I § ■ £ £ « i S ea T! O ta o g ^efqpqpqfflfquoPQCfiiOO 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31i fyj 00 •0 CO IM — 1 1 1 «5 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 I CO ^H 00 .— . •.J. '-^ o Cl ^ '^ I^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 ' r^ tM -.1* •^ lO 0 00 iO 0 0 0 CO ,_, CO C^ 10 CD CO CO 00 00 1^ lO o CO 00 0 0 •^ 0 0 0 'Tt^ s l\ 0 ,_) CO 'O r-i r^ to CO (M ^1 CI CO w-t 05 t^ r^ CO -rf o C<1 ' CO CO ' ^H ' ^^ !/:> OQ OD 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 ' r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I " Oi ■ o\ ,_. CO 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 • 1 ' 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ' 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 ^ CO >o iM 00 o f- j-i 00 S3 00 s t2 ».o ' ,— < Oi t^ CO c^ ,^ CI en •-^ 0 0 '* ^ CO . ^ b5 1 0, 0 -a R -a Ds 2 0 a 'i g S ■a s & 8 a c3 a 0 i 0 i C3 3" jd J3 CO 0 a> C3 CO 13 33 c o d 3 > 1 1 "3 a 1 g 1 a a cj C3 0 13 6 a 2 a a 0 «2 0 -T3 .2 'fc. U3 a s a 3 0 to 0 a T3 Cj s m c3 O o O o 8 ■3 S^ 03 C3 03 a 03 H a a 0 >> w G W K W HH hH S S S s « p Q f^ fa w 316 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. <5 §• •jaj^Bj^ aiqniosaj 05 O o 1 1 o 1 CO ■o !h t... 1 1 1 CO •auijono 1 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 1 •ptoy DiaoqjcQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ill •ppV ounqdjng 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •eapixQ Dtntni l\ 00 -n[v puB oujoj " CO t^ CO lO C/D lO •aptxQ mn!S3u3uj\; 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 •(acai-^) CO CO 00 'T C) CO o CO (M OO o CO apixQ ranioicQ .* C-, •apixQ uinipoc,' 1 1 ' ' 1 « 1 1 I 1 1 ' •piay oiJoqd -soi[j ajqniosnj ' •ppV ouoqd -soi]j pa^jBAay; ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' •pioy oiJoqcI -soi[j aiqniog ' ' ' CO QQ ~~co~ LO ,^ S Q •aSBjaAy ■"; o ■a< o o 00 'J' o> irz 03 o o rTi-^ »-t o CO on 1^ J y •uinininji^ 1 1 1 I t 1 ft o O tll ■^ •o CO •tunuiixBi^ o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^- 1 c-- f^i »o CO CO ^ ~~a> •aSBjaAV '^ '"! ^1* rj 1 ^' '^' a] O 0^ co lO ^ •inmntntj^ "■ 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 - 1 CO t^ •uinuitx'Bi^ ■* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO 1 (^ o C.J (M *^ lO CO CO z .—1 ■^ 'S" r-4 'Jl lO m ^t* oo o •uiniuiaijij "^ '^ 1 CO M ^H *^ H A ■uimuixGj^ '*. 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 CO 1 •qgy 1 1 ?5 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 ' >o 1 o o •ajnietoj^ Oi o ^ f^ -J< o o . CO ~ a, s a O o 3 a; O s .2 c3 a cj c a l ,_ 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 I 1 *^. rt< h- •O ^1 to JT) -ti ^ o CO .^ I^ ^, CO 02 2 •^ t^ t^ CI '". '^^ •* Ci _, .^ C^J C^I ' ' ^ 1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CO ^c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 -f 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O CO — r- - — i^ ■* - i^ "■ " r 1 ' =? 1 1 "? o t^ "! 1 1 r 1 1 1 2 -o 1 CO 1 r c CO . CT CO CO i— 1 CO -' o '^ -^ 2 -* -^ ' - ^ :^ f- ' ' Tf o CO o »o 00 CO C-J E^ C'l lO CO C OS CO Tt< CO •* ■«< •^ :;5 CO ■- S3 CO o 00 CO CO ■o o o 2 CO - -^ - (M — CO "^ -- •^ 2 CO CO CO - -^ - - - - CO M -^ ■rq - « . ■n a R ^ M >. ^ 3 3 a 3 •a '5. 3 a 1 1 C3 8 g 'a a S -3 -3 3 -a 1 ci ii 3 2 75 o -3 a" 1 to a 3 c; o 3 s s s s 2 3 i "3 a n a R a R R a o a o t B c3 is C3 1 a a a g o o -a C3 ii a o a 0) -a -3 C3 o 3 § >^ ^ 3 3 3 3 o a U u u U U U U O U W fe a o o O O s •-> ■-5 »-l ►-1 S 318 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. •jaj?Bi5 aiqniosnj ] Cr 1 M Cs s 1 CO C-1 o g r to o 1 1 1 t ?i UJ M •"' '^ 'cO K o •aauojqo 1 ' 1 ' I 1 t 1 r cm' 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy atuoci-i^O 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy oiannding 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■■ '■ •eapixQ oiniui 1 -niv puB oujo^ oo •apiXQ lunisouStin 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 . ■(anni) t^ •-^ 00 -^ to '^ opixQ tunpiBQ ro CO •apixQ uinipog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •piov ouoqd -soqj oiqnjosai •piDV ouoqd -sond p3;j3Aatj •ppV ouoqd soqa aiqniog CO ^^ .^ »o 00 C^l oo 00 •n CO CO ■in •aStJaaAy 1 1 1 1 E 1 1 1 as o ,-H o a H a- •luniuixBj^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -V-1 r^ T^ r^ C5 M to < •aST;j8AV 1 1 o o ^ 1 1 c-i ,-H •uinuiintj^; 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 CO lO •uinuiixtjj^ 1 1 t ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c^ o: cs CO o lO Otl CO CO •>»< (M •83BJ3AV a> t— O ■ a ^ 1 S 8 2 o 3 1 o 3 3 a 1 3 & 1 L4 P. i p-i a s 3 2 a s 3 s -5 a a M 1 3 2 s CO 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 319 ^^ t^ CD °S o !» ^ 1 o t^ '-H , lO lO 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■* 1 1 1 to 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 S 1 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 •^ ^ 1 . 0 CO s g OC >o s ^ OT -* ?? 1 CO ^ 0 '°. -K t« ro !M o o CO ^ to CI . 1 o t 1 1 r ' ' ' 1 1 ' 1 1 "*. 1 •^ .51 ^^ • CIS — — — — = o> >o o ■. cl CO CO 1 CO c, >* _H r.^ r^j cr^ CO 1 1 1 ■ I ' ':^ 1 ■o CO ' ' ' 1 t 1 1 o 3 o s OS 0 CO to ^ 00 '" rX 03 00 CO (— , 05 CO T^ ^, »o ~to~ Oi •0 CI 03 o LO 00 t* c^ o 02 o s CO c^ CO O ,_l (M ,—1 -^ ,_( (M ,^ (M ^H 1(1 (M CO M CO en ,_, (M C5 CO 1— t O C^ . 1 -' - -' -I -' ^ Ci to 1^4 to 0 •— ' 1—1 ■^ *>• ■— ' CO . . "^^ -^ — ' Oi lO ' . CI ' CO ' ' ' .^ ' ' CO 0 CO o Ui a & . M .^^ > t4 3 s « f. . T) ^^ tj 3 >, n x~, a c ■3 3 i 3 "3 a B a 2 m 1 c« ID m TS" 1 a, 1 1 ■a '6 1 £ 1 3 1 1 3 1 a £ 'a 1 1 ii 1i t-l o a i 1 S o 2 i ■3 0 1 bO d 13 "o c3 1 d 3 d Id 1 ■3 _d 1 0 3 3 M M H H H H H H H > t4 s ^ IS S: ■^ :? ^ 320 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. •Ja-JIBJH oiqn[osui 1 o CO CO CO 1 o ' n- « 1 1 1 o 1 CO ■^ •auuoiqo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 •pioy oiuoqiTjQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy ounqding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •saprxQ oinirn § o o -niV puB 3Ui&^ " o apixQ uinioiBQ - ' ' ^ ' ' L^ ' CJ •apixQ uinipog 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 •ppV oi-ioqcl o CS -soq<£ aiqajosai ' - ' ' ' « ' •pioy Duoqcl -.*< C3 -soqra ^ Tl< '-' '-' (M Cl -' — — CO '-' "- 1 to c o O -3 s 8 5 « 1 "*-• ^o • H a H H 05 1 a o o -a a o a C3 o g s >, B o o 2 2 "1 a bO a so s 13 i 1 ■a 3 S s CI 3 2 b[ 5 e i d i a 3 b 2 B 3 is s „^ ,_, ^ _, ■n CO ja n n "'I 8 jS I 8 ^ ^ bO bC s t4 C3 O a 6 _3 O o o > 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 321 f,. |N. CO .^ t^ •* o C3» >o i-> f^ 1 1 CJ ' - 1 1 •o ci 00 l< O 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 CO f^ o 1< OO 1 r 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■^ 1 1 1 1 1 Tl* '^ - -^ 00 CO t~^ . 1 o o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 •* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t-o Ci C^ CO (^ C5 CO „^ ^^ OO ,_, •T*4 ^^ CO '— * '— • C<1 -^ CD o CI ■»*< o CO '- CO ■^ ^ t>- 2 - t^ -• -' OO N OO ■* CD VO -1< CO _ ( t^ CO >^ lO - <=-' c•^ -dH ■^ CO I^ Jii r-. '-^ t- C^ -^ a 2 a 'p. ^ _3 a a & a 2 "i 3 § 1 1 g 1 s ►4 1 & 1 3 ►3 -a a a o 5 3 'a a a 03 a i o to i 1 s "i ■a 3 03 £ u 0. 1 3 3 £ >> a s 3 2 & o a a o fl I t4 a a oi 322 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. o 2; <5 H £ •laH^I^ aiqnioeai S 1 ^ o So s o CO ir> S ::: o ?; CO ^ Cl •ouuomo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •piDV oiuoqJTJ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •ppv Dianqding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■sapixQ otntui -niv puc oijiaj ^ •apixQ tunisauauj^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •(ami-r) tn 2J (O CO CO t^ ■^ s opixQ uiniopi^ ■* '- — M -^ o •apixQ mnipog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 •pioy ai-ioqd -soqd 8[qnioeni •pioy ouoqd -soq -r ^ in o CO o 00 o CO o> "^ '^ ^ '" CI >o '^ o CO o _ •uinuiiaij^ "'• 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 " 1 1 1 1 ■^ »o I^ 0 « •uininixBj^ 1 1 1 1 1 ' r •* I ' 1 1 lO t^ o OO CJ CO CD _( CO »f^ ,_ •aSujaAv "^. °^. 00 -* ''^ ■"f o o t^ o •^ •* M ^ ^ ^ '"' 1-1 " iO ^-* CI o ! 2 1^. _ . « 3 a CJ E S 2 S 2 - j3 3 1 3 a a 3 2 £ 3 rl £ 3 a 3 a a S £ -1 3 £ i 3 £ £ 3 a £ 3 3 c3 £ 3 a cJ •T3 3 3 a o a c3 cS e S 0) a a d 3 a a 3 O J3 a S 2 a 73. '3 a B a a 1 o O 3 (B 0) ai o fQ U « M « O o w w a W I-] Ph ;i< 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 323 •pioy o> -M ■.*< «n rvl <-! ^^ n 3uoiiiooai)A"n III 1 '•"'. 1 o «• "="'. o 1 1 1 w^^Bj^ a[qniosuj •apixQ oiuim CO ^ -niv pau oujoj ' ' 1 1 >o U3 ■^ ■aptsQ nmissBjoj 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 1 o> 1 1 1 CO to „ ■o ^ 1^ •optsQ ranioiBQ 1 1 1 1 1 s ■^ 1 1 >o o CO ■.»• ro •anuomo « 1 1 1 1 t ' 1 ' J ' 1 1 •ppY Dunjing 1 r J 1 1 1 1 •anjing 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 •Xjnojaj^ 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C-J •ani^ooi»vi 1 I 1 1 1 1 , 1 '"^ r, m o •ptoy OTfaay 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 w ^H .— 1 a _ H ■^ •aprxQ lunucg CO ' ' ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 O 3 ^ r/1 a J^ u o •apixQ ou!z ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 >— 1 fe M tn O ^^ o i3 •apisQ Pbot; o i od 1/3 to 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 w CO t>4 OJ CO 0) •otuBsav o O 00 ^ to 1^ oiqniog i a •» ^ M ' 00 ' o ' 1 3 <3 3 •90SSV apixQ enoiuosjy ' 1 O 1 ' • 1 i 1 CO 1 r Uh C-) o CO ■^ lO ^H •aprxQ jaddoQ 1 ' 1 1 d 1 ' d eo M' s •»< 1 1 •EQSSV o ira ■^ n •^ -^ to K apixQ snoiaasay s; s ■^ 55 § U3 S US _ o o oo -t- o C^ „ ^ •ajinsioj^ (m' ui N 5!' t-* d GO -■ 00 00 t^ d •easXiBav - c. CO ^ 00 - - - S C-1 ■^ - - " . ^ ■a o a o p bO "3 3 -5 0 s OS a _d 3 0 ■Tl Tl 1 a o S •a 1 a 'n 2 2 ?! 9 § o S5 o 3 y u n d a n 8 bD 1 d 13 d d o- O" 03 s 3 a, a £ C3 1 C3 c3 03 til 8 .2 2 1 O 1 eq O ►^ ^ ^ a 2 ^ Ph a H 324 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. Table YI. — Compilation of Analyses of Fhuits AND Gaiiden Chops. H. D. HASKINS. A. Analyses of fruits. B. Analyses of garden crops. C. Relative proportions of pliospliorie acid, potassium oxide and nitrogen found in fruits and garden crops. The figux'es in A and B are in parts per 1,000. To convert into percentages or pounds in 100, move the decimal point one place to the left. Some of the following analyses were taken from the compila- tion of E. Wolif. Those marked with an asterisk (^) were made at the laboratory of the Massachusetts Agricultural Ex- periment Station. The tables will be found suggestive when one is jDreparing fertilizer formulas for various fruit and garden crops. One has also to consider, however, in making such fertilizer mix- tures, the influence of cultivation and crop rotation as well as the plant food in the soil. Members of the clover family are not dependent wholly upon supplied nitrogen, they having the power, after a vigorous start, to acquire atmospheric nitrogen when plenty of potash phos- phoric acid and lime are supplied. An excess of phosphoric acid may be used in formulas without danger of loss from leach- ing. The same is true, to a certain extent, in case of potash, although this element is more often found in a water-soluble form in soils than is phosphoric acid. The well-kno"\vn system of cro]) fertilization advocated originally by Wagner is based upon the necessity of an abundant supply of potash and phos- phoric acid in the soil, while the nitrogen is added in such lim- ited amounts and at such times as will provide for the maxi- mum growth of the crop and the minimum loss through leaehinc;. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 325 K fe. 0~ a •8auon{3 ■PPV apnjing •pioy ouoT^soHd •apixQ uinisanSBj^i •apixQ uinpiBQ •apixQ uinipog ■apixQ uinissuiOjj •qsy •uaSoJ^ijsi ■ejn^sioj^ I I II -1 , ^ , ^ CO CO CO t— I CO lO lO o an Oi 00 H . GO 00 CO J3 1 o •opixQ uinpiB^ (N I— 1 1—1 lO o (N lO c^ (M CO 1—1 lO •opixQ uinipog Thi t^ t^ O lO Ci 1— 1 CO o Ci •SpiXQ UiniSSB^OJ 1— 1 (M CO T-H CO 1— 1 lO o o CO (M Ttl 1— 1 Ci CO 00 l> •qey CM CO lO CO CO TfH lO CO 00 t^ o •ua3oiJ!M I— ( Ci I— 1 00 (M 1 1 T-H 1 CO o o •ajmsioj^ CO o t^ o CO . CO o GO Ci CO r-H w 0) a; rn oT g ^^ oT ;:; ! 1 ^ 'a- -73 o ;-> ;-> ti « O O o K '*-' w o (U I *^ Xi Xi -Q (D Ch 3 1 ?. s 1 -If CO * c3 o * o o o 1 a a, OS O O -1-i 1 P5 M > 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 327 o o •aaiao[i[3 •ppv ounjing •pioy auo'l'isoqfj •aptxQ lunisaugBj^ •spixQ uinpiBQ •apixQ tunipog apixQ uinissB)0(j ■qsv •uaSoj;;^ ■aanjsioj^ (M O C5 CO O I -I .... I (N 1— I lO O . 1— I lOcOOiOC^OCOO --ho""' C5Tt^OOO(MfOiOCO I— I CO -rh 01 i— I 1— I ■^COOOOt-hOOiXjGO '*(M-*CO'-H(M(MCO COO^OCOOiO-OC20000CO ^73 O O, O a tn" C t-c tT tT ^ a o3 03 OS fTl Tl bX3 bJD to bC fcn o; 3 li 3 li n !-i w m M w to cq W qq cq pq pq 328 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. S3 .9 o O CO o Cl Tt^ CO ■* •onuomQ (M 1— 1 1 1 1 00 ,-, lO CO _ Tj< •piDV ounqding T-i 1 1 ■"^ 1 00 CO o o r^ t-- o CO T— 1 •pioy oiJoqdeoiifj I— 1 CO '"' ""^ 1—1 Tl^ o lO -* (M CO ^ ■«i< •opixQ lunisauSci^ 1-H i-H 1 CO 05 CO o lO lO CO C 00 00 (M lO •epixQ ninipog (M lO CO TtH oo t^ en CO lO •apixQ uinissB^oj to d Ci (M ^ CO CO c^ ca o CO o CO 1— ( 1—1 CO 1 CO § ■qsy ^ CO C5 d 1 00 o 1 c> u T— 1 1—1 1— ( 1—1 z o o '-t^ CO Ol CI o 1 •ua3oii!>j 00 Tt< CO 1 ^ 1 cs I— ( ci lO CO (M >— 1 lO o CO o lO •ajn}B!oj\[ o (N 1—1 l^ '^ -* I> C^l • c. o Oi CO t^ Oi 05 o o s" • • ^ 5 1 o > c3 a o a a rS a a o B o 1 qT qT o o o P4 T3 .s .V 1 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ .1 '3 -C3 J o o a> o 1 o o3 03 a ^ o 3 o 3 3 o :3 o Cj a d -u -l-i ->^ -kj Ch o3 OT **3 '-5 -1-3 -fj -tj -(J b-H r^ 'a o t- t^ a> a; o CI o S m. m a < -^ yA 1-3 l-q I-; S * a * * ^ o O O 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 329 Ci »— ( CO lO 1 CO CO CO lO 1 CO 1 Cl r— 1 ■* (M '^ CO o o 1—1 CO t^ o 1—1 I— 1 CM T— ( ""* '^l 1—1 I— 1 '"' GO I— 1 TjH 1—1 CM o o t^ lO C-1 00 o O CM T— ( I— 1 T— 1 CM CM 1—1 1—1 CO lO o '^. 7—1 CO "* CO CM CO CM CO >o t^ o CO GO C^l CM 1—1 CM lO o CM 1— ( t^ G5 t^ o CO lO T— ( r— 1 GO CO lO Ttl CO o I— 1 t^ CO GO 1—1 1—1 t^ o (X) CO -^ CO t^ CO o o C5 C5 oo CO CO lO TtH CO CO t^ ^^ 1—1 "* C^l CO CM ^ o CO o t^ CO o CO -t^ ^ o t^ t— 1 LO 1— 1 o CO o I— 1 CI ^ o 1—1 CO o 1—1 1—1 ^ CO '^ o CO o CO CO o CI GO GO o (M lO CM CO CM -* "* ■* 1—1 T— I 1— ( 1— { CO GO 1— 1 o o -tl -^ t- o CO T— 1 o >o 00 lO t^ o o GO o CO lO CO o C^l o Oi b- 00 C/D o C5 o t^ GO o CO o CO GO • • co" d > • c3 O o M 5 a> oT > 'rH "3 "To 1 0) CO -t^ -^^ -M O -►J 1 si m s o en 'i bC en" a 'S "3 O ^ XJ J2 ^ 3 r^ T^ -f^ t-i lh ;-< ^ o c3 rt cj CS c3 O O 3 3 :3 2 o > a CO '3 :3 O u o * o M M ^ P4 * H * H o Lh U O 330 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. .9 d o o '^ (M lO •aaiiono Tt< T— ( 1— 1 CO •ppv OHi^JPS C^l CO c; o t^ o l^ o o •ppv ouoqdsoqj; t— I I— 1 l- CO lO t^ lO CO T-H -* o 00 o t^ o b- (M o •u83oj}!f<[ T-{ 1— 1 OJ r^ CO 00 t— t 1—1 1—1 CO o CO ^ -tl o o (M Oi •ain^sioj^ lO o o CO ^ o o CO (M 05 o 1—1 T— ( " c^ OO • • d" • (D 'o f1 a, 1 0) -d O ^ -d o rd c3 =! iy a> ^ d f3 d d d ^ o o ^ o tH S-. ;-f t-. ;-i ^ 3 d a cS d o O o o o =3 O Oh a m pq U * * U c3 :3 L-( O o 1911.1 PUBLIC D0CUMP:NT — Xo. 31. 331 I I CO o t^ 00 lO (M >0 ^ CO O . r^ Ci >0 O l^ C/D >0 O -— looot^oooo ccooior-loo coo COC5 O O-— ICO lOCl II I . I ... I . (Mt— I (M 1— IC-IO CO--* o >o o CO >— I >o lO I Tt^ TJH 1 1 1 CO 1 CO ^ CO T— 1 (N 00 T— 1 CO 00 00 ■ t^CiOOCicO-fiO ^ Ci (M Ci (M CO O CO (M 7-H CO C-l ^ o a O W -^^ H » Tr ■"_ a r^ ^ a >. Si ri "ci bX) .. ci c3 bX) bfi +^ W ai m O o u U <^ ^ w w O W 1-1 P-l PL, ci ci 332 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. T-H CO (M CO •ouiaopiO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 CO o TtH CO •ppY ounjing 1 1 i 1 Tfi 1 1 00 O -+I t^ Tt< .o o t^ CO i> CO t^ •pioy ouoqdsoqj C3 d t— 1 t^ CO T-t TJH 1— < 1—1 o lO c^ "* CO (N »o (>» •apixQ ain;s3a§Bi\[ lO (M 1 1 1 1—1 C71 t^ CO 00 o Tf CO T— 1 •apixQ uinpin^ 1—1 r-H 1 1 1 c^ T-H t^ CO OS 00 c^ 1—1 CO T-K •apixQ mnipog ■^' 1 1 1 r— 1 o t^ CO (M T-H (M (M CO lO 00 o a> •aptxQ uiniBSB^od; 1—1 CO CO 1—1 CO 1—* r-H (N 1—1 r^ (N 1 CO I 1 1 O 00 Tt< o lO c; •qsy 1 00 1 1 1 lO CO !>. -*l C2 o i lO 't^ 1—1 o CO (M (M r^ ^ 1—1 ■ueSoj;;^ CO CO CO 1— 1 CO Ci CO CO CO (m' 1 CO (M o iM t-- o o 1— ( i-O (M CO 1— t (3 (M o 00 *9jn^sioj^ o o 1— ( 1—1 '^ CO 00 CO O lO o 1—1 1—1 1—1 C5 o (Z) CO l> 1> 'co' '<^ •h • "S » '^ • • • ^ cc x^ -a gl o '3 r*i c a _c ►-^ '-I -t^ IH '5 • o 2 1 ~ cj c3 m rn in i a 0) X2 3 1 3 M j_ cu +3 +3 1 eU 5^ o3 c/T tT O o o CO > '3 P "S 1 w 5 'S 3 'S o o -4J O aj > > o o < <: 1 CO 1 (M 1—1 CO ^ a> CO o cq CO o 1—1 o 00 CO TtH (M ^ Tt< o CO CO CO CO CO lO (M GO t^ lO CO t- LO t^ t^ l^ (M (M O (M CO o G5 o o '^ o cn O CO lO t^ o I— 1 1—1 t— 1 t^ 1—1 CM C-1 I— < " 1— H C5 CO >o t^ CO ■* o iM lO 1— ( CO '^i -^ . <1> ^ ■r^ b T3 03 3 > c3 ^ ci o O -2 o 03 B M m 1 '. a, o o ^ ^ O -1-3 o3 o 03 O o 03 o o o 03 o O O 03 O o 03 o o O o o S-i 'S 'S n O O o O O O rt c3 c3 o3 nc5(M-*«ooeco>ncg C0C3i-^ai»0C0Ot^ s CO »o CO -1< C-1 1^ lO -* •o o M-r 00 <31 rH *^ 6 O ci 2S § Or^ o COC^)OCOiOC3it^COCOCm/5>0 oooo-s-m— 't^OcnooiMO^ s U5 00 to — C^ U5 0C40 — — 05 — CO CO d CO 1^ -HCC CO CO Ci 8 8 fji — (M — COt^O-^COC^CO-r^ o CO CO 00 CO ^ o: c-1 o >ra OJ— Tl-iO ■* 8 CO T}< d o ■ d o 8 8 d ' • • • ' ' • -d CX) CO 1 COON t^OJ OJ 05 O C<1 c^ *-H —t CO ■* CM d CO r^ CO CO coco o o d o o 05CO Oi--or-0(Moo o CO 167 169 21 20 132 131 131 354 INDEX. Feed and dairy section, miscellaneous work in, Report of, , Feed law, ..... Analytical work under, . Compliance with, . Execution of, ... New law needed, Feeds, weight of sacked. Feldspar, non-availability of, . Fertilizer ingredients of fodder articles, Fertilizer ingredients, trade values of. Fertilizer law, .... Fertilizer section, miscellaneous work of. Report of, . Fertilizers, analyzed, Collected, .... Commercial shortages in, Complete, analyses compared with guarantees, . Comparative cost of plant food in different grades, Composition of different grades. Grades of, Licensed, Quality of plant food in, Unmixed, Fish, dry ground, quality of, Fodder articles, coefficients of digestibility, Experiments with calves, .... Experiments with horses, .... Experiments with poultry, .... Experiments with ruminants, .... Experiments with swine, .... Fodder articles, compilation of analyses of. Composition and digestibility of, . Digestibility of American, coefficients of, . Fertilizer ingredients in, tables of, . Food stuffs, definition of, .... . Fruit and garden crops, compilation of analyses of, . Fruits, fertilizer constituents of, . Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and ni Garden crops, compilation of analyses of. Fertilizer constituents of, .... Nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for. Relative proportion of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen Glassware, examination of, . Gossman, Charles Anthony, tribute to, . Guanos, compilation of analyses of, Gummosis, histological changes accompanying. Of the peach. On fruit-bearing wood. Probable cause of, . Suggestions for treatment of, Hay, top-dressing for, . Information, dissemination of. Insecticides, compilation of analyses of, Determination of arsenic in. PAGE 73 67 29 67 68 67 68 69 42 266 56 28 66 54 55 55 69 57 62 61 60 54 60 63 63 273 301 299 300 274 296 247 249 273 266 69 324 325 334 324 327 38 334 70 80 309 173 171 172 171 174 48 16 323 122 INDEX. o'o'o Iodine method for arsenates, . For determining arsenic, . Kainit, influence on hay crop, Leaf curl of peach, Lectures and demonstrations, Lime compounds, compilation of analyses of. Lime-sulphur solution, concentrated, Machines, Babcock, inspection of, . Mailing lists, numbers in, Manure v. manure and sulfate of potash for hay, Manure, winter, v. spring application of, Marl, compilation of analyses of, Monilia, spore dispersal of, Spores of, . Milk, composition of, effect of protein on. Cream and feeds, free examination of. Milk secretion, studies in, . Conclusions, ..... Milk yield and shrinkage. Muriate compared with sulfate of potash, Muriate of potash, influence on rowen crop. Nitrate of soda, quality of, . Nitrogen, comparison of materials as sources of Nitrogen fertilizers for garden crops. Relative efficiency of. Nutrients, effect on weight of animals, Onions, nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for. Organization, Papers, technical, list of. Peach and plum troubles, Peach gummosis, . Peach leaf curl, Exoascus deformans. Peach shot hole, Cercospora circumscissa. Phosphate; and guanos, compilation of analyses of. Phosphates), comparison of. Phosphoric acid compounds, quality of, Plowrightia morhosa. Plum leaf spot, C ylindrosporium Padi, Plum pockets, Exoascus pruni, Potash compounds, quality of. Potash, low-grade sulfate, influence on rowen cr Muriate and sulfate compared. Potash salts for garden crops, Relative value of different. Protein, influence on composition of milk. Influence on milk shrinkage. Influence on milk yield, . Publications, ..... Available for distribution, Circulation of, ... . Purification ol insoluble fatty acids. Refuse substances, compilation of analyses of. Report of agriculturist, .... Botanist, ..... Chemist, ..... 86, PAGB 129 124 41 167 20 310 176 70 19 44 48 :no 164 164 86 72 86 120 118 36 42 65 34 38 35 89 40 11 23 161 171 167 170 308 42 66 169 170 169 65 42 36 38 40 86, 109 119 90, 108 16 17 18 131 314 34 75 51 356 indp:x. Report of director, .... Entomologist, .... Feed and dairy section, . Fertilizer section, .... Treasurer, ..... Research, ...... Rock, ground, comparative worthle.ssness of. Rusts, an outbreak of, . Seed germination records, tables of. Seed work, 1910 Shot hole effect caused by improperly mixed Bordeaux, Soil test, north acre. South acre, .... Spinach di.sease new to Massachusetts, Staff, changes in, . Station staff, .... Strawberries, nitrogen fertilizers and potash salts for, Stump growths, abnormal, conclusions relative to, Experiments in inoculation. Leaves, chemical test of, . Relation of root area to intensity of disease. Relation to mosaic disease. Abnormalities of, . Sulfate of potash compared with muriate, Summer spray mixture, directions for making. Sweet pea troubles. Tankage, quality of, . Top-dressing for hay. Trade values of fertilizing ingredients. Treasurer, report of, . Work, lines of, . PAGE 13 77 67 54 33 23 64 144 lil, 142 141 170 47 46 146 13 11 39 159 154 157 156 1.54 149 36 174 145 63 48 56 33 16 Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPOET OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Part II., Being Part IV. of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of THE Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1911. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Squaee. 1911. Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-THIRJ) ANNUAL REPOirr OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Part II., Being Part IV. of the Forty-eighth Annual Report of THE Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1911. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1911. Approvkd by The Statk Board of PublicatioNo TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. Part II. GENERAL REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. CONTENTS. Part II. Summary of leading conclusions, by the director, Top-dressing permanent mowings, . General plan, Slag meal and muriate of potash both with and without nitrate of soda, . Slag meal and low-grade sulfate of potash both with and with out nitrate of soda. Slag meal and high-grade sulfate of potash both with and with- out nitrate of soda, .... General observations on results, Method of applying fertilizers. Top-dressing pastures, Conditions under which likely to be profitable, Materials used in top-dressing. Season for top-dressing, Alfalfa in Massachusetts, Number of crops per year, and j'ield. Conditions essential to success with the crop. Topography, Soil, .... Necessity for lime, Fertilizer requirements, Seeding to alfalfa, Season for sowing, Preparation of the soil, Nurse crops for spring sowing. Preparation for summer sowing. Date of sowing, . Alfalfa seed, Quantity of seed, Inoculation, . Diseases of alfalfa, Harvesting alfalfa. Top-dressing alfalfa, . Secondary value of alfalfa. 7 10 11 12 13 13 14 17 18 20 21 23 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 32 33 33 CONTEXTS. Experiments relating to the prev'cntion of the clogging of drain tile by roots, Results of pot experiments, Experiments in boxes, .... The clogging of drain tile by roots. The spraying of trees, Shade tree troubles, The chestnut disease {Diaporthe parasitica) , . Crown gall, Fusarium disease of cucumbers and other plants, Condition of fruit trees in general, . A new type of spray nozzle, . . . * . Distillery and brewery by-products, Distillers' dried grains, .... Brewers' dried grains, .... Malt sprouts, The feeding value of apple pomace, The effect of protein upon the production and composition of milk. 35 36 39 43 47 52 56 58 62 66 69 72 72 76 80 84 87 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHEKST, MASS. TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. Part II. SUMMARY OF LEADING CONCLUSIONS. WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR. The papers included in this part of the annual report cover a wide variety of subjects, and many of them are of such a character that the conclusions cannot be briefly stated. A full list of the papers is included in the table of contents, and in cases where deemed desirable the principal sub-topics are in- cluded. The papers themselves are concise, and should be read in full by those interested in them. Some of the more im- portant conclusions may be stated as follows : — 1. Profitable hay crops may be produced in permanent mow- ings by top-dressing with fertilizers only. 2. A combination of slag meal and a potash salt produces hay made up chiefly of Kentucky blue grass and white clovers. The addition of nitrate of soda in amounts varying from 150 to 200 pounds per acre is usually profitable. The hay pro- duced ranks exceptionally high in nutritive value, especially where the slag meal and potash only are used. 3. The use of slag meal and low-grade sulfate of potash is strongly recommended as a top-dressing for pastures. In ex- periments continuing two years it has profoundly modified the character of the herbage, the most striking change being a re- / EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. iiiarkahlc increase in the pruportiou of white clover. It is esti- mated that tlie amount of feed now i)rodnced is at least three times as great as tliat on the part not to})-dressed. 4. Experiments and observations lead to the conclusion that alfalfa can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. Experi- ments with the crop are urged. The type of soil, and the method of fertilization and sowing believed to be best are described. r>. It has been found that either excelsior or sawdust first saturated with creosote and packed about the joints of drain tiles prevents the entrance of roots, while at the same time the treatment seems to protect the materials used from decay. (). The conditions under which roots are likely to penetrate drain tiles are described, and observations are presented which indicate under what conditions the roots of trees are found to be particularly dangerous. 7. Spraying shade trees by the methods first perfected for fruit trees is found to be exceedingly costly. The equipment essential both for satisfactory work and to insure the least possible cost is described. Briefly, powerful machinery capable of maintaining a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds per square inch and special types of nozzles are recommended. 8. Some of the more important of the agencies acting un- favorably on our shade trees are described. The more im- ])ortant are contact with wires of telephone, electric light and trolley lines, putting in of water mains and gas pipes, marked deficiency in rainfall and severe climatic conditions. These appear to have caused extensive root killing and gradual death of the trees, while both sun scald and sun scorch have seriously injured some species. The methods of distinguishing between injuries dne to the several causes are carefully presented. 9. The fact that the chestnut disease seems to be gaining a foothold in Massachusetts is stated, and the localities are men- tioned where it has been found. It is suggested that the un- favorable condition of the trees due to climatic causes may have rendered them peculiarly susceptible. Owners of chest- nut lumber of merchantable size where the disease is found are advised to cut at once. 10. The extent to which crown gall affects fruit trees, and the luiture and proltable seriousness of the disease are dis- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 9 cussed. The importance in the purchase of nursery stock of securing trees from localities free from this disease is urged. 11. The occurrence of a fusariuni disease of cucumbers and allied plants, the first symptom of which is wilting which usu- ally results in the death of the plant is pointed out. This at present affects chiefly hothouse crops, hut in some localities is found in out-door crops. In the case of hothouse crops, ex- cessive crowding and forcing seem to produce jilants with tissues peculiarly susceptible. Growers are advised against such treatment. 12. The fact that large numl)ers of fruit trees of all kinds are in unsatisfactory condition due to unfavorable climatic causes, and the presence of San Jose scale is pointed out. The gradual death of the feeding roots due to the excessive drought and extreme cold, the presence of sun scald often followed by canker are among the more important results. Methods of treatment are suggested. 13. The essential features of a satisfactory nozzle for spray- ing, especially the larger trees, are described ; and briefly stated, the most essential points appear to be the capacity to throw the material long distances and yet to break it into a mist-like spray. A nozzle believed to be a great improvement on any type pre- ^ iously made is described and illustrated. 14. The general character, digestibility and the best methods of use of distillery and brewery by-products are stated, and rations for difterent classes of farm animals are suggested. 15. The composition, digestibility and feeding value of apple pomace lead to the conclusion that if used in a balanced ration about four pounds of the pomace will equal in value one pound of good hay. 16. The minimum digestible protein needed daily by a cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 20 pounds of milk is about 1.4 pounds; but an increase of about 35 to 50 per cent above this amount seems likely to yield profitable returns. For a 900 pound cow giving 12 quarts of milk per day about 1.8 pounds of digestible protein in the feed daily should be satis- factory. An increase in the protein above the minimum does not appear to affect the composition of the milk. 10 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. TOP-DRESSINCr PERMANENT MOWINGS. BY WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR. Between the County Koud and that portion of the college estate where the dormitories stand lies an area of about 30 acres which is treated as a part of the campus. It is crossed by numerous foot i)aths and portions of it are occasionally used for company or battalion drill. The surface is rollino- and the soil of somewhat varial)lc character; for the most part, however, it is a strong retentive loam, well suited for grasses and clovers. The greater part of this area has certainly not been plowed during the past twenty-two years and i)robably not for a considerably longer period. It was in 1889 that the writer of this article first became responsible for its management. At that time much of it had the appearance so common through- out New England of a somewhat neglected mowing, although it was much more productive than such mowings usually are. The i)revalent species of grass were Kentucky blue and sweet vernal. In places there was considerable orchard grass, and meadow fescue was abundant especially in the moister places. Whiteweed (Chrysanthemum Icucanthemum ) was extremely abundant in all the drier portions. Dandelions, buttercups and common jilantain were very abundant in places. Some por- tions of this area have been plowed and reseeded during the period intervening since 1880, but on most of it an effort has Ixen made both to eradicate the weeds and to improve the prod- uct both in quality and quantity by top dressing without plow- ing and reseeding. This seemed desirable in view of the prefer- ence of college aulhoi-itics to treat this area like a campus lather than as farm laud. Th(^ most effective uuMhod for the eradication of the white- weed has been found to be enrly cutting to prevent ripening of seed, and toj) dressing with materials favorable to the 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 11 clovers and grasses. In such portions of the area as have been |)l()we(l and reseeded, it has always been found that we had a crop of whileweed to contend with. Undoubtedly the soil, for- merly rather indiii'erently managed, like that of so many of the New England farms, is heavily stocked with seeds of this as well as of many other weeds, and every time it is turned over con- ditions have been made right for the germination of some of those which have previously been buried too deeply to germi- nate. The statement of the conditions affecting this area must have made it apparent that thoy do not afford a satisfactory basis for close comparison on limited areas. The total area involved, however, is so large that the unequalities and disturbing con- ditions which have been referred to are somewhat equalized and it was therefore thought to be worth while a few years since to undertake comparisons between different fertilizer combina- tions with a \'iew to affording at least object lessons on the pos- sibilities of modifying and improving the herbage in permanent grass land by varying use of fertilizers. General Plan. In each of the principal sections into which the area is naturally divided by roads and principal walks, a few half- acre sections were laid off" and throughout the period of the experiment, which is now some six years, these have received no fertilizer whatever. In two of the natural subdivisions of the area, plots of substantially one-half acre each have been laid off and these throughout the entire period have been ferti- lized annually with nitrate of soda only at the rate of 150 ])(»unds per acre. On the balance of the entire area basic slag meal has been ap]ilied annually at the rate of 500 })ounds per acre. This on different sections of the area has been used in connection with the different leading potash salts as follows : — ( 1 ) On that portion of the area lying north of the " Cross Walk " so-called, the potash salt used is muriate at the rate of 150 pounds per acre. (2) On that portion of the area south of the Cross Walk 12 EXi'EULMEXT STATION. [Jan. an 1 west of the college [xtnd and the stream which runs into it, high grade sulfate of potash is used at the rate of 150 pounds i)er acre. (3) On the balance of the area wiiicli lies south of the Cross Walk and cast of the college i)oiid and stream, the ])<)tasli salt used is the low grade sulfate at the rate of oOO jjounds per acre. With each of these dill'ering coinliiniit ions we are applying nitrate of soda on about one-half of the total area to three substantially equal jdots. The rates res})ectively are 150, 200 and 250 pounds per acre. Owing to the large area covei'cd by these experiments, and the N'arying conditions as to weather, often showery, in which hay must be handled, it has been found difficult to obtain weights which are strictly comparable. The general results have, however, l)een clearly a])parent, and the following figures, based np<»n sucdi weights as luive been taken during the past three years, in a measure indicate what the}' have been. 1. Slag jMkal axd Muktate of Potash both with and WITHOUT Nitrate of Soda. Tn the section of the field where these fertilizers have been used, the yields on the plots to Avhich no fertilizer has been ap- plied have varied between 807 and 1,838 pounds per acre. The average for the i)ast three years has been 1,419 pounds ]-»er acre. Top-dressing Avith slag meal and muriate of ])otash produced an increase in crop which has varied during the past three years from 1.588 to 1.002 pounds per acre. The average increase has been jit tlie rate of 1.71 1 jioiukIs ])er acre. The total crop ])ro- dnced where slag meal and muriate of ])otash have been a]ip1ied as to|i-di-essing has averaged 3.133 pounds per acre. The gain resulting froui top-dressing with nitrate of soda at the rate of 150 pounds ])er acre in connectiou with the slag and muriate of ]>otash has varied between 557 and 1.205 jiounds per acre. The use of 200 pounds of nitrate of soda ]^ov acre has pro- duced an increase varying from 543 to 2.775 ]iounds, the aver- age for the ])iist thi-ee years being 1,410 pounds per acre. The use of 250 ]-ounds of nitrate of soda ])cr acre in connec- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13 tioii with slag- and muriate of potash has produced an increase varying from 730 to 2,2G5 pounds per acre, the average being 1,283 pounds per acre. The figures above given have all referred to the first cro]3. In years characterized by normal rainfall these fields have al- ways produced a moderate crop of roweu, but the past two sea- sons have been so abnormally deficient in rainfall that the rowen crops have been small, — in some years, indeed, so small that the fields have not been cut. The amount of rowen produced on plots where nitrate of soda is used in connection with the slag and potash has been less than where the slag and potash alone have been used. This difference, it will be readily under- stood, is due to the fact that clover is relatively more abundant on those portions of the field where slag and potash alone are applied. 2. Slag Meal and Low-grade Sulfate of Potash both WITH AND WITirOUT NiTRATE OF SoDA. It has so happened that we have but few weights that can be regarded as entirely reliable pertaining to the results on the field where these fertilizers are employed ; but examinations of the fields at various times have shown that the result of the employment of slag and low-grade sulfate of potash alone has been a remarkable increase in the proportion of white clover, which has attained a height and luxuriance that the writer has seldom seen equaled. The increase in crop resulting from the application of this combination of fertilizers has clearly been large. The employment of nitrate of soda in connection with slag and low-grade sulfate of potash in amounts varying from ir»0 to 2.^)0 pounds per acre on. different plots has resulted in a very small increase. 3. Slag Meal and High-grade Sulfate of Potash both WITH and without I^ITRATE OF SoDA. In one section of the field the plots top-dressed with slag and high-gTade sulfate of potash have given a yield of hay during the past three years varying from 2,732 to 3,860 pounds per acre, the average being 3,3.51 pounds per acre. 14 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Ill this Held nitrate of soda is nsc(l pose, therefore, that the fertilizers applied would have produced jef more marked effects under more favorable conditions. In 20 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. spite of these facts, however, the chanuc in the character of the herbage, shown by examination early in the month of May, 1911. is nothing less than astonishing. In ])hice of the dull, lifeless, moss-infested turf, thickly starred with bluets, we find in these plots a rich, green turf, in which white (dover is nuicli tli(^ most ])rominent s])ecies. Indeed, so thick is the clover in these jdots that in most ])laces it constitutes a i)erfect mat. This change, it should be pointed out, is the result simply of such modification of the soil conditions as firs it for clovers, for no seed of any kind has been sown. It can safely be inferred that the plots wdiich have been top-dressed are now^ producing fully three times the amount of feed produced by those which have not been so treated. From the descri]iti(^n of the conditions under which this experiment has been tried it will be recognized that no figures can be ]>resented which will indicate the extent of the improve- ment produced. An ex])eriment is now being laid out in which two ])lots of c(]ual area, one to be top-dressed and the other not, wdll be separately enclosed, and a record of the number of days of pasturage each affords will be kept. It will be understood that until we have this record it is not possible to state whether the improvement referred to has been produced at such cost as to make the system of top-dressing followed financially profit- able. It is the belief of the writer, however, that it must have been so. Conditions undek whtcit liket.v to be rrtoFiTABEE. The fact has been referred to that a large proportion of our pastures is producing relatively little feed. Whether they can be ])rofitably improved by top-dressing is an ini])ortant question. In a great many of our ]iastures improvement by top-dressing is the only ])racticable method, since, owing to the conditions ex- isting, it is im])ossible to ]dow them. Not all pastures, how- ever, are in such condition that to])-dressing can be advised. It is not believed it will 1)0 found profitable except in those cases where the turf is mostly free from foreign growths, such as shrubs, bushes, hardback (spirea) and ferns. If any consid- erable proportion of tb.e area is occupied by such foreign 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21 growths, the iirst step in iniproveineut should be their removal. It has been common among our farmers to cut such vegetation in their pastures from time to time. Mj observation convinces me that this treatment is usually disappointing in results. At whatever season of the year such vegetation is cut it is likely to spring up again, and it may be cut year after year for a long series of years and still not be exterminated. While the initial outlay is, of course, much heavier. resultvS ultimately much more profitable and satisfactory will, in my judgment, be obtained by uprooting bushes, etc., at the outset of any efforts towards im- provement. When cleared of foreign vegetation a pasture may, in many cases Avitli advantage, be harrowed and seeded if the surface is much broken as the result ; but if the obstructions have been widely scattered, it may be advisable simply to level the areas dug up in connection with the removal of the foreigii vegetation and to seed those areas only. Kentucky blue grass and white clover will be more useful than any other varie- ties, and will, I think, as a rule be the only kinds desirable. After the surface has thus been cleared, such pastures, as well iis those which are now clear, may be expected to repay judi- cious top-dressing. It may be here pointed out that improvement of our pastures will not only increase the amount of stock which a farmer can keep, but it will be likely to increase the milk yield of a given number of cows, since in improved pastures the animals will be able to gather sufficient food in a much smaller number of hours, and will have leisnre to ruminate, and to convert a larger por- tion of the feed consumed into milk. In pastures in which the surface is occupied in considerable measure by rocks, top-dressing is of course likely to prove less ]n'ofitable than in those which are free from such obstructions. It will be apparent, further, that the more nearly level the pas- ture the less probability that the materials used in top-dressing will be washed away. ]\IaTKRTAT..S ITRED in ToP-DRESSIKTr. It is believed that the basic slag meal used in the experiments referred to is peculiarly suited to meet the requirements of a 22 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. large proportion of our pasture soils. Especially must this be true of those naturally poor in lime, with soils which are reten- tive of moisture, and where white clover is scantily produced. Slag meal is likely to produce less striking effects in pastures which now j)roduce white clover abundantly, or in those having excessively dry soils. Its special fitness for the im})rovement of pastures deficient in lime and not now producing white clover is undoubtedly connected with the fact that it is rich in lime. Its tendency, therefore, is to sweeten soils which are naturally sour, and thus to bring them into condition such that clovers can thrive. It is now generally understood that clovers cannot flourish in soils containing free acid. Basic slag meal, more- over, is a relatively low-priced fertilizer, and it may be pointed out still further that it has for many years been profitably used for top-dressing pastures in various parts of Europe, especially in England. A potash salt, as well as the slag meal or some substitute for the latter, will in almost all cases be required, for without a liberal supply of potash in the soil clovers will not thrive, and a good permanent pasture without white clover is. in our cli- mate, practically an imix>ssibility. There are several potash salts which might be used. Most important among these are the muriate, the high-grade sulfate and the low-grade sulfate. In the experiments described the latter has been employed. The writer was led to select it chiefly because of his observations upon the results of top-dressing with the different potash salts in the permanent mowings referred to at the beginning of this article. It appears to be peculiarly adapted to bring in white clover; but observations upon the permanent mowings, where the different potash salts are under comparison, show that either the muriate or high-grade sulfate also will increase the ])ropor- tion of white clover. These salts cost rather less in proportion to the actual amount of potash they supply than the low-grade sulfate, and in localities where transportation counts as an es- pecially im]iortant item they should perhaps be preferred, since to obtain an equal amount of potash it would be necessary to use them in only half the (piantities re(piircd of the low-grade sulfate. The writer would, however, call attention to the fact 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23 that the latter sui)plies a large aiiiouiit of magnesia as well as j)otash, and that it is not unlikely that this, while inferior to ])otash in its effects upon clover, may nevertheless exert an in- Hiience favorable to its more vigorous development. Season for Top-dressino. For level pastures it is the writer's belief that top-dressing with a mixture of slag meal and a potash salt had best be done in the autumn, but in all cases where the slopes are excessive it will be preferable to apply the materials in the early spring. 24 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. ALFALFA IN MASSACHUSETTS. BY WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR. As time passes the number of successful ex^^eriments with alfalfa in Massachusetts increases. This is true not alone of the experiments in progress on the station grounds and on the college farm in Amherst, but of experiments which have been conducted b^' private individuals in various parts of the State as well. The question may arise, AVhy is the degree of success attending such experiments at present greater than in the case of the earlier experiments ? It is the belief of the writer that the answer is, Because we have learned, as a result of our failures and successes, many things to avoid, and what condi- tions are best calculated to insure success. We now have very little difficulty in securing good catches of alfalfa, and on the station grounds and on the college farm in Amherst are a num- ber of plots of some five or six years' standing which are yet in good condition; so that it would seem that we have not only learned what steps to take to secure a good catch, but also how so to manage as to insure a reasonable degree of permanence. The writer would not be understood that he is as yet pre- ])ared to endorse too exclusive dependence upon alfalfa as a forage crop. He believes that there is still a considerable ele- ment of risk, but that at least the crop is worth careful trial. Number of Crops per Year and Yield. Alfalfa makes a more rapid growth in early spring than any other forage crop, unless it be rye. The first crop is usually ready to cut early in June, and at least two additional crops may be counted upon ; while in seasons which are exceptionally favorable as to rainfall and other climatic conditions alfalfa may probably be safely cut four times. With three crops per 1911.] PUBLIC 1)0CUMP:NT — No. 31. 25 acre, which iiunilicf has been the rule hci'c, our yiehls in good fields have ranged from about o')4 to 5% tons per acre of well- made hay for the three. Such yields are gi'eater than those which can usually Ix; counted upon from the clovers, or mixtures of grasses and clovers, and since in nutritive value alfalfa con- siderably exceeds the product of the ordinary hay field, such a yield indicates that the crop, where successful, is of unusual value. Conditions essential to Success with the Crop. Topography. — Experience and observation convince the writer that fields which have a moderate slope are to be pre- ferred to those which are nearly level. Their superiority is due to the fact that it is relatively easy, in preparing for the crop, to leav'e the surface of such fields in such shape that water cannot possilJy stand upon any part of them, and there- fore that ice will never form on the surface. Ice on the surface of an alfalfa field is sure to destroy it, and as it is almost im- iwssible to avoid places which are slightly depressed below the ordinary level, from which there is no outlet, in fields which are nearly level, slopes should be preferred. Soil. — Alfalfa will succeed upon a considerable variety of soils provided certain conditions exist. First and most impor- tant of these is good drainage. The writer is convinced that it would not be advisable to undertake the cultivation of alfalfa in fields in which the water table will usually be found within less than five or six feet of the surface. It is possible that a fair degree of success might be obtained with the water table from three and one-half to four feet l>elow the surface ; but in all cases where the water table is at this level the percentage of w^ater in the surface soil is likely to be relatively large, unless the soil is of exceedingly coarse texture ; and with too large a percentage of water in the surface soil heaving and winter- killing will be more ])robable than on soils w-ith less moisture at the surface. What has been said suggests that the necessary depth of the water table below the surface may vary somewhat with the texture of the soil above it. Where this is coarse the water table nearer the surface than the extreme depth above in- 26 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. dicated may not be productive of injurious consequences, since the capacity of the soil to conduct and to retain moisture is relatively small. On the other hand, although alfalfa is a very deep-rooted plant, obsen^ation dui-ing the past two years, which has been characterized by exceptionally small rainfall, leads to the con- clusion that it is quite sensitive to the injurious effects of ex- treme droug'ht. and that soils and sub-soils of excessively coarse texture, with a water table far below the surface, can hardly be expected to give satisfactory cro])s. Soils which would be ranked as well adapted to gi*asses and clovers, provided the drainage conditions are such as have been indicated, seem likely to give the most satisfactory crops of alfalfa. Necessity for Lime. — Alfalfa is a lime-loving crop. Suc- cess in producing it is impossible if the soil is poor in this ele- ment. The soils in many parts of this State are characterized by relative deficiency in lime, and in most localities, therefore, a moderate ajiplication of lime is necessary in preparing for alfalfa. The quantity needed will usually range between one and one-half and two tons per acre. There are a number of different forms of lime which may be made to serve the pur- pose. On the heavier soils freshly slaked lime or fine-ground lime will best meet requirements, since these forms of lime wnll at the same time improve the mechanical condition and correct the chemical faults. On the lighter soils, of coarser texture, and especially if these are deficient in organic matter, air- slaked lime or marl may be preferable. For the ordinary loams some of the various forms of so-called agricultural lime, or waste lime which has slaked in heaps at the kilns, will meet the requirements. Ferlilizer Requirements. — Alfalfa, in common with other legumes and clovers, does well only when there is a liberal supply of potash in available forms in the soil, and potash fer- tilizers should be freely nsed in ])re]>ariug for alfalfa. While the crop seems to depend in most marked degi-ee upon an abundance of lime and potash in the soil, it is not indifferent to a supply of other plant food elements, and if the soil is not 1911.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27 naturallv tibumlautly stocked with pliosphoric acid, this cle- iiieiit must be furnished. A large amount of nitrogen in the soil cannot be regarded as essential; indeed, from some points of view it is undesirable; but, on the other hand, unless there is a fair amount of nitro- gen in available forms in the soil the crop will fail to make a good start. When well established under the right conditions it can, like other legumes, draw the needed nitrogen from the air. The application of manure to soils which are to be used for alfalfa in preparing for the crop will, it is believed, in general be found inadvisable. Manure, it is true, helps to give the soil the desired texture, and increases the proportion of humus which may be beneficial, but it usually carries many weed seeds, and increases the difficulty of getting a good catch of alfalfa. A free use of manure will, moreover, be likely to in- crease the competition of the grasses with the alfalfa, enabling these in a measure gradually to crowd the latter out. Manure used rather liberally for crops which immediately precede alfalfa, may, on the other hand, prove quite beneficial, especially on the lighter and poorer soils. Seeditstg to Alfalfa. Season for Sowing. — Success with alfalfa has been obtained both by early spring and summer sowing. In the experiments which the writer has carried out the latter has given the best results. If alfalfa is spring sown, it is commonly necessary to sow a nurse crop with it. If this is not done it must, in almost all soils, suffer greatly from the competition of annual Aveeds which tend to come in so freely in all fertile soils during the spring months. In the one case, then, it must share the soil with a nurse crop, in the other wdth weeds, and in either case the competition for plant food and moisture is somewhat unfavorable. Further, wdiether weeds grow up with the crop or whether a nurse crop is sown with it, the alfalfa, when these are removed, is exposed to the intense heat of the sun in midsummer, and if at this time there is a deficiency of rain- fall, it almost invariably suffers a serious check. 28 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. When alfalfa is sown later in the siuniucr it is possible to sow it alone, since by preparatory tillage the annual weeds, which tend to come in during the early part of the season, can be de- stroyed. Under these conditions the alfalfa is likely to make a better start than when it must meet the competition either of weeds or a nurse crop. The showers which almost invariably come in midsummer will give, in all except soils of very coarse texture, such moisture conditions as to insure quick germination of the seed. Preparation of the Soil. — The essentials in the preparation of the soil are such tillage operations as will produce a fine seed bed and such application of fertilizers as will suj)ply the natural deficiencies. It is a great mistake to sow alfalfa in imperfectly prepared ground. The seed bed should be as perfect as possible, and no amount of labor which is essential to produce a fine sur- face tilth should be spared. While the selection of fertilizers and the amounts of the several materials to be used should of course be varied to suit varying conditions, the writer recom- mends, as likely to prove satisfactory in the majority of cases, the following kinds and amounts per acre : — Lime or marl, 11/2 to 2 tons. Basic slag meal, 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. Hioh-orade sulfate of potasli, .... 250 to 300 pounds. Nitrate of soda, 100 to 125 pounds. The following method of ajiplying the fertilizers is recom- mended : — (1) Apply the lime on the rough furrow and disk in. (2) Mix together the potash and all except about 300 pounds of the slag meal, ap]dy after disking the land once and work in deeply by further disking or harrowing. (3) Just before the final harrowing-in preparation for the seed, mix together the 200 pounds of slag meal and the nitrate of soda, and spread this evenly and harrow it in. Tn case the alfalfa is to be spring sown, apply the lime in the autuum, and if convenient apply the mixture of slag meal and j^otash also in the autuum, although this is less essential. It may be a])plied, if ]>referred, just before the first disking in the spring, 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 111 the case of slimmer sowing, apply the lime in the early spring and immediately disk it in. A little later apply the mixtnre of basic slag meal and potash aiid disk or harrow this in deeply, and spread the nitrate of soda and 200 pounds of slag before the last harrowing. Nurse Crops for Spring Solving. — For nurse crops for sow- ing with alfalfa in spring beardless barley and oats are among the best, barley being the safer nurse crop of the two, as it is far less liable to lodge. Whichever of the two crops is selected, the amount of seed should not be too great. A bushel of barley or a bushel and a half of oats to the acre will usually be suffi- cient. Preparation for Summer Sowing. — It is sometimes possible to secure good conditions for summer sowing on land used the same season for the production of a crop; but it is desirable, if this is undertaken, that the crop be one permitting of abso- lutely clean culture, and which can be harvested not later than about the middle of July. In the case of all soils not already highly productive and in good tilth, a summer fallow^ with most careful tillage in preparation for alfalfa, is highly desirable. The very best results which have been obtained in the writer's experience have followed this method of preparation. The land is plowed in early spring, the lime and fertilizers applied as indicated above, and thereafter the soil is worked with the har- row at intervals sufficiently frequent to destroy the successive crops of weeds which are likely to start. The frequency of har- rowing advisable must, of course, vary with conditions, but will usually be once in about ten days to two weeks. Alfalfa is sometimes so^^^l in late summer in fields of grow- ing corn, and sometimes the results by this method are satis- factory. In the States of the middle west, where it has been most largely tried, there have been numerous failures. It is, perhaps, needless to say that if this method is to be tried the corn should not be planted over thick, its cultivation should be level and most thorough, and in fertilizing for the corn crop the needs of the alfalfa which is to be sowti later in the summer must not be overlooked. Date of Soiring. — In spring sowing, alfalfa should be put in just as early as the soil can be brought into condition. For 30 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. suininer sowing the best conditions wiil usually occur about Julj 25 to August 10. If sowing is deferred much later than the middle of August, the alfalfa does not get sufficiently Avell rooted nor make sutficicnl growth to go through the winter suc- cessfully. When sown about the last of July the crop fre- quently attains a height of a foot before cold weather, and should on no account be cut, as this growth is needed for winter pi'otcction. Alfalfa Seed. — No pains essential to procuring the best pos- sible seed shoidd be spared. Numerous varieties of alfalfa have been introduced and extensively tried in ditl'erent parts of the country, and a mnnber of them have been under trial in this experiment station. So far, however, as the experiments of the writer enable him to judge, none of the newer varieties appears to l>e superior to the common type of alfalfa as culti- vated in our northwestern States. Northern-grown seed, bright, heavy, free from impurities of all kinds, and especially free from dodder (a parasite which, if present in any amount, will destroy the crop), should be looked for. The seeds of dodder are extremely minute, and will be easily overlooked by the cas- ual observer. The dealer should be asked to guarantee fret^lom from seed of this parasite, and in all cases of doubt samples should be sent to the experiment station for examination. Qvantity of Seed. — As is the case with all farm seeds, the quantity which may wisely be sown varies with conditions, and should be greater in proportion as these are unfavorable. With the best conditicms for germination, and with seed of the best quality, about -."> to '30 ]-ounds per acre should be sufficient. A thick stand of plants is, however, of the very highest impor- tance. When the alfalfa is thin, weeds, grasses and clovers come in, and the latter especially tend to crowd the alfalfa out. Tt is the belief of the writer that the quantity of seed should therefore, even under the best soil conditions, be not less than 30 pounds to the acre, and in seeding with corn it would seem to be advisable to use from 5 to 8 pounds more. J voculnilon. — Tt is uow generally understood that l(\ii'umes have the capacity to take nitrogen from the air only in pai-tner- ship with bacteria which live in uocbdes on their roots. These 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31 bacteria ar^ not ordiiiai-ily j)resoiit in soils whore alfalfa lias not ])reviouslj been grown. A 2)ossible exception is afforded by soils where sweet clover {Melilotus alba) is indigenons and abundant. This plant, however, is comparatively rare in Mas- sachusetts, and in almost all cases, therefore, it is advisable to bring in the appropriate alfalfa bacteria by inoculation. Two methods may be followed : — (1) Soil from a well-established alfalfa field where root nod- ules are abundant may be worked into the soil where the seed is to be sown. The quantity needed will range between about 300 and 400 pounds per acre. Care should be taken that soil which is to be so nsed be not long exposed to the light nor allowed to dry excessively. It should be spread, if possible, towards night or on a cloudy day, and immediately harrowed in. (2) A culture may be used. A number of different artificial cultures are now produced and recossibly one tnrning, nntil it is wilted. It shonld then 1)0 ]»nt into windrows and then into cocks, where it shonld b(^ allowt^d to remain nntil cnred. Hay caps are very desirable; indeed, almost a necessity for entirely satisfactory results. The length of time which alfalfa mnst remain in the cock will vary greatly with the weather. If this is showerv or raiiiv it of conrse cnres 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 33 slowly, in which caso, in order to avoid injury to the plants below, the eoeks shoiihl be moved. It is desirable^ as iu the ease of clover, which is often similarly handled, to remove the caps and (»})eii and turn ovov the cocks on the morning of a good day, when it is judged to be sufficiently cured to be put in. Top-dressing Alfalfa. If the crop has been successfully inoculated, and the nodules which have been referred to are abundant on the feeding root- lets of the plants, it is not ordinarily necessary to top-dress with materials furnishing nitrogen ; or at least, if such mate- rials are at all required, as may be the case upon soils which are naturally very poor and light, they should be used only in moderate quantities. Top-dressing with mannre cannot as a rule be recommended, for this will increase the tendency of grasses and clovers to come in. It is better to depend upon chemical fertilizers, and in order to secure large crops for a series of years the more important mineral elements of plant food must be supplied in abundance. The following mixture of materials is recom- mended, per acre, annually : — Pounds. Basis slag- meal, 1,200 to 1,500 High-grade sulfate of potash, 250 to 350 Or, in place of the latter, low-grade sulfate of potash, 500 to 700 pounds. This mixture may be ap])lied either in the autumn or in very early spring. Secondapy Value of Alfalfa. Alfalfa, when successfid, as has been pointed out, is not onlv a valuable forage croji, furnishing large yields of highly nutri- tious forage in proportion to area, but is also a crop of much importance because its introduction will mean much improve- ment in the soils on which it is gTo^vn. Wherever alfalfa is successfully cultivated the soils are sure to be rendered more productive. This im])rovement is a consequence, first, of the 34 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. deep sub-soiling- clue to the penetration of the great tap roots of the phnit ; and sei-ond, to the aocunmlation of nitrogen in the roots and stnhble, drawn in the fir^^t instance from the air. It Avill he understood that when an alfalfa sod is jilowed, and the roots and stuhhle decay, the large amount of nitrogen which thev contain becomes availal)le to succeeding crops. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 35 EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO THE PREVEN- TION OF THE CLOGGINU OF DRAIN TILE BY ROOTS. BY G. E. STONE AND G. H. CHAPMAN. Fur the past three years experiments have been carried on in our conservatory for the purpose of studying the effects which various antiseptic substances would have in preventing roots of different kinds from entering drain tile. The clogging of drain tile by roots is a serious matter, many drains being rendered useless in a short time. The only remetly in such cases is to dig up the tile, clean it out and lay it over again. This is expen- sive and unsatisfactory in any case, particularly so with sewer pipes or the drainage tile imder steam-heating conduits. Our experiments were carried on in different ways. In one series we buried 3-inch Akron tile vertically in boxes contain- ing soil. The lower ends of these tile were cemented and the tile filled with water to the joints. The joints were then calked with various antiseptically treated fibers, and the antiseptic substances with which the joints were treated proved quite efi'ective in preventing the access of roots to the tile. Another method consisted in gTOwing various plants in small pots, the bottoms of which were filled with chemically treated fibers. The pots were then filled with soil and planted with different seeds. It is well known that plants when grown in small pots soon fill the soil with roots, which seek new sources of supply by passing through the hole at the bottom of the pots. Our experiments were arranged in such a way that the roots, in. order to accomplish this, would have to pass through or around the chemically treated fibers, and the ability of these fibers to ]irevent root development constitutes a test of their efficiency. This method ]iroved quite satisfactory. After a 36 EXPEIIDIENT STATION. [Jan. year or two trial uf the above luctliod we devised anutber, Avbich has also provetl to be very satisfactory. This consisted in grow- ing plants in boxes, the bottoms of which were covered with wire netting. Over the wire there was spread about an inch of variously treated or untreated libers, as some checks were left in these experiments. The boxes were then filled with soil in which various plants were grown. They were placed over large trays filled with water, a space being left between the bottom of the wire and the surface of the water for the purpose of ob- serving the roots. The object of this test, as before, was to determine what substances would prevent roots from penetrat- ing into the water below. Results of Pot Expeeimexts. These experiments were started in the spring of 1008 and were conducted along the lines previously described ; that is dift'erently treated fibers were packed into the bottom of com- mon flower pots for the purpose of determining wdiat effect they would have on root penetration. About 1 inch of the fiber was packed in -l-inch pots. In some of the pots the fiber was packed rather tightly and in others laid in loosely. On top of the filler were placed 3 or 4 inches of soil and clover and grass seed sown ; in some cases willow cuttings and other plants Avere also nsed. Several series of pot experiments were conducted. In all cases the pots were placed in saucers or in galvanized iron trays coutaining about half an inch of water, although the pots were Avatered occasion- ally from the top. The substances used in these pot experiments and the treat- ment given are as follows : — Excelsior and creosote. Excelsior and Carbolineum. 8awdust and creosote. SaAvdnst and Carbolinenm. Asbestos and creosote. Asbestos and Carbolinenm. Asbestos and arsenate of soda. Oakum and creosote. Oakum untreated. Cocoa fiber and creosote. 1911.] PUBLI(M)0(^UMENT — No. ;jl. 37 The excelsior "vvas the orards their degree of effi- ciency, may be grouped as follows : — Excelsior and creosote. Sawdust and creosote. Excelsior and Carbolinevun. Sawdust and Carbolineum. Cocoa fiber and creosote. Asbestos and creosote. Oakum and creosote. The sodium arsenate treatments were all failures, as this substance seemed to wash out very quickly, and in one case, where asbestos was treated with creosote, 40 per cent, of the roots passed through the hole in the bottom of the pot. Xo better results were obtained with asbestos and Carbo- lineum. C^ocoa fiber failed 1o absorb and retain the chemicals any 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 39 length of time. For this reason it was unsatisfactory. How- ever, in some experiments a large percentage of roots were killed when thej came in contact with this substance, especially when the creosote was retained by the fibers. The creosoted and untreated oakum did not prove of much value. There was little difference between the excelsior and saw- dust treatment ; one was about as good as the other, although the excelsior was easier to manipulate. On the other hand, the sawdust was more compact, and this was in its favor. Creosote in these tests appeared to be slightly superior to Car- bolineum, but the latter would be an excellent substance for this purpose. Experiments in Boxes, A. — Experiments in boxes provided with vertical tile, with one end plugged, have been carried on for two years. In these boxes were grown tomatoes, grass and willows. The boxes were 14 by 14 by 14 inches, and contained about 1 foot of soil. A vertical 3-inch Akron tile extended to the bottom of the boxes, the joints being 4 inches below the surface of the ^oil. The bottoms of the tile were plugged with cement and the tile was kept filled with water to the level of the joints. One tile was placed in the middle of each of the four boxes, the joints being treated with the following substances: — Sawdust and creosote. Excelsior and creosote. Cocoa fiber and creosote. Oakum untreated. The results of this experiment are as follows : — The treated sawdust prevented any roots from penetrating the tile, and when there was any attempt made to penetrate the treated substance, the roots turned brown and died. The creosoted sawdust appeared as good as when first applied, and was characterized by a strong creosote odor. The results of treatment with excelsior and creosote were practically the same as those with sawdust. In a few cases, however, roots forced their way along the tile to the joint. The 40 EXPEKLMKXT STATION. [Jan. roots which jittoinj)(e(l to untw in excelsior were l)rowne(l and dead. The results obtained from the nse of cocoa fiber and creosote were not nearly as good as the two preceding ones. The roots penetrated the fiber and came through into the water. About 35 per cent, of the roots which penetrated the fiber were alive and healthy. The results obtained from the untreated oakum showed that it had little efieet, ihe roots appearing to be healthy, and not at all injured by this substance. B. — The experiments described here were made in three boxes, each being 1-i inches wide, 22 inches long and 14 inches high. The bottoms of these boxes were covered with l/4-inch mesh galvanized wire. On each wire in (me-half of each box there was placed about 1 inch of sphagnum, the other half being- covered with some treated material. Box Xo. 1 had sphagnum 1 inch thick in one end and the same amount of excelsior treated with creosote in the other end. Box Xo. 2 was likewise pro- vided with untreated sphagnum in one end, the other being filled with sawdust treated with cement. Box Xo. 3 was treated in the same way as Xo. 1. These boxes contained about 12 inches of soil, and rested on galvanized-iron trays containing 2 inches of water. A space of about half an inch, however, was left be-: tween the bottom of each box and the water in the tray for the purpose of observing the roots. Several crops of tomato and tobacco plants and grass were grown in these boxes, with the results that none of the roots had penetrated through the treated substances into the water in the tray, whereas in every case where untreated sphagnum was employed the root penetration was invariably common. The results obtained from these various methods of treatment show that it is possible at the present time to prevent root growth by the use of certain chemical substances. Our residts seem to indicate, also, that these various treatments possess a lasting effect, and that chemically treated fibers could be used in a practical way to prevent the clogging of drain tile. In these ex]ioriments it nmst bo boruo in mind that n vast nund)er of roots come in contact with the treated substances, and that ordi- narily if these substances had not been there thousands of roots 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 41 would have developed and occupied the space given up to the treated fibers; and probably in all cases a large number of the roots would have penetrated through the bottom of the pots into the water below. In only a very few instances did any of the roots in the experiments where creosote was used penetrate to any depth where sawdust and excelsior were used. Practically all the penetration occurred close to the surface of the pot, where the chemically treated fibers were packed rather loosely, and especially in those experiments where excelsior was used. A more or less thorough calking of the joints of Akron tile with either creosoted excelsior or sawdust would undoubtedly prevent the occurrence of roots in the joints, and consequently in the tile itself. Some sewer pipes have been calked with these chemically treated fibers, but it is as yet too early to state how effectually they may have accomplished their purpose. Akron tiles, or those provided with flanges, are best adapted to treat- ment. Ordinary land drain tiles, however, are not provided Avith flanges, and it is a question whether root penetration could be successfully prevented by using these fibers, at least by plac- ing them loosely over the joints. It would be possible and no doubt practicable, however, to clamp masses of treated asbestos or excelsior around the joints of ordinary land tile, which would prove effective. Such clamps could be constructed from heavy galvanized wire, so as to hold the excelsior very firmly around the joint, and at the same time not affect materially the inflow of drainage water. It would be possible, also, to make use of small sections of tile of larger diameter (collars), which could be placed over each joint and the treated fibers packed in tightly around the joints. Creosote appears to be the best substance with which we have experimented, since it is not only one of the best preservatives, but possesses excellent toxic properties. No doubt there arc other fibers than those which we have used, and there are many substances which possess properties toxic to roots, such as tannin, etc. ; but many others, like sodium arsenate, wash out quickly and lose their effectiveness in a short time. From the results of these experiments it would appear that chemically treated fibers would undoubtedly remain for many 42 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. years in the soil without serious deterioration, and if this treat- ment would succeed in doubling or trebling the usefulness of drain tile, it would be well worth while to employ it. There is also the possibility of killing roots in tile by treat- ment with chemicals or gases, but little or no attention has been given to this phase of the subject. Further experiments are being made ahmg this lino, and in the mean time it is hoped that more extensive and practical tests can be arranged. i'Jil.l rUBLiC DOCLMEiNT — No. 31. 43 THE CLOGGING OF DRAIN TILE BY ROOTS. BY G. E. STONE. Quite frequently trouble is experienced from roots of various trees entering drain tile, sewers, etc., and this often causes much vexation, labor and expense. The Carolina poplar, which is often planted as a shade tree in cities, frequently becomes a nui- sance in consequence of its peculiar habit of working its roots through the joints of tile used for sewerage, etc. It is a com- paratively easy matter for roots to gain entrance into the un- cemented joints of tile, and even when tile is cemented they often manage to crowd in and fill the tile with a mass of roots which eventually clog it and render it useless. Instances are known of roots penetrating even sewers constructed of brick and cement. The roots of other trees besides Carolina poplars are known to be offenders in this respect. Willows, elms, etc., are re- sponsible for considerable clogging of tile drains. There are also many instances even of fungi and algse clogging up small drains. The writer some years ago had called to his attention a case where Oscillaria, one of the blue-green alga^, was con- stantly clogging tile, much to the annoyance of the landowner. On the Massachusetts Agricultural College grounds they have experienced much trouble with roots of various kinds clogging sewer pipes, and the drain tiles located under the steam pipes leading from the central heating system to the various buildings have become clogged. In the case of the sewer tile referred to the joints were cemented with Portland cement, nevertheless, the roots gained entrance here and there through some of the joints, and in a short time they developed so profusely as to clog the tile, with the result that it had to be dug up and repaired. The joints of the 6-inch Akron tile underlying the steam-heating pipes are not cemented, and are located 5 feet or more below the surface. In two or three years after the tiles were laid some of them had 44 EXPERLMENT STATlOxN. [Jan. become clogged with the roots of elm trees. This clogging pre- vented the water from flowing through the tile, and caused a dam, as it were, resulting in the water flowing back into the conduit and flooding the steam pipes. A stream of cold water flooding steam pipes is not conducive to the best results, since it causes condensation and a decrease in the temperature of the steam. It is necessary, of course, to leave the joints of Akron tile open when used for the purpose of draining the conduit trench of a central heating and distributing plant, since these pipes must take off the water from the trench and prevent it from coming into contact with the steam pipes in the conduit. As long as the joints remain open it is with great difficulty that the roots of trees, etc., are kept from growing in the tile, and sooner or later it is made ineffective. Tree roots will penetrate tile protected with carefully cemented joints, and become a nui- sance, as is shown by the following letter. In the city of New- ark, IST. J,, the Shade Tree Commission has been requested by the department of sewers and drainage to omit the planting of Carolina poplars on streets since the roots of these trees proved to be a nuisance to drains, and the Shade Tree Commission has decided to plant trees which are less of a nuisance in this respect- on the streets of Newark in the future. At my request Mr. Carl B. Bannwart, secretary of the Shade Tree Commission, jSTewark. secured this statement from Edward S. Rankin, engi- neer of sewers and drainage of the city of Xewark : — Rejilying' to yoiu* letter of tlie 20th inst., we find that the roots go through Ihe joints of tile pipe even when carefully cemented, and the trouble seems to be increasing. In 1909 we had 15 stoppages caused by roots; for the first eleven months of 1910, 23, of which 5 occurred in the month of November. These stoji images were all in house connections, and in addition to these we have also had a number of cases in our main pipe sewers. The roots after penetrating the pipe seem to spread out and practically fill the whole pipe. I have no way of knowing how long a time it takes for these roots to grow. To the best of my knowledge we have had no trouble with any of our brick sewers. The trouble seems to have been caused in all cases by pojilar trees. There recently came to our attention, through Mr. C. X. Minott, field superintendent on the gypsy and brown-tail moth work, a notable case where the small root from a pear tree had 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 45 gaiued entrance to a drain tile. This tile was 12 inches in diameter, and was laid about seven years ago to take the seepage waters from a reservoir located in the town of Belmont, Mass. This pipe passed through land owned by the Ilittinger Brothers of Belmont, well-known and extensive market gardeners, and part of it passed near a pear orchard. There was a constant flow of water through this tile summer aud winter, but the pipe was never full. At the time the tile was laid the joints were not cemented, and of course there was an excellent opportunity for roots of various kinds, if so disposed, to penetrate the joints of the pipes and secure an abundant supply of water. During Xovend)er, 1009, about seven years after the drain pipes were installed, it became necessary to dig up a large part of them on account of their inefficiency and replace them. It was found on digging up this tile that it was badly congested by profuse root growth. A careful examination of the location showed that this growth of roots originated from a single off-shoot of a pear tree located some 7 feet away. This enormous mass of pear roots was removed from the tile aud carefully laid aside, and we gladly accepted Mr. Minott's offer to present this to our museum. Mr. Minott later packed and shipped this to us, at the same time furnishing us full data concerning it. This mass of roots was found to measure 61 feet in length. Only a single root entered the tile, it having a diameter of about V2 oi" % of ^^ inch. This root, when it entered the tile, immediately subdivided into in- numerable rootlets, and these were again divided into countless smaller roots. At the time the tile w^as dug up and the roots removed the drain had been in operation seven years, although a cross-section of the root, together with an examination of the annular rings, wdiere it entered the tile, showed that it was only five years old. Therefore it took only five years for this mass of roots to clog up a 12-inch tile. The maximum diameter of these roots in the dry state is 6 or 7 inches, but when alive and flourishing in the tile their diam- eter exceeded this. The roots as they reached the laboratory had a decidedly bad odor, showing that if no sewage were pres- ent in the tile there was certainly a considerable amount of or- ganic matter in the seepage, derived from- the soil or some other source, which ]u-ovod of value n-^ ])laut food. Soon after the 46 EXPERLMExXT STATION. [Jan. sijecimens arrived at this laboratory they were spread out on the Hoor and measured. This was done by Mr. R. D. Whitmarsh, and was accomplished by laying out on the floor sections 5 feet in length. The number of roots in each 5-foot section was counted. This was multiplied by the length of the secti(jn and the whole tabulated (see table). The mass of roots was just 61 feet long, and the total length is 8,498 feet, equal to 1.61 miles in length. Adding to this the numerous small roots, which range from a few to several inches in length, and which were disregarded in our section count, the total length was estimated to be over 2 miles. This enormous development from a single root of a pear tree located 7 feet away is greatly in excess of what would take place if the roots were in the soil, since the conditions of the drain tile stimulate root development very materially. However, the root system of any tree or shrub is far in excess in length and area of what the layman imagines. The profuse growth of roots in water is also seen in cases where old wells become filled with root growth, but the pear tree root in question is one of the best examples which has ever come to our notice of root development in drain tile. Table showing the Growlh of Pear Tree Roots in Drain Tile. Number of Section. Length of Section (Feet). Number of Roots in Section. Length of Roots in Section (Feet). 1, 5 34 170 2, 5 41 205 3, 5 73 365 4, 5 153 765 5. 5 100 905 6, .5 313 1,565 7, .') 373 1 ,865 8, 5 447 2,235 9. T) 141 705 10, 5 53 265 11, 5 31 155 12, 5 36 180 13. 1 28 28 Tot al, 61 - 8,498 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47 THE SPRAYING OF TREES. BY G. E. STONE. The great value and economic importance of spraying shade and fruit trees have resulted in placing on the market a large variety of fungicides and insecticides and types of machinery. Massachusetts has unfortunately been obliged to spend more money in spraying than any other State, and many towns and cities in the eastern part of the State, where the brown-tail and gypsy moths are so prevalent, spend thousands of dollars yearly in spraying. Besides the larger spraying enterprises -which are being car- ried on under the supervision of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moth Commission, much private work is being done, and hundreds of tons of arsenate of lead are used annually in this work. While the above-named pests have not at present invaded the center and western part of the State to any extent, the presence of other pests necessitates spraying our shade trees. The question of economical spraying on a large scale is an im- portant one, and for a long time there has been a need for more efficient and cheaper methods. The writer, who has for many years had experience as tree warden, has had unusual opportu- nities to observe the work being done along this line in Massa- chusetts, and has felt the great necessity for improvements in the methods of spraying. Tt has often been a question whether our towns and cities can afford to use the methods which are recommended and practiced by the best orchardists for shade trees. The aim of the orchardists is to cover every part of the ti'ee which needs protection with a very fine mist spray. This method cannot be too closely followed by orchardists, since it is not necessarily expensive when only orchard trees and small fruits and crops such as potatoes are concerned. When how- 48 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ever, we have to spray large elms, Ibe question is an entirely different one. A few years ago some large elms located in the public square in one of our cities were sprayed by the same methods used by the best orchardists, at an expense of something like $1G per tree. These trees, to be sure, were imusually large, but the cost was so great that in our opinion it set a limit to the amount of spraying which should be undertaken by such methods, ]\rost of the former spraying of shade trees was done by this very ex- pensive method at a cost of $1.50 upwards for trees 14 to 18 inches in diameter. In much of this early spraying the Ver- morel, Ware or similar fine spray nozzles on poles were used, and spraying had to be done at close range for the best results. The early gypsy moth work was done in this same way, any other method at that time being considered useless. This method en- tailed a great deal of climbing on the part of the sprayers, and was a slow and costly process. Some years ago the Gypsy Moth Commission abandoned these fine nozzles and close-range methods of spraying, and now em- ploys large nozzles and large hose, and exceptionally high pres- sure is obtained from powerful machine sprayers. "With the larger area which has to be treated at the present day the older method would not only prove prohibitory on account of the ex- pense, but also because of the time involved. Practically all the spraying with these large modern machines is done from the ground, doing away Avith the necessity for ladders and for climb- ing trees ; and by the use of one or more long lengths of hose large areas can be treated from one spot. This method of spray- ing trees is very effective and very much cheaper, the average cost of spraying woodlands being something like $12 or less per acre. With this method the spraying mixture is delivered to the nozzle through a large strong hose under a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds, the high pressure breaking the spray up into a fine mist. The spray has considerable spread when broken up, which is a desirable feature in treating woodlands and country road- sides, but on this account it is more or less objectionable for use on residential streets in cities and towns, as it is likely to dis- 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 49 ligure anj'thing it touches, Tlio writer has been of the opinion, however, for some time, that the high-pressure, large-nozzle equipments are the cheapest and most practical for shade-tree work. What might be termed a compromise between the fine-nozzle system and the high-pressure, coarse-nozzle system employed in the gypsy moth work is often used in spraying shade trees at the present day. This consists in the use of the Bordeaux nozzle, which has an aperture of %2 of an inch, When used on a hand ])ump with a pressure of from 50 to 70 pounds, or even more, it does not give, in our estinuition, a satisfactory spray. Where a small nund)er of trees are to be sprayed, and where an expen- sive equipment cannot be afforded, small hand pumps will do the work, but when it becomes necessary to spray 500 or 1,000 trees in the course of a few weeks, power sprayers are necessary and more economical. The most important factors necessary for economical work in spraying shade trees on a large scale are machines powerful enough to maintain a constantly high pressure; an efficient nozzle, and competent men to do the work. By high pressure we mean a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds, preferably the latter. This should be maintained constantly, and the capacity should be sufficient to maintain this pressure in a 1-inch delivery hose, if necessary. In our work on spraying shade trees we endeavor to have a 1-inch aperture from the pump to the nozzle, care being taken to have no reducing valves or couplings anywhere on the line to reduce the volume of the spray, since it is better to have a good flow of the spraying mixture directly to the nozzle. Too much attention cannot be given to the nozzle. It should be adapted to the work required of it, and a satisfactory nozzle is worth almost any price. It should be constructed on mechan- ical principles which will enable it to break up the s^^raying mixture into as fine a mist as possible, and to do this at a dis- tance convenient for the economical application of the spray. The ideal nozzle for the economical spraying of trees either from the ground or a ladder should possess some carrying fea- 50 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tiircs, and still break the sj)ray u]) finely. The nozzle should not be encumbered, any more than the hose, with worthless me- chanical devices which produce friction without adding anything to its efficiency, and for this reason we believe that it is better to employ mechanical devices to break up the spray after it has left the nozzle rather than in the nozzle itself. This applies, of course, to that type of nozzle intended to be used with high pres- sure, either from the gTound or from a ladder, since in this case it is necessary for us to have nozzles adapted to throw a certain distance in order to reach the foliage, and have it broken up into as fine a mist as possible. This does not apply to types of nozzles like the Vermorel and Friend, which are well adapted to the purposes for which they are intended. The question of competent men and good machinery is also important in spraying. Any good reliable man of common sense can learn to spray in a short time, and there should be little difficulty in securing such men if they are treated properly and well paid. As regards spraying outfits, there is still a chance for im- provement in many ways. There are, however, many good power sprayers on the market. The l^ew Leader spraying ma- chine, made by the Field Force Pump Company of Elmira, N^. Y., of which there are several in use in the Connecticut valley, has proved to be satisfactory. This is provided with a 31/2 horse- power engine, and is one of the cheapest and best machines on the market. A machine of this type, while not so thoroughly constructed in some respects as the larger and more expensive machines, is capable of doing good work for some years. The type of machines which depend upon charging with carbonic acid gas for their power we consider failures for any kind of work, since the pressure is never constant, and much of the time is too low for any kind of spraying. The company which manufactures these has recently constructed a machine in which the power is compressed air instead of gas. This air is con- stantly pumped and pressed into large cylinders, which are at- tached to the truck. One of the difficulties in a machine of this type for high-pressure work consists in the use of very heavy 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51 cylinders, which, on account of the wciiiht, niust have a limited capacity for storing the air. There are on the market many good hand pnnips which will maintain a pressure of 50 to 70 pounds with an ordinary nozzle, and these may be purchased for $U2 to $20. For general purposes they are the cheapest and most satisfactory spraying devices produced at the jiresent time. 52 EXPERLAIENT STATION. [Jan. SHADE TREE TROUBLES. BY G. E. STONE. If the amount of correspondence is any criterion of what people are interested in it might be inferred that the citizens of Massachusetts place a high value on shade trees, and we are re- ceiving an ever-increasing number of such inquiries. Such or- ganizations as civic leagues, village improvement associations, the Massachusetts Forestry Association and the different horti- cultural societies are very largely responsible for this awakened interest in the subject of shade trees, although landscape gar- deners and highway and park commissions have had no small influence in this direction. Shade trees have enough to contend with ordinarily, but the extreme climatic conditions which have prevailed during the past few years have been an additional burden on them. The more extensive use of telephones, electric lights, trolley trans- portation, gas, sewers, aqueduct water, etc., made necessary by modern conditions, has been hard for our shade trees, and the severe winterkilling of roots, which occurred a few years ago, has been responsible for the death of thousands. Many trees which were not so seriously injured a few years ago as to die outright were left to a lingering existence, and many of them are constantly deteriorating and in a few years will be dead. The trees which have shown this slow dying back of the root system most prominently, and which later completely collapse, are the elm, red maple, black and white ash, and, to a less ex- tent, the rock maple. The writer has had opportunity to observe the condition of a large nund')er of these trees each year and the effect which root killing has had upon them. Many large elms, which a few years ago were in perfect condition, may be seen slowlv dviiio' from the ofT(>('ts of severe climatic conditions, and 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 many of tlieni gave proiui^c of living at least one hundred years in favorable environments. The black and white oak, ash and I'ed maj)le are dying more rapidly than the elm. The European birch, so commonly used for ornamental purposes, has been dying everywhere this past summer from the eifects of borers, and possibly the extreme drought. The past summer the writer has had an opportunity to exam- ine many black oaks along country roadsides, where the condi- tions for tree growth would l)e considered fairly good. These trees ai'e located in different towns in the eastern part of the State, where the oak seems to be affected the most severely. Near one estate, where 19 black oaks (Qiiercus velutina, Lam.) were examined, the larger part of them were found to show evi- dence of root killing. These trees are located on a slight em- bankment, and that part of the root system nearest the road was invariably affected the worst. The trees showed various degrees of root killing, some of it being so far advanced that 75 per cent, or more of the tissues of the trunk were dead on the roadside. Some of the trees were in fairly good foliage, others had lost a little foliage, and many had consideral)le dead wood, the amount corresponding to the condition of the roots. On another road- side, where the conditions were somewhat similar, although in a different town, the same root killing was observed. In this lo- cality there were 50 or more black oaks, many with scarcely any live limbs, and supporting only from 1 to 20 per cent, of the original foliage. An examination of these trees showed the trunks to be perfectly sound, and even the larger roots at the base of the tree were alive. When the soil was removed from the roots for a distance of 3 or 4 feet it was found, however, that practically the whole root system had collapsed, and conditions showed that there had been a slow but constant dying back of the roots for the last five or six years. For example, roots 1/4 inch in diameter, which normally would extend 15 to 25 feet from the base of the tree, had died back to within 3 to 6 feet from the base. It could be plainly seen that the trees had made stren- uous efforts to recover their root systems by repeatedly throwing out a profuse growth of side roots, but as the affected roots were coutinuallv dying back, the ncAv laterals were of little or no use, 54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. as they would die in turn. Had it been possible to prune these roots, their dying back could have been checked, a new system of secondary roots would ha^•e formed and the tree would have re- covered. Oak trees in this condition have been fairly common in certain parts of eastern Massachusetts for the past few years, and many more will show the same symptoms later. Another trouble which has been more or less common the last few years is known as sun scald of maples. This is responsible for injuring many valuable shade trees. On one avenue we recently observed 16 rock maples killed by sun scald. This af- fects the trunks and limbs on the side of the tree exposed to the sun. It is characterized by a drying up of the bark, which al- most immediately becomes affected with a canker fungus {Nec- iria cinnabarina, Er.). On smaller trees sun scald often kills the whole trunk. Generally only one side of the tree is affected, and occasionally one or more branches. The root system is not affected by sun scald, and limbs are much less likely to be af- fected than the trunk. The fact that the root system is not af- fected by Sim scald, and that the bark usually becomes infected with Nccfria, makes it easy to distingiiish this type of injury from that caused by gas poisoning, since in this case the Nectria never appears, but, instead, profuse growths of Schizophyllum and Polystida are present. Very similar effects are produced on the trunk when the tree is sprayed with kerosene or crude oils, since Nectria almost always accompanies such injury. Sun scorch differs from sun scald very materially, as it af- fects only the foliage. This is very common on maples, and in recent years the white pine has been affected in this State. Sun scorch foHows dry periods, and is usually associated with strong, drying winds, lack of water in the soil, etc. ; in fact, it may be caused by various abnormal functions of the root system. It hardly ever completely defoliates trees, and on maples it simply l)urns the foliage, particularly on the windward side. Various conifers, such as arbor vitscs, when grown in dry soil invariably show sun scorch in the spring, particularly when there are dry- ing winds nnd the ground is frozen. P^or many years past we have received a large number of inquiries concerning the effects of sun scorch on maples. These effects resemble those of leaf 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 31. 55 blight (Gloeosporium) , and various atmospheric gases, or illumi- nating gas, escaping into the soil, often cause effects resembling those produced by sun scorch. Severe injury is caused espe- cially by the illuminating gas. Under ordinary conditions trees seldom recover when once poisoned by this gas. It is possible, however, in certain cases of gas poisoning, especially in the in- cipient stage, to amputate certain roots at the base of the trunk, which prevents the further translocation of the poisonous sub- stances and often saves the tree. Every tree which dies along the roadside, however, is not necessarily killed by gas or electricity, notwithstanding the fact that this seems to be a popular belief. It should be said that the public service corporations of Massachusetts, on the whole, take a very sensible and unbiased view of the claims for gas injury, and if the people would meet them in this same spirit adjustments of legitimate claims for damages would no doubt be satisfactorily made in practically every case. 56 EXPEPiDlExXT STATION. [Jan. THE CHESTNUT DISEASE (DIAPORTHE PARASITICA). BY G. E. STONE. The chestnut disease, which has Avronght snch destrnction in the vicinity of New York since 1904, has been observed quite extensively in some parts of our State the past summer (1910). Occasional reports of the disease occurring here and there have been received for three or four years, but such reports, when investigated, proved to be groundless. Whenever a chestnut tree in a more or less unhealthy condition has been observed, the cause of the trouble has promptly been put down as chestnut disease. It is possible that the chestnut disease has been present in Massachusetts for three or four years, but it has not been called to our attention, neither has any systematic attempt been made on our part to locate it. It has been reported by J. F. Collins in Rhode Island, and he has traced it over the Rhode Island line into Massachusetts. The territory which appears to be most severely affected in this State is the Connecticut valley, where the disease may be seen over quite an extensive area. Mr. Sumner C. Brooks went over a considerable territory this past summer and reported several hundred trees affected. Some of them appear to have been dying for three or four years, according to the best information we are able to obtain, and some of the injury may date back even further thau tlmt. The disease exists, no doubt, in other parts of the State, although little has been found at the present lime. From a more or less hasty survey of the State, made by this department last sumuier and fall, together with correspond- ence and iiKpiii'ies, we were able to discover little, if any, of the disease outside of the Connecticut vnllev region. As \n the case lUll.] rUBLlC DOCUMExXT — No. 31. 57 of the elm-leaf beetle and other pests, the disease seemed to be more common at first in the Connecticut valley. The writer has been informed by one who has had some opportunity to observe this disease that it apj)ears to be less prevalent on high elevations than in the valleys. This opinion is, of conrse, based on merely casual observations. Whether there is really any distinct difference between valleys and high elevations as regards the prevalence of this disease wonld be in- teresting to observe. If this were the case, one might expect to find the disease most commonly in the valleys, like the Con- necticut, Blackstone, Housatonic, etc., in this State. It is, how- ever, quite significant that the Connecticut valley region should possess such a large amount of infection as compared with other sections. We have noticed for some time that there is a differ- ence in the degree of winterkilling occurring in valleys and high elevations in this State. By far a greater amount of winter- killing of trees occurred in river valleys and on the lower eleva- tions during the severe winter of 1903-04 than on the higher elevations, the Connecticut valley being especially notable in this respect. It is, moreover, a significant coincidence that the chest- nut disease should make its appearance at about the same time that vegetation was so severely injured by the severe cold which occurred during the Avinter of 1903-04 all over the northeastern part of the United States. Our observations on the effects of meteorological conditions on vegetation, and the unusual opportunities we have had to study shade-tree conditions for some years, have brought to our attention the unusually large amount of dead wood found on chestnut trees the past four or five years. From what we have seen of the chestnut during this period we are of the opinion that it has not been in the best condition during late years, and that the chestnut, like the native white and black oaks, elm, red and rock maples, ash, etc., has been more or less affected by the severe cold and drought of late years. It is intended during the coming year that a more serious and thorough investigation of the cause and distribution of the chestnut disease be made in this State. In the meanwhile it is essential that lumbermen cut off their diseased trees and make use of them now. 58 EXPEKBIEXT STATION. l-Ian. CROWN GALL. BY G. K. STONE. For many years a disease known as crown gall has affected raspberries in this State. The disease is characterized by large abnormal swellings or gall formations near the crown of the roots, and is well known to all raspberry growers. Easpberry plantations are almost invariably affected with crown gall after being set out for a few years, and in the course of time these galls affect the plant to such an extent that the crop is no longer l)rofitable, and it becomes necessary to start a new plantation. In recent years other plants have become affected with crown gall, which is becoming more common on the roots of our fruit trees, notably the apple, pear and peach, although until five or six years ago galls on fruit trees were very rare in ]\rassachu- setts ; at least, if they existed at all they were limited to certain areas, and were brought into the State on infected nursery stock. It is quite certain that the germs of crown gall are not in- digenous to our soil, and in all cases the disease has been intro- duced through nursery stock from outside the State. Apple trees have been grown in the State for years without being af- fected, and it is reasonable to suppose that they may be grown to-day in most of our soil without infection, providing clean stock is secured when planting an orchard. However, when crown gall is once introduced into an orchard it is difficult to prevent even clean stock from becoming infected. The writer knows of a large tract of land, which was, until three years ago, free from crown gall, where to-day it is impossible to plant even seedlings Avithout their becoming infected. The soil in this in- stance was first infected by imjiorted stock ; and undoubtedly by the use of cultivators, etc., the disease germs have been spread over a large part of the cultivated area. The organism causing 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 59 the i>alls is, according to Smith and Townsend,' a s])ccies of bacilhis; and, if true, this would exphiiu the readiness with which the disease spreads and infects heretofore uninfected areas. It appears to be doubtful, however^ whether the organ- ism causing crown gall of the raspberry is identical with that causing the galls on the apple, at least in this territory, since i-aspbcrries have been affected for many years in this State, and fruit trees only recentl}' ; moreover, raspberries have been grown for years in close proximity to fruit trees in all stages of de- velopment without the slightest evidence of gall infection. I'nusual interest is now being shown in fruit growung in this State, and the appearance of a disease of this nature must be given consideration. Considerable difference of opinion exists in regard to the effect crown gall may have upon a tree, and there is still much to be learned in regard to the seriousness of this trouble. Some authorities claim that crown gall does no harm whatsoever, while others give alarming accounts of the serious damage it causes. It would appear, however, that crown gall is less to be dreaded in New England than in some other sec- tions of the United States. This is the opinion of F. C. Stewart of the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., who has had unusual opportunities to observe crown gall in the New York orchards and nurseries. The most intelligent or- chardists, however, prefer stock free from the disease, and most of them refuse to accept contaminated stock from a nursery firm. A very large amount of infected nursery stock has, how- ever, undoubtedly been shipped into this State and planted with- out the buyer knowing that it was affected. We have had many opportunities recently to observe crown gall on apple, pear and peach trees, and in some cases on the Carolina poplar, but we have seen only one or two instances where trees have been so badly affected that they have died from the effects of the disease. Much affected stock has been thrown away and burned, not being considered suitable to place on the market. Crown gall on fruit tree stock has become so general in nurseries at the present time that one large concern has found it practically impossible to obtain stock free from it, and this » E. F. Smith and C. O. Townsend, Science, n. s., Vol. 25, April, 1907, pp. 671-673, also Vol. 30, No. 763, Aug. 13, 1909, p. 223. 60 EXrERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. firm is in a (inandary as tu what to do. When one Las a vunnu' orchard with 50 per cent, or more of the trees afiected, the ques- tion arises as to what should be done with it. It is possible, also, that one might obtain stock from a nursery free from galls, yet the soil from which they were taken may have been contam- inated, and in this way the disease might break out later, when the stock was transplanted. Even though it is not certain that crown gall on fruit trees is of serious consequence, affected trees ai-e certainly not in a normal condition, and the functions of the tr(>e must be more or less interfered with, since the conductive tissues in the galls are to a greater or less extent misplaced and contorted, according to the severity of infection. There is, moreover, a risk in planting trees affected with gall, since one can never know when some complicated trouble may arise, owing to the presence of such malformed tissue. There is a great deal known in regard to the effects of galls on plants in general, and it is known that they cause much injury. The writer has devoted many years to the study of galls caused by eel worms (Ileterodera). Some plants affected with eel-worm galls present few abnormal features as regards vigor and yield, while others become sickly, and many die outright. Tomatoes grown under glass are often affected quite severely with galls caused by eel worms. These very rarely, if ever, kill the plant, and in the great majority of cases, so far as we have observed, do not affect them severely. On the other hand, cucumbers appear to be often seriously affected, and while many ])lants will live when the roots are covered with galls, others will die. and the yield is, in practically all cases, materially reduced. Aiuskmelon plants are even more severely affected with eel-worm galls than cucumbers ; to such an extent, in fact, that it is seldom that an affected plant is not killed before reaching two or throe feet in length. The roots of roses are also susceptible to eel worms, which form almost microscopic galls, and often reduce the productiveness of this crop 75 per cent. A considerable loss of money has been experienced by rose growers from this cause. This is also true of violets. According to our own exj^eriments 191L] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 61 the yield of violets is greatly affected by these galls, and the l)laiits often die outright. In conclusion it might be said that the effects of crown gall (ui fruit trees may have been often exaggerated. There is a ])robability of some young nursery stock affected with crown gall developing into good trees, but clean stock should he ob- tained from localities free from the gall, if possible. Many States have laws for the purpose of excluding crown gall stock, but this disease has become so common, and certain varieties of nursery stock so scarce, that it is a question whether at the pres- ent time Massachusetts nurserymen would he able to supply the demand for clean material for contemplated orchards if a pro- hibitory law were passed. 62 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. FUSARIUM DISEASE OF CUCUMBERS AND OTHER PLANTS. BY G. E, STONE, A type of disease caused by one or more species of Fusarium occnrring on different plants gives rise to what are known as wilts, stem rots, etc. Fusariuvi tronbles have become more com- mon of late years, and many houses which have been entirely free from them in the past now seem to become affected sooner or later. The dry stem rot of the carnation, caused by Fusa- riinu, was unknown to florists years ago, but for ten years or more it has been one of the most common and dreaded pests known to carnation growers. Fusarium stem troubles have l)een observed occasionally on greenhouse tomatoes for the past few years, but fortunately no great amount of damage has so far re- sulted from this disease. Asters, chrysanthemums, potatoes, etc.. are affected with Fvsarium stem rots, and in the case of the aster the disease is often quite connnon and destructive. Fusarium troubles of a minor and insignificant character have in previous years been found on greenhouse cucumbers, and within the last year a few serious cases of infection have been brought to our attention. All these cases were confined to green- houses, and were severe enough in some instances to entirely ruin the crop. The material sent in to the laboratory showed both roots and stems affected with the fungus. The summer crop of muskmelons, grown in the department's conservatory, was also affected badly, the disease appearing first on a few plants, but eventually s])reading over practically the whole house. Tt was first characterized by a wilting of the leaves, which was more noticeable in warm, sunshiny weather. At first there is a tendency for the leaves to recover in the night 1911.] PUBLIC D0CUMP:NT — No. 31. 63 after wilting occurs, hut as the disease becomes more severe tlie plants wilt more badly, and after a time die. Examination of the roots and stems near the surface of the ground showed evidence of the fungus Fusarlinn. In some instances this fun- gus has been traced quite largely to the roots and stems. The fungus develops princi])ally in the wood ducts, eventually clog- ging them by shutting off the water supply from the roots. As the disease has been called to our attention only recently we have not had an opportunity to study it thoroughly or to give the matter of remedies much consideration. It nuiy be found, however, that, like many others, it will prove to be merely spo- radic, and little may be heard from it in the future ; although on the other hand, it may become a permanent and serious trouble. Cucumber crops are unusually susceptible to certain troubles which in many cases are traceable directly to mismanagement. Practically all cucumber growers force their plants to the limit, regardless of external weather conditions, in this respect differ- ing from florists and other market gardeners, who endeavor to adapt their crops to weather conditions. Too much forcing in the fall months, when the sunlight is poor, produces a tender tissue peculiarly susceptible to disease, and is a bad practice. There is no doubt, in the writer's estimation, that crowding the plants and extensive forcing, especially when the sunlight is poor, are responsible for a large part of the modern Fiisarium troubles. Some years ago we found in our experiments that young aster plants which had been forced under glass in ster- ilized soil were decidedly more susceptible to stem rot than those grown in ordinary soil out of doors. The sterilized plants grew so rapidly that the tissue was very tender ; whereas those grown out of doors formed tissue of an entirely different texture, which was less susceptible to disease. The stems of cucumber plants are often in bad condition near the surface of the ground, due to a combination of circumstances. Mites, eel worms, bacteria, etc., often affect the stem at this point, causing lesions and seri- ous disruption of the tissue, and stems in this condition easily become affected with one trouble or another. The Fumr'mm 64 EXrERIMEXT STATION. [Jan. trouble at present aijpcars to Ije merely incidcnital, attacking the weakened stems at the surface of the ground; but further oIj- servations on this point are necessary. Sunlight constitutes the best factoi' for hardening up tissue, and the degree of resistance of the stems to disease coincides with the amount of light they receive. Besides sunlight, plenty of air is needed for the hardening of tissue, and if more atten- tion were given by cucumber growers to adapting their plants to external conditions, healthier and stockier plants would be pro- duced. On cloudy days the night and day temperatures should be lower than on bright, sunshiny days, and in this way the new tissue, as well as the old, becomes hardened, and is less suscepti- ble to attacks from various organisms. Lettuce growers are always very careful to lower the day tem- peratures in cloudy weather, whereas in periods of sunshine higher temperatures are maintained. They force their plants, to be sure, but use the greatest judgment in doing it. whereas cucumber growers, as a rule, pay little or no attention to outside conditions. Experiments are now under way for the further study of this trouble, and various treatments will be tried. There have recently been reported from other States serious troubles affecting outdoor crops of melons and cucumbers, char- acterized by wilting and dying of the plants. Serious loss was reported in Rhode Island the past sunmier resulting from some blight. F. L. Stewart has described a serious blight of melons occurring in Xew York State, ^ and L. R. Jones has described a bacterial blight in "\''ermont.^ Both of these blights are differ- ent from the one described above. Our attention has often been called to the cracking or split- ting of melons in the fall. This occurs on mature, ripe melons, and in our opinion it is caused by the absorption of water by the fruit. When melons are lying on the ground the water some- times gains entrance to the blossom end of the fruit, causing an increased turgescence of the inner tissues which exerts such a pressure on the fi-uit that it cracks. "We have been able to pro- ' Cioneva, N. Y., Agrioviltural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin No. 0, 1009. ' Vermont .Agricultural Experiment Station, Rulletin No. 148, 1910. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 65 duce this cracking of the fruit by phicing the blossom eiuls in saucers of water. Sliced luelous, when i)laced in a dish of water, will straighten out noticeably, from the excessive absorp- tion of water by the inner cells. On tlie other hand. wh(Mi sliced melons are placed in normal salt solutions of certain strengths the melon will contract or curl up. 66 P:XPERIMEXT station. [Jan. CONDITION OF FRUIT TREES IN GENERAL. BY G. E. STONE. Any one who has been acquainted for any length of time with the fruit inchistry of this State ninst have noticed its condition the past few years. ^Massachusetts has never been noted as an extensive fruit-growing State, and very few large orchard enter- prises have ever been developed. There have also been com- paratively few orchards which have been kept in first-class condition ; in fact, the condition of fruit trees has never been so bad in the history of the Commonwealth as during the past four or five years. The severe and erratic climatic conditions to which our fruit trees, in particular, have been subject, together with the San Jose scale, have been the means of killing thou- sands of our fruit trees, and greatly lessening their productive- ness and the quality of the fruit. All this, combined with wholesale neglect, has placed the fruit industry at a very low level, and it is not at all surprising that apples bring at times a very low price. The severe winter of 1903-04 was not confined to our State, as its work may be seen throughout the whole north- eastern section of the United States, and in many instances large orchards were wiped out entirely. From observations made in oth^r States it would appear that our trees do not suffer so severely as in some other places, but the fruit has been of exceptionally poor quality. A large part of the injury to apple trees was confined to the roots, although a large amount of sun scald, which was subsequently associated with canker, was noticeable on the branches. Good systematic pruning, feeding and cultivation would have remedied much of this injurv, but mitil the past year or so, when there has been a renewed interest in orcharding, no attempt has been made to renovate these n(>glected orchards. The remarkable pi"ice which 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67 wenteru apples bring in our markets has stimulated Massachu- setts urcliardists to make use of better scientific methods in fruit growing, and it is no exaggeration to state that there have been more pruning, spraying, cultivating and fertilizing apple or- chards in the past year in this State than for thirty years before. This increased interest is being shown by professional orchard- ists as well as by smaller gTOwers, and the quality and yield of fruit the past season is ample proof of the great value of this treatment. It is, however, a significant fact that the few first- class apple orchards which are to be seen here and there have- not experienced the same setback, either from scale or winterkilling, that the neglected trees have, and some orchards have been pro- ducing good fruit each year, althongh the severe drought which we have experienced the last two or three years has affected trees somewhat. Peach orchards have suffered severely of late years from root killing and other troubles, and some of the orchards which were in excellent condition a few years ago are looking badly now. Some growers attribute this deterioration to peach " yellows." A large part of what is supposed to be " yellows " is not this at all, and the yellow foliage and general unhealthy condition which have been common the past few years are nothing more or less than the effects of unfavorable climatic conditions. Pear, quince and cherry trees have likewise suffered from scale and winter injury in the same way that apple trees have. The pear, moreover, has been affected severely by aphis and surface molds. This could have been remedied by spraying with whale oil soap or kerosene emulsion. The quince has been rather badly af- fected by rust. Practically all the old cherry trees have suf- fered serious injury, and, as few new trees have been set out, cherries are becoming scarce. The small fruits, such as the raspberry, blackberry and strawberry, owe much of their present condition to unfavorable climatic conditions, and the cane blight, which has recently affected raspberries, etc., may be merely a secondary effect of some other cause. It is, however, necessary that the work of spraying fruit trees be continued, since the results obtained fully justify the extra expense involved. The treatment necessary for fruit trees in 68 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. general inaj be summarized as follows: if scale is present, spray in the fall with some reliable oil. In the early s^jring spray again with lime and sulfur, before the leaves appear. About the time the petals fall, spray again with arsenate of lead, for codling moth. Ordinarily this spraying is sufficient, but if any fungous troubles appear, a later spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture, or with dilute or self-boiled lime sulfur, would be valuable. These various treatments are reconnnended for both fungi and insects, and although the oil, and lime and sulfur treatment are especially applicable for scale, it has been found that the latter, particularly, has proved to be the most effective fungicide we have. Even one application of lime and sulfur in the spring has a remarkable effect as a fungicide throughout the whole sea- son, and in our opinion it is more efficient than any number of sprayings with Bordeaux mixture for certain troubles common to fruit trees. Arsenate of lead is primarily for codling moth, but this, too, has fungicidal properties, according to the writer's observations. We believe that for orchards which are well pruned, cultivated and fertilized the three sprayings recom- mended above would be sufficient for any ordinary year, and in case the scale is not present, the oil treatment could be left out. The lime and sulfur, however, is worth applying every year, whether the scale is present or not, owing to its remarkable fungicidal properties. There are now on the market many kinds of oils and concentrated forms of lime and sulfur which can be used to advantage. It is a question, however, whether the con- centrated forms are as effective as the home-made. Much atten- tion is now being given to the self-boiled lime and sulfur, but it is somewhat too early to state definitely its value as a fungicide. The apple industry is now booming in this State. Many young orchards are being set out ; more attention is being given to pruning, spraying and cultivating, and within a few years there will be numy more good orchards than at ]iresent. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — x\o. 31. 01) A NEW TYPE OF SPRAY NOZZLE. BY G. E. STONE. For some years the Avriter has given considerable attention to the iniproA'enieut of nozzles, and has experimented with various types. In a preceding article on the spraying of trees we have already referred to the importance of nozzles being adapted to specific cases, and from time to time we have sketched and had constructed in a simple way new types of nozzles, which have been tested. The principles involved in these nozzles were in many cases new, but when the nozzles were constructed and tried out, some of them, as might be expected, were more or less fail- ures. Various methods and devices were used and tested to break up the spray, and in one case a rotary wheel of a turbine type was tried. Without going into a detailed description of the various types of nozzles which we have worked upon we will confine our atten- tion to one of these which has proved to be remarkably satisfac- tory in spraying large trees from a high-pressure machine. This nozzle is shown in Fig. 1, at A. It consists of a nozzle screwed tightly onto the tip of a standard attachment provided with shut- off, such as is often employed in spraying work (see B). The attachment, however, is incidental, as it may be fitted to -any suitable metal connection threaded to fit, and provided with a hose connection at the lower end. The essential part of the nozzle, as shown at .1, consists of a small brass tip, t, about iVj inches long, provided with an aperture at the end Vs of an inch in diameter, although sometimes an aperture of ■>-?2 or /4o of an inch in diameter has been employed. About an inch or more above the center of the aperture there is placed a solid brass rod, c, 1/4 of an inch in diameter. This is attached to another rod, d, by means of a thin sheet of brass; the rod, d, works in a socket, and allows the pointed brass rod, A, to be throAvn in or 70 EXPERLMEXT STATION, [Jan. out of center at will. The object of this center brass rod, c, is to take the spray as it comes out of the %-inch nozzle under high pressure and break it up into a fine mist, and Avith the pressure which we used it is capable of throwing the mist 20 or 25 feet. This is sufficient to reach, from a ladder, most of the foliage on In case it is necessary to reach higher, the ad- a large elm tree 9 d Ft'i. 1. — Showing a new type of spray nozzle adapted to high-pressure work on large trees. A, essential part of nozzle; B, ordinary attachment provided with shut-off; C, nozzle enlarged without a guard; t, small brass tip; e, guard; c, pointed brass rod to break the spray; d, rod to support the same. justnient is thrown out of the center and the spray goes directly through the i/y-inch aperture. By this means a greater dis- tance and carrying power are secured, although not so fine a spray. This type of nozzle has ])roved to be very successful, and Avas used throughout the whole summer with the best results. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 71 111 the drawing the nozzle is shown surrounded by a shield, c, which was for the purpose of protecting the point, c. The nozzle as originally constructed was not provided with a shield, being used for some days without it, but with the hard usage which it received we found that the adjustment was likely to be injured. The nozzle was used in connection with a machine giving 250 pounds' pressure, and the spraying mixture was carried through a 1-inch hose. This nozzle was used, the past summer, in spraying over 1,000 trees, having an average diameter of about 22 inches. Careful estimates made showed that the average amount of arsenate of lead per tree was 1.7 pounds, or about 17 gallons of arsenate of lead in solution. The cost of spraying each tree, including the labor, gasolene and lead, was 55 cents. A smaller number of the same trees were sprayed some years ago at a cost of $1.50 ])er tree; but the spraying with the new nozzle and machine was in every way as good, and the cost about two-thirds less per tree, as by the more costly method, which consisted in the use of the Vermorel and other fine-mist nozzles. 72 EXrEiiLMKXT STATION. [Jan. DISTILLERY AND BREWERY BY-PRODUCTS, BY J. B. LINDSKY. A. DisTiLLEKs' Dried Grains. (a) What they are. Distillers' dried grains represent the residue from the manu- facture of alcohol, spirit and whiskey from the several cereals. Briefly stated, the process of manufacture consists in treating the gi'ound grains with a solution of malt at a temperature of about 145° F., in order to convert the starch into sugar. The barley and other cereals from which the malt is made, as well as the malt sprouts, are added as a part of the malt solution. After the changing of the starch into sugar, the entire mass is cooled to a temperature of 60° to 70° F., and yeast added, thus changing the sugar into alcohol, which is distilled. The residue or distillery slop is filtered, dried by steam in especially constructed driers, and put upon the market as a cattle food. It consists chiefly of the hulls, germ and other nonfermentable portions of the grains. It has more or less of a sour taste and smell, due to the fermentation. In order to be of satisfact(u-y quality, the mash should be dried at once after the process of fermentation is completed. If allowed to stand too long it is more or less contaminated with acid and other injurious prod- ucts of fungous and bacterial action. If heated too hot dur- ing the drying process it is scorched, which causes a dis- agreeable burnt taste and odor, and a lessened digestibility. A well-dried product should be of a light brown color and possess a i)leasant odor. Experienced parties state that the quality of the dried grains deppuds, first, upon the quality of the dis- tillers' mashes (upon the kinds and proportions of the grains eni])loyed) ; second, upon the distillers' mode of mashing; and third, upon the process of drying. 1911. J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 73 (b) Classification of Disiillers (Jrains. The grains may be classified as follows, according to the source from which they are derived : — 1. Alcohol and spirit grains are produced by the alcohol and s])irit distillers, located in Indiana, Illinois and Ohio ; they arc the most uniform in gTade, corn being practically the only grain used. The yearly product is from 50,000 to 60,000 tons. 2. Bourbon whiskey grains, from the whiskey distilleries, located mostly in Kentucky, vary in composition according to the proportion of corn, rye and malt in their mashes. The larger the proportion of corn and the smaller that of rye and malt (small grain, so called), the higher the grade of dry grains produced. The distilleries producing these grains run about one hundred and fifty days between jSTovember and July, and turn out from 27.500 to 35,000 tons. 3. Rye whiskey grains, from the rye whiskey distilleries, lo- cated near Pittsburg, Pa., and Baltimore, Md., run during the winter and spring, and may produce approximately 7,500 tons. (r) Disposition of Disiillers' Grains. Formerly practically all of the dried grains were ex})orted. About ten years ago the home market was sought, and consid- erable quantities were sold unmixe ])er ton in bags at wholesale, f. o. b., Boston points, which would be equivalent to substantially $1 ])er hundred at retail. Such a price renders this article quite economical for northern feeders. (d) Composition of Distillers' Gniins. The following summary rei>resents the average percentages of the ordinary food groups in the several varieties of grains : — 74 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. -J t. e- '^ a c ^1 'o c «^ a 2; ■< 2 E w i Distillers' grains (alcohol and spirit), 81 8 1.7 31.7 12.3 34.1 12.2 Distillers' grains (whiskey), . 1 7 2 5 26.2 11.5 43.0 9.8 Distillers' grains (rye), . 5 7 16 15 6 13.5 55 A . 6.9 The alcohol grains are the only ones nsually found in the Massachusetts markets. They contain 80 or more per cent, of protein and about 12 per cent, each of fiber and fat. The rye grains reach ^15 to 16 per cent, of protein, and contain some 13 or more per cent, of fiber. Recent analyses show that sub- stantially all of the crude protein in distillers' grains is present as true albuminoids. (e) Digestibility of DistiJIci's' Grains (Per Cent.) Alcohol and Whiskev (17 Trials. 8 Lots). Gluten Feed for Comparison. Rye Grains (2 Trials, 1 Lot). Wheat Bran for Comparison. Dry matter, 79 88 58 66 Protein, 73 85 59 77 Fiber, 95 87 50 39 Extract matter, 81 90 67 71 Fat, 95 81 84 63 The alcohol or corn grains show a somewhat lower digesti- bility than does the gluten feed, but are much more digestible than the rye grains. If the average percentage composition is multiplied by the above digestion coefficients, we have the per- centage or ]iounds digestible in 100: — Alcohol Grains. Gluten Feed. Rye Grains. Wheat Bran for Comparison. Protein, Fiber, Extract matter, Fat 23 1 11.7 27,6 11.6 22 0 6.3 48.0 2.6 9 20 6.75 37.12 5.80 12.4 3.9 37.8 2.8 Total 74.0 78.9 58.87 56.9 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 75 On the basis of the experiments and estimates made by K di- ner, allowing for losses in the («) ftEces or undigested material, {[)) incompletely used material or urine, (c) work required in the processes of digestion and assimilation, the following net energy values (expressed in therms ^) are calculated in 100 pounds of the several feeds: alcohol grains, 80.2; gluten feed, 77.8-; rye grains, 54.9 ; wheat bran, -19. It will thus be seen that the alcohol distillers' grains and gluten feed ajiproach each other quite closely in feeding value, and likewise the rye grains and wheat bran. A carefully conducted feeding trial with 6 cows,- in which a good quality of alcohol distillers' grains was compared with gluten feed, led to the following conclusions : — 1. The experiment has shown the distillers' grains to be fully equal, if not rather superior, to standard gluten feed in their nutritive value, and Avithout objectionable effect on the health of the animal, 2. Their bulky nature enhances their value as a grain feed for most kinds of farm stock. 3. The flavor and keeping quality of the milk appeared in no way to be affected Avhen this food constituted one-half of the daily grain ration. It must be understood that grains that have undergone serious fermentation before drying cannot be considered as a first-class food, and their use is not recommended for either dairy animals or for horses. (/) How fo use the Grains. For Horses. — Plumb,^ as a result of feeding distillers' grains to horses, found that some of the animals did not relish the product. The Massachusetts Agricultural College has fed its farm horses, with excellent results, a ration containing one- fourth distillers' grains ; Pott * reports favorably on the use of CA/2 pounds distillers' grains in place of 8 pounds oats; also ' The therm represents the amount of heat required to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1° C. It is fo be preferred to the small or large calorie as a unit of measurement, because it can be expressed in fewer figures. 2 Bulletin 94, Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 6-10. ' Bulletin 97, Indiana Experiment Station. * Handbuch der tier. Ernahrung, etc., vnn Pott, ITT Band, p. 29.3. 76 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2^/4 pounds distillers' grains, 21/4 pounds brewers' grains and 9 pounds corn in place of *J pounds oats and 9 pounds corn. For Fattening Cattle. — JMay ^ reports quite satisfactory re- sults in feeding by weight one-half distillers' grains and one- half corn and cob meal to fattening cattle. It is believed that such a proportion is a desirable one, and that the distillers' grains can be thus utilized to good advantage. For Pigs. — The distillers' dried grains are less desirable as a food for pigs, owing, partially at least, to the considerable amount of fiber present. They could probably be fed to better advantage in their natural state, i.e., in the form of distillery slop. For Dairy Animals. — The distillers' grains have been found to be exceedingly well suited to milk ])rodiietion. A few ra- tions are suggested : — 100 poimds distillers' grains. 100 pounds malt sprouts. 150 pounds corn meal. 50 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 i>ounds (7 to 8 quarts) daily. TI. 150 pounds distillers' grains. 1.10 pounds standard middlings. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal. Mix and feed 7 jDounds or quarts daily. III. 150 pounds distillers' grains. 50 pounds corn or hominy meal. 50 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds or quarts daily. B. Brewers' Dried Grains. {a) Cliarariev of ilie Grains. Brewers' drie stances, together with the hull, g(>rm and gluten of the barley. Most of the true starch is removed by the action of the malt and yeast. Grains that have been dried immediately are of a yellowish green color, and have a faint aromntic smell. Dark- brown colored grains have been injured before being driefl, or I R\illetin 108, Kentucky FAperimont Station. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 77 have been heated at too high a teinperatiire, thus causing decom- position. Juried grains are fed quite extensively in Europe, and to some extent in the United States. European investi- gators consider freshly dried grains as healthful as untreated barley, oats or corn. At present there are some 40 breweries in Massachusetts. The residue is jDractically all sold undried to farmers living in the immediate vicinity. The comparatively small amount of dried grains consumed in this State comes from the vicinity of ISTew York, Chicago and Milwaukee. (h) Composition of tJie Grains (Per Cent.). Brewers' Grains (Average 19 Samples). Wheat Bran for Comparison. Water, . Ash, Protein, . Fiber, . Extract matter. Fat, 10.0 3.6 24.0 13.4 42.8 6.2 10.0 6.2 16.1 10.5 52.6 5 0 Til chemical comiX)sition the brewers' grains differ from the bran in having noticeably more protein, somewhat more fiber and less extract matter. Two samples of grains recently col- lected show 27 and 33 per cent, of protein ; the latter figure is unusual, and may have been due to the use of some corn in the mash. (c) Comparaiive Digestibility. On the basis of the average analysis, 100 pounds of the In'ewers' grains and of the bran contain the following amounts of digestible nutrients:- — Brewers' Grains Wheat Bran (Per (Per Cent.). Cent.). Protein, . Fiber, . Extract matter. Fat, Total, 78 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Each of the two feedsturts contains substantially the same amounts of digestible nutrients. The net energy values ex- pressed in therms are as follows: brewers' dried grains, 50; wheat bran, 40 ; or the brewers' grains are worth 10 per cent, more than the bran. An experiment conducted at this station with 6 dairy cows, in which brewers' grains were compared with wheat bran, led to the following conclusions : — 1. The brewers' grains ration produced slightly more live weight, milk and milk ingredients than did the bran ration. 2. Brewers' grains did not show any objectionable effect either on the general condition of the animal or on the flavor and keeping quality of the milk. They are nearly as bulky as bran, and serve as a distributor of the heavy concentrates. (d) The Use of Brewers' Grains. Only those grains that have a light color and are free from rancidity or sour taste and smell should be used. Grains that have stood for any length of time before drying have fermented, and are not satisfactory as a food. For Horses. — Brewers' dried grains serve excellently as a partial oat substitute for horses, 2 pounds of the grains being equivalent to 21/2 pounds of oats.^ Voorhees - states that brew- ers' dried grains are a wholesome, nutritious and palatable horse feed. He recommends for work horses, on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight, 2 pounds bran, 4 pounds corn, S^/o pounds brewers' gi'ains and 6 pounds hay. Very satisfactory results are reported when hard-worked team horses received a daily ration of brewers' dried grains and hay.^ The total amount of dried grains to be fed daily will naturally depend upon the size of the animal and the amount and character of the work performed. From 3 to 8 pounds may be considered satisfactory, the balance of the grain to consist of corn and oats, or corn and wheat bran. For Pir/s. — Because of their deficiency in ash and starch, and of the excess of hulls, the dried grains are not to be partic- » Pott, already cited, pp. 241, 242. 2 Bulletin 92, New Jersey Experiment Station. 1911.1 PUBLIC DOCUMExNT — No. 31. 79 ularly recommeuded eitbei- for growing or fattening pigs. When fed in connection with :skini milk in place of corn, thcj have not produced as satisfactory a gain in live weight. For Fattening Cattle. — The brewers' gTains are quite sat- isfactory for fattening beef animals, in the proportion, by weight, of one-third of the grains and two-thirds of corn. For Mill- Production. — The dried grains are very satisfac- tory as a food for the production of milk ; they may be used in place of wheat bran. T. 125 pounds brewers' praiiis. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal. 75 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds or quarts daily. II. 150 pounds brewers' ^Tains. 75 pounds flour middliuiis. 50 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds or quarts dailv. III. 100 pounds brewers' grains. 100 pounds coarse middlings. 100 pounds gluten feed. Mix and feed 7 jiounds (8 quarts) daily. The above rations are for average-sized cows yielding 10 to 12 (juarts of average milk daily. The amount may be increased or diminished, depending \\\)0\\ size of animals, yield of milk, etc. For Young Stocl'. — Because of their deficiency in ash, not o\'er 25 ]ier cent, of the grain ration should consist of brewers' dried grains. They may be c<^mbined with bran, coarse mid- dlings and cottonseed meal, by weight, one-fourth l)rewers' grains, one-half coarse middlings, one-fourth cottonseed meal; or one-fourth brewers' grains, one-fourth corn and cob meal, one- fourth coarse middlings, one-fourth cottonseed meal. (e) Brewers' Wet Grains. Brewers' wet grains contain 75 to 77 pounds of water in 100, and are practically all sold to farmers living in the immediate vicinity of the brewery, at prices ranging from 10 to 12 cents a bushel. i\.ssuniing that 33 bushels weigh a ton, the cost would 80 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. be from $3.30 to $4 at the brewery, to which the cost of cartage should be added. Four tons of wet grains contain nutritive material equivalent to that found in 1 ton of dry grains, or in 1.1 tons wheat bran, or in ^ ton gluten feed. With these data at hand, the i)urchaser of this material can calculate at what price he can secure an equal amount of nutrients in the various dry feedstutfs. The writer has not had an}' experience in feed- ing wet grains, but believes that !25 pounds is a fair allowance daily for average-sized cows.^ In addition, 2 to 4 pounds of dry grain may be fed daily, such as a mixture of equal parts by weight of (1) mixed wheat feed and gluten feed, (2) wheat bran and fine middling.-^, or (3) wheat bran and com meal. The succulency of the wet grains is a factor not to be over- looked in estimating the value of the feed. It is not believed that the brewers' wet gi-ains are an objectionable feedstuff when fed in a fresh condition and in moderate (piantities. It must be remembered, however, that they are likely to sjwil easily, excepting when the temperature is low, and the partly decom- posed grains would not be considered suitable for producing first-class milk. "When milk is intended for the use of infants, young children or invalids, it is better not to use the wet grains. C. Malt Sprouts. (a) ^Iciluul of Prcjmi-afion. ]\Ialt used in the manufacture of beer is prepared by mois- tening barley and allowing it to sprout in a warm atmosphere, thus ]u'oducing a ferment called dia.stase, which readily con- \-('rts starch into sugar. After the sprouting process has con- tinued a number of days, the barley is dried, the sprouts re- moved by machinery and sold for cattle feed ; each 100 pounds of malted barley yields about 4 pounds of s])routs. Sprouts of fir.st quality are about Vi of nu imli long, thread-like in appear- nuce, slightly curled, of a yellow or of a brownish yellow color, and form a cris]), porous and bulky mass. ^Mixed with the sprouts one often notes more or less malted barley kernels, ' It is understood that 50 or more pounds are frequently fed daily. It is believed, however, that the sm.aller quantity is preferable when the grains are fed continuously, and it is desired to retain the same animals in the herd from year to year. 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 81 dust and ash. The presence of the dust and ash is due to the fact that some of the sprouts are particularly rich in ashy mat- ter, and because this ashy matter and dust have not been fully removed. Well-cleaned sprouts should be given the prefer- ence. (h) Covipusition (Per Cent.). Average 32 Samples. Average C5erniaQ Sprouts. ' Water, . .\sh, Protein, . Fiber, . Extract matter. Fat, Total, U.O 5.9 26.4 12.3 43.1 1.3 100.0 10.0 7.2 24.4 14.0 42.4 2.0 100.0 The sprouts are characterized by a high percentage of crude protein, considerable liber and little fat. While the nitroge- nous matter in the sprouts is usually designated as true pro- tein, it is well known that from one-fourth to one-third of the nitrogen exists in the form of amids,^ hence the sprouts contain about 18 per cent, of true protein. Amid bodies are sources of heat and energy, and seem to protect the rapid breaking up of the true protein in the animal body, but they cannot produce flesh or milk casein. The extract matter contains a large amount of cane sngar, a little invert sugar and a considerable amount of pentosans. The fiber content is often increased by the presence of barley hulls. The ash is rich in potash and phosphoric acid and deficient in lime. 1 E. Pott, already cited, p. 222. 2 In the process of growth the plant elaborates the nitrates of the soil, first, into amid com- pounds,— partially developed protein, — -and finally into the completed product, or true protein which is largely deposited in the seed. When the seed begins to sprout the true protein is con- verted back into the soluble amids, to enable the young sprouts to utilize it. Amids may bo defined, so far as their use in the plant is concerned, as transportable protein. 82 EXi'EULMEXT STATION. [Jan. (c) DlgcsiiblHiij. One hundred puunda contain: — Pounds. l^rotein, 20.1 Fiber, 12.2 Extract matter, 36.6 Fat, 1.1 Total, 70.0 The sprouts have a relatively high digestibility and a net energy value of 5G.4, just about equivalent to that for brewers' dried grains. {d) The Use of Malt Sprouts. Malt sprouts are at present used in considerable quantities as a component of many proprietary dairy feeds. They are particularly suited for dairy animals and for fattening cattle. For Dairy Coivs. — This station compared malt sprouts with gluten feed, using four animals in two three-week periods. The malt-sprout ration gave as satisfactory results as did the gluten- feed ration. Foreign investigators state that they are valued for milk production because of the stimulating effect of the amido bodies (and perhaps, also, of the betain and cholin which they contain) u])ou the mannnary glands. If over 2 pounds daily are fed, it is advisable to mix them with water, otherwise digestive disturbances may result. Fed in dry condition in any considerable amount they are likely to be refused by many animals. T. 100 pounds malt sprouts. 100 pounds corn meal. 100 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8 quarts) daily. III. 3 pounds (.5 quai'ts) malt sprouts. 2 pounds (3V2 quarts) brewers' grains. 2 pounds (1^2 quarts) fine niid- dlinc's. II. 100 pounds malt sprouts. 125 pounds rye feed. 75 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8 quarts) daily. IV. 3 pounds (5 quarts) malt sprouts. 2 pounds (2 quarts) hominy meal. 2 ]iounds (11/2 quarts) cottonseed meal. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 83 In case of rations III. and IW, it wonld be advisable to thoroughly moisten the sprouts and then mix the other two grains with them. If the sprouts are not fed in excess of 2 I)ounds daily^ they can replace wheat bran pound for pound in any grain ration. An excess of sprouts is to be avoided be- cause they are deficient in lime, and also because they are likely to cause abortion and possible failure to breed. Pott states that over 3.5 pounds daily arc likely to impart an aromatic bitter taste to the milk, sometimes diminishing and sometimes increas- ing its fat content. Fo7' Fattening Oxen. — Some 2 to 4 pounds daily of malt sprouts (moistened) mixed with corn meal can be utilized with good results for fattening cows or steers. For Young Calves. — According to F. Lehmann/ after the animals are three months old, malt sprouts, thoroughly mois- tened with boiling water, can be fed lukewarm, beginning with small amounts and gradually increasing to 1 to 2 pounds per day. A few pounds per day can also be fed to growing stock, mixed with middlings and corn meal if the animals receive a good quality of hay. For Horses. — German feeders frequently, with satisfactory results^ feed to horses 2 to 5 pounds daily of malt sprouts mois- tened with water, in place of a like amount of oats. The sprouts should be fed in small amounts at first (1 pound daily), until the animals become accustomed to them. > Pott, already cited, p. 226. 84 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. THE FEEDING VALUE OF APPLE POMACE. BY J. B. LINDSKY. There is often considerable discussion in the agricultural press and among farmers concerning the value of apple pomace as a food for dairy and beef cattle. With a view to getting a few positive data, this station instituted a number of experi- ments, the results of which are here briefly stated. (a) Com position of . 4.]) pie Pomace {Per Cent.) • Water. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Extract Matter. Fat. Sample I Sample II., Corn silage for compariaon, 81.40 80 20 80.00 .73 .60 1.10 .94 1.01 1.70 3.00 3 19 5.40 13.03 13.73 11.10 .90 1.27 .70 It will be seen from the above figures that apple pomace is a carbohydrate feed similar to corn silage. It contains about the same amount of water, rather less protein and fiber, and a larger proportion of extract matter. Whether the extract matter in the pomace is as valuable, pound for pound, as that contained in the corn, has not been thoroughly demonstrated. (h) Digestibility of Apple Pomace. The value of a feed cannot always be measured by its compo- sition. A food is valuable as a source of nutrition only in so far as its various constituents can be digested and assimilated. This station has made two difi"erent experiments to ascertain the digestibility of the pomace, and the detailed results are to bo found in the seventeenth report of this station. The sum- mar v follows : — 1911. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 85 Summary of Experimenta {Per Cent.). Number of Single Trials. Dry Matter. Ash. Protein. Fiber. E.\ tract Matter. Fat. Apple pomace (first experi- ment). Apple pomace (second exper- iment). 3 3 72.5 70.6 54.7 42.8 61.6 67.3 84.5 84.3 47.2 43 4 Average Dent corn silage (for com- parison). Flint corn silage (small vari- eties). 6 17 11 71.5 64.0 75.0 48 7 .52.0 65 0 64.4 62.0 77.0 84.4 69.0 79.0 45 3 85.0 82.0 The results show the total dry matter in apple pomace to be about as digestible as in the best grades of silage. The protein content of the pomace is small. — about 1 per cent., — and it has not been possible, by present methods, to ascertain its di- gestibility. Judging from the composition and digestibility of the pomace, one would feel justified in assuming that, pound for pound, it should approach in feeding value an average quality of corn silage. (c) Experiments vitli Dairy Animals. While this station has not carried out any exhaustive com- parative tests with pomace and other coarse feeds, it has fed the pomace a number of seasons to dairy animals. The material was drawn fresh from the mill, and placed in a large pile under cover. A noticeable quantity of juice gradually drained from it, but it kept in good condition for two months. The animals received from 1.5 to 30 pounds daily, ate it readily, and the results were quite satisfactory. In one case 2 cows were fed alternately, four weeks at a time, on grain and hay, and on grain, hay and pomace ; 25 pounds of pomace were compared with 5 pounds of hay. During the pomace period the animals produced 1,153 pounds of milk, and gained 24 pounds in live weight; during the hay period. 1,138 pounds of milk, and lost 0 pounds in weight. On this basis 5 pounds of pomace were more than equivalent to 1 pound of hay. Judging from this feeding test, and from the composition and digestibility of the 86 EXPEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. jjomace, it seems probable that 4 pounds, when fed in what is termed a '' balanced ration/' would be equal in feeding vahie to 1 pound of good cow liay. The Vermont Ex2>erinient Station has fed aj^ple pomace for four years, using in all -li) cows in the several trials. The jDomace was shoveled into the silo, leveled off, and kept in good condition without further care. In some cases it was placed on top of the corn silage after the latter had settled. The quan- tity fed varied from 10 to ^5 pounds daily, with no unfavorable effects. As a result of the several experiments, the Vermont station concludes that the i)oniace is equivalent in feeding value to an equal weight of average corn silage,^ and that it is without injurious effect on the flavor of milk and butter. Farmers are cautioned not to feed too large quantities at first, but to begin with 10 pounds daily, and to gradually in- crease the quantity to 30 pounds, taking a week or more in which to do it. In this way, danger of a sudden milk shrinkage or of the animals getting " off feed," as is sometimes reported, may be avoided. Judging from all the data available, it is believed that farmers living in the vicinity of cider mills will find it good economy to utilize the pomace as a food for their dairy stock. 1 There is doubt in the mind of the writer whether pomace would prove equal to well-preserved and well-eared corn silage; it certainly would approach it in feeding value, and ought to he fully utilized. 1911.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. ;il. 87 THE EFFECT OF PROTEIN UPON THE PRO- DUCTION AND COMPOSITION OF MILK. BY J. B. LINDSEY. Investigations and observations indicate that milk is not a simple rinid secreted directly by the blood, but a complex sub- stance resulting from the activity of the milk cells. The cells and milk glands take from the blood and lymph vessels materials suited to their purpose, and by chemical and physiological pro- cesses convert them into a ditt'erent substance, namely, milk. ]\Iilk, therefore, consists for the most part of reconstructed cell substance, and it is not possible, by any system of feeding, to produce very great modification in its composition. The composition of milk depends principally upon the breed and individuality of the cow. stage of lactation, and development of the ndlk cells. German investigators, during the years 18G8 to 1876, studied the additions to the different basal rations of increasing amounts of protein upon the composition of the milk, and noted only very slight variations. Danish observers^ as a result of experi- ments by the group method with 1,152 cows, concluded that the protein was practically without influence in varying the proportions of the several milk ingredients. American experi- menters report similar conclusions. This station, from time to time, has conducted a number of experiments to observe the influence of different amounts of protein in increasing the quantity of milk, to note the protein requirements of dairy animals, and also to study its influence in modifying the proportions of the several milk ingredients. Some of these results have been published in reports of the station, and they have been recently summarized in detail in Part T. of this report. The following are the principal con- clusions : — 88 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1. By proteiu miuinmm is meant the amount of digestible protein required to support the daily life of an animal of 1,000 pounds live weight, and amounts to about .7 of a i)ound of crude protein daily; it also includes the amount contained in the milk, which is about .035 of a pound for each pound of milk, or .7 of a pound for 20 pounds of milk. Hence the ])rotein daily mininuim for a l,000-])ound cow producing 20 pounds of milk would be substantially l.-t potmds of digestible protein, 2. A large excess of digestible protein (1.5 pounds, or 100 per cent.) above the protein mininuim increased the flow of milk some 15 per cent, in experiments extending over periods of four weeks. 3. No particular difference was noted in the milk yield in case of two herds of cows receiving the same amount of total digestible matter, one receiving 65 per cent, and the other 122 per cent, of digestible protein above the protein minimum. Such a result indicates, at least, that the former excess was sufficient. 4. A 50 per cent, excess of digestible protein daily above the protein minimum in an experiment by the reversal method, extending over a period of nine weeks, produced some 5.9 per cent, more milk than did a ration with 21 per cent, excess protein. 5. Under similar conditions an excess, above the minimum, of <)5 per cent, digestible protein produced 7.4 per cent, more milk than did an excess of 39 per cent. (Experiment covered twenty-si X days. ) 6. In Experiment VL, extending over a ]>eriod of eleven weeks, with 12 cows by the group motlxxl, an excess of .54 of a pound of protein, 31.3 per cent., over the protein mininnnn. produced an apparent increase of 10 per cent, in the milk yield. 7. Tn Experiment VITL, extending over periods of twenty- four to thirty weeks, with 10 cows by the group method, the cows receiving the protein minimum did not shrink any more than those receiving each .44 of a pound daily, or 28 per cent., protein above the minimum. The group method of experinieiitation is best suited for ConductinG: experiments M'here a i-elati\-ely large nnndier of 1911.J PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 89 animals — 20 or more - — is available. \Vitli a less number the influence of individuality is altogether too pronounced. 8. An excess of 30 per cent, of digestible crude ])r()tein above the protein minimum (equal to 1.80 pounds of protein per day) will be productive of satisfactory results in case of cows weighing 900 pounds and i)roducing daily 12 quarts of 4 per cent, milk.^ An excess of 50 per cent, of digestible crude protein above the protein miniuuim is believed to be ample for all ordinary requirements. 9. Protein in excess of the above-suggested amounts may temporarily increase the milk yield, but it seenis probable that in many cases the influence of individuality is likely to be more pronounced than the effect of the protein consumed. TO. Under the usual conditions, varying amounts of protein appear to be without influence upon the composition of the milk. ' Armsby, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, United States Department ot Agriculture, expresses substantially the same idea in allowing .05 of a pound of digestible true protein for each pound of average milk, in addition to the maintenance requirement of .5of a pound of digestible true protein per 1,000 poimdslive weight. Tt is possible that animals can even do very good work with .04 of a pound of protein for each pound of milk. INDEX. INDEX. Alfalfa, conditions essential to success with the crop, Date of sowing, Diseases of, . Fertilizer requirements of, Harvesting, . In Massachusetts, . Ifioculation of, Kind of seed needed, Lay of the land (topography) for, Method of applying fertilizers in preparation for H^ecessity of lime for. Number of crops and yield per year. Nurse crops for spring sowing. Preparation for summer sowing, Preparation of the soil for, Quantity of seed needed, Season for sowing, . Secondary value of, Seeding to, . Soils best suited for. Top-dressing, Apple pomace, composition of. Feeding experiments with dairy animals. Feeding value of. Brewers' dried grains, character of. Comparative digestibility of. Composition of. Use of , . Use of, for fattening cattle. Use of, for horses, . Use of, for milk production, Use of, for pigs. Use of, for young stock, . Brewers' wet grains, By-products, distillery and brewery, Chestnvit disease {Diaporthc parasitica) , 29 31 26 32 24 30 30 25 28 2fj 24 29 29 28 30 27 33 27 25 33 84 85 84 70 77 77 78 79 78 79 78 79 79 72 56 94 INDEX. Clogging drain tile, experiments bearing on, Clogging of drain tile by roots, Conclusions, leading, summary of, . Crown gall of fruit trees, .... Cucumbers and other plants, fusarium dist^asc of, Dairy animals, feeding experiments with apple pom: Diseases of alfalfa, .... Distillery and brewery by-products. Distillers' dried grains, classification of, . Composition of, . Digestibility of, . Disposition of, ... . How to use for fattening cattle. How to use for dairy animals, . How to use for fattening pigs, . How to use for horses, What they are, .... Drain tile, clogging, by roots of pear tree, Chemically treated fibers for preventing. Creosote fiber effective in preventing, By roots, ..... Danger of clogging by roots, . Feeding value of apple pomace. Fertilizer requirements of alfalfa. Fertilizers, methods of applying in jireparation Fruit trees, crown gall of, . General condition of, . . . Fusarium disease of cucumbers and other plants, Harvesting alfalfa, .... Inoculation for alfalfa, .... Lime, necessity of, for alfalfa. Malt sprouts, composition of. Digestibility of, . Method of preparation, . Summary of feeding experiinent.s with Use of, Use of, for dairy cows, Use of, for fattening oxen, Use of, for horses, .... Use of, for yoiuig calves, . Materials used in top-dressing pastures, . Milk, i)roduction and composition of, effect of protc Mowings, permanent, top-dressing, general plan of. Mowings, permanent, top-dressing of, New type of spray nozzle, .... for alfalfy for. 3G, PAGE 36, 39 43 7 58 62 85 31 72 73 73 74 73 76 76 76 75 72 44 3S, 39 41 35 43 84 26 28 58 66 62 32 30 26 81 82 80 85 82 82 83 83 83 21 87 11 10 59 INDEX. 95 Pastures, top-dressing, ..... Conditions under which likely to be profitable, Materials (chemicals) used in, . Season for, ...... Permanent mowings, method of applying fertilizers in top-dressing foi Muriate of potash and slag meal both with and without nitrate of soda for, ........... Nitrate of soda with slag meal and high-grade sulfate of potash for. Nitrate of soda with slag meal and low-grade sulfate of potash for. Nitrate of soda with slag meal and muriate of potash for, . Results of top-dressing, summary of general observations on. Slag meal, and high-grade sulfate of potash l)oth with and without nitrate of soda for, .......... Slag meal and low-grade sulfate of potash both with and without nitrate of soda for, .......... Slag meal and muriate of potash both with and without nitrate of soda for, ........... Sulfate of potash, high-grade, and slag meal both with and without ni- trate of soda for, .... Sulfate of potash, low-grade, and slag meal botl trate of soda for, .... Protein, effect of, upon the production and composit Roots, clogging of drain tile by, Shade tree troubles, ..... Spraying of trees, ...... Spray nozzle, new type of, . Summary of leading conclusions. Top-dressing alfalfa, ..... Pastures, ...... Permanent mowings, .... Trees, spraying of, ..... with and without ni- on of milk. PAGE 18 2U 21 23 17 12 13 13 12 14 13 13 12 13 13 87 35 52 47 59 7 33 18 10 47 Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusehs agricultural Experiment Station. Part I., Being Pakt III. of the Forty -ninth Annuai, Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 191,2. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTEE PEPNTING CO., STATE PEINTEES, 18 Post Office Squaee. 1912. Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Part I., Being Part III. of the Forty-ninth Annual Report of the IVIassachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1912. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1912. Approved by The State Board of ruBLicATiON. TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OP THE Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Part I. DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. mTRODUCTlON. In accordance with the provision of the act of the Legishi- ture relative to the publication of the reports of the Massachu- setts Agricultural College, the report of the experiment station, which is a de})artnient of the college, is presented in two parts. Part I. contains the formal reports of the director, treasurer and heads of departments, and papers of a technical character giving results of research work carried on in the station. This will be sent to agricultural colleges and experiment stations and to workers in these institutions as well as to libraries. Part 1. will be published also in connection with the report of the Sec- retary of the State Board of Agriculture and will reach the general public through that channel. Part II. will contain papers of a popular character, and will be sent to all those on our general mailing list as well as to agricultural colleges and exi^eriment stations, to workers in these institutions and to libraries in Massachusetts. WM. P. BROOKS, Director. CONTENTS. Part I. Station organization, .... PAGE 9 Report of the director, . 11 Changes in staff, .... . 11 Lines of work, .... . 12 General experiments, . . 12 Research, ..... . 12 Cranberry substation, . . 14 Asparagus substation, . . 25 Control work, .... . 28 Dissemination of information, . 29 Buildings, ..... . 33 Report of the treasurer. . 35 Report of the agriculturist. . 37 Comparison of different materials as a source of nitrogen. . 37^ Muriate compared with sulfate of potash, . 39 Manure alone compared with manure and sulfate of potash, . 40 Average corn fertilizer compared with fertilizer richer in potash , 41 Top-dressing for hay, . 42 Poultry work, ...... . 43 Report of the horticulturist, .... . 44 Report of the chemist, ..... . 46 Correspondence, ...... . 46 Numerical summary of substances examined in t he chemica laboratory, ...... 46 Work in the research section. 47 Report of the fertilizer section. 48 Report of the feed and dairy section, 63 Report of the botanist, ..... 70 Report of the entomologist, .... 72 Report of the veterinarian, ..... 77 Heredity, correlation and variation in garden peas, 82 Heredity, ....... 84 Correlation, 93 Variation, ....... 94 Discussion of the results, .... 100 Seed work for the year 1911, 102 Rust on Vinca, ....... 108 Frobt cracks, ...... . 110 v^ CONTENTS. A new method for tho approximate mechanical anal5^=;is of soils, The present status of soil sterilization, ..... Influence of soil decoctions from sterilized and unsterilized soils upon bacterial growth, .... Protozoa as a factor in the bacterial flora of soils, Conclusions, ...... The effects of positive and negative electrical charges on seeds and seedlings, ...... Electrical resistance of trees, .... Exi)eriments with cut branches of trees, Experiments with small plants, Relation of electrical resistance to flow of sap, Electrical resistance of different tissues, Relationship of electrical resistance to other factors Influence of temperature on resistance, . Conclusions, ...... The chemistry of arsenical insecticides, General introduction, ..... Paris green, ...... Calcium arsenite, ..... Lead arsenates, ...... The natural fertilit}'^ of cran])erry bogs. Types of corn suited to Massachusetts, Soil, cultivation, size of plots, fertilizers used, Description of varieties, .... Yield per acre of entire corn plant. Effect of season on yield, .... Composition of different varieties of corn fodder (entire plant as harvested), Composition of different varieties of corn fodder (entire plant dry matter), .... Digestil)ility of the plant. Proportions and composition of parts. Condition of crop when cut and character of season Average composition of parts. Relative jiroportions of grain and cob, Composition of grain and cob. Summary, . The digestibility of cattle foods, Series XII., Discussion of the results. Series XIV., Discussion of the results. Series XV., Discussion of the results, 115 121 MASSACHUSETTS AGKICULTUIIAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGEICULTUEAL COLLEGE, AMHERST. MASS. TWENTY-FOURin ANNUAL KE1»0KT. Part I. ORGANIZATION. Committee on Experiment Department. Charlks ir. Preston, Chain. J. Lewis Ellsworth. Artiivk G. Pollard. Charles E. Ward. Harold L. Frost. The President ov the College, ex officio. The Director of the Station, ex officio. Station Staff. William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Director, 28 Northampton Road. Joseph B. Lindsev, Ph.D., Vice-Director, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Fred C. Kennev, Treasurer, Mount Pleasant. Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian, Mount Pleasant. Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Chemist, 47 Lincoln Avenue. Edward B. Holland, M.Sc, Associate Chemist, in charge of Research Division, 28 North Prospect Street. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist, 44 Pleasant Street. Henri D. Haskins, B.Sc, In charge of Fertilizer Section, Amherst House. Philip H. Smith, M.Sc, In charge of Feed and Dairy Section, 102 Main Street. Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant, 19 Phillips Street. James C. Reed, B.Sc, Assistant, Nutting Avenue. Joseph F. Merrill, B.Sc, Assistant, North Prospect Street. Clement L. Perkins, B.Sc, Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Rudolf W. Ruprecht, B.Sc, Assistant, 31 Amity Street. James T. Howard, Collector, North Amherst. Harry J. Allen, Laboratory Assistant, 89 Main Street. James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition, North Amherst. 10 EXPEIILMEXT STATION. [Jan. 1912. Department of Agriculture. William P. Bkooks, Ph.D., Agriculturist, 28 Northampton Road. H. J. Fkanklin, Ph.D., In charge of Cranberry Investigation, Wareham. Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, Assistant, North Amherst. Department of Horticulture. Frank A. Waugii, M.Sc, Horticulturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fred C. Seaks, M.Sc, Pomologist, Mount Pleasant. Jacob K. Shaw, Ph.D., Research Assistant, 1 Allen Street. David W. Anderson, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant, 32 North Prospect Street. Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology. George E. Stone, Ph.D., Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist, Mount Pleasant. George H. Chapman, M.Sc, Research Assistant, 13 Fearing Street. Edward A. Larradee, B.Sc, Assistant, Clark Hall. Department of Entomology. Henry T. Ferxald, Ph.D., Entomologist, 44 Amity Street. Burton N. Gates, Ph.D., Apiarist, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Arthur I. Bourne, B.A., Assistant, 66 North Pleasant Street. Department of Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian, 42 Lincoln Avenue. Department of Meteorology. John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist, 35 North Prospect Street. R. N. Hallowell, Observer, Massachusetts Agricultural College. Other Officers of the Experiment Station. Herbert J. Baker, B.Sc, Secretary to the Director, Experiment Station. Mrs. Lucia G. Church, Stenographer to the Director, 4 Ilallock Street. Miss Alice M. How.^RD, Stenographer, ])epartment of Plant and Animal Chemistry, North Amherst. Miss F. Ethel Felton, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, Phillips Street. Miss Jessie V. Crocker, Stenographer, Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, Sunderland. Miss Bridie O'Donnell, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Hadley. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Changes in Staff. During' the past year there have been no changes in the more iin])ortant })ositions in the experiment station staff. A number of our younger assistants, however, have resigned for various reasons, among which the offer of higher sahiries, phms to pur- sue graduate studies, or to engage in business are among the more prominent. The changes in detail are as follows : — Sumner C. Brooks, B.Sc., assistant in botany, replaced by Edward A. Larrabee, B.Sc. ; Joseph F. Merrill, B.Sc, assistant in plant and animal chemistry, resigned ; Clement L. Perkins, B.Sc, assistant in plant and animal chemistry, resigned; David W. Anderson, B.Sc, graduate assistant in department of horti- culture,- resigned, this position still being vacant. Erwin S. Fulton, B.Sc, assistant agriculturist, resigned, his position be- ing taken by Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc, promoted. Charles M. Damon, observer in the meteorological department, replaced by R. N. Hallowell. The position of second assistant agriculturist has not been filled, but instead the position of secretary to the director has been created. This position has been filled by the appointment of Herbert J. Baker, B.Sc, a recent graduate of the Massachu- setts Agricultural College. This change has made possible a sharper division between outdoor and office work, Mr. Gaskill taking charge of the former, while IMr. Baker takes charge of the books, attends to routine correspondence, assists the director in preparation of material for publication, as well as in many other directions. Two of our most experienced and valuable stenographers, Miss Brown and Miss Cobb, have resigned during the year, their places being taken by Mrs. Church and Miss Felton. 12 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Lines of AVoinc. There have been no important changes in the general charac- ter of station work dnring the year, althongh in scoi)e and amonnt it constantly increases. It inclndes general experi- ments both (in the home gronnds and at substations as well as in co-operation with farmers, research, police or control work, and dissemination of information. General Experiments. In order to give a general idea of the nature of the work wliicli is being carried on I cannot do better than to quote a statement in the last annual report : — Under this head are inehided a large number of experiments rela- tive to the following subjects : soil tests with fertilizers, with different crops in rotation ; comparisons of different materials which may be used as sources, respectively, of nitrogen, phosi)horic acid and potash for different field and garden crops; the results of the use of lime; systems of fertilizing grass lands, both mowings and pastures; com- parisons of fertilizers for both tree and bush fruits; different methods of applying manures; variety tests of field and garden crops and of fruits; trials of new crops; determinations of the digestibility of feed- stuffs; methods of feeding for milk; systems and methods of manage- ment in feeding iioultry for eggs; and co-operative work with selected farmers in the trial of crops and systems of fertilizing them. In addition we have two substations wdiere work of a highly diversified character is being carried on, viz., asparagus sub- station in Concord and cranberry substation in Wareham. In later pages will be found brief reports on tlie work in these sub- stations, while a short account of the results of our co-operative experiments with alfalfa will be found in Part 11. of this report. No full general account or discussion of ex})orimental work in progress will be given. Brief reports on some of the general experiments will be found under the departments in which they are being prosecuted. Reseakcu. The research work in ])rogross at the station is, for the most part, carried on under the Adams fund. Tlie work during tlie past year along certain linos has been somewhat interrupted owing to the necessity of making extensive additions and im- 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13 provemcnts in oiir chemicnl laboratory. 1'lioso iinprovcmorits were, however, very carefully ])laniie(l and executed under the general sn])ervision of Dr. J. B. Lindsey and his associates, and the extent to which they were allowed to interfere with the progress of laboratory work was, o)i the whole, snrj)risingly small. The following are the princij^al Adams fund problems which at present engage our attention: — 1. To determine the principles which should underlie prac- tice in the use of fertilizers for the cranberry crop. 2. To determine the principles which should underlie prac- tice in the use of fertilizers for asparagus. 3. Work in plant breeding in the endeavor to produce more rust-resistant types of asparagus. (In co-operation with the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri- culture. ) 4. Investigation of the solubility effect of ammonium sulfate on the soil of one of our experimental fields. (Field A.) 5. The effect of food on the composition of milk and butter fat and on the consistency or body of butter. G. The cause of the digestion depression produced l)y molasses. 7. Why insecticides burn foliage. 8. The relations of climate to development of plants and crops both in health and disease. 9. The causes of calico or mosaic disease as affecting espe- cially the tobacco and the tomato. 10. Malnutrition of ]dants ; causes and prevention. 11. The intensity and amount of sunshine as affecting disease of plants. 12. The causes of winter-killing. 13. Determination of physiological constants. 1-1. Plant breeding, especially with peas, beans and squashes, to determine the extent to which the Mendelian laws appear to govern heredity. 15. The relations of climate to variation in leading varieties of apples. 16. The economic importance of digger wasps in relation to agriculture. 14 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 17. Color vision in Ix^es. A number of these lines of investigation are .well advanced, tliongh none can be regarded as brought to completion. Suffi- cient progress has, however, been made in connection with a number of them to warrant publication, and technical papers covering some phases of this work will be found in later pages. The more important are as follows : — The natural fertility of cranlx'rry bogs. Tobacco injury due to malnutrition or overfertilization. Variation, correlation and heredity in garden peas. The eflect of fertilizer on variation in corn and beans. The chemistry of arsenical insecticides. '"'Cranberey Substation. Dr. II. J. Franklin remains in local charge of the business and investigational work connected with our cranberry sub- station, lie has devoted himself to the matters in his charge with the greatest faithfulness and cntliusiasm, and it is a pleas- ure to testify to the great value of his services. During the past year our equi])ment for work in the interests of cranberry growers at the substation in East Wareham has been much increased and a large amount of construction work has been done. The princi])al im])rovement made has been the erection of a building. This building contains a large screening and packing room, living and office rooms for the local officer in charge, a small laboratory, and large basement and cellar stor- age rooms.. The cost of the building was about $2,000. Dr. Franklin furnishes the following description of special construction at the station bog completed during the year: — 1. Flooding Areas. — Five separate areas were diked off on the station bog for experiments in flooding. Four of the areas contain a])Out one-fifteenth of an acre each and the fifth con- tains about an eiglith of an acre. These areas are all separated from each other by dikes and narrow check strips. The dikes were built of turf and sand in the usual way, and average about 20 inches in height and 3 feet in width. In all, about 1,100 running feet of this diking was built. A canal, al)r)ut 450 feet long and 3 feet wide, was constructed around the margin of the 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 bog, and connected with tlic main flooding canal in order to flow and drain these areas. Short side canals were dng to con- nect this canal with the separate areas. Small canals were also dng to connect the cluK'k strips with this canal system. In these varions canals 13 wooden ilnmes were bnilt for controlling the water. 2. Skinner Si/sfmi InsfaJhdion. — On the station hog at East Wareham two lines, 70 and 100 feet long, respectively, of %- inch galvanized ]ni)ing were installed, 00 feet apart, after the nsnal manner of Skinner system installation. The longer line was snpported at intervals by concrete posts of sufficient height to allow a man to walk beneath the piping withont stooping. The other line was hnng in rings snspended from a wire cable drawn tant between two concrete posts. Both of these methods of snpport have disadvantages. In the former the concrete posts are too nnmerons and too heavy to give good satisfaction on the nsnally soft bottom of a cranberry bog. In the latter it is hard to get rid of a certain amonnt of sag in the piping, which makes proper pipe drainage difficnlt in freezing weather. Probably a better method than either of these would be to snp- port the piping on wooden posts reaching up only a foot or two from the snrface of the bog, and placed close enongh together to prevent the pipe from sagging perceptibly. Skinner " Ontdoor Xo. 2 " nozzles were nsed in this installation. The water for rnnning the system was pumped from Spectacle Pond by means of a Myer's pnmp driven from the big engine used in flooding the bog. It was arranged to pnmp this water through 350 feet of li/l-iiich galvanized i>iping before it reached the Skinner unions, leading into the ^-inch pipe lines. This li4"ii^^^i pip^^ was, for the most part, bnried in the ground. A special device driven by water pressure, for turning the pipes back and forth so as to throw the water on both sides, was also installed. The piping in the pnmp house was arranged to provide for heating the water by puminng it first through the cooling jacket of the 40 horse-power Fairbanks-]\Iorse engine, and then through a coil in the exhaust pot of the engine. For this installation, the Skinner Irrigntion Company, Troy, O., through the courtesy of its president, Mr. W. II. Coles, pro- 16 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. vided nozzles and Skinner unions and loaned the station a Skin- ner drillino' machine. The small piece of npland referred to in the last report as desirahle in order to give better access to onr building has been jnirchased during tlie year. The Crop of 1011. Tlie yield of frnit on the station l)oi2,' dnrinc; the past year was in round numbers 850 barrels of berries. These were sold for the sum of $4-,088.33. The ordinary running- expenses for the season amounted to $1,817.08. The bog, therefore, yielded a net income over and above ordinary running expenses of $3,- 171.2.5. The crop of the season was probably l^etter than the average crop will be, and it sokl for good prices. We can hardly antici- pate so large a net income annually, but there would seem to be no question that the product of the bog will be sufficiently large to furnish a considerable share of the funds that will be needed for i:)aying the costs of experimental work. Principal Li7ies of Cranberry Worh. Three principal lines of investigation with cranberries are in progress. These relate respectively to the fertilizer require- ments of the crop, the relations of insects to the cranberry indus- try, and the study of injurious fungi. Fertilizer Expert men ts. The fertilizer experiments in Red Brook bog at Waquoit have again given indecisive results. These experiments will be dis- continued. We have found it exceedingly difficult to care for them properly on account of their distance from our center of o])erations, and we are convinced, moreover, that certain natural inequalities in the character of the bog soil in the different i)lots must always considerably reduce the value of the results ol)- tained. During the past season a new series of ])lots has be(Mi laid out in the station bog. The results of the season do not show a well-defined benefit following from the use of either of the 1012.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17 different fertilizers employed. The crop where nitrate of soda is applied, indeed, showed a small average decrease. Both acid phosphate and high-gi-adc snlfate of potash show a very small average increase, — not in either case enongh to cover the cost of the fertilizer material applied. The results of the year, therefore, do not lend encouragement to the belief that the use of fertilizers on hogs of as good productive capacity as that belonging to the station will be followed by a protital)le increase in the crop. It is important, however, to point out that the a])plication of fertilizers this season was not made until about the middle of July. It seems probable that this is too late for the best results. Dr. H. J. Franklin furnishes the following report concerning some of his principal lines of investigation during the past two years : — Cranherry Investigations, 1910. I. INSECTS.* Of the important cranberry pests heretofore known, those which received attention were the fruit worm, the fire worm and the cran- berry g-irdler. The Fruit Worm {Mineola vaccinii (Riley)). Experiments in submerging cocoons containing- larva? of this in- sect, for varying- lengths of time during the fall of 1900 and winter and spring of 1910, were carried on without very satisfactory results, due, perhaps, to failure to perfectly imitate natural bog- conditions. Spraying- experiments were also carried on, the insecticides used being- mostly combinations of adhesives and arsenicals. The combina- tion found most effective consisted of the following- mixture in 50 gal- lons of water : — Pounds. Resin fish-oil soap, .......... 4i/> Bordeaux mixture : — (a) Stone lime, 4 (h) Copper sulfate, 3 Paris green, ............ 1 As the soap had adhesive and spreading qualities, and the Bordeaux mixture gave body to the combination and also acted to some extent as an adhesive, this combination spread over the smooth surface of ' Dr. IT. T. Fernald has aided Dr. Franklin in the insect work in an advisory way, and for liis helpful sugaiestions Dr. Franklin acknowledges his indebtedness and expresses his appreciation. 18 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. the jiartly grown berries and adhered to it much better than did any arsenical with water alone. In this mixture, I'aris green seemed to give better results than arsenate of lead. Best results were obtained by s]jraying twice with an interval of at most only a few days between the two applications, the first application thus acting as a basis for putting a thicker coating of jwison on the fruit Uian would be pos- sible with one spraying alone. This spraying was done about July 20 on berries of a late variety on a strictly dry bog {i.e., no winter flowage). The fruit at this time varied greatly in size, the largest ber- ries being nearly half grown. On some ])lois the fruit worm injury was reduced as much as GO per cent. The Fire Worm {Eudemis vacciniana (Pack.)). The work with this insect consisted entirely of spraying experi- ments. In the si)ring, arsenicals alone and in combination with Bor- deaux mixture and resin fish-oil soap were tested as insecticides for the larva). It became evident that an insecticide of good sticking properties was needed for this purpose as the new foliage of the cranberry is smooth and glossy and holds the water sprays very poorly. Furthermore, this new growth develops rapidly during the time of the hatching of the first brood, and sometimes this hatching period is strung out for fully a month. The experiments indicated that a com- bination of Bordeaux mixture, Paris green and resin fish-oil soap, like the one given above for the fruit worm, would be most effective for this insect also. One test with this combination showed about three-fifths as much arsenic present on the foliage, after an all day's rain followed by a complete ten-hour flooding, as was present when the si)ray was first applied. The material for this combination is about as cheap as the arsenate of lead capable of doing the same work. The work connected with its prej^aration, however, is consid- erable. Late in the fall, the value of sealecide and commercial lime-sulfur, as insecticides for destroying the eggs of this insect, was tested. Several plots were sprayed with different strengths of each of the two insecticides mentioned. On some plots a plank drag was used in advance of the spraying to turn the vines over, in order better to allow the spray to reach the lower surfaces of the leaves (on which the eggs are usually laid). The results of tliis spi'aying were observed early in June, 1011. Though many eggs hatched on all the plots, it was evident that on those treated with sealecide, a large percentage had been destroyed. However, on all plots on which many of tiie eggs were killed by the treatment, a large percentage of the Avinter buds were destroyed also. The fire worm injury appeared to be con- siderably worse on the plots which had been sprayed with the lime- sulfur tlian on unsprayed ]ior(ions of llie bog, though the reason for this was not apjiarent. This method of treatment docs not appear promising. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19 Cranberry Girdlkr {Crambus hortuellns (Hiibner)). The work with this insect was confined to applying dii'feient depths of sand to infested plots, to find out what depth was necessary to smother the insect and prevent tlie moths from coming- through. The sand was applied evenly, late in May, to depths varying from 1 to 3 inches. Means for catching and counting the moths which came llirongh the sand on the various plots were provided. An unsanded check plot was also placed under obseiTation and control. No moths came through the sand on any of the sanded plots, while a large num- ber were eaiitured from the check plot. Future work may show that less than a full inch of sand, when evenly spread, is sufficient. However, an inch is not too much to be practicable, especially as the vines are usually heavy where this insect becomes troublesome. To l)e effective, this treatment must be applied between December 1 and the following June 1 (when the insect is in its cocoon under the vines), and the sand must be spread evenly. A New Pest. During 1910 a Lepidopterous insect, known to science as Gelechia irialhamaculella Chambers, did great injury to a few strictly dry bogs. Neither the food plant nor the life histoiy of this insect had been heretofore known. Its habits and life history wei'e largely worked out during the season. The insect passes the winter in the moth state, as does the yellow -headed cranberry worm {Peronea minuta Robinson), and its larvae, though considerably smaller, resemble somewhat the larvae of that insect, both in general appearance and in habits. It is heavily parasitized, and will probably never do noticeable injury on winter-flowed bogs. II. FUNGI. The 1010 fungus work, done in co-operation with the Durenu of Plant Industry, consisted in obtaining the assistance of certain of the cranberry growers in practical spraying experiments, and in col- lecting specimens for examination by Dr. C. L. Shear, the expert of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Investigations during 1911. During 1911 the cranberry investigation work was divided between experiments and observations and construction work for futui'e inves- tigations. Experiments and Observations. This work came under the seven following heads, viz: Insects, Fer- tilizers, Fungous Diseases, Weather Observations, Fertilization of the Ci\an]ierry Blossom, Prolificness of Varieties, and application of Skin- ner Irrigation System to the Needs of the Cranberry Industry. The work under these heads is hei'e outlined : — 20 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1. Insects. Observations were continued and exj)erirnents conduct od with the fruit worm and the fire worm (bhick-headed cranberry worm). Numerous groweis treated tlie yellow-headed cranberry worm (or, as it might be called in Massachusetts, the dry -bog fire worm), under advice given out by the station, apparently with universally satisfactory results. Heavy sanding done ])y various gi'owers, in some cases, jiroved successful against the cranberry girdler. In others it failed to give satisfaction, the failure in every case observed being due to the fact that the sand was not ai)plied evenly over the infested areas. The Fruit Worm {Mineola vaccinii (Riley)). — "Work was begun on the natural enemies of this insect, with the following objects in view : — 1. To find out what these enemies are. 2. To determine their relative abundance on flowed and dry bogs. Spraying experiments with arsenicals and adhesivos were continued. It was learned that too much resin fish-oil soap had been used in 1910. While the spraying was not timed so as to give the best results, the experience of 1911 indicates that the following formula will be found more satisfactory than the one given as the result of the 1910 experiments: — Resin fisli-oil soap (pounds), ........ 2 Bordeaux mixture: • — ■ (a) Stone lime (pounds), ........ 5 (ft) Copper sulfate (pounds), ....... 2^4 Paris green (pound), 1 Water (gallons), HO Much more of the soap than is here recommended causes bad clog- ging of nozzles and pumjjs. While the fruit worm injury was reduced about one-third, this gain was largely offset by the loss due to tramping on the vines and berries while spraying, so that the amount of fruit obtained from the sprayed plots was but little greater than that picked from equal areas on the surrounding bog. The Fire Worm (Eudemis vacciniana (Pack)). — The season's observations on this insect seem to indicate that the character of the vine growth has a strong influence on the length of the hatching period of the spring brood. Among thin vines most of the eggs seem to hatch within a few days after hatching begins. With deep, dense vines, this pei'iod seems to be so drawn out that numerous eggs are always present throughout the year, the two broods overlapping in this stage. If these observations are correct, the character of the 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21 vine growth must have an iinj)ortant bearing on the efficacy of both llowing and spraying treatments. In practice, it seems to bo an easy matter, on a thinly viiied bog, to control this insect sufficiently to keep it from doing serious injury, either by spraying with arsenate of lead or by flowing, while it is apparently impossible to prevent serious injury on a densely vined bog by either of these treatments. The control of this insect, therefore, seems to hinge on the acquirement and maintenance of a thin vine growth, which is also the most de- sirable condition for maximum ci-ojxs. Unfortunately, it seems difficult to get a thin vine growth on some bogs. Howevei-, this can ]>robably be readily accomplished in most cases, at least, by heavy sanding and proper adjustment of water conditions. This adjustment might be along either or both of the following distinct lines : — 1. Early withdrawal of winter flowage with no long-continued re- flowage. 2. Sufficient drainage. Experiments to test the methods of controlling this insect, here suggested, have already been started. Observations seem to show that large bogs, when compact {i.e., aj^proaching a circle or square) in general form, are, other conditions being the same, much more troubled with this insect than are small ones. Probably the chief reason for this is the fact that, during the summer, parasitic and predacious in- sects and spiders do not become so thoroughly distributed over the large bogs, at least until the periods of fire-worm activity are nearly over, and so do not become to so great an extent a controlling factor. On a winter-flowed bog, most of these forms are probably either de- sti'oyed or driven ashore by the flooding every year. They should not, during the summer, become as uniformly distributed on a large, com- l^act bog as on a small one for two reasons, viz. : — 1. The distance which the parasitic and predacious foiTns must go to reach the central portion of the bog is, of course, greater on a large bog. 2. As the area from which these forms come onto the bog is prob- ably restricted, for the most part, to a fringe at most only a few hun- dred feet wide, the area of the bog as it increases in size, if it is com- pact in shape, increases out of proportion to the increase of the area of this fringe. This argument agrees well with the following pre- viously reported observations : — 1. The fire worm is only very rai'ely, if ever, troublesome on strictly dry bogs in Massachusetts. 2. When a winter-flowed bog becomes infested the infestation first noticed is always some distance away from the upland, usually where the winter flowage is deep. The fact that, on a compact bog, there is a larger acreage w-ithin a given distance of any point, up to a distance that would take in the 22 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. whole bog, than tliere is on a long, narrow one of e(jiial acreage, may also be, to some extent, a factor in favor of tliis insect. If it gained a foothold on one portion of such a comjiact bog, it would more readily and quickly spread to all other portions. It seems jjrobable, from the various observations made, that if a large bog, round or scjuarish in shape, is by any means whatever entirely freed from this insect (even by burning or by long-continued summer flowage), it will not, as a rule, long remain so if all the following conditions are allowed to exist : — 1. Winter flowage, especially if it is deep, over a considerable i)or- tion of the bog. 2. Not more than one reflowage after the 25th of May. 3. Conditions favoring heavy vine growth. New Pests. — During the season two new insect pests did consideia- ble injury in some localities on cranberry bogs. One of these is a scale insect {Asj^idiotus oxycoccus Wogium) which sujicrficially resembles the San Jose scale somewhat but is very distinct from that species. This species did much injury on a bog in Yarmouth and was noted in smaller numbers in a few other places. The other insect is a species of white grub {Lachnosterna s]).). It caused the dying of circular areas on several bogs, jirincipally in Carver, these patches varying in diameter from 3 to 30 feet. This injury observed superficially might easily be mistaken for the " ring- worm " injury caused apparently by fungous disease. 2. Fungous Diseases. This work, as during the i)revious season, was done in co-operation with the Bureau of Plant Industry. Co-operative spraying experi- ments were carried on by several practical growers. In addition 3 ])lots on the station bog, each 4 rods square, were sprayed with fungicides and the results noted, as shown by the quantity and keeping quality of the fruit obtained. The amount of fruit gathered from these plots in every case was somewhat less than that from checks marked on the surrounding bog. This was due, apparently, to the injury done by trami)ing on the vines while spraying. Loss due to decay up to Decem- l)er 4 was reduced, on an average, about one-half by the treatment. One i)lot was sprayed three times and the others twice with mixtures and on dates as follows: — Plots. Fungicide. A. B. C. D. E. Bordeaux mixture, Neutral copiier acetate, Juno 22 ] lluly 17 1 August 2 July 17 August 2 July 17 August 2 July 17 August 3 July 18 August 3 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23 The Bordeaux mixture was made up with 3 pounds of lime and 4 of copper sulfate to 50 gallons of water. One pound of the neutral copper acetate was used to 50 gallons of water. Two pounds of resin fish-oil soa}) were used with the Bordeaux mixture in all cases and with the acetate. 3. Weather Observations. The weather instruments were installed on May 15, from which date until October 15 observations were taken every morning at the station at East Wareham, and records of the following made: — Maximum thermometer in shelter. Maximum thermometer on bog. IMinimum thermometer in shelter. Minimum thermometer on bog. Precipitation. Wind direction. Continuous thermograph readings. Continuous barograph readings. The reading's of the maximum and minimum thermometers and the amount of precipitation were telegraphed to the local office of the AVeather Bureau at Boston every morning after May 15 during tlie spring and fall periods of frost danger. 4. Fertilization of the Cranberry Blossom. Numerous expei'iments were carried out and observations made on the cross-fertilization of the cranberry blossom. Bees of all kinds were shut out from half a square rod of vines, during the blossoming period, by means of a mosquito-netting tent, with the result that only al)out 2% quarts of berries developed, while on any equal area on the surrounding bog as much as 20 quarts were picked, the a\erage crop of the entire bog being about 70 barrels to the acre. From a check plot of equal area laid off close to this tent 28 quarts were gathered. Another larger tent was erected and the honey bee alone allowed to enter it dui'ing the bloom, a hive being placed so as to ojjen into it. Under this tent as good a croj) developed as on the surrounding bog. These exiieriments seem to prove that bees are necessary to the satis- factory cross-pollination of the cranberry blossom and that the honey bee is efficient in this Avoi-k. As the vines approached full bloom under the tent from which the bees were excluded the blossoms quite generally began to take on a peculiar vivid pink color, and as the blossoming advanced this became more and more striking. Only a small percentage of the blossoms on the bog outside of the tent took on this color, while inside there Avere few which did not show it strikingly. This tent was on Early Black vines. The tent into which honey bees were admitted was placed on 24 EXPERIMENT STxVTION. [Jan. Howe vines. This variety came to full bloom in the midst of a period of unusually hot weather in July, and had a larger percentajie of the pink blossoms than did the Early Blacks which blossomed earlier. The vines under the tent, into which the honey bees were admitted, had a very noticeably smaller proportion of these pink blossoms than did the surrounding bog. They were, in fact, almost entirely absent. These observations seemed to indicate that the peculiar pink color of the bloom was a sign of fertilization failure. This pink coloring certainly always accompanies lack of fertilization with the Early Black variety, for it was just as noticeable in a 1910 experiment, in which bees were shut out by mosquito netting, as it was in the 1911 experi- ment. To make this matter more certain a large number of Howe blossoms, showing this pink coloring, were marked with yarn and ex- amined late in August. Hardly 2 in 11 had succeeded in producing berries. This was less than one-half of the proportion of berries to blossoms on the bog as a whole. In other words, a much smaller 2)roportion of pink blossoms than of normally colored ones produced berries, thus eonflnning the indications obtained from the tent ex- periments. To go with this there is the possibility that fertilization may take place to some extent, though abnormally retarded, after a blossom has taken on the pink color. After the unfertilized blossoms turned pink in the tent cxjieri- ments the corolla alwaj'S hung on abnormally, so that the vines under the tent, from which bees were excluded, appeared to be in full bloom when, on the surrounding bog, the bloom was almost entirely past. The conclusion arrived at, from these and other observations, is that it will often pay to keep honey bees near cranberry bogs during the blossoming season. There are, undoubtedly, years in which this practice will not repay anything for the extra labor and expense in- volved. It is probable, however, that it will pay well to keep bees in any season in which wild bees are scarce, or in which there is much bad weather during the blossoming period to reduce the length of time in which the bees can work. Unfortunately, we have not yet sufficient data to make an estimate of the number of hives necessary for the satisfactory pollination of a bog of any given acreage. With most varieties, an upright having 5 blossoms Avill jn'obably, as a rule, jn-oduce as many berries, if only 2 of those blossoms are cross-fertilized, as it would if all were fertilized. This is because the cranberry, in common with other ])lants, always produces the means of reproduction far in excess of what it uses. This is borne out by the fact that the crop of berries under the hive-bee tent was not greater than on the surrounding bog, tliough the lack of pink blos- soms seemed to indicate a more perfect i)ollinization. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 25 5. Frolificness of Varieties. Examination of a considerable number of varieties on numerous bogs showed a marked viiriation, between varieties, in the average number of berries borne by the individual U{)right and in the proportion of berries to blossoms. Moreover, this variation seemed, to a certain degree, constant for the different varieties wherever found, even when they were side by side on the same bog and under the same condi- tions. Some varieties averaged less than 2 berries, and others more than 3, to the upright. Then, too, there was a noticeable varietal variation in the proportion of sterile uprights present. This con- dition of tilings obviously is not due to relative lack or abundance of pollen-carrying agents (bees), or to differences in fertility of the bot- tom on which the vines grow, but is the result of a varying quality of natural proliticness in the vines themselves. During the season, work was begun with the idea of eventually pro- ducing, if possible, a much more prolific variety than any at present known. A large number of uprights of three different varieties were selected and marked for planting in separate plots in the spring. Only uprights were marked which produced during the season 4 or 5 good berries. It will be obsei-ved that this is in line with similar work already carried out successfully with corn, potatoes and other crops. 6. Skinner System of Irrigation. This plant has been installed to test thoroughly the value of this system as applied to the following needs of a dry cranberry bog: irrigation, frost protection, winter protection and possibly spraying. This system is not expected to supplant water supply by other methods in vogue, where these methods are available. Late in the fall, the feasibility of heating the water so as to raise the temperature by radiation, without sprinkling over the entire surface of the bog, was tried. It was thought that the amount of piping and the size of the pump necessary in practice might in this way be reduced. The tests, however, showed this to be im^Dracticable. Asparagus Substation, Concord. Mr. Charles W. Prescott, to whose hearty interest, enthusi- asm and efficient supervision we are greatly indebted, has con- tinued in charge of the details of the work in progress. Two distinct lines of investigation are being carried on : — 1. Breeding experiments which liave for their object the pro- duction of a rust-resistant type of asparagus of good commercial quality. 26 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. Fertilizer experiments })laiiii(idly as j)ossible for further trial and ultimate distribution. In view of the great imj^rovement already made it is confidently antici- l)ated that complete success in attaining the ends in view will soon be realized. Fertilizer Experiments. — The results of the fertilizer exper- iments in progress are not as yet sufficiently decisive to make it seem advisable to publish a full report. Owing to the thorough preparation which the entire field received before it was (li\i(l('(l into ])lots, even those to which no manure or fertilizer has been applied still continue to give an excellent yield. These plots, however, are now beginning to fall behind those which receive the different a])i)lications of manure and fertilizer materials which are under trial. The field contains 40 plots of one-twen- tieth acre each, and the past season was the fifth since the plots were set. The yield was fairly satisfactory both as to (piantity and to quality. The cutting season lasted from May 8 to June 24. The total yield of all the plots was 9,847 pounds, 5 ounces. On the basis of recorded yields and observations the following conclusions appear to be warranted : — 1. Nitrate of soda used in connection with acid ])hospliate and muriate of potash proves b(>neficial but an increase above the rate of 460 pounds per acre does not apjiear to be useful. 2. Nitrate of soda used in connection with an application of barnyard manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre proves benefi- 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 27 cial, but in this case, also, an increase above the rate of 46G pounds per acre of nitrate is not followed by a further increase in the crop. li. Xitratc of soda has been applied according to three dis- tinct plans: — (a) All applied in early spring. (h) One-half applied in early spring and the balance at the close of the cutting season, (c) All at the close of the cutting season. These variations in method of applying have been tried with nitrate of soda in diifering amounts and in varying combina- tions. The variation in season of application is not followed by any well-defined diiference in yield, but the amount of rust has ap- peared to be less with the larger applications applied at least in part after the cutting season. In other words, nitrate of soda so applied and in such liberal quantities as to promote a contin- uous vigorous growth of the ])lant after the close of the cutting season seems to increase the capacity of the plants to resist rust. 4. Among the different materials used as the source of potash, viz., muriate, high grade sulfate, low grade sulfate, wood ashes, and kainit, the plot receiving the latter showed the least rust. It is important, however, to point out that this may have been in part a consequence of the fact that the plot was located on the side of the field lying at the greatest distance from the fields which are believed to have been the chief sources of rust infec- tion. The comparative freedom from rust of the plants on the kainit plot, therefore, may have been due in large measure to location. The decided difference, however, in the amount of rust on this plot and on the one immediately adjoining it, the location of which with reference to rust infection is not very different, lends probability, at least, to the conclusion that the kainit exercised a favorable influence in preventing rust. 5. Acid phosphate used in connection with nitrate of soda and muriate of potash has given a considerable increase in crop. This increase is greatest where the acid phosphate is used at the maximum rate of 188.7 pounds p(;r acre. G. Muriate of potash used in connection with nitrate of soda 28 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. and acid phosphate increases the crop, but an increase in the quantity of muriate above the rate of 200 ])ounds per acre does not result in further increase in the crop. Control Work. Reports in full detail covering the various lines of control work carried on by the station have been in'e})arcd by the chem- ists in charge. These will be found in later ])ages of this report. Fertilizer Laiv. — The fact was ]>ointed out in the last annual report that a new law had been drafted for presentation in the Legislature of 1911. This law was enacted by the Legislature and went into effect Dec. 1, 1911. The new law is working smoothly and satisfactorily. It is bringing in the increased revenue needed for more thorough work, and the principal change introduced, viz., bringing agricultural lime under its provisions, is proving of much value to our farmers. Dairy Laiv. — The draft for a new dairy law referred to in the last annual report failed of enactment in the Legislature of 1911. It will be reintroduced in the Legislature of 1912, and it is confidently anticipated that it will be enacted. The most important change from the existing law consists in bringing milk inspectors, and the Babcock machines and apparatus which they use, under the provisions of the law. Feed Law. — The fact was referred to in the last annual report that the appropriation received from the State for carry- ing out the j)rovisions of the existing feed law were proving insufficient to cover the costs of thorough work. During the past year a draft for a new law has been prepared. Its prepara- tion has involved a great deal of study and many conferences with ])arties affected by the law. The }n'incipal changes pro- posed are to bring the various wheat offals under the provisions of the law, to require a guarantee of the maximum jiercentage of crude fiber present, to require the statement of iiigredients contained in each feeding stuff, and to require the registration of each brand of feeding stuff before it is sold. The amount of the a])j)ropriation ]U'ovi(k'd under the new draft is $0,000 in place of $3,000 as under the ])r(>sent law. Resides these changes the phraseology has been made more explicit, violations are 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 more clearly defined, and the director is i>ivcn discretionary power regarding prosecutions. In form and general content the new draft has been closely modeled after the uniform feed law adopted by the Associa- tion of Feed Control Officials of the United States. It is be- lieved that the provision of a uniform feed law for the entire country is desirable in the interests alike of the buying public and manufacturers and dealers. Dissemination of Information. The station endeavors to reach the public with helpful infor- mation in three rather distinct lines: distribution of publi- cations, private correspondence, and lectures and demonstra- tions. Pnhlicationfi. — The station issues three classes of publica- tions : an annual report in two parts, bulletins and circulars. Part I. of our annual report contains the formal rejiorts of the director, treasurer, and heads of departments and technical papers giving the results of research work. Part II. contains papers of a more popular character. It is our aim to include in this part of the report such matters as are of most immediate interest on the farm. The demand for bulletins and circulars constantly increases. With the further growth and development of the extension de- partment of the Massachusetts Agricultural College it is ex- pected that this demand will be increasingly met by means of its publications, while our own publications will be, for the most part, restricted to such as deal with the results of our investigations. It must be recognized that satisfying this popu- lar demand is extension work rather than experimental. The following tables show the publications of the year 1911 and those of that and earlier years which are still available for free distribution : — Publications during 1911. Annual report : — Part I., 356 pages; Part II., 95 pages. Bulletins : — No. 136. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and C. L. Perkins. 56 pages. 30 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. No. 1.37. The Rational Use of Lime, Wm. P. Brooks; Tlie Distribu- tion, Composition and Cost of Lime, IL D, Ilaskins and J. F. Merrill. 19 images. No. 138, Tomato Diseases, George E. Stone. 32 pages. No. 139. Inspection of Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and C. L. Perkins. 32 pages. No. 140. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, H. D. Ilaskins, L. S. Walker, J. F. Merrill and R. W. Ruprecht. 80 pages. Circulars : — No. 30. Balanced Rations for Daiiy Stock, J. B. Lindsey. 7 pages. No. 31. Lime and Sulphur Solutions, G. F. Stone. 4 pages. No. 32. An Act to regulate the Sale of Commercial Fertilizers (chap- ter 388, 1911). 4 pages. Meteorological bulletins, 12 numbers. 4 pages each. Publications Available for Free Distribution. Bulletins : — No. 33. Glossary of Fodder Terms. No. G4. Concentrated Feed Stuffs. No. 7(). The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle. No. 84. Fertilizer Analyses. No. 90. Fertilizer Analyses. v/ No. 115. Cranberry Insects. No. 123. Fungicides, Insecticides and Spraying Directions. No. 125. Shade Trees. No. 127. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers. No. 130. Meteorological Summary — Twenty Years. No. 131. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1909. No. 132. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1910. No. 133. Green Crops for Summer Soiling. No. 134. The Hay Crop. No. 135. Insj^ection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1910. No. 136. Inspection of Commercial Feeds, 1911. No. 137. The Rational Use of Lime. No. 138. Tomato Diseases. No. 139. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, 1911. No. 140. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, 1911. Index to bulletins and annual reports of the Hatch Experiment Sta- tion previous to June, 1895. Index to bulletins and annual reports, 1888-1907. Circulars : — No. 12. The Unprofitable Cow and how to Detect her. No. 20. Lime in Massachusetts Agriculture. No. 25. Cottonseed Meal. No. 2G. Fertilizers for Potatoes. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31 No. 27. Seeding- Mowings. No. 28. Kules Kelative to Testing Dairy Cows. No. 29. The Chemical Analysis of Soils. No. 32. An Act to regulate the Sale of Commercial Fertilizers. Summer Soiling Crops. Home-mixed Fertilizers. Dairymen losing Money on Low-Grade Feeds. Balanced Rations for Business Cows. Orchard Experiment. Fertilizei-s for Turnips, Cabbages and Other Crucifers. Fei-tilizers for Corn. Annual reports: 10th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, IGth, 17th, 20th; 21st, Part 11. ; 22d, Parts I. and 11. ; 23d, Parts I. and 11. Cirndation of ruhUcaiions. — As provided by act of our Legislature, Part I. of our annual report is printed with the report of the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and those on the mailing list of that Board will receive this publica- tion. The act provides, also, that 5,000 copies of Part I. shall be furnished to the station. These are used in supplying libra- ries and directors of agricultural experiment stations, libraries and presidents of agricultural colleges, the public libraries of ]\Iassachusetts and other public libraries on our mailing list, individuals on the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture, and institutions and periodicals on our exchange list. The State prints an edition of 10,000 copies of Part 11. of our annual report for the use of the station. This part of the report and our bulletins are sent to all those on our general mail- ing list, to the public libraries of the State, to individuals on the mailing list of the United States Department of Agriculture likely to be interested, and to experiment stations and the agri- cultural colleges. It is our practice to reserve a considerable number of each publication to meet subsequent demands, but such demands have of late been so numerous that our supply of most of our earlier editions is exhausted. Our meteorological bulletins are sent only to agricultural col- lege and experiment station libraries, presidents and directors of agricultural colleges and experiment stations, to the depart- 32 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ment of agriculture and office of experiment stations, to news- papers and libraries and to individuals who have especially requested them. The circulars which we issue are not sent out to a regular mailing list. They are prepared for use in connection with the correspondence of the station, for it is by the use of such cir- culars only that we find it possible to give the full information and advice needed by those consulting us by letter. Any of these circulars, however, will be sent on special request. The newspapers of the State receive an abstract of all im- portant publications, and as a rule we find them ready to pub- lish such abstracts. Mailing Lists. — A large amount of work is required in keeping our mailing lists accurate and thoroughly alive. We are constantly dropping names and as constantly adding new ones. The tendency is towards an in(;rcase, although just at present our total is a few hundred less than shown in the last annual report, owing to the fact that some lists not previously revised for a number of years have undergone very careful revision resulting in dropping a number of addresses which had undoubtedly been for some time dead. The following table shows the nature of the lists which we maintain and the number of addresses in the several classes: — Residents of Massachusetts, 12,651 Residents of other States, 2,438 Residents of foreign countries, 242 Newspapers, 518 Libraries, ........... 30G Exchanges, 151 Cranberry growei^s, 1,395 Beekeepers, . . . . . . . . • • • 2,866 Meteorological, 389 Total, 20,956 Correspondence. — During the year 1011 the number of let- ters of inquiry answered l>y members of the station staff has been about 12,000. This is a somewhat smaller nund)er than 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 81. 33 for 1910. It is apparent that the public in increasing degree is recognizing that the extension department is especially manned and equipped for service of this character, and it would seem, therefore, that we may confidently anticipate still further relief from this work in the near future, — a consummation long wished for, as it will give station men more time for the more legitimate station work of research and ex])eriment. Lectures and Demonstrations. — The public demand for lec- tures and demonstrations has been particularly active, and sta- tion men have been frequently engaged in service of this char- acter. The general management and arrangements are, for the most part, looked after by the extension department, but even under this plan the draft upon the time of some of our men has been so heavy as to leave little opportunity for attention to experiment or research. This has been particularly true of the men in our poultry and apicultural departments, which arc greatly in need of additional men in order that the require- ments of both lines of work — extension and research — may be more fully met. Buildings. Extensive improvements and repairs have been made during the year in the chemical laboratory of the station at a cost of $7,500, appropriated by the last Legislature. The following are the principal improvements secured : two additional rooms for research work ; enlarged office room ; greatly increased space for storage of apparatus, chemicals and samples ; a fire-proof vault ; and a library and reading room. Central steam heat has been introduced in place of the independent hot-water system. Numerous minor repairs have been made and the entire build- ing has been replumbed, rewired and repainted. As a conse- quence of the various changes and improvements the building now fairly satisfies the needs of the chemical department of the station, but the chemical work increases so rapidly that it can- not be many years before additional laboratory accommodations will be needed. There has been but one other important building operation during the year, — the erection of the building at the cranberry 34 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. substation in East A\'ar('liam, alreaal markets in New England and New York. There has been but little change in the cost of the various forms of plant food, with the exception of the better forms of organic nitrogen which have shown a considerable advance as compared with the previous year. {e) Unmixed Fertilizing Material. Thirty-three samples of ground bone have been collected and analyzed. Ten were found dciicient in phosphoric acid and 5 in nitrogen. The average retail cash price for ground bone has been $31.32 per ton, the average valuation $29.80, and the per- ' Fine and medium bone and tankage are separated by a sieve liaving circular openings one- fifiicth of nn inch in diameter. Valuations of these materials are based upon degree of fineness as well .as upon composition. 2 Di.ssolvod by a neutral solution of ammonium citrate, specific gravity 1.09, in accordance with method adopted by Association of OfTicial Agricultural Chemists. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 centage difference 5.10. Two of the brands analyzed showed a commercial shortage of 50 cents or over a ton. Eighteen samples of tankage have been analyzed. Three were found deficient in nitrogen and 5 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $34.14, the average valua- tion per ton $32.69, and the percentage difference 4.43. Nitro- gen in fine tankage has cost on the average 20.89 cents ; nitrogen in coarse tankage has cost 15.G5 cents per pound. Three sam- ples have shown a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. Twenty-two samples of dry ground fish have been examined. Three were found deficient in nitrogen and 2 in phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price per ton was $41.90, the average valuation $42.71, and the percentage difference in ex- cess 1.93. Nitrogen from dry ground fish has cost on the aver- age 22.56 cents per pound. None of the brands showed a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. (1) Nitrogen Compounds. — Three samples of sulfate of ammonia have been analyzed and found well up to the guaran- tee. The average cost of a pound of nitrogen in this form has been 16.78 cents. Twenty-three samples of nitrate of soda have been analyzed and 3 were found deficient in nitrogen. The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 16.19 cents per pound. Four samples of dried blood have been examined which, with one exception, showed overruns in nitrogen. The pound of ni- trogen from blood has cost 23.29 cents. Four samples of castor pomace have been analyzed. The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 26.11 cents per pound. Twenty-three samples of cottonseed meal have been exam- ined, all of which were purchased as a nitrogen source for tobacco. Nitrogen from this source has cost on the average 23.08 cents per pound. Six samples have shown a nitrogen deficiency which has, in 3 cases, amounted to 50 cents or more per ton. (2) Potash Compounds. — Twenty-one samples of high grade sulfate of potash have been examined, and the potash guarantee was maintained in all but one instance. The pound 54 EXPERIiNIENT STATION. [Jan. of actual potash in this form lias cost on the average 5.2 cents. Two cases of misbranding were discovered bj our inspectors. Material put out by the Nitrate Agencies Company as high- grade sulfate of potash proved upon analysis to be muriate of potash.- The sale of the material as sulfate of potash was dis- continued and the material was ])roperly labeled. Six samples of potash-magnesia sulfate have been examined and all but 2 were found fully up to the guarantee. The pound of actual potash in this form has cost 5.91 cents. Several cases have been detected where high-grade sulfate of potash has been reduced with sand and kieserit. The parties registering the material have disclaimed any knowledge of such a practice, and state that the material was bought for potash-magnesia sulfate and sold by them in the original bags as imported from Ger- many. The matter was taken up with the German syndicate, who traced the adulteration back to the mine that originally pro- duced the goods. A statement Avas made by the importers that the mine had been heavily fined for the practice, and large ship- ments of the adulterated product had been returned to the mine. The importers offered to compensate the buyers, who in turn would rel)ate the farmer, for the value of the deficient magnesia less the value of the overrun in 2)otash. Eighteen samples of muriate of potash have been examined and 3 were found deficient in potash. The pound of actual pot- ash as muriate or chloride has cost on the average of 4.43 cents. Two brands have shown a commercial shortage amounting to 50 cents or over per ton. There seems reason to believe that it is not improbable that some cases of api)arent shortage in case of mnriiite of potash may be duo to al)sor])tion of moisture, result- ing, of course, in a greater weight of the material without any actual loss of ])otash, ]irovided the material is sold in the original package and each package is only credited with a weight of 200 pounds. Three sam]iles of kainit have been analyzed and found wvU up to the guarantee. The pound of actual jjotash from kainit has cost 4.34 cents. (3) Phosphoric Acid Compounds. — Two samples of dis- solved bone black have been analyzed and both showed a com- mercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. The pound of avail- 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 'M 55 able phosphoric acitl from this source has cost on the average 6.11 cents. Fifteen samples of acid phos])hate have been examined and all but 2 were found well up to the minimum guarantee. No commercial shortage of over 50 cents a ton occurred. The pound of available phosphoric acid from acid phosphate has cost 5.4-i cents. Seven samjiles of basic slag plios})hate have been analyzed and all were found well up to the guarantee. The jtound of avaihible phos})lioric acid from basic slag, as determined by Wagner's method, has cost on the average 5.12 cents. (/) Grades of Fertilizer. The grouping of the complete fertilizers into three different grades furnishes a convenient means of showing the superior ad- vantages to be derived from the purchase of kigJi-grade fertil- izers. In the tables below the high-grade fertilizers are repre- sented by those brands having a commercial value of $24 or over a ton; the medium grade by those which value between $18 and $24 ; and the low grade by those which value $18 or less per ton. A table showing average cash price, commercial value, money difference between cash price and valuation, and percentage dif- ference of the three grades of fertilizer follows : — High Grade. Medium Grade. Low Grade. 1910. 1911. 1910. 1911. 1910. 1911. Average cash price per ton, . Average ton valuation, . Average money difference, Percentage difference. $3S 40 $28 81 ?9 59 33.28 $40 87 S28 89 $11 98 41 47 $33 51 $21 04 $12 47 59 26 $35 08 $21 04 $14 04 66 73 $27 80 815 61 $12 19 78.08 $39 64 $15 37 $14 27 92.84 56 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. Table showing the Average Composition of the Three Grades of Fertilizer. , *->« a Per Cent, op c 0 z 8 Phosphoric Acid. .a 0,-0 GllADE. (5 o g Is o o 0 o U-, a 0 o Si a a o O C PL, 13 3 1 o 3 — a 0 "ill Pm High 153 46.22 4.12 4.00 3.32 7.32 7.64 10.08 Medium, .... 10.3 31.12 2.61 2.93 2.94 5. 87 5 12 13.60 Low 75 22.66 1.66 4.53 2.82 7.35 2.90 11.91 What is shown by the above tables : — 1. That the average ton price for the tliree grades of fertilizer has been nearly $2 more for 1911 than for the previous year, although but little difference is noticed in the average valuation per ton for the two years. 2. That the percentage excess of the selling price over the valuation in the low-grade fertilizers is about two and one-fourth times more than it is in the high-grade goods, and over one and one-half times more than in the medium-grade fertilizers. 3. That with a 38 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high grade furnishes about 88 per cent, in- crease in commercial value. 4. The average high-grade fertilizer with a 1G.5 per cent, advance in price over the medium goods, furnishes 47.0 per cent, more plant food and 37.3 per cent, increase in commercial value. 5. That with a 38 per cent, advance in })ricc over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes more than GO per cent. increase in available plant food. G. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes 49.2 pounds more nitrogen and 94.8 pounds more of actual potash than does a ton of the low-grade goods. 7. A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes 30.2 [)ounds more nitrogen and 50.4 pounds more potash than does a ton of the medium-grade goods. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 57 Table showing the Comparative Pound Cost, in Cents, of Nitrogen, Potash and Phosphoric Acid in its Various Forms in the Three Grades of Fertilizer. Element. Low-grade Fertilizer. Mediuni-prade Fertilizer. HiKh-crade Fertilizer. Nitrogen, .... Potash (as muriate), Soluble phosphoric acid, . llevcrted phosphoric acid, Insoluble phosphoric acid. 38 6 8.2 8.7 7.7 3.9 33.4 7.1 7.5 6.7 3.3 28.3 6.0 6.4 5.7 2.8 This table shows : — 1. That the purchase of high-grade fertilizers in place of low- grade goods has saved over 10 cents on every pound of nitrogen and over 2 cents on every pound of potash and phosphoric acid. 2. That the purchase of high-grade fertilizers in place of medium-grade goods has saved over 5 cents on every pound of nitrogen and over 1 cent on every pound of potash and phos- phoric acid. 3. Taking the average analysis of the high-grade fertilizer as a basis, the purchase of the high-grade in place of the low-grade goods would mean a saving of $14.23 on every ton purchased; the purchase of the high-grade in place of the medium-grade would mean a saving of $7.12 on every ton purchased. 4. About 54 per cent, of the number of brands sold in ]\[assa- chusetts are classed as medium or low-grade fertilizers. Assum- ing that the tonnage of these goods was as large as for the high- grade brands, there would have been a tremendous saving to the Massachusetts farmer had he bought only high-grade fertilizer. 5. The purchaser of fertilizers should look to the guaranteed analysis and remember that he is buying pounds of ]dant food as well as tons of fertilizer. He should know the form and about the proportion of the various elements of plant food and should purchase the brand which sells for the least money which comes nearest fulfilling his requirements. 6. Every one should consider and profit by the lessons taught bv the above data. 58 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. {(J) Summary of Results of Anahjses of the Complete Fertilizers as compared uith the Manufacturers' Gvarrantee. MANUFACTURER8. -^ • HI C 3 O a > B -^ O o t. 0 c o 0) rt C^ 3 2;^ Rogers & Hubbard Company, Ross Bros. Company, N. Roy & Son, Sanderson Fertilizer and Chemical Company, M. L. Shoemaker & Company, Swift's Lowell Fertilizer Company, 20th Century Specialty Company, AVm. Thomson & Sons, ..... Whitman & Pratt Rendering Company, Wilcox Fertilizer Company, .... A. II. Wood & Co. The above table shows : — 1. That 334 brands of registered complete fertilizers have been collected and analyzed. 2. That 191 brands (57 per cent, of the total nnniber an- alyzed) fell below the manufacturers' guarantee in one or more elements. 3. That 135 brands were deficient in one element. 4. That 51 brands were deficient in two elements. 5. That 5 brands were deficient in three elements. 6. That 41 brands (over 12 per cent, of the whole number analyzed) showed a commercial shortage; that is, when the over- runs were used to offset shortages they did not show the amount in value of plant food as expressed by the smallest guarantee. The deficiencies found were divided as follows : — 96 brands were found deficient in nitrocren. 90 brands were found deficient in available phosphoric acid. 6U brands were found deficient in potash. 60 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. As compared witli the ]>revioiis year the guarantees have not been as generally maintained. Thirty-six more brands were found deficient in nitrogen and 10 more in available phosphoric acid than for the season of 1910. The brands showing a com- mercial shortage were 17 more than during the previous year; in many cases, however, the commercial deficiency was small, amounting to less than 25 cents j)er ton. Table ahowing Commercial Shortages {25 Cents or Over) in Mixed Complete Fertilizers for 1910 and 1911. COMMEKCIAL SHORTAGES. Number of Brands. 1910. 1911. Between $1 and $2 per ton. Under $1, not less than 25 cents per ton 6 18 9 17 Some brands have suffered serious deficieucies in some ele- ment of plant food without showing any commercial shortage, the deficiency being made up by an overrun of some other cle- ment. This is due, probably, either to carelessness or poor mix- ing rather than a disposition to furnish less plant food value than is called for in the guarantee. It furnishes a condition not to be commended, however, as the fertilizer may be rendered seriously out of balance. (h) Quality of Plant Food. (1) Nitrogen. — Sixty or more per cent, of the total nitrogen in the average mixed fertilizer is derived from organic sources, and until recently it has not been possible to tell the consumer much concerning its activity or immediate availability. Hereto- fore there has been published the nitrogen from nitrates and ammoniates as well as the water soluble and water insoluble organic nitrogen. It has seemed evident, however, that some of the brands contained at least a portion of their nitrogen in low-grade forms, but a lack of a suitable method of analysis has rendered it impossible to procure sufficient evidence to defi- nitely substantiate the supposition. In 1910 the chemists in charae of the fertilizer control work in New Eni>'land, New York 1912.] rUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 31. 61 and New Jersey co-operated in an effort to make a careful study of the Jones' modification of the '* Alkaline permanganate method " and Street's '' Neutral permanganate method " for testing the activity of the water insoluble organic nitrogen in mixed fertilizers. Satisfactory results were obtained with the Jones' modification, which were confirmed on the same sample's by means of vegetation experiments conducted at the lihode Island Experiment Station. The work proved so satisfactory that in March, 1911, the Jones' modification was adopted pro- visionally by the New England, New York and New Jersey ex- periment stations. All of the complete fertilizers reported in this bulletin have, therefore, been tested as to their organic nitrogen activity. Out of a total of 38-1 brands analyzed, 43 or nearly 13 per cent, of the whole number, have shown an activity of their water insol- uble organic nitrogen of less than 50 per cent. So far as one is able to judge fi'om the analytical data and the explanations furnished, the following facts may be de- duced : — 1. Some manufacturers used nitrogen-containing material of a low availability. 2. In some cases it was used as a direct source of nitrogen to bring the material up to its minimum guarantee. In other cases it was used to raise the guarantee above the minimum. In still other cases it was employed as a filler or to improve the mechan- ical condition of the fertilizer. 3. It is possible that the inactive materials employed were not sufiiciently treated to render their nitrogen available. It is hoped that manufacturers will endeavor to improve con- ditions another season, for it is believed that the consumer of commercial fertilizers — at least of the better grades — is enti- tled to receive all of his nitrogen in such an available form as is called for by the 50 per cent, alkaline permanganate standard. (2) Phosphoi'ic Acid. — ]\Iany of the fertilizer mixtures contained large overruns in total phosphoric acid, while the available phosphoric acid on the same brands has sho^^^l a con- siderable shortage. This may have been due to incomplete acidulation of the bone or raw mineral phosphate used, or to the addition of considerable unacidulated rock phosphate, bone 62 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. or roasted iron or alumina phosphate. Of the total phosphoric acid found in all of the brands analyzed, 84 [)er cent, was present in available forms. In case of the availal)le phosphoric acid found, 58 per cent, was present in water soluble form. (8) Potash. — As in i)rcvious years, the form in which the potash was present has been noted in every fertilizer analyzed. Very few cases have been found showing the absence of chlo- rides in those brands where sulfate is guaranteed. In the ma- jority of cases, however, the amount of chlorine found present has been so small as to be counted as incideiital. A quantita- tive test, however, has in all cases been made. In case of some of the tobacco brands, quite a considerable quantity of chlorine has been found where carbonate of potash was guaranteed. This would indicate the use of carbonate of potash from the beet sugar industry. The latter material frequently contains as high as 10 to 12 per cent, muriate of potash. It is reasonable to suppose that if the consumer pays for carbonate of potash he expects that the fertilizer will exclude both soluble chlorides and sulfates. {%) Miscellaneous Fertilizers, By-jiroducts and Soils for Free Anal If sis. Including the materials which have been tested for the vari- ous dei)artments of the experiment station, there have been re- ceived and analyzed 339 diflerent substances. They may be grouped as follows: 209 fertilizers and by-products used as fer- tilizers, 63 soils, 36 lime compounds, 27 ash analyses of plants and 4 miscellaneous products. Whenever possible, the fertilizer and lime samples have been taken by one of our regular inspec- tors and by means of the regulation sam]ding tube. In all other cases the samples have been taken according to printcnl instruc- tions furnished from this office. In reporting results, informa- tion has been furnished as to the best manner of using the material, and in case of soils the rational treatment of the same as regards fertilizers, cultivation and crop rotation. The analy- ses of most of the lime products appear in Lime Bulletin, No. 137. The analyses of home-mixed fertilizers and private for- mulas collected by our inspectors will appear in a table by them- selves in lli(» fertilizer bulletin. The other analyses mentioned will not be i>ublished. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. G3 5. TtEroRT OF THE Feed anj) Dairy Sectiox. Mr. P. 11. Smith submits the following: — The Feed Law {Acts and Resolves for 1003, Chapter 122). Durinc; the year 733 samples of feeding stuffs have been col- lected ami examined. A regularly em})loye(l inspector covers the State at intervals during the year, collects samples and as- certains if the provisions of the law are being complied with. Protein, fat, fiber and in some instances moisture and ash deter- minations are made. It is a matter of satisfaction to note that practically all feeding stuiTs are as represented. This state- ment should not be interpreted to mean that all feeding stuffs offered are of good (piality, but that all articles in the market correspond to the guarantee placed upon them. Violations of Law. — The principal violation of the law as heretofore has been that local dealers, either through careless- ness or through the neglect of shippers to furnish tags, fail to guarantee. The experiment station, through its representative, does wdiat it can to prevent violations of this character. In order that the law may be fully enforced in this respect, the co-operation of consumers is needed. The consumer can be of material assistance by insisting that all feeding stuffs that he purchases, with the exception of wheat by-products and ground whole grains, shall bear the guaranteed analysis together with the name and address of the manufacturer. It is believed that adulteration is seldom practiced. There are some feedstuff's on the market to which low-grade products are occasionally added. Wheat feeds and hominy feed to which ground corn cobs have been added are of this character. The manufacturers ship these goods with the proper guarantee, but they occasionally reach the consumer with the tags removed. It seems evident that the local dealer is responsible for this, desir- ing to conceal the real identity of the article. The purchaser should not without careful investigation purchase wheat feeds or hominy feeds that are unguaranteed or that are offered very much below the ruling price. Neiv Law. ■ — The officers in charge of the feeding stuffs law have felt for some time that the present law was inadequate to 64 EXPERIIMEXT STATION. [Jan. meet present conditions, and this year a new law will be pre- sented to the General Court for its consideration and adoption. The proposed law differs from the present law in the following particulars : — 1. It is modeled as closely as local conditions will permit after the uniform law proposed l)y the Association of Feed C^ontrol Officials. 2. It carries an increase in revenue -which is necessary if it is to be satisfactorily enforced. This increase is also made necessary by the increase in number of brands at present on the market. 3. Wheat feeds, now exempt, have been included. 4. It has been so revised as to render it easier of enforcement and more explicit. Tlie Dairy Law {Acts and Resolves for 1001, Chapter 202). This law requires that all persons who are using the Babcock test as a basis of payment for milk and cream, either in buying or selling, must secure a certificate of proficiency from the experiment station. It also requires that Babcock machines bo inspected by an experiment station official annually, and that all glassware used be tested for accuracy by the station. Chapter 425, Acts and Resolves for 1909, added to the law by giving the director of the experiment station the authority to revoke a certificate if it is found that an operator is nsing dirty or untested glassware, or if he is doing the work in an improper manner. The station makes the following suggestions to operators : — 1. Every operator must have a certificate, and no person without a certificate is legally entitled to make the test. The o]>erator may employ a person without a certificate to aid him in his work, but he must work with him and be responsible for the working of the machine, and must read the tests in person. 2. Great care should be taken in getting accurate samples. The test from a sample carelessly drawn will not represent the value of the milk or cream from which it is taken, no matter how carefully the testing is done. 3. Cream and curdled sam])les of milk should be weighed and not pipetted. The only reason that milk or cream is ever pi- 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 05 petted is as a matter of convenience and on the supposition that IS cubic centimeters of cream or 17.(5 cubic centimeters of milk will weigh 18 grams. It is diiRcult and often practically im- possible to get exactly 18 grams of sour milk or thick cream with the use of the pipette. 4. In reading the milk test include the entire fat column. In cream tests read from the lowest ])oint of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus or curve. In case of cream tests, if the entire fat column is included the reading will be about 1 per cent, too high. Summari] of Dairy Inspection. — During the year 15 candi- dates have been examined and given certificates to operate the Babcock test. Four thousand, four hundred and sixty-six pieces of glassware have been examined for accuracy and only 12 have been condemned, a smaller percentage than for any preced- ing year. Following is a summary for the eleven years the law has been in force : — Year. Number of Pieces tested. Number of Pieces condemned. Percentage condemned. 1901, . 1902, . 1903, . 1904, . 1905, . 1906, . 1907, . 190S, . 1909, . 1910, . 1911, . 5,041 2,344 2,240 2,020 1,005 2,457 3,082 2,713 4,071 4,047 4,400 291 56 57 200 197 703 204 33 43 41 12 5.77 2 40 2.54 9.87 11.83 31.05 0.02 1.22 1.00 1.01 .27 Totals, 34,152 1,897 5.50> The testing outfits in 30 creameries and milk depots have been inspected. Xine of these, an exceptionally large number, required reinspection. A machine that vibrates badly, caused Average. 66 EXPERIMEXT STATION. [Jan. by worn bearings or an insecure fonndation, cannot be expected to do satisfactory work, neither can a machine give a clear sep- aration of fat where the speed is insutHcient. A number of operators were found using untested glassware. The director of the experiment station has the right to prosecute the owners of the ])lant where this is being done, and also to revoke the li- cense of tlie operator. Thus far this matter has been corrected when called to the attention of the creamery men. Continued violations will, however, make prosecution necessary. Following is a list of creameries and milk depots visited: — 1. Creameries. Location. Name. President or Manager. 1. Amherst, . 2. A:nherst, . 3. Ashfield, . 4. Belchertown, 5. Brimfield, . 6. Cunimington, 7. Egremont, . 8. Easthampton, 9. Heath, 10. Hin.sdale, . 11. Montercv, . 12. North Brookfield 13. Northfield. 14. Shelburne, . 15. Wyben Spring Amherst, . . . . . Fort Kiver, ' . . . . Aslifield Co-operative, Belchertown Co-operative, Crystal Brook, Cummington Co-operative, Egrenioat Co-operative, . Hampton Co-operative, . Cold Spring, . . . . Hinsdale Creamery Company, Berkshire Hills Creamery, North Brooktield, . Northfield Co-operative, Shelburne Co-operative, . Wyben Springs Co-operative, . R. W. Pease, manager. E. A. King, proprietor. \Vm. Hunter, nuinager. M. Ci. Ward, manager. F. N. Lawrence, proprietor. D. C. Morey, manager. E. A. Tyrell, manaper. W. S. Wilcox, manager. F. E. Stetson, manager. W. C. Solomon, proprietor. F. A. Campbtll, manager. H. A. Richardson, proprietor. C. C. Stearns, manager. L L. Barnard, manager. H. C. Kelso, manager. 2. Milk Depots. Location. Name. President or Manager. 1. Boston, . ... D. W. Whiting & Sons, Geo. Whiting. 2. Boston, H. P. Hood & Sons. .... W. N. Brown. 3. Boston, Boston Dairy Company, . W. A. Graustein. 4. Boston, . Boston Jersey Creamery, . T. P. Grant. 5. Boston, Walker-Gordon Laboratory, G. Franklin. 0. Boston, Oak tirove Farm, .... C. L. Alden. 7. Boston, .Maine Creamery Company, E. H. Smith. 8. Boston, Turner Center Dairying A.ssociation, L. L. Smith. 9. Boston, Plymouth Creamery Company,. W. L. Johnson. 10. Cambridge, C. Brigham Co., .... J. R. Blair. 11. Cheshire, . Ormsby Farms W. E. Penniman. 12. Dorchester, Elm Farm Milk Company, J. K. Knapp. 13. Shoflield, . Willow Brook Dairy, .... F. B. Percy. 14. Southborough, Deerfoot Farm Dairy, S. H. Howes. 15. Springfield, Tait Bros., Tait Bros. 16. Springfield, Emerson Laboratory, .... H. C. Emerson. Pays by test. Testing done at Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. G7 Millx, Cream and Feeds for Free Examination. With certain restrictions the resources of the experiment sta- tion are available to residents of Massachusetts who desire in- formation relative to the composition of milk, dairy products and cattle feeds. When necessary, samples taken in accordance with the directions furnished will be analyzed free of cost. On account of the large amount of data on file, it is often possible to furnish the information desired without recourse to analysis. The experiment station will not undertake to act as eonnncu-cial chemists, and, on account of the limited funds at its dis]>osaI, must use its own discretion as to what samples it will analyze. Water Analysis. The station has analyzed 1 14 samples of water. All probably came from private water supplies. Public water su])plics are under the charge of the State Board of Health, and all matters pertaining to such supplies should be referred to them. Of the 114 samples received 80 were from wells, 30 from springs and 4 were taken from ponds. The results show that farm wells situated near buildings are quite susceptible to pollution and may become sources of infec- tion for ty])hoid fever and other bacterial diseases, while springs situated at a distance from all buildings are the most satisfac- tory and safest. Where a good spring is not available the well should be located as far as possible from dwellings and barns. Lead pipe was used in 49 cases. In 9 instances water llowing through such pipes contained lead in appreciable amount, ren- dering the water absolutely dangerous for consumption. If a water analysis is desired, application should be made to the experiment station, when a container will be shipped to the applicant together with instructions for taking the sample. Wa- ter received in receptacles other than those furnished will not be analyzed. A fee of $3 is charged for a water analysis. The experiment station does not make bacterial examinations. Miscellaneous Wo?-]v. In addition to the work already described, this section has conducted investigations and made other analyses as follows : — 1. It has co-operated with the officials of the Massachusetts 08 EXPERniFAT STATION. [Jan. Corn Exposition in making analyses of corn in connection with the awarding of prizes. 2. It has co-operated with tljc Bowker and Coe-Mortinicr Fertilizer companies in making analyses of corn in connection with the awarding of prizes. 3. It has arranged and furnished exhibits and speakers, in co-operation with the extension department, for fairs, farmers' meetings and expositions. 4. It has co-operated with the agricultural department of the college in making analyses of milk in connection with the award- ing of prizes at a dairy show held during " farmers' week.'' 5. In connection with the experimental work of this and other departments of the experiment station, this section has made analyses of 116 samples of milk, 57 samples of feed and 377 samples of agricultural plants. G. In addition to the work already enumerated, it has re- ceived and tested 527 samples of milk, 2,799 samples of cream for butter fat, and 201 samides of feedstuifs. Testing Pure-hred Cows. The testing of pure-bred cows for advanced registry is in charge of this section. Work of this character can be grouped under two divisions. The yearly tests for the Guernsey, Jersey and Ayrshire breeds are based upon two-day monthly tests undor the supervision of an experiment station representative; while the IIolstein-Friesian tests are usually of from seven to thirty days' duration and require the presence of the supervisor during the entire testing period. The large number of yearly tests now in progress require the employment of two men continuously and of an additional man for a portion of the time. Work of this character can be planned ahead and more readily taken care of than the IIolstein-Friesian tests. For this latter work a list of available men is kept, and applications for supervisors are filled in the order received. IMen who make the IIolstein- Friesian tests are recruited largely from the short-course grad- uates who have gone back to the farm and who do not find it difficult to get away during the wint(n- months. During the summer months considerable difficulty is experienced in getting 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. G9 men for the work. Fourteen ditrereut men have been used on work of this character during the year. From Dec. 1, 1910, to Dec. 1, 1911, 38 Guernsey, 117 Jersey and a number of Ayrshire tests have been completed. Thcu-e are now on test 43 Guernseys, 99 Jerseys, and 12 Ayrshires, located at 18 different farms. For the IIolstein-Friesian Association there have been com- pleted 103 7-day tests, 2 30-day tests and 1 14-day test. 70 EXPEKIMEXT STATION. [Jan. KEPOUT OF THE BOTANIST. G. E, STONE. TliG routine and research work of this department during the year has followed prescribed lines, although, as occasion has demanded, new lines of research were taken up. Mr. G. H. Chapman, besides assisting in carrying on the routine work, has had considerable opportunity for the study of special problems. He has completed his investigations on mosaic and allied dis- eases, as well as a piece of work on the " Microscopic Identifi- cation of the Components of Cattle Feeds." Mr. Sumner C. Brooks, who served one year in the laboratory, resigned his position in October to take up graduate work at Harvard, but unfortunately just before his year expired he was severely stricken w^th typhoid fever and is at present in a con- valescent state. Mr. Brooks is a keen and tireless observer, and our best wishes are extended to him in his graduate work. His place has been filled by Mr. E. A. Larrabee, of the class of 1911 of this college, who has had considerable experience in our lab- oratory as an undergraduate student. Miss J. V. Crocker, who is thoroughly familiar with our work, has been of great service in attending to correspondence, assisting in the seed work and in other ways. Much help has also been received from Mr. R. E. Torrey and IMessrs. Larson and Ellis, all of whom arc associated with the laboratory as undergraduate students. Besides giving considerable time to such routine work as cor- respondence and the diagnosis of diseases, our owm attention has been directed to the investigation of a dozen or more origi- nal problems. Miich time has also been spent in studying and devising apparatus designed for the better control of the various foes of plant life. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 71 Besides the correspoiideiicc relating- to seed work and the control of diseases, we arc constantly called npou to answer let- ters of a very special and technical nature. These inquiries come from everywhere and cover a multitude of subjects, such as electricity and plant growth, electrical injury to trees, illumi- nating and other gases, chemical treatment of reservoirs, mod- ern tree surgery, court decisions regarding shade trees, different stimulating factors in the growing of plants, requests for advice in regard to devices for the extermination of various pests, etc. 72 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. H. T. FERNALD. The work of the entomological department during 1911 has been mainly on subjects previously outlined, and any report is, therefore, practically a report of progress. The insect collection of the station has received considerable attention during the year. jS^umerous additions by gift from former students of the college and others, and the addition of more cases and other equipment in order to provide room for the proper care and growth of the collection as a whole, have made it possible to put it in better condition than ever before. As it is in constant use for reference and study, this improve- ment has been greatly appreciated. The time at the disposal of those working in entomology is divided between four different lines of work. These are : corre- spondence with persons desiring the assistance of the depart- ment ; care and improvement of the station collections of insects and their work; experimental work and studies under the Hatch act; and research under the Aarison, though most of them have already been given in another connection. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 95 H-1 t^ M Eh — OS ■♦CO SSS2S sggss a:s M— l-H<>> 0 — IM 1° O O O— 1 o o o o o — oo o-^oo ocooo oo o oooo 0 — 00 oooo « •H -H •« -H ■« ■« fl -u ■H 41 44 41 44 41 41 41 44 4) 41 41 4i 41 4( CJ CO coo 6j o «oco co-HC^i cnoo t^ 'c>j«c» CO — — tN — CJ CO — — — C-) — (N ^ 32:8:: 2S§§S gOTUOC^ Sgg2 00 CO CO CO oooo oooo oooo oooo OOOO oooo oooo -H -H -H -U •H -H -H ■« 41 44 41 44 44 4( 41 41 4) 44 4t 4) 4( 44 41 41 ^ g?5SS SK3gS K22S SsSS >o — C-IO t^ — coco t^ 0 S CO cc »o -^ »o CO coco U5 CO coco-* ■^■racoire CO coco ■* CO coco iO flu: CO 00 «DO ssss McoSS? SoooS COCOCiO rococo "3 — 'O o -< '-o oo (M — — — — 000 — 0 — — oooo ■~'2 ■H -H -H -H -« -H -H -H 41 44 41 41 4i 41 41 44 4) 41 41 44 41 41 41 44 —« r-- »-- Qo 05 OiO =o O '»'« -*< O'M O -* oo-^^ r>- 0 "^ te «=» 00 00"^'^ 00 t^-* "5 lOCO "* ■»** •M tn^-' c^ O'' a H O if cote — o iOCO CO -^ SSS5§ 25 1^ -^i^ g?J^?5 00 CD oo CO -*cocou5 0 CO coo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo ■H -H -H -H ■«-«■«-)) 41 41 4( 41 41 4) 41 44 44 44 41 41 41 41 44 41 F^l — otot^ ScoSoo OICOI^- H Z (M 01-«<0J CO cioob coooco coooio • coosoro > ri^ r^ -.j^r^ 00-* 00 — 1^ u^ -J< lO t^ -^ rj' lO ^o oo r^ CO -«<'«< CO iO »or^ d C3 OOOO oooo — — o — oooo oooo oooo ■H -H -H -H •H -fl 41 -H 41 44 41 41 41 4) 4( 41 41 4( 4) 44 41 41 41 44 co^cooo 00 CO CO CO is CO CO CD o8>r3C-)S t^O-* T« ■^00:0 t-» t^OiOiOO ooi — <^^ r^r^coi oSSS SSSoj cfi> 0 Q> 05 OiOi 0> '::ji SSo CS ||SS • z < .J ft, t4 6 Q -i: Q (^ 0 w < 9G EXrERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. Cs) -t4CD<0 25:28 ssss 0000 05 oto-^io ^ >» O — — M -Hl-OCMC^ 0 '-■'—• •—< OC^C^CO ^H *—( ^H ^H TJ.-.C-H -^000 •I3 •« -H -H -H ^ M M a ■« -H ■« -H •(i 41 -H -H 4) 41 41 4) 41 4) 41 4) 41 41 41 41 C-) W50 m cocs c<> CO CO CO »o 0 OO-W cc c; -^cs CiOOO oo2Ji-»' CO--" 000 •<).«3T(<«e> CO ■*■<»< CO 2: C^ CDt^OO 11 o oo o oooo (M — 0 — oooo oooo oooo OOOO oooo oooo oooo oooo at (4 ■H -H 1i ^) •H -H -H -H •« -H -H ■« •H -H -H -H 41 41 4( 41 41 4i 41 41 41 41 41 41 l| 85SS2 g22§ 2SS?5 Q — C^CO 01 a o Pi C^i c^ 00"^ 0 CO CD t* (M-^e-i IM-H -«0 e<5 ■«»<«■<»< 00'<}.oo eousco'* «*-. ^ ^^ jwca — c» fl:S OOO 1^— ' U5 00O3O 10iO!N CO .-1— .0-1 Cv| 1-10 -^ —1000 ,-l,-i ,^ _i oooo — 'OOO oooo 11 ■H ■« -H -H Hi 4i ^^ 41 ■« H) -H 41 41 41 -H -H 41 4( 41 41 4) 4t 41 41 41 41 41 41 0!N0t~ ■^J^t^OitO 00 TJHC^J -^J* iraco>ooo n S ScOMCO oeoooM OJ 0;cOC<5 11 ■*C^MCO OOOO oooo OOOO OOOO oooo OOOO oooo H ■H -H -H -H ■H -H -H -H M -H M M 4J 41 4i 41 ■H -H -H -tj 4( 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 l_] f?2S3 t^(M ^ 00 z 1-^ 00 «3 ^ CO^CD-^ ■ococo ca »O0iCiO5 COOCOC5 irioit^ai CO 00 00 Oi 10 CI OS 0 OOOO— • coooo > ssss lOicSS t^O-*iO CO-'J^d -* oooo — 000 OOOO oooo oooo oooo oooo ■H -H -H ■« •H -H -H -H ■H ■« •« -H ■H -H -H ■« ■H ■« -H -H 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 0 CO-*"* CO I-^ oocno-< OOCIO^ OOCiO-H ppOSO'l S ssss ssss S S C5 C5 S S Ci Oi Oa 05 05 Oi sSSo! H •< -1 • Ph 1^ s m u K '-5 « 0 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. CO »0 »f3 '*'<*< '*'<* oo 25 r^ 05 © CD tp C^ ^ iO iM -^ '^J* CO lO C^ CS '-H 1-Hosco •-Hkocococooj'-'-^^tM'^ai— * CO^HOS OO'-'Oi »- T-^^- CO CO C C^-^iOUSW^iOCDiOt— CiCOOi ^j:^ HH< 2 a a a 3 O S "a a 3 te ■a 'S a 3 t "i a 2 < s S iz; Tubeuf & Smith," Diaeaaes of Plants," p. 356. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 109 outdoor plants in the summer or early fall. It makes its ap- pearance in the greenhouse in the late fall and persists during the winter, affecting the leaves of the young, vertical shoots more seriously than those of the older, pendant ones. We ob- served both the euredospore and teleutospore outbreaks, which occurred on the underside of the leaves on our material. In the spring it appears to aifect the plants less seriously, probably owing to the practice of frequently cutting off the affected parts and destroying them, and to the vigorous growth of the plants in the spring. When starting new plants care has been taken to use only healthy cuttings from year to year, and in this way the rust has, perhaps, been held in check to some extent. The disease affects both the green and variegated varieties, although the latter are usually more severely affected. It has been found on a large number of plants, but the loss has not been serious owing to a tendency on the part of the plants to outgrow the trouble. We have not been able to learn whether the mycelium is per- ennial in the stem or not, or whether infection comes from the field, but the rust does not seem to be so serious this year as the past two years, agreeing in this respect with other rusts which have been more or less epidemic. If the infection occurs on outdoor plants, as in the case of chrysanthemum rust, it can easily be controlled by indoor or tent-cloth culture, or by any other means which would keep the dews off the plants, and even if the mycelium is present in the stem to some extent the dis- ease can no doubt be practically controlled by careful selection of cuttings. We have been unable to trace the disease beyond the points mentioned. The stock in use was obtained from the immediate neighborhood where the infection occurred, although no doubt the rust at some time or other came in on stock im- ported from Europe. no EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. FROST CRACKS. G. E. STONE. Many trees of different varieties are subject to frost cracks. These often remain open for several years, and so far as our observations go are almost always to be found on the sunny side of the tree, generally towards the south. They occur in winter, and it is generally believed that they are caused by sudden changes in temperature, and esi)ecially by very severe cold. They were very common in this section during the remarkably cold winter of 1903-04, when some fruit trees, 8 or 10 inches in diameter, had frost cracks which opened 4 or 5 inches wide. In this section the elm tree is more liable to cracks from the action of frost than other varieties. These are often 12 or 15 feet long, and give rise to more or less serious bleeding during the summer months. Cracks in trees occur not infrequently from other causes, such as the splitting of limbs, and we have known a number of sugar maples to gradually bleed to death from the loss of sap. Frost cracks open in winter wlien the temperature is low, and close in summer. When not very large they sometimes heal over and disappear through the activities of callus growths, but more often they persist for some years, and an extensive opening of the cavity prevents permanent healing, making the tree subject to bleeding in summer. Frost cracks are difficult to treat satisfactorily by tree surgery methods, as they often extend quite deeply into the wood, and the orifice is constantly changing in width owing to changes in the temperature. For the same reason certain other cavities in trees are hard to treat, as they sometimes open in winter and allow water to enter, which often results in the displacement of the cement fillings. To obviate this difficulty we have experi- mented largely with elastic cement applied to the edge of the 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. Ill filling as a means of preventing the access of water between the cement and the wood, but have found it practically impos- sible so far to prevent the bleeding of frost cracks or cavities in trees. There is no substance now in use which can successfully overcome the pressure exerted by the sap, which is bound to exude under certain conditions. During the winter of 1907 Mr. E. G. Bartlett, at that time assistant in the laboratory, at my suggestion made measure- ments of the opening and closing of the orifices of some large frost cracks on the south side of elm trees located on the college campus. In the following table are given the results of these measurements, together with the mean temperature for the same period. The meteorological data were taken from the local sta- tion on the college grounds, and not a great distance from the trees. Table showing Variation in the Width of Frost Cracks in Elm Trees ( Ulmus Americana ) . Date. Tree No. I. Tree No. 2. Mean Tem- perature (Degrees F.). February 4 23 20 16 5 5 24 21 11.0 6, 26 24 5.3 7, . . . ' , 32 28 2.5 8 28 24 16.0 9 26 23 13.0 11 22 18 17.0 12 36 32 1.3 13 38 35 2.5 14 24 20 31.7 15 26 22 28.5 16 21 17 26.7 18 22 20 21.5 19 22 18 14.5 20 22 18 30.7 21, 25 21 20.5 22 28 24 8.0 23 32 28 .5 25 22 28 20.3 112 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table showing Variation in the Width of Frost Cracks in Elm Trees ( Ulmus Americana) — Concluded. Date. Tree No. 1. Tree No. 2. Mean Tem- perature (Degrees F.). February 26 28 24 7.7 27 29 25 12.0 28 28 24 7.5 March 4 20 16 27.5 5 20 16 21.3 6, 20 16 23.7 7 21 17 22.5 8 20 16 24.0 9 20 16 23.7 10 21 17 20.5 11 20 16 29.7 12 18 14 25.5 13 18 14 37.3 15 11 8 35.7 9 9 41.7 Measurements were not taken on February 10, 17 and 24 (Sunday). The remainder of March the cracks were too small to measure conveniently. In the following diagram are shown graphically the variations in the oi^ening and closing of frost cracks based npon the aver- age measurements of tree No. 1 and No. 2 ; also the barometer, mean temperature and mean relative humidity curve. It will be noticed that the barometer and temperature curves coincide closely with those given hy the opening and closing of the frost cracks, and the same is true to a certain extent of the curve given by the relative humidity. The temperature curve is based upon the mean of the maximnm and minimum for each day. During the periods of low temperature the cracks opened, and closed when the temperature was higher. Tliey open wider in February than in March, as shown by the higher, readings in the table. The relative mean humidity curve in general corresponds with that of the opening and closing of the frost cracks. When 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 113 the humidity is low the cracks show a tendency to open, and to close when the humidity is great. The rise and fall of the 95 90 75 70 65 n J rin n. 1 n n \ I \ \ I- •J L nil u IJ^l 10' 0' r"i_ n >-, -i.j u 30.0 i- 29.5 29.0 m, 35 50 25 zo 15 10 5 0 u [h nj "LJ R 1 u n r-n r-'.-i i_v -MEAN REL HUMIDITY -i^EAN TEMP -BAROMETER -FROST CRACK 7 (0 15 16 19 22 25 28 ---. FEB..-''^ Showing curve of opening and closing of frost cracks in elm trees. The lower curve repre- sents the variations in the opening and closing (scale, Vm of an inch) ; the others repre- sent the mean relative humidity, mean temperature and barometer in the order named. barometer curve coincides very closely with that of the frost cracks ; in fact, there was such a close relationship between the temperature and barometer readings and opening and closing 114 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. of frost cracks that considerable information as to the weather conditions might be obtained from observations on frost cracks. Dnring the hitter part of jMarch, when the temperature was higher, the frost cracks did not open so wide, and it became more difficult to read them accurately. The same degree of variation in frost cracks may not occur in the summer months as in the winter; at any rate, the change was not so noticeable. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 115 A NEW METHOD FOR THE APPROXIMATE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS. G. E. STONE AND G. H. CHAPMAN. According to the best authorities, and giving the definition used by the authors of Bulletin No. 24 of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, '^ The mechanical analysis of a soil consists in the separation of the soil particles into groups de- pendent upon the size of the grains, and in the determination of the percentage by weight of the particles constituting each group. The limits of these groups are arbitrarily chosen with reference to the ease in making the separation, and to the importance of the particles of any gi^Tn size in determining the physical char- acteristics of the soil." Many methods have been devised at dift'erent times by investi- gators, but the whole matter was somewhat hazy on account of each one using his own measurements for grading the soil par- ticles, etc., until the present method of centrifugal analysis was devised by the authors of the bulletin previously noted. Since that time the methods described therein have been made use of by the United States Department of Agriculture and the experi- ment stations in general, where absolutely accurate results are desired for all characters of soils. The chief objection to the methods heretofore devised has been the length of time necessary to carry through an analysis, even of the simplest soil. In the work of this station there have arisen many occasions when it would have been of great advantage to know approxi- mately the composition of a soil, more particularly of those used in greenhouses and market gardening. With a large amount of other routine station work always on hand it was found impos- sible to devote the time necessary to make an analysis of the soil samples by the ordinary centrifugal, or as we shall hereafter 116 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. call it, the " long " method, so it became necessary to devise a method which would materially shorten the process and still give accurate results within a reasonable limit of error. After considerable experimentation a satisfactory method was devised and has been used with success in our work here the past year. It is not claimed that this method is absolutely accurate, nor is any for that matter, as the limit of error, even when using the most approved centrifugal methods where the greatest care is used, is admittedly large, dependent somewhat of course on the manipulator. A great number of comparisons have been made of the results obtained by analysis of soils by the long method and the short method and are given in the following pages. The method used by us is more or less of an adaptation of the centrifugal method in general use. In brief, the centrifugal method in general use is as follows: the soil is carefully sampled and a part of the sample which passes through a 2-millimeter sieve is used for analysis. Five grams are usually taken and dried at 110° C. This sample is then shaken with water, to which a few drops of ammonia have been added, for six hours or more. The sample is then placed in tubes and centrifuged until all but the clay particles have sub- sided ; these, with the water, are then decanted off and evapo- rated to dryness and weighed. The silts are found by allowing everything larger in size than .05 millimeter to subside, de- canting the liquid, evaporating, drying and weighing. The re- maining sands are dried and weighed and then sifted bj' four sieves into five grades. The organic matter is determined usually by the chromic acid method, but should not be con- founded with the " loss on ignition " which is often erroneously termed organic matter. This process, as can plainly be seen, takes a long time to carry through, and is not applicable where quick results are desired. The briefer method in use at this station is as follows : the sample of soil as brought to the laboratory is first thoroughly mixed and then dried at 110° C. It is then sifted through a 2-millimeter sieve and all that passes through is classed as soil. This is again mixed and 10 grams taken for analysis. This is heated to obtain the " loss on ignition," in a platinum or porce- 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 117 lain crucible, and the organic matter, water, etc., is driven off. The sample is then cooled and weighed and loss of weight recorded as " loss on ignition." It is then placed in a small mortar and rubbed gently with a medium hard rubber-tipped pestle to disintegrate the soil particles as far as possible. Then the sample is sifted carefully with constant brushing with a stiff camel's hair brush through 1-millimeter, .5-millimeter, .25-milli- meter and .1-niillinicter sieves, the last two being bolting cloth, as in the long method. The residue remaining consists of the very fine sand, the silts and clay. This remainder is weighed and the w^eight recorded, and one gram or fraction thereof is weighed out and used in the remainder of the process to deter- mine the percentage of very fine sand, silts and clay. This determination is made in the following piece of appa- ratus (see Fig. 1) : A is a circular test tube having a diameter of approximately 2 centimeters and a length to the contraction of about 7 centimeters; B is a flat glass tube with thin walls, \ / Fia. 1. — Showing special tube for mechanical analysis of soils: A, upper or circular part of the tube; B, lower or flat part of the tube. The figures to the right show cross sections, etc., of the tube. 118 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. one of which at least is perfectly flat, having an inside hreadth of .8 centimeter and a width 1 to 1.5 millimeters. This tube is about 10 centimeters long. The lengths of A and B may be varied, however, but it has been found that tubes of these dimensions work well in the ordinary laboratory centrifuge. The method of procedure is as follows : the tube is filled to within about 4 centimeters of the top with distilled water and the gram of soil added. A rubber stopper is then placed in the tube and the soil thoroughly incorporated with the w^ater by shaking for a few minutes. The tube is then placed in the centrifuge and run for a period of five minutes at a speed of about 1,200 revolu- tions per minute. The tube is then rem.oved and clamped to an upright stand sho\vii in Fig. 2, and a millimeter scale is attached so that with a horizontal microscope the size of the soil particles as shown by the eyepiece micrometer and the reading on the scale may be had at the same time or by swinging the micro- scope in a horizontal plane. 0 millimeter on the scale cor- responds with the bottom of the soil column in the tube. The microscope is then focussed on the soil particles and raised until a majority of the particles are less than the minimum size of those of fine sand, i.e., less than .05 millimeter; the scale read- ing is then taken and noted. The microscope is then raised until the particles are less than those of the minimum size for silts, viz., .0005 millimeter; the scale reading is again noted and the scale reading at the top of the soil column also noted. We have the readings as follows: — Millimeters. Very fine sand, 3.0 Very fine snnd and sills, ........ 4.5 Very fine sand and silts and claj^, ...... 7.0 The column is divided, therefore, into volume per cents, as follows : — Per Cent. Very fine sand, 42.85 Silts, 21.43 Clays, 35.72 If there were 2.34 grams of soil left after the last sifting we should have weights of very fine sand, silts and clays as follows, Fig. 2. — Photograph showing a horizontal microscope and metiiods of reading different percentages of soils in the tube. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 119 using these volume i)crceutagcs as weight percentages, which may be done, as experiment has shown that in the small tube the error is not great enough to be taken into consideration. Very fine sand = 2.34 X 42.85 per cent. = 1.00 + grams. Silts = 2.34 X 21.43 per cent. = .49 + grams. Clay = 2.34 X 35.72 per cent. = .84 + grams. Thus we have the weights of the very fine sand, silts and clay, and by folloAving the same system used in calculating the i)ev- centages of the sands obtained by sifting in the whole sample we get the percentages of these constituents. Below are given results of several typical soils which were analyzed by the long method and by the short method. It will be seen that the results vary but little and that for a close ap- proximate analysis the resiilts are accurate enough to warrant the use of this method where time is an important factor. A criticism of this method may be raised, but its accuracy and ease of manipulation cannot be doubted, as it has been re- peatedly proved to give as good results for general use as the long method, and in about half the time. Soils were analyzed by outside parties, and then the same soils Avere analyzed in the laboratory by the shorter method, and the results were well within the acknowledged limit of error, as can be seen from the following table : — Table showing the Results obtained on Various Soils from Analyses by the "Long Method" and by the New Method. [Per cent, of organic matter, gravel, sand, silt and clay in 20 grams of soil.] a a a a •^g a a a a -J. -ga a ;^a a a a c 155 "w r a 1 o r -^ s X a E 2.30 5.33 17.70 10.13 11.97 14.08 23.43 4.49 3.58 Long method. .55, 4.93 8.33 15.60 12.37 12.95 15.84 26 14 3.56 Short method. f 7.44 6.55 9.20 4.23 23.52 22.36 15.89 3.92 5.12 Long method. 49, • ■ 1 8.70 6.03 8.76 9.74 20.84 21.11 17. 66 4.94 Short method. ■54, f 5.37 0.03 0.20 0.25 6.30 37.87 32.85 5.12 5.01 Long method. i 6.54 0.00 0.00 0.60 10.21 41.12 32. 59 7.34 Short method. 120 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. There are admittedly several places where orthodox ideas have been differed from, but we have been unable to detect any bad effects as the result of these differences. The breaking up of the soil after beating in the mortar with a medium hard rubber pestle is one of these, and while error might creep in by careless or thoughtless manipulating, it is believed that with care any appreciable error can be easily obviated. As there is a limit of error of from 2 to 5 per cent, by the long- method in an analysis of the same soil, and as we came well within this limit in every case, we believe that we are justified in using this method for the breaking up of the soil particles. In all probability it may not break up all the agglomerates, but so far in our experience the method has given perfectly satis- factory results, when reasonable care is used. There may also be a slight loss of the finer particles in the sifting, but no more than is usual even by the long method. In conclusion it may be said that where absolute accuracy is desired we do not recommend this short method, but for a close approximation it works very well. Fi Mr. David Larsen, who is associated with the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experiment Station in Honolulu, informs tne that protozoa are quite abundant in Hawaiian soils, and that carbon bisulful applied to the soils there acts as a great stimulus to crop production. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 125 are stimulated much more than others by this treatment. Most crops require special handling in sterilized soils, otherwise trou- ble is likely to follow. Many different methods of sterilizing soils have been devel- oped, and the writer has experimented with practically every- thing there is in this line. There is no doubt that many soils can be greatly improved by sterilization, and in the future it will be more extensively employed not only for the destruction of pathogenic organisms, but, like electricity and other stimuli, as a means of hastening crop production. The writer at one time had exj^erience with a soil which would not grow lettuce. When it was sterilized, however, no further difficulty was experienced with it. Even muck soils, which are rich in organic matter and generally injurious to plant growth, can be greatly improved by leaching and sterilizing. In the south there are many acres of soil seriously affected with Sclerotinia which can be treated effectively at no great cost, and in the future soil sterilization is bound to become of prac- tical use for field work. There is no reason why methods cannot be adapted for cheap and effective sterilizing of outdoor soils if the land be fairly level and free from stone. 126 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. INFLUENCE OF SOIL DECOCTIONS FROM STER- ILIZED AND UNSTERILIZED SOILS UPON BACTERIAL GROWTH. C. A. LODGE AND R. G. SMITH. An attempt has been made in the following experiments to ascertain the cause underlying the effects which sterilized and unsterilized soil decoctions have upon bacterial develoi^meiit. These questions have often arisen: In what maimer does soil sterilization affect bacterial development ? Is the cause under- lying the development of bacteria in soils of a chemical or bio- logical nature ? Some investigators maintain that the increase of bacteria in sterilized soils is due to a chemical stimulus, while others insist that it is biological ; i.e., that minute animal organ- isms known as protozoa affect the bacterial flora of soils. In all probability the chemical factor is the important one, the bio- logical factor playing little or no part in either increasing or retarding bacterial growth, at least in any of our soils. We selected for use in our experiments two types of soils, — one an Amherst greenhouse soil or loam, somewhat modified by the addition of coarse sand and quite rich in organic matter, and which will be designated as loam ; and the other a yellow loam or a typical Amherst subsoil, deficient in nitrogen and contain- ing only a slight amount of organic matter, which will be desig- nated as subsoil. Table I. — Showing Mechanical Analysis of Two Types of Soils used in these Experiments. [Per cent, of organic matter, gravel, sand, silt and clay in 20 grams of soil.) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ C a a a a "SS a a a S. s a "2 s a ga a a a cj si 1 w^ ire a ( 3-^ 13 i' a 1 .A o ■a . tf 2 O a k, » a 03'=; o a o S t^ > w fo o 10.45 13.97 24.48 17.33 21.60 20.00 6.00 1 50 .12 Subsoil, 3.60 1.75 4.45 6.95 23.85 35.95 11.10 5.20 5.25 ' This work was done at the instigation and under the direction of Dr. C!. E. Stone when Messrs. Smith and Lodge were seniors in the college. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127 The soil decoctions used in our experiments were made as follows : four hundred grams of soil were placed in a percolation tube and lukewarm distilled water was allowed to percolate sev'- eral times through the soil. This method was followed in each instance. The decoctions thus made (the percolated water) were then placed in flasks, each Hask containing 100 cubic centimeters of percolate. Then these decoctions, composed of percolates from sterilized and unsterilized soils, were placed in the autoclave and subjected to steam pressure of 15 pounds for forty-five minutes at a temperature of 250° F. Three series of experiments were carried on with each soil. In series No. 1 a sterilized and unsterilized loam were used, and the sterilized decoctions inoculated with ordinary soil bacteria. In the second series of experiments a sterilized and unsterilized loam, and in addition a sterilized and unsterilized subsoil, were used, and the sterilized decoctions inoculated with ordinary soil bacteria. In our third series of experiments a sterilized and unsterilized loam and subsoil were used, as in our second series of experiments, but with this difference, — inoculations were made from a pure culture of Bacillus subtilis. In the above series of experiments, where a sterilized loam or subsoil was used, sterilization was done as follows : about 1 liter of soil was placed in the autoclave and subjected to steam pressure of 15 pounds for forty-five minutes at a temperature of 250° F. The following method of inoculation was used in our first two series of experiments, where ordinary soil bacteria were used. Ten grams of loam w'ere placed in 100 cubic centimeters of sterilized water, ^ and this decoction placed in an incubator for three days, where a large number of bacteria developed. We used these decoctions to inoculate our sterilized percolates of sterilized and unsterilized soil in the two series of experiments, these percolates being inoculated with 1 cubic centimeter of the above culture and then incubated for twenty-four hours. The decoctions were removed from the incubator and plated, and the ordinary dilution methods followed. Cultures were made by adding l^ cubic centimeter of the dilution to agar-agar in Petri- dishes, and these were incubated for twenty-four hours, after which the colonies were counted. The agar-agar was .5 per cent. ' Distilled water was used in all cases in all the experiments. 128 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. normal acid in all the cxix'riinents. In the third series of ex- periments, where inoculation was made with Bacillus subtilis, the following method was used. A j)ui'c tuhe culture of J^acillus subtilis was made ; from this pure culture a nundjer of bacteria were transferred with a platinum loop to 100 cubic centimeters of sterilized water. From here on the method was followed as above indicated. Experimental. Table II. — Showing Comparison of the A'lonber of Bacteria in Decoctions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam. {Inoculations made with Ordinary Soil Bacteria.) Soil. Number of Bacteria in 1 Cubic Centimeter OF Decoction. Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Experiment 3. Average. Sterilized loam, Unsterilized loam, . 5,680,000 276,000 3,842,000 402,000 5,218,800 391,240 4,913,600 343,746 The results shown in Table II. are of special interest for the following reason : in the three experiments recorded in this table the sterilized loam decoctions were found to contain a far greater number of bacteria per cubic centimeter of contents than the unsterilized loam decoction. Table III. — Showing Comparison between the Number of Bacteria in Decoctions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam and Subsoil. {Inocu- lations made with Ordinary Soil Bacteria.) Soil. Sterilized loam, Unsterilized loam, . Sterilized subsoil, Unsterilized subsoil, Number of Bacteria in 1 Cubic Centi- meter OF Decoction. Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Average 5.724,000 203,520 76,320 178,080 4,693,060 199,308 81,134 185,138 5,208,530 201,414 78,726 181,608 The results given in Table III. are important since thev show that decoctions made from different soils affect the growth of bacteria in them in a decidedly different manner. When a ster- ilized loam is used we find a greater number of bacteria present 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 129 as compared with the inimbcr in the nnsteriliz(Ml loam (loeoetioii ; thus the experiments with loam soil in Table III. l)eai' out the results recorded in Table 11., where the same kind of loam soil was used in the decoctions. When a sterilized and unsterilized subsoil were used in the decoctions we found that a greater num- ber of bacteria were present in the unsterilized decoction. This fact proves that the sterilizing of this particular soil resulted in adverse conditions for bacterial increase. At this point it might be of interest to insert a table taken from a previous report of the Hatch Experiment Station,^ show- ing the growth of soy bean in sterilized and unsterilized loam and subsoil. A glance at this will show that the greatest gain in plant growth was made in the loam soil, and the least in the sub- soil. These results coincide with the relative growth of bacteria in the two soils, as shown in Table HI. Table IV. — Showing Growth of Soy Bean in Sterilized and Unsterilized Loan and Subsoil (from Hatch Experiment Station Annual Report, 1006). Total Number of Pots used. Average Length (Centi- meters) OF Stems in — Gain or Loss in Sterilized Soil (Per Cent.). Unsterilized Soil. Sterilized Soil. Loam Subsoil, .... 4 4 9.53 9.79 10.87 4.14 + 14.05 —57.70 Glancing over this table one can readily see that there is a connection between the development of bacteria and the growth of soy beans in sterilized and unsterilized soils. The soy beans showed an increase of growth in the sterilized loam over that given in the unsterilized loam. In the subsoil the unsterilized soil produced a greater gTowth than the sterilized. The same held true in regard to the development of bacteria. Decoctions of the sterilized loam produced about twenty times the number of bacteria as the unsterilized. In the sterilized subsoil there is a decrease in numbers as compared with the unsterilized, or in other words, the unsterilized subsoil produced twice as many bacteria as the sterilized. ' Comparison of Sterilized Loam and Subsoil, by G. E. Stone, 18th Ann. Rept. of the Hatch Exp. Sta., pp. 125, 126, 1906. 130 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. That sterilization of soils produces different effects on crops according to the nature of the soil cannot be disputed. In this exi)erinient we used two distinct types of soil, and found that sterilization afl'ects both soils differently. In loams well sup- plied with organic matter the effect is a stimulation from the beginning on certain crops. In other soils, notably deficient in organic matter (like the subsoil used in this experiment), the effect may be a detrimental one. Lyon and Bizzell ^ have shown us that steaming reduces the nitrates of the soil to nitrites and to ammonia, but most of the annnonia comes from the organic nitrogen. Russell and Hutch- inson - claim that the increased productiveness of sterilized soils is due to an increase in the amount of ammonia present, and that the excess of ammonia is the result of the increased decomposi- tion of soil substances by bacteria. Table V. — Showing Comparison of the Amounts of Ammonia in Decoc- tions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam. {Inoculations made with Ordinary Soil Bacteria.) Amount of Ammonia in Decoction of 100 Cubic Centimeters (Grams). Soil. Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Experiment 3. Average. Sterilized loam, Unsterilized loam, .0051 .0032 .0052 .0031 .0051 .0030 .0051 .0030 Analysis of the soil decoctions from soils similar to those used in the experiments given in Table IV. show an increase of ammo- nia in the sterilized loam as compared with the unsterilized. In the subsoil we find just the reverse condition, the unsterilized subsoil containing more ammonia than the sterilized. Analyses of the soil decoctions used in the experiments shown in Tables II. and III. give the same results as regards the am- monia content of the decoction as those enumerated above, but in our experiments (Tables II. and III.) we have sterilized decoc- tions of the various soils inoculated with soil bacteria. The increase and decrease in the number of bacteria found in these ' Effects of Steam Sterilization on the Soluble Matter in Soils, Lyttleton Lyon and J. A. Biz- zell, Cornell Acr. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 275. April, 1910. » EtTecfs of Partial Sterilization of Soil upon the Production of Plant Food, by E. J. Ru.ssell and H. B. Hutchinson, Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. HL, Part IL, October, 1909. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 131 decoctions correspond with the increase and decrease of ammonia content in each case, more ammonia being found in the decoc- tions which possessed the largest number of bacteria. This fact is not new, as it has been shown by Russell and Hutchinson in recent years. Table VI. — Showing Comparison between the Amounts of Ammonia in Decoctions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam and Subsoil. {Inocu- lations made with Ordinary Soil Bacteria.) Soil. Amount op Ammonia in Decoction of 100 Cubic Centimeter8 (Grams). Experiment 1. Experiment 2 Average. Sterilized loam, Unsterilized loam, . Sterilized subsoil, Unsterilized subsoil, .0050 .0031 .0020 .0030 .0050 .0032 .0021 .0032 .0050 0031 .0020 .0031 Table VII. — Showing Comparison between the Amount of Ammonia in Decoctions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam and Subsoils. {Inocvr lations made with Water Cidtures of B. subtilis.) Experiment 1. Soil. Amount of Ammonia in Decoctions of 100 Cubic Centimeters (Grams). Soil. Amount of Ammonia in Decoctions of 100 Cubic Centimeters (Grams). Sterilized loam, Unsterilized loam, . .0031 .0020 Sterilized subsoil, . Unsterilized subsoil. .0010 .0020 This increase in the amount of ammonia in each case is cer- tainly brought about by the action of the bacteria upon the organic matter in the soil, l^ow the question arises : What change takes place within the soil, when sterilized, in order to produce this increase in the number of bacteria ? In the case of the subsoil, where the increase takes place in the unsterilized soil, it is a question as to what change takes place upon sterilizing that has a detrimental effect on bacteria. Russell and Hutchinson ^ tried the effect of untreated soil ' The Effects of Partial Sterilization of Soil on the Production of Plant Food, by E. J. Ruasell and H. B. Hutchinson, Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. III., Part II., October, 1909, p. 117. 132 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. upon sterilized soil and found a decrease in the number of bac- teria and in the amount of ammonia present. This would show that there is some limiting factor in the original soil that limits bacterial action. They claim that this limiting factor is not chemical but biological. In the experiments which we have described and in those which follow we are unable to comprehend how protozoan forms play any role whatsoever in the decrease of bacteria. If this is true this limiting factor must be a chemical or physical property of the soil, and one on which sterilization has a marked effect. Protozoa as a Factor ix tue Bacteriat. Flora of Soils. The remaining contents of the soil culture used in inoculating decoctions in the experiments of Tables II. and III. were sub- jected to a careful microscopic examination for various forms of protozoa. Our labors were without results, however, no protozoa being found ; but it is quite possible that a few might have been introduced at the time of inoculation of the decoctions. To avoid any possibility of introducing protozoa into decoctions the experi- ments shown in Tal)le VIII. were made. Table VIII. — Shoiving Comparison of Number of Bacteria in Decoctions of Sterilized and Unsterilized Loam and Subsoils. {Inocidations made with Water Culture of B. subtilis.) Soil. Number of Bacteria in 1 Cubic Centi- meter OF Decoction. Experiment 1. Experiment 2. Average. Sterilized loam, 5,952,960 4,913,800 5,423,300 Unsterilized loam 127,484 111,964 117,324 Sterilized subsoil 279,840 283,380 281,610 Unsterilized subsoil, 2,060,640 2,901,244 2,480,942 The data given in the above table show that Bacillus subtilis multiply in great numbers in all the decoctions. About the same relative number of bacteria w^ere found here as in the decoctions shown in the experiments given in Tables II. and III. A greater number of Bacillus subtilis were found in the sterilized loam decoctions as compared with the unsterilized; also a gi'eater 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 133 number of Bacillus snbtilis were found in the unsterilized sub- soil decoctions as compared with the sterilized decoctions. A careful consideration of our work leads us to believe that protozoa M'erc absent in all our decoctions, and the experiments shown in Table VITI. seem to substantiate this belief; moreover, protozoa were uncommon in the soils used. A number of sam- ples of the loam and subsoil were subjected to examination, but very few protozoan forms ^ were found. In this vicinity great numbers of protozoa are found in pools of standing water, while few are observed in garden soils. In other localities f)rotozoa may be more abundant in soil ; however, no data are available. For protozoa to reduce the bacterial flora of the soil to an appre- ciable degree by devouring the bacteria, it is certain that the number of protozoa present in the soils of Amherst would have to be increased manyfold ; besides, all protozoa do not consume bacteria. G. IsT. Calkins, professor of protozocdogy at Columbia University of J^ew York, is the authority for the following: " All classes of protozoa except Sporozoa are bacteria eaters except the carnivorous forms." The same authority in a recent work - says : " Two of the most striking phenomena among the protozoa are the apparent choice of food and the selection of cer- tain materials for building shell." The author notes that cer- tain protozoa will live almost exclusively on other protozoa and such vegetable forms as Oscillaria, Spirogyi-a and diatoms. " Each protozoan will eat only its favorite food, although other food is abundant." If the above is true it means that hundreds of protozoan forms of the soil do not feed on bacteria, therefore it is impossible to credit the difference in the numbers of bacteria in a gram of soil ^ — 7,000,000, and a gram of treated soil (ster- ilized) 37,000,000 — to the elimination of the protozoa. This remarkable increase in the number of bacteria of over fivefold of the original number in the untreated soil can only be explained by an increased food supply. In our experiments with soil decoc- tions, where the protozoa were entirely eliminated, we obtained a difference in numbers of bacteria present in the decoctions of sterilized and unsterilized soils ranging from fifteen to twenty 'The following; species were observed: Halteria, Enchelys, Paramoecum, Amoeba, Euglena, Euplotos, Dileptus, Strombidium and Oxytridia. > The Protozoa, Columbia Biol. Ser., VI., p. 305. ' Hall, Harper's Magazine, October, 1910, p. 681. 134 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. times as many in the sterilized as compared with the unsterilized decoctions. However, in the experiments where sterilized and unsterilized snbsoil were used we found more bacteria in the unsterilized decoctions as compared with the sterilized decoc- tions. This fact proves that sterilization does not in every case result in an increased number of bacteria in the soil thus treated. CONCLUSIOXS. 1. The development of bacteria may be retarded or accelerated in soil decoctions by the use of sterilization. 2. In decoctions of soil rich in organic matter the develop- ment of bacteria is greatly increased, while in soils deficient in organic matter the development of these organisms is retarded by sterilization. 3. The stimulating or retarding effects on the development of bacteria of the two types of sterilized soil used by us are similar to those produced upon the growth of crops in these soils. {Cf, Table IV.) 4. From numerous microscopic examinations made of Am- herst soils we do not find that protozoa are abundant; neither were they observable in our soil decoctions. 5. The question of protozoa as a biological factor was elimi- nated in the experiments. The stimulating or retarding effect on the development of bacteria was due to other causes. 6. Our experiments therefore, made with Amherst soils, do not confirm those of Russell and Hutchinson, who maintain that protozoa influence the number of bacteria in soils, since the devel- opment of bacteria differs in soil decoctions according to the com- position of the soil used ; that is, the number of bacteria which develop in a soil depends upon the chemical and physical con- dition of the soil rather than upon the number of protozoa. 7. These experiments do not necessarily preclude the idea that protozoa might play a much more important role in soils other than those with which we experimented. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 135 THE EFFP]CTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGES ON SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. G. E. STONE. Considerable interest is now being manifested in the effects of electricity on plant growth, and experiments are being made in this country and abroad to study this influence. j\Jost of the experimenters at the present day are making use of high tension wires, the aim being to charge the atmosphere rather than the soil. For many years we have been carrying on experiments along this line, and many of the results have been published from time to time.' However, we still have considerable data on the various phases of the subject of electrical stimulation which have not been published, as in many cases the experiments have not been completed. The experiments given here were made under my direction in 1904 by Mr. !N. F. Monahan, a former assistant in the lab- oratory, who while with us paid quite a little attention to the subject of electrical stimulation and plant reaction. They were made to determine the relative stimulating effect of positive and negative charges on seed germination and growth of seedlings. The seeds of lettuce and radish which we used were first moist- ened by soaking in water for a few hours and were then charged from a small friction machine, Tcipler-Holtz model. They were then placed in electro-germinators, which consisted of a modified Leyden jar and Zurich gcrminator, and 10 small sparks from a Topler-Holtz machine were applied to each germinator, which • Electro-Germination, Hatch Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 43, 1897; The Influence of Current Electricity upon Plant Growth, Hatch Exp. Sta., 16th Ann. Rept., 1904; The Influence of Atmospheric Potential on Plants, Hatch Exp. Sta., 16th Ann. Rept., 1904; The Influence of Electrical Potential on the Growth of Plants, Hatch Exp. Sta., 17th Ann. Rept., 1905; Comparisons of Electrical Potential in Trees and in the Free Air, Hatch Exp. Sta., 17th Ann. Rept., 1905; Injuries to Shade Trees from Electricitj', Hatch Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 91, 1903; Influence of Electricity on Micro- organisms, Bot. Gazette, 48; No. 5, November, 1909; Effects of Electricity on Plants, Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II., p. 30. 136 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. resulted in stimulation of the seed. The germinator was then placed in an autoclave and kept at a temperature of about 25° C. The results of the experiments follow: — Table I. — Showing the Results of the Stimulating Effect of Positive and Negative Electrical Charges on Radish Seeds and Seedlings {Rajphanus sativus, L.). [Average of two experiments in each of which 60 seeds were used. Moist treated seed charged with 10 small sparks from a Topler-Holtz machine. Measurements in millimeters, temperature 25° C] AvEKAGE Length of — Per Cent, gained in Length of — Treatment. Hypocotyl (Centimeters). Radicle (Centimeters). Hypocotyl. Radicle. Normal, Negative charge, Positive charge, .... 1.13 1.39 1.72 1.07 1.24 1.76 23.00 52.21 15.88 64.48 It is quite evident that the electrical treatment stimulated the seed very materially^ as shown by the growth of the hypocotyls and radicles given in this table. The average increased length of the radicles and hypocotyls of the negatively charged seeds over that of the normal was 23 per cent, for the hypocotyl and 15.88 per cent, for the radicle. The positively charged seeds gave an average increase of 52.21 per cent, for the hy[3ocotyl and 64.48 per cent, for the radicle over that of the normal ; show- ing that the positive charges induced the greater growth, l^o attention was given to accelerated germination in this experi- ment. Table II. — Showing the Results of the Stimulating Effect of Positive and Negative Electrical Charges on Lettuce Seeds and Seedlings {Lactuca sativa, L.). (Average of two experiments in eacli of which 60 seeds were used. Moist treated seed charged with 10 small sparks from a Topler-Holtz machine. Measurements in millimeters, temperature 25° C] Average Length of — Per Cent, gained in Length of ^ Treatment. Hypocotyl (Centimeters). Radicle (Centimeters). Hypocotyl. Radicle. Normal Negative charge Positive charge, .... 0 96 1.08 1.21 1 52 1.77 2.18 12.50 26,00 16. 40 43.42 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 137 lu the experiments shown in Table 11. the accelerated growth of the hypocotyl and radicle is somewhat similar to that shown in Table L, namely, the negative charges gave for the hypocotyl 12.5 per cent, increase, for the radicle 16.4 per cent., while the positively charged seeds gave 2G per cent, for the hypocotjd and 43.42 per cent, for the radicle. Here, too, the positively charged seeds gave the largest average increased growth for both hypo- cotyl and radicle. The experiments shown in Tables I. and II. are typical of others made along the same line, althongh we have repeatedly found that it is quite an easy matter to charge the seed too strongly and obtain retardation in growth. Instead of using ten-minute sparks to stimulate the seeds in the electro-germinator we have found by subsequent experiments that it is better to use only two or three, and these should be very slight charges. The stimulating effect of positive and negative charges on germina- tion is similar to that on gro\\i:h, but there is no evidence to show that the treatment affects the germinating capacity of seeds, and we have stimulated many thousands. The following table gives an average of four experiments with seed germination. Table III. — Shoiving Results of the Stimulating Effects of Positive and Negative Electrical Charges on Germination of Lettuce Seed (Lactuca saliva, L.). [Average of four experiments, 20 seeds being used in each treatment; otherwise the same experi- ments as shown in Tallies I. and II.] Total Number of Seeds. Number of Seeds germinated in — Treatment. 24 Hours. 48 Hours. 72 Hours. Normal, Negative charge Positive charge, .... 80 80 80 19 24 48 35 51 69 64 64 72 From the experiments in Table III. it will be observed that germination is accelerated to a considerable degree by electrical stimulation, and that the positive caused greater acceleration than the negative charges, corresponding to the effects produced on the growth of the hypocotyl and radicle. In Fig. 1 is shown a diagrammatic representation of seedlings based upon an aver- 138 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. age of all the data given in Tables I. and II. It will be noticed that the radicles are stimulated more in all cases than the hjpo- eotyls, this difference being more pronounced in the positively than in the negatively charged seedlings. In Fig. 2 are shown H -i- Fig. 1. — Showing the effects of positive and negative electrical charges on the growth of lettuce and radish seedlings. Average of the results in Tables Land II. the effects of positive and negative charges on the growth of radish seedlings, being an average of two experiments. Fig. 3 shows the effects of positive and negative electrical charges on the growth of lettuce seedlings, being an average of three experi- ments. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 139 It is not surprising that the radicles show greater development than the hypocotjls since the former develop first, and for this reason electrical stimulation would show itself more prominently in the radicle than the hypocotyl. Accelerated germination is <^^ Fig. 2. — Showing the effects of positive and negative electrical charges on the growth of radish seedlings. Average of two experiments. shown more prominently in the positively than the negatively charged seeds. The positive charges stimulated both the hypo- cotyl and radicle more than the negative charges, and if the dif- ference in the time of the development of the hypocotyl and radicle is taken into consideration it will be seen that there is 140 EXPERBIEXT STATION [Jan. little or no diftorence in the ettects of the stimulation on the radicle and hypocotyl. The effects of a series of charges from a static machine last only tAvo or three days, the maximum effect of the stimulus showing itself shortly after stimulating. Fig. 3. — Showing the effects of positive and negative electrical charges on the growth of lettuce seedhngs. Average of three experiments. The roots and stems of plants react positively and negatively to various stimuli such as are afforded by gravity, light, mois- ture, chemical substances, etc. It is also well known that the same stimuli will induce reactions of an exactly opposite char- acter in the same organism, or even in the same organ. Usually, 1912.] PUBLIC. DOCUMENT — No. 31. 141 however, the stem reacts one way and the root another; for example, roots are positively and stems negatively geotropic. It is well known that the anode and cathode behave quite diifer- ently and characteristically when acting on metals, etc. Similar characteristic differences might be expected in the reaction of plants. Where trees have been injured by burning from direct current wires the extent of the injury is about 90 per cent, greater near the positive than near the negative point of contact, showing that the positive electrode is more disastrous to plant tissue. In our various experiments, where we have employed elec- tricity as a stimulus, we have never observed any difference in the behavior of plants in close proximity to either j^ositive or negative electrodes, although in some of our previous experiments with radish plants, made some years ago, in which the plants were grown in soil, we found that the tops responded much more freely to electrical stimulation than the roots when acted on by galvanic currents. We found, however, that by substituting let- tuce, which is cultivated exclusively for the leaves, the leafy part responded more freely to electrical stimulation than did the underground part or fleshy roots of radish. On the other hand we found in our experiments in growing radishes in tightly closed, insulated glass cases, the atmosphere of which was charged each day positively to an electrical poten- tial averaging 150 volts, that the reverse was true, viz., the roots or underground parts were stimulated more tban the leaves or tops. The soil itself is generally negative, and the atmosphere positive ; the roots therefore are accustomed to a negatively charged, and the aerial parts to a positively charged, environ- ment. In the decomposition of water by electrolysis it is assumed that the oxygen is in a negatively electrical condition and is attracted by the positive pole, while the hydrogen is in a posi- tively electrical condition and is attracted by the negative pole, Metals are described as electro-positive elements, and are usually attracted to the negative pole, while the nonmetals are spoken of as electro-negative elements and are attracted to the positive pole. In the experiments just cited with radishes, which were grown in insulated glass cases where the atmosphere was charged posi- 142 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. tivelj, the leaves were stiimilatcd least and tiie roots most; that is, the roots, which are normal to an environment negatively charged, were stimulated most by the positive charges. In the case of galvanic stimulation of roots it is known that weak cur- rents induce negative bendings ; that is, towards the cathode, while strong currents induce positive landings, or towards the anode. In the negative reactions, which are induced by weak cuiTcnts, there is a greater growth on the side of the root towards the positive pole or anode than towards the negative pole or cathode, but there is some doubt as to whether the reverse holds true for positive galvanotropic bendings. In the case of posi- tive galvanotropic bendings Brunchorst has pointed out that the reaction is the result of pathological conditions, and it is main- tained that bendings towards the anode are due to injury of the delicate root tip by the strong currents employed. This inter- pretation of the phenomena appears to harmonize with the re- sults which we have obtained with positive and negative electrical charges on plants. The positive charges give the greatest and the negative the least accelerated growth. Since the positive charges stimulate mostly those cells on the surface of the root nearest to the anode, those cells would grow more rapidly and the normal downward direction of the root would be directed towards the negative pole or cathode. The burning effect on trees from positive and negative electrodes is similar, the posi- tive producing the greater injury, and this coincides with our results obtained by using strong positive static charges on plants, viz., strong positive static charges cause a greater degree of retardation and injury than negative charges. The use of strong positive currents would result in the cells on the anode side of the root being retarded, hence bendings towards the anode would result. To summarize we might state that the effect of positive and negative stinnilation on plants offers a mechanical explanation of the positive and negative galvanotropism in roots. When plants are grown between positive and negative electrodes, each electrode exerts a characteristic influence on the root, and that surface of the root nearest to the anode will be affected according to the nature of the stimulus on that side ; and conversely, that part of the root adjacent to the cathode will be affected accord- 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 143 ing to the nature of the stimulus characteristic of that pole. When weak currents are employed the positive current or anode gives the greatest stimulation to those cells on the anode side of the root, and induces bendings in the root towards the negative pole or cathode. On the other hand, when strong currents are employed the positive current induces bendings towards the anode due to a retardation or injury to the cells on the side of the root towards the anode. From our various experiments in electrical stimulation we are of the opinion that increasing the electrical tension or potential of the atmosphere, either by the use of static charges or from high tension wires, gives rise to a greater degree of stimulation than passing the current through the soil. Alternating currents appear to be superior to direct currents in stimulating plants. There is, however, the question of increasing the number of micro-organisms in the soil by electrical stimulation as well as the importance of nitrification and nitrogen fixation resulting from electrical stimulation, a line of research on which we are now engaged and on which we hope to report later. 144 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF TREES. G. E. STONK AND G. 11. CHAPMAN. It has long been known that trees offer considerable resistance to electric currents, but at the time our experiments were under- taken we were not aware that much attention had been given to this subject, especially regarding the influence of certain factors on resistance. The effect of lightning strokes indicates that trees possess relatively high resistances, and that there is a difference in the resistance of their various tissues. Little or no data appear to be available concerning this subject, nor so far as we know concerning the resistance of different trees at different seasons of the year. In a former publication ^ we have given the results of some observations on the electrical resistance of trees, and the numer- ous data which we obtained by passing electrical currents through trees and various plants helped to give us some idea of their electrical resistance. Our object in carrying on these ex- periments "was to determine whether there were any variations in the electrical resistance of different sides of a tree trunk as regards points of the compass. Originally it was our purpose to learn whether the electrical resistance varied greatly from month to month durinnf the vear, and if so, what causes led to this variation ; in fact, to stufly the effects of various influences on electrical resistance. But the temporary suspension of our work, made necessary by moving from one laboratory to an- other, and the change of assistants interrupted our plans some- what, and the original idea of our investigation was not fol- lowed. It miglii he supposed that since the several sides of a tree are exposed differently to light and heat they would show slight ' Injviries to Shade Trees from Electricity, by G. E. Stone, Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 91. 1903. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145 variations in temperature, and that there would also be dili'er- ences in the flow of sap and the translocation of plastic sub- stances. That this is true is shown bv the fact that trees make more growth on one side than on another, the more or less local- ized photosynthesis causing a greater transmission of plastic substances on that side. Some of these experiments were begun in 1907, a part of the observations being made by Mr. IsT. F. Monahan, our former assistant, while others were obtained in 1900 and later by Mr. G. II. Chapman. These resistances were determined by a Weston Electric Com- pany combination bridge, rheostat and galvanometer, provided with a battery of 6 or 8 large Samson cells. Table I. — Showing Daily Records of Electrical Resistance (in Ohms) of Maple {Acer saccharum, Marsh), April 7-26, 1907. Resistances taken on the North, South, East and West Sides of the Tree at Midday. [Electrodes 10 feet apart. Mean daily temperatures given in degrees F.l Date. Tempera- ture. East. South. West. North. April 7, 35 19,000 18,840 22,000 22,000 8, 33 19,500 19,000 23,400 23,000 9. 31 23,000 23,000 23,000 24,000 10, 35 23,000 23,000 23,000 23,500 11. 39 22,000 21,500 23,000 23, .500 12, 38 21,000 21,000 22,500 23,000 13, 37 21,500 21,000 22,900 23,000 14. 42 20,000 19,400 22,000 22,000 15, 39 19,100 18,900 21,200 20,800 16, 40 19,500 19,000 20,000 21,500 17. 40 20,500 20,500 21,500 21,000 18, 39 21,500 23,000 21,000 17,000 19. 34 21,000 20,000 19,000 21,000 20, 37 18,000 18,300 21,300 20,800 21, 30 19,500 19,500 22,000 21,000 23, 52 15,000 14,600 16,300 16,000 24, 49 16,000 17,300 17,000 16,500 25, 52 16,900 17,200 17,400 19,100 25, 56 15,700 15,000 16,000 18,200 Average, - 19,857 19,055 19,310 20,890 146 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. Table II. — Showing Daily Records of Electrical Resistance (in Ohms) of Elm (Ubnus Americana, L.), April 7-26, 1907. Resistances taken on the North, South, East and West Sides of the Tree at Midday. [Electrodes 10 feet apart. Mean tlaily temperatures given in degrees F.] Date. Tempera- ture. East. South. West. North. April 6, 35 29,000 29,000 29,500 29,000 7. 35 28,200 28,000 29,000 29,400 8. 33 29,000 28,500 29,500 29,500 14, 42 25,000 25,000 26,500 23,000 15, 39 25,500 26,500 26,000 26,000 16, 40 26,000 23,500 26,500 27,000 17, 40 26,000 29,000 25,000 23,000 18, 39 25,000 30,000 27,000 25,000 19, 34 25,600 32,000 24,900 24,200 20, 37 25,000 29,000 27,800 24,000 21, 36 25,000 29,900 28,000 25,000 23, 52 23,200 26,200 22,500 21,000' 24, 49 19,600 26,000 22,100 18,000 25, 52 22,000 26,000 23,000 20,000 2G, 56 19,000 21,400 19,300 19,700 Average, - 24,666 27,466 25,777 25,253 The data shown in Tables I. and II. give the electrical resist- ance of a maple and elm tree covering a period of nearly one month in the spring, when there was an occasional flow of sap. The elm was a large tree, over 2 feet in diameter, and the maple was nearly as large. In both eases the electrodes, which were about 3 inches long and made of galvanized iron nails, were driven through the bark and into the wood. These were con- nected by solder with insulated copper wires leading to a com- bination In-idge, from which the readings w^ere made. The batteries consisted of half a dozen cells employed to take the readings. In these experiments the electrodes were 10 feet apart on the north, south, east and west sides of the trees. The lowest electrodes were placed about 2 feet above the ground, and the highest about 12 feet. ' Warm. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 147 By comparing tlic results given in these tables it will be seen that the resistances obtained from the north, south, east and west sides of the tree showed some variation from day to day, and also on different sides of the tree. In the maple a slightly higher average resistance was shown on the north side of the tree than on any other side, followed by the east, west and south sides. In the case of the elm (Table II.), however, the highest aver- age resistance was shown on the south side for the same period, this being followed by the west side, while the east side showed the least resistance. The resistance in both cases showed a tend- ency to decrease towards the latter part of April, when the tem- perature increased, as is shown by a comparison of the mean daily minimum and maximum temperature records which were taken from the station's meteorological observatory located nearby, and which are given in both tables. The highest average resistance for the maple was given on the 9th of April, when there was the lowest mean temperature. The highest average resistance given by the elm occurred on April 6 and April 8 (the records were not taken on the 9th), while the lowest average resistance for the maple occurred iVpril 23, during one of the highest mean temperature days. The lowest average resistance for the elm occurred April 26, which date gave the highest mean temperature. Table III. — Showing Electrical Resistance (in Oh)ns) of Maple {Acer saccharum, Marsh), covering a Period of Nearly Three Months. Re- sistances taken on the North, South, East and West Sides of the Tree about Midday. (Electrodes 10 feet apart. Mean daily temperatures given in degrees F.] Date. Tempera- ture. East. South. West. North. April 7, . . . 14, . . . 21, . . . 26, . . . Average for month, 19,000 20,000 19,500 15,700 18,840 19,400 19,500 15,000 22,000 22,000 22,000 16,000 18,550 18,185 20,500 22,000 22,000 21,000 18,200 20,800 148 EXPERIMENT STATION, Table III. — Concluded. [Jan. Date. Tempera- ture. East. South. West. North. May 8 58 18,500 21,000 19,000 23.000 14 68 14,000 14,600 15,000 16.000 21 46 24,000 23,600 23,000 33.000 28 45 27.800 23,000 29,600 26,000 Average for month, - 21,075 20.550 21,650 24,500 June 4, 55 18,600 19,100 23,000 21,700 12 59 21,000 22,000 23,900 23,000 Average for month, - 19,800 20.550 23,750 22,350 Average for three months, . - 19.775 19,761 21,883 22,550 Table IV. — Showing Electrical Resistance (in Ohms) of Elm (Ubnus Americana, L.), made Weekly and covering a Period of Nearly Three Months. Resistances taken on the North, South, East and West Sides of the Tree. lElectrodes 10 feet apart. Mean daily temperatures given in degrees F.l Date. Tempera- ture. East. South. West. North. April 7 35 28,200 28,000 29,000 29,400 14 42 25,000 25,000 26,500 23,000 21 36 25,000 29,900 28,000 25,000 26 56 19.000 21,400 19,300 19,700 Average for month. - 24,300 26,075 25,700 24,275 May 8 58 17,200 18,000 16,400 19,000 14 68 10,800 11,200 11,000 12,000 21 46 13,000 10,300 16,000 18,900 28 45 11,100 17,500 15,900 19,000 Average for month, - 13,025 15,750 14,825 17,375 June 4 55 9,000 13,000 12,000 12,300 12 59 6,300 15,000 12,000 11,700 Average for month. - 7,650 14,000 12,000 12,000 Average for three months, , - 14,992 18,608 17,508 17,883 The data in Tables III. and IV. cover weekly observations extending over a part of three diflferent months, the same trees 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 149 being used as in the preceding experiments. The results shown in these tables present similar features to those in the preceding ones. The lowest average resistance during any single day for the maple occurred May 14, when the temperature was highest, while the highest average resistance was on May 28, when the temperature was low, but not the lowest. The average resist- ance for the different sides of the tree for the whole period was the highest on the north side, followed by the west, east and south sides. For the elm the lowest average resistance for a single day was shown on May 14 and June 12, days when the temperature was highest. The highest average resistance shown corresponds to the lowest temperature, which was recorded on April 7. The average resistance for the different sides of the elm during the whole period was the highest on the south, fol- lowed by the north, west and east sides. The experiments shown in Table V. were supervised by Mr. Chapman during the spring of 1909. The resistances were obtained from a large maple tree located near our laboratory which was a different specimen from the one used in the pre- ceding experiments. The tree was a typical rock maple of this region, in fairly vigorous condition, slightly over 2 feet in diameter at the base. The resistance readings were obtained from a combination bridge, as in previous experiments, and a battery of 8 Samson cells was used. The electrodes consisted of galvanized iron nails about 3 inches long, which were driven through the bark into the wood for about ll/o inches. The part of the electrodes extending beyond the surface of the wood was enclosed within porcelain insulators. Before the electrodes were inserted into the tree at the various points a part of the bark extending to the wood was removed with a chisel for a space of 2 inches. The electrodes were 8 feet apart in each case, the lower ones being placed about 21/0 feet from the ground, and the highest about IQl/o feet, hence the resistances were taken from that part of the tree between 2i/o and 10l/> feet of the trunk. The wires, 8 in all, were connected with the electrodes by means of solder and were run into the laboratory about 50 feet away, all the readings being taken under cover. The resistances were read three times each day, viz., at 8 a.m., 12 m. and 4 p.m. from March 18 to March 30, inclusive. 150 experijvient station. [Jan. i 00 ^ ^ O H G5 q .£3 t^ Bq fti CO n e5 o ^ o o o o ^ ^ o ^ o o t^ 1 o § CJ o 00_ s s o^ § g_ o g. 8_ R g. Q0_ W •^ •o" co" oT r^ ci" K5* Oi" 00 CO lO '^ CO CO CO (M CO eo o ^ o o o o o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo 3 c^ "^ ■ra t'^ o_ o_ «--_ ""l. ■* o^ »o O eo" o" co" c^ oT r-^ <^ a M a> CO •^ CO eo CO CO CO CO CO •^ CO 0.' . o o o o o g o o o o o 1 ~ o -*< o CO o 8. o CO to (O •o •~^ co^ o_ o_ oo_ o. o_ o^ ^^ ^ -.1* •.*< o" o" ci" ci" co" en CD 00 CO lO i CO CO ^ o o ^ ^ o o o o ^ ^ o o ^ o o •^ s_ o •o o 3 Os_ ^ o_ I— ^ co^ •o to_ o_ o_ t^ o CD o to" ■.*<" CI* C'l" ■^ cc" co" fc f^* oi" r^" h-T 1-.." •^ CO o ■* CO •* CO eo »o eo -^ CO ■^ ■o co" co" e»" o" -^ '^ 00 CO 00 in CO (M eo "^ eo •^ ■^ ^ o o o o o o o o o ^ ^ o o -^ s o o ■^ o en o o o o -^ Ui 05 05 «o CO_ O0_ cO_ **_ o_ "^ o o_ o 05 t^ m oo" oo* oo" CO* co" o' CO o" to" cT QO :z; t^ co oa •^ CO CO eo -^ CO CO ^ o o o o o o o ^ o o ~ o U3 •ra CO CO o >o o o u:) oo_ « OO^ ■^* t.O_ r- o^ d « o oo" 00 00 oo o ^s< o to CO CI >o -a< e^) CO TJ* to ^ o ^ o o o o o o o o o o o o o t- o o oo CO o o o C5 3 t^ 00 f- CO o en o_ "*- to_^ o_ O to CO o kn o o oo" o* a CO "5 •^ oo 00 •V CO CO to to CO "^ CO < 00 o o o o o o o C5 o o o 1 o C' o o o o o o oo o ^ o &: >o "^fc o_ c_ co_ o_ oo J>." co"" co" o" "5 C^l" o" co" oo" co" co" CD* ^ CO (M t^ T)< CO CO CO ■* »o '^ j3 g o o o o o C) o 8 o o ^ o CO o o o oo CO o o o Ui »o_ ■^ o_ o 00 o O 00 CO of en oi" o" t^ Z CO to 00 U3 CO CO CO CO ■* eo U5 b ^~* '"' u • H ^ Q tt) 2 oo" oi" o" ^ cq" CO ^ trs" co" t-" oo" en* o" N CO eo o ja o > b 03 a 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 151 t3 o ^ g i S o U5 O in "5 o o O £3 in o in 0 o 40" C^' iri iO r-- Cs) in 00 •^ ^ CO ■* H'^S M CO CO -* TI< lO « CD ■>»• (J 'd o O 0. P ^ jj it ta ta rt O o o o 4^ M 03 la qq « ei [£ [C 1 a fe &' & & o o o o o O o o o 0 0 a Z Z z Z E E E O O E fa E E !2 2 » ■d o "o [£ a ^ ■a* g >, -d ^ •d a 3 ■? 0 t4 o -a o ■d is -3 a o a •a a -d a -d -t3 a o ■d .9 ■d a 1 1 o a ■o" o i a" '% & a a 0 £ .— 15 8 a ■g Q B G 1 3 3 1 "3 8 o 8 1 S & 1 1 s & S ^ 8 0 0 1 ^- 0 > K> £ t4 c fcT s a" S "3 '3 > '3 e '3 '3 o '3 a) O f=4 o fe O O ;^ O fa fa o Pi 0 o S ^ o o lO >n >n iO in in m in m in 0 *a OS [^ CO 00 CO in in CO -^ CO OD >n ir-°-t M " ■* "d* in in CO in CO •"J* ■<1^ - -3 0 d ^ "o a IS □ 3 la 3 S U a a" '5 a" 3 15 a o a "3 o 0 a "o 0 a 1 1 o 1 3 o o CJ "_ > ^- CJ £ tT oj Cj tT a" .9" ca *3 "3 a> o ^ "3 o » '3 ■3 '3 <» O h Pi( O 6 o P=^ G u fa erf « 5 SfeS o O o >o U5 lO o o o o 0 in 0 . •d a ■d a ^ i o j3 1 -a 3 g 3 g T3 -d T3 a '5 o a 'i 0 a ■d a ^ •B b£ a a a a 0 "o o 8 a" a" a" '5 a" a" 2 "o B 1-1 i 03 0 a s ■3 a 3 3 3 3 3 0 ^ s 3 ai 00 C3 >, >> ti 2 > i jj- C3 03 CS o 3 3 _B C3 > '3 o o a> O 0 '5 0 O O b O O O O O o G 0 « 0 oo" OS o" _- im" CO* ■^ in" CO* ^- 00" 02" 0" ^ n at 12 m. and 4 p.m. At 8 A.M. it was 02,042, at 12 m., 43,880, and at 4 p.m., 38,040 ohms. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 153 Table Vil. — Showing Maximum and Minimum Resistances based on the Averages' obtained from the North, South, East and West Sides of Maple Tree {Acer sacch vum, Marsh) fi V Different Periods during the Day, March 18-31, 1909. 8 A.M. West, highest, 71,832 North, . 67,654 South, . 62,130 East, least, . 50,155 2 M. North, highest. 48,044 West, . 45,300 South, . 44,610 East, least, . 37,567 4 P.M. North, highest. 40,174 South, . 39,580 West, . 36,560 East, least, . 35,847 This table is adapted from Table V. It will be noticed that the highest average resistance was obtained on the west side for the 8 A.M. observations, and the north side gave the highest aver- age resistance for the two following observation periods, viz., at 12 M. and 4 p.:\r. The lowest average resistance from March 18 to 31 occurred on the east side for each of the three periods. The average daily resistance for the whole period — 9 a.m. to 4 r.M. — was as follows: north side, 51,957 ; west side, 51,230 ; sontli side, 48,773 and east side, 41,189. These results coincide with those given in the preceding tables, that is, the north side shows in general the highest resistance. Table VIII. — Showing Electrical Resistance (in Ohms) of Maple (Acer saccharum, Marsh) from March 18-31, 1909. Resistances taken at 8 A.M., 12 M. and 4 p.m. on the South Side of the Tree. [Electrodes 8 feet apart. Temperature same as in Table VI.] D.\TE. 8 A.M. 12 M. 4 P.M. March 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 46,890 23,350 42,320 53,900 25,800 18,790 18,000 39,690 23,300 18,300 25,400 20,200 29,000 27,700 20,400 26,830 22,510 19,820 16,700 17,150 21,000 17,200 15,700 23,600 10,800 20,600 27,200 20,900 23,840 19,300 18,300 16,500 16,540 15,600 14,900 15,100 14,950 16,000 19,000 Averages, 29,610 20,462 18,318 154 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The resistances given on the south side of the same maple tree as in Table V. are given here ; in this case, however, the electrodes were attached differently, being driven through the bark into the wood, and none of the tissue around them was cut away. The resistances given here run considerably lower than those shown in Table V. for the same tree for the same period, due to the fact that the electrodes were inserted differently into the tree. If we compare the average resistances obtained from the two experiments, those in Table VIII. and those in Table V., we obtain the following for the same period, with the same tree. The average resistances on the south side of the tree shown in Table V. are as follows for the three different periods: 8 a.m., 62,130; 12 m., 44,610; 4 p.m., 39,580, while those given in Table VIII. are 29,610, 20,462 and 18,318 ohms. The higher resistance shown in Table V. represents not only that of the cambium, but of some of the wood as well. The highest resistance readings were obtained at 8 A.:\r., while the lowest were obtained at 4 p.im. The midday temperatures were highest, as might be expected, with little difference in the morning and afternoon. The after effects of the higher temperatures influenced the resistances taken at 4 p.m., since the tree, being generally ex- posed to the sun's rays for a considerable period in the day, would become warmer, and the heat would be retained for some time. It was thought desirable to make one experiment when the observations could be recorded hourly. The results of these observations are shown in Table IX. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 155 c^ >5 C S 5*^ .g ^ a 05 &q G5 "< ^ X n h m g2|t: o> O OO •M 00 o o CI> CO Tf ■«• >o o >ra >o «c >o ,«> Q H — .i s M la ^ ■T3 •a T3 2 o s ft o3 S S B — 1 o qa s 5 5 us a ■n m 01 « it fe i O O 3 o o fl a a « a Q a 0. 1 1 1 1 r a 1 a 1 d :3 ca a! d 32 C/J C/J «J 02 lyj a p. fi a St 03 is S: & 0) j3 T3 -3 • _: TS' TS* •w" E 3 S a tjj p O g 8 ■? ■? '? t d d o o 8 -0 a ■a a ■3 ja 5 5 S e s E S S 3 bi 3 bU '<2 03 d 5 a d O d o j3 o 8 o g o o o ^ S ti *^ ^ ^ t^ o to W3 CO eo Z cq (M c^ R § o g o o o s O ^ „ R R „ CO '•'^ ^ *^ •"i. eo QO 05 05 »o > e^ C<1 OS QO t^ CO CC o R o 3 ^^ ^^ ^ '^- ^- ^ I^ '^ CO r^ O Si ?i c-l ■^ *^ 00 ^^ C5 Ci Cs o o o o o o o a •* M 05 o> o o C-J c^ C^ « s H i S S S S a S s s 2 s S S a o •< <5 o K5 lO >o tn U5 «ffl lO lO U5 o 33 t- 00 o> o " rt -^ N The Maple Sap Flow, by C. H. Jones, A. W. Edson and W. J. Morse, Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 103, December, 1903. 1G4 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The resistance, however, may equal 1^5,000 ohms more or less, in 10 feet of the trunk of an elm or maple tree. This con- stitutes a comparatively high resistance. The resistance of the sapwood is very much greater, and prohably that of the heart- wood is even higher than that of the sapwood. In determining the electrical resistance it is necessary to know the path or course of the current, and the only manner in which the electrical resistance of different tissues can be deter- mined accurately is by isolating the tissues. By girdling a tree and scraping the trunk down to the solid wood we can get the resistance of the w^ood. Mr. Chapman found the resistance of a freshly cut rock maple stem, l^/o inches in diameter, to be 70,000 ohms when intact, i.e., with the bark on, but 150,000 ohms when the bark was removed. The electrodes were 1 foot apart. Some experiments which have been made indicate that next to the cambium the phloem has the least resistance, followed by the sapwood. The outer bark appears to oifer the most resist- ance, but when this is moist, as during rain storms, the resist- ance may be somewhat decreased. When leakage occurs, owing to grounding of the electric currents from high tension wires in moist weather, burning results, but this is due to the presence of a film of water on the bark, and what is termed " arcing " occurs. The resistance obtained from an elm tree, with the electrodes 10 feet apart and in contact with the cambium, was 10,698 ohms, whereas when the electrodes were inserted into the middle of the cortex or phloem we obtained 11,300 ohms resistance. When driven 1/4 i^^h into the wood the resistance was 98,700 ohms. The outer bark gave 198,800 ohms resist- ance, but when the electrodes were inserted slightly deeper into the bark we obtained 109,900 ohms. It must not be under- stood, however, that these readings gave the electrical resistance of 10 feet of the various tissues enumerated except in the case of the cambium, since if these tissues were isolated the resist- ance would be much greater. They show that there is much difference in the resistance of different tissues, but in all cases here we obtained merely a resistance of the cambium, together with that of a part of the other tissues, which the current had traversed from its various points of entrance to the cambium. 1912.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 1G5 It is quite evident from our observations on the resistance of trees that the canibinni gives the least resistance, the phloem next, and it is not at all unlikely that in some trees there may be some variation in this respect. The resistance given by small tree trunks and woody stems, even for small distances, is quite large. About 4 feet of a young pear tree, with a maximum diameter of stem equal to 1 inch, gave a resistance of about 300,000 ohms, and the resistance given by a tobacco plant in which the distance between the elec- trodes was only 14 inches, was much higher (110,000 to 105,- 000 ohms) than that shown by trees. In the case of the pear tree, which was in a large box, filled with soil, one of the elec- trodes (metal plate) was in contact with the small roots, the other being in contact with the apex of the plant. The presence of water and various salts undoubtedly plays a role in resistance, and it might be expected that the various plastic substances in the plant would influence resistance. The path of a current in a tree, as already stated, follows the line of least resistance, but this line may not necessarily be a straight one between one electrode and another. Although in many lightning strokes a straight line is generally followed, we have seen instances where the whole cambium zone was involved, and when the tissue in a tree is twisted the discharge will follow the tissue. A lightning discharge may therefore completely circle a tree trunk, passing from the apex of the tree to the ground. In earth discharges the path follows up the trunk and is generally diverted to the branches, often causing them to split. When heavy lightning discharges occur and the tissues of the tree become shattered, as is often the case, the line of least resistance seems to be an unimportant factor, and in this respect the electric discharges resemble an avalanche in their behavior. In some of our experiments, where trees were connected with wires carrying relatively high currents and the electrodes were 1 foot apart vertically, all of the injury was done by burning on one side of the tree in close proximity to the electrodes, but even here the burning of the tissue covered an area of more than 1 foot in width on the trunk. Burning under these condi- tions, however, occurred only when the bark of the tree was moist, and was not caused by a decrease in resistance in the tis- 166 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. sue, but l)y the presence of a film of water, which is a far better conductor, on the bark, which became heated and killed the underlying tissue. In the case of some large trees which we observed and which had been killed by direct currents from trol- ley wires, the tissue was as a rule affected nearly equally around the entire trunk of the tree, although the point of contact was on one side of the tree. In both cases it was a heating of the film of water on the trunk caused by the escaping electric cur- rent which caused the injury. The cambium ring is very insignificant in size, practically y^oo to Mooo in diameter, and even on a large tree the total area is small. In all probability it is the protoplasm itself which offers the least resistance to the transmission of an electric cur- rent; and even if there were no continuity it would be necessary for the cnrrent to pass throngh a great many cell walls even for comparatively short distances on the trunk. In case the protoplasm was contiguous or there existed continuity, the strands would be so very small that they would undoubtedly offer some resistance. Whatever conditions prevailed trees showed relatively high electric resistances, a feature which is no doubt of some biological importance as trees are often struck by lightning. The high resistance of trees, therefore, is un- doubtedly a protection in case of lightning strokes, since often the heat developed is enough to do only slight injury. On the other hand, if trees possessed tissue with relatively small elec- trical resistance they would be much more subject to injuries from burning from lightning strokes, and would be more seri- ously affected by currents from high tension wires. The elec- trical resistance of trees is so high that it is doubtful whether injury ever occurs to them from contact with low or even high tension -wires except that produced by grounding Avhen the bark of the tree is moist. Any escaping current which can be trans- mitted even through the least resistant tissue is likely to be insignificant. The amount of current necessary to kill a plant depends upon its size, etc. A current equal to .01 amperes may be sufficient to kill a small i)lant, whereas a current ten times as great would cause no perceptible injury to a large tree even wdien passed through the tissue for months. The higher resistance shown by 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 107 small branches or woody stemmed plants may possibly bo due to the presence of less conductive tissue, whereas in a tree tlu; con- ductive zone, if we include the phloem, is larger. It is known that there are minute currents of electricity in plants, but we have never noticed their effects on our galvanom- eters nor have we detected them by the use of a milliammeter. Trees frequently become charged with electricity, and sparks are given off from the apices of the leaves. Vegetation in gen- eral responds quickly to electrical stimulation, and trees un- doubtedly play an important part in equalizing the differences in electrical potential between the atmosphere and earth. In this respect conifers appear to behave differently from decidu- ous trees, and in our experiments we have found that the atmos- pheric electrical potential under thick conifers was the same as that which characterizes the earth. Relationship of Electrical Resistance to Other Factors. We had little or no opportunity to observe the effects of wdnds, if such exist, on electrical resistance. Most of our records were taken while the tree was in a dormant condition. In some cases the trees were well protected from the winds. It is known that transpiration is increased by wind, and the movements of water in the tissues of the tree are accelerated. I^o relationship, however, between the wind and electrical resistance has been noted by us in comparing the records of the local meteorological station with our data, neither was there any specific relationship observable between barometer pressure and electrical resistance. A careful study of the humidity conditions, also, did not seem to affect the electrical resistance so far as we could observe. Aside from the temperature effects coincident with light inten- sity no special changes in resistance were observable except such as would naturally follow from the variations in temperature. Influence of Temperature on Resistance. The most important factor which we have observed as influ- encing the electrical resistance of trees is temperature. The effects of temperature on various metals give rise to an increased 168 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. resistance, whereas plant tissues show a greatly reduced resist- ance when heated. Our numerous experiments in subjecting seeds to electric cur- rents have shown that when they have been soaking in water for some hours and are quite moist, and a relatively strong current is passed through them, the resistance is largely decreased owing to the development of heat, and the current increases very perceptibly. This also occurs to plants when subjected to cur- rents of electricity of sufficient intensity, as it induces heat. The injury caused to plants by electricity generally arises from decreased resistance, which is likely to follow after a more or less prolonged application of the current ; in other words, the injurious effect is caused by heat, although it is possible that electricity will kill plants without generating heat sufficient to injure the j^rotoplasm. Experiments made some years ago by us seemed to indicate that wdien strong currents are applied to small plants and they become excessively heated, after a short period of time the pro- toplasm is destroyed, and the current, which first increases in strength very rapidly, suddenly drops to almost nothing. A low temperature in trees gives rise to a high resistance, and a high temperature to a low resistance; in other words, the re- sistance of trees resembles that of moist seeds in their behavior to temperature, and the relationship between temperature and resistance is quite general. There may be, of course, other fac- tors which influence resistance besides temperature, such as, for example, the degree of moisture in the tissue, as well as the nature of the substances in the tissue. The relationship existing between temperatures and resistance is shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. Fig. 1 shows the curve given by an elm tree, and is based upon the data given in Table II., being the average daily resistance obtained from the north, south, east and west sides of the tree during April, the upper curve with broken lines being that of the mean temperatures for the days when the observations were made. In Fig. 2 A the average elec- trical resistance of the south side of a maple tree is shown from the data given in Table VITI. The readings are averages of three daily readings at 8 a.m., 12 m. and 4 v.m., and in B is given the average electrical resistance of a maple tree from data 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 169 obtained in Table I., the curve being based on daily readings on the north, south, east and west sides of the tree. All of these figures show that there exists a marked relationship between the temperature curve and that for the electrical resistance, since as the temperature curve goes up the resistance curve goes down. 58°F 5G S^ 5Z 50 48 4G 44 AZ ^, 40 / \- --.. 58 /'"^••v/ \ 5G / 54 """\ 52 30 0HM6 Z8 '"•-. 27 2 6 25 24 ^3 22 2/ ZOOO 6 7 8 9 ion U 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 ^0// ^25242526 APR. FiQ. 1. ^ Showing curve of electrical resistance and temperature of elm, Ulmus Americana (Table II.). The lower curve gives the average resistance of the north, south, east and west sides of the tree from April 6 to 26; the upper curve gives the mean of the minimum and max- imum temperature for the same period obtained from the local meteorological station. In Fig. 3 is shown the hourly temperature and electrical resistance of the north side of a maple tree for a single day, the data being obtained from Table IX. In both Figs. 1 and 2 the temperature is taken from mean temperature records, while in the case of Fig. 3 they correspond with the hours of observation. 170 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. o oo o ^ o 0>»0 ^O^OfV B. B. Ross, Ala. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 58, p. 4 (1894). 2 H. Sattler, Ztschr. Angew. Chem., 1888, p. 35. 3 Repert. fiir die Pharm. 13, pp. 446-457 (1822). « Ann. Chim. et Phys. Ser. 2, il, pp. 53-56 (1822). 6 3d edition, 1, p. 10 (1893). 6 C. L. Bloxam states equal parts by weight of arsenic and copper acetate. (See Chemistry, 9th edition, p. 271 (1907).) ' From correspondence on file. 184 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. allowed to stand two hours, then well stirred, after half an hour stirred again, and finally at the end of a quarter of an hour the liquid is drawn off and filtered. The resulting Paris green is dried on racks for four or five days at 185° F., or in a steam vacuum oven about 2G0° F. The yield is 985 pounds. An electrolytic process for making Paris green from metallic cojDper, arsenous oxide and acetic acid was patented by Richard Franchot in 1902. No information relative to the character of the product is available. Paris green is a copper aceto-arsenite for which Eugene Ehrmann's formula ^ is generally accepted. Cu(C2H302)2 • 3 Cu(As02)2. As a double salt it may be said to consist of 1 part of copper acetate to 3 of copper metarsenite, equivalent to 17.91 per cent, of the former to 82.09 per cent, of the latter. The structure of Paris green and its homologues was carefully studied by Avery, and while his results ^ most frequently approached a ratio of 1:3, there was invariably a deficiency in arsenic. As the prod- uct is not recrystallizable he recognized that purity must be assured largely by a microscopical examination, which proved a questionable guide for so unstable a compound. Although some chemists claim that the formula is only em' pirical it certainly expresses the proportion of cupric oxide to combined arsenic trioxide as found in well-formed greens. Four hundred and ninety-nine samples ^ collected in the open market by the Pennsylvania department of agriculture contained on the average : — Per Cent. Cupric oxide, 29.41 Total arsenic trioxide, 56.56 Water soluble arsenic, 1.41 The relation of cupric oxide to " insoluble " arsenous oxide is 1 :1.875, theory 1 :1.865. Similar results are reported by others. The comparatively high specific gravity of Paris green, as ' Bui. Soc: ind.. Mulhausen 7, pp. 68-80 (1834). 2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 28, p. 1155 (1906). 3 J. W. Kellogg, Bui. No. 192, p. 37 (1910). 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 185 recorded by Miles ^ and hy Fernald ^ of 3.20 and 3.42 respec- tively, results in a low power of suspension as shown by Colby ^ of five minutes for a coarse sanii)le and seventeen minutes for a fine, in 1 foot column of water at the proportion ordinarily applied. Woods and Hanson ^ show as a result of a microscopi- cal examination of 21 commercial samples of Paris green, slow process with possibly one exception, that on the average only 5.27 per cent, of the green particles exceeded a diameter of 19.2 microns (.00077 of an inch). The ammonia test for purity mentioned by Riley ^ and by Paddock ^ is now considered of little value except in determining the presence of insoluble materials such as flour and gypsum added as a filler. The presence of free arsenic in Paris green in any appreciable amount is deemed objectionable by all investigators on account of possible injury to the foliage due to its corrosive action. While free arsenic can usually be detected by the microscope, its quantitative determination for a time proved a more difficult matter, and results by the earlier methods were of questionable value except in a comparative sense. Haywood '^ found that Paris green continued to yield arsenic to successive portions of warm water at 50° to 60° C, and also to repeated washings of cold water on a filter. He secured practically constant results by treating 1 gram of green in a flask with 500 cubic centime- ters of water for twelve days, but subsequent tests ^ showed the presence of soluble copper, indicating either solution or break- ing down of the green. He favored the latter view, but as- sumed that the decomposition was in proportion to original con- tent and corrected the results accordingly. Hilgard ^ acknowledged that warm water was not permissible and recommended a treatment conforming more nearly to or- chard practice, 1 gram to 1,000 cubic centimeters of cold water for twenty-four hours with prolonged agitation. He questioned any dissociation of the green, but admitted that continued 1 Va. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 24, p. 16 (1893). 2 Mass. Bd. Asrr. Kept., 45, p. 3.5.5 (18981. 3 Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 151, p. 34 (1903). « Me. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 154, p. 114 (1908). 5 XT. S. Ent. Com., Bui. No. 3, p. 56 (1880). « N. Y. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 121, p. 219 (1897). ' Tour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 22, p. 579 (1900). ' .Tour. Amcr. Chem. Soc. 22, p. 705 (1900). 9 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 22, p. 691 (1900). 186 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. percolation gave free arsenic. Avery and Beans,^ working with a sample of perfect structure and of nearly theoretical compo- sition, found that when treated in a stoppered flask, l/> gram to 500 cubic centimeters of water, the arsenic continued to pass into solution for sixteen weeks, the duration of the experiment. Upon breaking the granules of Paris green by grinding in a mortar the disintegration was more rapid until a state of equi- librium was reached. Carbonic acid also increased the solubil- ity of the arsenic. The decomposition was evidently due to hydrolysis, as the arsenic dissolved in much greater proportion of the original content than did the copper. They concluded that any method based on solubility in water was merely arbi- trary, as " the amount of arsenic trioxide in solution appears to depend almost entirely on the length of time of action, the concentration of the solution and the state of division of the par- ticles of Paris green." To distinguish free arsenic from that rendered free by hydrolysis, Avery and Beans recommended boiling 1 gram of green five minutes in 25 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate solution (1 to 2). It was found that the sodium acetate solution readily dissolved the free arsenic and at the same time largely prevented hydrolysis of the green. The Hil- gard method, 1 gram to 1,000 cubic centimeters of water for twenty-four hours with agitation, indicates free and loosely com- bined arsenic, and while such results are invariably higher than the former, the increase for greens of perfect structure, free from broken particles, is comparatively slight. These two proc- esses are now quite generally employed. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists - recognizes the acetate method and the ten days' extraction method recommended by Haj^vood as provisional methods. To prevent arsenical injury to foliage, Gillette ^ and Kilgore ^ advised mixing Paris green with milk of lime to neutralize the free arsenic, and Weed ^ suggested combining the green Avith Bordeaux mixture. ' Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 23, p. Ill (1901). ' Methods of Analysis Bur. Chem. Bui. No. 107 (revised), p. 27 (1908). 3 Towa. Exp Sta., Bui. No. 10, pp. 410-413 (1890). * N. Car. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 77b, pp. 4-7 (1891). 6 Ohio Exp. Sta., Bui. (Vol. 2) No. 7, p. 186 (1889); Ibid., (Vol. 4) No. 2, pp. 39-42 (1891). 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 187 Experimental Results. The terms '' instantaneous " and " slow process •' are used to designate Paris greens of different physical structure. AVhile this classification may not be in strict conformity with some writers it apjxmrs, nevertheless, the most desirable for the pur- pose intended. Instantaneous green is the result of a quick boiling process as previously shown. The ultimate reaction is illustrated by the following equation : — 3 AsoOa + 4 Cu ( C2H3O2 ) 2H2O = Cu(C2n.:02)2 • 3 Cu(As02)2 + () ('2lll02 + 1120. If the process could be carried out with the ingredients in the proportion given there would be very little waste. In practice, however, instead of 1 part by weight of arsenous acid to 1.34: parts of coj)])er acetate, an equal amount appears necessary to insure the desired change. This is probably due to the weak acid projierties of the arsenic. Slow process green is generally formed less rapidly and at a. lower temperature than the instantaneous. From what could be learned the slow process seems to be the one employed by most of the large manufacturers. Blue vitriol is used as the source of copper, and sodium arsenite (ISTaAsOo) in place of ai'senous oxide, on account of its gTeater solubility and the ne- cessity for a base to neutralize the sulfuric acid. Sodium arse- nite is easily prepared i)v adding a thin paste of arsenous oxide in slight excess to a boiling solution of caustic soda or of a carbonate. Na2C03 + AS2O3 = 2 NaAs02 + CO2. The soda and arsenic readily combine with volatilization of carbonic acid. As commercial salts were often employed in our work the analyses of two are given : — Sodium Arsenite. Baker and Adamson (Per Cent.). Kahlbaum (Per Cent.). Theoretical (Per Cent.). Arsenic trioxide, Sodium oxide 78.68 18.45 74.71 22.63 76.15 23.85 97.13 97 34 100.00 188 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The sodium oxide was calculated from the alkalinity, deter- mined by direct titration with methyl orange as indicator, a process sufficiently accurate for the purpose of checking quality. The several reactions taking place in the manufacture of slow process green may he summarized in a single equation : — 4 CuS045 H2O + 8 NaAs02 + 2 C2H4O2 = Cu(C2H302)2 • 3 Cu(As02)2 + AS2O3 + 4 Na2S04 + 6 H2O. Sodium arsenite reacts upon the l)lue yitriol with the produc- tion of a bulky, yellowish-green precipitate of copper arsenite (Scheele's green), whicli iii turn is acted upon by the acetic acid with the formation of a greatly reduced yolunie of Paris green. Experience has shown, as indicated by the aboye for- mula, that about Yi more arsenic is required for the production of the green than actually enters combination, as was the case with the instantaneous process. Acetic acid in excess- of the 2 molecules stated (by nearly 66 per cent.) is needed for the reaction. It is evident from what has been said that the man- ufacture of slow process green requires considerable equipment, expensiye reagents and expert control which, together with the imayoidable waste of chemicals, insures a costly product. The two general processes for making Paris green and their several reactions were carefully studied in the station laboratory to ascertain the character of the product that might reasonably be expected. As a result of numerous experiments a combina- tion process, using copper acetate and sodium arsenite, together with sufficient acetic acid to offset the alkalinity of the arsenite, was found the most acceptable. 4 Cu(C2H302)2H20 + G NaAsOs + 6 C2H4O2 = Cu(C2H302)2 • 3 Cu(As02)2 + fi NaC2H302. The reaction was easy to control, could be carried out at any temperature from that of the laboratory to boiling and gave a product of variable ])hysical structure and of fine color. Solu- tions of different concentrations were tried, of which % molec- ular (M/f)) for the acetate and V2 molecular (lM/2) for the arsenite proved satisfactory. This process appeared to require less arsenic in excess than the ordinary method, although the 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 189 work was performed on too small a scale to warrant positive statements to that effect. Attention has already been called, on pages 180 and 181 to two samples of Paris green snpplied by dilferent manufacturers for the investigation, of which the second was employed in actual spraying tests. The sample of instantaneous green was made according to the method described, with the exception that crystallized copper acetate was substituted for verdigris. The slow process sample was selected from a factory run of commer- cial green manufactured substantially as has been stated. Paris Green from Chemical Manufacturers. Instantaneous Creen. Slow Process Tlieo- Green. retical. Manufacturer, Character of product Color Shape of green particles, "... Size of green particles, ' ... Uniformity, ' Nature of impurities, ' . Amount of impurities, ' ... Flow Film test, A Dry powder. Pale green. Irregular, angular. -Average 10 n- Very little variation. Crystalline matter. Large amount. Poor. Whitish. B Dry powder. Bright green. Mostly perfect s pile res. 12-30 fj., average 17.39 fn.. Considerable varia- tion. Crystalline matter. Small amount, less than 5 per cent. Excellent. Green. - Water (per cent.), Cupric oxide (CuO) (per cent.), . Arsenic trioxide (.4.S2O3) (per cent.), Acetic anhydride (CiHeOs) (per ceat.), Ferric (FeaOs) and aluminum oxides (AI2O3) (per cent.). Sulfuric acid (SO3) (percent.). Insoluble matter (per cent.). .78 31.74 56 91 10.37 .00 1 46 30 94 56 34 9.91 .53 .29 .05 31.39 58.55 10.06 99.83 99.55 100.00 Arsenic (As) (per cent.). 43.13 42,68 44.35 Suspension in water, .... Suspension in filtered lime water, . - 17 minutes. 48 minutes. - Both greens contained an excess of cupric oxide and acetic acid, and may have been hydrolyzed somewhat by washing with 1 Determined by the entomological department of this station. 190 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. the formation of a basic acetate. Sample U showed a coiisidcr- ablt! amoinit of impurities. Any hypothetical comhiuatidu of the various constituents that might be offered would be decid- edly arbitrary, and a discussion seems inadvisable at this time. A careful study of the results would indicate that the slow process green, exclusive of moisture, was at least DO per cent. pure. To be of standard quality Paris green should contain not less than 50 per cent, of arsenous oxide combined with copper, and not more than 3.50 per cent, of arsenous oxide soluble in water. The poisonous character of Paris green is dependent on the arsenic content, but the form in which the arsenic exists largely fixes its value as an insecticide. Adulteration is seldom practiced under the inspection laws now in force. Paris green is a dry, impalpable powder that readily passes a 100-mesh sieve, and to the touch resembles flour. A micro- scopical examination is required to determine the size, shape and uniformity of particles as well as the general character and amount of impurities. The latter may consist of Scheele's green that was not transformed or by-products such as arsenic, sodium sulfate, sodium acetate and possibly other compounds not inten- tionally added biit present in the original chemicals. The sam- ple of instantaneous green under examination was of a pale green color, and consisted of very small, irregular, angular par- ticles with considerable impurity. It was cohesive, had a poor '' flow," and the film test ^ on glass appeared whitish. The slow process green, on the other hand, had a brilliant green color of metallic luster, and was composed of minute green spheres of various sizes, together with a small amount of crystalline and fragmentary matter. It had an excellent " flow," and the film test on glass was green. The size of the particles is affected by the concentration, temperature and amount of agitation at the time of formation. The smaller the globules with retention of ]ierfect form and similar size, the more desirable the product. Paris green has a high s]iecific gravity and a low power of suspension. In the station laboratory suspension was deter- mined - in a foot column containing the insecticide at the pro- portion of 1 gram of dry salt to 1,000 cubic centimeters of • r. W. Woodworth, Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 126, p. 13 (1899). 2 Modification of the California method. G. E. Colby, Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 151, pp. 33- 35 (1903). 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 191 water. The mixture in a closed cylinder was tlioroiigldy agi- tated, and the reading, in minutes, taken with a horizontal microscope, using a 1-inch eyepiece and V2"ii^^'li objective, when movement of the particles midway of the column (0 inches down) was no longer apparent. The slow process green gave a reading of seventeen minutes in water and forty-eight minutes in filtered lime water. As lime tends to flocculate the par- ticles of Paris green, the test should be performed immediately after mixing. Although copper aceto-arsenite is termed insoluble in water, decomposition readily takes place under certain conditions ; therefore, the determination of so-called " free " and " loosely combined " arsenic is closely related to stability of product and should be considered in that connection. Solubility. Slow Process Green. Manufacturer, Water (per cent.), .......... Sodium acetate soluble "free arsenic" (Avery and Beans Method): Cupric oxide, .......... Arsenic trioxide (per cent.), ....... Copper acetate soluble: — Arsenic trioxide (per cent.), ....... Water soluble "free and loosely combined arsenic" (Hilgard Method) Cupric oxide, .......... Arsenic trioxide, (per cent.) ....... Solids (per cent.), Lime water soluble: — Cupric oxide, .......... Arsenic trioxide (per cent.) Ammonia insoluble (per cent.), ....... B 1.46 Trace. .74 Trace. .80 1,93 1.52 .11 Neither of the greens contained an excessive amount of free or of free and loosely combined arsenic, judging by the stand- ard, although the slow process was decidedly the better in that respect. This was to be expected, as the finely divided angular particles of the instantaneous green ofl'ered greater surface and apparently less resistance to a solvent than the nearly perfect 192 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Tan. splieres of the slow process. The copper acetate soluhle results are of uncertain value. Filtered liine water, with .12 per cent, calcium oxide, contained insufficient lime to prevent solution of the arsenic. Ammonia dissolves Paris green and the normal by-products concomitant with its manufacture, such as copper arsenite, arsenous oxide, sodium sulfate and sodium acetate ; the residue, .11 per cent, in case of the slow process green, was organic and other insoluble materials. To ascertain the solvent action of various substances in solu- tion on Paris green, a series of tests were conducted with the slow process sami)le. The green in stoppered flasks was treated with water and with solutions of the respective compounds at the rate of 1 gram to 1,000 cubic centimeters for twenty-four hours at laboratory temperature, with occasional agitation during the working day. Solubility Tests, Slow Process Green. Amount of Solvent Soluble Solvent. in a Liter of Water (Grams). AS2O3 (Per Cent.). Copper. Remarks. Distilled water - .84 None. Water saturated with CO2, -' 6.10 Much. - Ammonium hydroxide (coiuen- trated). Ammonium hydroxide (concen- trated). Ammonium carbonate, . 1 5 1 .86 13.49 6.83 None. Much. Much. Residue darker green. Blue solution. Ammonium carbonate, . Ammonium chloride, 5 1 5o.93 2.41 Excessive. Considerable. Blue, nearly complete solution. Ammonium nitrate, 1 2.03 Trace. - Ammonium nitrate. 5 4.70 Much. - Ammonium nitrite solution, . 1 .36 - - Ammonium nitrite solution, . 5 .36 - - Ammonium sulfate. 1 4.20 Considerable. - Sodium carbonate (anhydrous), 1 3.15 None. - Sodium bicarbonate. Sodium chloride, .... 1 1 .84 .96 V e r y slight trace. None. : ; Sodium nitrate, .... 1 .86 None. - Sodium nitrite 1 .88 - - Sodium sulfate (anhydrous), . Boiling water, one hour. 1 1.67 14.93 Ve r y slight trace. Much. Change in color of res- idue. About 5 gallons of gas used, water pres.sure. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 193 Cold water dissolved a small amount of arsenic, Lolling water very much more. The green appisared to resist hot water for a considerable time after which the change was noticeabk^. If the boiling had been continued all the arsenic would i)robably have passed into solution. The .10 per cent, ammonium salts, exclusive of nitrite, dissolved on the average 58 per cent.^ more arsenic than the corresponding sodium salts. In both instances the carbonate was the most active, followed respectively by the sulfate, chloride and nitrate. Sodium bicarbonate was ap])ar- ently inactive under the conditions employed. Free carbonic acid was eifective and so was ammonia when in sufficient amount to overcome the resistance of the green, and jointly, carbonic acid and ammonia dissolved the most arsenic. It is evident from what has been stated that carbonic acid and ammonia of the atmosphere in conjunction with dew, fogs or light rains and high temperature will materially increase the dissociation of Paris green. Data more or less contradictory have been offered by various investigators relative to the influ- ence of weather conditions on the effect of arsenic on foliage. While more or less problematical, certain deductions seem war- ranted : conditions favoring a rapid drying of the green and its continuance in a dry state are propitious. For instance, a relatively high temperature, low humidity and a good circula- tion of air at the time of application, followed by warm, dry weather should tend toward a minimum of arsenical injury. On the other hand, factors conducive to solubility of the arsenic and its passage by osmosis into the substance of the leaf are detrimental ; as, for example, warm, " muggy " weather or warm weather accompanied by fogs or heavy dews. Rains are not necessarily injurious if of sufficient quantity to remove the solu- ble arsenic from its sphere of influence. The addition of milk of lime to Paris green tends to reduce arsenical injury by form- ing, with the free arsenic, arsenite of lime insoluble in the presence of excess lime. As lime flocculates the particles of green, it is not advisable to prepare the spray mixture until shortly before application. In conclusion, it may be said that Paris green contains a fairly high per cent, of arsenic, is nominally insoluble in water ' Direct comparison. 194 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. l>iit unstable, hvdrolizing readily under favorable conditions. It has a low power of suspension though its fineness permits of reasonable distril)ution. It is a poor indicator without lime of the leaf surface covered, but 2:)ossesses fair adhesive quali- ties. B. Calcium Arsenite. Historical. Early attempts to use arsenous oxide as an insecticide by IJiley ^ in 1869 and Saunders and Reed - in 1871 were unsatis- factory. John Smith ^ in 1808 appears to have been more successful, applying it in water, but the practice proved too hazardous to warrant its continuance, although freshly prepared mixtures have been applied in numerous instances without injury. The relatively high cost of Paris green and London purple, and the necessity of adding lime to neutralize the free arsenic, led to the production of lime arsenite. So far as known this has always been a farm prej^aration and not a commercial product. Kilgore ^ recommended adding 1 pound of white arsenic to 2 pounds of lime in 2 to 5 gallons of water and boiling thirty minutes. Taft ^ advised adding 2 pounds of freshly slaked lime to 1 pound of arsenic in 2 gallons of water and boiling- forty minutes. Kedzie ^ suggested dissolving the arsenic in a solution of sal soda and otiered the formula which bears his name. Boil 2 pounds of arsenic with 8 pounds of sal soda in 2 gallons of water until dissolved. Slake 2 pounds of lime, add to 40 gallons of water and stir in 1 pint of the arsenic solution. Stewart ^ evidently noted the undue amount of sal soda in the Kedzie formula and reported better results, using equal parts, 2 pounds of arsenic and 2 pounds of sal soda. E. L. Smith ^ recommended 2 pints of Kedzie mixture to 6 to 10 pounds of lime in 50 gallons of water, and claimed that the additional lime increased safety and adhesiveness. ' Potato Pests, p. 60 (1876). ' Can. Ent., 3, pp. 45^7 (1871). ' Western Poinologi.st, 2, p. 125 (1871). Cited by Lodeman. < N. Car. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 77b, pp. 7-8 (1891). ' Mich. Bd. Agr. Rept., 35, p. 119 (1897). In Ropt. 37, p. 466 (1899), the amount of lime was increased 8 pounds on application. « Mich. Farmer, 31. p. 132 (1897). ' Penn. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 99, p. 11 (1910). • Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 126, p. 24 (1899). 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 195 Authui'ities dirt'er as to the arseiiitc that results from the union of lime and arsenic. Preseott and Johnson ^ state that the arsenites of the alkaline earth ar(^ usually ortho compounds, Merck & Co.- and Gooch and Walker •' give neutral orthoarse- nite of lime, while Comcy ■* and Watts' Dictionary ''" recognize the ortho, Ca3(As03j2, the meta, Ca(As02)2, and the pyro, Ca2As20u, salts. The latter is designated a mixture of basic salts with 1 molecule of water, 2CaO.As2O3.H2O. So far as noted the fornnila acknowledged by experiment station workers has been that of the neutral ortho salt, although the subject has been given little attention. As determined by Colby ° the suspension, in 1 foot colunm, of arsenite of lime made according to directions published by Taft was forty-four minutes, and by Kedzie formula fifty- seven minutes. Ileadden "' noted that arsenite of lime was almost entirely soluble in water and in dilute solutions of sodium sulfate and sodium chloride. Experimental B-esiilts. For the preparation of a high-grade arsenite of lime re- quired for the work in view, precipitation from soluble salts of lime and of arsenic, while niore costly, promised a more defi- nite and uniform product. As lime arsenite is noncrystallizable, precipitation from perfect solutions insured better combination and greater freedom from admixtures. The comparative in- solubility of lime, CaO, necessitated the use of a soluble salt. Lime salts of strong oxidizing acids were deemed objectionable on account of possible action on the arsenite and were ex- cluded. The acetate of organic compounds and the chloride of the halogens were selected for trial, but after several tests the chloride was considered preferable. The fused salt was almost invariably employed. It should be free from other bases form- ing insoluble compounds with arsenic. The direct use of arsenous oxide is not advisable with a lime salt, not only for 1 Qual. Chem. Anal., 6th edition, p. 57 (1905). 'Merck's 1907 Index, p. 113. » Outlines of Inorg. Chem. Pt. 2, p. 184 (1905). « Diet, of Chem. Sol., p. 41 (1896). » Watts' Diet, of Chem., 3d edition, 1, p. 306 (1893). ' Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 151, p. 34 (1903). ' Col. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 131, p. 22 (1908). 19G EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. the reason that ordinary porcelaneons arsenic in pulvernlent condition is difficult to moisten and of low soluhilitv, but more particularly because it would induce a secondary reaction from lack of base to satisfy the acid that was previously com- bined with the lime. Sodium arsenite, T^aAsOo, is readily soluble and proved a satisfactory source of arsenic. A salt of fair quality can be procured on the market, or is easily prepared by adding 1 part of arsenous oxide to a boiling solu- tion of 1.45 parts of sal soda, or an equivalent amount of soda in the form of anhydrous carbonate, bicarbonate or hydroxide. A slight excess of arsenic is required to insure complete volatili- zation of the carbonic acid. Na2C03 ■ 10 H2O + AS2O3 = 2 NaAs02 + CO2 + 10 H2O. The resulting arsenite should be free from arsenates, car- Inmates, sulfates or other acids forming insoluble compounds with lime. Any decision as to concentration of solutions is naturally more or less arbitrary ; dilution tends to make difficult pre- cipitation with considerable loss of salt, and the opposite an unwieldy precipitate with greater occlusion. As a compromise solutions of % molecular strength (M/2) were finally adopted. Another factor studied was the influence of temperature of solutions on the resulting precipitate, ranging from that of the laboratory to nearly boiling point at the moment of precipita- tion. Room temperature with two hours' standing gave a product of practically the same composition, and of probably lietter physical characteristics, than the higher temperatures and was considered more desirable. As the alkalinity of the soda in sodium arsenite is not de- stroyed by the arsenous acid, it should be run into the calcium chloride solution slowly with constant agitation in order to prevent any precipitation of calcium hydroxide. An excess (10 per cent.) of sodium arsenite was found desirable to per- fect the salt. After standing several hours the liquor -was re- moved by means of a Buchner funnel, and the lime arsenite washed rapidly with cold w^ater until nearly free from chlorides. A centrifuge or filter j^ress might give equally good or better results provided the work w\is done rapidly. Undue washing was avoided, as it w^as thought safer to retain a small amount 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31, 197 of sodium chloride than to tako chances on possible hydrolysis and decomposition of the arsenite, an action readily inferred from the behavior of Paris green under similar conditions. The above method of preparation was employed in all subse- quent work unless otherwise noted. ]\[inor changes were at- tempted in some instances from which no apparent benefit was derived. As previously stated there was considerable uncertainty as to the composition of the lime precipitate. To ascertain whether the resulting product was a definite compound and, if so, its composition, salts were produced fi'om an excess of sodium arsenite into calcium chloride and vice versa, observing the usual precautions as to dilution, precipitation of calcium hydroxide, oxidation of the arsenic, etc. Incomplete analyses of a few laboratory samples are given. Calcium Arsenite produced in the Laboratory {Per Cent.). Excess NaAs02 into CaCls. Excess CaClo into Precipitated Hot. Precipitated at 90° C. Precipitated and held at 90° C. for Two Hours. NaAs02. Precipitated Hot. Water, Arsenic trioxide, Insoluble matter, .'2 77.01 .12 77 Ot 76.75 .12 76.80 .03 The small samples were of uniform composition, indicating a definite compound of about 77 per cent, arsenic content. This amount of arsenic exceeds the requirements of the ortho and pyro salts, and substantially conforms to that of the meta compound with a theoretical content of 77.92 per cent. The following equation illustrates the reaction that must have occurred CaCb -H 2NaAs02 = Ca(As02)2 + 2 NaCl. Attention has been calltd on pages 180, 181 and 182 to 5 samples of lime arsenite supplied by several firms for the inves- tigation. Manufacturer C was furnished directions deduced from experimental work in the station laboratory. A and B evidently employed a different method. 198 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. o < a « Sj3 ■^1 (-1 ca :s a o to ■o ■o o 05 So &3 •- S '3) X O o J Z -c •S S -j; o a o ■s:o<; About 5 gallons of gas used, water pressure. I per cent, of magnesium oxide. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 201 Calcium nietarsciiite was iairlj soluble in cold water, but much more so in boiling water. The annnonium salts, exclusive of nitrite, dissolved about 11) per cent.^ more arsenic than the corresponding sodium salts. The carbonate in both instances proved very effective, followed by the chloride, sulfate and nitrate with only slight diiferences between the latter. An inter- change of bases must have result(Ml in many instances to permit the high solubility recorded. Carbonic acid, combined and free, was the most active of any single agent, consequently excess lime should afford one of the best methods of protection under atmos- pheric conditions. Ammonium hydroxide depressed slightly the solubility of the arsenic. Calcium metarsenite contains the highest per cent, of arsenic of all the common insecticides, and is quite soluble except in presence of excess lime ; the fineness of its particles and the high power of suspension insure uniform distribution ; the white film readily indicates the surface covered ; and its adhe- siveness provides protection for a reasonable period under aver- age weather conditions. C. Lead Arsenates. Historical. F. C. Moulton,- chemist for the Massachusetts Gypsy Moth Commission, was the first to prepare arsenate of lead for insecti- cidal purposes. He employed lead acetate and sodium arsenate. The work was continued by F. J. Smith, ^ who studied the com- position of the chemicals used, the reactions and other matters pertaining to the manufacture. He stated that ordinary spray material was not a single salt, but a mixture of neutral and acid arsenates, and believed that the relative amount of each de- pended, principally upon the source of the soluble lead salt, although temperature and concentration at the moment of pre- cipitation affected the results ; in other words, that acetate of lead had a tendency, other factors being equal, to yield the neu- tral salt and the nitrate the acid arsenate. An electrolytic process for making arsenate of lead was pat- ented by C. J). Vreeland in 1907, using lead, sodium arsenate ' Direct comparison. « Ihid., 45, pp. 357-371 (1898). sMass. Bd. Agr. Kept., 41, p. 282 (1894). 202 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. and an electrolyte of soduun nitrate. Patents have also been taken out on varions other methods of manufacture, references to which are found in technical journals. I. W. Drummond patented a dry preparation of lead nitrate, sodium arsenate and corn starch to be mixed with water when-applied. Most authorities recognize neutral orthoarsenate of lead, Pbs (As()4)2, and acid arsenate, PbHAs04, and a few mention pyroarsenate, Pb2As207. W. PI. Volck ^ claims the latter salt may occur in commercial pastes, though Lefevre - states that it is decomposed by cold water. Pyroarsenate diifers from 2 molecules of the acid salt by 1 molecule of water. PboAsoOr + H2O = 2 PbHAsO^. So far as noted, the presence of pyroarsenate in insecticides has not been proved. The low specific gravity of lead arsenate, 1.00668 according to Smith ^ (salt not specified), results in a high power of sus- pension as shown by Colby.'' from nitrate one hundred and thirty minutes and from acetate two hundred and forty minutes. Investigators have found lead arsenates comparatively little affected by hot water or carbonic acid. Dilute solutions of sodium carbonate, sodinm chloride and sodium sulfate have an appreciable action as showTi by Headden ^ and others. The acid salt has invariably proved the more unstable. Volck ^' noted that under alkaline conditions it tends to decompose with the formation of the ortho salt and arsenic acid, and he states that this reaction appears to take place in the orchards of the Pacific coast as a result of the continuous fogs and heavy dews. P. J. O'Gara '' also claims that the acid salt is very injurious under certain climatic conditions. Haywood ^ recommend(>d the addition of lime to arsenate of lead to prevent injury to delicate foliage. ' Science, 33, p. 868 (19U). 2 Cited by A. M. Comey, Diet, of Chem. Sol., p. 35. > Ma«is. Bd. AKr. Rept., 45, p. 355 (1898). «Cal. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 151, p. 34 (1903). s Col. Exp. Sta., Bui. No. 131, p. 22 (1908); Bui. No. 157, pp. 29, 30 (1910). * Loc. cit. 'Science, 33, p. 900 (1911). 8 Bur. Chem., Bui. No. 131, p. 49 (1910). 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMExVT — No. 31. 203 Experimental Results. In the production of lead arsenates pure chemicals are a prime requisite for a high-grade product. The lead salts should be free from other bases forming insoluble arsenates, and the sodium arsenate (Xa2HAs047H20) from arsenites, carbonates, chlorides and sulfates. Acetate of lead is objectionable as a source of lead in that it readily carbonates on exposure to air. As to concentration of solutions, our experience has shown that for salts of such high molecular w(nght dilute solutions not ex- ceeding !^, molecular (M/5) are preferable. At that dilution, laboratory temperature gives a very finely divided precipitate which is highly desirable from the standpoint of suspension. The arsenate should be run into the lead salt verij sloirlij with thorough agitation in order to prevent precipitation of lead hydroxide due to the alkalinity of the sodium salt. The re- verse precipitation, lead into the arsenic, proved less satisfac- tory both as to formation and behavior of the precipitate. While arsenic acid is stronger than arsenous, it neutralizes only about one-half the alkalinity of the soda in disodium hydrogen arsenate. Neutral Lead Arsenate. — After many attempts, employing di and tri sodium and ammonium arsenates, salts containing arsenic and lead in proper molecular ratio were finally pro- duced according to the following equation : — 3 Pb(C2H302)23 H2O + 2 Na2HAs047 H2O = Pb3(As04)2 + 4 NaC2H3023 H2O + 2 C2H4O2 + 11 H2O. To obtain these results it w^as necessary to prepare the disodium arsenate in order to exclude carbonic acid which was present in the commercial salts purchased. The principal difficulties, however, arose from failure to add the strongly alkaline sodium arsenate slowly and with sufficient agitation to prevent the precipitation of lead hydroxide and to maintain an excess of at least 5 per cent, of lead to prevent the formation of the acid salt. The usual precautions as to concentration, tem- perature and thoroughness of washing were carefully observed. The following analyses of two samples show the material to be practically of theoretical composition : — 201 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Neutral Lead Arsenate -produced in the Laboratory. Sample number, Water 100° C. (per cent.), Arsenic pentoxide (per cent.), Lead oxide (per cent.), . Water occluded (per cent.), 31 32 .75 .70 25.10 25.18 73.15 73.20 .98 .82 The lead salt iiivarial)ly contained a small amount of water probably held bv occlusion wliicli is not volatilized at 100° C. Acid lead arsenate is readily prepared from nitrate of lead and sodium arsenate provided dilute solutions are emploj'ed and tbe sodinm salt added carefully in excess (10 per cent.). Pb(N03)2 + Na2HAs047 H2O = PbHAs04 + 2 NaNOs + 7 H2O. By this method of procedure no difficulty was experienced in producing salts of theoretical composition. The acetate can be used as a source of lead, but is less satisfactory. vSix samples of lead ars^enate were supplied by three manu- facturers for the spraying tests. Manufacturer C was fur- nished full directions as outlined above for making the acid salt. The detailed process for preparing the neutral salt was not deduced until later. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 20: ^ QO 0 £_: '^ CO 0 CO' 8g 1 1 1 s CO co OJ CO 0 ., di 0 . 0 1 . 1 1 I 0 °l 3 ^ CD § 1 ^1 to M 0 00 01 -1 .^ 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 -! « Q| ^ s § a c. S e J, r^ 0 r^ CQ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 CO r 1 r>. ° '-' E-i .^s 0 Oi Tf 10 K rf b-3 1^ t^ 1 I 0 1 r 1 1 1 1 0 p5§ >- CO OJ CO M H "S S 2: ™ bC 1 m P| -.*< CO 1 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 Z C jd 0 Z 1 '3 0 a a >> 0 1 "c3 1 _a a .0 a p C3 (-• s t. 0 ■|3 1 0 a Z 3 0 0 1 •a 2 2 1 1 a 1 a a 3 02 0. § 206 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Neutral and acid arsenates of lead are quite insolul)le, al- though both salts will undoubtedly yield arsenic slowly to continuous percolation, the acid salt di^-oniposing the more rciidlly. Solubiliti/. Supplied as — NEUTRAL. ACID. Manufacturer, A Bi Ci B2 Co Ca Water (per cent.), -■ .34 G.39 .66 .3.5 46.99 Water soluble (Hilgard method): — Lead oxido (per cent.), .... - None. .01 None. .14 .06 Arsenic pentoxide (per cent.). - .48 .05 .16 .02 .03 Solids (per cent.), - 2.33 1.13 4.21 2.10 .30 The acid salt C.'i was practically insoluble under the condi- tions tested, and nearly free from soluble by-products. The legal standard - for commercial lead arsenate in form of paste specifies not more than 50 per cent, of water nor less than 12.50 per cent, of arsenic pentoxide and not more than .75 per cent, of arsenic jDentoxide soluble in water. Sample C3, acid salt, which was used in experimental work, exceeded stand- ard requirements in all particulars. A careful study of the analytical results, C3, might warrant the following combina- tion : — Acid Lead Arsenate employed in Spraying. Water, Acid lead arsenate (PbHAs04), . Lead chloride (PbClo), Lead hydroxide (2 PbO • II2O), . Insoluble matter, .... Per Cent. 46.99 51.61 .16 1.34 .01 lt)0.11 Exclusive of water, the purity was approximately 97.36 per cent. There was a small amount of lead chloride, but the most objectionable feature appeared to be the precipitated lead hydroxide due to careless preparation. ' Sample rejected. 2 The insecticide act of 1910, section 7. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 207 There is evidently a diit'erence in stal)ility between acid and nontral lead arsenates as measured by boiling ammoniacal solu- tions, but, contrary to general belief, it is apparently only a matter of degree. Both salts are decomposable, yielding soluble arsenic acid. Neutral arsenate, sample 31, page 204, after being twice heated with ammonia and washed, gave a residue which was practically stable and tested as follows : — Per Cent. Water, . . . . . 44 Arsenic pentoxide, ......... 23.84 Lead oxide, ........... 7.). 02 Ocduded water, .64 99.94 Stability was apparently the result of a reversible reaction, ammonia setting arsenic acid free, and lead hydroxide, when present in sufficient excess (10 per cent.), completely reprecip- itating it. Similar results were obtained by adding freshly precipitated lead hydroxide, litharge and lime to neutral arse- nate, the excess base preventing the separation of arsenic acid. If properly made, neutral and acid arsenates of lead are smooth, white pastes of very fine particles, low specific gravity, excellent susi^ension and exceptional adhesiveness. The power of suspension is injured by drying. The readings reported for sample Cm are not the maximum, but were taken when no movement of particles was perceptible, although the mixture continued milky for a considerable period thereafter. Both acid and neutral lead arsenates are slow-acting poisons of low arsenic content, and that in the form of pentoxide. They are practically insoluble in water and fairly stable. The fine- ness of the particles and low specific gravity insure a high power of suspension and uniform distribution. The white mixture readily indicates the leaf surface covered and dries to a film which adheres with great persistence. 208 P:XFI:UIMEXT station. fJun. THE NATURAL FERTILITY OF CRANBERRY BOGS. BY F. W. MORSE, M.SC. Years of experience by practical men have shown that cran- berries are best grown on a peat bog the surface of which has been covered with a thin layer of sand. Furthermore, the best results with this soil are obtained only when there is an abun- dance of water by which at times the land may be flooded and at other times irrigated ; and at the same time there must be opportunities for thoroughly draining the land at some stages of growth. This combination of peat subsoil, sandy surface and varying amounts of water is unusual in any other line of crop production, and most of the present methods pursued iu cran- berry culture are wholly empirical in their character. One important problem now puzzling the cranberry grower is that of fertilization ; is it necessary or unnecessary ? The poten- tial fertility of a true peat soil, that is, the amount of the ele- ments of plant nutrition contained in its dry matter, is known to be high. Hopkins ^ states that a peat soil contains in the upper layer (6% inches thick) of 1 acre, 35,000 pounds of nitro- gen, 2,000 pounds of phosphorus and 2,900 pounds of potas- sium, while a layer 40 inches deep over 1 acre contains 197,000 pounds of nitrogen, 8,600 pounds of phosphorus and 21,400 pounds of potassium. He further states - that but little of this enormous store of material is in an actively available form, and estimates that a corn crop can get at not more than 7 pounds of potassium ])er acre, while in an ex]ieriment on a poorly drained field, corn was benefited by the addition of nitrogen.'"^ The sand on the surface of the peat may be disregarded as a source of plant nutrients, but it is an important agent in making availa- ■ Hopkins, O. G., Soil Fertility, Ginn & Co., 1910, pp. 83-87. * Ihid., p. 471. " Ibid., p. 172. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT- Xo. 31, 209 h\v the elciueiits contained in the peat. The water used in Hood- ing' and irrigating may be regarded in a similar way, since it is as pnre as the average public water supply and often purer. Analyses of the cranberries and cranberry vines reveal an unusually low })roportion of nitrogen and ash constituents, espe- cially in the fruit which, as a rule, is all that is removed from the bog. Table 1. — Composition of Cranberries and Vines. Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash. Lime. Mag- nesia. Berrie.-<, Massachusetts, ' 89.40 0 105 0.07 0.025 0.08 0.03 - Berries, New Jersey, 2 . - 0,175 0 05 0.020 0.07 0.01 0.009 Vines, Massachusetts, ' 13.07 2.450 0.77 0,270 0.33 0.40 0.250 Vines, New Jersey,' - 2,070 0.64 O.ISO 0.24 0.49 0.190 Vines, New Jersey,' - 2.100 0.65 0 310 0.40 0.50 0.190 A crop of lJ)OJ)arrcls--of .cranberries |>er acre, weighing 10,- 000 iDounds, will contain only 7 pounds of nitrogen, 3 pounds of phosphoric acid and 8 pounds of potash. One ton of dried vines would contain 15 pounds of nitrogen, G.2 pounds of phosphoric acid and 8 pounds of potash. These figures show clearly that the cranberry crop will never exhaust the potential fertility of the bog ; but it is equally plain that it has become accustomed to a scanty nourishment, and they do not answer the question, " Shall fertilizers be used ? " There are on record o-nly three series of fertilizer tests on the cranberry crop. They are somewhat empirical and throw little light on the problem. An experiment in New Jersey was reported in 1895.-^ A complete fertilizer gave the best results, with the next best from the nitrogen with phosphorus and nitrogen wath potash. This w^^s indicative of the actual need of nitrogen ; but the soil was described as a black sand somewhat too dry for a good bog. In Wisconsin Whitson began a series of fertilizer tests in 1004,^ the last detailed report of which was published in 1907.^ ' Mass. State Exp. Sta. Kept., 1889, p. 274; 1893, pp. 330, 370. ' N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 1898, pp. 122, 123. 3 Ann. Rept., N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1895, p. 110. i Whitson, A. R., Ann. Rept., Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1905, pp. 291 and 292. 8 Ann. Rept., Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1907, p. 305. 210 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The largest increase in fruit was from the use of sodium nitrate with acid phosphate, and the next best yield was from the ni- trate with potash salts, while nitrate of soda alone was more effective than either of the other substances used singly. The actual character of the soil to which the fertilizers were applied is not stated, but from the general description of the bog it is inferred that the soil was a deep peat with the usual surface layer of sand. In ]\Iassachusetts Brooks began a fertilizer test in 1906.^ Three years later he reported " that nitrate of soda greatly ])ro- moted the growth of vines, and seemed to be favorable to fruit- fulness, but when used in excess of 100 pounds per acre the growth of vines was liable to be too luxuriant. High-grade sul- fate of potash was decidedly favorable, and the maximum yield was obtained from a heavy dressing of this salt supjilemented by a moderate application of nitrate of soda and acid phosphate. The soil of the Massachusetts bog was not a deep peat, but a sand colored with peat as shown by a chemical analysis which revealed less than 2 per cent, of organic matter. In this in- stance there is evidence of a low potential fertility, which does not help clear up the problem of the use of fertilizers on a true peat soil. When peat soils have been well drained and planted to com- mon farm crops like corn, they have not been found to require nitrogen, but have been noticeably improved by the addition of potash salts and phosphates.^ The conditions required by corn and staple farm crops differ, however, very much from those required by the cranberry. In the former conditions drainage is maintained continuously as a rule, while in the latter case the soil is saturated and even flooded through nearly three-fourths of the year. In the former case nitrification is favored, but in the latter case it is hindered, which may account for the agree- ment of all three fertilizer tests in showing an increase of fruit upon applications of nitrate of soda. A consideration of the methods followed by cranberry growers in regulating the water supply of their bogs is helpful in connec- > Brooks, Wm. P., Ann. Rept., Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1908, p. 17. 2 Ann. Rept., Mass. As:r. Exp. Sta., 1910, p. 32. ' Hopkins, C. O., Soil Fertility, Ginn & Co.. 1910, pp. 471-472; Whitson, A. R., Ann. Kept., Wis. Agr. Exp. SU., 1905. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 211 tion with a stiulj of the natural fertilitv of the soiL Where conditions permit the bog is completely overflowed from some time in November until May, sometimes until the latter part of this month. During this period the changes within the soil must be limited to solution of matter in the water and putre- factive decomposition in the vegetable matter. Both will be at the lowest point because of the winter temperature. In the spring, when the sluices are opened, there is a rapid run-off from the surface follow^ed finally by seepage into the ditches. The water table falls in the soil to a point a little higher than the level maintained in the drains. It is only above this water table that the activities of useful bacteria can occur, and while it is not definitely known how deep the cranberry roots ])ene- trate, it is probable that they do not extend below the permanent water table. Through a large part of the growing season the water is maintained in the ditches at a level 12 to 15 inches below the surface of the soil. This permits oxidation changes and free root development in a soil depth of not more than 1 foot. Moist sand is a well kno'wn medium for a?robic bacterial action, and the same is true of peat when it contains the opti- mum amount of water. Sewage filters are constructed of both types of soils, while several proposed processes for production of nitrates are based on the rapid nitrification known to take place in peat under favorable conditions. During the summer season there must be a movement of water upward from the level of the water table into the surface peat and sand. This upward current is produced mainly by the transpiration of water from the plants, as they cover the sur- face so completely that actual evaporation must be small. But this makes little ditlerence since it has been shown that tran- spiration follows the same laws as evaporation from a free surface.^ Botanists have also observed that bog plants, for some reason, fake on the character of desert plants and resist transpiration. The peat which is continually saturated or sub- merged must be constantly yielding soluble material to the enveloping water, and the solution must be nearly saturated. This soluble matter is poisonous to plants of many families, but ' Montgomery, Proc. Am. Soc. Agronomy, 1911, pp. 261, 283. 212 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. its influence on cranberry vines is nt)t known. In the aerated surface soi], liowever, it will be transformed into the beneficial highly oxidi;ied compounds, as nitrates and sulfates. The present use of water on cranberry bogs is empirical, but a consideration of the conditions under which soil changes occur leads me to believe that water should be withdrawn from the surface at the earliest possible moment in the spring consistent with safety from frost, and held at the lowest possible level at which the vines can secure sufficient moisture for free growth during dry and hot weather. By this arrangement the period of active soil change, and the volume of soil in which it can take place, will be at a maximum, with a consequent increase in the amount of available nutrients for the plants. Flooding the bogs followed by the spring draining undoubtedly causes some loss of soluble fertility, and, on account of the close ap- proach to saturation of the soil during the summer, heavy rains will also result in loss through seepage into the ditches. This experiment station has begun an investigation of the problem of cranberry-bog fertility, and Director Brooks has devised a series of 30 miniature bogs described by him in a recent article.^ Each bog is constructed in a 24-inch tile, 48 inches deep, and connected with it is a 6-inch tile that corre- sponds to the ditch on a large bog, by which the bog can be drained or irrigated. Analyses of the drainage water during the past two summers throw some light on the development of soluble material in the peat and its transformation into active nutrients for the vines. The first analyses were made on sam- ples collected July 14, 1910. Other samples were analyzed at intervals until October 19. During most of this period frequent additions of water were required by the bog because the rain- fall was abnormally small. All the water was applied to the surface of the bogs in order to promote diffusion into the small drainage cylinders. There was much variation in the composition and also in the color of the different samples, which continued until the collec- tion of September 12. There was. however, a steady progress toward uniformity, A few days ])revious to September 12, viz., on the 8th, there was an exceptionally heavy rainfall which > Brooks, Wm. P., Proc. Soc. Promotion Agr. Sci., IQU, pp. 23-28. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 213 flooded the bogs, covering the surface with an inch of water. The percohition which followed forced the bog water into the drainage cylinders. The water from nearly every bog on Sep- tember 1 2 was a dark cofl"ee color, whereas before this date there had been a wide range of tints from dark coffee to light amber. The total solids, and particularly the volatile solids, had now reached a maximum in all but two or three samples, and the amounts were of the same order of magnitude. When sampled for the last time in 1910, on October 19, there was another no- ticeable change in the water. Xearly all the samples were now a greenish black in color, and opaque and inky in appearance. They also were filtered with difficult}'. All the samples col- lected during the season had been filtered through dry paper filters to remove suspended matter and sand. The water ran rapidly through the paper and in the earlier collections left little or no stain behind. As the colors deepened the later col- lections stained the filters more and more. The last series deposited a colloidal film on the paper which hindered the pas- sage of the water through the pores and caused the filtration to occupy several hours, in some cases nearly twenty-four hours, while the filtered water had lost its inky appearance and was as a rule a light cofi"ee color. This behavior, together with the appearance of a maximum point in the total solids and volatile solids, points conclusively to a saturated solution with respect to the organic constituents of the peat. Table II. ■ — Inorganic Solids in Bog Waters, 1910. (Parts in 100,000.) Bog Number. July 14. July 27. August 22. September 12. October 19. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 15. 16, 17. 18, 22, 25, 11.8 19.8 31.4 83.2 73.6 11.0 11.2 11.4 54.6 50.8 63.4 23 8 34.8 56.2 49.8 60,4 09.4 23.6 49.4 53.8 56 2 41.0 53 0 67 6 76.6 62,0 70 0 40.2 52.0 39.0 51 4 56 8 58.6 55.0 62.4 58.6 64.6 64 6 53 8 .54.6 73 4 63 0 63.0 49.8 49 0 52 0 59.6 64.0 63.8 50.0 59.6 62.8 68.0 78-8 53 0 214 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table III. — Organic Solids in Bog Waters, 1010. [Parts in 100,000.) Bog Number. July 14. July 27. August 22. September 12. October 19. 1 5.8 12.8 18.6 94.0 73.6 2 8.2 25.8 37.6 107.4 80.2 3 10.4 16.4 28.0 112.6 94.0 4, 25.0 66.2 78.0 106.6 67.2 5 44.8 62 6 70.4 131.2 101.2 6, 5.8 11.8 20 4 114.8 96.0 15 3.2 - 22.0 102.8 104.2 16 4.6 - 15.4 65.8 64.4 • 17 54.4 89.3 101.6 93.8 - 18, 70.6 108.2 113.2 92.0 - 22 48.6 60.2 118.0 96.6 - 25, - 21.6 32.0 93.2 88.8 The inorganic solids were more or less influenced by the cement used in the construction of the cylinders. The samples of 1911 are best considered in two groujis, one of which represents the hog water in the spring, while the other shows its composition at the end of the summer. The first group consisted of two series of samples which were taken from 10 of the bogs on the 10th and 12th of May, before the flood water was drained oif. The samples therefore represented the results of six months of solution, diffusion and precipitation on the organic and inorganic matter in the bogs. One set of samples was filtered through dry paper filters before they were analyzed, while the other set was allowed to stand over night to settle, and then used without filtering. The samples were inky in a])pearaiice when taken and changed but little on stand- ing. Filtration required from twenty-four to forty-eight hours and a change of filter papers, because their surfaces were soon covered with a dark slime which rendered them nearly im- pervious. The filtered water was much lighter in color than the original sample. The material removed by the filters was largely organic in its nature, since the organic solids in the filtered water were lower proportionally than the inorganic 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21^ solids wlieu compared with tlic corresponding figures for the uufiltered water. Table IV. ^ — Average Composition of Bog Waters, Mag 10-12, 1011. Organic Solids. Inorganic Solids. Unfiltered, Filtered, 63.0 38.8 48.0 34.0 The behavior of the samples in filtering, their opaqne appear- ance before it, and the lower solids compared with the results of the previous season, point toward a saturation of the water in the bogs by the soluble material in the soil. On June 2 chemical fertilizers were added to 22 of the 30 bogs, and the bogs were renumbered in pairs; lA, IB to 15 A, 15B, and each cylinder of a pair was a duplicate of the other. Table V. — Scheme for Fertilizers on Bogs, 1911. Bog Number. Nitrate Soda (Grams). Acid Phosphate (Grams). Sulfate Potash (Grams). Calcium Hydrate (Grams). lA. IB, 3.25 - - - 2A. 2B, - 13 - - 3A, 33. - - 6.5 - 4A, 4B, 3.25 13 - - 5A, 5B, 3.25 - 6.5 - 6A, 6B, - - - - 7A, 7B, - 13 6.5 - 8A, 8B, 3.25 13 6.5 - 9A, 9B, 6.50 13 6.5 - lOA, lOB, - - - - llA, IIB, - - - - 12A, 12B, 3.25 26 6 5 - 13A, 13B. 3.25 13 13.0 - 14A, 14B, - - - - 15A, 15B, 3.25 13 6.5 65 Note. — Area of bogs, Vi4.ooo of an acre. After the fertilizers were added all irrigation of the bogs was executed by adding water to the drainage cylinders instead 216 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. of to the surface of the bogs. The rainfall was scanty during the summer, and frequent additions of water were necessary to maintain the water level within 14 to IG inches of the sur- face. Beginning in the latter part of August, and continuing throughout September and October, frequent rains, some very heavy, caused copious percolation and resulted in considerable overflow from the drainage cylinders. Numerous samples were collected during this period and form the second group already mentioned. About two-thirds of these samples were analyzed after subsidence of sediment without filtration, and one-third were filtered through porcelain filter tubes under a pressure of 40 to 45 pounds per square inch. The character and appearance of the samples were like those of the jMay group. They were inky in color until filtered, and were then transparent and of varying shades of coffee color. The amount of solids was re- markably uniform and a little higher in the unfiltered water than was found in ]\lay, but much lower than the figures ob- tained the previous year. It is pretty conclusive that the peat had now become a stable bog soil, and the bog water had reached a stage of equilibrium with its soil environment. Table VI. — Organic Solids in Bog Waters, Unfiltered, 1911. [Parts in 100,000.] Bog Number. September 5. September 11. September 20. October 3. October 25. 1, . . . 75.2 - - - - 2, 84.6 - - - - 3. - - 71.6 - - 4, - - 87.2 89.2 - 5, 78.0 - 74.2 82.4 - 6, - - - - 86.4 7, - - 64.2 71.4 - 8. 80.0 79.0 . - 79 0 86.4 9, - 69.4 74.2 65.4 82.0 10, - - - 64.6 89.1 11. - 69.8 60.8 - - 12, 82.8 - - 64.8 88.6 13, - - - 82.0 92.4 H, 63.4 79.2 75.8 77.0 92.0 15. 94 2 - 85 2 92 8 97.6 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 217 Table VII. — Inorganic Solids in Bog Waters, UnfiUered, 1911. [Parts in 100,000. Bog Number. September 5. September 11. September 20. October 3. October 25. 1, 50.4 - - - - 2, 71.6 - - - - 3, - - 68.8 - - 4, - - 63.6 56.2 - 5. 61.4 - 63.8 51.6 - 6, - - - - 48.8 7, - - 58.6 48.6 - 8, 54.6 52.6 - 47.0 51.0 9, - 50.6 47.8 41.0 49.4 10, - - - 58.0 55.6 11. - 63.8 56.9 - - 12, 66.4 - - 45.8 50.8 13. - - - 43.0 51.0 14, 70.6 58.4 63.4 53.0 50.0 15, 68.6 - 66.2 54.4 65.2 Table VIII. — Organic and Inorganic Solids in Bog Waters, Filtered, 1911. [Parts in 100,000.] Organic. Inorganic. Bog Number. August 24. September 11. October 25. August 24. September 11. October 25. 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 10, 12, 13, 14. 15, 29.8 20.0 14.4 21.6 35.8 32.4 28.0 37.4 27.4 30.8 35.0 32.2 47.2 38.2 33.6 46.0 36.6 21.4 20.4 19.8 41.4 39.2 34.2 47.1 33.8 38.0 44.8 37.6 43.6 35.6 32.2 40.0 Since the primary object of the cranberry experiment is to ascertain the needs of the crop for fertilizers and the fate of 218 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. the fertilizing materials added to the soil, numerous determina- tions of tlie total nitrogen, free ammonia and nitrates were made on samples of water from the drainage cylinders between July 14 and Oct. 25, 1011. Nitrates were invariably found, but in insignificant amounts, and there was no practical differ- ence between the water from bogs treated with nitrates and from those without them. Twenty-nine samples from bogs with nitrates contained 0.0299 part of nitric nitrogen in 100,000 parts of water, while 23 samples from bogs without nitrates contained 0,0298 part in 100,000. Free ammonia was much more prominent than nitrates and formed about one-third of the total nitrogen. There was a slight difference in favor of the fertilized bogs, since 34 samples from bogs fertilized with nitrate of soda contained 1.358 parts of ammonia in 100,000 parts of water, while 21 samples from bogs receiving no nitrates con- tained 1.227 parts of ammonia in 100,000. This slight differ- ence indicates a possible denitrification and loss of nitrates in the form of ammonia. In determining total nitrogen about one-third of the samples were filtered through porcelain tubes before making the analysis. The slimy precipitate thus re- moved contained nearly two-fifths of the nitrogen present in the unfiltered waters. Forty-eight samples of unfiltered water contained 3. 290 parts of nitrogen in 100,000 parts of water, while 27 samples of filtered water contained 2.058 parts of nitrogen in 100,000 parts of water. Table IX. — Total Nitrogen in Bog Waters, Unfiltered, 1911. [Parts in 100,000.] Bog Fertilizer. Septem- Septem- Septem- October October October No. ber 5. ber 11. ber 21. 3. 9. 25. 1 Nitrate, .... 2.993 _ _ _ _ _ 2 No nitrate. 3 977 - - - - - 3 No nitrate, _ 3.485 - - - 4 Nitrate, . _ _ 4.100 3.767 - - 5 Nitrate, . 3.485 - 3.362 3.362 3.726 - 6 Nothing, - _ - - - 3.198 7 No nitrate. 2.911 2.993 2.788 3.280 - 8 Nitrate, . _ 3.034 3.157 2.952 3 485 3.378 9 Double nitrate, _ 3.034 3.034 2.911 3.378 3.075 10 Nothing, _ - 3.280 3.526 3.075 11 Nothing, - 3.017 2.788 - - 12 Nitrate, . 3.485 - - 3.280 3.526 13 Nitrate, . - - - 3.198 3.485 3 321 14 Nothing, 3.280 3.157 3.362 3.485 3.567 3.034 15 Nitrate, . 3 977 " 3.936 3.854 " 3.485 Average nitrogen in 27 samples from nitrate bogs, 3.399 parts. Average nitrogen in 18 samples from no nitrate bogs, 3.233 parts. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 219 Table X. — Total Nitrogen in Bog Waters, Filtered, 1911. (Parts in 100,000.) Bog Number. August 9. August 14. August 24. September 11. October 25. 1 - - - 2.583 - 4, - 1.312 - - - 5, - 1.476 1.722 - - 6, - - - 2.173 7, - 0.820 1.107 - - 8. - - 2.419 2.419 2.337 9, - - - 2.337 2.419 10, - - 1.148 - 2.173 11. - 0.984 - - = 12, 2.337 - 2.720 - - 13, 2.173 - - - 2.337 14, 2.378 - 2.214 2.706 2.173 15, 2.665 - 2.829 - 2.747 In 1910 total nitrogen was determined in the waters from all the bogs on September 12, at the time of maximum total solids. The 29 samples of that date averaged 3.260 parts nitrogen in 100,000 parts of water, or practically like the average for 1911 in the unfiltered water. A few determinations of phosphoric acid and potash were made in 1911 in the unfiltered waters. Samples were taken from bogs receiving fertilizers and from those without. The results were too nearly alike to justify any statements about the two groups, and only averages will be used to show the com- position of the bog water. Eighteen samples representing 7 pairs of bogs contained an average of 1.772 parts of phosphoric acid in 100,000 parts of water. Sixteen samples representing 6 pairs of bogs contained an average of 5.15 parts of potash in 100,000 parts of water. A few analyses of filtered samples showed that the potassium compounds in the water were com- pletely soluble and passed through the filters with the water; but practically all the phosphoric acid in the imfiltered water was removed by the filter with the slime. Since the slime when burned showed marked evidence of iron in the residue, it is probable that any phosphoric acid which dissolves in the bog 220 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. water soon becomes iron phosphate, which is well known as a highly gelatinous precipitate when formed in dilute solutions. Summarizing the composition of the bog water from the analyses of September and October, 1911, we have the following figures as the average composition of the water standing in contact with the peat in a saturated condition. Table XI. — Average Composition of Bog Water. [Parts in 100,000.1 Unfiltered. Filtered. Organic matter, Inorganic matter, . Total nitrogen, Free ammonia. Nitrogen in nitrates. Phosphoric acid, Potash, 79.2400 55.6500 3.2960 1.4500' 0.0417> 1.7720 5.1500 31.8600 35.3600 2.0580 1.4500 0 0417 Traces. 5.1500 This preliminary study does not throw much light on the problem of fertilizing cranberry bogs. It points, however, to certain conditions worthy of consideration in the use of ferti- lizers. The cranberry crop does not draw heavily on the soil. Its period of growth is, however, comparatively short, especially if the flood water is retained late, and its soil volume is rela- tively small when the water level is maintained near the surface. Bog conditions do not favor nitrification and oxidation on ac- count of the saturated soil and low temperature, hence the bog water is low in active fertilizing constituents, especially in nitrates. Therefore it is probable that small amounts of soluble chemicals applied in the late spring would be effective in stimulating growth. 'Ammonia and nitrates averaged somewhat higher during this period than for the season as a whole. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 221 TYPES OF CORN SUITED TO MASSACHUSETTS CONDITIONS. BY P. H. SMITH AND J. B. LINDSEY. Introduction. Since 1903 experiments have been in progress with corn to determine, if possible, those varieties, or rather types, best suited to Massachusetts conditions. With this end in view the total yield of dry matter per acre, the digestibility, the relative proportions, and in some cases the composition, of the various parts of the plant (stalk, leaf, ear and husk), and the relation of the stage of development to the relative proportion of differ- ent parts as affecting the food value have been carefully studied. Soil, Cultivation, Size of Plots, Fertilizers used. With the exception of the Eureka and Pride of the North, varieties tested in 1904, the corn was grown upon one-twentieth acre plots (30 by 73 feet), rows running east and west. The soil consisted of a light sandy loam such as might be considered satisfactory corn land. Each plot was liberally and uniformly fertilized. 1906. — Varieties : Learning and Pride of the North. Fertilizers used per acre : — 200 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 100 pounds potash. 300 pounds acid phosphate, equivalent to about 45 pounds available phosphoric acid. 200 pounds nitrate of soda, equivalent to about 30 pounds nitrogen. 200 pounds dry ground fish, equivalent to about 16 pounds organic nitrogen. The corn planted in 1906 produced an exceptionally fine crop. This was evidently due to very favorable weather con- 222 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ditions. The yield may also have been favored to some extent by the growth of medium green soy beans on the same plots the preceding year. 1907. — Varieties: Learning and Pride of the North. Fertilizers used per acre : — 200 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 100 pounds potash. 500 pounds phosphatic slag, equivalent to about 75 pounds available phosphoric acid. 200 pounds nitrate of soda, equivalent to about 30 pounds nitrogen. 300 pounds di'y ground fish, equivalent to 24 pounds organic nitrogen. 1908. — Varieties: Sanford, Longfellow, Rustler, Early Mastodon, Klondike, Red Cob Silage and White Cap Yellow. Fertilizers used per acre : — 300 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 150 pounds potash. 500 pounds acid phosphate, equivalent to about 75 pounds available phosphoric acid. 200 pounds nitrate of soda, equivalent to about 30 pounds nitrogen. 500 pounds di'y ground fish, equivalent to about 40 pounds organic nitrogen. 1909. — Varieties: TwitchelVs, Rustler, Brewer's, Early Mastodon, White Cap Yellow, Wing's Improved White Cap. Fertilizers used per acre : — 300 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 150 pounds potash. 700 pounds acid phosphate, equivalent to about 105 joounds available phosphoric acid. 200 pounds nitrate of soda, equivalent to about 30 jiounds nitrogen. 500 pounds dry ground fish, equivalent to about 40 pounds organic nitrogen. 1910. — Varieties : Rustler, Brewer's, Longfellow, Eureka. Fertilizers used per acre : — 300 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 150 pounds potash. 700 pounds acid phosphate, equivalent to about 105 pounds available phosphoric acid. 200 pounds nitrate of soda, equivalent to about 30 pounds nitrogen. 500 pounds di'y ground fish, equivalent to about 40 pounds organic nitrogen. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 223 A larger amount of fertilizer was added during the last few years of the experiment in order to insure the maximum de- velopment of the crop. The yield of corn when planted on the same land for several successive years is likely to decrease, and it was thought that the additional amount of plant food applied would in a measure check this probable shrinkage. The chemicals were mixed, sown broadcast and harrowed in just before the corn was planted. While the application of commercial fertilizer was liberal, it is believed that larger yields might have been secured, in some cases at least, if more organic matter had been added to the soil either through the medium of barnyard manure or as a cover crop to be ploughed under in the spring. The Pride of the Xorth and Eureka corn grown in 1904 were not planted on the twentieth-acre plots, but were grown on one-half acre plots in an adjoining field. It was fertilized with cow manure at the rate of six cords to the acre and the land well fitted. In this case the rows ran north and south and the corn was sown in drills and thinned to one plant to the foot at the time of hoeing. The corn gro^vn on one-twentieth acre plots was planted in hills 31A by Sl/o feet, and thinned to four plants at the time of hoeing. It was seeded May 20-25 and harvested September 15, which is about as late as it is advisable to allow corn to stand and be safe from frosts. Description of Varieties. TiuitclielVs. — A small growing yellow flint bred in Maine. On account of its early maturing qualities (with us in the vicinity of August 20) it may be grown as far north as corn culture can be considered profitable. It has a short stalk of small diameter and a good-sized ear, in some cases two ears being noted on each stalk. It cannot be considered well suited for forage or silage where larger varieties will mature. Sanford ^Yllite. — A white flint corn, quite like Longfellow in general appearance, size of plant and time of ripening. Longfellow. — An old established yellow flint variety ex- tensively grown in Massachusetts. It is one of the best of the yellow flint varieties. 224 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Pride of the Xorth. — One of the earliest and apparently most satisfactory yellow dent varieties for Massachusetts. It does not usually make as large a growth as the Leaming, but in an average season will reach maturity. Bustler Minnesota Dent. — A white dent corn believed to have been first raised in Massachusetts, on the Agricultural College farm, from seed procured in Minnesota. It has given uniformly good results and can be considered a satisfactory dent variety in spite of the fact that the ears do not usually develop well at the tip. It is believed that this corn can be greatly improved by careful breeding. ' Leaming. — Yellow dent. Somewhat like the Pride of the Xorth, but makes a larger growth and matures a little later. It is extensively grown for silage in Massachusetts, and, unless the season is unusually backward, will mature sufficiently for this purpose. Brewer s. — Yellow dent. This is believed to be a western dent variety improved by IST. H. Brewer of Hockanum, Conn. Mr. Brewer has raised enormous crops by following an inten- sive system of fertilization and cultivation. We have not been successful in ripening it on the station farm. At the time of cutting (September 15) the ears were hardly in milk, and consequently not suitable to harvest for grain. It evidently needs a somewhat longer growing season than is usually ex- perienced in the vicinity of Amherst. Early Mastodon. — Yellow dent. Bred by C. S. Clark of Ohio. A large growing variety evidently rather too late for grain in Massachusetts. Klondihe. — Yellow dent. Quite like the Early Mastodon in appearance, but noticeably later and unsuited to New England conditions. Red Cob Silage. — White dent. Medium late. . White Cap Yellow Dent. — Resembles Leaming in size, but matures rather later. Fairly satisfactory for silage. Wi7ig's Improved White Cap. — Originated by J. E. Wing of Ohio. Some of the stalks bore two ears. It would probably form a very satisfactory variety in the middle western States, but the season is not sufficiently long to enable it to reach matu- rity in New England. 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 225 Eureka White Dent. — A large growing southern variety. It reaches a height of some 13 or more feet and has very coarse stalks. It has never matured in Amherst. The ears set very high on the stalk and the kernels are forming by September 15. Yield Per Acre of Entire Corn Plant {Pounds). Year. Variety. Condition. Total Yield. Dry Matter. 1909 1908 1908 1910 1904 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1906 1907 1909 1910 1908 1909 1908 1908 1908 1909 1909 1904 1910 Twitchell'a, Sanford White, . Longfellow, Longfellow, Pride of the North, Pride of the North, Pride of the North, Rustler, Rustler, Rustler, Learning, Learning, Brewer's, Brewer's, Early Mastodon, Early Mastodon, Klondike, . Red Cob Silage, . White Cap Yellow, White Cap Yellow, Wing's Improved White Eureka, Eureka, Cap Mature, Mature Mature Mature Fairly ripe, kernels glazing, . Mature, ...... In milk, not quite ripe. Mature Mature Mature Mature In milk, not quite ripe. In milk, green, . . . . In milk, green, . . . . In milk to dent stage, green. In milk to dent stage, green. Green and poorly eared. In milk to dent stage, green. In milk to dent stage, green. In milk to dent stage, green. In milk, green, . . . . Immature, kernels scarcely formed. Immature, ears just forming. 13,800 28,400 34,960 25,400 27,800 42,600 28,500 23,067 27,100 22,400 51,560 28,200 35,100 28,100 39,320 36,220 37,340 43,500 35,300 24,900 28,300 40,800 43,800 4,236 8,148 8,981 6,480 6,253 11,064 5,141 7,843 5,328 6,772 12,307 5,144 6,286 7,226 9,488 6,436 9,069 11,210 11,038 5.784 5,671 6,671 9,044 The preceding table shows the total yield per acre as cut and also the total yield of dry matter. The entire crop for each one-twentieth acre plot was cut and immediately hauled to the barn and weighed. The dry matter was determined by taking a representative sample at the time of harvesting, running it through a cutter, subsampling, placing the subsample in a glass- stoppered jar and drying at 100° C. Twitchell's corn was well matured in spite of the unfa- vorable season, and although the 4,236 pounds of dry matter 226 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. were much less than for any of the other varieties, it probably represented a fair average yield of its kind. The yields of Longfellow and Sanford, both grown in favor- able seasons, may be considered normal in amount. The season of 1908 was rather better than 1910, which would probably account for the larger yield of Longfellow corn in the former year. Pride of the North was grown during three seasons. The seasons of 1904 and 1907 were both unfavorable, while 1906 was especially satisfactory, and in this year it yielded approxi- mately twice as much dry matter as was secured in the average crop of the other two seasons. Rustler, also grown for three seasons, showed a reasonably uniform dry matter content with the highest yield in the more favorable season (1908). Learning, grown in a favorable and unfavorable season, yielded over twice as much dry matter in the favorable year. Brewer's dent, which evidently needs a longer growing season for its maturity than the average in Massachusetts, did not show a very decided variation between the two years. Early Mastodon and White Cap Yellow, both grown in 1908 and 1909, showed the larger yields in 1908, the more favorable year. Klondike and Red Cob Silage were both grown in 1908, a favorable year. Neither ripened satisfactorily, but showed good yields of dry matter. The former was noticeably immature when harvested. Wing's Improved White Cap — grown in 1909, a poor corn year — did not yield well, and evidently needs a longer grow- ing season. Eureka, grown in 1909 and 1910, showed the better yield in 1910. In neither case was the corn well matured, nor did it show a larger yield of dry matter than some of the smaller varieties that showed a very much larger percentage of mature ears. The total yield of dry matter, rather than the green material, gives a much better indication of the value of the crop for feed- ing purposes. A green, immature crop will often furnish a large apparent yield, but it contains an excessive amount of 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 227 water. This fact is especially evidenced by the Eureka and Klondike which, while they gave high yields of green material, did not show the highest production of dry matter. Morrow/ as a result of four years' observations, states that in no year was there more than half the total amount of dry matter when the plant had reached its full height, and not more than 75 per cent, of the maximum when the ears were in dough stage. Ladd,- as a result of a two years' experiment, found the greatest weight of green fodder to be between the period of full silking and milky stage of kernel, and that while the total weight diminished after this date the total dry matter increased. Our own results, corroborated by those of other investigators, indi- cate that such varieties as tiie Twitchell, Sanford, Longfellow, Pride of the jSTorth (in one case) and Rustler can be consid- ered as having reached a maximum weight in dry matter under the conditions in which they were grown. The remaining varie- ties, with the exception of the Eureka, would surely have in- creased in dry matter and decreased in total weight had their growing season been longer, while the Eureka would probably have increased in both total weight and dry matter. On account of their high water content and less mature condition the last 8 varieties in the preceding table cannot be considered as valua- ble pound for pound as the more mature types. Ejfect of Season on Yield. The following data, taken from the Massachusetts Crop Re- port, will show the weather conditions for the years during which the corn was grown : — 1904:. Season, as a whole, cool and dry which made corn unusually late and poorly ripened. 1906. Season, as a whole, warm, especially in July and August. Good rainfall in June and July, hot and humid weather in August, with warm, dry weather the first part of September. The weather conditions were very favorable for corn and the crop ripened exceedingly well. 1907. Season, as a whole, hot and dry. August being the hottest month for thirty-six years. A late spring, together with succeeding dry weather, Iwndered the development of the crop which was below normal. ' Bui. No. 25, 111. Exp. Sta., p. 200. « Eighth Ann. Kept., N. Y. Exp. Sta., p. 90. 228 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1908. Season variable, with high temperature and rainfall at oppor- tune times. July hot with little rain till the last part. August cool with plenty of rain. The early jsart of Septem- ber dry and warm which hastened the development of the crop that was exceptionally good. 1909. Season, as a whole, dry and cool. The crop germinated well, but the growth was checked by drought and cool weather to such an extent that in many cases the ears did not ripen in spite of no killing frosts until late. 1910. Season, as a whole, hot and dry. Rain at such times as to greatly benefit crop, which was above normal and well matured. The most striking feature brought out by the preceding table is the extreme variation in yield, not only between different varieties, but between the same varieties grown in different years. This point is well illustrated by Pride of the North, grown in 1904, 1906 and 1907, the yield being a third more for 1906, a very favorable corn year. Morrow ^ found this to be the case in experiments conducted in Illinois, and states that the rain and heat were more influential on the rate of growth than the difference in the variety of corn. It is believed that the total yield of dry matter can be affected by climatic condi- tions in two ways: a lack of rain at critical periods may cause the corn to ripen before it has obtained its maximum growth, while a cold, wet season will retard the growth of the crop so that it does not reach maturity in the growing season. The data in the above table make especially clear that : — 1. The small varieties as represented by the Twitchell, be- cause of the relatively low yield of total dry matter, are not economical for Massachusetts conditions. 2. The flint varieties, such as Longfellow and Sanford and the medium dents — Rustler and Pride of the North — are quite well suited for grain and also serve fairly well for silage. "^ 3. The larger medium dents — including the Leaming, White Cap Yellow, Red Cob and Early Mastodon — give a very good yi^ld of dry matter, and in average season bring their ears to the milk stage. All conditions considered, these varieties are rather preferable for silage purposes. 4. The coarse, late maturing varieties as represented by the ' Bui. No. 31, 111. Exp. Sta., p. 363. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 229 Klondike, Wing's Improved, Brewer's, and particularly the Eureka, while yielding a fair average amount of dry matter are not satisfactory because of their failure to mature; the resulting silage has been repeatedly shown by other observers as being watery, sour and of less nutritive value. 5. The season has a marked influence upon the yield of the corn crop, the same variety of corn under otherwise identical conditions yielding from 50 to 100 per cent, more in a year particularly favorable to its growth. Composition of Different Varieties of Corn Fodder {Entire Plant) {Per Cent.). [As harvested.] Num- Nitro- ber of Analy- Variety. Water. Protein. Fat. gen-free Ex- Fiber. Ash. ses. tract. 1 TwitcheU's, .... 69.11 3.03 .94 20.21 5.34 1.37 1 Sanford White, 71.31 1.97 .75 19.03 5.78 1,16 1 Longfellow, . 74.31 2.30 .60 16.38 5.03 1,38 6 Pride of the North, 75.33 2.02 .60 15.74 5,18 1,13 3 Rustler, 71.62 2.17 .68 18.36 5,94 1.23 4 Learning, 76.85 1.77 .47 14.21 5.60 1.10 2 Brewer's, 81.35 1.82 .27 10.90 4,72 ,94 3 Early Mastodon, . 77.77 1.86 .41 13.77 5.14 1.05 1 Klondike, 75.71 1.31 .42 14.09 6,98 1.49 1 Red Cob Silage, . 74.23 1.58 .40 15.69 6.93 1.17 2 White Cap Yellow Dent, 72.75 2.17 .50 17.38 6.02 1.18 2 Wing's Improved White Cap, 80.39 1.72 .32 12.06 4.53 .98 1 Eureka, .... 82,58 1.63 .27 9.26 4.78 1,08 Composition of Different Varieties of Corn Fodder {Entire Plant) {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.] Num- Nitrogen- Analy- ses. Variety. Protein. Fat. free Extract. Fiber. Ash. 1 TwitcheU's, . . . . 9.82 3.05 65.43 17.28 4.42 1 Sanford White, . 6.85 2.61 66,36 20.13 4.05 1 Longfellow, . 8.96 2,34 63,77 19.56 5.37 6 Pride of the North, 8.18 2.43 63,08 21.01 4,58 3 Rustler, 7.66 2.39 64,68 20,94 4.33 4 Learning, 7.63 2.01 61,40 24.19 4.77 2 Brewer's, 9.75 1.43 58.43 25.33 5,06 3 Early Mastodon, . 8.37 1.85 61,97 23,10 4.71 1 Klondike, 5.43 1.72 57.99 28.74 6.14 1 Red Cob Silage, . 6.12 1.57 60,87 26.90 4.54 2 White Cap Yellow Dent, 7.98 1.83 63.78 22.10 4.33 2 Wing's Improved White Cap, 8.75 1.65 61.48 23.10 5.02 1 Eureka, 9.34 1.54 55.52 27.41 6.19 The varieties of corn given in the preceding tabulation can be divided into four different groups according to their period of ripening. 1. Mature (dents and flints) : TwitcheU's, Sanford White, Longfellow, Pride of the ISTorth and Rustler. 230 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 2. Medium mature (coarse dents) : Leaming, Early Masto- don, Red Cob Silage and White Cap Yellow Dent. 3. Immature (very coarse dent) : Brewer's, Klondike and Wing's Improved White Cap. 4. Very immature (very coarse dent) : Eureka. The average water content of the four groups was as fol- lows : — Per Cent. Mature, 74.34 Medium mature, 75.40 Immature, 79,15 Very immatui'e, .......... 82.58 While there is a gradual diminution in the water content from the time that the ears are formed until maturity, as shown by this table, the total dry matter gradually increases to ma- turity.^ It is not believed that, owing to individual variations, con- clusions can be readily drawn relative to the chemical composi- tion of the different varieties. By averaging the four groups previously given the following results are obtained : — Dry Matter {Per Cent.). Protein. Fat. Nitrogen- free Extract. Fiber. Ash. Mature, .... 8.29 2.56 64.81 19.78 4 55 Medium mature, 7.52 1.82 62 00 24.07 4 59 Immature, .... 7.97 1.60 59.30 25.72 5.41 Very immature, . 9.34 1.54 55.52 27.41 6.19 The very green, immature corn contains a larger relative percentage of protein, but more of it in the amido form.- The fat, and particularly the nitrogen-free extract matter, increase the more mature the variety. This is to be expected, for the corn is a carbohydrate plant, and stores up large amounts of starch in the latter stages of its growth. As the starch increases the percentage of fiber and ash relatively decrease. The ash is always at its highest point in the early stages of development. ■ Ladd, N. Y. Exp. Sta., Rept., 1889. ' Eighth Ann. Rept. N. Y. Exp. Sta., p. 90. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 231 The preceding facts are substantiated by the investigations of Schweitzer/ Jordan,- Ladd ^ and others. The general conclusion can be drawn that the changes in chemical composition which the plant undergoes in its develop- ment are such that its maximum feeding value exists at its ma- turity. Digestibility of the Plant. The digestibility of 7 representative varieties of the entire plant was determined with sheep. The method followed in con- ducting such experiments is illustrated and described in detail elsewhere.^ The entire data of the several experiments have been presented in previous reports; only the digestion coeffi- cients, therefore, are given in this connection. As only four sheep were available, but two duplicate digestion trials could be completed in a single season. The method of procedure was as follows : each experiment was begun about September 5th, when the sheep received their first feeding. The corn was allowed to stand in the field, sufficient being cut for only two consecutive days. The entire digestion period lasted fourteen days, the first seven of which were preliminary. The corn was cut in 2-inch pieces before being fed. Two days' feeding were weighed out in advance, and samples taken for dry-matter determinations and for complete chemical analysis. The difference between the amount and chemical composition of the fodder fed and the amount and chemical composition of the feces excreted served as a basis for computing the amount digested and utilized by the animals. ' Bui. No. 9, Mo. Exp. Sta. 5 Ann. Rept. Me. Exp. Sta., 1893. » Eighth Ann. Rept. N. Y. Exp. Sta., 1899. * Eleventh Rept. of the Maas. State Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 126-149; also 22d Rept. of the Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 84. 232 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Digestion Coefficients.^ [Per Cent. Dry Matter digested.) Condition of Crop at Time of Harvest. Digestion Coefficients. Variety Corn. 1 d s i o p .■Sw 1 Pride of the North, Pride of the North, Rustler, .... Learning Brewer's, .... Early Mastodon, . Wing's Improved White Cap, Eureka, .... Pride of the North stover, . Eureka stover. In dough to denting, . In dough to denting, . In dough to denting, . Corn in late milk. Corn in milk, Corn in milk. Corn in milk. Kernels just forming, . 71 77 69 70 72 72 70 67 54 54 63 63 43 60 69 57 63 67 45 48 76 84 76 76 68 81 70 66 64 67 77 84 78 77 77 79 76 72 54 53 65 66 59 61 69 60 65 60 60 59 34 36 28 36 46 36 39 42 31 45 A study of the above coefficients shows no wide variations in the relative digestibility of the several varieties. Naturally the larger the percentage of ear present the higher should be the digestibility of the entire plant, the grain having a much higher digestibility than the stalk. This in a general way is made clear by classifying the results according to the stage of growth. Corn that is immature and with ears partially formed may show nearly as high an absolute digestibility as a mature variety because of the soft, incompletely developed stalks. If it had been possible to determine the net available energy of each variety according to the method employed by Kellner,- those varieties having the mature ears would unquestionably have shown a much larger amount of energy than the less mature varieties. Attention may also be called to the variation in the percentage of nitrogen-free extract of the several varieties. With one ex- ception ^ the digestibility varies to a limited extent inversely ' For figures in detail see supplement. » The Scientific Feeding of Animals, pp. 48-50. > In case of Rustler Dent rather more was fed than the animals could well utilize, which ex- plains the low coefficient for this variety. 1912.1 rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 233 with the percentage of iiitrogeii-free extract, or, otherwise ex- })hiiiie(l, the hirger the ])erceiitage of extract or starchy matter present, the higher the digestibility of the corn plant. A division and tabulation of the results according to the stage of growth of the varieties gives us the following re- sults : ^ — Dry Mailer. Average Yield per Acre. Per Cent, digested. Pounds per Acre digested. Mature, Medium mature, Immature, Very immature. 7,686 8,344 6,394 7,858 5,688 5,924 4,540 5,265 It would appear from the above that the larger growing varie- ties, such as Leaming, Ived Cob, Early Mastodon and White Cap, wall produce rather more dry and digestible matter than do the medium dent or flints as typified in the Longfellow or Rustler, and the former varieties, on the whole, are to be given the preference for silage purposes. It is questionable, however, if they furnish any more final nutritive effect (net available energy) than do the varieties that will thoroughly mature by the middle of September. The jDcrcentage of dry matter di- gested, on the other hand, is in favor of the mature varieties. The extremely late varieties, such as the Eureka and Klondike, are not at all suited to ISTew England conditions. Experiments were made with a sample of Pride of the North and a sample of Eureka corn stover during the year of 1904, the two lots proving to be equally digestible. The former variety of stover contained 18.13 per cent, of water wdien sampled (December 27), and the latter contained 59.92 per cent. (Feb- ruary 29). Both samples had been stored in the barn since late autumn. When drawn from the field the former contained 37.84 per cent, and the latter 68.92 per cent, of water. The Eureka stover, because of its coarse, immature condition, re- tained the moisture to a much greater extent than did the fully matured corn. 1 Omitting coefficients for Rustler Dent from the mature varieties. 234 EXPERIMENT STATION. Proportions and Composition of Parts. (a) Proportions at Titne of Cutting (100 Pounds). [Jan. Year. Variety. Stalks. Leaves. Husks. Ears. 1909 Twitchell's 27 26 10 37 1908 Sanford White, 45 20 11 24 1908 Longfellow, 48 21 10 21 1910 Longfellow, 38 25 9 28 1901 Pride of the North, 47 20 11 22 1906 Pride of the North, 40 17 12 31 1907 Pride of the Nortli, 52 16 14 18 1908 Rustler, . 40 19 7 28 1909 Rustler, . 41 14 15 30 1910 Rustler, . 40 19 9 32 1906 Learning, . 48 19 11 22 1907 Learning, . 52 17 12 19 1909 Brewer's, . 51 17 13 19 1910 Brewer's, . 53 17 10 20 1908 Early Mastodon, 52 19 9 20 1909 Early Mastodon, 50 13 12 20 1908 Klondike, 62 19 9 10 1903 Red Cob Silage, 53 17 12 18 1908 White Cap Yellow, . 46 19 11 24 1909 White Cap Yellow, . 50 16 12 22 1909 Wing's Improved White ( 3ap, 52 19 10 19 1901 Eureka, . 64 22 7 7 1910 Eureka, . 62 21 7 10 (b) Proportions in Dry Matter (100 Pounds). Year. Variety. Stalks. Leaves. Husks. Ears. 1909 Twitchell's 15 21 9 55 1908 Sanford White, 35 20 10 35 1908 Longfellow, 34 18 9 39 1910 Jjongfellow, 23 21 7 49 1901 Pride of the North, 37 18 9 36 1906 Pride of the North, 28 14 9 49 1907 Pride of the North, 50 19 U 20 1908 Rustler, . 33 19 7 41 1909 Rustler, . 32 13 12 43 1910 Rustler, . 30 17 8 45 1906 Learning, . 41 19 9 31 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 235 (h) Proportions in Dry Mailer (100 Pounds) ■ — •Coucludod. Year. Variety. ftalks. Leaves. Hu.sks. Ears. 1907 LoamiiiK, ...... 48 20 10 22 1909 Brewer's, 51 20 12 17 1910 Brewer's 47 20 10 23 1908 Early Mastodon, .... 44 19 9 28 1903 Early Mastodon, .... 47 21 11 21 1908 Klondike, 59 22 7 12 1908 Red Cob Silage 50 19 11 20 190S White Cap Yellow, .... 38 19 10 33 1909 White Cap Yellow, .... 47 19 11 23 1909 Wing's Improved White Cap, 52 23 9 16 1904 Eureka, 63 25 6 6 1910 Eureka, ...... 59 28 6 6 Average, 42 20 9 29 Condition of Crop tvhen cut and Character of Season. 1901. Poor Corn Year. — Varieties groAVU : Pride of the North and Eureka. In spite of the unfavorable season, Pride of the North was fairly ripe when cut and contained a fair joropor- tion of ear. The Eureka was quite immature, with eai's just forming. 190S. An E.Tceplionallij Favorable Corn Year. — Varieties grown: Pride of the North and Learning. Both matured, gave a large totcl yield and showed a noticeably large i^roportion of ears. 1907. Poor Corn Year. — Varieties grown: Pride of the North and Leaming. Neither variety did as well as in 1906 and the proportion of ear was much less. 1908. Satisfactory Corn Year. — Varieties grown : Sanford White, Longfellow, Eustler, Early Mastodon, Klondike, Red Cob Silage and White Cap Yellow. Of these the first three were fully developed when cut, and showed a larger development of ear than did the last four, which wei'e in the milk-to- denting stage. V\"liite Cap Yellow was the best developed of the last-named varieties, and showed a fair proportion of ear. 1909. Poor Corn Year. — Varieties grown: Twitchell's, Rustler, Brewer's, Early Mastodon, White Cap Yellow, Wing's Im- proved White Cap. The first two varieties matured. The Twitchell. a very small vai'iety, has a short stalk with a long ear setting Ifw on the stalk. It showed th.e lai-gest propor- tion of ear of any variety raised. The last three varieties were in milk when cut. 23G EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. 11)10. Facorable Corn Year. — Varieties: Longfelldw, Kustlor, Brew- er's, Eureka. The first two varieties were mature wlieu cut. Ihc'wer's was in niilk and the ears just forming on the Eureka. It will be observed that iu many cases the propcn-tiun of the several parts differ in the green stage and on the dry-matter basis. Thus Twitchell's shows 27 per cent, of stalk when cut and only 15 per cent, when all of the water is eliminated. San- ford White shows 24 per cent, of ears when cut and 35 per cent, in dry matter. The remarks which follow refer to the proportions of the parts on the basis of dry material. In general it may be said that there is a wide difference between the proportion of stalks and ears ; the diffference between the leaves and husks is less marked. A decided difference is noted between the same variety grown in dijferent years. This variation is evidently due, to some extent, to the stage of maturity of the plant when cut and also to unfavorable conditions, which checked the development of the ear. The stalks and ears form practically 70 per cent, of the dry matter of the plant. The leaves and hiisJcs 30 per cent. From the data at hand the inference can be drawn that this is an inherent characteristic of the maize plant. While other in- vestigators ^ have determined the relative proportions of the plant, it is believed that this fact has not before been noticed. Those coarse varieties maturing late naturally have less ear and a correspondingly larger proportion of stalk. Xote the mature varieties, including the Longfellow with an average of 28 per cent, of stalk and 44 per cent, of ears ; the Pride of the North with an average of 38 per cent, of stalk and 35 per cent, of ears; the Rustler with 32 per cent, of stalk and 35 per cent, of ears, against the later maturing varieties, such as the BrcAver's with 49 per cent, of stalk and 19 per cent, of ears ; the Learning with 44 per cent, of stalk and 20 per cent, of ears; and finally tlic Eureka with 61 per cent, of stalk and 6 ]ier cent, of ears. On the whole, the proportion of leaves and husks does not vary widely in any of the varieties, averaging 20 per cent, for the leaves and 0 \)or cent, for the husks. The Eureka shows rather ' Schweitzer, Bui. No. 9, Mo. Exp. Sta., Caldwell, Bui. Nos. 7-11; Kept, of 1890, pp. 30-43, Pa. Exp. Sta.; Bui. No. 21, Iowa Exp. Sta. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 237 more loaf and eorros])onfliiigl_v loss husk than tlic other varie- tios; in fact, this varioty as cut was largely stalk and leaf. The following general conclusions can be drawn : — 1. The stalks and ears form substantially 70 per cent, of the entire maize plant. 2. The small, early maturing varieties of which the Twitch- ell is a type sho\v an exceptionally large proj)ortion of ears. 3. The mature medium varieties average 33 per cent, of stalk and 37 per cent, of cars. 4. The coarser, less mature varieties show 45 per cent, of stalk and 26 per cent, of ears. 5. The very coarse, immature varieties (excepting Eureka) show 52 per cent, of stalks and 17 per cent, of ears. G. Most of the varieties have in the vicinity of 20 per cent, of leaves and 10 per cent, of husks. The above conclusions are for corn grown in Massachusetts and cut about September 15. These conclusions might not hold, especially for the larger immature varieties, had they been ripe at the time of cutting. Average Composition of Parts {Per Cent.). Variety. Water. Dry Matter. ber of Analy- ses. Protein. Fat. Nitro- gen-free Ex- Fiber. Ash. tract. Stalks. 2 Pride of the North, . 79.84 4 04 .89 56.52 32.91 5.04 2 Learning, .... 80.97 3.91 .94 .58.94 31 50 4 65 1 Eureka Leaves. 83.08 4.80 1.07 52.94 35.77 5.42 2 Pride of the North, . 70.28 13 99 3.39 48.89 24,00 9.07 2 Learning, .... 70.53 13.05 3.03 48.89 25.16 9.27 1 Eureka Husks. 81.17 14.53 2.43 45.03 28.43 8.98 2 Pride of the North, . 77.49 5.14 1.30 62.23 27.98 3 29 2 Learning, .... 81.87 0.77 1 50 01.69 20.74 3 30 1 Eureka, .... Ears. 85.35 8.00 1.40 02.22 24.04 3.02 2 Pride of the North, . 50.54 9.53 3.73 75 50 9.40 1.78 2 Learning, .... 71.77 9.50 2.90 71.48 13.82 2.24 1 Eureka 86 91 12.00 1.44 03.84 19.47 3.25 238 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. While the analyses are not sufficient in nnmber to enable one to draw any positive conclusions, attention may be called to a few of the more striking facts. Stalks. — A com])aratively low percentage of both protein and fat is noted in the stalks of all the several kinds. The pro- portion of extract matter is lowest in the Eureka and the fiber percentage the highest. Leaves. — The protein percentage is highest in the leaves. ISIaturally, the fiber percentage is less in the leaves than in the stalks, while the percentage of ash is noticeal)ly high and quite constant for the three types. The leaves of the three varieties analyzed resemble each other quite closely in the proportion of all of the several groups of constituents. Husks. — The one noticeable difference in the case of the husks of the several varieties consists in the low protein con- tent in the Pride of the ISTorth and the high protein content of the Eureka. This is, of course, due to the fact that the ears of the latter were in the formative stage, while those of the former had matured and the protein had entered into the kernel. The fiber content of the Pride of the North was some- what higher than that contained in the Eureka, which is ex- plained on similar grounds. Ears. — The composition of the ears of the three varieties indicate a very immature condition on the part of the Eureka, — high protein and fiber and low carbohydrates and fat, — and a reasonably mature condition of the ears yielded by the Pride of the North and Teaming. ReI.ATIVE PROrORTIONS OF GrAIN AJN^D COB. Ten representative ears of corn were selected at the time of husking from the crops of 1908 and 1909 and preserved for analysis. The corn and cob were weighed separately at the time "of shelling, dry-matter determinations made, and percent- age of cob and kernel determined. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 239 Weights of Ten Average Ears with Proportion of Kernel and Cob in Dry Matter. Condition when cut. Dry Matter (Pounds). Dry M.^tter (Per Cent.). 10 Ears. Kernel. Cob. Kernel. Cob. Twitchell's, .... Mature. 3.37 2.93 .44 86.9 13.1 Sanford White, Mature. 3.37 2.65 .72 78.6 21.4 Longfellow, . . . . Mature. 3.53 2.95 .58 83.6 16.4 Rustler, .... Mature. 4.71 4.08 .63 86.6 13.4 Rustler, Mature. 4.87 4.23 .64 86.9 13.1 Average, 3.97 3.37 .60 84.5 15.5 Brewer's, . . . . In milk. 4.29 3.57 .72 83.2 16.8 Early Mastodon, . In milk. 4.05 3.37 .68 83.2 16.8 Early Mastodon, . In milk. 5.48 4.55 .93 83.0 17.0 Klondike, . . . . In milk. 3. GO 2.66 .94 73 9 26.1 Red Cob Silage, . In milk. 4.37 3 59 .78 82.2 17.8 White Cap Yellow, In milk. 3.70 3.12 .58 84.3 15.7 White Cap Yellow, In milk. 3.71 3.11 .60 83.8 16.2 Wing's Improved White Cap, In milk. 4.14 3.39 .75 81.9 18.1 Average, 4.17 3.42 .75 81.9 18.1 Wide variations were noted depending upon stage of ripe- ness. The Twitchell, a long eared and early maturing flint, showed the smallest percentage of cob (13.1), and the Klon- dike, a quite immature dent, the largest amount of cob (26.1). The average of the several mature types was 15.5 per cent, cob, and 84.5 per cent, kernel, while the average for the less mature varieties was 18.1. for cob and 81.9 for kernel. If the less mature varieties had been gro^^^I in a climate favorable to their complete maturity, it is probalile that they would have shown equally as favorable a proportion of cob and kernel. The weight of the ]\Iassachusetts legal bushel in case of shelled corn is 50 pounds, and for a bushel of ears 70 pounds. This allows 14 pounds, or 20 per cent., for the cob. With l)ut two exceptions the samples tested contained less than 20 per cent, cob in dry matter. iVssuming that the standard of 70 pounds per bushel for corn was based upon the average of a large number of trials, is it not possible that the corn crop has 240 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. beeu improved since the time that such a standard was adopted, and that corn is now being grown that contains rehitively less cob and more kernel than formerly ? The results of these trials are substantiated by work done l)v the author in connection with corn grown for the Bowker prize in 1010. The proportions of corn and cob in dry matter in 10 representative ears of 9 varieties were determined with the following results : — 1. Flint, 2. Flint, 3. Flint, 4. Flint, 5. Flint, 6. Flint, Average, 7. Dent, 8. Dent, 9. Dent, Average, Composition of Grain and Cob. During the seasons of 1908 and 1900 samples of corn kernels were analyzed with the following results : — Analyses of Grain {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.] Year. Variety. Condition. a a o ^ s 4) J3 £ fe IS fe <; CO 1909 Twitchell's, . . . . Mature. 11.30 5.12 80.49 1.58 1.51 67.54 1908 Sanford White, Mature. 10.92 5.22 80.83 1.53 1.50 71.35 1908 Longfellow, . Mature. 10.80 5.46 80.72 1.43 1.59 70.86 1908 Rustler, Mature. 9.55 4.44 82.79 1.77 1.45 72.84 1909 Rustler, Mature. 9.56 4.55 82.33 1.41 1.52 70.00 1909 Brewer'a, In milk. 9.64 3 97 81.99 2.70 1.70 67.27 1908 Early Mastodon, . In milk. 9.22 4.62 82 29 2.33 1.54 72.98 19U9 Early Mastodon, . In milk. 9.69 4.36 82.06 2.21 1.68 68.39 1908 Klondike, In milk. 10.81 4.40 80.73 2.27 1.79 71.48 1908 Rod Cob Silasje, . In milk. 10.69 3.61 81.80 2.33 1.57 72.70 1908 White Cap Yellow, In milk. 10 30 3 93 82.13 2 09 1.55 73.13 1909 White Cap Yellow, In milk. 9.06 4.42 82.77 2.24 1.51 69.16 1909 Wing's Improved White Cap, In milk. 10.21 4.35 81.18 2.52 1,74 67.90 A study of the analytical results shows very slight varia- tions in composition. The protein of the first varieties is 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 241 rather in excess of the Rustler Dent. The protein of the coarse, less mature dents would probably have been somewhat less had they been more completely matured. The fiber per- centage is noticeably less in the mature lots, 1.54 as against 2.34 for the immature types. A high fiber is believed to be character- istic of immature corn. The percentages of starch are remark- ably uniform. While corn has been bred in an experimental way which bore decidedly diiferent chemical characteristics (namely, high pro- tein, high starch and high fat), such corn has not come into general use ; when, therefore, the grain is grown j^rimarily as a food for stock it is believed that the farmer can do no better than to grow the variety that wall in his experience pro- duce the largest number of bushels of mature corn per acre. This fact is borne out not only by the analyses herein reported, but also by others made by the author. Chemical composition cannot, at the present time, be considered a factor in the selec- tion of seed corn where the crop is nsed for the sustenance of live stock. An evident effect of the season upon the starch content is shown in the case of Rustler, Early Mastodon and AYhite Cap Yellow, ail grown in two successive years. In each case the starch content was slightly lower for 1909, an unfavorable year. Analysis of Corn Cob (Per Cent.). IDry Matter.] Nitro- Year. V.4.RIETY. Condition. Pro- tein. Fat. gen-free Ex- tract. Fiber. Ash. 1908 Sanford White, Mature. 1.97 .27 58.21 38.01 1.54 1908 Longfellow, Mature. 1.98 .30 59.11 36.91 1.70 1908 Rustler, .... Mature. 1.70 .44 62 15 34.12 1.59 1908 Early Mastodon, In milk. 1.84 .32 60.79 35.49 1.56 1908 Klondike, In milk. 2.21 .38 61.80 33.86 1.75 1908 Red Cob Silage, In milk. 2.09 .38 60.07 35.75 1.75 1908 White Cap Yellow Dent, Average, In milk. 2.17 .34 60 08 35.98 1.49 1.99 .33 60.32 35.73 1.63 The above analyses represent the product of several varieties of cob produced during the sea.son of 1908. One notes com- 242 EXrEKLMEXT STATION. [Jan. paratively little variation in the composition. The cob is characterized by its very low protein and fat content and its high extract matter and fiber. It is donbtlnl if the cob from any number of different varieties would show substantial varia- tions from the figures reported above. Lindsey and Holland ^ have shown tlie cob to contain over 30 per cent, of pentosans which have a digestibility of G3 per cent., and, further,- that the total dry matter of the cob has a digestibility of 59 per cent. So far as known, further studies of the chemical character of the extract matter have not been made. It is evident that the chief feeding value of the cob is to be found in its 59 per cent, of digestible carbohydrates. On the basis of the work done by Kellner,^ the net available energy in 100 pounds of cob containing 11 per cent, water is 40.2 therms, as against 8-5.5 therms in a like amount of corn meal ; or 100 pounds of corn cob has 47 per cent, of the energy value of corn meal. The practical feeder, therefore, cannot afford to pay grain prices for the cob when used as an adulterant of wheat-mixed feed, hominy meal or the like. Its use, however, is warranted when produced upon the farm and g-round together with the kernel as a food for farm animals. Summary. Yield. — The small, early maturing types of corn are not economical for Massachusetts conditions ; the medium dent and flint varieties that will mature in the average season are quite well suited for grain, and also serve fairly well for silage. The larger medium dent varieties that in an average season bring their ears to the milk stage are, all conditions considered, rather preferable for silage purposes, while the coarse, late maturing varieties, v.-hich never ripen seed in this locality, ai'e not satisfactory because of the less net available energy pro- duced (actual food value). The season has a marked influence upon the yield of the corn crop, the same variety of corn under otherwise identical ' Fifteenth Rept. of the Hatch Exp. Sta., pp. 78-79. ' EiKhteenth Rept. of the Hatch Exp. Sta., p. 243. ' Die Ernahrung die Landw. Nutzthiere, fiinfto Auflapo, pp. 150-100, also p. fiOl. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 243 conditions yielding from 50 to 100 per cent, more in a year particularly favorable to its growth. Composition of the Corn Plant. — The general conclusion can be drawn that the changes in chemical composition which the plant undergoes in its development are such that its maxi- mum feeding value exists at its maturity. Digestibility of the Corn Plant. — Digestion experiments conducted with the entire corn plant showed no wide variation in the digestibility of the several varieties, the range being from 67 to 77 per cent. With one exception the digestibility appeared to depend upon the percentage of nitrogen-free extract. The higher the percentage of extract or starchy matter present, the higher the digestibility. Proportion and Composition of Parts. — The stalks and ears form practically 70 per cent, of the dry matter of the plant, the leaves and husks 30 per cent. Relative Proportion of Grain to Coh. — The percentage of grain to cob varies widely, depending to some extent upon the maturity of the plant when cut. The average for the several mature types was 15.5 per cent, cob and 84.5 per cent, kernel, while the average for the less mature varieties was 18.1 per cent, cob and 81.9 per cent, kernel. In either case the percent- age of cob was less than that of the Massachusetts legal bushel, which in the case of shelled corn is 56 pounds, and for ear corn 70 pounds, thus allowing 14 pounds, or 20 per cent., for cob. Composition of Grain and Coh. — • The grain analyzed showed only slight variations in composition. Chemical composition cannot at the present time be considered a factor in the selec- tion of seed corn where the crop is used for the sustenance of live stock. There appears to be very little variation in the composition of the corn cob. The net available energy in 100 pounds of cob, after the method of calculation suggested by Kellner, is 40.2 therms as against 85.5 therms in a like amount of corn meal; hence on this basis ground corn cob would have 47 per cent, of the energy value of corn meal.-^ ' The Kellner method of calculation is the best we have for making comparative estimates of relative values. 244 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF CATTLE FOODS. BY J. B. LINDSEY AND P. H. SMITH. The digestion experiments herein reported were made dur- ing the autumn, winter and early spring of 1906-07, 1908-09 and 1909-10, and form part of what are known as Series XIL, Xl\". and XV. The experiments made in these series and not here included have been published in previous reports. The usual method was employed and has been fully described elsewhere.-* The full data are here presented, with the excep- tion of the daily production of manure and the daily water consumption, in which cases, to economize space, averages only are given. The periods extended over fourteen days, the first seven of which were preliminary, collection of feces being made during the last seven. Ten grams of salt were given each sheep daily with water ad lihitum. Setjies XIL Three lots of Southdown wethers were employed and were known as Old Slieep, Young Sheep and Paige Sheep. The former were. fully seven years of age, and the latter two lots four to five yeaiis old. The hay used in connection with the several experiments consisted of fine-mixed grasses, and contained a large propor- tion of June grass. The diges4^ion coefficients of tliis hay as applied to the experiments in tliis series were obtained in 1905, and were as follows : — ■ Eleventh repwrt of the Mass. State Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 146-149; also the 22d report of the Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 84. 1912.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 245 Digestion Coefficients used in these Experiments.^ lEnglish Hay.l Old Sheep ll.aud III. Young Slieep I., 11. and 111. Paisie Sheep IV: and V. Dry matter, 07. S7 05.92 65.48 Ash 49.17 51.95 44.60 Proteiu 62.31 61.98 61.53 Fiber 76.30 72.87 73.81 Nitrogen-free extract, 06.39 64.66 64.46 Fat, 52.37 54.23 50.20 Composition of Feedstuff s {Per Cent.). (Dry Matter.] .\.sh. Protein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free Ex- tract. Fat. Pride of the North corn fodder (entire plant), 4.07 7.69 17.96 67.62 2.66 Learning corn fodder (entire plant). 4.69 7.89 22.42 62.94 2.06 English hay 6.75 12.23 33.45 44.67 2.90 Biles Union grains, 6.67 27.11 10.55 47.45 8.22 Schumacher's stock feed, .... 4.44 11.73 11.70 67.31 4.82 Protena dairy feed, 7.28 19.56 20.16 49.92 3.08 Buffalo Creamery feed, 4.68 21.87 13.58 55.32 4.55 Waste, Paige Sheep, IV., Period I., 3.77 8.70 14.28 69.92 3.33 Composition of Feces {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.] Old Sheep II. Period. Feeds. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-froe Ex- tract. Fat. I. VI. Pride of the North corn fodder, . Biles Union grains. 10.21 13.30 11.74 17.90 27.77 21.39 48.65 43.81 1.63 3.60 Old Sheep III. Learning corn fodder, 10.90 28.21 1.73 > Made in 1905. 246 EXrERLMENT STATION. [Jan. Composition of Feces {Per Cent.) — Concluded. [Dry Matter.] Young Sheep I. Period. Feeds. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Nibro- gen-free Ex- tract. Fat. VIII. XIII. Schumacher's .stock feed, . Buffalo Creamery feed, 11.58 10.07 13.62 13.59 24.06 25.17 47.40 47.01 3.34 3.56 Young Sheep II. IX. Biles Union grains, 11.32 17.33 22.28 45.71 3.36 Young Sheep III. VIII. XIII. Schumacher's stock feed, . Buffalo Creamery feed, 11.63 10.03 12.95 13.62 25.14 25.14 46.91 47.87 3.37 3.34 Paige Sheep IV. I. XII. Pride of the North corn fodder, . Protena dairy feed, 12.89 11.72 12.75 14.49 24.61 27.15 47.65 43.42 2.10 3.22 Paige Sheep V. II. XII. Leaming corn fodder, Protena dairy feed, 10.23 11.24 10.30 13.77 29.40 28.24 48.50 43.67 1.57 3.08 Dnj Matter Determinations made at the Time of weighing out the Different Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces (Per Cent.). Old Sheep II. Period. Engli.sh Hay. Pride of the North Corn Fodder. Leam- ing Corn Fodder. Schu- macher's Stock Feed. Buffalo Cream- ery Feed. Biles Union Grains. Protena Dairy Feed. Waste. Feces. I. VI. 88.20 29,50 - - - 90.91 - - 89.78 92.15 Old Sheep III. II. 24.52 Young Sheep I. VIII. XIII. S9.82 90.65 90.78 90.55 92.79 94.48 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 247 Dnj Matter Determinations made at the Time of weighing out the Different Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-diy Feces {Per Cent.) — Concluded. Young Sheep II. Period. Englisli Hay. Pride of the North Corn Fodder. Learn- ing Corn Fodder. Schu- macher's Stock Feed. Buffalo Cream- ery Feed. Biles Union Grains. Protena Dairy Feed. Waste. Feces. IX. 89.82 - - - - 92.57 - - 92.34 Young Sheep III. VIII. XIII. 89.82 - - 90.78 - - - - 90.65 - - - 90.55 - - - 92.97 94.26 Paige Sheep IV. I. - 29.50 - - - 36.26 90.19 XII. 90.45 - - - - 91.36 - 94.55 II. XII. Paige Slieep V. 90.45 - 24.52 - - - 91.36 - 90.76 94.42 Average Daily Amount of Manure excreted and Water drunk (Grams). Old Sheep II. Period. Character of Food or Ration. Manure excreted Daily. One-tenth Manure Air-dry. Water drunk Daily. I. VI. Pride of the North corn fodder, . Biles Union grains, 1,008 751 31.84 25.63 937 1,899 Old Sheep III. II. Learning corn fodder 795 28.64 893 Young Sheep I. VIII. xiir. Schumacher's stock feed Buffalo Creamery feed, 540 545 24.96 25.68 1,936 2,286 Young Sheep IT. - IX. Biles Union grains, 770 25.41 2.271 248 EXPERBIEXT STATION, Jan. Average Daily Amount of Manure excreted and Water drunk {(hams) — Concluded. Yoiins Sheep III. Period. CHAn.\CTER OF FoOD OH RaTIOM. Manure excreted Daily. One-tenth •Manure Air-dry. Water drunk Daily. VIII. XIII. Scliuinacher's stock feed, . . Buffalo Creamery feed, 528 551 25.32 25.32 2,1S5 2,179 Paige Sheep IV. I. XII. Pride of the North corn fodder, . Protena dairy feed, 613 823 20.03 26.36 1,101 1,364' Paige Sheep V. 11. XII. Learning corn fodder, Protena dairy feed, 1,143 769 29.91 27.03 1,050 1,764 Weights of Animals at Beginning and End of Period {Pounds).^ Old Sheep II. Period. Character of Food or Ration. Beginning. End. I. VI. Pride of the North corn fodder Biles Union grains, 110.0 108.5 111.0 103.5 Old Sheep III. II. Learning corn fodder, 113.5 125.5 Young Sheep I. VIII. XIII. Schumacher's -stock feed, Buffalo Creamery feed, 102.0 102.0 101.5 100.0 Young Sheep II. IX. Biles Union grains 93.5 89.0 Young Sheep III. VIII. XIII. Schumacher's stock feed, Buffalo Creamery feed, 94.5 92.0 92.5 93.0 > The weights of the sheep in several cases vary much more widely than would be expected, and it is pos.»ible that errors were made in recording them. In order to guard against this, weights for two consecutive days are now made at the beginning and end of each trial. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 249 Weights of Animals at Beginning and End of Period {Pounds) — Concluded. Paige Sheep IV. Period. Ch.^.RACTEB of FpOD OB Il.\T10N. Beginning. End. I. XII. Pride of the North corn fodder, .... Protena dairy feed 121.5 124.5 116.5 122.5 Paige Sheep V. II. XII. Learning corn fodder, Protena dairy feed 108.0 119.0 110.0 112.0 Pride of the North Corn Fodder, Period I. Old Sheep II. Q J3 < 13 '3 S Ph til 1- .■sw 3,600 grams Pride of the North corn fodder fed daily. 318.41 grams manure excreted, 1,062.00 285.87 776.13 73.08 43.22 29.19 81.67 33.56 190.74 79.39 718.12 139.08 28.25 4.66 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 14.03 32.46 48.11 58.91 111.35 58.38 579.04 80.63 23.59 83.50 Paige Sheep IV. 3,600 grams Pride of the North corn fodder fed daily. 335.4 grams waste, Amount consumed, 200.26 grams manure excreted. Grams digested, . Per cent, digested. Average per cent, for both sheep. 1,062.00 121.62 940.38 180.61 759.77 80.79 76.94 43.22 4.59 38.63 23.28 15.35 39.74 81.67 10.58 71.09 23.03 48.06 67.60 63.26 190.74 17.37 173.37 44.45 128.92 74.36 66.37 718.12 85.04 633.08 86.06 547.02 86.41 83.52 28.25 4.05 24.20 3.79 20.41 84.34 83.92 Learning Corn Fodder, Period II. Old Sheep III. 3,600 grams Learning corn fodder fed, . 882.72 41.40 69.65 197.91 555.58 18.18 286.43 grams manure excreted. 257.56 24.91 28.07 72.66 127.47 4.46 Grams digested 625.16 16.49 41.58 125.25 428.11 13.72 Per cent, digested, 70.82 39.83 59.70 63.29 77.06 75.47 250 EXPEUDIEXT STATION. [Jan. Learning Corn Fodder, Period II — Concluded. Paige Sheep V. b Q < a '3 S Oh E Co ss +» ^ 3,600 grain,s Learning corn fodder fed, . 299.08 grams manure excreted, 882.72 271.45 41.40 21. n 69.65 27.96 197.91 79.81 555.58 131.65 18.18 4.26 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 611.27 69.25 13.63 32.92 41.69 59.86 118.10 59.67 423.93 76.30 43.92 76.57 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 70.04 36.38 59.78 61.48 76.68 76.02 Biles Union Grains, Period VI. Old Sheep II. 650 grams English hay fed, . 250 grams Biles Union grains fed. Amount consumed, 256.76 grams manure excreted, Gram.s digested. Minus hay digested. Biles Union grains digested. Per cent, digested. 573.30 227.28 800.58 236.60 563.98 389.10 174.88 76.94 38.70 15.16 53.86 31.47 22.39 19.03 3.36 22.16 70.11 61.62 131.73 42.35 89.38 43.69 45.69 74.15 191.77 23.98 215.75 50.61 165.14 146.32 18.82 78.48 256.09 107.84 363.93 103.65 260.28 170.02 90.26 83.70 Biles Union Grains, Period IX. Young Sheep II. 600 grams English hay fed, . 200 grams Biles Union grains fed. 538.92 185.14 36.38 12.35 65.91 50.19 180.27 19.53 240.74 87.85 15.63 15.22 Amount consumed, 254.10 grams manure excreted. 724.06 234.86 48.73 26.59 116.10 40.70 199.80 52.33 328.59 107.35 30.85 7.89 Grams digested Minus hay digested. 489.20 355.26 22.14 18.90 75.40 40.85 147.47 131.36 221.24 155.66 22.96 8.48 Biles Union grains digested, Per cent, digested. 133.94 72.35 3.24 26.23 34.55 68.84 16.11 82.49 65.58 74.65 14.48 95.14 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 251 Schumacher's Stock Feed, Period VIII. Young Sheep I. P < .9 2 Ph O II 2; 1 550 grams English hay fed 250 grams Schumacher's stack feed fed, 494.01 226.95 33.35 10.08 60.42 26.62 165.25 26.55 220.67 152.76 14.33 10.94 Amount consumed, ■ ■ . . . 249. Gl grams manure excreted. 720.96 231.64 43.43 26.82 87.04 31.55 191.80 55.73 373.43 109.80 25.27 7.74 Grams digested, Minus hay digested, 489.32 325.65 16.61 17.33 55.49 37.45 136.07 120.42 263.63 142.69 17.53 7.77 Schumacher's stock feed dige ited, Per cent, digested, 163.07 72.12 - 18.04 67.77 15.65 58.95 120.94 79.17 9.76 89.21 Young Sheep III. Amount consumed as above, 253.20 grams manure excreted, 720.96 235.40 43.43 27.38 87.04 30.48 191.80 59.18 373.43 110.43 25.27 7.93 Grams digested, Minus hay digested, 485.56 325.65 16.05 17.33 56.56 37.45 132.62 120.42 263.00 142.69 17.34 7.77 Schumacher's stock feed digested. Per cent, digested, 159.91 70.46 - 19.11 71.79 12.20 45.95 120.31 78.76 9.57 87.48 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 71.29 - 69.78 52.45 78.97 88.35 Protena Dairy Feed, Period XII. Paige Sheep IV. 600 grams English hay fed, .... 200 grams Protena dairy feed fed, 542.70 182.72 36.63 13.30 66.37 35.74 181.53 36.84 242.42 91.21 15.74 5.63 Amount consumed 263.57 grams manure excreted, 725.42 249.21 49.93 29.21 102.11 36.11 218.37 67.66 333.63 108.21 21.37 8.02 Grams digested, Minus hay digested 476.21 355.36 20.72 16.34 66.00 40.84 150.71 133.99 16.72 45.39 225.42 156.26 13.35 7.90 Protena dairy feed digested. Per cent, digested, 120.85 66.14 4.38 32.93 25.16 70.40 69.16 75.83 5.45 96.80 252 EXPERIMEXT STATION. [Jan. Protena Dairy Feed, Period AV/ — Concluded. Paige Sheep V. m < .9 e Co Ex 2; Amount consumed as above, 270.27 grams manure excreted, 725.42 255.19 49.93 28.68 102.11 35.14 218.37 72.07 333.63 111.44 21.37 7.86 Grams digested, Minus liay digested, 470.23 355.36 21.25 16.34 66.97 40.84 146.30 133.99 222.19 156.26 13.51 7.90 Protena dairy feed digested, Per cent, digested, 114.87 62.87 4.91 36.92 26.13 73.11 12.31 33.41 65.93 72.29 5.61 99.64 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 64.51 34.93 71.76 39.40 74.06 98.22 Buffalo Creamery Feed, Period XIII. Young Sheep I. 600 grams English hay fed, .... 200 grams Buffalo Creamery feed fed, . 543.90 181.10 36.71 8.48 66.52 39.61 181.93 24.59 242.96 100.18 15.77 S.24. Amount consumed, 256.84 grams manure excreted. 725.00 242.66 45.19 24.44 106.13 32.98 206.52 61.08 343.14 115.53 24.01 8.64 Grams digested Minus hay digested, 482.34 358,54 20.75 19.07 73.15 41.23 145.44 132.57 227.61 157.10 15.37 8.55 Buffalo Creamery feed digested, . Per cent, digested, 123.80 68.36 1.68 19.81 31.92 80.59 12.87 52.34 70.51 70.38 6.82 82.77 Young Sheep III. Amount consumed as above, 253.23 grams manure excreted. 725.00 238.69 45.19 23.94 106.13 32.51 206.52 60.01 343.14 114.26 24.01 7.97 Grams digested, Minus hay digested, 486.31 358.54 21.25 19.07 73.62 41.23 146.51 132.57 228.88 157.10 16.04 8.55 Buffalo Creamery feed digested, . Per cent, digested, 127.70 70.55 2.18 25.71 32.39 81.77 13.94 56.69 71.78 71.65 7.49 90.90 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 69.46 22.76 81.18 54.52 71.02 86.84 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31, 253 Simimary of Coefficients (Per Cent.). Food. Sheep Number. i Q a o o s 1. 2 « 1 Pride of the North corn fodder, . 1 Old Sheep II., IPaige Sheep IV., . [Old Sheep III., [Paige Sheep v., [Old Sheep II., [Young Sheep II., . [ Young Sheep I., I Young Sheep III., . [ Paige Sheep IV., . 1, Paige Sheep V., f Young Sheep I., [Young Sheep III., . 73.08 80.79 32.46 39.74 58.91 67.60 58.38 74.36 80.63 86.41 83.50 84.34 Average Leainiiig corn fodder, 76.94 70.82 69.25 36.10 39.83 32.92 63.26 59.70 59.86 66.37 63.29 59.67 83.52 77.06 76.30 83.92 75.47 76.57 Average, .... Biles Union grains, 70.04 76.94 72.35 36.38 22.16 26.23 59.78 74.15 68.84 61.48 78.48 82.49 76.68 83.70 74.65 76.02 96.79 95.14 Average Schumaclier's stock feed, . 74.65 72.12 70.48 24.20 71.50 67.77 71.79 80.49 58.95 45.95 79.18 79.17 78.76 95.97 89.21 87.48 Average, .... Protena dairy feed, 71.29 66.14 62.87 32.93 36.92 69.78 70.40 73.11 52.45 45.39 33.41 78.97 75.83 72.29 88.35 96.80 99.64 Average, .... Buffalo Creamery feed. 64.51 68.36 70.55 34.93 19.81 25.71 71.76 80.59 81.77 39.40 52.34 56.69 74.06 70.38 71.65 98.22 82.77 90.90 Average, .... 69.46 22.76 81.18 54.52 71.02 86.84 Discussion of the Results. The most important results obtained from the experiments reported in the previous pages are discussed under the follow- ing headings : — Pride of the North Corn Fodder. — The fodder used was of excellent quality and exceptionally well eared. The one- twentieth acre plot on which it was grown yielded at the rate of slightly over 21 tons to the acre and contained 49 per cent, of ears in dry matter. The unusually high percentage of ears natu- rally increased the digestibility of the fodder. The corn was cut from the field every two days, the first cutting being Sep- tember 5, and the last September 19. The entire plant was finely cut before being fed, dry matter determinations being made of each single cutting. 254 EXPEimiEXT STATION. [Jan. Summary of Coefficients, Period I. {Per Cent.). Sheep. Q 1" H a a % < c o t a o . 1 Old Sheep II., 1 1 73.08 32.46 58.91 58.38 80.63 83.50 Paige Sheep IV., .... 1 1 80.79 39.74 07.60 74.30 86.41 84.34 Average, 1 2 76.94 36.10 03.20 06.37 83.52 83.92 Average of all experiments, ma- ture dent corn fodder for com- 12 23 09.00 34.00 54.00 59.00 75.00 75.00 pi^rison. Paige Sheep IV. gave higher results than did Old Sheep II., probably due in part to the fact that the former left a portion of the tougher and less digestible part. The present experiment shows in a fairly satisfactory manner the digestibility of a va- riety of dent corn that will mature in Massachusetts, and also emphasizes the fact that a fodder containing a higher percent- age of ears is noticeably more digestible than one containing relatively fewer ears and a larger percentage of stalk. Learning Corn Fodder. — The fodder used was fed at the same time and handled in the same manner as was the preceding variety. The one-twentieth acre plot yielded at the rate of 2514 tons per acre. The crop contained 31 per cent, of ears in dry matter. The stalks are rather larger than the Pride of the ISTorth, and in the average season the Teaming matures a little later. Summary of Coefficients, Period II, {Per Cent.). i. v: ic W a ni a> Sheep. OK .2 H 0 .9" p. a a b A g ^ .^'^ 4J y. m Q < P^ \^ ^ f^ Old Sheep 111.. . 1 1 70.82 39.83 59.70 63.29 77.00 75.47 Paige Sheep V., 1 1 69.25 32.92 59,86 59.67 76.30 76.57 Average, 1 2 70.04 36.38 59.78 61.48 70.68 70.02 Average all experiments, mature dent corn fodder for com pariaon. 12 23 69.00 34.00 54.00 59.00 75.00 75.00 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 255 'J'hc sluiop consumed the entire ration fed. The coefficients for both sheep agreed closely, not only with each other, but also with the average of all ex})erinients with dent fodder. The Learning is shown to be rather less digestible than the Pride of the Xorth, due to its rather coarser stalks and to its relatively less ear production. It is believed, however, that this variety of dent fodder is quite well suited for silage in Massachusetts. Biles Union Grains. — Biles Union Grains is a proprietary feed consisting principally of a mixture of distillers' dried grains and malt sprouts, together with some corn and wheat products, cottonseed meal and salt. The amount of its several com})onents is likely to vary more or less from time to time, depending upon the feeding stuffs available and their cost. This variation in composition varies its digestibility within narrow limits. It is intended, when fed with home-grown roughage, to constitute a balanced ration for dairy stock. Summary of Coefficients, Periods VI. and IX. (Per Cent.). Q M Sheep. H c3 c a 5^ e < 2 o ■§ i^ Old Sheep II 1 1 76.94 22.16 74.15 78.48 83,70 96.79 Young Sheep II., .... 1 1 72.35 26.23 68.84 82.49 74.56 95.14 Average, 1 2 74,65 24.20 71.50 80.49 79.18 95.97 The coefficients agree fairly well, although the Young Sheep IL did not appear to digest the nitrogen-free extract as well as did Old Sheep II. The feed can be considered fairly digestible. 8 chum ache r's Stock Feed. — This material consists of a mix- ture of corn, oat and barley residues resulting from the manu- facture of human foods from these cereals. It contains about 10 per cent, protein, 3.50 per cent, fat and 9 per cent, fiber. It is extensivelv advertised as a food for horses and dairy stock. 256 EXPERDIEXT STATION, [Jan. Summary of Coefficients, Period VIII. (Per Cent.). Q Sheep. .2 c 01 C5 ^^• >> Q < E S 5 Young Sheep I., .... 1 1 72.12 - 67.77 58.95 79.17 89.21 Young Sheep II., .... 1 1 1 70.46 - 71.79 45.95 78.76 87.48 Average, 2 71,29 - 09.78 52.45 78.97 88.35 Oats, unground, for comparison, 2 6 70.00 - 77.00 31.00 77.00 89.00 The coefficients obtained for l)otli sheep with the exception of that for fiber agree satisfactorily. The digestibility as well as the composition of this feed resembles that of oats, for which it is often substituted in feeding horses. When used for this purpose it would be advisable to moisten it because of its fine and dry condition. Protena Dairy Feed. — This material is no longer found in the Massachusetts market. It was composed of ground alfalfa as a basis, together with cottonseed meal, wheat bv-products and salt. Summary of Coefficients, Period XII. {Per Cent.). W Q 7? o Sheep. o 5 <~ o h .2 d a 3 a> 13 & .d 2 1 £ g 4^ Z CO Q < PL, (i. ^ P^ Paige Sheep IV., .... 1 1 66.14 32.93 70.40 45.39 75.83 96.80 Paige Sheep V., .... 1 1 62.87 36.92 73.11 33.41 72.29 99.64 Average, 1 2 64.51 34.93 71.76 39.40 74.06 98.22 The presence of so much alfalfa gave it a relatively high fiber content, and a low fiber digestibility. The digestibility of the entire foodstuff is decidedly below the minimum desired for a high-grade concentrate, due also to the large amount of alfalfa used. Buffalo Creamery Feed. — This is a proprietary mixture con- taining about 20 per cent, protein, 5 per cent, fat and 9 per 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 'l\u cent, fiber. According' to the manufacturer's guarantee it con- tains corn, wheat middlings, oat hulls, hominy feed, cottonseed meal and gluten feed. Summary of Coefficients, Period XIII. {Per Cent.). (L & Q tn % ^ Sheep. o m "m a -d OJ '>c ■Ji Q < Ph P^ ;z; ^ "Young Sheep I., .... 1 1 68.36 19.81 80.59 52.34 70.38 82.77 Young Sheep III., .... 1 1 70.55 25.71 81.77 56.69 71.65 90.00 Average, 1 2 69.46 22.76 81.18 54.52 71.02 86.84 The coefficients agree closely, and the feed approaches the minimum degree of digestibility (70 per cent.) for a concen- trate. Its protein digestibility is fairly satisfactory. Its econ- omy as a dairy feed would naturally depend upon its cost. Feeds of this character are likely to cost more than the ingre- dients of which they are composed. Series XIV. Eleven experiments were made in this series, all of which, with the exception of the -i that follow, were carried out with Porto Rico molasses and are published elsewhere. The diges- tion coefficients for the hay used in. periods VIII. and X. were those obtained in period XL The 4 sheep used in this experi- ment were yearling Shropshires of substantially uniform weight. Composition of Feedstuff s {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.] Feeds. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Nitrogen- free Extract. Fat. English hay, .... 6.82 7.67 .30.35 52.79 2.37 Early Mastodon Dent corn fod- der. 4.31 7.3S 19 40 66.74 2.17 Rustler White Dent corn fodder, 4.38 6.87 19,46 66.96 2.33 Unicorn dairy ration, 3.60 29.61 9.76 50.11 6.92 Waste, Sheep IV., period II., 2.85 3.37 29.12 63.58 1.08 258 EXFEliLMENT STATION. [Jan. Composition of Feces {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.) Shcop I. Period. Feeds. A.sh. Protein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free Ex- tract. Fat. I. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder, 9.52 11.12 27.34 50.57 1.45 VIII. Unicorn dairy ration, . 10.55 15.61 24.37 46.50 2.91 X. Unicorn dairy ration, . 11.64 13.63 25.18 46.47 3.08 XI. English hay, .... 11.10 10.05 27.78 46.91 3.50 Sheep II. I. VIII. XI. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder, Unicorn dairy ration, . English hay, .... 10 16 11.41 27.70 49.17 11.01 14.66 25.32 46.14 10.45 10.17 29.55 46.65 1.56 2.87 3.18 Sheep III. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, . 9.77 12.07 26.62 49.87 1.67 Sheep IV. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, . 11.17 14.11 25.11 47.61 1.99 Dry Matter Determinations made at the Time of weighing out the Different Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces (Per Cent.). Sheep I. Period. Engli-sh Hay. Early Ma.stodon Dent Corn Fodder. Rustler White Dent Corn Fodder. Unicorn Dairy Ration. Waste. Feces. I VIII X XI 89.45 90.22 90.05 24.80 - 91.11 92.40 - 89.08 93.36 (13.52 93.41 Sheep II. I. - 24.80 - - - 8S.92 VIII 89.45 - - 91.11 - 93.27 XI 90.05 - - - - 93.49 1912. rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31, 259 Dry Matter Determinations made at the Time of loeighing out the Different Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces {Per Cent.) — Concluded. Slieep III. Peiuod. English Hay. Early Mastodon Dent Corn Fodder. Rustler Wliite Dent Corn Fodder. Unicorn Dairy Ration. Waste. Feces. II - - 31.46 - - 88.51 Sheep IV. 11., - - 31.46 - 94.05 88.04 Average Daily Amount of Manure excreted and Water Drunk (Grams). Sheep I. Period. Character of Food or Ration. Manure excreted Daily. One-tenth Manure Air-dry. Water drunk Daily. I. VIII. X. XI. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder, Unicorn dairy ration. Unicorn dairy ration, English hay, ..... 594 1,000 751 633 18.62 21.97 23.97 24.55 404 2,325 2,493 2,292 Sheep II. I. VIII. XI. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder. Unicorn dairy ration, English hay 733 891 722 18.99 21.85 26.62 416 2,.50O 2,251 Sheep III. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, . 929 26.67 1,889 Sheep IV. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, . 1,184 24.15 904 2G0 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Weights of Animals at Beginning and End of Period {Pounds). Sheep I. Period. Character of Food or Ration. Beginning. End. I. VIII. X. XI. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder Unicorn dairy ration, Unicorn dairy ration English hay, 89.0 86.5 86.0 90.0 89.0 87.5 88.0 88.5 Sheep II. Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder, . Unicorn dairy ration, English hay, ..... I. VIII. XI. 86.0 87.0 88.5 Sheep III. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, .... 85.5 90.0 Sheep IV. II. Rustler White Dent corn fodder, .... 97.0 95.0 Early Mastodon Dent Corn Fodder, Period I. Sheep I. C "S 0 < a '3 2 C as 2,400 grama Mastodon corn fodder fed, 186.21 grams manure excreted (air-dry), 595.20 165.88 25.67 15.79 43.93 18.45 115.47 45.35 397.21 83.88 12.92 2.41 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 429.32 72.13 9.88 38.49 25.48 58.00 70.12 60.73 313.33 78.88 10.51 81.35 Sheep II. 2,400 grams Mastodon corn fodder fed, 189.90 grams manure excreted (air-dry), 595.20 168.86 25.67 17.16 43.93 19.27 115.47 46.77 397.21 83.03 12.92 2.63 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, ■126 34 71.63 8.51 33.15 24.66 56.13 68.70 59.50 314.18 79.10 10.29 79.64 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 71.88 35.82 57.07 60.12 78.99 80.50 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 2G1 Ricstler White Dent Corn Fodder, Period II. Sheep III. Q < a "3 g Pi ll gS 4^ 2,400 grams Rustler corn fodder fed, 266.74 grams manure excreted (air-dry), 755.04 236.09 33.07 23.07 51.87 28.50 146.93 62.85 505.56 117.72 17.59 3.93 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 518.95 68.73 10.00 30.24 23.37 45.05 84.08 57.22 387.84 76.71 13.06 77.66 Sheep IV. 2,400 grams Rustler corn fodder fed, 37.86 grams waste. Amount consumed, 241.53 grams manure excreted. Grams digested, Per cent, digested. Average per cent, for both sheep. 755.04 35.61 719.43 214.09 505.34 70.24 69.49 33.07 1.01 32.06 23.91 8.15 25.42 27.83 51.87 1.20 50.67 30.21 20.46 40.38 42.72 146.93 10.37 136.56 53.76 82.80 60.63 68.93 505.56 22.65 482.91 101.95 380.96 78.89 77.80 17.59 .38 17.21 4.26 12.95 75.25 76.46 Unicorn Dairy Ration, Period VIII. Sheep I. 500 grams English hay fed, . 200 grams Unicorn dairy ration fed. Amount consumed, .... 219.65 grams manure excreted (air-dry). Grams digested, ..... Minus hay digested, .... Unicorn dairy ration digested, Per cent, digested, .... 447.35 182.22 029.57 205.07 ■124,50 277.36 147.14 80.74 30.51 6.56 37.07 21 . 63 15.44 12.81 2.63 40.09 34.31 53.96 88.27 32.01 56.26 16.81 39.45 73.11 135.77 17.78 153.55 49.98 103.57 90.97 12.60 70.87 236.21 91.31 327.52 95.48 232.04 153.54 78.50 85.97 10.55 12.61 23.16 5.97 17.19 5.17 12.02 95.32 Sheep II. Amount consumed as above, 218.50 grams manure excreted (air-dry). Grama digested, .... Minus hay digested, Unicorn dairy ration digested. Per cent, digested. Average per cent, for both sheep 629.57 37.07 88.27 153.55 327.52 203.79 22.44 29.87 51.60 94.03 425.78 14.63 58.40 101.95 233.49 277.36 12.81 16.81 90.97 153.54 148.42 1.82 41.59 10.98 79.95 81.45 27.74 77.07 61.75 87.55 81.10 33.92 75.09 66,31 86.76 23.16 5.85 17.31 5.17 12.14 96.27 95.80 262 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. Unicorn Dairy Ration, Period X. Sheep I. b < .9 '5 2 1- as 2« ^ (^ COO grams English hay fed, .... 150 grams Unicorn dairy ration fed, 541.32 138.69 36.92 4.98 41.52 41.07 164.29 13.54 285.73 69.50 12.86 9.60 Amount consumed, 239.07 grams manure excreted (air-dry), 6S0.01 224.14 41.90 26.09 82.59 30.55 177.83 56.44 355.23 104.16 22.46 6.90 Grams digested, Minus hay digested, .... 155.87 335.62 15.81 15.51 52.04 20.34 121.49 110.07 251.07 185.72 15.56 6.30 Unicorn dairy ration digested, Per cent, digested, 120.25 86.70 .30 6.02 31.70 77.19 11.42 84.34 65.35 94.03 9.26 96.46 English Hay, Period XI. Sheep I. 700 grams English hay fed, . 245.46 grams manure excreted (air-dry), Grams digested, ..... Per cent, digested, .... 630.35 44.82 48.85 205.74 315.24 229.28 401.07 25.59 19.23 24.42 63.69 107.56 24.43 142.05 207.68 63.63 42.91 50.01 69.04 65.88 15.70 8.02 7.68 48.92 Sheep II. 700 grams English hay fed, . 266.16 grams manure excreted (air-dry). 630.35 248.83 44.82 26.00 48.85 25.31 205.74 73.53 315.24 116.08 15.70 7.91 Grams digested Per cent, digested, .... 381.52 60.53 18.82 41.99 23.54 48.19 132.21 64.27 199.16 63.18 7.79 49.62 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 62.08 42.45 49.10 66.66 64.53 49.27 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 203 Summary of Coefficients {Per Cent.). Food. Sheep Number. o C3 p < a 'S g M % £ as ^5 Early Mastodon Dent corn fodder, 1 Sheep I., [sheep II., . [Sheep III., . [sheep IV., . [Sheep I., Sheep I., [sheep II., . Sheep I., [sheep II., . 72.13 71.63 38.49 33.15 58.00 56.13 60.73 59.50 78.88 79.10 81.35 79.64 Average, .... Rustler White Dent corn fodder. 71.88 C8.73 70.24 35.82 30.24 25.42 57.07 45.05 40.38 60.12 57.22 60.63 78.99 76.71 78.89 80.50 77.66 75.25 Average, .... Unicorn dairy ration, 69.49 80.74 86.70 81.45 27.83 40.09 6.02 27.74 42.72 73.11 77.19 77.07 58.93 70.87 84.34 61.75 77.80 85.97 94.03 87.55 76.46 95.32 96.46 96.27 Average, .... English hay, .... 82.96 63.63 60.53 24.62 42.91 41.99 75.79 50.01 48.19 72.32 69.04 64.27 89.18 65.88 63 . 18 96.02 48.92 49.62 Average, .... 62.08 42.45 49.10 66.66 64.53 49.27 Discussion of the Eesults. Early Mastodon Dent Corn Fodder. - — This is a large grow- ing yellow dent variety bred by C. S. Clark of Ohio. It is evi- dently rather too late for the average Massachusetts season. iVt the time of cutting (September 5-19) it was in the milk-to-dent- ing stage, and could not be considered ripe enough to be cut for the grain. It yielded about 20 tons to the acre of green fodder which contained 28 per cent, of ears in dry matter. Summary of Coefficients, Period I. {Per Cent.). fc. X !e K P m s Sheep. 3 O D "3) c a j3 a 2 si n 2g ^ M P < (ii i^ z (^ Sheep I 1 1 72.13 38.49 58.00 60.73 78.88 81.35 Sheep II 1 1 71.63 33.15 56.13 59.50 79.10 79.64 Average 1 2 71.88 35.82 57.07 60.12 78.99 80.50 Average of all experiments, dent 12 23 69.00 34.00 54.00 59.00 75.00 75.00 fodder for comparison. 264 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. The results obtained in this trial w-ere verj satisfactory. They also agreed quite closely with the average for all trials for dent corn. Rustler White Dent Corn Fodder. — So far as known this variety of corn originated in Minnesota ; it was first grown at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, w^here it has given excellent satisfaction. At the time of cutting (Sep- tember 5-19) it was dented and glazing and ready to har- vest. It yielded about 12 tons of green fodder which con- tained 41 per cent, of ears in dry matter. The yield was not so large as on other fields nearby. The tendency of this variety is to mature in our latitude and yield a fair amount of stalk with a relatively high grain percentage. Sumynary of Coefficients, Period II. {Per Cent.). Sheep. Sheep III., Sheep IV., Average, . . . . . Average of all experiments, dent fodder for comparison. 68.73 70.24 69.49 69.00 30.24 25.42 27.83 34.00 45.05 40.38 42.72 54.00 57.22 60.63 58.93 59.00 76.71 77.66 75.25 00 76.46 75.00 AVhile the coefficients obtained in this experiment agreed closely, the digestibility was not as great as would naturally be expected, considering the percentage of ears and degree of maturity. This may be due, in part at least, to the fact that this corn was comparatively dry wdien cut, and the animals were fed rather more dry matter than was intended ; in fact, more than they could readily care for. Sheep IV. left a part of the daily ration. With a smaller amount of dry matter in the ra- tion, the coefficients might have been somewhat higher. Unicorn Dairy Bation. — This is a proprietary mixture con- sisting of corn, distillers' grains, cottonseed meal, hominy feed, barley feed and sprouts and wheat bran. It contained on a nat- ural moisture basis about 26 per cent, protein, 6 per cent, fat and 9 per cent, fiber. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 265 Suitniiary of Coefficients, Periods VIII. and X. {Per Cent). 1 Sheep. 'A H S. "3] a 03 IS < .s o o Is 1 Sheep I 1 1 80.74 40.09 73.11 70.87 85.97 95.32 Sheep II 1 1 81.45 27.74 77.07 61.75 87.55 96.27 Sheep I 1 1 86.07 6.02 77.19 84.34 94.03 96.46 Average, 1 2 81.10 33.92 75,09 G6.31 86.76 95.80 The results secured in case of Slicep I. in period X. are no- ticeably above those for the other two trials, and it is thought best not to include them in the average. The reason for this variation cannot be explained. The coefficients for Sheep I. and II. in period VIII. agree fairly well, and show this proprie- tary feed to have a high digestibility. These results, together with its high protein and a low fiber content, indicate a high- grade protein dairy feed. English Hay. — The hay used in this period consisted of mixed grasses with June grass predominating. It was cut while in blossom, well cured and in good condition. Before feeding it was cut fine by running it through a feed cutter, and thoroughly mixed to insure uniformity through the entire lot. Sninniarij of Coefficients, Period XI. {Per Cent.). iS Q rn a cj (-< b. Sheep. |3 3 a> — "3) a ^ o a a- 2| -*J 'A m Q < Ph (n 2 ^ Sheep I., 1 1 63.63 42.91 50.01 69.04 65.88 48.92 Sheep II 1 1 60.53 41.99 48.19 64.24 63.18 49.62 Average 1 2 62.08 42.45 49.10 66.66 64.53 49.27 Average of all trials, similar hay 21 73 61.00 47.00 57.00 62.00 62.00 50.00 for comparison. The coefficients obtained in this trial agree closely. With the exception of the coefficient obtained for protein they also 266 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. agree closely with the average of all results obtained with simi- lar hay. Series XV. This series of experiments was conducted during the fall and winter of 1009-10. Those not rei)orted concerned the effect of lactic acid and calcium lactate uj)on digestibility, and will be published at a later date. The sheep used were the same as for the preceding year. Composition of Feedstuff s {Per Cent.). [Dry Matter.] Period. Feeds. Ash. Pro- tein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free Extract Matter. Fat. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Brewer'a Dent corn fodder, Wing's Improved White Dent corn fodder, Alfalfa hay, first cutting, third-year growth. Alfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, first -year growth, Clover, second cutting, .... Clover, first cutting, 5.32 4.85 7.55 0.70 7 . (>3 8.96 11,22 9.84 9.36 10.62 15.31 16.49 15.28 17.82 23.94 22.58 30.16 38.03 35.28 29.76 28.30 59.40 61.64 43.78 38.67 39.10 44.12 40.70 1.50 1.57 1.89 1.29 1.50 1.88 1.96 Composition of Feces {Per Cent.). Sheep I. I. Brewer's Dent corn fodder. 10.00 11.27 25.93 51,17 1.63 III. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, third-year growth. 10.13 11 35 43.90 31.33 3.29 V. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, first-year growth, 10.41 11.01 45 14 30.87 2.57 VII. Clover hay, first cutting, .... 12.26 18.09 30.28 36.75 2.62 Sheep II. I. Brewer's Dent corn fodder. 10,50 10.87 27.75 49.08 1.80 III. Alfalfa hay , first cutting, tliird-year growth, 10.70 10.74 44.82 30.74 3.00 V. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, first-year growth, 10.34 11.04 44.99 30.86 2.77 VII. Clover hay, first cutting 12 14 17.23 32.45 35 6S 2.50 Sheep III. II. IV. VI. Wing's Improved White Cap corn fodder, . .Mfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth. Clover hay, second cutting. 9.96 9.47 9.87 11.66 10.23 14.78 28.33 48.09 40,15 48,54 29 . 78 33.19 1 51 2.43 2,01 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 267 Composition of Feces {Per Cent.) — Concluded. Sheep IV. Period. Feeds. Ash. Pro- tein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free Kxtract Matter. Fat. n. IV. VI. Wing's Improved White Cap corn fodder, . Alfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth. Clover hay, second cutting. 9.99 9.50 9.73 11.73 9.68 15.56 25.08 48.46 38.93 51.55 29.79 33.63 1.65 2.57 2.15 Dry Matter Determinations made at the Time of iceighing oid the Different Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces {Per Cent.). Sheep I. Period. Brewer's Dent Corn Fodder. Wing's Im- proved Dent Corn Fodder. Alfalfa Hay, First Cutting, Third- year Growth. Alfalfa Hay, First Cutting, First- .vear Growth. Alfalfa Hay, Second Cutting, Third- year Growth. Clover Hay, First Cutting. Clover Hay, Second Cutting. Feces. I., III., . v., . VII., . 19.39 85.42 86.97 - 88.65 - 89.59 91.53 93.88 93.12 Sheep II. I., 19 39 - - - - - - 89.71 III., . - - 85.42 - - - - 91.62 v.. . - - - 86.97 - - - 93.87 VII., . - - - - - 88.65 - 93.22 Sheep III. II., . - 19.18 - - - - - 89.17 IV., . - - - - 86.75 - - 93.51 VI., . - - - - - - 88.10 93.05 Sheep IV. II., . - 19.18 - - - - - 89.72 IV., . - - - - 87.90 - - 93.37 VI., . - - - - - - 88.10 93.21 268 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Average Daily Amount of Manure excreted and Water drunk (Grams). iShecp I. Period. Character of Food or Ration. Manure excreted Daily. One- tenth Manure Air-dry. Water drunk Daily. I. Brewer's Dent corn fodder 403 29.21' 262 III. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, third-year growth, . 563 22.21 1,737 V. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, first-year growth, . 906 33.06 2,451 VII. Clover hay, first cutting 807 27.05 2,646 Sheep II. I. Brewer's Dent corn fodder 407 30.91 > 224 III. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, third-year growth, . 719 26.03 1,969 V. Alfalfa hay, first cutting, first-year growth, . 724 29.83 2,475 VII. Clover hay, first cutting 721 28.48 2,656 Sheep III. II. IV. VI. Wing's Improved White Cap fodder, Alfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth. Clover hay, second cutting, .... Sheep IV. II. IV. VI. Wing's Improved White Cap fodder. Alfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth. Clover hay, second cutting. Weights of Animals at Beginning and End of Periods (Pounds). Sheep I. Period. Char.^cter of Food or R.\tion. Beginning. End. I. Brewer's Dent corn fodder 94.50 93.25 III. .Mfalfa hay, first cutting, third-year growth, . 99.50 97.25 V. .Mfalfa hay, first cutting, first-year growth, 101.25 100.00 VII. Clover hay, first cutting, 97.25 100.00 ' One-fifth of daily amount excreted. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 269 Weights of Animals at Beginning and End of Periods (Pounds) — Concluded. Sliecp II. Period. Character of Food or 11.\tion. Ucginning. End. I. III. V. VII. Brewer'3 Dent corn fodder, Alfalfa luiy, first cutting, third-year growth, . .\lfalfa hay, first cutting, firat-year growth, . Clover hay, first cutting, 95.25 101.75 97.75 102.50 93.00 90.25 98.75 96.50 Sheep III. II. IV. VI. Wing's Improved White Cap fodder. Alfalfa hay, second cutting, third-year growth, Clover hay, second cutting, .... 77.75 89.50 91.75 Sheep IV. II. Wing's Improved White Cap fodder. 107.75 100.75 IV. Alfalfa h.ay, second cutting, third-year growth, 112.75 110.50 VI. Clover hay, second cutting, 113.75 111.50 Bretcer's Dent Corn Fodder, Period I. Sheep I. < a '53 2 CM +5 2,500 grams Brewer's Dent corn fodder fed, 146.04 grams manure excreted. 484.75 130.84 25.79 13. OS 47.70 14.75 116.05 33.93 287.94 66.95 7.27 2.13 Grams digested, Per cent. dige.sted, 353.91 73.01 12.71 49.28 32.95 69.08 82.12 70.76 220.99 76.75 5.14 70.70 Sheep II. 2,500 grams Brewer's Dent corn fodder fed, 154 . 56 grams manure excreted, 484.75 138.66 346.09 71.40 25.79 14.56 47.70 15.07 116.05 38.48 287.94 68.05 7.27 2.50 Grams digested Per cent, digested, 11.23 43.54 32.63 68.41 77.57 66. S4 219.89 76.37 4.77 65.61 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 72.21 46.41 68.75 68.80 76.56 68.16 270 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Wing's Improved White Cap Dent Corn Fodder, Period II. Sheep III. C o a »-• Q < 2 o E g II 1 2,500 grams White Cap Dent corn fodder fed, 102.08 grams manure excreted, •179.50 144.53 23.20 14.40 44.88 10.85 108.28 40.95 295.50 70.15 7.52 2.18 (Iram.s digested Per cent, digested, 334.97 09. 80 8.80 38.09 28.03 02,40 67.33 02.18 225.41 70.27 5.34 71.01 Slieep IV. 2,5()J grams White Cap Dent corn fodder fed, 155.55 grams manure excreted, 479.50 139.56 23.20 13.94 44.88 16.37 108.28 35.00 295.50 71.95 7.52 2.30 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 339.94 70.89 9.32 40.07 28.51 03.52 73.28 07 . 68 223.01 75.06 5.22 09.41 Average per cent, for both slicep, . 70.38 39.08 62.99 04.93 75.97 70.21 Alfalfa Ilaij, First Cutting, Third-year Growth, Period III. Slieep I. 750 grams alfalfa hay fed, 222.06 grams manure excreted. Grams dige.sted, ..... Per cent, digested, .... 040.05 4S.37 100.40 193.22 280.49 203.25 20.59 23.07 89.22 63.68 437.40 27.78 83.39 104.00 216.81 08.27 57.43 7S.33 53.82 77.30 Sheep II. 750 grams alfalfa hay fed, 260.33 grams manure excreted, 640.65 238.51 48.37 25.52 100.40 25.02 193.22 100.89 280.49 73.32 12.11 7.10 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, .... 402.14 62.77 22.85 47.24 80.84 75.93 80.33 44.68 207.17 73.86 4.95 40.88 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 65.52 52.34 77.13 49.25 75.58 42.82 Alfalfa Hay, Second Crdfing, Third-year Growth, Period IV. Sheep III. 750 grama alfalfa hay fed, .... 050.63 43.59 99.01 247.43 251.61 8.39 318.04 grams manure excreted. 297.40 28.16 30.42 143.02 88.57 7.23 Grams digested, 353.23 15.43 69.19 104.41 163.04 1.16 Per cent, digested, 54.29 35.40 69.46 42.20 64.79 13.83 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMExXT — Xo. 31. 271 Alfalfa Hay, Second Cutting, Third-year Growth, Period IV — Concluded. Slieep IV. a >> Q < .9 "3 2 Cm s ^ (^ 750 grama alfalfa hay fed 285.99 grams manure excreted, 659.25 267.03 44.17 25.37 100.93 25.85 250.71 129.40 254.94 79.55 8.50 6.86 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 392.22 59.49 18.80 42.56 75.08 74.39 121.31 48.39 175.39 68.80 1.64 19.29 Average per cent, for both slieep, . 56.89 38.98 71.93 45.30 66.80 10.56 Alfalfa Hay, First CiUting, First-year Growth, Period V. Sheep I. 800 grama alfalfa hay fed, 330.56 giams manure excreted. Grams digested. Per cent, digested. 695.76 310.33 385.43 55.40 53.09 32.31 20.78 39.14 114.73 34.17 80.56 70.22 245.46 140.07 105.39 42.94 272.04 95.80 176.24 64.78 10.44 7.98 2.46 23.56 Sheep II. 800 grams alfalfa hay fed 298.29 grams manure excreted. 095.76 280.00 53.09 28.95 114.73 30.91 245.46 125.97 272.04 86.41 10.44 7.76 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 415.76 59.76 24.14 45.47 83.82 73.06 119.49 48.68 185.63 68.24 2.68 25.67 Average per cent, for both sheep, . . 57.58 42.31 71.64 45.81 66.51 24.62 Clover Hay, Second Cutting, Period VI. Sheep III. 800 grams clover hay fed, .... 318.54 grams manure excreted, 704.80 296.40 G3.15 29.25 107.69 43.81 209.75 119.00 310.96 98.38 13.25 5.96 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 408.40 57.94 33.90 53.68 63.88 59.32 90.75 43.27 212.58 68.36 7.29 55.02 Sheep IV. 800 grams clover hay fed 292.57 grams manure excreted. 704.80 272.70 63.15 26.53 107.69 42.43 209.75 106.17 310.96 91.71 13.25 5.86 Grams digested Per cent, digested, 432.10 61.31 36.62 57.99 65.26 60.60 103,58 49.38 219.25 70.51 7.39 55.77 Average per cent, for both sheep, . 59.63 55.84 59.96 46.33 69.44 55 40 272 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. Clover Hay, First Cutting, Period VII. Sheep I. i b Q Ash. Protein. 2 X .t;« 1 8(X) grams clover )iay fed, .... 270.50 grams manure excreted. 709.20 251.89 79.57 30.88 126.38 45.57 200.70 76.27 288.65 92.57 13.90 6. GO Grams digested, Per cent, digested, 457.31 64.4.8 48.60 61 . 19 80.81 03.94 124.43 62.00 196.08 07.93 7.30 52.52 Sheep II. 800 grams clover hay fed, .... 2.S4.76 grams manure excreted. 709.20 265.45 443.75 62.57 79.57 32.23 126.38 45.74 200.70 86.14 288.05 94.70 13.90 6.64 Grams digested, Per cent, digested, . . . . 47.34 59.49 80.64 63.81 114.56 57.08 193.95 67.19 7.26 52.23 Average per cent, for l)Oth sheep, . 63.53 60.34 63.88 59,54 67.56 52.38 Stimmary of Coefficients {Per Cent.). Food. Sheep Nunilior. 1 a .a < a '3 o a o a) c -g a Brewer's Dent corn fodder. Sheep I., Sheep II., . 73.01 71.40 49.28 43.54 69.08 68.41 70.76 66.84 76.75 76.37 70.70 65.61 Average 72.21 46.41 68.75 68.80 76.56 68.16 Wing's Improved Wliite Cap ! Dent corn fodder. j Sheep III., . 69.86 38.09 62.46 62.18 76.27 71.01 Sheep IV., 70.89 40.07 63.52 67.68 75.66 69.41 Average, .... 70.38 39.08 62.99 64.93 75.97 70.21 Sheep I., 68.27 57.43 78.33 53.82 77.30 44.76 Sheep I., 55.40 39.14 70.22 42.94 04.78 23.56 Alfalfa hay, Sheep II., Sheep II., 05.52 59.76 52. 34 45.47 77.13 73.06 49.25 48.68 75.58 08.24 42.82 25.67 Sheep III., . 54.29 35.40 69.46 42.20 64.79 13.83 Sheep IV., . 59 49 42.56 74.39 48.39 68. ?0 19.29 Average, .... 60 46 45.39 73.77 47.55 C9.92 28.32 Sheep I., 64.48 61.19 63 94 02. CO 67 93 52 52 Clover hay, ... Sheep II., Sheep III., . 63.57 57.94 59.49 53.68 63.81 59.32 57.08 43.27 67 19 68.36 52.23 55.02 Sheep IV., . 61.31 57.99 60.60 49.38 70.51 55.77 Average, .... 61.58 58.09 61.92 52.93 68.50 53.89 1912.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 273 Discussion of the liesuJls. Brciccr's Dent Corn Fodder. — This is u yellow dent corn believed to Lave been first bred in the middle west and im- proved l)j N. 11. Brewer of (Connecticut, who has raised enor- m(>us crops by following an intensive system of fertilization and cultivation. We have not been successful in ripening it on tlu; station farm. At the time of cutting (September 5-19) the ears were hardly in milk, and consequently not suitable to har- vest for grain. It evidently needs a somewhat longer growing- season than is usually experienced in the vicinity of Amherst. It })roduced at the rate of about 18 tons of green fodder per acre, and yielded about 17 ])er cent, of ears in dry matter. Summary of Coefficients, Period I. {Per Cent.). is Q m (U »-. £i Sheep. 1^ .s tJ 0 i; ss -s o .^ ■^ ij z CO Q - o 3 a H a 1-. X, .5 'S o o 0 O ^; m Q 'f, Ah Ph ^ U^ Sheep I., 1' 68.27 57.43 78 33 53.82 77.30 44.70 Sheep I., P 55.40 39.14 70.22 42.94 64.78 23.50 Sheep II 1> 62.77 47.24 75.93 44.68 73.80 40.88 Slieep II., .... 1' 59.76 45.47 73.06 48.68 68.24 25.67 Sheep III 2' 54.29 35.40 69.46 42.20 64.79 13.83 Slieep IV 2> 59.49 42.56 74.39 48.39 68.80 19.29 Average - 3 6 60.00 44.54 73.57 46.79 69.63 28.00 Average of all trials, alfalfa _ 42 80 62 00 50.00 74.00 46.00 72.00 40.00 hav for comparison. Average of all trial.s, red - 12 25 58.00 36.00 58.00 54.00 65.00 .56.00 clover for comparison. Uiifortmiately an exact record of the conditions dnring the cnring process of the several lots was not kept. It would ap- pear that the first cntting of the iliird-year growth was cured without the loss of a great deal of leafy matter. This is shown by the relatively low fiber percentage and the high digestibility. The second cntting of the tli'inl-year growth evidently lost a considerable portion of its leaves, as indicated by its high fiber percentage and lessened digestibility. The first cntting of the first-rjear growth also must have lost an excess of leaves, as it also shows excessive fiber and low digestion coefficients. It is possible that the tags of the first cutting, third-year growth and the first cntting first-year growth, were reversed, although we have not the slightest evidence to that effect. While the coefficients obtained vary considerably the average is about the same as the average for all trials, except that the coefficient for fat is somewhat lower. It is believed that the average coefficients obtained in our several trials show fairly the digestibility of eastern grown alfalfa under the adverse condi- tions due to the loss of leaves in the process of curing. Bed Clover Hay. — The clover was seeded in early August the year previous. It yielded well, was in early blossom when Third-year growth. ' First-year growth. 276 EXPERIMEXT STATION. [Jan. cut, and was cured in cocks. Tlic first cutting did not cure out Avell, owing to a rainy spell during the curing process. It had a black appearance when taken to the barn, and later had to be si)r(>ad in the sun for fni-ther drying. It did not lose its leaves to any extent. The lot was lacking in a satisfactory odor and was slightly musty. The conditions during the cur- ing of the second cutting were more favorable. Both lots were rich in protein (15.28 and 17.82 per cent, in dry matter) and comparatively low in filier (21).7 For complete data see Book of the Bowker Contest, issued by the Bowker Fertilizer Com- pany, 48 Chatham Street, Boston, Mass. 1912. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17 Table of Analyses. |12 per cent, water basis. a o o a GnowER. Variety. Si 6 i a Hi U a 6 d '3 o 1 O o 2 < Flints. John P. Bowditch, Framingham, M.ass., Stickney, 10.03 4.88 70.42 1.23 1.44 Nathaniel I. Bowditch, Framingham, Stickney, 10.09 4.66 70.79 1.17 1.29 Mass. Samuel Carr, Northborough, Ma.ss., Stickney, 10.58 4.85 70.01 1.26 1.30 Martin A. Carey, Brockton, Mass., Dibble, 8.97 4.71 72.10 1.14 1.08 Paul Cunningham, Bolton, Mass., Stickney, 11.59 4.95 68.83 1.17 1.46 Perley E. Davis, Granby, Mass., . Davis Improved, 10.32 4.51 70.51 1.28 1.38 Arthur S. Felton, Bolton, Mass., . Stickney, 10.72 4.89 69.78 1.18 1.43 George H. Fish, North Appleton, Me.,. Yellow Flint, 9.50 4.11 71.12 1.67 1.60 W. C. Ford, Whitefield, Me., . Yellow Flint, 9.55 4.45 70.31 2.44 1.25 A. J. Guptil & Sons, Berwick, Me., Ordway, 10 21 4.77 70.52 1.22 1.28 Arthur T. Hathaway, Monmouth, Me., Early Canada, 9.74 4.73 71.08 1.17 1.28 Joseph Rowland, Taunton, Mass., Yellow Flint, 10.33 4.55 70.48 1.27 1.37 Hathorn J. Libby, Charleston, Me., Yellow Flint, 10.09 4.29 70 39 1.69 1.54 L. W. Peet, Middlebury, Vt., White Australian, 10.30 4.65 70.49 1.17 1.39 Burton L. Robinson, Monmouth, Me., . Yellow Flint, 9.21 4.80 71 50 1.20 1.29 William E. Sarle, Shawomet, R. I., Longfellow, . 10.67 4.73 69.94 1.30 1.36 George E. Stickney,Newburyport,Mass., Stickney, 9 30 4.64 71.68 1.13 1.25 Edward P. West, Hadley, Mass., . Yellow Flint, 10.42 4.61 70.53 1.14 1.30 L. S. White, CoUinsville, Conn., . White Flint, 9.65 4.58 71.06 1.36 1.35 James E. Phelps, Millbury, Mass., Yellow Flint, 10.91 4.78 69.73 1.17 1.41 John G. Francis, Bridgewater, Mass., . Early Canada, 10.33 4.88 70.29 1.11 1.39 J. E. Hamilton, Garland, Me., Yellow Flint, 11.20 4.81 68.65 1.70 1.64 Average, 10.17 4.67 70.46 1.33 1.37 Dents. John P. Bowditch, Framingham, Mass., Funk Bros., 9.07 3.73 71.84 2.12 1.24 Middlebrook farm, Dover, N. H., Silver King, 9.55 4.29 71.10 1.75 1.31 M. H. Williams, Sunderland, Mass., Early Huron, 9.44 4.30 71.23 1.65 1.38 E. W. Capen, Monson, Mass., Brewer's, 8.84 3.47 72.48 2 01 1.20 Butler Bros., Montello, Mass., Diamond Joe, 9.77 3.33 71.63 1.94 1.33 Average, 9 33 3.82 71.67 1.89 1.29 18 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The corn showed the following ranges in analysis : — Flint. Protein, Fat, Nitrogeu-iree extract, Fiber, . Ash, Protein, Fat, Nitrogen-free extract, Fiber, . Ash, Dent. Hieh (Percent.). Low (Percent.) 11.59 8.97 4.95 4.11 72.10 68.65 2.44 1.11 1.64 1.08 9.77 8.84 4.30 3.33 72.48 71.10 2.12 1.65 1.38 1.20 From the data obtained it is evident that chemical compo- sition cannot be considered an important factor in the selection of seed corn where the crop is nsed for the snstenance of live stock. For snch a purpose that variety should be selected which is suited to the locality where it is grown and which will pro- duce the largest amount of shelled corn to the acre. 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