DDDDDDDDDaaDDDDDDDDDDDDaDDDDDDDa D D D D D D D a D D D D D D D D a n a D D a D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D DDDDDDDnDDaaDDDDDDDaDaDDDDDDDnnn '^crsi UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY S 73 E3 V. 25-26 1912-13 10m-(a)-12-'4- ^'-' book ^ ^' be kept ou» Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THB MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Part L, Being Part III. of the Fiftieth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. January, 1913. Ending the Thirtieth Year from the Founding of the State Aqriculturaii Experiment Station. ^F^n^ BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. Public Document No. 31 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL EFFORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Part I., Being Part III. of the Fiftieth Annual Report of the Massachusetts x\gricultural College. January, 1913. Ending the Thirtieth Year from the Founding of the State Agbicultubal Experiment Station. ,% 3 BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. M3^ \'\\X- 13 Approved by Thk State Board of Publication TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. Part I. DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. A Record of the Thirtieth Year from the Founding of the State Agriccltcral Experiment Station. DO INTRODUCTION. In accordance with the provision of the act of the Legisla- ture relative to the publication of the reports of the Massachu- setts Agricultural College, the report of the experiment station, which is a department of the college, is presented in two parts. Part I. contains the formal reports of the director, treasurer and heads of departments, and papers of a technical character giving results of research work carried on in the station. This will be sent to agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations and to workers in these institutions as well as to libraries. Part I. will be published also in connection with the report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, and will reach the general public through that channel. Part II. will contain papers of a popular character, and will be sent to all those on our general mailing list, as well as to agricultural colleges and experiment stations, to workers in these institu- tions and to libraries in Massachusetts. FEED W. MOESE, Acting Director. CONTENTS. Part I. Organization, 9 Publications during 1912, 11 Report of tlie treasurer, 12 Report of the director, 14 Report of the agi'iculturist, 21 The comparison of different materials as a source of nitrogen, . 22 Muriate v. sulfate of potash, 24 Comparison of different potash salts for field crops, ... 25 Comparison of different phosphates, 28 Average corn fertilizer compared with fertilizer richer in potash, 29 Manure alone compared with manure and sulfate of potash, 31 Comparison of winter and spring application of manure, . 32 Top-dressing permanent mowings, 33 Report of the botanist, .35 Diseases more or less common during the year, 38 new rust, 41 Effects of illuminating gas on vegetation, 45 The effect of illuminating gas on foliage, 50 Effects of illuminating gas on Carolina poplars, .... 51 Stimulating effects of illuminating gas on willow cuttings, . . 53 Effects of illuminating gas on lenticels, 58 Illuminating gas as a factor in forcing the development of plants, 59 The influence of various light intensities and soil moisture on the growth of cucumbers, and their susceptibility to burning from hydrocyanic acid gas, 61 Influence of varying percentages of moisture on the develop- ment of cucumbers and their susceptibility to burning from hydrocyanic acid gas. Shade-tree troubles, . Staghead and root injur}', Injury to cork cambium. Sun scald. Bleeding, Injuries from snow, . Earth fillings, Exposure of roots. Injuries from various treatments, . E.xperiments relating to the control of potato scab. Experiments with various chemicals for the prevention of po- tato scab, 87 66 73 73 75 76 76 77 77 78 79 84 8 CONTENTS. PAGE An outline of some of the topics covered by the department of vegetable physiology and pathology since its inception, . 97 List of bulletins issued by the department of vegetable ph3'si- ology and pathology, 100 Report of the chemist, 102 Work of the research section, 102 Report of the fertilizer section, 103 Report of the feed and dairy sections, 118 Numerical summary of substances examined in the chemical laboratory, 128 Correspondence, 128 The food value of plain and molasses beet pulp, 129 Composition of the beet pulp, 129 Coefficients and digestibility of beet pulp, 130 Feeding experiments with cows, . . . . . . .131 General conclusions, 139 The value of oats for milk production, 141 The composition of oats, 141 The digestibility of oats, 142 Feeding experiments with oats for milk production, . . . 143 Conclusions, 153 Some effects of fertilizers on the growth and composition of asparagus roots, 154 Amount of fertilizers applied, 156 Effect of fertilizers on the weight of roots, 157 Effect of fertilizers on the fertilizing constituents of the roots, 160 Effect of fertilizers on the nitrogen and nitrogenous reserve material, 162 Effect of fertilizers on the non-nitrogenous material of asparagus roots, 164 Report of the entomologist, ICS? V E.\periments for the control of the onion maggot, .... Cxi-L^ The problem, 171 Experimental work, 173 General conclusions, 178 Report of the horticulturist, ISO The inheritance of blossom color in beans, 182 Report of the veterinarian, 204 Report on cranberry substation for 1912, 209 Weather observations, 209 Frost protection, 210 Fungous diseases, 211 Varieties, 219 Blossom fertilization, 219 Fertilizers, 223 Insects, 225 Miscellaneous, 234 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTUEAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT Part I. Charles H. Preston, Chairman J. Lewis Ellsworth. Arthur G. Pollard. Charles E. Ward. Hakolu L. Frost. ORGANIZATION. Committee on Experiment Department. The President of the College, cx officio. The Director of the Station, cx officio. Station Staff. William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Director.^ Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Acting Director. Joseph B. Lindsev, Ph.D., Vice-Director. Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer. Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry. Joseph B. Lindsev, Ph.D., Chemist. Edward B. Holland, M.Sc, Associate Chenii.yt, in charge of Research Division. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist. Henri D. Haskixs, B.Sc, In charge of Fertilizer ticcfion. Philip PI. S.mith, M.Sc, In charge of Feed and Dairy Section. Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant. James C. Reed, B.Sc, Assistant. RiDOLPH W. Ruprecht, B.Sc, Assistant. George R. Pierce, B.Sc, Assistant.- Carlktox p. Jones, B.Sc, .Is.'iistant. Carlos L. Beals, B.Sc, Assi.stant. James T. Howard, Collector. Harry J. Allen, Laboratory A.ssistant. James R. Alcock, Assistant i)i Animal Nutrition. > On leave. 2 Resigned. 10 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Department of Agriculture. William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Auriri'lturi.st.^ H. J. Fk.^.nklix, Ph.D., In charge of Cranberry Investigations, Wareham. Edwin P. Gaskill, B.Sc, Assixlant. Department of Horticulture. Frank A. WArcn, M.Sc, Horticulturist. Feed C. Sbaks, M.Sc, Pomoloijist. Jacob K. Shaw, Ph.D., Research Assistant. HowAKD A. TuRXKR, B.Sc, Graduate Assistant.^ Department of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. George E. Stone, Ph.D.; Vegetable Physiologist and Pathologist. G^;oRGK H. Chapman, M.Sc, Research Assistant. Edward A. Larrabi;e, B.Sc, Assistant. Department of Entomology. Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entumologist. Burton N. Gates, Ph.D., Apiarist. Arthur I. Bourne, B.A., Assistant. Department of Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Yetcrinarian. Department of Meteorology. John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist. H. W. Angier, Observer. Other OfiScers of the Experiment Station. Charles R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian. Herbert J. Bakkr, B.Sc, Secretary to the Director? Benjamin G. Southwick, B.Sc, Secretary to the Director." Mrs. Lucia G. Church, Stenographer to the Director. Miss Alice M. Howard, Stenographer, Department Plant and Animal Chemistry. Miss F. Ethel Felton, Stenographer, Department Plant and Animal Chemistry. Miss LiNA Fisher, Stenographer, Department Plant and Animal Chemistry. Miss Jessie V. CROCKisR, Stenographer, Department of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. Miss Bridie E. O'Donnell, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Miss Grace E. Gallond, Stenographer, Department of Agriculture. * On leave. ' Resigned. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 11 PUBLICATIONS DURING 1912. Annual licport. Twenty-rourtli Annual Report; Part 1., 287 pages; Part II., 90 pages. Separata from Annual Report. Report of Entomologist, 8 images. Insects of the Year 1911, 4 pages. Report of the Botanist, 108 pages. Chemistry of Arsenical Insecticides, 3G pages. Cranberry Substation, 12 images. Heredity, Correlation and Variation in Garden Peas, 22 pages, Bidlelins. No. 140. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers, by H. D. Haskins, L. S. Walker, J. F. Merrill and R. W. Ruprecht, 86 pages. No. 141. The Microscopic Identification of Cattle Foods, by G. H. Chap- man, 71 pages. No. 142. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, by P. H. Smith, G. R. Pierce and R. W. Ruprecht, 48 pages. Cirrttlars. No. 32. An Act to regulate the Sale of Commercial Fertilizers, 4 pages. No. 33. An Act to regulate the Use of Utensils for testing the Com- position or Value of Milk and Cream, 11 pages. No. 34. An Act to regulate the Sale and Analysis of Food Stuffs used for Live Stock and Poultry, 7 pages. No. 22. (Reprint) Poultry Manures, their Use and Treatment, 4 pages. Meteorological Bulletins, 12 numbers, 4 pages each. 12 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. REPORT OF THE TREASURER. ANNUAL REPORT Of Fred C. Kenxey, Tkeasurer op the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Exi'ERniENT Station of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, For the Year enditifj June 30, 1912. United States Appropriations, 1911-12. Hatch Fund. Ada ms Fund. Dr. To receipts from tlie Treasurer of the Unitec States, as per appropriations for fiscal year ended June 30, 1912, under acts of Congresf approved March 2, 1887 (Hatch fund). anc Marcli 16, 1906 (Adams fund). $15,000 00 $1/ ),000 00 Cr. By salaries, $8,908 04 $12,650 33 labor, 2,568 46 836 74 publications, 261 38 - postage and stationery, . 375 76 53 47 freight and express, .... 119 60 22 82 heat, light, water and power, . 91 68 71 76 chemicals and laboratory supplies, 111 11 167 75 seeds, plants and sundry supplies. 661 28 223 57 fertilizers, 439 80 71 25 feeding stuffs, 689 43 - library, . . 91 08 2 00 tools, machinery and ai)i)liances, . 30 8 40 furniture and fixtures, . . ~; 164 37 417 70 scientific api)aratus and specimens, 297 90 308 68 live stock, 26 00 - traveling expenses, .... 129 75 24 95 contingent expenses. 15 00 - buildings and land, .... 49 06 140 58 Total, . $15,000 00 $15,000 00 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13 Stale Appropriation, 1911-12. Cash balance brought forward from hist fiscal year, $886 90 Casli received from State Treasurer, . . . 16,875 00 fertilizer fees, .... 10,277 00 faim products, . . . 6,613 10 miscellaneous sources, . . 8,143 69 $42,795 69 Cash jiaid for salaries, . labor, jiubliealions, postage and stationer^', freight and express, heat, light, water and power, chemicals and laboratory sup plies, .... seeds, plants and sundry sup plies, fertilizers, feeding stuff's, . library, tools, machinery and aj^pli ances, . furniture and fixtures, scientific apparatus and speci mens, live stock, traveling expenses, , contingent expenses, buildings and land, . balance, . $15,024 62 8,909 03 1,387 85 1,004 80 166 67 252 91 772 41 1,736 42 504 16 1,142 96 260 56 274 79 316 04 378 87 5 00 2,785 85 190 00 895 47 6,787 28 — $42,795 69 14 EXPEUniENT STATION. [Jan. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. FUED W. MORSE, ACTING DIRECTOR. The Agricultural Experiment Station has been unfortunate in the loss of the services of its director during the latter part of the year. Dr. Brooks was obliged to relinquish his work on account of ill health, and accept a leave of absence beginning Julyl. \^ice-I)irector J. B. Lindsey, who acted by appointment from July 1 to October 1, found his duties as chief of the division of chemistry, in both college and experiment station, too arduous and exacting to be combined with those of the director. The trustees accordingly appointed Fred W. Morse acting director on October 1. There have been several changes among the junior members of the station staff. Mr. Herbert J. Baker resigned his position as secretary to the director on July 1, and accepted a position with the office of farm management in the United States De- partment of Agriculture. He was succeeded in the experiment station l)y jNFr. Benjamin G. Southwick, but just at the end of the year ]\Ir. Southwick resigned to take a more responsible position in practical agriculture, and the position will remain unfilled until the return of the director. In the department of plant and animal chemistry, Mr. George R. Pierce, Mr. Carleton P. Jones and ]\fr. Carlos L. Beals were appointed assistants, the first-named in the feed and dairy sec- tion and the others in the fertilizer section. ^Ir. Pierce re- signed at the end of the year, to go to Cul)a, where he is em- ployed in a sugar-house. IMiss Lina Fisher has been employed in conjunction with the college, to serve for half of the time as stenographer in the feed and dairy section. In the horticultural de})artment, Mr. Howard A. Turner was 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 appointed July 1 to the position of graduate assistant in plant- breeding-, but soon resigned to accept a position with the oiKcc of farm management, and the former position has remained vacant. Miss Grace E. Gallond has been appointed stenographer in the department of agriculture and Mr. H. W. Angier has suv- ceeded Mv. I\. W. Ilallovvell as observer in the meteorological department. Just before the close of the year, Mr. II, D. Goodale of the Carnegie Laboratory, at Cold Spring Harbor. !N. Y., was appointed research biologist in poultry-husbandry, to begin work on Eeb. 1, 1913. At the last session of the Legislature the annual appropria- tion for the maintenance of the experiment station was in- creased from $10,500 to $15,000, to become available at the beginning of the new fiscal year, Dee. 1, 1913. The trustees have assigned nearly the whole increase to the department of poultry-husbandry, and Prof. John C. Graham has been ap- pointed head of the department, without salary from the experi- ment station. The growth of the experiment station has developed a need of more land, and the trustees have deemed it the wiser policy to meet these needs by leasing satisfactory tracts in the vicinity. Two tracts have accordingly been leased, viz., a lot of twenty acres from Mrs. Mary E. Tuxbury for orchard experiments, and a tract of two acres from Mrs. Winifred Tripp for a fertilizer experiment with basic slag phosphate. The work of the experiment station has continued without interruption along the lines described in the last annual report, and no new investigations have been undertaken ; but plans have l)een adopted for experiments in breeding poultry with the aid of the additional State funds. The details of the prog- ress in the diiferent investigations will be found in succeeding pages reported by the officers who have been respectively in- trusted with them. The asparagus field at the Concord asparagus substation has produced its fourth crop this year. Mr. C. W. Prescott, in charge of the substation, reported an excellent yield amounting to a gross weight of 11,141 pounds of shoots for the whole area of two acres. 16 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The fertilizer experiments on asparagus so far have shown positively that the use of chemical fertilizers alone has main- tained the plots so treated at a somewhat higher productiveness than the comhination of chemicals with stahlo manure. There is some indication, however, that the comhined treatment will be superior in the years to come. The three crops preceding this year showed that the maxi- mum yield of asparagus shoots had heen reached only with the maximum application of phosphoric acid. The asparagus plant is not at any stage a heavy consumer of phosphoric acid, and there had been applied a calculated surplus of the sub- stance in the minimum amount. Nevertheless, there was evi- dently a need of more phosphoric acid, so the quantities ap- plied this year were doubled and will be maintained at the higher rate in the years to come. By another year, with the return to duty of Director Brooks, it will be possible to publish a detailed report of the fertilizer experiments. Prof. J. B. Xorton of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Ignited States Department of Agriculture, has published the results of the experiments in breeding rust-resistant varieties of aspar- agus in Bulletin 263, Bureau of Plant Industrv, entitled, " Methods used in breeding Asparagus for Bust Besistance."' The bulletin covers the work up to the end of 1911, and shows notable progress in developing an immune variety. As a result of his field observations, Professor INorton, on page 50, makes the following important statement: "When rust was found in a commercial field, by following it up to the northwest, in the direction from which the prevailing winds come, a young bed, an old neglected bed, or wild asparagus was found in every case, and always Mnth the remains of (dustercup infections." He then suggests that wild plants should be dug up and burned, new beds should be planted where they will not affect cutting beds, and every shoot in the commercial field should be cut until the middle of June. The cranberry substation at East Wareham has illustrated one of the uncertainties which confront the cranberry grower. The crop this year when picked was estimated to be a little over 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 17 200 barrels, while the crop of 1911 was 850 barrels. Last year's crop returucd a gross income of $4,1)88.33; but this year's crop is not expected to return over $1,100.^ This low yield was apparently due to a reaction or rest following the exceptionally hea\'y crop of 1911, because there was a rela- tively light bloom and no severe injury from insects or disease. The expenditures at the substation have been grouped under three heads and do not include the salary of the superin- tendent. The}' were as follows : — Expenses of maintenance, $1,434 62 Permanent improvements, 551 09 Experimental, 1,243 25 Total, $3,228 96 The work during the coming year will be somewhat cur- tailed to keep within the decreased income due to the scanty crop of this year. The bog is not expected to be self-sustain- ing as an experiment station, but as on any commercial bog the work will necessarily be contracted or expanded somewhat in proportion to the funds arising from its produce. The bog is in excellent condition and expenditures for maintenance and improvements can be lessened with no injury to it, while the experimental work can be continued without interruption. The detailed report of Dr. H. J. Franklin for the past year 1/^ will be found in another portion of this report. The Agricultural Experiment Station has completed its thirtieth year. Its record of service can be found in the thou- sands of pages of its annual reports, bulletins and circulars, to which should be added the personal letters, by tens of thou- sands, that have been written for individual seekers after in- formation. During this period three decennial censuses have been taken by the State, viz., 1885, 1895 and 1905. The progress in Massachusetts agriculture shown by these censuses is interest- ing and indeed striking. 1 The final sales in February, 1913, resulted in a return of $1,082.77 for 190 barrels of screened fruit. 18 EXPERBIENT STATION. Jan. Capital invested in agriculture in 1885 was $216,230,550, and in 1905 it had increased to $288,153,654, or a gain of 33 per cent. The value of agricultural products in 1885 was $47,756,000, and in 1905 it was $73,110,000, a gain of 53 per cent. The experiment station Iras borne its part in this progres- sive agricultural movement and at slight cost to the State. Its average annual income during this period, including funds from the luitional treasury, has been less than one-fifth of a mill for each dollar invested in agriculture in 1885. We believe it to be our duty at this time to point out to the people of Massachusetts new ways in which the experiment station can serve them in the years to come. Since the close of the year there have been prepared and brought together from all the departments detailed plans for projects which show new lines of investigation needed for the further advance- ment of agricultural interests. These projects may be grouped for convenience under the heads of crop production, crop pro- tection, animal husbandry and agricultural economics. Under crop production there have been proposed plans for systematic plant-l)reeding, which shall on the one hand de- termine the fundamental principles underlying the development of new varieties, and on the other hand shall result in the selection and introduction of new strains or varieties of staple farm and garden crops especially suited to our climate and soil. In fruit growing there is pointed out the need of more knowledge of cultural requirements in orcharding, owing to the differences in slope and surface of our hillsides, some of which are steep and some rolling, some rocky and some free from rocks. The adaptability of varieties needs consideration, and its study will require a knowledge of weather conditions and soil formation. A little less than one-fifth of the State has been surveyed by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, and it is desirable that this soil survey should be made complete, which must l)e done at the expense of the State. Judging from the surveys already made in this State and in adjacent States, there are probably be- tween fifty and sixty distinct types of soils composing our 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19 farm lands. As specialization in crops increases, it is impor- tant that the distribntion of these types be known, becanse it will save many woidd-be g'rowers of onions, tobacco, asparagus and similar s])eeialties from disappointirient and financial loss. Xew crops for florists need investigation and development, and a more efficient nse of fertilizers shonld be worked out. Crop protection involves continnal stndy of predaceons in- sects, destrnctive fnngi and bacteria, and also diseases pro- dnced by injndicions cultural methods, particularly in the forced crops under glass. First one insect and then another upsets nature's checks and balances owing to concentration of special crops, and the same thing is true of fungous growths. Instead of new lines of investigation this field requires more workers and more facilities. In animal husbandry, the new projects may be considered as the expansion of present lines of investigation. The poultry- breeding experiment, which has already been mentioned, is planned to include the selection of a strain of high efficiency as utility fowls, and this project will require a progressive in- crease of house-room and labor, as the successive generations of fowls are produced. Efficiency in feeding animals is more necessary than ever before ; therefore there is positive need for more extensive work in feeding cattle, pigs, horses and poultry than the station now can perform with its facilities. Two phases of the dairy industry, which have been but little studied from a scientific standpoint, are the production of market milk and the manufacture of ice cream. These phases are peculiar to our dense city population adjacent to our farms. Diseases of our domestic animals, particularly of poultry, are becoming of increasing importance duG to the enlarged amounts of capital invested in single plants, and calls for diagnosis and advice are almost incessant. The need in all these lines is for more investigators, thoroughly trained specialists, and the de- mand, the country over, exceeds the supply; therefore the State that bids the highest gets their services. Economics may not seem a subject belonging to an agricul- tural experiment station, but certain ydiases have always been studied. Inspection of fertilizers and feeding stuffs may prop- 20 EXPERLAIENT STATION. [Jan. erly be included under this head, because nothing is of greater importance to the user of capital than the certainty of receiv- ing a full return for its expenditure. There is now needed a thorough investigation of methods of seed-testing and seed- separation as a foundation for a just law controlling the sale of agricultural seeds. Equally important as economic investi- gations are those of ice-storage of garden vegetables and the utilization of sur])Ius fruit and vegetables in various manu- factured products with home or community facilities. Economical use of our agricultural resources and efficient application of capital to their development require more or less study of State conditions, viz., practices of successful farmers; methods followed in milk-production, potato-growing, corn- growing, fruit-growing and so forth ; relation between success and location with respect to local markets, and location with respect to transportation facilities ; and the relation between social surroundings and agricultural prosperity. In planning these projects the station workers have had in mind increasing the service of this institution in behalf of the State for the ultimate development of every farm to a higher state of productivity and the assurance to the farmer of a greater prosperity. To execute these projects will require double the present in- come of the experiment station, but the experiment station neither b(\gs nor demands that this income be given it. It has presented the subject to the people and is ready to serve them, and will serve them to the utmost of its facilities. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 21 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST. K. F. GASKILL, ASSISTANT. The duty of preparing- the annual report of the agricultural department has fallen to the assistant agriculturist. i)r. Wm. P. Brooks, who has served as agriculturist of the experiment station since 1889, was forced to give up his duties last June because of ill health, and by vote of the trustees has been given leave of absence until September, 1913. The work of the department for the past year was outlined almost entirely by Dr. Brooks and has followed the same gen- eral lines as in previous years, namely, experiments with fer- tilizers involving the use of 181 field plots, 13 orchard plots, 132 pots in our vegetation work and 147 inclosed plots, used largely to check results obtained in the field. From year to year the department has made a careful study of man}^ of the more promising varieties of potatoes, corn and soy beans; has investigated the possibilities of growing alfalfa in the State ; and has co-operated with other departments of the station in carrying out many lines of investigation ; but the main question under consideration has been the study of prob- lems connected with soil fertility. Preferring to base con- clusions on averages for a number of years, rather than on the results for one or two years, many of the fertilizer experiments have been continued from year to year. In view of this fact the report of the experimental work in this department, as in previous years, must in most instances be a report of progress. It is intended to present the work according to the plan gen- erally followed, in order that the successive reports may fur- nish a complete record of each experiment. 22 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The Comparison of Different Materials as a Source of Nitrogen. Field A. In this experiment there are eleven plots of one-tenth acre each, separated by division strips 4 feet in width. They have been fertilized each year according to the following plan : ^ — Plot. Source of Nitrogen. Source of Potash. Source of Phosphoric Acid. • 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Barnyard manure, ^ Nitrate of soda. Nitrate of soda. Dried blood. Nothing, Sulfate of ammonia. Sulfate of ammonia. Nothing, Sulfate of ammonia. Nothing, Dried blood, Muriate of potash, . Sulfate of potash-magnesia, Muriate of potash, . Sulfate of potash-magnesia. Sulfate of potash-magnesia. Muriate of potash, . Muriate of potash, . Muriate of potash, . Muriate of potash, . Sulfate of potash-magnesia, Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dis.solved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. Dissolved bone-black. The nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are applied in equal amounts to all plots except 4, 7 and 9. These receive phosphoric acid and potash but no nitrogen. Dnring the twenty-three years of the experiment the crops grown have been: 1890, oats; 1891, rye; 1892, soy beans; 1893, oats; 1894, soy beans; 1895, oats; 1890, soy beans; 1S9T, oats; 1898, oats; 1899, clover; 1900, potatoes; 1901, soy beans; 1902, potatoes; 1903, soy beans; 1904, potatoes; 1905, oats and peas; 1906, corn; 1907, clover; 1908, clover; 1909, clover; 1 The materials are used at the following rates per acre: — Pounds. Nitrate of soda 290 Sulfate of ammonia, .............. 225 Dried Vjlood 525 Muriate of potash, .............. "50 Sulfate of potash 485 Dissolved bone-black, 500 Manure 8,000 » In addition, nitrate of soda, dissolved bone-black and sulfate of potash-magnesia have been applied to equalize the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash on plots 1-10. 19K PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23 1910, clover; 1911, com followed hy clover; and 1912, corn followed bj clover. The variety of corn grown this year was the same as last, — Knstler White Dent. It made a very satisfactory growth and was well matured hy the 19th of September, on which date it was cut and stooked. The average yields for this year are shown in the following table: — Average Yields per Acre, 1912. Plot. Hard Corn, Ears (Quahels). Soft Corn, Ears (Bushols). Stover (Pounds). No-nitrogen (4, 7, 9), Nitrate of sjda (1, 2), Dried blf)od (3, 10), Sulfate of ammonia (."), fi, 8), Manure (01, 67.86 93.00 89 57 78.26 80 00 1.61 1 79 1 31 1.02 1.29 5,116.70 5,700.00 ■5,450.00 5,133.30 5,000 00 On the basis of 100 for nitrate of soda, the relative stand- ing of the different nitrogen plots and no-nitrogen plots, as measnred by total yield during the past season, was as fol- lows : — Per Cent. Nitrate of soda, . Barnyard manure, Dried blood. Sulfate of ammonia, No-nitrogen, The relative standing of the different materials as indicated by total yield for the twenty-three years during which the ex- periment has continued is as follows : — - Per Cent. Nitrate of sorla, 100.00 Barnyard manure, 94.28 Dried blood 92.95 Sulfate of ammonia, 87.38 No-nitrogen, 73.04 24 EXrERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. On the basis of increase as compared with the no-nitrogen plots the relative standing for the different fertilizers for the twenty-three years is as follows : — Per Cent. Niuale of soda, 100.00 Barnyard manure, ......... 78.78 Dried blood, 73.85 Sulfate of amniouia, 53.19 Nitrate of soda, as in previons years, shows the greatest average increase. The striking results obtained last year on the no-nitrogen plots are not so apparent this year. In 1911 the yield on the no-nitrogen plots was 95 per cent, of the aver- age yield on all the different nitrogen plots; this year the no- nitrogen plots are represented by 73 per cent. In commenting npon the good showing made by the no-nitrogen plots last year, Dr. Brooks said : — One of tlie most striking results of the past season Avas the I'elatively large yield produced on the no-nitrogen plots. It amounts to about 95 per cent, of the average yield on all the different plots which have re- ceived an application of nitrogen annually. This result, it will be readily understood, was no doubt due to the fact that clover for three years had preceded the corn crop of the past year. The figures empha- size in a most striking way the extent to which rotations including a legume may be made to take the place of the use of nitrogen fertilizers. Muriate r. Sulfate of Potash. Field B. This is the twenty-first year of the experiment. The field consists of five pairs of plots, numbered from eleven to twenty. The odd plots (eleven, thirteen, etc.) have received annually an application of muriate of potash, while the even plots (twelve, fourteen, etc.) have received an application of high- grade sulfate of potash. In nddition to the potash the plots have received annunlly an applicaticm of bone meal at the rate of 000 pounds per acre. During the early period of the experi- ment the potash salts were used in different amounts in differ- ent years. For the last twelve years an annual application of 1013. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 25 250 pounds per acre has been applied to each plot. The object has been to supply annuall^y the same amount of actual potash to each plot, and to study the eft'ects of the continued use of these potash salts upon the same soil. The following table shows the crops grown this }'ear and the rate of yield ])er acre for each : — Manoel- RhU JAKB. -^ c •^ T3 13 3 O c 3 O 3 3 o .2 -3 a 3 o & a 3 o 3 O o o a 3 O Pi c 3 03 cj J2 ^ -14 ?" Y- ■2 cr a < 0. C3 3 C3 & ^ e2 Muriate of potash, . 5,8.37 .5,734 4,027 17,647 19,669 939 4,403 40,608 6,486 Sulfate of potash, 7,331 4,348 4,609 25,343 28,302 1,300 5,087 32,897 4,276 CoMrARISOX OF DiFFEKE.XT PoTASH SaLTS FOR FlELD CkOPS. Field G. The plan and object of this experiment is quoted from the nineteenth annual report of the experiment station : — ■ This experiment is clesignecl to show the ultimate etTect upon the soil, as well as the current effect upon the crops, of continuous use of differ- ent potasli salts. We have under comparison kainit, high-STadc sulfate, low-grade sulfate, muriate, nitrate, carbonate and silicate.' The field includes forty plots, in five series of eight plots each. Each series in- cludes a no-potash plot, as v.ell as the seven potash plots which have been named. The experiment is therefore carried out each year in quintuplicato. The area of each plot is one-fortieth of an acre. The potash salts under comparison are used in quantities which will supply annually actual potash at the rate of 16.i pounds per acre to each of the plots. All plots are equally manured, and liberally, with matei;ials furnishing nitrogen and phosphoric acid.- ' Owing to our inability to obtain silicate of pot.ash feldspar was substituted in 1908, and Las since been used on these plot^. 2 The nitrogen and phosphoric acid are supplied by the following materials per acre: — Pounds. Nitrate of soda 250 Tanl -KP CO CO CO CO CO C-) ^ i-H O oo »o -^ no CO •— I "-t* C*l <^ 1^ t^ GO CO QO 00 CO -^ i^ o * • • 1 I ■ • • :^: w w S ^ a fe 28 EXrERlMENT STATION. [Jan. CoMPAKisox OF J)iffej;e.\t riiosniATEs. This is the sixteenth year of the experiment, the |)hin and ohjeet of ^\■hi<•h is (juoted from the twentv-third annual re- port : — Ten of the leading- materials whicli may be used as a source of phos- jihoric acid have been under comparison in one of our fields since 1(S97. The ditTerent materials are ai)plied to the sejiarate plots in such quan- tities as to furnish equal amounts of actual phosphoric acid to each. There are three check plots to wliich no phosphate whatever has been applied during the entire period of the experiment. All the plots receive annually equal and liberal quantities of materials supplying nitrogen and potash in highly available forms. The field has been used for a large variety of crops, the succession having been as follows: corn, cabbages, corn, oats and Hungarian grass (followed by rye plowed under), onions, onions, corn, mixed grass and clover three years, cab- bages and soy beans and potatoes. In view of the fact that the results of similar experiments (comparison of different materials as sources of ])hos})]ioric acid) in other States have not shown the marked differences between the ground rock phosphates and the more soluble phosphates that our results show, and in view of the fact that the hnnius content of the different soils is claimed by some authorities to be the cause of the differences in the showing of the rock phosphates, it has been our aim in the treatment of the field for the last few years to get as much humus into the soil as possible. In 1011 the field was seeded in IMay with oats and alfalfa. Two crops were harvested, one in July and one in September. In 1012 the field was plowed and Japanese Buckwheat sown, which was jdowed under in Jidy. In August rye was sown, to be plowed under in the spring. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 Average Corn Fertilizer compared with Fertilizer Richer in Potash. North Corn Acre. The two systems of fertilizing have been under comparison for twcntv-two years. The object has been to tletcrmino whether or not the average corn fertilizer sold on our markets contains the right proportions of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. The field consists of four plots of one-fourth acre each. Two of the plots — 1 and 3 — • receive annnally an application of a home-made mixture furnishing the different plant-food elements in the same proportions as in average corn fertilizer. The other two plots receive an application of a home-made mixture furnishing less phosphoric acid and more potash than the average corn fertilizer. The rotation is two years of grass and two years of corn. The crop this year was corn. The fol- lowing table shows the relative standing of the two mixtures for this year : — Corn on the Cob. Hard Ears (Bushels). Soft Ears (Bushels). Stover (Pounds). Average corn fertilizer Fertilizer richer in potash 55.66 61.69 1.25 1.37 3,oGG 4,000 The different materials were used on the plots at the follow- ing rates per acre : — Fertilizers. Plot 1 (Pounds). Plot 2 (Pounds). Plot 3 (Pounds). Plot 4 (Pounds). Nitrate of soda, Dried blood, Fish. Acid phosphate, ... Muriate of potash Slag 120 120 150 1,092 150 200 200 200 250 120 120 150 1,002 150 200 200 200 250 400 30 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. The amount of plant food furnished an acre, its cost, and the profit realized bv using the diiferent mixtures are shown in the following table : — -3 ^ X • -H ^ a 3 3 --; "5 ~o -0 Plots. fe 0^ a o S o 3 3 Formula. C 3 M "5.^ ^ - jj o cj ^ a C3 O S g > O "3 R P4 1 and 3, . l,f)32 38.35 196.49 77.68 «17 90 55.66 3,566 S44 97 §27 07 2.35-12.04-4.76 2 and 4, . 1,050 42.93 104.01 129.63 15 41 61.69 4,090 50 34 34 93 4.09-9.91-12.34 Average corn 1,700 41.65 165.07 76.84 28 27 _ _ _ _ _ fertilizer. » 1 Represents the actual cost of chemicals. To these should be added the cost of mixing, which ■will range from SI. 50 to .?2 per ton. 2 The late spring and the unusually dry summer were not favorable for a good corn crop. In 1911 on these same plots the average yield of the four plots was over 85 bushels per acre. ' Ba.sed on the value of the crop at harvest time. * Represents the difference between the cost of chemicals and the value of the crop. The labor question was not considered in this comparison becau.se it was the same for all plots. 5 The prices and formula for the corn fertilizer were obtained by taking an average of all the corn fertilizers reported in the 1911 fertilizer bulletin. The composition of the corn fertilizers varies widely, and in taking an average of all corn fertilizers, reported in our fer- tilizer bulletin from year to year, we find considerable variation. The percentage of phosphoric acid is not as high at the present time as in former years. The tables show that in ord(^r to supply about the same amounts of plant food per acre, it would be necessary to use 1,700 pounds of the average corn fertilizer. This at the aver- age price per ton would cost over $28. It will be seen from the figures representing the cost of the different chemical mix- tures, and the crops obtained, that it would be necessary to harvest a much larger crop on this fertilizer in order to in.'^nre a profit as large as that shown for the other fertilizers. The prices used in these calculations were as follows: corn on the col), (tO cents per bushel ; stover in the field, $0.50 per ton; fertilizers at the current ])rices for 1912. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31 Manure alone compared with Manure and Sulfate of Potash. South Corn Acre. The two systems of manuring have been under comparison for twentj-two years. Tlie field consists of four plots of one- fourth acre each. Two of the plots — 1 and 3 — receive an application of barnyard manure at the rate of G cords per acre, while the other two receive an application of manure at the rate of 4 cords per acre, and in addition an application of high- grade sulfate of potash at the rate of 160 pounds per acre. The crop grown this year was corn. The relative standing of the two systems for this year is shown in the following table : — Corn on the Cob. Hard Ears (Bashels). Soft Ears (Bushels). Stover (Pounds). Manure alone, ...... Manure and potash, 67.57 63.34 1.43 1.86 4,460 3,840 The following table gives the amount of fertilizer used per acre on each plot, its cost and the profit: — Plot. Fertilizer. n- i 1 Grain C°st.' (Bushels).^ Stover (Pounds). Value, s Profit. < 1, . 3. . 2, . 4, . 1 and 3, . 2 and 4, . 6 cords manure, 6 cords manure, 4 cords manure and 160 pounds high-grade sul- fate. 4 cords manure and 160 pounds high-grade sul- fate. Average, .... Average, .... $30 00 30 00 24 00 24 00 30 00 24 00 71.71 63.43 GO 00 06.63 67.57 63.34 4,360 4,560 3,800 3,880 4,460 3,840 $57 20 52 88 48 35 52 59 55 01 50 48 $27 20 22 72 24 35 28 59 25 04 26 48 ' Represents the actual cost of the fertilizer used. s The late spring and the unusually dry summer were not favorable for a good corn crop. In 1911 on these same plots the average yield of the four plots was over 86 bushels per acre. ' Based on the value of the crop at harvest time. * Represents the difference between the cost of the material used and the value of the crop. The cost of spreading the manure was not considered because this item of expense would not be the same in very many cases. 32 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Comparing the average of jolots 1 and 3 with the average of plots 2 and -i we find tlie nuitorial.s cost more for 1 and 3; the amount of grain and stover produced is larger, but the profit is less. The diti'ci-cnce in favor of using the smaller amount of manure and potash is still more apparent when we consider that wo have two cords h^ss of manure to handle. COMPAKISON OF WlXTEK AND SriMXG AprLICATION OF MaXUIIE. The details of the plan and object of this experiment may be found in the nineteenth annual report : — This experiment was iDlanned to be continued through a series of years, with a view to throwing light upon the question as to the best method of handling farm manures. The fiekl in use has an area of a httle less than three acres, and slopes moderately to the west. It had been divided into five plots a number of years previous to the begin- ning of this experiment, for the comparison of different fertilizers. Each of these five plots was subdivided into two sub-plots. To one of the sub-plots in each of the five pairs the manure is applied during the winter, being spread upon the surface as it is hauled to the field; to the other sub-plot in each of the five pairs the manure as it is hauled is put into a large, compact heap. The manure used is carefully preserved, from well-fed dairy cows on four of the pairs of plots (1, 2, 3 and 4), and purchased stable manure from horses on one pair of plots (5). The experiment is so managed that all the manure is hauled for a single pair of plots at one time, usually during a single day, or at most within two days. To insure even quality of the manure on the two sub-plots, loads are placed alternately on the north half, where it is sj)read as hauled ; and on the south half, where, as has been stated, it is put into a large heap. The land has usually been plowed late in the fall. The manure has usually been applied to the two sub-plots 1 early in the winter ; to the sub-plots 2, 3 and 4, respectively', at intervals each about one month later than the preceding. The manure which is placed in the heaps remains there until it is time to prepare the soil for planting in the spring. It is tlien spread, and as soon as convenient the entire area, including both the winter and sjiring applications, is plowed. Manure was omitted in 1912 and will not be applied as in previous years. Records will, however, be kept, the object now being to test the residual effect of the two systems of ap- plying manure. There are five pairs of plots in the experi- 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 33 ment. The crop this year was mixed grass and clover hay. The average yiekis per acre in 1912 were:-^ Hay (Pounds). Rowen (Pounds). Winter application, Spring application, 5,528.4 5.745.8 364.0 795.4 Top-DRESsiNo Permanent Mowings. An ontline of the plan and object of this experiment is qnoted from the sixteenth annnal report : — In tliis experiment, ■\vhieb has continued since 1893, the purpose is to test a system of using manures in rotation for the production of grass. The area used in tlie experiment is about 9 acres. It is divided into tluee approximately equal plots. The }>lan is to apply to each plot, one year barnyard manure, the next year wood ashes, and the third year fine-ground bone and muriate of potash. As we have three plots, the system of manuring has been so arranged that every year we have a plot illustrating the results of each of the applications under trial. The rates at which the several manures are employed are as fol- lows : barnyard manure, 8 tons ; wood ashes, 1 ton ; ground bone, 600 pounds; and muriate of potash, 200 pounds per acre. The manure is always applied in tlie fall ; ashes and the bone and potash in early spring. The past year bronght tlie fifth snccessive season unfavor- able to hay production. The rain fall in May was slightly above the normal, but the following month was one of the driest Junes recorded since records have been kept here at the college. The yield obtained ^ this year on the different systems of manuring is shown in the following table : — Yield per Acre. Fertiuzeus used. Hay (Pounds). Rowen Total (Pounds). (Pounds). Barnyard manure, Bone and pota.sh Wood ashes, i 3,610 3,655 3,171 1,359 1,164 1,616 4,969 4,819 4,787 ' Owing to the difficulty of securing good wood a.shes a mixture of .slag and muriate of potash, supplying the same amount of phosphoric acid and potash, was substituted this year. 34 EXPEllLMExXT STATION. [Jan. The average yield for the entire period of the experiment (1893-1912, inclusive) for each system of manuring is shown in the following table : — Pounds. Barnyard manure, ......... G.149 Bone and potash, ' . . 5,999 AVood ashes,' 5,G36 The average yield for the entire area this year was 4,S4G pounds, — a little better than the average yield for last year, but not equal to the average yield for the entire period of the experiment (1893-1912, inclusive) which is 5,959 pounds. The average yield for the period 1893-1911, inclusive, was 6,018 pounds. ' Owing to the difficulty of securing good wood aahes a mixture of slat; and muriate of potash, supplying the same amount of phosphoric acid and potash, was substituted this year. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 35 DEPARTMENT OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. G. E. STONE. This department has the past year been engaged in the usual routine and research work, investigations being made of the new diseases which come to our attention and which are given a thorough study if they prove serious. Mr. G. IT. Chapman, research assistant, has been engaged on problems of a technical nature, and jMr. E. A. Larrabee's attention has been given mainly to the diagnosis of diseases and seed work. The office work has been carried on as usual by Miss J. V. Crocker, and Mr. R. G. Smith, who is at present assisting in the senior laboratory, performed some experiments in the summer with the chestnut l)ark disease. Messrs. Torrey, Larsen, Ellis, Lyon, Sullivan and Chase, undergraduate stu- dents, have given assistance in various ways, — in the green- house, with experiments, etc., and Mr. T. W. Nicolet has taken many of the photographs. A list of several problems which the department has been investigating follows. A careful study is being made of some of the diseases of field and greenhouse crops. This includes an investigation of the conditions causing the diseases and experiments with methods for their control. Among those receiving special at- tention are some diseases of the apple, potato, cucumber, melon, lettuce, tomato and herbaceous plants and shade trees. In the last two years there has been present a serious blight on green- house cucumbers M-hich has in some instances caused a totnl failure of the cucumber crop in this section, and some study has 36 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. been made of this disease. For five years experiments have been carried on relative to the control of potato scab, and some of the results of this work will be contained in this report. These experiments will be continued. Some further lines of work are given in brief: — Investigations relating to improved methods of seed germina- tion and separation. Experiments on the control of weeds in lawns, etc. Investigations relating to the injurious effects of oil sprays on fruit trees. Investigations relating to the effects on shade trees of chem- ical substances applied to roadbeds. Investigations relating to the effects of different fumigants on greenhouse crops which are subject to variations in light in- tensity and moisture. Investigations relating to the effects of various spraying solu- tions on plants exposed to variations in light intensity, etc. Investigations relating to the burning of the foliage of green- house plants by fumigants as related to the condition of the stomata. A study of the weed situation in cranberry bogs. Testing of a large variety of chemical substances to ascertain their fungicidal value. Investigations relating to overfeeding and malnutrition in greenhouse plants, a trouble which is becoming more common in greenhouses. Investigations relating to the relationship between various light intensities and the effects of different spraying solutions, and the maximum carbon assimilation in such crops as potatoes, grapes, etc. Investigations relating to the fixation of nitrogen by the elec- trical stimulation of micro-organisms. Experiments with methods of keeping roots from drain tiles, — a continuation of those already published. A study of spraying machinery and new types of nozzles. Experiments with a new type of soil sterilizer. Investigations relating to the mosaic disease as occurring on different plants ; nearly completed. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 37 Tnvostigatioiis rclaliiii>' to light in grcenhons(^s ; practically completed. Experiments with methods of treating tree cavities. Experiments with the effects of varying percentages of soil, moisture and air on tlKTgermination of seeds. Experiments with the effects of ozone on seed germination and varions plant activities. These investigations have been carried on in some cases for some time, and several of them wonld properly come under the heading, " Investigations of the effects of meteorological condi- tions on the diseases and the development of plants in general," which we are studying under the " Adams fund." 38 EXPERIMENT bTATION. [Jan. DISEASES MORE OR LESS COMMON DURING TEIE YEAR. G. E. STONE. Like the year before, this season has been characterized by severe dronght in the summer months, with some rain in the fall, although the rainfall in August, September and October was less than the normal. In ISTovember, however, it exceeded the normal. In May, June and July the drought and heat were such as to cause considerable defoliation of trees and unevenness in corn fields, although this last was in some cases due to poor seed which was affected by frost the year before. The unusually large onion crop ripened poorly in some fields, and in the Connecticut valley many hundreds of bushels had to be left on the ground owing to non-maturity. Potatoes were of excellent quality, with less than the usual amount of early blight, and the rot was not very noticeable. Apple trees showed some winter killing of the twigs and roots as the result of the preceding severe winter, with some sunscald and a few cases of what appears to be injury from spraying with oil. The leaves of those trees in particular which were not sprayed were affected to an unusual degree with scab (Fiisiclndiiim) and leaf spots (Sphcuropsis). The scab was more or less common on the fruit in the fall and was accompanied in almost every case by pink mold (Cephalothecium) , but no serious injury occurred. Apple rust (Gymnosporangium) , which has been more or less common the Inst three or four years, was seen occasionally on the leaves, and in a few instances affected iho, fruit. Storage burns were common in some localities, due possibly to defective storage con- ditions, and in other cases to the rather poor ripening or harden- ing up of the fruit. Apple fruit rots were unusually abundant late in the fall, being caused, apparently, by the abnormal ripen- ing of the fruit. As usual, there was very little rot (GIocospo- 1013.] PUBLIC DOCI'.AIENT — No. 31. 39 rinin) on the tree, but it occiiiTcd later at the time of harvest- ing. The black rot {Sphcrropsis) iisuallj constitutes 80 or 90 2)er cent, of our fruit rots, but this year the bitter rot {(Jloeo- sporhnn) prevailed and Splio^ropsis was quite scarce, and for til is reason there was more rotting of the fruit on the tree than is usually seen here. The brown rot (Sclerdtinia) and blue mold rot {PencilUuin) were quite common, as was the fruit S})ot (CijIindrosporli(Ni), which aU'ected many varieties of apples. Crown gall (Pseudontoiia.s) is not so prevalent now as a few years ago, as greater care is being taken in buying apple stock. Peach leaf-curl (Exoascus) was unusually severe in the spring, especially on unsprayed trees, and much curling of the foliage was caused by aphis. Peach and plum rots (Sclerotinia) were not common, and other than the winter killing of the fruit buds the trees made good growth and were quite free from disease. There was some pear blight (Bacillus) and sooty mold, which grows in the secretions of aphis. Rusts (Gymnosporangiuni) in general have been more common the past four years, but they were less conspicuous this season than last. Among these may be mentioned quince, bean, apple, Yinca, rose and ash rust. The quince rust continues to be more or less of a pest. The white pine blister rust {C ronartiimi) , introduced a few years ago, is now receiving attention from the nursery inspector. The European currant rust, one stage of the pine blister rust, has recently made its appearance, being first observed on the black currant in Essex County, the only location known in this State at the present time. Among other more or less common diseases noticed during the year are the maple leaf spot {Ehytisma), pea mildew (Ery- sipJie), several sweet pea troubles of a miscellaneous character, the leaf spot of the cherry {Cyllndrosporiinn), asparagus rust (Puccinia), oat smut (Ustilago), hollyhock rust (Puccinia), potato scab (Oospora), corn smut (Ustilago) , black rot of grape (Guignardia), bacterial wilt of cucumbers (Bacillus), currant leaf spot (Septoria) , frost injury to asparagus, blossom end rot of tomatoes and scab (Cylindrosporium) , oak and sycamore leaf blight (Glcposporium) , black spot of rose (Actinonema) , rose mildew (Sphcerotheca), leaf spot of mignonette (Cercospora), 40 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. melon blight (Altenmria), celery blight {Cercospora), apple canker (tSphwropsis and JSectria), and winter killing of rasp- berries and roses, sycamore twigs, privet and others. The unusually severe infection from aphis caused a loss of foliage to many trees. A peculiar mottling of chestnut leaves which were thickly covered with honey-dew was noticed, and- examinations of the leaf tissue revealed a partial plasmolysis of the cells, accompanied by considerable defoliation ; but after showers, which would wash off the honey-dew, the defoliation would cease. The general deterioration of shade trees which has been noticeable for the last six or seven years has been even more pronounced the last two years. The trees showing the most deterioration are the elm, maple, white and black ash, butternut and Norway spruce ; and the sycamore showed winter killing of the twigs last season, with a Gloeosporium infection of the foliage. The roots of the elm, maple and oak are constantly dying back, and for the last two years maples have been show- ing what is termed ^' staghead," supposed to be due to a dimi- nution of water in the soil in some cases, and in others winter killing of the roots is no doubt a contributing factor. Many thousands of maples have been so affected in the northeastern United States. Last Avinter was one of the worst on record for depth of freezing, and vegetation in general was in poor condition, owing to the drought, to enter upon even a mild winter. The freezing of gas and water pipes was of so fre- quent occurrence as to cause an unprecedented number of leaks. In one city with about 50 miles of pipes, over 200 leaks were recorded, the loss of gas amounting to about 33 per cent., and in some cases sections of the supply had to be cut off. Thus it is not surprising that winter injury of various kinds occurred, although to what extent vegetation has suffered we cannot tell as yet. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 41 A NEW RUST. G. E. STONE. Currant Rust, White Pine Blister Rust. In previous rei)orts we have meiitioned an epidemic of rusts Avliich have been nniisually severe the past few years on the apple, bean, quince and ash, and last year we noted a new rust on Vinca. A new form has lately made its appearance on the black currant. The white j)ine blister rust has also been with us for several years, affecting most largely young nursery stock, although it is occasionally found on white pines of fairly good size. On September 28 some specimens of currant rust were sent in from a large estate in Essex County, this being the first outbreak recorded in Massachusetts to our knowledge. At prac- tically the same time Dr. G. P. Clinton observed a similar out- break in Connecticut, and Prof. F. C. Stewart, of the Geneva Experiment Station, noted an outbreak in Xew York. The rust in this State is confined, so far as we know at the I^resent time, to one block of 200 currant plants of the Black Champion variety. The plants were two-year-olds, purchased last spring from a ISTew York nursery, and practically all in this block were infested except about twenty-five or thirty in the southwestern corner of the block. About a quarter of a mile south of the diseased currants was a small block of old black currants, but they showed no signs of Cronartium. About the same distance east was a magnificent stand of eight-year-old pines, but rigid examination failed to reveal any signs of blister rust infection ; neitlier was any infection found on the near-by block of red currants. The following description of the currant rust and wdiite pine blister rust, which are different stages of the same rust, was prepared at my request by Mr. E. A. Larrabee, from various literature. 42 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The white pine (Piniis Strobus) blister rust (Feridermium iSlrohi) has only been known in Germany for the last thirty or forty years. In this country it has been discovered within the last few years. In 190G Dr. F. C. Stewart of the Geneva sta- tion in Xew York fonnd the disease on the grounds there, but prompt and radical treatment is believed to have completely eradicated it. Again, in 1909, it was found in New York State on a shipment of three-year-old white pine seedlings from Germany. This fungus has two well-known forms which have in former years been described as two distinct species, — one appearing on the currant and gooseberry (Rihes), and the other on the white pine. The stage found on the Kibes bushes was discov- ered and named about fifty years ago by Dietrich, while the stage on the pine was discovered and named by Klebahn in 1887. Since this time, however, by careful and extensive inoc- ulation experiments, it has been conclusively proved that Peri- dermium Strohi on the pine, and Cronartium rihicola on Eibes are not two distinct species of fungi, but are different stages of the same organism. Unfortunately, the presence of this fungus is not apparent at or before jdauting time. It is particularly noticeable in this country probably during the month of May. It then covers the trunks of young pines of four or five years and over, as well as the trunks and branches of older pine trees, with bright yel- low blisters in which are contained the a'cidiospores. These ascidiospores appear as a dark yellow powder and cannot ger- minate unless they fall on the leaves of currants or gooseberries (Ribes). On these leaves, however, they develop, send germ tubes into the leaf tissue, and there form a heavy matting of mycelium. Along about the middle of June there are formed on the under side of the leaves of these Ribes plants bright yellow deposits (uredospores) which spread the disease from leaf to leaf on these plants. These uredospores continue to spread throughout the Ribes during the entire season in which young leaves are formed. In the summer, too, still another reproduction cell is found in the shape of yellow-brown strings or sacs, of about the thickness of a hair, on the under side of the leaves of the Ribes bushes, and these are known as teleuto- 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 43 spores. On the surface of these so-called strings arc deposited tiny cells known as sporidia. These sporidia will germinate only on the bark of young shoots of the white pine. The so-called sporidia are produced and carried about by the wind at the very season when the young pine shoots have begun to develop and are in a condition to be readily infected. When the small sporidia germinate they send their germ tubes into the tender bark of the white pine, and there the mycelium again forms a heavy matting. This tissue lives for many years in the branches, and occasions considerable swelling of the shoots, by which the disease may be detected in the fall and winter, when there are no yellow deposits on the bark. These swellings often do not show on the white pine for perhaps a year or more. It is probably several years after infection before these dark yellow spore blisters are formed, but when they once appear they often reappear every spring for a number of years on the same swell- ings. Their appearance is preceded by the formation of very small dot-like heaps of spores which are called spermogonia. These spermogonia contain sweet-tasting, sticky spores, so-called spermatia, about which nothing is known. It will be seen from the preceding that this disease cannot spread from one pine to another. It must first go from pine to Eibes (in May or June) and from Ribes back to pine (in Au- gust or September). In the trunks of pine trees the fungus is perennial, but on Ribes it affects only the leaves and cannot live over winter. While it would appear from this description of the rust that an alternation of hosts is necessary in the case of currant rust, some American pathologists would question this, and observa- tions made by some investigators on the rust in this country seem to indicate that the rust may be able to propagate indefi- nitely on the currant without the intervention of the pine. At the request of Professor Stewart we are therefore conduct- ing experiments to determine whether reinfection of currants can occur without the intervention of the pine. These are now being carried on in our greenhouse, together with some other experiments relating to the control of the disease ; and work along the same lines is being done by Dr. Clinton in Con- necticut. 44 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. This disease on the currant can undoubtedly be eradicated by some method of spraying, but if not, it may be necessary to de- stroy all the black currants in the State, as they are not of great economic importance. The white pine blister rust is being care- fully looked after by Dr. II. T. Fernald, State Inspector of Nurseries. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUiAIENT — No. 31. 45 EFFECTS OF ILLUMINATING GAS ON VEGE- TATION. G. E. STONE. It is well known that escaping illuminating gas in the soil has an injurious effect on vegetation, and occasionally kills trees. In States where records ^ are required of the amount of gas manufactured, and that unaccounted for, the loss is found to amount to considerable in some cases, but this does not always mean that all unaccounted-for gas escapes in the soil or air, since these measurements are dependent on different meter read- ings. The meters may run too slow or too fast, requiring a great deal of care to warrant any degree of accuracy. More- over, gas varies greatly with temperature, and even 6 or 8 per cent, of unaccounted-for gas is not necessarily all leakage. There are several kinds of gas used for lighting and heating, i.e., water gas, coal gas, gasoline gas, acetylene gas and others, but their effects on the plant are quite similar, and they are all very poisonous to vegetation. Even the same kind of gas varies to quite an extent, as the process of manufacture is not always the same. This difference in composition is often very slight, but to any one who has had experience in diagnosing trees killed by gas it is discernible ; for example, the gas manufactured by one corporation will produce different effects on a tree from that manufactured by another; yet gas from the same plant differs very little as a rule. Illuminating gas is very poisonous to vegetation. The poi- sonous properties are largely confined to the numerous products which are absorbed by the soil moisture in small quantities, taken up by the roots and translocated through the tissue. • Consult Ann. Repts. of Inspector of Ons Meters and Illuminating Gas, Mass. Public Docu- ments, No. 55; Ann. Repts. of Board of Gas and Elec. Light Comm., Mass. Pub. Documents, No. 35. 46 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. These substances are to be found in the tissue, although, as al- ready pointed out, the reactions are not quite the same in differ- ent places nor on different species of trees. Trees poisoned by illuminating gas usually show some characteristic post-mortem symptoms, but many of these symptoms may be found in trees dying from other causes. ]\rore or less rapid deterioration and increased brittleness of the wood is a quite characteristic symp- tom, however. In summer the first effects of gas poisoning may be seen in the foliage. The leaves turn yellow and in some cases drop off, while the leaves of other trees fall while still remaining green, and in still other cases the trees do not become defoliated but the leaves turn a reddish brown and die. The upper part of the tree, being far away from the source of water supply, usually shows the effects first. All this occurs before there is any evidence of abnormal tissue above ground. The water con- tents of the soil containing the poisonous principles of gas pass up through the roots and stems, and later the wood and zone constituting the living portion of the trunk become abnormal. The first s\miptoms appear in the characteristic dryness of the cambiiun and other tissues outside the wood, this being the first indication of the approaching death of the tissue. Later these tissues, — cambium, phloem and cortex, — turn brown and dis- integration follows. These abnormal conditions first take place in the roots, which are the first to al)sorb the poison, but later, as absorption and translocation proceed, the poisonous constit- uents may be detected in the wood, etc., at the base of the tree. It not infrequently happens that the tissue at the base of the tree is dead, while that in the trunk a few feet above is alive. But this condition does not endure, for sooner or later the whole tree becomes involved. When the underlying tissues, cortex, phloem, etc., die, the bark changes color, gradually growing darker, the tissue tensions are destroyed, and the physical prop- erties of the bark are greatly changed. Soon various species of fungi, such as Polysiictus, ScliizopliyUwn and others, find a foothold on the bark and borers and otlier insects attack the dead tissue. Even bacteria and molds, like Penicillium, be- come active and hasten the process of disintegration, the smaller twigs becoming drv and brittle, and the ends arc often broken 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47 off. The iippor limbs iisuallj lose tlicir bark first, and even- tually the larger limbs present the same appearance. Disinte- gration may become so rapid that in one and a half to three years most of the larger branches will break off, and soon noth- ing bnt a portion of the trunk and a few stubs remain. All these conditions refer merely to the way in which a tree succumbs to gas poisoning, and do not necessarily constitute reliable symptoms of this type of injury, as these symptoms may be found in trees dying from other causes. The tissue furnishes the most reliable symptoms for diagnosis. The writer has for years been examining thousands of trees killed by gas, and has taken exhaustive notes on every symptom shown by trees dying from various causes, and from the first it was found necessary to make a thorough examination of the tissue to war- rant any degree of accuracy in the diagnosis. From these notes may be had much interesting data on the relative importance of various symptoms. Since some of the poisonous constituents of illuminating gas are absorbed by the roots and are circulated to a certain extent through the tissue of the wood, it becomes nec- essary to note these svibstances and learn to detect their pres- ence, either by chemical means or from direct observations and experience. As already stated, no two species of trees present precisely the same symptoms, much variation occurring from location, seasons, etc. A certain species, for example, examined in the fall, will show slightly different symptoms from those given by a spring examination, and this is true of trees poisoned by gas from different manufacturing plants, due undoubtedly to the fact that there is considerable difference in the gas manufac- tured by different concerns. The different chemical constitu- ents of the soil in remote localities might to a certain extent be held responsible for the variations in the reaction of gas on the tissues, but this is probably not very important, since these variations are likely to occur even in a single to^\'n supplied from one source, and as a rule the symptoms in trees injured by gas from a single manufacturing plant are alike. From tables giving the results of gas analysis from various corpora- tions we find that there is considerable difference in the composi- tion of gas, and furthermore, that gas from a single corporation 48 EXPERIMENT STATIOxX. [Jan. is likely to vary from day to day to some extent. This variation is not only found in the different percentages of gas constituents but in the other products. The principal features in the tissues from which diagnosis may be made are odor and color, although it is possible by the use of chemicals to obtain reactions and to detect certain prod- ucts in the tissue of trees killed by gas. There are different odors associated with the wood of trees which die from various causes, and it is necessary to become familiar with these to be able to differentiate them. Molds and other micro-organisms acting on the sap of trees dying from various causes often cause decomposition, with certain resultant odors which occur in a great variety of trees. But always in trees killed by gas may be found peculiar characteristic odors difficult to describe, even if the tissue most seriously affected is found. This tissue is usually at the base of the tree or in the larger roots near where the tissue has absorbed the most poison, and it is more easily recognized after a tree has been dead for a few weeks or months. The odor is more prominent in moist than in dry trees. It can be detected in the tissues of the bark as well as of the wood. Sometimes this odoriferous wood is found deeper in the sap- wood than at other points, and can be recognized in the stumps of trees freshly cut, but in old stumps where decay has set in it is not always discernible. In such cases some part of the root system, if dug up, is likely to give a characteristic odor except when the wood has become too dry and a more or less advanced stage of decay has set in. As previously stated, the odors are difficult to describe, as they are often associated wath the prod- ucts of decomposition. Moreover, the odors of one tree are en- tirely different from those of another, so one has to become familiar with the characteristics of each species of tree which he is diagnosing. The natural odor of the maple is quite dif- ferent from that of the elm, horsechestnut or red oak, and their products of decomposition differ also. Nevertheless, the charac- teristic odor given to the tissue by the products of illuminating gas can be differentiated quite easily and accurately by any one familiar wnth them. Sometimes these odors are found in a con- siderable part of the tissue of the trunk, but more often they are 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 49 confined to some special part of the tree or root. They are more pronounced by far at the base of the tree than above, and in the top are rarely to be noticed. We know of no remedies which can be applied to trees already poisoned by gas, since the injury occurs below the surface of the ground, and the effects on the tree are seldom noticeable until the poisoning is more or less pronounced. If the leakage of gas could be discovered quickly and the leak repaired, the effects on the roots might be prevented, but this is rarely the case. In some instances where only one root has been affected, and the poison has not reached the trunk of the tree, amputation of the root is used to prevent further harm, and we have seen cases where this has proved effective. There are many cases where trees have not suffered from gas poisoning although lo- cated near large leaks, because in the installation of curbings many of the larger roots were destroyed which grew over the roadbed where the gas pipes were laid. When the soil is charged with gas, excavating and aerating are beneficial, and in the case of severe leakage it is well to leave the trench open for a few days, if possible. On the other hand, boring holes in the soil and filling with water is of absolutely no value. It is generally believed that if young trees are planted near others which have died from gas poisoning they will not live, but this is true only in part. If the soil is thor- oughly saturated with gas, bad results may follow, but if young trees are planted in fresh loam and the old soil aerated there is little likelihood of the tree dying. It is possible, but perhaps at the present time not practical in all instances, to prevent in- jury to trees and asphyxiation to people in houses from gas leaks, and undoubtedly in the future better methods of distrib- uting gas will be employed. Su:mmary. The symptoms of gas poisoning are best obtained from a care- ful examination of the wood at the base of the tree or the roots. This can be done v;hen the .poisonous principles have reached a certain point in their ascent. There are many symptoms accom- panying gas poisoning such as a yellowing of the leaves, drop- 50 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. ping off, peeling of the bark, presence of certain fungi, etc., but they are of no value in themselves, as these symptoms may accompany other causes of death. The Effect of Illuminating Gas on Foliage. Gas from soil leakage seldom escapes into the atmosphere sufficiently to cause direct injury to foliage, although trees are sometimes injured near gas-manufacturing plants, where there is usually a strong odor of gas. Atmospheric gases of all kinds are quickly dispersed, especially when there is any circulation of air ; yet under certain conditions they cause injury to plants, as is well known. The leakage of illuminating gas from soil pipes is seldom sufficient in quantity or prolonged enough for it to injure the foliage of trees and shrubs. The trees in large cities often suffer greatly from atmospheric gases, of which the most injurious are those arising from coal combustion. The escape of illuminating gas into sewers and conduits is not uncommon. If an untrapped greenhouse drain- age system connects with a sewer containing gas, the gas is likely to find its way into the greenhouse and injure the plants, and we have known of large greenhouses losing many plants in this way, the gas escaping into the greenhouse for long periods in such minute quantities as to be scarcely perceptible to the sense of smell. Last winter, when the upheaval of the ground from frost did great damage to gas and water pipes, the gas from a leak near our greenhouse found its way to a drain tile leading to the house some distance from the source of leakage, defoliat- ing a large number of our plants in a few hours. A rose ])lant which was in perfect condition the night before was found the next morning with most of its leaves turned yellow, and 50 or more per cent, of them had fallen. The plants most severely affected were roses, geraniums and abutilon, but ivy, Euca- lyptus, India rubber plants, willow, Kenilworth ivy, papyrus, tobacco, tomato and Sedum were also injured. The ferns, mosses and liverworts, which were nearest the gas inlet, were scarcely touched. After being defoliated, the geraniums and abutilon produced numerous small leaves, and the leaves on the variegated abutilon came in entirely green. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 51 Hartig ^ mentions that Camellias, azaleas and ivy arc very sensitive to escaping gas, the least sensitive being palms and Dracirnas. It would appear that the higher plants are more susceptible to gas than the lower ones. This might be explained on the assumption that the lower plants, being descendants of very old types which in past ages may have been adapted to different atmospheric conditions, possibly inherit a wider range of adaptability, with consequently less liability to injury. Effects of Illuminating Gas on Caeolina Poplars. Our attention has been called at different times by Mr. James Walker, of the jSTewark Shade Tree Commission, Newark, N. J., to a peculiar effect which poisoning from illuminating gas has on Carolina poplars (Fopulus deltoides Marsh).- This tree is used extensively for shade in New Jersey, but has re- cently come into disrepute owing to the havoc which its vigorous root system raises with sewers. Some of these characteristic toxic effects consist in a splitting of the bark and swelling and bulging of the tissue near the lesions, and later a slimy, muci- laginous mass exudes from the cracks. This last season we examined a Carolina poplar which dis- played, in addition to the usual symptoms of gas poisoning, this peculiar swelling and cracking of the bark, and some of the tissue was gathered for histological examination. The tree in question was 7 or 8 inches in diameter near the base, and at the time of observation, in common with most trees affected by gas poisoning, had no leaves. The bark, cortex, etc., on the trunk towards the source of absorption showed three or four vertical cracks or lesions l/o to 21/^ feet long. The bark on the sides of these cracks was bulged out considerably, and examina- tion showed a thick layer of soft, parenchymous tissue extend- ing to the wood and a]iparently derived from the cambium zone. This tissue at the time of observation was ])erfectly white and fresh in appearance, was easily broken and appar- ently as delicate as the tissue of an apple. Later the tissue turned brown and disintegrated and became slimy in appear- ' R. Hartig, "The Diseases of Treos." 2 We have heard the opinion expresspri at different times tliat Carolina poplars are immune to gas poisoning, but there is no foundation for tiiis statement. 52 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ance. This breaking clown of the tissue takes place in the more advanced stages of disintegration and, according to Mr. Walker, this broken-down mncilaginons substance exudes from the cracks. Specimens of the bark and tissue showed this soft layer, Avhich was thicker directly under the cracks, where the tension was less, to be anywhere from t/, to ll/> inches thick. Microscopic examinations showed the fresh tissue to be com- posed entirely of thin-walled parenchyma cells. In the illustration, 1 shows an enlarged cross section of a piece of normal bark ; 2, a cross section of the bark near one of the cracks; 3, a cross section of bark and wood and the ab- normal paronchymous growth ; and 4, a cross section of the nor- mal bark, including some of the wood. In 2 and 3 the abnor- mal growth is shown at e. In 3, which is an enlarged section, the nature of the tissue is readily seen, as well as its origin from the cambium /. In 5 is shown a diagrammatic cross sec- tion of tree, with lesions. This peculiar cracking characteristic of Carolina poplars poisoned by gas has never been observed by us in other species, although like effects have been noticed in willow cuttings grow- ing in M'ater charged with gas, in which case we have often no- ticed a splitting of the bark and slight swelling, followed by the formation of a mucilaginous mass under the bark. The bark of most trees poisoned by illuminating gas remains intact until it becomes very dry and brittle, and then it cracks, curls up and eventually falls off. There is, however, no disposition in olher trees, so far as noticed, for the tissue to become mucilagi- nous. In some cases of poisoning of coniferous trees the bark may become ruptured and a copious flow of pitch follow. This tissue is apparently what is termed by Ilartig " wound cam- bium," and we have never seen it forming on poplars as the re- sult of ordinary mechanical wounds. During the past season we h.,re noticed a number of cracks on small ])0|)lars (Popidus trcmuloides) apparently resulting from frost injury. But in this case there was no abnormal de- velopment of the cambium.^ When banding substances are applied to Carolina poplars ' The injection of poisons into tissue is said to cause a rupturing of the tissue owing to changes in the turgescence of the cells. Fig. 1. — Showing cross section of Carolina poplar (Pojfuliis deltoidea Marsh). 1, Cross section of normal stem, enlarged; 2, same, showing abnormal growth; 3, naked-eye view of same; 4, section of a normal stem; 5, cross section of trunli of tree showing the splitting of the hark; a, bark; 6, cork cambium; c, cortex; rf, phloem; e, abnor- mal parenchyma; f, cambium; g, wood or xyleni. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 53 and other trees to trap insects, injury often results to the tissue, with swellings and distortion where the substances come in contact with the bark. We have seen many trees affected in this way in the eastern part of the State, where much use has been made of banding substances for the extermination of the gypsy moth. Their effect is more pronounced on Carolina poplars than on other trees, and it is not improbable that this cracking and abnormal formation under the bark results from decreased turgescence of the cell and destruction of the outer tissue, thus relieving the tension on the inner tissue and causing the cam- bium to divide. With the release of the pressure outwards, it is natural ftr this tissue to extend in this direction, thus ruptur- ing the outer bark. The absorption of the gas may have killed the tissue exterior to the cambium layer before the cambium was affected. In this way, the tension of the outer tissue being diminished, a stimulation of the cambium cells results. The poisonous constituents of gas have a direct stimulating effect on the cells during the incipient stage of poisoning, as observed in the case of willow cuttings, etc. ; but in this instance it would appear that the excessive development of the cambium was caused by the diminished tension of the cortical tissue. Stoiulating Effects of It.t.uminating Gas on Willow cuttikgs. For many years we have been studying the effects of differ- ent gases on the functions of plants, and during this time we have made many experiments relative to the effects of water charged with illuminating gas on the development of willow cuttings. It is well known that there are many chemical sub- stances which stimulate plants. Even the most violent poisons, if administered in certain dosages, will greatly increase plant activities ; for instance, ether is well known to cause latent buds to blossom, and some use is made of it by commercial florists. Illuminating gas is a deadly poison both to the foliage and root systems of plants ; but when administered under certain conditions is a great stimulant. Latent willow cuttings grown in water charged with illuminating gas for a few moments every day or two showed a greatly increased development, pro- 54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ducing foliage several days earlier than j)lants grown in water not charged with gas. The results of experiments with latent willow cuttings grown under these conditions are shown in Table I. The cuttings were grown in glass jars containing about 2 litres of water which was charged at different periods, as shown in the follow- ing table : — Table I. — Showing Stimulating Effects of Illuminating Gas on Willow Cuttings grown in Water charged with Ga^. [In all experiments except No. 1, 8 normal and 8 treated cuttings were used in each series.] Experiment. First Appearance of Leaves and Shoots. Gain in Develop- ment (Days). Water charged with Gas for a Brief Period. f Normal, . 1 I Treated, . (Normal, . Treated, . (Normal, . Treated, . f Normal, . [Treated, . [ Normal, . I Treated, . SI Treated, . Treated, . f Normal, . [Treated, . (Normal, . Treated, . [ Normal, . 8 j Treated, . [Treated, . f Normal, . [ Treated, August 19 August 10 December 10 December 2 January 4 December 27 December 29 December 23 February 4 January 24 January 22 January 24 February 20 February 15 March 25 March April April April July July Every second day. Every second day. Every second day. E.very second day. Every second day. Every fourth day. Every sixth day. Every second day. Every seventh day. Every second day. Every fourth day. Every second day. The data given in this table show that the willow cuttings contained in the charged jars developed new shoots and foliage from four to eleven days earlier than those grown in jars con- taining the ordinary uncharged tapwater. They also show that Fk;. -2. — Showing willow cuttings growing in water; those to the right, in ordinary water, those to the left, in water i-harged with gas. FIG. 3. — Showing development of lenticels on willow cuttings growing in water. Figure to the right growing in ordinary water; to the left, in water charged with gas. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55 there is practically no difference in the development of the cut- tings, whether the jars were charged with the gas every second day, every fourth day, etc. (Fig. 2). The duration of these experiments was from one to two months. In some instances the plants showed more or less advanced sjanptoms of gas poisoning at the close of the experi- ment, and the oftener the water was charged with gas the quicker the symptoms appeared and the more pronounced the poisoning. The same stimulating effects were shown on the roots as on the stems and leaves. Table II. gives the results with both shoots and roots as deter- mined by the average length, as follows : — Table II. — Showing the Stwmlating Effects of Illwninaling Gas on Willow Cuttings grown in Water charged with Gas. {Ei!;lit treated and 8 untreated cuttings used in each series. All measurements given in centi- meters.] Experiment. Average Length OF — Percentage Gain IN Average Length OF — Shoots. Roots. Shoots. Roots. Normal, 1 Charged every second day, Normal 2 Charged every second d.iy, Normal, 3 Charged every second day, 2.50 6.00 1.50 5.00 1.00 4.00 2.00 8.00 2.00 6.00 3.00 6 00 140 233 300 300 200 100 In this table the average length of stems and roots is given, together with the per cent, gain in average length of each. Only three experiments are given. It will be noticed that there was considerable gain in the average length of roots and shoots of the cuttings grown in gas-charged water. Another similar series of experiments is shown in Table III., as follows : — EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. O ►e s O e o v^ ^ Cn rt s: OJ " -H .-. o ,_ ^H .-I r* ^ ^ OS t^ —< CD »0 CO i(lly than those under normal conditions. This is not, however, the effect of the diminished pressure alone, but is due to a diminu- tion of the partial pressure of oxygen. Wider and Jaccard - have demonstrated that the optimum growth of plants does not > Landwirtsch. Versuchstation, Vol. IV., 1864, p. 60. 2 Schimper's Plant Geography, p. 69. 1913.] PUBLIC D()d'MP:NT — No. 31. 59 correspond to the normal atui()Hi)lu'ric presMuro. Aecordino- to Jaccard, a decrease in the })ressiire of oxyucn gives rise to an accelerated growth and more profuse branching of the axis and roots, together with an increase in the size of the leaves. The water containing gas is taken np in small quantities by the roots and translocated to the stem and leaves, and since plants possess considerable power of accommodation they can do this for quite long periods without injury. Plants, like animals, respond to stimuli arising from various causes, and while plants may not respond as quickly as animals, their sensitiveness is in many instances more acute. Specific stimuli give rise to definite responses, and the nature of the re- sponse usually corresponds with some immediate need of the organism. The presence of water charged with gas in the plant tissues stimulates the demand for oxygen, which is manifested in a greater root development and leaf surface. Man and animals respond characteristically when subjected to a decreased oxygen supply such as is caused by unusual exer- tion like mountain climbing, running, etc. Dogs open their mouths, run out their tongues and breathe more rapidly when excited, and this is in reality a response to the demand for more air or oxygen. In the same way, the increased size of lenticels is a direct response to the demand for oxygen, although in the case of both animals and plants it is purely reflex and involuntary. Illuminating Gas as a Factor in Forcing the DEVELor- MENT OF Plants. The stimulating effects of gas-charged water on willow cut- tings led us to experiment with illuminating gas in other ways, therefore a number of experiments were made to determine the effects of atmosphere charged with the gas on the development of dormant willow cuttings. Ether and other substances have been used to stimulate plants in a dormant condition, and we wished to learn whether gas would have the same effect. The willow cuttings were placed under sealed bell jars in vessels of water and subjected to an atmosphere of illuminating gas for twenty-four, forty-eight, seventy-two, ninety-six and one hundred and twenty hours, respectively. A number of cuttings GO EXrEULMENT STATION. [Jan. were used in each test, and after being treated for these differ- ent periods they were removed from the bell. jars and placed under greenhouse conditions to await the results of treatment. Y\'hcn these cuttings were compared with untreated or normal plants, as they were in all cases, a slight acceleration was found in the development of all plants subject to gas for twenty-four, forty-eight and seventy-two hours, although the gain was not marked. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 01 THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LIGHT INTEN- SITIES AND son. MOISTURE ON THE GROWTH OF CUCUMBERS, AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY TO BURNING FROM HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS. G. E. STONE. The influence of light on photosynthesis, structure and devel- opment of plants is well known to plant physiologists, but is too little appreciated by growers of crops, whether under glass or in the iield. It is also well known that plants grown in the dark are pale and slender, with undeveloped leaves, and they quickly wilt and die when exposed to diiferent temperatures and light conditions. The variations in light intensity in the greenhouse or in the field, such as occur in periods of cloudy weather, affect crops greatly. There are many features con- nected with greenhouse construction, such as inferior or dirty glass, angle of the roof, heavy shadow-casting frames and others which also play an important part in plant development. Cer- tain light-requiring crops grown under the inferior light condi- tions of November and December develop abnormally, and often suffer greatly from wilts in the spring when the light is more intense. The plants possess light-colored, thin leaves, elongated and slender internodes and leaf petioles, and, in fact, are in a state of partial etiolation. Light inhibits growth and has a remarkable effect on the tex- ture of plant tissue. While it has a great deal. to do with the non-ripening and ripening of wood, moisture, temperature and other factors also enter in. The successful growing of lettuce under glass re(]nires excep- tional skill, as much attention has to be given to the influence of light, moisture and other factors on the crop to prevent what 62 EXPEKLMKNT STATION. [Jan. is termed " topbnrn," a certain texture being required U) do this. Even a difference of a few degrees in the night temperature exerts marked influence on the texture of the tissue. Lettuce plants which are grown under a night temperature of 45° F. differ greatly from those grown at a temperature of 50° F., the structure of the ])lant being modified for each degree of increase or decrease in the t(Mnperature. With the lower night temper- ature there is less likelihood of burning than with the higher. If a night temperature of 50° F. is maintained during cloudy weather, and on a following bright, sunshiny day the tempera- ture is allowed to reach 75 or SO'' F., topburn is likely to occur. On the other hand, a night temperature of 40° F., during cloudj periods followed by a relatively high day tem- perature, is not likely to produce any burning. Light has a marked accelerating effect on transpiration, as the stomata of the leaves open in bright sunshine, and the loss of water from the foliage under these conditions is large. In the blossom end rot of tomatoes, a disease caused primarily by heavy drainage of water from the fruit during its development, we have noted a difference of 35 per cent, in the amount of rot, caused by the shading of the tomato plants by other plants, reducing the transpiration. Practical growers who have had occasion to fumigate green- h(mses to destroy aphis, white fly and thrips have observed that their plants will burn slightly at one time and at other times not ; for instance, hydrocyanic acid gas, tobacco leaves or con- centrated solutions of tobacco, and other fumigants sometimes cause injury to plants and at other times produce no burning. This is also true of spraying mixtures, whether used in the greenhouse or field. The experiments given here are designed to show some of the causes underlying burning from fumigation, and were made by Mr, F. L. Thomas during his course as a graduate student. Tlie plants selected were cucumbers, as they are susceptible to burning from various causes, and are also affected greatly by variations in light intensity. The jdants were grown under five cloth screens, ranging in grade from moscjuito netting to rather finely woven cotton material, each covering a space 2 feet wide, 6 feet long and 2 feet high on a long bench in the greenhouse. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 63 The normal plants were grown in the same beneh Lnt were not screened, and the light conditions were the same as those in the greenhouse. The house is new and the light excellent, — only about 18 per cent, less than out of doors. The relative light intensity under the various conditions varied sufficiently to cause considerable difference in the development of the plants. These differences were determined by chemical methods accu- rate enough to warrant the average relative light conditions being obtained, but not adapted to measure the absolute light intensity. In the following tables are given the results of experiments wath the effects of different light intensities on the growth of cucumber plants and their susceptibility to burning from hy- drocyanic acid gas. In each experiment 6 groups of plants were used, Xo. 5 being grown under nonnal greenhouse condi- tions and the others under varying light intensities. Since two of the screened compartments gave practically the same light intensities, and the results obtained from the plants in these sections were similar, they were averaged together and appear in the table under No. 2. The plants were grown in Y-inch pots and entirely under the screens. The moisture content of the soil was kept fairly uniform in each series. After the plants had reached a certain degree of development they w^ere placed in a tight glass case containing about 30 cubic feet, and each series was fumigated at the same time under similar conditions as regards exposure and the amount of hydrocyanic acid gas. The plants were all fumigated with .007 grams of cyanide per cubic foot, a strength commonly used in greenhouse work, and known as formula ^ 1-2-3, — one part cyanide, two parts sulfuric acid and three parts water. After undergoing this treatment for forty minutes to one hour the plants were removed from the case and the results noted. 1 Bui. 123, Mass. Agr. Ebcp. Station, 1903. 64 EXPEIUMENT STATION. [Jan. Table I. — Showing Effects of Different Light Intensities on tlic Growth of Cucumber Plants and tlieir Susceptibility to Burning bij Fumigatiun with Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. Experiment I. — Duration, May 2 to June 6. [Measare.r.ents in centimeters.] Nu.MBER. 1. 2. 3-. 4. 5 N. Relative light intensity (per cent.), . Average height of plants, .... Average diameter of stem. Average length of internodes, Leaf: — Average length, Average width Length by width, 21 4 13 0 4 5.0 7.5 6.5 48.7 26.60 20 10 57 5 90 8 ra 9. CO 77.10 48.10 11 00 .45 4 20 5.20 6 20 32.20 74 00 17.00 ,65 4 00 9 90 9 20 91 00 100 0 16.0 .8 3 7 8 7 10 5 91.3 Note. — No. 1, all leaves killed; No. 2, leaves burned, few killed; Nos. 3, 4 and 5 N, traces of burning. Experiment II. — Duration, May 8 to June 13, IDll. (MeLsurcments in centimeters.] Nu.MBER. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5N. Relative light intensity (per cent.), . Average height of plants, .... Average diameter of stem, Average length of internodes, Leaf:- Average length, ...... Average width, Length by width, 24 4 30 5 5 8.2 9 0 10 5 94.5 26.60 28.30 .62 6.60 8 10 11 50 93.70 48.10 2.10 .55 6.60 G 00 9 00 54.00 74 0 27.2 .7 4 7 5 5 9 5 52.2 100.0 16 0 .8 3.5 6.2 12 5 77.5 Note. — No. 1, burned; some leaves killed; Nos. 2 and 3, some burning; Nos. 4 and 5 N slight burning. Experiment III. — -Duration, May 22 to Jane 24, 1911. [Measurements in centimeters.) Number. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5 N. Relative light intensity (i)er cent.), . Average height of plants, . ' . Average diameter of stem, Average length of internodes. Leaf: — Average len enough treatment, has sometimes been used by ignorant persons on smooth-bark trees, with of course resultant injury. Occasionally commercial oils used for sju-aying fruit trees for the San Jose scale cause local injury, and some shade trees have been known to be affected by their use. Oils and other materials to keep down the dust in roadbeds Yio. 9. — Showing effects of spraying heavy oil ou trees. The oil penetrated the bark and killed the tissue. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 81 are now much in use, and wc have observed some injury from this source, when the trees were located close to the highway and the buttresses of the roots were exposed. The roots are much more susceptible to injury from various causes than are the trunks as they are not so well protected by bark, and when oil sprinkled on a roadbed touches some of the exposed roots it kills the tissue. Particles of dust from oiled roads which sometimes alight on the foliage of trees are said to cause injury, but this type of injury is rare with us. Whether the oil ever extends deeply enough into the roadbeds to reach the root system of trees is not known as yet, but if it does it may cause serious injury. Neither are there specific cases of injury to the roots of trees by the dripping of oil and gasoline from automobiles, although if this leakage were sufficient it might reach the roots and cause injury. Not long ago, however, our attention was called to a tree supposed to have been killed by gasoline leakage from a near-by garage. Creosote. — This material is used extensively on trees for disinfecting cavities, and mixed with lampblack for painting gypsy moth egg clusters. It does not appear to penetrate to any great extent when combined with lampblack. We have ex- amined a great many trees to discover injuries from its use with no success except in the case of linden roots which had been exposed by regrading, where the underlying tissue was injured. But such instances arc rare and the injury purely local in char- acter. In one case a combination of creosote and naphtha applied to a large number of trees for the destruction of gypsy moth caterpillars appeared to soak into the outer bark, apparently killing the cork cambium, which later resulted in a disintegra- tion of the tissue. Whether these substances did further injury to the tree we were not aide to learn. Coal Tar. — Coal tar is mucn used for painting wounds and scars caused by pruning, and sometimes injures delicate tissue when first applied. The injury, though, is not serious, as shown by the fact that various saprophytic fungi have been applied over dead, punky wood. Therefore after coal tar has been on for some time it is evidently not injurious to even delicate tissue. 82 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. Banding Substances. — A. study of the effects of different banding substances has been published in the 1907 report of the Hatch Experiment Station. The writer has since then had an opportunity to study these effects quite extensively. Tan- glefoot appears to be the only substance that docs not cause injury when applied directly to the bark, i.e., when tarred or other heavy paper is not used. Many laboratory samples of sub- stances reseiiibliiig tanglefoot have been made u]), but in only one instance have any of these materials resembled tanglefoot in practically all its properties ; at least, among those which have come to our notice. While the injuries from banding substances have been quite pronounced, practically all of the substances causing injury have now been discarded. An examination of many trees treated with the so-called tanglefoot has revealed only one case of girdling, and even in this case we were not able to obtain any clue to the manu- facturer of the particular material causing the injury. This substance, although resembling tanglefoot, may have been one of its many imitations, some of which are known to cause in- jury. The only other case of injury from tanglefoot was where it had been applied to the trunk at the same place for a number of years. The oil seemed to penetrate the out(>r bark to some extent, aft'ecting the texture of the bark ; but this in- jury is not serious, so far as we have observed, and can be prevented by changing the location of the band occasionally. We have never noticed any injury from the use of tanglefoot to the cortical tissue or cambium located just underneath the bark. Our previous experiments show that the most delicate tissue was not injured when it was applied to various ])lants. But injury was noticed to smooth-bark trees when other banding • substances were applied even on tarred paper. Tarred paper alone is capable of injuring the bark of some trees, and the injury mentioned above may have been caused in tins way. Bolt. — Salt used on sidewalks, in gutters and on trolley lines in winter has been known to cause injury to the root sys- tems of trees. In one instance we noted injury to several small maples growing near a sidewalk and gutter which had been treated heavilv with salt. In one or two other cases where salt 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 83 had been used extensively on trolley tracks injury to trees was suspected. Other Injurious Factors. — Arsenate of soda, potassium cyanide and other chemicals are extremely poisonous to trees, and when placed in holes bored in the tree the two first named will soon cause death. Since arsenate of soda is often used as a weed killer, it is recommended that care be taken in applying it aroimd the feeding roots of trees. A quite common opinion among lino-men is to the effect that copper spikes driven into trees will kill them, but a small maple so treated by us a few years ago showed no abnormal symptoms. The foliage of different trees is often injured by spraying with various fungicides and insecticides. It is well known that plum and peach foliage is quite susceptible to this type of in- jury, and even the leaves of maples and other trees may be in- jured by arsenate of lead. The extent of the injury depends not only on the nature of the spraying solution or mixture used, but also on the condition of the foliage sprayed. We have ob- served injury to maples from the use of 12 pounds of arsenate of lead to 100 gallons of water, and Paris green, owing to its present-day uncertain composition, often burns foliage. Burning insect nests with torches, although a common prac- tice, is a bad one, and invariably causes injury. Serious harm often results from burning leaves and grass around trees ; and the roots of forest trees, which are often close to the ground, are sometimes injured by burning the imderbrush. In conclusion it might be said that in any treatment of trees one should always have before him some definite object; he should leave strictly alone the numerous irrational methods constantly being advocated, and apply to them first the measur- ing stick of common sense. 84 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO THE CONTROL OF POTATO SCAB. G. E. STONE AND G. H. CHAPMAN. Early ideas concerning the nature and cause of potato scab in Europe and America varied quite widely, and the history of the study of this disease and the discovery and isolation of the specific organism causing it, together with the discovery of measures for its control, afford a brilliant example of the effi- ciency of modern pathological investigations. But it is not our intent to give a detailed account of the history of this disease as that has already been done by Dr. J. C. Arthur,^ Dr. J. E. Humphrey," Dr. I\. Thaxter,^ and particularly Prof. H. L. Bolley,"* who has given a very full bibliography of European and American investigators. From the earliest times many theories have been advanced by different observers relative to the cause of potato scab. Some of these early investigators attribute the cause of the disease to different organisms, while others associate the disease with iiinuincra1)le factors, such as soil, moisture, etc. Dr. J. C, Arthur ^ appears to have been the first American pathologist to study the causes of potato scab. His early experiments were to determine the influence of various factors which some of the older observers regarded as having a bearing on the cause of the disease. In co-operation with Dr. C. A. Goessmann, how- ever. Dr. J. E. Humphrey was working on the disease along the same lines at practically the same time, although his first publication appeared later than that of Dr. Arthur. On Aug. 26, 1890, Prof. H. L. Bolley, then with the Purdue Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Ind., read a paper before the Ameri- 1 J. C. Arthur, 6th Ann. Rept. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Station, 1888, pp. 344-347. 2 J. E. Humphrey, 6th Ann. Rcpt. Ma.ss. Exp, Station, 1888, pp. 131-130; also 7th Ann. Rept., 1889, pp. 214-223, and 8th Ann. Rept., 1890, pp. 216-230. 3 R. Thaxter, Ann. Ropt. Conn. Agr. Exp. Station, 1890, pp. 81-95; also 1891, pp. 153-160. * Agr. Soience, 1S90, Vol. IV.. pp. 243-256; also pp. 277-287. 6 J. C. Arthur, Bui. 59, Purdue Univ. Agr. E.\p. Station, 1895. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 85 can Association for the Advancement of Science on potato scab, which was published in the September and October number of ''Agricultural Science" the same year, and he established that " (1) the disease is of parasitic origin; that (2) it is for the most part conveyed to the growing crop by infection from the tubers used as seed; that (3) much of the so-called 'smooth seed ' is in reality infested with the germs of the disease ; and that (4) planting seed tubers free from disease germs gives a crop practically without scab." ^ His researches and experiments proved to be a great step in advance. V/hile he apparently did not discover the true nature of the organism he paved the way for investigations on the prevention of the disease.- The results of Dr. R. Thaxter's investigations, which were carried on in 1890, v/ere read before the Association of Agri- cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations N^ovember, 1890, and later were published in a report of the Connecticut Experi- ment Station. Ilis work largely confirmed that of Professor Bolley. He isolated and cultured an organism with which he was able repeatedly to successfully inoculate potatoes and pro- duce the typical scab, although the organism was different from that described by Professor Bolley. It should be noticed that both Professor Bolley and Dr. Thaxter were working on the same lines unknown to each other, and made their results public at nearly the same time, each having arrived at similar conclu- sions as to the cause of the scab. The organism which Dr. Thaxter isolated was not a bacterium but a low form of fungus possessing more or less indefinite relationships. He later named this, Oospora scabies. Although this organism has been isolated and studied by only a few other pathologists, it is generally recognized that it is the principal if not the only organism asso- ciated with the scab. It would not be at all unlikely that the bacterium which Professor Bolley isolated is capable of produc- ing a form of scab ; nevertheless, from the viewpoint of treat- « J. C. Arthur, Bui. 56, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Station, 1895. 2 Professor Bolley was thoroughly convinced that potato scab was caused by a pathogenic organism, and from the first made use of corrosive sublimate in his experiments. He was unfortu- nate in having very poor material to work with, and informs me that the .soil was badly contami- nated with the scab and bacteria. Dr. Thaxter observed the fungus growing on the surface of the potato, but Professor Bolley failed to find this, although he found plenty of bacteria. 86 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. ment and remedies it matters little whether there is one organ- ism or two associated with the disease. In either case remedies are based on the same principle, i.e., the disease is caused by a pathogenic organism and is infectious. Professor Bollcy ^ later developed a method for preventing the scab which has proved quite effective, at least under certain conditions. This method consists in soaking the seed potatoes in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 23 ounces to 15 gallons, for a period of one and one-half hours. This is to destroy the germs on the seed potatoes, and when this treatment is applied with such necessary precautions as the avoidance of stable manures, etc., it has proved effective, at least when the organ- isms are not especially abundant in the soil. Experiments with corrosive sul)limate were also carried on for three years by Dr. J. C. Arthur,- and in the meantime both Professor Bolley and Dr. Arthur were exj^erimenting with formalin, Professor Bol- ley ^ as a remedy for the smut of wheat, oats and barley, and Professor Arthur as a remedy for the scab. Professor Arthur ^ later published his experiments with the use of formalin as a preventive of potato scab. He shows that formalin (40 per cent, solution), used at the rate of 8 ounces to 10 gallons of water, is effective and equal to corrosive sublimate, besides pos- sessing fewer disadvantages in handling. Corrosive sublimate and formalin have now been in use for many years as a pre- ventive of potato scab, and both have been the means of greatly reducing the disease. As they are designed to kill the organisms on the surface of the tuber and not those in the soil it is always necessary to use other measures to accompany the treatment with the chemicals. Dr. Thaxter from the first recognized the necessity of using clean seed potatoes and the avoidance of stable manures. Dr. B. D. ITalsted ^ has experimented with various substances for the control of potato scab, and he has reported especially favorable results from the use of flowers of sulfur applied to » H. L. Bolloy, Bui. 4, North Dakota Agr. Exp. Station, 1891; also Bui. 9, 1893, pp. 19-95. » J. C. Arthur, Bui. ,56, Purdue Univ. Agr. Kxp. Station (Ind.), 1895. ' H. L. Bolley, Bui. 19, N. D. Agr. Exp. Station, 189,5; also Bui. 27, 1897, and Eul. 37, 1899. < J. C. Arthur, Bui. 65, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Station (Ind.), 1897. 5 B. D. Ilulstcd, Bui. 112, N. J. Agr. Exp. Station, 1895; also Bui. 120, N. J. Agr. Exp. Station, 1897. 1913.] PUBLIC 1)()(;UMEXT — No. 31. 87 the soil. He maintains that it not only proved to be the best remedy for the scab but had a wholsome eflFect on the soil. Dr. Arthur, on the other hand, found sulfur unpromising and dis- continued experiments with it. His experience with sulfur was corroborated by Dr. H. J. AVheeler ^ and Mr. G. M. Tucker, who experimented to quite an extent with sulfur and various fertilizers. They found that when sulfur was freely mixed with soil badly contaminated with scab it had no appreciable effect in controlling the disease, and was practically a failure. They found, also, that stable manure of all kinds, wood ashes, air slaked or caustic lime, carbonate of soda, potash, lime and magnesia favored tlie scab. They obtained a scabless potato with calcium chloride or land plaster (gypsum), and when fertilizers were used without any free lime compounds no scab occurred. They further observed that the marked acidity of the soil or the absence of carbonates was unfavorable to scab. They maintain that when the soil is favorable to the develop- ment of scab, or when badly contaminated, the corrosive sub- limate treatment is entirely useless as a preventive. The results of Wheeler and Tucker's experiments are in accord with con- ditions which we have observed in Massachusetts for many years. The presence of carbonates in the soil will increase scab from 2 or 3 per cent, to practically 100 per cent, in a relatively short time, and the use of clean seed, or their treatment with corrosive sublimate or formalin according to the formulas recom- mended under these conditions, is of little value. On the other hand, Avhen soils are imfavorable for the development of the scab and are only slightly contaminated, formalin and corrosive sublimate are very effective and have been of great value as preventives of this disease. ExrEKIMEXTS WITH VaKIOUS CheMICALS FOE THE PREVEN- TION OF Potato Scab. In the spring of 1908, as a result of much local complaint relative to potato scab and methods of eradication from infested soil, it was thought that it might be possible to treat the soil with certain chemicals and in this way eradicate the trouble. » H. J. Wheeler and G. M. Tucker, Bui. 40, R. I. Agr. Exp. Station Rept. 1896, pp. 80-96. 88 EXrERlMENT STATION. [Jan. Wheeler and Tucker have made many observations on the intlucnce of fertilizers on potato scab. They found that such substances as common salt, oxalic acid, calcium chloride and land plaster (gypsum) did not increase the scab, and in some instances appeared to lessen it. Various fung'icides and chemi- cal substances have been tried by Arthur and others, some of which were aj)})lied to the soil and others to the seed tubers. ]\Iany of these have been found beneficial in checking the scab, but none appear to bo as effective as corrosive sublimate and formaldehyde. In our experiments arbitrary substances were taken, some of which under proper conditions were known to have a fungi- cidal action. It was thought useless to use fertilizers in excess as a means to the end, as it had been shown that fertilizers as a rule have little or no effect on the increase or decrease of the scab in land, with one exception. It was noted repeatedly on experimental plots at the station that where potash was applied in the form of the carbonate the relative amount of scab was always increased.^ The experiments described in the following pages were car- ried on in circular, lined tiles with a diameter of 23 inches, with therefore an area of approximately 424 square inches, or a soil area of a little less than 3 square feet. In the application of the substances no attempt was made to bring the quantities nsed to an amount that would make them commercially valuable, and up to the present time this policy has been carried out, as the idea primarily was to find some substance which would be beneficial in the eradication of the scab, and then work the amount down to a commercial scale. The potatoes used in all the experiments were free from scab, but were all treated with formalin (1-250) to kill any spores of scab fungus which might be present. After the tubers were dried they were planted in the tiles which contained equal amounts of soil known to be badly infected with the scab fungus. In the experiments carried on in 1908 the substances and amounts used are shown in Table I. Where liquids were used, the amount of water in indicated proportions was added. • Influence of Various Potash Salts on Potato Scab, 13th Ann. Rept., Mass. Agr. Exp. Station, 1907, pp. 39 and 133. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 89 Where solid substances were used, the substance was mixed thoroughly witli the top 4 inches of soih In the following table a check tile was used alternately with a treated tile, and as the amount of scab on the potatoes in all the check tiles was practically the same, the checks are omitted : — Tahle I. — Plan of Potato Scab Experiments, IOCS. Pot Num- ber. SUBSTANCK USED. Amount used. Formalin, 1-100, Formalin, 1-200, Formalin, 1-300, Formalin, 1-400, Potassium permanganate, 1-100, Potassium permanganate, 1-300, Potassium permanganate, 1-400, Potassium permanganate, 1-500, Sulfuric acid, 1-200, Sulfuric acid, 1-400, Sulfuric acid, 1-600, Sulfuric acid, 1-800, Acid phosphate, Acid phosphate. Acid phosphate. 114 cubic centimeters. 57 cubic centimeters. 38 cubic centimeters. 28.5 cubic centimeters. 57 grams. 38 grams. 28.5 grams. 23 grams. 57 cubic centimeters. 28.5 cubic centimeters. 19 cubic centimeters. 14.25 cubic centimeters. 57 grams. 38 grams. 28.5 grams. The potatoes were cultivated in the usual way and allowed to mature. When dug the yield was taken of each pot separately, and the relative amount of scab as compared with the corre- sponding check tile, but in most cases the yield and amount of scab present closely approximated the check, so nothing of value was obtained from this experiment, as a whole. It was noted, however, that the tiles treated with formaldehyde or formalin were somewhat freer from scab individually ; also in the case of the permanganate very little yield was obtained, but the usual amount of scab was present. The sulfuric acid treatment showed possible beneficial effects, but the yield was so small that no accurate comparison could be made. 90 EXrEULMENT STATION. [Jan. The experiments, on the whole, were very unsatisfactory, and no deductions of any importance could be made. The experiments of the season of 1909 were planned in the same manner, but owing to other causes over which we had no control the crop was lost before the examination could bo made. In 1910 the exj^eriment as planned and carried out was as follows : — Table II. — Plaii of Potato Scab Experiments, 1910. Pot Num- ber. Substance used. Amount used. Formalin, 1-100, Formalin, 1-200, Formalin, 1-300, Formalin, 1-400, Potassium permanganate, 1-100, Potassium permanganate, 1-300, Potassium permanganate, 1-400, Potassium permanganate, 1-500, Sulfuric acid, 1-200, Sulfuric acid, 1-400, Sulfuric acid, 1-COO, Sulfuric acid, 1-800, Sulfur, Sulfur, Sulfur, 114 cubic centimeters. 57 cubic centimeters. 38 cubic centimeters. 28.5 cubic centimeters. 57 grama. 38 grams. 2S.5 grams. 23 grams. 57 cubic centimeters. 2H.5 cubic centimeters. 19 cubic centimeters. 14.2 cubic centimeters. 50 grams. 100 grams. 200 grams. Upon examination it was found that the check pots were prac- tically all scabby. This was taken as a basis of 100 per cent, scab, and the results from the various treatments estimated in relation to this basis. Pots Nos. 1, 3, 5 and 7, which were treated with formalin, showed the presence of scab as follows: in pot Xo. \ tlio ])otatoes had only 10 per cent, scab, as against 30 per cent for pot jSTo. 3, 24 per cent, for pot ISTo. 5, and 70 per cent, for pot Xo. 7. In the pots treated with potassium permanganate no yield was obtained except in one case and one check, and here the potatoes were about HO per cent, scabby in both cases. 1913. rUBLlC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 91 In the sulfuric acid trcatnuMit uo yields of potatoes were ob- tained exccjU in the check tile, and they av(M-a£i;ed (iO ])er cent, scab. In the sulfur treatment the treated pots in <»-eneral showed a sligLt gain over the untreated or check ])ots, but not enough to warrant deiinitc favorable conclusions being drawn. The plans for the experiments in the season of 1911 were changed somewhat, and other chemicals substituted for some that were previously used. This was the result of the non-action or the negative results obtained from some of the substances used. The whole method of choice of substances was of course haphazard, as no foundation for the use of some was warranted. In 1911 the chemicals used were as follows, and the only old one to be used was formalin. Table III. gives the plan of the year's experiments : — Table III. — Pkm of Potato Scab Expcmncnts, 1911. Pot Num- ber. Substance used. Amount used. Steam-sterilized, Steam-sterilized, Steam-sterilized, Steam-sterilized, By-product A, . . . By-product A, ... By-product A, ... By-product k, ... By-product A, By-product A, ... K permanganate-formnlin, K permanganate-formalin, K permanganate-formalin, K permanganate-formalin. Copper sulfate, 1-1,000, . Copper sulfate (1 gallon), 1-10,000, Carbon bisulfid, Carbon bisulfid. Carbon bisulfid. 5 grams (dry). 10 grams (dry). 10 grams (wet). 15 grams (dry). 25 grams (dry). 40 grams (dry). 100 cubic centimeters, 6 grams. 25 cubic centimeters, 10 grams. 40 cubic centimeters, 16 grams. 60 cubic centi meters, 24 grams. 15 cubic centimeters. 25 cubic centimeters. 40 cubic centimeters. 92 EXPERLAIENT STATION. [Jan. Til tlic first series, that of the steam-sterilized, it is noticed tliat a fair yield of potatoes was obtained, and the anionnt of scab on the check and treated tiles was as follows : — Check, Check, Check, ^er Cent Scab. Per Cent Scab. . 40 Steam-sterilized sf)il, . 30 . IS Steam-sterilized soil, . 41 . 30 Steam-sterilized soil, . 23 . 29 Average, . . 31 Average, These rcsnlts surely do not show much benefit from steriliza- tion, and on the whole the amount of scab seemed to increase with the sterilization. The reason for this is not a]>])arent, bnt may be explained in different ways. In all probability steril- izing' the soil in open boxes by heating the soil to 210° or 212^ F. was not sntHcicnt to kill the germs of scab. It seems hardly probable that if the organisms had been killed by sterilizing, the soil in the pots could have been contaminated to this extent, or that the seed after l)eing treated with formaldehyde conld have been the cause of this. In the second series a manufacturer's by-product was used, which for the present we will call by-product A. This Avas ap- plied in diiferent amounts and scattered in the soil both in the powder form and as a paste mixed with water. The three checks averaged 44 per cent, scab, and the treated tiles averaged oO ]K'r cent. scab, with the lowest amount of seal) present in the tile treated with the smallest amount of the by-product A. On the whole, this substance seemed to have some beneficial action, although apparently there were discrepancies in the comparative amounts of scab present in relation to the amounts of the sub- stance used. The next series, made up of gaseous formaldehyde treatment by the reaction of potassium permanganate on formaldehyde, gave no results except in one or two instances, and then the yield was very small and in some cases none at all. The series of tiles treated with copper sulfate showed that this substance might have a beneficial action in strengths up to 1-10,000, bnt there was the same amount of scab on the tile treated with copper sulfate, 1-1,000, as there was on the checks. 1913. PUBLIC DOCITMENT — No. 31, 93 The yield was small, however, both on the treated tiles and the checks. The series treated with carbon bisulfid showed some results, the cheek tiles averaging 50 per cent, scab and the treated tiles showing an average of 20 per cent. It can be seen that this year's resnlts are showing some im- provement over those of preceding years, and by elimination only the most nsefnl compounds are to be used hereafter, with perhaps one or two additions. Table IV. — ■ Plan of Potato Scab Experiments, 1912. ^ Pot Num- ber. Substance used. Amount used. By-product A, By-product A, By-product A, By-product A, By-product A, By-product A, Sulfur, . Sulfur, Sulfur, . Naphthalene, . Steam-sterilized, Steam-sterilized, Steam-sterilized, Formalin, 1-100, Formalin, 1-200, Formalin, 1-300, Formalin, 1-400, Carbon bisulfid. Carbon bisulfid, Carbon bisulfid, Nicine, Nicine, 100 grams (dry). 300 grams (dry). 500 grams (dry) . 100 grams (wet). 200 grams (wet). 300 grams (wet). 50 grams (wet). 100 grams. 200 grama. 50 grams. 15 cubic centimeters. 25 cubic centimeters. 40 cubic centimeters. 100 grams. 200 grams. 1 Numbers omitted were used as check tile. Potatoes treated exactly as in preceding experi- ments. In 1012 the experiments were carried on in a similar man- ner, bnt for the most part chemical solids were used, with the 94 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. exception of the formalin treatment, which remained the same as the ])recediug years. The by-product A treatment showed good results, especially when applied dry in 500-gram amounts to the ])ot area. Even in smaller quantities a decided benetit seemed to be obtained, as can be seen from the following sunmiary : — Substance used. Amount used, Dry (Grams). Per Cent. Amount used, Wet (Gram.s). Per Cent. By-product A, By-product A, By-product A, Check, . 100 300 500 100 200 300 Appanmtly this substance has a good effect. The yield of tubers was in all cases good. If the substance were applied at this rate (500 grams to 3 square feet) it would mean about 7 tons to the acre, but it may be shown that a smaller quantity would be sufficient. ]\Iuch more w^ork is necessary before any definite opinion can be advanced as to the actual worth of the substance. The sulfur treatment showed slightly beneficial results, the different tiles and check showing the scab present in the follow- in£»; amounts : — Sulfur, 50 ,i>rams, Sulfur, 100 -rams, . Sulfur, 200 grams, . Check, 70 per cent. scab. 50 per cent. scab. ()0 per cent. scab. 85 per cent. scab. The yield of tubers was good in the case of the sulfur treat- ment. The naphthalene treatment showed no results, with very little yield of tubers. The steam-sterilized tiles, sterilized to a depth of G inches. and corresponding check showed scab present in the following amounts: — Steam-sterilized soil (a), Steam-sterilized soil {h), Steam-sterilized soil (c), Check, 00 per cent. scab. 40 per cent. scab. 30 per cent. scab. 00 per cent. scab. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 95 The yield of tubers was good in all cases. The formalin treatment gave varying results, and when used in quantities sufficient to do good would be probably imprac- tical. The results with formalin were as follows : — Formalin 1-100, 30 per cent. scab. Formalin 1-200, 40 per cent. scab. Formalin 1-300, 70 per cent. scab. Formalin 1-400, 70 per cent. scab. Clieck, 75 per cent. scab. The yield was only fair in these tiles. The carbon bisulfid treatment gave negative results, as may be seen from the following: — Carbon bisulfid, 15 cubic centimeters, fair yield, 80 per cent. scab. Carbon bisulfid, 25 cubic centimeters, poor yield, 3 per cent. scab. Carbon bisulfid, 40 cubic centimeters, no yield. The ]^icine treatment gave no results that could be inter- preted as either beneiicial or otherwise. The experiments for 1913 will be planned from an economic point of view, and if possible the same experiments will be carried out for a series of years, and plots used in addition to the tiles. In summarizing the results of experiments with potato scab it will be noticed that many of the substances used had little effect in preventing scab, while others seemed to possess some value. Steaming the soil the second year was done somewhat more thoroughly than the first year, but the results, on the whole, were similar, i.e., in all the sterilized plots, 1911-12, there w^as little evidence of reduction of the scab. Steaming under pressure or for prolonged periods under no pressure would determine once for all whether the scab germs are un- usually resistant to heat. The heated soil, however, proved to be beneficial to the crop, as the yield was good under this treatment. The best yield in 1912 was given by by-product A in dry form, followed by the sulfur treatment, and the by-product A wet treatment and steam heating. The most satisfactory treat- ment from the yield point of view as well as that of treatment 96 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. was bj-j)ro(lnct A, the drv mixture ])roviiig superior to the wet. Our experiments with this substance also indicate that any beneficial results from its use are carried over into the next season, since in those plots iu which this substance was em- ployed in 1911 the results were noticeable in 1912. The crop obtained by the use of by-product A at the rate of 500 grams to 3 square feet of surface, consisted of the cleanest tubers we have ever observed in a soil which was l)adly contaminated with scab, and, furthermore, it does not appear in the least to atfect the growth or yield (see Fig. 1). The substance appears to act slowly and continuously as a germicide, and may prove even more efficient in the control of other fungi. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 97 AN OUTLINE OF SOME OF THE TOPICS COV- ERED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF VEGE- TABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY SINCE ITS INCEPTION. G. E. STONE. The department of vegetable physiology was established in the State Experiment Station in 1888, and Dr. James E. IIum})hrey, nnder the supervision of Dr. C. A. Goessmann, carried on investigations from November, 1888, to 1892, when he resigned. A bibliography of the more important papers published by the dei:)artnient follows : — Sixth annual report of tlie State Experiment Station, 1888: i:)otato scab. Seventh report, 1889 : general aceoiuit of fungi ; potato scab ; fungous diseases on the station farm; notes on material referred to the depart- ment. Eighth report, 1890: black knot of plum; mildew of encumbers; brown rot of stone fruits ; potato scab ; notes on various diseases. Ninth report, 1891 : rotting of lettuce ; powdery mildcAV of the cucum- ber; various diseases; preventive treatment. Tenth report, 1892 : diseases of the cucumber jjlant and violet dis- eases: the black knot of the plum and cherry; gi-ain rusts; various diseases: treatment for powdery mildew. (From 1892, when Dr. Hum- phrey resigned, until 1895, the pathological work was temporarily dis- continued, but in 1895 the department of vegetable physiology and joathology was established and the work has been continued by the writer since that time.) Eighth annual report of the Hatch Experiment Station, 1895: this contains mainly an outline of work, and brief references to some experi- ment topics. Ninth report, 1896: nature of plant diseases; a bacterial disease of the cultivated sti'awberry {Micrococcus sp.f) ; stem rot of the cultivated aster; leaf spot of decorative plants; leaf spot of Picas elastica (Lejj- tostromella elastica Ell. & Ev.) ; a leaf spot disease {Graphiola PJwe- nicis Poit) of the date and similar palms; a leaf spot of the begonia; 98 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. a so-called black spot disease of the rose [Pilobolus crystallinus Tode) ; a leaf blight or anthracnosc of the cucumber {Colletotrichum Lagen- arium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.); an unusual outbreak of two rusts, — asparagus rust {Puccinia asparagi D. C.) and a late rust of the Jjlack- berry {Chrysomyxa alhida Klihn.) ; the tomato mildew {Cladosporiian fulvum Cke.); a chrysanthemum rust; "drop" of lettuce {Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl.) ; wilt of maple leaves; topburn of lettuce. Tenth rej)ort, 1S97: the causes of the failure of the jiolato crop of 1897 ; the "drop" of lettuce; the asiiaragus rust {Puccinia aaparagi D. C.) ; the fire blight (Bacillus amglovorus (Burr.) DeToni) ; quince rust {Gymnosporangium clavipes C. & P.) ; brown rot of stone fruits {Monilia fructigena Pers.) ; tlie chi-ysantheraum rust (Puccinia Tanaceli S.) ; some leaf blights of native trees; a leaf blight of the sycamore or buttonwood (Glcrosporium ne^'visequum (Fckl.) Sacc.) ; a leaf blight of the butternut (Ghvosporium Juglandis (Lib.) Mont.) ; a leaf spot of the chestnut [Scptoria ochroleuca B. & C.) ; a leaf spot of the wild black cherry (S'eploria cerasina Pk.) Eleventh report, 1S9S : scope of work; black spot of the maple (Rhy- iisma acerinum (P.) Fr.) ; oak leaf blight {Gloeosporium nervisequum (Fckl.) Sacc); walnut leaf blight (Ghvosporium Juglandis (Lib.) Mont.); a muskmelon disease; rotting of cabbage; furtlicr considera- tions in regard to the drop in lettuce; the chrysanthemum rust; a new pansy disease; seasonal peculiai'ities of certain shade trees; overfeeding of plants; the bronzing of rose leaves; cucumber wilt; some dilliculties which city shade trees have to contend with. Twelfth annual report, 1899: aster diseases; the bacterial cucumber wilt; a geranium disease; muskmelon failures; the maple leaf blight (Phylloslicta acericola C. & E.) ; the chrysanthemum rust; some experi- ments in growing violets in sterilized soil; the relationship existing be- tween the asparagus rust and the physical properties of the soil. Thirteenth report, 1900: aster diseases; nematode worms; cucumber mildew (Plasmopara Cubensis B. & C.) ; Russian lliistle in Massachu- setts; influence of chemical solutions ui)on the germination of seeds. Fourteenth report, 1901: the dying of cut-leaved birches; the present status of chrysanthemum rust in Massachusetts; the effects of desicca- tion on soil; melon failures; stem rots and wilt diseases; the present status of the asparagus rust in Massachusetts; sterilization of soil in greenhouses for fungous diseases. Fifteenth report, 1902: peach leaf cuil (Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fckl.); ai)i)le leaf spot; sycamoie blight (Glccosporium nervisequum (Fckl.) Sacc); strawberry root rot; apple scab (Fusicladium dendri- iicum (Wallr.) Fckl.); cucumbei' wilt; sweet pea troubles; aster dis- eases; potato blight (Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) DeBarry) ; cucumber and meh)n diseases; asparagus rust (Puccinia asparagi T). C.) ; chrysanthemum rust (Puccinia Chrysanthemi Roze) ; the cucum- 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 99 ber mildew {Plasmopara Cubensis (B. & C.) Ilurnphrey) in Massachu- setts; the muskmelon bliiiht; an apple leaf spot; a strawberry disease; plum "yellows; " spraying' of linden and elm trees for leaf spot; erojjs under tent cloth; experiments in heating soils; influence of sterilized soil on seed germination. Sixteenth report, 1903: influence of current electricity on i)lant growtli; influence of atmospheric electrical potential on plants. Seventeenth report, 1004: crops as related to weather conditions; testing of seed ; the practice of soil sterilization ; influence of electrical potential on the growth of jjlants; some important literature relating to disease of crops not generally believed to be caused by fungi or insects. Eighteenth report, 1905: downy mildew of tomato {I'hytophlhora infestans DBy.) ; potato rot [Pliylophthora infcstans DBy.) ; cucumber and melon blight; sun scald; burning- of conifers and evergreens; winter killing; relation between soil aeration and germination and growth; comparison of sterilized loam and subsoil ; influence of soil sterilization on seed germination; an application of the copper sulfate treatment; a comparison of the numbers of bacteria in stei'ilized and unsterilized soils. Nineteenth report, 190G : outline of work; seed work; jirevalence of fungi, etc.; bacterial disease of cucumbers; bacterial disease of lettuce; baeteriosis of geraniums; tobacco troubles; monilia on peach stem; the lime and sulfur mixture as a fungicide; potato-spraying experi- ments; banding substances for trees; effects of escaping illuminating gas on trees; germination and growth in soils of different texture; texture of Massachusetts soils. Twentieth report, 1907: outline of the year's work; seed work; seasonal peculiarities ; sun scald ; sun scorch premature defoliation of trees; asparagus rust; asparagus Fusarium; peony troubles; potato diseases; experiments with fungicides; influence of various potash salts on potato scab (Odspora scabies Tliaxter) ; investigations relating to mosaic disease; some factors which underlie susce^jtibility and immunity to disease. Twenty-first report, 1908 : brief notes on the weeds of Massachusetts ; results of seed separation ; examination of onion seeds for fungous spores; bacterial rot of cabbage and cauliflower; crown gall; the pres- ervation of maple syrup ; onion rot ; onion smut ; a disease of the radish ; celery crown rot; eel worms (Ileterodera radicicola (Greef.) Miill.) on lettuce; influence of water on eel worms; influence of lime on eel worms; effects of chemicals on vegetation ; substances and methods used in exterminating weeds; seed Avork; common weed seeds in grass seed and cattle foods. Twenty-second report, ]909: diseases more or less common to crops during the year; shade tree troubles; malnutrition; calico or mosaic 100 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. disease of cucumber and melon ; notes on the occurrence of fungous spores on onion seed; spraying injuries; control of certain greenhouse diseases; damping-off fungi; spraying experiments with calcium ben- zoate; seed purity work, 1909, seed germination and separation; sun scorch on the i)ine. Twenty-third report, 1910 : diseases more or less common during the year; seed woi-k, 1910; an outbreak of rusts; sweet pea troubles; a spinach disease new to Massachusetts; condition of fruit trees in gen- eral; Fusarium disease of cucumbers and other plants; crown gall; chestnut disease {Diaporihe parasitica Murrill) ; shade tree troubles; the spraying of trees; a new type of spray nozzle; the clogging of drain tile by roots; exi:)eriments relating to the prevention of the clogging of drain tile by roots; abnormalities of stump growths; peach and plum troubles. Twenty-foiu'th report, 1911 : diseases more or less common during the year; seed work for the year 1911; do Ave need a seed law in Massa- chusetts; rust on Yinea; bronzing of maple leaves; a notable elm tree; frost cracks; some observations on the growth of elm trees; coarse nozzle versus mist nozzle spraying; a new method for the approximate mechanical analysis of soils; the present status of soil sterilization; in- fluence of soil decoctions from sterilized and unsterilized soils upon bacterial growth; the effects of positive and negative electrical charges on seeds and seedlings; electrical resistance of trees; experiments with rose soils. List of Bulletins issued by the Department of Vegetable Physi- ology AND Pathology.* Electro-Gerniinnfion, Asa S. Kinney, Bui. No. 43, 1897. Nematode Worms, G. E. Stone, K. E. Smith, Bui. No. 55, 1S9S. Asparagus Rust, G. E. Stone, R. E. Smith, Bui. No. Gl, 1S99. Rotting of Greenhouse Lettuce, G. E. Stone, R. E. Smith, Bui. No. 69, 1900. Growing China Asters, R. E. Smith, Bui. No. 79, 1902. CucuEibers under Glass, G. E. Stone, Bui. No. 87, 1903. Fungicides and Insecticides," G. E. Stone, H. T. Fernald, S. T. Maynard, Bui. No. SO, 1902. Lijuries to Shade Trees from Electricity, G. E. Stone, Bui. No. 91, 1903. Fungicides and Lisecticides," G. E. Stone, H. T. Fernald, F. A. Waugh, Bui. No. 96, 1904. Tomatoes imder Glass, G. E. Stone, Bui. No. 105, 1905. Blossom End Rot of Tomatdos, Elizabeth IT. Smith, Tech. Bui. No. 3, 1907. Seed Separation and Germination, G. E. Stone, Bui. No. 121, 190S. > These bulletins are no longer available for distribution by the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, but may be found in any public library within the State. 2 Issued in co-operation with other departments. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. .31. 101 Fungicide-s and Insect icidos/ G. E. Stoiio, H. T. Fcrnald, Bui. No. 123, 1908. Shade Trees/ E. A. Start, G. E. Stone, 11. T. Fernald, Bui. No. 125, 1908. Control of Onion Smut, G. E. Stone, Cir. No. 21, 1909. Lime and Sulfur, G. E. Stone, Cir. No. 31, 1911. Tomato Diseases, G. E. Stone, Bui. No. 138, 1911. Microscopic Identification of Cattle Feeds, G. H. Chapman, Bui. No. 141, 1912. 1 Issued in co-operation with other departments. - Issued in co-operation with the Massachusetts Forestry Association. 102 EXrEKLMENT STATION. [Jan. DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. JOSEPH B. LINDSEY. This report is intended to give an outline of the work in progress by this department during the year ending Dec. 1, 1912. 1. Work of the Research Section. (a) Work on the chemistry of insecticides undertaken in co-operation with the department of entomology has been largely completed, and a somewhat comprehensive paper on the subject was published in the twenty-fourth report. A paper on the chemistry of calcium arsenite was also presented by Mr. Holland to the International Congress of Applied Chemistry in September, 1912. Some additional work will be required for several years in testing the purity of the insecticides em- ployed each year in spraying. A reasonably satisfactory method has been developed for the quantitative determination of the insoluble fatty acids in butter fat. ■ It is now being applied in the analysis of fat produced by cows at the 1)eginning and end. of lactation, and of that yielded by fat and thin cows at the beginning of lactation. The objec- tion to the method is the length of time required for its comple- tion. Another method is under consideration which, it is hoped, will yield equally good results in much less time. The subject of the digestion depression produced by molasses has been further studied by noting its peristaltic action on the intestines. The observations confirmed those previously made, indicating it to he without noticeable effect. (&) Mr. Morse has made distinct progress in his study of 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 103 the effect of fertilizers upon asparagus. Phosphoric acid in the ash of the roots was not changed eitlier by the absence or by varying the amounts of phosphate ajiplied to the soil. Potas- sium oxide in the ash varied with the amounts of potash applied to the soil. Roots collected in the summer of 1911, at the close of cutting for market, showed no apparent exhaustion of nitro- gen in them by withholding nitrate of soda until midsununcr. Sugar was, however, somewhat depressed by the absence of a spring dressing of nitrate of soda. On the other hand, mature tops collected in October, 1911, gave results showing a small but persistent excess of nitrogen in samples from plots top- dressed with nitrate in the spring. In case of the plant food requirements of the cranberry, the time has been devoted largely to observations to determine the probable amount of plant food which may be lost in the ditches as well as that which may rise through the peat and sand as the water rises and falls with the changes in rainfall, and the use of water for irrigation and flooding. The total amount added to the irrigation tiles during the summer of 1912 was equiva- lent to 190,000 gallons per acre. This should, theoretically, carry with it into the sand in which the roots grow some 53 pounds of nitrogen, 30 pounds of phosphoric acid and 85 pounds of jiotash \)vv acre. Other studies are in progress. A study of the action of sulfate of ammonia on several of the experiment station plots is in progress and considerable data are being accumulated which, it is hoped, will throw some light upon this perplexing problem. (c) In addition to the above fundamental problems. Dr. Lindsey has continued his studies on the digestibility of cattle feeds, including cottonseed feed meal, cocoanut meal, flax and wheat screenings, flax sliives and cocoa shells. An experiment concerning the value of alfalfa hay in milk production has also been com]ileted, and observations are still in progress concerning milk substitutes for rearing dairy calves. 2. Report of ttie Fetjtiijzer Sectiox. IMr. Ilaskins reports as follows : — Although the principal work of the fertilizer division has been confined to the inspection of commercial fertilizers, yet 104 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. (luring the winter months considerable work was accomplished along other lines. The time available was partly devoted to completing the ash analysis of asparagus roots, this being a con- tinuation of work begun during 1911 in conjunction with fer- tilizer experiments with asparagus. The ash analysis of tobacco stalks pi'eserved under different conditions has been made for the ])urpose of showing the variation in composition and of emphasizing the importance of conserving all of the i)lant food which is furnished by this class of material. The analysis of 14 samples of soil taken from different localities and at dif- ferent depths has been made to show the tendency of potash to accumulale in the subsoil to a depth of from 3 to 5 feet. This work was undertaken for the purpose of confirming results of analysis of subsoils on field A, which showed a remarkable accumulation of potash. Some time has been given to co-oper- ative work with the American Association of Official Agricul- tural Chemists, particularly with reference to the study of new and improved methods for the determination of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash. The Writer has served the association for the past two years as referee on phosphoric acid. Consid- erable preliminary work has been done in preparation for vege- tation experiments on fertilizers to be conducted during 1913. Free examination of refuse by-products, fertilizers and soils has been made for farmers and farmers' organizations as in the past; a more detailed account of this work will be foimd on a subsequent page. A larger number of commercial fertilizers has been regis- tei'ed, collected and analyzed during the season than for any previous year. The following summaries will give a fair idea of the work involved and will show the condition of the fer- tilizer trade for the year : — (a) Fertilizers registered. (6) Fertilizers collected. (c) Fertilizers analyzed. (d) Trade values of fertilizing ingredients. ((?) Tiaw products and chemicals. (1) Materials furnishing nitrogen. (2) Materials furnishing potash. (3) Materials furnishing phosphoric acid. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 105 (/) Mixed complete fertilizers. (1) Grades of fertilizer. (2) Summary of analyses and gnarantees. (3) (Quality of plant food. (g) Ground rock, mineral fertilizer or stonemeal. (A) Lime compounds. (i) Uree analyses of by-products, fertilizers and soils. (a) Fertilizers registered. Ninety -seven manufacturers, importers and dealers, including the various branches of the trusts, have secured certificates for the sale of 509 diiferent brands of fertilizer, agricultural chem- icals, raw products and agricultural lime in the Massachusetts markets. This is IT more than were registered during the pre- vious year. They ma}- be classed as follows : — Complete fertilizers, ......... 328 Fertilizers furnishiuy phosjihoric aeiil and potash, .... 9 Grouiul bone, tankage and dry ground fish, ..... 55 Chemicals and organic nitrogen compounds, ..... 91 Agricultural limes, .......... 26 509 (b) Fertilizers collected. An effort has l)een made to procure a representative sample of every brand of fertilizer and lime which has been registered in Massachusetts, and with few exceptions the effort has been successful. During the early part of April, arrangements were made, upon request, to sample carloads of cottonseed meal, wood ashes, fertilizers and chemicals, these earlier shipments being materials which were purchased for private use by some of the larger consumers. Although this practice has made it necessary to make a much larger number of analyses than for- merly, yet it has some good features as it insures the inspec- tion of a larger tonnage than would otherwise be possible, besides furnishing the large consumer an analysis of his partic- ular shipment. Large shipments of many private formulas have been sampled upon request. The inspectors have, during the year, sampled about 5,600 106 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. tons of fertilizer of all kinds, and in doing this have drawn from OA'cr 15,000 bags. Thej visited 138 towns, called npon 329 dif- ferent agents, and drew 1,180 samples representing 527 distinct brands; this is 117 more samples, representing 45 more brands, than were taken during the previous year. (c) Ferlilizers analyzed. Seven liniidred and two analyses have been made during the year's ins})ection ; they may be grouped as follows: — Complete fertilizers, 431 Fertilizers furnishing' phosphoric acid and j^otash, such as ashes, IG Ground bone, tankage and iish, GS Nitrogen compounds, both organic and mineral, .... 87 Potash compounds, 42 Phosphoric acid compounds, 33 Lime compounds, .......... 25 702 (d) Trade Valnes of Ferlil'izinc) Ingredients. At a meeting of representatives of the experiment stations of New England, Ncav York and New Jersey, held during the first week of March, 1012, the following table of trade values was adopted. The trade values represent the average cash cost per pound at retail of nitrogen, ]')otasli and phosphoric acid as furnished by chemicals and standard unmixed fertilizing mate- rial in the principal markets in New York and New England. The data which arc used in obtaining these values are the aver- age wholesale quotations of chemicals and raw materials as found in commercial ])ublications from Sept. 1, 1911, to March 1, 1912, plus about 20 per cent. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 107 Trade ]'alucs of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and Chemicals for 1011 and 1012. Nitrogen : — In ammonia salts, In nitrate Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, moat and blood, Orsranic nitrogen in fine ' bone, tankage and mixed fertilizers. Organic nitrogen in coarse ' bone and tankage, . . Organic nitrogen in cottonseed meal, castor pomace, linseed meal, etc.. Phosphoric acid: — ■ Soluble in water, ........... Soluble in neutral ammonium citrate sohition (reverted phosphoric acid),- ............ In fine-ground ' bone and tankage, ....... In coarse ' bone, tankage and ashes, ....... In cottoniseed meal, castor pomace and linseed meal, .... Insoluble (in neutral ammonium citrate solution) in mixed fertilizers Potash : — As sulfate free from chlorides, ........ As nuiriate (chloride), .......... As carbonate, ........... In cottonseed meal, castor pomace, linseed meal, etc.. Cents per Pound. .5 25 4 25 00 5.00 • Fine bone and tankage are separated from coarse bone and tankage by means of a sieve having circular openings one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter. Valuations of bone and tankage are based upon degree of fineness as well as upon composition. 2 Dissolved by a neutral solution of ammonium citrate, specific gravity, 1.09, in accordance with method adopted by the .\ssociation of Official Agricultural Chemists. {e) Raw Produds and Cliemicah. Forty-five samples of ground bone, representing 32 analyses, have been collected and examined. The average retail cash price has been $32.63, and the average commercial valuation as calculated by the table of trade values has been* $29.24. Ground bone has averaged 3.12 per cent, nitrogen, 75.32 per cent, of which has been found active by the alkaline perman- ganate method. Twenty-eight samples of tankage have been inspected. The average retail cash price for tankage has been $33.19, and the average commercial valuation as calculated by the table of trade values has been $33.05 per ton. Tankage has averaged G.5S per cent, total nitrogen, of which 75.38 per cent, has been found active by the alkaline permanganate method. Nitrogen in fine tankage has cost on the average 10.08 cents; nitrogen in coarse tankage has cost 15.06 cents per pound. Four analyses of dissolved bone have been made. The aver- 108 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. age retail cash price has been $30.25, and the average commer- cial valuation as calculated by the table of trade values has been $23.27 per ton. Dissolved Ijonc has averaged 2.00 per cent, nitrogen, 71.16 per cent, of which has been found active by the alkaline permanganate method. Thirteen analyses of dry ground fish have ])e('n made, rep- resenting 32 sampk'S. The average retail cash price per ton has been $42.16 and the average calculated commercial valua- tion $41.59 per ton. Xitrogen from dry ground fish has cost on the average 22.3 cents per pound. (1) Materials furnishing Nitrogen. — Eight samples of dried blood have been examined, representing 6 analyses. Blood has averaged 10.46 ])er cent, total nitrogen, about 74 per cent, of which has been found active by the alkaline per- manganate method. The average retail cash price for blood has been $50.74 per ton, and the average calculated commercial valuation, $48.26 per ton. The average j^ound cost of nitrogen from blood has been 23.13 cents. Two samples of castor pomace have been analyzed, both of which have been found up to the guarantee. The average retail cash price has been $25.50, and the aA^eragc commercial valua- tion calculated by the table of trade values has been $10.24 per ton. The average cost of nitrogen in this form has been 26.51 cents per pound. Castor pomace has shown on the average 4.81 per cent, nitrogen, about 54 per cent, of which has been found active by the alkaline permanganate method. Fifty-six samples of cottonseed meal have been examined. Each sample represents a carload, and all of the material in- spected was bought as a nitrogen source, largely for tobacco. The average retail cash price has been $31.45, and the average calculated commercial valuation, $25.95 per ton. The average pound cost of nitrogen in this form has been 24.24 cents. Cot- tonseed meal has averaged 6.49 per cent, nitrogen, about 56 per cent, of which has been found active by the alkaline i)ermanga- nate method. Thirty-nine samples of nitrate of soda have l)een examined, representing 16 analyses: all but one sample was found fully up to the guarantee. Nitrate of soda has cost on the average 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 109 $50.70, and {]w average commercial valuation calculated by tlio table of trade values has been $rjl.O;> per ton. The pound price of nitrogen from this source has been 1G.39 cents. Six analyses of sulfate of ammonia have been made, repre- senting 7 samples; all have been found of good quality. The average retail cash price per ton has been $71.13, and the cal- culated commercial valuation, $72.28 per ton. The average cost of a pound of nitrogen in this material has been 16.23 cents. (2) Materials furnisliing PotasJi. — Eighteen analyses of high-grade sulfate of potash have been made, representing 31 samples. The average retail cash price of this potash salt has been $50.78, and the average commercial valuation calculated from the table of trade values has been $51.47 per ton. The pound of actual potash in this form has cost on the average 5.18 cents. Eive analA'ses of potash-magnesia sulfate have been made, representing 9 samples. The average retail cash price has been $29.50, and the average commercial valuation calculated from the table of trade values has been $28.80 per ton. The pound of actual potash in this form has cost 5.38 cents. An article offered as double sulfate of magnesia and potash was not hona fide, but evidently high-grade sulfate of potash and sulfate of magnesia reduced with sand. It contained 21.6 per cent, material insoluble in hot water, the greater part of which was unquestionably sand. The case is probably similar to several which were detected last year, and which proved to be cases where the mines in Germany had reduced high-grade sulfate of potash with sand in order to fill orders for potash- magnesia sulfate, of which there was a temporary shortage. Dr. Huston, of the German Kali Works, states that the practice is not tolerated by his company, and heavy shipments have been returned at the expense of the mines furnishing the material, and in all cases where this practice has been detected heavy fines have also been imposed. The amount of material involved in this particular case was not large, only ll/> tons being bought by one party for his own use. Fifteen analyses of muriate of potash have been made, repre- senting 31 samples. The potash guarantee was maintained in 110 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. all hut one case, and in this exception the commercial shortage was less than 50 cents ])('r ton. The average retail cash price has been $42.58, and the calcnlated commercial valuation, $43.83 per ton. The pound of actual potash as muriate has cost on tlu! average 4.13 cents. (3) Materials furnisliing Phosplioric Acid. — Onlv two sam- ples of dissolved bone black have been analyzed, on(> of which showed a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. Fourteen analyses of acid i)hosphatc have l)oen made, repre- senting 25 samples. The average retail cash price has been $15.35, and the average commercial valuation calculated from the tal)le of trade values has been $13.G7 per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid from acid phosphate has cost 4.77 cents. Seventeen analyses of basic slag phosphate have been made, representing 23 samples. Tour analyses showed samples de- ficient in available phosphoric acid. The average retail cash price paid for basic slag was $15.19, and the average calcnlated commercial valuation, $12.64 per ton. The pound of available phosphoric acid from basic slag, as determined by the Wagner method, has cost on the average 4.81 cents. Two brands showed a commercial shortage of over 50 cents per ton. (/) Mixed Complete Fertilizers. The larger number of high-grade fertilizers that are being sold from year to year in Massachusetts indicates that the aver- age farmer realizes the importance of purchasing a high-grade mixture. As has been pointed out in past years, there are many advantages to be gained by choosing a formula from among the high-grade goods. Summary tables have been prepared which furnish valuable data bearing upon this point. (1) Grades of Fertilizer. — In separating the formulas into different grades, those brands containing plant food having a commercial value of $24 or over per ton have been classed as high grnd(\ those having a value between $18 and $24 per ton medium grade, and those having a value of $18 or less per ton low irrade. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. Ill Table showing Average Cash Price and Commercial Plant Food Value per Ton, also Money Difference between Cash Price and Plant Food Value. Average retail cash price a ton, Average retail cost of plant food in a ton. Average money difference, Hicii Grade. 1911. S40.S7 2S.S9 11.93 1912. S38.23 27.84 11.16 Mkdicm Grade. 1911. S35.0S 21.01 14.04 1912. $33.20 20.74 12.52 Low Grade. 1911. $29.64 15.37 14.27 1912. $29.76 14.58 15.16 The above table shows : — 1. That the average ton price of the three grades of fertilizer has been $1.42 less, and the average cost of phmt food in a ton 60 cents k'ss, than for the previons season. 2. That the low-grade goods were the only class which sold on the average at a slightly higher ton cost than during the previous year. 3. That the percentage excess of the selling price over the commercial value of plant food in the low-grade fertilizers is over two and one-half times more than in the high-grade goods, and about one and three-fourths times more than in the me- dium-grade fertilizers. 4. That with a 28.5 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes about 91 per cent, increase in commercial plant food value. 5. That the money difference between the average selling price and the average valuation in the high-grade fertilizers is $4 less than in the low-grade goods. It probably costs no more to manufacture a ton of low-grade goods than it does a ton of the high-grade ; besides, in the low-grade fertilizer opportuni- ties are offered for the use of low-grade ammoniates and low- grade potash compounds. These facts all emphasize the many advantages to be gained by buying only high-grade mixtures. 112 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table showing the Average Comfosilion of the Three Grades of Fertilizer. ^ N ITIJOUEN. Phosphoric Acid. T§si '« j3 • -^■" s C3 .2 T3 JL, (V . "o go Avai f 0 open 6 E 03 Gkade. o s 3 II 1 o Percentage ability of Nitrogen. o h 1 'a > < Ph High, . 105 48.25 3.9-1 85.28 68.05 3.90 3.52 7.42 7.75 19.11 Medium, 105 30.88 2.59 83.40 64,46 4.46 3.25 7.71 5.08 15.38 I.OVV, 72 21.18 l.GG 75.90 60.00 4.36 2.74 7.10 2.83 11.59 Tho al)ove tabic shows : — 1. That a ton of the average high-grade fertilizer fnrnishes 45.6 poniuls more nitrogen and 98.4 pounds more actual potash than does a ton of the low-grade goods. 2. That a ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes 27 pounds more nitrogen and«53.4 pounds more potash than does a ton of the medium-grade goods. 3. That with a 28.5 per cent, advance in price over the low- grade fertilizer, the high-grade furnishes ahout G5 per cent, increase in available plant food. 4. That the average high-grade fertilizer with about 15 per cent, advance in price over the medium-grade goods, furnishes over 24 per cent, more plant food and 34 per cent, increase in commercial value. 5. That tho percentage activity of the total nitrogen is 0.38 per cent., and the percentage activity of the organic nitrogen is 8.G5 per cent, more in the high-grade fertilizer than in the low-grade brands. This would indicate the superior quality of plant food in the high-grade brands, which is still another advantage in purchasing the latter class of fertilizer. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 113 Table showing the Comparative Pound Cost of Nitrogen, Potash and Phos- phoric Acid in its Various Forms in the Three Grades of Fertilizer. FoiiM OF Element. I.ow-grade Fertilizer (Cents). Medium-grade Fertilizer (CeutH). High-grade Fertilizer (Cents). Nitrogen (as nitrates and ammoniates), 33.7 26.5 22.6 Nitrogen (organic) 38.8 30.5 26.1 Potash (as muriate), 8.7 G.8 5.8 Soluble phosphoric acid, .... 9.2 7.2 6.2 Reverted phosphoric acid, .... 8.2 6.5 5.5 Insoluble phosphoiic acid 4.1 3.2 2.7 This table shows: — 1. That the purchase of high-grade fertilizers in place of low-grade has saved nearly 12 cents on every pound of nitrogen and nearly 3 cents on every ponnd of potash and phosphoric acid. 2. That the purchase of high-grade fertilizers in place of medium grade has saved 4'')4 cents on every pound of nitrogen and nearly 2 cents on every poiuid of potash and phosphoric acid. 3. That the cost of the several elements of plant food in the average high-grade fertilizer amounts to $37.05 a ton. If the farmer purchases this same amount of plant food on the basis of the cost of the fertilizer elements in the low-grade fertilizer, he would pay $5G.17. In other words, he would pay $18.52 more for the same plant food if purchased in the form of low- grade fertilizer; and he would pay $12. OG moi'c for it if pur- chased in the form of medium-grade fertilizer. 4. That about 52 per cent, of the brands of fertilizer sold in the State are classed as low and medium grade. This is by far too large a proportion, as it means that those purchasing this class of goods are paying an excessive price for the actual plant food obtained, which in the aggregate must amount to many thousands of dolhirs. 5. That it would be much more economical to buy only high- grade fertilizers and use less ]wr acre. The brand sliould be selected which comes nearest fulfilling the plant-food require- ments in each individual case. 114 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. (2) Summary of Results of Amdyscs of the Complete Fer- tilizers as compared lulth the Manufacturer's Guarantee. Manufactuueh. - O C5 :3 = ;h o — o 3 a 0)2^ j3 a) ;ao C a; 3 O U C3 -ass -■2 3 W. II. Abbott Alpliauo Humus Company, .... American Agricultural Chemical Company, . Armour Fertilizer Works, .... Beach S(jap Company, ..... Berkshire Fertilizer Company, Bowker Fertilizer Company, .... Jos. Breck & S Chapter 218, Acta and Resolves of 1912. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 121 pipette, or other measuring ghiss or utensil that has been marked by the said director, or by his duly desiunated deputy or deputies, to indicate that it is inaccurate shall be used in this commonwealth by any person in determining the composition or value of milk or cream. Section 2. Every Babeock or other centrifugal machine used in this commonwealth by any inspector of milk or cream, or by any jierson in any milk insiiection laboratory for determining the composition of milk or cream for purposes of inspection, or by any pei'son in any milk depot, creamery, cheese factory, condensed milk factory or other place for determining the composition or value of milk or cream as a basis for payment in buying or selling, shall be subject to inspection at least once in each j'ear by the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experi- ment station or by an insjiector or deputy of the said director. The owner or user of any such centrifugal machine shall pay to the said director for the use of said station as a fee for making such annual inspection the actual cost of such inspection for each machine inspected. Any Babeock or other centrifugal machine used as aforesaid that is not, in the opinion of the director, or of an inspector or deputy of the said director, in condition to give accurate results, may be condemned bj' the dii'ector or by his inspector or deputj^ No Babeock or other centrifugal machine that has been condemned by said director or by an inspector or deputy of the director as not in condition to give accurate results shall be used in this commonwealth by any person for deter- mining the composition or value of milk or cream as aforesaid, unless the machine be changed to the satisfaction of the said director or of his inspector or deputy, and aj^proved by him. Section 3. No inspector of milk or cream, and no person in any milk inspection laboratory, shall manipulate the Babeock or other centrifugal .machine for the purpose of determining the composition of milk or cream for purposes of inspection, and no person in any milk depot, creamery, cheese factory, condensed milk factory, or other place in this commouAvealth shall manipulate the Babeock or other centrifugal ma- chine for the purpose of detennining the composition or value of milk or cream as a basis for payment in buying or selling, without first ob- taining a certificate from the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, or his duly designated deputy, that he is competent to perform such w'ork. The fee for such certificate shall be two dollars, and shall be paid by the applicant therefor to the said director for the use of the said station. In case any holder of a certificate is notified by the director, or by his duly designated deputy, to correct his use of a Babeock or other centrifugal machine, the actual cost of making an in- spection to ascertain if the said pei'son has corrected his use of the said machine shall be paid by the said person or by his employer to the director for the use of the said station. No holder of a certificate whose authority to manipulate a Babeock or other centrifugal machine has been revoked by the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment 122 EXPERBIENT STATION. [Jan. station, or by liis duly dosijiiiated deputy, sliall tlioroaftor manipulate in this coimuon weal til any centrifugal machine for the purposes afore- said. Sectiox 4. The director of the Massachusetts agTicultural experi- ment station and his duly designated deputy are hereby authorized to issue certificates of competency to such persons desiring to manipulate the Babcock or other centrifugal machine as, in the opinion of the director or bis depiitj', are competent to manipulate said machines. Tlie said director or his deputy may make and enforce rules governing appli- cations for such certificates and the granting thereof and may, in his discretion, revoke the authority of any holder of a certificate who, in the opinion of the director or of his deputy, or of an insj^eetor of the said director, is not correctly manii^nlating any centrifugal machine as aforesaid, or is using dirty or othci'wise iinsatisfactory glassware or utensils. Section 5. It shall be the duty of the director of the Massachusetts agi'icultural experiment station, and he is hereby authorized, to test or cause to be tested all bottles, pipettes and otlier measuring glasses or utensils submitted to him as provided in section one, to inspect or cause to be inspected at least once eacli year everj- Babcock or otlier centrif- ugal machine used in this commonwealth by an inspector of milk or cream, or by any person in anj^ milk inspection laboratory, for purposes of inspection, or by any person in any milk depot, creamery, cheese factory, condensed milk factory, or other place for determining the composition or value of milk or cream as a basis for payment in buying or selling, and to collect or cause to be collected for the use of said station the fees or actual cost of tests and insiDections pi'ovided for in this act. The said diiector, his inspectors and deputies are further authorized to enter upon any itemises in this commonwealth where any centrifugal machine is used as aforesaid to inspect the same and to as- certain if the provisions of this act are complied with. Section C. Any person hindering or obstructing the director of the Massacliusetts agricultural exjieriment station, or any inspector or dep- uty of the said director, in the discharge of the authority or duty im- posed upon him or them by any provision of this act, and any pei-son violating any of the provisions of sections one, two and three of this act shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifteen and not more than fifty dollars for each offense. Section 7. It shall be the duty of the director of the Massachusetts a^gi'icultural experiment station to see that the provisions of this act are complied with., and he may in his discretion prosecute or cause to .be prosecuted any person violating any provision of this act. - But this act shall not be construed to affect any persons using any centrifugal or other machine or test in determining the composition or value of milk or cream when such detorminaiinn is made for the information of such persons only, and not for purjioses of insi>ection, or as a basis for pay- ment in buying or selling. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 12: Section 8. A sum not cxceedinu' five luiiulrod ddllnrs ycnrly sliall he allowed and jiaid out of the treasury of the commouwoalth to meet the cost of prosecutions under this act, to be paid upon the presentation to the treasurer of the commonwealth by the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station of proper vouchers therefor. Section 9. The word " i)erson " as used in this act sliall include a corporation, association or partnership or two or more persons having a joint or common interest. Section 10. Sections sixty-five to sixty-nine, inclusive, of chapter fifty-six of the Revised Laws, and chapter four hundred and twenty-five of the acts of the year nineteen hundi'ed and nine are hereby repealed. Section 11. This act shall take effect on the first day of July in the year nineteen hundred and twelve. [Approved March 9, 1912. Summary of Inspection. 1. Examination for Certificates. — Applicants are examined in both theory and practice of the Babcock test. Of those who have applied dnring the year, 28 candidates were given certifi- cates, while 5 have been refused. 2. Examination of Glassware. — Six thousand and fifty-six pieces of Babcock glassware haA-e been tested, of which only 27 pieces were condemned as inaccnrate. The amount of nntested glassware at present is very small as compared Avith that fonnd formerly, and confirms the usefulness of the law. Following is a summary for the twelve years the law has been in force : — Year. Number of Pieces tested. Number of Pieces condemned. Percentase condemned. 1901 1902 1903 19(M 1905 1906, 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 5,041 2,344 2,240 2,026 1,665 2,457 3,0,82 2,713 4.071 4,047 4,466 6,056 291 56 57 200 197 763 204 33 43 41 12 27 5.77 2.40 2.54 9.87 11.83 31.05 6.62 1.22 1.06 1.01 .27 .45 Total? 40.208 1,924 4.79» ' Average. 3. Inspection of Machinery and Apparatus. — ]\[r. James T. Howard as deputy inspector has visited and inspected the Bab- 124 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. cock machines and apparatus in 80 creameries, milk depots and milk inspectors' laboratories. Nine operators were fonnd using untested glassware, and 15 operators were ordered to repair or replace machines in use. As the law in its application to milk inspectors is new, no prosecutions are being considered at this time; it is believed that all will eventually conform to the law. Following is a list of milk depots, creameries and milk inspec- tors visited. Only those milk inspectors using the Babcock test are listed. 1. Creameries. Location. Name. Manager or Proprietor. 1. Amlieret Amherst, R. VV. Pease, manager. 2. Amherst, . 3. Ash field, . Fort River, » . . . . A.shfield Co-operative, E. .\. King Estate, Pro- prietors. Wm. Hunter, manager. 4. Bclcliertown, Bclcliertown Co-operative, M. G. Ward, manager. 5. Brimfield, . Crystal Brook, F. N. Lawrence, proprietor. 6. Cummington, Cummington Co-operative, D. C. Morey, manager. 7. Egrcmont, Egremont Co-operative, . E. A. Tyrell, manager. 8. Easthampton, . Easthampton Co-operative, . W. S. Wilcox, manager. 9. Heath, Cold Spring, .... F. E. Stetson, manager. 10. Hinsdale, . Hinsdale Creamery Comi)any, Walter Solomon, proprietor. 11. Monterey, . Berkshire Hills, F. A. Campbell, manager. 12. Northfield, Northfield Co-operative, John E. Nye, manager. 13. Shelhurne. Shelburne Co-operative, . I. R. Barnard, manager. 14. VVyben Springs, Wyben Springs Co-operative, . C. H. Kelso, manager. • Testing done at Massachusetta .Agricultural Experiment Station. 2. Milk Depots. Location. Name. Manager. 1. Boston, Boston Condensed Milk Company, . R. Burns. 2. Boston, Boston Jersey Creamery, . E. F. Luce. 3. Boston, Elm Farm Milk Company, J. II. Knapp. 4. Boston, Franklin Creamery, .... O. Bradford. 5. Boston, H. P. Hood & Sons C. H. Hood. G. Boston, Oak Grove Farm John Alden. 7. Boston, Plymouth Creamery Company, R. Gardner. 8. Boston, Turner Center Dairying Association,. I. L. Smith. 9. Boston, Walker-Gordon Laboratory, G. Franklin. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 125 Location. Name. Manager. 10. Boston, . 11. Cambridge, 12. Cheshire, . 13. Lawrence, 14. Newburyport, . 15. Pittsfield, 16. Sheffield, . 17. Southborough, 18. Springfield, D. Whiting & Son.s, . C. Brigham Company, Ormsby Farms, Crescent Creamery, Newhall's Milk Depot, H. H. Prentice & Co., Willow Brook Dairy, . Deerfoot Farm, . Tait Brothers, . George Whiting. J. K. Whiting. E. B. Penniman. E. Morgan. John A. Newhail. H. H. Prentice. Frank Percy. C. H. Newton. H. Tait. .3. Milk Inspectors. Location. Inspector. Location. Inspector. 1. Adama, A. G. Potter. 26. Newton, . Arthur Hudson. 2. Andover, F. 11. Staccy. 27. New Bedford, . H. B. Hamilton. 3. Amesbury, E. L. Worthen. 28. North Adams, . H. Tower. 4. Arlington, . L. L. Pierce. 29. Northampton, . G. R. Turner. 5. Barnstable, . Geo. T. Mecarta. 30. Peabody, . II. S. Pomcroy. 6. Boston, J. 0. Jordan. 31. Pittsfield, . E. L. Hannum. 7. Brockton, G. G. Boiling. 32. Plainville, John Eiden. 8. Cambridge, Wm. A. Noonan. 33. Revere, J. E. Lamb. 9. Chelsea, W. S. Walkley. 34. South Iladloy, . Geo. F. Boudreau. 10. Chicopec, C. L. O'Brien. 35. Somcrville, H. E. Bowman. 11. Clinton, G. L. Chase. 36. iSpringficld, S. C. Downs. 12. Everett, E. Clarence Colby. 37. Springfield, Emerson Labora- tory. > L. I. Tucker. 13. Fall River, . Henry Boisseau. 38. Taunton, 14. Fitchburg, . John F. Bresnahan. 39. Wakefield, J. S. Bonney. 15. Gardner, C. W. Shippoe. 40. Waltham, . -Arthur L. Stone. 16. Greenfield, Geo. P. Moore. 41. Ware, Fred E. Marsh. 17. Haverhill, . H. L. Conner. 42. Watertown, L. C. Simmons. 18. Holyoke, . D. P. Hartnett. 43. Wellesley, . F. Schneider, Jr. 19. Lawrence, . J. H. Tobin. 44. Wostfield, . W. M. Porter. 20. Lowell, Melvin Marster. 45. West Springfield, Norman T. Smith. 21. Ludlow, A. L. Bennett, 46. Winchendon, G. W. Stanbridge. 21. Lynn H. P. Bennett. 47. Winchester, Morris Dinneen. 23. MiUbury, . F. A. Watkins, 48. Woburn, . E. P. Kclley. 24. Maiden, J. L Sanford. 49. Worcester, Gustav L. Berg. 25. Medford, Winslow Joyce. * Does work for the State Dairy Bureau. 126 EXPERDJlvXT STATIOxN. [Jan. ]yater Analysis. There is no one feature' of the home of greater importance than a pure and unfailini;' water supply. In order that families living where a i)ublic su])i)ly is not available may have the op- l)ortunity of determining the i)urity of the water from the well or spring they are obliged to nse, the experiment station will make a chemical examination of the water at a nominal charge ($3 a sample). Water for examination must be shipped in con- tainers, wdiieh will be sent to the applicant on request, and the blank forms sent with the coiitainer must be filled out and re- turned with the samide. A bacteriological examination is not made, and the chemical analysis is limited to those determina- tions which will indicate sewage contamination or the presence of lead or ol)jectionable metals. One hundred and ten samples w^ere examined during the past year; of these there were 77 samples from wells, 28 from springs, 4 from ponds and 1 sample of ice. A large number of well w\aters examined w^ere condemned. Some showed only slight contamination while others were pronounced dangerous for use. Wells located close to dwellings and stables are particularly liable to contamination ; hence great care should be exercised in the location of new wells. Where a well is known to he free from contamination it should be bricked or cemented up well above the surface of the ground in order to prevent the entrance of surface water during wet weather, and the top of the well should be made vermin proof. Milk, Cream and Feeds for Free Examination. In addition to the other w^ork of this department, free analy- ses have been made of 372 samples of milk and 1-iG samples of feedstufFs. A large number of butter-fat tests on cream by the Babcock method have also been made. As a general rule, it is preferred to have ap])lication made before a sample is submitted for analysis. Directions for proper sam]ding and for shi])ping can then be forwarded. An analysis of an im])roperly drawn sample may lead to erroneous conclusions. In the case of feeding stuffs an analysis is often 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127 iiimceessarj, as the cxpcriiuont station has a hirgo amount of analytical data mi iilo which may apply to the sample sub- mitted. This department will not act in the capacity of a com- mercial chemist, and will nse its own discretion in accepting work of this character. MisceUan eous ^Y orl-. In addition to the worlc already described, this section has conducted investigations, co-operated with other departments, or made analyses as follows : — 1. It has arranged and furnished exhibits and speakers in co-operation with the extension department for fairs, farmers' meetings and expositions. 2. It has co-operated, with the Bowker Fertilizer Company in making starch determinations on potatoes in connection w^ith the awarding of prizes. 3. It has co-operated with the agricultural department of the college in making analyses of milk in connection with the awarding of prizes at a dairy show held during " farmers' week." 4. In connection with the experimental work of this and other departments of the experiment station, this section has made analyses of 160 samples of milk, 129 samples of feed and 478 samples of agricultural plants. Testing Pure-hred Coivs. The work of testing pure-bred cows for entry in the ad- vanced register of the several pure-bred cattle associations con- tinues to increase. During the year, thirteen diiferent men have been used for the IIolstein-Friesian work, and for a greater part of the time three men have been employed in the yearly tests for the Guernsey, Jersey and Ayrshire associations. From Dec. 1, 1910, to Dee. 1, 1911, 09 Guernsey, 94 Jersey and 4 Ayrshire tests have been completed. There are now on test 82 Gnernscys, 100 Jerseys and 16 Ayrshires, located at 22 differ- ent farms. For the IIolstein-Friesian Association there have been completed 124 seven-day tests, 7 thirty-day tests, 2 four- teen-day tests and 1 iifty-seven-day test. 128 EXrEIUMENT STATION. [Jan. The Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrsliirc clubs are formulating uniform rules for testing, and will probably, in the near future, ado])t a one-day monthly test instead of the two-day test now in use. 4. NuMEKiCAL Summary of Si'bstaxces examined ix the Chemical Laboratory. The following substances have been received and examined : 110 samples of water, 372 of milk, 2,018 of cream, 140 feed- stuffs, 200 fertilizers and fertilizer refuse materials, 40 soils, 13 lime products, 8 ash analyses of plants and 2 miscellaneous. There have also been examined in connection with experiments in progress by the several departments of the station, 100 sam- ples of milk and cream, 129 cattle feeds and 478 agricultural plants. In connection with the control work there have been collected 1,180 sam])les of fertilizer and 902 sami)les of feed- stuffs. The total for the year was 0,359. The above does not include the work of the research section. In addition, 28 candidates have passed the examination and se- cured certificates to operate the Babcock test, and 0,050 pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested for accuracy, of which only 27 pieces, or .45 of 1 per cent., were condemned as in- accurate. 5. Correspondence. The number of letters sent during the year approximates 0,500, the data being based upon the number of stamped enve- lopes used. In addition a large number of circular letters have been mailed as an adjunct to our inspection work. The larger part of the correspondence is devoted to work in connection with the inspection of fertilizers, cattle feeds, dairy apparatus and the testing of pure-bred cows. A considerable amount of time, however, is still given to answering si)0('ial inquiries nuide by farmers and others relative to ]dant and animal f(>eding, and the composition and value of fertilizers, cattle feeds and milk. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 129 THE FOOD VALUE OF PLAIN AND MOLASSES BEET PULP. J. B. LINDSEY. A few years ago ^ the writer published a brief review of the value of beet residues for farm stock. Since this publication two experiments have been made at this station comparing both the plain and molasses pnlp (dried) with corn meal for milk production. Beet pulp is the residue from the manufacture of sugar from sugar beets. After the beets are shredded and the sugar re- moved with water by the diffusion process, the residue is run through presses to reduce the water content and then put into kilns and thoroughly dried. The dried plain pulp is coarse and of a gray color. Molasses beet pulp is the pressed plain pulp mixed with the residuum beet molasses and dried. An- other method of making the molasses pulp is to mix a definite amount of molasses with the dried pulp. It is understood that but little molasses pulp is now being made. COMPOSITIOX OF THE BeET PuLP. Plain Pulp. Molasses Pulp. Corn Meal 2 for Comparison. Water, . Ash, Protein, Fiber, . Extract matter. Fat, Totals. . 9.08 3.02 8.90 18.76 00.59 .65 8.48 6.93 11.16 10.16 62.76 .51 14.99 .86 7.88 .81 09 76 5.70 100.00 100.00 100.00 15.60 .85 7.82 .80 69.27 5.0G 100.00 It will 1)0 noted that the plain pulp contained about 0 j)er cent, of water, a relatively large amount of fiber, and practi- cally no fat. The molasses pulp contained considerably more ' Twenty-second report of this station, Part II., pp. 21-27. ' Samples used in experiment. 130 EXrEULMENT STATION. [Jan. ash, duo to tho large amount of mineral matter in the molasses. The liber content waa considerably less than that of th(^ plain pulp, due to the replacing of the pulj) by the molasses which was willioiit iibcr. The amount of niulasses added to the pul{) ai)])ears to vary more or less in dilferent samples. Both the })lain and the molasses i)ulp are carbohydrate feeds similar to corn meal, being relatively low in protein and high in carbohydrates. The extract matter of the molasses pulp contains considerable sugar, while in the plain pulp there is much less sugar and more of the hemicellulose. The carbo- hydrates of the corn meal consist largely of starch, while those of the plain beet l)ulp are made up of a high percentage (jf liber together with the hemicellulose and some sugar. Coefficients of Digestibility of Beet Pulp. Three single trials were made with each sample of the beet pul}) with the following average results:- — Dry Matter. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Extract Matter. Fat. Plain pulj), .... 75 23 52 83 83 - Plain pulp, I . . . . 77 - 51 72 80 - Molussea pulp, .... 82 .51 Gl 77 90 - Mola.sscs pulp, 2 85 - 64 84 91 - Average molasses pulj), 83 51 C3 80 90 - Corn meal for comparison. 88 - G7 - 92 90 ' German experiments. 2 Three earlier trials. The coefficients for plain pulj) made at this station are rea- sonably close to those of German origin. The molasses pulp shows higher coefficients than the plain ])u]p. Part of this is due, however, to the high ash percentage and its increased diges- tibility. Pounds of Digestible Organic Matter in a Ton. Protein. P^iher. Extract Matter. Fat. Totals. Plain pulp, ..... Molas.ses pulp Corn meal for comparison, 92.50 140.62 105 59 311.42 102.50 1,005 79 1,129.68 1,2S3 58 101.88 1.409.77 1,432.80 1,491.05 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 131 It will ho seen from the cocflicicnts that while the dry luattcr in the molasses pulp has a hijiher digcstihility than that in the plain i)nlp, and while the dry matter in tlie corn meal shows an increased dig'cstihility over either of the pulps, the digestibility of the total organic nutrients in one ton of the several feeds does not vary widely. This is explained on the; ground that the molasses pulp contains noticeably more ash than the plain i)ulp, and that the corn meal has some G per cent, more water than the dried pulps. On the basis of digestible organic nutrients in one ton, it would appear that the corn meal was substantially 5 per cent, more valuable than the average of the two pulps. Calculations made on the basis of net energy value show the corn meal to furnish 20 per cent, more energy than the dried pulp. This is due to the increased energy assumed to be re- quired to digest the fiber contained in the pulp. It is doubtful, however, if the soft beet fiber causes as much energy loss as do the harder fibers of the hays and straw. One may conclude that in practical feeding trials comparatively little difference would be noted, pound for pound, between the two feeds, espe- cially if the amounts of each feed fed did not exceed 5 pounds dailv to each aninnd. Fkeot^'c; Expertment.s witk Cows. 1. Plain. Pulp V. Corn Meal. Six cows were fed by the reversal method in periods lasting five weeks. History of Coivs. Cows. Breed. Age (Years). Last Calf dropped. Yield of Milk at Beginning of Ex- periment (Pounds). Amy, Betty Cecile, Fancy II., .... Daisy, Gladys, Pure .Jersey, CJrade .Jersey, Pure Jersey, Grade Jersey, . Grade Jersey, . Pure Jersey, 2 5 4 2 11 6 September IS, September 21, October 23, September 30, October 9, October 10, 14.8 20.8 27.6 14 G 21 5 22.7 132 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. Duration of Experiment. Dates. Cows. Length of Period (Weeks). Plain Beet Pulp. Corn Meal. December 4 through January 7, January 14 through February 18, . Amy, Betty, Cecile, Fancy II., Duisv, Gladys. Fancy II., Daisy, Ciladys. Amy, Betty, Cecile, 5 5 The method of caring for, feeding and weighing the animals, of sampling the feeds and milk, was the same as described under the oat v. corn meal experiment puhlished elsewhere in this report. The milk was sampled for five consecutive days on the first, third and fifth week of the experiment. Character of Feeds. — The hay was early cut and well cured, being an admixture of Kentucky blue grass with some clover and sweet vernal grass. The corn meal and spring bran were of good average quality. Cottonseed meal was of good color, but rather below the average in protein. The plain beet pulp was of normal character. Total Feeds consumed by Each Cow (Pounds). Corn Meal Ration. Cows. Hay. Bran, Corn Meal. Cotton- seed Meal. Beet Pulp. Amy, . Betty, . Cecile, Daisy, Fancy II., . Gladys, 546 G29 663 030 490 630 70 70 70 72 70 70 105 175 175 175 105 175 35 18 28 18 18 - Totals, 3,588 422 910 117 - Beet Pulp Ration. Amy, . Betty, . Cecile, Daisy, Fancy II., . Gladys, 477 C25 603 628 546 628 70 70 70 70 68 70 - 35 18 35 18 18 105 175 175 175 99 175 Totals, 3.567 418 - 124 904 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 133 Average Daily Ration consumed by Each Cow (Pounds). Character of Ration. Hay. Bran. Corn .Meal. Cotton- seed Meal. Beet Pulp. Corn meal Bcot pulp 17.09 10 99 2.01 1.99 4.33 .67 .71 4.30 It will be seen that the different cows were fed somewhat different amounts of the several feedstuffs, depending upon their individual needs. The basal ration consisted of hay, bran and cottonseed meal to which were added an average of 4.3 pounds of corn meal or beet pulp daily. A slight error oc- curred in that 3.91 pounds of dry matter were fed in the form of beet i^ulp as against 3.70 in case of corn meal, due, of course, to the higher moisture content of the meal. Dry Matter ami Digestible Organic Nutrients in Average Daily Rations (Pounds). CnARACTEn OF Ratio.v. Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- Protein. Fiber. Extract Matter. Fat. Total. « tritive Ratio. Corn meal, Dried beet pulp, 21.12 21.29 1.57 1.54 2.96 3.53 8.17 7.00 .53 .32 13.87 13.37 1:7.83 1:7.68 Haecker Standard. '^ Corn meal. - 1.59 10.66 .46 13 20 1:7.34 Dried pulp. - 1 00 - 10.70 .46 13.31 1:7.32 Savage Standard. ' Corn meal, Dried pulp. - 1.97 1.07 - - 14.02 14.07 1:6.12 1 :6.14 ' Including fat multiplied by 2.2. 2 Bulletin No. 79, Minnesota Experiment Station. 3 Bulletin No. 323, Cornell Experiment Station. The data in the first subdivision indicate the amounts of digestible nutrients contained in the feeds actually fed. The corn meal ration^ contained .5 pound of total nutrients in excess 134 EXPEliBl]-:XT STATION. llaii. of the dried beet pulj) ration. The nutrients in the two rations fed agree quite ch)sely with the IJaecker standard. The Ilaecker standard as modified recently by Sayage calls for b(jth more protein and nmie total nutrients. It would probably haye been adyisable in case of our experiment to haye reduced the basal ration of hay, bran and cottonseed meal a little in order to haye secured a more pronounced effect — if aii}^ — of the corn meal and plain beet pulp. On the basis of digestible nu- trients actually con.sumcd, one would not expect much diflor- ence in the milk yi(dd. Herd Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds). Corn meal ration, .......... 33 — Beet pulp ration, .......... 37-)- A slight difference in fayor of the pulp was noted. Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients (Poxmds). Cam Meal. Cows. Total Milk. Daily Milk. Total Solids. Total Fat. Butter Equi\;ilont Wo added). Amy Betty Cccilc, Daisy, Fancy II., Gladys 503.2 714.1 901.. 5 C39.4 454.8 723.3 14.5 20.4 25.8 18.3 13.0 20.7 78. 2G 103,33 127.65 98.21 62.22 105.02 30.75 38.20 40.34 37.34 22.06 40.58 35.88 44.57 54.00 43.50 25.73 47.34 Totals, .... 3,941.3 18.81 574.C9 215.27 251.14 Beet Pulp. Amy, . Betty, Cecile, Daisy, Fancy XL, Gladys, Totals, 482.6 C99.0 856.2 718.4 , 482.5 777.8 4,017.1 13. S 20.0 24.5 20.5 13.8 22 2 19. n 72.78 102.07 121.75 109.34 05.48 112.86 684.28 28.14 36.87 43.15 41.74 22.97 43.63 210.50 32.83 43.02 50.34 18.70 26.80 50 90 252.. 59 ' Average. I9i: PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. m Tlic above results show no striking variations in the yiehls. The beet pnlji ration produced substantially 2 per cent, more milk and milk solids than did the corn meal ration. This is within the limit of error. It may have been due partly to the superior mechanical etfect of the pnlp, although this is pure assumption. Average Com'position of the Herd Milk. Character of Ration. Total Solids (Per Cent.). Fat (Per Cent.). Solids not Fat (Per Cent.). Corn meal, ........ Beet pulp, 14.58 14. 54 5.46 5., 39 0.12 9.15 DitTerences in the composition of the milk are not noted. Food Cost of Milk and Butter. CuAnACTEU OF Ration. Total Milk. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 quart Milk (Cents). 1 Pound Butter (Cents). Corn meal Beet pulp, $50 80 47 89 SI 29 1 22 2.90 2.85 17.9 If). 6 The beet pulp cost some $6 a ton less than the coTn meal at the time the experiment was in progress ; hence the cost of the milk produced was also less (some 6 per cent.). Dry and Digestible Matter required to produce Milk and Milk Ingredients (Pounds). Dry M.\TTEn. Digestible Nutrients. Character of Ration. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Potmd Solids. 1 Pound Fat. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Pound Solids. 1 Pound Fat. Corn meal, .... Beet pulp, .... 112.00 110.72 7.68 7.61 20.51 20.54 70.17 67.54 4. 81 4.64 12.85 12.5.3 The above figures include the food material required for maintenance. They show that a little less dry and digestible organic nutrients were required to produce like amounts of milk and milk ingredients with the beet pulp than with the corn meal ration. 136 EXrEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. 2. Molasses Beet Pulp v. Corn Meal. This trial followed directly after the one with plain beet pnl}) already described. The same cows were used. Duration of Experimcjit. Cows. LenRth of Date-s. Corn Meal. Molasses Beet Pulp. Period (Weeks). Fobruarj- 2f) through April 1, April 8 through May 13, Amy, Betty, Cccilc, Daisy, Fancy II., Gladys. Daisy, Fancy II., Gl.ndys. Amy, Betty, Cecile, 5 5 Total Feeds consumed by Each Cow (Pouyids). Corn Meal Ration. Cows. Hay. Bran. Cotton- seed Meal. Corn Meal. Molasses Beet Pulp. Amy Betty Cecile Daisy, Fancy II., Gladys 487 022 GCO C28 471 030 70 70 70 70 70 70 35 18 28 IS 18 105 175 175 175 105 175 - Totals, 3,501 420 117 910 - Molasses Beet Pulp Raiion. Amy, . 490 70 35 - 105 Betty, . 028 70 IS 175 Cecile, 005 70 35 175 Daisy, 027 73 IS - 175 Fancy II., 308 70 - - 105 Gladys, 030 70 IS - 175 Totals, 3,438 423 124 - 910 Average Daily Ration coi isnmcd i >?/ Each Cow (Pc tinds). CHAnACTER OP Ration. Hay. Bran. Cotton- seed Meal. Corn Meal. Mola.«ses Beet Pulp. Corn meal, ....... Molasses beet pulp 16.07 10 37 2.00 2 01 .07 .71 4.33 4. 33 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 137 The cows eonsiimcd slightly less hay during the molasses beet ])ulp lialf of the trial. It will be noted tiiat hay, bran and cot- tonseed meal constituted the basal ration, and that -1.33 pounds of corn meal were compared with a like amount of beet pulp. Dry Mailer and Digeslible Organic Nutrients in Average Daily Rations (Pounds) Dry Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Characteh of RA.TION. Protein. Fiber. Extract Matter. Fat. Total. 1 Corn ine;il, Molasses beet pulp. 20.90 20.98 1.50 1.59 2.83 3 15 8.22 7. SO .53 .32 13 72 13 30 1:8.15 1:7.30 Haeckcr Standard.^ Corn meal. Molasses beet pulp, - 1.G8 - 11.173 .48 13 92 - 1.01 - 10.08 .46 13 30 1:7.29 1:7.26 Savage Standard.^ Corn meal, Molasses beet pulp, - 2.08 - - - 14 73 - 1.99 - - - 14 07 1:0.08 1:0.07 ' Including fat multiplied by 2.2. 2 Already cited. 3 Fiber included. It appears that the two rations contained substantially equal amounts of total digestible nutrients and ought to produce about the same amount of milk. The molasses pulp ration contained rather more fiber, but the excess being derived from beet pulp should not have required much more energy for its digestion than the extract matter. These nutrients fed correspond quite closely to the Ilaeckcr standard as stated above. They are not quite as liberal as those recently suggested by Savage. If the basal ration of hay, bran and cottonseed meal fed had been a little less, it would have brought out a trifle more sharply the difference — if any — in feeding value between the corn meal and the molasses pulp. Herd Gain or Loss in Live Weight (Pounds). Corn meal ration, 109-]- Molasses beet pulp ration, . 90-(- 138 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. A slight gain occurred on both rations, indicating that the animals were advancing in lactation and not devoting as much of their food to milk as in the former experiment. Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredietits (Pounds). Corn Meal. Cows. Total Milk. Daily Milk". Total Solids. ToUil Fat. Butter Equivalent Wo added). Amy, 505.6 17.0 90.83 35.74 41.70 Betty 82 1. 5 23.6 120.46 44.28 51.60 Cccile, 984. 0 28.1 113.20 53 28 62.16 Daisy, G82,l 19 5 103.98 41.06 47.90 Fancy II 370.3 10.6 50.81 18.11 21.13 Gladys 726.6 20.8 104.49 40.90 47.72 Totals, .... 4,184.0 19.9' 613.77 233.37 272.27 Molasses Beet Pulp. Amy 481.6 13.8 72.09 28.27 32.98 Betty 047.5 18.5 93 37 33.22 38.76 Cecile, 763.9 21.8 109 77 39.88 46.53 Daisy, 797.5 22,8 116 59 45 30 52.85 Fancy II., 495.8 14.2 71 24 25.59 29.86 Gladys, 867.1 24 8 125.56 48.30 56.35 Totals 4,054.4 19 31 588.62 220.56 257.33 1 Average. The herd produced some 3 per cent, less milk and 4 per cent, less solids while on the molasses pulp ration. Such results will have to be considered substantially within the limit of error. At least, no wide difference in yield is noted. Average Composition of the Herd Milk. Ch.vracter of Ration. Total Solids (Per Cent.). Fat (Per Cent.). Solids not Fat (Per Cent.). Corn meal, Molasses beet pulp, 14 67 14 ,52 5.58 5.44 9 09 9.08 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 139 The milk prochieod with the pulp ration appears to be slightly lower in fat than that j)ro(luced by the corn meal ration. The diflFerenoe is not marked and much emphasis cannot be placed upon it. Food Cost of Milk and Butter. Character of Ration. Total Milk. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 quart Milk (Cents). 1 Pound Butter (Cents). Corn meal, Molasses beet pulp, $50 08 47 46 $1 19 1 17 2,68 2.63 16.1 16.1 The milk prodneed by the beet l)nlp ration cost a little less because the pulp at the time could be purchased for noticeably less money per ton than the corn meal. Drij and Digestible Matter required to Produce Milk and Milk Ingredients (Pounds). Dry Matter. Digestible Nutrients. Character of Ration. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Pound Solids. 1 Pound Fat. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Pound Solids. 1 Pound Fat. Corn meal, .... Molasses beet pulp. 104 40 108.10 7 12 7.4.5 18.72 19.87 65.35 66.56 4.45 4.58 11.72 12.23 The results are sliji'htlv in favor of the corn meal ration. General Conclusions. 1. On the basis of dry matter the plain and molasses beet pulps contain substantially equal quantities of digestible or- ganic nutrients; on the same basis corn meal has about 13 per cent, more digestible nutrients. 2. On a natural moisture basis (9 per cent, for the pulps and 15 per cent, for the corn meal) corn meal has about 5 per cent, more digestible organic nutrients than the dried beet pulps. 3. The results of the two feeding trials reported show that the rations containing the beet pulp produced substantially as much milk as those containing com meal. 140 EXPEKBIENT STATION. [Jan. The Place of Dried Beet Iiesidues in the Farm Economy. Farmers who are in a position to prodncc tlielr own feed cannot afford, as a rnle, to purchase starchy feedstnffs; they should be produced upon the farm, in the form of corn, oats and barley. For' milk ]iroduction it is much more desiral)le to purchase materials rich in protein, such as cottonseed and lin- seed meals, dried distillers' and brewers' grains, gluten feed, malt sprouts, fine middlings and even bran. These feedstuffs are not only very helpful in milk production, but likeM'^ise sup- ply large amounts of nitrogen in the resulting manure. When the supply of home-grown corn is exhausted or limited, beet residues may be substituted for fattening stock and as one-third of the grain ration for dairy purposes. Milk producers who purchase all of their grain Avill find the dried pulp a satisfactory component (one-third to one-half) of the daily ration. It can also be fed, in amounts of from 8 to 10 pounds of dried pulp daily, as a partial substitute for roughage. It should be mixed with two to three times its weight of water. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 141 THE VALUE OF OATS FOR MILK PRODUC- TION. J. B. LINDSEY. Oats are held in high esteem as a food for all classes of farm animals, and particularly for horses. They are also regarded as a valuable food for milk production, although their relative cost, especially in the east, has prevented their use for this pur- pose. For example, the average wholesale price for a ton of oats in 1910 was $29.51, and for the first eight months of 1911 it was $26.99, as against $2G.39 and $23.88 for corn meal. The fact that oats are so highly regarded for the production of milk led the station to conduct three demonstration experi- meuts with dairy cows, comparing ground oats with a like amount of corn meal. The Composition of Oats (Pee Cent.), Corn Meal. Oats fed. Average American Analyses.' Average Foreign Analyses. 2 Corn Meal fed. Average Massa- chusetts Analyses.' Water, 10.80 10.40 13.30 14.50 11.00 Ash, 3.25 3.20 3.10 .86 1.30 Protein, 12.15 11.40 10.30 7.93 9.80 Fat, 4.41 4.80 4.80 5.74 3.90 Fiber 8.94 10.80 10.30 .81 2.00 Extract matter 60.45 59.40 58 20 70.16 72.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100 00 1 Henry, 1910. 2 Kellner, 1909. ' Lindsey's Compilation, 1910. Oats vary in composition rather "more than some other cereals. The larger the percentage of hulls the lower the percentages of 142 EXPP:RmENT STATION. [Jan. protein and fat. Oats that are imperfectly developed arc likely to have relatively more protein and less starchy matter than those that have been well formed. The percentage of hnlls varies between 20 and 35, with a prol)al)Ie average of 2G. It was held formerly that oats contained an alkaloid avenin which acconnted for their pecnliar effect in imparting spirit to horses, but more recent investigations have failed to identify this product. E. Schulze identified an alkaloid Trigonellnm in the oat, but the amount found was so small as to be without in- fluence as a stimulant. The corn meal fed in the present exprrinient was the usual material now offered in the general markets. It evidently was not ground corn kernels, but a sifted product resulting from the manufacture of cracked corn. The analysis of corn meal given for comparison represented the average of 110 samples of ground corn kernels. It is higher in protein and fiber and lower in fat than the sifted product. Oats differ from corn in having noticeably more ash, rather more protein and decidedly more fiber. The Digestibility of Oats. The coefficients of digestibility were not determined in the particular sample fed. Here follow the average coefficients ob- tained for American and German oats : — Dry matter, Ash, . Protein, Fiber, Extract matter. Fat, . American.' Foreign. 2 Corn Meal for Com- parison. ' Lindsey. 2 Kellner. Applying the above coefficients to the average composition of American and foreign oats, and to the average analysis for corn 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 143 meal, wc have tlio following aiiioiuita of digestible matter in 100 poiuuls : — ■ American Oats. Foreii^n Oats. American Corn Meal. Protein, 8.78 7.83 0.57 Fiber, 3.35 2. 08 - Fat 4.27 3.84 3.51 Extract matter, 45.74 44.23 0o.24 Total 62 14 58.58 70.32 One hmidred poiind.s of corn contain.s, therefore, some IG pounds, or 27 j^er cent., more digestible material than a like amount of oats. Kellner jilaeed the net energy value of corn at 81.5, and of oats at 50.7, or as 100 is to 73.2 (starch equivalents). One would, therefore, assume that for the ordinary pnrposes of nu- trition oats were substantially one-fourth less valuable than corn. This does not take into account the favorable mechanical or special energy effects of oats. The nutritive inferiority of oats is due to the large percentage of indigestible hull. The oat kernel free from hull is easily and hiohlv digestible. Feeding Experiments with Oats for ]\[ilk Production. Tlie object of the r.rpciiments was to compare a definite amount of oats with a like amount of corn meal (a) upon the general condition and weight of each animal and (h) upon the yield of milk, milk solids and fat. The plan of the experiments consisted in taking four cows, all of which were fresh in late summer, and dividing them into two groups of two each. In the first half of the trial two of the cows received the so-called oat ration at the same time the other two cows were receiving the corn meal ration. In the second half of the trial the rations were reversed. The experiment was carried out three times. 144 EXrEUniENT STATION. Jan. History of the Cons, 1900-10. Cow.s. Breed. Ago (Years). I.a.st Calf tlropped. Yield of Milk at Beginning of Period (Pounds). Sam.mtha, .... Minnie, ..... Ida, Red III. May Rio Grade Ilol.stoin, Grade Ilolstoin, Pure Jersey, Grade Jensoy, Pure Jersey, 0 C 2 4 7 Augu.st IS, August 26, August 19, September 3, November 11, 27.2 25 8 19.3 27.6 21.2 The first four cows wore used in Experiments I. and II. ; cow May Rio was sul)stitiited for Minnie in Experiment III. Duration of the Three Experiments, 1909-10. Experiment I. Dates. Cows. Ration. October 16, through Novenil)er 12, November 20, through December 17, . [Minnie and Samnntha " 1 Red III. and Ida. j Red III. and Ida. [Minnie and Samantha. Corn m.eal. Ground oat.?. Corn meal. Ground oats. Experiment II. December 2.5, througli .lanuary 21, January 29, through February 2.'j, [Minnie and Samantha i Red III. and Ida. f Red III. and Ida. I Minnie and Samantha. Corn meal. Ground oats. Corn meal. Ground oats. March 4, throu",h .Vpril 1, A)iril 9, through May G, Experiment III. f Samantha and Red III. [ Ida and May Rio. f Ida and May Rio. i Samantha and Rod III. Corn meal. Ground oata. Corn meal. Ground oats. It will l)e seen that eaeh period lasted twentv-eiiiht days with an interval of seven days between each experiment and each half. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145 General Care, Feeding and Welgliing. — The cows were kept in roomy stalls, carded daily, and turned into the barnyard for from four to six hours each pleasant day. The daily feed was given in two portions, and water was kept continuously before each animal. All the cows were in good condition at the begin- ning of the trial. Each animal was weighed for three consecutive days at the beginning and end of each half of the trial. The weighing was done in the afternoon as the cows were brought in from the yard, previous to feeding and watering. Sampling Feeds and Milk. — The hay was sampled at the beginning, middle and end of each half of the trial. This was accomplished by taking forkfuls here and there from the day's feeding and running them through a cutter. The cut hay was mixed, subsampled, and the final sample placed in a glass-stop- pered bottle and brought to the laboratory at once for a dry- matter test. An aliquot of each of the several samples of hay was mixed and analyzed. The bran, ground oats and corn meal were sampled by taking a like amount daily and jilacing in glass-stoppered bottles. At the end of each half of the trial a dry-matter determination was made, and at the end of three trials an aliquot of each sample was mixed and analyzed. The milk of each cow was sampled twice daily for five consecutive days on the second and fourth week of each half of the trial, preserved in glass-stoppered bottles with the aid of formalin and tested for solids and fat. The method of sampling con- sisted in mixing the freshly drawn milk with an especially con- structed mixer, and immediately removing a definite amount with a long-handled small dipper. Charncier of Feeds. — Hay, fine and early cured, largely Kentucky blue grass with more or less clover and sweet vernal grass. Ground oats, corn meal and bran of average quality. 146 EXPEUDIENT STATIOxX. [Jan. Total Feeds consumed (Pounds). Experiment I. Corn Meal Ration. | Oat Ration. Hay. Bran. Corn. Meal. Hay. Bran. Oats. Miuuie, ..... Sanaautha, .... Red III Ida 5G0 644 559 501 84 112 84 84 112 140 140 112 558 642 560 510 84 112 84 81 112 140 140 108 Totals 2,265 364 504 2,274 361 500 Average per cow daily, 20.22 3.25 4.5 20.30 3.22 4.46 Experimciit II. Minnie 544 84 112 478 84 112 Kamantha, .... 630 112 140 554 112 140 Rc-d III 553 84 140 500 84 140 Ida 435 84 112 477 81 108 Totals 2,162 304 504 2,069 361 500 .\vorage per cow daily. 18.41 3 25 4.5 18.47 3.22 4.46 Experiment III. Samantha, .... 544 84 140 559 84 140 Red III 531 84 140 503 84 140 Ida 448 84 112 445 84 112 M.ay Rio 560 84 112 553 84 112 Totals 2,083 336 504 2,060 336 504 Average per cow daily. 18.60 3.00 4.50 18.39 3.00 4.50 It will be seen from the footings and averages of the above tables that the average basal ration in each half of each experi- ment consisted of like amounts of hav and bran, to which were added like amounts of either corn meal or ground oats. Hence a definite amount of corn meal was compared with a like amount of ground oats. In the first experiment the dry matter in the corn meal and in the oats showed comparatively slight variation. In the sec- ond experiment, however, the corn meal averaged 85.37 per 1913. ri'BLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 147 cent, and tlio oats 90.78 per cent, of dry matter, so that 3.8-4 pounds of dry matter in corn meal were fed against 4.05 pounds in oats. In case of the third experiment 3.8 pounds of dry matter in corn were fed against 4.02 pounds of dry matter in oats. This matter was overlooked at the timCj but shouhl have been guarded against by feeding slightly more corn meal. The ditt'erenee, however, while in favor of the oats was not so great as to have caused a marked effect upon the yields of milk, and would be more than offset by the variations in the hay con- sumed by the several animals as indicated in the above tables. Dry and Digestible Matter in Daily Rations (Pounds). Experiment I. Average Weight per Cow. Drv Matter. Digestible Organic Nutrients. Nu- tritive Ratio. Character of Ration. Pro- tein. Fiber. Extract Matter. Fat. Total. Corn inoal, . Oat. 877 891 21.64 24.70 1.63 1.81 3.40 3. 53 9 63 8.74 ..57 .52 1,5.23 14.60 1: 8.76 1: 7.41 Corn meal, Oat. Experiment II. 901 23.77 1.64 3.40 9.06 .56 14.73 897 23.22 1.79 3 44 8.05 .49 13.76 1: 8.39 1: 7.02 Experiment III. Corn meal, . 853 23.09 1 54 3.27 8.91 .50 14 27 1: 8.71 Oat, 880 23.12 1 72 3.36 8.08 .50 13.66 1: 7.29 The total dry matter fed in the first experiment was practi- cally identical for each ration. In the second experiment the cows averaged .55 pound more dry matter per day on the corn meal ration. This was due to the fact that cows Minnie and Sa- mantha ate more hay while receiving the corn meal. In the third experiment the amounts of total dry matter consumed were about the same. The average amount of digestible organic mat- ter received by each cow was from about .6 to 1 pound less per day on the oat ration, due generally to the less digestible matter in the oats, and in case of the second experiment to the less hay eaten bv the two cows mentioned. 148 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The corn ration had a wider nutritive ratio than the oat ra- tion, due to the less protein and more carbohydrate material in the corn. Gain or Loss in Live Weight {Pounds). Character of Ration. Experi- ment I. Experi- ment 11. Experi- ment III. Total Gain. Corn meal, Oat, 69+ 85+ 36+ 24— 57+ 75+ 162 136 The above figures indicate that a gradual gain in live weight took place, particularly during the first and third experiments. In the second exj)erimeiit the gain was not so noticeable and, in fact, the animals lost slightly on the oat ration. One notes, however, no particular influence of one ration over the other. Yield of Milk and Milk Ingredients (Pounds). Experiment I. Character of Ration. Total Milk. If Corn Ration equals 100, Oat Ra- tion equals — Total Solids. Total Fat. Corn meal Oat 2,293.4 2,146.3 93.6 325.3 302.3 125.3 118.5 Experiment II. Corn meal, Oat, 1,991.7 2,014.2 101.2 294.3 295.1 115.1 115.6 Experiment III. Corn meal, Oat 2,150.1 2,234.1 104.0 316 3 324.9 127.5 131.8 Average. Corn meal Oat 2,148.4 2,131.5 99 0 312.0 307.0 122.5 122.0 In the second and third experiments the yields of milk and milk ingredients were nearly identical ; at least, no marked variations were noted. In the first experiment the corn meal 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 149 ration apparently prodnced the larger yield. This, however^ was due in a large measure to the fact that the cow j\linnie injured a teat shortly after starting in on the oat ration, and her milk yield fell some 5 pounds per day. The most that can he said is that an average of the three trials shows the two rations to have produced substantially like results. This was at first thought hardly to be expected, for the reason that the oats contain some 30 per cent, of hull, and, other things being equal, are rated as having an inferior feeding value to the corn. It is believed that the experiments were not con- ducted in such a way as to bring out sharply the difference in the value of the two feeds. The animals were evidently receiv- ing an excess of nourishment, so that the mere diiference in the nutritive value between 5 pounds of corn and oats was of no particular moment. If the amount of hay and bran (basal ration) fed had been noticeably less, so that the animals would have received in addition to their maintenance requirements perhaps three-fourths of the amount of food necessary for their normal milk yield, the addition of the corn meal or oats would have given a sharper indication of their respective nutritive values. On the basis of the method suggested by Armsby,^ allowing .5 pound of protein and G therms of energy for maintenance, .05 pound of protein and .3 therm of energy per pound of 4 per cent, milk, the average cow in the three experiments re- quired and received as follows : — Required. Character of Ration. Average Weight of Cow (Pounds). Average Milk Yield per Cow (Pounds). Protein (Pounds). Energy in Therms. 880 890 19.2 19.0 1.40 1.39 11.10 Oat, 11.00 Received. Corn mea] Oat, 8R0 890 19.2 19.0 1. 00 1.77 12.42 11.80 « Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, p. 16. 150 EXPERLAIENT STATION. [Jan. The required nutrients were figured on the basis of average milk testing 4 per cent., while the average milk produced hj the cows under test was 5.71 per cent. fat. Such milk would naturally require more nutrients for its production, but we have no exact method at present on which to base a calculation for milk of different degrees of richness. On the basis of the above calculations it will be seen that both the rations fed were in ex- cess of those required, which, as above explained, would account for the lack of any particular difi^erence in feeding effect. The amount of digc^stible nutrients consumed by the average cow, and the amount re(|uired by Haecker's standard, was as follows : — Nidricnts consumed (Pounds). Character of Ration. I'rotoin. Carbohy- dratc^, and Fat multi- plied by 2.2. Total. Corn meal, Oat 1.60 1.77 13. S2 12. S4 1.5 42 14.61 Haecker Standard. Corn meal, Oat 1.74 1.74 12.37 12. 39 14.11 14.13 It will bo seen that the digestible nutrients fed in each case were noticeably above what was required. All of the above evidence goes to show that in case of both rations the cows received more than was actually needed, which, in itself, is a reasonable explanation of why the corn did not show itself superior in nutritive effect to the oats. Average Composition of the Herd Milk. Experiment I. Character of Ration. Total Solids (Per Cent.). Fat (Per Cent.). Corn meal, Oat, . 14.18 14.00 5.46 5.52 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 151 Avercuje Composition of the Herd Milk — Concluded. Experiment II. Character of Ration. Totnl Solids (Per Cent.). Fat (Per Cent.), Corn meal Oat 14.78 14.05 5.78 5.74 Experiment III. Corn nie.il, Oat, . 14.71 14.54 5.93 5.90 Nd Amount of Dry and Digestible Organic Matter Required to yroduce Milk, Milk Solids and Fal.^ Experiment I. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Pound Soi.ID.S. 1 Pound Fat. Corn Ration. Oat Ration. Corn Ration. Oat Ration. Corn Ration. Oat Ration. Dry matter, .... Digestible organic matter. 08.65 41.55 71.84 39.91 4.77 ' 2.89 5.10 2.83 12.44 7. .52 13.25 7.35 Excluding food of maintenance. Experiment II. Dry matter Digestible organic matter. 71.19 43.24 GS..32 37.84 4.80 2.91 4.62 2.56 12.46 7.55 11.86 6., 55 Experiment III. Dry matter, .... Digestible organic matter, 65.33 39 54 62.25 34.36 4.39 2.66 4 23 2 33 10.87 0.58 10.41 5.74 Average. Dry matter Digestible organic matter. 68.39 41.44 67.47 37.37 4.65 2.82 4.65 2.57 11.92 7.22 11.84 6.55 The above was calculated on tlic basis of Haecker's data, al- lowing 1.25 ponnds of drv matter and .792 pound of digestible organic matter per 100 pounds live weight for maintenance. 152 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. The amoimt of total dry and digestible matter consumed was secured from our dry-matter determinations and analyses and the use of average digestion coefficients. They tell substantially the same story as did the yields of milk and milk ingredients. In the first experiment it required rather more dry matter to produce a definite amount of milk and milk ingredients with the oat ration. In all of the experiments a definite amount of milk and milk ingredients was produced by a little less digestible matter derived from the oat ration. The average of the three trials shows milk and milk ingredients were produced by the use of rather less dry and digestible matter for the oat ration. The reason for this has alreadv been indicated. Food Cost of Milk and Butter-fat. Experiment I. CnAn.YCTEn of Ration. Total Milk. 100 Pounds Milk. 1 Qu.art Milk (Cents). 1 Pound Fat (Cents). Corn meal, Oat, S30 91 32 26 SI 35 1 .50 3.04 3.38 24.7 27.2 Experiment II. Corn meal, Oat, $30 09 30 62 SI 51 1 52 3.40 3.42 26.1 26.5 Experiment III. Corn meal, Oat S29 07 30 30 SI 35 1 36 3.04 3.06 22.8 23.0 Average. Corn meal Oat S30 02 31 06 SI 40 1 43 3.16 3.29 24.5 25.6 In the first experiment the milk cost noticeably less on the corn ration ; in the second experiment the results were about equal ; and in the third experiment the corn ration had a slight advantage. The average of the three experiments is slightly in favor of the corn ration. The reason for sharper difference 1913.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 153 between the iiifliieiice of the two rations has already been ex- phiined. In this experiment hay was figured at $10, eorn meal at $32, oats at $37.50 and bran at $20 a ton. CONCI.USIOIS^S. 1. Chemical analysis and digestion tests indicate that oats have about one-fourth less actual nutritive value than corn (on basis of equal parts of dry matter), 2. The three comparative experiments conducted Avith dairy cows indicated that the oat ration produced practically as much milk and butter as did the corn ration, but at 31/) per cent, greater cost. 3. The reason why the difference in the nutritive effect of the two grains was not more sharply brought out probably lies in the fact that the experiments themselves were not correctly planned. The nutritive material in the total oat ration was sufficient to enable the cows to do good if not maximum work, and the increased nutritive material in the corn ration was not necessary and had, therefore, no pronounced effect. The basal ration (i.e., without the corn or oats) should have been less in amount and then the results obtained from the addition of corn and oats would have been more pronounced. 4. Many experiments to compare the practical feeding values of different feedstuff's do not return the results desired, for the reason that they are not planned in a way to eliminate all but the one point to be demonstrated. In fact, it is not believed that experiments of this character can tell as true a story as investi- gations resulting from analysis, digestibility and respiration experiments, when the net energy values of the several feed- stuffs can be fairly accurately ascertained. Experiments how- ever, of the sort here described are useful in giving one a general idea of the relative merits of different feeding stuffs, but care should be taken to keep the basal ration considerably below the amount of food needed, so that when the feeds to be studied are added the total ration will still be a little below the amount required by the animal for an average production. 5. While oats are a valuable food, it is not believed they can usually be fed economically to dairy animals in Massachusetts. 154 EXrEllBlE.NT bTATlON. [Jan. SOME EFFECTS OF FERTILIZERS ON THE GROWTH AND COMPOSITION OF ASPAR- AGUS ROOTS. FRED W. MORSE. A series of fertilizer experiments on asparagus was planned in 1906 bj Director Brooks, to ascertain the efficiency of differ- ent methods of manuring this crop. The field is located on the farm of ]\lr. C. W. Prescott in Concord, and its soil is like that of most asparagus fields, a sandy loam of little natural fertility. In January, 1910, the writer was assigned the task of ascer- taining the specific* effects of the three principal chemical fer- tilizers used in the experiment — nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash — on the chemical composition of the crop, as such effects Avould be important factors in determining the relative efficiency of the fertilizers. This paper will deal with the effects of the fertilizers upon the roots of the asparagus plants, a matter about which little has been reported by other workers. Ixousscaux and Brioux made a partial analysis of the roots as a minor part of an elaborate research on the asparagus crop pub- lished in 1906.^ Tanret has made an extended study of the properties of the carbohydrates contained in the roots.^ Wichers and Tollens have reported very complete analyses of roots collected before and after the cropping season.^ The material studied by the writer consisted of the entire underground portion of the asparagus plant, except the fine, fibrous feeding-rootlets which were removed, as it was impos- sible to collect any reasonable proportion of them. N^o effort was made to separate the croAvn or center of the > Annales de la Science A!;ronomif|ue, 3d Series, I., pp. 1S9-326 (lOOf.). a Bulletin de Soc. Chim. (4) V., pp. 8S9-893 (1909); Compt. Rend. 149, p. 48 (1909). 3 Jour, fur Landwirthschaft 58, pp. 101-112 (1910). 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 155 plant from the fleshy roots. The phiiits were seh^eted by tlic size of their tops, and the etlort was made to get average i)h^nts for each type of fertilization. The plants were carefully exca- vated, and as nearly as possible all the fleshy roots were collected. In some instances growth had been so extensive that adjacent roots were mnch interlaced, and it was impossible to secure one plant without destroying all others around it. Therefore, our largest, heaviest roots were more or less incomplete. On the day following the collection of the specimens the roots were shipped from Concord to the experiment station, where they w^ere placed in a cool cellar. The process of washing free from soil, weighing when free from surface moisture, drying and grinding, was very laborious and required several weeks, owing to the weight and bulk of the material. There is always danger of respiratory changes during the period of preparation, between collecting and drying; but it is believed that they were reduced to a miniminn by keeping the roots in a cool place at about 10° C. Washing was performed wdthin a few days after digging, and the weights of the fresh ro(.>ts were obtained before there could have been any respiratory losses. The material was prepared for drying by passing the crown and roots through a hand-lever fodder-cutter by which they were cut into pieces about 2 centimeters in length. Drying was done in a large oven at a temperature between 50° and G0° C, and the material was dried until sufiiciently brittle to be easily ground. The weight of the specimen was taken at this stage, and then the entire lot was coarsely ground in a drug-mill, after which it was sampled by quartering and the sample reduced to a powder which would pass though a 1 millimeter mesh sieve. Moisture determinations were then made in the powdered sam- ples, from which were calculated the weights of absolutely dry matter contained in the specimen roots. Three different series of samples have been studied during this investigation. The first series consisted of 44 roots, or 4 specimens from each of 11 plots, used for testing different quantities and dif- ferent seasons of application of nitrate of soda. They were collected in November, 1908, two years after the field had been set with plants, by Mr. E. F. Gaskill of the agricultural 156 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. doi)artnioiit of the cxperimont station, and were prepared for analysis in part by the fertilizer section and in part by the feed and dairy section of the department of chemistry. The second series consisted of 76 roots, or 4 from each of 11 nitrogen plots before mentioned, together with 4 plots iised for a test of different qnantities of superphosphate and 4 plots for different qnantities of muriate of potash. These samples were secured by Mr. Gaskill and the writer in November, 1910, and were j^repared for analysis under the supervision of the latter. The third scries consisted of 16 roots, or 4 from each of 4 of the nitrogen plots, and were gathered under the suj^crvision of Mr. C. W. Prescott on June 23, 1911, and were prepared for analysis by the writer. All the analytical work has been based on the methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists,^ except where departures are mentioned as necessary owing to the character of the material. A:\rouNT of Fektii.izers Apn.iED. Each plot in these tests contained one-twentieth acre and was 129 feet long by 16 feet lOl/j inches wide. At the time of set- ting the plants the entire area received a uniform dressing of the following chemical fertilizers : — Pounds per Acre. Lime, 2,000 Fine-ground bone, ........ 1,000 Nitrate of soda, 150 Acid phosi)hate, ........ 600 Muriate of potash, 350 N'o check plots without fertilizer were included in the plan. The annual top-dressing was applied to the different plots in the following quantities per acre : — » Bulletin No. 107 Revised, Bur. of Chom., U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 157 Plot Number. Nitrate iSoda (Pounds). Aeid Phosphate (Pounds). Muriate Potash (Pounds). No nitrate, 1,40 - 200.1 260.0 Low nitrate, 31. 32, 33 311.2 200.1 260.0 Medium nitrate, 34, 35, 36 406.0 200.1 200.0 High nitrate, . 37, 38, 39 622.4 200.1 200.0 No phosphate. 5 406.6 - 260.0 Low phosphate. 6 466.6 133.4 260.0 Medium phosphate. 7 466.6 200.1 260.0 High phosphate, 8 466.6 206.8 260.0 No potash, 9 460.0 200.1 - I>ow potash. 10 466.6 200.1 173.4 Medium potash. 11 460 0 200.1 260.0 High potash, . 12 400.6 200.1 340.8 The nitrate of soda was applied to plots 31, 34 and 37 in the spring before growth began; to plots 32, 35 and 38 in the sum- mer after cutting had ceased ; and to plots 33, 36 and 39, one- half in spring and one-half in summer. All phosphate and potash salts were applied in the spring. Effect of Fertilizers on the Weight of Roots. Since the marketable crop from the asparagus plant must be grown almost entirely at the expense of the reserve plant food stored in the crown and roots, the size of the roots at the begin- ning of the growing season would seem to be an important factor in the yield of sprouts. While their relationship has not yet been determined, it has been noted that the different top-dress- ings influenced the size of the roots to a marked extent. The eflFeets of nitrate of soda have been observed in all three series of samples, but only one series has afforded an opportu- nity to study the effects of phosphates and of potash salts. ISTevertheless, the series gathered in 1910 was at the end of the fourth season of growth, and hence should have the cumulative effect of three annual dressings. 158 EXPERIMENT STATIOxX. [Jan. Effect of Different Atnounts of Nitrate of Soda. Season of lOOS, Average Roots. Plot Number. Fresh Weight (Grams). No nitrogen, Low nitrogen, Medium nitrogen, High nitrogen, . 1,40 31, 32, 33 34, 35, 36 37, 38, 39 1,027 947 1,248 1,127 Season of 1910, Average Reals. No nitrogen. Low nitrogen. Medium nitrogen. High nitrogen, . 1, 40 2,128 31,32, 33 2,362 34, 35, 30 2,703 37, 38, 39 2,464 Season of 1911, Average Roots. Low nitrogen. Medium nitrogen. 31,32 34, .35 2,259 2,5.55 It is noted that the medinm application of nitrate of soda has produced the heaviest average roots in each season. Effect of Phosphate and Potash Salts. Season of 1910, Average Roots. Plot Number. Fresh Weight (CJrams). No phosphate 5 1,783 Low phosphate, . 6 2,853 Medium phosphate. 7 2,735 High i)ho8phate. 8 2,246 No potash, . 9 1,674 Low potash, 10 2,395 Medium potash, 11 2,893 High potash. 12 2,709 Tn spite of the large application of hone, acid phosphate and mnriate of potash at the time of setting the plants, the absence 191.3. rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 159 of eitli(>r ill tlic top-dressing produces a iiotaldy lower average weight of roots. The mediimi applications of phosphate and of potash salts produce the highest average weights of roots. Ilousseaux and IJrioux ^ found the heaviest roots where manure and chemicals were combined, and it is of interest that the fresh weight was 2, GOO grams, which is practically the same as the weight of our roots from the plots receiving top-dressings of medium amounts of fertilizers. Effect of Seasoti of Application of Nitrate of Soda on Weight of Roots. Spring Application (Grams). Plot Number. Low, Medium, . High, Average, 1,025 1,200 1,330 1,207 2,545 2,733 2,854 2,711 1,852 2.770 Summer Application (Grams). Low, 32 923 2,004 2,606 Medium, . 35 1,274 2,289 2,335 High, 38 1,302 2,311 - Average, - 1,106 2,201 2,501 Spring and Summer Applications (Grams). Low, Medium, . High. Average, 895 1,211 730 945 2,538 3,089 2,227 2,618 The summer top-dressing with nitrate has produced smaller mature roots than the spring top-dressing, in both years 1908 and 1910. On the other hand, the roots of 1911, taken at the end of the cutting season in the summer, show variable results, with, the average weight heavier on the summer-dressed plots. » Loc. cit., p. 312. IGO EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. The individual roots in this summer collection showed much wider variations than the late fall series, which is attributed to the difficulty of judging average plants by the young shoots, and it is pi-ol)able that the different plots are not as fairly repre- sented as in the fall collections. Effect of Fektilizeks ox the Fektilizixg Constituents OF the Roots. The fertilizing constituents of asparagus roots were found by Rousseaux and lirioux ^ to be as follows : — Manure only (Per Cent.). Manure and Chemicals (Per Cent.). Dry matter, A.sh, . Nitrogen, . Phosphoric acid, Potash, Lime, . Magnesia, . Sulfuric acid, 28.26 6.90 1.20 .50 1.23 .31 .04 .33 2G.27 7.22 1 73 .48 1.57 .41 .05 .36 Wichcrs and Tollens - reported the following results on the principal fertilizing constituents: — Moisture, Nitrogen, . Phosphoric acid (PaOs), Potash (K2O), . The general average of fertilizing constituents calculated from the various analyses made at this experiment station is as follows : — J hoc. cit., p. 312. 2 Loc. cit., p. 109. 1913. rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 161 Per Cent Dry matter, 21.68 Ash/ .... G.56 Nitrojjen, 1.95 Phosphoric acid (I*oO,-), .48 Potash (KoO), 2.30 Lime (CaO), .M Soda (NagO), .30 Magnesia (MgO), . .17 Sulfuric acid (SO3), .50 An interesting fact shown by this table is the higher average percentage of sulfuric acid over that of phosphoric acid. The proportions of fertilizing constituents were varied somewhat by the applications of different quantities of the chemical fertilizers, as is usually observable in similar experiments witJi crops. Effect of Nitrate of Soda on Ash Constituents. Roots of 1008. No Low Medium iligh Nitrate, Plots Nitrate, Plots Nitrate, Plots Nitrate, Plots 1 and 40. 31, 32, 33. 34, 35, 36. 37, 38, 39. Ash, 5.73 6.40 6.69 6.59 Phosphoric acid. .47 .53 .47 .51 Potash, 2.27 2. 33 2.46 2.54 Lime, . .30 .28 .32 .34 Soda, . .07 .20 .27 .26 Magnesia, . .13 .14 .15 .15 Sulfuric acid, .39 .48 .52 .52 Effect of Superphosphate on Ash Coyistituents. Roots of 1910. No Low Medium High Phosphate, Phosphate, Phosphate, Phosphate, Plot 5. Plot 6. Plot 7. Plot 8. Ash, 6.81 7.09 7.54 7 34 Phosphoric acid. .47 .46 .46 .49 Potash, 2.36 2.66 2 73 2.54 liimo, . .41 .32 .37 .38 Soda, . .43 .35 .38 .33 Magnesia, . .18 .16 .21 .19 Sulfuric acid, .69 .62 .68 .63 • Ash determinations and all ash analyses were made in the fertilizer section by Mr. H. D. Haskins and Mr. L. S. Walker. 162 EXPEUBIKXT STATION. [Jan. EJJcd of Muriate of Potash on Ash Constituents. Roots of 1.910. No Potash, Plot 0. Low Potash, Plot 10. Medium Potash, Plot 11. High Potash, Plot 12. Ash, . Phosphoric acid. Potash, Lime, . Soda, . Magnesia, . Sulfuric acid. 5.94 .44 1.44 .38 .55 .19 .00 6.17 .42 2.10 .33 .48 .IS .57 0.18 .40 2.20 .34 .33 .19 .02 7.10 .48 2.53 .40 .33 .20 .02 The presence or absence of phosphoric acid in tlie top-dressing produces little or no perceptible effect on the ash and ash con- stitnents, even the phosj)horic acid percentages being remark- ably nniform throughout the whole series of tests. The absence of nitrate of soda and muriate of potash reduces the percentages of ash, and in the former case the soda and sulfuric acid are reduced also, while in the latter case it is the potash which is reduced. Lime and magnesia are apparently unaffected by the variations in top-dressings. Effect of Fertilizees ox the ISTitrogex axd Xitrogexous Reserve Material. The nitrogenous matter stored in the roots was definitely affected by the different quantities of nitrate of soda applied, and also by its season of application ; but the superphosphate and muriate of potash had no effect on the percentage of this element. Effect of Nitrate of Soda on Nitrogen. Plot Niiiiiber. 1908 (Per Cent.). 1910 (Per Cent.). No nitrate, Low nitrate. Medium nitrate, High nitrate. 1,40 31,32,33 34, 35, 30 37, 38, 39 1.28 1 09 2.10 2 10 1.53 1 82 1.97 2.05 1913.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 163 Effect of Supcrphosj>hatcs on Nitrogen. 1910 (Per Cent.). No phosphate, . Low phosphate, . Medium phosphate, High phosphate, 2.27 2.05 2.18 2.04 Effect of Muriate of Potash on Nitrogen. 1910 (Per Cent.). No potash. Low potash. Medium potash, High potash. 2.10 2.02 2 06 2.08 Effect of Season of Application of Nitrate of Soda on the Nitrogen. Spring Application. Plot Number. 1908 (Per Cent.). 1910 (Per Cent.). Low, Medium, . High, Average, 1.57 2.18 1.96 1 90 1.64 1.97 1 96 Summer Application. Low, 32 35 38 1.78 2.23 2 36 1 99 2 01 Hi'h 2 22 Average, - 2.12 2.07 Low, Medium, High. Average, Spring and Summer Applications. 33 36 39 1.73 1 92 1.98 1.88 1.82 1.94 1.98 1.91 164 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Tho hio-hcr percentage of nitrogen duo to the summer top- dressing with nitrate of soda is very noticeable, as was the smaller average weight of roots, compared with the spring application. The roots of 1911 gathered in the summer just before the annual summer top-dressing showed the same general differences between the spring top-dressing and summer top-dressing. Plot Number. 31, . 34, . Spring Application. Per Cent. 1.81 2.05 Average, 1.93 Plot Number. 32, . 35, . Summer Application. Per Cent. , 2.06 , 2.15 Averaj^e, 2.10 Whatever exhaustion of material occurred during the cutting season did not influence the percentages of nitrogen in the roots. Effkct of FektilizePvS on the Non-nitrooenous Material OF Asparagus Roots. Wichers and Tollens ^ have shown the proximate composition of asparagus roots and crowns to be as follows : — Moisture, Ash, Crude protein, Crude fiber, . Fat, Nitrogen-free extract. Sugar, Pentosans, April. Roots. 3.00 12 20 14 13 8.72 .72 61.23 100.00 30.80 6.25 Crowns. 3.86 15 21 10 25 15.42 '1.59 53.67 100.00 17.70 9.77 July. Roots. 3.61 11.77 16.50 13.54 1.10 53.42 100.00 23.19 7.73 Crowns. 2.93 11 67 9.90 19.79 1.67 54.04 100 00 15 32 11.48 « Loc. cit., p. 109. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 165 The writer has found the composition of the combined crowns and roots in his samples to averag'e as follows: — November, 1908, 16 Roots. November, 1910, 4 Roots. June, 1911, 8 Roots. Dry matter. Ash Crude protein, . Crude fiber. Fat, . . . . Nitrogeu-free extract. Sugar, Pentosans, 6.24 11.03 15.39 1.00 66.34 100.00 41.43 8.78 22.40 7.68 11.02 17.89 1.58 61.83 100.00 35.85 10.12 18.34 8.87 12.75 23.60 1.63 53.09 100.00 20.87 11.66 The sugar which forms such an important percentage of the reserve material has been found to be a soluble carbohydrate readily hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose, having a rotary power differing widely from cane sugar, but otherwise resem- bling it in all its chemical properties.^ In the series of 1910 and that of 1911 particular attention was paid to the sugar to determine if fertilizers had any effect on its development. The sugar was extracted by heating 2 grams of the dry, finely powdered material with 50 cubic centimeters of water in the boiling water bath. Basic lead acetate and alumina cream were added after the solution was cool, and the volume made up to 100 cubic centimeters. When the precipitate had settled, which it usually did in an hour, the solution was filtered through a dry filter. The lead was then removed with sodium carbonate and an aliquot of 50 cubic centimeters was inverted by HCl by standing for twenty-four hours at 20° to 25° C. About half of the samples showed the presence of reducing sugars before inversion, but seldom more than a trace ; the remainder showed no presence of reducing sugars The total invert-sugar was determined by use of Fehling's solution in the usual manner, and the copper was deteraained volumetricallv. • Tanret, loc. cit.; Wichers and Tollens, loc. cit.; Morse, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 211-215. 1G6 EXPERLMENT STATION. [Jan. Ill the nitrogen series the sugar was determined in each root and then averaged for the plot as in the nitrogen investigation, but in the superphosphate and potash series only two roots from each plot were used. Effect of Nitrate of Soda on Siigar. -Vo Nil rat c. Plot Number. 1910 (Per Cent.). 1911 (Per Cent.). 1 40 29 80 37.11 - Loxo Nitrate. Spring application, . Summer applicition, Spring and summer application, 35.76 29 79 31.85 25.70 13.30 Medium Nitrate. Spring application, . Summer application, Spring and summer application, 27 84 25 90 High Nitrate. Spring application, . Summer application. Spring and summer application, Effect of Superphosphate and Mnriate of Potash on Sugar Plot Number. 1910 (Per Cent.). No phosphate, 5 26.02 Low phosphate, G 25.89 Medium phosphate, 7 28.05 High phoaphate, 8 24.80 No potash 9 28.72 Low potash, 10 32.56 Medium potash, 11 32.10 High t>otash, 12 34.79 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 167 The percentages of sugar vary independently of the varions kinds of top-dressing, since there are wide variations in the resnlts for Plots Y, 11 and 34, on which identical amonnts of fertilizers had been applied. The season of application of nitrate of soda apparently did not influence the percentages of sugar in the fall roots, but there is less apparent exhaustion in the 1911 roots where nitrate had been applied in the spring (Plots 31 and 34). Since the variations in sugar showed so little relationship to the scheme of fertilization, it was not deemed worth while to pursue the investigation into the effects upon fiber and pen- tosans, as there are too many factors to be correlated. Summarizing the results briefly, it has been shown that the medium amounts of chemicals in this scries of fertilizer tests produced the most favorable results on size and composition of the asparagus roots. The absence of any one of the three fertilizers resulted in depression of weight of root, Avhich was accompanied by a de- pression in nitrogen in the absence of nitrate of soda, and by a depression in the potash and ash in the absence of muriate of potash. The summer top-dressing with nitrate of soda produced smaller roots than the spring top-dressing, but with notably higher percentages of nitrogen. The exhaustion of the roots by the cropping season was most manifest in the percentages of sugar in the roots from the summer top-dressed plots. The thanks of the author are due Messrs. Ilaskins and Walker for the analytical data on ash and ash constituents, to Dr. W. P. Brooks, director, for the fertilizer data, and to Dr. J. B. Lindscy, chemist, for many timely suggestions. 168 EXrEilLMENT STATION. [Jan. DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. H. T. FERNALD. During the year 1912 the work in the department of ento- mology has been mainly devoted to the prosecution of projects already begun, with few additions to the list. The insect collection has been somewhat added to and main- tained in its previous good condition. Its constant use for ref- erence by every one working on insects at the college, and by many from outside, has been very noticeable, and its value for this purpose is constantly increasing as it becomes more com- plete. The number of letters of inquiry received during the year has been so large as to require, on an average, several hours' attention each day, and, as was the case last year, has covered many topics. Most of these inquiries have not been about the more noticeable insects, but about what may be termed those of secondary prominence, for though destructive they are not as liable to attract attention. As less is naturally known about these insects than about the more evident ones, more time has necessarily been required to give the information desired than was the case a few years ago, and in some instances personal visits- have been required in order to fully understand conditions before the best advice as to treatment could be given. Under the Hatch act further observations on the dates of hatching of the young of the oyster-shell, ]iine-leaf and scurfy scales have been made, and experiments on the control of the onion maggot have been begun. These last are reported on more fully elsewhere. Tests of various insecticides have been made and are also reported elsewhere. Methods for the protection of 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 169 seed corn from wircwornis have been continued, and an improve- ment on those previously discovered is now under consideration for next season. Under the Adams fund the two projects mentioned in former reports have been carried farther. The causes of the burning of foliage by arsenical poisons have been given much study, ac- companied by over a thousand separate field tests, each followed by an examination of the results of the treatment at intervals of a day or two for more than a month. Closely involved in this has been the consideration of the nature of the insecticides used, and in this portion of the work the co-operation of the chemical department of the station has been invaluable. If the causes of injury to foliage following the application of arsenicals are to be clearly understood, it is evident that the composition of the materials applied must be known. The in- jury may in fact be due, either to impurities in the materials themselves, to their decomposition after application to the leaves, or to something normally and necessarily present in them. To avoid the first possibility, materials as nearly absolutely pure as it is possible to obtain have been sought, and have only been found after many trials, it being evident that almost none of the insecticides on the market at the present time are pure or even an^-where near it. As it is quite possible that the impuri- ties are the cause of the injuries, it is of course desirable to eliminate these, and in the materials used the first season it Avas supposed that this had been accomplished. Too late it was learned that this was not the case, and that the treatment was made with substances which had been guaranteed pure by the manufacturers, but which were far from being so. The conse- quence was that the chemical department was obliged to take up the problem of finding methods by which pure Paris green, arsenate of lead and arsenate of lime could be made, and of pro- viding this department with them in quantities sufficient for use. This has been successfully accomplished, and the spraying last year, in part, and th^ past summer has been with these. The actual value of wasps as parasites has never been investi- gnted carefully. General statements that they are " extremely useful," or that " their importance can hardly be overestimated," 170 EXPEIIBIEXT STATION. [Jan. are in reality little more than gnesses, and it has seemed desir- able to investii^atc the snbject more seientifically in order to de- tennine their real efficiency. To do this with all wasps is of course impossible, so a group of these insects widely distributed in all parts of the covmtry has been selected for study. To clear the way and establish a firm foundation for the work it has been necessary to ascertain how many kinds are involved, and their reliitive abundance in different localities, to be followed by a determination of their fertility, the nature and amount of the food they consume, their mortality and numerous other factors which enter into the problem. Most of the preliminary work on this project has now been completed, and considerable has been accumulated on its other aspects. It is too soon to gen- eralize on this subject, but it has already become evident that these insects are decidedly beneficial because of their choice of food material which is in most cases chosen from among our worst pests. The results of experimentation on color vision in bees — an Adams fund project in charge of the apiarist of the station — are stated as follows : — While much liiuited in time nvailal)le for the several branches of bee- keeping work this year, progress in experimentation on the color vision of bees has been made. One supposition has been proven with relative satisfaction. An instrument for counting has been {le\'ised and rela- tively perfected. A foreign work which applies to the prol)lem has been translated. Correlated exjieriments have given and are giving good results. So far as opportunity has offered, studies on the distribution of our worst pests in the State have been continued and the results tabulated for future reference. Other work of the department is more fully detailed elsewhere in this report under the titles, " Tests of Insecticides," " Ex- periments for the Control of the Onion jMaggot " and " Ingect Becord for 1912 in j\rassachusetts." 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 171 EXPERIMENTS FOR THE CONTROL OF THE ONION MAGGOT. H. T. FERNALD AND A. I. BOURNE. Onions are grown on a large scale in many parts of Massa- elmsetts, particularly in the Connecticut valley. Fields cover- ing 10, 15 or even 25 acres are common, and the crop is an important one. For some years the onion maggot, Phorhia cepetorum Meade, has been a serious enemy of the onion grower in this region, much loss having been caused by its ravages. In 1911 this was particularly the case, one individual who had 6 acres planted estimating his loss by the attacks of this insect at about $400. Quite a part of this was on one plot covering only 2 acres, which was so thoroughly infested as to make the crop there hardly worth gathering. It has seemed desirable on this account to investigate methods for the control of the onion maggot, par- ticularly as applied to large fields. The Peoblem. 1. To determine the effectiveness of various methods for the control of the onion maggot. 2. To determine whether any which prove effective can be used in large fields without too great cost. Previous Experiments. An examination of the literature on this subject showed that most of the work had been primarily with other maggots such as the cabbage maggot, Pegomyia hrassicae Eouche, and that con- clusions had apparently to a large extent been drawn from these experiments. Where this was not the case it seemed probable 172 EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan. from what was stated that the tests had been made upon but a few rows of onions at most. To regard methods of controlling the cabbage maggot as equally applicable to the onion maggot is a rather doubtful posi- tion to take. Cabbages are grown from seed under glass or screens, and when they have arrived at the proper size are trans- planted; and are usually placed about 2 feet apart. Onions (except for "sets ") are planted where they are to remain until gathered, only an inch or two apart, and with the rows from 12 to 15 inches distant. Conditions, therefore, are widely differ- ent, especially when a large acreage is concerned. With these facts in mind some of the treatments described could immediately be discarded as impracticable under the con- ditions existing, whether reported as of value or not. Others, it seemed, might possibly be made use of, - — ■ though the question of their cost for large fields would need to be determined, — while others, still, appeared on their face to be rather promising. A new substance, nicine, which had been received for trial was also included in the list of materials to test. Conditions of the Experiment. For experimental purposes on a rather small scale, prelim- inary to later, more extended ones, two plots of land were re- served close by where onions had been growing the preceding year, and where the maggots had been very abundant. Each was about YO by Y5 feet in dimensions. The north plot lay somewhat higher than the other, and the soil was somewhat sandy and lighter than that of the south plot, where it was rather heavy. Both plots sloped slightly toward the south, and the two were separated only by a grass roadway. In the north plot the onions were planted in rows about a foot and a half apart, while in the other they were only a little over a foot apart. In both plots the rows ran north and south. The " catch " of the seed in neither plot was satisfactory. Gaps often a foot or two in length were frequent in the rows, particularly in the north plot, and this may have had some inflnouco upon the results, as it is claimed that the maggots after destroying a plant may at least in some cases pass to the next 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 173 one in the row. If this be correct, gaps in the row would tend to reduce the number of })huits injured below what wouhl be the case in full rows. Treatment was begun soon after the plants appeared, when they were not more than an inch and a half high, and was con- tinued at proper intervals until the maggots were seen to be leaving the plants to pupate. At the time of the first treatment no trace of maggots or of Hies laying eggs could be found. Each material was applied to specified rows in each plot. Between these, untreated rows — usually several — were reserved as checks. The weather during the period the tests were made was, on the whole, quite favorable, there being little rain, and what there was, mainly in the form of light showers. In no case did rain follow an application so closely as to thereby much impair its effectiveness. Occasionally the wind was strong enough to cause a little difficulty in applying dusting materials, but in general the days were clear, warm to hot, and with little wind. Examination of the results of each kind of treatment was made frequently, and all plants found infested were removed, care being taken to remove all the maggots at the same time, that they might not go to other plants and thereby increase the ap- parent infestation. 1^0 exact record of the number of maggots found in any sin- gle plant was kept, but it was noticed that during the earlier part of the season there were usually but one or two maggots in each infested plant. Later, as the plants became larger, it was not uncommon to find 10 or 12, or even more, in a plant. Wireworms and white grubs were present, attacking the onions, but in very small numbers. Experimental Wokk. Examination of the records of work on this insect carried on elsewhere finally resulted in the selection of the following ma- terials for trial: (1) carbon disulfid ; (2) nicine ; (3) powdered hellebore; ^4) hellebore decoction ; (5) soap wash ; (6) carbolic acid and lime; (7) kerosene emulsion of three different strengths; (8) carbolic acid emulsion also of three different 174 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. strengths. More detailed accounts of tLc use of each of those, and the results, follow : — Carhon Dlsidfid. — This substance has Leon recommended as very effective. It is applied in shallow grooves near the plants, so that the gas into which it becomes converted may penetrate through the soil to the onions and destroy the maggots. The fluid itself, however, is liable to kill the plants if it reaches them. In this experiment a shallow groove was made about 2 inches from each plant, and a little of the liquid was poured into this. The groove was then quickly covered. The application is rather slow and tedious, particularly if more than a small area is thus treated, as the grooves must be short, unless considerable mate- rial is wasted, in order to cover quickly. This treatment proved to be very unsatisfactory. For some reason many of the plants were killed, indicating that either too much disulfid was applied; that the grooves were too near the plants ; or that the gas as well as the liquid is dangerous to use. In this experiment about 90 per cent, of the plants died. On the other hand, a large proportion of the plants which escaped destruction by the treatment became infested with mag- gots, from which it may be concluded that where the application is so far from the plant or so little is used as to avoid in- jury no protection from maggots is obtained. It is possible that with an exact amount of material to apply to each plant care- fully worked out, and the distance to apply this also known, protection without injury might be secured ; but it is evident that such care in application as this would require would be impossible in the case of large fields, where the amount of time demanded to do it properly would make the cost prohibitive. Even when not applied with the utmopt care the cost is great. Carbon disulfid in small quantities costs about 30 cents per pound. It might, perhaps, be obtained in bulk for half this price, but taking the higher cost and calculating the amount necessary to treat 1 acre we would have an expenditure of from $12 to $14, while the time required to apply it to this area, based on Avages at $1.75 per day, would be rather more than this, and if more care in the application were given the time would probably be more than doubled. The cost of using carbon 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 175 disiilfiJ per aero, therefore, allowing the material to be pur- chased at half what it actually cost for the experiments, would be at least from $20 to $30 per acre, — a prohibitive expense. Nicine. — This substance, manufactured bj the Hood Chem- ical Company of Chicago as a deodorant, disinfectant and germ- icide, was offered for trial as an insect repellant. It is a powder, and directions furnished by the company were as fol- lows : — Where a plant or tree is infected with root maggots shake off as much of the earth from the roots as possible. Then sprinlde nicine over the roots and plant in fresh soil, and if convenient make a small circular ditch about 3 or 4 inches deep around the plant and IV2 to 2 feet from the center. Sprinkle nicine freely in this ditch, cover up with soil, and the plants will not be bothered with maggots or insects. It was manifestly impossible to follow these directions in the case at hand. The nicine was therefore dusted along the rows, care being taken to place a good supply around the base of each plant. As the maggot must work down along the plant to the bulb, wdiere it feeds, this method would seem to force the maggots to pass through, or at least close to, the powder, which has a very pronounced odor. The result of this exj^eriment w^as unsatisfactory, as plants in the rows treated became infested shortly after the applica- tion. In fact, some of the earliest infestations in the field w^ere in rows treated in this way. At such prices as have been quoted for this material, enough to treat an acre in this way v/ould cost about $50, and the labor in applying it would cost about $12 or $13, Evidently, then, this material is not available for use on large onion fields, irre- spective of its effectiveness, because of the expense wdiich Avould be incurred. Powdered IleUchore. — Ordinary powdered hellebore was dusted liberally along the rows around and over the bases of the plants, wath the idea that the .young maggots working down to the bulbs to feed would come in contact with it and be destroyed. It has been supposed that it might also act to some extent as a repellant, preventing egg laying. Results from this treatment could at best be rated as only 176 EXPERLMEXT STATION. [Jan. fair. The application was repeated three times, and this of course meant a large increase in cost. Hellebore in suttlciont amount to treat an acre once would cost, at the rate paid for the material used in these tests, more than $50, and the labor in applying it about $13 more. Even if it were effective as a treatment its cost would, accordingly, prevent its use in large onion fields. Ilellehore Decoction. — This was prepared in accordance with directions given by Smith (Xew Jersey Bulletin Xo. 200), by steeping 2 ounces of powdered hellebore in a quart of water for half an hour, stirring occasionally. It was then diluted, to make 1 gallon of liquid, and applied thoroughly to the ground at the base of each plant. If a large amount of this decoction be made at one time it can be kept without losing strength if placed in tight containers. This material was applied through a nozzle giving a coarse stream, only enough pressure being given to the pump to cause a steady flow, without breaking up the decoction into a spray. A liberal amount was placed at the base of each plant in this way. Three applications were made at about ten-day intervals. Results obtained were very unsatisfactory, as the treatment did not seem to have any effect whatever on the infestation. Its cost, too, though less than that of the powdered hellebore, placed it as too expensive for use. Decoction sufficient for one appli- cation to an acre would cost about $15, while the expense of application would be about $12. Three treatments, therefore, would bo prohibitive from this standpoint, though necessary, even according to those who report some success with this ma- terial. Soap Wash. — This was made by dissolving 1 pound — about 2 bars, in most cases — of good soap in 10 gallons of water. It was poured along the rows, using a force pump without a nozzle so that a solid stream could be obtained, and the ground around the plants was well soaked Avith it. Three treatments were given at intervals of about ton days except in one case where rain seemed to make it desirable to repeat the application with- out waiting for the end of this period. Results with this material were at best only moderately good, infection appearing to some extent along the rows treated in 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 177 this way. As tlio cost of soap enough to cover an acre once in this way wonhl be from $8 to $10, and the hihor involved would come to about $14, three treatments, each c(jsting from $20 to $24, would manifestly be too expensive. Carbolic Acid and Lime {" Carholized Lime"). — The ob- ject of this treatment is to cover the ground around each plant with a coating througli which the maggots cannot penetrate, much as tarred paper discs act in the case of the cabbage mag- got. The practical difficulty with it is that in cultivation and weeding the coating becomes broken and therefore not effective. To prepare it, lime is slaked to a thick cream. Three pints of this are added to a gallon of water, and a tablespoonful of crude carbolic acid is stirred in. The mixture is then poured along the rows to form a complete coating around each ])laiit. The odor of the carbolic acid was very noticeable for some time near the plants treated in this way. It was necessary to repeat the treatment, however, after each cultivation or row weeding, as in every case the coating was more or less broken by this work. The results w^ere far from satisfactory. Either the coating was not sufficiently thick to prevent the maggots from passing through it, or they went beneath it. In any case, the infestation in the rows treated with this material was as great as in the check rows. The cost of the material was not great, nor was the time nec- essary to prepare it. Application, however, had to be carefully made, and the total cost per acre for a single treatment would be about $2-3 or $24. At least three applications would be nec- essary following cultivation, wdiich would make this treatment too expensive. Kerosene Emulsion. — This material was prepared according to the usual formula, and was diluted to three ditferent degrees : 1 part of stock emulsion to 9, 1 to 14 and 1 to 19 parts of water. It was applied in the same way as the soap wash and repeated at intervals of from ten to fourteen days. jSTo injury to the plants at either strength was observed, nor did the differ- ent degrees of dilution appear to affect the results as regards the maggots. Little protection from maggots was found as the result of 178 EXn-RLAIEXT STATION. [Jan. this treatmont. Tlic material for 1 acre would cost about $10, and the cost of labor, making and applying it would be about $12 or $14 more. The total cost for three applications to an acre of onions would therefore be $60 or more, and would make this treatment too expensive, even if it were effective. Qarholic Acid Emulsion. — This V\^as prepared as follows: soap 1 pound, water 1 gallon, crude carbolic acid 1 pint; dis- solv(; the soap in water (boiling, to hasten solution) ; add the carbolic acid and churn as for kerosene emulsion until a creamy substance thoroughly emulsified has been produced. This v/as diluted to three strengths : 1 part to 30, 1 to 40 and 1 to 50 parts of water. It was applied in the same way as the soap wash and the application repeated every other week. The results obtained so far as control of maggots is concerned were the most satisfactory of any, decidedly checking the infes- tation in the rows to which it was applied. On small areas it would appear to be the most effective of the materials tested, and its application to large fields would be determined largely l)v its cost. This, for materials and labor together, was calcu- lated at from $8 to $12 per acre, according to the strength used. It would i^robably need to be applied at least three, and j^robably four times, however, to be effective, wdiich would make the total cost from $35 to $50. It should also be borne in mind that it was not an entire success, but only relatively so. So far as could be determined the three strengths were about equally ef- fective. GE^^EKAL CoiSrCLUSIONS. N^one of the materials tested proved satisfactory, though the carbolic acid emulsion gave the best results. It was also one of the less expensive treatments, costing from about $8 to $12 per acre for each application. It is not improbable tliat some of the other materials, a]^plied frequently and with care, might prove of some value, but only on small areas would this be possible at a reasonable expense. The whole experiment indicates: (o) tliat no entirely effec- tive method of controlling the onion maggot has as yet been discovered; (h) that many of those thus far recommended are of little value, at least on large fields ; (c) that the cost of treat- 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 179 moiit witli most of tlicin is so great as to rciulcr thorn unavail- able for largo areas. Finally, the most promising line of inves- tigation seems to be the discovery of something which will effectnally repel the insects or destroy the maggots, and which can be ai)plied either as a part of the i)lanting process or in connection with cultivation, thns avoiding the necessity of spe- cial treatments by combining these with usnal methods of culti- vation. Experiments along these lines are now being planned. 180 EXPEllBIKXT STATION. [Jan. DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE. REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURIST. F. A. WAUGII. The experimental work in horticulture has been carried for- ward during the past year without change of policy or person- nel, unless we note the fact that Dr. J. K. Shaw is directing a larger part of his time to the study of pomological problems, and a diminishing part to investigations in plant breeding. Spe- cial mention may be made of the beginning of an extended in- vestigation in the interrelations of scion and stock in graftage. It is contemplated that these experiments will cover a period of twenty years or more. They will be conducted in part on land in Amherst leased by the experiment station for this purpose; but certain practical phases of the work will be checked by du- plicate tests made in different parts of the State in co-operation with fruit growers. These problems are of great theoretical interest and greater practical importance, and the present studies are begun in the hope of many valuable results to follow. Attention should be drawn at this time to the increasing de- mand for practical experiments in floriculture and market gar- dening. These important industries have been measurably neg- lected in the experimental work of the past, and the men now engaged in these lines of work have repeatedly signified their wish for help and their willingness to co-operate with the exper- iment station in planning and carrying out desirable lines of experiment. Projects for experimental work have already been submitted by the heads of the do]iartments of floriculture and market gardening, and the careful consideration of those proj- ects is herewith uro;ed. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCmiENT — No. 31. 181 Another line of work which should be taken np at the earliest possible date is that of horticiiltnral manufactures, or the home industries of canning, preserving, drying, evaporating, jam and jelly making, etc. These could be made a source of substantial profit to fruit and vegetable growers. While this work should be promoted in all its aspects by the college, it seems that the most important part of it, and the part which should be first taken up, is the work of investigation and practical experiment. A project for the work in horticultural manufactures has been filed, and I also urge careful attention to this matter. The experimental work in this division, and especially the work now in charge of Dr. J. K. Shaw, demands some addi- tional clerical assistance, both in the field plots and in the office. The present needs could be most efficiently met by the appointment of a graduate assistant who would give one-half his time to this work, the remainder being spent in postgraduate study; and I recommend that such an appointment be made at the earliest possible moment. 182 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. THE INHERITANCE OF BLOSSOM COLOR IN BEANS. J. K, SHAW. For several years we have given considerable time to the stndj of heredity in beans. Nineteen varieties have been used, and the method nniformly followed has been to make a cross of two differing types and self-fertilize the progeny through four generations, keeping careful records of the characters under observation as they appeared. The self-fertilization has been done by covering the plants with muslin bags, each supported by a short stick or bent wire. Some have been grown in the greenhouse during the winter, and these have of course reqnired no protection. Some of the crossing has been done in the greenhouse and some in the field, in which case paper bags have been used for protection from insect interference. The parent plants have each received a number, and our records show just what plants were involved in any particular cross. The system of records used has already been described by the writer.* In this way a vast amount of data has been accumulated and many interesting questions are presented for study. It is the purpose of this pa])er to deal with the inheritance of blossom color, leaving the other characters studied for later consideration. In the early ])art of the work the plants used were from commercial seed bought in the open market. When the writer took charge of the work the policy was adopted of securing ]uire races as qnickly ns possible by self-fertilizing individual ]ilants, and since then these have been used in the crossing work. It is probable that some of the plants used first, while externally typical of the variety, were not gametically pure and led to confuting results. « American Naturalist, Vol. XLV., p. 701 (1911). \ sf- / \ V <^^ CO ^^ CN] X % 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 183 As indicated by external aj^pearancc the blossom colors of the varieties under cx2)erimcnt fall under four types. These have been designated as white, light pink, pink and crimson. In ad- dition to these parental colors a new form has appeared, and this has been called " vraxy pink " for want of a better term. All the colored types are somewhat variable, and some difficulty has been occasionally experienced, especially in the early stages of the work, in separating them ; but it is believed that this has not been serious enough to affect the results. The blossom color of the varieties used is as follows : — White: — • Giant Striiigless. Creascl)ack.* Mohawk. Davis Wax. Warren. Golden-eyed Wax. AVarwiek. Keeney Rustless. Pink: — Red Valentine. Challeni;e Black AVax. AA'ardwell. Currie. AVhite iMarrow. German Black AVax. Light ]iiiik : — Prolific Black Wax. Burpee Stringless. Crimson: — • Goldeia Carmine. Blue Pod Butter. Inasmuch as the blossom color and the pigmentation of the seed-coat seem to be correlated, it may be well to state here the seed-coat colors of these varieties, as follows : — Blue Pod Butter, buff. Burpee Stringless, coffee brown. Challenge Black AA'ax, black. Creaseback, white. Currie, black. Davis AVax, white. German Black AA''ax, black. Giant Stringless, yellow. Golden Carmine, mottled, buff and reddish. Golden-eyed AA^ax, white; small yellow eye. Keeney rustless, white; large dark-reddish mottled eye. Mohawk, mottled, reddish brown. Prolific Black Wax, black. ■ In nomenclature we follow Jarvis. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 260. Anyone desiring a com- plete description of these varieties is referred to this bulletin or Bu. Plant Ind. Bull. No. 109. 184 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. Red Valentine, reddish mottled. Wardwell, white; large dark-brownish eye. Warren, deep red. Warwick, dee]) reddish mottled. White Marrow, white. The blossoms of the varieties classified as white-flowered have been invariably a pure white so far as observed, with the ex- ception of Red Valentine. This sort has occasionally shown flowers with a very slight pinkish tinge on the more exposed positions of the keel; while drying with age they take on a dis- tinct waxy tinge. It should be noted that the seeds of this variety have mottled seed-coats while all the other white-flowered varieties are either white seeded or eyed. The varieties classified as light pink have flowers with a dis- tinct tinge of pink, especially on the keel. They do not show the waxy color of white-flowered sorts while drying, and are readily separated from them even though this pink tinge may be very slight. From the pink -flowered sorts, on the other hand, they are not so easily distinguished, and it is evident that a few errors have hero been recorded, but care has been taken not to allow these to lead to any false conclusions. The pink-flowered varieties have a deep shade of pink over the entire flower, including the inside of the banner petal, but the outside is white. The so-called crimson flowers of the Blue Pod Butter are more properly a i:)urplish crimson, and invari- ably the leaves and stems of the plants are deeply tinged with dark purple. These flowers are distinguished from the pink ones, not only hv their darker shade but more certainly by the outside of the banner petal which is purplish crimson instead of uneolorcd. The waxy ]nu\\ flowers have appeared only in crosses having Blue Pod Butter as one of their parents. They resemble the light pink blossoms but are readily distinguished from them. The pignnent seems deepest on the outside of the banner, and the whole plant invariably has a peculiar waxy-broAvnish-yellow appearance. These colors are well represented in the colored plate. 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 185 Turning now to a discnssion of the tabulated data, Table 1 shows the results of crossing varieties with light pink flowers with white-flowered sorts, where only light pink and white- flowered plants resulted. Some such crosses gave pink-flowered plants, and these are given in Table 2. The results shown are generally in accordance with Mendelian expectation, assuming the light pink blossom to be dominant over white. There are two cases where a white-flowered parent has colored offspring. It is possible that in the cross Ked Valentine and Giant String- less this is due to error in observation of the color of the flowers of the parent plant on account of the effect of bagging to insure self-fertilization, this having a tendency in some cases to check color development. The same may be said regarding the similar case in Red Valentine X Mohawk. The case of the single light pink plant in Golden-eyed Wax X Giant Stringless is unex- plained. ScJme departures from the numerical expectation are recorded. A marked excess of white-flowered plants occurs in the crosses involving Golden-eyed Wax, and a similar excess is shown in later tables when this variety is involved. 186 EXPERLAIEXT STATION. [Jail. C»C5 t^ fC-t in CO 1 M* CO 1 WO-H rt o o-ra z o H OS pI X-^ oo t~ r^ o •^ ■^ CO ur-^ 1 t^ -H — CO 1 -1- oo 1 ir* — . o C iB irar). oo .-■ X) .-A»o U bH G cq CI .-H g ^£ Eh K o5 O^M c t^ CO oo OO 1 OO OC>l , OiiO 1 oo '^ o ■i" .4 ^ U-, r; _- ^ - fa "3 1 U5 o 00 ^ o f^ oo •rsco T»< , ocgco lO ■* coco CO OC-C-J o H tc w < M a o o o o o " o coo o 1 ooco H 2S H s >* OJ 1 lO to CO ._ o o 'Jj r^co -1< 1 o oo u:j •^ r-.CO CO oo S " ^-—^ -i> E±, XJ. " (M CO o ^^ o CO ■0< t~ CO ■^ e -^ • o _, o 1^ 1^ CO -t* ^j4 o CO c^ r- fa -»*< '^ o ^ CO »-o CI CI •^ >-J fa Qs •« .^ CO t^ o ira o o> 1^ •c^ (M CO 1 f] rA w ij ^ ^" ^ ,: 4j 4j +j ,.j .^ ,^ 4j -tJ XI XI -C J3 ^ j3 X3 ^ x; X3 X3 X3 be to 60 bO bfi .£P bt .y bO bO bO bO 3 fa fa fa fa '-' fa '-' fa '-' fa fa [-i .s c o "3 i _- s 1 -a Q ■bb a a c To a 8 O 0 o 2 c3 "3 1 •3 _g X X X 3 O X O X 1 X d O X a "3 > X! O i X i X m ? X tr -3 X c o a "5) .9 .e is o s bt o a o K '5 fl 'fc- (-• fl >, C c _a X a M a> m m C3 is ^ o i3 CJ x: _3 0) "3 o <0 S M c CO "3 W "3 >■ 0} » o OJ > >■ C. 1- T) c. a a C3 2 C3 •T3 c ■a 3 3 3 12 "o (U o o « ?5 « « is 3 O O « 3 s « 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 187 In Table 2 arc given results from certain crosses that arc not in accordance with expectation, in that deeper colored Howers appear among the oll'spring than those possessed by either parent variety. In the cross of Golden-eyed Wax X Burpee Stringless there appear two })ink and one crimson llower in the F3 genera- tion. These all occur among the progeny of a single selfed plant having light ]nnk flowers. The pink-flowered plants bore black beans, while the crimson-flowered plant bore dark mottled beans. The significance of this correlation will be discussed a little later. In the crosses of Burpee Stringless and Giant Stringless with Keeney Rustless, pink flowers occur in both the F2 and later generations, and in such numbers as to preclude the possibility of errors in observation. Coincident with these pink flowers occur black or dark mottled seeds, and coincident with the white flowers appear eyed beans, a character coming from the eyed parent, Keeney Rustless. The cross of White Marrow X Golden Carmine presents a variety of surprises hard to comprehend. As will be sho^vn later, this is common with the White Marrow. It is most undependable in its behavior in crosses. It is evident that some of this is due to a mixture of strains which may be alike in external appearance but behave dift'erently in crossing, but there are other abnormalities shown that will bear much investigation. The reciprocal crosses of Warwick and Creaseback show pink flowers, again coincident with black pigmeiit in the seed coat. It is evident that Crease- back carries a factor that blackens any pigment it may en- counter, at least so far as our experience goes, and this black- ening is accompanied by pink flowers. None of the pink- flowered plants have bred true to flower color. All seem to be heterozygous. 188 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. ►J w < _ „ s 1 t^ CO to to ^ CI c 1 1 1 to ^ Q g H I ^' 1 CO r^ o »o >o to O 1 , Z a CM ■^ as 5 < t4 g b£ C3 ' CO O lO o CO o c- 1 1 1 s 3S IB 1 ^ o M* »o 00 03 uo CO to t^ f to o fe C) 00 «) (M —1 t^ to 0 oj H z < n u ^ O O IM M O —1 o o O O -H I o o th Pi g a, ■§Jj! ^H CC -^ O —1 •^ oo t!i C-l -H O 1 ^ s mC (M to O '"' *"• J^ CI ;^£ u ^ 6 O O CO C-I •'l^ CO — O O O O 1 o c ■^ J3 &: — — — — - ■ — — - .1 CO ■^ 1 ■^ 1 s EC a 13 ^5 a, ^ "a . So 1^ J.i o "73 o 3 a o 1 "o o c3 13 ,cl £ a w 5 is ES O 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 189 In Tables 3 and 4 arc given onr resnlts of crossing pink with wliite-llovvered varieties, tlie division into two tables being siinj)lv for convenience in arrangement. A striking thing shown in this table is the excess of white-flowered i)lants in the crosses involving Golden-eyed Wax. This occnrs in all cases except in the F2 generation of the cross with Prolific Black Wax. It is seen also in crosses with light pink-flowered sorts, especially with Giant Stringless in Table 1, also in crosses with Bine Pod Bntter in Table 5. The total nnmber of hybrid plants from crosses of Golden-eyed Wax with pigmented flowered varia- tions is 1,053, of which 407 are white-flowered, while the ex- pectation of one-fonrth of the total nnmber is 2G2. This is a proportion of 1.59 :f instead of 3:1. This departnre from ex- pectation is probably dne to a correlation between blossom color and seed-coat colors or color patterns. Another thing that calls for explanation is the occnrrence of light pink flowers in the second generations in Table 4. These appear in a ma- jority of the crosses bnt not in all of them. There can be little reason to donbt that nearly all, at least, of these classifications of blossom color are correct, for onr policy has been not to record a departnre from expectation in any case of donbt, bnt only where the nnexpected character is reasonably typical. As pre- vionsly explained, these two color types are quite distinct. It may be observed that White Marrow gives peculiar resnlts here as in crosses already discussed. It is probable that the appear- ance of the light pink blossoms in these crosses is connected with the pigmentation of the seed-coat, and may be explained by a study of the seed-coat color. Wliite Marrow evidently carries several factors modifying pigmentation both of seed- coat and blossom. 190 EXPERIMENT STATION. Jan. (is < Eh „ „ »- oo OC5 ccc O TO C^ OG oo 1 ■^ z -C ■«: e; fe g ^' 1 o 1 o o o o o 1 z a pi] ■< pt, H d 1 C5 1 ^ .o « •10 ^ 1 CO wS cs tB ja ^ ^ 'rt ^t< Ci o ■o o ■^ ^ o c >r -^ o ■^ cs H ^ ■o o crj lO ^1^ o o ■^ t^ Cj CO IM 1 1 1 fe Ji ^'■ J^ .a" ^ ^ a a a a a a £ E s s E S M 03 .. X c! -3 , ^ d p ^ « .i! > o « xr c X) -1 .C3 m 2 g .M rt "o .2 ca u Q o O r! X X X 3 o o a .2 o E « V. M .^ ^ X a jo 5 U X C3 X 1 en E T3 a 3 S "0 a a "3 15 X to a a o a X X 1 _0J OJ ij O .— '^ .2 o ^ "3 "3 15 -^ T3 '(- 2 J3 .13 J3 "o 3 O 3 "o £ u U O O a tf o O u 1^ 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 191 _• S C-l o -+ C) f^ o o '* »o in iM lo ira •* ^ a CO ■^ '^ C^ CO 00 B « s ■< 0. i£ bfifl t^ ^ o o t- O O ^ CO o Z 3£ b fi o o o r^ i.-> o t- o — • •^ 13 c-i CSI _; a t~ T-l ■^ '^ lO 05 oo CO csi (M r> S o H Z a ■* fi .M O CI o O CD CO CD CO .^ (X- < a N Q Ik s Z i>l o H bD C a I5E ^ s -t* s f^ ^ 1; '^^ at «3 *i> 01 ■*^ 15 "o ■3 15 ^ fi rt !S 192 EXPERBIENT STATION. . [Jan. In Table 5 are shown the results of crossing various white- flowered varieties with ]jlue Pod Butter, the one crimson- flowered variety under observation. The results of these crosses present several imexpected comjdications. The most striking is the new and distinct blossom color designated as " waxy pink." This resembles the light pink more than any of the other colors, the amount of coloration being about the same, but its distribution is dift'erent, being heaviest on the outer part of the banner petal. It carries no suggestion of purple, and the entire plant has a waxy-yellow tinge distinct from the deeper green of the other plants. It will be noted that this type appears in all crosses of Blue Pod Butter, given in Table 5, except those with Davis Wax and Creaseback. It also appears in all crosses of Blue Pod Butter with varieties having light pink flowers shown in Table 7, but appears in none of the crosses with pink-flowered black-seeded varieties given in Table 8. It must be regarded as resulting from a cross of Blue Pod Butter with some, but not all, white or light pink-flowered varieties. 1913. PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19- ■^ s e P5 g "icjox - coooo ■^ "iuid '^''"AV -r oo-ra O « 0. •U0SUIIJ3 ii"!cl 1 oo 1 -' o 1 1 OOO o K ■31UIJ iq3!i 1 = o 1 o o ' ' o oe-) o •3itqM 1 u:>to 1 « CO ' 1 lO •ITJIOX r^ o lO o o o >« M< '" •Jinij Xxv\\ o o r^ oo ^ n ■ra o o -JiCOt^ Ol^ fe ■uosvauQ - M' n s 00 2 t^ I^iOiO -J' CO C<1 ■^nij o - t-» »o U5 eo ^ S o — ir^t- OiO •Jiuij iq3!i o o M O « c t^ o, - O -J-O ■* ■<*' •ajiqAi 00 rs, " « C c . . g • - . . 9 • . a a i 2 S a a 22^ a ^ ^ S^ • ^ o n c o Ec< fi Fi fea S J4 ■M ^ P. E fe'o. e (i (.4 '"' '(-. t-> lO O U ^ o Ph Q^ ^ u U O ■'<" ^r ,C3 _g o >" a X *^ 3 PQ eyec odD B sj p. ^ d 3 .2 > 03 Iden- lueP •73 -a 3 n i pa -a 2 13 f£ P (ii K :s c u & 3 X § 5 i Butter X eyed Wax X X X Ph o 3 X 3 £ X o pa X -.J 3 X 3 3 « 3 X 3 & py 73 •a a •a X K -a ^ -3 C3 o o PM m (S g Ph Ph is Ph (U P-, o ffl T5 o o -3 Q s •M s C3 - s 3 3 C3 3 £i 3 JS n W m o m P3 :s pa O pa ^ 194 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. a o O •pnox 1 1 I - 1 O 1 1 lO s •jjaij XxnA\ 1 1 1 - 1 CO 1 1 ;o- ■9< a 0. iii •aowuiuQ 1 1 1 o 1 O 1 1 o— ■ o z ' D. •nuia 1 1 1 o 1 O 1 1 OO o E= vsiaij ^qSri 1 1 1 o 1 CO I 1 OO •**' •o^iqM 1 1 1 ■* 1 O 1 1 ,^,^ o "F^ox UitO 1 1 _f^ """ "'^ c •}[n! J XxoA\ OO 1 1 OO-H — o CS CO O— •OOOCOOOOOOtM'- ia!a O-H 1 1 O'-'C^ -< to ■^ ^H C^ t^ ^ O no rt 2 ►^ « o ■^niJ "^H"!! OO 1 1 O OO -H OO— • o-ocooo OO CO oooo O— 'O •aiiqAV oco 1 1 O-HiO OOOOTjiu5O5CC0t^lMOOOr)) 1 oooo o K <: cu w ■^Fia t^ X> 1 1 O -ri* 1 CO o r^t~. 1 OCIOI^ >o ' ' ■^"la *ii3!'i OO 1 1 ^ o 1 rt O — O 1 OO — 'O c^ •3?!'I,U OM 1 1 CO 1 CO oo.-o , 00040 o ■^-^ "^•^ ' ■ ' u 3 "■+J c "3 . tcr, back, utter. is o a 3 pa o -a X ter X Davis Blue Pod Bu er X Goiden- o 3 n X 5! K X o o: ^ ^ lO o m ^ < a 0. s D« li o o ° 1^ O CJ O r^ r O 00 1 -»! ■* li^S ^^^^ e2 « -^ g s 00 ia!d[ 005 0000-^ o (>) '"' o — o •>ia!j njSn ooo« oco o " o 0.-1 •pnox a z rf. •^ CJ -^ o •Jinij XxBA\ CO oo o o oo K •UOSIUIJQ oo oo o o o o ■^nij I^'JO 1^ =o I^ o >oo •5IUIJ ^qSiq OiD oo (M CI OiO •pnox —^^ — . -^ < B. Z H •jjaij XxBAV 'T'O OOl o O •uosinuQ ooo o o o o "inid ooo oo o o oo— . C1o - - -' - o J5 o •U0SUIU3 KS oo CO -^ CO 1% c. ro ?? CO » •'inicl CO ^^ r-1 ,r. „ fM CO ^^ '" '"' CO "^ ■^"!d ?tl3rx mS t^to o 00 CO - t- oo t^ ^~-~' ^~— ' a p d a a" d n a c s o o o w o o s g fe s e s s s s S s s "^ u< *c u 'u *C '^ 'C o u o u u u O o o s aj To 3 o 01 o •E -3 _c 3 3 o a c Ph o _3 c 3 o 3 C3 0? 3 m o r l«^. T) ^ ■a s X X X X X X o ft. X fi; 2 B ^ ? r s 3 c 3 a 3 3 w 3 PQ ft R 03 l-> pq □ m X « X ■a M •3 •n -D C3 o o 3 D. 3 o 3 ■4J pt, 3 O o 3 *^ c « B o P3 S P5 e; hj 1913.] rUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 199 The crosses of Blue Pod l^utter, the crimson-flowered va- rieties given in Table 7, have been already discnsscd in con- nection with Table 5. Only one white-flowered plant a])peared among those crosses, and that was in the F;} generation of Blue Pod Butter X Burpee Stringless. No reason for its appearance can be assigned. Table 8 gives the results of crossing Bine Pod Butter with pink-flowered black-seeded sorts. As already stated none of the waxy-pink flowers appear among these crosses. White flowers appear among the progeny of the crosses of Blue Pod Butter X German Black Wax, but not in the reciprocal cross, also in the cross of Currie and Blue Pod Butter. Light pink flowers ap- pear rarely, and they may be extreme variants of pink flowers in which the color has been partially suppressed by environ- mental conditions. 200 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. < , r^Oi C5 •*ce<5 'I'nox , f,.C.O -5--^0 s .-1 ^- — 1 r— -^ r. =• 'laid ' Ottco c i^m O-S-C-l f oo o /5 0 2 £ •Jiuij ?q3il oc -■ c c -< o oo o 1 ooo OOM 00!M oo o fc ■a^IlM ^ < ^ I^^ox TO o> .-3 CO — • o CM p. *■* 0. •Jinij iqari •8?!MA\ 1 c o OIMIO or- coo o o r„ 'F^OX •^ rr, =., "5 " " "^ O ^ ^ C-, fe ■^nij >o CO •jjnij ;q3!T « o o 'J' oo o o o o o o o oo ■ailHAV . . . , . . d a a c c a a c iri o o o o o 9n o plH H e s e a E E E u o u o o O u o i tT ^ ^ ^ 3 o -a £ o 3 s X 3 X 05 is 3 J3 3 3 C3 n a c p.. o 3 PQ P3 3 O o H u X PL, X X X o X X X X a P3 u s 3 s 3 fa a 2 3 PQ ■0 u: -3 O X o T3 PQ o PL, Oi eu C3 PU (-J fc- S 3 j:: 3 3 3 fe 3 k« 3 U a o m o » PL| 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 201 It is the usual expectation that when two white-flowered varieties are crossed only white flowers should result. Table 9 shows that iu l)cans this is bj no means true. It comprises all such crosses save one, Wardwell X Golden-eyed Wax, which has been bred for three generations from the cross, yielding about 100 plants, with none but Avhite flowxTs appearing. All the rest of such crosses have yielded colored flowers in each generation bred. All these crosses involve varieties one or both of which bear pigmented seeds, these adding further evidence that blossom color is governed largely by the pigmentation of the seed coat. 202 EXPERDIEXT STATION, [Jan. pnox «3CC 1 j^ 1 1 ^ 1- y. laid 00 tC — 1 "5 r 1 1 u CC-- ?1 e 0. Ui 'I°!d o — o 1 OO r o O 1 1 1 1 CO ^q3n •s'tiqM j c^ . ~~'^ ?i I^^OX Tj««0»0-H 1 CO MCO o> r OO . I " 1 . z a a < •^laid ooooo ' S5 OO ^ 1 o 1 1 O 1 < ?; ^inij 1 o o 1 OO r 1 t^ 1 (X. (tqSiq CO •0iiq.V\ ooeoco 1 !2 c o t^ 1 o 1 1 ^ 1 __, _,^^ _-^ •I^iox o OO C2 ^ ^o 00 — CO CO :>l"!d oo 1 o OO o o o c o oco o o P4 Ed ■JinicT o« 1 o o o OC-l OO o o iqSri CM 05« 1 .OO lo U5 CI «5-H OOO o OO ■aiiq.w tc o CO ,_^^_, __, ■ ,_„_^ _,,_^ •F->ox TOt^m to •^ .c«^ " e-j O CO C-l " > o c & o o ■a 3 >> o 3 0) a a ti 3 o K -a « o •S '^ « 03 >, o O X W 6 X X o >. X o a X a «3 X o a X p X -3 X X o 8 X o IS X X u 1 a >> c e 13 C3 1 1 -a 2 "3 13 12 2 2 IS C3 13 c3 > tf O K K :f- O O Ci Si ^ [- M 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 203 The following crosses of two light pink flowered varieties gave only light pink flowered plants in the progeny. Golden Carmine X Mohawk. Mohawk X Golden Carmine. Burpee Slriiigiess X Giant Stringless. Mohawk X Burpee Stringless. Giant Stringless X Mohawk. Mohawk X Giant Stringless. One cross of Warren X Bnrpee Stringless gave, in F2, 6 light pink, 3 pink, 13 crimson and 2 waxv pink, the Fi plants being light pink. It shonld be said that while both of these varieties are classed as light pink they are not identical in the appearance of the blossom color. Only one cross of pink-flowered varieties has been "made, — Challenge Black Wax X Prolific Black Wax. All the resnlting plants have borne only pink flowers. In this paper we have attempted little more than setting forth some of the facts concerning the inheritance of blossom color that have appeared in the work of the past five years. Beyond doubt the interpretation of these resnlts is to be made through an analysis of the records of the inheritance of seed-coat color. It is hoped that this work may be accomplished, including another season's observation, in time for presentation in the next annual report of the experiment station. 204 EXPEKLAIEXT STATION. [Jan. DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN. JAS. B. PAIGE, D.V.S. During the past year the policies of former years in dealing with the work in this department have been adhered to. The personnel of the department is the same as last year. "With the addition of Dr. G. E. Gage to the working force it has seemed possible to devote more time to investigation problems than in former years, when one man had to attend to the entire work of the department of both college and experiment station. Owing to the demands of a larger nnmber of students in some of the classes, and an increase in the amount of instruction given, it has been found that much of the time of an additional assist- ant has been utilized, not for investigational work as had been expected, but for teaching. If the veterinary department of the exjx'riment station is to render such service to the stock owners of the State as they are justly entitled to, it is imperative that a competent patholo- gist, who shall devote practically all his time to investigational problems, be added to the staff of the department at the earliest jwssible date. There are munerous important problems that call for imme- diate and thorough study. Some of tliese studies promise the most flattering results from a practical and economic standpoint in the prevention, cure or eradication of animal diseases. During the year there has been the usual amount of corre- spondence with farmers from all parts of the State relative to the existence and treatment of disease of farm animals. This correspondence is fruitful of the best results in mauy instances. It is often possible, from the information received from a stock 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 205 owucr by letter, to diagnose the disease of liis animal and to advise a line of treatment that will lead to a cure of it. At other times, additional information may be requested or a speci- men asked for, which, received and examined, enables us to arrive at a correct diagnosis upon which a successful course of treatment for the individual animal or for an entire herd is based. The diagnosis work that is carried on each year is gradually increasing. It is closely correlated with the correspondence mentioned above. Frequently specimens are sent by farmers direct to the department, with a request that an examination be made, and a report as to the nature of the disease, its cause, prevention or cure returned. At times material from sick or dead animals is sent upon request of the department when a positive diagnosis cannot be made from information obtained by letter from the owner of the animal. Since Jan. 1, 1912, ap- proximately 100 specimens have been received, examined and information returned to the senders of them with advice as to course of treatment to be followed in dealing with the several diseases. This diagnosis work is not only beneficial to the farmers, enabling them in many instances to avail themselves of the services of the station veterinarian, but it is of value to the department, as it provides a means by which we are kept in touch with the various ailments of farm animals throughout the State. In addition, the material received from different sec- tions of the State furnishes, at times, valuable material for demonstrations with the students taking the courses in veteri- nary science and pathology. It frequently happens that valuable material for study is re- ceived from stock owners. Through specimens that have been received we have on several occasions been able to diagnose the existence of animal diseases in ^Massachusetts that were not sup- posed to exist here, and also we have found disease not previ- ously described. As good examples of these may be mentioned verminous bronchitis of sheep and a peculiar paralytic disease of fowls. Among some of the more interesting specimens that have come to the department during the year may be mentioned ver- minous bronchitis of sheep; necrotic stomatitis of calf; trau- 206 EXPEULMEXT STATION. [Jan. matic pericarditis of steer; purulent endometritis and nterine torsion of cow; cliolera and deniodectic scabies of the pig; trau- matic peritonitis, due to perforation of gizzard of fowl with wire nail ; variola ; fatty infiltration of liver of fowl ; and bacillary white diarrha'a of chicks. Several samples of milk, contami- nated with special species of bacteria causing such abnormal conditions as " curdled," " bitter " and " gassy " milk, have been received and examined, and advice given as to how the trouble could best be eliminated and prevented. Whenever the seriousness and nature of an outbreak of dis- ease seems to warrant it a visit is made to the farm where the trouble makes its a]:)pearancc, for the purpose of making a crit- ical study of conditions under which the disease of the animals has developed and exists. In such cases, in order not to en- croach upon the field and practice of the local veterinarian, provided there is one in the locality, the visit is usually made in company wnth the local practitioner. Another field in which the department has been able to render some service to the stockmen of the State has been in the exam- ination of stables and advising with reference to the improve- ment of sanitary conditions. This has not only been done with stables already constructed, but also, in some instances, plans of proposed stables have been submitted for examination and suggestions. As already mentioned, the department has not been able to carry on as much original investigation as it desired on account of the amount of teaching that it has been necessary to do. This has been due, in part, to the fact that we have taught through- out the year the courses in bacteriology that eventually will be taken over into the new department of microbiology, created by trustee vote last year, and to which Dr. C. E. Marshall was elected the head. When we are relieved of this line of teaching it is hoped tliat more time can be givim to investigation ])rob- lems. It will not, however, completely remedy the difRcully, as courses in pathology will be introduced into the curriculum that wnll bo carried by this department. While these will not be as time-consuming as the work in bacteriology, they will in- terfere sufficiently Avith the class of investigational work that is demanded to warrant the emploAnnent of a pathologist on the 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 207 cxi)oriiiient station stall' who shall be able to devote practically his entii-e time to the study of patiiological problems that arc pressing for solution. As mentioned in the re])ort of last year, there is an unusual amount of hog cholera in the State as compared with former years. It is assuming alarming proportions, more especially in herds fed upon " city " swill or garbage. Its cause in these herds is to be attributed to an infection following the ingestion of uncooked pork scrap, from sources where cholera exists, that finds its way into the swill barrel of the hotel, boarding house or private house, and finally to the trough of the hogs. Once an animal of the herd becomes affected it spreads contagion rap- idly to healthy animals with which it is kept. The department, in co-operation with Mr. Fred F. Walker, Com'missioner of the Department of Animal Industry, imder whose jurisdiction all contagious animal diseases come, has un- dertaken some investigations to determine more accurate methods for the diagnosis of cholera in the hog, and its cure and control by the use of anti-hog cholera serum. In December last, in company with Mr. Walker, I attended the meeting of the State live stock sanitary boards at Chicago, where means and methods for the preparation of serum and the control of the disease vv'ere fully discussed by the highest author- ities in the country. Since then serum has been used upon sev- eral lots of hogs, in which cholera was known to exist, to deter- mine its value as a curative and preventive agent. The herds are located in the middle part of the State so as to permit of occasional inspection without the sacrifice of too much time. While the work upon hog cholera has not progressed suffi- ciently to warrant a full report at this time, I feel justified in predicting that by the use of properly prepared serum, under certain conditions, we shall be able to greatly lessen the annual loss to the swine owners from this disease, and in the end suc- ceed in protecting against its ravages to the extent that it may be made one of the most profitable branches of animal industry in the Commonwealth. Already steps have been taken to prepare, in an experimental way, small quantities of anti-hog cholera serum in the depart- ment. If the results of the experiment seem to warrant it, it 208 EXPERBIEXT STATION. [Jan. is possible that in the near future the experiment station may he justified in i)reparing the serum on a sufficiently large scale to enable it to be distributed at a slight cost, sufficient to pay the actual cost of production, to the hog owners of the State. Should this be done it would be necessary to co-operate with the Department of Animal Industry. Some years ago, working with the Chief of the Cattle Bureau, of the State Board of Agriculture, the department organized the work for the prevention of black leg in cattle by the use of vaccine, obtained from the Bureau of Animal Industry of the Federal Department of Agriculture. The supervision of the work is still in the veterinary department, in a general way, but no time is given to the actual vaccination of animals about the State, this being done by the special agent of the present Department of Animal Industry. Although Dr. George E. Gage, assistant professor of animal pathology of the veterinary department, receives no compensa- tion from the experiment station, he has devoted as much time as his teaching duties would permit to the investigation of sev- eral important avian diseases, among which is one that appears, from the work already done, never to have been described before. The study of this obscure and interesting disease is being carried along as rapidly as possible under existing con- ditions, and it is hoped that at a later date the details of the investigation will be brought out in bulletin form. 1913.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 209 K^ REPORT OF CRANBERRY SUBSTATION FOR 1912. H. J. FRANKLIN. The experiments conducted and observations made during the year may be discussed under the eight following heads: weather observations, frost protection, fungous diseases, varie- ties, blossom pollination, fertilizers, insects and miscellaneous. 1. Weatiiee Observations. The season's observations began late in April, the Weather Bureau having at this time installed the following instruments at the station bog: elevated instrument shelter, thermograph, barograph, hygrograph, triple register (for sunshine, wind di- rection and wind velocity) with battery and wiring, weather vane, anemometer, rain gauge, psychrometer, two maximum and four minimum thermometers and a sunshine recorder. With these instruments the first really thorough and serious year's work in investigating Cape Cod frost conditions, in their relations to cranberry culture, was carried out. An unusually large number of frosty nights during the first part of the sea- son, especiallj' in June, favored this investigation, and as a result much valuable information was accumulated. It now seems that it may in time be possible to forecast frosts with gratifying accuracy. The Southern Massachusetts Telephone Company has considerably improved its distribution of the frost warnings sent out from Boston b}' the district forecaster of the Weather Bureau. In addition to these warnings the substation has undertaken to make special early evening forecasts for the benefit of any who may wish to telephone in for them on doubt- ful nights. It is not expected that the growers will place full reliance on these forecasts at present, but it is hoped that they 210 EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan. may be of assistance in case of doubt, and that they may in time become fully reliable. However, there is so much at stake when a bog promises a good crop that it will probably be best for the growers to provide themselves with the necessary instruments and learn to make their own forecasts, because there is such a variety of conditions in different parts of the Cape. The season's records seem to show that the early evening dew point, which has been shown to be of no value as an indicator of the minimum night temperature in some parts of the country, can be relied ui>on to a considerable extent in forecasting such temperatures on the Cai>e. The records further seem to show that the best indications that a frost may be expected on any night during the usual period of frost danger are the fol- lowing : — 1. Low dew point (50° F. or below at substation shelter). 2. High (above 30) and rising barometer. 3. An all day's wind from a northerly, northeasterly or north- . westerly direction, dying out in the early evening. 4. A clear sky. 5. A low maximum day temperature. 6. A low and falling early evening temperature. The readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers and the amount of precipitation were telegraphed to the office of the United States Weather Bureau at Boston every morning after Aj)ril 25 during the spring and fall 2ieriods of frost danger. 2. Fkost Peotection. Because of the failure of a circulating pump, it -was impossi- ble to carry out tests with the Skinner system, as had been planned, during the spring frost period. Certain apparent disadvantages connected with the use of this system for frost ])rotcction have been discovered. In the first place, the p-ump and engine required for supplying water undcn- the necessary pressure for a system covering several acres are more expensive than at first supposed. The Skinner Irrigation Company states that it is necessary to sjirinkle most crops with water every two minutes during a frosty night in order to afT(^rd sufficient pro- tection. It seems possible, however, that the injury caused by frost may be prevented by sprinkling the frosted plants 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 211 with water at al)(uit sunrise, and so drawin^i;' tlio fi-ost out of tbeni gradually before tlie lieat of tlie sun strikes tliem. Frost injury appears to be caused not by the freezing but by too rapid withdrawal of the frost. If this is true, it may bo possilde to Si^rinklc a cranberi'y bog with the Skinner system, or some other similar system, a section at a time, and so provide protection for the whole bog with an engine and pump only large enough (o pump v/ater for one section. Experiments have been j^lanned to test the practicability of this method. Another drawback to the Skinner system is the clogging of the nozzles. This gave much trouble in the small system installed at the station bog, and market gardeners who have had long experience with this system meet the same difficulty. Because of this it is now planned to test another system, which has been devised for the same purpose, with rotating nozzles set far apart and large enough to allow small particles in the water to pass through them instead of clogging. Two extensive tests with 65 3-gallon Hamilton orchard heaters were carried out in the late fall and early winter. These tests showed that it is possible to raise the temperature suffi- ciently to protect from frost by m.eans of these heaters, but the expense connected with their nse seems to be so great that this method of protection cannot be coiisidered practicable with fuel oil at the present price. The heaters were loaned to the sub- station by the Hamilton Orchard Heater Company, through the courtesy of its local agent, Mr. Chester D. Holmes of Plym- outh, Mass. 3. Fungous Diseases. As in previous years, this work was carried on in co-operation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. Dr. C^ L. Shear of that Bureau has done much laboratory work and has had general supervision of the spraying experiments, having kept in touch with the work on the bogs by several trips to the Cape. Co-operative spraying tests were carried on by several growers. The five plots, each four rods sqnare, which were sprayed in the season of 1011, as reported in the last annual report of the station, were sprayed again in 1912 on dates and with fungicides as follows : — 212 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. Table I. Fungicide. Plot A. Plot B. Plot C. Plot D. Plot E. Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux mixture, Neutral copper acetate. June 28 July 17 August 5 June 28 July 17 August 5 June 29 July 18 August 6 June 29 July 18 A ugust 6 June 29 July 18 August 6 The Bordeaux mixture was made up of 3 pounds of lime and 4 pounds of copper sulfate to 50 gallons of water. One pound of the neutral copper acetate was used to 50 gallons of water. Two pounds of resin fish-oil soap were used with the Bordeaux mixture in all cases and with the acetate. The crop was gathered from these plots and their checks on dates and in amounts as follows, the quantities being given in bushels : — Table IT. Plot. Area (Square Rods). Date when picked. Variety. Quantity of Fruit (Bushels). Quantity per Square Rod (Bushels). Averaj^e of Double Checks per Square itod. Per Cent. of Increase due to Sprayins:. A, 16 Sept. 19 Howe. 7}i .44.53 - 144 + A check 1, . A check 2, . 4' -5 8 Sept. 19 Sept. 19 Howe. Howe. ri2 .1970) .1823 - B, 14'.^ Sept. 12 McFarlin. 7 .4950 - 45+ B check. 132^ Sept. 12 McFarlin. 4?3' .3415 - - C, 16 Sept. 19 Howe. 6H .3854 - S6M C check 1, . C check 2, . 4 12 Sept. 19 Sept. 19 Howe. Howe. .21871 . 1944 1 .2005 ~ D, 16 Sept. 12 Early Black. 10>i .6458 - 47.?i D check. 8 Sept. 12 Early Black. 3'^. .4375 - - E, 10 Sept. 7 Early Black. 7?i .4844 - 55+ E check 1, . E check 2, . 8 4 Se|>t. 7 Sept. 7 Early Black. Early Black. .3125 .3125 .3125 - Tt will be noted from this table that the results -of the spray- ing were far more marked with the Howe variety than with either of the others. Moreover, Plot A showed a much gi'oater increase than the other ITowc plot. The only difference in the 1913.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 213 treatment of the two Howe plots was that Plot A was sprayed three times during 1911, while Plot C, as well as the other plots, was sjDrayed only twice. Where two checks were laid out for the same plot (as noted in the above table) they were in every case located on opposite sides of the sprayed area. The berries were all picked with scoops. It should be borne in mind that the increases recorded above were obtained in spite of considerable mechanical injury done in the process of spraying. The spraying was done with a 30-gallon wheeled-barrel outfit, and the injury was much greater than it would have been had a power outfit been used, it being serious enough to be plainly noticeable on the vines, on parts of the plots, at picking time. It should be noted here that the fungus plots showed no in- crease in quantity of fruit over their cheeks last year, and tliis may perhaps be taken to indicate that the effects of annual spraying are cumulative. The increase in quantity of fruit on the McFarlin plot was accompanied by a much more light-colored and sickly appear- ance to the foliage than was shown by the vines of the check plot. The contrast between the sprayed and unspraye