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FOR THE PEOPLE
| FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY
OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

New York State Education Department

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

58th ANNUAL REPORT

1904
VOL. 2

APPENDIX 2

TRANSMITTED TO eg CO ee FEBRUARY 15, 1905
“4h, 2% of - bat

ALBANY
NEW YORK STATB EDUCATION DEPARTMENT :
1906

STATE OF NEW YORE
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Regents of the University
1904

With years when terms expire

1913 WHITELAW Rerp M.A. LL.D. Chancellor . . New York
1906 St CLrarnk McKetway M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L.

Vice Chancellor Soe ww oe
7905 Dawiet Beacn Ph.D. LED. ou So eee ae
ro1g Puny T. Sexton LL.B. LLDe 2. 2.) See
1912 T. GuitForD SmitH M.A.C.E.LL.D. . . . Buffalo
1907 Wittiam NottincHaM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. . . Syracuse
1910 CHARLES A. GARDINER Ph.D. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. New York
por, Coartes 5..FRANCIS- Bs Ds*) 2 6 oc).
1911 EDWARD LAUTERBACH M.A. LL.D. . . . . New York
1909 EUGENE A. PHILBIN LL.B. LL.D. » ov os ) ee
fo016 Lician L. Sueppen, LU.B. oS 3 se 3) Plage

Commissioner of Education

ANDREW S. DRAPER LL.D.

Assistant Commissioners

Howarp J. Rocers M.A. LL.D. First Assistant Commissioner
Epwarp J.Goopwin Lit.D. L.H.D. Second Assistant Commissioner
Avucustus S. Downine M.A. Third Assistant Commissioner

Secretary to the Commissioner

HARLAN H. HORNER B.A.

Director of State Library

Metvi, Dewey LL.D.

Director of Science and State Museum

Joon M. Crarxe Ph.D. LL.D.

Chiefs of Divisions
Accounts, WILLIAM Mason
Attendance, JAMES D. SULLIVAN
Examinations, CHARLES F. WHEELOCK B.S. LL.D.
Inspections, FRANK H. Woop M.A.
Law, THomas E. FINEGAN M.A.
Records, CHarLEs E. Fitcu L.H.D.
Statistics, H1ram C. Casz
Visual Instruction, DeELANcEY M. ELLIs

No. 12.

IN SENATE,

FresRuary 15, 1905.

58th ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

To the Legislature of the State of New York
We have the honcr to submit, pursuant to law, the 58th annual
report of the New York State Museum.
WHITELAW ReEID
Chancellor of the University
A. S. DRAPER

Commissioner of Education

Appendix 2
Economic geology 12, 13
Museum bulletins 85, 93

12 Hydrology of New York State
13. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York

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EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORE
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

RELIEF MAP OF THE
STATE OF NEW YORK

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SCALE OF STATUTE MILES
10 20 30 40 0

Bulletin 85

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BULLETIN 340 --

Published monthly by the

New York State Education Department

MAY 1905

New York State Mus eum

JouNn M. CrarkeE Director

Bulletin 85

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 12

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF
NEW YORK

Introductory note. .

oe

BY

GEORGE W. RAFTER

“eee eee weer ene

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PAGE
oS a A a dl 26
PAVERS els. Pom 2a te ees 30
LESS SS png 885

PREFACE

This report is a revision of Water Supply and Irrigation Papers
of the United States Geological Survey, Nos. 24 and 25—Water
Resources of the State of New York, published in 1899. In regard
to calling the revised report the Hydrology of New York rather
than continuing the title previously given, it may be stated that
the information has been considerably extended and, while it is
true that it still pertains to the water resources of the State, it
seems to the writer that, on the whole, hydrology better expresses
the meaning than does the former title.

Broadly, hydrology may be defined as that branch of physical
geography treating of water, and it is in this sense that the term
is used herein. Physical geography is an exceedingly elastic
term, and it is quite as proper to treat of the effect of restrictive
laws upon the development of the State as to treat of purely
political divisions in an ordinary textbook on geography. Any-
one writing upon geography, physiography, hypsography, geol-
ogy or hydrology knows that the lines separating these several
divisions are not very closely drawn and that one runs into the
other. Physiography treats in a general way of the present con-
dition of the waters of the earth, while geology treats in some
degree of their former condition, or at any rate of the effects
produced by water in a former condition. It is quite as appro-
priate, therefore, for the State Museum to publish a paper on the
hydrology of the Statt as to publish those relating more specially
to geology.

What may be termed the geologic phase of the physiography
of New York has been treated by Professor Tarr, but his work
is incomplete in this—it does not treat of the flow of streams.
This report is intended to, in some slight degree, supplement
Professor Tarr’s work. Moreover, hypsography is not extensively
treated, nor is hydrography. Tides and their effects, etc. are,
aside from a short reference to Hudson river, entirely omitted.
Only enough geology is given to illustrate the subject. |

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 5

The data herein embodied have been gathered from many
sources—the reports of the State Engineer and Surveyor, the
Superintendent of Public Works, the Forest Commission, the State
Board of Health, the State Weather Service, and other public docu-
ments. The data in the reports on the water power of the United
States, Tenth Census, have been used in some cases where later
data are not available. During the years 1896 and 1897, the
writer, in addition to his regular duties in the State Engineer’s
Department, gathered a large amount of information bearing on
the hydrology of the State and not published in the reports of the
State Engineer. Much of this was in the way of piecing out
earlier information and bringing the subject up to date.

Some of the figures as to the catchment areas have been obtained
by checking those given in the reports on the water power of the
United States, Tenth Census, so far as they are available, and
by planimeter measurement on the topographic quadrangles of
the State made by the United States Geological Survey. Bien’s
atlas of the State of New York has also been used as a check, and
a number of areas have been taken from the report of the Deep
Waterways Commission, while a large number of catchment areas
have been taken from the report of the United States Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways.

After completing the original report to the United States Geo-
logical Survey, the writer continued the collection of data, and
specially in 1898 and 1899, when he undertook for the Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways the investigation of a water supply
for enlarged canals through the State of New York. The report
to this Board includes a detailed study of the hydrology of cen-
tral New York, covering three hundred and eighty octavo pages.
This report was published as an executive document of Congress,
but only a few hundred copies were issued. It results, then, that
most people have not seen this report, and accordingly consider-
able use has been made of the matter contained therein. The
report is, however, in most of the leading libraries and may be
consulted by any one interested.

6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In 1899 the writer was consulting engineer to the Canal Com-
mittee, and added very greatly to his knowledge of the hydrology
of the State.

In 1902 he was a member of the Water Storage Commission of
New York and extensively considered a number of storage and
power projects in the State. |

Since 1900 he has been in general practice as consulting
engineer, and during this time has been employed on power
projects in this and other States, until at the present time there
is hardly a phase of power development or water storage that has
not at some time been before him for consideration.

During all this time he has been gathering information in
regard to water power and allied subjects in New York. There is,
however, still much to be learned, as, aside from the studies of
the writer, very little has been done in the State, outside of the
City of New York.

The elevations of points above tidewater have been compiled
from all available sources of information, such as the Dictionary
of Altitudes in the United States, Bulletin No. 76 of the United
States Geological Survey; the reports of the New York State Sur-
vey and railway and canal profiles; the topographic quadrangles
of the United States Geological Survey and the reports on the
water power of the United States, Tenth Census, as well as the
report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. Mr Free-
man’s report on the New York water supply, together with the
report of the Merchants’ Association, has been drawn upon in
discussing the water supply of New York city.

It may be easily inferred that this report is not very even;
that is, the information is more completely developed on some
streams and on some subjects than on others. On the Genesee,
Oswego, Salmon, Black and Hudson rivers and their tributaries,
and on the Niagara river, the information is tolerably complete.
It is also fairly complete on some of the smaller streams, al-
though on the majority there is still a large amount of work to be
done, but on the streams of the southern section—Allegheny, Sus-
quehanna and Delaware rivers, with their tributaries—very little

-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK a

information has been gathered. These are still, so far as definite
information is concerned, practically unknown, although a slight
beginning has been made by the United States Geological Survey.
The information given herein is therefore, such as is available,
either from personal knowledge or the work of others.

The information as to the hydrology of New York has grown
so rapidly in the last few years that considerable condensation
was necessary in order to keep within the limits of even as great
an extension of the original papers as is herewith included. The
omission of some matters which may seem to the reader important
is therefore no certain index that they have been overlooked, but |
merely indicates that they have not seemed to the writer import-
ant enough to mention. The report has been very largely rewrit-
ten and extended from an original length of 200 pages to 900 pages.
The meteorological tables, as well as the tables of stream flow,
have never before appeared in their present form. All these
tables have been specially computed and rearranged for this
report. The data of rainfall, temperature and stream flow have
been arranged with reference to a water year beginning with
December and ending with November. Cubic feet per second,
inches on the catchment area and cubic feet per second per square
mile are, except in some of the longer records, given in columns
side by side, thus showing at a glance the comparative results
and very greatly extending the value of the tables. The writer’s
thanks are due to his daughter, Myra Willson Rafter, for com-
puting these tables.

The criticism has been made that the writer’s views on some
of the questions herein discussed are not the same now as for-
merly. On this point it may be stated that his work on the
hydrology of New York has, aside from several formal reports,
as on Genesee river, Hudson river, report to the Board of Engineers
on Deep Waterways, etc. been largely a matter of opportunity, and
such writing, while extensive enough, is scattered through a large
number of miscellaneous papers. Nevertheless the writer has
casually discussed in these papers a number of the most important
questions confronting the people of New York. With more study

8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

some of his views have been slightly modified. The present re-
port, therefore, wherever it differs from preceding papers or
reports, must be taken to represent his latest views.

In order to make this treatise as complete as possible, the
Report on the Relation of Rainfall to Runoff, published in 1903
by the United States Geological Survey, is herewith included, so
far as applying to the State of New York. Extended excerpts
on floods have been made from the report of the Water Storage
Commission.

The discerning reader will observe an occasional repetition. A
few such have been made, either to sdve too frequent reference
to a preceding page, or where a different phase of a subject has
been discussed. Where the subjects are similar, references thereto
have been frequently made by a foot-note. The object of the
repetition is to reduce the labor of reading to a minimum.

The writer is indebted to the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
& Manufacturing Company, the Niagara Falls Power Company,
the St Lawrence Power Company, the Hudson River Power Trans-
mission Company, the Hudson River Water Power Company, the
Empire State Power Company, the Utica Gas & Electric Com-
' pany, the Hannawa Falls Power Company and the International
Paper Company for photographic illustrations for this report.

The writer wishes to specially acknowledge his indebtedness to
the Report on Stream Flow and Water Power, made since 1900 by
the State Engineer and Surveyor, acting in conjunction with the
Hydrographic Division of the United States Geological Survey.
These reports have been compiled by Mr Robert E. Horton.

Rochester, April 1, 1904. .

GrorGE W. RArrer.

ee: lho

CONTENTS

PAGE

THE SOURCE OF THE GREATNESS OF NEW YORK... w. 2.0)..5 os ei acindiocece ce evce - 30
MA OO EERE 5608 oe orecra Syeyee Sey gee ee «hen! sh opine yeh Oph nce yd-»,0[2)0% 30
Pavone aiaiE Al CONGILIONS «os. os c.c-« 0 < pms mime Spreicpeewe mig pi? slece ejsie ees 32
reenal WMMLNCHCIONS. , "5.2. anc ss kos he ss ed nev Dae wa a 5 oe aa 33
Why water powers are less reliable now than formerly.............. 33
Treen ESTED, WATT ICI ce sie ans oidnin 0. clele-ehe,e.c <rpriasy &0,8 © pond pia ies 38
Value of water to industries........... he tS a cigtli=s oe ide ~xc i Raneee, in 39
The relation of the mountains to the river valleys...............0.4- 40
Rivers, ang, lakes Of. the Adirondack Dated «..«.s 0,0 + sine ae.ee sjemaceae At
Phe 2reat Forest 2S 2 Stream. CONSETVALOE «.. «0 «a po se cfejnn cje nine ep eee s 45
ater EMA Oi ONT GR, VORE oc cc qq cach pe chee caccct anaes ancien feces 46
@he division of the State into climatic Areas... 2... ccs can scacece 49
reser Of TMCLCOLOIOSICal dADICHS acronis «014 atecaw ne Bo,c 0 on dnjsecene oe 52
Division of the year into storage, growing and replenishing periods.. 80
Pee bATION. Oi GATICO ATL, TO BEUNOUE 55 osc cpiasnsic ne Basen eereseeese 82
IRE IRE Pee rere aS a a a a ele as Ao db ea. fn beet, 8. pt oe
I No ce cl ed ol Boe oceePt o ate nnnie ces 83
em nINONNL NE, PR TCCIE ES oe. Sis aie, ond sa che <0 wee env oie e's 6 Gee weg eee 84
eeereestee tigre Gt TWMMIMINI TAIN All. 2... kc eee tt pe seen 86
Deiretieete AMCTOOSINE T x oie saad epee ee os EE RES RE EEE Ore 87
Ere teen eee A PAE ET CARY SEUEI CTI ohoin "sn eS wo oo) 6 a pcan W.c.* 9 cian + 440,007 87
Increase of runoff with increase of rainfall............... 2.0000. 92
Genesee river ...... ER PLE BE OP Oe OnE ner Lo 92
ERM me Siro re cin Ways om: aialelans 8 ak oie bined 5 s.5.4-< tau $4 ete 93
NR A Nn gi ets ule Sr wig lS nonin daa e 6 op 94
Average ramiall in the State of New York. ...0. .oouc.ccic moe cece cee 95
Length of time required to make good a series of rainfall records... 95
Moamimun precipircawuon in New YOrk: .. .. ance venue case ecw c ave 97
UN os eek ok de Gna, 20, pL OVE, ip app ee ee en oe 105
ee Wi Er POAT NOW cen on o> an. s ca ocn na cous en rene eye a or 105
EE INT igs ecard Saves tod sews cece vecetcessee 106
Sata orien Or Te WANING TUNG. ono - ences cc cee eucense oe 107
‘Division of streams into classes.............. YOREES IRE S Ceaaig ape 108
Estimation of runoff, from rainfall diagrams..................... 109
I a ea ea a www bia ue’ « a eppye 110
IR iia ow lg a 8 Oo Gate Wd SES ie nea 111
re Se ey e's a Sie pai!
SN REDE ear) Ga St Bas eto G ws alles avn Hea anh <n «% 4 ead oe mie |
eerie eee OE IS, ANITA TROT. o. wo cag ayeie cuss 5 ss coe cece one 113
Discrepancies in the computation of runoff...... CR a Se an 113
Actual gagings preferable to general studies..................00- 113
Pormulas for runoff .....-....¢- Gee: eo eee Ea PPE eke
Been, SIRI POES, TOTTNINAS So eon 5 a ad dun chu has opmet cecce veies cane 116
Coefficient table for representative areas... ..........cccecccecene 117
Cooley’s formulas ..... Nicaea ware eos a ee CR ar ae eee eae 117
ere et AOI, EW ss a ws wud ce peeeavecase acerac eens

10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PAGE |
THE RELATION OF RAINFALL TO RUNOFF (cont'd)
Runoff (contd) 5

Danger.of using percentages «cuss .h/os ws Jaca ER eee ph fos. ma 118
Runoff’ coefficient ‘misleading’. ©. 27 34. Moo ees eee. 119
Relation between total runoff and runoff of eee ean ha Sas oes 119
Effect of low: ground water i. es BS ee ee eee 120
Vermeule’s’ formulas. 3.00 ob sceio ash eS eee eee 121
Rusself’s ‘ fOpnmudlas i. Sek bc 6 usar cis ao econ tine 6 6 eee ee ee 125

Mmégn. TEHOM oy ase Se © . dislecg RR ee 125
The extrenie low-water. period: 7... ocsoee coe + oe Soe ee eee 127
Rainfall, runoff, evaporation and variation from the mean on

Hudson and Genesee rivers: SC co oo ee one eee oe Ca ee ee 130

Hudson. river <5 <i geeks: cea Std oan «eae eae eae one 130

Genesee Tiver fo vidicl Saw cae were oc leic Ocuust te State ele eats eens 1 ee ag 130

Comparison of rainfalls, Hudson and Genesee rivers............ 131

Comparison of runoffs, Hudson and Genesee rivers............. 131

Comparison of evaporations, Hudson and Genesee rivers........ 132
Variation in weit “measurements. 52s... sees oe nee Se ere 132
Genesee and Hudson gagings reduced to sharp-crested weir meas-

ULeMICNES os desks Sh SS RS Soe ss oe Co eee ee 133

HIVAPOratiOn ~ fs. o.5 <n. a0 wie a ease cis al saagpae 2 eles © eantn, 5 ee amas terter 5 ioie eee 134
Fitz Gérald’s:formula for-evaporation. 22-2. .7. 2... . cs sc eee nate 134
Hvaporation relations (a2 2589... 00 0 s eee i ie eens oe 135
Effect of wind and other meteorological elements................. 136
Persistency of evaporation ............ Do 6 e:e © 6 pid Siw jareite lhe ate a taee tateeees 137
Negative €vaporatign -) ice. 2 oe bats oO oer elas wie eee eee 138
BHvaporation.. at. Ogdensbute. 3 Tica oes ae (Naseer eet 140
Croton Water Department’s evaporation records................. 141
FIVAPOLation” AU FUOCHESPEE ay. cafe sw ole one Uc ane sees Persie te, oe 144
Drain pages: at Gernevarns Sie os oe Sa cs oe eee 144
Hight of water un wells: occ ibe ip ee Cae: eee 158

The relation of seologic structure. to Lanoie. ... 5... s....0 ste a eens eee 162

PLOrestee fo Mase oo is ee ae a ww aces ace bo oste S ia ES eee fossa en eencus Fens esate ee
Do forests: increase rainfall 7... 5.20 oe seen sewer ks och nets 172
Relation of forests to stream: floWs cs «cess Sak aie ee ee ee 173
WG IIGLENt “DLCSCEVe occ %045% «ua veiw ele Lan Pe eee IGE 9 Seite gr 22% 174
MHC MA GITONGACKE | ALK coos. oe eee eed a-0.e widinie oe Ras) nee ee 175
Afea of the Forest preserve <0. os di. aso cs oc ee ene Seen nee 176
‘THe Catskill park’... oc. 62 ee Oe Eaa eS heaton ee ee ee 177
Pemect Of “LOrests o.oo ccs Sie s-d aieigca eee oe tae, ele pa et ro 178
Forestation of the Croton catchment: area: 0. cs cose ws cue a ees 186

Details concerning tables. and ‘diagrams . costco « ovis sina eee 188
Topographic relations of the catchment areas of some of the main

Biredms: tabulated 3: : i042 duis ee ee Peder’ Co eae 188
Family resemblance of streams.............. Serr 189
Description of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers.... 190
Description of did grams. <2... s:sch sate ntaele ny Peale eee os 3.08 Rae ES 192
Exponential formula’... 9. 60 260-098 we eee wok ee 197

Runoff ‘diagrams. <, ...<s:ssseeeae & a w dienes as Oe an ei ee cee ihdenes Oa

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK nh |

PAGE

SUMTER Ee ete ce Sens aveawe nest sewoes seers “203
Pe TETOTIN OL PIVERS.. oC ius ob clecc cs pliwees te tepeboetonersee 203
ee rere Piver system SS ee et es oe cae wes es ct enees 204
Take Mrie and Niagara river drainage... .. 0... 6s. ee cece ee ces 205
ENTRAR et eit een ne ecg tsa ok sree else bas at bie aneg 6 omni wate ov 205
ear are err eee Sete ee es ce toe cig aero ab aeo'n ew ote a0 206
Highteen Mile creek (Lake Brie). Ce ee teres Sete Men sale Stet sca 206
Permeriere eres Ce ese St sss bis e as cobs eccp tess se cess ee ees 206
aor eee ners fre. eerie ee ts nese ake ae ees res tees be ees 206
SS 8 apt GE i fo ide Je ea Wola ana Dist a arly A haa 207
Sees rt GATCIIMCNT ATCA, wi bess csticsctecclecesn sees eeseeces 208
Mipioeen Mie creek (lake Ontario) 62: bers ese 209
ane enate Crea. = see bree es Pee et A ee 209
See OINWEE = ee es ike wee sess cies See os CE le 210
raerpewer OF Gctiesece TIVEr: 2. se SE 212
Le eS i es as to ao oe 214
ene te een ee fe Se ae Pe gee een State Sr oe eee ee ON ete ee Oa ee 6 tle 214
eee Pee Cee es ee A eee oe Lee re eee rs wee woes tes ece es 215
Mm acerpewer OF lis Creeks ts Se es ee eA OA 216
eens Pee CNIOR oe Cee ee ssc ete bere tees ts re TINS 219
Deutren ea WOPCOL: Sti. iskkccttese eee lke eee bee ces oe 219
oo oe ge ee ee ee ee ee ee Se eres ee 220
TRIE PAVOR CAA a Skee eet Reka tae ERS EERO RE Pere. CECT SER SY 223
POE PRIMER: Speak WAGERS RGR VS CSERE S345 eeha Et Ce SS oe IS 223
2 eg OE eae we eee re Pie? Veet. ts oe eee Pee ae 224
RIMCTPeEMIONOS -CEGGE ois ce th bk as beet et ea aad oe oD. AS 224
ee PE TEC RCE RG Lea GG ant tG se PR SET EA SER ES Ae OTT IeR YY, 224
Early waterpower and manufacturing projects on Black river.... 224
eee Res de PORATET: ob bs tn anew eee c eels ver AO. REGIA 226
aren CE SE EL OWNAGE ice ke tee wees tac wath inviwereus 220
Deana cols | WR RLCTIOW ER: oc Le eee OS) ee Oa, 227
Mavisncirine a4 oeaver River yvillag@s.....0 0s eee wee ele, 230
ee ee OE ee OME AMIE. wa ic ewer ce dae tee. Se. Uppal 2380
Paar ACE tNt: . CAE, APOE. SSCT «cw wic ow bes sue vse ee deeb wih ble eb esawe 230
ee CUR ddd, AIP OUROS os ok ois vin 6 old occ 6 ce SOT 2. Dabooee ek 231
een On EO TIM OT leis Claas be ww ee sccsse eS d¥ch seed 231
le penmanency. OL. Black river runoff, . i. 0... .... 2 aie Leek 232
The main waterpower developments of New York................ pats,
Economic statistics of the city of Watertown..................08. 2k
Streams flowing into St Lawrence river.................cccececee 240
LG So EC a a a ee ee a as FQN VME ais GUT ISLA Sh 241
iy seer oower Of (eaweentenie Tye? ...... .o p<. sss 00 so v2 ke CMOtOLL 242
ar oh oe ola es gia NG TY Se xs oo Médias demituel 243
eee ee RE RSID OT sno sade wb av ovo DAC DROME 243
I Naess Shp ke bev so 3091s vende 244
Waterpower of Raquette river............... 00% eit abeunotegdo 245
a aa lS a Ssh Gky wind Phe 6 6 aw OOT? » LELUDEV ELD 246

12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

RIVER SYSTEMS (cont'd)
St Lawrence river (coni’d)
Trout Tiveh 2 eee eA ao se woo oo mie eee
Chateaugay~ Fiver ) cin ee as ois ow he eS io vee we Ee ee
Lake. Champlain -Systemi: sauce «ns.gecsad. <i. <n te) Ais ES es ee ——
Big Chazy river ....... iain Wikre be amines kA ase oo <pkeee ie oui
Little Chazy river
Saranac, VIVE is... . 5 ass copes Pea ee EOE EE eee eee é
Salmon river east
Ausable, river... waders Veet eee eee tn bien keine «dele Sie cent
Bouquet rivel- . 2<3..n.i oieeediceeeen - Rinich abies de éapitwt :
_ Outlet of Lake George
Hudson river system
Hudson river

ewe eevrer ee eeeseeeeeeereezeeer eee eeeeeeeeeeneeenes
Ss@eecaeet@eaeceovoaneceseveeeeseeceneanevese2 Qu Ves © 9 ESA ae

¢ Waterpower of Hudson. rivet.sc..ca% ocean tes SS et. eee ee
Harlem river and Spuyten Duyvil creek. ............c000. cceceacs
Croton LIVER «06 25. wKs-e eek es ok bos eee ees eae
Fishkill creek 3..<i...5 0 ¢snen coh baeee ake ee eo negeeey Gee
Waterpower of Fishkill ereek. ....5:. 2.5. %-0s beee esas Bee
Wappinger creek .....622-s2eseeee reeset ee eesees ccsheaeeh eens
Murderers. creek: .o0% 5 fairs Scie er eE baw c nee e be bs cee be ee eee
RopAouel ClEGK is. sh o66 oy ccc ced eaawces sb avek veh as > lee
Waterpower .of .Rondout creeK.« sc sees cen oti us pes se coe ee
Wallkill river. .picceizicca tise 00 as 0 cee ss take ce 5s aeeiel Sees
Waterpower, of ,Walikill river. os 26.0 Se22c ss vac sess oO eee Ce
Esopus . creeks: .dcssk wees ep We oek te kat ek eh eee eee
Waterpower of Esopus.creek.. ..05cs0ds odet Stine bis. HES ee eR
Catskill creek « .i-su<heb ad ccc ccs cnc Sb ieee deg Rs Seen eee
Waterpower of Catskill creek............c0ccceeees ory tase
Normans Kill .. ..< dwdan. os ome iho. Foes. soe ieth. a. Ss ee
Roeliff- Jansen ill. sc aces cas se ee RELIES OS Se. Se eee
Claverack, CTCGK | .'5 6.6 Dee bn oe wn oe wp EE Re Jo 3¢ > Shia See Ue sebe
Kinderhook creek. .. s:. 3202606000000 e Feiss eel ome « Mes Reet oe
HIOOSIC FIVER «26 oon sec cee owes Sew ues eio de SUN Eb REE oe ee Oe ats
EAT STTL TIVE we ainda vic 0,0 s c's on ad Ra cette dis Ee hn Old oy Ae rate
Mish creek 0... odes OS St. SL er eriie. SCRE é ra it &
Sacandaga river... .« Kievan l. oe. ERG GEE th Eel se eee
Sehroon: .TIVET. . 2... 22 0c Lata VUES. Sere Cs cee eee ee eee
Waterpower of Schroon river........-..secrccrsseuwmcsveswuaeews
Boreas. TIVE . «oie. sos vis cw steve Aes ae pw eee aed oe eee rea ny es
Indian. river . .cé.eccccduaed swe oe es. 6 eee 2 ee ee
Cedar wiver ....2 ides ec dese eeehe tant ween ey Se ees eh SA ths hk
Mobawk TIVeL .. octet esas vcascwemen «haan Ghee ae ee » Swe Dae
Chactenunda. creek). ...2dvecs enue tele iveumee ft Ws aera Cates
Cayadutta creek. .. 2... sec cus se pivesk we seaege die ah We et. AOR
Schoharie. creek . . «2 se0'ss0000be08 eke Aa ate a dae. Fae bo Aetanies
Waterpower of Schoharie Creek. .... 2.0. cece cece cece reece ecerece

PAGE

. 248
248

265
265
267
267
268
269
269
269
271
271
272

ee el ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 13

PAGE
RIVER SYSTEMS (coni’d)
Mohawk river (cont'd)
erate TEN pkey po ene ee es tsp Rooeen Bigny: tee sheist 274
it Manna eOPele oes. 5a ses > RRM SPP RIPE ee he sree 27
Waterpower of East Canada creek ....--+++-eeererrererssssrcres 275
West Canada creek........ eT eS CT: ME Tees Py ee eet ett 278
Waterpower of West Canada creek ...----+++-eeeeerrerrcrr ste 279
Semelenilly PEOP car hee sls aloes VRP > FO cist sess Terie ett 280
Waterpower of Sauquoit creek... ...--. +. sees reece tress tte 280
Grasieates + Cecelesud 20 iw eadss -sioe pied - 39- (So mis ie see lne spe 281
Comparison of the flow over two dams on Oriskany creek......--. 281
Meee aa eek ee Rs OSs “he Pst As ae eth st 282
Allegheny river system... .....5- 2. 6222 See cee nets ener tee sees 282
Pilerheny waver, -.- Sollee -SGlasasaesis (ss Sseecroercece cs cere ers 282
Chautauqua lake outlet. .... 2.6... -- cece ee eee eee reer eee eeees 282
Cassadaga creek 2... 22. c ee eee ete ee ce centre een es ceeeenees 283
Comewango Creek ... 2... cece eee nee rece en en eset erence eects 283
Little Valley creek... 2... cee ce cece ce cece eee ete cece eter ec enees 283
Great Valley creek. .. 2.2... 2c cence ee cece ee eee te eee eee ens 283
ES a ee eee ee eee ee per 284
Susquehanna river system...........+++-+-: en pm eee ee 284
Susquehanna iver ..... 1.1... ce ee ee eee ee ee tee e een ee enone 284
oe ee ee ee ae 285
fo ee eens eee re eee 285
a a a wn ns ay SD
RES ES I Ee ee ee ee eee ee 285
Oo ae cer ere fee ee ee ee oe ee 285
SE Ea ae ere re ere, eee ore eee eee 286
2 OS ee a Pe ee ee eee tere ee ee 286
To PE ae eee 286
nL RR See ae en ene ae ae 286
So Se ae ee ee eee 286
ee RISC RS ie cS la SS ¢ ia aw wi Si iep scslas 0 ms oa 287
SS ee eee ied eae Sie 287
eee So Sn ale tanh wlan ein mS nye 8-9 ae = 8, = 289
he a, 2 nis oa ws mo ae se 's's gv oS SS 289
East branch or Pepacton river.......... | Setele Renee Mirae go tet oniegn 289
es eo ce win wesw Dip his So a Alaa oe a dae we 6 2.8 289
OE Oe ee ree ee er eer 290
TE a SRR SI al nr i al en i a aaa 291
RUNOFF OF NIAGARA AND ST LAWRENCE RIVERS.............00eecceeees 292
irr ore eee thd needed mia aera dees ace 8 us be 292
ene IRI URN eo og aw cielo 6 cw Oa.s aces ve Gees tales sae 300
ee eer eaTNT HAWES. Oe oss wt oo et sc ss cme ces ce daccimevecses 304
ee rr Oe eo. Cae Soe cies co ween becece cs cnt 308
ieee snte et it eS att Ln nates Giac-s eked Kan cca secs « 321
RUNOFF OF OTHER STREAMS OF NEW YORK... 2. .....0.....02.ccccceceeee a2
eee ee en mrre Segte co ee OS Bi erie IS EG” 323
Streams gaged for Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways......... 324

14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

RUNOFF OF OTHER STREAMS OF NEW YORK (cont'd) pai
Streams gaged by United States Geological Survey............... 325
Methods ‘of gaging prirsued: .::::2.::22:2:5:isssiea,80eu-Seiome 3826
Streams discussed: in<this report: : i. isc s20ss CYR A Jee 327
Gagings over dams and through water wheels.................... 328
The work of Henry Bazin............ aeGua ss I. Shee eee 329
Discharge measurements of Genesee river.............2000 cee ees 331
Discharge measurements of Oatka creek. ...........0cccceeeeeeee 3aT
Discharge measurements of Hemlock lake ,..........e.eee cece ees 337
Comparison of runoff of Hemlock lake with that of the river

Thames -in’ Hneland: 2 02 2208), 070.2070, See aa, es eee 340
Discharge measurements of Oswego river...........eccceeeecees 341
Discharge measurements of Seneca Iriver...........22cc cee eeeee 342

. Discharge measurements of Skaneateles outlet .................. 345
Discharge measurements of Chittenango creek ...........cceceee 351
Discharge measurements of Black river .............-2..0200000. 352
Discharge measurements of Lake Champlain ................... 354
Discharge measurements of Hudson river at Mechanieville....... 365
Discharge measurements of Hudson river at Fort Edward........ 373
Discharge measurements of Croton river ..........c cc ccc ce eeees 375
Discharge measurements of Schroon river .........cccccccececes 400

Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry.... 408
Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Rexford Flats...... 404

Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Little Falls........ 404
“Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills........ 405
Discharge measurements of East Canada creek.................. 411
Discharge measurements of West Canada creek ................. 414
Discharge measurements of Sauquoit creek ..............2.2008- 416
Discharge measurements of Oriskany creek ............-...0e00. 416
Discharge measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks in 18385... 420
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM SLOW OF STREAMS. 0... 225... 025 ceeae ne Sepieeee 422
Antiquity of river regulation or conServancy............e.s-eeeee 423
River: regulation On Bie Bene oo. Bn oc 6 ic slg: s. we = more 9 wee 425
Definition of river regulation or conservancy. ...........2.+.eeees 426
Torrential and gently Bowie rivers. ...0 +. cvsccscuseas oan 427
General principles of river regulation as defined by Von Wex...... 427
Flood overflows not necessarily injurious... ......ccccrccecccrees 433
Irrigating ’ Streams... ok caw ax 'b-aiclnse = <1« oid « d.5 hoje clayar his en 434
Insufficient waterway of bridges... ......0.+pecnertaanee “wea 434
Lack of data a source of difficulty............ teen eee e eee e wees 435
River conservancy in England, Germany and France............. 435
The cause Of HOOGB... rc caw <p ales x: 0.0: 5:0 « o »eespseupiepn nine 436
Frequency Of f1000S o.oo 'ocicic a/0:0.6.0:«.0.0-0.dn0.01m <upbgiptens-prepaekeltste meena mae 437
Are storage reservoirs effectual in preventing floods?............. 437
Views of French CngineGers. « «x « o0:s.0\s:6:0:01s:0.a:sliskbales cays eee eae 437
WIGOR WAIDINGS oe in dc <0 < o.:0.wdgperpinioveeeyeeagege peepee ane ees aa
Maximum flow of streams in New YOork.......ccseewcccsscvccrccves 439
Buailalo: TASB 6 «dn: 0. ccinre 0/0506 ecave. carte) oydieapeelle.diega ti mates eerie Speen en 439

Tonawanda creek a's © 2/084 p25 9-0 eeseeeeevereeeeeeeeee ee ereeee viarone gts. ae

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 15

PAGE
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS (cont'd)
Maximum flow of streams in New York (cont'd)

Ee RENT Ste he ee Riel whe wie hiaap alee enn as wee SEO Re GLUE MOL e 441
URINE gM en han eas co eos foe dis ca widee.caris.e eS? “EROURY > 441
The great flood in Genesee river of 1865.................. seduael 442
- The Genesee River Flood Commission of 1865...............0.00. 4H3
Misod ms Genesee river of May. 1894. |... 2-00. 2.0 cic celeb ne dsleldwalals . 445
iHlood im, Genesee river-of. April 1896. 2... ec lee s DE Slee Pe leere ela ke 447
Wijod 1 Genesee river of March 1902. :. 0... eee SLL. Bs 448
Flood in- Genesee river’ of ‘July. 1902. -.. 28. ee ed 448
The effect on floods of the Genesee river flats..................-- 450
The storage value of the Genesee river fiatS.................0200- 453
Value of a reservoir on Genesee river in mitigating floods........ 454
on Ee ES ees Sent fay bo ti Sr Aaa Ue Cnn ae Re, tap OS Pe eae ae 458
2 go PE a as ese ee are EN PER: C5 Dk MES oP TSE ERS 458
Sa EON EINE odio ee di ta po its low tons tc ae weave RRs APE R 5196) 459
ewe eee, BRU. Lee Ol Bh. bed Lagi 34 okidue se 459
oS et a i pex- eo Rs Pn ALL eM Re oho CICS of Sigie bid & 459
eeeere eee nt et ITP SPER Oe ee ee ee Pid Jeena. 459
eM pies wan pepe aas cc AEA Meets Ls ah nk Whe edad < 460
Oe ER ea ae a ee ae: are 460
ra aa RR ca oc a on en Seen cati abe 461
In RT eS Sys s heweeclt 461
SE A Oe scenes ee ogg otis Wh euedech. ebrasi step. 461
2 DUAL SLi: Sp dike tiene ce cee a Se ee 461
Rn RUN EBSD OE AEN CRC tn as eS Faces @ » sudnabyabe 461
CR SO OR MeN CMe oS i a et, i ae aire ae ae 461
a RE REN cer SN Seed ON 7 2 byt 5 aa! oa vhabegeee semi tae ce end De 462
mee ee eioee river of April 1869). >) 2 os. od kL. coc ee ene wate 462
aS Spt. ype ele aly aa 466
i oe ens ee et Se go ced wie athhin oi. a dae, oe be 466
ee oe ge ee ae 466
Independence creek ............ 2 SE EN eee a nea es 466
aE ST rns ie Se re ee Sin so Re ey cha. cadctck een 466
I reins Cee eee os CT ee By 466
neem et ee ie Oe tk 466
I se er ere et in i ol oo Sort cde ew. hare 467
BOS we ab ae eo ee 467
LE sgl RES ae En 469
ENE rs, Gate ee eee wl ae la el ee. 472
INE Cn eels Stee a i 473
EE eee ites Oe wy, tases chee ae nc, 474
hie aS Pelee aba eit, ss oe kd ce 474
Ps EEE yo > he fg a ee aaa i al 474
TEM Te ad eh ee tio ke Te al: 474
UNIO RE oe ooh cians sy ay a By pean 7 heehee meen 474
I eet eee ee a le 475
tsp ntl aia thr nla aad i alah cinched 475

16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM |

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS (cont’d) mt
Maximum flow of streams in New York (cont'd)

Schoharie ereek.\. 6. Saw. ssw bw tak ceiies ce kine Coe eee 483
Garoga - creele: i... 50. So0 gs URS EExd uk oa cc ak oe Se ee ee 484
Mast Ganada creek. .. 0.5 sick Jue ee Oo eee. Pee ee ee 484
West. Canada: creek .i)24..5. cs eed. Boole a6 el eee eee ts4
Sauquoit creek. ... sds .~s sss Se Se tis Ae eee ee See 485
Oriskany oreek . ..02.3 2. 432 Sei ilies. te te eee ee 485
Nine Mile creek 7 ..c2. «.. Shee hee. See icant ark Fighike 485
Allesheny. river: ss ..0> oo. oars SOR e ees Sete ae ee eee 485
Susquehanna river: :..'2c% weilsewsween Oe ed is fade ee ee ee eee 486
Chenango: river .« =.5:. swede we oieoaeewe atta ee tee ee atin a thie eabhede 487
Chemung: Tiver < pista fee Setek ee aes Shee ee rele ee eee 487
GCattisteo. DIVe? . s.c6cd0% a5 x See EE eRe eos a ee eee 490
Cohecton « TIVET 524 werd. 2S.S eed eee cee ees eee Salste dehdisiee 490
Delaware Triver........-. Js chine cls 2a Swe we ws on wile ee ee eee 490
Summary of information as to maximum flows in New York...... 490
Minimum flow of streams in New York....... il awwt eeu Jee 491
Niagara . Fivef-.3 60st ok os See Pee eee See eee eee eee nn ay ee ae |
West branch of Canadaway creek............- os evs oh Rel a ee tee eee
Genesee river ........... oP CLERKS ESAS OO pee » ae deste aL ae ent 494
Oatka creek 5 usu Seveks 62. eee eee ees owen eae Tee ores rere
Morris -TURhs 5.242% ios sec Sd ELWEREAE CROSS Vee Outs Hila esa
Hemlock lake: ... 2. osieouss th skevet<sore. ck eee SS waVileaeb 2s) 498
Oswego. TIVED<s 5 scsupien cds Bea hceee eee. ee » bids exis ERE . oe bees 498
Seneca Liver: .<s585 30 ee aks Upees Cee ee eee POM. aves SUA a ee ee eee
West: braneh: of -Kish creek i205 =. <0 bee GUS See is sate cae of. er
Salmon. river: West... si ashe we Ss SUA SRAGh bees bee be ehe eee ee 501
Black Tive?: s +.555085 & ce. el ees Pe eee ee eee ee Pee eee es
Oswemaichje Tver: sees. oe. SSUIks cas xe eR eee ov bieteks aoe Ve eee ee 502
Haqnetie-Tiver: v.35 kb. bs Sk eRe ee et eee 503
Pinon ‘yet... <.6ek0 a acto “os w "wpe bade Sneak tab [ont to ee 503
LOben «river... <. Seeks so eee ete ee fis seeceeereee --- 505
Fishkill ‘ creek . sg aiees Ur. SE ERS eS ee ee ee 506
Rondout- creck «i. 35 Pus Gis Seay ees + he Go hin we eee spine a oes eee eee 507
Wallkill- river 2... esas eke cEeeRes G8 Re ee eee ee . 507
HMsopus creek... a-« 5 «os SORES PAS eee oe ee eee aman oe 507
Catekill: cré@ic 2555. 2 Sori ae cS Pe wee oe wee eee ihe C we We & meee 507
Motiiaris Wl os soi. ek See gan « se See a et sciee wie Petey ore 507
Kinderhook creek: «cans sc ek bins oe a eon eee i hae = aca 508
Schrooh river... . s:.\.s tae but Sin eee s Heke atk ea we pee 508
Mohawk TIVE. i 50s boc oes ee ee bo as ne be 508
Odyadntta.. creek... .......> 058s aes ebb woe + Oe nen eee oa n,c ee
BChGHAric Creek « o sso.c.s ss sin ww Gople ky See eRe elke nN ke pee 510
Mest Canada Creek wiisistic.s vss wen coete ee eee eee eee ee 511
West Oanada creek ..... ccna snk ewasgs bate beeies mien she eee 511
Banauoit creek... 0.2.5 ss esduw cewek pees tie ree Waike pate a ae POPPE: 512
Oriskany. Creely ... 2... «sin ss 0» p Sede es eine eee bee eee 512
Allegheny river and tributaries .....<..e.vbsseessese0"s iecanen o vets

Susquehanna river and tributaries..... 5 oa Siwintns Pete tr Ree

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 17

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS (cont'd)
Minimum flow of streams in New York (coni’d)

Delaware river and tributaries... .....cccccccccewcwccenecnecccce 512
Summary of information regarding minimum fiowS............... 512
Quantity of water which may be stored on the several plateaus.... 514
STATE OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. .. 2.2.22. cece ce cect cee n een ecene 516
State water supply ............. pb fa bergen Sie ie Sie rer srs eee: eee «<3. 016
‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER IN NEW YORKE.....-- ee sees seer eeees 526
Power employed in manufacturing... .......... cece eee cece eeenees 526
ee a re tel SS tis wad abicds ownl sare Shee Suites dine} 2 ab 527
WateEpowen, 24.4% «../.:- solar beni <rpeipt gens ay sheen’ neney ees ose 527
Percentaze increase Of STCAMPOW ET niwyicl. sence - acs ences ee oe nes 527
Percentage increase Of WaterpOWEeL .... 2. 0. eww ce cece cs cess enccseces 528
Comparison of development of waterpower in New York with de- ;
OE SETS A ee ee ee re 528
Waterpower reservoirs in New England. .... 2... 2... cee secces cleces 529
eee ER TCE = NI ns are inn 2 'ea ny oh é eb emapest Bis eae 530
State ownership of Hudson river and its effect in restricting the de-
NEGA EU nn wi ome eine Bin ane py aie Hae vie D dol
Og ES EE as SEE OD SCS 6: a in as 536
ES SE Ss ST PT Yo SR 72 ee 539
OE a 545
Waterpower development discouraged in New York................. 552
Future power development of the Adirondack region................ 500
ie Test vette (6 tie AGITOROACE TCRIOR. oo oo wc as ws 0,5 wives sv acces Do6
Power development at Glens Falls and vicinity.................... 508
ENS re aS Gc a, Wisin, 5, a bie Save 0'8 w Sun, bie 4 Hdd etala 20 Ode « ¢ 560
Relation of population to capital invested in manufacturing......... 560
eet SOT CAGe OL DODUMCION «5 eo. as cco nc cae meewcnneccccons 560
PE Oe EMER EAMOAY a 3 Se nd wo hens ux w tag wees we «tae 0638
Relation of values of agricultural products to waterpower values.... 564
EM a oa sae SE ice ec Gk bass so eM agin etlaaee ccc S ©.. 567
eae anion ee, he ee Shee et eee S9VEY Goal 568
Deere UCMER UE UAE LY GET oc oe ee ce cn ws te ce cc ene se ee 069
Waterpower by industries in 1900......... ER ae nA wes a Ween Ben aves oo ERE
Mmm STORAGE PIMASEROTS (co ee ose tl Ethene. Fac RTS ge hanes de eal ely prtaet sie dt1
ee Eee ere rat he Gt OCS cin Ges coke cece wea hoe 573
Pees VCO aA Se ete ess ners ie te OUS oT4
RE a a IE EE AC ae eae ae ae a ab 576
RT IER SE ee Si e2 ce oka eee See eS a Ce RE CUS OTT
Pe ee ete tetas aera be ike leo oe fF, BA, Sle 579
Comparison of Mount Morris and Portage sites................... 588
paimmrary Gr Cenesee Tver ShOrage: 2o2720 6636 0 AY, BOY, 325 591
eS INNES 02 252 ia ere fs ge pe SORE A Fe) BY Oud 592
Erie canal in its relations to Genesee river...................... 592
ae eenenee- Bayer: Company 202. OTS T8146 LED, area) 601
Geiesee- PIVOT. WaT DOWESE «5 6 co foe ee ne DELO. ITE Yo . 602
Plas, fer aeguitiae, Water. TIS 12 oie oe eer ce dele es eee LB 603

18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PAGE
WATER STORAGE PROJECTS (cont'd)

Description of the Rochester waterpower.............c.ccececceecs 605
Johnson and Seymouw? raceway. «03 Pe.tevls od we. de ee eee 607
Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceway.................ccceees 608
Brown's’ raceway 22.02.2045 DSR A eee ae ee ae eee -. 608
Rochester Power Company’S raC@way.......ccccccscccscccescccce 609
Genesee Paper Company and estate of Chas. J. Hayden........... 609
Brush Electrie Light Company’s power at lower falls............. 609
Undeveloped power between upper and middle falls.............. 610
Estimated cost of water rights at Rochester...................02- 610 .
Why the gross horsepower has been adopted as the unit of power.. 611
Quantity of water per gross horsepower. 62.2.2. 2 es eee Bee sia!

Storage reservoir:on Salmon river weSt. A oso. on os ne oe eee 612

Storage’ reservoir on Black “rivéerole. .. foo Jas ee oe eee 617

storage. reservoirs on ‘Hudson’ river: 202222 ese ee te eee 621
Barly’ SUPVeyS: 6206 0p S tae ee ee ee a ee ee 621
Recent investigations. 3 2 d2:sccieichede es eee ee Ce Oe ee 622
Reservoir “Sités:..... Scum ste hoe Sewn ap ee ate eo ee ee ee ee 623
Hiffect of proposed storaze on river flow). 23. =... seem erect eee 628
Sumbiary of Hudson iver reseryaire 7s ee eee Eee ee 630

ptorage reservoirs on Sehroon. HIVEL.. 2s. ae oe case e oe eee eee 631
Schroon valley reservoir no injury to waterpower on Hudson river. 638
Compensating resérvoirs on” Hudson Fiver: . os)... vee nae enee eee 640
Water supply for New York city from Lake George............... 643
Reservoir system for river regulation Only......s. 0s tesassene eee 645

SPECIAL DEVELOPMENTS: IN “NEW YORK... o::.< s-dasa o poten ee ee 646

Niagara. Pals so... 4.«6:% jays wieyaieaie sme go aye 2\e aie ele 1s Wale ik ae ee ee 646
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Company....... 647
Niagara EFalis Power Companys: 25.05". ae tan ae ae a ee 651

Bt Tsawrence: FIVE’. 66. S.< bs Kk oi opeenne sieies, Sco Ghd eae, & ace a ee 657
The St Lawfence Power Company... . ... «+:..5..++as.5<> 00-5 eee 657

RAO OPIVER.. 0 '5 os 2:cacd ee Rema te a eee *, a © @:eisue, ache lene: 8 ik 659
The Hudson River Power Transmission Company..............-- 659
The Hudson River Water Power Company... c)< sim o:<. +014 stesuekeees 660

Behoharie CROCK. <. .\..25:se so emia sos Se ow Oo Stele eee er 663
The Himpire State Power Company «2... os. < suc aoe a 663
PEE FING on nw wo, nics orate ee nie ere’ a Sito sds tie alee a ee 663.
TEGO) oo ane 6. 5 60S vw. in wos whe, wip “sao hime mls tale Red 664
BED TNO. Biv'a.ns on > 02 6 u.a,n 0 0 mynje lal Rie Sie e andee oinetn iee tin Oe 664
BITES IMO. Ais sd 6 ava.ua fo 0 0 5 ab 0d up tech pha) ahs yee pa eae al 664
Ge INO: Boas nies 0 0 © anys Sin eimpiiel Wop She Fence onde Oe ces eee eee 664

West Canada. creek... ... <0.» s (subinwks OB eb eeulegins kv hep ae 665
The Utica Gas & Electric Company...........eeseecescuesssecees 665

BAGUCtHS TIVE... ....- 0s 0.9 s\s\s'd& +e GWieinihint> Gb ese gee > Male aes Aaa cee 666
Hannawa Falls Water Power Company. ssiiceiesccsvede semencseas 666

Waterpower of Hrie canal. .......o.0.0.60.5:0.0,00.ceiitea ss yee Sie) to weenie 669
BIACK BROCK on. viv o.0,0.0.0.0.0.0:0.0,0:0\0,0,0.0,di ele ioe ie hide a Rs 20 669
LOCKDOTE | 6 2.0 wos bibried o's oo sie ob Wis aielele Blgre CM ale Ga Caialaie tht ahs Meee 670

Wate ae See oro bo 0 be Gaows we 2s eke ee eee selmi ina Se

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

PAGE
Payers Gr Fr NeW YORE WAITER DUPPIS. .. casa cc tc eens Ca caccceues 676
ee MEET OME ro cre ee See eo doe od on ote patel apd pee 680
ete WE Stet SUIIY sono Soc tse scons nberecnveteucce 681
Water yield of the Long Island sand areas. .:...... 2... 2. ee eee 683
Recent projects for water supply of Greater New York............. 693
eee eS WORT TER TES SAVERS crore nl tc een tae e ete eee sone 697
Reservoirs on Esopus, Catskill and Schoharie creeks.............. 702
The New York Water Supply Commission of 1903................ TO7
WERiNn ee eee Oe Poet TIA... ee ec wc cece ee ccusaetes 712
AS TO THE POSSIBILITY OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES FROM WELLS IN THE
LUMEN eels pe gel Bs a Raden elma Aa eer teteneae tiie a Aaa aaa ae Ada 714
ee enn Eee eee oe Plt e chet ee ene eee rece tees KO's
Pease ane Commerce’ Of Trmuson TIver. ot era ote Se iyi
oS Fee EO ctw deere dla teal em. orga ta act oe ert Reta Standen ie di Se 719
ee eer mer kee ee eee Ce Lee 2. SA? Oo S 719
ary nisvory or cauais it New Yarto ee). .S2 SS Ae ee 720
Growth and decline of canal transportation. ..................0-. 733
Cost and revenues of the New York State canal system........... 737
improvement of Erie canal. 2... i. 2.261. ee eee. UO 738
The Canal Investigating Commission of 1898.................... 741
The New York Commerce Commission. ...............cc cc ee ceees 743
Description of canals now in operation and their water supply...... 750
Pea twin, OF Brin canal. o..60 400 6297s. Wee sale. ol 751
Manele civieion wo, dirie canal, A..5......L0e: 2 eid ies 755
ipeimieyo Lope sec. fishw. noes. Jae Jp. onl genetuel, 759
I PGE ere cn ok ae RE ROR RRL OHIAG Ta, s8Ig 8d 759
fn eee meal feeder... ley osc to.ecil wa. leveoste vat 759
eee FOPIer. CRAM ACL EDL Eee. SEAS FARE A RIOTAT MIO OU. 760
mee SN el eet eg 899 WEA Go CRITI. DOWER RATA YW, ak 2 760
ee SCO: 2) be SEER OUEST A 92 AG 2231 ORE 760
Siete FOr. | greats. Sous «WO TL SW OSAAT SOR oR LAG 0G 760
Pore Aen s,s) Sa BO-TILART MG UERKASE avirouk 761
SO eee) dreyys Sy Sis PSERERED VOI. BAIA TTR ALTE AGS ol Awa 761
Panett eeviien OF Hirie canal vcitetie5) “bo. celsius sate We Ol kore as 763
SHIP CANAL.PROJECTS AND THEIR WATER SUPPLY.........cccccccceccces 764
The Deep Waterways Commission of 1895.........0c:.0eceeceece 766
ie Fepor. of Mad. Thomas: W- SyIONS «5466 had sedi ved. ei ocho wh 768
Report on the Oswego—Mohawk—Hudson route.................... 773
Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways....... TT7
Og ee ers a eee 778
Spee ee OF SRMEUUTOR. oo <2 os wc oc x cs iwdbwitd k dew odin TZ 778
ce EE TS oe ee ee oy oe ee Sa maa ret 779
OT en ree 1 keg ae ne a rr 779
Cornell experiments .......... ee ee ee ee ey 5 TT
Ln oben 9 Siena TOE ag as te ee + re eS ing} (80
EIS SOUR GE Sa Sy | JO aa ean a cer eae 780
EST ES RoR cer SR a ea 780
NEES SRR ie a a en 781
Ree EW STO FOUL sian Ses dare nc va vcd s cece . erie - 782

20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PAGE
SHIP CANAL PROJECTS AND THEIR WATER SUPPLY (cont'd)

Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways (cont’d)
Tonawanda—Olcott route eeeeereneeeveeee ee ee ee eeeeeeeeeeseseeeene 782

Oswego—Mohawk . £OuUbeC s.s.s:é iss ania cals w<:3,nig a ip whens one Saale wisi hoe
St Lawrence-Champlain. route, . oes 5 a+ anccce «nme on see eee
The utilization of natural waterways........... nip: og ak A
The preferable. LOU « sie de ai 2c! be 5 2o8 wail niente TPT ee ree
Summit level water supply ........... apuigetatesd tate ee 2 meg aa ies segeptne
The Canadian. eanalSixsassncsuds shinee oe a ge se ay eg Seni ade 794
Recent canal projects in New York....... er mie ee Ee - 796
Report of the Committee on Canals of New York................. 796
Seymour plan for enlargement of Hrie canal...........eeeeeecees 797
The Seymour—Adams plan......... ‘ebetts Sinks nary ea i cesiins a Gees Coa 797
New Erie canal proposed by Canal Committee. .........cesceseeeee 798
The ‘enlarged. canals. sanc-sbeen ss ses oe een eek er 799
Study of continuously descending canal from Lake Erie to Hudson
TIVEL .-s0.6 wks wipieis oo «Wane beeteacaiew ies tree bie Vaeeteeit Gare aoe . 801
The southern, POUtes 6 26 ..tancies aware’ wees elle Ses eeeeae ab $% aimee BOUL
The northern LOute-4.<: eeseaee Sade ois hs ee en deere F 805
Hxtension, of .Syracuse Jevels. ce tiods 4c ets eines we ee ee Oe 806
The Seneea—Oneida route sessed) va wie. St a - eee See 807
Conclusions ofthe Canal Committee... os ..0e. &ksUis See sede eee $10
The barge ,canal “Survey « «<4 sass ss cbt es det eele Seuiol Fie we nieige 812
Origin of the barge canal.:....... , clei a aehyeb eww sothe Re Seen 814
Increase in size of boat in comparison with cross-section of canal.. 816
Chapter 147, ofthe laws: 0f:1908. . . 55... -Geeeus s se eeee t sendy iGgls
Power canal along line of Erie canal...... sebweidViwss betes eeeeeeee
PRIVATE COMPANIES ORGANIZED TO BUILD CANALS... ccccsccsecccccessee One
LOSS OF .WATER FEOM. ABTIFICIALACHANNELS, .< scis.e sons seve betes {vaeene nooo
SELLING PRICE OF WATEBPOWER ...02scccvsssses oa c neo bw EE Ate Slaldietg eee
FUTURE USE OF WATERPOWER IN NEW YORK STATE ..ceeeccecsces oily 2i8aF
OBSTRUCTIVE EFFECT OF FRAZIL OR ANCHOR ICE.....ecceeceees PPR Rae St oe
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN WESTERN NEW YOBK........cceceeeeeee 841
Domestic Water Supply of Rochester. ..02. 0a... SOP Poe eats 842
FiemJock.. JAK 266 dass Sard herd e Pees ats Pouce lene eee 842
The Gates well iskgsseSiss. tos Se aE Petey eee See 844
Wells in low district south of Mount Hope reservoir....... tt ).oe ue 847
Irondequoit creek ..... Be ee ta ees eee ee Se p's a ahs ee
Bed: creck: .. PUPS, BS Sth eS oe ee Cie hile eee seer ol eee
Little Black creek......... FFE Ree ee i Le eine eth ere
Wells at Coldwater........... PT Pe er re ee Se ee ee
Sie eaowW. MOINS i605 5555 25552) eck eee espe aon ose
Phe Tubbard springs. os s.3-23:252.5 5 Ss3e8ecR3 St Sat Bre a se ie wn
RR OO AS nt OS ad egos Soe ats (poke <b. sik D pe ric:
Date creek .i5 ko sds ssn PEP I OP ee a Waren per «BBL
Pamieodonia epriaehsis i... o> 55-500 ca oe sae SP a Se
Mendon ponds......... ing se ccd hee eee Pa aa eee ie Geter . 852

Poous smear Bushnell basiti <;. ..5.0iscenseenn na a he bem cals a os S02

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 21

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN WESTERN NEW YORK (cont’d)
Domestic Water Supply of Rochester (cont’d)

Tee ei a ait a Pe Bae BS eee Re ag Pe ene © os Son eee Oe eer 853
IRINA SEEING eb rc) ao a n'a ok Papanpaee ta.an oa ware 853
aetna ROS OR a Ae eles Dela UiaTE a SW Mals 0! etnialae wie’ 854
CE MOS eS ce a 855
eee POET te ee ee cys SN Be PAE has ve oak Lele ee als oe Wlalele tae © 856
Far Bn ee oe eas ag ae eae wes ain 2 e086 858
Ouaiity-of water inihe vieinity of Medina. 206.00 0. ee eee 861
ie Ol ter ae VIGIMILY, OF TOta Via, one mons cp een se meet neness 862
THE DEAINAGE OF SWAMP AREAS IN NEW YORK............0-.cccceceees 864
EORTC er NW WORM Sk als aw albie nc Shee come ee 865
THE PROPER FUTURE COMMERCIAL POLICY OF NEW YORK.............22-- 873

LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO IN PREPARING THE HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK. 875

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES
PLATE 1— Relief map of New York State.................. Frontispiece
; FACING PAGE
PLATE 2—A, View of Black river at the village of Black River..... 232
B, View of Black river at village of Brownville.......... 252

PLATE 3— Map of catchment area of Hudson river above Glens Falls. 252
PLATE 4— Power dam at the High falls of the Hast Canada creek.
Constructed by the Dolgeville Electric Light & Power Company
ity 1807 Se AUS ban Sys c eee crs 2 Bese eet eee eee eee 274
PLATE 5— General view of hydraulic laboratory of Cornell university. 326
PLATE 6— Experiment on model of Rexford Flats dam at Cornell

university, Juné 3) *4890. 2602 dees cee skaoe oad eee eee 328
PLATE’ 7— Another view of the hydraulic laboratory at Cornell uni-

versity ..o.05 28 7 A kc Ee 2 EE ee ee 330
PLATE 8— Catchment area of Genesee river. fe a wR
PLATE 9— Dam in the Mohawk river at Trareieeel Re CITY 2 soe. 404

PLATE 10 — Great flood of 1865 at Rochester. Looking across the aque-
duct from South St. Paul street near where the New Osborne House
now stands. Lumber from yards farther up lodged against the

PITS acs KSS.82 Ri SERA POR Sick vos pee eee -. 442
PLATE 11 — The upper fall at Rochester at time of flood flow.......... 446

PLATE 12— Upper and middle falls of the Genesee river at Portage... 592
PLATE 183— A, Measuring weir constructed on Genesee river above
Mount Morrisun I806..% .. cc45 dunk owank coke eee 602
B, Former timber dam on Genesee river at Mount Morris. 602
PLATE 14— Beaver meadow near Indian lake; a typical reservoir site

itisthe -Adirandacks< sees. 7. See ES Se. a bi » G22
PLATE 15— A, The dam at Mechanicville with flash boards in place.. 628
B, The present dam at. ort. Exiward. «2: i... 26, eee 628
PLATE 16— A, Dam on Schroon river at Warrensburg, with flash
boards in. place. ..4% 1s ene Seer Oe 2 ee 632
B, Dam where gagings are made at Little Falls........... 632
Pirate 17— Catchment area of. Schroon river... .s..scavene anne 638
PLATE 18— View of head of canal of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic
Power & Manufacturing Oompany ..s.cs..'<5 ees cae eee ee 646
PLATE 19— Power house of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power &
Manufacturing Gompany -. ..). -.. sss cake tained ee ee 648
PLATE 20— View of interior of station of Niagara Falls Hydraulic
Power & Manufacturing Company. « ...\. «udekniacienenee eee 650
PLATE 21 — Power house of the Niagara Falls Power Company........ 652
PLATE 22— View of interior of power house of the Niagara Falls
POW? COmMany is... «iss ines: nie's a 0-0 0,0’ diay, eaten eee 654

PLATE 23 — Power house of the St Lawrence Power Company........ 656

‘

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 23

FACING PAGE
PLATE 24—TInterior of power house of the St Lawrence Power

Ca a ae ae ee ee a ee ee ee eee 656
PLATE 25 — Effect of water at the Hudson River Power Transmis-
it, Crmmpm ny S WOTKS. 0 6. So +Mame wel ep wie eee cet eeteiS nical neti > 658
PLATE. 26 — View of works of Hudson River Water Power Company
Re sa Ie oho a ox. 3 peer das apppeasere EE tere ¥ eek aspera eee 660
PLATE 27— View of works of Hudson River Water Power Company
2 ee er ae oe ere es ree ee 660
PLaTE 28— Empire State Power Company; showing dam—general -
SE ES Sr a es Ge eS eS ee ee ee 662
PLATE 29— Empire State Power Company; showing outgoing ice..... 662
PLATE 30— General view of Trenton Falls in time of high water.
Perak ATS PI i ete Notun engtens Awad ax wie Yas spare, Wie e a) e.ehoeie 664
PLATE 31— Power dam of Utica Gas & Electric Company on West
eer E MeN tes ce oes A aialeeiass arervidiee «6 sds sawp. ce arem Snes 2 8 664
PLATE 32— Power station of Utica Gas & Electric Company on West
oP Te Civ 5. “ae Sy rahe a An gee ene a ia eS ae =e Fetes eke 666
PLATE 33 — Power dam of Hannawa Falls Water Power Company on
a Ee ee eR Re Le ois aw plelsiare sig ah weit ae bese wa wee de os 668
PLATE 34 — Map illustrating additional water supply for Greater New
York as proposed by the Commission of 1903...............-..... 676
PLATE 35 — Croton aqueduct at Harlem river (from an old engraving). 678
PLATE 36 — View of Croton dam (from an old engraving of 1848)..... 680
PLATE 37 — Driven wells on the Brooklyn Water Works.............. 682
Pia ee, 36.—— Brie -eanablati Syracnse: 2 lia lisslales). Sade Sal eal. Peak. 720

PLATE 39 — Mill of the International Paper Company at Piercefield... 860
PLATE 40 — Mill of the International Paper Company at Lake George.. 862
PLATE 41 — Mill of the International Paper Company at Glens Falls.. 862
PLATE 42 — Mill of the International Paper Company at Fort Edward. 864
PLATE 43 — Mill of the International Paper Company at Cadyville.... 866
PLATE 44— Dam and fiume of the International Paper Company at

SEE GONGES EE Sea ee ety Vee ee Se ee ge a 868
PLATE 45— Mill of the International Paper Company at Palmer’s
CF ESS CS ie erie ee eee 870
MAPS
Economic and geologic map of New York State.................. In pocket.
Map of New York showing surface configuration and catchment
IR ee a cnn EET ONS PERRY, dt ops SL AEE SH JOR sR aCe In pocket.
Relief map of New York State. (See frontispiece. )
Meteorological map of New York State. 02.0.6 cc. 6 cl cele cece ee cee 50
2 ESE Sp TE eC eC Raye RES] Peay Ree ee ae een eee 556
FIGURES IN TEXT PAGE
1. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in
Oswego river catchment during the storage period.............. 152
2. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in
Oswego river catchment during the growing period.............. 152

3. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in
Oswego river catchment during the replenishing period.......... 152

24

Or

-

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PAGE
Diagram showing relation between rainfall and hight of ground
water at Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, from December
1, 1886, to December 1, 1889. (Seale for hight of ground water

in ‘feet; -and:for rainfall in inches) 3 00/2 Pret ae See ee eee 161
Diagram showing relation between precipitation, evaporation, runoff
and temperature on: Upper Hudson rivers ers... fos eee eee “eae

Diagram showing relation between evaporation and temperature on
Upper Hudson river, the years being arranged according to the
amount OF -CVApOralion... Sooo. vy. ca vous en chee ee eee ee oe ee 193

Diagram showing relation between precipitation, runoff, evaporation
and temperature on Upper Genesee river, the years. being ar-
ranged in order OL, OFyNeSS=.23.. ace we Pies oe es ht ee eee 193

. Diagram showing relation between precipitation, runoff, evaporation

and temperature on Muskingum river, Ohio, the years being
arranged in order of .drTyness.,.. ~< .««s< teutgneeeat ose eke te 194

. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff, in

inches, on Upper Hudson Tiyer. 200: Sdase: 42). bp eb ea ele eee 195

. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff, in

inches, on Upper Hudson river, expressed by exponential formula. 195

. Runoff diagram of Hudson and Genesee rivers........ Scyirare l= Pai 196
Runoff. diagram jof ‘Muskingumisriverocs. 24 -ciocernd eet fee 198
.Runoft diagram-of Groton iver, ied): . ise “ee We de Sete 199
. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in
Upper Hudson river catchment during the storage period........ 200
. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in Upper
Hudson river catchment during the growing period............. 201
. Diagram showing relation between precipitation and runoff in Upper
Hudson river catchment during the replenishing period......... 201
Map 6f-the rivers OF NOW YORE? S20 t see eae ot ee ee een eee 3]
. Section of power dam on Genesee river at Mount Morris, at north
end’ of same.:: 2 ahr Sec Aas ee eh ee aon cakes
. Cross-section of main dam and gate house at Indian river......... 270
. Section of weir erected on Genesee river in 1896.................. 308
. Map of the reservoir system of the Great Lakes of the St Lawrence
PASTD ia a 2 aoe od eis ceuieisto’ bea Eau See epee v baa ee 318
2. Section. of; dam .at. Fulton) ..4s..csrtige vnceeetien Pee YT. eee ee 342
. Cross-section of dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville............. 345
. Cross-section of dam on Chittenango creek at Bridgeport.......... 351
- Section of dam ‘on Black. rivér. . 2A Se ee a eee 354
Section of Mechanieville dam. .0.2 2 RW er ee Oe oe Oe eee eee 366
» Diagram of old Croton’ Galiie <6 <s pay eecuaae «sos te ee 378
i Damon Mohawk river at. Rexford Wiats. co td a< wocan seca eee 404
pmection of dam at Little Weds. «.a.+ o«.<a a he edn ondeeideh aunca ie ae 405
. Cross-section of dam on Mohawk river at Ridge Mills, in compari-
son with Bazin’s series No. 162, .. issue «is cicteanir ins tana 405
. Section of dam on East Canada creek at Dolgeville............... 411

. Cross-sections and profile of dam on West Canada creek at Middle-

VEBNO ove aes oo ons e:e s e'shé acd up Boule A pop Oem Iain aie ie te 414

ee Me Bt el oe | Od ea

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 25

PAGE
. Cross-section and longitudinal profile of dam on Sauquoit creek at
New York Mills, in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175...... 416
. Cross-section of dam on Oriskany creek at Oriskany.............. 416
. Flood flow of Genesee river, May 18-23, 1894..................0-. 446
. Cross-section of dam of Empire State Power Company at Schoharie
ee ee ease se te cet ece es letec x’ come ee cee s oo tele 483
. Outline section of State dam at Binghamton. .....................- 486

. Cross-section of dam near Fredonia on west branch of Canadaway

ee ee ee ee Eee te ce oe ea PORE eee sees shes es 492

. Dam, 58 feet high, proposed for Genesee river near Mount Morris.. 578
. Section of dam and gate house as proposed for Genesee river at

eee re ee ers er en tn Ae ee cence wares esis ce ce ae ee 589
. General plan of development of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
Mariner Cxiany 2 22 os Os a ee. FEED. 649
. Niagara Falls and vicinity showing location of the great tunnel.... 651
. Section of overfall of Hudson River Water Power Company....... 660
Daewoo Ol Walt at raniawea Malis... sc... ee cc ee ee ete es 667
eeeemnt tie Vite Ut Brie CANNI SS SOS oe oe eas law ce ee ete ee eee 719
aa? FOR ENE CO MEE CMM NS ee ee ce De ese ce ss ete 727
. Proposed lengthened lock for enlarged canal..... a thee ce oe ee oes 729
. Lock recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal........... 739
. Original boat used on Erie canal....... crdttesd ke ei a ie 749
Boat used at beginning of enlargement....................22 0000s TA9
Boat used during process of enlargement:...................-.... 753
Boat used after enlargement was completed in 1862............... T55
. Boat suggested by Canal Committee for Erie canal improvement... 759
. Boat recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal........... 761
. Earth section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.............. T67
. Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.......... T70
. Cross-section of deep waterways, partly in rock and partly in earth,
ee ene CSET Ot es et ek PIE OPORTO. DU eS 172
. Earth section of deep waterways for 30-foot channel.............. TT4
. Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 30-foot channel.......... 778
. Rock cross-section of proposed Barge canal................2200085 780
. Earth section of proposed 1500-ton Barge canal................... 783
. Earth section of Barge canal recommended by Canal Committee... 784
. Major Symons’ proposed Ship canal, Lake Erie to Hudson river.... 786
. Earth section of original Hrie canal... 2.2... rec ce cee ee 797
. Earth section of enlargement of Erie canal of 1862................ 797
. Earth section of improvement of -Erie canal suggested by Canal
Spaerresel rl. ses teut irae tens SHOU ralaioet Te Foe 799
Earth section of Erie canal from Black Rock to Tonawanda....... 800
. Cross section of Erie canal below Lockport. ..................000. 802
. Cross-section of Erie canal, 24% miles above Lockport.............. 805
. Earth section of Erie canal from Pendleton to 214 miles above -
RI Pe hs es Ses Oa en bs es oaks UTA POR ues. mea 806
. Earth section of Erie canal east of Rochester..................... 807
. Earth section of Welland and Soulanges canals................... 816
. Earth section of Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal....... 818

. Earth section of 22-foot canal carrying vessel of 8,000 tons capacity. 819

LIST OF TABLES.

PAGE
Table No. 1— Showing the number of weather bureau stations and
approximate elevation above tidewater in 1893 and 1902.......... 51
Table No. 2— Meteorological summary at Albany for the calendar
years ; 1891-J6GL, inelisive.. .),. 2. 220: © sats sbealeen ged pbae eee ous Saiareekata 5S
Table No. 83— Meteorological summary at Buffalo for the calendar
years .1891-1961, INCHISLVE. sina xm > au afegen cries bee ene ee DA
Table No. 4— Meteorological summary at Erie for the calendar years
1891—1901, * MNCTUSIVE oe ee win a nw oe ike eS a we ae a ee 55D
Table No. 5— Meteorological summary at New York for the calendar
years 1891—1901, inclusive. .2 2.0.2... : . «maw mnt) ecm bereisnateermnte oe 56
Table No. 6— Meteorological summary at Northfield, Vt., for the
calendar years 1891-1901, INGlMSIVe ves: wos kal ms Seabee Ae pees oT
Table No. 7— Meteorological summary at Oswego for the calendar
years 1891-1901, intensive: 20> 2.3% Sen ee eee eee eee 58
Table No. 8— Meteorological summary at Rochester for the calendar
years 1891-1901, inclusive...... Tare Shae cua alate eae ear 59
Table No. 9— Mean temperature of the western plateau for the water
years 1891-1901, imchusivéG}:.. . 20% gases abet es Bree ew eee 60
Table No. 10 — Mean: temperature of the eastern plateau for the water
years 1891-1901, inchisive :jcwew dls pi 2: BER ee BERL i ee 61
Table No. 11 — Mean temperature of the northern plateau for the water
years .1891—1901, : inelusives ..'a. acteinxe ees eee Rae ee 62
Table No. 12 — Mean temperature of the Atlantic coast region for the
water years 1891—1901, inclusive:.<2.782kKuw senttetao eae ean 63
Table No. 18— Mean temperature of the Hudson valley for the water
years 18911901 | .inchasives..cG sss. .cseeustew aaeis he ceo 64
Table No. 14— Mean temperature of the Mohawk valley for the water
years, 1891-1901, \inelusive?.:.. oo2 .cisveweiecs el ek eee res 65
Table No. 15 — Mean temperature of the Champlain valley for the water
years 1891-1901, inclusives <>. «920i. JeecdRei, 26. Hote. eee 66
Table No. 16— Mean temperature of the St Lawrence valley for the
water years. 1891-—1901,! inclusivesis:: [nies ens. 2. Bole see 67
Table No. 17— Mean temperature of the Great Lakes region for the
water years 1891-1901, inclusiveri.. 2003 .vaglobay Geese es 68
Table No. 18— Mean temperature of the central lakes region for the
water years: 18901—1901, inclusive... .e.iueo ens we . Coie. ae 69
Table No. 19— Precipitation of the western plateau for the water
years -1801—1902, inclusive: 2229.5... 2008. Lee RCE Oe ee 70
' Table No. 20— Precipitation of the eastern plateau for the water
years 1891-1902, inGlusivé:.e. 200 bien JD ek EO ae, 71
Table No. 21— Precipitation of the northern plateau for the water
years -1891—1902,; inclusive... 66: ss/s2v dd eB eee we 2 Pe 72
Table No. 22 — Precipitation of the Atlantic coast region for the water ;
years 1891-1902, inclusive.4 0.5 690s VORA, OV. POU ae 73
Table No. 23 — Precipitation of the Hudson valley for the water years
1801-1002; inelusive ......0..805 85709 SRP a A 74

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

PAGE
Table No. 24 — Precipitation of the Mohawk valley for the water years
Se Se eter et ae 8 LE, FO A. PU PIII OA AT, 75
Table No. 25— Precipitation of the Champlain valley for the water
aE aN IOUS, CAMOMISIVC 8s etc cere rete whee wee te ee ee et oe se ees 76
Table No. 26— Precipitation of the St Lawrence valley for the water
eats beset OU, SIMCHIGI VG. 2-0 are arene sie ek OP Ee ee eee wens ewe el T.
Table No. 27 — Precipitation of the Great Lakes region for the water
years. 1891—1902, imclusive......0.. eee ee cote ee ws 78
Table No. 28 — Precipitation of the central lakes region ee ee widiet
years 1891-1902, inclusive............ BI AOU PER. ISOTL 22S, 79
Table No. 29— Evaporation experiments of the Croton Water Depart-
Rite eee Aenean eee tei ori § ae Uh SG opriiddew.s cis - lbh oN 142
Table No. 30— Evaporation from a water surface as observed at
mechester: 61892-1903) inelusivesss pists il 2. Te. estifdbw se de. as 2 os 145
Table No. 31— Evaporation from an exposed tub on land as observed
ae Rochesters1892-1902..inGlusives:< . ised. ie. aswel ew. Se. cakes 146
Table No. 32— Precipitation at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment
Station for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive.................. 148
Table No. 33 — Percolation of drain gages at the Geneva Agricultural
Experiment Station for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive...... 150
Table No. 34 — Runoff data of Oswego river at High dam for the water
Medea eGR HIieCIONIVOr 2.75 hr. Paedd «Bod. aod witha «ard cies wal bh ete 154
Table No. 35— New drain gage record, June to December, inclusive,
pemne teeteel ceri Bak has been ares tems PG obu. te les id enw s Odie tie wh 159
Table No. 86— Hight of ground water in an abandoned well at the
Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, from December, 1886, to
Peeenmeree tose: PCIe)». cunt ie kalo. sedis idyasik in CS. 6.05 160
Table No. 37 — Catchment areas of tributaries of Genesee river...... 211
Table No. 88 — Economic statistics of the city of Watertown......... 238
Table No. 39 — Precipitation within and in the vicinity of the catch-
ment area of the Great Lakes, 1892-1895, inclusive............... 294
Table No 40— Rainfall and runoff of the Desplaines river as deter-
mined by the Chicago Drainage Commission from 1886-1897, in-
PGR iis re itiiy cen cra oe bab ie ey ew Alst esta 2 Se de), be bess 302
Table No. 41— Evaporation from Desplaines catchment, as given by
differences between rainfall and runoff in the preceding table..... 304
Table No. 42 — Rainfall, runoff, evaporation and mean temperature of
Muskingum river, as measured by the United States engineers,
rom: 1388-1896) | inehsives es toate rca doy ewe is AG ll ead.. 305
Table No. 48 — Runoff data of Genesee river for the water years, 1890—
eee: Ger esivece |) seats Sidhe weet sete Los Me flas OD. uk. o! 309
Table No. 44— Mean monthly elevations of Lake Erie, 1865-1898,
eer ee eds 8 i hn. yrs waters Fe hob deeosiSins Oi. a4. 312
Table No. 45— Monthly discharges of Lake Erie at Buffalo, 1865-1898,
Rds Saki tetrad 20) elt eiees 2s. tows -Dotacd ce. FB.06K.'2b 320
Table No. 46 — Runoff of Genesee river at Mount Morris for the water
years, 1890-1898, inclusive (in cubic feet per second)............. 332
Table No. 47 — Runoff of Genesee river at Mount Morris for the water
years, 1890-1898, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square
DMPC hSiiee di eadnd whew die oh adn dds, cuas OelRWe ah JOC. Uc! . eangd. 333

28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PAGE
Table No. 48 — Comparison of original and corrected record at Roches-
ter with reduced record at Mount Morris, 1894-1896, inclusive..... 336
Table No. 49— Water drawn from Hemlock lake for the water years
1880-1884, inclusive... ...:..»++se. 5s. eEie ec. See eee Ue 338
Table No. 50— Runoff of Oswego river at High dam for the water
years 1897-1901, inclusive. «<0... <<:2) i.a3loee 4 Se ER, pee 343
Table No. 51— Runoff of Seneca river at Baldwinsville for the water
years 1899-1902, . inchusive, ... . ..».> «2. s\Ssimilieae + oa ae eet ee 346

Table No. 52— Mean monthly elevations of Skaneateles lake as de-
rived from observations taken on the ist, Sth, 15th and 22d day of

each month for the water years 1890-1901, inclusive.............. 348
Table No. t Willow Glen for the
water years 1895-1902; «inclusive... gU¢tn. UO Sea Sie a 349
Table No. 54—Runoff of Chittenango creek at Bridgeport for the
water years 1898-1908. woke) Ah Git Re Se ee ee 353
Table No. 55 — Runoff of Black river at Huntingtonville dam for the
water years 1897—1901, inelusive..Ud. 3o.0D. HR ees SE ee 355

Table No. 56—Runoff of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain)
at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in
cubic. feet per -second)}..<....2°.eet Darl at ee Bera eae 358
Table No. 57— Runoff of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain)
at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in
inehes on the catchment area ) Sees LP SD eter te. pees 360
Table No. 58 — Runoff of Richelieu river (outlet of Lake Champlain)
at Chambly, Quebec, for the water years 1880-1902, inclusive (in

cubic feet per second per square mile)............. 2... ee ee ee eee 362
Table No. 59— Monthly mean elevations of Lake Champlain at Fort
Montgomery, 1875-1898, inclusive. 6: 22.02. JS De eae oe ae 364
Table No. 60— Runoff of Hudson river at Mechanicville for the water
years 1888-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet per second).............. 367
Table No. 61— Runoff data of Hudson river at Mechanicville for the
water years 1888-1901, inclusive (in inches)...................-. 369

Table No. 62 —Runoff of Hudson river at Mechanicville for the water
years 1888-1902, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile). 374

Table No. 68 —Runoff of Hudson river at poet Edward for the water
years 1896-1902, inclusive. ov 0.505. 20% JC. aR eR eee 376

Table No. 64—Average flow of Croton river at Old Croton dam, in-
cluding storage draft, with catchment area and reservoirs as ex-
isting in the given year, for the years 1868-1899, inclusive (in gal-

lone’ pervday):. 6 7% 225. SUL See, 2 AR See cee 381
Table No. 65 —Runoff of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the water
years 1868-1899, inclusive (in cubie feet per second)............-. 386
Table No. 66 —Runoff data of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the
water years 1868-1876, inclusive (in inches on the catchment).... 389
Table No. 67 — Runoff data of Croton river for the water years 1877-—
1690; inclusive: 2.066... UiC I... RUSS Rs TE, Se ae 391

Table No. 68 — Runoff of Croton river at Old Croton dam for the water
years 1868-1899, inclusive (in cubic feet per second per square mile). 396

Table No. 69—Runoff of Schroon river at Warrensburg for the water
years 1806-1901, incluslve...... ....<:s.s'v-ss.sbieuiisiew Ane jatnrnibactaiaaase ate ... 401

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 29

PAGE
Table No. 70— Runoff of Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry for the
water years 1901-1902, inclusive............. 2c cece cece cece eens 406
Table No. 71 — Runoff of Mohawk river at Rexford Flats for the water
nie eer Oe EE SOR ASIN Os a calc win mans wc sce e nu ot a ene ce eece ens 407
Table No. 72— Runoff of Mohawk river at Little Falls for the water
ates CU Os ARCA TIRI VG |. io =F nyse sais oie wo istet tle wtayetnja dais cies we 408
Table No. 73—Runoff of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills for the water
ere ee Ae” TIAN SS ot tek es Cee cele ee tote sees 410
Table No. 74— Runoff of East Canada creek at Dolgeville for the
Ree cee ee eee Aes Pi ee ~ SIS BE. 8S. gone ca ncn we ee tine wicine ese 412
Table No. 75—Runoff of West Canada creek at Middleville for the
water years 1899-May 1901, inclusive..:....- 2 2... eee ce cee ne 415
Table No. 76—Runoff of Sauquoit creek at New York Mills for the
Wate Fears tooo foo, ANCUSIVEe. FIED. ef eI Oe 418
Table No. 77— Runoff of Oriskany creek at Oriskany for the water
meee ae, WENGE 8 ES LS Slog. Dds wise atte 2 Sa SPF Rye wee de 419
Table No. 78 — Rainfall and runoff of Eaton brook.................. 420
Table No. 79 — Rainfall and runoff of Madison brook................ 420

Table No. 80 — Effect of full reservoir in mitigating extreme floods... 455
Table No. 81— Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of west

branch of Canadaway creek, near Fredonia....................-. 493
Table No. 82 —Daily mean discharge in cubic feet per minute of Morris

OS Te es gee i to: Se ee 497
Table No. 88 — Capacity of proposed Portage reservoir............... 581

Table No. 84— Regulation of the Genesee river by storage at Portage. 585
Table No. 85— Flow into and from Portage reservoir under the condi-
a, ef ae patna iia 1a Sale, «, udiicpa wh bowie: ofeoy Dymcine ole 586
Table No. 86 — Mean precipitation on the Upper Hudson catchment area. 629
Table No. 87 — Showing state of water storage in Schroon valley reser-
voir for the water years 1888-1899, inclusive..................... 634
Table No. 88 — Total annual rainfall, per cent utilized and average
yield per square mile of the catchment of the Brooklyn Water-

hee ea RS EE ee 2 Ea Ss re ee ee 689
Table No. 89 — Proposed storage reservoirs on Esopus creek.......... 704
Table No. 90 — Proposed storage reservoirs on Catskill creek......... TOD
Table No. 91— Proposed storage reservoirs on Schoharie creek...... 706
Table No. 92— Number of bushels of grain carried by the Erie canal,

Se ee She Be ae tere aye eS DR OE oat ce ths SEE fe « eee 734

Table No. 93 — Total tonnage and value of canal freight, 1837-1902... 736
Table No. 94 — First cost and revenues from New York State canals.. 738

Table No. 95 — Reservoirs for the water supply of Erie canal........ 765

Table No. 96— Measurements and estimates of loss of water from
New York canals by evaporation, percolation, waste, etc.......... 832

Table No. 97 — Analyses of Hemlock lake water for 1902............. 843

Table No. 98 — Analyses of Genesee river water, together with the
Rew for eeriain : day: in 1902.6. ose oie oa ed. 2 oe Ss eAESRE -EYe 857

Table No. 99— Monthly chemical, microscopical and bacteriological ©
analyses of Lake Erie water at Buffalo, from April 1902, to March
Seeepesinenewen ttl Pil) reset): LAE, PSE, LUb Oa ee i. iG 859

THE HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

THE SOURCE OF THE GREATNESS OF NEW YORK

Introductory statements. It is proposed to give in this report
some general statements in regard to the water resources of
the State of New York, to be followed by a discussion in detail
of the chief contributing causes which have made New York State
great. As we proceed, we shall see not only in what manner the .
resources of the State have been developed, but also how restric-
tive legislation has prevented any such full development as has
occurred in neighboring states where such restrictive legislation
has never been enacted. A comprehensive commercial ‘policy will
be outlined, which, if followed, will lead to a relatively far greater
development than has occurred in the past.

The preeminent position of New York is due almost entirely to
her great natural water resources. Reaching from the ocean on
the east to the Great Lakes on the west, she has gathered to her-
self the treasures of the foreign world as well as those of half the
western continent. Her inland rivers, with their great water
powers, have been in the past and will continue to be in the
future a perpetual source of wealth. Taking into account the
commercial supremacy guaranteed by the Erie canal, it may be
said that the history of the State’s progress during the nineteenth
century was largely a history of the development of her water
resources. It is the purpose of the writer in this report to relate
briefly not only in what manner these resources have been em-
ployed, but to indicate the recent lines of development and the
probable future of the State if her water is utilized to the fullest
degree. It is proposed to describe in a general way the river
systems, giving brief descriptions of several of the more important
utilizations of water in New York, together with a discussion of
some of the economic problems confronting the people of the State.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 31

As regards the water power of New York, the Tenth Census of
the United States (1880), Vols. XVI and XVII, gives in detail
the statistics of the main water powers as they existed in 1882.
Many of these show considerable increase at the present time,
_although the extensions are for the most part similar to those
described in the census report, and hence present few additional
features of interest. Several of the recent plants, however, are
on quite different lines both as to their scope and as to the method
of development adopted. It has therefore seemed more important
to describe a number of the new plants, illustrating them by
photographs, and to give the main facts of the great storage proj-
ects of the Black, Genesee, Hudson, Salmon, Schroon, Wallkill
and other rivers, than to spend time on small and relatively unim-
portant powers which are already sufficiently described.

The peculiar relation of the State to water power development
on the main rivers of New York is an interesting subject for dis-
cussion. Owing to the circumstances of the early settlement and
the development of the canal system, the State has assumed owner-
ship of the inland waters, or, at any rate, of all streams used as
feeders to the canals. This assumption has worked injustice to
riparian owners, and is at present a bar in the way of the full
development of important streams by private enterprise.

Moreover, New York is preeminent in position by virtue of the
fact that she is the only State resting on the ocean and at the
same time grounded on the Great Lakes. The Hudson river is
a navigable estuary for one hundred and fifty miles inland, and
the depression of the Mohawk valley, together with the valley of
Oswego river, extends, with slight elevation, from the northern
end of this estuary west to Lake Ontario. It was inevitable,
therefore, that from time immemorial the Mohawk valley should
be the highway, along which passed the commerce between the
east and the west. If the proposed deep waterway connecting
the Great Lakes with the ocean is ever constructed, nature has
from the beginning predestined by two possible routes, both of
which pass through the State of New York—one by way of Oswego-
Mohawk valleys to tidewater and the other by way of St Lawrence-

32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Champlain-Hudson valleys to tidewater. The former of these
routes—that through the Mohawk valley—was the pathway from
the east to the west when the white man first came. Here the
Iroquois warriors journeyed back and forth, and here, where the
Dutch patroons built with the fur trade the early beginnings of-
what is now a vast interstate commerce, is the great highway of
today. At Rome, the highest point on the divide between the
Mohawk river and the Great Lakes drainage, the surface of the
ground is only 430 feet above tidewater. This is the lowest pass
from the Adirondacks to Alabama; all other lines of communica-
tion rise to much higher altitudes than this. Hence, it was inevi-
table that New York State, by virtue of position alone, should
become a great manufacturing State.

Let us see why the great waterpowers, indispensable to the
development of manufacturing, happen to be located on the direct
line of greatest commercial activity. The explanation is partly
geologic and partly topographic, or, if we consider topography
as an outcome of geology, then the explanation is all geologic.

Favorable natural conditions. New York State is great in
water resources, not only by virtue of her position between the
Atlantic ocean and the Great Lakes, but because topographic,
geologic and climatic conditions have combined to make her the
highway of commerce as well as the manufacturing center of the
United States. Some of the contributing causes to this position
may be found in her mountain systems, affording great water
centers, from which large streams descend to the neighboring low-
lands, affording large opportunities for the economic development
of waterpower, as well as insuring an adequate supply of potable
water to her towns and municipalities.

As regards waterpower, the other chief contributing causes are
the possession, as part of her domain, of the Niagara and St Law-
rence rivers, with their extensive waterpower development.

A study of the climatology of New York shows that in nearly
every portion of the State the amount and distribution of the rain-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 33

fall are such as to insure a large enough runoff of streams to
furnish, even under natural conditions, considerable waterpower.

Artificial modifications. Natural conditions have been largely
interfered with by the cutting off of forests and the consequent
extensive development of the agricultural interests of the State.
Under conditions now existing, the water yield of streams is very
different from what it was originally. As a tentative proposi-
tion, it may be assumed that the general cutting off of forests in
New York has decreased the annual runoff of streams issuing
from the deforested areas to a depth of from four to six inches
per annum.

The proof of this proposition is found in considering that in
a number of places the runoff of streams is gradually decreasing,
not only because of the decrease in forest area, due to clearing up
of lands for agricultural purposes, but is even changing because
of the varying character of the crops raised from year to year.
The fact that such changes are taking place has been very strongly
impressed upon the writer in a number of litigations in which
he has been at different times employed where the question of
damages for diverting water from streams, either for municipal
or manufacturing purposes, was the leading issue. Invariably in
such cases a large number of old residents have been sworn as
witnesses for the plaintiff and have testified that formerly, say,
thirty, forty or fifty years ago, as the case may be, the stream
in question had a sufficient summer flow to operate a mill of a
given capacity. In western New York, where several of these cases
have occurred, there are mills from sixty to seventy years old, in
which, up to the time of changing from the old-fashioned grind-
ing process to the roller process, the machinery was substantially
as it was made at the original erection.

Why waterpowers are less reliable now than formerly. How-
ever valuable water privileges at these mills may have been
originally, it is nevertheless certain that now a number of them
are practically worthless during several months of the summer
and fall of the average year. In order to present a valid reason
why the waterpower of streams in western New York may be

34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

less valuable now than forty or fifty years ago, there was pre-
_ pared for use in a certain litigation an extended discussion of
this question. The discussion in question applies particularly
to catchment areas in Wyoming county, the runoff data being
from gagings of Oatka creek for the years 1890-92.

Wyoming county is an elevated region of the same general
character throughout. Formerly it was covered with heavy
pine, hemlock, oak, beech, maple, ash and elm forests. At the
present time the forest area is exceedingly small, and what there
_ is left of it is so scattered and so open as to exercise almost no
effect on stream flow. In order to illustrate the progressive
changes which may take place in the water-yielding capacity of
a given catchment area, the writer compiled from the census
reports for each decennial period from 1850 to 1890, inclusive,
the statistics as therein given for Wyoming county, the assump-
tion being that whatever was true of Wyoming county must be
substantially true of the Oatka creek catchment area of 27.5
square miles, situated in the central part of the county. The
census data give the total area, total improved area for a por-
tion of the period, tilled area and permanent meadows, total
unimproved area, woodland and forest area, and the miscel-
laneous unimproved area. As illustrating the changes which
have taken place in Wyoming county since 1850, the writer
merely cites from the tabulations that, with a total area of
387,840 acres, the total improved area was 223,533 acres in
1850, and 356,880 acres in 1890. The total unimproved area was
164,307 acres in 1850 and only 30,960 acres in 1890, of which
26,960 was woodland and forest and 4000 miscellaneous unim-
proved area.

Again, the tables show that in 1850 there were 50,055 acres
in clover seed and grass seed, wheat, rye, corn, oats, peas, beans,
potatoes, barley and buckwheat, while in 1890 the same crops
showed 71,915 acres. In 1850 the area in oats amounted to
18,132 acres, while in 1890 it amounted to 29,083 acres. Barley
in 1850 covered 2409 acres, and in 1890, 14,164 acres. Again, the
area in hay amounted in 1850 to 62,563 acres, and in 1890 to

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 35

80,446 acres. The total tons of hay in 1850 were 75,076; in 1890,
105,134 tons. Probably the statistics as pertinent as any to the
case in hand are those relating to changes in live stock. For
instance, in 1850 the total number of milch cows was 10,022,
while in 1890 the total number was 22,919. The total number
of horses, mules, milch cows, oxen and other cattle in 1850 was
40,812, while the total number of all these classes of stock in
1890 was 44,810. Considering the total of hoof cattle, we might
say that the increase had not been so great, but when we con-
sider the total of improved area in comparison with the unim-
proved area in 1850, and also in comparison with the amount of
stock then and in 1890, we see at once that in 1850 the principal
pasture area of the country must have been in forest, whereas
the pasture in 1890 must have been, as in fact is well known was
the case, largely in permanent meadows. Referring to Risler’s
results as to the amount of water required for crops, we learn
at once the great increase in water demand for supporting
crops from 1850 to 1890.

In a paper, Recherches sur V Evaporation du Sol et des Plantes,
Risler has given the results of experiments at his estate in
Switzerland, carried out specially with reference to ascertaining
the mean daily consumption of water by growing agricultural
plants, as well as by vineyards and two kinds of forests.

The following matter relating to Risler’s experiments is con-
densed from Ronna’s Les Irrigations:

By way of confirming the results of investigations as to the
water consumed by growing plants, ete. carried out at the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station of Rothamsted, England, Risler has
shown the different methods employed by him in 1867 and 1868.
By a continuation of these experiments in 1869-72, he has shown
the mean daily consumption of water by lucerne, wheat, oats,
clover, meadow grass, etc. One of his interesting conclusions is
that winter wheat would have consumed daily from April to
July, 1869, 0.10 inch of water per day for 101 days, or over 10
' inches for the growing season. The experiments on water con-
tent of soil show that for the year 1869 the crops must have
taken a small amount of water from the ground which, with the

rainfall was sufficient to produce a satisfactory crop for the
meteorological conditions prevailing that year,

36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

For oats there was needed in 1870, according to Risler, a
quantity of water 250 times the weight of dry material con-
tained in the crop. In 1871 clover transpired 263 units of
water to produce one unit of dry substance, and English ray-
grass 545 units of water for one unit of hay containing 15 per
cent of water. For this last the quantity of water corresponds
to 0.276 inch in depth per day.

Risler observed, furthermore, that following rains or wet-
tings transpiration of plants increases, gradually diminishing
in proportion as dryness increases, other conditions remaining
equal. When the water given off by the leaves is less than that
taken up by the roots, growth is active, while under the contrary
condition, plants wither.

* * * * + * * *

In a general way, the consumption of water by plants is
more regular in clay soils than in sandy. Hellriegel states that
in a sandy soil plants begin to suffer from drouth when the soil
does not contain more than 2.5 per cent moisture. Risler finds
that the approximate limit for clay soils is 10 per cent, although
in clay soil, part of the water escapes absorption by the roots.

Taking as a basis the observations made on the crops raised
at Caleves, Risler expresses the mean daily consumption of
water as a depth on the cropped area as follows:

Inches.

Meadow grass requires from 0.134 to 0.267
Oats require from ().141 to 0.193
Indian corn requires from 0.110 to 0.157
Clover requires from 0.140 to

Wheat requires from 0.106 to 0.110
Rye requires from 0.091 to

Potatoes require from 0.038 to 0.055
Vineyards require from 0.035 to 0.031
Oak trees require from 0.088 to 0.035
Fir trees require from 0.920 to 0.048

Risler determined the consumption of water on a meadow of
one hectare (2.47 acres) of very thickly turfed English ray-grass
as 281 millimeters (11.06 inches), amounting to a daily depth of
0.267 inch. This consumption applies to a meadow well provided
with water during the warmest season of the year. The ex-
periments showed that on cloudy days evaporation was reduced
to about one fourth of the mean, that is, to 0.069 inch per day.

In Switzerland the fields begin to grow green the latter part
of March, and the hay harvest occurs in June; hence, the growth
of the plant takes place in April and May. The point is brought

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 37

out very forcibly by Risler’s experiments, that hay crops depend
more on the quantity of rain than on temperature; thus, in 1867,
when. the temperature of the two months was the lowest but the
rainfall high, the meadows yielded abundantly, while in 1868,
with a high temperature and medium rainfall, the crop was satis-
factory because the soil had water in reserve, the drains con-
tinuing to flow until the end of May that year.

Taking into account the foregoing data, the writer prepared a
table giving the per cent that each crop actually raised in 1850,
was of the total area in the county assigned to forest area,
fallow land, ete., each in its proper area. Similar data have
been prepared for each census period to 1890, inclusive. From
such tabulation it was learned that in 1850 the area in wheat,
rye, oats, barley and buckwheat was 10 per cent of the whole;
Indian corn, 2 per cent; potatoes, 0.7 of one per cent; long grass,
16 per cent; short grass, 20 per cent; fallow land, orchards, peas,
beans and miscellaneous, 11 per cent; and forest, 40 per cent.
Without giving the details of 1860, 1870 and 1880, we may pass
to 1890, in which year the following percentages were found:
Wheat, rye, oats, barley and buckwheat, 7.9 per cent; Indian
corn, 0.7 of 1 per cent; potatoes, 1.6 per cent; long grass, 20.8
per cent; short grass, 35.5 per cent; fallow land, orchards, peas,
beans, miscellaneous, 25 per cent; clover, 1.5 per cent, and
forest, 9 per cent. It will be noticed that the forest area had
changed from 40 per cent in 1850 to 9 per cent in 1890. Taking
Risler’s data as a basis, it was then easily computed that wheat,
rye, oats, barley and buckwheat would require 9.2 inches of
water on the actual area cropped to fully supply their demands;
Indian corn would require 12.2 inches; potatoes, 4.3 inches; long
erass, 19.3 inches; short grass, 15.4 inches; fallow land, peas,
beans, orchards and miscellaneous, 12 inches; clover, 12.9 inches,
and forest, 3.6 inches. Proceeding on this line it was ascer-
tained that in 1850, the total depth of water over the entire
area of Wyoming county, required to fully support vegetation
as it existed in that year amounted to 10.17 inches; in 1860, it
amounted to 11.15 inches; in 1870, to 11.89 inches; in 1880, to
13.24 inches, and in 1890, to 13.57 inches. Hence, the conclusion

38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

seemed to be safely drawn that in 1890, due to changes in forest
area and in quality of crops grown, the amount of water re-
quired in Wyoming county to support vegetation during the
growing season would amount to 3.4 inches more. than in 1850.
Why a mill stream in Wyoming county, which was ample for all
demands in 1850, entirely failed in 1890 seemed, therefore, fully
explained.

In order to determine whether such conclusion was in accord
with the rainfall records of western New York, a large number
of such were tabulated in periods, with December to May, in-
clusive, making the storage period; June to August, inclusive,
the growing period, and September to November, inclusive, the
replenishing period. From a tabulation of the rainfall records
kept at Middlebury Academy, in Wyoming county, for certain
years—seventeen in all—from 1826 to 1848, inclusive, the mean
rainfall for the growing period was determined at 9.52 inches.
In 1882 it was only 6.76 inches. The maximum at Middlebury
Academy was 14.36 inches in the growing period of 1828. Tabu-
lating more recent records it was found that at Arcade, in
Wyoming county, from 1891 to 1896, the mean of the growing —
period was 13.61 inches, the minimum of 9.62 inches occurring
in 1894. At Leroy, in the adjoining county of Genesee, the
mean of the growing period from 1891 to 1895, inclusive, was
10.31 inches, the minimum being 6.61 inches in 1894. At
Rochester the records show a mean of the growing period for the
years 1871 to 1896, inclusive, of 8.29 inches, the minimum being
only 5 inches in 1887. It appeared, therefore, that at the
present time, with the catchment areas almost entirely de-
forested, streams must necessarily be very low during the sum-
mer season of nearly every year. Practical observation in
western New York amply confirms this theoretical deduction.

Variation in water yield. The runotf of Niagara river has been
commonly assumed on the authority of the Lake Survey at about

1 Abstract from Stream Flow in Relation to Forests, by George W. Rafter,
in An. Rept. of Fisheries, Game and Forest Commission for 1896. The
portion relating to Risler’s experiments is from paper on the Data of
Stream Flow in Relation to Forests.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 39

265,000 cubic feet per second. The recent studies indicate that
the extreme low flow of a cycle of minimum years may not be
more than 60 per cent to 70 per cent of this figure. From this
point of view, the people of the State of New York have great
interest in any project which would tend to decrease the low-
water runoff of that stream. The figures obtained by the Deep
Waterways Survey, substantiate this statement. Such interest is
equally pronounced in the case of the St Lawrence river. 3

The measurements of discharge of a number of inland streams
of New York indicate considerable variation in the water yield
in different parts of the State. Genesee river, in 1895, gave, with
a rainfall of 31 inches, a minimum flow for the year of only 6.67
inches. The catchment area of this stream is, as already stated,
mostly deforested, whence it results that serious floods arre
frequent.

The lowest annual runoff thus far measured in the State of New
York is that of the Hemlock lake catchment area, where, in 1880,
the total runoff from an area of 48 square miles was only about
3.35 inches.

Oswego, Mohawk, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries in
this State all have large pondage on natural lakes, which, with
other conditions, tend to maintain the low-water flow. Croton
river presents surface geologic conditions which tend to increase
its low-water flow. Without going into detail, we may say that
these streams will yield a minimum flow of about 0.2 of a cubic
foot per second per square mile. Variations from this limit are
given in the chapters specially discussing minimum flow.

As a typical flood stream of the State we have Chemung river,
where serious floods, due to deforestation of a mountainous catch-
ment area, have become so common as to necessitate the carrying
out of extensive protection works at the large towns on that
stream.

_ Value of water to industries. Water power is extensively sold
at Oswego, Cohoes, and Niagara Falls, and to some @xtent at
Rochester. It will also be extensively sold at Massena when the
development there is completed.

40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The value of the internal waters of the State to some of the
leading industries, such as the lumber industry and the woodpulp
and paper industry, may be noted. On the Hudson river, from
1851 to 1897, inclusive, the total number of logs taken to market
by water transportation was 23,513,585, these market logs fur-
nishing 4,662,717,000 feet B. M. of lumber. The cost of driving
logs from the headwaters of the Hudson to the Big Boom above
Glens Falls is said to be from 50 to 75 cents per thousand
feet B. M.

~The wood-pulp and paper industry is developed in New York
State to a point beyond that reached in any other State of the
Union. On January 1, 1900, there were 191,117 net water horse-
power in use in the State in the production of mechanical wood-
pulp, including from 30,000 to 35,000 consumed in operating paper
mills.

One obstacle to the easy operation of water power in this State
is the formation on many streams of frazil or anchor ice. A
study of the formation of frazil and anchor ice, as made by the
Montreal Harbor Commissioners, indicates that it may be possible
to learn in the future how to remedy this difficulty.

The most of these interesting questions are discussed in detail
in the following pages.

The relation of the mountains to the river valleys. Studying
the hypsography of New York one can not fail to be struck with
the fact that there are within the boundaries of this State six
main elevated mountainous or semimountainous regions from
which waters issue in all directions. In order then to understand
the river systems of the State we need to briefly consider the
mountains as appearing in Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, Allegany
and Steuben counties and extending northward into Erie,
Wyoming, Livingston, Ontario and Yates counties. The Genesee
river and the lake system of western New York mostly lie in
valleys between the spurs of these mountains. On the State line
between New York and Pennsylvania the higher peaks of the
Alleghenys rise to an altitude of over 2500 feet. North of the
Allegheny river there is a well-defined plateau, varying in elevation

a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 41

from 1500 feet to 2000 feet, the northern extremity of which lies
in the central part of Wyoming county. To the north of this
there are three well-defined terraces gradually stepping down to
the level of Lake Ontario, the first of which varies from 1000 to
1500 feet above tide; the second, from 500 to 1000 feet, and the
third, between about 250 and 500 feet. Lake Ontario lies at a
mean elevation of 247 feet above tidewater. It is by these several
successive steps that the northern spurs of the New York plateau
gradually run out and merge themselves almost imperceptibly
into the flatlands about and in the vicinity of Lake Ontario and
the St Lawrence river. The course of the streams of this region
has thus been defined by the topography. With the exception of
those trubutary to the Allegheny river, their course is generally
to the north, to either Lake Erie, Niagara river or Lake Ontario.

Farther east we find a number of mountain or semimountain
ranges which are a part of the great Appalachian system, and
which extend across the State in a general course from southwest
to northeast. The first of this series extends into New York from
Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware,
Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery and Herkimer counties to the
Mohawk valley. This mountain system consists of broad, irregu-
lar hills, broken by deep ravines, with many of the slopes steep
and precipitous. To the north of that river an elevated area of
crystalline rocks forms the Adirondack mountain range, which |
extends to Lake Champlain. To the westward of this area the
land is more level, gradually declining to the northwest until it
finally terminates at the level of Lake Ontario and the St Law-
rence river. The streams of these sections mostly flow west and
northwest to the east end of Lake Ontario and to the St Lawrence
river, while a short distance from the Mohawk they flow south to
the Susquehanna river. The Chenango river is the typical stream
of the section, tributary to the Susquehanna.

Still farther east and south of the Susquehanna valley a second
series of mountains enters New York from Pennsylvania and
extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster and Greene counties,
terminating in the Catskill mountains upon the Hudson. The

co
42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

highest peaks are about 4000 feet above tide. The Shawangunk
mountain, a high and continuous ridge which extends through
Sullivan and Orange counties and the south part of Ulster, is the
extreme easterly range of this series. The Helderberg mountains
are foothills extending north from the main range into Albany
and Schoharie counties. The streams rising in the Catskill moun-
tains flow in all directions—Schoharie creek north to the
Mohawk; Rondout creek easterly to the Hudson, and the head-
waters of Delaware river southwesterly to that stream.

‘The most easterly mountain range enters the State from New
Jersey, and extending northeast through Rockland and Orange
counties to the Hudson, appears on the east side of that river,
forming the Highlands of Putnam and Dutchess counties. The
northerly extension of this range passes into the Green mountains
of western Massachusetts and Vermont. The highest peaks of
this range in New York culminate in the Highlands upon the
Hudson where there are points from 1000 to about 1700 feet
above tide. The Wallkill river, the principal stream of this divi-
sion, lies in a deep valley to the west of the main range and
between it and the Shawangunk mountain.

We have referred to the main Adirondack mountain range as
beginning near Little Falls on the Mohawk river and extending
northeasterly to Lake Champlain. There are a number of other
well-defined mountain ranges in the northeastern part of the State,
all of which are included under the general term of Adirondack
mountains, and which require notice in detail. The Adirondack
range proper crosses Herkimer, Hamilton and Essex counties and
terminates near Port Kent on Lake Champlain. It is about 100
miles in length and may be considered the backbone of the Adiron-
dack mountain group, its ridge line dividing the waters of the
St Lawrence from those of the Hudson river and Lake Champlain.
Mount Marcy, rising to a hight of 5430 feet, is the principal
peak of this range, while McIntyre, Haystack and Skylight, each
over 5000 feet in hight, are also in this chain.

Next to the main Adirondack range to the eastward is the
Bouquet range, beginning on the south in the vicinity of Kast

peel

HYDROLOGY OF NEW: YORK 43

Canada creek and extending through the northwestern part of
Hamilton county, and crossing the center of Essex county to Lake
Champlain. The highest peak is Mount Dix, with an altitude of
4915 feet above sea level. Other prominent mountains of the
Bouquet range are Giant, Noon Mark, Dial, Nippletop, McComb,
Sable and Boreas mountains.

The third range, known as the Schroon, begins at the valley of
the Mohawk, in the eastern part of Fulton county, and crossing
through Warren and Essex counties ends near Westport, on Lake
Champlain. The Schroon river flows along the eastern base of
this range.

The fourth range is the Kayaderosseras, which begins in the
lowlands north of Saratoga Springs and extends through Warren
county to Crown Point. Mount Pharaoh, a high peak near
Schroon lake, is the only important mountain of this range.

The fifth range, known as the Luzerne mountains, begins in the
foothills near Saratoga, crosses the Hudson river a little above
Glens Falls, and running northeasterly encircles Lake George on
the west, ending at Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. The peaks
of this range around Lake George are about 2000 feet above tide-
water.

According to Prof. Arnold Guyot, the main mass of the State
of New York is a high triangular tract or tableland, elevated
from 1500 to 2000 feet above the ocean, and may be considered
the northeastern extremity of the western half of the Appalachian
plateau in this latitude. The natural limits to the west and
north are the depression now only partly filled by the waters of
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and which continues in a northeastern
course down the St Lawrence river to the ocean. The natural
limit at the east is the long and deep valley of Lake Champlain
and the Hudson river. In the south the tableland continues unin-
terrupted into Pennsylvania. The eastern edge is formed by a
series of mountain chains, more or less isolated, in which are the
highest summits in the State. These are the Highlands, crossed
by the Hudson, the Shawangunk mountain and the Catskills on

44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the western bank and the Adirondacks covering the territory be-
tween the St Lawrence and Champlain valleys. Beyond this
eastern wall the true mountain chains cease. The surface of the
western portion of the Appalachian plateau is deeply indented
by valleys with their bottoms generally several hundred feet below
the common level and separated by high ridges. The deep trans-
verse cut forming the valley of the Mohawk river and Oneida lake
and opening a channel from the low lake region to the Hudson
river, thus dividing the main plateau into two distinct masses, is
not the least remarkable feature. It was the possession of this
mountain pass, with broad level valleys in either direction, which
made New York State the original highway from the east to the
west. |

Rivers and lakes of Adirondack plateau. From the Adiron-
dack plateau streams flow to the north, southeast and west. The
principal streams flowing north, east and west to the St Law-
rence system are Moose, Beaver, Oswegatchie, Grasse, Raquette,
St Regis, Salmon, Saranac, Ausable, and Bouquet rivers. The
southern streams, which all belong to the Hudson system, are
Sacandaga, Indian, Cedar, Opalescent, Boreas, and Schroon ,
rivers, and East Canada and West Canada creeks. All these
streams head in lakes, of which the most important, tributary to
the St Lawrence, are Placid, Saranac, St Regis, Loon, Rainbow,
Osgood, Meacham, Massawepie, Cranberry, Tupper, Smiths,
Albany, Red Horse Chain, Beaver, Brandreth, Bog River Chain,
Big Moose, Fulton Chain, Woodhull, Bisby, Raquette, and Blue
Mountain.

Following are the principal lakes of the Adirondack plateau
tributary to the Hudson system: Pleasant, Piseco, Oxbow, Sacan-
daga, Elm, Morehouse, Honnedaga, West Canada, Wilmurt, Sal-
mon, Spruce, Cedar, Lewey, Indian, Rock, Chain, Catlin, Rich,
Harris, Newcomb, Thirteenth, Henderson, Sanford, Colden,
Boreas, Elk, Paradox, Brant, Schroon, and Luzerne. There are
a number of other lakes in New York, as Chautauqua, Conesus,
Hemlock, Honeoye, the Finger Lakes, Onondaga, Oneida and
others.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK - 4B

The great forest as a stream conservator. The great forest of
northern New York occupies the central part of the Adirondack
plateau, and deserves notice from its importance as a conservator
of the streams issuing from that region. The outlines of the great
forest are substantially as follows: Its eastern boundary coin-
cides quite closely with a line drawn through Keene Valley and
thence along the valleys of Schroon river and the upper Hudson;
its southern boundary is for the main part identical with that of
Hamilton county and the town of Wilmurt, in Herkimer county,
although in some places the forest extends a short distance into
Fulton county; its western boundary is the county line between
Lewis and Herkimer counties; its northern boundary runs in an
irregular line from a point near Harrisville, on the Lewis and St
Lawrence county line, to the Upper Chateaugay lake, which is
situated near the line between Franklin and Clinton counties.
This territory contains about 3,590,000 acres, of which 3,280,000
acres are considered to be covered with dense forests. Within
this region there are from 1300 to 1400 lakes and ponds, while
from it the eighteen important streams just enumerated diverge
in every direction. The general elevation of the Adirondack pla-
teau is about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Little discus-
sion is needed, therefore, to show the great value of this elevated
forest-covered plateau as a conservator of the natural waters of
the State.

One important utilization of the waters of this State formerly
was the carrying of logs to market through the various streams.
By reason of the clearing off of the forests, that business has grad-
ually declined until, except in the Adirondack plateau, it is now
of little importance. It has been the policy of the State for a
number of years to acquire, as far as possible, by tax title and
purchase, bodies of land in the Adirondack forest for the purpose
not only of conserving the forests in order to increase the yield
of streams, but for the further purpose of creating a forest park
worthy of the great Commonwealth of New York. In order to
carry out this project the Forest-Preserve Board has been empow-
ered to purchase lands within the forest, or, failing to agree on

46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

terms with the landowners, to take lands under condemnation
proceedings.t :

The Adirondack plateau is a rugged, rocky region, sparsely
populated, and worthless for agriculture. Its chief value lies in
a complete utilization of such natural resources as attach to its
unparalleled water-yielding capacity. From this point of view it
may easily become an important factor in the future development
of New York. To insure this result, the water yield of every
stream of the region needs to be conserved by reservoir systems.

DATA OF CLIMATE IN NEW YORK

Climate may be defined as the atmospheric conditions affecting
life, health and comfort, and including temperature, moisture,
prevailing winds, pressure, etc.

The climatic data of New York have been accumulating for
over seventy-five years. In 1825 the Board of Regents organized
a Systematic service at over fifty schools and academies in the
State. This is noteworthy as being the first important attempt
made in this country towards the investigation of local climate.
In 1854-59 the Smithsonian Institution began the distribution of
meteorological instruments throughout the State and a large num-
ber of observations were taken, some of them by private parties,
from 1826-1875. The work of the Board of Regents was discon-
tinued in 18638, although weather records were maintained at the
military posts at Sackett Harbor, Plattsburg and in New York
harbor, as well as by independent observers. From 1871 to about
1874 stations were established by the United States Signal Service
at Buffalo, Rochester, Oswego, Albany and New York city, and
in 1895 at Binghamton. In 1903 a station was established at
Syracuse. —

The State Meteorological Bureau was organized in 1889, and
for ten years, in consideration of the number of observations, the
records are the most satisfactory thus far made. In 1899 this
bureau passed under the control of the Department of Agriculture

os

1The State holdings in the Adirondack region up to the year 1902 may be
determined by reference to a Map of the Adirondack Forest and Adjoining
Territory as issued by the Forest, Fish, and Game Commission in 1902.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK AT

of the United States, and has since been operated as a bureau of
that department. Complete observations are taken at the six
original stations established by the United States Signal Service,
including barometer, temperature, dewpoint, relative humidity,
vapor pressure, precipitation, wind, cloudiness and electrical
phenomena. Generally, the Regents and the Smithsonian obser-
vations only included temperature and precipitation, although
there were a few exceptions where barometer and wind were
taken. The Meteorological Bureau also generally confines itself
to temperature and precipitation, except that at the central office
at Ithaca, and at a few other places, barometer and cloudiness
are taken. The same statement applies to the work of the
Meteorological Bureau as carried on under the direction of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

The average annual temperature is generally taken as decreas-
ing with altitude at the ratio of 1° F. to every 300 feet of eleva-
tion, the rate being somewhat below this average in winter and
above it in summer. An approximate determination for the State
indicates that the rates of decrease are 0.3° F. per hundred feet
elevation for the winter, and 0.4° F. per hundred feet for the sum-
mer. For the mountains of northern New York a much smaller
variation than 0.3° F. appears to hold for the winter months.

The intimate relation which exists between air circulation and
precipitation in New York is one of the most interesting facts
to be noted. Owing to lack of moisture in the continental inte-
rior, northwest winds in the spring, summer and fall are essen-
tially dry. In winter their dryness proceeds from low tempera-
ture and consequent small vapor-carrying capacity. The winter
precipitation is due almost entirely to storm areas passing either
actually across or in the vicinity of this State and deriving their
supply of vapor from the inflow of moist air which they induce,
either from the Atlantic ocean or from the Gulf region.

The winter months—December, January, and February—have
somewhat less precipitation than either of the other seasons,
although in the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, on the southwestern
highlands of the State, and in the region of the Great Lakes the
winter precipitation is relatively large.

48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the spring, rising temperature produces a modification and
shifting of pressure systems, the winds decreasing in velocity and
their direction being more variable than in winter. The frequent
showers occurring in April and May appear to be due more than
at any other time to the effect of an admixture of air having
different temperatures.

In summer the Gulf of Mexico and tthe Atlantic ocean con-
tribute large supplies of moisture to northward-moving air cur-
rents, and, although cyclonic depressions are less frequent than
at any other season, the rainfall accompanying each storm is
heavy, and in New York the maximum seasonal precipitation,
amounting as an average for the whole State to 10.96 inches,
occurs in this season. |

As regards the fall months, the rainfall of September is usually
light in the region east of the Great Lakes, while in October the
maximum general rainfall occurs. As regards meteorological
conditions, winter may be considered as beginning in November.

A study of the data shows that there are a number of contend-
ing forces which are distinctively operative in New York, and
which by modifying one another tend to produce numerous irregu-
larities of the rainfall. So irregular indeed is the precipitation
that frequently places only a short distance apart show wide
variation.

In a general way it may be said that the amounts of annual
rainfall in different sections of New York are mainly determined
by proximity to sources of vapor or to vapor-laden air currents,
and by the character of the local topography. As regards the
latter statement, a more definite form would be that under similar
conditions the precipitation is in some degree proportionate to the
altitude. This rule, while generally true, does not apply to the |
valley of the Hudson river, where the upper portion, including the
Champlain valley, receives a somewhat deficient rainfall as com-
pared with the State as a whole. To the west, the Adirondack
plateau receives a marked increase of rainfall, while farther north-
west there is a decrease in the valley of the St Lawrence. This
is also true of the elevated region in the vicinity of Hemlock lake,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 49

which, although several hundred feet higher, has a rainfall con-
siderably less than that at Rochester.

In the southeastern portion of the State the ocean winds find
no obstruction along the coast, but, passing inland and meeting
the abrupt ranges of the southeastern counties, give a copious
rainfall as compared with that of the intervening regions.

Western New York, on account of the frequent southwesterly
direction of the winds, receives an appreciable portion of its
vapor supply from the Gulf of Mexico. The rainfall in central
New York, although less than that of the southeastern and south-
western highlands, is generally abundant. The principal valleys
of the Susquehanna system, and also the depression of the central
lakes tributary to Oswego river, show a deficiency as compared
with the average of the State.

A knowledge of the snowfall is important in a study of the
water resources, because by reason of the snow lying on the
ground continuously for several months it is a great source of loss
in open regions subject to severe winds, the evaporative effect of
the winds tending to carry away large quantities of moisture
which would otherwise be available to maintain stream flow.
Thus far the only data relating to depth of snow are those derived
from the Reports of the State Meteorological Bureau. The follow-
ing are a few figures so derived: In the winter of 1893-94 the total
depth of snow at Humphrey, in the western plateau, was 1386.5
inches; in 1890-91 the total depth at Cooperstown, in the eastern
plateau, was 110 inches; in 1891-92 the total depth at Constable-
ville, in the northern plateau, was 170.7 inches; in the winter of
1890-91, at Utica, in the Mohawk valley, the total depth was 165
inches, and in 1891-92, at the same place, 151.6 inches. The
records show that at the places where these large snowfalls oc-
curred the ground was continuously covered with snow for sev-
eral months. If the winds were of high velocity at the same time
the evaporation loss must have been very great.t

Division of the State into climatic areas. In 1891 the State Me-
teorological Bureau divided the State into ten subdivisions,

1For extended discussion of climate of New York see a monograph by
E. T. Tanner, in 8th Rep’t New York Weather Bureau.

50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

namely: Western plateau, Eastern plateau, Northern plateau,
Atlantic coast, Hudson valley, Mohawk valley, Champlain valley,
St. Lawrence valley, Great Lakes and Central Lakes.

The Western plateau includes the western portion of the central
plateau extending across the southern part of the State from the
Hudson valley to Lake Erie. This plateau extends from Lake
Icxrie to the valley of Seneca lake and to the point due south of
Seneca lake where the two main branches of the Susquehanna
river unite.

The Eastern plateau includes the portion of the central plateau
to east of the valley of Seneca lake and the point due south of
Seneca lake where the two main branches of Susquehanna river
unite. It is terminated to the east by the Hudson river valley.

The Northern plateau includes the region north of the Mohawk
valley, west of the Champlain valley and east and south of Lake
Ontario and the St Lawrence valley.

The Atlantic coast region includes Long Island, New York city
and its neighborhood, to the northern part of Westchester county.
With the flat, sandy beaches and low ground surrounded by water,
with hills never rising more than one hundred feet, this region is
entirely open to the influence of sea winds. It has the highest
temperature and precipitation in the State.

The Hudson valley is a narrow strip of land on both sides of
the river, surrounded by hills and tablelands as far as the High-
lands. Higher up, the valley widens into the extensive plains on
the west side of the river. Although this region is nearly at sea
level, its climate is generally much severer than the Atlantic
coast region, owing to the cold northern winds flowing from
Canada along the valley of Lake Champlain.

The Mohawk valley extends along the Mohawk river to beyond
Rome. The rainfall is about two inches less than that of the
northern plateau.

The Champlain valley includes the valleys of Lakes Champlain
and George, only a few hundred feet above sea level for the whole
distance. On the east, in Vermont and Massachusetts, moun-
tains rise to over 3000 feet, while on the west, the Adirondack

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORE
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

MAP OF THE
STATE OF NEW YORK
showing the
NATURAL METEOROLOGICAL DIVISIONS
OF THE STATE
together with Evevations ABove TH

X) =
Vip
Y

yyy)
Yj Y UY

Y,

Approximate Lines of
Meteorological DiviNONS thUS: =

SCALE OF STATUTE MILES
10 20 30 40 50

Norre.—The contour lines on this map are considerably
generalized from data of U.S. Geological and State Surveys.

Bulletin 85

His) SRO A
{OY WAN 1O- AT &

| aoe ; 7 5 Bisons
emoravid ssdtoosoaoaTaM | IaauTaV!
a ee RPAT? ae 7) ? ot ,
. : ae 7 _ f y } ve
2 gira voaA shee Wi ls
, Aa | eT: ~ >. 4
’ , : ' ; Pa » ‘S, nS

Ls eM 20k ‘ %
Fe ~ oe wy \ Se
; PBightyo.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 51

mountains are over 5000 feet in hight. The temperature of this
region is low, for the same reason as given in the description of
the Hudson valley.

St Lawrence valley extends along the St Lawrence river from
Lake Ontario to the north line of the State. It is a level region,
gradually inclining upward to the northern plateau. In New
York State it is from 40 to 50 miles in width, while in Canada it
extends for a long distance to north and west of the St Lawrence
river.

The region of the Great Lakes begins as a narrow strip in Chau-
tauqua county, gradually widening and extending along the shore
of Lake Ontario, from 20 to 40 miles in width, to Oneida lake.
North of Oneida lake this region shrinks to a narrow belt, at
Oswego, but widens again above this point towards the plains
of the St Lawrence valley.

The region of the Central Lakes includes the valleys of Keuka,
Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco and Oneida lakes. On account of its
central location, it possesses climatic peculiarities differing con-
siderably from the balance of the State.

TABLE No. 1. SHOWING NUMBER OF STATIONS OF WEATHER BUREAU AND
APPROXIMATE ELEVATION ABOVE TIDEWATER, IN 1893 AND 1902.

1893 1902
Number of | Approximate | Number of | Approximate
stations elevation stations elevation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Western plateau ............ 14 1,211 17 1,135
Eastern plateau............. 14 1, 192 19 1, 068
Northern plateau ........... a 1, 328 12 1,318
GIANG COANE 5.5. e screens + 82 5 175
Hudson valley .............. 9 353 8 382
Mohawk valley.............. 2 491 3 556
Champlain valley ........... 2 233 6 286
St Lawrence valley ......... 7 389 4 351
Great Lakes region.......... 12 496 12 446
Central Lakes region........ 5 | 742 6 676
NGONT.. sti, evel OB fs), AAW UN OS

1This description of the climatic divisions of the State is abstracted from
the 2d An. Rept. of the Commissioners of the State Meteorological Bureau
and Weather Service, 1890.

52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

These several regions have considerable difference in elevation,
as exhibited by table No. 1, showing number of stations and
approximate elevation above tidewater in 1893 and 1902. In
1893 the western plateau comprised fourteen stations, with an
approximate elevation above tidewater of 1211 feet, while in 1902
the western plateau comprised seventeen stations, with an
approximate elevation of 1135 feet. Owing to the fact that the
observations are voluntarily made, considerable change in the
stations has taken place between 1893 and 1902, many stations
at which observations were kept in the former year having been
discontinued and new stations at other places substituted. The
showing, therefore, of table No. 1 is relative, and merely intended
to give a general idea of the approximate elevations of the several
divisions. In the case of the northern plateau there are no sta-
tions in the higher mountains, and hence that region is inade-
quately represented in table No. 1.

Description of the meteorological tables. Tables Nos. 2 to 8,
inclusive, give a meteorological summary at Albany, Buffalo, Erie,
Pa., New York city, Northfield, Vt., Oswego and Rochester, for
the calendar years 1891-1901, inclusive. Column (11) in these
tables gives the maximum precipitation in 24 hours for each year,
and column (12) the month in which the maximum precipitation
occurred. The utility of these columns in designing sewers and in
considering effects of floods is obvious.

Tables Nos. 9 to 18, inclusive, give the mean temperature of
the several climatic areas into which the State has been divided
for the water years 1891-1901, inclusive. The mean temperature
for the eleven years included in these tables varies from 42.2° per
year in the northern plateau to 50.9° for the Atlantic coast region.

In tables Nos. 19 to 28, inclusive, we have the precipitation
of the several climatic areas of the State for the water years
1891-1902, inclusive. The average precipitation varies from a
minimum of 34.46 inches in the Central Lakes region to 46.71
inches in the Atlantic coast region, or a range of 12.25 inches.

58

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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80 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Division of the year into storage, growing and replenishing
periods. In reference to taking as a water year, the period
extending from December—November, inclusive, instead of from
January—December, inclusive, it may be stated that such or a
similar division has been customary with advanced hydrologists
for many years, although in the United States the advantages
of this division have not thus far generally appeared obvious
to writers on this subject.. In England a water year beginning
with September and ending with August is quite common. The
Same thing has been done by the Philadelphia Water Department
in tabulating the data of Neshaminy, Perkiomen, Tohichon and
Wissahickon creeks and Schuylkill river. However, no hard and
fast rule can be laid down for the beginning and ending of these
periods. In some years the storage period will end soon after
May 1, while in other years it may be extended into the first or
second week in June. After some consideration a division of
the storage period from December—May, inclusive, has been taken
as, on the whole, best representing average conditions.

The storage period is the period when evaporation is lowest
and the largest amount of water may be stored. On reference
to table No. 67, runoff data of Croton river for the water years
1877-1899, inclusive, it appears that the mean runoff for the
storage period is 16.83 inches; the mean evaporation, 6.85 inches;
and the mean rainfall, 25.68 inches. The mean runoff, therefore,
is 71 per cent. of the mean rainfall. In the growing period on
Croton river the mean runoff is 2.57 inches, with 13.58 inches
mean rainfall, or the runoff is 19 per cent. of the rainfall. In
the replenishing period the mean runoff is 3.42 inches and the
mean rainfall 12.08 inches, or the runoff is 27 per cent. of the
rainfall. It is obvious, therefore, that it is only during the
months of the storage period that any large amount of water
can be stored. A similar condition is shown by tables Nos. 43
and 61.

During the storage period, vegetation is inactive and evapora-
tion takes place chiefly through wind action. It seems clear,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 81

therefore, that a forest-protected area will show less evaporation
during the months of the storage period than will an area which
is fully exposed to the sweep of the winds. In proof of this it
may be cited that the Hudson area shows, on an average, only 4.6
inches evaporation during the storage period, while the Genesee
area, during the same period, shows 8.9 inches. The Croton area
shows 6.85 inches evaporation for the same period. It is probable
that, due to greater elevation, winds are more searching on the
Genesee area than on the Croton area, although the forestation is
not very different. It is also probable that owing to proximity to
the ocean the humidity is greater on the Croton area than on
the Genesee, but since there are no observations this latter point
can not be stated except as an inference. At Erie, Buffalo,
Rochester and Oswego the conditions are somewhat the same as
at New York and the humidity shown by tables Nos, 3, 4, 7 and 8
is not very different. We need humidity observations for the
upper Genesee in order to settle the relation.

In the growing period vegetation is active and large demands
are made upon ground water to supply its requirements. Dur-
ing this period, as an average, 2.57 inches of water runs off from
the Croton area, although in 1880 only 0.68 inch ran off. As
a broad proposition, ground water tends to become lower and
lower throughout the growing period.

In the replenishing period the average runoff from the Croton
area is 3.42 inches, from an average rainfall of 12.08 inches.
During this period, broadly, ground water is rising and con-
ditions tend to restore themselves to that at the beginning of
the storage period. The varying conditions on the Genesee and
Hudson rivers during these periods may be seen by reference to
the tables relating to those streams.

One great advantage of dividing records into these periods
is as follows: Since evaporation and plant absorption are light
during the months of the storage period, it follows to a great
degree that the amount of water which can be stored is exhibited
by the rainfall of the storage months, Realizing this fact, it

82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

has been the writer’s habit for several years, in storage projects,
to first tabulate rainfall in the manner indicated. Such pro-
cedure has the advantage that it leads one away from the con-
templation of mere detail. There is a positive disadvantage in
considering the monthly quantities, for which there is no com-
pensation. The division into the three periods exhibits the more
important characteristics without overburdening the mind. It
is believed that a considerable advance on ordinary practice has
been made by proceeding in the manner stated.

THE RELATION OF RAINFALL TO RUNOFF

The runoff of a stream is influenced by many complex condi-
tions—as, for instance, amount of rainfall and its intensity,
nature of soil, slope of surface and area and configuration of
catchment basin. It is also influenced by geologic structure, for-
ests, wind, force of vapor pressure and other elements. Data are
still lacking for a really satisfactory discussion of the question,
although they have accumulated so rapidly during the last few
years that many conservative conclusions can be drawn which
may be accepted as substantially true.

As a result of many years’ study of the problem indicated by
the heading of this chapter the writer has come to the conclusion
that no general formula is likely to be found expressing accu-
rately the relation of rainfall to the runoff of streams, for streams
vary widely in their behavior, and when they do agree the agree-
ment is usually accidental. As a general proposition we may
say that every stream is a law unto itself.

The final formula of runoff for a given stream, therefore, will
differ in some particulars from that for every other, except that
there may be accidental resemblances as regards slope, shape of
catchment area, surface geology or some other peculiarity. It is,
however, true that an empirical formula may be made for certain
classes of streams which will give approximately the runoff for
a series of years.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 83

Rainfall

Cause of rainfall. The cause of rainfall has been discussed by
Mr Velschow in the transactions of the American Society of Civil
Engineers.| This paper may be referred to for a very good dis-
cussion of the subject.

The subject is also very ably discussed by Alfred J. Henry in
one of the Weather Bureau Reports.2. Mr Henry remarks that the
theories of rainfal! given in books of twenty or thirty years ago
are not now wholly accepted. Still there is one simple principle
upon which no disagreement exists—that in order to produce rain
the temperature of the air must be suddenly cooled below the
dewpoint. When the air is thus cooled a portion of the vapor is
changed to the liquid and the particles thus formed may float
away with the wind or they may increase in size and fall to the
ground by virtue of gravity. Whether the condensation results
simply in cloud, or whether rain falls, depends on the magnitude
of the temperature changes taking place in the air mass.

The precise manner in which air is cooled to produce rain,
whether by contact or by mixing, is not clearly apprehended.
Cooling by expansion, as air ascends, is one of the most effective
causes of rainfall. The ascensional movement is brought about
in several ways, probably the most important of which is circula-
tion of air in cyclonic storms, by a radial inflow from all sides and
an ascensional movement in the center. A very large percentage
of the rain of the United States is precipitated in connection with
the passage of storms of this class.’

Mr Henry discusses the precipitation of the United States under
the following topics: (1) The statistics used and their accuracy ;
(2) geographic distribution and annual allowance; (3) monthly
distribution by districts and types; (4) the precipitation of the
crop-growing season; (5) secular variations; (6) details of the

1 The Cause of Rain and the Structure of the Atmosphere, by Franz A.
Velschow: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXIII, 1890, p. 303.

2 Rainfall of the United States, by Alfred J. Henry, chief of division:
Ann. Rept. Weather Bureau, 1896-97, p. 317.

3 Abstracted from Mr Henry’s paper.

84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

precipitation by geographic districts, and (7) excessive precipita-
tion.

The chapter on “ Excessive precipitation ” is probably, from an
engineering point of view, the most important. Mr Henry states
that in 1888 attention was first directed to the importance of
statistics of excessive rainfall. At the present time the Monthly
Weather Review publishes a table of maximum rainfalls in five
and ten minute and one hour periods, etc.

Table No. VIII of Mr Henry’s paper gives details of excessive
rainfall at Washington, Savannah, and St Louis, and table
No. IX gives maximum intensity of rainfall for periods of five,
ten, and sixty minutes at the Weather Bureau stations equipped
with self-registering gages, compiled from all available records.
Inasmuch as this paper may be readily referred to further detail
is omitted.

Measwrement of rainfall. The subject, “ How close may rain-
fall be measured?” has been fully discussed by Prof. Cleveland
Abbe.! Professor Abbe states that the influence of altitude was
first brought to the attention of the learned world by Heberden
who, in 1769, in a memoir in the Transactions of the Royal Society
of London, stated that a gage on Westminster Abbey, over 150 feet
above the ground, caught less than half as much as a gage at the
ground.

Profs. Alexander D. Bache and Joseph Henry, and Mr Desmond
FitzGerald have studied the question extensively in this country.
Mr FitzGerald’s results may be found in the Journal of the Asso-
ciation of Engineering Societies for August, 1884.”

Mr FitzGerald kept two gages, one at a hight of 2 feet 6 inches
above the level of the ground, and the second at a distance of 150
feet from the first, and at an elevation of 20 feet 4 inches above
the lower gage. Both gages were 14.85 inches in diameter.

1 Determination of the True Amount of Precipitation and its Bearing on™
Theories of Forest Influences, by Cleveland Abbe: Appendix I of Bulletin
No. 7, Forest Influences; Forestry Division, United States Department of
Agriculture.

2Does the Wind Cause the Diminished Amount of Rain Collected in
Elevated Rain Gages? By Desmond FitzGerald: Jour. Assoc. Engineering
Societies, Vol. III, No. 10 (August, 1884).

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 85

These gages were located at Chestnut Hill reservoir, in the city
of Boston, but the observations for wind velocity were taken from
the Signal Service observations, 5 miles distant. With only five
exceptions during the five-year period, the upper gage delivered
materially less water than the ground gage, the average difference
being 10.6 per cent for the whole period. But snowfalls and
mixtures of snow and rain are not included in the table of data
given in the paper.

The results recorded by Professor Abbe are somewhat more
extensive than those presented by Mr FitzGerald, though Mr
FitzGerald states in his paper that he has prepared a series of
experiments with nine gages and a self-recording anemometor,
from which in the course of time some more definite results may
be reached. So far as the writer knows, this second series of
observations has not been published.

In order to show how the catch of rainfall diminishes with
hight of the gage, Professor Abbe gives in his table No. IV the
results of observations at different places. These range from 90
per cent of a gage at the ground to 47 per cent. In tables Nos.
I, II, and III, Professor Abbe also gives the result of various
gages, which gave 52 to 7 per cent less of 'rainfall, and from 80 to
16 per cent less of snowfall, than gages at the ground. Professor
Abbe remarks that these tables show conclusively the large
influence of wind on the catch of rain, but show nothing of its
influence on the catch of snow. As an observational method of
obtaining the true rainfall from gage readings, Professor Abbe
suggests the following as offering a fair approximation:

If the present gage has been standing in an open field at a few
feet elevation, place two or more similar gages near it, and simi-
larly located as far as obstacles are concerned, except only that
one of these is to be decidedly lower than the old one and the
other decidedly higher. From a comparison of the simultaneous
records of any two gages and their altitudes, we should for each
Separate rainfall, rather than for the monthly and annual sums,
deduce the normal rainfall by the solution of two or more equa-
tions of the form:

Observed catch of gage—(1—~ altitude) x (desired catch of normal
pit gage). (1)

86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Where # is the unknown special coefficient of deficiency due to
wind at that altitude—that is to say, having two gage catches,
c, and c, for the two altitudes, H, and H,—we obtain the true
rainfall (R) by the formulas:

c,—=(1—wr»/ H) R; and (2)
6=f1— uf HOR: (3)
whence, |
H,—e,/ H 1 r
ai Per Barer apm So
"ao: ae

1

If c, and H, relate to the lower gage, we shall generally have
@>c,and H, <H,, and the coefficient » will be a positive fraction,
for value of which, for such combinations as may easily occur in
practice, a table is given in the paper.

Tt is evident then, without special discussion, that nearly all
rainfall measurements thus far made in the United States are
only approximations, and that while they remain in this state to
carry them out to more than one decimal place is an unnecessary
refinement.

Determination of mininuum rainfall. The writer has spent con-
siderable time in an attempt to determine about what the mini-
mum rainfall at any particular station may be expected to be; or,
rather, he has endeavored to ascertain the relation between the
minimum rainfall and the maximum. In the course of this quest
he has examined practically all the records in the State of New
York, as well as many records in New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Michigan, Illinois, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming, as well as
in Canada. As a general rule, to which there are some excep-
tions, the minimum rainfall may be placed at about one-half of
the maximum. That is, if the maximum rainfall at a given
station is about 50 inches, the minimum will be in the vicinity of
20 to 25 inches. In some cases the minimum will be not more
than one-third of the maximum, or even somewhat less than one-
third; occasionally, not more than one-quarter. It is not in-
tended, however, to lay this down as an absolutely universal rule,
but rather, for the present, as a somewhat imperfect guide. Asa

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 87.

further rough guide it remains to point out that in case a given
record does not conform substantially to the foregoing it may be
assumed that either the minimum or the maximum, as the case
may be, is still to occur. Near the seacoast, where the supply of
moisture in the air is more nearly constant, there is less variation
than in the interior, and the rule that the maximum is double the
minimum is more generally true. This proposition is also gener-
ally true as regards English meteorology.

Is rainfall increasing? This question has been discussed by
Prof. Mark W. Harrington! who, however, reached no very defi-
nite conclusion, although he is disposed to answer it in the
negative. The method of discussion followed was to reduce the
annual rainfalls to a series of means of each five years. These
means were entered on a succession of maps, five years apart in
time, and on these maps were drawn the line of 40 inches of
annual rainfall. The question to be determined is, as we draw
this line for each five-year mean, does it change its position in
any regular and systematic way?

An examination of the detail shows that while these lines are
subject to limited fluctuations, there are no uniform or systematic
fluctuations. The line of equal rainfall for 1861-1865 occupied
nearly the same position as the line for 1886-1890. The varia-
tions are sometimes extensive, but without systematic progress.
Professor Harrington therefore concludes that with the data at
hand there is not sufficient evidence of systematic fluctuation of
the rainfall.

Relation of rainfall to altitude. This matter has been referred
to in a discussion of Mr Noble’s paper, Gagings of Cedar River,
Washington,? where the statement has been made that in the
State of New York the rainfall records show both increase and
diminution of precipitation with increase of altitude. The
Hudson river catchment area shows a higher precipitation at the
mouth of the river than it does at its source in the Adirondack
* with Annual, Seasonal, Monthly, and other Charts, by Mark W. Harring-

ton: Bulletin C, Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
*Trans, Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XLI, pp. 1-26.

88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

mountains, while the Genesee river shows the opposite, namely,
higher precipitation at its source than at its mouth.

According to a table of average monthly, annual and seasonal
precipitation in Mr Turner’s monograph on the climate of New
York State! it appears that the coast region, which includes Block
Island, East Hampton, Setauket, Fort Columbus, New York city,
Mount Pleasant, Tarrytown, White Plains, Croton dam, and
North Salem, has an average annual precipitation of 44.93 inches.
With the exception of Block Island, these stations are all in New
York and not far from the coast, and they range in elevation
above tidewater from 16 feet at Kast Hampton to 361 feet at
North Salem. The average elevation of the coast region is 132
feet. The records vary in length from 7 years to 49 years, with
a total of 195 years. Five of the stations are in Westchester
county. | |

As given by Mr Turner, the northern plateau includes Con-
stableville, Lowville, Fairfield, Johnstown, Pottersville, Elizabeth-
town, Keene Valley and Dannemora, in the counties of Lewis,
Herkimer, Warren, Essex, and Clinton. According to the table
the average annual precipitation at these places is 38.97 inches.
The elevation of the stations above tide ranges from 600 feet at
Elizabethtown to 1356 feet at Dannemora, with an average eleva-
tion of 973 feet. The records vary in length from 4 to 22 years,
with a total of 73 years.

Again, the western plateau, which includes stations in Catta-
raugus, Wyoming, Allegany, Steuben, Livingston and Chemung
counties, has an average elevation above tide of 1307 feet, ranging
from 1950 feet to 525 feet, and has an average annual precipita-
tion of 35.58 inches, while the Hudson valley, which includes
stations in Putnam, Orange, Dutchess, Ulster, Columbia, Albany,
Rensselaer and Washington counties, has an average elevation of
230 feet above tide, with an average annual precipitation of 38.46
inches. The records range from 9 years to 65 years, with a total
of 277 years.

'The Climate of New York State, by E. T. Turner, C. E., late Meteorolo- |
gist of the New York Weather Bureau: Fifth Ann. Rept. New York Weather
Bureau, 1898. Reprinted in Highth Ann. Rept. of the Bureau, 1896.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 89

The Great Lakes region, with an average elevation of 494 feet,
has an average annual precipitation of 35.17 inches, while the
Central Lakes region, with an average elevation of 690 feet, has an
average annual precipitation of 48.41 inches.

Mr Turner’s table is based on a calendar year, from January to
December, inclusive. Further data may be obtained from this
excellent table.

In table No. 24 of the Upper Hudson Storage Surveys Report for
1896 there is given the mean precipitation of the Upper Hudson
catchment area. The stations therein included are: Albany, 1825-
1895, 71 years; Glens Falls, 1879-1895, 17 years; Keene Valley,
1879-1895, 17 years; western Massachusetts, 1887-1895, 9 years;
northern plateau, 1889-1895, 64 years; Lowville Academy, 1827-
1848, 22 years; Johnstown Academy, 1828-1845, 18 years; Cam-
bridge Academy, 1827-1839, 13 years; Fairfield Academy, 1828-
1849, 22 years; Granville Academy, 1835-1849, 15 years. Assum-
ing the northern plateau as a unit, the total number of years is
1994, and the mean of all is 37.4 inches. A reference to the rain-
fall map in the report of the United States Board of Engineers on
Deep Waterways will show that this is necessarily an approxima-
tion, because of great lack of stations in the interior of this
region.

As regards the catchment area of the Upper Genesee river,
there is a very decided increase in rainfall as one goes toward
the source. For the years 1889-1896, inclusive, the rainfall in
the upper area of this stream was 42.19 inches, while at Rochester
for the same years it was 35.64 inches. This statement is
specially interesting, because there seems to be a well-marked
line dividing the smaller rainfalls of the lower area from the
higher rainfalls of the upper. At Hemlock lake, Avon, and Mount
Morris the rainfalls are all low, the average at Hemlock lake
from 1876-1895, inclusive, being 27.56 inches. In 1880 it was 21.99
inches; in 1879, 22.16 inches, and in 1881 only 24.36 inches. We
have here three years of exceedingly low rainfall, in which the
runoff must have also been very low. In 1895 the rainfall at
Hemlock lake was only 18.58 inches. The average precipitation
at Avon and Mount Morris from 1891 to 1896, inclusive, was 30.12

90 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

inches. In 1895 it was only 25.05 inches. The following are
stations at which it was much higher for the years 1891 to 1895,
inclusive; Leroy, 45.25 inches, and Arcade, 41.60 inches.

The statements of precipitation in the Genesee river catchment
area are all based on a water year, December to November,
inclusive.

The following are from Russell’s Meteorology,! illustrating
Atlantic coast rainfalls, and are the averages derived from
observations extending from 1870 to 1888. The rainfalls are
stated to be fairly representative for large districts of country
around the places.

At Jacksonville the Weather Bureau office is at an elevation ~
above tide of 43 feet, while the average annual rainfall is 57.1
inches. At Norfolk the elevation of the Weather Bureau is 57 feet
above tide, and the average rainfall is 51.7 inches. At Boston
the Weather Bureau office is 125 feet above tide, and the average
rainfall is 46.8 inches.

The following illustrate the change as one goes north through
the Mississippi valley: At New Orleans the Weather Bureau office
is 54 feet above tide, the average rainfall 62.6 inches ; at St Louis,
Weather Bureau office 567 feet above tide, average rainfall 37.8
inches; at St Paul, Weather Bureau office 850 feet above tide,
average rainfall 28.9 inches.

The following illustrate the Rocky mountain region: At Fort
Grant, Ariz., elevation of Weather Bureau 4833 feet, average rain-
fall 15.8 inches; at Denver, elevation of Weather Bureau 5300 feet,
average rainfall 14.7 inches; at Fort Benton, Mont., elevation
2565 feet, average rainfall 13.2 inches.

The following illustrate the Pacific coast region: At Portland,
elevation of Weather Bureau office is 157 feet, average rainfall
50.3 inches; San Francisco, elevation 153 feet, average rainfall
23 inches; San Diego, elevation 69 feet, average rainfall 10.2
inches.

These figures abundantly support the proposition that in the
United States the rule of increased precipitation with higher

1 Meteorology, by Thomas Russell, U. 8. Asst. Engineer.

Pe ad

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Qi

altitude is by no means universal. The writer can not say posi-
tively, because he has not examined the vast number of records
with reference to this point, but he thinks it quite possible that
the reverse is more nearly true. That is, owing to distance from
the ocean, prevailing direction of wind, and other causes, it is
probable that for the entire country precipitation decreases with
higher altitude rather than increases.

The decision of this question will depend to some extent upon
steepness of ascent. Thus on Mount Washington, which is
projected into the air far above the surrounding mountains, the
rainfall is about 83 inches. In other cases, where the ascent is
gradual, no increase is apparent. The same is also frequently
true of sharp ascents. On Longs Peak, in Colorado (elevation
14,271 feet,) the rainfall in 1899 was 16.7 inches.

Moreover, the writer has mostly avoided comparatively small
differences in rainfall—those not exceeding 2 to 2.5 inches. In
such cases the difference is too small to be any certain guide.
Specially is this true in the case of the northern plateau, where
there is still a great lack of stations. The differences between
high altitudes and low should be as much as 5 or 6 inches. Again,
whether the excess rainfall occurs in the winter or summer
months must be taken into account. If it occurs in the summer,
even 3 inches of rainfall may not make more than 0.1 or 0.2 inch
in the stream. Rainfall and runoff observations are not yet, nor
are they likely to ever be, definite enough to take into account
an annual difference of much less than about 1 to 1.5 inches.
Again, the writer has ceased to be excessively particular about
the total of the annual rainfall. Assuming some considerable
length of record, small errors have relatively slight effect. This
matter is referred to here because nearly all rainfall records—
at any rate in the United States—have more or less error in them,
and while it is desirable to have records as reliable as possible,
a few errors do not affect a record very seriously. It is neverthe-
less very desirable to know the history of the record in order to
insure the degree of confidence to be placed in it.

92 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Increase of runoff with imerease of rainfall. In making allow-
ance for difference in rainfall, it should be remembered (1) that
in many catchment areas the annual runoff is in nearly constant
relation to the precipitation; and (2) that such relation will be
more marked when the excess rainfall above a certain minimum
annual depth is taken into account. This subject will not be
pursued at length any farther than to point out that in the
Genesee catchment an average of 10.5 inches runs off in the stor-
age period; 1.7 inches in the growing period, and 2.0 inches in
the replenishing period. In the Hudson catchment, an average of
16.10 inches runs off in the storage period; 3.45 inches in the
erowing period, and 3.72 inches in the replenishing. In the Cro-
ton catchment, an average of 16.83 inches runs off in the storage
period; 2.57 inches in the growing period, and 3.42 inches in the
replenishing. These figures, it may be again stated, are the
means—the maximum and minimum runoffs can be determined
by examining the tables.

Broadly, the proposition is that a given increase in rainfall
above the amounts required to produce the foregoing figures will
be. followed by something like a similar increase in runoff. Such
increase, however, is not very definite, although the broad state-
ment is true that it bears a relation to the rainfall.

The following will illustrate the essential truth of this proposi-

tion:
Inches

Rainfall Runoff
Genesee river.
VOGRly. QVOTARC a6 hich nee Ae suscep eee 40.3 14.20
ESSO) (UU) “VOT lo Ge oNo mie poral o1.0 6.67
Difbere nce, xj» aneiesceram fi ntieeke tre sees 9.3 7.53
Hoot (MAXUINUNE VEAP) nee. wo ws ws wy we meee AT .79 19.38
MOGFIG "AVEIASE. Te eT Cees es eee ee 40.30 14.20
WePOnce ners es ae coer ee we ee: 5.18
Comparing the maximum year with the minimum, we have:

LO04ib vw ub bs dies oie. tyeioenoeed socks eae 47.79 19.38
AEOB sos. eG Sai ped fecal ap are cach ane eee ol .00 6.67

Differs ices acd da tenn aes 16.79 12.71

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

———_ Inc hes——_—_,,
Rainfall Runoff
Comparing the storage periods, we have:
Anerage of storage period. .............0..0. 19.40 10.50
Storage period of 1895 (minimum)......... 13.20 5.63
RECT ERGO R 2 ais walt l ure PA iaslbx Se oofs os 6.20 4.87
Storage period of 1894 (maximum)......... 27.71 15.73
AVerae Of Storage period :) .b.: 28s e. LS. 19.40 10.50
reir Eis 03 aOR I ot ie ic ara ae aie ae a eae re 8.31 ).23
Comparing any two years, we have:
Wn 2) 1 eg ned Ee ee 41.69 15.42
Lido, pee uh NBbak ¢ ye RR IER ORE SS Ae ieee anaearaee 40.68 12.80
USES SE A ee See ne 1.01 2.62
Comparing storage periods:
patie Herod Gnlso VOLES. ooo 19.84 9.38
preto permm wt P8596 iniG 6.4 re. Sheek wk 17.84 9.25
BUTCTOMOG TH. Foe aa es bk ia back tc ace aes 2.00 0.18
Comparing growing periods:
GGtewme period of 1892..2. 5.262622. ceisca 15.30 4.90
ero peewun bt 1996, .. 2.0.22... . eRe. 10.28 0.83
EOI 0 oR MRS Sa eet, ari %. 02 4.07
Comparing replenishing period:
Replenishing, period of 1896esi. s.de20....... 12.56 2.72
Replenishing period of 1892...........28 004 6.55 1.14
ce eu Bia Ene ME OS IRIS ata ed a 6.01 1.58
Hudson rwer.
NIN ANCES Coen oct sos vas gave bias eee 44.21 23.27
Be TULA VOCAL) oo. c. o ea sss spe RE 36.67 17.46
Perm mee aes 2 P68 ohn PEATE Se Us 7.54 5.81
$oo), ipsam weary) 2 re ey MARIOS 53.87 30.08
ean nA REG hots oii alafdiat hc ataeibaud < ¢ o- 44.21 23.27
Oe wee cane, Pacis eit ea er seed he we ee 9.66 ozo.
Comparing the maximum year with the minimum, we have:
BOE se a Rr ie SUF a ee eg Bes CTT 53.87 03.08
lS Siaaapests (0'o 2 GR cae Sg Br Ree dP a 36.67 17.46
MEMUAESDCTIOR® RAS 6 aah oh oh ah ator st a diet oh! stated ote? oh toh ohn 17.20 15.62

93

4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Rainfall
Comparing the storage periods, we have:
Average of storage period. ..... 2... 40. beso 20.62
Storage period of 1895 (minimum)......... 15.79
Differeitte ain. ths auseqental sees 4.83
Storage period of 1892 (maximum)......... 24.95
Average of storage period: ......2.5....4,5046 20.62
PTTErEMKE els OO re ae Ce eee 4.338
Comparing any two years, we have:
MOSEL es Spa ces ek a aoe tata) eee eee ee 48.28
fete EO aT es fee ce te ee ee nee ae ee 42.96
PUTEPETCTIGS p..% is ula x 3-9 by ocak clea tne ee 5.32
Storage period of 1898. cn oi). ee eee 22.80
BLongge period ol IS9b ss. ani nce sc auseeee eee 20.69
IDIOT OMCR Fuso oot ee eee ee 2.11
Growing perindyof bS98 . oo. es gk eee ees 13.52
Growing period Of 1898 2.02 45 cites Gaerne 13.49
Differemen eh. cana, Se ice thee 0.03
Replenishing*<period of 1898) 2 252.227 2 12.19
heplenishing, period of 18012). w2c.. 2a. 22m 8.78
Paleerencee™. 2 2. Sere cee ae ee eae 3.41
Croton rwer.
Average of storage period.................. 25.68
BOTOe POLIO OL hod l. «cn5 > wana Ree eteees 20.55
PDT OVONGE, 5 9. 6na G's sok ok a el ecco ewe 3.13
Mtorrice peridier (8085. c.c et aod Wek Cae as 28.81
Averdge of .Stordge period... ......<se0000%% 23.68
Di ercdes: Ti. s.4,4 diya ca seeaaueeees 5.138
Comparing any two storage periods, we have:
Rhemee period pof 1896.5 63.6 ibs ones eva eae 24.84
Brora peri Of LAG) Behe a ee ae 19.55
DORON CO a 4 ie 3-0 ns cn eee ely Ses Wea am 5.29
Niprmee: pert 25 LSS8.. ¢....cs Saohennieaes 30.33
Siprage peredsar 1888 ., s.... ..., insane 19.03

FORTCR OS Bis ov ows oo bea dae 11.30

Inche

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 95

By observing the relation indicated in the foregoing tabula-
tions, together with hight of ground water, one may approxi-
mately compute the rainfall from the runoff. In the same way
the runoff may be approximately computed from the rainfall.

Map of average rainfall in the State of New York. On plate
XCVITI of the Report of the United States Board of Engineers on
Deep Waterways, the writer has given the average rainfall at a
large number of stations throughout the State of New York.
When this map was prepared considerable time was expended in
drawing lines of equal rainfall upon it, but so many discrepan-
cies appeared that it was finally concluded, for the present, that
it should be allowed to stand without such lines. The only way
these contours could be drawn with any satisfaction was to omit
stations which conflicted too much therewith. This, the writer
did not feel justified in doing. The observations are not exten-
sive enough to enable one to draw these lines.

Length of time required to make good a series of rainfall records.
This question is partially answered in the writer’s second report
on the Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, for 1896, by a short analy-
sis of a paper by Alexander R. Binnie, Member of the Institution
of Civil Engineers.!

One of the important problems worked out by Mr Binnie is an
answer to this question: What is the least number of years
the continuous record of which, when a mean fall has been deter-
mined, will not be materially affected, as far as the value of
the mean is concerned, even if the record be extended by a greater
number of years of observation? My Binnie says:

Collaterally, inquiry must also be made if the period necessary
to determine the true mean fall is in any way affected by the
amount of the mean fall of rain; or if any approximate rule can
be applied to all countries, and to differing amounts of mean
annual rainfall at different stations.

To approach the subject without bias, some good records of

long periods must be carefully examined, and it must be found,
not how near the averages of the shorter periods into which they

1On Mean or Average Rainfall and the Fluctuations to Which it is Sub-
ject, by Alexander R. Binnie, M. Inst. C. E.: Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. CIX
(1892), pp. 89-172.

96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

can be divided, approach the mean, but rather what are the ex-
treme divergencies from the mean of such shorter periods. By
this method, any approach to a general law will soon be detected,
if the extreme divergencies are found gradually to decrease, as
_the subordinate periods into which the record has been divided
increase in length.

Also, What is the probable accuracy of any record the length of
which is less than that necessary to give an average which will
not be materially altered when the record is extended ?

Space will not be taken to show Mr Binnie’s views in detail,
for which reference may be made to the abstract in the second
Hudson report, or, for the complete views, to the paper in the
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, but assuming
that the observations are properly made it is stated that “ depend-
ence can be placed on any good record of thirty-five years’ dura-
tion to give a mean rainfall correct within 2 per cent of the
truth.”

Further, it can be stated that for records from twenty years to
thirty-five years in length, the error may be expected to vary
from 3.25 per cent down to 2 per cent, and that for the shorter
periods of five, ten, and fifteen years, the probable extreme devia-
tion from the mean would be 15 per cent and 4.75 per cent,
respectively.

A twenty years’ record, therefore, may be expected to show an
error of 3.24 per cent. This is about as close as rainfall records
in this country will agree, as comparatively few are much beyond
twenty years in length.

In his paper on Rainfall of the United States, Mr Henry has
examined this question, using long ‘records at New Bedford, St
Louis, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and other places. The rainfall has
been measured at New Bedford for 83 consecutive years, and at
St Louis for 60 years. For a 10-year period Mr Henry found
the following variations from the normal: At New Bedford + 16
per cent and — 11 per cent; at Cincinnati, + 20 per cent and —
17 per cent; at St Louis, + 17 per cent and — 13 per cent; at
Fort Leavenworth, + 16 per cent and — 18 per cent; and at San

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK OF

Francisco, + 9 per cent and — 10 per cent. For a 25 year period,
it was found that the extreme variation was 10 per cent, both
at St Louis and New Bedford. Mr Henry reached the conclusion
that at least 35 to 40 years’ observations are required to obtain
a result that will not depart more than + 5 per cent from the
true normal. The average variation of a 35 year period was found
to be + 5 per cent, and for a total 40 vear period « 3 per cent.

This preliminary study indicates slightly more range than was
found by Mr Binnie, although it may be remembered that the
observations of the latter are far more extensive than Mr Henry’s.

Again, since the runoff is a function of the rainfall, it follows
that it must be affected in some degree in a similar manner. As
to just the relation, so far as known, very few computations have
been made. Indeed, very few runoff tabulations are extant which
are long enough to settle this question. It is clearly, therefore,
very difficult to solve definitely so abstruse a problem as that of
the extent to which forests affect rainfall. All solutions are
necessarily tentative in their character and will be for some time
to come.

Minimum precipitation in New York. Let us now examine as
to what the records of precipitation in New York indicate in
regard to the probabilities of extreme low-water periods. The
following records of minimum precipitation are herewith in-
cluded: At Albany the water years 1895 and 1896 represented a
period of very low precipitation. The following are the totals
of the several periods:

1895 ~ 1896

Se ee ois is ict Were ase ney idee need 12.58 14.79
ce ee a eS ee 8.88 8.31
IIT ES ae eee ite tere pene 8.93 6.64
BER hat a an ty bckrits waver BRU OE LHe 30.39 29.74

The total precipitation of the previous year, 1894, was 34.45
inches. It is probable that for the water year 1896 streams in
the vicinity of Albany did not run to exceed 9 inches on the catch-
ment area. . coe he?

98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

At Auburn the years 1836, 1837 and 1838 cover a period of very
low precipitation, as shown by the following:

1836 1837 1838

oF PE So) 2 RR eR ee RGAE sv 19.41 10.37 7.50
ESE p, C1. See eee ep ee Hamner Te eyE 6.39 11.35 8.14
CR CR IST oot ee «6.56 6.78 6.05
LOGAN coy esc vseibinen toed aia ene 32.36 28 .50 21.69

.Taking into account the sequence of the foregoing record at
Auburn, it is probable that in the water year 1838 the runoff of
streams in that vicinity did not exceed 3 to 4 inches on the catch-
ment area.

In view of its relations to the runoff of the Upper Hudson catch-
ment area, we may refer to the record at Burlington, Vt., for
the years 1893-1896, inclusive. We have the following from the
Burlington record:

1893 1894 1895 1896

SiOrages: oor. vent -Aaw 8.63 10.35 10.70 9.70
(2POWADSy & cH axes Ba $a 13.78 4.51 10.08 11.05
Replenishing: .....«.... 5.25 8.34 8.19 8.55
TOGA, SIRT 27 .36 23.20 28 .97 29.30

Taking into account the low precipitation of 1894, it is prob-
able that in 1895 and 1896 streams in the vicinity of Burlington
did not run to exceed 5 to 6 inches on the catchment area.

At Cazenovia the two lowest consecutive years are 1834 and
1835, when the total rainfalls were 34.29 inches in 1834 and 32.82
inches in 1835. Inasmuch as streams in that vicinity fall in the
Same category as the Genesee river, if we assume similar con-
ditions of forestation, the runoff was probably about 8 inches on
the catchment area.

At Cooperstown the mean precipitation for the period from
1854 to 1898, inclusive, is 39.07 inches. The three consecutive
minimum years occurred from 1879 to 1881, inclusive. The fol-
Jowing are the precipitations for those years:

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 99

-< 1879 1880 1881
ee) ee eS aE 1439 18.57 12.38
PCr Ura, Siczliit, oats 4 bl, « 8.44 10.05 7.38
SE os re ee 6.38 8.61 9.56

asealta Seas Gi Sek Lad Le 29.73 37.23 29 .27

In 1881 the runoff of streams in the vicinity of Cooperstown
probably did not exceed 7 inches. The Cooperstown record is
considered one of the best long records in the State.

At Geneva the mean precipitation for twenty-five years,
between 1850 and 1898, inclusive, is 30.86. In the period from
1885-1888, inclusive, the precipitation at Geneva was continuously
below the mean, as indicated by the following:

1883 18s4 1885 1886 1887 1888

8
Storage ..... eG. BR. tet Re eet OF es GyTOips 10648
Growing .....:.10.57 aie tee. AO EO, AD AT 8.89
Replenishing.. 5.76 5.85 6.85 7.18 4.07 8.22
Total .... 25.71 22.06 24.11 27.39 22.18 27.59

For the years 1887 and 1888, it is probable that streams in the
vicinity of Geneva did not flow to much exceed 2 to 4 inches on
the catchment area.

At Glens Falls the mean precipitation for the years 1879 to
1898, inclusive, is 37.76 inches. The following is the record for
the minimum years, 1880-1884, inclusive:

1880 1881 1882 1883 1884

Storage ....0.......0. 14.738 14/88 15.85 18.07 © 15.97
Growing 0 PPE L oS G1) MSs. 9187s . Sued wis rE
Replenishing ....... AO i dee IG EIS (BAG: LOTS TIYEYS?

Mae ee ere 299.72 28.06 31.21 28.19 29.65

A study of runoff records shows that the precipitation of the
storage period largely controls the runoff for the year; hence, in
aeyear like 1883, when the precipitation of the storage period
was only 13.07 inches, specially when such a year has been pre-
ceded by years like 1880-1882, inclusive, the runoff will certainly
be very low. Probably in 1883 it did not exceed, in the vicinity

100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of Glens Falls, 6 inches. In 1884 the precipitation of the stor-
age period was 2.90 inches greater than in the preceding year,
but this small additional precipitation was probably mostly
without effect on the streams because of low ground-water.
It appears, therefore, entirely safe to assume that the runoff of
streams in the vicinity of Glens Falls must have been quite as low
in 1884 as in the previous year 18838.

At Gouverneur the total precipitation of the year 1838 was
20.93 inches; of 1839, 18.87 inches, and of 1842, 17.06 inches.
Assuming forestry conditions at that time in the vicinity of Gou-
verneur substantially as they now exist on the Hudson river catch-
ment area, the runoff of the streams may have been 3 inches, or
from deforested areas probably 2 inches.

At Ithaca the two lowest years of precipitation are 1884 and
1895, in both of which the total happens to be 26.98 inches. In
1846 the total of the storage period was 9.67 inches, the total
for the year being 30.07 inches. It is probable that the extreme
minimum runoff in the vicinity of Ithaca does not exceed 5 inches.

At Keene Valley the lowest precipitation recorded occurred in
1881, the total for that year being 28.20 inches. The precipita-
tion of the storage period was 13.15 inches. The totals of the
previous years, 1879 and 1880, were 32.15 and 33.32 inches, re-
spectively. The runoff for 1881 probably did not exceed 8.9 inches.

At Lowville the period of lowest precipitation was for the
years 1843-1846, inclusive. The following are the figures for those

years:
1843 1844 1845 1846
BLOTage sic 200i cide ks « 7.06 11.53 12.90 9.76
Growing .......6..0- 12.12 7.64 8.30 5.78
Replenishing ......... 8.30 7.34. 9.60 11.63
Potalhinew: ce umpech 27 48) 26,51, 2 308). ae

— whan ——t

r ooo,
“2 = 7 we = ed SSG

A marked peculiarity of this Lowville period is the low pre
cipitation of the storage period for all the years included. Taking
this into account, it is probable that for the years 1845 and 1846
the runoff in the vicinity of Lowville was very low. In 1845 it
may have reached 8 inches, but for 1846 it is doubtful if it

z HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 101

exceeded 5 or 6 inches. These conclusions, it must be understood,
are based on present conditions of forestation. In case there
were much larger forest areas in that vicinity at that time, the
runoffs may have been somewhat larger.

At Mexico the total precipitation for the year 1840 was 20.21
inches, the storage period of that year being 9.73 inches. The
runoff probably did not exceed 2 inches. ,

At Mount Morris the total precipitation of the year 1891 was
23.69 inches, that of the storage period being 10.24 inches. In
1895 the total was 25.05 inches, the storage period giving 11.95
inches. From the writer’s personal knowledge of the subject he
has no hesitation in saying that in 1895 streams in the vicinity
of Mount Morris did not run to exceed a total of about 3 to 4
inches.

The year 1895 was generally a year of low precipitation
throughout the whole State. Thus, at Newark Valley the total
was 28.40 inches; at New Lisbon, the total was 29.93; at North
Hammond, the total was 29.80, and soon. An extended analysis
of the precipitation records shows that for a large portion of
the State of New York the runoff of 1895 did not exceed 6 to 12
inches on the catchment areas. At some places the runoffs were
less than 6 inches. At Onondaga Hollow the year of minimum
precipitation occurred in 1841, having been preceded by several
years of rather low rainfall. Streams in that vicinity probably
do not exceed 6 inches runoff in years of minimum precipitation.

At Oswego the precipitation sank to 26.15 inches in 1855 and
to 23.46 in 1887; in 1889 it was 30.39 inches. In 1887 the total
for the storage period was 10.55 inches. It is doubtful if the
runoff at Oswego exceeded about 2 to 4 inches for that year.

At Oxford we have the following record for the years 1832-1834,
inclusive :

1832 1833 1834
PIROEROEH YY, OFSL OTOL. UU Liye ere 13.72 14.65 9.62
Prrowene Aad. LoS. Sa sant. bes 8.71 826i. 11.75
SeePreiteh Me) 20). bea wrk obi nes 5.64 10.69 6.99

ee RAS te dra hals Ls brie ch cn 18 She eS OF 34.95 28.36

102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The low precipitation of the storage period of the water year
1834 indicates runoffs in the vicinity of Oxford for that year of
perhaps 5 inches. |

At Palermo, where there is a continuous record from 1854-1898,
inclusive, there are several years in which the precipitation is
given considerably below 30 inches, as for instance in 1871, 27.81
inches; in 1875, 28.11 inches; in 1881, 26.87 inches; in 1882, 28.86
inches, and in 1895, 25.97 inches. The precipitation of the
storage period of 1895 was only 10.15 inches. It is probable that
for that year streams in the vicinity of Palermo did not exceed a
runoff of 2 inches.

At Penn Yan there is a continuous record from 1829-1867,
inclusive, the mean of the whole period being 27.98 inches.
There are several periods of from three to six years when the
rainfall was less than the average. So marked is this that it
seems safe to assume that streams in the vicinity of Penn Yan
do not ordinarily run more than from 4 to 6 inches on the catch-
ment area. In 1854 the total precipitation was 19.66 inches.
There are several years in which the total precipitation at Penn
Yan for the storage period has not exceeded from 8 to 9 inches.

At Pierpont Manor the totals for the years 1852-1854 are as
follows: 1852, 30.98 inches; 1853, 27.57 inches, and for 1854,
28.89 inches. In 1862 the total precipitation was 28.15 inches.

At Plattsburg the total precipitation in 1858 was 29.11 inches
and in 1859, 22.78 inches. In 1893 it was 25.69 inches, with a
total of only 9.92 inches in the storage period. For 1895 the
total was 29.75 inches. It is evident that the minimum runoff of
streams in the vicinity of Plattsburg does not exceed 6 inches.

At Pompey the totals for the years 1836-18388 are as follows:
For 1836, 24.22 inches; 1837, 28.37 inches, and for 1838, 24.82
inches.

At Port Ontario the total precipitation for 1855 was 26.15
inches; for 1871, 29.76 inches, and for 1872, 28.81 inches.

At Potsdam we have the following record for the years 1887-

1839, inclusive :

———

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 103

183 1838 1839
Beneeheee Al 2 eas bane .e yeh «fs: 10.70 10.19 eres
Mee WAE 1). Om. alsiy . bese «'s fe (TEST 9.57 10.20
Replemenimg ti20 Jo. ifapsis.o- 9.63 7.44 4.67

er 28.24 27 .20 22.62

In 1895 the total precipitation at Potsdam was 31.83 inches.

At Poughkeepsie the total for the year 1895 was 31.53 inches.

At Rochester there is a continuous recotd from 18384-1898,
inclusive. The mean precipitation for this whole period is 33.61

_ inches. For the period 1834-1840, inclusive, the total for each

water year is considerably under the mean, as follows: In 1884,
20.37 inches; 1835, 28.67 inches; 1836, 26.88 inches; 1837, 29.57
inches; 1888, 27.02 inches; 1889, 29.97 inches, and in 1840, 28.64
inches. In 1854 the total was 28.06 inches; in 1882, it was
26.74 inches; in 1885, 28.68 inches, and in 1887, only 20.61 inches.
In 1888 the total rose to 27.34 inches, but the precipitation of
the storage period was only 9.65 inches. It is probable that the
runoff of streams in 1888 in the vicinity of Rochester did not
exceed 3 to 4 inches. In 1895 the total at Rochester was 30.15
inches.

At Rome the year of minimum precipitation for the period
1890-1898, inclusive, was 1895, in which year the total- of the
storage period was 13.57 inches, and the total for the year 31.30
inches.

At Romulus the total for the storage period of 1895 was 10.87
inches, and the total for the year 27.76 inches.

At Rutland the period 1854-1856, inclusive, covered the years
of lowest precipitation. The mean at that place from 1846-1861,
inclusive, is 36.54 inches, but the total for 1854 was only 29.50
inches; for 1855, 32.07 inches, and for 1856, 28.83 inches. In 1856
the runoff of streams in the vicinity of Rutland could not have
exceeded 5 inches.

At Sacket Harbor the mean 1864-1898, with four years omitted,
is 32.50 inches. The period 1870-1876, inclusive, was far below
the mean, the totals being as follows: 1870, 25.16 inches; 1871,

104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

26.62 inches; 1872, 30.75 inches; 1873, 28.79 inches; 1874, 27.58
inches; 1875, 22.30 inches, and 1876, 25.42 inches. In 1875 the
total precipitation of the storage period was 8.63 inches. The
total runoff of that year in the vicinity of Sacket Harbor could
not have much exceeded 2 inches.

The years 1879-1888 were also low years at Sacket Harbor.
The following gives the record for 1886-1888, inclusive :

1886 1887 1888

Storage + A To, Pe 14.64 11.10 4.24

Growing SPE ee) aad 7.38 4.10 5.92
Heplenishing) salt Veziecion. MAGE 8.82 1.26 14.59"

Potala ec renee eee ete eee 30.84 23.16 24.75

These three years were preceded by several years in which the
precipitation ranged from 22.50 inches to 28.87 inches, the year
1885 having shown a total of 26.88 inches. For the year 1895 the
total at Sacket Harbor was 29.39 inches.

At South Canisteo the total for the year 1895 was 30.72 inches.

At Utica the mean of thirty-six years, included between 1826
and 1892, is 42.39 inches. The lowest year of this period was 1836,
with a total of 81.75 inches.

At Watertown the mean of the period 1862-1898, inclusive, is
33.53 inches. There have been several short periods in which the
precipitation has been far below the mean, as for instance 1874-
1876, inclusive; 1879-1882, inclusive, and in the years 1887 and
1888. In 1875 the runoff of the storage period was 9.82 inches,
the total for the year being 21.16 inches. The preceding remarks
as to occasional very low runoff apply with force to conditions in
the vicinity of Watertown. The minimum runoffs of the locality
may be safely placed at from 4 to 6 inches.

At Waverly the total precipitation of the year 1895 was 25.10
inches, .

At Williamstown, Mass., in the catchment area of Hoosic river,
a tributary to the Hudson, there is a precipitation record coy-
ering certain years from 1855-1898, inclusive. The mean of the
period is 39.41 inches. The year of minimum precipitation
occurred in 1888, with a total of 29.55 inches for the year and
11.24 inches for the storage period.

Sale ) ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 105

The foregoing data of precipitation in the State are cited for
the purpose of establishing the proposition that at times the run-
offs of New York streams are very low, though undoubtedly the
saving grace of the whole matter is that apparently the cycles
of low precipitation do not affect the whole State at the same
time. Indeed, it is only occasionally that catchment areas as large
as the Upper Hudson, Black, Mohawk, Oswego, Allegheny, Sus-
quehanna and Genesee rivers will be all subject to drought in
the same year. A balancing of conditions is thus to some extent
brought about. Nevertheless, while the preceding statement is
fairly deducible from the data, it is the writer’s opinion that if
we had complete records it would be easily shown that the pre-
cipitation of nearly the entire State has in some year been on an
average less than 30 inches, and that consequently the streams
of the State, as a whole, did not average in such a year a runoff of
more than about 7 to 10 inches. For individual catchment areas,
like the Upper Genesee, where the total is 1070 square miles, or for
the Oneida lake area, with a total above Brewerton of 1265 square
miles, it is quite possible, and indeed probable, that the minimums
affecting the whole area may sink somewhat lower. Probably 25
inches precipitation is not an unreasonable figure. If such a
minimum should occur for the Oneida lake area, the runoff for
the water year would not exceed 5 inches.!

Runoff
The laws of stream flow. A general statement of these laws
from Mr Vermeule is as follows:

The waters of the earth are taken up by the process which we
call evaporation and formed into clouds, to be again precipitated
to earth in the form of rain or snow. Of the water which falls
upon the basin of a stream, a portion is evaporated directly by
the sun; another large portion is taken up by plant growth and
mostly transpired in vapor; still another portion, large in winter
but very small in summer, finds its way over the surface directly

i The foregoing in regard to minimum precipitation records in New York
State has been abstracted from the writer’s report on Special Water Supply
Investigation, Appendix 16 of the Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways Between the Great Lakes and Atlantic Tidewaters. Executive
Document No. 149 of the House of Representatives, 56th Congress, 2d
Session.

106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

into the stream, forming surface or flood fiows; finally, another
part sinks into the ground, to replenish the great reservoir from
which plants are fed and stream flows maintained during the
periods of slight rainfall, for the rainfall is frequently, for months
together, much less than the combined demands of evaporation,
plant growth, and stream flow. These demands are inexorable,
and it is the ground storage which is called upon to supply them
when rain fails to do so.

All of these ways of disposing of the rain which falls upon the
earth may be classed as either evaporation or stream flow.
Evaporation we take to include direct evaporation from the sur-
face of the earth, or from water surfaces, and also the water
taken up by vegetation, most of which is transpired as vapor, but
a portion of which is taken permanently into the organisms of
the plants. Stream flow includes the water which passes directly
over the surface to the stream, and also that which is temporarily
absorbed by the earth to be slowly discharged into the streams.
A portion, usually extremely small, passes downward into the
earth and appears neither as evaporation nor as stream flow. It
is usually too small to be considered, and we may for our purposes
assume that all of the rain which falls upon a given watershed
and does not go off as stream flow is evaporated, using the latter
word in the broadened sense which we have above described.

Probably one very important effect of forests is that upon the
ground-water flow of streams. The stream with a catchment area
wholly or largely in forests will show, without exception, a much
better ground flow than one with the area denuded of forests.
Neshaminy and Tohickon creeks may be cited as streams with
the smallest amount of forest and the lowest curve of ground-
water flow. Possibly this is not entirely due to forests, but it
may be assumed that they bear some relation to the result.!

Units of measurement. Clemens Herschel, member American
Society Civil engineers, in his paper on Measuring Water? has
defined the essential elements of this question in the following
terms:

For most purposes the unit of volume, when using English
measures, has been agreed upon in favor of the cubic foot, and

1 Examples of ground-water curves for the chief streams therein con-
sidered may be found in Mr. Vermeule’s Report on the Flow of Streams,
etc., in Final Rept. State Geologist of New Jersey, Vol. III. Trenton, 1894.

2Measuring Water, by Clemens Herschel; An address to the students of
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 107

the nations of the earth being fortunately agreed upon- their
measures of time, have settled upon one second of time as the
unit to use in measuring water. Nevertheless, the million United
States gallons in twenty-four hours has become a standard for
city water supply practice in the United States, and an acre in
area covered an inch or a foot deep in a month or in a year is
used in irrigation practice. But I would warn all engineers to
be very slow to add to the number of such standards of measure
for flowing water, and to abstain from and frown down such
absurd standards as cubic yards per day, or tons weight of water
per day, or even cubic feet per minute (instead of second), and
other incongruities. . . As exercises in the art of arithmetic
for children such computations may have value, but in the work
of civil engineers they become a stumbling block to an advance
of knowledge, and while unduly magnifying the unessentials, they
indicate a deplorable lack of appreciation of the essentials of ui
art of the civil engineer.

Cubic measures do well enough for the contents of vessels, or
as we may express it, for dealing with the science of hydrostatics.
But so soon as the water to be measured is in motion, or so soon
as the science of hydraulics has been entered upon, we must get
clearly in our minds the idea of rates of flow, or of a procession
of such cubic volumes passing a given point in a certain unit of
time, as of a flow of so many cubic feet per second.

Very little can be added to what Mr Herschel has here said.
It is a clear exposition of the whole subject. Such units as cubic
feet per day and cubic miles have clearly no place in a modern
paper on hydrology.

The unit of inches on the catchment area may, however, be
pointed out as an exception to the foregoing general rule. This
unit is exceedingly convenient because it admits of expressing
rainfall and runoff in the same unit and without reference to the
area. It brings out a number of relations not otherwise easily
shown, as will be exhibited in discussing the tables accompanying
this report.

Characteristics of the minimum runoff. Since the rainfall varies
so widely, the runoff, which is a function of the rainfall, will also
vary widely. On the Hudson river the maximum runoff of 33.08
inches, with a rainfall of 53.87 inches, occurred in 1892. The
minimum, with a runoff of 17.46 inches and a rainfall of 36.37
inches, occurred in 1895. On the Genesee river the observed maxi-

108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

mum rainfall of 47.79 inches, with a ‘runoff of 19.38 inches,
occurred in 1894.1 The minimum rainfall of 31 inches, with a
minimum runoff of 6.67 inches, occurred in 1895. These figures
of rainfall indicate that either the extreme maximum or the
extreme minimum rainfall has not yet occurred on the catchment
area of this stream.

On the Muskingum river the maximum rainfall thus far observed
is 56.97 inches, with a maximum runoff of 26.84 inches, which
occurred in 1890. The observed minimum rainfall of 29.84 inches,
with the corresponding minimum runoff of 4.9 inches, occurred in
1895. It is also doubtful if either the extreme maximum or the
extreme minimum rainfall has been yet observed on the catchment
area, of this stream. As to whether the rainfall will go lower
there is no certain way of determining. Moreover, 4.9 inches
seems a very low runofi—and the runoff is not likely to be less
than this figure. However, the runoff in any year depends very
largely on the rainfall of the months from December to May,
inclusive. There may possibly be, therefore, a lower annual
runoff than 4.9 inches, even though the total rainfall should exceed
29.84 inches. The rainfall for December to May, inclusive, was
13.04 inches. The runoff for that period was 4.04 inches.

Division of streams into classes. The foregoing statements indi-
cate that, as regards runoff, streams of the eastern part of the
United States may be divided into classes. In the first class will
fall streams where the maximum rainfall is from 50 to 60 inches,
with corresponding runoff somewhat more than one half of the
rainfall. The minimum runoff will be about one half the 'rainfall,
or a little less. These statements, it may be again repeated, are
general ones, to which there are exceptions.

Another class of streams, of which the Genesee and Muskingum
rivers are typical, are those with maximum rainfall on their
Pees eee i Mere) eres tb Cincy oe Oe eee

1In the combined Genesee river and Oatka creek record the maximum
runoff of 21.22 inches occurred in 1890, when the rainfall is placed at 47.54
inches. This, however, is less reliable than the rainfall and runoff of
1894, which latter is accordingly given the preference.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 109

catchments of 40 to 50 inches and with a corresponding runoff |
somewhat less than one half of the rainfall. The minimum runoff
for these streams is from one fourth to one sixth of the corres-
ponding rainfall, or from about 16 per cent to 25 per cent.

A further class, the far western streams, may be mentioned, in
which the runoff is only a very small percentage of the rainfall, in
some cases not more than 4 per cent to 5 per cent, or at times even
less. Probably comprehensive study would further subdivide
these streams, but the intention at present is to merely call atten-
tion to some of the more marked peculiarities as.a basis for final
detailed study.

If one takes the streams of the far west, as for instance Loup
river, in Nebraska, with a catchment area of 18,542 square miles,
where the rainfall in 1894, observed at 24 stations, was on an
average only 12.84 inches and the runoff of the stream did not
much exceed 1 inch, he will find entirely different conditions from
- those above stated. In many cases streams in that locality run
much less than 1 inch. The South Platte, at Denver, Colo., in
1896, with a rainfall of 11.84 inches, ran 0.62 inch. The cateh-
ment area at this place is 35840 square miles. At Orchard, Colo.,
the South Platte, in 1898, with a rainfall of about 17 inches, ran
0.9 inch. The catchment area at this place is 12,260 square miles.
The Republican river, at Junction, Nebr., with a rainfall of about
26 to 28 inches, in 1898, ran 0.39 inch. The catchment here is
25,837 square miles in extent.

The foregoing statements indicate the essential truth of the
proposition that, broadly, each stream is a law unto itself. Any
formula, for either maximum, average, or mean runoff, which
does not take this into account is incomplete.

Estimation of runoff from rainfall diagrams. Can runoff of
Streams be estimated from diagrams of monthly rainfall? The
writer has spent considerable time on this problem without arriv-
ing at any very satisfactory conclusion. For some months such
a diagram may be made to fit quite closely, while for others,
differences of as much as 2 or 3 inches appear. The conclusion

110 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

‘of the writer is, therefore, that such diagrams are at the best
crude approximations. Such study is, however, very fascinating,
and it is not surprising that different hydrologists have attempted
at various times its solution. Two lines of work may be men-
tioned. One is, by a combination of a large number of streams
and their rainfall, to attempt to produce a universal formula.
This, however, as has been already shown, leads to what is, in
effect, a hodgepodge. Averages so applied “ bring out class like-
nesses, to the exclusion of individual features.”

The other method is to plat rainfall and runoff appearing
monthly in inches, as abscissas and ordinates, respectively, and
in this way to preserve the individual peculiarities of each stream.
In some respects the most satisfactory way is to plat the rainfall
and runoff of the storage, growing, and replenishing periods,
thus grouping similar characteristics.

Storage in lakes. The runoff of a stream is very materially
influenced by the number of lakes within its catchment area. If
there are many, flood flows may be expected to be much smaller
than they otherwise would be. Oswego river, as a marked stream
with large lake pondage, may be discussed in this connection.
The total catchment area of this stream is 5002 square miles. It
issues from a region with a mean annual rainfall of from 30 to
40 inches and with heavy snowfalls, frequently melting suddenly
at the end of winter. Nevertheless, the ordinary flood-flows do
not exceed 4 cubic feet per second per square mile, and even
extreme flood flows are only 6 to 7 cubic feet per second per
Square mile. As to why this is so is an interesting question
which may be answered by considering the large temporary
storage on the surfaces of the lakes, marshes and flat valleys in.
the Oswego area. In order to show this, the writer has prepared
the following tabulations, in which appear the names of the sey-
eral lakes, with their approximate catchment areas, areas of
water surface, areas of flats and marsh, and total area of water
surface, flats and marsh.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK VEL

(1) Seneca basin

Total area of
Area water surface,

Catchment Areaof water of flats flats and
Name of Lake or River. cant sate a 3 tg yogiee
Canandaieua ......:.. 175.0 18.6 8.0 26.6
LS 0 Re Sa apa area 187.0 20.3 3.0? 23.3
PREPORNEEEe oscl swiss se as 707.0 66.0 4.0? 70.0
oo TE elem el ail aah 1,593.0 66.8 2.0 68.8
eevcnen. Oe ) 208.0 12.4 5.5 17.9
. Skaneateles .......... 73.0 12.8 0.5 13.3
PEIsSS? PLONE, 34.0 3.0 0.5 B25
Crowe tite ose: (1) 4.3 (2) 4.3
romdae2 Lisa. shi! sad 233 .0 4.0 5 4.5
Seneca river .......... 233.0 Bas (2) a.5
EZ A. TVA LS: 025 sovdeny) | xine elhin -nupievruy ays 45.0 45.0
Miscellaneous small
OU a oe a EAS ag Sa ee 3.5
Miscellaneous flat
Re Re eee 2 a wn oe 3. ee «oe 6 0 « 20.0 20 .0
OTA HA? S08 BIEIS 3,433 .0 215.2 89.0 304.2

(2) Oneida basin

Oe ee 9.0 2.8 0.3 3.1
CST a , e 1,265.0 80.0 120.0 200.0
Miscellaneous small .
7 ae Ba sla eae a ay eee 5.9
Miscellaneous flat
tae sca? cy ee ve iy 23 ak ao 6.0 6.0
ayneida THVED .. 3...» 128.0 0.9 y Aa | 3.0
Porben heels oi aati 4d 4 4,835.0 304.8 217.4 522.2

Miscellaneous small

i hs Ss ee a a a pee 2.5
Oeweeo river ......... 167.0 2.0 3.3 5.3
POUR BIT) 3224 5,002.0 309.3 220.7 530.0

(1) Enlargement of Seneca river. (2) Area of flats and marsh included
in Montezuma marsh.

112 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The foregoing tabulation is mostly self-explanatory, and attention
is merely directed to the footings, from which it is learned that the
total area of water surface is approximately 310 square miles;
the total area of flats and marsh, 221 square miles, and the total
of water surface flats and marsh, 530 square miles.

Dividing the total area of water surface, flats and marsh by
5002, the area of catchment basin, it appears that the total area
of water surface, flats and marsh is 10.6 per cent of the whole
catchment. We do not often have flood runofis in New York
exceeding 3 or 4 inches in depth over the catchment area, but
4 inches in depth over the Oswego area would be only 37.7 inches
on the pondage area of 530 square miles.

Several of the large lakes of this basin fluctuate considerably
between high and low water. From tabulations given in the
Report of the Superintendent of Public Works it is shown that the
fluctuation of Skaneateles lake, which is drawn upon as a canal
reservoir, is as much as 5 feet, and of Otisco lake, about 4.5 feet.
According to figures given in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
State Board of Health of New York it appears that the maximum
fluctuation of Cayuga lake for a long series of years has been
7.06 feet, although this large fluctuation may be possibly partly
due to work done by the State in cutting out the channel of
Seneca river for the purpose of draining the Montezuma marsh.
Ordinarily the fluctuation of Cayuga lake does not exceed between
2 and 3 feet. From March 4, 1887, to December 2 of that year,
the lake fell 2.93 feet, and from March, 1889, to December of that
year, the fluctuation was 2.3 feet. The figures are not at hand
giving the fluctuation of Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca and the
other large lakes of this catchment, but it may be certainly
assumed that they do not vary greatly from the preceding figures
of Skaneateles, Otisco and Cayuga lakes. By way of illustrating
how these great natural reservoirs tend to prevent floods, it may
be mentioned that the configuration of Cayuga outlet with rela-
tion to Clyde river is such that frequently, when there are heavy
rainfalls in the catchment area of Clyde river, Cayuga lake being

at the same time at a low level, the entire flood flow of Clyde river

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 3

is discharged into Cayuga lake without affecting Seneca river
below the mouth of Clyde river at all. It is undoubtedly due to this
fact that fall floods on Oswego river are almost entirely unknown.

The evaporation of the Oswego river catchment area is exceed-
ingly large—about 28 inches—whence it results that the runoff
from a mean annual rainfall of from 36 to 37 inches does not
exceed about 9 or 10 inches.

Computation of annual runoff. No general rule can be formu-
lated for computing annual runoff. The formulas of Mr Vermeule
are excellent formulas of the purely empirical class, applying
fairly well to many streams in the northeastern part of the United
States, but they do not apply at all to streams of the middle west
and far west. .Nor do they apply to some streams in the north-

eastern section. Nevertheless, they take into account the ground
water, and are the most useful formulas thus far devised. It may
be mentioned that Mr Vermeule specially disclaims any inten-
tion of working out any formulas applying outside of the State of
New Jersey. His general formula is in the nature of a suggestion.

Discrepancies in computation of runoff. In computing the run
off of various streams small discrepancies will continually appear,
and when such do not exceed 1 to 2 inches they are outside the
limit of discussion. The question does not admit of such minute:
ness as to permit the discussion of small differences, although a
difference of 2 inches on several thousand square miles would be
much less serious than on the usual municipal catchment area
of from 20 to 100 square miles. The size of the catchment area
should, therefore, in this particular be taken into account.

Moreover, the runoff of streams has thus far been almost uni-
versally over-estimated. Only a few were really down to the actual
fact. Probably in no department of professional work are there
more things to be taken into account than here.

Actual gagings preferable to general studies. While on the gen-
eral subject of the computation of runoff the writer may repeat

1The preceding chapter has been abstracted from the writer’s report on
Special Water Supply Investigation to the Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways.

114 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

what he has said in his report to the United States Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways, viz:

The data for estimating the water supply of a large canal,
specially when on a large scale, should be based, when such data
are available, upon actual gagings of streams, rather than on
general considerations derived from study of the rainfall alone.
An examination of a large number of estimates of canal water
supplies, based on the usual method, shows that rainfall data
alone are in close cases inadequate for solving a water-supply
problem of the magnitude of the one now under consideration.
When, however, actual gagings of the streams, extending over a
sufficient number of years, are available, there is no reason why a
water-supply problem on a large scale may not be worked out with
the precision of a proposition in mathematics.

What is here said in regard to water supplies for canals is
equally true as regards all other water supplies, either municipal
or for water power, etc. Farther on in the same chapter it is
stated :

It is not intended to say, however, that rainfall data are not of
use in a hydrologic discussion. When, as in the present case, in
addition to stream gagings an extended series of such data are
available, the argument is made doubly good and the demonsira-
tion strengthened.

When records of gagings are available the computation becomes
very simple. It is merely a matter of simple addition and sub-
traction. 3

The complete data required in order to compute the safe pos-
sible yield of a stream are as follows: |

1) The catchment area.

2) The rainfall of the minimum year, as well as for a series of
years.

3) A ground-water diagram of the stream or, lacking such, a
diagram for a neighboring stream lying in the same or a similar
geologic formation, and, so far as possible, with similar condi-
tions of forestation.

4) The available storage capacity of the stream.

5) The loss by water surface evaporation from the reservoirs,
together with an estimate of the loss by percolation.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 115

The data required for ordinary computations may be frequently
limited to the totals of the storage, growing, and replenishing
periods, although when ground water is to be taken into account
the monthly data should be given.

Formulas for runoff. At the risk of being considered some-
what elementary the writer will give the more important of the
formulas for runoff, expressed in terms of inches on the catch-

ment area:
I __ nx Qx 86400 X12 :
m =A x 640 X43560 i)
Whence we deduce,
nxQxC,
I, = (6)
Also,
| QxC,
Sraaoe om @)
and
Q
ae (8)
To change gallons per day into inches per month we have:
i= axG x, (9)
Also,
Vi
G See (10)

In the reports of the United States Geological Survey the dis-
charge of streams is sometimes given in acre-feet per month. To
reduce such to inches per month, we have, when total acre-feet
are given:

pgo Ex Es (11)

In these formulas,

A=area of catchment in square miles.

B=total acre-feet per month.

D—=cubic feet per second per square mile.

G=—gallons per day.

I,=inches in depth per month on the catchment area.

I, =inches'in depth per year on the catchment area.

n=—number of days per month.

116 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Q—cubic feet per second flowing from the catchment area, as
determined by gagings.

86400 x 12

at

86400 x 12 x 365
640 x 43560 )

C;= constant = (saan):
(7.48 x 640 x 48560

C,= constant =

C.= constant = (

C,— constant = (aan

The constants, C,, C,, C;, and C,, are left in form for log-
arithmic computation. For a given case, catchment area is con-
stant, and A, in the final logarithmic form, will be combined
with these.

It is sometimes convenient to have a formula for converting
discharge in cubic feet per second into inches draining from an
area in 24 hours and vice versa. The following formulas answer
to these conditions. In these formulas,

Q—discharge in cubic feet per second.

—discharge over catchment, in depths in inches in 24 hours.

A—catchment area in square miles.

Q i »)
ba 26.89 A (12)
and = 26.89 Axd. (13)

This formula is convenient for use in considering floods.t

Maximum discharge formulas. A considerable number of such
have been worked out, but the authors have taken into account
so few of the controlling conditions, that they are, at the best,
mostly only crude guides, and the writer long ago gave up their
use, except in cases where only the roughest approximation was
required. Two exceptions may, however, from the peculiar form
of the coefficient, be briefly noted, viz:

Dickens’s formula, D=C v M’; and (14)
Ryves’s formula, D—=C YM’. (15)

lJrrigation Manual, by Lieut. Gen. J. Mullins (published for Madras
Government), 1890.

yo? 6F

;
;
.
>

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORIX 117

In these formulas, D—discharge in cubic feet per second; C—=a
coefficient, depending for its value upon rainfall, soil, topographi-
cal slope, elevation, size of the stream, shape of the catchment, ete.
aud M—=area of the catchment in square miles.

Coefficient table for representative areas. In Mullins’s Irri-
eation Manual there are given tables for the value of the
coefficients of these two formulas, together with the correspond-
ing depth in inches, drained off from the given areas, and the dis-
charges in cubic feet per second. These two formulas are cited
because they take into account the principle of the sliding coeffi-
cient, as does the Kutter formula, a principle which, all things
considered, is the most useful thus far devised. It is true that
maximum discharge formulas have been devised taking into
account average slope, depth, and intensity of rainfall, area of
the mountainous part of the catchment and area of the flat part of
the same in square miles, and length of stream from source to
point of discharge. These formulas, however, also involve from
one to two coefficients and become complicated in use without, it
is believed, any special gain over the simpler expressions cited.
The formulas of Dickens and Ryves, which comprise within the
coefficient C everything included in the more complicated form-
ulas, were the forerunners of formulas of this class.

Cooley’s formulas. In an able papert Mr George W. Cooley,
C. E., gives the following formulas for runoff:

For a catchment without lakes,

F = 0.844 LRC. (16)
For a catchment with large lakes as receiving reservoirs,
5]
F=(R+4 50 —E)x0.844 Ww. (17)

In which, F = flow in cubic feet per second.
R= precipitation in feet.
L=— land surface of catchment in square miles.
W=water surface of reservoirs in square miles.
EK — evaporation in feet.
C = coefficient of available rainfall.

1Hydrology of the Lake Minnetonka Watershed, by George W. Cooley, C.
E.; Monthly Weather Review, January, 1899.

118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The constant 0.844 is equal to the number of feet in a square
mile divided by the seconds in a year.

In these formulas the sliding coefficient is also recognized. The
results, however, are based on averages, although it seems clear
enough that, in either power or water supply works, what is
wanted is the minimum runoff for a year or a series of years.
For instance, the minimum rainfall at Lake Minnetonka in 1889
was only 18.56 inches, while the maximum in 1892 was 37.90
inches, or a little more than double the minimum. It is evident
enough to any person who has gaged streams extensively that the
runoff in 1889 must have been very much less than in 1892. In
the absence of statements as to the amount of runoff in 1889, the
writer can only estimate it, but he doubts if it were over 10 per
cent to 12 per cent of the rainfall. Probably about 2 inches is
not far from the mark. What is wanted, therefore, is a concise
statement, not only in this case but in every other, of the runoff
of the year or series of years of minimum rainfall.

Danger of using averages. The writer has dwelt upon the fore-
going point somewhat because only a few of the more advanced
students of hydrology have thus far fully appreciated its import-
ance. <A very large proportion of all the papers and reports pre-
pared in the last ten years have proceeded on the supposition that
safe deductions could be made from an average runoff. It is
needless to say that all such are, without exception, erroneous.
What is wanted is a clear statement of the minimum, together
with the longest period which such minimum may be expected
to occupy. A study of the meteorological records of the State of
New York shows that the minimum period may be expected fre-
quently to extend over three years. In the writer’s report to the
United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, in the —
chapter on the Meteorology of New York and the relation of pre-
cipitation to runoff, a large number of specific cases are cited,
but space will not be taken here to discuss them. This proposi-
tion is true for other regions than the State of New York.

Danger of using percentages. A much greater danger arises
from the use of percentage of rainfall appearing in runoff. In

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 119

many reports and papers it is assumed that averages of a series
of percentages can be safely taken. The following illustration,
with five cases drawn from observation, may be taken to show
that this is erroneous:

RUNOFF, PER CENT OF RAINFALL

Case | Rainfall Runoff Per cent
Aa

| Inches Inches
ois «RES Ace SEES ee ee ee Se 44.3 20.1 45.37
ape eee eeee Pee OL PA MRE oat DLL | 62.5 39.0 56.00
ee ae as ess ap ngs so | 16.2 1.2 7.41
bute “Me SRE ee pear being 24.3 2.5 10.29
5 TS RE I ee ee | 40.4 13.1 32.42
| 187.7 71.9 5)151.49
30.29

Runoff 71.9
Rainfall 187.7
‘ Difference= 8.02

=38 .31

Runoff coefficient misleading. As a corollary to the preceding
proposition, it follows that the ratio between annual rainfall and
runoff, known as the “runoff coefficient or factor,” is essentially
misleading. A realization of this fact has led the writer, in his
report to the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Water-
ways, to practically expurgate this statement, or anything ap-
proximating to it, from his report. The expressions, “ average
runoff ” and “ percentage of the rainfall,’ do not appear.

Relation between total runoff and runoff of storage period.
Attention may also be again directed to the fact that the total
runoff of a stream in any given year depends very largely on the
runoff of what may be termed the “storage period.” Usually
about 0.55 to 0.75 of the total rainfall of this period appears as
runoff in the stream, while for the summer, or growing period,
not more than about 0.1 of the rainfall appears. This great dif-
ference is due to greater evaporation, as well as to the absorption
of water by plants during this period. The total amount for
the year which will appear as runoff in the stream will depend,

120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

therefore, very largely on whether or not the rainfall of the stor-
age period—December to May, inclusive—is large or small. If
the winter rainfall is relatively large, the runoff will also be rela-
tively large, even though the total rainfall for the year is small.
This fact must be taken into account in estimating the value of
streams. Whether any given stream is low during the summer
months or has then a well-sustained flow will depend very largely
on the rainfall of the month of May. When the May rainfall
is heavy enough to produce full ground water, the flow is likely
to be well sustained, even though the rainfall is comparatively
low during the summer months following. If, on the contrary,
the May rainfall is so low as to leave a deficiency in ground water
.for that month, the flow will be low during the summer, even
though the rainfall is large.

The foregoing explains why for certain years the runoff of
a stream may be relatively small, even with rainfall considerably
above the average.

To more particularly illustrate this, assume a stream with, say,
6 inches of ground-water flow and further assume that on any
convenient date the ground water is practically depleted. Under
these circumstances, the 6 inches of ground water must fill up
before any very large flow can occur. On the other hand, we may
consider the sequence of the rainfall such as to leave full ground
water, whence it results that there will be a much larger runoff,
even though rainfall and other conditions are the. same.

What is wanted in a stream, therefore, is as large a ground flow
as possible, with small evaporation. That there are very great
differences in streams in this respect may be easily seen by exam-
ining a series of tables of stream flow. It may be remarked that
these two conditions are obtained only on a forested area, for
proof of which see Bulletin No. 7, Department of Agriculture,
Forest Influences.

Effect of low ground water. Moreover, when rainfall is below
the mean for several months, the ground water may be expected
to become continuously lower. This is a subject about which
comparatively little is known, although the data are very import-

: >)
HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK IPA

ant in estimating the permanency of a stream. Aside from Mr
Vermeule’s, the most satisfactory discussion which the writer
has seen is that of Mr W.S. Auchincloss.1. This paper, while too
long to be abstracted, is nevertheless very interesting, because the
author recognizes the limitations of averages. On page 10, after
giving a table of the average rise of his sublake, he states:

Since the table was built up from averages, we must not expect
it to emphasize special variations, for the grouping of averages
resembles the grouping of pictures in composite photography.
The combination invariably brings out class likenesses to the
exclusion of individual features. Thus the table loses sight of an
extraordinary year like 1889—full of plus quantities—also seasons
of drought, like 1894 and 1895. It, however, clearly shows that
influx has a tendency to prevail between February and July, in-
elusive, and efflux to hold the mastery during the remaining
months of the year.

Though this paper does not fully recognize the wide variation
occurring in different localities, this is probably not due to over-
sight, but merely to the fact that the author was discussing a
specific case. The observations recorded were made at Bryn
Mawr, Pa. The paper is valuable and well worth the attention of
students of hydrology.

Vermeule’s formulas. These formulas are somewhat different
from those previously considered. Mr Vermeule claims to have
discovered a relation between evaporation and mean annual tem-
perature. For the relation between annual evaporation and
annual precipitation on Sudbury, Croton and Passaic rivers he
gives the following: }

HH t5.50-+ 0:16 BR; (18)
In which E=the annual evaporation and R=the annual

rainfall.

In the original publication of this formula, in the Report of the
Geological Survey of New Jersey,? Mr Vermeule allowed for other
catchment areas an increase or decrease of 5 per cent from values

10n Waters within the Earth and Laws of Rainflow, by W. S. Auchin-
closs, C. EH. Philadelphia, 1897.

2 Report on Water Supply, Water Power, the Flow of Streams, and

Attendant Phenomena, by C. C. Vermeule: Final Report State Geologist of
New Jersey, Vol. III. Trenton, 1894.

122 NEW: YORK STATE MUSEUM

given for evaporation on the Sudbury, Croton and Passaic rivers.
The following is his general formula for all streams:

EK =(15.50+0.16 R) (0.05 T— 1.48) (19)

This, however, he states is merely a suggestion. His purpose

is to deduce laws which hold for the State of New Jersey alone.

In these formulas the evaporation is taken to include all the

various losses of water to which a catchment area is subject,

including direct evaporation as well as water absorbed and
Eeysaeined by plant growth, etc. Hence,

F (runoff)—= R—E. (20)

Mr Vermeule gives the following formulas for the Sudbury,

Croton and Passaic rivers:

December—May, E=4.20+0.12 R; (21):
June—November, E11.30+0.20 it. (22)

These formulas take into account the fact that evaporation is
low in the winter months and high during the summer.

Mr Vermeule also gives the following formula for computing
monthly evaporation from the monthly rainfall for Sudbury,
Croton and Passaic catchment areas:

[e=monthly evaporation; r—=monthly rainfall. ]

IVECOMMIED: o..s oo oe stuns ae pee ee ee e= 0.4240.10r !
SAMUS H) Lai Yodsoe -sia. avi ePa. Gaede ok e= 0.2740.10r |
BARE MARY vii 5 yeaa se: Tit. See eee e= 0.30+0.10 r |
POA BOP no) gts CE, 2 SA ee e= 0.4840.10r :
eS} ee ae ee Tere Oe se oe e= 0.87+0.10r |
ay eer te tok OAD a ee Bay ee cee e= 1.87+0.20r in
tess. eve Pee Ot een ee eh a Ba e= 2.50+0.25 r \(
Sy ik. woth smal) ame ae eee 4 e= 3.0040.30r fas
PATE sa 21's x Seoewaterniec hays Ste moplimaceenk am peas ane e= 2.62+0.25 r |
PP RPO NI VEN... scsi s¥o.g ate ee ee ae e= 1.63+0.20 r |
UO | i Tr, eer ee en ge ys e= 0.88+0.12 r
SMETILOOD, «5 i sé «th oi ee pede lee eee e= (.66+0.10 r |
Wear 0. 794 4 20 BARR GS aa Ret e—15.50+40.16 r CEG!

To obtain the monthly evaporation for other streams the
results obtained are multiplied by the following:
(0.05 T—1.48)
In which T—mean annual temperature.

‘HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 135

At this point Mr Vermeule was confronted by the difficulty of
ground storage. In regard to the effect of this it may be men-
tioned that, with rainfall above the average continuously for sey-
eral years, ground water may be expected to stand above its
average hight, yielding to streams the maximum flow possible to
ground water. On the other hand, when the rainfall is below the
average for a number of years ground-water flow will be lower,
becoming less and less as the rainfall approaches the minimum.
It is very important that this fact be taken into account, because
without it one is certain to fall into error. The formulas for
average depletion may be given as follows:

d,—=ad,+e+f—7 ; (24)
Giada ge sz? 25
aa 7a (25)

In which d, and d,;—depletion at end of previous month and

for the month under consideration; d—average depletion; e and
7—monthly evaporation and monthly rainfall, respectively, and
f=computed monthly flow.

The foregoing does not fully express the use of these formulas,
but as all that is wanted at this time is an illustration of methods,
this brief account may be deemed sufficient.

Mr Vermeule gives a diagram showing ground flow for the sev-
eral different streams mentioned for a given depletion, which is
to be used in conjunction with the foregoing formulas. In his
opinion the diagrams present advantages over a ground-flow
formula with varying constants and coefficients for different
streams, being more readily compared and insuring greater accu-
racy. Later, in his Report on Forests Mr Vermeule modifies his
formula, as follows:

K=(1140.29 R) M. (26)

In which E=evaporation, R=—rainfall, and M is a factor de-

pending upon the mean temperature of the atmosphere. The
writer understands Mr Vermeule to say that this is also an
expression for annual evaporation.

—_—_——

1 Report on Forests, by C. C. Vermeule: Ann. Rept. State Geologist New
Jersey for year 1899. Trenton, 1900.

124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Values of M for given mean annual temperatures are as follows:

40°, 0.77; 41°, 0.79; 42°, 0.82; 48°, 0.85; 44°, 0.88; 45°, 0.91;
46°, 0.94; 47°; 0.975) 489): ds:40",, d08s SOS AO T5 4° s datOaaeee
1.14; 53°, 1.18; 54°, 1.225; 55°, 1.26; 56°:1.30; 57°, 1.84; 58°, 1.3895
59°, 1.48; 60°, 1.475; 61°, 1.51.

In a table on page 149 of the Report on Forests Mr Vermeule
compares observed annual evaporation with computed annual
evaporation. The following are some of the differences which
appear :

- On the Genesee river the observed annual evaporation is 27.2
inches; computed annual evaporation, 20.6 inches; the observed
annual evaporation, therefore, is 6.6 inches, or 32 per cent,
greater. than the estimated annual evaporation. On the Mus-
conetcong river the observed, as compared with the computed
evaporation, is 15 per cent less; on the Pequest it is 17 per cent
less; on the Paulinskill it is 14 per cent less; on the Tohickon, 32
per cent less; on the Neshaminy, 16 per cent less; on the Perkio-
men, 17 per cent less; on the Desplaines, 21 per cent greater; on
the Kansas, 15 per cent greater; on the Upper Hudson, 10 per
cent greater; on Hemlock lake, 18 per cent less; on the Potomac,
17 per cent less; on the Savannah, 13. per cent less. For the rest
of the streams cited in the table the agreement is closer than this.

The observed annual evaporation is 32 per cent greater than
the computed annual evaporation on the Genesee river and 32 per
cent less on Tohickon creek—a range of 64 per cent. Somewhat
similar differences are found on other streams where the gagings
are approximately right. As to the gagings referred to in the
Report on Forests, the writer will show farther on in this paper
that gagings of the Genesee and Hudson rivers are, on the whole,
probably the best thus far made in the United States. Tohickon,
Neshaminy and Perkiomen creeks have been gaged by Francis
weirs, and are, with the exception of Tohickon, considered approx-
imately right. The difficulty here is probably in the flood flows.
The writer understands that Mr Vermeule used the Francis

formula for a sharp-crested weir. The gagings of Sudbury,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 125

Cochituate and Mystic rivers have been deduced, it is believed, by
Mr Francis’s formula for the Merrimac dam. As to the Desplaines
river, a discharge curve determined by current meter has, it is
believed, been applied.t The English streams cited, Lea, Wandle,
Thames, etc. have probably been gaged by a sharp-crested weir,
and the others mostly by the current meter and a rating table.

Russells formulas. Mr Thomas Russell? gives the following
formulas for the runoff of the Ohio, Upper Mississippi, and Upper
and Middle Missouri valleys, in terms of the annual rainfall. For
the Ohio river the formula is as follows:

O—0.600+0.95 R—0.90 R (0.975 e—0.421 e7+0.626 e&*). (27)

For the Upper Mississippi it is:

O—0.50+0.93 R—O0.88 R (1.131 e—0.383 e’). (28)

For the Upper and Middle Missouri it is:

O—0.12+0.98 R—0.93 R (0.91 e—0.220 e7+0.009 e*). (29)

In these formulas R is the rainfall for the month in cubic miles;
e is the quantity of water required to saturate the air at any time,
equal to the difference between what the air contains and the
amount if it was saturated; and O is the cutflow or runoff.

These formulas are interesting in the pzesent connection,
because they recognize the fact that every stream must have its
own formula. The variation in runoff on the Ohio, Mississippi
and Missouri rivers will be observed on inspection of the formulas.
Like all formulas of this class they are subject to considerable
variation. In the month of October, 1881, the computed outflow
of the Missouri river was 4.9 cubic miles and the observed flow
was 1.6 cubic miles, a difference of 3.8 cubic miles.

Relation between catchment area and maximum, minimum and
mean runoff. It is quite common for hydrologists to assume that
there is a relation between catchment area and maximum, mini-
mum and mean runoff, the general proposition being that mean

1 Data Pertaining to Rainfall and Stream Flow, by Thomas T. Johnston:
Jour. Western Soc. Engrs., Vol. I, No. 3, June, 1896.

2 Rainfall and River Outflow in the Mississippi Valley, by Thomas Rus-
sell: Ann. Rept. Chief Signal Officer for the year 1889, Part I, Appendix 14.

126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

annual runoff varies inversely as the size of the catchment, and
that maximum runoff, or flood flow, varies directly as the size of
the catchment.

In order to gain some idea as to the applicability of this propo-
sition, the résumé of discharge data, in the Twentieth Annual
Report of the United States Geological Survey, pages 46—64, has
been examined. This table includes about 225 streams in various
portions of the United States, with records ranging from 18 to
20 years in length to 1 year. A few of the best-known streams—
as, for instance, the Croton and Sudbury—are not given in detail,
although the large number included in this table, it is believed,
is sufficient to settle definitely this question. Only a very few of
the results will be referred to here.

In the first place, it appears certain that with equal rainfall
there is no very definite relation between size of catchment area
and mean annual runoff. For instance, the Kennebec, at Water-
ville, Me., with a catchment area of 4410 square miles, has a mean
annual runoff for 6 years of 22.4 inches. The Cobbosseecontee, at
Gardner, Me., with a catchment area of 230 square miles, has a
mean annual runoff for 6 years of 18.5 inches. The Androscog-
gin, at Rumford Falls, Me., with a catchment area of 2220 square
miles, has for 6 years a mean annual runoff of 24.2 inches. The
Presumpscot, at Sebago Lake, Me., with a catchment of 470 square
miles, has a mean annual runoff for 11 years of 21 inches. The
Merrimac, at Lawrence, Mass., with a catchment area of 4553
square miles, has a mean annual runoff for 9 years of 21.3 inches.
Aside from the Androscoggin river these five streams support the
proposition that the runoff varies in some degree directly as the
catchment area instead of inversely.

As to the maximum runoff, or flood flow, there is apparently
some slight relation, although even this is less definite than has
usually been assumed.

As to the minimum runoff, there is apparently no relation,
extremely small flows happening on large streams as well as on
the smallest. There is, however, much more definitely a relation

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 127

between the runoff and the rainfall, runoff increasing as rainfall
increases, and conversely.

As regards the division of streams into classes in proportion to
size of catchment area, it appears, therefore, that aside from
floods one is not, on present information, justified in such classi-
fication, and even in cases of floods it is quite probable that there
are other considerations of such importance as to render a
classification of this character inexpedient.

Since there is no very definite relation between size of catch-
ment and runoff there is no reason why comparison may not be
made of streams having such large difference in size of catchment.
For some streams, as for instance, Pequannock river, where the
slopes are very steep, the runoff is somewhat higher than it would
be with other conditions the same, but with flatter slopes. But
generally the degree of forestation and other elements exercise so
much more important an influence that a comparison, without
regard to size of catchment area, may be legitimately made.
Nevertheless, this proposition is possibly debatable, and for the
present the conclusions drawn are tentative merely.

The extreme low-water period. In the discussion of the streams
the writer has given the low water of the minimum year, but this’
does not usually include the extreme low-water period, which is in
almost every case much more than one year. Space will not be
taken to show the extreme low-water periods of all the streams.
It is considered that illustrations from Muskingum and Genesee
rivers are sufficient.

On the Muskingum river three low-water periods have occurred
during the time covered by the gagings. The first was from
December, 1887, to November, 1889, inclusive, a period of twenty-
four months, during which the total runoff was 18.55 inches, or
if we assume a reservoir on said stream of 20 square miles water
surface, the total net runoff becomes 18.15 inches. The computa-
tions of evaporation, etc. for such a reservoir, neglecting variation
in water surface, are as follows. Assume an annual evaporation
of 40 inches and with distribution for the several months as per

T3238 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

column (1) in the following tabulation. Since the water surface
area is 20 square miles, it becomes 20/5828 of the whole, or 1/292.
Hence water surface evaporation is 1/292 or 40 inches, and mak-
ing the computation for each month, we have the quantities as
per column (2):

TOTAL EVAPORATION AND EVAPORATION PER SQUARE MILE OF WATER SURFACE IN
MUSKINGUM BASIN

vis dt: Spee
tion
Total mileot
Month “yatont 116, (tebe
Sdnwuary v. wl: deena) wee eae ae 1.00 0.0034
Pebruatyiad) sscduid iedwopees of Benes ase 1.10 0037
March <o.ud4 ooliek. dig cbad | decks sath eee bh dah .0058
April: :rox).é6 Liana: 190 ha dee ae aero e aoe 3.00 .01029
Mary liv, .dovenwsausy gt Sect. iegem Nae ee pee 4.60 .01578
Jume:,.<lodiocettinet iad. ehas. ee eee 5.65 .01938
Sly: jvia. vcdeviedeb chile ce tee mae 6.10. .02092
Aurust ...... latest o9u; hes] ath one 5.60 .01921
September |.) o.culazsweih odd .cl. J weeeeetae 4.15 .01423
"October viet. id peciai ng ods. 26 cote wel edt 3.00 .01149
November; . .c%u..u.tive-seal wurseiesod kabel | 2.25 00772
December), aan. .*eaesane adh aceon 1.50 .00514
40100'< 2) eRe

With some allowance for percolation, leakage, etc. the total is
taken at 0.40 of an inch per year. Analyzing the first period, we
find that for 24 months there was an average flow of 0.76 inch
per month, for ie months an average flow of 0.67 inch, and for
9 months an average flow of 0.43 inch.

The second low-water period was from May, 1891, to January,
1893, inclusive, a period of 21 months, during which time the net
runoff was 17.2 inches, yielding for the whole 21 months an aver-
age of 0.82 inch and for 7 months an average of 0.36 inch.

The most extreme low-water period was from April, 1894, to
November, 1895, inclusive, a period of 20 months, during which

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 129

time the net runoff did not exceed under the assumed conditions
7.09 inches. The average runoff for 20 months was 0.354 inch and
for 7 months 0.116 inch.

On Genesee river there have been two low-water periods during
the time covered by the gagings. ‘The first was from June, 1894,
to February, 1896, a period of 21 months, during which time there
was a gross runoff of 13.02 inches. Evaporation has been com-
puted for a proposed reservoir of 12.4 square miles water-surface
area, with allowance for actual hight of water during the differ-
ent months. On this basis and with a small allowance for per-
eodlation, leakage, etc. the total evaporation loss for the 21 months
becomes 0.65 inch, leaving a net 'runoff of 12.57 inches. The aver-
age runoff for 21 months was 0.59 inch, or, if we assume 1.43
inches left in reservoir at end of period, the average allowable
runoff becomes 0.52 inch. For 10 months, with some allowance,
the average runoff is 0.30 inch and for 7 months 0.10 inch.

The second period was from June, 1896, to December, 1897, a
period of 19 months, during which time the net runoff was 13.24
inches. The average runoff for 19 months, with 1.24 inches left
in reservoir at end of the period, was-0.63 inch; for 8 months, 0.31
inch, and for 6 months, 0.17 inch. These figures, without being
exhaustive, show that the Genesee river is a somewhat better
water yielder than the Muskingum river. The relation of the
- rainfalls is shown in the tables.

A large number of other interesting and valuable tabulations
could be drawn from these data, specially those relating to
storage. In any case, enough has been said to sustain the state-
ment that streams vary, not only as regards their total capability
of yielding water, but as regards their distribution. In order to
develop a stream to its maximum capacity for either water power
or municipal purposes, it is absolutely indispensable to have a
series of carefully prepared gagings. Lacking these, there should
be gathered as long a rainfall record as possible, from which, by
comparison, the approximate runoff of the stream may be com-
puted. A carefully taken series of gagings is, however, in every
way preferable. .

130

NEW YORK STATE

MUSEUM

We may consider the following data from the Hudson and
Genesee rivers :

RAINFALL, RUNOFF, EVAPORATION AND VARIATION FROM THE MEAN ON
HUDSON AND GENESEE RIVERS

. @)0 0 se ace! in
6 @\'e90\ 6) 6 16 ees
& 4.60 @.0 26 ©
ate; ea 6. @ «4/6
ee Cie © C6 ab
at tetoF eo" er elie. a ¢
fo @ ste “se le ce) » Fa
eeoeevreeeves
eevee ee eee
ove «¢e-0>s 0.0.9

REO s201th.. ff

+ 6h eis) a 6. éatl

620 », & 42 ‘0

Mean ...

Hine

eo).

Rainfall
43 .92
42.96
50.35
42.96
87
18
OF
67

42.
41

Rainfall
47.54
38.12
41.69
39.30

Hudson river

_ 40.33 418.55

Taliog ergm Gee
20.28 —0.68
21.25 +0.29
21.79 +0.83
22.40 +1.44
20.79 —0.17
20.27 —0.69
22.00 +1.04
19.21 . 1%
21.58 +0.62
20.32 —0.64
20.65 —0.31
20.96 —4.24
+4 .22
—0.02
recente eee
26.32 40.14
24.07 —2.11
26.27 +0.09
25.95 —0.238
28.41 42.23
24.88 —1.85
27.88 +1.70
25.01 —1.17
218k op thee
26.18 —5.36
+5.35

fap tanerg Runoff omen
—1.02 23.64 —0.34
—1.98 21.71 —2.27
+5.41 28.56 44.58
—1.98 20.56 —8.42
+8.938 33.08 49.10
—2.76 21.91 —2.07
—3.57 19.387 —4.61
—8.27 17.46 —6.52
40.27 23.63 —0.35
JOT» 2O219) a2
43.36 27.65 43.67
—19.58 238.98 —19.58
+19 .54 +19 .56
—().04 —0).02
Genesee river
fOH IEEE Runoff fonareen
Hto2l hee
—2.21 14.05 —0.11
+1.386 15.42 41.26
—1.08 18.35 —0.81
+7.46 19.88 45.22
—9.33 6.67 —7.49
40.385 12.80 —1.36
—5.94 9.38 —4.78
42.17 15.138 40.97
14.16 —14.55
—18.51 +14.51
+0.04 —0).04

1
LS Sa |

—0.01

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 131

On comparing these two streams, as per the foregoing tabula-
tion, it appears that the water yields are quite different. In
searching for a reason for the difference which appears, the
writer assigns aS a principal cause the difference in forestation,
the Hudson area being still largely in forest, while the Genesee
is almost totally deforested and under cultivation, either for grain
farming or grazing.

By way of still better comparing the rainfall, runoff and
evaporation of these two catchment areas the following tabulation

has been prepared :

COMPARISON OF RAINFALLS, HUDSON AND GENESEE RIVERS

Rainfall Rainfall
of Hudson of Genesee
area Difference

Year area
a ee i ee 50.35 47.54 42.81
ee ee ee ses eee 42.96 38.12 44.84
ee ee ee, mor Le 2) SIR COLL OS 53.87 41.69 412.18
Se IS. IU os PONSOT AND boa Usa! 42.18 39.30 42.88
Pees eerie See es. MCR ere bts kh eresaigei 41.37 47.79 —6.42
Peete Phos Satie. wale Pirsh ostis 46 6s 06.67 31.00 45.67
ee eres Pte el ee. 45.21 40.68 44.53
OS 2 ee 46.51 34.39 412.12
Le RE ee ee ee 48.50 42.50 +5.80

Seen ORL eile uk Soiltal. eT 45.27 40.88 44.94

COMPARISON OF RUNOFFS, HUDSON AND GENESEE RIVERS

Runoff Runoff

Year = pt “one ree E Titerctce
3g cee a py eel hth a hlloae ing Ap SUE 28.56 21.22 +7.34
1891 Rea ee ee eke ee, ee he 20.56 14.05 46.51
2: yas | Pee ees Tee, ET oo SUT 33.08 15.42 417.66
Beer RA ROL 9s, oI, Sistem Peshc9B 591i) 13. 86) 4856
mee onty. ett 9x}: 97h s.ersywabewn olan 19.37 19.38 —0.01
BOOS: fesriears Oa ean Se? bn tend Reade: a3 17.46 6.67 +10.79
es ea eee 23.63 12.80 410.83
Te 26.19 9.38 +16.81
BM ees cates SHRI, SAGAS chien. 27.65 15.13 412.52
Mean ...... te atOG Bik earth e.ced!> ¢ ie.cmetemd) IbskGs; 410: bh

=—=——

132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

COMPARISON OF EVAPORATIONS, HUDSON AND GENESEE RIVERS:

Evaporation Evaporation

Year = sone toh anpdl ~ DiRerpmes
PERO titted ic? bo nade Ae Ae 21.79. . 26.32. —4 53:
TEBLoact> gift ate Pawlak eee 22.40, 24.07 —1.67
18 Bee tek yadtio - aldara boeh 20.79 . 26.27 —5.48
LOS So wees ee ee 20.27... 25.95 .+—5 8
LOA... . Vises «itl oR ee eee 22-00... 28.41. —6.41
LO ol cad ot anietorn thet ati Ce Soke 19.21. 24.33 .—5.12
SOG ov Ceti hat Sec ee eee 21.58 - 27.88, —6.30
REOT i wt ee ee eee eee 20.32 - 25.01 —4.69
ESOS... 2RURE: [4 ANS 5 MEMOS 3445620065, «-243%1r—6.7

Meansesse0 Youacuhee Sere ea ee ee 21.00 26.18 —5.18

It will be noticed that in the first of the two preceding tabula-
tions for the Hudson river, there are eleven years included and
that the average of the rainfall is 44.94 inches; the average runoff
is 23.98 inches, and the average evaporation is 20.96 inches. The
Genesee river, on the contrary, only includes nine years, from
1890 to 1898, inclusive.

In the second tabulation the years 1890-1898, inclusive, have beem

taken for not only the Hudson river, but also for the Genesee, for’
purposes of comparison. The taking of the Hudson river for

nine years instead of eleven makes a slight difference in the means.
The rainfall is 45.27 inches; the runoff, 24.27 inches, and the
evaporation, 21 inches. The Hudson river table is not worked
up to date, although the data are at hand, for the reason that the
Genesee river data do not extend beyond the year 1898. There is
no way, therefore, of comparing the two since that year.?
Variation in weir measurements. The writer has shown? the
considerable variation in weir measurements due to the difference
in form of weir alone. So great are these that any conclusions
based upon the data of sharp-crested weirs applied to other forms

‘Partially abstracted from paper, Data of Stream Flow in Relation to
Forests, by Geo. W. Rafter. Lecture before engineering classes of Cor.
Uni., Ap. 14, 1899. Trans. Assn. of Civ. Engrs. of Cor. Uni., Vol. VII, 1899.

2On the Flow of Water over Dams: Trans. Am. Soc. ©. B., Vol. XLIV,

p. 220.

ed

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 133

are extremely unsatisfactory. In one case of a flat-crested weir,
the flow at a given depth is only 75 per cent of what it is over a
sharp-crested weir. Variations of from 5 per cent to 20 per cent
are common, as may be easily observed by examining the tables in
the paper on the flow of water over dams.t

In view of the importance which gagings are now shown to bear
in estimating the value of a stream for water power or city
water supply, in future every statement of stream flow should
be accompanied by a concise statement of the method of gaging
used, thus permitting hydrologists to judge of the general relia-
bility of the method. Had this been done in the past, some of
the uncertainty which now attaches to many gaging records
would undoubtedly be removed.

Genesee and Hudson gagings reduced to sharp-crested weir
measurements. The writer has shown in another place that Gen-
esee river gagings have been reduced to sharp-crested weir meas-
urements. As to the Hudson gagings, pl. CX XVII in the Report
to the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, may
be cited. This plate is a comparison of the discharge over weirs
by different formulas, and it appears from it that Mullins’s for-
mula for a flat-crested weir, which has been used for the Upper
Hudson gagings, at a depth of 4 feet gives results less than Fran-
cis’s formula for a sharp-crested weir by about 10 per cent. How-
ever, in order to simplify the computation and to avoid velocity
of approach, the width of the crest was taken at 5 feet. Again,
the crest at Mechanicville is not flat, but is slightly sloping back-
ward. The sloping front probably affects the flow to increase it
somewhat. There are also flashboards used during low water,
which are properly computed by Francis’s formula for a sharp-
crested weir. These several elements undoubtedly make the
problem somewhat complicated, but taking everything into
account it is probable that the results as computed are not far
from right. They may, however, be in error as much as 2 inches
per year.’

*On the Flow of Waters over Dams; loc. cit.
*See the diagrams of Hudson and Genesee rivers on this point.

134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

As regards the relation between mean annual temperature and
evaporation, the questions raised by Mr Vermeule are very inter-
esting and have received considerable study from the writer ever
since the publication of Mr Vermeule’s report in 1894. This study
has been specially directed toward determining whether there was
any way of showing by diagrams, definitely, that any such relation
really existed.

Evaporation

FitzGerald’s formula for evaporation. We may consider Mr

FitzGerald’s formula for evaporation,! which is

Mian 00

In this formula V=the maximum force of vapor in inches of
mercury corresponding to the temperature of the water; v—the
force of vapor present in the air; W=the velocity of the wind in
miles per hour; and E=the evaporation in inches of depth per
hour. It can be shown that there is going on nearly always a
condensation of moisture from the air upon any water surface.
At the same time there is going on a loss of moisture from the
water surface by evaporation. The intensity of both these opera-
tions depends upon the difference in temperature between the air
and any water surface with which it may be in contact. When
the temperature of air and water is the same, theoretically both
processes stop. Broadly, evaporation may be said to measure the
difference of these two exchanges. Wind velocity also exerts a
decided effect on the intensity of evaporation. .

For illustrative purposes, v, the force of vapor present in the air
may be computed by the following:

Basu waln 0,.480(t—1') ‘ (31)
1130—7’
In which v=force of vapor in the air at time of observation ;
aa V—force of vapor in a saturated air at temperature
2 as aie
t—temperature of the air in Fahrenheit degrees, in-
dicated by the dry bulb;
t’==temperature of evaporation given by wet bulb;
h==hight of barometer. |

ee ie a a

'Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XV, pp. 581-646.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 135

The temperatures indicated by the foregoing formula (31) are
above the freezing point. For temperatures below the freezing
point, the denominator of the fraction in the second member of
the formula should be 1240.2—?’. For Centigrade degrees, the
denominator of the fraction should be, when the temperature of
the dry bulb is above the freezing point, 610—t’, and when the
temperature of the wet bulb is below the freezing point, the bulb
being covered by a film of ice, the denominator should be 689—?’.?

There is no difference between evaporation from a water surface
and evaporation from land, except that on a water surface it goes
on continuously, while on land evaporation may be interrupted
from lack of something to evaporate. The preceding formul?
shows that*the force of vapor is dependent upon the difference o/
the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and not in any degree upor
the mean annual temperature.

Evaporation relations. Prof. Cleveland Abbe? gives the follow-
ing relations of evaporation, as established by Prof. Thomas Tate:

a) Other things being the same, the rate of evaporation is
nearly proportional to the difference of the temperatures indi-
cated by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers.

b) Other things being the same, the augmentation of evapora-
tion due to air in motion is nearly proportional to the velocity of
the wind. |

c) Other things being the same, the evaporation is nearly in-
versely proportional to the pressure of the atmosphere.

*In the original discussion of this matter, in paper on Relation of Rain-
fall to Runoff, there is an error of statement in formula (31). The de-
nominator of the second member should be 1130—t’, instead of 689—t’.
The former expression is for Fahrenheit degrees, while the latter is for
Centigrade degrees, and with the bulb covered by a film of ice.

In formula (30), it will be noted that Mr. FitzGerald makes V the maxi-
mum force of vapor in inches of mercury corresponding to the temperature
of the water. Recent study of this matter indicates that there is considerable
doubt whether formula (31) strictly applies in the computation of V, but
since for present purposes an illustration of the matter is all that is needed,
it is not attempted to settle these difficult questions in physics here.

“Preparatory Studies for Deductive Methods in Storm and Weather Pre-
dictions, by Prof. Cleveland Abbe: Ann. Rept. Chief Signal Oflicer for 1889,
Part I, Appendix 15.

136 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM :

d) The rate of evaporation of moisture from damp, porous sub-
stances of the same material is proportional to the extent of the
surface presented to the air, without regard to the relative thick-
ness of the substances. |

e) The rate of evaporation from different substances mainly
depends upon the roughness of, or inequalities on, their surfaces,
the evaporation going on most rapidly from the roughest or most
uneven surfaces; in fact, the best radiators are the best vaporizers
of moisture.

f) The evaporation from equal surfaces composed of the same
material is the same, or very nearly the same, in a quiescent atmos-
phere, whatever may be the inclination of the surfaces: thus a
horizontal plate with its damp face upward evaporates as much
as One with its damp face downward. |

g) The rate of evaporation from a damp surface (namely, a
horizontal surface facing upward) is very much affected by the
elevation at which the surface is placed above the ground.

h) The rate of evaporation is affected by the radiation of sur-
rounding bodies.

i) The diffusion of vapor from a damp surface through a
variable column of air varies (approximately) in the inverse ratio
of the depth of the column, the temperature being constant.

j) The amount of vapor diffused varies directly as the tension
of the vapor at a given temperature, and inversely as the depth
of the column of air through which the vapor has to pass.

k) The time in which a given volume of dry air becomes sat-
urated with vapor, or saturated within a given percentage, is
nearly independent of the temperature if the source of vapor is
constant. ;

1) The times in which different volumes of dry air become sat-
urated with watery vapor, or saturated within a given per cent,
are nearly proportional to the volumes.

m) The vapor already formed diffuses itself in the atmosphere
much more rapidly than it is formed from the surface of the
water. (This assumes, of course, that there are no convection
currents of air to affect the evaporation or the diffusion.)

Effect of wind and other meteorological elements. That the
velocity of the wind must have a very material effect upon evap-
oration, and hence upon the runoff of streams, is at once apparent
on inspection of Mr FitzGerald’s evaporation formula, given ina

preceding section. Again, on examining the annual summaries

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 137

in the report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau the average yearly
velocity of wind is found to vary from about 5 miles to 16 or 18
miles. With other conditions the same, evaporation will be much
larger with a higher wind velocity.

The preceding summary of evaporation relations further shows
that evaporation will vary in some degree in proportion to
pressure, temperature, moisture—which may be taken to include
dewpoint, relative humidity, vapor pressure, precipitation, and
cloudiness—and, finally, in proportion to average velocity of the
wind. It may also be expected to vary in some degree in propor-
tion to electrical phenomena—thunderstorms, auroras, etc.—but
as yet we know so little about these that they can be no more
than mentioned. The writer, however, believes that studies in the
direction here indicated would be very prolific of results. For
this purpose two or three stations, observing all the elements
herein enumerated, should be established in each catchment area.

In the present study an attempt has been made to correlate
these elements with the runoff, but, aside from the rainfall, the
data are too indefinite for satisfactory results. It is for these
reasons, with others, that the writer is able to give only tentative
conclusions in regard to the relation of rainfall to the runoff of
streams.

Persistency of evaporation. The persistency of the amount of
evaporation for any given stream at about the same figure through
7 long periods of time was first pointed out by Messrs. Lawes, Gil-
bert, and Warrington in their classical paper On the Amount and
Composition of Rain and Drainage Waters Collected at Rothamp-
sted, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England for 1881. As to why evaporation exhibits such per-
sistency these distinguished authors consider it largely due to the
fact that the two principal conditions which determine large
evaporation—namely, excessive heat and abundant rain—very
rarely occur together. The result is, specially in the English
climate, a balance of conditions unfavorable to large evaporation.
In a wet season, when the soil is kept well supplied with water,

1388 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

there is at the same time an atmosphere more or less saturated,
with an absence of sunshine; while in dry seasons the scarcity of
rain results in great dryness of the soil, with scant, slow evapora-
tion.? .

Negative evaporation. Ina strictly scientific sense this term is
taken to mean that when the temperature of the evaporating sur-
face is lower than the dewpoint, water is deposited on that sur-
face. As regards the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation tables,
herewith included, negative evaporation means that the runoff
for certain months is greater than the rainfall. Sometimes this
may legitimately happen when a heavy rainfall comes at the end
of the month, or when, with much snowfall, the temperature of
the month is mostly below freezing. In order to show as much
as possible in regard thereto, the writer gives the detail for each
of the tables of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers,
together with a tentative view as to the real significance of the
so-called negative evaporation.

On Muskingum river, during the 8 years gaged, negative evapo-
ration is Shown only twice for one month. .

On Genesee river the detailed tabulation shows negative evapo-
ration 5 times for one month and once for two consecutive months,
a total of 7 months in all.

On Croton river, for the entire period of 32 years, negative
evaporation is shown 29 times for one month and 6 times for two
consecutive months, a total of 41 months in all.

On Hudson river negative evaporation is shown 7 times for one
month and 4 times for two consecutive months, a total of 15
months.

The writer has no doubt that, except in very cold climates, when
negative evaporation occurs for three or more consecutive months,
there is an error in the gagings. He also doubts their accuracy
somewhat when negative evaporation appears for two consecutive
months. As regards the storage period, there is no difficulty in

1Since the presistency of evaporation has been extensively discussed in
the writer’s paper on Stream Flow in Relation to Forests, it is merely
touched on here.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 139

accepting it for one month as true, because rainfall or snowfall
at the end of the month can be easily carried over to the next.
This is also true sometimes for two months, but for the present
it seems quite doubtful that other than in exceedingly rare cases
would negative evaporation occur for three consecutive months.
Its occurrence for six consecutive months, or for the entire storage
* period, is believed to be impossible. It may, however, be again
pointed out that its occurrence renders an attempt at monthly
diagrams showing the relation between rainfall and runoff absurd.

Assuming that the foregoing propositions are reasonably true,
it follows that the frequency of the occurrence of negative
evaporation in gaging records may be in some degree a criterion
as to their accuracy. The writer, however, does not wish to urge
this very strongly, but merely to point it out as a possibility.
The writer hag no desire to be insistent on this point. There is
very little on the subject of negative evaporation in engineering
literature, and the writer will be glad to have the observations
and conclusions of others.

In a report on the flow of the river Thames, by A. R. Binnie,
Chief Engineer of the London County Council,' the matter of nega-
tive evaporation is elaborately discussed, and in order to obtain
all the information possible about it Mr Binnie applied to

George J. Symons, F. R. S., to assist him in arriving at some
approximate idea on the subject. Mr Symons submitted an exceed-
ingly lucid and conclusive report. Eleven distinct cases of nega-
tive evaporation were submitted to him for study and comment.
In regard to these he arrived at the following conclusions:

1) Under normal] conditions a fall of rain will increase the flow
at Teddington weir on the second day after it falls.

2) Under normal conditions the water running off from any
given fall of rain will all reach Teddington weir before the tenth
subsequent day.

3) In the winter an interval of two months, or in extreme

cases even more, may elapse between the precipitation of moisture
from the clouds and its flow over Teddington weir.

*Report on the Flow of the River Thames, by A. R. Binnie. Publication
of the London County Council, dated November 1, 1892.

140 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

As a consequence of (2) it is clear that a heavy rainfall on the
last days of any month may not appear at the point of gaging
until the next month. Mr Symons also states that the one great
fact which has been impressed upon him by these investigations
is the effect of winter frosts in regulating the flow of the river
Thames and in mitigating winter floods.

These conclusions are more specially intended to apply to the
river Thames. Hence, while it is true that so-called negative
evaporation exists on all of the streams considered, the condi-
tions are nevertheless very different, and in the United States the
effect of holding back the flow of streams by frosts is in very many
cases to precipitate a flood of water later on. This element
would hardly be considered with us as either a river regulator or
as mitigating floods.t

Evaporation at Ogdensburg. Observations of the amount of
evaporation from water surfaces in New York were made by
Prof. James Coffin, Principal of Ogdensburg Academy, in 1888.
The following are Professor. Coffin’s results for the year 1838, as
taken from the Regents’ reports for 1839:

Rainfall, gine einen
Month inches inches Fe

Aan BAY, ~ 2 eat 4 fhe eee 2.36 1.65 24.8
Bebrwary joss, oie gis 92d ij acne 0.97 0.82 12.3°
1 OS emer Ee err ay eae eee ee ee 1.18 2.07 32.9
ft | eee ee, ae Oe es Be eT ere (). 40 1.62 39.8
A san us Se case oe ee a eee ae 4.81 7.10 52.5
ME. 5 555.05) ie Ce ee Oe 6.75 66.5
PE aw Wievaty aie gee Ae 1.88 €.19 (ies
Arosuet!. 22 CIT EW AGT JP, AR 2.55 ~' 642 68.3
PICICIIET Ci. soe ate a eee ee tee 1.01 7.40 59.2
WEOCE soso. egal? eh 2.13 he OD 44.6
IWOVETRDED os is;.c vou hae Rae timas 2.07 3.66 29 5:f
Decmnder.; 244. deleted wit to. Li 1.08 1.15 19.4

Total... . Aiea. natyntivbhas «99 24.61 49 .36 43.5

‘Negative evaporation is discussed somewhat more extensively in the
writer’s paper, The Relation of Rainfall to Runoff, than it is here.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 141

Professor Coffin’s results were obtained by observing the varia-
tions of weight of a dish of water of the same size as the rain
gage, with which the evaporation determinations are compared.
This method would probably give results considerably in excess of
the truth. Moreover, a single year is too short a period for safe
results.

Croton Water Department evaporation records. Table No. 29
presents the results of evaporation for certain indicated months
(1) for the years 1867-1870, at Boyd’s Corners storage reservoir,
Putnam county, as determined by J. J. R. Croes,! from a wooden
tank sunk in the earth; (2), for certain indicated months, 1864-
1869, inclusive, from a wooden tank sunk in the earth at the
receiving reservoir in the City of New York; (3), from a wooden
tank in a batteau at the receiving reservoir in New York, and
(4), from a tin box in a batteau at the receiving reservoir in New
York.

The foregoing evaporation experiments are referred to in a
paper by Mr Croes on the flow of the West Branch of Croton river.
The gage used was a tight wooden tank 4x4x3 feet, sunk in the
earth in an exposed situation and filled with water. As indi-
cated, the mean evaporation at Boyd’s Corners for the
indicated months was 24.47 inches, while at a_ similar
tank at the reservoir in New York city it was 34.06
inches. Mr Croes attributes the difference in these results
to the different methods of observation and measurement,
and states that the Boyd’s Corners observations were made twice
a day, and any discrepancies that might have occurred were thus
found and corrected at once, while the observations at the reser-
voir in New York city were made only once a month, the differ-
ence between the reading of the gage on the tank and the ob-
served rainfall being taken as evaporation. Mr Croes therefore
considers the work done at Boyd’s Corners reservoir as more
reliable. |

“Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. III, 1874.

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144 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Evaporation at Rochester. Tables Nos. 30 and 31 give evapora-
tion at Rochester! for the indicated months of the years 1892-1903,
inclusive. The data of table No. 30 have been obtained by ob-
Serving the changes in elevation of the water surface in a tub
fioating on the surface of Mount Hope reservoir of the Rochester
waterworks, and may be taken as representing the approximate
evaporation from a free water surface in western New York.

Table No. 31 gives evaporation from a water surface in an ex-
posed tub on land for the same years and months as are included
in table No. 30.

Observations of evaporation from water surfaces for a month
or two have been reported from one or two other places, but so far
as results of any value in actual work are concerned, the forego-
ing include everything thus far determined in this State.

Drain gages at Geneva. In 1882 the Agricultural Experiment
Station at Geneva constructed three drain gages or lysimeters for
the purpose of collecting and measuring drainage and evapora-
tion from the soil. These gages are described in the annual report
of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1882, as
follows:

Box frames a little over twenty-five inches square and three
deep, internal diameter, were made of oak plank, strongly ironed
at the corners. These boxes were lined with heavy copper fas-
tened to the boxes at intervals by means of heavy copper tacks,
and the projection of the copper at the top and bottom bent over
the wood and securely tacked, the area measuring after the cop-
per was in place 25.04 inches square, or one ten-thousandth of an
acre. The copper was strongly soldered at the joinings, and the
tack heads securely soldered into place after being slightly coun-
tersunk. May 29 these frames, three in number, were fitted with
a temporary cutting edge of angle iron screwed to the lower sur-
face, the cutting edge being parallel with the inside face of the
box, and the bevel toward the outside and placed over the sod.
By means of a heavy weight placed on top, aided by heavy mauls
with which blows were struck upon each of two opposite corners
consecutively, a ditch being dug along the outside as the box en-
tered the soil, these frames were forced their whole depth into the
soil. A heavy flat section of boiler iron, the edge sharpened, was

‘Annual Report of Executive Board and of the City Engineer of Rochester.

145°

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 147

then forced underneath, cutting the frame and contents free, the
box and contents inverted, and a bottom of copper, dishing slightly
to a common center, where a pipe was inserted and securely sol-
dered, and to which a perforated guard was attached, was strongly
fastened into position by bending the copper sides over the edge
of this bottom piece and securely soldering.

These three boxes were then carried from the point of filling
to the drain-gage lawn, where they were placed carefully in posi-
tion, their surfaces level with the surrounding ground and the
pipe which passed from their bottom carried into a subterranean
alcove built below them, and upon the arch of which the boxes
rested, with the intervention of about six inches of soil. These
alcoves branched from a pit carefully arched and to which admit-
tance is obtained by steps. A bottle kept under each drain gage
and to which the pipe leads enables us to collect all the water
which drains through, and a graduated measure enables us to
measure this water in thousandths of an inch, thus making a
ready comparison with the rainfall, a record of which is kept by
one of Green’s eight-inch gages located alongside.

In order to estimate the drainage from different kinds of soil,
these gages have different classes of surfaces. On the surface of
No. 1 is a heavy sod; of No. 2 the surface is bare and undisturbed ;
while of No.3 the surface is kept pulverized during the open sea-
son by frequent stirring with a trowel. °

An edging of hard brass, one inch high, extends around the top
of the frames, accurately defining the area. Hence, all the rain-
fall over the area is compelled to enter the soil and by measuring
the amount percolating, we can account for the balance which
evaporates. Having the three gages we can calculate the amount
of water evaporated from growing sod, from a bare surface and
from a stirred surface, respectively. The difference between the
precipitation and drainage from such gages is taken to represent
the evaporation from the ground.

In order to show the meteorological conditions existing at
Geneva, table No. 32, Precipitation at Geneva Agricultural Ex-
periment Station for the Water Years 1883-1889, Inclusive, is
given. This table, however, while apparently a table of precipi-
tation, does not give a complete record of precipitation in the
form of snow and is somewhat deficient as to quantity during the
winter months. Nevertheless there is a tendency to very low

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 149

records at the north ends of the valleys in this vicinity, as at
Hemlock lake, Avon, Penn Yan, Lyons and a number of other
places, and the Geneva record is probably not very far out of the
way.

In order to compare the precipitation record with that of the
drain gages the precipitation for the water years 1883 to 1889, in-
clusive, is given—the yearly mean for the period is 25.99 inches.
The yearly mean precipitation at Hemlock lake for the water
years 1877-1900, inclusive, is 27.70 inches. The mean of the stor-
age period at Geneva from 1883-1889, inclusive, is 8.89 inches,
while at Hemlock lake it is 12.21 inches, indicating that if these
two records are otherwise comparable the Geneva record is short
in the storage period a little over 3 inches.

Continuous records were kept at Penn Yan from 1829-1867.
The mean rainfall for the water year of this period of forty-eight
years was 27.93 inches, or substantially the same as Hemlock lake.

For the calendar year of 1899 the recorded precipitation at the
Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station was 19.35 inches, while
at Lyons for the water year 1899 it was 20.91 inches. On account
of the uncertainty as to the winter months, the Geneva record is
not used in compiling the average precipitation of the Oswego
basin as given in table No. 34.

In table No. 33, Percolation of Drain Gages at Geneva Agri-
cultural Experiment Station for the Water Years 1883-1889, In-
clusive, we have the runoff of the three drain gages given for the
water years, divided into storage, growing and replenishing
periods, and in table No. 34, Runoff Data of Oswego River at High
Dam for the Water Years, 1897-1901, Inclusive, we have given the
rainfall, runoff and evaporation for these years. This table shows
that the average runoff for the years included was 11.07 inches,
while the preceding table shows that the average runoff from the
sod for the seven years, 1883-1889, inclusive, was 5.07 inches;
from bare soil, 7.55 inches, and from cultivated soil, 11.12 inches.
The average rainfall during the years 1883-1889, inclusive, was
according to the record at Geneva 25.99 inches, while during the
years 1897-1901, inclusive, it was 36.50 inches. This excess of
rainfall in the period 1897-1901, over what it was in the period
1883-1889, would, by itself, cause a largely increased runoff. In

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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Runoff in inehes

Runoff in inches

Runotl in inches

152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

order to compare the two we may plat diagrams showing the rela-
tion between precipitation and runoff in the years 1897-1901, in-

clusive. These diagrams may be extended so that they will show
ssf :
Poot CH
an a Ss =e

an BECRRERES UBSERREERRBZSHS BuUaaee aS

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Rainfall in inches.

Fig. 1 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in
the Oswego river catchment during the storage period.

Rainfall in inches,
Fig. 2 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in
the Oswego river catchment during the growing period.

g FEET moo
roo Coo

Rainfall in inches.

Fig. 3 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation and runoff in
the Oswego river catchment during the replenishing period.

approximately the runoff with a lower rainfall, as 2 the water
years 1883-1889, No. 1, 2 and 8 are such
diagrams as platted from the record of the runoff of Oswego river,
1897-1901, inclusive.

inclusive. Figures

eee HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 153

In order to extend these diagrams to lower limits, there are a
few points platted from the extreme low water of Desplaines,
Muskingum and Genesee rivers, these latter being indicated on the
diagrams. Taking from these diagrams the probable runoff of
Oswego river for the water years 1883-1889, inclusive, we have

for:
1883— Inches
co LS SRS bE Sok ie glee eae aie eee ER a 3.00
LE Bae ek Ee ee ee eer eee a 1.75
oe Sain a. ee 0.80
LL TE Da ae Se can ees 2). 55)
1884—
OUTS RS a eee ee ee See ere ea 3.40
oe ie a. ole Tat geile eK Bas Rae ae = 0.50
SS pe 8 OE gS eRe at et ose Opn See ee Sn 0.80
eg Te BS ie dee ee ae, a 4.70
-1885—
DS SS SS BA eS Ree ee ee See 1.70
gS BS 8 ee eg 2.60
tO ANE og en ale Sone Ponte dst eh eof 0.70
Wearty: total 2.3). a: Mp Kees 3 21 5.00
1886—
1 SOS A age cn eee se 3.30)
DeNSEIE oh en chalk w ch Sa see WE ad snc 1.60
EES ERIS) es Sate 7 ane ae, Oe ee a 0.85
Seen CORE. Cea ok tee ee oe de 9.75
1887—
oo. 2 ep aemags, 6 SLOP On, au a dae aa 2.00
OL a, ee SE eerie: era” Be 2.20
co ES eee ee ots" Bde ee en Oo ae

crept pki 2 ie RS IRR ta ae or AI an aa a 4.70

NEW YORE STATE MUSEUM

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155

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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156 NEW. YORK STATE MUSEUM

1888— Inches
Sterdge Jol Ski ee Races ae ead 3.50
Gro Wahi +.342. Ba tubscs 3G sg die oe oes ase eae be eee 1.15
Replenishing ~<a hae ee ee 1.00

Yearly: totaks 2A te or ee eee 5.65

1889— “!
Storage .. 6... eee eee 3.10
GOrowige 0. 26s Poe oe eer 3.95
Replensshingy 20h 5.2.s-8 Fae re i eee ee ‘1.05

Yea vlogs: ae. eee ee Th diane pcg | boone
Mean 7.2 Uo PY ead Oe ieee 5.68

Comparing the foregoing mean of 5.63 inches with the mean of
runoff from sod, bare soil and cultivated soil, as per table No. 38,
we see that the mean of all is 7.91 inches. If, however, we omit
the years 1886 and 1889, which appear to be abnormally high, we
find that the mean of all is 5.77 inches, which compares very
closely with the mean found by the computation. Undoubtedly
there is some inaccuracy in the record of the drain gages, as well
as in the record of the precipitation, and the foregoing computa-
tion is given chiefly to show that with good data the computa-
tion of runoff from a rainfall record can be made with consider-
able precision.

In the Sixth Annual Report of the Geneva Agricultural Experi-
ment Station (1887) it is stated that discussion of the results
from these drain gages has been deferred, hoping that sufficient
data would reconcile the discrepancies existing between the drain
gage results and what apparently takes place in outside soils.t. In
regard to the discrepancies, the foregoing discussion as to over-
sight in precipitation records largely explains them and probably
further discussion is unnecessary.

Nevertheless, it should be stated that in an ordinary drain gage,
since the soil within the gage is not in connection with a perma-
nent water table, the acquisition of water by capillarity from

‘Report of Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva for 1887, p. 389.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK . 157

beneath is excluded and the conditions within the gage are differ-
ent from those existing in outside soil. This leads to the earth
within the gage becoming abnormally dry in times of drought, and
on the advent of rain absorbing more water than it would if not
thus isolated. In order to obviate some of these possible diffi-
culties, new drain gages were constructed in 1888, which differ
from the preceding gages by being provided with an artificial

water table which is kept at a nearly constant hight by the addi-

tion of sufficient water, daily, to make up the loss by evaporation.

An even distribution of water is insured by a layer of pebbles
placed at the bottom covered with another of clean sand, the lat-
ter reaching up far enough to cover the drain pipe. The soil
above, while not directly in contact with water, rests upon a satu-
rated layer of sand. Four drain gages were constructed on the
new plan—two contain a column of soil three feet in depth, ex-
clusive of the sand at the bottom, while the other two contain a
column of soil six feet in depth. One of each pair was filled with
soil in place in order to preserve its natural composition and
solidity. The other was filled with air-dried and sifted garden
soil. Each drain gage was made of whiteoak staves of equal
width, cylindrical in form and lined with sheet copper. The area
was one ten-thousandth of an acre as before.

The cylinders filled with soil in place were sunk about the col-
umns of soil by excavating on the outside and dressing down the
column to fit the inside of the cylinder. The cylinder having been
sunk to the desired depth was inclined to one side sufficiently to
break the column of soil at the lower end, when the plank bottom
was inserted into the fissure thus formed. After various manipu-
Jations which it is not necessary to describe, the cylinder was
lifted with jackscrews until it could be rolled out of the excava-
tion, after which it was loaded upon a wagon and hauled to the
pit prepared for it, where it was unloaded, with the end intended
to enter the soil upward. The plank bottom was removed and six
inches of earth taken out to make room for the layer of sand and
gravel upon which the column of soil rests. The drain tube was
inserted, soldered to place, after which the copper: bottom was

158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

soldered on. The space between the copper bottom and the end
ot the cylinder was fitted with a false bottom, after which a plank
bottom was put on and securely fastened by means of angle iron.
The drain gage was then lowered to position by means of an in-
clined plane and a windlass. After connecting drain pipe with
drain gage pit, it was inserted and soldered to place.

The apparatus for supplying water to these gages is quite dif-
ferent from the usual form. When there is percolation from the
drain gage, the water percolated flows out through a drain cock
and is collected in a bottle beneath it. On the other hand, if the
soil of the drain gage absorbs some of the bottom water, the level
of the latter falls, permitting a bubble of air to enter, which passes
upward and is conducted into the upper part of a reservoir out-
side the gage. This allows an equal quantity of water to pass out
of the reservoir into the drainage tube.

Table No. 35, New Drain Gage Record, June to December, Inclu-
sive, 1889, from the Report of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion for 1890, gives some of the particulars of the workings of these
new drain gages.

These new drain gages were not satisfactory and the record was
discontinued after December, 1899.

The hight of water in wells. The hight of water in wells is
related to evaporation, and in order to show some of the phe-
nomena connected with the movements of ground water, a series
of measurements were made during 1887-1889, inclusive, of the
hight of water in an abandoned well at the Geneva Agricultural
Experiment Station. The well is forty feet deep and situated
near the top of a ridge of such a hight that in three directions it
is necessary to go only a few hundred feet before reaching land
lower than the bottom of the well, while in the fourth direction
there is a railroad cut, the bottom of which is but slightly above
that of the well.

The measurements began December 1, 1886, and were continued
daily until the end of 1889. In table No. 36, Hight of Ground
Water in an Abandoned Well at the Geneva Agricultural Experi-
ment Station from December, 1886, to December, 1889, Inclusive,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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43

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ; 161

we have given the distance from the curb to the water surface on
the first day of December, 1886, and on the first day of each month
thereafter, and also the rainfall of the preceding month.

1886. __ 1887. 1888. 1889.

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(Scale for hight of ground water in feet and for rainfall in inches.)

Fig. 4 Diagram showing the relation between rainfall and hight of ground
water at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, from December 1,
1886, to December 1, 1889.

In the cut, figure No. 4, the figures in table No. 36, have been
platted, showing graphically the relation between rainfall and
hight of ground water for the three years from December 1, 1886,
to December 1, 1889, inclusive. In discussing these records, the
Acting Meteorologist of the Agricultural Experiment Station
notes the following facts:

1) Fluctuations in the precipitation from month to month did
not muzh affect the hight of the water-table. The very light pre-
cipitation of January, 1887, did not stop the rise of the water-
table, nor did the extremely large rainfall of July of the same year
cause the water-table to stop falling.

2) The rapid rise in the water-table from January 7 to April
1, 1888, or from December 1, 1888, to January 1, 1889, was not
due to large precipitation during this time, nor was the fall from
May 7 to November 1, 1888, due to small precipitation.

3) The rapid rise of water from November 18 to December 1,
1889, was in part at least due to the heavy rainfall of the 18th to
23d, which found the soil nearly or quite saturated. The rainfall
for that time was 2.60 inches, foNowed by 0.51 inch more during
the latter days of November,

162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Although evaporation played an important part in the fluctua-
tions, so far as appears from the report, this element was not
taken into account in drawing the foregoing conclusions.

The error in precipitation, due to not fully taking into account
the amount of snow, should also be considered.

Relation of Geologic Structure to Runoff

Among the principal factors affecting stream flow should
be noted the structure and texture of the rocks, specially
those of the surface. For example, in regions with stiff, heavy,
clay soils, a larger proportion of the winter rainfall runs off
on the surface, passing immediately into the streams, than
is the case in regions with open, porous soils or extensive
sandy areas, while in summer a much smaller proportion runs
off. But such streams have a very much smaller ground-
water flow, from whence it results that the total runoff per
year is smaller than for streams with open, sandy soils.
The Genesee and Hudson rivers represent the extremes of
the State in this particular. A general knowledge of the
surface geology is therefore desirable in a study of the water
resources of the State. The relative position and area of the dif-
ferent geologic formations are best shown on the large Geologic
Map of New York prepared by Dr F. J. H. Merrill, State Geolo-
gist, in 1901 (scale 5 miles to the inch). A similar but smaller map
by the same author,showing essentially the same features was also
printed in 1894 under authority of the Regents of the University to
accompany the Report on the Mineral Exhibit of New York at the
World’s Columbian Exposition, this being on the scale of approxi-
mately 14 miles to an inch. This map was also published with
Bulletin 15 of the State Museum and was reproduced in 1901 by
Edward A. Bond, State Engineer, in his report on the proposed
barge canal. On examining either of these maps one will note
the preponderance, so far as area is concerned, of two classes of
rocks—the ancient crystallines, which cover a large area in the
northern part of the State, and the conglomerates, sandstones and
shales of the Devonian, which form the greater part of the Appa-
Jachjan plateau, stretching from Lake Erie across the State to

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 163

within a short distance of the Hudson river, this being the area
classified by the State Weather Bureau under the names of the
Eastern and Western plateaus. The streams from the northern
crystalline area undoubtedly furnish the best water supply of the
State. This is probably not due wholly to the character of the
rocks, as many other factors contribute to this result.

The sandstones of the Upper Devonian along the northern
boundary of Pennsylvania are bounded on the north by the long
narrow belts of outcrop of the underlying rocks stretching in a
general easterly and westerly direction. The streams pursuing a
general northerly course pass in succession across these. AS a
rule, the soils of the region are heavy, with considerable clay, and
the rainfall being absorbed somewhat slowly, a considerable por-
tion of it flows directly into the watercourses. The primeval
forest has for the most part been cut away and heavy floods are
common, such as those of the Genesee and Chemung rivers,
described more fully on a later page.

The only streams of this region on which extensive discharge
measurements have been made are the Genesee river and its tribu-
tary, Oatka creek. Streams of similar character in western Penn-
sylvania, however, have been measured for a number of years by
the Philadelphia Water Department, and the results of these meas-
urements are available for comparison and discussion. The
results obtained on the Pennsylvania streams, the Neshaminy,
Tohickon and Perkiomen, are applicable particularly in estimates
of the flow of the tributaries of Delaware river, rising in New
York State, and to the more easterly streams which form the
Susquehanna.

The catchment basins of the Oswego, Mohawk and Hudson
rivers are so highly composite as regards geologic formations and
embrace such a wide variation in topography and surface geology
that no definite deductions concerning the effect of the formations
on water flow have been drawn. The streams of Long Island,
rising among the sands, tills and gravels of comparatively recent,
unconsolidated formations, offer peculiar conditions, which are
discussed on a later page.

164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

We have seen in the preceding that it is somewhat uncertain
whether difference in soil due to difference in character of rocks
has much influence on the runoff, although casually it appears that
sandy soils, from theiz porousness, do considerably affect the
result. Recent European studies of this subject have shown
(1) that in many river basins the annual runoff stands in a nearly
constant relation to the rainfall, and (2) that this constancy is
more marked when the excess rainfall above a certain minimum
annual depth is considered. This latter statement is equivalent to
saying that if the yearly rainfall is less than such minimum depth
little or no runoff will take place.t

The general truth of this proposition is shown by many western
streams where the runoff is little or nothing. In New Jersey 12
inches of rain during the summer season produce a runoff of 1.5
inches, though others have stated a somewhat different relation.
In the State of New York from 1.7 to 2 inches may be considered
the general range. As to the amount of rain required to produce
any runoff at all, from 12.5 to 16.5 inches have been given. For
this minimum many western streains do not run more than 0.25
to 0.5 inch, and some even are perfectly dry. These statements
indicate that the character of the soil, nature of vegetation, the
elevation, etc. are of comparatively small importance as regards
relation between the yearly volumes of rainfall and runoff. If,
however, we consider the rainfall and runoff of the several periods,
as shown by the accompanying tables, it is not entirely certain
that these propositions are other than approximately true. The
weight of evidence indeed is, on the whole, negative. Mr Ver-
meule is disposed to attribute nearly all of the differences between
streams to difference in geology, and accordingly gives a geologic
classification for the New Jersey streams. Mr Vermeule says:

As a rule, the watersheds which lie upon the same geological
formation will be found to have a strong resemblance, both in the
character of flow and in the chemical composition of the waters.

Yet, as will be shown later, the Genesee and Oswego rivers, two
streams with approximately the same runoff, lie mostly in differ-

1Barge Canal Report, p. 798.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 165

ent geologic formations. As regards quality of soils, Mr Ver-
meule also says:

It may be inferred that the kind of soil has much less to do
with the amount of evaporation than has the temperature.

As regards the relation between geology and runoff, it is
undoubtedly complicated, although it is interesting to note that in
the State of New York streams which flow from the north into the
Mohawk river, after crossing over a narrow strip of Trenton lime-
stone and Calciferous sand rock,and which head in the Laurentian
granite of the Adirondacks, have larger flows than those coming
to the Mohawk from the south, which lie mostly in the horizon of
the Hamilton shales, the headwaters of some of them—as, for
instance, Schoharie creek—being in the sandstones of the Che-
mung and Portage groups. In their lower reaches they cross over
the sandstones and shales of the Hudson and Utica groups, with
narrow strips of Helderberg limestone, Oriskany sandstone, and.
Onondaga limestone.

However, there is another consideration. The headwaters of
the streams to the north of the Mohawk nearly all lie in a region
heavily timbered—some of it is still primeval forest—while those
to the south are from a highly cultivated country, practically
deforested.

We may now consider the case of the Genesee and Oswego rivers,
referring to the large Geologic Map of the State of New York.

Genesee river has an average rainfall of about 40 inches and
Oswego river of about 37 inches. That portion of Genesee river
which has been gaged lies almost entirely in the shales and sand-
stones of the Portage and Chemung groups. Oswego river, on the
contrary, lies in the horizon of the Portage sandstones and shales,
Hamilton shales, Onondaga and Helderberg limestones, Oriskany
sandstone, the rocks of the Salina or Salt group, the Lockport
limestone, Clinton limestone and shales, Medina sandstones, and
Utica sandstones and shales, including the Oswego sandstone.
The Chemung, Portage, and Hamiltou formations have a wide
outcrop, while the Onondaga, Oriskany, and Helderberg are com-

166 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

paratively narrow bands. The Salina, Lockport, Clinton, and
Utica formations are all of considerable extent. Both of these
streams are practically without forests, although slight exception
to this statement may be noted on the extreme headwaters of the
Genesee river in Pennsylvania, where there is still a small area of
partially cut forest.

It is an interesting circumstance that the geologic formations
in which the Genesee and Oswego rivers lie all have a slope to the
south or southwest of from 10 to 30 feet per mile. The main
trend of the Genesee river is south and north, while the two main
branches of Oswego river—Seneca and Oneida—lie east and west.
The Mohawk also flows from west to east. On this basis the
Portage, Hamilton, Onondaga, Oriskany, Helderberg, and Salina
groups lie mostly south of the Seneca and Oneida rivers, while a
portion of the Salina, Niagara, Clinton and Medina groups lie
mostly to the north. It is interesting, therefore, to speculate as
to whether it-is possible that considerable water escapes through
these formations, finally appearing far to the south, but in the
lack of any certain evidence this must be considered as merely a
speculation.

It may be also noted that for tributaries of the Mohawk river
lying to the north, the stratified formations—Utica shales, Tren-
ton group, Calciferous sand rock, etc.—slope toward the stream,
and hence may be expected, if there is anything in this view, to
deliver more water than that merely due to the rainfall of the
catchment as measured on the surface. |

On the Upper Mohawk there is some evidence that this is true.
The limestones here are open, and at several places streams on the
surface sink, to reappear, in one case at any rate, with greatly
increased volume several miles farther down. This condition is
specially marked on the headwaters of the main Mohawk a few
miles south of Boonville. Again, at Howe’s Cave, in Schoharie
county, there is a large stream of water flowing in the cave which,
so far as known, does not appear anywhere on the surface.

The Muskingum river may be mentioned. This stream lies in
the unglaciated region in southeastern Ohio, mostly in the horizon

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 167
of the Conglomerate group of the Carboniferous. The main Mus-
kingum river flows generally from north to south, with its main
branches to the east and west, that to the west going a short dis-
tance into the Waverly group, which is chiefly sandstone and
shale, a subdivision of the Carboniferous. The dip is from north
to south. In view of the extremely low runoff of this stream, it
seems tolerably evident that there can be no material contribution
by percolation through these strata.

As other examples of underground flow, the writer may men-
tion Toyah creek, in Texas, where a stream of (his recollection is)
40) or 50 cubic feet per second flows from the base of a mountain
with no indication as to its source. The well-known streams in
Mammoth and Luray caves are doubtless familiar to all. There
are also a number of river channels in the west where the water
sinks into the porous soils, to reappear at some point lower down;
but these are hardly allied to the cases under consideration,
because the source is here visible.

A stream at Lausanne, Switzerland, may also be mentioned. In
1872 there was a serious epidemic of typhoid fever at Lausanne,
Switzerland, which, on investigation, was found to proceed from
a brook irrigating lands about a mile distant from a public well,
from which the 800 inhabitants of the village mostly took their
water supply. Ten years before, or in 1862, a hole had appeared
in the channel of the brook at a certain point, 8 feet deep and 3
feet wide, which disclosed at its bottom a running stream, appar-
ently fed by the brook from a point higher up. The brook itself
was led into this hole, with the result that the water all disap-
peared and in an hour or two streamed out at the public well,
showing a connection which had been suspected for years. On
refilling the hole the brook returned to its bed.

After the epidemic had ceased in 1872 an investigation was
held, the hole was reopened and a large quantity of salt thrown
in; its presence in the public well was easily ascertained by a
chemical examination. .

This case discloses some points of interest. Here was a con-
siderable stream flowing underground which was easily increased

168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

from the water of the brook, which was on the surface. Again,
the flow here was through coarse gravel.

Moreover, we may consider the origin of those bodies of fresh
water which sometimes rise up in the sea, as in the Mediterranean
near Genoa, the Persian Gulf and in the Gulf of Mexico. It is
stated that in two of these cases the flow is so great as to permit
of ships taking water. In the Gulf of Mexico the water surface
over the outflow is stated to be several feet higher than the sur-
rounding sea.

In the literature of canal construction there are a number of
cases cited in which large losses of water have taken place either
through coarse gravel or seamy rocks. Doubtless there are numer-
ous other cases, which, however, are not specially important, for
it is the writer’s intention only to point out, in a general way,
reasons why such losses may sometimes take place.

The outflow from Skaneateles lake hag been cited as showing
a large loss, presumably by percolation through strata, but on
reference to the original authority it is clear enough that an
error has been made in so citing it, because the flow measured
was really through 9 miles of natural channel and 8 miles of
canal, to Montezuma. It may be mentioned that the problem to
be determined by this measurement was the discharge into Seneca
river and it is quite possible that there may have been a deficiency
from the west. |

Skaneateles lake lies at an elevation of 867 feet above tide-
water and a distance of about 9 miles south of the Erie canal,
for which it has been used as a feeder since 1844. In 1859 Mr
S. H. Sweet made measurements of the flow to the canal and
through the same to Montezuma, where the surplus water is dis-
charged into Seneca river, to which it was found to deliver 125
cubic feet per second. Measurements were also made at the foot
of the lake, where the flow amounted to 188 cubic feet per second.
The loss was 63 cubic feet per second, or one-third of the whole.
Skaneateles lake itself lies in the Hamilton formation, and its
outlet, on its way to the Erie canal, flows across the Onondaga,
Oriskany, Helderberg and Salina formations. The dip is here

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 169

from north to south, while the stream, which is tributary to the
Seneca river, the main westerly branch of the Oswego, flows from
south to north, or in the right direction to realize the maximum
possible leakage, or percolation, through the strata. Inasmuch as
no such leakage is mentioned, it may be reasonably concluded that
none occurred.

Cazenovia lake and Erieville reservoirs are also mentioned, and
considerable loss of water is given, which when analyzed is found
to be loss of water in the canal, and hence not in any degree
attributable to leakage through strata. Cazenovia lake and Erie-
ville reservoirs both lie south of the Erie canal, and flow across
substantially the same strata as the outlet of Skaneateles lake.t

Such facts as these, while lacking the proof of a scientific
demonstration, are still very interesting and indicate that we.
have yet much to learn of the peculiarities of stream flow. On
the whole, while they point to a moderate loss from percolation,
so far as the writer can see they do not indicate any great prob-
ability of very large loss from this cause. They do emphasize the
fact that every catchment area will have its own formula.

By way of showing that the theory of large evaporation on
deforested catchment areas is broadly more reasonable that the
theory that there is any great loss of water by seepage owing to
‘inclination of the strata, we may consider the Croton record as
given by the appended table, where it will be noted that the
evaporation from this area is substantially the same as that from
Muskingum and Genesee rivers; that is to say, it is the evapora-
tion of a deforested area—the area in forest on this catchment
does not exceed 10 per cent. In placing it at 10 per cent the
writer means the equivalent in actual effect of dense forest. As
regards geologic formation this catchment lies almost entirely
in granites and gneisses, in which, from their homogeneous char-
acter, it is difficult to assume any loss by percolation through
strata. There is, however, a small area of metamorphic Hudson
formation, consisting of slate, schist and quartzite, and also a

7Ann. Rept. State Engineer and Surveyor for 1862, pp. 403-404.

170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

small area of metamorphic Trenton and Calciferous limestones,
but it is exceedingly improbable that any rocks which have been
subjected to metamorphic changes are in any degree permeable.
This catchment must therefore be considered as underlain by an
impermeable formation. All of the water falling upon it except
that absorbed by evaporation, chemical changes, etc. reappears as
runoff in the streams. It may be safely assumed that there are
no other losses. Nevertheless, the evaporation of this stream is
that tentatively placed upon other deforested areas. Moreover,
there is another interesting consideration of which brief note may
be taken at this place. In deference to the Water Supply Depart-
ment of the City of New York, the writer has used in computing
the monthly runoff the catchment area of 339 square miles. Mr
‘Vermeule, however, asserts that this area is not the true one. He
says the true area above old Croton dam is 353 square miles.
If we assume this to be true, it follows that the average runoff,
instead of being 22.8 inches, is over 4 per cent less, or is, roundly,
21.8 inches. This raises the evaporation from 26.6 inches to 27.6
inches. In his report on forests, Mr Vermeule has placed the
evaporation of his second Croton series, which the writer under-
stands him to consider more reliable, at 22.6 inches, a difference
of 5 inches from the foregoing figures, which it may be remarked
is based upon the latest ‘revision and is presumably more likely
to be correct.

On the upper Hudson river, with a catchment above Mechanic-
ville of 4500 square miles, the average rainfall for the fourteen
years from 1888 to 1901, inclusive, was about 44.2 inches, the
average runoff 25.3 inches, and the evaporation 20.9 inches.
Above Glens Falls this stream lies almost entirely in the Pre-
cambrian gneiss, from which it is improbable that there is any
loss of water. Its main tributary to the west, Sacandaga, is, by
observation, an exceedingly prolific water yielder. To the east,
the Battenkill and Hoosic rivers have a different geologic history.
The Battenkill flows across the Hudson shales, the Georgia lime-
stones and shales, finally rising in the metamorphic Hudson and
Trenton formations. The Hoosic river has a similar geologic his-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 171

tory. The runoff of the Hoosic river is, without doubt, consider-
ably less than that of the main Hudson. The average precipitation
in western Massachusetts from 1887 to 1895, inclusive, was 38.98
inches, as against 48.29 inches in the northern plateau from 1889
to 1895, inclusive, a difference of 4.31 inches. Should such dif-
ference continue, the runoff of Hoosic river might be expected to
be, on an average, about 20 inches. Moreover, the Hudson river
above Glens Falls (catchment about 2800 square miles) is still
largely in forest—probably about 85 per cent—but on the catch-
ments of Wood creek, Battenkill and Hoosic rivers the proportion

of forest is very much less—as an offhand estimate, the writer

would say perhaps 20 to 80 per cent. The runoff of Schroon river,
which ig perhaps 70 per cent of an equivalent to fairly dense
forest, is for four years 26.84 inches. There is, however, some
doubt whether this record is entirely reliable, and for the present
it is not intended to more than merely call attention to the gen-
eral proposition that this stream, which, issues from an imper-
meable catchment with 70 per cent of it in forest, has a rather
large runoff. The whole catchment area of the Upper Hudson of
about 4500 square miles, will probably not exceed 50 to 6{) per
cent of forest.

The following are the catchment areas of the several streams
here considered: Hoosic, 711 square miles; Battenkill, 438 square
miles; Sacandaga, 1057 square miles, and Schroon river, 570
square miles.

The Pequannock river in-New Jersey, not far from the New
York line, is an interesting case. This stream ig characterized
by sharp slopes throughout its whole extent. Its headwaters are
at an elevation of about 1500 feet, while the mouth is only 170
feet above tide. The catchment is about 14 to 16 miles long by 4
to 7 miles wide. Mr Vermeule states that its headwaters lie in
the Precambrian highlands. The sharp slopes, combined with
small catchment area, undoubtedly account’ for the relatively
large runoff of this stream. There is also an uncertainty of 1 or
2 inches in the rainfall record. The catchment is judged by the
writer to be 70 per cent forest.

172 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In riding over the Pequannock catchment several times the
writer was much struck by the fact that aside from the main
valleys there are no gulleys throughout this area. The record
shows that precipitation is frequently very heavy, but it has been
thus far without effect. The indications appear to be that the
‘ainfall, however intense it may be, sinks almost entirely into the
ground, and without doubt this peculiarity has its effect on the
runoff.

It may be pointed out that the geology of Muskingum and Gen-
esee rivers is substantially the same, while the geology of Croton
~ivor is entirely different. Nevertheless, when analyzed by aid of
the diagrams, these streams are all seen to have substantially the
Saine evaporation and runoff, although the rainfall on Croton
river is different from that of Muskingum and Genesee rivers.
Hudson river, however, which has much the same geology as Cro-
ton river, has still a very different runoff and evaporation.
Oswego river, which liés in a different formation from Genesee
river, has still nearly the same evaporation.

These several facts favor the view that deforestation is the real
cause of the smaller runoff of Muskingum, Genesee, Oswego and
Croton rivers. |

Forests

Do forests increase rainfall? The evidence on this point is con-
flicting. The variation of the observed from the true rainfall
being so great, as has just been shown, the answer to this question
must be regarded as very uncertain. It has been discussed by
Professor Abbe and Dr Hough. The following summation by
Dr Hough, although made 26 years ago, may be accepted as
expressing the fact at the present day.

The reciprocal influences that operate between woodlands and
climate appear to indicate a close relation between them. It is

observed that certain consequences follow the clearing off of
forests, which can scarcely be otherwise regarded than as a direct

1The evaporation of Oswego river is, in fact, a little greater, due to the
existence of large marsh areas on Oswego river.

2Report upon Forestry, by Franklin B. Hough, U. 8S. Department of Agri-
culture (1877).

sail

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK SER

effect, such as the diminution of rivers and the drying up of
streams and springs. Other effects, scarcely less certain, are seen
in the occurrence of destructive floods, and of unseasonable and
prolonged droughts, with other vicissitudes of climate which it
is alleged did not occur when the country was covered with forests.
These appear to have been brought about by their removal, and
might, in a great degree, be alleviated by the restoration of wood-
lands to a degree consistent with our best agricultural interests.

On the other hand, there are many facts tending to show that
the presence or absence and the character of forests are the effect
of climate, and that their cultivation generally, or the planting of
particular species, is closely dependent upon it. These conditions
of climate should be understood before forest cultivation is
attempted. It is also to be noticed that differences of opinion
have been expressed among men of science as to the extent of
influence that forests exert upon ‘the climate, and it is quite prob-
able that the advocates of extreme theories may have erred on
both sides. But where principles depend upon facts that may be
settled by observation, there should be no differences of opinion ;
and as there is no fact in this subject that may not be verified or
disproved, the existence of such differences only shows the want
of accepted evidence derived from trustworthy records.

The interested reader is referred to Dr Hough’s report, which
may be easily obtained, for an extended discussion on this point.

Relation of forests to stream flow. The extent of forestation
has probably a considerable effect on the runoff of streams. With
Similar rainfalls, two streams, one in a region having dense
primeval forests, the other in a region wholly or partially
deforested, will show different runoff. The one with the dense
forests will show larger runoff than the stream in the deforested
area. In some parts of the State of New York these differences
may amount to as much as 5 or 6 inches in depth over the entire
catchment area. Yet it must be said that this proposition is, for
the present, tentative in its character.

The writer is particular to specify dense forests, because a good
deal of discussion has clustered around this point. Of such for-
ests, the most effective are those composed of spruce, pine, and
other evergreen trees. Where the forest is more or less open to
wind and sunshine, its effect, while considerable, is still much less
marked than that of dense evergreen forests where the sun seldom

174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

penetrates and the wind effect, even in a gale, is only slight. On
a catchment area where there are only scattered patches of forest,
the effect is practically the same as on a deforested area. The
Same proposition is generally true on a catchment with young
trees. What is wanted for the maximum effect is a mature ever-
green forest.

This proposition, however, though definitely stated here, has
been nevertheless the subject of considerable discussion, and owing
to its complex nature, it is improbable that a final conclusion
concerning it will very soon be reached.

The subject of the influence of forests on runoff has assumed
considerable importance in New York because of the policy of the
State government to purchase large tracts of land in the Adiron-
dack and Catskill mountains (1), for the creation of extensive
State parks, and (2), for the purpose of conserving the runoff of
the streams issuing from these regions. The creating of State
parks is commendable and does not enter specially into the present
discussion, but whether the creation of forest areas in the Adiron-
dack and Catskill mountains will materially increase stream flow
is a question on which widely varying views have been expressed.
It is proposed, therefore, to give an indication of the probable
bearing of forests on stream flow, and in order to make the dis-
cussion as valuable as possible, numerical values will be used.

The Forest preserve. In 1893 the Legislature passed an act
creating the Forest preserve and the Adirondack park. The For-
est preserve is defined as including:

The lands now owned or hereafter acquired by the State within
the counties of Clinton, except the towns of Altona and Danne-
mora, Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer,
Lewis, Oneida, Saratoga, St Lawrence, Warren, Washington,
Greene, Ulster, and Sullivan, except (1), lands within the limits
of any village or city; and (2), lands, not wild lands, acquired by
the State on foreclosure of mortgages made to the commissioners

for loaning certain moneys of the United States usually called the
United States deposit fund.t

1Chap. 332, laws of 1893.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 175

The Adirondack park. The Adirondack park is situated within
the Forest preserve. It is defined as:

Lands now owned or hereafter acquired by the State within
the county of Hamilton; the towns of Newcomb, Minerva, Schroon,
North Hudson, Keene, North Elba, Saint Armand and Wilming-
ton, in the county of Essex; the towns of Harrietstown, Santa
Clara, Altamont, Waverly and Brighton in the county of Franklin;
the town of Wilmurt in the county of Herkimer; the towns of
Hopkington, Colton, Clifton and Fine, in the county of St Law-
rence; the towns of Johnsburgh, Stony Creek and Thurman, and
the islands in Lake George, in the county of Warren :
shall constitute the Adirondack park. Such park shall be forever
reserved, maintained and cared for as ground open for the free use
of all the people for their health and pleasure and as forest lands,
necessary to the preservation of the headwaters of the chief rivers
of the State, and a future timber Supply; ; and shall remain part
of the Forest preserve.!

From the foregoing it may be seen that the Forest preserve is
much more extensive than the Adirondack park. The Adirondack
park, as shown on the accompanying map, includes the whole of
Hamilton, and parts of Warren, Herkimer, St Lawrence, Franklin
and Essex counties, and includes 2,807,760 acres (4387 square
miles), or about one-eleventh of the land area of the State. In
1893 the lands within the Adirondack park were classified, lot by
lot, with the following result:

Acres Square miles
rte DORON 6. 5015.3). v > nina) RS cee 1,575,483 2,461.7
MIRE UURIRECEG ss. oo eos 61.5.5 <2 us mpm o's 1,027,955 1,606.2
I SE i ee Sa ys hea ls ae 50,050 cf ae
oe OLE IES nee mer ere eae 13,430 21.0
a a ae ER ERS cae ree ee roe 18,526 28.9
Ee SES eee ie ore ant eee oa 57,104 89.2
eS Se 495 0.8
OS ee ee ey ee 64,717 101.1
NE A a0 ie saa ota Conte wa reabee te 2,807,760 4,387.1

Chap. 332, laws of 1893.

176 ‘EW YORK
( NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In that year the State owned 1142.9 square miles, of which 861.1
square miles were situated within the lines of the Adirondack
park. In 1897 the Forest Preserve Board was created, consisting
of three members, whose duties were to acquire for the State, by
purchase or otherwise, land, structures or water in the territory
embraced in the Adirondack park. Under this act, purchases
were made within the limits of the park, between May, 1897, and
January 1, 1900, amounting to 497 square miles. The total owned
by the State, therefore, in the park in 1900 was 1358.1 square
miles. There are 101.1 square miles of improved lands within the
lines of the Adirondack park. It is not proposed to purchase
these lands, although if any should be abandoned or offered for
sale at woodland prices, they might be purchased for reforesting.
The soil of the Adirondack plateau is mostly worthless for agri-
culture. Over a considerable portion of the region frosts occur in
every month except July, and it is impossible to cultivate any of
the cereals except oats, as well as many of the ordinary crops of
the lowlands. Hay is the principal crop. The region generally
is valuable only for forestry and water storage.

Area of Forest preserve. The following area, with small deduc-
tion as previously noted, is included in the Adirondack Forest

preserve:

Square miles
BUSGOR COMMLY: 02325) 525 :ch a's cus eed epics A ee 1,926
Eiagmilion COBDLY 600%: .-. 64...sgaete le eee 1,745
WaEren COWL, oa2, os eet debe pee ee 968
Si Lawrence County «x. .ss <g.f oe ner eee 2,880
Brankhe scOUnCYy) ga:.criiu vac Wcue ata teinas ee ek 1,718
Herkimer county 23N0% PO. Yeo Sake ee eee 1,745
moh COUNTY ‘S.< 2 tee ne. ee eee Ceiba 2 1,092
WETCON COUNTY fos oc 5 isc cele sce ule ts ts eee en 544
LEWIS COUNTY ».*. «= ote kis ottataiot" mie taly arth tas lee ee ae 1,288
Oneida county. oF \.0... sand <4, denaiee aes Vi 1,215
Beratued county. E:s:. vi ore eee One Boe 862
Waeshmegton coanty Tr ORS Se eee ee ee ee ie 850
JeOnorsen QOUNLy—”. <i... ods ce ees sakes 1,868

TORN See eae eee ree Peering er pre

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 177

The Catskill Forest preserve includes the following:

Square miles

EN eemy ARG CCIE 25) i592) 5 ils) acta ahs rhs os Else 1G Ds Peel 1,580
ReRMIRE OILY Mae lt Oh Ditet ene PFA BOP bo iv Bas 686
ID Si ac ce eee a a ee ee ne 1,204
on 7 ac) GE eee eee ee ee 1,082

ip Sy ee gE ge Lal 0 9 te ae re 4.552

Adding the area of the Adirondack Forest preserve to the
area of the Catskill Forest preserve, we have a total of 23.255
square miles. There is, however, some deduction from this, but
the entire area is over 20,000 square miles. The total land area
of the State of New York is about 47,620 square-miles. Hence,
we reach the conclusion that the originators of this act propose
to ultimately reforest perhaps 42 per cent of the total land area
of New York.

Catskill park. Thus far the Catskill park has not been defined
by law, although considerable time has been spent by the Super-
intendent of Forests in a personal examination of the Catskill
region in order to determine the portion best adapted to forestry
purposes. For the present the proposed Catskill park includes
703 square miles, which the Forest Preserve Board deems advis-
able to purchase in this region. It is described as follows:

This area includes the towns of Hardenburgh, Shandaken, Den-
ning, Woodstock and the westerly portion of Olive and Rochester,
in Ulster county; the greater part of the towns of Hunter and
Lexington, in Greene county; that portion of the towns of Col-
chester, Andes and Middletown, in Delaware county, which lie
south of the Delaware river; and that part of the towns of Never-
- sink and Rockland, in Sullivan county, which are situated in
great lot 5 of the Hardenburgh patent.

This area, forming the proposed Catskill park, may be
described also in a general way as bounded on the north by the
Delaware river, Schoharie creek, and the line of the railroad
running from Hunter to Kaaterskill station; on the east by the
line of the Great Hardenburgh patent; on the south by the south-

erly line of the great lot 5, and on the west by the town line
between Lexington and Halcott.

178 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In addition to the territory thus outlined, the Board is willing
to make purchases of forest land, if offered at a reasonable price,
on the mountain ranges, including the peaks known as Black
Head, Black Dome, Thomas Cole, Acra Point, and Windham High
Peak. These are the mountains which are in full view from the
Hudson River valley, between Hudson and Saugerties. These
ranges could not well be included in the boundary previously
referred to, as they are separated by wide valleys that are entirely
occupied by well-cultivated farms, several villages and a large
population.!

The preceding figures show that the total amount of land in the
Adirondack and Catskill parks, proposed to be purchased and held
as public parks forever, is 5,090 square miles. As regards the
purchase of these lands for park purposes, the writer wishes to
express the fullest sympathy, but as regards the conservation of
streams and prevention of floods, that is quite another question—
one, indeed, permitting of somewhat broad discussion. While it is
conceded that forests are of considerable value in this direction, it
is nevertheless believed that the effect has been overestimated.

In 1901 the purchase of lands by the Forest Preserve Board was
discontinued, Governor Odell vetoing the appropriation on the
ground that we need to know a great deal more about the results
and effects before proceeding further on these lines. Since that
veto there has been a good deal of discussion, but without much
clarifying the subject.

Effect of forests. The difference in runoff between a forested
and a deforested area in New York State may be taken at an
average of 5 inches. That is to say, when forested with dense
forests of spruce, pine, balsam and hemlock, the runoff will be,
roundly, 5 inches per year,” more than it will when deforested, but
in order to secure such result the entire catchment area of a stream
must be in dense, primeval forest. It will not do to have a few
hundred square miles at the headwaters in primeval forest and

*From 4th An. Rept. of Forest Preserve Board, p. 14.

?The average annual runoff varies from about 23.26 inches on Hudson
river to about 14.2 inches on Genesee river. Hence, the excess runoff due
to forests is 21 per cent of the average annual runoff on Hudson river and
35 per cent on Genesee river.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 179

the balance deforested. The reason why dense, primeval forest is
specified is because such forest acts more efficiently as a wind-
breaker than does an open forest. It has been common to assume
that even when the soft wood (pine, spruce, hemlock, etc.) is
removed from an area the hard wood still forms about as efficient
a covering as before the removal of the soft wood. The writer,
however, thinks that anybody who has spent much time in the
forest will understand that this is a mistake. Certainly during
the late fall, winter and early spring, a period of from six to seven
months, when the leaves are absent from the hard woods, they are
not a very efficient wind-breaker, although without doubt consid-
erably better than nothing. As an estimate based on judgment, it
is considered that a hardwood forest is not equivalent in water
protective influence, on an average, to more than 50 per cent to 60
per cent of dense, primeval forests of spruce, pine, balsam and
hemlock. Moreover, the weight of evidence goes to show that the
soft wood consumes less water than hard wood.

In the Adirondack forest beech, maple, birch, elm, ash and
other hard woods are mingled with the soft woods spruce, pine,
hemlock, balsam and to some extent, larch. If we remove the
soft woods, we have done two things to lessen the protection from
evaporation: (1), we have opened up the area for the admission of
wind, which by itself will materially increase the evaporation,
consequently leaving less water to run off, and which will be
specially operative during the six or seven months of the year
when the leaves are absent from hardwoods; and (2), we have left
on the area the hard woods, which, so far as the evidence goes,
_ consume more water than the soft woods. The writer has no way
of proving the proposition, but assuming that the data as to
transpiration of hard woods as compared with soft woods are
measurably true, he has no doubt that the combined effect of
transpiration and evaporation will be, on an area from which
the soft woods have been removed, from 2 to 214 inches more than
on the same area with the soft woods standing.

We have seen in the foregoing that the area of the Adirondack
park is 4387 square miles, of which a little over one-half was, in

180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

1893, primeval ferest, while the balance was largely lumbered
forest—that is to say, forest with the soft woods removed. Prob-
ably the proportion of primeval forest is somewhat smaller at the
present time, and may be taken at 50 per cent. For the whole
4387 square miles, we may say that the forest protection is now
equivalent to 514 inches additional runoff due to the cover. If,
therefore, the entire Adirondack park were reforested with dense
primeval forests, we might expect an addition of an inch and a
half per year in the runoff from this area.

On reference to table No. 61, Runoff Data of Hudson River for
the Water Years 1888-1901, Inclusive, it will be seen that the
average runoff per year for fourteen years is 23.27 inches. The
maximum runoff, of 33.08 inches, occurred in 1892, and the mini-
mum, of 17.46 inches, in 1895. With dense, primeval forests over
the entire area of the Adirondack park we may expect an average
of about 24.75 inches annual runoff, or the increase of about 614
per cent over the present runoffi—an amount of water which, dis-
tributed over the entire year, as it will be, is inappreciable in its
influence on the flow of streams.

In the Catskill region the soft woods have long since disap-
peared and the hard-wood forest is mostly open, presenting less
satisfactory protection than does the Adirondack hard-wood
forest. It is doubtful if the open hard-wood forests of the Cats-
kill region are equivalent, in protective effect, to over 25 per cent
to 380 per cent of a dense, primeval forest of spruce, pine, balsam -
and hemlock, or we may say that the present runoff of the Cats-
kill streams is only an inch and a half more than it. would be
if the region were substantially deforested. The effect, therefore,
of reforesting with soft woods would be to increase the flow of
streams annually about 314 inches in depth over the area actually
reforested. But the reforested area is so small a proportion of
the whole area that the total effect on the flow of any given stream
is so slight as to be scarcely perceptible. This proposition is reit-
erated because in the extensive discussions of this question which
have recently appeared it has been tacitly assumed that the refor-
estation of the Adirondack park would have so great an effect on

—_

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 181

the streams issuing therefrom as to make water storage in New
York not only unnecessary but undesirable. In the case of the Hud-
son river there is perhaps 1500 square miles of the catchment area
within the Adirondack park, which, if entirely reforested, would,
as we have seen, increase the present flow of the stream 11%
inches, but this increase of 144 inches is only obtained on the
1500 square miles actually reforested. The catchment area of -
Hudson river above Mechanicville, the point where the gagings
shown in table No. 61 have been made, is 4500 square miles. The
net effect, therefore, at this point is only one-half inch of water,
distributed throughout the entire year, an effect which is inap-
preciable.

However, there is another consideration. Owing to less rainfall
on the eastern plateau than on the northern plateau, streams in
the Catskill region do not flow as much as those in the Adiron-
dacks. As we have seen, the average flow of the Hudson river for
fifteen years is 23.27 inches. Taking the difference in rainfall
of these two districts at 4 inches, the flow of the streams in the
Catskill region, provided forestation were equal to that of the
Adirondacks, would be over 19 inches. But taking into account
the existing differences in forestation, the flow of streams in the
Catskill region does not average over 16 or 17 inches per year.
It follows, therefore, that an increase of 314 inches in the Catskill
region is relatively of more value than a corresponding increase
in the Adirondack region. As has been shown, for the Adiron-
dacks the increase of 114 inches is equivalent to 614 per cent of
the present annual flow of streams issuing from that region, while
in the Catskills, 314 inches is equivalent to 2214 per cent of
the present annual flow of streams. Reforestation, therefore,
is considerably more valuable in the Catskills than it is in
the Adirondacks. But the foregoing does not mean that 5 inches
more water will flow over the entire area of the streams
issuing from the Catskill region, but only from that portion
of the region on which forest has been restored. As we
have seen, the area of the proposed Catskill park is 703 Square
miles, while the area of the Catskill Forest preserve is about

182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

4500 square miles. The area, therefore, of the proposed Catskill
park is only about 15 per cent of the area of the Catskill
Forest preserve, which includes the catchment area of the
headwaters of the streams as enumerated on a_ preceding
page. The balance of the territory is mostly deforested, and
chiefly in use for grazing purposes. In the Catskill region
therefore, the forested area would be, on this basis, about 1/7 of
the deforested, or the real effect on stream flow would be to in-
crease it 1/7 of 5 inches. An average annual increase of about
0.7 of an inch may be expected.

Moreover, if forestation is valuable in increasing stream flow,
there should be a number of other forest parks in various parts
of the State. Genesee river issues from the Allegheny water center.
With the exception of a small tract of timber at the extreme
headwaters, this stream is practically deforested, with the result,
as shown by table No. 43, Runoff Data of Genesee River, that the
average annual runoff for a period of nine years is only 14.2
inches, while the minimum runoff is 6.7 inches. If forestation is
specially valuable for increasing the flow of a stream, here is a
marked case to which it could be applied. The writer, however,
does not wish to be understood as stating that forestation is
not of value, and he cites from the Genesee River Storage Report!
the following specific case, showing that on Genesee river foresta-
tion has value in increasing the summer flow. The proposition
is that, by itself, it is not of enough value to justify any such
expenditure as has been proposed. The benefits, in short, are
not commensurate with the expense.

Gagings of the low-water flow of Genesee river were made by
Daniel Marsh, C. E., in July and August, 1846, and the quantity
flowing at that time was found to be 412 cubic feet per second.
Mr Marsh gives this figure as the average of nine gagings made
at various times during the summer of 1846. The meteorological
records of western New York for the years 1844-46 show that the
period covered was one of low rainfall. At Rochester the rain-
fall for the storage period of 1846 was only 11.57 inches, and
the total for the year was 36.03 inches; in 1845, the total for the

13d Genesee River Storage Report, Jan. 1, 1897, pp. 40-41.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 1838

year was 34.66 inches, while in 1844, we have for the storage
period, 10.52 inches, and the total for the year of 26.46 inches. At
Middlebury Academy, for the storage period of 1845, the rainfall
was 12.59 inches; for the growing period, 4.82 inches; for the
replenishing period, 8.6 inches, and the total for the year was
26.01 meches. The record for the year 1846 at Middlebury Acad-
emy is not given, but it is clear, so far as we have any definite
meteorological record, that the gagings made by Mr Marsh were
at a time of very low water.

Gagings made in 1895 show that in the month of July the flow
at Rochester may have been as low as 232 cubic feet per second,
and in September, 221 cubic feet per second. These results are
derived from actual gagings at Mount Morris by comparison of
catchment areas. Taking approximate gagings made at Rochester,
at the Johnson and Seymour dam, for the same year, we have 220
cubic feet per second for the mean of the month of October.
Moreover, gagings made at the raceway of the Genesee Paper
Company during the summer of 1895 indicate that on several
occasions the flow was less than 200 cubic feet per second. The
canal, however, was low during these years and was drawing
some water through the feeder at Rochester—probably, on an
average, about 50 cubic feet per second. We have, then, a total
low-water flow at Rochester of about 250 cubic feet per second
during the period July-October, 1895. This quantity is 162 cubic
feet per second less than the low-water flow of 1846, as deter-
mined by Mr Marsh.
_ The catchment area of the Genesee river at Mount Morris,
where the gagings were made, is 1070 square miles, and at Roch-
ester, with deductions for the area at Hemlock lake, used as a
water supply for Rochester, etc. 2865 square miles. In 1846 the
upper Genesee area was still largely in forest—probably for the
entire area above Rochester the primeval forest was from 50 per
cent to 60 per cent of the whole We have. here, therefore, a

1In Allegany county, according to the State census of 1855, the unim-
proved area was 60 per cent of the whole, but in Livingston and Monroe
counties it was considerably less. Since the rapid removal of the timber

did not begin until after the construction of the Erie railroad, it is con-
sidered that in 1846, 50 per cent to 60 per cent is not far from right.

184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

marked case where the deforestation of a large area has mate-
rially reduced the minimum runoff, but it should not be oyvyer-
looked that of the total area of 2365 square miles, 55 per cent
was still in dense, primeval forest, consisting over a considerable
portion of the area of pine and hemlock. The cleared area, there-
fore, was only 45 per cent of the whole, or 1060 square’ miles.
Hence, we have over 1300 square miles still in primeval forest.

The writer has no doubt that deforestation not only decreases
the yield of streams, but may increase the hight of floods some-
what. At present the data are not complete enough to justify
final conclusions, but it is considered that the effect of deforesta-
tion is more marked in decreasing the yield of streams than in
increasing the hight of floods.t .

Apparently this view occurred to the original framers of the
Forest law of 1893, because they provided therein for a Forest pre-
serve of over 20,000 square miles, and should this amount of ter-
ritory be reforested, it would undoubtedly materially assist the
low-water flow of the streams issuing from the reforested area,
the amount of assistance on any particular stream being in pro-
portion to the reforested area in comparison with the deforested.
But even with these 20,000 square miles of territory reforested,
there would still remain 27,600 square miles of the State prac-
tically deforested, and in which the streams are exposed to low
water in the summer and destructive high water in the late
winter and spring. The conclusion seems, therefore, irresistible
that if reforestation is of such importance for 5000 square miles,
it is of more importance for 20,000 square miles, and of still
ereater importance for the entire area of the State of 47,600
square miles. But this conclusion reduces to an absurdity. The
reforestation of the whole State would mean not only very mate-
rial reduction of its productive capacity, but would mean that a
large proportion of the population must move to other states.

In regard to the decrease in productive capacity, if the entire
area were in forests it would produce not to exceed $2 per acre

*For extended discussions see 3d Genesee Storage Report.

se

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 185

per year! in the way of forest products; or since for 47,620 square
miles there are 30,476,800 acres, we may say that the forest
products would be worth about $61,000,000 per year. But accord-
ing to the United States Census of 1900, the agricultural products
of New York were worth $245,000,000 per year, or, as an average,
about $8 per acre. It is absurd, therefore, to discuss the refor-
estation of the whole State of New York in order to increase the
low-water flow of streams and to decrease the hight of floods.
Were this to be done the productive capacity of the State would
be reduced over $180,000,000 per year.

The long-time element in forestry may also be taken into ac-
count, and the following statement by Mr B. E. Fernow, Director
of the New York State College of Forestry of Cornell University,
is pertinent-

The one thing in which the forestry business differs from all
other business is the long-time element, for it takes a hundred
_years and more to grow trees fit for the use of the engineer, the

builder and the architect; hence, the dollar spent now in its first
start must come back, with compound interest, a hundred years

hence.

In view of this statement it is well to keep in mind that refor-
estation will be substantially without effect for fifty years and
of only partial effect in one hundred years, and that for its full
effects in increasing the flow of a stream about one hundred and
fifty years must elapse. In many parts of New York the flood

flows of streams are very destructive—a conservative estimate

_ places the loss in 1902 at over $3,000,000. The question, therefore,

may be asked, Must we wait from one hundred to one hundred
and fifty years, while forests are growing, in the meantime suffer-
ing nearly every year from the devastating effects of extreme
floods?

Whatever question there may be as to the influence of forests
on rainfall, there is, in the opinion of the writer, none as to such

*6th An. Rept. of Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York, for
1900, p. 96.

*The Forester, an Engineer, by B. BE. Fernow. In Jour. of Western Soc.
of Engrs., Vol. VI, No. 5 (Oct. 1901).

186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

influence on stream flow. Yet this proposition has also been dis-
cussed pro and con and is likely to give rise to further discussion,
and the conclusion will therefore for the present be considered
tentative in its character.

It seems to the writer that the removal of forests decreases
stream flow by allowing freer circulation of the air and by caus-
ing higher temperature and lower humidity in summer and so
producing greater evaporation from water surfaces, as well as
from the ground.

That the removal of forests renders stream flow less equal
throughout the year and so causes floods and periods of dryness
in rivers seems to be beyond reasonable question, for the forest
litter and root masses serve as storage reservoirs, tending to
equalize the flow of streams.

Space will not be taken to discuss these propositions, because
very little can be added to previous discussions. The reader is
referred to the Bulletin No. 7, of the Forestry Division of the.
Department of Agriculture on Forest Influences, as well as to Dr.
Hough’s report on forests, for fairly complete discussions.

Forestation of the Croton catchment area. In a paper! read
before the American Forestry Association in 1901, Mr Vermeule
proposes the question whether the forestation of the catchment
area of the Croton water supply is advisable. In considering this
question it may be pointed out that if the Croton catchment were
forested, there is no probability of reaping the full benefit under
from 75 to 150 years.

For the sake of the argument we will assume that on this catch-
ment in 120 years the full effect of forestation would be realized.
This would give, as an average, an increase of from 4 to 6 inches
in runoff. For the purposes of this discussion we may assume it
at 5 inches.

In order to forest the catchment it would be necessary to acquire
the entire area, which, so far as the writer can ascertain, could
hardly be done for less than $100 per acre. Probably the price,
would be much greater than this, but to avoid an overestimate

iNew Jersey Forests and their Relation to Water Supply, by C. C. Ver-
meule: The Engineering Record, Vol. XLII, No. 1 (July, 1901).

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 187

it may be fixed at $100 per acre. At this rate the catchment area
of 339 square miles would cost $21,696,000. The planting out of
trees could hardly cost less than $20 per acre additional, but in
order to make the estimate as reasonable as possible we will take
it at $10 per acre, which makes an additional sum of $2,169,900,
or a total of $23,865,900.

If we assume the annual interest at 3 per cent, and place this
sum at compound interest for 120 years, we have at the end of
that time the sum of $779,510,000. The present safe yield of the
Croton catchment, with all available storage, is about 280,000,000
gallons per day. We would pay, therefore, this large sum for,
perhaps, 75,000,000 gallons additional per day at the end of 120
years. It is true there would be some increase in water supply
after about 30 years, and the supply might be expected to go on
increasing until the average increase of yield was attained in 120
years. But the increase in water supply would not be at all
commensurate with the increase of capitalization. It is very
evident that an expenditure of this sum of money would procure
a far greater quantity of water from other sources. Hence it
does not seem expedient to suggest the forestation of the Croton
catchment area aS a method of obtaining an increased water
supply. As to whether it is desirable to reforest this area as a
forestry investment is another question which is not discussed
here.

Another objection to the forestation of the Croton catchment
as a remedy for the water difficulties of New York city may be
found in the fact that a considerably increased water supply is
wanted at once; it is entirely out of the question to wait 120 years
for such increased supply.

As a broad proposition, however, catchment areas from which
municipal water supplies are drawn should be in forests, and
undoubtedly as time goes on this condition will be more and more
attained. Already various European and American municipali-
ties have recognized the advisability of owning the catchments
from which their municipal water supplies are drawn. From
this point of view it is desirable to reforest the Croton catchment.

188 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Details Concerning Tables and Diagrams

Topographic relations of catchment areas of some of the main
streams tabulated. The following gives an outline of the topog-
raphy of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers.

The headwaters of Muskingum river lie at an elevation of about
1100 feet, and it flows into the Ohio river, near Marietta, at an
elevation of about 500 feet. The Muskingum river proper has a
length of 109 miles, with its main tributaries, the Walhonding and
the Tuscarawas, having an additional length of about 100 miles,
thus giving the basin a length of 200 miles. From the head of the
Tuscarawas to the junction of the two main tributaries there is
a fall of about 2 feet per mile, and from this point to the mouth
of the main Muskingum the descent is about 1.5 feet per mile. On
the Walhonding the descent is more rapid. At its headwaters,
near Mansfield, the stream is from 400 to 450 feet above what it
is at its junction with the Tuscarawas. .

The Genesee river rises in Potter county, Pa., and flows in a
northerly direction across the State of New York, emptying into
Lake Ontario at Rochester, having a total length of about 115
miles. Its headwaters are at an elevation of over 2000 feet, while
Lake Ontario lies at a mean elevation of 247 feet. This stream is
specially characterized by two sets of falls. The three falls at
Portage have an aggregate of about 270 feet, while at Rochester
the river falls 263 feet, also in three falls, with some intervening
rapids. This stream flows for several miles, at Rochester and
Portage, over bare rocks.

The Croton river flows into the Hudson at Croton Landing at an
elevation of practically tidewater. Its extreme headwaters in
Dutchess county are at an elevation of about 700 feet above tide.
Its length is about 35 miles.

Hudson river, at Mechanicville, is about 60 feet above tide, while
at its extreme headwaters it is about 3400 feet above tide level.
The catchment area above Glens Falls is from 40 to 50 miles from
east to west and from 60 to 65 miles from north to south. Below
Glens Falls the catchment extends well into southern Vermont
and Massachusetts. The length of the stream above Mechanic-
ville is from 120 to 125 miles.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 189

Family resemblance of streams. In tables Nos. 42, 48, 61 and
66 we have the mean rainfall, runoff and evaporation of the
storage, growing and replenishing periods for Muskingum, Gen-
esee, Croton and Hudson rivers. Those tables show what may
be termed the family resemblance between streams. For instance,
for the Muskingum and Genesee rivers the mean rainfall of the
storage period is about 19 inches, with a runoff of about 10 inches
and an evaporation of about 9 inches. For the growing period
the mean rainfall of each of these two streams is about 12 inches,
with runoff 1.7 inches and evaporation 10 inches. For the replen-
ishing period the mean rainfall of each is about 9 inches, with
runoff about 2 inches and evaporation 7.5 inches. The total rain-
fall of the whole year is 40 inches for each stream—runoff 13.5
inches and evaporation 26.5 inches.

The Croton river has a much higher rainfall. Twenty-four
inches in the storage period produces 17 inches of runoff, with an
evaporation of 7 inches. From 138.6 inches of rain in the summer
we have 2.6 inches of runoff, with 11-inches of evaporation. The
rainfall for the year is 49.4 inches, or, say, 9 inches more than for
Muskingum and Genesee rivers. The runoff is also about 9 inches
in excess of that of these two streams. The evaporation is, how-
ever, the same, pointing very strongly to a similar cause.

The Hudson river shows apparently the effect of an impermeable
catchment, combined with a large forest area. It has a mean
annual rainfall of 44.2 inches, yielding 23.3 inches runoff, with
20.9 inches evaporation. For the storage period 20.6 inches rain-
fall yields 16.1 inches runoff, with 4.5 inches evaporation. For
the growing period 12.7 inches rainfall yields 3.5 inches runoff,
with 9.3 inches evaporation. For the replenishing period 10.9
inches rainfall yields 3.7 inches runoff and 7.1 inches evaporation.

The classification here given is experimental merely, and is
subject to modification with the gathering of more complete
data.t

In the foregoing the classification is, with the exception of
Muskingum river, not only limited to the State of New York but

1For more extended discussion of classification of streams see paper on
Relation of Rainfall to Runoff. -

190 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

is further mostly limited to streams with considerable length of
record.

Description of Muskingum, Genesee, Croton and Hudson rivers.
Table 42 gives the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of the storage,
growing and replenishing periods, as well as the total of these
three items, on the Muskingum river, for the years 1888-1895,
inclusive. The minimum year was 1895, the total runoff being
4.90 inches. The maximum occurred in 1890, with a total runoff
of 26.84 inches. The mean runoff for the entire period is 13.1
inches.

Table 43 gives the same facts for the Genesee river for the years
1890-1898, inclusive. In this table, for the years 1890-1892, the
record of Oatka creek which was gaged by the writer, has been
used. For a portion of 1893 the results are computed. The dam
at Mount Morris, at which gagings were taken, was carried away
by a flood early in 1897, and for the years 1897 and 1898 the
gaging record has been deduced by comparison of the rainfalls -
with those at Rochester, where gagings are kept by the City Engi-
neer. The results, aside from those for the years 1894-1896, must
be considered somewhat approximate, although probably within
10 per cent of the truth. The mean evaporation for the years
1894-1896 was 27.21 inches.

Tables 66 and 67 exhibit the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of
the storage, growing, and replenishing periods for Croton river,
from 1868-1899, inclusive, a period of thirty-two years. This record
has been revised as per experiments at Cornell University, described
by John R. Freeman, member American Society Civil Engineers, in
his report to the Comptroller in 1900. As shown by Mr Freeman,
the rainfall record from 1868-1876, inclusive, is not very reliable,
and accordingly two sets of means are given. The mean rainfall
from 1868-1876, inclusive, was 45 inches, the mean runoff 28.37
inches, and the mean evaporation 21.63 inches. For the second
period the rainfall from 1877-1899, inclusive, has been so ration-
ally treated by Mr Freeman as to leave nothing to be desired. The
means for this second period are: rainfall, 49.33 inches; runoff,
22.81 inches, and evaporation, 26.52 inches. A comparison of
these two sets of means shows how dangerous it is to draw final

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 191

conclusions from data about which there is considerable doubt.
The rainfall differs by 4.83 inches and the evaporation by 4.89
inches, or from 20 per cent to 25 per cent.

In preparing these tables the figures of table No. 26 of Mr. Free-
man’s report have been used. This table is in million gallons per
24-hour day, and has been reduced to inches per month on the
eatchment area of 338.8 square miles. The following gives the
water surfaces exposed to evaporation at different periods:

Per cent
5.8 square miles, 1868-1873, S168
6.2 square miles, 1873—October, 1878, —ios
6.9 square miles, 1878-1891, =a. Oo
8.4 square miles, 1891-1893, == 2.48
9.5 square miles, 1893-1895, =! hoy
11.0 square miles, 1895-1897, =o. 28
12.0 square miles, 1897-1900, == 3.700

It may at first thought be imagined that these large water sur-
faces exposed to evaporation have considerably increased the
ground evaporation over the entire catchment. When, however,
one considers that it is only the difference between what a water-
surface evaporation and what a ground-surface evaporation would

_ be, the difference is seen to be not very much. For instance,
assuming the water-surface evaporation at 36 inches per year and
the ground surface evaporation at 27 inches per year, the differ-
ence becomes 9 inches. With 12 square miles of water surface in
1900, giving 3.56 per cent of the whole, the excess of water-surface
evaporation over ground-surface evaporation is 0.32 of an inch, a
quantity which is so far within the limit of possible error in other
directions as to be negligible. At the most, taking the catchment
area at 538.8 square miles, it would only reduce the evaporation
from 26.5 inches to 26.2 inches.

The minimum year in this table is seen to be 1880, when only

_ , 18.71 inches ran off. In 1883 the runoff was also very low, being
only 13.74 inches.

Table 61 gives the rainfall, runoff, and evaporation of the stor-
age, growing, and replenishing periods for the Hudson river area
for a period of 14 years, from 1888-1901, inclusive. The minimum

=
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MUSEUM
e been prepared.
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fat ie
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ATi

We may now consider a few of the
UPPER HUDSON

ams which hay

NEW YORK STATE

hen 36.67 inches of rainfall yielded 17.46 inches as
agr

runoff in the stream.

(JUAWYIZOI VO SAYIU,

v, W

Description of diagrams.

year was 189
large number of di

e

192

qlayuadayvy saasbaq

Fig. 5 shows, for the Upper Hudson, precipitation, evaporation, )
runoff, and mean annual temperature for the years 1888-1901,

Fig. 5 Diagram showing relation between precipitation, evaporation,
inclusive, platted in the natural order.

runoff and temperature on the Upper Hudson river.

193

NEW YORK

HYDROLOGY OF

Fig. 6 shows, for the same area, evaporation and mean annual

temperature, platted in the order of evaporation.

uy
on
eS
hy |:
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a
ly
Q
a
>

UPPER shi

Sasa
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ayUuadyvy saasbag

Diagram showing the
between

Pipe Tt
relation

Fig. 6 Diagram showing the
relation between evaporation and

precipitation,

runoff, evaporation and temper-

temperature on the Upper Hudson

river,

ature on the Upper Genesee river,

the years being arranged

the years being arranged in order

of dryness.

amount of

e

th

to

according

evaporation.

Fig. 7 shows, for the Upper Genesee, precipitation, evaporation,
runoff, and mean annual temperature, platted in the order of the

itation.

precip

MUSEUM

YORK STATE

NEW

194

ingum river, precipitation, evapora-

aN

Fig. 8 shows, for the Musi

tion, runoff, and mean annual temperature, platted in the order

of the precipitation.

a
S
~
&
=
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YaAD JUAUIYIZVI UO SaYyoUT

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ing the relation between the precipitation, runoff,

Fig. 8 Diagram show
evaporation and temperature on the Muskingum river, Ohio,

being arranged in order of dryness.

the years

On fig. 9 the relation between precipitation and runoff, for the
Upper Hudson, has been expressed by the formula P’*=84.5 R.

These diagrams (figs. 5 to 14) all show, together with many

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 195

UPPER HUDSON Peete ttt 4

P?—= 84,5R PEE Ae

SERERGRREEEP ABS
PEE et
GER ERRERBEF.S a

ELEEREREE DERE ESS EeP SBR ERE RRR Ree
See EEEETTGeeeeesae’ GeeREnETEE

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Precipitation in inches

20 30 40

Fig. 9 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation and runoff,
in inches, on the Upper Hudson river.

UPPER HUDSON
P’-7234.3R

50 SBEERES. ABER

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ESEUMDSORRE SETS REEF. eRe
a5 BSRESBERESHBS 4e Q

No
i)

Run-off in inches

Precipitation in inches
20 30 40

Fig. 10 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation and runoff,
n inches, on the Upper Hudson river, expressed by exponential formula.

a ]

196

NEW YORK STATE

MUSEUM

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Fig. 11 Runoff diagram of Hudson and Genesee rivers.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 197

others not here published, that there is no definite relation between
evaporation and mean annual temperature.

Exponential formula. On fig. 10 this relation is expressed by
an exponential formula, after the manner proposed by Mr Fitz-
Gerald in his paper, Flow of Water in 48-inch Pipes.t. Such a
curve has the advantage that it is the best approximation possible
to obtain from the given data. It will be noticed that it differs
slightly from the curve of fig. 9. At 30 inches rainfall this differ-
ence amounts to about 1.8 inches of runoff.

While on the subject of exponential formulas it may be re-
marked that their chief advantage lies in the possibility of taking
any set of data and deducing the curve which best suits the
conditions.

Description of runoff diagrams. Fig. 11 is a runoff diagram of
the Hudson and Genesee rivers, Hudson river for 1888-1901, in-
clusive, and Genesee river for 1890-1898, inclusive. In preparing
this and the following diagrams it is considered that if both run-
off and precipitation were correctly measured the points would
fall in a regular curve approximately like those shown on figs. 9
and 10. Such diagrams may therefore be taken as a criterion of
the accuracy with which the observations have been made. It is
easier, however, to measure the runoff than it is to measure the
precipitation, and hence when large variation occurs, as it does
in these several diagrams, we may first look for it in the pre-
cipitation records. As regards the Hudson area, it hag been the
writer’s custom to take the rainfall of the northern plateau of
the State Weather Bureau as, on the whole, best representing the
rainfall of the Upper Hudson area. With the exception of the
years 1899 and 1900 the points all fall within from an inch to
an inch and a half of the curve.. Those two years have, however,
been computed by a less accurate method than the preceding
ones. It is concluded, therefore, that aside from 1899 and 1900
the curves represent the rainfall and runoff of the Hudson and
Genesee rivers with considerable accuracy.

Fig. 12 shows in a similar manner a runoff diagram for Mus-
kingum river from 1888 to 1895, inclusive.

1Trans. Am. Soe. C. E., Vol. XXXYV, p. 241.

RUN-OFF DIAGRAM OF MUSKINGUM RIVER

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

V

Ht
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Runoff diagram of Muskingum river,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 199
SRORRRRNGE
TTA
RERRREREAN
TAH
TTT TT LAN io
e (NTs
TTT

>

Precipitation in inches on catchment area

TTT TSN
TRESSHE ANG i
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Fig. 1:

72.19
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MINIMUM YEAR

19.78
ia sl

1877-1899:
INCHES ON CATCHMENT AREA
MAXIMUM YEAR
Rainfall. Run-off. Evapor- Rainfall, Run-off. Evapor-
ation
59

27,74

* 32.60

RUN-OFF DIAGRAM OF CROTON RIVER

30.83 21.74°

Storage»
Growing
Replenishing.

add Juauyd}vd UO Sayoul ul ffo-uny

S S
v oe)

200 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Fig. 15 is a diagram of the revised gagings of Croton river from
1877 to 1899, inclusive.

The maximum, minimum, and mean runoff may be a gery
from the tabulations on each figure.

It is evident that proceeding in the same way as for the fore-
going diagrams, figs. 11 to 13,inclusive, diagrams may be prepared
for the storage, growing, and replenishing periods, and a curve
drawn from which the runoff for a given rainfall may be taken.

UPPER HUDSON RIVER
Storage period

n
©
<=
=)
=
=
Ooms
S$
‘
—
=
cf

0 2S Sa BS 1 ee ee ee

5 70
Precipitation in inches

75 20

Fig. 14 Diagram showing the relation between precipitation
and runoff in the Upper Hudson river catchment during the
storage period.

Hig. 14 is such a diagram for the storage period on the Upper
Hudson river for the years 1888-1901, inclusive. This diagram
shows that aside from the years 1890 and 1894 the runoff of this
eatchment area was substantially accurate during the storage
period. It is probable that in these two years their accuracy
may have been interfered with by ice, although just the cause is
not definitely known—it may have been in the rainfall.

Fig. 15 is a similar diagram for the Upper Hudson river during
the growing period for the same years. This diagram shows that
aside from 1897, the runoffs were substantially right during this
period.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 201

Fig. 16 is a similar diagram for the Upper Hudson during
the replenishing period for the same years. This diagram shows
that in 1890 and 1900 there was a discrepancy, which, as in the
previous cases, was presumably in the precipitation of that period.

UPPER HUDSON RIVER

Growing period

70

an
©
=
Ls)
=
=
>
!
=
~
©&

Bi a ee = et
a ee ee
i Se sp ot hd ee oT
ns a i ee
Bas .2=s5 Fede i Scb Sect

Precipitation in inches

70 15 20

Fig. 15 Diagram showing the relation between the precipitation
and runoff in the Upper Hudson river catchment during the
growing period.

UPPER HUDSON RIVER
Replenishing period

No
S

~~
So

Run-off in inches

Precipitation in inches
70 15 20

Fig. 16 Diagram showing the precipitation and runoff in the
Upper Hudson river catchment during the replenishing period.

Proceeding on similar lines, the writer prepared, several years
ago, a series of curves, from which the monthly runoffs may be

202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

taken. But, unfortunately, owing to negative evaporation in the
storage period, the individual months of that period were too dis-
cordant for publication. The writer, therefore, does not give
any such diagrams in this connection. His present view is that,
for the reason stated, they can not be safely used.

One or two general conclusions of some interest may be drawn
from figs. 11 to 13, inclusive. Taking the extreme low water as
represented by the vear 1895, on Muskingum river, at 4.9 inches
for the whole year, with a rainfall of 29.8 inches, it is interesting
to observe that in the preceding year of 1894, there was a total
runoff of 8.7 inches, with a total rainfall of 30.5 inches. That is
to say, the rainfall for the year 1894 was 0.7 inch greater than
in 1895, but the runoff was 3.8 inches greater. This extreme
difference may be ascribed to the difference in the hight of ground
water. In 1895 ground water stood much lower than in 1893,
with the result of a lower runoff.

On fig. 11, for the Genesee river, with a-precipitation of 30
inches, the runoff is found to be 6 inches, while on fig. 8, with a
precipitation of 30 inches, runoff ordinarily may be expected to
be about 8 inches. This statement is made on the assumption
that the curve is drawn in a mean position, or in such a way as
to give average mean results, but it should not be overlooked that
Muskingum river observations are too few to draw absolute con-
clusions. The diagram, fig. 12, shows that there is some lack of
accuracy in at least one-half of them. ig

Fig. 11 shows that on Hudson river, if during any year the total
rainfall should sink to 30 inches, the runoff may be expected to
be somewhat less than 10 inches, though the modifying effect of
full or low ground water may be taken into account in reaching
such conclusion. Probably there would be, due to elevation of
ground water, a variation of perhaps 2 inches.

On the diagram of Croton river, fig. 18, it is also seen that 50
inches precipitation may be expected to produce a little less than
7 inches of runoff, showing also that this stream has substantially
the characteristics of Genesee river.

ILYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 203

In all of the foregoing statements as to minimum runoff, it
should be understood that the actual quantity appearing in the
stream as runoff from a given precipitation will vary, depending
on whether ground water is high or low at the beginning of the
period considered. All such statements, therefore, are necessarily
approximate—they may have a plus or minus variation from the
diagram of one or two inches. Possibly the maximum variation
may be more than this.

RIVER SYSTEMS

Classification of rivers, The rivers of the State may be classi-
fied into seven general systems, whose relative position is shown
by the accoimpanying map, fig. 17. These are:

GARE ONTARI AIO Zz

‘ '
Oswego B st r
yes . =<" ;
Leela
¢ ‘ *, Sa © \y

)
°
2:

~
.
¢
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.

oe: 4
NewYork
wane :

Pi. PLEZL

Fig. 17 Map of rivers of New York.

204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

1) St Lawrence system, which includes all waters draining to
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and Niagara and St Lawrence rivers.

2) Champlain system, including all streams in the State tribu-
tary to Lakes Champlain and George. The Champlain system is
in reality a subdivision of the St Lawrence, but made separate
here merely for convenience in discussing the river systems of the
State. ae

3) Hudson river system, including all streams tributary to que
Hudson and its main branch, the Mohawk.

4) Allegheny river system.

5) Susquehanna river system.

6) Delaware river system.

7) The streams of Long Island gigi to Long Island sound
and the Atlantic ocean.

The Ten Mile river, one of the headwaters of the Housatonic
river in Connecticut, flows out of the State to the east, while the
headwaters of Ramapo river, in Rockland county, flow from New
York into New Jersey. These latter are of possible future im-
portance by reason of the necessity of water for the supply either
of Greater New York or, in the case of Ramapo river, also for the
municipalities of northern New Jersey. Chateaugay river and
tributaries of the St Lawrence also flow northward into the
Dominion of Canada.

St Lawrence River System

This group embraces the streams tributary to Lake Erie,
Niagara river, Lake Ontario and St Lawrence river. On the
extreme southwest, in Chautauqua county, the watershed line
approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie, but at an elevation
of several hundred feet above, and as a consequence the streams
are short and rapid. A small amount of power is developed on
Chautauqua creek at Westfield, and on Canadaway creek near
Fredonia. Cattaraugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda and Oak Orchard
creeks are tributaries of Lakes Erie and Ontario and Niagara
river in western New York. Buffalo creek is important as form-
ing a large portion of Buffalo harbor at its mouth. Several of

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 205

these streams will be discussed in detail on a later page. Tona-
wanda creek, which flows into Niagara river at Tonawanda, is
used for several miles as a part of Erie canal. This stream is
sluggish throughout nearly its whole course and affords only a
small amount of power. The water supply of the village of Attica
is taken from its headwaters.

Lake Erie and Niagara river drainage. There are a number of
streams tributary to Lake Erie and Niagara river, but with the
exception of Cayuga, Buffalo and Cazenovia creeks, which unite
to form Buffalo river, within the city of Buffalo, Eighteen Mile
creek (tributary to Lake Erie), Cattaraugus creek, Tonawanda
creek and Ellicott creek, none of these streams are very large.
The catchment areas of these different streams, as determined

from Bien’s atlas, are as follows:
Square miles.

pred Re re Sats ot PHENO ts 4A SH Hrs 127
Pate ae ries tet). A OV ve ale 145
eau. Came fe i er oe ee 141

Below the junction of these several streams Buffalo river has
a catchment of about 7 square miles, making a total of 420 square
miles. The following are the catchment areas of the remainder
of the streams tributary to Lake Erie and Niagara river:

Square miles.

| ES AR a ae oe roe ee ee | ee 25
ee EI to. sinensis Bush yuhehh smirk t, « 8 3° 50
REE ees tens a Gale WS new wo «> 15
ee SC POONG oer asi ars soe on te oy new. 8s 560
Wem creek, suver Creek. co) et Ts 60
Dameaiway Creek POPU Lak Tis Ue; BY5)
Ciamreuiua creeki 7) 0. NSROIy Soseyt al. : 32
Tonawanda creek, Ellicott creek............ 610

Cayuga creek. Cayuga creek rises in the western part of
Wyoming county and flows through generally level country to its
junction with Buffalo creek. Buffalo creek also rises in the west-
ern part of Wyoming county and flows westerly. Its headwat:rs
are at an elevation of about 1500 feet above tide. |

206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Casenovia creek. Cazenovia creek rises in the extreme south-
western part of Erie county and flows in a northerly direction to
its junction with Buffalo creek, to form Buffalo river. The head-
waters of this stream are in hilly country.

Eighteen Mile creek. Eighteen Mile creek flows into Lake Erie
about eleven miles west of the city of Buffalo. It rises in the
south part of Erie county.

Cattaraugus creek. Cattaraugus creek is the boundary line
between Erie and Cattaraugus counties. Its main branch rises
in the southwestern part of Wyoming county. Its course is gen-
erally west and northwest. The elevation of its headwaters is
about 1600 feet to 1800 feet above tide.

Smoke creek, Big Sister creek, Muddy creek, Silver creek, Wal-
nut creek, Canadaway creek and Chautauqua creek are none of
them very important streams.

Tonawanda creek. Tonawanda creek rises in the western part
of Wyoming county, flows northerly through Attica to Batavia
and thence westerly to the Niagara river at Tonawanda, at which
place its chief tributary, Ellicott creek, joins the main stream.
For the first thirty miles of its flow the creek drains hilly and
rolling country, having a sharp descent. Its extreme headwaters
in Wyoming county are at an elevation of about 1200 feet. _ From
3atavia to Tonawanda, a distance of nearly sixty miles by the
stream, the topography is flat, having a total fall between these
points of about 3510 feet. A considerable portion of the catch-
iment area of this section is not only flat and marshy, but also
narrow. Between Batavia and Tonawanda the creek has been
modified by two artificial interruptions: (1), by the diversion of
a portion of its water through a diversion channel into Oak
Orchard creek, from which water is drawn to the Erie canal at
Medina; and (2), at Tonawanda the creek is artificially raised by
the State dam and the stream canalized. and used as a part of
rie canal for a distance of twelve miles to Pendleton. The major
portion of the water supply of the western division of the Erie
canal is drawn from Lake Erie through this canalized portion of

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK POT

Tonawanda creek. It will be noticed that the current of Tona-
wanda creek is reversed here for twelve miles. ;

The Tonawanda creek, in its relation to Oak Orchard creek,
will now be briefly discussed. Although Tonawanda creek is not
a tributary of this catchment, the fact that the catchment areas
are merged into one another, and also owing to the fact that a
portion of the water of Tonawanda creek is diverted into the Oak
Orchard swamp by the Oak Orchard feeder, makes it necessary to
discuss it briefly here.

The dam diverting water into the Oak Orchard creek is about
one-half mile east of the west line of Genesee county. From the
point where the Tonawanda creek crosses this western boundary
the creek is the boundary between Erie and Niagara counties.
The fall in Tonawanda creek from Batavia to Oak Orchard dam
is about 260 feet. From the Oak Orchard dam to Pendleton,
where the Erie canal leaves Tonawanda creek, the fall is about
45 feet. On this portion the channel is extremely sinuous, the
total length of the channel between Oak Orchard dam and the
canal being 29 miles, while the direct distance is 15 miles.

Niagara river. Niagara river forms a portion of the boundary
between the Dominion of Canada and the State of New York.
The difference in elevation between Lakes Erie and Ontario is,
approximately, 325 feet, of which about 160 feet are at Niagara
Falls. Between Lake Erie and Niagara Falls the river divides
into two channels around Grand Island, which is 10 miles long
and 4 or 5 miles wide. The general course of the river is from
south to north, but in passing around Grand Island the eastern
channel bends westward, and for 3 miles from the foot of the
island the course of the river is west.

Goat Island lies at the foot of this westerly stretch. On the
New York side the American channel finds its way around the
island to the American falls, which break over the rough ledge
at right angles to the main river. The Horseshoe falls, on the
Canadian side, are about 3000 feet higher up and lie between the
west end of Goat island and the Canadian shore. At the Cana-
dian falls the main river again turns to the north and pursues
that general course to Lake Ontario.

208 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The elevation of the water surface at the head of the rapids
above the falls is 560 feet above tidewater, thus giving a fall from
the Lake Erie level to that point of from 12 to 13 feet, of which
from 4 to 5 feet are included in the rapids at the city of Buffalo,
in front of and just below Fort Porter. The descent in the river
from the head of the rapids to the brink of the falls is about 50
feet. At the narrows, half a mile above the whirlpool, the eleva- —
tion of the water surface is 300 feet, while that of the surface
of the still water opposite Lewiston is 249 feet; the fall in this
section, which is from 4 to 4.5 miles in length, may therefore be
taken at 51 feet, while from Lewiston to the mouth at Fort Niag-
ara the fall is only 2 feet in a distance of 7 miles. The total
length of Niagara river is about 37 miles. The catchment area of
Niagara river above Niagara Falls is 265,095 square miles.

On account of the immense water-power developments now
taking place at Niagara Falls the runoff of Niagara river must
necessarily receive extended discussion in a complete account of
the Hydrology of New York.

Lake Ontario catchment area. This catchment comprises the
strip of territory draining directly into Lake Ontario and extend-
ing from the Niagara river to beyond the Black river. The im-
portant streams of this section are Genesee river, Oswego river,
Salmon river west and Black river. The less important are
Iighteen Mile creek (tributary to Lake Ontario), Johnson creek,
Oak Orchard creek, Sandy creek (Orleans county), West creek,
Salmon creek (Monroe county), Irondequoit creek, Salmon creek
(Wayne county), Wolcott creek, Red creek, Sodus creek, Nine
Mile creek, Fish creek, Little Salmon river (Oswego county),
Beaver Dam brook, Sandy creek (Oswego county), north and
south branches of Sandy creek (Jefferson county), Skinner creek,
Little Sandy creek, Stony creek, Perch river and Chaumont river.
None of these small streams are of any great importance, although
some of them have considerable water power upon them.!

iFor statement in detail of water power on streams tributary to the
proposed Black river feeder canal, see table No. 129, water power in use
on streams tributary to proposed Black river feeder in 1898, at pp. 857-861
of the Deep Waterways Report.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 209

The following are the catchment areas of a few of these streams:

Square miles

Eighteen Mile creek (tributary to Lake Ontario). ., 7. <;. 90
EEE SE EE See ee, ae Seca rer 105
ESC SSE re ee eer 295
I ean on ga 0 aig ow ane aie win hens es 85
iirertvnel SSANNGR CECCKS.«.. .-. . a cycc ese ce eee gst els 110
MUERTE PIVOT os ne ne we ce ee te ee ee 135.

The following notes on these streams have been collected from
various sources:

Bighteen Mile creek. Eighteen Mile creek rises near Gasport,
and flows first westerly and then northerly to Lake Ontario at
Olcott. A small branch of the stream flows through the city of
Lockport, rising two or three miles south of that city. Ever
since the construction of the Erie canal the Lockport branch has
received a considerable quantity of water which is discharged by
the water powers at Lockport drawing their supply from the
canal.

Oak Orchard creek. Oak Orchard creek rises in the eastern
part of Orleans county, whence it flows to West Shelby and then
turns northeasterly, reaching Lake Ontario at Point Breeze.
Above West Shelby it mostly flows through swamps and swampy
- channels, while below that point the country is dry and rolling.
The distance from the head of the swamp to its foot near West
Shelby is sixteen miles in a direct line, but upwards of twenty
miles following the stream channel. The fall of the stream is 37
feet, making the average slope 1.8 feet per mile. The topography
of the country adjacent to the swamp is level and its boundaries
are accordingly indefinite. Large areas of land around the mar.
gin of the swamp are wet during the fall and spring and dry
during the summer. There are about 20,000 acres of imperfectly
drained or marshy land lying along this portion of the Tonawanda
creek and about 25,000 acres in Oak Orchard swamp proper.
Swamp lands occur in the towns of Alabama, Byron, Elba and
Oakfield in Genesee county. The catchment area of Oak Orchard
swamp is about 1338 square miles.

210 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Genesee river. This river issues from the highlands of the Alle-
gheny plateau in Potter county, Pennsylvania, a few miles south
of the New York State boundary. Entering Allegany county, it
first runs northwesterly for upward of 30 miles to near the village
of Caneadea, at which point it turns northeasterly, this direction
being generally maintained to the mouth. It flows entirely across
the county of Allegany and then for several miles forms the
boundary between Livingston and Wyoming counties, after which
it crosses the northeast part of Livingston into Monroe county,
through which it continues to its mouth at Charlotte. Above
Portage its course from the State line is chiefly through an alluvial
valley.

From Portage to Mount Morris the river flows through a deep
and in some places narrow canyon for a distance of over 20 miles. |
The Portage falls, with a total descent including the intervening
rapids of about 330 feet, are at the head of this canyon. The
Upper Portage falls have a descent, including the rapids, of about
70 feet. Half a mile below are the Middle falls, with a descent of
110 feet; while 2 miles below begin the Lower falls, consisting
of a series of rapids about half a mile long with an aggregate
fall of 150 feet. These three falls may be taken as ageregating
about 270 feet, exclusive of the rapids. At present no power
developments exist. Formerly a sawmill was located at the Mid-
dle falls, but on account of the extinction of the lumber business
on the stream it has not been operated for many years.

At Mount Morris, Genesee river issues into a broad, level, allu-
vial valley from 1 to 2 miles wide, which continues to near Roch-
ester, where there is a descent of 262 feet in about 3 miles. The
Upper falls at Rochester, 90 feet in hight, are a cataract in the
Niagara limestone, while at the Lower falls, 94 feet in hight, the
Medina sandstone appears. The foregoing figures do not include
the dams above the falls.

The principal tributaries of the Genesee river are Canaseraga,
Honeoye and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka, Black and
Wiscoy creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice and Hemlock
lakes are tributary to the Honeoye creek, and Conesus lake to

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK yA Gf

Conesus creek. Silver lake is another small body of water in the
Genesee basin and tributary to the river by the Silver lake outlet.
Canaseraga creek joins Genesee river near Mount Morris. From
Dansville to its mouth, a distance of 16 miles, this creek flows
through a broad alluvial valley with very little fall. Above Dans-
ville the stream is more rapid, but the comparatively small, de-
forested catchment area limits its value for water power. Honeoye
creek, which is the outlet of Honeoye, Canadice and Hemlock
lakes, furnishes some water power. There are also several mills
on the outlet of Conesus lake.

Formerly there were a number of mills on the Silver lake out-
Jet, but changed business conditions have led to their decay. The
other tributaries of the Genesee have little significance as mill
streams. It appears, then, that the two places of importance on
Genesee river, from the water-power point of view, are Portage
and Rochester. |

The following table gives the detail of the several subdivisions
of the catchment area of Genesee river:

TaBLe No. 3/—CATCHMENT AREAS OF TRIBUTARIES OF GENESEE RIVER
(In square miles)

Catchment Areaabove Area below

Creek area mouth mouth
Vi Sa yk ie os a pe ae 43.5 99.9 143.2
CUCMURG Gt hie or 1. Alte ee St 30.0 181.0 211.0
nh es ee re re eS 68.3 214.0 282.3
(on GN 5) a 21.6 301.3 322.9
SE SR ne eee ee 22.3 323.9 346.2
ELS eae te ee 32.3 372.8 405.1
Ora EONS A Bl cc ew 55.7 410.4 466.1
MN CAs a? bettas age ve utes thee di. oy 82.1 481.1 563.2
Ee Be sarh Bi oe nuccgs todd a Gran «Sat Aides 15.9 569.2 . joo.
oo) | 2 eS SA RS ae eee eee oL.1 D00.5 626.6
CAI IOrE Gs ihc . LE Acre aS 5 11.8 637 .6 649 .4
WIE Cee or es ee ee 63.3 651.0 114.3
I ee ee ce ee AE 41.0 (45 <3 786.3
Eeuste), Wet Per. RDY 838) )) Rill). 35.8 787.0 S2a08
BV see OR. Pit. sod. . 108.6 833.6 942.2

212 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Catchment Areaabove Area below

Creek area mouth mouth
se aS uO ye ee ap ue ae 19.3 974.9 994.2
PPEWOP Ce 2 oie oo ieee 30.4 1,029 .2 1,059 .6
Cashaqua. .......... RP Nort a tay 82.0 1,059.6 1,141.6
OTA 8 oa Ge pial oe nie 258.7 1,148.4 1,407.1
IE 5 on 8 BE sah oad eae ee 41.5 1425.1 1 4G44
Oe Ne nS os saa cy ea 88.8 1,555.5 1,648.9
BO a do ee ne ee 262.6 1,675.9 1,938.5
Se dt te ets a eae 198.1: 1947.1) | Boies

3. 2,168. — 2 oe

PS eh he ee pA

The total catchment area of Genesee river at its mouth is
2446 square miles.
The following tabulation gives the elevation of Genesee river at

various points:

Feet
Mean’ surface ‘of ‘Lake’ ‘Ontarie?? 4) S072 el ee aw eee 247
Crest of the feeder dam in south part of the city of Roch-
CRTOT 5 bie cee scien ne Dn lee ook ee Se 510
Low-water surface of river at New York, Lake Krie &
Western railway bridge near Ayon.<°....0. 3225, Ae ee 538
Crest-of old: Mount Morris power'dam >! 9... 2279002 ae 605
Water surface just above Upper falls at Portage......... 1,080
Water surface at New York, Lake Erie & Western rail-
way bridge’near Belvidere? Or. ere oe. a eee 1,333

The extreme headwaters in Potter county, Pennsylvania, are
about 2500 feet above tide.

Water power of Genesee river. Aside from a few unimportant
flour mills on the Upper Genesee river, there is no water-power
development except at Rochester and Mount Morris. Tabulations
in detail of these water powers may be found in table No. 31 of the
report on Genesee River Storage Surveys, dated January 1, 1897.
These tabulations are too extensive to be reproduced in detail
here, but the total power, according to the manufacturers’ rating,
on Genesee river at and near Mount Morris and Rochester is
given at 19,178 horsepower. If we consider 75 per cent effi-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 213

ciency as developed by the water, the total power becomes 17,248

horsepower, of which 570 horsepower was at that time in use at

Mount Morris. Probably 17,248 horsepower is too high, because

there are a number of wheels in use which do not yield over 50
per cent efficiency.

Flash boards.
| ae

TAI
7

D
‘Go

4

Fig. 18 Section of power dam on Genesee river at Mount Morris, at north

end of same.

These statistics were gathered in the fall of 1896. Since that
time some further extension has been made at Rochester, so that

_1The power dam at Mount Morris was destroyed by a flood early in

1897 and was only rebuilt in 1908. In the meantime, the manufacturing

establishments there have been running by steam. Statements are not at

hand as to whether all of these establishments are again running by water

power.

yAr! NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

at the present time there is, on the basis of 75 per cent efficiency,
fully 20,000 horsepower in use when there is water enough to
supply it. In some years, however, there is a deficiency of power.
for several months, and in extreme low water the total power of
the river does not exceed an average of about 4700 or 4800 gross
horsepower. On 75 per cent efficiency the total horsepower of
Genesee river in extreme low water does not exceed 3600 to 3800
net horsepower.

In addition to the water power in use at Rochester, there is a
considerable amount of steam power. From a canvass made in
1900 it appears that there were at that time engines set capable
of producing over 15,000 horsepower. Since 1900 extensions have
been made of the Rochester Gas & Electric Company’s plant
and of the Citizens Light & Power Company’s plant to the
extent of 5000 or 6000 horsepower, so that there is, in 1904, over
20,000 horsepower from steam in use at Rochester. These figures
do not include auxiliary engines in use in mills propelled by
water power, but which, from lack of water, necessarily rely on
the engines in some years for several months. It is an interesting
circumstance that the water power manufacturing district of
Rochester, while situated on the brink of the gorge below the
Upper Genesee falls, has a chimney attached to every mill, and
the appearance, in-times of low water, is that of steam power
rather than of water. If the auxiliary engines are included there
were over 30,000 horse power of steam at Rochester in 1904.

Oswego river. This stream, with a total catchment area at its
mouth of 5002 square miles, flows into Lake Ontario at the city
of Oswego. It is formed by the junction of Oneida and Seneca
rivers at Three Rivers Point, about twenty-two miles southerly
from its mouth. Its main tributary, Seneca river, with a catch-
ment area of 3433 square miles, enters from the west at this point,
while the Oneida river enters from the east.

Seneca river. Seneca river rises in the highlands in the south
part of the State, the main stream flowing north through Cayuga
lake, while its tributaries flow north through Canandaigua, Keuka, -

HYDROLOGY .OF NEW YORK Zis

Seneca, Owasco, Skaneateles, Otisco, Cross and Onondaga lakes
and the outlets of the same, after which the river turns and flows
in a generally easterly direction to its junction with Oneida river
at Three Rivers Point. The headwaters of Seneca river on the
streams entering Canandaigua lake are at an elevation of 1600
feet; on the streams entering Keuka lake they are at an elevation
of 1400 feet; on the streams entering Seneca lake, at an elevation
of 1600 feet; on the streams entering Cayuga lake, at an eleva-
tion of 1400 feet, and so on.t. Generally we may say, therefore,
that the headwaters of Seneca river are at an elevation of from
1200 to 1600 feet above tidewater.

Oneida river. Oneida river rises in the central part of the State.
One branch—F ish creek—rises in the highlands of the Lowville
water center and flows in a generally southerly direction to its
mouth in Oneida lake, while other branches rise in the highlands
to the south. The streams flowing from a northerly direction
are the west branch of Fish creek, with its main tributary, Mad
river; east branch of Fish creek, with its tributaries, Furnace
creek, Florence creek and Fall brook; Fish creek enters the -
extreme east end of Oneida lake; Wood creek is tributary to
Fish creek a short distance above its mouth. The streams enter-
ing Oneida lake from a southerly direction are Chittenango creek,
to which are tributary Butternut and Limestone creeks, all of
which have considerable power upon them; Oneida creek, which
flows into Oneida lake from the extreme southeast corner, and
Canaseraga creek. Onondaga creek flows from the south into
Onondaga lake, through the city of Syracuse. The headwaters of
Oneida river are at an elevation of from 1400 feet to 1600 feet,
the headwaters of the west branch of Fish creek, entering Oneida
lake from the north, being about 1600 feet above tidewater and
the headwaters of the east branch of Fish creek being about 1800
feet, while the headwaters of streams entering Oneida lake from
the south are at an elevation of from 1200 to 1400 feet above tide.

1These figures are general, as taken from the topographical map; in some
- eases they are somewhat exceeded, while in others they are less.

216 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Water power of Fish creek. The following tabulation shows the
principal water powers developed on the west branch of Fish
creek :

Ee = fg n=
3 | & Soy e ati
S S Location Manufacture s Te oF
- im 2 no am
Fs) s ERG RN
E 5 5 = B
cod Lo] | °
Z | <a es Z <
(1) | (2) (3) (4) (5) | @) | @)
1 Rol! Baberac. ja al Sawanills3 ich ta. eee! Ls Bbsedhel. aahba eee:
2 2 | McConnellsville.| Woodworking....... re ee 40 111
3 4+ Camden, Lice. 2 Woodworking......... 7-9 | 22 114
4 >») Cam@om o.o: 43 Foundry and knit’g mill) 9-10; 220 136
5 1" Camaden 2 0,20. Gristiat.. Sane eae nee 10 2 157
6 Ley eae aaa # dacs te Saw and grist mill..... 5 2 58
7 2 | West Camden...| Chair factory.......... 5 21 92
8 2 | Williamstown...| Saw and grist mill....| 16 5 66
9 1: | Wiltamstown...) Gristmill oie es 9 + 185

The following are the elevations above tide, areas of water sur-
face and catchment areas of the lakes tributary to Seneca and
Oneida rivers:

Bleyation Area of Catchment

Lake above tide, water, in area, in

in square square

feet miles miles

CAMAN AGIOS i508", Aasreecee.apthesks 686 18.6 175
OST Se ee eee eee 20 20.3 187
SM NA rons eosin dP vox sche seetaas) Se Ge 444 66.0 T07
WAVED A SN uate sure eae ae oe 381 66.8 1,593
UW Oe hoe ee et a ee 710 12.4 208
Skanéeatcles SCE. SA wse 4 S67 12.8 3
(HibcCaiiou add awd. 2o0Gk .Jdeee 784. 3.0 34
CUDA bcc tci ak chs eae eee 375 4 i ee
ESTOS D5 2 12 ae Hea aR ve ase 364 4.0 233
PeGPOROVIA: os kena eee oo Gea oe 1,190 2.8 9
Daerda tii? HOES 370 80.0 1,265

The following are the catchment areas of Oswego river and its

principal tributaries:
Square miles

Oxwego river. at mouth (1)),).nwwch ba, codiapa bh bode deen 5,002
Below junction of Seneca and Oneida rivers............ 4,835
CJHEIGR PIVER - . uike us cle cust o's we ote aE AL) gee ee eee ee 1,402

Beme@ee, LPIVER 6. oi ye dhivee caw ia 0 Wid 3 alan a ae er te 3,433

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK PAT

The subdivisions of the catchment area of Seneca river are as

follows:

Square miles
At jyanction with Oneida river..............-.-.2+5-- 3,453
Pmrariseeatee. fate tp cee ew Oa. IOC ol. og 3,103
nen eeeE Ie Se Sect)? LS SSS. Lis eee. Hee 2,472
arene, Mamita ORES a Se Se aaa i) ee ENS pay) yh RH +s 1,593
Manemeratee 40. Cayuga: lakes 2 1.6.0 «sys 6 0s, ele me eed +e pi sines 780
WF LE 2 A gee ey ene ee eee 771
0 a ee ae ee ee ert ed Se er ere ee 745
on PRS ST OS er Pe eee T07
7 ee SS die Se ee ee ere 213
TET SE ESE ole lege pellet fice, teed SS sia ee ote hearer re 94
Onondaga creek, not including Onondaga lake......... 122

The catchment areas of Cayuga lake and its tributaries are as

follows:

Square miles
OT Se ee oe eee ener eae 813
Cayuga inlet, including Cascadilla creek.............. 173
Fall creek, not including Cascadilla creek............ 152
oS LE PE) BE Suc Nevo 2k eget aaa Sr a ear cin 90
MME Rs ree etn ce cee nit ae ele ey woes ale bree 60

Clyde river, a tributary of Seneca river, is formed by the
junction of Canandaigua outlet and Mud creek. The latter stream
rises in the southern part of Ontario county and flows first north
and then east, uniting with Canandaigua outlet at Lyons. Clyde
river joins Seneca river at Montezuma. The following are the

catchment areas of Clyde river and tributaries:
Square miles

PEO ek me ind im ss be Re eee ane Oe 869
nM MOU ee hs sn oc ac tlce See SR at et inae, & 807
At Lyons, at junction of Canandaigua outlet and Mud

Ree eS. tla, PRM ISO tal. UL GOA ay. wkIbis o hiktahe’s & 729
ewer Wma eyONI Oc). Shiver. chi: A etwsts otctis cd og ew - 298
Canandaigua outlet at junction with Mud creek....... 431
Canandaigua outlet at Le 2 Ag Ala ALS OO Re Ao 590
peer ake at ‘Foor! O55 Ts FEY PSs B28 175

an ae mrtree 7, LID) 20 DORI. EL ean ote Si 85

218 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Owasco lake discharges into Seneca river through an outlet 15
miles in length. The following are the catchment areas of Owasco

outlet:

Square miles
AC mouth 2. fies ieee ee eee 230
ATSAUDUPH 52h iy its Pee reer eee eee ae
Owasco lake at foot. ::.:: “egg Wee ESI a EL) appa 208
Owaseo jnlet: . tii cii. ieee rpie. ee eee ee 120

The catchment areas of Oneida river and its principal tribu-

taries are as follows:
Square miles

QGneida river (at mouth... . «Woda oe ae ee 1402
Oneida lake at’ Toggs? tittle cee eee 1,265
High-creek 2 (awit Wises de as! RO OE ee ee ee 406
Chittenango creek, including Cazenovia lake... .4...... pee
Oneida creek.) 2 UOT SII te, 2 See Nee Ree Ce ee ce, 149 ©
TV 00d Greek (oo StS re ee ee ee 127

Owing to its large amount of lake storage, Oswego river, with
its tributaries, is one of the best power streams in the State. As
early as 1880 the power of this stream and its tributaries was
_fully utilized. According to a statement in the Report on the
Water Power of the Region Tributary to Lake Ontario, made in
1883, there was over 39,000 horsepower in use. This power was
developed upon Oswego river, Oneida river and small tributaries,
Canaseraga creek and tributaries, Chittenango creek and tribu-
taries, Fish creek and tributaries, Oneida creek and tributaries,
sundry other small tributaries of Oneida lake, Seneca river,
Cayuga outlet and sundry tributaries of Cayuga lake, Mud creek
and tributaries, Canandaigua outlet and tributaries, Owasco out-
let and tributaries, Skaneateles outlet and tributaries, Nine Mile
creek and tributaries and Onondaga creek and tributaries.

No statements are at hand as to the total power of Oswego
river in 1904, but it is doubtful if for the whole region it is greater
than in 1883. Probably the power in use on Oswego river proper
has increased somewhat, but there are many flour mills and other
small establishments throughout the region which are out of use,

making the net result about the same as in 1888.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 219

Skaneateles outlet. Skaneateles outlet, which is one of the best
power streams of the region, has a fall of about 500 feet in a few
miles. According to a statement made by W. R. Hill, formerly
Chief Engineer of the Syracuse Waterworks, there is about 3000
horsepower on this stream. However, in consequence of the city’s
taking Skaneateles lake as a water supply for Syracuse, the water
rights on this stream have either been purchased or condemned
by that city. Some of them are still in use in 1904, but definite
statements are not at hand as to whether they all are.

The following streams of the Oswego catchment are more or
less utilized for a water supply to the Erie canal: Owasco, Spring,
Putnam, ‘Skaneateles Carpenter, Nine Mile, Butternut, Lime-
stone, Chittenango, Cowaselon and Oneida creeks. The total
catchment area above the point of diversion amounts to about
750 square miles. On the headwaters of Limestone creek there
is a diversion from De Ruyter reservoir, artificially supplied from
the headwaters of Tioughnioga creek, which naturally drains to
the Susquehanna river.

Salnon river west. The next stream of any importance tribu-
tary to Lake Ontario is Salmon river west, which rises in the
highlands of Lewis county and flows first southerly, then westerly,
into Lake Ontario. Its headwaters are at an elevation of over
1600 feet above tide.

In 1889 this stream was extensively considered as the source
of a public water supply for the city of Syracuse. The Salmon
river catchment, above the proposed point of diversion, comprises
70 square miles of forest land from 1000 to 1600 feet above tide-
water, and distant northeast from Syracuse about 40 miles. The
brooks tributary to the main stream head in springs and gen-
erally flow for the first few miles through swamps. Above Red-
field the fall is rapid along the main stream, and there is stated
to be very little vegetation along the shores, which are of sand-
stone and gravel. The water is clear but of a brownish tint. It
is estimated that from 80 to 85 per cent of the catchment is
‘wooded.

220 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

A favorable location for a storage reservoir exists about three
miles above Redfield on the east branch, where a dam 32 feet
high would impound 1,816,000,000 gallons, at an elevation of 590
feet above Syracuse (about 1000 feet above tidewater). Between
this point and the mouth of Salmon river there are a number
of water powers, some of which are unoccupied—as at High Falls,
about five miles east of Sandbank, there is a vertical drop of 110
feet—but there are in operation sixteen mills, the machinery of
which is driven by water power, the aggregate capacity of the
wheels being 450 horsepower.!

The following are the catchment areas tributary to Salmon

river west:

Square miles
Reservoir site, three miles above Redfield.............. TO
Reservoir ‘site, above High Fallsox0 4. od). oth - .eoice ek 19t
At Pwlaskt 0.7.7 25216 rhipeiedet 20 aE ott aed? eee 264
Atmouth ‘of stream... st... 2h) >. SeaiaseeOrT: ta eae 285.

Black river. Between Salmon river west and the mouth of
Black river, there are a number of small streams flowing into
Lake Ontario, none of which are of special importance. We
may therefore pass to a brief description of Black river. This
stream rises in the western part of Hamilton county and pursues
a southwesterly direction, passing across Herkimer county into
Oneida county; it then bends to somewhat west of north through
Lewis county, but soon after passing the northwesterly boundary
of that county it changes to a general westerly course, flowing
into Black River bay at the extreme eastern end of Lake Ontario.
Extensive water-power developments are in use on this stream
and its tributaries, at Watertown, Lyon Falls, Carthage, Black
River, Brownville, Dexter and other points. There are also a
number of State reservoirs on the headwaters which are dis-
cussed on another page. The following gives the elevation in feet

*Report of the Engineer to the Commissioners on Sources of Water Sup-
ply for the City of Syracuse, N. Y., Feb. 21, 1889. By J. J. R. Croes, C. E.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 221:

of the main points on Black river above tidewater, according to
the best available information :

Feet
ERI RR ORIN CURR Cee tt ea aa £8 Ta es SP tene oe 247
erro Me Wes ME: OF CITY fet ce ete. eB aT 310
Neem at Nnead ‘Or falle..::. 000 Ee ae 492
Be ie BE WES “CLEST. OL CAI. 0.5% 8 are a colt USN, PEN 563
meeetawe at f0Ot OF 'TAplds. ot ts of. vets ees Pn 669
Portuese, Crest OL tate Galles Ssi2i ss: ree ee SS 724
PERU ar ee UevOnt se sees ee Th rae, TE, AN OND) ae 133
Lyon Panic, crest OF place daira 2B) 28 Ss PIN, 802
Porestport, crest of State dam ® 0222. 922002) 28D. 2002. 1,129
mga ie trea MieieneNeryOlr. .....< . Maawtn okies. 6c oe pe ee ays 1,821
Seireakmuno?. 21), 2OOlm ooguahoiu. Now Manlit lo swe 13599
Pr OGUhaiiesery Gir “iol Gwiieal ogiiiot sand cee i S-Series 1,854
Soul BeancwreseryOir says jis ccs is Sele 0d froeceie ed's py eye pee 2,019
BUORGemIveR Cat AGEN. acy laipweiiersesiace = dycecererses «+ a euscri oe 802
Pe OO 12 ee 1,684
ON oe Ue UR an es 1,684
Bret UMMM COM cee os od Neen tok wade Ty ty hes de 1,685
ONT STS) G15 7a! a tela enh i a aa Et a! a Oe! 1,687
NE ORR ME Ree we Oe ne ek ee See wee ees TOL
ee Ce te ee ae! ee 1,760
Spay pale Se eter 2a edeahai ia ert Ratha tee Get aa raed ar eal t,762
CL eu SEN lai Sl ag Bidet ee do ae aa ae a Mk A 1,803
apes neone lake sree ER, eA 1, LS, AES 1,772
Pee Meese TaReOeyi le WOM SIR. LUD. Md GEh wick oy. 1,787
Beaver river, at mouth..... ead s Litera. Oi Shs «eT Rete 124
Beaver riveceae Number Wor)? .o6). - ces S|. oe aind e. - 1,436

The catchment areas of Black river and its tributaries, in

square miles, are as follows:
Square miles

erent Che Metalic WEN? tayo ho Tes. wd. bre 1,930
mt yvatertowm: (hemington’s:dam) oc o..sc9 ca: 6b ee ea we 1,892
At Watertown (waterworks dam at Huntingtonville).. 1,889
See ede ENA RAGE Uae a Sara ange g shen eine ces 1,869
At site of Rawson’s dam (four miles below Carthage) . . 1,824
MS ae ei eee aa» vie LIER MAP UE, | 1,812

een aOR Ot WOOSe TIVER. . oi bic ck cca wp ae eee aces 463

222 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Square miles

HOrest port: os. . sxe. eau cele s ee ee eet 268
Beaver river, at mouth.: 20.0.2... es eee eee 338
ibgaver riyer, at Beaver Malis oc ....*0.,.. 2. -amen a ae 322
Noose’ river, at mouth... °..« . scbla Be ce ee 416
Moosé river, at Asars-mill oo aftee tne ee ee 407
Decr river, at mouth Y Pit SAP vee ee ee ee 102
Deer ‘river, at Deer River villages ie) 3 a eae. 101
Woodhull. creek. .)2. :guta720u 5 SS eee, eee 108
Otter creek (one-half mile above mouth of creek)...... 63
Independence, creek, at, mouth. . a. $e sie 4p ae Ee 99
Independence creek (three miles above mouth)......... ve DS

The length of Black river, measured along its course from its
mouth at Black River bay to the headwaters, is 112 miles.

The section drained by the upper river in Herkimer and Hamil-
ton counties is a rugged, mountainous region, with numerous
lakes, a number of which have been utilized by the State of New
York as storage reservoirs to compensate for water taken for the
supply of the Black river and Erie canals.

The extreme headwaters of the main river are Canachagala
lake, North lake and South lake. Other lakes on the headwaters
of the main river are Woodhull, Little Bisby Chain lakes, Little
Woodhull, Chub, Long, White and a number of others. The chief
tributaries of Black are the Moose and Beaver rivers, both of
which rise in Hamilton county and flow across Herkimer into
Lewis county. The principal lakes at the head of- Moose river
are Two Sisters, Pigeon, Big Moose, Second, Cascade, Fulton
Chain, Lime Kiln and Little Moose lakes. The principal lakes at
the headwaters of the Beaver river are Lakes Lila and Francis,
Josephine, Nehasane, Big Rock, Little Rock, Salmon, Loon and
Twitchell lakes and others.

Other smaller tributaries of Black river are Black creek, Little
Woodhull creek, Big Woodhull creek, Crystal brook, Otter creek,
Independence creek, Crystal creek, Swiss creek, Moose creek,
Sugar river, Whetstone creek, Roaring creek, Mill creek, Deer
river and other small streams.

ae naethiy

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK yep

Moose river. This stream has a rapid fall throughout its entire

The catchment area of 416 square miles is precipitous
There is a catchment

extent.
and still very largely in primeval forest.
of 41 square miles at the headwaters, which is regulated by
storage, controlled by the State dam at Old Forge at the foot of
the Fulton Chain lakes. There are a number of undeveloped
water powers at Lyonsdale, Millers falls and other points on the
stream. The following tabulation shows the principal developed
water powers on Moose river:

g Se Se: ee ae
a Pee CpeOo et
eit } 2 og St
bes} Location | Manufacture . eo no Oo;
| | |e") 2s | 3s

: | ee eae ee
A (A 14 es
(1) | (2 | (3) | (4) | () | (6)
1 Near Lyon Falls....... | Wood-pulp............ 18 | 50 560
2 Near Lyon Falls....... | Miod-pakp oo. SS. 04 30 31 | 1,208
3 Near Lyon Falls....... | Wood-pulp ............ 35 28 | 1,786
4 | Bporigtale ms... 6.4 5. Wood-pulp............ 30 30 850
5 Fi. >) Lig TT ele Re aie Speers 30 2 400
6 Lyonsdale)..... 01.54...) Pulp and paper........ 39 40 | 1,252
7 Above Lyonsdale...... Manila paper.......... 30 40 | 1,000

Beaver river. The catchment area of Beaver river is 338 square
miles. There is a storage dam at Stillwater, controlling an area
of 153 square miles. In addition to this reservoir there is a large
number of natural Jakes, in consequence of which a compara-
tively uniform flow is maintained throughout the year. .

From the reservoir above Beaver to Number Four the stream
flows over numerous boulder rapids, alternating with stretches
of smooth water. Above Beaver lake there is a 60-foot rapids
within 500 feet. Below the foot of Beaver lake, for twelve miles,
the stream flows over a rocky channel, although the adjacent
catchment is sandy and still largely in forest. At Eagle falls,
two miles below Beaver lake, there is a series of cascades aggre-
gating 75 feet descent. The foregoing are undeveloped. Water

‘power to the extent of 4400 horsepower is developed at Beaver

Falls, Croghan and Belfort. The total head utilized is 1383 feet.

224 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

At Belfort there is a fall of 50 feet, utilized to generate electricity,
which is transmitted to adjacent towns.

Otter creek. This stream rises in Herkimer county and flows
westerly into Black river, a few miles north of the village of
Greig. Its catchment area is 63 square miles.

Independence creek. Independence creek also rises in Herki-
mer county and flows westerly into Black river three miles south
of Bushe’s Landing. The catchment area above the mouth of the
stream is 99 square miles.

Deer river. This stream rises in the extreme western part of
Lewis county and flows northeasterly into Black river five miles
above Carthage. The catchment area of the stream is 102 square
miles. ;

_ LHarly water power and manufacturing projects on Black river.
Precise knowledge of the region drained by Black river is almost
entirely confined to the present century. So little was known

of its geography that in a statistical work, Winterbotham’s View
of the American United States, published in 1796, it is stated
that Black river is said to rise “in the high country near the
sources of Canada creek, which falls into the Mohawk river and
takes its course northwest and then northeast until it discharges
into the Cataraqui or Iroquois river not far from Swegauchee;
it is said to be navigable for batteaux up to the lower falls, 60
miles.” That is to say, Winterbotham understood Black river
to be navigable either to Carthage or possibly Lyon Falls, the
misapprehension probably having grown out of the accounts given
by hunters and trappers of the long, nearly level stretch of about
40 miles between Carthage and Lyon Falls. The Black river is
not represented on any of the early French or English maps of
the region.

Surveys of Watertown township were made in 1796 by
Benjamin Wright, who was later engineer on the Erie canal. His
report may be considered the beginning of something like accurate

1See preface to a History of Jefferson county, by Franklin B. Hough,
Watertown, 1854.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 225

knowledge of the region. In regard to Watertown township, he
states therein:

Township No. 2, on Black river, is situated about three miles
from the mouth of the river. This river is navigable for batteaux
about 134 miles, but vet with considerable difficulty it may be
ascended 214 miles. . . . There are excellent mill sites along
Black river, where they are noted on the map, and many more,
which it is impossible to note with certainty, as the river the
whole distance of the town is very rapid except at the northeast
corner for about three-quarters of a mile. The river is very rocky
along the whole distance and appears to be a bed of limestone
rocks.

Settlements began in Watertown township on the site of the
present city of Watertown in March, 1800, three families having
arrived at that time, and these were the only ones remaining
during the ensuing winter, although many visited Watertown
during the summer of 1800 on prospecting tours, who subse-
quently settled there. The precise history of the region began,
therefore, in the fullest sense with the nineteenth century.t

According to Dr Hough, the name of Watertown township was
doubtless suggested by the extraordinary amount and convenience
of its water power, for which, Dr Hough says, it will compare
favorably with any place in the State. “To this cause may be
mainly attributed its early and rapid growth and the superiority
in wealth and business which it enjoys far beyond any other place
in the county.”

Watertown is the county seat of Jefferson county. According
to the census reports the population of the township in 1800 was
119; in 1810, it was 1841; in 1820, 2766; in 1880, 4768; in 1840,
5027; in 1850, 7201; in 1860, 7567. In 1869 the. city of Water-
town was erected from territory taken from the townships of
Pamelia and Watertown. In 1870 the population of the city of
Watertown was 9336, the population of the township being in
that year 1373; in 1880, the population of the city was 10,697
and the township 1264; in 1890, the population of the city was

For early history of settlements on Black river see Hough’s History.

226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

14,725 and the township 1215, and in 1900, the city was 21,696
and the township 1159. The township of Pamelia had a popula-
tion in 1860 of 2789 and in 1870, 1292, the difference in this case
being chiefly due to the absorption of a portion into the city of
Watertown. As in the case of Watertown township, however,
the population of Pamelia has been gradually lessening during
the last three census decades. Since the incorporation of Water-
town as a city, the development of its manufacturing industries
has been very rapid.

In addition to Watertown, the other chief water-power points
of the Black river valley are Dexter, Brownville, Black River
village, Felts Mills, Great Bend, Carthage, Lyon Falls and Port
Leyden. There are also extensive water powers on the Beaver
and Moose rivers, tributaries of the Black.

The chief object of this chapter is to present a concise view of
the relation which the development of the Black river water power
has had to the growth of the region as a whole, such discussion
leading to a broad consideration of the effect of materially inter-
fering with the development of the manufacturing interests. We
will endeavor, in short, to discuss the economic proposition in-
volved in seriously interfering with the productive industries of
an extensive manufacturing community.

Without going into an extended account of the early manu-
facturing establishments of the Lower Black river, we may still
give enough to show that manufacturing has always been a lead-
ing occupation of the Black river valley population.

Deater. At Dexter manufacturing improvements were begun
in 1811 by Jacob and John Brown, who built a dam across the
river which, however, was carried away by high water the next
season. It was replaced and in 1813 a sawmill put in operation.
In 1826 John E. Brown erected a gristmill. James Wood & Sons
began the erection of a woolen factory about 1880, and in 1836
the Jefferson Woolen Company was formed with $100,000 capital
for the construction and operation of a woolen mill. . The mill
was built in 1837, but the investment soon proved a failure. Sub-
sequently the mill was operated by private parties.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK vow

Brownville. Jacob Brown erected a sawmill at Brownville in
1800 and a gristmill in 1802, but it was not until 1806 that a
dam was built across Black river at this place. In 1814 a com-
pany was formed to construct and operate a cotton mill at Brown-
ville with a capital stock of $100,000. This mill was operated
with varying fortunes until about 1860. In 1820 a woolen factory
and various other enterprises were inaugurated.

Watertown. At Watertown the first dam was built across the
south channel at Beebee’s island by Jonathan Cowan in 1802 to
operate a gristmill. In 1805 Coffeen’s dam was built at the lower
falls and about 1814 the dam at Soules island was constructed,
but it was not until 1835 that the large dam across the north
channel at the head of Beebee’s island was built. According to
Dr Hough, these four original dams of 1802, 1805, 1814 and 1835
were still standing in 1854, but the flood of 1869, at any rate,
worked sad havoc with some of them. The present stone dam
across the south channel of Beebee’s island was constructed in
1869.

The first important manufacturing industry other than the
grist and saw mills was Caswell’s paper mill, started in 1808.
This mill was the forerunner of the paper industry on Black
river. The machinery consisted of a small rag machine, carrying
about 150 pounds of rags; two or three potash kettles, set in a
brick arch, for boiling rags and preparing sizing; one vat for
making the paper sheet by sheet, and a rude standing press to
squeeze the water out of the pack, After pressing, the sheets were
taken from the pack and hung on poles to dry, and, if intended
for writing-paper, were afterwards dipped in sizing and again
dried. The entire process was worked without the use of steam
or bleaching material, As a substitute for calendering, the sheets
were pressed between boards. The output was about 150 pounds
of paper per day. This mill continued to make paper until 1833,
when it was sold to Knowlton & Rice, who had begun the manu-
facture of paper on a more extended scale in 1824. This firm
continued to be the only paper manufacturers on Black river
until 1854, in which year I. Remington & Sons fitted up a mill

228 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

with four rag machines and an 84-inch Fourdrinier machine.
This mill made newspaper only and had a capacity of three tons
per day. From these small beginnings have grown up the exten-
sive paper industries of Black river.

As already stated, the first manufacturing industry in the
village of Watertown was the primitive gristmill built by
Jonathan Cowan in 1802. This was the forerunner of extensive
flouring mills at this place later on. The Bailey & Clark and
Coffeen mills, of small capacity, were both built at some date
previous to 1812, but it was not until 1835 that Joseph Sheldon
and Philo C. Moulton built the Union mills, with a capacity of
200 barrels of flour per day. The Excelsior flour mills were
erected by Moulton & Simons in 1845. This mill is now operated
by the A. H. Herrick & Son Company, incorporated in 1895 with
a capital of $50,000 by A. H. and E. W. Herrick and George G.
Lee. This mill has a capacity of 100 barrels of wheat flour and
100 barrels of buckwheat per day. The Jefferson flour mills were
erected in 1855 and operated until about 1880, when the prop-
erty was sold to Knowlton Brothers and converted into a pulp
mill. The Crescent flour mills were built by Fuller, Isdell &
Willard in 1870 and succeeded the old Phoenix mill of earlier
years, which was carried away by the flood of 1869. Crescent
mill now has 19 stands of rolls, a daily capacity of 200 barrels
of flour. The Electric mill, built in 1895, is operated by electrical
power derived from wheels of Taggart Brothers Company. It is
used exclusively for grinding feed,-and has a capacity of 250
barrels per day.

In the early days of Watertown several tanneries were operated,
the first industry of this character having been established in
1808, in which year C. McKnight set up a saddle and harness
business and prepared and tanned his own leather. Jason Fair-
banks established an extensive tannery in 1823, although he had
done tanning on a small scale for several years previous thereto.
Holt & Beecher established a tannery at some date previous. to
18380, which remained in operation until carried away by the
flood of 1856. Several other tanneries were started at different

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 229

times, but with the changed conditions of business they have all
passed away. These tanning establishments all used power from
Black river for grinding bark.

Beginning with the time of the war of 1812-15, the manufac-
ture of cotton and woolen goods became an important industry on
Black river, the Black River Cotton & Woolen Manufacturing
Company having been incorporated in 18138 with a capital of
$100,000. In 1827 Levi+Beebee erected the Jefferson cotton

‘mills, equipped with 10,000 spindles and said to have cost about
$200,000, being at that time one of the largest cotton mills in
the State. This mill was destroyed by fire in 1833. Watertown
Cotton Mills Company was incorporated in 1834 with a capital of
$100,000. This company ran 50 looms, but after several years,
the business becoming unprofitable, it was discontinued. The
Hamilton Woolen Mills Company, which developed the water
power at the head of Sewall’s island, was established in 1835
with a capital of $100,000. The dam and factory were built in
1836. In 1842 the plant was purchased by the Black River
Woolen Company, which built a new mill and carried on a fairly
successful business until 1841, when the plant was burned. Sub-
sequently the business was revived by Loomis & Co., who employed
about seventy hands in the manufacture of woolen goods. Other
manufacturing enterprises of this class were the Watertown -
Woolen Company and the Watertown Woolen Manufacturing
Company. The cotton and woolen manufacturing establishments
on Black river are now all out of existence.

The machine shop of Nathaniel Wiley, established about 1820,
was the first iron manufacturing establishment at Watertown.
In 1823 George Golding established a machine shop on Sewall’s
island, making mill gearings, factory machines and an occasional
steam engine. This shop ultimately led to the founding of the
present Bagley & Sewall Company, which is one of the largest
establishments of its kind in the northern part of the State,
employing about 125 hands, chiefly in the manufacture of paper-
mill machinery. The Watertown Steam Engine Company has
grown out of a small business established by Hoard & Bradford

230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

in 1851. These works employ about 225 men and manufacture
high-speed, direct-acting engines, stationary and portable, and
agricultural engines and boilers of all kinds. The New York Air
Brake Company, which is stated to be the largest manufacturing
industry at Watertown, dates back to 1861. The foundry of this
company uses water power from the Black river.

A large number of other manufacturing establishments have
been established at Watertown, taking water power from Black
river, as for instance the Union Carriage & Gear Company,
Watertown Brass & Manufacturing Company, Watertown Ther-
mometer Company, the Elwood Silk Company, Harmon Machine
Company, the H. H. Babcock Company and others. The H. H.
Babcock Company is one of the leading carriage manufacturing
industries of the State; when working at full capacity this com-
pany employs about 175 hands.

Beaver River village. A sawmill was built at this place in 1806,
which was carried away by high water and rebuilt the next year.
A gristmill was erected in 1810 and another sawmill in 1815. In
1839 David Dexter founded an extensive chair factory. Other
early industries were Poor’s chair-stock factory and Wilcox
coffin and casket works, which have, however, given way to more
recent enterprises. Various other milling industries have been
operated at this place at various times.

Felts Mills. A dam was constructed across Black river at this
place in 1821, and in 1822 what is known as the old stone mill,
which still stands, was erected. It has not been operated for the
last ten years. Large sawmills were erected by John Felt in 1824.
The Taggart Paper Company, which is now the only industry
using water power at Felts Mills, erected its plant in 1889.

Great Bend. A dam was constructed across the Black river at
this place in 1806 and a sawmill built, which was soon carried
away by high water but at once replaced. Between 1815 and 1824
the place developed a number of milling enterprises, which are
not specifically described in the early history. The large mill
of the Taggart Paper Company is now the only water-power
industry at this place.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 231

Carthage. At Carthage we have what are known as the long
falls of Black river, the river falling at this place 55 feet
vertically in a distance of 4600 feet. The first water-power
establishment was David Coffeen’s gristmill, erected on the west
bank of the river in 1806, power therefor being furnished by a
wing dam extending diagonally up the stream from the mill. A
forge, operated by water power, was built in 1816 on ‘the east side
of the river, and Coffeen’s dam extended entirely across in order
to furnish power. A blast furnace taking power from the river
was built in 1819. A nail factory was erected in 1828.

In 1880 a tannery was erected on what is known as Tannery
island. A gristmill was built on Guyot’s island in 1838. Since
that time there have been in operation on this island a forge, a
rolling mill,.a gristmill, nail works, ax factory, broomhandle
works, furniture factory, carding mill and general repair shops.
The large rolling mill and nail factory of Hiram McCollom was
begun in 1845, who also built a foundry on Furnace island in
the same year. The foundry is still in operation.

The foregoing brief account of the early manufacturing indus-
tries of the lower Black river valley, while only a skeleton, is still
extensive enough to indicate how thoroughly manufacturing has
been identified with the development of this valley from the very
beginning. It is certainly clearly shown that the material pros-
perity of the region has been greatly advanced by Black river
water power.

Water power of Black river. In order to show the development
of water power on Black river, we may further consider table
No. 128, water power in use on Black and Beaver rivers (approxi-
mate), as given in the writer’s Report to the Board of Engineers
on Deep Waterways, pp. 846-852, inclusive. The following abstract
of this table shows that there are twenty dams on Black river
from Dexter to Lyon Falls, inclusive, with ninety-three establish-
ments doing business:

Total horsepower of water wheels in use... . 54,050
Letaleteam power used. 0.00) ..000 000. 1,482
Value of establishments.................. $7,856,100
Value of the annual product.... 2.0.05... $10,887,170

Number of hands employed in mills........ 3,900

232 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways a
detailed statement is given of the water power and business at
each mill, but these statements are too much in detail to reproduce
here. In order to bring these statistics down to date the Water
Storage Commission in 1902 sent to each mill owner a printed
copy of the statements as to power, valuation of plant and of
product, number of men employed, etc. with the request that the
statement should be corrected if any of the conditions had been
changed. In this way it was learned that a few small shops had
been discontinued, a number of new powers had been built and
a number had increased their capacity and business. The follow-
ing is a summary of the results, as taken from the Report of the
Water Storage Commission. A number of mills lying on the
Moose and Deer rivers are also added, which were not included
in the Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways:

Number of dams furnishing water power... . 44
Total horsepower of water wheels in use.... 71,183
Total steam power used... 2... 22 sacs 5 ene 6,037
Value of establishments.................. $12,302,100
Value. of annual preguct ico: .» tegen sates iy 15,101,440

Number of hands employed............... 5,049

The permanency of Black river runoff. In view of the vast
commercial interests in the water power of Black river, the ques-
tion as to the permanency of Black river runoff becomes of
considerable importance. It has been shown on a preceding page
that reasoning from precipitation data, purely, it is quite possible
there may occur a year when the runoff will be less than any thus
far observed.

As regards maintaining the observed runoffs of Black river, the
conditions are, on the whole, reassuring. For a number of years
the writer has been gathering data as to the effects of forests in
conserving stream flow, with the result of satisfying himself that
it may be tentatively stated that forests do conserve and increase
the runoff of issuing streams somewhat. The reasons for this
conclusion are stated at length on another page and will not be
gone into here.

Plate 2.

A. View of Black river at the village of Black River.

B. View of Black river at village of Brownsville.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 233

In order to show the relative proportions of virgin forest,
culled area from which the merchantable timber has been removed
(which, in the case of the Adirondacks, is soft wood), the cleared
area, and the water area for a considerable extent of the Adiron-
dack region, several of the topographical sheets of the United
States Geological Survey have been taken and the areas of the
different classes, as just detailed, colored in, the data used for
this purpose being that gathered by the United States Geological
Survey in the original preparation of the maps, The following
are the figures derived from three sheets covering areas either in or
adjacent to the headwaters of Black river, namely, Old Forge,
Wilmurt and Canada Lakes sheets. The following tabulation
shows that for these three topographic sheets the total area of
virgin forest is 234.91 square miles; of culled area, 358.73 square
miles; of cleared area, 39.88 square miles; water area of lakes
and ponds, 17.50 square miles; the total area included in the
three maps is 651 square miles. The Remsen sheet, which covers
an area just in the edge of the great northern forests shows 83.98
Square miles of culled area and 133.01 of cleared area, the total
of the sheet being 217 square miles. Farther to the north and
west, in the vicinity of Carthage, Watertown and in the lower
part of the Black river basin, generally the cleared area is pro-
portionately considerably larger than on the Remsen sheet. It is
in many places substantially like the Schuylerville and Glens
Falls sheets tabulated farther on.

Virgin Culled Cleared Water Total

forest, area, area, area, area,

square square square square square

Topographic sheet miles miles miles miles miles
10 SS a0. 0G- 40ers. 44.95 .41.30 216.40
WUT Eee SS oo ts. 4.75 186.23 24.38 1.98 27330
Uanada Lakes ...... 170.20 $47.65 1.25 4.25 217.30
ental 2. RUS ON 234.91 358.738 39.88 17.50 651.00
Pi Se oop US SS) 217.00

se

ee,
a a a a a eS

234 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The foregoing sheets are all of the topographic maps of the
State, either including or in the vicinity of the Black river catech-
ment area, which were available in 1899. We have, however,
eight sheets either included in or in the vicinity of the upper Hud-
son catchment area, as follows: Newcomb, Bolton, Paradox Lake,
Elizabethtown, Mount Marcy, Indian Lake, Schroon Lake and
Thirteenth Lake sheets. The statistics of these sheets are given
in the following tabulation:

pret amet ae ee eee

Topographic sheet “miles. aes ‘miles miles” wiles
Newcontu 7.2.2"... 2 U. 186.10 24.50 4 90/273 v5
Botte? gab i, dt 153.00 43.55 19.85 216.4
Paradox Take?!) 8208: 171.55 38.60 5.35 Diggs
Elizabethtown .. 14.45 187.10 61.50 1795°* Diss
Mount Marcy ... 188.45 9.90 65.00 1.65 215.0
Indian Lake.... 10.40 193 .40 6.15 6.45 216.4
Schroon Lake... 1.40 172.10 35.80 6.50 5 25
Thirteenth Lake. 0.25 182255 29 .60 2.00 216.4
Wal ae 164.65 1,207.70 304.70 .;. 48.65: Ligand
Mon “Arr ee 2 ee, GBP 32.60 1S TEMP a ss Zito
Morth Grea FOSS Ses) 117.40 96.05 2.95 ZIG 4
tems Waris 5! st tole. 77.90 125.60 © 18.08" 21773
Cambrian | os s0 -2en ee 56.00 160.00 8.22 2S.2
Schuyleryitle. coc g og out: 27 . 5D 182.65 8.00 218.2
Potalesve, i MUR Ss 311.45 749.00 32.25 1,087.4
Pinal: totals... . 164.65 1,519.15 1,053.70 80.90 2,813.1

ee
—— ee
—<—___—_-

The following are the totals for the foregoing eight sheets:
virgin forest, 164.65 square miles; culled area, 1207.70 square
miles; cleared area, 304.70 square miles; water area, 48.65 square
miles; total area, 1725.7 square miles,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 235

We also have five sheets either in or in the vicinity of the Hudson
river catchment area, namely, Fort Ann, North Creek, Glens Falls,
Cambridge and Schuylerville. The totals for these five sheets are
virgin forest, 0; culled area, 311.45 square miles; cleared area,
749.0 square miles; water area, 32.25 square miles; total area of
the five sheets, 1087.4 square miles. In a portion of the region
covered by these sheets the tendency is for many of the hard, stony
hill farms to revert to forest conditions. We may assume, there-
fore, that throughout the Adirondack region the forest area is
slowly increasing.

As a summation of this discussion it may be concluded, taking
into account the erection by the State of New York of the Adiron-
dack park, as well as the tendency to abandon stony farms, that on
the whole the conditions governing the runoff of streams on Black
river are improving. The same thing is true of the Hudson and
Mohawk rivers or of any other stream issuing from the State
forests. Deductions, therefore, based on what has happened in
the past may be expected to be realized in the future,

The main water power developments of New York. In the State
of New York there are seven large towns, at all of which the
original basis of the development was water power, namely, Lock-
port, Rochester, Oswego, Watertown, Little Falls, Glens Falls
and Cohoes. The recent development of the city of Niagara Falls
is also due purely to the water power of Niagara river, but this
was not the original basis of growth. The attraction of the falls
as a great natural curiosity gave this place its original impulse.
There are also a number of smaller places in the State where
water power has developed towns, but the foregoing are the larger
ones. Moreover, so strong has been the impulse of the water
power that several of these towns have developed at locations
where there were serious adverse conditions. At Lockport there
is no water supply within reasonable distance. Even in 1904,
aside from a few polluted wells, the water supply for the town
is still taken from Hrie canal, which receives the sewage of over

236 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

70,000 people at Buffalo. Lockport is a specially interesting
case, because the original water power at that place was arti-
ficially created by the construction of the Erie canal.

At Rochester the conditions were also somewhat forbidding.
An extensive black ash swamp occupied the area now covered by
the original first, second and third wards of that city, and which
is now largely the business part of the town.

Because of its location on Lake Ontario, and at the mouth of
Oswego river, Oswego may be possibly considered a natural town
site, although considerable amounts of money have been expended
to construct a harbor there, while not very far away the fine
harbors of Sodus bays are still practically unutilized. By way
of comparing the Sodus bays harbors with Oswego, we may refer
to the annual report of the Chief of Engineers for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1898, from which it appears that the total amount
expended for the harbor at Great Sodus bay from May 23, 1828, to
June 3, 1896, inclusive, was $475,646.80; at Little Sodus bay from
August 20, 1852, to June 3, 1896, the total amount expended was
$332,941.77, and at Oswego from March 20, 1826, to June 3, 1896,
the total amount expended was $1,902,612.87. Had it not been for
the water power at Oswego it is quite possible that the chief
town of the east end of Lake Ontario might have been located
at some place other than the mouth of the Oswego river, although
in considering these figures as to the cost of harbor we may prop-
erly take into account that Oswego has become a large town, while
there are still only very small towns on Sodus bays.

At Watertown the conditions for building a city may be con-
sidered fairly favorable and the advantage of the Black river
water power has been accentuated by the admirable site. |

At Little Falls rocky ledges in a narrow river gorge have
operated to make the cost of building a town expensive, and the

1For account of water supply of Lockport, see the following reports: (1)
Report on the Water Supply of the Western Division of Erie Canal, dated
April 15, 1896. (2), Report on a System of Domestic Water Supply in the
Vicinity of Lockport, N. Y., dated Nov. 27, 1903.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 237

location of the water power at that point has been the governing
condition.

Cohoes would not be selected as the site of a city aside from
the location of extensive water power there.

Glens Falls may be considered a good site, and small towns
like the neighboring villages of Fort Edward and Sandy Hill
would probably in any event have grown up at this point.

Economic statistics of the city of Watertown. Generally, we may
say that had it not been for the water power, these seven chief
manufacturing towns of New York would either never have come
into existence, or at any rate would not have developed to any
such extent as we now find them, In taking this view, however,
it is not overlooked that with the towns once started other causes
have contributed, in some cases, very materially to their advance-
ment. What may be fairly assumed is that the water power was
not only the determining cause for the location of all these towns,
but that they have grown much larger on account of possessing
the water power than they would otherwise have grown. It is
also assumed that some of the locations are so unsatisfactory
as to have prevented the growth of any town except there were
Some strong, predetermining cause like the possession of water
power. It appears proper, therefore, to examine, in the present
connection, the economic value of the water powers of the Black
river valley to the State of New York.

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BQoosto E © Bee BEE eyo Eve

ae = = rans = a TS see eS eee SSeS =a e = se a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 239

In order to make such showing we may consider the statistics
of the city of Watertown, as given by table No. 38, showing
the amount raised for State tax since 1869, in which year Water-
town became a city, to 1898, inclusive. In this table column (1)
shows the years in sequence; column (2) the area, which has
remained fixed during the whole period at 3237 acres; column (3)
the assessed valuation each year; column (4) the rate on the
dollar of the State tax; columns (5), (6) and (7) the State taxes
for each year; column (8) the total State tax on an equal area
of farming land in the adjoining township of Watertown; colunm
(9) the annual net profit to the State on account of the city of
Watertown—that is to say, the difference of columns (7) and (8) ;
and column (10) the present value (amount) of the annual net
profit, being the total increase in wealth in the State by reason
of the values created at Watertown. The rate of 6 per cent has
been used in computing column (10). Referring to the footings
of the table, it appears that the total State tax from 1869 to
1898, inclusive, was $472,330.16, and that the total State tax on
an equal area in the adjoining township of Watertown has been,
for the same period, $9,918.41. A comparison of these two
columns shows forcibly the economic yalue to the State of munici-
pal developments. The footing of column (9), which is the differ-
ence of columns (7) and (8), is $462,411.75. The total value
(amount) in 1898 was $1,485,193.38. These figures, it will be
remembered, represent merely State taxation—they do not repre-
sent the increment to the county, the municipality itself, or to the
private wealth of citizens.

Inasmuch as Lockport is a town of about the same size as
Watertown, it is of interest to compare the statistics of the two
places. Lockport was made a city in 1865, and the statistics
have been brought up to and including the year 1896. The
assessed valuation in 1865 was $2,929,130, while the assessed
valuation of Watertown in 1869 was $3,171,702. The assessed
valuation of Lockport in 1896 was $6,785,100, and of Watertown
in 1898, $9,359,612. The total State tax at Lockport from 1865
to 1896, inclusive, was $511,861.59; the total State tax on an

240 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

equivalent area of farming land in the adjoining township of
Lockport was $17,692.88; the total annual net profit to the State
on account of the city of Lockport for the whole period from
1865 to 1896, inclusive, was $494,169.16, and the present value
(amount) is found to be $1,584,765.174 |

Streams flowing into St Lawrence river. Proceeding along the
St Lawrence river we find a number of streams, such as the
Oswegatchie, which flows into the St Lawrence at Ogdensburg;
the Grasse, which enters the St Lawrence near the north line of
the State; the Raquette and St Regis, flowing into the St Lawrence
a short distance below the Grasse, and finally the Chateaugay,
which flows from this State into the Dominion of Canada and
thence into the St Lawrence. These streams all head in and
- about the Adirondack plateau and, as a rule, fall rapidly from
their sources to near their mouths, affording large water powers,
which thus far have been chiefiy utilized for pulp grinding, paper
making, and sawing lumber. 7

There is a lack of definite information in regard to all the
streams of the northern part of the State. No detailed surveys
of this region have been made, Partial reservoir systems have
been constructed on the Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Raquette rivers.
Some of the economic questions involved in the construction of
these reservoirs have been discussed on another page.

Until within a year or two, no measurements had been made of
any of the streams tributary to the St Lawrence river proper. It
is probable, however, that several of them are the best water-
yielding streams of the State, because they flow from the great
northern forest, and because their headwaters are in the extensive
lake region which lies immediately west of the main Adirondack
mountains, and which extends westward from the base of the
main range to the borders of the forest, a distance of nearly
50 miles. This portion of the Adirondack plateau is compara-
tively level. As regards geographic distribution, these lakes are
most numerous in the northern parts of Herkimer and Hamilton

1Abstract from Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. _

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK D4

counties and the southern parts of St Lawrence and Franklin
counties. Those in Herkimer county flow into the Moose and
Beaver rivers, tributaries of Black river. The following are the
elevations of a few of the more important lakes of Hamilton, St
Lawrence, and Franklin counties, which are tributary to streams
flowing northward into the St Lawrence:

Lake Feet
OS ee ee ee er eee 1,540
9 2 Eee ES oe ee i ee ee 1,774
Ae eA io Sa ee ree ere ae 1,753
eaten ie wn 89. sn Bm nom. Siaace iayn's, «0.0.6 1,630
7 a Sots edapa ele 25 gpl ses rae 1,728
SPIRE, TOE Beira aaitdil Ja ecciarck ow ws kee a nwln esos 1,552

Oswegatchie river. This stream has its source in several lakes
and swamps on the Adirondack plateau, in the southern portion
of St Lawrence county. The main stream is the outlet of Cran-
berry lake and flows in a general northwesterly direction, enter-
ing the St Lawrence river at Ogdensburg. Indian river, one of
the principal tributaries of the Oswegatchie, rises in Indian and
Bonaparte lakes, flows to and through Black lake and joins the
Oswegatchie a few miles above Ogdensburg. The following are
the catchment areas of the Oswegatchie river and its main
tributaries :

Square miles

East Branch Oswegatchie river above mouth............. 358
West Branch Oswegatchie river above mouth............ 272
Oswegatchie river below junction of two branches........ 630
Oswegatchie river above Gouverneur.................05. 127
Oswegatchie river above Galilee.................0.00000- 1,033
pees Fiver above Philadel phian.. ... .. sce sec ste ees ees 216
Ee CR EC | ge ee ae er 544
Oswegatchie river below Black lake junction............. 1,577
Oswegatchie river above Ogdensburg..................5. 1,609

The flow of the Oswegatchie at Ogdensburg varies from 614

cubic feet per second at low water to 15,500 cubic feet per second
during the spring floods.

242 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Water power of Oswegatchie river. Water power is developed
by twenty-six dams on the Oswegatchie and its branches, and is
used mainly in lumber and paper industries at various points,
as shown by the following tabulation:

| 3 | a ailing
a | 2 ares
ae: | 3, | ug
ces wi 8 L : SR oo
C og | ocation Use of eS
eas Peels
s 2
te eRe pee
vA Zz < Z
(1) | (2) (3) (4) (5) | (6)
1 17 | Ogdensburg. ....| General manufacturing...... 8 336
2 2 | Heuvelton Woodworking and gristmill. . 8 5
3 3 | Rensselaer Falls.; Sawmills and custom mills... 74 31
+ 1 | Coopers Falls ...| Sawmill privileges .......... cae ae eee
5 4 | Wegatchie...... Abandoned woolen mill. Saw-
mill; rons in wanters. 2). 2. i SE
6 1 | Natural Dam....| Saw and paper mills......... 193 | 150
7 7 | Gouverneur..... General manufacturing...... T 82
8 Io) Hailsboro, ..s ct: Tale DOLD. x. « o ash beeen dette es eee
9 Le) tatISPOEO.. . oss Wale pulp. ocx nase «seem 2 are hace ee eee
10 2 si. Haalehoro™. .Aoee Woodworking mills. Custom
OTINGING js0 5 5.) 5. wince ema 12 4
11 dy 1) ;Haslsbore fh ye Tale ypmilis. 25). HALE Pees ee 1B Ay the.
12 1s IAB ORO oe oa Oswegatchie Light & PowerCo} 20 |
18 1 | Emeryville...... Gouverneur Wood Pulp Co...| 31 33
14 1 .,\|. Dolgeville wi. 42% U.S Tale & PulpiCe...¢ 2-6 16 dg
15 PY Ratevalle ere. 3. WANG TUNE. Lote od cae ork oes 12 1
16 2 }| Mdwards.. 2.) foi. Grist and sawmills........... 12 10
2 ee ere South Ma wardss ol e251 saws as Js asda, 5 austfh aac egies cag wicket ee
18 a xi TRANS Gree ere ee Saw and paper mills...... ae | AS ESA ae
19: 2 1." 1 Oswegatehie ...:. 1 Standard, Pulp Go. cas. 3. 3.5 BA opt ae
20 | 4 | Newton Falls....| Wood pulp................... | 20
21 1 | Newton Falls....| Wood pulp paper ............ 38
Water Power on the West Branch.
22 | 1 | Below #ullerwille!, Take mie i. ecto i eerie oe 13 5
23 1 Fullerville ...... Iron works (abandoned),..... VIM esas
O4 | i | Fulleryille 7 Wood and-telownlh, 2o:4.4.4 193 | 20
25 1 | Gears Corners...| Sawmill (abandoned)........ | ree ee
26 | 1 .| Harrisville <....s.: Grint Oo ce fra ete 13 | 3

Cranberry lake, with a water surface area of 12.8 square miles,
could furnish additional storage if the present dam were raised
a few feet. Black lake, with a water surface of 17.2 square miles,
is virtually an enlargement of Indian river and greatly aids in
regulating the flow at Ogdensburg, offering a chance for additional
storage at a reasonable cost.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 243

Grasse river. The next stream is Grasse river, which drains a
long, narrow catchment area lying between Oswegatchie and
Raquette rivers. The channel of Grasse river is parallel to the St
Lawrence throughout the whole eighteen miles of its course. For
several miles it is separated from the St Lawrence by a neck
of land about four miles in width. The Long Sault rapids of
the St Lawrence river, comprising a fall of about 50 feet, occur
within this reach. This fact has been taken advantage of for
the construction of an hydraulic power plant by the St Lawrence
Power Company. A canal, three and one-half miles in length,
has been cut across the divide, by which water is diverted from
near the head of the rapids to a power plant on the bank of
Grasse river. After using, the water is turned into Grasse river
for a tail-race; 35,000 horsepower is developed under a head
of 42 feet. The catchment area of Grasse river above Canton
is 113 square miles and 637 square miles above its mouth.

Water power of Grasse river. The following shows the prin-
cipal developed water powers on Grasse river, but not including
the large power plant at Massena:

= f |g
8 | = STihe
3s | Ao. Ss. | 43
sin a Location | Use eal ee
~ | ete | ow oe
Bets OD ee
| =| 5 =
=) > =
2 Z we < Z
(1) | (2) “ae 4) (5) | (6)
i 3 | Massena ........ Grist and planing mills....... 8 8
2a 2A ihewisvillé .\ .... Grist and sawmills..........:| 7 6
3 La 2 Chase Mills...... yetour saw... apes 2
ane > Se eae, eS Clothing, feed and sawmills..| 7 57
ete) aueks Bridges... | Sawai no. jsjsicusy- 4s «Fxg dee 83 | 50
6 Bee SEA. 6 oc sia's's oo u's Woodworking and feed mills.| 6 8
7 en Grist, sawmills, foundries,etc. Oielytaes
8 By ETE Soe ss, ny 0 = EL BAe a Pare Weenie
9 bon iPytites? 20.55.52 Sulphite pulp mill........... a: ales La Se
10 Se) EURRBOU oso oy wa 5 Woodworking and grist mills.| 8 | 8
Water power on Little river.
11 1 | Little River..... St eee ea 12 | boc
12 1 | Little River..... Woodworking and grist mills.| 14 3
13 | 1 | Little River..... Gringanillle? Jou.eos), Jane 14 | Lagys:

Little River..... | 8 SR SCNT eae en, Oh a | 12

244 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Raquette river. This river flows northerly through St Lawrence
county, entering the St Lawrence river near the Canadian line.
It drains a long, narrow catchment area, extending from the
north part of Hamilton county to the St Lawrence river. The
upper portion of the catchment is a flat plateau, with many lakes,
furnishing opportunities for storage at reasonable cost. After
leaving this plateau, the stream descends rapidly, forming many
excellent sites for water-power developments.

The following are the main divisions of the catchment area of

Raquette river:
Square miles

Above Piercebelae:. .....6 bed ek won oe ae See oe 695
Above Hannawa:‘Patis.... < icvetn Gate een case Coee 967
Above Massena Springes . sis ascathie ged ~caicolemy eis are ee 1,188
AbOve WOGH So 2 ion c <a & cae ee ee ee a es ae 1,240

The following gives the water-surface areas and the catchment
areas of some of the lakes on the upper plateau tributary to

Raquette river:

Surface Catchment
. area,
square miles square miles

Bine* Mountain lakes< sre eee ee 2.0 39
Hasaetie Wakes etic 32:5 5 ee CIM bad Pwiuctats 10.0 94
| oT Pe or ER: 271: See mg a eM ENE IP NPS 2.3 40
Peete. Take, Pines US eee ee ee eee 8.7 152
inte Tupper lake sos: oe te Pee ree 4.0 59

Pag Tupper 1a ke. ccncencrer aes re $i - <orn arene

Storage can be secured in Big Tupper, Little Tupper, Long and
Raquette lakes at a reasonable cost, owing to their being bordered
by cheap flatland, a great portion of which is a part of the State
Forest preserve.t

Storage reservoirs can be built at other points on the Raquette,
notably at Moosehead in township 6 on Cold river, and on Moose
creek.

1 This statement does not take into account that there is at present a
constitutional provision against the cutting of forests.

10
11
12
18

South Colton falls (undeveloped)
Higley falls
Colton falls (undeveloped)
Norfolk (undeveloped)

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

245

Water power of Raquette river. The following water powers
on Raquette river are either fully or partially developed:

Owners and location
Kents mills,*in Norfolk... .............

Raymondville (State dam)..............
Raymondville Paper Company...........
Remington-Martin Company, Norfolk.....
Remington-Martin Company, Yaleville....
Frost Paper Company, Norwood.........
Raquette River Paper Company, Union

we En AAR I ee
A. Sherman Lumber Company, Sissonville.
Potsdam Village Power, Potsdam........
Hannawa Falls Water Power Company...
Raquette River Pulp Company, Colton....
Piercefield Paper Company, Piercefield...

Present
head in
feet

If fully
developed,
head in
feet

328

The following water powers on Raquette river are undeveloped :

Comprising

ee nee Cm ee + ee a ee C6 @ Se 61s Ce ec ee ees ee a et oe

a 6 Set eels S's 218.6 O88 a2 © 82 8 6 6 8 eB ee US

_ Number of

feet fall
99

246 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The foregoing undeveloped powers may be considered as either
vertical falls or as rapids of sharp descents. In addition, the
following with smaller catchment areas and less rapid descent,
may be enumerated: Buttermilk falls, above Long lake; Raquette
falls, below Long lake; Jamestown falls and Moody falls. There
is about 70 feet fall per mile at all these places, There are also
numerous small falls and rapids, capable, when the country is
settled and lines of communication established, of furnishing valu-
able power, although at present such water powers have less value
than they otherwise would have because there is no way of utiliz-
ing them. The discussion on a later page of this report, how-
ever, as to the developing of mountain powers and transmitting
them electrically may be taken into account in estimating the
value of undeveloped water powers. With efficient water storage
on the many fine lakes at the headwaters of Raquette river, it is
perhaps possible to keep the stream in its lower reaches (at
Piercefield and below) up at all times to at least 1000 cubic feet
per second. Assuming that it is practical to develop 900 feet
out of the possible total of 1025, we would have about 100,000
gross horsepower from this stream alone, and this estimate does
not take into account a number of the smaller water powers.1

St Regis river. This stream rises in various Adirondack lakes
in the southern part of Franklin county, flows northerly into and
through St Lawrence county and enters the St Lawrence river at
St Regis village. Like most of the streams flowing north from the
Adirondacks, its catchment consists of a high plateau, then a
steep, rocky portion, followed by a low plateau near its mouth.

The catchment areas of the St Regis river and its principal

branches are as follows:
Square miles

WYeat branch 61 Sf Regis S405 foc. ae ee Sete eee 280
wast Branch Of (Sv Mesias. AN s ie ce tor ee eee eee 347
St hecia below. junction ............( Dj ermgae), Ree eA 627
DCSE OPIVE ... 2p s)hd, zie ts. A Rada Bisbee 212
ee TOPS At MOU. .¢. <a sdevgiapaein ak ee Sse ha OS ELT «bie aL St 910

1In a paper, the Future Water Supply of the Adirondack Mountain Region
and its Relations to Enlarged Canals in the State of New York, the writer
has estimated the water power on Raquette river at 70,000 horsepower.
It is evident that that estimate is very conservative.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK QATq

Water powers have been developed at Parishville, West Stock-
holm, Skinnerville, Brashers Falls, Brasher Center and Hogans-
burg. There are undeveloped power sites at Sylvan Falls, High
Falls, Kerr Falls, Whittaker Falls and Allens Falls.

Considerable storage can be secured by raising the dams on sey-
eral of the larger lakes att the headwaters of the east and west
branches of the river.

The chief tributary of St Regis river is Deer river, which, like
the St Regis, flows generally in a northerly direction. Deer river
joins the St Regis river about seven miles from the St Lawrence
river.

Salmon river north., The next stream is Salmon river north,
which flows northerly into the St Lawrence a short distance over
the Canadian line. Its chief tributary, the Little Salmon river,
enters the stream at Fort Covington, on the New York State
line, about four miles from the St Lawrence river.

The following are the catchment areas of this stream:

Square miles

Little Salmon river, above junction with Salmon river...... 103
eMenE Peve HOVE MECIONG. 2... sae eck e se eee c esse ess 179
Salmon river, above Little Salmon river ................ 273
Salmon river, below junction with Little Salmon river..... 452
eae SAGE CEIPAWES MNOUUNG oe ce kk ce ees cee ones 480

Trout rwer. The next stream flowing to the north is Trout
river, the catchment area of which, above the New York State line,
is 129 square miles.

Chateaugay river. The next stream is Chateaugay river, with
a catchment area above the New York State line of 199 square
miles. Very little is known about the water power of this stream
any further than that Chateaugay river heads in Upper Chateau-
gay lake and flows through Lower Chateaugay lake. The elevation
of Chateaugay lake is unknown.

Lake Champlain System

Lake Champlain has a water area of 400 square miles. The
area of its catchment in New York State amounts to 2950 square
miles; in Vermont to 4270 square miles; and in the Province of

248 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Quebec to 740 square miles. The total area of the catchment, not
including water surface, is 7960 square miles, or the total area of
the catchment basin, including water surface, is 8360 square miles.
Lake Champlain is considered as beginning at Whitehall and ter-
minating at St Johns, on the Richelieu. Its length is 125 miles
and its breadth in the northern portion is about 13 miles. The
standard low-water elevation is given at 95.03 feet, and the
standard high water at 103.78 feet, above tide. —

The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are Big Chazy, Little
Chazy, Saranac, Salmon river east, Little Ausable, Big Ausable,
and Bouquet rivers and the outlet of Lake George. There are also
a few small streams of no special importance.

Big Chazy rwer. This stream rises in the western part of
Clinton county, and flows in an easterly direction into Lake
Champlain, at King bay, five miles south of the village of Rouse
Point. The main branch issues from Chazy lake, of which the
elevation is 1500 feet above tidewater. The headwaters of the
north branch probably are at a somewhat greater elevation than
this. The catchment area is 300 square miles.

Iitile Chazy river. This river enters Lake Champlain two
miles south of the Big Chazy.

Saranac river. The streams tributary to Lake Champlain are,
as a rule, not of great length, but rising, as they nearly all do, in
or near the high mountains of the northern plateau, they have
a rapid descent with an abundant fall. Saranac river has its
head chiefly in Upper Saranac lake, at an elevation of 1577 feet
above tide and flows northeasterly, entering Lake Champlain at
the village of Plattsburg. The length of the river, according to
Bien’s atlas, is 55 miles from its mouth to Lower Saranac lake.
The elevation of Lake Champlain above tidewater is 101 feet,
while that of Lower Saranac lake is 1539 feet; hence, the fall in
55 miles of river course is 1438 feet. Middle Saranac lake lies
at an elevation of 1542 feet and Upper Saranac, as already given,
at 1577 feet.

a re I 2 Pee sae a heen we Bre ee

1There are a number of lakes and ponds tributary to Upper Saranac lake
which are not here specially considered.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 249

The catchment of the Saranac river has an area of 628 square
miles, about one-half being wooded. The lakes on its headwaiters
have a water surface of 21 square miles, and afford an opportunity
for considerable storage. This storage could be largely increased
at comparatively small cost for construction, but the land dam-
ages on the Saranac lakes would be considerable owing to the
large private residences and summer hotels on their banks.

The quantity of merchantable timber likely to be cut on the
eatchment of Saranac river is small, owing to the large area
owned by the State or by private parties as forest preserves.

There are a few developed powers on Saranac river, the prin-
cipal ones being at Saranac Lake village, Cadyville and Platts-
burg. There is an undeveloped power at Franklin Falls with a
possible fall of 60 feet.

Salmon river east. This river rises in the western part of Clin-
ton county and flows easterly into Lake Champlain near the
village of South Plattsburg. Its catchment area is 480 square
miles.

Little Ausable rier. This stream rises in the south part of
Clinton county and flows northeasterly to the village of Lapham,
then southeast, entering Lake Champlain about four miles south
of the mouth of Salmon river east.

Ausable river. This stream has its source in the central part
of Essex county in Upper Ausable lake, which lies in a valley in
the midst of the highest mountains of the State, at an elevation
of 1993 feet above tidewater. It flowsina northeasterly direction
to Ausable Forks, from near which it is the boundary line between
Clinton and Essex counties. It then flows a little north of east,
entering Lake Champlain three miles above the village of Port
Kent. The length of the stream from its mouth to Lower Ausable
lake, the elevation of which is 1961 feet above tide, is about 42
miles; hence we have a fall of 1860 feet in a little over 40 miles.
For several miles of its course the stream flows through Ausable
Chasm. The catchment has an area of 519 square miles of partly
wooded, mountainous territory. There are only a few small

250 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

developed powers on the Ausable. The merchantable timber has
mostly been cut, and the original dams used by the lumbermen for
floating logs have decayed. There is a large undeveloped water
power at Wilmington notch, where there is a fall of 100 feet.
There is also a fall of 100 feet at High Falls. From the upper end
of Wilmington notch to two miles above the village of Wilmington
there is a fall of 600 feet in a distance of four miles. This part
of the stream is as yet entirely undeveloped. These water powers
are on the west branch of the Ausable which heads in Lake Placid.

Bouquet river. The Bouquet river rises in the eastern part of
Iessex county and flows northerly to the village of Willsboro and
thence southeasterly for two miles, when it enters Lake Cham-
plain.

Outlet of Lake George. The most southerly tributary of Lake
Champlain of any great importance for water purposes is the
outlet of Lake George, which in about 2 miles has a fall of 222
feet. The greater portion of this is concentrated in the first mile
from the lake. The elevation of Lake George above tidewater is
323 feet. The area of the lake surface is 48 square miles, and the
iributary catchment area about the foot of the lake is 229 square
miles.

The streams in eastern New York can not be depended on to
furnish a natural flow of more than about 0.2 cubic foot per sec-
cnd per square mile as a minimum in a dry year. On account of
the large water surface of Lake George in proportion to the catch-
ment area, it is possible, by utilizing the storage on the lake sur-
face, to realize in an average year a much larger quantity. From
0.7 to 0.8 cubic foot per second per square mile may be assumed as
a conservative estimate, the results being based on allowing the
water to flow out of the lake 24 hours per day for only 310 days in
the year. On this basis we may assume a mean flow for minimum
dry years of about 200 cubic feet per second. Since the entire
222-foot fall of the Lake George outlet is now utilized, we may
place the permanent power in a dry year at about 5000 gross

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 251

horsepower. The village of Ticonderoga, at which this power is |
utilized, had a population in 1900 of 1911.

Wood creek, the most southerly tributary of Lake Champlain, is
of interest in a study of the water resources of New York, chiefly
because of its relations to the Champlain canal, its channel being
utilized for several miles as part of the canal. At Fort Ann
there is considerable power developed on one of its tributaries,
used at present for grinding pulp.t

Hudson River System

Hudson river. The Hudson river rises in the high mountains of
the Adirondack plateau, in the western part of Essex county, and
flows with some turnings in a generally south direction to a short
distance below Palmers Falls, where it flows from 15 to 20 miles
mostly in a northeasterly direction to Sandy Hill. It then turns
again, and for the balance of its course is nearly due south. It
enters New York bay at New York. Its headwaters may be taken
to issue from Lakes Henderson and Catlin, which are at eleva-
tions above tide respectively of 1889 feet and 1570 feet. Lake
Colden, at an elevation of 2764 feet, is the extreme source of the
Hudson river, but as this lake is small and the stream issuing
therefrom is also small, in a discussion of water power the larger
lakes at lower elevations are preferably taken. The length of the
stream, measured roughly along its course, is something like 285
miles. :

Hudson river, with its principal tributary, the Mohawk, is the
most important river of the State. From its mouth to Troy, a
distance of over 150 miles, it is a great inland estuary subject
to tidal action, and because of its great length and the large
fresh-water inflow, it is unique among inland estuaries. From
the first landing of the Dutch on Manhattan Island to the present
time it has been an important channel of commerce. On his
voyage of discovery in 1609 Hendrik Hudson ascended to the head
of tidewater, and doubtless discerned the possibilities of future

Partially abstracted from the Report of the Water Storage Commission
on the Fourth or Northern Division.

252, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

settlement which were soon realized at Albany, Waterford and
Schenectady.

When the great Dutch navigator sailed up the river, no doubt
as he passed on from day to day, penetrating farther and farther
inland, the conviction grew upon him that he had discovered a
passage through the continent leading to India, nor could he have
overlooked the vast possibilities of trade and commerce opened
up, even when he finally reached the head of navigation and found
that the East Indian passage was after all a myth. Indeed, one
can imagine him saying to his companions, “What a great place
for navigation!” We can imagine a company standing upon the
deck of his ship, gazing in silent wonder over the panorama at
either side, and saying to one another, “ here, indeed, is the seat of
future empire.”

The tidal action of the Hudson river originally terminated at.
the rapids above Troy, but its present termination is a few miles
below, at the Troy dam, a structure erected about 1820 as a part
of the State canal system. There is a lock at the east end of this
dam through which canal boats pass into the pool above, thus.
enabling them to reach Lansingburg on the east side of the river,
or Waterford, on the west side, where they may enter the Cham-
plain canal.

In ascending the river the principal streams on the east side are
Harlem river, Croton river, Fishkill creek, Wappinger creek,
Roeliff Jansen kill, Claverack creek, Kinderhook creek, Hoosic
river, Battenkill, Schroon river and Boreas river. On the west
side, the principal streams are Murderers creek, Rondout creek,
Wallkill river, Esopus creek, Catskill creek, Normanskill,
Mohawk river, Fish creek, Sacandaga river, Indian river and
Cedar river.

The principal tributaries of the Mohawk from the north are
Chuctenunda creek, Cayadutta creek, Garoga creek, East Canada
creek and West Canada creek. From the south, Schoharie creek,
Sauquoit creek and Oriskany creek, and from the west the Lansing
kill. There are tributary to both the Hudson and Mohawk rivers
a considerable number of smaller streams, some of which have

Plate 3.

Map of catchment area of Hudson river above Glens Falls.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 253

power development upon them, but which are not specifically
mentioned here.

Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson river are mostly small
and generally not of very great importance, although some of them
have considerable power development. One of them, Croton river,
is the principal source of water supply of the City of New York.
On this part of the river, the catchment basin is rather narrow,
and many of the streams issuing from the highlands at either side
have such small catchment areas as to carry only moderate quan-
tities of water.

Tides in Hudson river. The following are the elevations of mean
tide, mean low tide and mean high tide above mean sea level at
New York, and the mean rise and fall of tides at various points
along the tidal estuary between New York bay and the Troy dam:

Locality tea low tide high tide ge fall
Sanewiiooktics: bes. i nivda GR Ss sini. mite 4.70
Governors Island.............. 0.00 2.20 2.20 4,40
Der eri Sos SS 04 0.18 1.62 1.98 3.60
Coxsackie light-house........... 1.68 O47 3.53 3.70
New Sasimores 0.58 1.738 0.02 3.44 3.42
Perna SONI) s es VAIS ed a 1.88 0.44 3.31 2.87
MU s aioe leks Vlads olan’ 2.09 0.82 3.35 2.53
ame WY Pee GIS AM ee 28 vases 2.138 0.82 3.29 2.33
PAF NG Be. OR Ee 2.48 Lit 3.59 2.32
PRAMROPOLES OI os SR a. 2.78 1.81 3.75 1.94
Peoria WOR esis HAO. 3.77 3.37 4.17 0.80

The following gives the hight above tidewater at New York of
a number of points on the Hudson river:

Feet
iT GRIM ASL UOTE) Do's die eed ail Hola ad aiesd a'ele papier 0.0
MP aN ie, eb weeiew wad id Miag§ sibasa oes 3.8
eee TGR foo 65k is. yim Sais ocd caw a ecic dues ee vee 102.0
Port, Mawoenithelow dam) i 2600k cack ec nee cae. 118.0

Glens Falls (crest of feeder dam)...............0.00008 284.0

254 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Feet
Mouth’ of ‘Sacandava fiver... to... ove eee 556.0
Mouth of Stony creek. ..2.. -...3.03.324.482 eee 584.0
Mouth of Schroon ‘river 70092) UN. 12 Sol epee ee ee 608.0
A® Glen bridges. 2 0048 SOPSIZOE, SEFTON Ie, te 728.0
Ab Riverside bridge 10.004). . Laat gn SyeR Saale Bi Gaeee 875.0
Ati North Creek: ‘bridge? .<lcd gu edie 96. Sere Tae 998 .0
AtoNorth dtiver 2; .¢kcak donnie aah Ae ee eee 1,050 .0
Mouth.of Boreas PIvetsi cf. awed -e etree eee 1,140.0
Mouth of. arian. TWOP. 5. .sisind seoye stig ae ep ea ee 1,415.0
Mouth of Cedar fiver... 5. 0.:.2...esee vee eee 1,460.0
TAK ATL OT. os ops sazcegy cal ooton deci ct peu eae nee 1,723.0

Water power of Hudson rwer. There is a large amount of
power on the Hudson river at Troy, Mechanicville, Stillwater,
Northumberland, Fort Miller, Fort Edward, Bakers Falls, Sandy
Hill, Glens Falls, Feeder Dam, Spier Falls, Palmers Falls and
Hadley; on Sacandaga river at Conklinville, and on Schroon river
at Warrensburg. A canvass of the Hudson river powers was
made in 1895 and appears in detail in table No. 12, Showing
Water Power in Use on the Hudson River in 1895, of the Report
on Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, December 31, 1895. The detail
is too extensive for insertion here, but may be obtained by refer-
ence to the said report.

According to this table, the total power in use on the Hudson
river in 1895 was 43,481 net horsepower. This power remains
substantially the same in 1904 as in 1895, except that the Hudson
River Power & Transmission Company has built a new plant of a
stated minimum capacity of 5000 horsepower three miles below
Mechanicville. There has also been some increase in the power
in use at Bakers Falls, but just how much, the writer is unable to
state. The new plant of the Hudson River Water Power Com-
pany at Spier Falls has also been built. The total power in use
on the Hudson river in 1904 is perhaps 75,000 to 80,000 net horse-
power.

Harlem river and Spuyten Duyvil creek. This river and creek
are an arm of the Hudson, extending from Hudson river to Kast

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 255
river. For two miles they flow in an easterly direction and then
southerly, for a total distance of about 7 miles. These streams
lave been canalized by the Federal government and are rapidly
becoming an important artery of commerce. They form the
northern and, for a portion of the way, the eastern boundary of
Manhattan island. The two streams join at Kings Bridge, New
York.

Before improvement the Harlem river had an available depth
of 10 feet from the East river to Morris dock, except at High-
bridge, where it was only 6 feet. From Morris dock to Fordham
landing there was a crooked channel 7 feet deep, and above the
latter place the river could be used only by the smallest class of
vessels.

Spuyten Duyvil creek from Kings Bridge to the Hudson had a
depth of 4 feet.

The original project for improvement, adopted in 1874, provided
for the removal of old bridge piers, Candle factory reef, and
boulders at various places near the East river to a depth of 12
feet, the cost of the work being estimated at $167,875.56. In
furtherance of this project $21,000 was expended.

The existing project, adopted June 18, 1878, and modified
October 7, 1886, provides for a continuous channel, 400 feet wide
and 15 feet deep, from the East river to the Hudson river, except
just north of Highbridge, where the width was made 375 feet, and
the rock cut through Dyckman’s meadow, where the width was —
reduced to 350 feet and the depth increased to 18 feet. The cost
of the work was estimated at $2,700,000.

The amount expended in carrying on work under the existing
project to the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, was
$1,244,851.90.

The maximum draft that could be carried June 30, 1903, over
the shoalest part of the channel was 12 feet.

The commerce of this river is very large. In 1895, the tonnage
amounted to over 7,500,000 tons.1

1 Report of the Chief of Engineers for the year ending June 30, 1903.

256 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Croton rwer. The Croton river is formed by the uniting of
three branches, known as the East, the Middle and the West
branch, which rise in the southern part of Dutchess county, flow-
ing in a southerly direction through Putnam county and uniting
near its southern boundary. From this point the river continues
in a southwesterly course across Westchester county to the
Hudson river, into which it enters at Croton point thirty miles
northerly from the City of New York. The principal tributaries
of the Croton are the Titicus, Cross, Kisco and Muscoot rivers.

The catchment of the Croton, extending about thirty-three miles
north and south and eleven miles east and west, lies almost
entirely in New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut.
Its area is 339 square miles above the old Croton dam and 3860
Square miles above the new Croton dam now being constructed.
The catchment is hilly. The surface soil is composed principally
of sand and gravel—clay, hardpan and peat are found to a limited
extent in a few localities. The rock formation consists largely of
gneiss. Limestone, micaceous and talcose slate, granite, ser-
pertine and iron ore occur in a few places.1 This stream is of very
great importance because its runoff is completely utilized for the
water supply of the City of New York and it is accordingly exten-
sively discussed in this report.

Fishkill creek. This stream rises in the central part of Dutchess
county and flows southwesterly into the Hudson, one mile south
of Fishkill station. Its headwaters drain the western slope of
Chestnut Ridge mountains. In its upper reaches the stream
receives the drainage from extensive swamp and flatlands. The
lower reaches of the stream flow along the foot of the Fishkill
range. From Fishkill village to Fishkill landing it falls over
slate and limestone ledges, making a descent of 200 feet in five
miles. This fall is largely utilized to provide water power for
manufactories on its banks. As a result, the stream becomes
greatly polluted from manufacturing waste and other impurities
which it receives.

1 Wegman’s Water Supply of the City of New York. (1896).

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 257

Water power of Fishkill creek. The extent of the manufactures
of Fishkill creek is shown in the following tabulation, which gives
the principal developed water powers on the stream in 1901:

ee Peele

FSI a ree Ga oa

= , ee (83 | ng
es Goretinn Name of Pagerator owner or a 529 22

= Og | S00] Of
3 Sy S | e a Ra e

EI oo | Sm] 2

3 | > sons (o}

Z 4 | fr
(1) (2) (3) (4) -Patoyy 6)

2) igh? 7. 1S Tironda Hat Works..........|...... ete Er Ae
2 Ls a0) Se New. York Rubber .Co. ....\...;.. Pee Z ules 40 250
3 iii ae Pome wrestle MEE Se oo. yc ee all a ecw Gl ls Su «slo or os
+ Matteawan......| Matteawan Mfg. Co.......... 26 | 168 225
5 Matteawan ..... William Carroli:& Co.... ... 29 2838 140
6 Matteawan ..... Carroll Electric Co.......... POUL E, 525
7 Cennard. ois Glenham Carpet Mill, Hilton

Saas ele UO RF Te | 324 460 | 1,500

The catchment area of Fishkill creek above Groveville dam is
200 square miles and the total catchment area above the mouth,
204 square miles. 7

Wappinger creek. This stream rises in the extreme northern
part of Dutchess county and flows in a southerly direction into
the Hudson river, near the village of New Hamburg. The catch-
ment area of that portion of the stream above Hibernia and Clin-
ton Hollow dam is 116 square miles. During the last year the
New York Water Supply Commission has extensively considered
this stream, with Fishkill creek and others, as a partial source
of a water supply for the City of New York.

Considerable opposition, however has developed to this project.
There are large manufacturing interests at Wappinger Falls and
other points which depend wholly upon the water power of the
stream, and a bill has accordingly been introduced at the session
of the Legislature for 1904 prohibiting the taking of any stream
for a water supply for any municipality in the State where any
number of people depend upon the water power of the stream
for their livelihood.

258 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The headwaters of Wappinger creek are at an elevation of T0@
to 1000 feet above tidewater.

Murderers creek. This creek rises in the central part of Orange
county and flows easterly into the Hudson at Cornwall. Its chief
tributaries are Otter creek and Cromiline creek. It is not an
important stream.

Rondout creek. This stream has its source in the timber-covered
mountain group forming Wittemberg chain. It flows south-
easterly to N apanoch, where it encounters the foot of the Shawan-
gunk range, turns abruptly to the northeast and enters the Hudson
river at Rondout. Its catchment on the south is very restricted,
as it is separated from the Wallkill river only by the narrow
Shawangunk mountains. Notable waterfalls occur at Honk falls
and Napanoch over the Hudson river shale, and on Good Beer kill
above Ellenville. On Good Beer kill there is a total fall of 870
feet from the Cape, three miles above Ellenville, to Ellenville.
Of this about 200 feet are concentrated in a series of cascades
called Hanging Rock falls.

Water power was orginally developed at Napanoch in 1754.
At present there are five dams utilizing a total fall of 115 feet.
A series of cascades with a descent of about 50 feet occurs at
High Falls, where the water flows over Rosendale cement rock.

The following are the catchment areas of Rondout creek:

Square miles

Above Honk. falls 2/0302... 298. TR ee. Se ee 88&
Above: High) Matin: 72.220. WO4Hn GG! a, eee 3o9
Above -Bosendalew. 2010-6 245 FAD UA Bee 365
Above. Wallkill riveraA(s.4 vas, JO. F282 2AS Pe Bee 369
Below. Wallkill ‘riv@r tot) Se. 27728 D4 OO ae . 1,148
Above Rondoeut villages..e070.0). BOWE a eee 1,164

Formerly the Delaware and Hudson canal utilized slack water
from the mouth of Rondout creek to Eddyville. From the head
of the pond above Eddyville dam, the canal runs parallel to
Rondout creek as far as Napanoch. In 1898 the canal was
abandoned from Honesdale, Pa., ‘to Ellenville, and in August,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK PAs!

1901, the remaining canal, with the exception of that from High
Falls feeder to Rondout, was abandoned.

Above its junction with Sandberg creek, at Napanoch, Rondout
creek is a mountain stream. At Honk falls a natural declivity
affords a fall of 125 feet over tilted strata of Hudson river shale.
There is a dam at the head of this fall of 2214 feet, making the
total head 14714 feet.

Water power of Rondout creek. The following is a list of the

principal developed waiter powers on Rondout creek in 1901:

~ $ ' eres Le eee '
| a ® 5
| ge | Ee | 2
op eer Name of ravieties opm owner and és bo ge
; BVO © &
2 ag elise
E oF | Sah) &
be be eae ee
(1) | (2) (3) | (5) | (6)
Eee y walle 0.5. 2: oe OG 5 WE eee en | None | None
2 | Lawrenceville ..| Lawrenceville Cement Co....{) 10 |......)......
3 | Below High Falls| W. I. Vandermark, J. H. Van- |
Germinra (EBUates ea. bees slew. on 80) 125
/ | dieh Falls... ..- Hasbrook & Hopper, Ulster |
County Savings Banks..... Pid: le PRR Oh a:
ae Pitas tbo: Sin). olede. ontd. 2 10... 31 | Jot iay.. 24
6 | Porters. -.| OD. & OB. Canali... ......2.5- ssa ea ped eee = ES
7 | Napanoch....... E,. C. Shook & Bony). /202004 6 60) None
Oh NapatOch ¢. 6. 1 Oe as (Oe YR Pera
9 | Napanoch, R. H.| Humphrey & Young......... 30 4Slina sh .
Poeanamocn, © |) J.C & 5s. H: D. Bornbeck...| 30 .|.....,|.....>
11 | Napanoch .:..... Pittsburg Ax Factory........].. Set ey Oe ed
12 | Napanoch, L. H.| Napanoch Knife Co......... 154 12} None
Sn TMCMMMMR FEEL T OS eee eet ee css lene es slew ge.e ele se ne
14 , Napanoch, R. H.| Young & Humphrey, John
JT ol 2 5 ee a Fa ee Me oe
15 Napanoch, L. H.; M. M. Pillsbury Paper Mill...| -56 HOS pe 7)
iG |:Napanoch....... | Honk Falls Power Co........ 1474 | 1,500) None
17 | Lackawack ..... Me DR erserOn rit Ses ot 10 140} None
1 OE | ee ee ee a es ee eT eed eR ae
19 | Bull River...... ee eRe eer ne a ae « wasn eee araaeet

Wallkill river. Wallkill river is the chief tributary of Rondout
creek. It has its source on Sparta mountain, New Jersey, about
twenty-one miles from the point where it enters New York State.
From its source to the head of the Drowned Lands it is essen-
tially a highland stream.

260 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Drowned Lands are an extensive Pleistocene lake bottom

situated mainly in New York. They comprise an area of 28
square miles. A dam of drift at the north end of this tract holds
back the water of the Wallkill, causing an overflowing of this
entire flood plain. Formerly, this area formed a shallow lake
or undrained swamp. An artificial canal, cut through the drift
at the foot, has enabled a large part of the downstream portion
to be reclaimed for agricultural purposes.
_ Below the foot of the Drowned Lands, fifteen miles from the
New Jersey line, the Wallkill flows in a broad, shallow valley,
averaging about one half mile in width. This valley has been eroded
from the drift, leaving a stream-bed of cobble and small boulders
too heavy for stream transport. The river terraces are not
abrupt, often curving gracefully to the uplands 30 to 60 feet above
the stream, and leaving a narrow plain submerged only during
freshets. At frequent intervals the stream cuts through the over-
lying drift to the Hudson river slate, and passing over ledges of
this slate produces waterfalls.

At Gardiner the Wallkill receives its principal tributary, the
Shawangunk kill. The divide between the two streams is formed
by vertical strata of a blue shale fold, making a definite ridge
between the catchment areas.

The following are the catchment areas on Wallkill river:

Square miles

Wallkill above Franklin Furnace, N. J............... 31
. Wallkill at New York and New Jersey State line...... 210
Wallkill above foot of Drowned Lands................. 393
Wallkill above Freeman’s proposed dam site........... 464
Wallkill at mouth of Shawangunk kill................. 563
Shawangunk kill ‘above Mouth....3. occ sheres aden h wine ee 149
Walikill below Shawangunk Kill... scat. 9 seg un vee 712
Walikill’above Rifton Gilet. 3. sc. s os won as eos ates scene T61
Wallkill at junction with Rondout creek.............. 779

Wallkill total catchment in New York...... Ee I, Sy 567

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 261

Water power of Wallkill river. The following is a list of the
water powers developed on Wallkill river in 1901:

) S38 | a
F ye os
: BE eee |
% iieatiow Name p Agpeestaae owner or A 5 F 3s sé
to Od Sood © 60
3g a6 |oee | &
E SH | gre] §
Z < | eos | =
a) | (2) | (3) (4) | () | ©)
1 C gtecak Loeks..! 7... Empire Powder Mill, Laftin & |
hand Powder Co::....:.... 14 | 288 100
2 Riftowms.:. 2)s.232 253 Rifton Gristmill, J. W. Dim-
| MER ee ss a os 16 119 | ceacey
3 | Baran tes a oe, ante Go! es Ah aes 619 Pees:
4 Pee maar eed et ee a ee he, SO on ibe. eel De
5 Galeville.. SNE Drarn temormenarses ee Aa oF Lei a8 2 Je 8 PR fo ees oes
6 Walliall.: 2 o..2 2. db eddeaiss . 228) Fl AMI. dyed sd,
7 WeldGzie iio, . -: Watton Krite.Coe.. oo e.: oc. k. 8 150 75
8 | Waldon......... | N. Y. Knife Works.......... 32 | 300 | None
9 | Montgomery..... Crabtree & Patchett......... 9 ; 160 75
10 | Red Mills........ ED Sa era ae | 1@ | cae None

10n Shawangunk kill.

There are a number of tributaries of Rondout creek and Wall-
kill river, but none of them are at present important as power
streams, although some have been considered as water supplies
for the City of New York.

Esopus creek. The source of Esopus creek is in Winnissook
lake on the northwestern slope of Slide mountain. From Big
Indian to Olive Bridge the stream flows through a valley with
timber-covered mountains on either side. A number of sites for
storage reservoirs are offered at points where the valley broadens
out to receive the inflowing water of tributaries. Some of these
are at Big Indian, where Birch creek enters; at the mouth of
Bush kill at Shandaken; at the mouth of Stony Clove ereek at
Phoenicia; at Cold Brook at the mouth of the Little Beaver kill,
and at Olive Bridge.

The descent of the stream is rapid, although not precipitous
above Olive Bridge. At this point the stream flows over a rocky
ledge, 22 feet in hight, forming Bishops falls. Below Bishops
falls the stream flows through a narrow gorge for some distance,

262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

after which the valley broadens with a decrease of slope. The
general course of the stream is mostly southeasterly, until Marble-
town is reached. At this point it turns and flows northeasterly
to near Kingston. From Kingston it flows northerly, entering
the Hudson river at Saugerties. A second waiter fall occurs at
Glen Erie, where there is a cascade with a fall of 56 feet. The
final descent to tidewater at Saugerties is made over a fall of
42 feet.

The following are the catchment areas on this creek :
Square miles

Above mouth: at Sangerties., Minti aati awl lew dee 417
Above Gien-Frie fale... sdaie ges ciey cuprates nek eet be Wits 409
Above; gaging-station, KingetOn.: .s.92: shez. font <p ee 3d12
Aibove. Bishop’s. falls,, Olive .Bradeecg 5%, do. sia. oo See 234

Water power of Esopus creek. The following gives the prin-
cipal water powers developed on Esopus creek :

on me \
=| Os ~)
E Be loa |
oS Bo Los °
so a ! : 5 2a 4 2
a Ree ee Name of mill and of owner or & LE = oo
© 5 ee operator oii Séias te bre
2 aS om] om
2 | SO |oS& ay
=} od baile i)
Z | q |ae8) f
(1) (2) (3) (4) | (5). | (6)
1 | Saugerties....... _ Diamond Paper Co., Sheftield
ra |: BRR hs la casein eee 35 607 | 425
2 | Saugerties....... Saugerties Mfg. Co., Sheffield
| OR << = ee eee ees an re ge 21 IO pasta ake
34". mnlés* above Lege a Mini Shue ae ees bate ed ee te
| Saugerties.....
4 | Glen Erie....... Ulster White Lead Co....... OO! tiviee = None
5 | Olive Bridge. <j; Boiee Gristmille. sciu atin: . 22 ubcep-annre’ None
6 | Olive Bridge ....| DeWett’s mill, leased to Hud-
son River Pulp Co.......... Path | aSea. None
2 | Brown Station ,,| Hudgon River Pulp Co. .c02 ots ven alone ee
Se} Boieville.. 505. a J. CeBorm book: .. 24... Aah 4) 90 20
9. | Phoenicia. :; ». .s.: Mra De Mottin: ass «dais — OG bres sales
ty ig indian. 2... Roan’. CW ey atege st fs 18 60 | None
11 Pine Hill! .. 44. Geo. Rose Turning Mill...... 1D « he phscdn « None

10On Birch creek.
Catskill creck. This stveam rises on the northern slope of the
Catskill mountains, lying for the most part in the timbered high-

lands of Greene county. It flows in a southeasterly direction,

IYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 263

entering the Hudson river at ‘the village of Catskill. For the
last two miles of its course, below the mouth of Kaaterskill creek,
there is slack water. From Kaaterskill creek to Leeds, a dis-
tance of three miles, it flows through a bluestone gorge, the fall
for this distance being 180 feet. The stream flows over a rock
bed through most of its course andi is subject to wide variations
in flow. The slopes of the catchment area are precipitous and
there are no lakes or other artificial storage. The catchment area
at the mouth is 394 square miles.

Water power of Catskill creek. The following tabulation shows

the principal developed water powers on Catskill creek :

~ 1525) 2
g Se |esa| 2
< om | BFo| va
% iidéatvon Name of Pall and sof owner or a: | Bae 23
; : ey |*es| 3°
= Se ee we tie
=} or Qu | a
eS > ace} o
Zi < ea a8)
(1) (2) (3) CE) SET GR) (6)
Ie leeds he Oe | Catskill Woolen Mill......... 18 | 200| 60
OSES t=. CON ee a Waterville Woolen Mill...... 14 200 | 80
8 | Lake's mills..... Ae Se EE eee Tee a eee Pensa ts | Sh Akasa
4 + Woodstock...... a¥ oodstock Paper? Mall, 2. ....8P2, A PeMal. 2.
7 Frechold.:..... ... [Ey OG De | ae ee 11 |15-20 | None
2 Greenville ...... Reed's? Milts. Ur TS. HS Ts. 22 22 8
1 Basti, Durham..;.| Not, reported, :...3%. «35. ..154- i ea | a Pe
2 Pee Teron ~: +) Atter DOS. st. os vo as ee ee ieee GO pare:
3 Tea Ameiva, 8h) ed isexs) rest el hpi ees ced. wag TO) dere allie tt
|

Fishkill ereek, Rondout creek, Wallkill river, Esopus creek and
Catskill creek have all been considered as water supplies for the
City of New York. The following tabulation gives the catchment
areas above the reseryoir proposed, as well as above the mouth,

for each of these streams:
Catchment area in square

Above } ee

B ve pro- =
eet, mouth
EES GES 5) a ro eer ne ae 158 204
ORG 9 2, a 184 1369
Ur a 5 an 49) 5 # as os ie bese saws scnanncaverene 464 779
erence et SPL. FRR te LI Ox e 242 AIT

Meecin in) Vawemenans ete ar) cei. . 14 LA Nees. 140 394

1Above junction with Wallkill river.

— 264 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Normans kill. This stream enters the Hudson river at Ken-
wood, a suburb of Albany. It drains a narrow area of 168 square
miles, lying between the lower Mohawk catchment and the
northern drainage slope of the Helderberg mountains. It rises
in Schenectady county, about fifteen miles ‘a little south of west of
the city of Schenectady. The headwaters are at an elevation of
700 to 800 feet above tide. At French Mills the stream is 200
feet above tidewater. The catchment area at French Mills is
111 square miles and at the mouth of the stream 168 square
miles.

Roeliff Jansen kill. This stream flows into the Hudson river
from the east about six miles south of Hudson. It rises in the
extreme southwestern part of Columbia county and flows first
southwest to about the village of Silvernail, thence a little north
of west to Elizaville, thence northwest to its mouth in the Hud- |
son river. The headwaters of this stream have been proposed as
a water supply for the City of New York by the Water Supply
Commission of 1908. The catchment above Silvernail dam is 14%
square miles.

Claverack creek. This stream rises in the western part of
Columbia county and joins the Kinderhook creek at Stockport,
a few miles north of Hudson. From the village of West
Taghkanick it flows in a generally northerly direction to its junc-
tion with Kinderhook creek. Above West Taghkanick, the
Taghkanick creek, a branch of the Claverack, flows southeasterly.
The catchment area of Claverack creek at its mouth is about 100
Square miles.

Kinderhook creek. This stream rises in the Hancock mountains
in western Massachusetts. It flows in a southwesterly direction
across Rensselaer and Columbia counties, emptying into the
Hudson river at Stockport. The following are the catchment

areas:

Square miles
ity) NeW WORKS... . sn daa wawas ee eee eee 305
in’ Massachusetts . . 5.67.60 37822 ees A eee 9)

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 265

This stream is of interest as having been proposed as a water
supply for the city of Albany.

Hoosic river. An important tributary of the Hudson from the
east is Hoosic river, which rises in the mountains of Berkshire
county, Massachusetts. It first runs northwesterly, passing from
Massachusetts into the extreme southwestern corner of Vermont
and thence into Rensselaer county, in New York. At the northern
boundary of Rensselaer county it turns and pursues a westerly
course to the Hudson opposite the village of Stillwater. Its
catchment area at the mouth is taken at 730 square miles. Its
principal tributaries are Little Hoosic river, Walloomsac river,
and Tomhannock creek. The country drained is mainly moun-
tainous, the summits attaining an elevaition of from 1000 to 2000
feet above tide. The principal water powers developed on Hoosic
Tiver, in New York, are at Schaghticoke and Hoosic Falls, with a
few at intermediate points. At Schaghticoke there is from 97
to 98 feet fall, broken into falls of 8, 7.5, 24.5, 34.5, and 28 feet.
The available statements as to the power at Hoosic Falls are so
conflicting that it is thought best to omit them.

Hoosic river is of considerable interest to persons concerned in
waterpower development on the Hudson below its mouth, because
there are two reservoirs on its headwaters which have been con-
structed by manufacturers in Massachusetts in order to maintain
a more equable summer flow. The first of these is the Clarksburg
reservoir, on the north branch of Hoosic river, and at a distance
of about 24 miles above North Adams. The second reservoir is
on the south branch, and is known as the Cheshire reservoir, being
situated in the town of that name. The Clarksburg reservoir
is stated to flow 156 acres and to have a depth of 22 feet. The
Cheshire reservoir flows about 650 acres and can be drawn down
about 8 feet. These reservoirs are controlled by an association
of mill owners on the Hoosic and its branches in Massachusetts.

Battenkill river. Battenkill river, another important tributary
of the Hudson from the east, rises in the southwestern part of
Vermont, in Bennington county. It first flows southwesterly and
then westerly irregularly across Washington county, New York,

266 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to the Hudson at a point about a mile above Schuyleryille. The
catchment area is taken at 460 square miles. The elevation above
tide at the mouth of the river is S82 feet, and at the Delaware &
Hudson railway crossing, a little south of Shushan, the elevation
is 437 feet. This gives a descent of 355 feet in 22 miles, about
one-half of which is concentrated within the last 4 or 5 miles of
the river’s course.

The following is a brief statement of the water powers on the
lower section of the Battenkill, in ascending order from the
mouth, as they stood in 1897:

At Clark Mills, the American Woodboard Company, 24 feet
head.

At Big Falls, the dam at the head of the falls gives 106 feet
head, divided into Bennington Falls Pulp Company, 52 feet;
Ondawa Pulp and Paper Company, 30 feet; not utilized, 44 feet.

At Middle Falls, the dam at the head of the falls gives 55 feet
head. Here there are a leather-board mill, shank mill, sawmill,
plaster mill, gristmill, and electric-light station.

At Greenwich, Dunbar, McMaster & Co., 8 feet head; Palmer’s
lower dam, 9 feet head, furnishes power for gristimill, paint works,
shirt manufacturing, scale manufacturing, and plow works;
Palmer’s upper dam, 6 feet head, furnishes power for a cotton
mill and a paper mill.

At Center Falls, Angel & Langdon Paper Mill, 25 feet head.

At Battenville, Phoenix Paper Company, 10 feet head.

At Rexleigh there is a cotton mill with 6 feet head; at Shushan
a gristmill, shirt factory, electric-light station and foundry, all
receiving power from about 14 feet head.

In addition to the foregoing there are stated to be undeveloped
water powers on the Battenkill as follows: Between Clark Mills
and Big Falls, 27 feet; between Greenwich and Center Falls, 8
feet; between Center Falls and Battenkill, 10 feet.

It is stated that the utilized powers on the Battenkill are devel-
oped up to about 30 horsepower per foot fall. They are, however,
sometimes short of water in dry weather. With a catchment

area of 460 square miles, a minimum flow of 0.8 of a cubie foot

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 267

per second per square mile would give only about 15.3 gross
horsepower per foot of fall. If this is true, the Battenkill is an
exceedingly good water yielder, although definite data derived
from stream measurements are entirely lacking. It is understood
that gagings have been kept for the last two or three years by
private parties, but the results have not yet been published.

Fish creek. This stream, which flows into the Hudson at
Schuylerville, is the outlet of Saratoga lake. Its chief tributary
is the Kayaderosseras creek, which drains the central part of
Saratoga county. The catchment area of Fish creek at its mouth
is estimated at 253 square miles. Both Fish creek and Kayader-
osseras creek are extensively utilized for water power.

Sacandaga river. This stream is the next important tributary
of the Hudson in the ascending order. It has three principal
branches, which unite to form the main river in the southeastern
part of Hamilton county. The west branch is the outlet of Piseco
lake; the middle branch is the outlet of Sacandaga and Pleasant
lakes, while the east branch issues from a series of small ponds
and lakes in the southwestern part of Warren county, not far from
Bakers Mills. The east and middle branches unite a few miles
to the north of Wellstown, and the west branch joins a few miles
south of Wellstown. The river then flows southeasterly to about
. miles below Northville, where it turns rather more than a right
angle and flows irregularly northeast to the main Hudson at
Hadley. The principal tributary of the Sacandaga, aside from
its several branches, is East Stony creek.

The following are the several subdivisions of the catchment area

of Sacandaga river:
Square miles

DEI MOIR bie THT 7GGoL. ils. to lhe. BIB. BHI AOL 1,040
ewe.) Ce MOYTT Se Tie ab. BOIB 109 240
Renee eranch ee ee. seins pepe as, Saget: 115
eR et cre reo Yew oan, Riaodie aewne 90's e y gid fecs 124
ee Sn ee aie ak vn he se wpe ia Ae tony nls 212

niger mero St0ny CLECk ko ws mapadale any eiot * 223

268 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The following are elevations above tide at a number of principal
points on Sacandaga river:

Feet
At month obriyer.ie 2)! LAP SOP PaaS eee ee eee DD6
Above.dam at -Conklinwille..(iic.0n. oe alee cease 697
Northyille ....:5,< .a-s-2ts steieshecapeltiewreit daha) betes ore eee 132
Hope, Center « «5 oss i cnuss segie ns euce oibis late peeeeas Fact nel 763
Wellstowh soo). 5 om go we we oe ee 902
Bast branch af old tannery... ....2 sauce nes a eee 958
Hast: branch’ ‘at ‘foot OF iim Taig. Sic se sa ee a ee 1,205
East; branch at, head of igh falls; acter eer eae oe 1,337
East branch. at.,.Brighamg: fond j...cedeian ol. alae 1,706
Piseco lak. .:55 0 523. a eeu peasy ite neo een eee 1,648
Lake’ * Pleasant. 2: ssi 35 56 eee ce hn, eee ee 1,706
Pacandaga fake. o3 oo. nn sm mite ieee ois ele ee ema eee eee ee 1,706

From Conklinville to the mouth of the river, a distance of a
little over 5 miles, the river falls 141 feet. At present this section
of the river is entirely unutilized except by two powers, one at
Conklinville and the other about 2 miles from Hadley.

Thus far there are no detailed measurements of the Sacandaga,
but since the catchment area is still largely in primeval forest it
is without doubt an excellent water vielder.

Schroon river. This stream rises in Essex county, along the
southern slopes of the highest mountains of the Adirondack group.
As shown by the map, it flows in a general southerly direction for
about forty-five miles through Essex and Warren counties, and
joins the Hudson just above Thurman. On the boundary between
Essex and Warren counties the river flows through Schroon lake,
a body of water nearly 9 miles long and from a little less than 0.5
to 1.5 miles in width.

The following are some of the important subdivisions of the

catchment area of Schroon river: :
a Square miles
Pet THOME. ice sce do -ae e 550
Warreng@bur ge... ... se:d sss siciecl paren aie Sigh bras eee 535
Thm blehead Ladle. voc cs .s.sccce) see ee Cs 3 oe ee ee 502

Foot of Schroon: lakes .:isvas oes cts ee eee 479

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 269

Some of the elevations on Schroon river are as follows:

Feet
Co ST 8 Se des IR jae eal Ue i Ab a | anid ha a re 610
Se es OP a AO rem RON, Boy r i), 807
err ene war tee PE CS ed OOP Be 820
Sorensen eR Ere Specs ney art a Shayicsi eile oi did's 6 biwebias Weld ble oc plerd 840
Re ME a Sia tel oi nw eid lee aim sompeerncert Lhje sands 1,986

Water power of Schroon river. There is no developed water
power on Schroon river except at Warrensburg. The Schroon
River Pulp & Paper Company. at that place use something over
1000 horsepower, while at several other dams there is 450 to 500
_ horsepower in use, making a total in use at Warrensburg of about
1500 horsepower. The detail of this power may be obtained from
the writer’s first Report on the Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, in
a table facing p. 150.1

Boreas river. This stream rises on the south slope of the
extreme high Adirondack mountains, at an elevation of over 2000
feet above tidewater. It flows through Boreas pond, in a south-
erly direction, entering the Hudson river five miles north of North
River village. The country through which Boreas river flows is
mountainous and there are no power developments. There is,
however, a fine opportunity to make storage at Cheney pond,
Boreas pond, etc. and undoubtedly this stream will be ultimately
utilized for water storage as part of the Hudson river system of
storage reservoirs. |

Indian river. The Indian river issues from a precipitous, for-
ested mountain area in the eastern part of Hamilton county. It
rises in Indian lake and flows in a northeasterly direction into the
Hudson river. In 1898 the writer constructed for the Indian
River Company a masonry storage dam at the foot of Indian lake,
replacing the lumberman’s dam which was formerly at this loca-
tion, and raising the level of the artificial lake twenty-three feet,
or about thirty-four feet above the original water level. The
length of the reservoir is about twelve miles and it stores

‘In An. Rept. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York for 1895.

270 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

5.000,000,000 cubic feet of water, the area of water surface being
5035 acres and the elevation of the spillway crest 1650 feet. The
Indian River Company were the owners of the original rights of
flowage of Indian lake as held in the timber dam since 1845.

Ladder

£2. 16369
a

‘ane Bn Ss EE
ora kn
Buttress | LLL

AT TWO yY PY — Ss OZ CY)oi:: Yl
RPK
WL a lL OTA A) VY ORCYQ

K------ ~210------->« - == 22-230
Fig. 19 Cross-section of main dam and gate house at Indian river.
This company deeded to the State of New York about 18,000
acres of land in township 32 and 24,000 acres in township 15,
or 42,000 acres in all. The price paid for this land, including the
present structures thereon, as well as the structures contracted
for and in process of construction by the company (the masonry
dam), together with any damages which might accrue from the
appropriation of land and structures, was $164,000, or a little less
than $4 per acre. The total cost of the dam, including engin-

eering, was about $100,000. The operation of this dam is under

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 271

the control of the Superintendent of Public Works. The object
of constructing it was to store flood water to be turned into the
Hudson river during the low-water period of each year, thereby
equalizing the flow. The fact that the Champlain canal takes
water from the Hudson river through the Glens Falls feeder was
the reason why the State considered it necessary to control this
dam. The catchment area above the dam is 146 square miles.
The storage cost is at the rate of $20 per million cubic feet stored.

Cedar river. This river rises in Cedar lake in the central part
of Hamilton county at an elevation of about 2530 feet above tide,
and flows northeasterly, generally parallel to Indian lake and
river, entering the Hudson river two miles north of Indian river.
There is no water-power development upon this stream, but there
is a reservoir of considerable capacity at Wakeley, at an elevation
of about 2000 feet above tide.

Mohawk River

Mohawk river, the largest tributary of the Hudson, rises in the
western central part of the State, near the Lewis and Oneida
county line. It flows in a southerly direction to the city of Rome,
from which it takes an easterly course across the State, emptying
into the Hudson a little above Troy. The principal tributaries
are Schoharie, East Canada, West Canada and Oriskany creeks,
while less important tributaries are Chuctenunda, Cayadutta,
Garoga and Sauquoit creeks and Lansing kill. There are a num-
ber of small streams, several of which are utilized as water sup-
plies for the villages of the Mohawk valley.

The following are the elevations above tidewater of a number of

points along the Mohawk river:

Feet
Min emma si Ss Hoes Juul esl TD. . Siocktac a oerateens 12
een Mohawiraguedued:. 20.42). 20 nce lh 0). 26) qi -v beetje nw 162
eT 2G int. writ} eas asc ss a ee et 214
mie? Schoharie erecirs. 5). 0.. -.i:)sicdne es se or on 270
ee RONG FOGKOr MAID. oo oi ioc eo, Wie Hain cee ne o4 ens 431

1For complete account of Indian river dam, see Engineering News for
May 18, 1899.

272 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

There are two principal falls of the Mohawk river, the Great
falls at Cohoes and the Little falls at the city of the same name,
where are found the only important water powers developed on
this stream. At the Great falls at Cohoes there is a fall of 105
feet over Hudson river shale, which has been extensively utilized
by the Cohoes Company for power. ‘Cohoes is a city of 25,000
inhabitants, entirely devoted to manufacturing.

According to the statement of David Van Auken, Engineer of the
Cohoes Company, there are about 10,000 horsepower developed.
At Little Falls there is a total fall of about 45 feet, occurring in
about gne-half mile, of which 40 feet are utilized by three dams.
The population of Little Falls is 12,000, extensively devoted to
manufacturing. There is stated to be about 3000 horsepower
developed at this place. Aside from a small amount of power
developed below Cohoes, just above the “ sprouts ” of the Mohawk,
there are no water-power developments on the stream other than
those of Cohoes and Little Falls, except a few unimportant mills
on the extreme headwaters. The waterworks of the city of Rome
are at Ridge Mills, 2 miles north of Rome, where a water power
pumping system is in use.

The following are the principal subdivisions of the catchment

area of the Mohawk river:
Square miles

At idouthh . . ..oSstsronyosreil hs eee < hae behee in agosis ever> Seca 3,400
Below mouth of Schoharie creek... ... 22... 0550-4 ee tee 3,100
At Little: Malls.s<ifeiiceesn ob ldtie t-d os ee er 1,275
At DGiCA:. stow <n atin, abbas snserles WS sued pce cere beeen 524
‘Ad Romes. «. lo <o beapbth-oveetan eh obtotad te thas anna eee 184

Chuctenunda creek. This stream rises in Saratoga county and
flows southerly into the Mohawk river at Amsterdam. There ‘is
a small amount of power on this stream, at Rockton and Haga-
man. The city of Amsterdam, with a population of 21,000, is a
manufacturing city on the Mohawk river at its mouth, but most of
its manufacturing is by steam power. It offers a good oppor-
tunity for the sale of power from an electrical power plant on

- HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 273

Schoharie creek. Chuctenunda creek itself has too small a catch-
ment area to be of much yalue.

Cayadutta creek is another small stream which rises in the cen-
tral part of Fulton county, and flows south through the cities of
Gloversville and Johnstown into the Mohawk river at Fonda.
There is considerable water power developed upon it, but state-
ments in reference to the quantity are not at hand. ‘The catch-
ment area above its mouth is 62 square miles. The catchment at
Johnstown is 40 square miles.

Schoharie creek. This stream rises in the southern part of
Greene county, whence it flows 18 miles northwesterly, and then
northerly about 50 miles to the Mohawk. Its catchment
comprises the greater part of Schoharie county and portions of
Greene, Albany, Delaware, Otsego, Montgomery and Schenectady
counties. Its headwaters, which lie at an elevation of about 1800
feet above tidewater, drain the western and northern slopes of
the Catskill mountains. The lower reaches of the creek flow
through a long, flat valley in a channel largely covered with
flat boulders. At Central Bridge, about 19 miles from the
mouth of the creek, the water surface is 560 feet above
tidewater; at the mouth the elevation is 274 feet. Notwithstand-
ing this large fall, Schoharie creek is not considered specially
valuable for water-power development. It is subject to great
extremes of flood and low-water flow. This is largely explainable
by the nearly complete cutting off of the forests from the catch-
ment area many years ago. The impervious character of the
soil may also be taken into account. The principal subdivisions of
the catchment area of Schoharie creek are as follows:

MIRE er aed oo Se Nia ad ok diy) sas a ae oe 8s Se De 947
0 2 SS Re ne ne ed 684
Re see ee es iy ox. o's OU i Tals s A oe hol 308

Water power of Schoharie creek. With one exception the water
powers thus far developed in the Schoharie creek catchment are
nearly all small and unimportant. The principal tributaries of
the stream are the Cobles kill and the Batavia kill, but neither of

274 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

these streams is important from the waterpower point of view.
The headwaters of the Batavia kill have been proposed to be taken
by a tunnel through the Catskill mountains as part of the water
supply of New York city.

In 1899 and 1900 the Empire State Power Company developed
an extensive water power on Schoharie creek at Schoharie falls a
few miles south of its mouth. Their dam, however, has been twice
injured by floods and it is understood that at present (spring of
1904) they are out of business. There are however negotiations
in progress looking toward a consolidation with the Hudson River
_ Power Company, but until these are completed it is uncertain
whether the dam will be repaired or not. 3

Garoga creek. This stream rises in the Garoga lakes and Peck
pond. It flows southerly into the Mohawk river two miles above
Fort Plain. The catchment area above its mouth is 89 square
miles. ,

Hast Canada creek. This creek, which is one of the important
tributaries of the Mohawk river, rises in the southwestern part of
Hamilton county and flows southerly, joining the Mohawk at East
creek, about 7 miles from Little Falls. According to a map fur-
nished by Stephen EK. Babcock, of Little Falls, the total catchment
area of East Canada creek is 285.7 square miles, of which 58.2
Square miles are in Hamilton county, 98.4 square miles in Herki-
mer county, 128 square miles in Fulton county, and 1.1 square
miles in Montgomery county. Following are the elevations of
principal points on Kast Canada creek :

Feet
Bottom of Beardslee falls near mouth... . .. 4. . 4.5 seen 0
Top of Beardslee falls... 0). 52. se ae eo ee ee 105
Kottom of High falls,.......<4..a,~95 es ee 327
Top of High falls...<... “Whix sauces Ghee ee 379
@rest of dam, at Dolgeville i:.:...04., 45 sen yey ee 445
Mouth of Spruce creek... i. <t4.< ushewma » on ee ATT
Mouth .of; Fish, creek «.:.;. iis vs > «aac oF epee eee 559
BMMOusDurg, .,. «)-,904 er racheylely ebb: date een 646
SUIT ARSON eno + Sess enbedin x. «440 +. eputye uae ules ane ane ae 720

OTEDOR «oo. va ws boca nose eet ee Ree ee eee 1,140

| ‘LO8L ul AuvdulopD 10Mog
pus JST] WAps[q e[fAes[og oq} Aq peajonajsuoD ‘“Yoodo vpvuvy jsvmy ot} JO S[[Vy SIT] oy} ye wep aMOg

‘b e78Id

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 275

The distance from the mouth of the stream to Oregon is about
25 miles. |

The principal tributary of East Canada creek is Fish creek,

which is the outlet of the Canada lakes. The distance from its
point of junction with East Canada creek to the mouth of the
Canada lakes outlet is about 9 miles, and the total rise in this
distance 635 feet. The outlet of the lakes, which is nearly level,
is about 3.5 miles long. There are no falls of any magnitude on
this creek. For the first 5 miles from its mouth Fish creek rises
245 feet, and from that point to the mouth of the outlet of the
~ Canada lakes, a distance of 4 miles, the rise is 390 feet.
- The second tributary of East Canada creek is Spruce creek,
which has a total length from its mouth to its head in the Eaton
millpond of about 8.7 miles, the total rise in this distance being
about 550 feet. Just below the Eaton millpond there is a fall of
180 feet in 2000 feet. At Salisbury Center, Spruce creek falls 85
feet in about 900 feet.

Water power of East Canada creek. In 1904 there are twelve
dams on Spruce creek. The water supply of Dolgeville is taken
from Cold brook, a tributary of East Canada creek. Aside from
the development at Dolgeville, and small developments at
Beardslee falls and at one or two other points, very little use has
thus far been made of the water power of East Canada creek. It
is probable, however, that within a few years the water power of
this stream will be nearly all utilized.

According to a manuscript report on the water power of East
Canada creek, by 8. E. Babcock, the fall in this stream for the
first 1500 feet from its junction with Mohawk river is very slight.
At this point the first rapids are encountered, where it has been
proposed to develop a water power, with a head of about 60 to 70
feet. About 1000 to 1200 feet farther upstream there is an addi-
tional fall of from 30 to 40 feet. This takes one to the top of the
so-called Beardslee falls, referred to in the foregoing.

It has also been proposed to construct an extensive system of
power development by a series of dams on East Canada creek,

276 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

some of the details of which may be gathered from the following
tabulation :

Plan of power development on Hast Canada creek

Cost per

Location fe oe ea ge ce mie a
Twat TsPidoee: o.oo. ee 43 1,172 $108,427 $92.51
Sqeet (SbMOet 25 2 eens 26 1,023 73,667 72.01
PRAOEN fa 5 wee 29 1,141 30,910 27.10
TRECEMCUUALG. \. 3 x.5 <4 akin ei 22 865 46,090 53.28
Pie Pals... ss oh aan aes 72 2,700 56,320 . 20.86
No. 1 (below High falls) . 74 2,956. 125,092 42.40
No. 2 (below High falls).. 34 1,360 56,408 41.40
No.1 (Ingham’s mill)..... 44 1,778 185,410 76.16
No. 2 (Ingham’s mill).... 44 1,778 ~=129,800 73.00
Beardslee falls .......... 105 5,112 = 128,326 25.10
Totals and mean.... 423 19,885 $890,450 $44.80

This plan of power development further includes the construc-
tion of a storage of 1,250,000,000 cubic feet, which is estimated to
cost $148,000, making a total for the whole development of
_ $1,088,450. With these figures the final cost per net horsepower
becomes $52.22. The estimates leading to this result include cost
of land to be flooded, fhasonry of dams and head works, turbine
water wheels, flumes and head feeders, tail raceways, waste gates,
power stations, racks, engineering and superintendence, etc. So
far as the actual power developments are concerned, the work can
probably be constructed for the estimates, but the cost of the
storage is, in the writer’s opinion, somewhat too low. The total
number of dams which it is proposed to build is stated at 40, thus
giving an average of only $3700 per dam. This sum would only
build timber dams of the most temporary character. ‘The proper
operation and repairs of this number of dams, scattered over an
area of 200 square miles, would entail in the end an annual
expense of $30,000, which is the annual interest at 5 per cent on
$600,000. To obtain the real capitalized cost we need then to add
$600,000, which gives an amended total of $1,638,450, whence the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 217

cost per net horsepower for the entire system would become
$82.40. |

In 1897 an electric-power station was in process of installation
by the Dolgeville Electric Light & Power Company at the high
falls just below Dolgeville, capable of developing 1200 net horse-
power. The wheels set are two twin horizontal 86-inch Victor
special wheels, to work under a 72-foot head, and which are
claimed by the manufacturers to yield, at full capacity, 600 net
horsepower each. A portion of the power generated at this sta-
tion is used at Dolgeville for manufacturing, and the balance is
transmitted to Little Falls, 8 miles distant.

Dolgeville is the seat of the piano-felt and other industries
originally established by Alfred Dolge & Son. The power for the
establishments now in operation is derived from two 35-inch
Victor turbines, working under a 25-foot head, and rated by the
manufacturers to furnish, when running at full capacity, 229 net
horsepower each, or a total of 458 horsepower. According to the
manufacturer's catalogue, these wheels will consume 197 cubic
feet per second when working at full capacity, and the statement
was made in 1897 that they were ordinarily so worked. The catch-
ment area of East Canada creek above Dolgeville is about 250
Square miles; hence the present development is based upon a
minimum flow of 0.79 cubic feet per second per square mile. As
there is very little pondage at Dolgeville, it may be assumed that
the power is sometimes short in a dry season, although the effect
of the pondage of the large number of lakes and) ponds on the
head waters of East Canada creek will undoubtedly be to inerease
considerably the minimum flow.

There is a power development at Beardslee falls, near the
mouth of East Canada creek, which is stated to be capable of
developing 1000 horsepower, but owing to deficiencies in the
design it is uncertain whether or not this amount of power can be
produced continuously.

278 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The following tabulation gives the principal water powers deyel-
oped on Kast Canada creek, substantially as they exist in 1904:

Number Effective
of dam Location head,
in feet
1 Beardslee falls 120
2 Ingham’s mills 10
5) High falls 12
4 Dolgeville 20
5 Stratford

West Canada creek. ‘This creek, another important tributary of
the Mohawk, rises near the center of Hamilton county and flows
southwesterly about forty miles, by general course, to the eastern
edge of the town of Trenton in Oneida county, where it turns
and first runs southeasterly and then southerly for a total dis-
tance of twenty miles, finally emptying into the Mohawk at Her-
kimer. The following tabulation gives the catchment areas on

this stream:
Square miles

As THROW, 22 oe oi ont eee ue Geen ne Ge 569
ITCVING cco er ces en le See tee ee 519
Trenton’ Halis (002,47 oP Se). Ge Se oTd
One-halfmile shelow, Hinekley,s i« <o.wisintivemanioder Bev 372
DCCL peices Sake. va Bie eg ee oe 370 (?)
Twie Ock. Bridge... o-.or ssc. oe eee sees Se ee 352
Below mouth of Black ereeki erry Nees. PRL 349 ( ?)

This creek has its source in the Canada lakes, which are about
forty miles northeast from Prospect. These lakes are known
separately as the West, Middle and East Canada. The principal
lake of this series has an elevation of 2348 feet above tidewater.
The catchment area at the village of Prospect, where there is a
natural fall of about 60 feet, is approximately 370 square miles.
At Trenton Falls, three miles below, the stream descends about
200 feet in half a mile. Ascending the stream the principal falls
in order are: Sherman falls, 24 feet; High falls, 105 feet; Mill
dam falls, 14 feet; Suydam falls, 12 feet.

In a report made by Wallace C. Johnson, under date of March
17, 1896, to the Trenton Falls Power Company, it appears that
of the 870 square miles of catchment area above Prospect, about

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 279
175 square miles lie at an elevation of between 2000 and 3000
feet above tidewater, the average elevation of this portion being
about 2500 feet. Of the remaining 200 square miles above Pros-
pect the average elevation is placed at not less than 1600 feet.
The Trenton Falls Power Company has been reported as intend-
ing to develop an extensive storage on the headwaters of this
stream, thus enabling it to produce several thousand electrical
horsepower at Trenton Falls for transmission to Utica, Rome,
and other towns in the vicinity. General plans were prepared by
Mr Johnson, but the details of the project are not at hand.
Judging from the data at hand, the writer is disposed to place the
minimum fiow of West Canada creek at from 0.25 to 0.30 of a
cubic foot per second per square mile.

Water power of West Canada creek. However, these develop-
ments were not made by the Trenton Falls Power Company, and
the property at Trenton Falls has passed into the hands of the
Utica Gas & Electric Company, who have developed an electric
power plant which presents a number of points of interest. It
is estimated that 4000 horsepower can be furnished from this
station. Water powers are also in use on West Canada creek at
Herkimer, Middleville, Newport, Prospect and Hinckley, as well
as at a few points higher up.

Parties interested in the development of an extensive power
project at Trenton Falls have claimed that a very large storage
reseryoir could be constructed in the main valley of West Canada
creek a short distance above Prospect, and at very low cost per
unit volume stored. The data are not at hand for accurately
determining the cost of a reservoir at this place. However,
casual inspection of the Remsen sheet of the topographic map of
the State, made in 1897, shows that such a reservoir would prob-
ably be expensive in proportion to the storage gained. <A trial
estimate shows that with a dam from 80 to 100 feet in hight a
storage of about 2,000,000,000 cubic feet may be obtained. The
cost of the dam necessary to store this quantity of water can
hardly be placed as an experimental figure at less than $1,000,000,
whence the cost per 1,000,000 cubic feet stored would become $500.
This approximate estimate has no other significance than to indi-

280 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

cate the importance of studying large reservoir projects in detail
before deciding as to their feasibility.

In connection with the barge canal surveys of 1900, a reservoir
was surveyed on this stream near Hinckley, with a capacity of
2,742,400,000 cubic feet. This reservoir was estimated to cost
$1,855,000, or $676.40 per million cubic feet of water stored. It
is evident, therefore, that the preceding estimate was under,
rather than above, the cost. The hight of the dam to store
2,742,400,000 cubic feet is 90 feet above the rock foundation.

Sauquott creek. This stream rises in Oneida county and flows
in a northerly direction, emptying into the Mohawk river at
Whitestown. Its headwaters lie at an elevation of about 1200
feet above tidewater.

Water power of Sauquoit creek. There is a large amount of
power development on this stream, as shown by the following
tabulation :

| Z F °
: “8 | 2 | of
i ; - | Bg | 88 | Be
“ Location Name of pe owner or | a | 2 <
~ | Os ar D>
3 as | 3° | as
| | o* ay aie
= tae 5 | oe
ZA < a =
(1) | (2) (3) 4 | ©) | ©
1 |New York Mills. .|/The New York Mills No. 4..../ 28 |...... | 266
1 |New York Mills. .|The New York Mills No. 2...., 29 eistan, 500
2 |New York Mills. .|The New York Mills No. 3....| 18 |...... — 800
S GHCADPOR 0k Sate Utica Cotton Company....... | 21 | 250] 100
14 |New Hartford....|Divine Brothers.............. Lt © 50 | 29
14 |New Hartford....|New Hartford Knitting Mill..| 9 Woneys 32 .
14 |New Hartford....|New Hartford Mills..........) 12 te rth ee
14 |New Hartford....|/New Hartford Cotton Mfg. Co.) 20 140 | 120
5 |Washington Mills/Utica Tool Company.......... 13 90, 150
6 |Washington Mills|}Washington Mills............ 11 None! 100
7 |Willowvale ...... UticaWillowvale BleachingCo.| 9.5 | 270 None
8 |Willowvale ...... Jd. G,, Dewhirst s scsht. snk peas 10 | None|......
8 |Willowvale ...... J. Ho Rehm i UT A iia Ue be ee
9 |Chadwicks....... Chadwicks Mills Cotton Co...) 22 | 125 )......
20. Wasaouoit...)...-. Lewis Knitting Co........... 20 | 100; 65
11 |Sauquoit......... Sauquoit Valley Mills......... 15 4; 101
12) IBBUCHOIL 2. . sess Polk’s Knife Factory.......... 20 | 2 87
13 \Sauquoit......... Adolph Seigel, Lower Mill....| 20 None | None
14 |Sauquoit......... Adolph Seigel, Upper Mill....| 22. 15 | None
16 | Otay ville... 0.72 Alfred: Hing 0.40 levee enncass ce 50
16 Clayville......... Empire Woolen Company..... 25 | 55 80
19 “\Clayyitie eo Empire Woolen Company..... 15 None | None
18 (|Clayville......... First National Bank, Utica...} 15 None | None

19 |Clayville......... Babbitt’s Wire Works........ | hh, Parte 114

1 Water used in four levels; total fall in power canal 48 feet.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 281

The catchment area of Sauquoit creek above its mouth is 67
square miles. ud

Oriskany creek. This stream rises in the northern part of Mad-
ison county, flowing northerly across Oneida county into the
Mohawk river at Oriskany. The catchment area above its mouth
is 146 square miles. There is considerable water power developed
on Oriskany creek.

Comparison of the flow over two dams on Oriskany creek. This
creek is of slight interest because, in connection with the work
done for the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, two gaging
stations were established at widely varying types of dams and it
was found that even in winter fairly comparable results could be
obtained by gagings over such dams. The first station was estab-
lished at the State dam at Oriskany, where water is diverted for
the use of the Erie canal. The catchment area at this point is 144
square miles. During the navigation months, a record was kept
of the gate openings, together with daily observations of the differ-
ence in water surface above and below gates. Outside of the
navigation months, the feeder gates were entirely closed and the
record is for flow over the dam only. The second station was
established at Coleman, a couple of miles above the first. where
the catchment area is 141 square miles.

The object of establishing two stations on Oriskany creek was
to determine whether on dams of somewhat different forms, but
with nearly the same catchment area, the flows could be gaged
close enough to give comparable figures. Space will not be taken
to give the method of computation used in detail, but those inter-
ested can refer to the report to the Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways for an extended account of the method used. For
present purposes it is sufficient to refer to the accompanying tabu-
lation, in which are given the flows at the two stations for the
months from October, 1898, to February, 1899, inclusive. During
the winter months, December to February, the ice was kept clear
from the crest of both dams. The results show good agreement
and indicate that even when one of the cases is complicated by
discharge through a number of water wheels, as at the second

282 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

station, comparable results may still be obtained. The following
are the flows at the two stations in cubic feet per second. The
apparent discrepancy at the upper station in October is explained
by the fact that the figures for that month are the means of only
the last sixteen days.

Station Station
Month No. 1, No. 2,

Oriskany Coleman
Oetoher,. 1898... <jre) ic hee: Cree Se 325 246
WOVEHINEE, 1O9G,. - s.. 4 vo See eee ee ee ee ee O27 306
HDeceniber! TAGS. 02 ae Ok Se 9G eee ee O27 300
sanwary 1899 Sy Of). eo. iO, PIA Ae Ha 295 297
February, 18899 22.42 wa leint abi. 26 -Bedenagiq 291 283

Lansing kill. This stream rises in the extreme northern part of
Oneida county, near Booneville, and flows southerly to the village
of Leila, where it enters the Mohawk river. The Lansing kill has
rapid descent, but thus far there is not much power developed
upon it.

Allegheny River System

Allegheny river. The Allegheny river enters the State of New
York from Pennsylvania in the southeastern corner of Cattarau-
gus county. It rises in McKean and Potter counties, Pennsyl-
vania, and flows thence northwesterly to Salamanca, about thirty
miles in the State of New York; thence southwesterly for twenty
miles, crossing into Pennsylvania again near the western boundary
of Cattaraugus county. The catchment area of Allegheny river
and its tributaries within New York, at the point of leaving the
State, including Conewango creek, which joins the Allegheny river
in the State of Pennsylvania, is about 2100 square miles. Its
principal tributary from the north is Conewango creek, which
receives the outlet of Chautauqua lake and Cassadaga creek as
tributaries. Little Valley, Great Valley and Olean creeks are
also tributaries in New York, but none of these streams is of
special importance for water power.

Chautauqua lake outlet. Chautauqua lake outlet receives drain-
age from Chautauqua lake, which is twenty miles in length and
from one to two miles in width. The northern extremity of this

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 2835

lake is only eight miles distant from Lake Erie. Its elevation
above tidewater is 1,297 feet, while that of Lake Erie is 573 feet.
This stream flows into the Conewango creek about five miles
north of the Pennsylvania line, where the elevation above tide-
water is 1248 feet. The fall from Chautauqua lake to the south-
ern boundary of the State along the drainage line is therefore only
o4 feet. The catchment area of Chautauqua lake outlet at the
foot of Chautauqua lake is 178 square miles and of Chautauqua
lake outlet below Cassadaga creek, its chief tributary, 345 square
miles.

Cassadaga creek. This creek rises in Cassadaga lake at an eleva-
tion of over 1300 feet above tidewater, and flows south into Chau-
tauqua lake outlet.

Conewango creek. One branch of this creek rises in the extreme
northern part of Cattaraugus county and the other in the northern
part of Chautauqua county. It flows south for part of the way
near the county line between these two counties, and enters Penn-
sylvania four miles west of the west line of Chautauqua county.

The territory drained by Conewango creek is, in general, hilly
and rolling, although the northern portion of the stream has
‘slight descent with swampy valley. From Markham, in the town
of Dayton, to Clear creek, in the town of Conewango, the fall is
only 25 feet. Throughout this whole section the channel is quite
irregular, and probably the average stream slope does not exceed
one foot per mile. The elevation of the headwaters is 1500 to
1600 feet above tide, while at the Pennsylvania line this stream is
about 1200 feet above tide. The catchment area in the State of
New York is 770 square miles.

Tattle Valley creek. This creek rises in the central part of Cat-
taraugus county and flows southerly into the Allegheny river at
Salamanca. The headwaters are at an elevation of about 1700
feet above tide, while the elevation at its mouth is about 1380
feet. The catchment area is 42 square miles.

Great Valley creck. This creek rises in the north central part
of Chautauqua county and flows southerly into the Allegheny

river, three miles east of Salamanca. The country at the head-

284 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

waters is 1600 to 1700 feet above tide. The catchment area is 145
square miles.

Olean creek. The principal tributary of this stream is the
Ischua creek, which rises in the northern part of Chautauqua
county and, with the main Olean creek, flows south, entering the
Allegheny river at Olean. The elevation at its mouth is 1433 feet,
while the headwaters lie at an elevation of about 1800 feet above
tide. None of these streams is important for water power.

The topography of the catchment areas of all these streams
tributary to Allegheny river is rugged. With the exception of a
portion of the Allegheny river itself, and some of its main tribu-
taries, the slopes are several feet to the mile. The slope of the
main Allegheny river is slight.

The Tunungnant creek enters the Allegheny river four miles
south of Carrollton, from Pennsylvania.

Susquehanna River System

Susquehanna river. The headwaters of the north branch of the
Susquehanna lie chiefly in the State of New York, the catchment
area in this State being taken at 6267 square miles. The main
stream may be considered as rising in Otsego lake, from which it
flows first southwesterly, then westerly with a short portion of its
course south of the Pennsylvania line. It finally leaves New York
State in Tioga county at Waverly. The Susquehanna, while one
of the large rivers of New York, is not at all important as regards
water power. The main river and most of its tributaries in New
York flow through a rolling country with fairly uniform declivity.
While utilized for small powers in many places, thus far there
are no extensive developments on either the main stream or its
branches, except at Binghamton, where considerable water power
is utilized. The slope of the stream in and near New York State
is shown by the following elevations, in feet, above tidewater:

Feet
At Towanda, a few miles south of the State line........ TOO
At Athens, on Chemung river, near the State line........ - 744

At Otsego lake........ TO ee eee ere 1,193

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 285

Chemung river. This river is formed by the confluence of the
Cohocton, Canisteo and Tioga rivers, at Painted Post. The
Tioga river receives the Canisteo at Erwin, a few miles south-
west of Painted Post. The elevation at~-Painted Post is 947 feet
above tidewater. From Painted Post the Chemung river pursues
a southeasterly course, crossing the State line at Waverly and
joining the Susquehanna near Atthens, in Bradford county, Penn-
sylvania, a short distance south of the State line.

Tioga river. This stream rises in Tioga county, Pennsylvania,
and flows north to join the Cohocton at Painted Post.

Canisteo river. This stream is the principal tributary in New
York of the Tioga river, joining it five miles south of Painted Post.
It rises in the extreme northeastern part of Allegany county and
flows southeasterly to its junction with the Tioga at Erwin.

Cohocton river. The Cohocton river rises in the town of Spring-
water in Livingston county and flows southeast to join the Tioga.
at Painted Post. There are several small powers on this stream
at Bath and other places. The area drained by the Cohocton and
Canisteo rivers is almost entirely denuded of forests, and these
streams are in consequence less valuable for water power than
formerly. For a considerable length of time in the fall of 1895
the natural yield of these streams was probably not more than
0.05 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. At an early date
the Cohocton, Canisteo and Tioga rivers were extensively utilized
for floating logs to market, but this business has, of course, long
since ceased for lack of material.

The topography of the country from which these streams issue
may all be classed as semi-mountainous. The parts remote from
the main streams are roughly rolling, while in their vicinity the
topography is more rugged, with valleys flanked by high and steep
hills, in many cases precipitous and bluff-like at their bases. The
main valleys are at elevations ranging from 800 to 1200 feet above
tidewater, while the hills rise to an altitude of 2500 feet.

Cayuta creek. This creek rises in the central part of Chemung
county and flows south through Waverly into the Susquehanna
river just south of the Pennsylvania line. Its headwaters are at

2S6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

an elevation of about 1200 feet, with hills in the vicinity rising
several hundred feet higher than this.

Owego creek. This stream flows into the Susquehanna river at
Owego. The east branch rises in Cortland county, flowing first
westerly, thence southerly to its junction with the west branch
at Flemingyville. The west branch of Owego creek rises in the
southeastern part of Tompkins county and flows south to its
junction with Catatonk creek, the principal tributary of Owego
creek. Catatonk creek rises in the northern part of Tioga county
and flows south to its junction with Owego creek, two miles north
of Owego. These streams all have characteristics in common.
The headwaters are at an eleyation of about 1000 feet to 1200 feet
above tide and they flow through valleys of similar character with
long ridges between. There is very little power on any of them.

Chenango river. This stream 'rises in the central part of Madi-
son county in the towns of Eaton and Madison, and flows south,
across Chenango and Broome counties, into the Susquehanna at
Binghamton. About two miles south of Earlville the east branch
joins the main stream. ‘The elevation of the valleys on the head-
waters is about 1200 feet above tide. |

Tioughnioga river. This stream is the chief tributary of
Chenango river. The east branch rises in Madison county and
flows southwesterly to Cortland, where it joins the west branch.
The west branch rises in the extreme south part of Onondaga
county and flows south to Cortland, from which point the general
course of the Tioughnioga river is southeast to its junction with
Chenango river at Chenango Forks.

Otselic river. This stream is the chief tributary of the Tiough-
nioga river. It rises in the town of Nelson in the south central
part of Madison county and flows generally southwest, joining the
Tioughnioga river at Whitney Point. The valleys at its head-
waters are at an elevation above tide of 1450 feet.

Unadilla viver. The Unadilla river rises in the town of Bridge-
water in the extreme southeastern part of Oneida county and
flows southerly, joining the main Susquehanna near Sidney. The

elevation of the valleys at its headwaters is about 1200 feet, while

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ZRT

the elevation of the Susquehanna river at Sidney is somewhat less
than 1000 feet.

Charlotte river. This river rises in the western part of Scho-
harie county and flows west into the main Susquehanna a few
miles east of Oneonta.

Oak creek. This stream rises in Schuyler lake and flows south,
joining the main Susquehanna three miles south of Otsego lake.
Richfield Springs is at the north end of this lake, with an eleva-
tion above tide of 1450 feet.

The streams of the Susquehanna catchment area largely issue
from the region of Chemung sandstones and shales. The country
is deforested and they are all flashy and uncertain in their flow.
While there are no measurements verifying the statement, the
writer considers it probable that all, or nearly all of them, have
a minimum flow not exceeding 0.1 of a cubic foot per second per
Square mile, and several of them, in an extremely dry time, sink
to about 0.05 of a cubie foot per second per square mile. The
flood flows, on the contrary, are universally large. The valleys
at the headwaters, as we have seen, usually lie at elevations of
from 1200 to 1400 feet above tide.

In regard to the following tabulation of the catchment areas of
the Susquehanna river and its tributaries in New York, it must
be stated that they are approximate only. Some of them are
from the Report on Water Power in the Tenth Census, and were
taken by planimeter, measurements from French’s Map of the
State of New York, published in 1860. Undoubtedly when topo-
graphic maps of the region are prepared, they will be modified
soniewhat, but they are the best available at the present time.

The following are the approximate catchment areas of the
Susquehanna and its tributaries in the State of New York:

Square miles

Main river below mouth of Chemung river (south of Penn-

OMENS ny he eee Ie Olle ~ T4638
Total area north of Pennsylvania line... ..................- 6,267
mpere-mouth Of Chemung river............0.0..0..0 00... 4,945

meow moni GF Chenanvo Tivyer......%..2..0......08).00.. 3,982

288 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Square miles
At Binghamton. 0... Co2 os <u see 6 se oe 2,400
At ‘Susquehanna... .... 5.4 .asesssee pars Ok ae eee 2,024
At Nimeven. oo. 0. sfc een oa cise vie + ade ce Sate eee ee 1,789
Above Oneonta... SU Dee ee ee ee 686
Below mouth of Unadilla river. 7. F..2. 4.5... ..3e een eee 1,688
Below mouth of Oak creek. os oc conus Oa eke ae ee 212
Above mouth of Oak ¢reek. 1... ss s2 225 ote eo eee eee oT
Oak creek. (oo. cae os ns ole Oe Oe he 115
Cherry Valley creeks. o2o52 os woes 56 lass oe eee 121
ScCheneviusy Cheek.) gs a aot ee os a oe ee ee 127%
Chartotte: BIVCE. 0. os ac. oGda wee oe ee eee 178
Otexo creek. el. i. . vg eee Oe eae Ce 106
Guleout” Creek... Es Fc gece een see ee ee 115
Unadilli Pavers. os a ae te Se oe ee ET O61
Butternut Creek. . ac tee sce e 0 raee se hoe 123
Chenango Yiver at MOwth >.<... % ss <on.s shee ae 1,582
Chenango. river above ‘Trouzhni0gs.. .... 4. wa cs tne eee ees 685
Chenango river below Tioughnioga..........-....6..000 02 1,488
Chenango river above Canasawacta creek................ 297
Tioughnioga river at moult. .... 2. 24.5... 6 sess sg eee 753
Tioughnioga river above mouth of Otselic river............ 428
OigeliG THVCL. ews acs cok wee aie ie oie te ee ee 259
Weat branch of Tioughnioga Tyrer...) .~ «es 2e5 kee eee 103
Kast branch of Tiouginioga river... 2.2.6, .«.+6 655 ae eee 164
CFWREO CTCCE 2. os sa ens tee ee ee ee Sass won eel ee 391
Cayutd. Creek. 25. Sse: einai Fs ce ee ee 148
Chemung river at junction of Canisteo and Cohocton rivers. 1,941
Chemure river at Rimifa. . 2.356 + oss es ae one ee 2,055
Chemung river at MOU... 2... 6.50500 hn come ae eee 2,518
Coehocton river at Mouth... . 6 ..5.55 a + an am Sees eee 425
Tioga Fiver at imogih. v. sss «6s Vee A ee ee ee 1,530
Tioga above mouth of Canisted. .....o.kes+aewe. one amen 750
Canisted at Month. oo. ois 58-4 ox Rareeien a ines oe 780
Tuscarora creek At moute 2/6 ccc 0.5 case 2 Aes eae 120

. ea

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 289

Delaware, River System
Delaware river. The main Delaware river drains the western
slopes of the Catskill mountains, originating on the slope of Mine
mountain near the southwestern line of Schoharie county. It
flows southwesterly across Delaware county to Deposit, where it
is joined by Oquaga creek, a large tributary draining eastem
Broome county. The upper catchment area is long and narrow,
with numerous short lateral tributaries. It is precipitous and to
a considerable extent covered with a not very dense second-growth
forest. At Deposit the stream turns abruptly to the southeast,
forming the boundary line between New York and Pennsylvania
until Port Jervis is reached. At this point it encounters the foot
of the Shawangunk range and its direction of flow is again turned
to the southwest. It leaves New York State at this point. Above
Hancock the main stream is known as the West branch of the
Delaware river in order to distinguish it from the East or Pepac-
ton branch of the river. It is also sometimes called “ Mohawk,”
but should not be confused with Mohawk river, a tributary of the
Hudson.
The declivity of Delaware river in New York State is shown
by the following elevations above tidewater:

Feet
ICRC Ses Sos ox ois 2% cee Aw ah we we o's’ s wb 600
noe on ac a drace mietar ene e erk w oie dy el 4 oie 984
SE SAMDEERER ERC os 8s oleate tien a nts ee gee a oc 8 8s 1,886

East branch or Pepacton river. The principal tributary of Dela-
ware river in New York State is the East branch of the Delaware
or Pepacton river, which rises in the eastern part of Delaware
and Greene counties, flowing southwest in a course generally
parallel to the main stream. The catchment area is broader and
more branching than in the case of the West branch. Several of

. the tributaries head in small lakes and ponds.

Neversink river. This river rises in the foothills of the Catskill

) mountains in the southwestern part of Ulster county. The east

and west branches unite to form the main stream near the south
line of Ulster county, from which point the main stream flows

290 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

nearly due south, across Sullivan and Orange counties, entering
the main Delaware river at Port Jervis. The catchment area of
this stream is long and narrow, and with the exception of the
Basher kill and Bush kill, is practically without tributaries for
its whole length of about 50 miles.

Mongaup river. This stream rises in the north central part of
Sullivan county and flows due south, entering the Delaware river
at Mongaup.

There are a number of other streams tributary to Delaware
river, but none of them is of enough importance for extended
mention. Very little water power is developed throughout this
region, although there are a number of places where powers could
be developed. The location of railways near the water level has
interfered with such developments. The removal of forests has
further undoubtedly considerably injured the tributary streams
for mill purposes.

The following gives the more important catchment areas of
the Delaware river and its tributaries in New York State:

Square miles

Total area in. New. York, State: cc usp hietl. oa a2 eee 2 580)
Main stream below mouth of Neversink river............04 3,600
Mam ‘stream ‘below: Port Servis Poo Pyne are eee 3,202
Main stream below junction of Kast and West branches... 1,604
Weert branch ‘at mowthe ir? hee PT eee ree KGL 685
West branch at Deposit, below Oquaga creek.. ........2..% O19
Pepacton , ver atimowth; rus adil. esi MOISE AS, SOR 919
Above. mouth ‘of Beaverkillenotjei afer tia! wero mee 520
Beaverluild: reek air. srs tags -oeht. Ad: eae Re lve SRPERD AGTH 322
Qquaga ereeks 2 5.1. i. sect Lem spe Or) oe ce 82
Lattle Delaware creek caduiziay oll . crear ees. eT 53
Neversink river, at: mouth) 9:1 Jone ah ee eel: BAe dA6

By way of concluding the general discussion of the Allegheny,
Susquehanna, and Delaware river systems in the State of New
York, it may be remarked that these have all been extensively used,

either for floating logs or for propelling sawmills, or for both.

PET ee

Pata ~<y- **s

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 291

The clearing up of the catchment areas has, however, long since
reduced the lumbering business*to nothing. These streams are
therefore much less extensively utilized than formerly. At pres-
ent, aside from one or two points, their use is chiefly for propelling
small sawmills and flour mills and for other moderate-sized indus-
tries. With one or two exceptions, there are no large power
developments, throughout the whole region, but undoubtedly a
number of developments could be made on the Susquehanna and
Delaware rivers, although owing to high flood flows, developments
should be made of a very permanent character. But this condi-
tion, it may be premised, implies large expenditure, and whether
large permanent developments can, be made to pay on streams
where there are no facilities for water storage is an unsettled
question.

In a paper on the History of the Lumber Industry in the State
of New York, Col. Wm. F. Fox, Superintendent of Forests, has
given many interesting facts relating to the early use of the
streams for floating logs, etc., to which the reader is referred for
an extended account under these heads.t

Streams of Long Island

The sand areas of Long Island present conditions of water
yield different from those of the other catchment areas of the
State. We have here an extended region of course, deep sand, into
which the rainfall] sinks easily, there being almost no surface
runoff. These sand areas form subterranean reservoirs, from
which from 0.7 to 0.8 cubic foot per second per square mile may
be drawn, the same as from artificial reservoirs on the earth’s sur-
face, these natural underground reservoirs possessing the advan-
tage of furnishing a filtered water of a high degree of purity.

The taking of the water supply of Brooklyn from the sand
areas of Long Island has led to the development of legal principles:
relating to rights in underground water somewhat different from
those derived from the common law of England. The decision in
a test case, tried several years ago, was in effect, that when sub-

~ 1Published by the Department of Agr iculture, Washington, 1902.

292 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

terranean water is taken in large quantity for the supply of cities
or for manufacturing purposes*the party taking it is liable to
the adjacent landowners the same as in the case of diverting sur-
face water.

Long Island is chiefly a sandy plain, about 120 miles in length,
with a total area of 1682 square miles. A considerable portion is
below an elevation of 100 feet above tidewater, although in places
it rises to elevations of 300 feet and more. The streams are all
small and only a few miles in length, running down from the high
land of the middle section to the Atlantic ocean on the south and
to Long Island sound on the north. As regards water power, the
water resources of Long Island have little significance, although
there are many places where small powers are utilized for grist-
mills and other similar uses. The chief value of the inland water
of Long Island is for the water supply of the city of Brooklyn.

Kast river, which connects Long Island sound with New York
bay, may also be referred to for convenience as a Long Island
water resource. The great value of the stream to the commerce
of New York is so obvious as to hardly require mention.

The foregoing description of the river systems of New York has
been made brief, because very complete descriptions have been
given in the several monographs relating to New York State
which appear in the report on the Water Power of the United
States, Tenth Census, 1880. In these reports may be found the
detail of the several river valleys, with statements as to agricul-
tural production, population, geology, climatology, and many
other subjects either not at all touched on, or only briefly, here.

RUNOFF OF NIAGARA AND ST LAWRENCE RIVERS

In view of the size of the streams and their importance the
runoffs of Niagara and St Lawrence rivers are discussed sepa-
rately from the balance of the streams of New York.

Niagara river. The great developments of the Niagara Falls
Power Company authorized by the laws of 1886 haye been in part
completed, while at the same time the original Niagara Falls power —
development, now owned by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power &

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 293

Manufacturing Company, has increased greatly in capacity. The
laws of 1886, and amendments thereto, have also authorized the
taking from Niagara river of large quantities of water for the
purpose of creating a water power near the city of Lockport. A
ship canal is projected connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, and
the Canadian government has made a concession for extensive
power developments on the Canadian side of the river, which are
in progress in 1904. Hence it is evident that the future demands
for water to be taken from Niagara river and delivered either into
the lower river below the falls or into Lake Ontario independent
of the river are very large, and the interest which the people of the
State of New York have in the runoff of Niagara river becomes
exceedingly important.

A recent determination of the area of the basin drained by
the Great Lakes and of the water surfaces of the lakes themselves
is that given in the report of the United States Deep Waterways
Commission, from which the following general summary is taken.
This determination was made in 1896. In 1898 the Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways redetermined these areas but with-
out changing any except that of Lake Erie, which was taken at

9932 square miles.

Area of Area of Total area

Paks “square miles’ square miles square ilies
os elegans 31,800 48,600 — 80,400
MM esc ce oie os ae Ree 22,400 45,700 68,100
PUAM ccs tscec nec chicetsssidees: 23.200 52,100 75,300
=o 8 SE lide aS SNe re 495 6,320 6,815
No yy eehiee alee pire gar ae leet ar 10,000 24,480 34,480
iecRiatesie, Ienteot Javed ade-e 87,895 . 177,200 265,095

That portion of the catchment area of Lake Erie lying within
the State of New York is given as 2210 square miles. The area of
islands in Niagara river is given as 29 square miles. That portion
of the catchment area of Niagara river lying within the State of

294 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

New York has an area of 789 square miles. The area of the river
itself from its head at Lake Erie to the falls, is 21 square miles.
The accompanying table gives the precipitation within and in
the vicinity of the catchment area of the Great Lakes for the years
from 1892 to 1895, inclusive. In this table a few only of the
many precipitation records which are now available have been
used. The records here appearing are, it is believed, sufficient to
show the mean precipitation of the basin of the Great Lakes for
the years indicated. In this table the monthly precipitation has
been omitted, as it can readily be found in the annual reports of
the United States Weather Bureau, and the data have been con-
densed to show the total quantities for the storage, growing and
replenishing periods, together with the total annual quantity.

TABLE No. 39—PRrECIPITATION (IN INCHES) WITHIN AND IN THB
VICINITY OF THE CATCHMENT AREA OF THE GREAT Lakgss, 1892

TO 1895, INCLUSIVE.

December June September.
Locality and year May seenat Stee Bee Annual
Pokegama Falls, Minn.:

1802 } 42: navoedt .aeeeeiee bet 6.99 2.86 21.61
| 0) 5 ee RMR Pe ar 9.64 13.06 2.84 25.54
DS. sialon Peper deals 2 pdms SA 14.72 8.04 9. 01°) Sei
FG he ir putes eens ae 9.14 . 12.49 5.70 27.338

Weestaly) 08 «RUNES Be Ss 4 Oa ct ew oe eee see 26.96

*Report of the United States Deep Waterways Commission, by the Commis-
sioners, James B. Angell, John E. Russell, Lyman E. Cooley, accompanied
by the report on technical work and the several topical reports and draw-
ings pertaining thereto. Printed as House Document No. 192, Fifty-Fifth
Congress, Second Session, Washington, 1897, pp. 146, 147.

For the catchment area of the Great Lakes in detail reference may be
made to an excellent map of the basin of the Great Lakes and of the St
Lawrence and Hudson rivers in relation to the surrounding drainage sys-
tems accompanying the report of the Deep Waterways Commission. Also
see map om page 318.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

TABLE No. 39—Continued.

pepeemner June September
Locality and year hy ane ayerher
Duluth, Minn.:
io ee oe 17.96 16-38 2.39
os SSS ae ee 11.08 6.86 3.64
OS ee ae 19.44 3.80 8.51
Pe om... Sen ih - » an 6.44 9.32 7.70
ee er Sad Cee ean
Minneapolis, Minn.:
Oe ee cote afi bw 6 ora 13.7 23.32, 2.33
oe eee ORee aa eae 12.80 9.79 5.68
Ee i a 15.66 Lis 6.46
eR eo hs on wu ee 1.02 9.96 5.01
IN PAL ro ee a OI hig tee Wi Gs wid Kg men
Green Bay, Wis
Pe SD BRE da cs dah ab 14.95. - 12:47 7.95
ee ir. ae es. bo 14.85 8.12 T.15
Ue en a 19.65 8.52 . 10.46
ee ie a A ha 10.06 7.52 3.14
I ire cate 2G ae Re ee Cs
Madison, Wis.:
RI inti oa, es 18.89 18.34 4.89
ee it et Sek. aa 7 .86.. 12:%5 5.82
CE SS eee ans 10.96 6.23 7.61
i ae. ee ck Pe es 5.54 3.88 2.57.
(AISI Bs pia ee ets Le ie ie rr
Milwaukee, Wis
ates 2 ihe dew a ok Bee £8.27 11.00 &. 6h
aa tn. co eee a As 89> 10.14 6.06
ie ot Ge. 15.94. 4.81 8.79
0 SS er ae 163 7.45 5.33

Annual

296

NEW YORK STATE

MUSEUM

TABLE No. 89—Continued.

ag ae June September
Locality and year May August November
Chicago, IIL:
aon ss ace ea ee 16.03 14.66 5.56
Bs ss she ON ee ee eee 3.93 6.85 6.18
Rae one soc ae ets ee 14.48 3. LO> > 20-88
120002 Ne eee 9.58: *. 10:76 7.00
Meas fico. 2 La ee a
Logansport, Ind.:
TBO s Fee. Fh eee wee Dt .26°° 4081 ary
1895. eho CEOS Bae 24.45 4.52 8.92
DBO d cs «isiotincies che: 21.11 4.58 7.82
PRO i ince Painters oe ee ee eee 9.08 6.40 8.56
Meant 0006 fis ediae eile Saal SS a ee
Ann Arbor, Mich.:
ber yo has SARE 4-5 SR 14.52 8.18 7.70
Cao e sb od eaten cee 20.54 Tc1S: "ites
SHOE Ee SEE I, Soc ee ee 16.63 2.76 iret
Ree eee eee es eee 8.92 5.40 4.70
MOGI hs PSS ES a RS
Grand Haven, Mich
Lh papa et ae erie os yee ern ons 16.57 8.93 4.97
BOO Nea tw nce ores see 19.02 6.79 8.68
AEs si oh Pe aN eee 19.84 407° 11508
5 ORR Ne ett ERR fs 10.89 RE ee bey
MGR: fo onus a o's ooo. nae agevas mig eee
Marquette, Mich.:
1 RI rats arity Sar: 16.03 3.53 8.89
ier tue -acsticoeet Deeks 14.81 9.16 7.41
SRT Oe eres ee ee ee ee 24.65 5.25 9.31
BBO SESS sw sR FOOT es 16.35 7.04 8.89

Annual

36.25
26.96

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 297

TABLE No. 39—Continued.

pecemiber June September
Locality and year Say eeu Ramamiiae Annual
St. Ignace, Mich.:
COD ee PL. . hsp Pua... 10-36 6.43202 29 .12
See, 5 AR A. i. ae oe 15.61 7.94 9.51204 b1 . 86
Lice: ) GR, 2 ei ae ae 17.80 6.83 9 Spe $4.43
mere ya a. tk a 11.66 4.59 §: 9R-02 95-93
ee ie re tia vas +s doeink wage 4s oD 30.16
Traverse City, Mich
ee REISE ES Stoo woh: 17.65 10.87 S261 °° 37113
Beer ani: cate Pn Sho 17.88 TAT» 4444°°° 86.86
NT LEE, SE ok AAR 2 20 . 62 5.61 9.72 35.95
ye Re | NN he, 16.69 4.53 7.85 29.07
Diamine cis bk st och: te cei on: igiiestens: bs 212 BOP 34.63
Cleveland,. Ohio:
Pe da oe oe se ee won 19.84 11.91 5.90 © 87.65
TOG oe. ee ee os SE 19.09 5.46 7.45 382.00
PA. 08-802. ES 15.28 5.55 7.77 28.60
Pewee. HO Lo ode Stel. 9.29 7.59 CIRO DAF
ee i a Se eee ee er eee 50.7
Toledo, Ohio:
Sin’ POG Eg 0 ee Se 8 LE 8 <- 42.76 6 4423700
Deere. oe... Pele 10.17 4.81 6.92 21.90
tS) Ca A Se ee be R 14.93 2.78 5.23 22.94
tere !. io Ped... 9.23 6.24 hole 22 58
(a ee a ee ee ce ee, ae ar ts a? 2 Se 26.10
Buffalo, N. Y.:
NOS go Pee P es. bP RK 22.62. 16.93 8.382 47.87
See ee Sho oes PETS 20.65 8.00 7.87 © 36.52
ML) CP Oe Pe ee eS 22.47 5.82 12.50 40.79
areas wade ne oc Onde 14.17 6.23 8.85 29.25

298 NEW YORK

STATE

MUSEUM

Taste No. 39—Concluded.

Locality and year

Rochester, N. Y.:

December
t

(yy
May

June

Rpbtesiher

to)
August November

Awo-a

94
.02
14
15

MGS Ty so oc ec cee ae ae veer eee

Annual

HYDROLOGY OF NEW: YORK 299

These precipitation data are of special interest because the year
1895 was the culmination of a period of exceedingly low water.
They show that for a period of four years the precipitation of
this basin was low, and in consequence the runoff of the tributary
streams must have been exceedingly small. As illustrating this
proposition, we will refer to the runoff of the Upper Mississippi,
where there is a reservoir system controlling a catchment area
of 8265 square miles, first operated about 1885. The rainfall
of the area tributary to these reservoirs, as indicated by records
kept at Leech lake, Lake Winibigoshish, and Pokegama Falls
fronr 1885 until the present time is, on an average, from 24 to
26 inches per year. The highest recorded yearly precipitation
is 31.87 inches, at Pokegama Falls in 1894. The rainfall of the
area tributary to the Upper Mississippi reservoirs is found to
be quite similar to that of the region tributary to Lake Superior.
Hence the runoff of this reservoir system may be considered
as representing the runoff of the catchment area of Lake
Superior and the northern portion of Lakes Michigan and Huron..
The following gives the discharge from these reservoirs for the
years 1892 to 1895, inclusive, corresponding with the years of
precipitation shown in table No. 39.

Mean rain- Runoff Proportion
fall on of of runoff

catchment catchment to
Water year. area. area. rainfall.
Inches Inches Per cent
ae fet IO Bo ee ae a sy Lg i, Gar ate 4.43 20.8
1) 22 SR AGEL ge ROT ae ¢ CRO ae aa 25.42 3.61 14.2
I ne are Pathe ie wk ats 26.63 3.62 13.6
ns al Paielign Agta epee Sac ac dee nih yo fo 2.79 i od a
re eid dt sabes ead 98.49 0 on Le ae
et Se Sn 24.62 3.61 i i

*Annual report of Chief of Engineers U. S. Army for 1896, part III,
p. 18438; also for 1897, part III, p. 2169.

300 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The tabulation shows that during the years 1892 to 1895,
inclusive, the mean runoff of the Upper Mississippi area was
only 8.61 inches on the total catchment. These figures, however,
are subject to correction because the state of the reservoirs at
the beginning and ending of the four-year period is not given in
the report of the United States engineers, from which these data
are taken. This correction, however, can not be very large,
because the reservoirs are so operated as to be emptied, generally
speaking, each year. In considering the runoff of these Upper
Mississippi reservoirs, due consideration should be given to the
fact that the water area of the reservoirs is 585 square miles, or
nearly 18 per cent of the whole. For Lakes Superior, Michigan,
Huron, St Clair, and Erie we have a total water surface of
87,895 square miles, with a total catchment area, including the
surface of the lakes, of 265,095 square miles. The water surface
of these several lakes is, therefore, about 33 per cent of the entire
area of the basin, or nearly double the relative area of water
surface and catchment area for the Upper Mississippi reservoirs.
With other conditions the same, this fact would probably lead
to a somewhat greater proportion of runoff from the Great Lakes.
The Upper Mississippi reservoirs are in a forested region, and it
is interesting to consider what the runoff will be after the forests
are removed. Taking into account results in other places, it is
probable that the runoff, under conditions of deforestation, will
not exceed an average of about 2 inches per year.

Runoff of Desplaines riwer. By way of further illustrating the
yield of streams in the vicinity of the Great Lakes area, we will
refer to the runoff of the Desplaines river, as given in table No. 40.
This stream has been measured by the Chicago Drainage Com-
mission, with certain intermissions as shown since January, 1886,
the catchment area above the point of measurement being 633
square miles. The catchment comprises a long and narrow flat
region extending from near Chicago to a few miles north of

——

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 301

Milwaukee, the eastern line being for the entire distance nearly
parallel to Lake Michigan and in places only 2 or 3 miles distant
therefrom. The area drained by the Desplaines river is large
enough to give a fair idea of the average yield of streams tribu-
tary to Lake Michigan in northern Illinois and Indiana, western
Michigan, and southern and central Wisconsin. In 1893, with a
mean rainfall on the catchment area of 39.96 inches, the total
runoff was 10.14 inches, of which 8.61 inches occurred during the
storage period from December to May, inclusive. In 1894, with
a total rainfall of 27.94 inches, the total runoff was 7.70 inches,
of which 7.54 inches occurred in the storage period. For the year
1895 the total rainfall was 27.28 inches. The runoff data of this
year are incomplete, but taking into account the sequence of the
rainfall it is clear that the total runoff for that year did not
exceed about 2.0 to 2.5 inches. The effect of the three dry years
1893, 1894, and 1895 in the Desplaines catchment area is shown
by the record of 1896, where, with a total rainfall of 39.58 inches,
the total runoff was only 6.69 inches, of which 5.39 inches oc-
curred in the storage period. These figures indicate that the
ground water of the Desplaines area must have been so low at
the end of 1895 as to absorb a large portion of the heavier rainfall
of 1896 before any great amount could appear as runoff.t

For details of the measurements of the Desplaines river see Data Per-
taining to Rainfall and Stream Flow, by Thomas T. Johnston, Journal
Western Soc. C. E., Vol. I (June, 1896).

YORK STATE MUSEUM

NEW

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304 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

TABLE No. 41.—EVAPORATION FROM THE DESPLAINES CATCHMENT,
AS GIVEN BY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RAINFALL AND RUNOFF IN THE

PRECEDING TABLE.

[Inches on the catchment.]

Water year. Ther fo aTeuee Novem. Total.
18K6 2) RSA AL SSS PLE 5.54 9.97= 12. ee |
cet ene eM A ge ae ON ene 2.95 BD SDU t chu ccna a ass ee
POMS ha hans ey ote hae Ree 11.80 10.08 8.05 29 .93
GB sss: See cng cartons oa os ae eee Pte tae
PBGD tab cas Se whose toch ee ee 7.80 B02 % tidk oon
SOS ed ck ds ee eee ae 5.32 5.34 6.16 16.82
1894 -al ol AS ot Gee 6:94- ~ +> 3.07 10.23 20 .24
1895 } oS. Sees Ss Se Se eee 10.69 G 9438 42, 2 ee
1896 2 Si neat 14.18 9.78 8.93 32.89

Runoff of Muskingum river. In table No. 42 is given the rain-
fall and runoff record for Muskingum river, Ohio, as measured at
Zanesville, for the years 1888 to 1895, inclusive, the area of the
catchment above the point of measurement being 5828 square
miles. The headwaters of the stream are not far from Lake Erie
and on the dividing line between the hill country of the east and
the prairie country of the Mississippi valley. Hence this stream
represents conditions applicable to the runoff of the Ohio streanis
tributary to Lake Erie. The rainfall record as used in, this table
is the mean of the records kept at Akron, Canton, Newcomers-
town and Wooster, and may be considered to represent fairly well
the mean precipitation of the Muskingum catchment area. For
the year 1892 the total rainfall was 41.74 inches and the total
runoff 13.38 inches, of which 9.06 occurred in the storage period.
In 1893 the total rainfall was 42.36 inches, with a total runoff
of 16.20 inches, the runoff of the storage period being 14.13 inches.

1Survey of the Miami and Erie canal, the Ohio canal, ete. Report of
Capt. Hiram M. Chittenden, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, January 20,
1896, printed as House Document No. 278, Fifty-fourth Congress, First
Session, p. 42.

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308 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In 1894 the rainfall dropped to a total of 30.51 inches and the
runoff to a total of 8.70 inches, of which 7.63 inches occurred in
the storage period. In 1895 the total rainfall was 29.84 inches
and the total runoff 4.90 inches, of which 4.04 inches occurred
during the storage period.

Runoff of Genesee river. Genesee river, while not tributary to
the Great Lakes above Niagara river, may still be cited as showing
that at times the runoff of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is
very low. Referring to table No. 48, which, for the years 1890,
1891 and 1892, gives the rainfall and runoff of Oatka creek, a
tributary of the Genesee, we learn that in the water year 1891,
with a rainfall of 38.12 inches, the runoff was 14.05 inches. In
1892, with a rainfall of 41.69 inches, the runoff was 15.42 inches.

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Fig. 20 Section of weir erected on Genesee river in 1896.

Taking the record of Genesee river proper, for the years 18935—
1898, inclusive, as given in table No. 438, we learm that for the
water year 1894, with a mean precipitation above the point of
measurement of 47.79 inches, the runoff was 19.38 inches, of which
15.73 inches occurred in the storage period. In 1895 the rainfall
dropped to 31 inches and the total runoff to 6.67 inches. In 1880
Hemlock lake, a tributary of Genesee river, with a catchment area
of 43 square miles and a total rainfall of 21.99 inches, gave a
runoff of only about 3.4 inches.

309

NEW YORK

OF

HYDROLOGY

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK oll

These figures are cited to show that in years of low rainfall
the runoff of streams tributary to the Great Lakes is low, and as
a consequence the runoff of Niagara river will necessarily be
affected thereby.

Aside from the measurements made by the Board of Engineers
on Deep Waterways in 1898, the most elaborate measurements
thus far made are those of the Lake Survey in 1867 and 1869 which
are, however, extremely unsatisfactory. According to these meas-
urements the mean discharge, rainfall and evaporation from the
Great Lakes for the year 1868, in cubic feet per second, were as
follows :! 3

Lake Mean dis- Total rainfall Evaporation

charge on basin from surface

Pupenion wc 2m chk ae tS 86,000 171,480 27,690
Huron and Michigan...... 225,000 251,450 59,890
He eee EES PGi 265,000 100,540 14,310
Polanasaaelaa sian vac Ap a2 2 BER, 523,420 101,890

According to the Deep Waterways Commission’s tabulation of
records of hights of the Great Lakes, it appears that the water
level fluctuated through a series of years to the extent of about
3.8 feet. In the present discussion we are chiefly concerned with
the fluctuations of Lake Erie, which control the discharge of
Niagara river. From table No. 44, which gives the mean monthly
elevations of Lake Erie at Buffalo for the years 1865-1898, in-
clusive, it appears that the highest mean monthly elevation during
these years was for June, 1876, when the mean lake surface was
574.31 feet. The lowest mean monthly elevation for the period was
for November, 1895, when the mean for the month was 570.49 feet.
The range in the mean monthly elevations for this period was
therefore 3.82 feet.

In regard to table No. 44 it is stated in the Report of the Board
of Engineers on Deep Waterways that the uncertainty concerning
the stability of the Buffalo gage previous to 1896, together with
the excessive fluctuations of the lake level at Buffalo, appear to
make the Cleveland gage record more reliable, and it has therefore
been used in determining the mean monthly elevations of the lake.

*These figures are derived from Mr Cooley’s Lakes and Gulf Waterways,

as corrected and given in the Journal of the Assoc. of Eng. Soc., Vol. VIII
(March, 1889), p. 182.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 313
Temporarily, much greater fluctuations than indicated in the
foregoing table have been experienced, due largely to wind action,
to which Lake Erie, on account of its shallowness, and the fact
that its genera! direction is favorable for the sweep of the pre-
vailing winds, is peculiarly subject. In regard to the measure-
ments of the Lake Survey, it may be remarked that they indicate
large variations in discharge from all of the lakes, from the effects
of winds and other disturbing causes, but give little clew to the
quantities at either of the extremes of high or low water. Ac-
cording to Lyman E. Cooley the extreme low-water discharge is |
probably 20 to 30 per cent less than the Lake Survey figures, and
extreme high water 20 to 30 per cent more. |
Measurements of the amount of water flowing in Niagara river
were begun in December, 1891, at a time when) the water in Lake
Erie was very low and the conditions were considered specially
favorakle for minimum discharge. The results are given in the
Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1893, part VI, pp.
4364-4371. The point selected was about 1000 feet below the Inter-
- national bridge at Black Rock, near the foot of Squaw island, at
which point the river is free from eddies. Niagara river, on leav-
ing Lake Erie, has a nearly straight channel about 2000 feet wide
for the first 2 miles. The fall in this section is from 4 to 5 feet,
and the velocity ranges from 7 miles per hour at the upper end to
about 5 miles at the lower end. The point was chosen, after care-
ful consideration, as the point in that vicinity least subject to
‘disturbance. In taking the cross sections, the width, which varies
‘slightly with different stages of the river, was accurately deter-
mined for gage readings 1 foot apart, and for extreme points the
width was determined by interpolating values derived from the
known slope of the river banks. A local gage was established at
the draw pier of the International bridge by setting gage boards on
each side of the pier, with the zeros of the gages on the same level.
The local gage was read at the beginning and close of all velocity
observations, and the gage at Buffalo was read at 7 a. m. and 1
and 7 p.m. The zero of this latter gage is at the mean level of
Lake Erie, or 572.23 feet above mean tide at New York in the
Erie canal levels, or as used by the government engineers, 572.96
feet. During the velocity observations in December, 1891, Lake
Erie was about 1.5 feet below its mean level, and is stated not

314 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to have been seriously affected by strong winds. Still the daily
record shows that there must have been some wind action. The
current velocities were obtained after the methods used by the
Mississippi River Commission and described in their reports, all
velocity observations being taken with a current meter, with
electrical appliances for recording the number of revolutions.
The following are some of the results obtained : +

Mean hight

Date ony leat Babe hv oaakeee 68 eae

1s91 . Feet Feet Cu. feet
December 24..............00. 0.05 —2.95 164,648
December 14........ , Pen Rh 0.65 27.35 sit qQqiRae
Deceniber We LA Ve ee 6: 736) o's os:
Deceniter 202625) {2 22 0.885°" “Ll 7a Soap ieee
Devenrbér 2A 2VE002 FE Bae: 1.195.) 24.459! 2 O0S5eF
Becdave 184 Se ee ol 1.38 —0.50 218,358

1892
Wii 8 ie nse ice cd par aioe 1562... M BO co POLS
Maa Go) ink tie. pomnelit. oeahee 1.750 3: «= 0.854 7 Joke
Mon, 241) sear etonceaauees 2.292 +0.15 236,762

The tabulation shows (1) a variation in lake elevations, as indi-
cated in the Buffalo gage, from —2.95 on December 24, 1891, to
+0.15 on May 24, 1892, a range of 3.10 feet; (2) a variation in
discharge of 72,114 cubic feet per second. There are some dis-
crepancies in the results which it is not necessary to discuss at
length ; but in the absence of more satisfactory data we may safely
assume, in view of the foregoing evidence as to the small runoff of
streams tributary to and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, that
the figures obtained in the fall of 1891 and spring of 1892, are more
nearly correct than the larger figures of the Lake Survey. By
plotting the observed discharges a mean discharge curve has been
obtained, from which the discharge of the river at points within
the range of the observation can be taken off, when one has the
tabulated hights of the Buffalo gage before him. At present
these measurements are, on the whole, not considered sufficiently

1Annual Report of Chief of Engineers, United States Army, 1893, part
VI, p. 4867.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 315

exact to justify the labor of preparing a tabulation of this
character.+

Referring to the tabulation on page 311, it is learned that the
rainfall in that portion of the basin of the Great Lakes tributary
to Niagara river was, for 1868, 525,420 cubic feet per second, and
the evaporation from the water surface of the lakes tributary to
Niagara river was 101,890 cubic feet per second. Hence the
evaporation from the lake surfaces was nearly 20 per cent of the
rainfall on the whole basin. Assuming for the moment the truth
of these figures, we have 80 per cent of the total rainfall from
which the land evaporation must be deducted before anything can
run off. Again assuming the land evaporation at 1.70 feet, there
results a loss from this source alone of 298,000 cubic feet per
second; adding to this the evaporation loss from the water sur-
faces gives a total evaporation loss of 399,890 cubic feet per
second. The runoff is the difference between rainfall and total
evaporation losses. If, therefore, the Jand evaporation was 1.7
feet for the year 1868, the runoff would have been in reality only

1There have been a number of independent measurements of volume of the
Niagara, and though the results differ widely, they probably do not differ
more than the actual volume of the river at various stages of Lake Erie.

Lyell (1841 ?) quotes Ruggles as authority for a volume of 250,000 cubic
feet per second.

E. R. Blackwell, computed by Allen (Am. Jour. Sci., 1841), obtains 374,000
cubic feet per second. His work was afterwards recomputed by D. F.
Henry, who obtained 244,797 cubic feet per second.

In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army,
for 1867-68, D. F. Henry gives as a result of observations in August and
September, 1867, 242,494 cubic feet per second. A year later he recom-
puted from the same data, and obtained 240,192 cubic feet per second. He
also made a new measurement by a different method (see report for 1868-
69) from which he obtained two results, 304,807 and 258,586 cubic feet per
second.

W. F. Reynolds (Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States
Army, 18707), gives the result of observations from June to September,
1869, 212,860 cubie feet per second. >

In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for
1871, there is a mention of a result, without date of measurement, 245,296
cubie feet per second.

In the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, for
1891-92, Quintus, as a result of gaging, gives the volume, reduced to mean
stage, as 282,800 cubic feet per second.

Sir Casimir 8. Gzowski, from continuous observations at the Inter-
national bridge, 1870-1873, gives an average discharge for tbat period of
246,000 cubic feet per second.

316. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

123,330 cubic feet per second instead of 265,000 cubic feet per
second, as determined by the Lake Survey. These figures, while
not conclusive, are Suggestive, so much so, indeed, that taking into
account all the conditions it seems clear that in a series of years of
minimum rainfall the runoff of the Great Lakes, ‘tributary to
Niagara river, may be as low as from 6 to 9 inches a year on the
catchment. At the former figure the mean discharge» would be
about 177,700 cubic feet per second.t |

As an additional source of loss from the Great Lakes the diver-
sion of 10,000 cubic feet per second through the Chicago drainage
canal to the headwaters of Illinois river may be referred to.
Thus far the discussion of such loss has been mainly conducted
on the supposition that the mean discharge of the Great Lakes at
Niagara was about 265,000 cubic feet per second. If this were
true the injurious effect of such diversion could only appear dur-
ing a series of extremely dry years. The writer can not but think
that this whole question of the runoff of Niagara river has become
fogged by a discussion based thus far purely on averages. What
we really want to know is the runoff of a cycle of dry years. With
such data we can compute the effect of a given diversion more
satisfactorily than when dealing with means.

With a cycle of rainfall years, either high or about the average
very little effect from such diversion will be observed, the con-
sensus of opinion at the present time apparently being that it will
not exceed about 0.3 to 0.4 foot in depth over the areas affected.
Owing to the balancing of conditions due to the pondage of the
Great Lakes, and which requires years in order to complete a
cycle, it is uncertain whether the abstraction of 10,000 cubic feet
per second at Chicago would be specially detrimental at Niagara

‘By way of illustrating further the probable inaccuracy of the Lake Survey
figures. it may be pointed out that if the determination of evaporation from
the water surfaces at 101,890 cubic feet per second and runoff at 265,000:
cubie feet per second for the year 1868 is correct, the total outgo from these
two sources was 368,890 cubic feet per second, leaving the land evaporation
for that year at 156,830 cubic feet per second, or at 0.9 foot over the
catchment.

By studying the evaporation of the Upper Mississippi reservoirs, the
Desplaines and Muskingum rivers, and other streams herein referred to,
it will readily be seen that it is exceedingly improbable that a land evapo-
ration as low as 0.9 foot ever occurred over the whole catchment of the
Great Lakes.

'
;
4
‘
*
5
i
.
.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 317

-

Falls, although in years of extreme low flow it is probable that it
would be apparent. If, however, the minimum flow of Niagara
river is really as low as 150,000 to 180,000 cubic feet per second,
it is clear that the loss of 10,000 cubic feet per second will be a
matter worth taking into account.

In a paper on The Reservoir System of the Great Lakes of
the St Lawrence Basin, Col. Hiram M. Chittenden discusses
many of the questions in regard to the runoff of the Great Lakes.
This paper is accompanied by a Mathematical Analysis of the
Infiuence of Reservoirs Upon Stream Flow, by Jas. A. Seddon,
which elucidates many of the more pertinent facts affecting such
flow.

In the discussion of the effect of diverting 10.000 cubic feet
per second at Chicago on the levels of the Great Lakes, by Lyman
E. Cooley, which appears in the Proceedings of the Annual Conven-
tion of the International Deep Waterways Association, held at
Cleveland in September, 1895, it is stated that assuming the cor-
rectness of the figures derived from the Lake Survey placing the
mean discharge of St Clair river at 225,000 cubic feet per second,
the abstraction of 10,000 cubic feet per second would diminish
the mean outflow in St Clair river by nearly 4.5 per cent and in
Niagara river by about 5.75 per cent. Mr. Cooley says that,
reasoning on lines obvious to those unacquainted with hydraulic

' principles, it is apparent that the ruling depth in the rivers at

mean level can not be lessened by an amount greater than the
percentages just stated; but if we consider the question as an
hydraulic proposition, taking into account the relation of mean
radius to area and perimeter, it is apparent that the effect on
lake levels would be only a fraction of that a by the
reduction in volume.

From September, 1897, to September, 1898, the Board of Engi-
neers On Deep Waterways made an extended series of current
meter measurements of the outflow of Niagara river. These
measurements were made at the International railway bridge at
Buffalo, and are the best thus far made. The minimum flow
occurred in November, 1895, when the mean for the month was
177,852 cubic feet per second, and the mean for the whole year

1Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL (Dec. 1898), pp. 355-448, inclusive.

318

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 319

was 187,255 cubic feet per second. Table No. 45, giving these
discharges, has been constructed by substituting the mean
monthly elevations of Lake Erie from the preceding table in the
formula for discharge of Niagara river. It extends from J865-
1898, inclusive.

It will be noticed that on a preceding page the writer states that
the mean discharge for a year may be as low as 177,700 cubic feet
per second, or not exceeding about 6 inches in depth over the entire
catchment area. For the year 1895 the mean discharge for the
entire year was only 10,000 cubic feet per second in excess of
this figure, but it is certain that 1895, while a low year, was not
absolutely the minimum year. In view of the foregoing, it is
believed that when properly used, intelligent analysis of rainfall,
runoff and evaporation may be sufficient to settle such a question.

The literature of the discharge of Niagara river and of the
probable effect on the lake levels of abstracting 10,000 cubic feet
per second at Chicago has grown so extensive as to preclude fur-
ther discussion here. Those wishing to pursue the subject may
consult the references given in the footnote.

The following is a summary of the matter:

1) The studies of the Lake Survey indicate a mean discharge
of Niagara river of about 265,000 cubic feet per second, with a
range above and below the mean of from 20 per cent to 30 per
cent.

2) The measurements made from December to May, 1891-92,
indicate a minimum discharge as low, or even lower, than 141,000
cubic feet per second.

3) The measurements of the Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways, made in 1898-99, indicate a mean discharge from
1865-1898, inclusive, of 220,000 cubic feet per second, while for
the year 1895 the mean for the whole year is only 187,000 cubic
feet per second.

4) Based on theoretical considerations purely, the writer in
1897 estimated the minimum mean discharge for a series of dry
years at 178,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 6 inches
in depth over the entire catchment area. The writer considers
that this latter figure is more nearly right than any estimate

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ByAr

thus far made. The reasons for this view may be derived from
the preceding discussion of the runoff of Niagara river+

St Lawrence river. According to the report of the Deep Water-
ways Commission, the area of the water surface of Lake Ontario
is 7450 square miles, and the area of the tributary catchment,
exclusive of the area of the lake itself, 25,530 square miles. The
total area of the catchment basin, including both land and water
surfaces, is 32,980 square miles. The area of the water sur-
face of St Lawrence river from Gallops rapids to Montreal? is
given at 220 square miles, and the area of the tributary catchment
at 5710 square miles; hence the total area of the basin of the
St Lawrence from, Gallops to Montreal becomes 5930 square
miles.

In the foregoing figures Lake Ontario is considered as beginning
in Niagara river, at the foot of Niagara Falls and terminating
at the head of Gallops rapids, whence the following subdivisions
of water-surface area are derived; Niagara river, 5 square miles;
Lake Ontario proper, 7260 square miles; St. Lawrence river, 185
square miles; giving a total, as above, of 7450 square miles.

Of the total area of catchment of 25,530 square miles, 14,275
square miles lie within the State of New York and 11,255 square

{For literature of discharge of Great Lakes and allied questions see (1)
reports Chief of Engineers, 1868, 1869, 1870, and 1882; (2) reports Chief of
Engineers, 1893; (3) Eng. News, Vol. XXIX (March 2, 1893); (4) The Lakes
and Gulf Waterways, by L. E. Cooley ; (5) The Level of the Lakes as affected
by the Proposed Lakes and Gulf Waterway, a discussion before the Western
Society of Engineers, in Jour. of the Assn. of Eng. Socs., Vol. VIII (March,
1889); (6) An Enlarged Waterway Between the Great Lakes and the Atlan-
tic Seaboard, by E. L. Corthell, with discussion, in Jour. of the Assn. of
Eng. Socs., Vols. X and XI (April, June and December, 1891, and July,
1892); (7) Lake Level Effects on Account of the Sanitary Canal at Chicago,
by L. EH. Cooley, in Proceedings International Deep Waterways Convention,
at Cleveland, September, 1895; (8) A Technical Brief, by Thomas T. John-
ston, covered by the preceding reference; (9) papers by William Pierson
Judson, on An Enlarged Waterway Between the Great Lakes and the At-
lantic Seaboard, pamphlets, 1890 and 1893; (10) Report of Board of Engi-
neers on Deep Waterways, Document 149, Fifty-sixth Congress, Second Ses-
sion, House of Representatives (1900). Also (11), Report on The Regulation
of Lake Erie, by George Y. Wisner. Document No. 200, Fifty-Sixth Con-
gress, First Session, House of Representatives (1899). This latter report is
also given in The Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways,
as per reference (10).

?Report of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, House Document
No. 192, Fifty-fourth Congress, Second Session, pp. 151-153.

322 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

miles in the province of Ontario. The standard low-water eleva-
tion of Lake Ontario is taken as 244.53 feet, and the standard
high-water elevation as 249.04 feet above tide.

St Lawrence river is considered as beginning at Gallops rapids.
The following tabulation gives the elevation of water surface at a
number of points.

ELEVATION ABOVE TIDE OF LOW-WATER AND HIGH-WATER SURFACE

or St. LAWRENCE RIVER
Standard low Standard high

LCRSEY water. water.

Feet Feet
Ogdensherg). o.% 53602 tae RS es Set 244.28 248 .57
Lake St Francis, at Valleyfield.......... 153 .50 155.94
Lake St Louis, at Melicheville.......... 70.0 77.50

Montreal 2... %. CURA LRORIZS Ua Bit. 2 23.10 35.78

The area of water surface of the St Lawrence from Gallops
rapids to Montreal is 220 square miles, and the total area of
catchment not included in the surface of the river is 5710 square
miles, of which 3800 square miles lie in New York, 620 in Ontario,
and 1290 in Quebec. The total area of the catchment, including
water surface of the river, is 5930 square miles.

The only measurements as to the discharge of St Lawrence river
thus far made are these of the Lake Survey, which give a mean
discharge of 500,000 cubic feet per second. The recent data would
indicate that this figure is somewhat too large, as in the Lake
Survey discharge of Niagara river. The streams tributary to Lake
Ontario, however, issue from a region of heavier rainfall than
those tributary to the Upper Great Lakes and, as shown by the
runofi tables of this report, are generally much better water
yielders. Taking everything into account, it is probable that
the minimum discharge of St. Lawrence river will not be less
than about 8 to 10 inches per year over the entire catchment area.
A runoff of 12 inches per year would give a mean discharge of
234.500 cubie feet per second, or a discharge of 0.884 cubic foot
per second per square mile. A mean discharge of 300,000 cubic

iReport of U. S. Deep Waterways Commission, 1897, p. 152.

9no
HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 323

feet per second, as measured by the Lake Survey, gives 1.13 cubic

feet per second per square mile.

These figures are for the minimum discharge—for years, or
cycles of years, of average rainfall, the runoff will be more.

RUNOFF OF OTHER STREAMS OF NEW YORK

Aside from Niagara river, comparatively little definite informa-
tion as to the runoff of streams in New York was available before
1898. Rather singularly, aside from gagings made by John B.
Jervis in 1835 of Madison and Eaton brooks, the State of New
York had never made any gagings, although one might suppose
that in view of its development of an extensive canal system
earlier than this it would have investigated this important branch
of hydrology. The few streams gaged in New York before 1898
are as follows:

Streams gaged before 1898. Measurements of Croton river have
been made by the City of New York since 1868. Measurements of
Oatka creek, a tributary of Genesee river, were made for the
Warsaw Waterworks Company from April, 1890, to November,
1892. Genesee river at Mount Morris was also gaged from Sep-
tember, 1893, to March, 1897, and this stream has been gaged at
Rochester by the City Engineer from March, 1893 to 1904. Genesee
river was also gaged for a short time at Mount Morris in 1890.
Hemlock lake, a tributary of Genesee river, was gaged by the
Rochester Waterworks for the years 1880-1891, inclusive. The
Hudson river has been measured at Mechanicville from October,
1887, to 1904. A record of the water drained from Skaneateles
lake has been kept by the Canal Department of the State for a good
many years, but precise measurements have only been made since
March, 1895, at which time a weir was established at Willow
Glen, one and one-half miles below the foot of the lake. These
measurements have been made by the city of Syracuse. The Nor-
manskill, flowing into the Hudson river at Kenwood, was gaged
at French Mills by the Water Department of Albany, from June
1, to December 1, 1891. Kinderhook creek was also gaged by the
Albany Water Department at East Nassau and at Wilson’s dam
from July, 1893, until December, 1894. Quackenkill creek was
gaged by the Troy Water Department from January to December,

324 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

1894. The west branch of Canadaway creek at Fredonia was
gaged from July 18 to September 2, 1883, and Morris run, a tribu-
tary of Oatka creek, from July 4 to December 26, 1894. Gibson’s
creek, another tributary of Oatka creek, was also gaged from Sep-
tember 20,1894, to June 21, 1895. During the autumns of 1856 and
1857 gagings were made of the following streams on Long Island,
which are now a part of the Brooklyn water supply, in order to
obtain the minimum delivery: Hempstead, Rockville, Valley,
Clear, Brookfield, Springfield and Jamaica brooks.

Possibly there are other measurements for short periods in the
State of New York which have not been made public, but so far
as the writer can learn the foregoing include all the systematic
measurements of streams made in the State previous to 1898,
except those by John B. Jervis, of Madison and Eaton brooks,
made in 1835, the results of which are presented in Mr. Jervis’
report for that year to the Canal Commissioners. The broad
proposition is therefore true that previous to 1898 the data for
computing runoff of streams based on careful measurements of
the same were limited in the State of New York.

Rainfall records, however, were more common, and engineers
were in the habit of assuming that about 50 per cent of the rain-
fall would appear as runoff in the streams. How far from true
this is may be seen by inspecting the tables on the following
pages. There was absolutely no preception of the fact that in the
State of New York streams vary from a minimum runoff of 2 to 4
inches to 10 to 12 inches, and that average runoffs of from 8 to 10
inches to 20 to 25 inches are common.

Probably no one mistake of engineers has been more far-reach-
ing than this. The great bulk of the earlier water supplies
throughout the State are insufficient; power projects have been
overestimated, and while there is no way of stating the amount
of damage done, it may be easily assumed to rise to several mil-
lion dollars. This oversight is purely one of the engineering pro-
fession, and the same kind of an oversight is taking place in
many other states, in 1904. Indeed, comparatively few engineers
fully realize the significance of gagings.

Streams gaged for Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. In
1898 the writer undertook an investigation for the Board of Engi-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 325

neers om Deep Waterways as to possibilities of water supply for
enlarged canals through the State of New York. The scope of this
investigation was exceedingly broad. It showed that a water
supply of from 1200 to 1600 cubic feet per second would be re-
quired for the proposed canal. This water, it was also found,
must be drawn from some stream whose headwaters lay in the
Adirondack plateau, which, so far as precise information in re-
gard to its water resources was concerned, was practically an
unknown land. In order to gain information as to the water
yielding possibilities of the region, its flood flows, etc. the follow-
ing gaging stations were established :

Catchment
area,
Stream Gaging station County square miles

TO SEN CES, TIVES -nisecis coe vice BIG WiTISVILLGs fa ccsiaies do wi oate' ONnORdR 2A) vereds's scr 3,103
2. Oswego river............. PORTGH <3. eeawsS bien sey eee sade WEBCO. oc onneten ass 4,915
3. Chittenango creek....... STOP C POLE dos cicdos oetcise\e sicher MAGISON, 5. sums 307
APOIO A LH CTE OKs aosei0 leo ce e cinta RGM WOOT 6 oc + 0 en.cierisine’s Sonie's a MAISON, (oo. Sobers tic 59
DB: WOU MCTCEK..... 0. ccre tices siecle NeaPEMmOULH.. cecese us ceinsce Se Oneidas pitas cate 127
6. W. Branch Fish creek... McConnellsville ............. Oneida AGscs-cjeseee 187
7. H. Branch Fish creek... Above Point Rock........... Oneida. Sons: wiecees 104
85. SalMMON TIVE RE 6 ise os sects About one mile above falls.. Oswego ............ 191
9, Mohawk river... ese... 1G eh ks eric OHCIGA aticinke sash 153
10. Nine mile creek......... One mile below Stittsville.. Oneida ............ 63
11. Oriskany creek........... State dam, Oriskany....... OH ELT ees telat ssa 144
12. Oriskany creek........... COLEMAN ciss.s seracien ns satel oto ONeCIdF. Sn. ceeteeeae 141
13. Sauquoit creek........... WNewe VOrk “MUulis: csc sues wie OCIA AIS Seve sects 52
14) Wien da) C6eek ...j0 <2. 1) MIdGI|EVI]NEe ©. 022. cacnscescecds PIGrRIMer” Fo cceeks 519
Th. MORAWEK. TIVED Ss 6 vss eis ee: EGO WALI See sosewinn Ss crectie'e PIELKIMEES (© ooeccscs 1,306
16: H-Canada creek... ..:-< Woleevilles .ccravads ac eis sso 12 (glial it peenaemeneae 256
Tits Garercarcreck scx sss « Three miles above mouth.. Montgomery ...... 81
18. Cayadutta creek.......... ASE LOW te OMMS LOW Mae «atmos ei ate EBONY ss be ce.s5 3 cous 40
19. Schoharie creek.......... State dam, Fort Hunter.... Montgomery ...... 947
20. Mohawk river...... Beet FROREONG MULES, oowem cictaie sisalvis’s SA TOS Rs feel ciars «cere 3,385
21. Hudson river... . ccs... Mechani@yilletzcc<iecie nciscls «> SaratOPar ac. oc asics 4,500
Poe, EA GEROR OTIVED, «oo cnc cicts wo OEE PMGWaLrs ccna tee os cicnes SATALOGD coc wice< cette 2,800
23. Schroon river.........+.- WAPTENSDUTR: coc. 8 accoeanss WWSIERON Hd are terceec 563
FA TRIB GE ATRVEES coche eos nes's BONING tOBVINS «iia ccis cease JEMCTHOH © 0262s wos *1, 889

Of the foregoing stations, those on Hudson river at Mechanic-
ville, Hudson river at Fort Edward, and Schroon river at War-
rensburg had been established, in 1895, in connection with the
Upper Hudson storage surveys. The station on Black river at
Huntingtonville had been established in March, 1897, by the
Watertown Waterworks, the data of which were furnished by the
Board of Water Commissioners of the city of Watertown. Aside
from these four stations, the foregoing were established in 1898
in connection with the deep waterways work.

Streams gaged by United States Geological Survey. The follow-
ing is a list of the stations in New York State where gagings were

*Some of these areas are approximate only, due to the inaccuracy of
available maps.

326 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

kept in 1902 together with a few at which gagings were not kept.
Those at which gagings were not kept are marked thus +.

Catchment
area,
Stream Gaging station County square miles
nk ee 9 Tisse’S -Bridse. 7. .ccte ees Lewis *c.c.ccees aan 242
ao dalek wEVeGE. so yeec.5 S02. s Peit’s. Milis®.....2./2c7.235. Se Jefferson .....s.0. 1, 851
EMO SPI GGR: oo icles onaie ve Huntingtonville dam....... JCREFSON .. fs.s68 1, 889
4 -PEMReK IVER =... 37% sonal bee Watertowm 1.¢<:cees6 Jone JeMmerson: ..crnkbecee 1, 892
5 Byram river, W. branch Portehester ©.) ..c--.steeeee Westchester ...... a
G6: (Catakitl creek... 3. 1 Sci. South!) Caste ieee eee Greene: yo. es wots —
7. Cayadutta creek......... Jobnstown =.4%. /50..sene ee. ROTO 55.25 eta 40
8. Chenango river.......... Binghamien. . 2ct Jec.seeeare sigh. eS Se 1,582
9. Chittenango creek+..... Bridgeport) 35. os. bate at eee Madison? 2. ose. 307
10. Chittenango creek....... Chittenango S08 san be eee Madisen 35.0 fon TT
13) Ceoton! iriver:. % i: 282 Croton dam (old):..c:- <i. Westchester ...... 339
12. Delaware river..... gucve , OLE JEEVISGS ono ce ceea ee OLrange> 22 savanesece 3,600
13;, i Branch Delaware R.:) Haneotks -<icaghdecsecee eee -,)\ Delaware oi 919
24. W. ‘Branch Delaware: R.. Hancock <2 sccecr ane dese Delaware” .22..20-e 685
15. East Canada creek......) Doleevilles 4.25... Herkimer, f.3..<sies 256
AG PESOPUS -CLeeK... icine Kaneston” .c..c as coos coeeene UIStee ss |} can bee ene 312
#7 Bishkill yereek. 2.5522. .20- GleRRawy 2 Sse See SE Dutehess un. eateme 198
18. W. Branch Fish creek... McConnellsville ............ Oneida acc scevteers 187
19. Genesee river............ Rochesters 252. gre 4495. AE Monroe... .cceess iy *2,365
20. Honeoye creek........... Bast ROSE... cccsee- ces MORTOG.5-< scene
28 Hudson) Tiver.feresee en. Kort’ Mdward. [252% e.cenees Sara Or Sone ee 2, 800
22. WAUGSON TIVE? .y.c ea == Mechameville> Siti eos Sardtoza 2. eee. 4,500
2a Tamia. TiPErs: 2a. ee oee indian hake? dam... 5. s =.=. Hamilton’? .is.--s.
2%. Kinderhook creek-+..... Bast ‘Nassaut+) io 2s Rensselaer ........ 121
25. Kinderhook creek-+..... Wilson's’ da mieten. aceon Rensselaer ........ 68
2%. Lake Champlain outlet. Fort Montgomery........... Cimiton > S— .=..Sccee- 7, 750
24. MAUS: ‘river... <...6ooe Bedford + -Gv 5. 3. hee eee Westchester ...... —
2a. Mohawk river.*.iS2.-+ Dunsbach Herry ...2..-c.2ee se Sara tera 2 cen: cee 3, 440
2a: Mohawk « rivers. .2.-.-- hittle, Walis-<c.22c e. o7 eee Herkimer 7722 <--" 1,306
oo: Mohawk (river... - 3: Rexforth HYVES: sccceas Cee See Saratope Vines ee 3,385.
af. Mohawk **river:: ..22.--- Ridve MNS! Sos. aoe eee Oneida: «12272 22.0565 153
2. Mohawk ‘ TiVer. .°...4> 24> Schenectady 6s soe-\as ae tee Schenectady ...... 3, o2L
33. Mnhawk ‘Trver.:.2-: >: +. BiGiea- tse tetera sce Oneida 2620 snc 500
34. Moose TVeRGocu co enewe ae Moose-«'rive@issss . boceeese eee Lewis 220 see 346
35. Neversink river.......... Port SGrviset. tec e encase seer Oranve: Sere 346
SO OLMARSE IN Soe eee a BRrenelts bali cet se. cence Alipay 9 a ee ee 111
78Tt. Oneida’ creeks: : Ren WOGR ose. oct at een nee Madison ..27- 22s 59
Bie Cneida seIger: ete ee Brewerton’ 23 12). cee QOnendasa, <tc
59° Qnelda river: ses see Oxk “Orenards-: -S--2-- oe 2- Onentafa sees 1,318
40. Oriskany creek.......... Oriskany State dam........ Qnerda~*:é2727° cc" 144
4- Osweco Tiver?.o.c eet. Molton? es rei73 ee eee Oswefo” S2ke.. saree 4,916
a Cryece) river. :: 2.024. Evie: : am? : 20007 oe ace Oswego: >? tenaeter 5, 000
AS. OSweoro?’ IVEr: 2.5... dees Minette: Fos. Sc.8ee 6 eee Osweratssi. Greeee 4,990
44. Quackenkill creek....... Quackenkill =. 47i Rensselaer ........ 19
45. Raquette river.......... Hanna wal atingss: oo: tee St. Lawrence...... 967
MGs Bees © C©GCK co sic ez centres REGED Eo. coh etc weRiae wee ween meds. ts... a.c0nas
47. Richelieu river.......... Fort Montgomery........... Chota: facing ae 7, 750
48. RONGGCUL Creek... .....-1-. Honk (Walisc conc ac ere oes THISGGr -: Se ieccn eae ap 88
49. HMondout .creeKs . «2s. ROSCHGANE oo sejnieakodowwa ee RIster 3... ecieseeenae 365
50. Sauquoit creek.......... New VY OLrk Mus. tec eheeteer ats Grcrda*7 - Sees 52
Bi Salmon) | PIVOT 6s < cos con Piplachilnes:.:/.5 0, dices oe ees OSWel0' = coe 264
(oo. Seneea "river... fyr2thte Baldwinsville. ssw Onondaga ......... 3,108
53. Schoharie creek......... Kort Hunter, dam .<.....:.- Montgomery ......
54. Schoharie creek......... MAY “POM &. 0c ed tote ee Montgomery ...... 934
55. Schoharie creek......... Pratisville oo ccsmaceee Sete Greene -\csv ceases 243
56. Schoharie creek-......... Schoharie Falls.......:..... Montgomery ...... 930
Bie WECRTOON LIVER ii. < v.59 WATrenspare beciae «ance als Warren 5 oc52..e.sn0e 563
58. Skaneateles outlet...... Willow Glen......... pean aici Onondaga ......... 74
59. Susquehanna river...... BineRantton. 225. sens sere ee EEOGIRG Wendin... <a21 3, 982
60. Ten Mile river.......... Dover). PIAiNS, scicaicensptatee Dutchessun.. dines 195
a. URL EVD... -.cas sucene NGW PRIUZS eens ce puceneenes UWIStGr 0.75. tees oe 736
32. West Canada creek..... Twin Rock bridge........... 2S ee, ee 352

Methods of gaging pursued. The method of gaging pursued at
these several stations varies considerably. At one or two small
stations sharp-crested weirs are used; at other places the flow is
gaged over dams, while at a number of stations the current meter

This does not include the catchment of Hemlock lake of 43 square miles.

Plate 5.

General view of hydraulic laboratory of Cornell university.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 327
is employed. Gagings are also sometimes made by the use of
floats, but so far as New York streams are concerned, the results
would be so unsatisfactory as to render this method undesirable.
It has also been attempted to gage the tlow of the Mohawk river
by velocity and slope measurements, but thus far the results are
not satisfactory.

The method of gaging streams by the use of the current meter
has some advocates who consider it superior to any other. Prob-
ably the reason for such an opinion is that tests of a current
meter in uniform masonry or concrete channels, where the condi-
tions are the most favorable possible to obtain, have shown fairly
accurate results; but in a shallow stream, flowing over a boulder
bed, the conditions are so different as to make rational compari-
son impossible. The current meter is indeed only really useful
when the following conditions obtain:

1) A smooth, uniform channel for a considerable distance on
either side of the point selected.

2) Considerable depth at the point selected and for several
hundred feet to either side.

3) Smooth bottom of either fine sand, hard earth or very fine
gravel.

4) That the current be positive and of some little velocity
throughout the whole section.

New York streams as a whole do not, except rarely, answer to
these conditions. They are usually shallow, rapid flowing in
places, and frequently encumbered with boulders. Current meter
observation may be at times from 100 per cent to 200 per cent in
error. Broadly, we may say therefore that where a good dam
exists on a stream the gagings should preferably be first of all
made at this point. Or, if there is money available, a special
weir may be erected. Failing in either of these the current meter
is a proper instrument, with due understanding of the limita-
tions indicated in the foregoing.

Streams discussed in this report. It is impossible to give in the
following discussion the measurements of all the streams now
being gaged in the State of New York, and accordingly a number
of the more important have been selected for which the records
will be given. The detail of the balance may be obtained from the

328 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Annual Reports of the State Engineer and Surveyor. The follow-
ing are the streams discussed in this connection:

Genesee river. Hudson river.
Oatka creek. Croton river.
Hemlock lake. Mohawk river.
Oswego river. East Canada creek.
Seneca river. West Canada creek.
Skaneateles outlet. Sauquoit creek.
Chittenango creek. Oriskany creek.
Black river. Schroon river.

Richelieu river—Outlet of Lake Champlain.

Of the foregoing, Hemlock lake has been gaged by weir and
measurements of the amount flowing through the conduit leading
therefrom to the city of Rochester; Skaneateles outlet has been
gaged by weir and the amount flowing through conduit; Lake
Champlain outlet by rating curve, and Eaton and Madison brooks
by weir. The balance of the streams have been gaged by measure-
ments over dams, in accordance with the method described (1)
in the Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways;
and (2) in the paper On the Flow of Water Over Dams.

Gagings over dams and through water wheels. Before proceed-
ing to describe these gagings we will consider somewhat the
-Inethods used. Several of these gaging stations, as at Baldwins-
ville, High dam, Little Falls, Middleville, Dolgeville, etc. have ex-
tensive power developments, with large quantities of water pass-
ing through turbine water wheels for either the whole or a por-
tion of each day. The dams at these places vary greatly in type
form. Hardly any two cross-sections are alike, although some
of them conform generally to certain types. Many of them have
considerable irregularity in the crests longitudinally. The
method of treatment in order to obtain approximately correct
results becomes, therefore, a- matter of difficulty. In some
cases, as on West Canada creek, where the crest was very irregu-
lar, a small amount of work has been done in the way of leveling
it. Generally, however, the crests were left in nearly the same
condition as found. A profile was carefully taken and the crest
divided into a series of approximately level sections for compu-
tation. A gaging blank was furnished the gage readers, with
columns for entering depth on crest of dam, and number of
water wheels used, size of same, name of manufacturer and daily

‘6G68L ‘@ oun ‘A}ISTeATUN [[JOUIOD JV Wp S}eLT Plojxoy Jo [apou uo JUuotUTod xg]

/ 'g a4eId

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 329

run, working head on wheels, readings of head-race and tail-race
gages, and other information necessary for keeping an accurate
account of the water passing over the crest in 24 hours, as well
as through water wheels for the same period. Gage readers were
employed to take these readings twice each day.

In order to obtain flows through water wheels, recourse was
had to records of the test flume of the Holyoke Water Power Com-
pany of Holyoke, Mass., where the principal wheels now in com-
mon use in New York State have, at one time or another, been
tested. On requesting a record of such tests, as applying to
wheels at the several gaging stations, the Holyoke Water Power
Company responded that they would furnish the records under
the condition that they be not published unless the consent of
parties for whom the wheels had been tested were first obtained.
This condition being assented to, information was furnished as
to tests of the principal wheels in use, giving proportional part
of opening of speed gate for various conditions of tests, revolu-
lions of wheel, quantity of water discharged, power developed,
efficiency, etc. From these records, wheel-discharge curves have
been prepared for the water wheels in use at each dam. By the
use of such curves, derived from actual tests, it is believed that
the discharges through turbine water wheels at the various gaging
stations have been computed with a very high degree of accuracy.
Under these conditions turbine water wheels become in effect
efficient water meters. In a few cases, where there were no tests
applying, the discharges as per manufacturers’ tables have been
used. The writer’s thanks are due to the Holyoke Water Power
Company for the courtesy of furnishing these useful data.

The work of Henry Bazin. In order to apply the results of
these gagings, the work of Henry Bazin, Inspecteur General des
Ponts et Chaussées, which may be found in Annales des Ponts et
Chaussées, for the years 1888, 1890, 1891, 1894, 1896 and 1898, is
used. In these papers Bazin has determined coefficients for a large
number of cases, not only of crests of different widths, but with
varying front and rear slopes, as well as for curved profiles.
Indeed, taking into account the backward state of knowledge of
flow over weirs, his work is in many respects revolutionary.

330 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the beginning of his first paper Bazin remarks that the the-
ory of the weir is the least advanced of all branches of hydraulics.
The coefficients used in practice vary between such wide limits
that in most cases we are unable to make a rational selection
from the many numerical values assigned to them.

The problem, he says, is in fact a complicated one, being con-
nected on the one hand with the theory of flow through orifices
and on the other with that of open channels. The value of the
coefficients in each case is influenced by many elements. Thus
we ought to consider:

1) The velocity of approach; that is, the velocity with which
the upstream water reaches the weir, the effect of which can not
be neglected in weirs of small hight.

2) The contraction of the vertical section of the stream at the
weir, the amount depending upon the hight of the weir and the
form of the crest.

3) The lateral contraction which, though unimportant in weirs
of great length, seriously modifies the results in shorter weirs.

As a further condition, Bazin points out that when the down-
stream channel has a width of the length of the weir, so that the
overflowing sheet of water, or nappe, touches at the sides, thus
preventing free admission of air under the nappe, there occur
special phenomena greatly affecting the flow.

Bazin’s method of experimentation may be referred to briefly.
A standard weir was set up at the head of a long chamber, in
which the actual volume passing over was measured a sufficient
number of times to give averages, which Bazin considers are
accurate to within probably less than 1 per cent. Having estab-
lished in this way the values of the coefficients for a standard
weir, with heads varying from about 0.164 ft. to 1.969 ft., the
experiments on weirs of irregular profiles were made by placing

1Bazin’s earlier papers are directed specially to a detailed investigation
of these several points. Space will not be taken here to describe his experi-
ments in detail. The original data may be found in the Annales des Ponts ct
Chaussées for the years already cited. <A translation of the earlier num-
bers has also been made by Messrs. Arthur Marichal and John C. Traut-
wine Jr., and may be found in the Proceedings of the Engineers’ Club of
Philadelphia for January, 1890; July, 1892; October, 1892, and April, 1893.

‘AVISAIVOATUN [[VUIOD 1B AAOJVAOGVL OT[NVAIPAY 9G] JO MOTA JeTIOUY

"LZ 978Td

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 331

each experimental weir below the standard weir, and observing
the heads synchronously on each. In these experiments a steady
current was established in the channel, and observations of the
known value passing over the standard weir were made, which
volume also passed over the weir under investigation, lower down.
If we let H and h denote, respectively, the head upon the
standard weir and upon the lower weir, L and 1, their correspond-
ing lengths, and M and m, the coefficients of discharge, and then,
adopting provisionally Formula (1) for the standard weir—

Oo a Ny ee (32)
and similarly for the lower weir
QH= Mh SIG h veveerrreerererenees (33)

Equating these two values of Q, we have
MLH/H /3g= Mth Jh vf 2g, %
MLH® = milli
from which we deduce the value of m:

LI HN: (34)
a 4 (7) x tz)
l A \3 35
or, conversely : M=im (z) SK (ar) (35)

As already stated, Bazin’s preliminary gaging operations gave,
once for all, the coefficient M for the standard weir for each
value of H. The ratio 3 which is very nearly unity, remained
constant for all experiments of any one series, and, therefore, we
have only to measure the heads H and fh in order to obtain the
coefficient m.t

A description of the method of gaging pursued on the several
streams is not given at length here because it may be found in
full detail in the places cited, namely, in the Report to the Board
of IXngineers on Deep Waterways and in the paper On the Flow
of Water Over Dams, to either of which reference may be made.

Discharge measurements of Genesee river. The runoff data of
Genesee river for the water years 1890-1898, inclusive, in inches
on the catchment area, have been given in table No. 43. The

*On the Flow of Water Over Dams, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIV, pp.
220-398. | Rey

;

Sow NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

runoff in cubic feet per second is given in table No. 46. Runoff
of Genesee River at Mount Morris for the water years 1890-1898,

inclusive, in cubic feet per second per square mile is given in
table No. 47.

TABLE No. 46—RUNOFF OF GENESEE RIVER AT MouNT MorRIS FOR THE WATER
YEARS, 1890-1898, INCLUSIVE

(Catchment area=1070 square miles)

In CuBIC FEET PER SECOND

MONTH |
1890 1891 | 1892 | 1898 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | Mean
ee
(1) (2) | (3) 14) Fe) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11)
Moseiber..f2.ccs. cba 888] 965'1,346.2,170| 568/1,226, 733) 882i...
2 EE er ASE, (Se 2,398] 724'1/810'1,297| 604) 436, 724/1,8101.....
February...........|..... 3, 4741, 624 1.325] 884) 2241 907] 81211, 900|....
Fi Pk ape RN MELE 2; 6638/1, 803 2, 14/3, 074/1, 803 2, 786.2, 45912, 5521...
eat 2... aes 2, 04611, 31212, 119 2. 397) 24511. 92713, 24511, 25611, 582)...
eager gant 2,805) | 579/1, 624.2, 41314, 108] 174)" 157] 9191, 160)...

Mean of storage | |
Period aco Ae 1, 8601, 471 1, 918.2, 485 889 1, 456 1,150 1, 644/1, 609
A eee aie 1,794| 42511,352| 33611, 050 a 374 492) 767l.....
epee ene kre 1.776] 347/1,912| 978| 182] 105| 996, 427| 418).....
August............. 270) 232/1,327| 325| 200, 115| 188| 408} 749)...
Mean of growing | |

period ......... 1,280] 383411,532} 318) 454] 1146] 261! 419) 641) 509
September ......... 1,274| 425/ 230; 316! 8ss| 100 148) 173| 464/.....
October............ 2° 084| 232) 306| 373/ 407| 1041,664| 167] 724).....

November.......... 2/007; 386) 547] 518} 782] 449| 782] 355/1,342

Mean of replenish-
ing period...... 1, '788

346, 360) 402) 689) 216) 873 me 842) 495

1, 210/1, 1383/1, 525) 526/1,011) 7837/1, 191/1, 054

Yearly mean...|.....

Plate 8.

ROCKV/LLE
RESERVOL

ooehe?

CUBA RESERVOIM

‘
‘

'
‘
‘

‘
SCALE OF MILES NEW YORE
to 1 J 67 mow SSS SS
eS S IPP PENNSYLVANIA

Catchment area of Genesee river.

nf

wa

Ss.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 333

TABLE No. 47—RUNOFF OF GENESEE RIVER AT MOUNT MORRIS FOR THE WATER
YEARS, 1890-1898, INCLUSIVE
(Catchment area=1070 square miles)

In CuBic FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE

{
j

MONTH 1890 | 1891 | 1892 | 1893 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | Mean
(1) (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11)
Mecember..........|:s5: 0.83] 0.90] 1.26] 2.03] 0.53) 1.15] 0.69] 0.82].....
Demarites f.e 2.24} 0.68] 1.70) 1.21] 0.56] 0.41) 0.68] 1.69].....
Rebroaty:.........)isi. 3.25] 1.52] 1.24) 0.83] 0.21] 0.85] 0.76] 1.78].....
(| OT siecle deen Ppa 2.49] 1.68] 2.00) 2.87] 1.69] 2.60] 2.30] 2.39].....
a 1.91| 1.283] 1.98] 2.24) 3.03] 1.80] 3.03] 1.17] 1.47].....
Dah es. 2.71] 0.54! 1.52] 2.26) 3.84! 0.16] 0.15] 0.86] 1.08].....
Mean of storage |
AE oem eae 1.74) 1.87] 1.79) 2.32) 0.83) 1.36) 1.07] 1.54) 1.50
Fone 2... ae 1.68] 0.40| 1.26] 0.31] 0.98) 0.12) 0.35] 0.39) 0.72)...
Se ee PP: 1.66| 0.32) 1.79] 0.26] 0.12| 0.10) 0.21) 0.40, 0.39].....
eps 8... ae. - 0.25) 0.22) 1.15] 0.30) 0.19) 0.11] 0.18, 0.88) 0.69)...
Mean of growing |
period ......... 1.20] 0.31] 1.43] 0.29] 0.42] 0.11) 0.25] 0.39] 0.60] 0.48
September ........ 1.19| 0.40) 0.21] 0.30] 0.88] 0.09) 0.14] 0.16] 0.43)...
Oetober oi hres» 1.95| 0.22} 0828] 0.35] 0.38] 0.10| 1.56] 0.16] 0.68]..-..
November......... 1.88) 0.36) 0.51) 0.48] 0.73) 0.42) 0.73) 0.33) 1.75]...

Mean of replenish- |
ing period...... 1.67) 0.32] 0.34! 0.38) 0.64) 0.20

!

0.82) 0.22) 0.79) 0.46

Yearly mean...|..... 1.03] 1.13] 1.06 1.43. 0.49] 0.94] 0.69] 1.11] 0.99

This record of Genesee river is made up as follows: From April,
1890, to November, 1892, actual gagings of Oatka creek, above
the village of Warsaw, with a catchment area of 27.5 square miles,
have been used. From December, 1892, to August, 1893, in-
clusive, gagings were not kept of Genesee river, and accordingly
for this period the runoff is approximately computed from the
rainfall. September, 1893, to February, 1897, inclusive, the
record is that of Genesee river at Mount Morris (catchment, 1070
square miles). Early in March, 1897, the dam over which the
gagings were made was carried away by a flood and the record
for the balance of that year and for the year 1898 is deduced
from the record at Rochester (catchment, not including Hemlock
lake, water supply of the city of Rochester, 2365 square miles).

In 1896 a sharp-crested weir was erected on Genesee river about
two and one-half miles above the gaging dam, where rock bottom
clear across the river afforded an opportunity for such construc-
tion without heavy expense. This weir was made perfectly tight.

334 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Computed discharge Computed discharge “as
H=head-on h=head-on over weir, in cubic over dam, in cubic iF pa cerns apa
weir, in feet dam, in feet feet per second, for feet per second, for gq ypawce# 1?

heads = H heads=h ischarges
(1) (2) (3) is (5)

0.50 0.60 185 135 —37.0
0.70 0.838 310 330 + 6.0
0.80 0.90 . 450 445 — 1.0
E02 1.00 540 505° — 7.0
1.86 1.55 1 325 1 260 — 5.0
2.01 1 OD 1 490 1 605 +10 .0
2.42 2.00 1, 965 2 100 + 7.0
2.65 2.50 2 250 3d 230 +44 .0
3.20 2eto 2 990 3 860 +29 .0
3.78 3.00 3 840 4 554 +19.0
4.37 3.25 4 770 5 280 +11.0
4.657 3.d0F 5 240 5-590 + 7.0

In order to correlate the measurements at the Hydraulic Power
Company’s dam with those at the weir, observations were taken
at each place as nearly cotemporanéously as they could be made
by a man going immediately from one to the other. The fore-
_ going tabulation gives some of the heads actually observed at the
weir and dam, together with the discharge over the weir in com-
parison with the computed discharge over the dam, and the per-
centage difference. |

The crest of the Mount Morris dam was quite irregular, and in
order to apply weir formulas an accurate profile was taken and
the crest subdivided into a number of approximately level sec-
tions with each section computed separately, advancing by 0.1 foot
up to 10 feet. The flow over the entire dam was obtained by
adding together the sums of the several sections at the corres-
ponding hights and tabulating them. A gage graduated to 0.05
foot was erected on the river bridge a short distance away, with
its zero level coinciding with the lowest point of the dam. During
ordinary stages of the river, readings of this gage were taken
twice each day, but in time of high water, in order to obtain the
movement of floods as accurately as possible, readings were taken
several times a day. In order to compute the flow readily a
curve was projected from which, with the given gage hights, the
flows in cubic feet per second could be read off.

aE EE TE Te
+ Approximate; taken from curve.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 33D

When the measurements were first begun, it was considered
that the formula Q—1142 H# was best suited to the form of the
dam, but after more careful consideration it was apparent that
the results given by this formula were somewhat in excess of
the actual discharge, specially for the low-water flows. The
computed discharges, as shown by columns (3) and (4) of the pre-
ceding tabulation, are somewhat irregular. This result is due to
the disturbing effect of the irregular sections of the crest, the
highest point of which was 2 feet above the lowest.

Column (5) shows the percentage variations between the dis-
charges as determined by a sharp-crested weir, up to 5200 cubic
feet per second, and the discharges computed by the formula.
For discharges beyond 5000 cubic feet per second the original
determination has been used. An extension of the plotted curves
shows that some little distance above 5000 cubic feet per second
discharge, the results of the two methods are substantially the
same. The two curves crossed at the point of -about 6000 cubic
feet per second discharge. For discharges above 10,000 or
15,000 cubic feet per second there is probably an error in the
results of from 5 to 10 per cent. Below 5000 cubic feet per
second it is believed that the results are now accurate within a
few per cent. Francis’s formula, Q=3.33 L H?, has been used
for the weir computations. |

The measurements taken previously to the construction of the
weir and the rating of the dam, have all been corrected to con-
form to the new determinations; hence all the data of the
Genesee measurements of this table may be considered as
accurate within the limits stated.

The original Genesee river data show for a portion of the
range more error than is consistent with good work, and which
remained inexplicable until the experiments at Cornell Univer-
sity were carried out. These experiments showed that for high
heads the tendency was to neutralize the differences at lower
heads. The flow of all the weirs, in short, became sensibly uni-
form at from 5 to 6 feet depth and at 10 feet depth, there will
be very little difference!

1Ten feet depth on the crest is not unusual in flood flows. In order to
measure such flows, a weir formula should be worked out to at least 10 feet
depth on the crest. Such a formula will apply without more than 15 per
cent to 20 per cent error to almost any form of crest.

336 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The preceding discussion shows that while the Genesee river
record is a composite one, nevertheless it is believed to be a
good record. The reason for this belief is largely founded on
the curve as per fig.11.

Gagings have also been kept at Mount Morris from June to
December, 1890, and at Rochester from March, 1893, to the
present time, but the gagings at Rochester are not very reliable.
Possibly some method of correcting them may be worked out in
the future.

In table No. 48, a comparison has been made of the measure-
ments at Rochester with those at Mount Morris for the water
years 1894-1896, inclusive.

TABLE No. 48—CoOMPARISON OF ORIGINAL AND CORRECTED RECORD AT ROCHESTER
WITH REDUCED RECORD AT MouNT Morris 1894 To 1896, INCLUSIVE

{In cubie feet per second]

1894 | 1895 1896
~ ay pe ae / i +49
= | @

| 25 25 | | Be

gc Ke) | / ge

a= | am eee

MONTH . 68 | | Sa |g $3

g dee| 2 wes| 8 | oe
2/2 )ss2| 2) > 38 |882| 2)! 3 BES
be S) a=) be 5) Sen |} 1 ee eee
2|2|8ee| 21 2 | kes] 2) 2) Bes

o 18 {|e5a| 0 | 5 Jeoe) » | Bee

< | Oo | <q |o |e < Oo |} mk
ee ce ee

(1) (2) | (3)'1 4) 1 1 @) A] | (2) | (3) | &®
Hosenthor. (7.051). ..0555...418. 3,914! 3,914) 4,797 1,459! 1,100] 1,256] 1,839, 1,700) 2, 710
FEAT BE MN IR, Ue 2’ 841| 2,841] 2,867, 1,619! 1,200} 1,385 1, 645 1,400, 964
Mehewary si: hii... . PE 2, 584| 2,584! 1,954) “977! "700 495| 2°702, 2,702 2, 005
| ee ae ane IRIE CEE 6,008/ 6,008) 6,794 4,035 4,035] 3,985] 3,725] 3,725! 6,158
Bet | M8 ee Ae 5,646| 5,646 7,172, 3,083, 3,083] 4257] 7,623] 7.623) 7,172
I ik oa a ee 6,304) 6,304! 9,080] 1,309, "900; 385) 1,576) 1,300, 47
Mean of storage period...... 4, 576 4, 576} 5, 477 2,099) 1, 848° 1, 958) 3,181 3, 054) 3, 218
Gutee 16. Ee ATO BOOS “2,951| 2,800! 2,321; 885! 535; 283! 1,317! 1,000| —-éad4
je Ae SE erm we ee 1,055) 792 292| 645) 390 232| '854| ° 645 501
UOMISE. 2 Pete eRe 08 sd haddeee 973) 732 442) 600 400) 254; 585) 440) * 416
Mean of growing period..... 1,656| 1,426] 1,003) 728| 440/ 256) 977} 692) 522
Septeniiber, ..0.0. 15.1 ete 1,664} 1,500; 1,963) 407; 250] 221) +824) 240! Br
ied dideliaiae icp: Bie 1,226 ° 920 899 366) 220) 230) 2,271| 2,000, 3, 667
EA ES SM LS 2 1,782| 1,600) 1,729] 834! 500 993| 993) °745| 1,728
Mean of replenishing period} 1,573) 1,335} 1,523) 584) 333 478) 1,353] 1,006} 1,926
Yearly mean.............0. 3,088, 2,978} 3,370) 1,364| 1,116] 1,163) 2,174| 1,951) 2, 220

Inches on catchment......... 19.20 18.35) 19.88 8.48| 6.41] 6.67 12.48} 11.20) 12.80

a Increased in proportion to increased catchment area at Rochester

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Sond

Geologically, the catchment area of the Genesee river above
Mount Morris lies in the shales, sandstones, etc. of the Portage
and Chemung groups. Its extreme headwaters south of the
Pennsylvania line issue from the Carboniferous. Generally the
soils throughout the whole basin are heavy and tenacious, in-
clining to clay. Their capacity for absorbing and retaining
water must therefore be considered small.

Discharge measurements of Oatka creek. 'The measurements
of Oatka creek, referred to in the preceding, were made at the
milldam in the south part of the village of Warsaw, in Wyoming
county. The dam was new, practically tight, and well adapted
for securing accurate results. Measurements were also made
of the outflow of the head raceway leading from the dam for
different elevations of water on the dam, and a curve prepared
from which the discharge of the raceway was read off and added
to the discharge over the dam.

The catchment area of Oatka creek above Warsaw includes
27.5 square miles of rolling, semi-mountainous country. The
- valley of the creek is deep cut, with numerous springs at the
headwaters. The catchment is mostly deforested and in a high
state of cultivation, the soil inclining to clay for a considerable
portion. Geologically the stream lies in the rocks of the Port-
age formation, as developed in western New York. The runoff
from this area may be taken as typical of many small streams
in western New York.

Discharge measurements of Hemlock lake. Measurements of
the runoff. of the Hemlock lake area for the water years 1880 to
1884, inclusive, were made by the Rochester Waterworks. Hem-
lock lake lies at an elevation of 896 feet above tide, and has a
length of 6.5 miles, with an average width of about 0.5 of a mile.
he area of the surface at low water is 1828 acres. The total
catchment, including the area of the lake, is 27,554 acres, or
about 43 square miles. The shores are bold, and on the east side
rise to a hight of several hundred feet above the lake in a dis-
tance of 2 or 8 miles. At the head of the lake there is a swamp
of 118 acres, partially covered at high water.

The outflow of the lake during the period covered by the
measurements included in the following table may be considered
as having taken place at three points: (1) At the natural outlet

338 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the lake; (2) at an artificial channel through which water was
discharged at will for the benefit of the millers on the outiet;
and (5) through the conduit of the Rochester Waterworks. The
runoifs given are the sums of these several outgoes. In order to
determine the outflow of the natural outlet, a weir was con-
structed and the discharge observed at different hights of the
lake surface. The discharge into the artificial channel was
through submerged orifices of known dimensions, and has been
computed from standard formulas for the discharge of such ori-
fices, the size of the openings and the difference of level of water
surfaces above and below being known.

The discharge of the conduit of the Rochester Waterworks is
as computed from standard formulas for discharge through
pipes. Measurements made by the writer and others during the
last few years show that the computed quantities passing
through the conduit were not far from correct. |

TABLE No. 49—WaATER DRAWN FROM HEMLOCK LAKE FOR THE WATER YEARS
1880 'ro 1884, INCLUSIVE

[In inches on the catchment]

1880 1881
£3 E | eS E
os 3 | 2s 3
OH B | OH
=| o> | 5 od
as 2 by ae Set Se ales
a2 \icil et bSbl Bf pes a |25| 8
qe) ee S| aS) Ss fo S
=| g a g | “4 a & = € &
aol a | 2g a feel Ss | te 1
Vr 3 3 Or fost cs}
a |e | Fie |e je |e) ele | a
(1) (2) | 3 | H}|@® |] ®}] @ | @ | @{ ® i] ®
Pe ee a
Reem. 0 co oe ee |_1.67| 1.26] 0.16)...... a31.4|—1.33} 0.72| 0.49|...... 27.3
po Sy eer te arenes! OP —0.91| 1.87| +0.15]...;.. a25.5|—1.47| 2.24] 0.44|..222. 24.7
MO@DT MAT Y 5 aie oG eG daehieets cer —0.11} 1.45) 0.16)...... a27.3i|—0.11} 1.08) 0.54)...... 29.7
MG 550 p22. 2 eonactcetters 40.21) 1.47| 0.15/. 22.2: a31.8|+1.20| 1.92) 1.73/22222: 59.1
ES WR RE a lille EB ed baal Prot 79| 1.25! 0.15]. ....: a45.7/+1.47| 0.52) 1.24)22227: 45.2
it oo .. A0th << eA OL +0.87| 2:08] 0.17]...... 71.8|-+1.32 a eth] ear 69.7
diab abies MBs ist |S dee) pras se vabs ae iA om Nite
Storage period............0.. —0.14) 8.88 0.94! 7.94) 38.9]+0.18 ae 5.55| 3.16! 39.3
5° plies ipa eR a ARE he Se: +0.45| 1.66) 0.36!...... ' 76.5/+1.08! 3.13; 0.76l...... | 73.9
5 TSS Oe eS a —0.15) 1.93) 0.41/.2.21: 77.1140.58| 3.71) 0.43]. 2123: 15.6
ei Ue ae —0:70| 3.46) 0.35]... W dtcens :. 0.95| 0.50).....: 80.0
Growing period............. —0.13) 7.05 1.12) 5.93) 76.0|+0.55| 7.79] 1.69] 6.10) 76.5
whoo Tia dias eames —1.18| 1.85| 0.81|...... 69.7|—0.69| 1.73] 0.35|...... | 77.9
Rect ii daraa 24 sia.s0 meals —1,57| 3.85). 0,81|...... 53.4|—0.81| 4.23] 0.33]...... 59.1
WOVOMIUEE, sos ci .sac>ssacatt te 1724} 0.86) 0.89)...... 87.1|—0.71| 1.81] 0.46|....:. 44.8
Replenishing period......... —1.31| 6.06! 1.01] 5.05| 63.4|—0.74| 7.77] 1.14] 6.63] 60.6
Yearly mean or total......| —0.43) 21.99 3.07] 18.92 61.8-+-0.04) 24.27] 8.38 15.89) 53.9

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

TABLE No. 49 (concluded)

|
|

1882 1883
' | < 1 - a
BO | ao
8a | | # Se | 4
On | | ot Cra el
be ba | 2 = | bm | ete. |
MONTH ao | SS Ro PO ge a |*3| ©
=e = ao qi oan Es Re =
Qn | @)2-| 2 | 63 2 | 8F| 2
Pee ee Sere Te ee
BS Seb Sob Son ome koBolie isch. B
op!) 38 z mB op = : =
= |.) = |e oe: e |e le ae
Bie [haat beste is adel Swan hiianinse aback geo B+ casey |
(1) 2) @)/@/@ | @©|]@)| @®}]@)|® | ©
NOS ee 0.05] 4.02| 0.66|......| 39.8'1.51| 0.91| 0.19|...... 31.0
Pamaaleti...b. le: 14-163] 1.03] 2.04|...2.: | 29.4|1.56| 0.84) 0.211... 25.7
SES 2 gee anaes amie: Fi4.4a|. 2.07, 1.40)......| 37.0|/+0.03' 3.11] 0.281...... 30.6
TAMMY ficae: . Athi S2. 454 sc l41:67| 1.47| 2.92|...72: ' 38.7|40.95! 0.90 0.68 fica | 33.3
OE ence Ace ap jor Sane T4iat) 240) 1.53)......| 48cb-4-1.57| 2.43] 1.58|...... | 47.8
OS gE ee ia ee 41.61} 6.29] 1.74|...... B7.4|+1.59, 9.54) 2.59)... 59.1
Storage period.............../+1.29| 15.37| 10.19! 5.18) 41.8|+0.18 17.73) 5.53 pa 37.9
oe eee 41.45' 2.311 1.95)...... ! 71.9|+1.38| 4.52 7 Shas 74.2
RE 5 be Med a. tensa cap 1+0.81/ 1.42] 0.62|...... | 78:0/+1.29| 2.13) 1.08|...... | 15.7
MRMEMIES Cacstcstfcs- see osssee-|0-.5) 2.171 0.41|...-.- | 76.8|-+0.64| 2.86] 0.45|...... 73.7
Growing period............. 40.80, 5.90) 2.88] 3.02) 75.6\41.10) 9.51/ 3.18] 6.33] 74.5
Bemember cali. sk. —0.44) 1.78] 0.43]...... 69.4/+0.25} 2.36! 0.21]...... 65.1
Li. ean —0.99} 1.00] 0,63!......| 61.4/+0.07] 1.62] 0.18]....:. 55.7
Noweaiate: da. .4:..)......i 488) ie4d 0 8B)5 5b. | 41.8140.17) 2.02] 0.19)...... 45.1
Replenishing period..........—0.94) 4.19) 1.44) 2.75) _57.5)-+0.16| 6.00, 0.58) 5.42) 55.3
Yearly mean or total..... +0.61 25.46| 14.51] 10.95 54.2/+0.41) 33.24 9.29] 23.95! 51.4
1884
Mean |
MONTH monsaly ahs Haiarel | -
| eleva- : Vater | lessthe | Temper-
| tion of | Rainfall) qrawn | water | ature
lake drawn |
surface
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
7 eae eee Se ae a ee 40.44 2.01 a | oo ee 34.0
PUUPRUEATW Oe ratio cen, coon Sadie sees eee scans +0.46 1.78) MPU ce anes 24.7
LEEPER hee eee eee eee eee 1.28 2.17 (| ee ed 30.2
I ASG AO ae 1.47 3.18 1 ea 30.5
April...... a ee +1.56 2.21! aT, eae Oe 42.7
WMnmper ene he tts £06 W358 0) 343 C55 26532450 ce ; +1.62| 3.30) 1.69| Tie mes 56.7
Storage period.............scseesseeeseees +1.14| 14.65 10.12 4.53 36.5
Tae an = WT se eee ee +1.01 2.44) O75) 5225 eset ie ee
"TS Pati SS) SS Os SO eee +0.58 Posie) POglgHy. At) De 68.4
August..... marie eS ntidiwiale sa watesle one e +0.27 dk oe aaa te eee 70.8
PORE PREE, ogee acc ceces ccc vareee +0.62 7.50 1.36 6.14, 69.9
September....... meta atolersiate. neta raieints’s, Cisiers wae. eieie-3 —0.26 a Ot... ae 66.9
Ce i ae —0.70 1.34! eT ae aa ; 52.3
NbvombgeiAse.. cele a. —1.17 1.01) fe Ol oe A | 38.9
Replenishing period............00....660. —0.71} 4.59) ——«1.09| 8.50 7
Yearly mean or total..............e00 1.0.55 26.74. 12.57; 14.17, 48-9

ou

340 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The catchment area of Hemlock lake is, as stated, 27,554 acres,
and the area of the lake itself at the elevation + 0.0 is 1828 acres;
hence the lake surface is 6.6 per cent of the total catchment area,
or the catchment area is 15.1 times the area of the lake surface.
On this basis 1 inch on the whole area is 15.1 inches on the lake.
Taking into account these statements, it is clear that the data
of the table give approximately the natural runoff, although for
exact figures corrections for actual elevations of lake surface at
the beginning, as well as at the end of each year, should be applied.
On this point see the discussion on the minimum flow of Hemlock
lake.

Comparison of the runoff of Henlock lake with that of the
river Thames in England. Hemlock lake may be compared with
the river Thames in England, where somewhat similar climatic
conditions obtain. The catchment area of the Thames above the
point of gaging is 3789 square miles, while the catchment area of
Hemlock lake is given at 43.1 square miles. It is shown on a
preceding page that comparison may be legitimately made be-
tween streams with even as great variation in catchment areas
as here exists. Accurate gagings are at hand of the Thames from
1883-1891, inclusive, from which it appears that the mean or
average rainfall during this period was 27.01 inches, and the mean
or average runoff, 8.49 inches, or the runoff was 31 per cent of
the rainfall. In order to compare the climate of the catchment
of the Thames with that of Hemlock lake we may consider the
following;

The mean annual rainfall at Hemlock lake for the water years
1877-1900, inclusive, was 27.70 inches; the mean annual tempera-
ture for the same years was 50° Fahr., and the mean annual
evaporation for the years 1896 to 1903, at Mount Hope reser-
voir, 28 miles north of Hemlock lake, was 34.55 inches. The rain-
fall of Hemlock lake exceeds that of the Thames by only 0.69
inch.

The mean evaporation from a water surface at Oxford, Eng-
land, for five years, 1852-1856, inclusive, was 31.01 inches; the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 341

mean annual rainfall at Oxford for the same period was 27.30
inches, and the mean annual temperature, 48.5° Fahr. We have,
therefore, 3.54 inches less mean annual evaporation, as measured
in the catchment of the Thames, than at Hemlock lake.

During the ten-year period, 1893-1902, inclusive, the mean run-
off of the river Thamas was only 7.29 inches, instead of 8.49
inches, aS in the previous ten-year period. In consideration of
the showing made of the low runoffs of streams in the State of
New York, it is probable that when a complete computation of
the runoff of Hemlock lake is made, it will be found to be some-
what less than that of the Thames in England.t

Geologically the Hemlock lake catchment is in the Hamilton
and Marcellus shale, with the hills at the sides rising to the rocks
of the Portage group.

Discharge measurements of Oswego river. The following record
of Oswego river is taken daily, with the exception of Sundays and
holidays. |

These gagings are made at the State dam, three miles from
Lake Ontario, with an effective head at the dam of about 82 feet.
This dam is of masonry, with its crest 365.5 feet long. Flash-
boards are maintained during the greater part of the year. In
estimating the flow, when flashboards are removed, a discharge
curve has been prepared using coefficients in the weir formula,
as per Cornell experiment No. 3, given in the paper On the Flow
of Water Over Dams.

It is possible that the records are somewhat too small, owing
to leakage and settlement of the dam. A _ headrace_ sup-
plies water to an electric-light plant and the Oswego water works
pumping station. There are eight water wheels in use. The
amount of water passed through these wheels varies from 300
cubic feet per second to about 650 cubic feet per second. In the

1Discussion of the flow of the river Thames from 1883-1892, may be
found in (1) the Report on the Flow of the Thames, by A. R. Binnie,
Chief Engineer to the London County Council—a publication of the Coun-
cil, 1892; and (2) a Report on the Shrinkage of the Thames and Lea, by
Maurice Fitz Maurice, Chief Engineer—a publication of the London
County Council, presented to the Water Committee on February 10, 1903.

i NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

accompanying table allowance for diversion to the Oswego canal,
which is also supplied from this dam, has not been made, but
such diversion can not be very large because of the small amount
of business on that canal during the last. few years.

Gagings of Oswego river above Minetto have also been made
from September, 1900, to date, at which time a current meter
station was established at this point.

Gagings were also begun in 1898 at the upper dam at Fulton,
which is a well-built stone dam and has no leakage. The dam is
404.6 feet in length, with a crest practically level. The following
cut shows the form of this dam:

ona a

Geologically the Oswego river lies in the horizon of the Medina
sandstone and Clinton groups.

Discharge measurements of Seneca river. This station is
located at the stone dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville. The
outlets of Otisco, Skaneateles and Owasco lakes, tributaries of
Seneca river, are crossed by the Erie canal and a portion of their
flow intercepted for the supply of this canal. The chief supply
for the Erie canal to Montezuma marsh is from Lake Erie and
Lake Erie water is discharged into Seneca river and thus returned
through the Oswego river to Lake Ontario. It is uncertain, there-
fore, whether the abstraction from Otisco, Skaneateles and
Owasco lakes is very material, as the amount discharged in Seneca
river varies and has never been closely measured.

The upper reaches of Seneca river are canalized, forming the
Cayuga and Seneca canal, while the portion below Baldwinsville,

d43

NEW YORK

HYDROLOGY OF

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 345

which is deep and without current, admits of slackawater naviga-
tion, forming a part of Oswego canal. This canal enters at Mud
lock, five miles below Baldwinsville. There is also a towpath
along Seneca river, admitting of the passage of boats through a
jock into and above the dam at Baldwinsville. The Baldnins-
ville pond is navigable for a few miles.

Water is diverted at Baldwinsville through power canals.
Power is used at ten mills, having a total of forty water wheels.
Owing to leakage of the water wheels and penstocks, some diffi-
culty has been experienced in securing accurate results during
low water at Baldwinsville, but in 1901 repairs were made to a
number of :penstocks and water wheels, considerably reducing the
Jeakage. When this station was originally established the leak-
age was taken at 100 cubic feet per second. This quantity was
added to the computed flow over the dam and through the water
wheels. The following cut shows a section of the dam on Seneca
river at Baldwinsville:

|
|
|
|

nana

“i m
= 4, MS ',
ty, = = +N, =
tm " Gite

Fig. 23 Cross-section of dam on Seneca river at Baldwinsville.

Geologically the Seneca river lies in the horizon of the Salina
group, with its tributaries to the south rising into the lower and
upper Helderberg and Hamilton shales. The extreme headwaters
are in the Portage and Chemung groups.

Discharge measurements of Skaneateles outlet. The measure-
ments of the runoff of Skaneateles lake, as given in table No. 53,
have been made by the Syracuse Waterworks over a dam at the
foot of the lake, or over a weir a short distance below, since Octo-
ber, 1890, but the record is only given from March, 1895.

MUSEUM

NEW YORK STATE

546

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 347

Previous to 1886 Skaneateles lake was the principal feeder of
the Jordan level of Erie canal, but in that year Otisco and Owasco
lakes were also made feeders. The Skaneateles lake dam was
reconstructed 9 feet high by the State in 1887, and in 1895 was
again rebuilt by the Syracuse Water Board with its spillway 2 feet
higher than the crest of the old dam. The following are the
catchment areas of this stream: 7

race
hand surtaccsabove State dam. J. o. ers... se eee. (LS Os
Sennett ES TCG FMCG) cd sce ciapd de-cbale sted wes de rete ee as 12.3
Total catchment area, above foot of lake ................ 73.0
Maeciares: goowe. Willow Glen: WEI co. wece aces ce ce ee eee 74:33
Gr eavemeent shove JOTdan.. 2... eee oe 93.0

The elevation of Skaneateles lake is 867 feet plus tidewater,
while that of the outlet at the Erie canal crossing, near Jordan,
is abont 400 feet. The lake lies in a deep valley, with bold shores
rising several hundred feet at either side. The figures given in
table No. 53 do not represent in any degree the natural runoft
of this catchment, but merely the water yield during the years
indicated, in which there was large storage.

In March, 1895, the city of Syracuse began to draw water
through the new conduit to Skaneateles lake. The results
given in table No. 53 are the quantity flowing in the outlet as
measured on the weir located at Willow Glen, plus the outflow
through the conduit. -

In table No. 52 the mean monthly elevations of Skaneateles
lake, above and below an arbitrary datum, as derived from ob-
servations taken on the first, eighth, fifteenth and twenty-second
days of each month, are given for the water years 1890-1901, in-
clusive. These observations have been made by gate keepers of
the Canal Department and are approximate merely. In the
original record they are given to the nearest quarter of an inch,
while in the present record they have been translated to feet
and tenths—it has not been considered worth while to carry out
the hundredths of a foot.

Geologically, Skaneateles lake catchment lies in the horizon
of the Hamilton shales.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 351

Discharge measurements of Chittenango creek. Gagings of
this creek have been made at the mill-dam at Bridgeport, a short
distance above its mouth. Gage readings were taken three
times a day, showing the hight of water above crest of dam,
head on wheels and width of gate openings. The dam is of tim-
ber, backed with stone, and has a nearly level crest, 215 feet
long, with flood gates at the ends. Figure 24 shows a section
of this dam.

The relatively low runoff of Chittenango creek during the
Summer months may be attributed to the diversion of a portion
of the flow to supply the Rome level of Erie canal. For this

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Fig. 24 Cross-section of dam on Chittenango creek at Bridgeport

purpose State dams are situated on the main stream at Chitte-
nango and on its two tributaries, Limestone and Butternut
creeks. Cazenovia lake, Erieville, De Ruyter and Jamesville
reservoirs are Situated on these streams.

The Erieville reservoir has a tributary catchment of 5.4 square
miles. The storage capacity is 318,425,000 cubic feet, and the
water surface 540 acres.

Cazenovia lake has a tributary catchment of 8.7 square miles.
The storage capacity is 207,000,000 cubic feet and the area of
water surface 1.7 square miles.

De Ruyter reservoir has a tributary catchment area of 18.5
Square miles, which is naturally tributary to Tioughnioga river,
a tributary of Chenango river. The storage capacity is 504,500,-
000 cubic feet and the area of water surface 626 acres. The out-
flow is diverted into Limestone creek, entering Erie canal
through Fayetteville feeder.

352 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Jamesville reservoir has a tributary catchment area of 46.2
square miles. The storage capacity is 170,000,000 cubic feet and
the area of water surface 252 acres. It is situated on the head-
waters of Butternut creek, tributary to Chittenango creek
through Limestone creek. The outflow reaches Erie canal
through the Orrville feeder. |

From Chittenango falls to Chittenango village, a distance of
_ five miles, this stream falls from elevation 860 + T. W. to eleva-
tion 420. From the foot of Chittenango falls to Chittenango vil-
lage, the stream flows through a deep, narrow valley, where
several water powers formerly in use are now mostly abandoned.

Owing to its location below three feeders of the canal, the
records at Bridgeport do not show the actual runoff of the
catchment area during the canal season. During the winter,
drainage into the canal is sometimes drawn off into Chittenango
creek at the aqueducts crossing the main stream and its tribu-
taries. Owing to uncertainty in the runoff, the Bridgeport sta-
tion was abandoned in May, 1901.

Geologically, Chittenango creek lies in the horizon of the
Niagara, Salina and Lower Helderberg groups and Hamilton
shales.

Discharge measurements of Black river. Observations of the
flow in Black river have been made at the dam of the Watertown
Waterworks, located about two miles above Watertown, at Hunt-
ingtonville. This station was established in February, 1897, and
the record has been furnished by the Board of Water Commis-
sioners of Watertown. At this gaging station the stream flows
in two channels with an island between. A high dam on the
right creates a settling basin for the water supply of Watertown.
The second dam, on the opposite side of the island, is of timber
with crest slightly irregular in profile. For ease in computa-
tion this crest has been divided into six parts, each being con-
sidered as horizontal. The discharge over the dam has been
computed, using coefficients derived from Cornell University ex-
periments Nos. 2 and 12, as given in detail in the paper On the
Flow of Water Over Dams.

The entire flow of Black river, aside from the leakage and
diversion for the water supply of Watertown, passes over the

359

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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354 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Huntingtonville dam. Two or more readings of the gage are
taken daily and a mean taken. In computing the flow an allow-
ance of 200 cubic feet per second has been made for leakage
through seams and crevices in the rock underlying the dam.
This amount is somewhat general, as it has only been arrived
at from an estimate of the size of the openings from the state-
ment of eye witnesses when the water was drawn down in the
summer of 1897. The following cut shows a section of the
Huntingtonville dam on Black river:

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Fig. 25 Section of dam on Black river.

Geologically, Black river lies in the horizon of the Trenton
limestone, with its tributaries rising into the unclassified
granites and gneisses of the Adirondack region.

Discharge measurements of Lake Champlain. Lake Champlain
drains an area of 7960 square miles, which is subdivided as fol-

lows:

Square miles.
Area in Quebec.'s oi: 24 FSat Uk Ree Swe eer ae T4140
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Area of. water surface of lake ;<u4 227° eae ee. ee 400

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 357

We have, then, a total area of the basin of 8360 square miles.t

The rainfall of this catchment is stated in the Report of the
Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways at an average of about
33 inches per year. But table No. 25 shows that for the 12 years
from 1891 to 1902, inclusive, the rainfall of Champlain valley was
37.06 inches.

The lake is considered as terminating on the south at White-
hall and on the north at St Johns, on Richelieu river. The low-
water elevation is 95.03 feet +. W. and the high water, 103.78
feet+T. W. The length is 125 miles from Whitehall to St
Johns, and the breadth 13 miles. The outlet of Lake Champlain
is Richelieu river, which flows northerly across the Province of
Quebec, entering the St Lawrence at Sorel. The length of the
river is 75 miles. It receives from New York the drainage from
the northeast slope of the Adirondacks, amounting to 35 per
cent of the whole. <A record of the elevation of lake surface at
Rouses Point has been kept by the United States Corps of Engi-
neers since 1875.

In 1896 the construction of a power plant at Chambly was
begun by the Royal Electric Company of Montreal. The dam is
of concrete masonry, strengthened with imbedded iron bars.
The hight from apron to crest is 18 feet, affording a fall of 28
feet at the power-house. A calibration curve of Richelieu river
was constructed by the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways
by comparing the computed discharge over this dam with the
corresponding stage of Lake Champlain at Fort Montgomery,
and taking into consideration the slope of Richelieu river in the
intervening distance of thirty-five miles. The discharge in cubic
feet per second has been deduced from this curve.

The record of Lake Champlain is given not only because it is
computed over a dam, but because it is a long record, although in
the following tables it has only been taken from 1880-1902, in-
clusive. The catchment area of 7750 square miles, as given by
the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, is placed at the
head of the tables. .

1The preceding figures are derived from the Report of the United States
Deep Waterways Commission (1896). The Board of Engineers on Deep

Waterways gave the area of Lake Champlain at 437 square miles and the
total area of the catchment at 7,750 square miles.

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61

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

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HYDROLOGY

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NEW YORK STATE

364

The following are the mean monthly elevations of Lake Cham-

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 365

Geologically, Lake Champlain lies mostly in the horizon of the
Trenton limestone, the drainage being from the Laurentian
granites and Plutonic norites.

Discharge measurements of Hudson river at Mechanicville.
Measurements of the flow of the Hudson river at Mechanicville
have been made over the dam of the Duncan Company. In 1887 this
company began daily measurement of the amount of water flow-
ing in the Hudson river at their mill! With the exception of one
or two days, this record has been kept for every working day
since October 1, 1887. A record has also been kept of the num-
ber, size, and kind of turbine water wheels in use for the same
period. The Duncan Company placed all this material at the
disposal of the survey of the upper Hudson valley, thus enabling
one to compute the mean daily flow of the river for each working
day from October 1, 1887, to November, 1897. The flow of Sun-
days and holidays, when no observations were taken, has been
assumed as a mean between the preceding Saturday and the fol-
lowing Monday, etc. TThetdam is a substantial structure of
masonry 16 feet high, with a length of 794 feet between the abut-
ments. The crest is stated to be perfectly level, and from all
that can be learned it appears that the daily observations have
been taken with such care as to leave no reason for doubting
that this is a fairly accurate exhibit of the daily flow of the
_ stream for the period covered.

The catchment area of the Hudson river above the Mechanicville
dam is taken at 4500 square miles, although a recomputation
from the latest maps made for the Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways gave 4507 square miles. Thisis only 0.15 of one per
cent different from the former computation of 4500 square miles
and is not enough to make it worth while to recompute the
runoff.

The flow of the Hudson river at Mechanicyville prior to 1899 has
been computed by using the East Indian engineers’ formula for
flow over a dam, and when flashboards are on, the Francis formula
for a sharp-crested weir has been used. Since that time, the
computations have been made by R. P. Bloss, Engineer of the

*Ann. Rept. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York, 1895, p. 104.

366 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Duncan Company, who has used the Francis formula for the
Merrimac dam, namely:

Q==8.012 LAs | (36)
in which—

L= length of dam = 794 feet;

H — depth on crest of dam, in feet.

This formula has been used in all cases, whether flashboards
are on or off. Mr Bloss states that his reason for using this
formula is that there was a litigation at Mechanicville in which
the quantity of water flowing over the dam became an important
element. He therefore used the Francis formula for the Merri-
mac dam because the courts were familiar with this formula,
whereas, had he continued to use the East Indian engineers’
formula, the courts would not be familiar with it and might not
accept it. The difference between the two formulas is not very
great. At 4 feet depth it is about one cubic foot per second
per foot of crest, which would make at that depth 794 cubic feet
per second for the entire dam. Probably the greatest oversight
in this computation is the use of the formula for the Merrimac
dam when the flashboards are on. At 4 feet depth the variation
between the formula for the Merrimac dam and Francis formula
for a sharp-crested weir is about 138 cubic feet per second per
linear foot of dam, and even at 2 feet depth on crest the varia-
tion is over 6 cubic feet per second per foot of dam. It is con-
cluded, therefore, that the computations from 1899 to date are
somewhat less reliable than those of the previous years. The
following cut shows a section of the Mechanicville dam.

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Fig. 26 Section of Mechanicville dam.

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW

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Experience in flows over dams of this length and with depths
as great as from 7 to 8 feet is as yet rather limited in this coun-
try, and the question was raised as to the best method of comput-
ing the discharge for a case like the one under discussion. The
engineers of the British government in India have had, in con-
nection with their large irrigation works, perhaps more experi-
ence in this class of measurement than all others combined, and
the formulas used by them appear more rational in form than
those commonly used in the United States for such computa-
tions, and after some study it was decided to use these. As
many American engineers may not be familiar with these
formulas they are here reproduced. They take the following
form—

Q=3 LC V2 ga, (37)
in which—

Q= the discharge over a thin-edged clear overfall, in pee

feet per second,

L= the length of the dam in linear feet,

C — coefficient depending for its value on d,

g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2,

d@ == depth on crest, in linear feet.

Equation (37) may also take the form—

Q=5.35. LC V d* (38)

To find © for different values of d, we have—

ce (84.6 + af |

C=1— 4

(39)
This gives a series of values of C corresponding to d. For
instance, for d—0.25 foot, C=—0.651; for d=—0.50 foot,
.649, and so on.
For a wide-crested dam the coefficient is further modified to
suit the actual width of the crest. For this we have given the
expression—

A 0.025 C (B + 1)
C'= 04 (— ie ee —), (40).

-

‘Wqnation (39) may Be written ina sii alee crx mn, 356 01 (34, Gd).

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

in which—
B =the width of the crest in linear feet;
C= the coefficient for a thin-edged weir, corresponding to a
depth d, as per equation (359), and
C’ = the adjusted coefficient corresponding to a given breadth
B and a depth dt

In the case of the Mechanicville dam we have a stone crest 7
feet in width and slightly inclined upstream. The width of the
river a short distance above the dam is considerably over 800 feet;
the depth for some distance back is from 16 to 20 feet. In order
to avoid a correction for velocity of approach, a crest was assumed
3d feet wide and values of C’ were computed on that basis.

Having obtained values of C’ for d= 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25,
1.50, 1.75 feet, and so on up to 8 feet, corresponding values of Q
were computed and plotted at a large scale as a curve with values
of d as abscissas and the corresponding flows as ordinates. From
this curve intermediate values of Q have been read off.

The water wheels at Mechanicville have a capacity when they
are all running of about 2400 cubic feet per second. The working
head varies from 15 to 17 feet, depending upon the condition of
the flashboards. A test of a 39-inch Hercules wheel, which has
been in use about eight years, shows the actual discharge to be
substantially as given in the manufacturers’ tables when running
at the speed of greatest efficiency.

The crest gage is read twice a day and a mean taken for the
hight. A continuous record is also kept of the run of the water
wheels at the mill.

Discharge measurements of Hudson river at Fort Edward.
This station is located at the dam of the International Paper
Company, which was established by the writer in 1895 in connec-
tion with the upper Hudson storage surveys. The dam is of
timber on rock foundation and with very little leakage. The
crest is nearly level, 587.6 feet in length. Flashboards are main-
tained on the dam 15 to 18 inches in hight.

There are sixty-two water wheels in the adjoining mill. A
record is kept of the daily run of each in hours, as well as the
working head, which is about 19 feet. The capacity of the wheels

*The method of deducing equations (39) and (40) may be found in
Mullin’s Irrigation Manual, 1890, pp. 11, 12, 138, 139, 171, 172.

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ayes
is about 4000 cubic feet per second. They are mostly of modern
types and have been tested at Holyoke. When the flashboards
are on, computations at Fort Edward have been made by the
Francis formula for sharp-crested weir, but when the flashboards
are off, the flow is computed by means of the East Indian engi-
neers’ formula.

In the winter of 1896-97 a flood spillway was cut in the rock
at the south end of the dam over which the water begins to flow
whenever it reaches the level of the crest of the flashboards. The
profile of this spillway is irregular and causes a good deal of
uncertainty in the calculated flows during high water. Indeed,
the uncertainty is so great that the writer has for a number of
years been unwilling to publish the record of this dam. He has,
however, finally reviewed it, recomputing a portion of the same,
and the figures are given for what they are worth. There is con-
siderable uncertainty in the high-water flows—perhaps as much
as 25 per cent. The entire low-water flow passes through the
water wheels, and there may be some uncertainty in this, although
not as great as in the flood flows.

The summer flow of the Hudson river at Mechanicville and Fort
Edward is materially increased by the outgo from Indian river
dam, built in 1898. A record of the flow at Indian lake has been
kept since July, 1900.

The geology of the Hudson river basin is complicated—from
- its mouth to its extreme headwaters it crosses nearly every
formation appearing in the State of New York.

Discharge measurements of Croton river. This stream serves
as the principal source of water supply for the City of New York,
Borough of Manhattan. The average daily consumption of water
in all the Boroughs of the City of New York was, in 1899,
371,778,000 gallons, distributed as follows:

Gallons.
NT Ea eae ne ere se 230,000,000
Reo” a Sn ial pe ea 21,000,000
TE TRIES 2 saee 8 Mar Cae og a ea 102,663,000.
, OGRE Fe Reg Eey et ee rae aaan aee ea 12,925,000

eT ay <n Singin Oo 5,190,000

The catchment area of the Croton river lies almost entirely
in New York, only a small portion being in Connecticut. It

YORK STATE MUSEUM

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378 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

amounts to 339 square miles above the old Croton dam and to
360 square miles above the new Croton dam under construc-
tion. ‘The main river is formed by three branches, known
respectively as east, middle and west branches, which, rising
in the southern part of Dutchess county, flow through Putnam
county and unite near its south boundary. The river then flows
across Westchester county to the Hudson river, into which it
empties at Croton Point, about thirty miles north of the City of
New York. The principal tributaries, aside from the east, mid-
dle and west branches, are Kisko, Titicus, Cross, and Muscoot
rivers.

The flow of the Croton river is diverted through two aqueducts. .
A record of the flow has been kept at old Croton dam since 1868.

Fig. 27 Diagram of old Croton dam.

This record includes the quantity of water wasted over the crest
of the dam, as well as that diverted for the water supply of New
York.

In 1900 John R. Freeman made a report on the New York
water supply! in which is an extended study of the yield of the
Croton catchment area. It is stated that the results previously
published average 10 per cent too large, the difference between
the earlier estimates and the present being due mostly to the use
of erroneous data, as follows:

1) The flow wasting over the old Croton dam was overesti-
mated about 9 per cent by the use of a formula not strictly ap-
plicable to this peculiar form of dam, and because of a mistaken
assumption in length of overfall. On measuring the length of
crest line of dam, it was found shorter than heretofore assumed

>Report on New York’s Water Supply, with Particular Reference to the
Needs of Procuring Additional Sources and Their Probable Costs, by John R.
Freeman, C. E., 1900.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 379

by 10 feet 6 inches (or 4 per cent) for all depths less than 8
inches, while the length between wingwalls heretofore used was
substantially correct. It was also found that the dam crest is
not absolutely level because of settlement near the center pier,
and that the method of measuring the depth gave results about
0.30 inch too high.

2) The flow in the old Croton aqueduct at the depth commonly
used before the new aqueduct was opened is less than previously
estimated by about 14,000,000 gallons per day, or 15 per cent.
These earlier estimates were based on using for the old Croton
aqueduct the same coefficient of flow found for the new, smooth
and clean Sudbury aqueduct, and not upon a gaging of the old
aqueduct itself.

3) Gaged by the same observer with the same instrument, the
new Croton aqueduct is now delivering less water for a given
depth of flow than when new, to the extent of about 40,000,000
gallons per day; or, when the depth measured at the head of the
aqueduct is 11 feet, the shortage is about 15 per cent.
| 4) An error was made five years ago in setting the gage by
which depths in the new aqueduct are read, so that it makes the
depth appear 24 inches too large; this cause alone contributes
about 6,000,000 gallons per day to the overestimate mentioned
above.

5) The effect of storage drawn from Boyd’s Corner and Middle
Branch reservoirs and the Croton lake in modifying the natural
flow had not been taken into account in these earlier estimates,
neither had due allowance been made for the controlled natural
ponds.! |

Croton river is an average water yielder. The minimum yield
for a complete water year for the whole period 1868-1899, in-
clusive, was in 1880, when from December to November, inclusive,
the total runoff was 13.71 inches.

The Croton catchment contains thirty-one lakes and ponds,
many of which have been utilized as natural storage basins by
constructing dams at their outlets. The following tabulation
gives the entire natural and artificial storage, either actually
carried out or under construction in 1902, for the Croton catch-
ment area:

1Freeman’s report, pp. 121-123.

380 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Capacity up

to level
Name of reservoir PE wg ened
Boyds. - eh. ahh: bed tte alee eee eee 2,727,000,000
Maddle branch: 4 j-c -dyetstcraidt evel ace eee 4,005,000,000
Hast ..Branch; Sodom: :..s1s st) enispwanet tat Gosia 4,883,000,000
St BROOK 2 oie) oi o's gn tee Gee eee ee 4,145,000,000
PRRACB ee cktevads «4 5 “bop Sever teiee aeeecee ee area 7,167,000,000
West Branch, Garmae hase eg sick ete eel 10,070,000 ,000
Atnawalke. 2: 160. wade acer dnetbee RGR ees Bend 7,678,000,000
Mahopae, ty. a 131.«1.-sadiere sae tices pees ea 575,000,000
BRK ose. ope ad} i Geet ek Sch eee ee 565,000,000
Gleneidai.s .uarias-e-eitietten tbe 165,000,000
lead 3. 102 <4 or Viewed amet each Ge ee 380,000,000
Barreti’s, csrac? deeraia: nahh ob hice aetna ee ee 170,000,000
Wiatte 5, qa ow teeantasd > ees nro te eas ae ee 200,000,000
Peaeine at. 3 costae tee pea les “ad ack aati ed a 230,000,000
Wecedbute.d. 44% 4 ticddeaae shits allt eae wae 200,000,000
CROSS... «>. . ¢ MGR tGe ee ere ha oe et eee 110,000,000
CET cane, «95,8 EE ee I a i 105,000,000.
BUC oj oese He REE ee ivi a eee 75,000,000.
EGG an en Eine ip teeOROC ey coeds snake nn 60,000,000.
EOROUA.... - 025: setieione gos sie. ahs lentil eee 50,000,000:
PPAIAGS 005.5 5 Pee Se ee ee ee 25,000,000:
Old Groton lakeo) 0. alin ti S ee: el, Ake Sees 160,000,000
New sCroton . (approximate)... e225 2A ee. p hc ens 21,200,000,000
Additional in New Croton lake above Muscoot
GaRt 50). 5 ha, Cine Se Beers as, 2,500,000,000
Inerease by flashboards:... 204 STR SL SSr™ 2,800,000,000:
Total storage... 2s. 295, vw Reels Agee oe ae 70,245,000,000

The catchment area above new Croton dam is, as already stated,
360 square miles. It is considered that the storage afforded by
this reservoir system will furnish a daily supply of at least
280,000,000 gallons. At this rate the utilization from this catch-
ment will become 778,000 gallons per square mile per day, or 1.20
cubic feet per second per square mile.

The accompanying tables are given in illustration of the yield
of the Croton catchment area.

381

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YO WVd NOLOYS) GIO LY AAI NOLOWD) FO JHONOY—S89 “ON DIAGVL

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 399

Table No. 64 gives the average daily flow of the Croton river at
the old Croton dam, including storage draft with catchment area
and reservoirs as existing in the given years. This table is com-
puted from the observed flow by deducting the quantity corres-
ponding to lowering of storage reservoirs or adding the quantity
taken to refill, without allowance for evaporation loss from stor-
age reservoirs. In his table, the average for each calendar month
is given in gallons for each day of twenty-four hours.

In table No. 65 the mean monthly flow of the Croton river at
the old Croton dam is given from 1868 to 1899, inclusive, in cubic
feet per second.”

In table No. 66 the runoff in inches on the catchment area is
given from 1868 to 1876, inclusive. The rainfall is not given
because Mr Freeman’s investigations showed that previous to
1877 the Croton rainfall is so uncertain as to make it unsafe to
_ draw comparisons.

In table No. 67 the rainfall, runoff and evaporation is given in
inches on the catchment area for the water years from 1877 to
1899, inclusive.’

In table No. 68 the mean monthly flow of the Croton river at the
old Croon dam is given from 1868 to 1899, inclusive, in cubic feet
per second per square mile.‘

It will be seen that the tables on pages 204-5 and on pages 206-7
of Mr Freeman’s report vary somewhat under the different sup-
positions on which they have been computed. There is another table
on pages 208-9, giving the average daily flow at the new Croton
dam exclusive of storage draft with rainfall as in the given year
and with reservoirs as in 1902. This table has been computed
from the natural flow at the old dam for the given year and month
by adding 6.4 per cent for increase in catchment area and de-
ducting an allowance for evaporation loss caused by substituting
water surface for land surface in the new reservoirs constructed
between the given years and 1902. The total catchment area is
taken at 360 square miles, with 16.1 square miles—equivalent to

1From pp. 206-7 of Freeman’s report.

2This table is based on the table on pp. 204-5 of Freeman’s report.

3The basis of tables Nos. 66 and 67 is the table on pp. 206-7 of Free-
man’s report.

4This table is based on the table on pp. 204-5 of Freeman’s report.

400 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

4.5 per cent

as water surface. The quantities in this table are
averages for the calendar months in million gallons per day of
twenty-four hours. ‘This table is not given here, because it is
in effect a computation as to the future yield of this basin.

Geologically this catchment lies almost entirely in-granites and
gneisses, although there is a small area of metamorphic Hudson
formation, consisting of slate, schist and quartzite, and also a
small area of metamorphic Trenton and calciferous limestones.

The present water supply of New York city is derived from the
following sources :.

1) Catchment of Croton river, thirty-three miles north of New .
York. |

2) Catchment of Bronx and Byram rivers, fifteen miles north of
New York.

3) Catchments of a series of streams on the southern shore of
Long Island.

4) Ground water which is found underlying a stratum of clay
on Long Island and on Staten Island. These statements do not
take into account some unimportant well supplies on Manhattan
island.

Discharge measurements of Schroon river. This gaging station
was established at the dam of the Schroon River Pulp Company,
two miles below Warrensburg, November 1, 1895, in connection
with the upper Hudson storage surveys. During ordinary water
an attempt is made to turn the entire flow of the stream through
the water wheels, which run twenty-four hours per day, Sundays
excepted. This is accomplished by the use of flashboards and by
draft from the storage impounded by the Starbuckville dam. The
natural flow of the Schroon river is considerably modified by the
temporary storage of Schroon lake, which has a low-water area of
9.1 square miles. There is a dam at Starbuckville, controlled by
the Schroon River Pulp Company and which stores from 4 to 5
feet in depth over Schroon lake area, which is let down as re-
quired for use during the summer months. This fact explains why
the Schroon river area apparently yields more water proportion-
ately in the storage period than the entire Hudson area and less
in the replenishing period.

AQT

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HYDROLOGY OF

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 403

A comparison of the gagings at Warrensburg with those of the
Hudson river at Mechanicville indicates that the runoff of Schroon
river is considerably greater than that of the Hudson, the differ-
ence occurring mostly in the storage period. This is probably
true, although some uncertainty attaches to the gagings at War-
rensburg, owing to an increase in the leakage from year to year.
The writer visited Warrensburg in October, 1895. At that time
the pulp mill was not running, and due to the fact that Starbuck-
ville dam was closed tightly very little water was running in
Schroon river. The water in the Warrensburg dam stood about
4 feet below the crest. The bed of Schroon river below the dam
was very nearly dry, the flow not exceeding one to two cubic
feet per second. The writer has not seen this dam in several
years, but reports indicate that the leakage may be anywhere
from 30 to 50 cubic feet per second.

When the flashboards are on, the computations have been eal-
eulated by means of Francis’ formula for sharp-crested weir.
Without the flashboards, the quantities are taken from a diagram
deduced from the Cornell University experiments. In 1902 this
mill was rebuilt.

Geologically the headwaters of this stream lie in the horizon
of the Plutonic norites and flow across the unclassified granites
and gneisses.

Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry.
Mohawk river has been an important avenue of commerce ever
since the early settlement of the country. Nevertheless very
little was known as to the water yield until the investigations of
the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways in 1898-9. The
writer established for this Board gaging stations at Ridge Mills,
Little Falls and Rexford Flats. The station at Dunsbach Ferry
was established in March, 1898, by D. J. Howell. At present
gagings over dams are kept at Dunsbach Ferry and Little Falls,
while gagings by current meter are made at Schenectady and
Utica. .

The Dunsbach Ferry record is kept at the dam of the West Troy
Water Company, just above Dunsbach Ferry bridge, nine miles
from the mouth of the river. This dam is in two sections, on

404 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

opposite sides of an island. The left wing has a crest length of
380 feet, while the right wing has a crest 280 feet long. The dis-
charge over the main dam has been calculated by means of a
coefficient determined in Cornell University experiment No. 18,
representing a cross-section nearly identical with that of the
West Troy Water Company’s dam. With a rise of 5 feet on the
gage, the water begins to flow over a masonry racewall. The dis-
charge over this portion has been computed from Cornell Univer-
sity experiment No. 12, as detailed in the paper On the Flow of
Water Over Dams. Plate 9 shows the dam on the Mohawk river
at Dunsbach Ferry.

Discharge measurements of Mohawk rwer at Reaford Flats.
This station is located at the canal feeder dam four miles below
Schenectady, where there is a masonry dam with a timber apron.
Experiments on the Rexford Flats cross-section were made at Cor-
nell University. The following cut shows the dam on Mohawk
river at Rexford Flats:

a SS —{2_2S SS
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ie
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ee ora, aes PSD =e

Lo ES
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IS ES TSFNFRE SF OF SZ SGSGSAS
i

Fig. 28 Dam on Mohawk river at Rexford Flats.

Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Little Falls. This
gaging station is located at the lower or Gilbert’s dam at Little
Falls. It isa circular dam of masonry, furnishing power for the
Astoronga Knitting Mill and the Little Falls Paper Company’s
Mills. There are six water wheels in these two mills, of which
the records are kept. The following cut shows a section of this
dam:

Plate 9.

Dam in the Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry.

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 405
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<—— AS, 2

Li

In addition to Gilbert’s dam, there are two other dams at Little
Falls, the upper one being a State dam, diverting water to the
Itrie canal. The record as given in table No. 72 does not include
the diversion to the canal.

Discharge measurements of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills. The
gaging station at Ridge Mills was located at the dam of the Rome
Waterworks, three miles above Rome. This dam is of rough tim-
ber with plank facing, having a slightly irregular crest, 125 feet
in length, which is divided into several sections to facilitate dis-
charge computations. The computations have been made from
data as per Cornell University experiment No. 6. The following
cut shows a section of the dam on the Mohawk river at Ridge
Mills in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 162:

Fig. 29 Section of dam at Little Falls.

irre ea

SG SF
SETS

SY NY NGF IL SOT
INN N AN ANRRSNGAS

Fig. 380 Cross-section of dam on Mohawk river at Ridge Mills, in com-
parison with Bazin’s series No. 162.

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 411

Geologically the main Mohawk lies largely in the Hudson river
shales and schists. The tributaries to the north flow across the
Trenton limestone into the unclassified granites and gneisses of
the Adirondack region. To the south the tributaries flow across
the Hamilton shales and upper and lower Helderberg groups. The
headwaters of Schoharie creek—the principal tributary—lie in
the Catskill group.

Discharge measurements of East Canada Creek. This gaging
station is located at the masonry dam of the Dolgeville Electric
Light & Power Company, about seven miles from the mouth of
the stream. Readings of the depth on the crest are taken twice
a day and the mean used in computing the discharge. As at the
other stations herein discussed, a record is also kept of the run
of the water wheels and the elevation of water in the tailrace.

The dam is of rubble masonry, 19 feet high, and has a flat crest
6 feet wide. It is 190.25 feet long between the abutments. The
following cut shows a section of this dam:

Fig. 81 Section of dam on East Canada creek at Dolgeville.

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414 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

From the date of establishing the station at Dolgeville in 1898
to June 1, 1899, the discharge was computed from a curve derived
from Cornell University experiment No. 13. From June, 1899,
it has been computed from a revised curve, based on experiments
by John R. Freeman on a model of the round-crested portion of
the Croton dam, which corresponds with the section of the Dolge-
ville dam as regards friction, vertical contraction, siphonage, etc.
The flow through the turbines has also been computed since
June, 1899, from current-meter measurements in the tailrace,
instead of the manufacturers’ rating tables, as formerly. The
effect of the changes has been to slightly increase the extremes
of flow—both as regards high and low water—the flow for the
mean stage remaining substantially the same. This dam is prac-
tically watertight and no allowance is made for leakage.

The headwaters of this stream lie in the horizon of the granites
and gneisses. It crosses the Trenton group and the Hudson river
shales.

Discharge measurements of West Canada creek. Measurements
of West Canada creek have been made at Middleville at the timber
dam of the Nelson Knitting Company, which supplies power to
four mills. Aside from an ice slide, the crest of this dam is nearly
level. The leakage of the dam is taken at 50 cubic feet per second,
although the leakage is stated to have increased so much during
1901 as to lead to the abandonment of the station. The following
cut shows cross-sections and profile of this dam:

El. 101.50
T7171
Stone

Wall

Fig. 82 Cross-sections and profile of dam on West Canada creek at
Middleville.

415

YORK

NEW

OF

ILTYDROLOGY

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416 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Geologically the headwaters of this stream lie in the horizon
of the granites and gneisses. It flows across the Trenton group
and Hudson river shales.

Discharge measurements of Sauquoit creek. This station is at
a dam which is the property of the New York Mills, used to
operate an extensive cotton mill. The dam is of earth, with timber
facing, having a spillway 105.8 feet in length. The following
cut shows cross-section and longitudinal profile of this dam in
comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175:

BAZIN’S SERIES No. 175

El. 500.0
El. 499.3 yore
4.4 6.5
=a BE
BI6- 748.0 f- ~ —83.7 = = 48:4 B:BHe ~20-7- AO B A9S he 1. 6-
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2 itl *y q 2 g
5 i gla: 1 EL. 496.18 | 9 |E1. 406.19
Hl El. 496.0 op El. 496.05 [7 ay
/ V/f -

Fig. 38 Cross-section and longitudinal profile of dam on Sauquoit creek
at the New York Mills, in comparison with Bazin’s series No. 175.

When this station was established in the fall of 1898 the dam
was watertight and leakage consequently neglected, but the state-
ment is made that in May, 1900, the leakage was found to be 5.6
cubic feet per second and the station was accordingly abandoned
in October, 1900. The flow has been computed, using Bazin’s series
No. 175, for which reference is made to the paper On the Flow of
Water Over Dams.

Geologically this stream lies in the horizon of the Hamilton
shales, crossing the Helderberg and Salina groups.

Discharge measurements of Oriskany creek. This station is
located at the canal feeder timber dam at Oriskany, with a crest
length of 214 feet. The profile is irregular and has been divided
into three sections to facilitate computation. The dam is about
four feet in hight. A section is shown in the following cut.

Fig. 84 Cross-section of dam on Oriskany creek at Oriskany.

WIP SS Te OS:

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 417

The coefficients derived from Cornell University experiment No.
14 have been used in computing the flow over this dam. The flow
of Oriskany creek represents the natural runoff of the tributary
catchment modified by pond storage, with additional flow during
the summer months due to diversion from storage reservoirs on the
Chenango river catchment, through the summit level of the aban-
doned Chenango canal, into Oriskany creek. The natural catch-
ment area above the gaging station is 144 square miles, while that
of the Chenango river, made partially tributary through Chenango
eanal, is 87 square miles. The effective catchment area during
the navigation season is therefore 251 square miles, while the
effective catchment area with canals closed is 144 square miles,
less the storage of the several reservoirs. These reservoirs are
situated in Madison, Eaton, Nelson and Lebanon townships in
Madison county, and include Hatch lake, Eaton brook, Bradley
brook, Leland pond, Madison brook and Kingsley brook reservoirs.
Their main characteristics and storage capacity in cubic feet are
shown by the following tabulation :

| |
Catchment | Distance | Average

: Storag St
Name of reservoir cate pata eptl song capacity.
miles miles cet | acres —
(1) (2) (3) (4) | (3) (6)
OE SS a ene a 36 10 134 58, 370, 400
Eaton brook...:.:..... 10.6 38 50 254 558, 212, 000
pees. BOOK. :.: 22...) 2. oe. 35 25 | 1384 145, 926, 000
2 oe Fe ei 25 oe la ite | 59, 287, 000
Madison brook......... 9.4 29 40 235 460, 647, 000
Magesley brogk:.:.2..|02 6. es 33 20 113 98, 445, 600

‘Total storage......| ........ | Con het | ip ee 1,375, 887, 000

In examining tables Nos. 76 and 77 it will be seen that the runoff
of Oriskany creek is considerably larger than the adjacent Sau-
quoit creek, but on making the proper deductions for these reser-
voirs the two will be found to be substantially the same.

Geologically this stream lies in the horizon of the Hamilton
shales, crossing the Helderberg and Salina groups.

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Discharge measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks in 1835.
Eaton and Madison brooks are in the central-eastern part of

Madison county and tributary to Chenango river.

The catch-

ment area of Eatonebrook is given at 6800 acres, or 10.6
Square miles, and that of Madison brook at 6000 acres, or 9.4

square miles.

TABLE No. 78— RAINFALL AND RUNOFF OF EATON BROOK

MONTH fall.

(1) (2)
1835 Inches
Jane 2... eS. ees ie ee 6.72
saly. f 5 te oe ek, ee 2.74
PUP MEE oo. ee. vis osc 5 aes BR 2.86
Nepteniber fee eS Nee. eee 1.34

DelLoper oot Ses Oe es 3.0
Nevent ber sis) AN ee 2.20
Weceniber 3. Viewed. i. eee 0.96
June to December, inclusive ...| 19.82

June to October, inclusive......

TABLE No. 79—RAINFALL AND RUNOFF OF MADISON BROOK

MONTH Rain

fall
(1) (2)
1835 Inches
Snow of November-December,

S74, OF Srodns 33.5 oax tree eae
PREBLE 5 os. Jpaatuaeiere ccs 7 2.17
POUERAEY *5.. 5.5.5 due wacko see 2.50
Migros os. iach be ube sae 1.03
PAM AE a's cara p nie ay eae ew i aie ate 5.0
EP Weer ree ty 1.98
SEATED iri wlivvis Slava’ oi eae whe an eae 8.05
0 EEC EEE OE Ee EO SS 3.87
PIS... Sy veces cde se aan 3.06
ICOTE OT, fs.s «\s o:estmasin was onies 0.88
ROSEMEAD i005 s Dus » sks stax cuen sie bts 3.86
VME IIOES 5 sien siea'e 3 iE AR Oriel lee 2.10
CeO, ; Tacs a's sanly Ee aa 0.76

January to December, inclusive.) 85.26 | 855,092,800 | 388, 986, 420

January to May, inclusive......
June to October, inclusive......

Percent-
Rainfall for Runoff from age of
6,800 acres, 6,800 acres runoff to
rainfall
(3) (4) (5)
Cubic feet Cubic feet
165, 876, 480 59, 407, 394 35.8
67, 634,160 | 27,994,240 41.4
70, 596,240 | 13,547,058 19.2
33, 076, 560 9, 586, 513 29.0
74, 052, 000 20, 694, 651 27.2
54, 304, 800 23, 772, 620 43.8
23, 696, 640 |_36, 625, 544 54.1
=
489, 236,880 | 191,528, 020 39.2
411,235,440 | 181, 229, 856 31.9
| Percent-
Rainfall for Rnnoff from age of
6,000 acres | 6,000 acres runoff to
rainfall
|
(3) | (4) (5)
Cubic feet Cubic feet
$7, 120;000.f tics scence) eee
47,262,600 | 28,192,079 49.1
54,450,000 | 35,377, 594 64.9
22,443,400 | 48,284,656 | 192.8
108,900,000 | 80,776, 974 14.1
43,124,400 | 58,013,176 | 184.5
175, 329, 000 20, 138, 006 11.5
84, 288, 600 23, 141, 302 27.4
66, 646,800 | 23,725, 060 35.6
19,166,400 | 19,158,957 99.9
84, 070, 800 19, 544, 880 23.2
45, 738, 000 18, 232, 372 39.9
16,552,800 | 19,401,364 | 117.2
44.9
363, 300,400 | 240, 644, 479 66.2
429, 501, 600 | 105,708, 205 24.6

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 421

The following statements in regard to these measurements are
abstracted from Mr Jervis’s report * From the Eaton brook results
it appears that the average runoff from June to December,
inclusive, was 39.2 per cent of the rainfall and from June to
October, inclusive, 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. The minimum
monthly runoff was in August, which shows only 19.2 per cent
of the rainfall. The rainfall in the month of June, 1835, on
Eaton brook was 6.72 inches and in July 2.74 inches. The per-
centage of runoff to rainfall for June was 35.8, whereas for July
it was 41.4, which would indicate that the bulk of the June rain
must have been at the end of the month.

From the measurements of Madison brook it appears that in
1835 the average runoff for the whole year, including the snow on
the ground on January 1, was 44.9 per cent, or nearly one-half
of the rainfall. Mr Jervis points out that on account of the
storage of the reservoir, the Madison brook record can not be taken
for the summer months, but that the year should be divided into
two periods. For the first period he gives the results from Jan-
uary to May, inclusive, during which the runoff was 66.2 per
cent of the rainfall, and for the second from June to October,
during which the runoff was 24.6 per cent of the rainfall. During
the second period, June to October, inclusive, Eaton brook gave
a runoff of 31.9 per cent of the rainfall. Mr Jervis explains these
different results by the different characters of the two districts
drained. Eaton brook valley is narrow, the area drained steep,
with a close-textured soil. Madison brook valley, on the other
hand, is wider, with easy slopes, and the soil is more porous
than that on Eaton brook. Mr Jervis concludes his discussion
with the remark that Eaton brook valley would afford more than

1For Mr Jervis’s original report see appendix F to Ann. Rept. Canal Com.,
1835, Ass. Doc. No. 65, pp. 55-60. Mr Jervis’s tables, with extracts from
the report, are also quoted in the following documents:

(1) Report of F. C. Mills, Chief Engineer Gen. Val. Can., in appendix D
to Ann. Rept. Can. Com., 1837, Ass. Doc. No. 80, p. 81.

(2) Report of W. H. Talcott, Res. Eng. Gen. Val. Can., 1840, Ass. Doc.
No. $6, p. 51.

(8) Report of the Regents of the University, 1838, Sen. Doc. No. 52, pp.
208-211.

(4) Documentary History of the New York State Canals by S. H. Sweet,
Dep. State Eng. and Sur., 1863, Ass. Doc. No. 8, pp. 203-204.

422 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

an average runoff over a large district of country, including the
usual varieties of soil, while Madison brook would probably not
differ materially from the general average in this State.

In his documentary history of the New York State canals,!
S. H. Sweet analyzes Mr Jervis’s measurements of discharge of
Eaton and Madison brooks and points out several probable errors,
specially in the Madison brook result, where because the measure-
ments indicate only what was actually discharged through the
sluice pipes each day instead of what drained off from the valley,
he concludes that the real drainage of the Madison brook area in
18385 was about 0.518 of the rainfall, instead of 0.449, as given
by Mr Jervis. Inasmuch as the Eaton brook and Madison brook
measurements have only historical interest at the present time.
this branch of the subject is not here pursued at length. So far
as can be learned the measurements of these two streams by
Mr Jervis were the first systematic measurement of the runoff of
streams in the United States.

Geologically Eaton and Madison brooks le in the horizon of
the Hamilton shales.

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FLOW OF STREAMS

The maximum flow of a stream is merely another name for
flood-flow, and since floods are very destructive in New York the
general causes may be briefly considered.

A typical New York stream rises in the hills and mountainous.
country at the sides of the valleys and flows down, with declivities
steepest at the headwaters and in its lateral tributaries, the main
stream growing flatter toward its mouth. The profile of nearly
all New York streams is therefore roughly concave in form.

Streams having a concave profile are ordinarily divided into.
three portions, as follows:

1) The upper or torrential portion, where erosion is active and
in excess of deposition.

2) The normal portion, where erosion and deposition are about
equal and the stream is neither lowering nor raising its bed.

3) The alluvial portion, where deposition exceeds erosion and
the bed is gradually being raised, and where also this raising of

*Ann. rept. State Engineer and Surveyor for 1862.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

the bed, together with the alluvial banks, permit of sudden and
extensive changes in channel location at times of floods. This
concavity of profile, with its resulting diminution of velocity, is one
of the potent factors in the causation of floods, since it permits
flood waters to be brought to points having sharp concavities of
profile or abrupt flattening of grades more rapidly than the chan-
nel will carry the same away, producing at such points temporary
accumulations of water with an attendant overflow.

It is not to be understood that the profile of any stream is a
perfectly smooth concave curve, nor that the grades grow
progressively flatter without interruption as one passes down
stream. Local causes interfering with regularity of flow, and
geological formations interfering with the vertical erosion of
channels, cause interruptions in the regularity of the concave
profile. The Genesee river is a characteristic type of this inter-
ruption by geological causes. Whatever the regularity or irregu-
larity of the profile may be, however, it is safe to expect that if
floods occur at all on a stream, they are more certain to occur
where the stream slope grows suddenly or decidedly flatter or
where extensive local obstructions or restrictions occur.!

In order to correct the excessive flows produced by the fore-
going conditions the stream may be trained or regulated in a
number of ways; such training is commonly called river regula-
tion or river conservancy.

Antiquity of river requlation or conservancy. River regulation,
or river conservancy, is very old, and there is scarcely a phase of
it that has not been considered at some time in the Old World.
The Chinese rivers, particularly the Hoang-ho, were regulated by
dykes and embankments over 4000 years ago. The same is true
of the Euphrates and many other rivers on which were situated
the cities of the ancient world. This statement is specially true
of the river Tiber, at Rome. In the year 53 B. C.—1957 years
ago—a proposition was brought forward in the Roman senate for
moderating the frequent inundations of this stream, which re-
sulted in the appointment of five senators as a river conservancy
commission, to whom was assigned the task of so regulating the
volume of water in the river that there might be “no deficiency

1Abstract from the Report of the Water Storage Commission.

494 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

in Summer and no injurious excess in winter.”! So far as known
this was the earliest river conservancy commission. This com-
mission does not appear to have regulated the river very
effectively, since many inundations occurred afterwards, and in
1495 A. D. an accurate record of overflows was commenced. The
flood of 1495 was, with a few exceptions, one of the heaviest
known. Since that time serious floods have occurred on the Tiber
in 1530, 1557, 1598, 1606, 1637, 1660, 1686, 1702, 1750, 1805, 1843,
1846 and 1870.

The town of Ostia, when founded, in 633 B. C., was at the
mouth of the Tiber and soon had 80,000 inhabitants. In the
course of years Ostia was deprived of its port by the silt carried
down by the Tiber. Thereupon the Emperor Claudius, about the
beginning of the Christian era, presented to the Roman senate
a project for forming a port three miles from the original mouth.
A basin, with two moles, a breakwater, towers and a lighthouse,
was executed and a canal opened to connect with the river. This
canal silted up towards the end of the first century. The Emperor
Trajan repaired the port, adding an internal basin. The canal
which still forms the navigable mouth of the Tiber was opened
about 110 A. D. Plutarch, in his life of Julius Cesar, states that
Cesar intended to remedy the evil by deepening the mouth of
the Tiber, but that his death prevented the accomplishment of this
task.

An extraordinary inundation of the Tiber is mentioned by the
younger Pliny, in his letter to Micrinus, as occurring in the reign
of Trajan, who, as already stated, built a canal which still exists.
The present length of this canal is about two and one-half miles.”

In reference to the reason why the Roman senatorial river
conservancy commission did not succeed there is but one remedy
which can be applied to a river in order that there may be no
deficiency in summer and no injurious excess in winter, namely,
water storage. The valley of the Tiber does not present the
proper conditions for applying this remedy. In its lower reaches
the Tiber flows through a broad plain, while in its upper reaches,

1The Tiber and Its Tributaries, by 8. A. Smith, 1877, p. 60.

2W. Shelford, on Non-tidal Rivers, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LX XXII, pp.

7-8; and The Tiber and Its Delta, by Prof. Ponzi, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol.
XLVII, pp. 342-344.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 425

the valleys are narrow, with steep slopes, accordingly rendering
it impossible for large quantities of water to be stored.

So far as known, aside from Black river, Raquette river and one
or two others in this State, there are no rivers anywhere on which
the task assigned to the Roman river conservancy commission
could be successfully applied. On Black river it is not difficult to
construct a single reservoir, which practically controls 1889
square miles of catchment area. The Raquette river can also
be thus controlled by a single dam at Tupper lake. If it were
not for the location of towns near the water level, the Seneca
river could be controlled by a series of dams at the foot of the
Finger Lakes:

River regulation on the Seine. The Seine is the most important
river of France, not only on account of its being the highway for
a flourishing inland trade, but in consequence of engineering works
which have been carried out for its improvement. On this stream,
the same as on others, the occurrence of high floods is due to the
concentration of the rainfall at special periods of the year. The
rainfall is considerably greater in the summer than in the winter
months, but owing to evaporation the rains of summer have com-
paratively little influence upon the fiow of the river, although a
heavy rain during the winter months falling upon a saturated
soil, when evaporation is inactive, causes a flood of which the
hight depends upon the amount of saturation of the basin by
previous rains and the duration of the rainfall. Daily readings
of the hight of the river have been kept at Paris since 17382.
During this time, thirty-one ordinary floods, twelve extraordinary,
and two exceptional floods, in December, 1740, and in January,
1802, have occurred. A list is also given of five exceptional floods
occurring between 1649 and 1732. In 1658 a severe flood followed
the breaking up of the ice in the river after severe cold weather
lasting five weeks. Of the forty-five large floods recorded since
the commencement of the daily observations in 1732 only three
occurred in the warm season, two of them appearing in the month
of May and one in the month of September. The foregoing shows
that regular floods of the Seine at Paris are almost wholly con-
fined to the cold season.

EE REE
i1The River Seine, by L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol.
LXXXIV, p. 210.

426 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

A record of floods has also been kept on a number of other
important French rivers, as the Garonne, of which special studies
were made over forty years ago, the Loire and the Rhone, all of
which are the subject of special extended memoirs.

A number of rivers of Germany and Austria have been studied
carefully for from 50 to 100 years, but in the United States sub-
stantially nothing had been done until about twenty years ago,
from whence it results that river conservancy is a new subject
here, many persons supposing that nothing has ever been done
anywhere.

Definition of river regulation or conservancy. The term river
regulation or conservancy may be considered as comprising the
following objects: J

1) The preservation and improvement of a stream for domes-
tic, Sanitary and industrial purposes.

2) In the case of navigable streams, their maintenance and
regulation for navigation.

3) The culture and preservation of fish.

4) The effectual drainage of the district through which a
stream runs.

5) The abatement of injury to lands by floods.

The cause of floods is, broadly, excessive and irregular rain-
fall, although very heavy rainfalls may occur without causing
a flood. General statements of why this is so have been made
in the preceding paragraph regarding the river Seine. Indeed,
an investigation into rainfall shows that the intensity of floods
is due only very remotely to the amount of rainfall. On the
contrary, floods are very closely related to hight of ground
water. On Genesee river, in August, 1893, when as the result of
a serious summer drought ground water was very low, a rainfall
of several inches only produced a slight flood of about 4000 cubie
feet per second, whereas in July, 1902, preceded by rain enough
to fill the ground with water, about the same amount of sud-
den rainfall produced a devastating flood of from 20,000 to
30,000 cubic feet per second Many other examples could be

i¥loods on Genesee river vary greatly in ‘intensity. A flood of from
30,000 to 40,000 cubie feet per second at Mount Morris is not likely to pro-
duce, owing to temporary storage on the flats, a flood of more than 20,000
cubie feet per second at Rochester. The preceding statement considers the
flood as measured at Mount Morris.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 427

cited of this general truth, but, as the object at present is not
specially to multiply proof on this point, a single one is sufficient,
although it is proper to remark that the same phenomenon has
been observed on many other streams. |

Torrential and gently flowing rivers. In addition to the classi-
fication as to concavity of profile, given on a preceding page, rivers
may be divided into two classes; (1) torrential, and (2) gently
fiowing rivers. The rivers of the first class have considerable
fall and usually flow over impermeable strata, while those
of the second class flow over alluvium. Many of the
streams of New York State belong to both classes—in
their upper reaches they are torrential, while in their
lower they are gently flowing. This distinction is important to
bear in mind in treating of the question of floods, because the
floods of torrential rivers, while high, are of brief duration.
Gently flowing rivers, on the contrary, have lower floods, but they
continue for a longer time and are therefore likely to be much
more injurious. In New York State the torrential streams gener-
ally flow through deep valleys and in many cases present excellent
opportunities for water storage. Usually the valleys of gently
flowing streams are not suitable for storage reservoirs—the cost
of the necessary barrage would in many instances, at any rate,
prove insuperable.!

General principles of river regulation as defined by von Wezx.
Perhaps as interesting a paper as any is one by Gustav Ritter
von Wex, Privy-Councilor to the Emperor of Austria, in which
the governing principles of river regulation are so clearly set
forth that one can hardly do better than to give an extended
extract therefrom. Von Wex’s memoir is limited to a brief
general summary of the first principles requisite to the successful
regulation of intractable rivers. The quotation follows:

In every case, first of all the upper course of the river must
be dealt with separately, and then the lower portion of it, to-
gether with its mouth, whether it empties itself into an estuary
or into the open sea.

From long experience it has been ascertained that every
river or stream, following its natural course through wide tracts

“The Conservancy of Rivers, by Wm. H. Wheeler and Arthur Jacob,
Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXVIT, pp. 201 and 233.

428 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of level country, invariably, if the banks consist of deposits of
earth or gravel, attacks them, the lighter particles being carried
away, the heavier being deposited in the bed of the stream, so
that in course of time its width increases while its depth de-
creases, and at the same time islands, sandbanks, bends, creeks
and by-channels are formed.

In rivers thus left to nature, the fall, mean velocity and
force of the current are continually decreasing while the river-
bed is rising; this naturally raises the general water-level
relatively to the adjoining country, and exposes it to frequent
inundation, the effects of which are disastrous floods and the
formation of innumerable branches and by-channels which inter-
sect the whole country, flooding and swamping it at every rise —
of the river, and rendering it in time unfit for habitation by
either man or beast. Instances of this kind are at the present
time to be met with in many parts of the world, notably in Asia,
Africa and America.

In order to deal effectually with such cases, namely, to abate
the floods, and to prevent disasters accompanying them, as well
as the ultimate formation of trackless swamps, the following
procedure is recommended :

1) A new channel following the course of the valley should
be carefully laid down by the superintending engineer, either in
a direct line or with easy bends, and when excavated, the entire
body of water should be admitted into this new channel, the old
bed and all by-channels being filled up.

2) Having carefully determined—

a) The discharge per second at low, mean high water level
of a cross-section of the river, either immediately above or imme-
diately below the portion to be regulated, and

b) The increased fall which the new channel will afford;
then the sectional area of the new bed must be fixed, according
to approved hydraulic formulas, so as to allow of the passage of
either an ordinary or an extraordinary volume of water.

3) The water having been admitted, the next thing is to
protect the banks by random rubble or by stone pitching in order
to prevent the action of the current injuring them, or forming
bends or creeks.

4) After the completion of the above, the old river bed and
by-channels should be filled up, the land thus reclaimed should
by degrees be brought under cultivation; in the same manner the
marshy tracts exposed hitherto to inundation, and fertilized by
the deposit therefrom, should be raised by a coating of rich soil.

5) If exceptionally high floods still overflow the banks and
inflict loss and damage to the freshly cultivated valley, dykes at

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 429

suitable distances apart will be necessary to confine such floods,
and enable them to flow off gradually without causing damage.

From forty-eight years’ observation and experience of exten-
sive works undertaken for the improvement of rivers, the author
can confidently affirm that by careful attention to the points
above recommended, even the most tortuous rivers and the
swampiest valleys have, generally within a few years, but in
some cases only after many years, yielded the most satisfactory
results, as for instance—

a) The increase of fall due to the more uniform section and
more direct course, and the concentration and confinement of the
stream within a single channel provided with firm banks, con-
siderably increases the force and velocity of the current, which
tend to deepen the channel, and to carry away the material thus
scoured out as well as that brought down from above.

b) By lowering the bed of the river, in some cases to the
extent of from 3 to 6 feet, the general water level, both of the
river and of the ground springs in the neighborhood, is propor-
tionately lowered, so that the adjoining country is less liable
to inundation, and the swamps are more easily drained and
brought under cultivation.

ce) The velocity being accelerated in the new channel, as
shown by (a), floods pass off more rapidly and do not rise so
high, consequently the low country is seldom or never under
water, or at any rate not to the same extent as before. If, how-
ever, these lesser and lower floods are to be entirely prevented,
dikes parallel to the course of the river must be added.

d) In rivers exposed to the action of frost, floating ice is
apt to accumulate in the unregulated portions of its course,
especially at sharp bends, and on shallows and sandbanks, occa-
sionally to such an extent as entirely to obstruct the flow of
the stream; and to raise the water in the river to such a hight
that it overflows the banks, inundates the neighboring country,
and spreads ruin far and wide.

When once a river has been regulated this can not take place,
as there would then be nothing to hinder the free passage of
floating ice, and should a temporary stoppage occur, the concen-
trated force of the current would soon overcome every obstacle,
by raising the blocks, and bearing them away without causing
any flood.

e) It is a matter of general experience that even in a deep
river following a winding course and dividing into numerous
branches navigation is often obstructed to such an extent that
the river becomes all but impassable, yet when the same river
has been regulated, a direct channel is provided, facilitating

430 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

traffic and commerce, and increasing the prosperity of the
country already improved by drainage and cultivation.

_ £) On the banks of many rivers left to nature but a scanty
population exists, invariably affected and often decimated by
epidemics, and generally exhibiting an imperfect physical and
mental development. After regulation, and by draining and
eultivating the adjoining country, these evils disappear, the
inhabitants improve in health, strength and intelligence, the
population increases, new villages spring up, and prosperity
reigns where before disease and poverty were rife. The govern-
ment earns the hearty thanks of all thus benefited, and has at
the same time fully recouped the capital laid out on the works
by the increased revenues derived from the improved condition
of the country.

Where such an improvement of the waterway has been
rationally executed, in accordance with the particular nature
and requirements of the locality, most, if not all, of the above
advantages have been secured; as may be proved by numerous
instances of works of the kind executed years back in France,
Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy... Moreover, the fact
that the chambers of deputies of these states have, during the
last few years, repeatedly devoted hundreds of millions of florins
to the completion of works already begun, and to new under-
takings of the same kind, is a proof that the importance and
advantage of such improvements are fully recognized.

As a complete description of even the most important works
of this kind would far exceed the limits of a short paper, the
author must confine himself to a brief review of those success-
fully accomplished on the Rhine.

The Rhine, between Basle and Mannheim, has for centuries
followed a tortuous course, abounding in sharp bends and
dividing into many branches, through a valley between 5000 and
6000 metres broad. Having further repeatedly shifted its course,
the whole valley became cut up by old channels; to a considerable
extent, too, its natural fall was lost, owing to its sinuous course,
and consequently the rate and force of the currents were so much
diminished that deposit accumulated everywhere, raising the
bed of the river and mean water-level to such a degree that the
adjoining country was little better than a swamp. The bed of
the Rhine being thus elevated, and its course so irregular, the
flood-water could not flow off rapidly enough, but spread abroad,
inundating the neighborhood, and destroying whole villages and
townships.

The riverside communities had in all ages attempted, by dams
and other protective works, to abate these evils, but with little

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 431

success, as, owing to the winding course of the river, the floods
confined at one point escaped at another, and took their defenses
in reverse. This deplorable condition of the Rhine valley con-
tinued until the commencement of the present century, when the
population, already greatly reduced by poverty and disease, was
daily decreasing owing to emigration to America.

Colonel Tulla, of the engineers, an eminent authority on
hydraulics at that time, by repeated and unremitting exertions,
induced the government, in 1817, to undertake a thorough survey
of the entire Rhine valley. Upon that survey was based the
project for the radical regulation of the Rhine bed, which was
approved and ratified by treaty between the border states of
France, Bavaria and the Grand Duchies of Baden and Hesse,
and according to which the regulation of the Rhine was carried
out during the years 1819-1863.

The work consisted in regulating the course of the river and
making it more direct. This necessitated the excavation of
twenty-three considerable cuts, which reduced the distance by
river between Mannheim and Basle from 252 to 169 kilometres,
and increased the fall 30 per cent. Further, the stream was
confined to a uniform channel of suitable section, both banks
were substantially protected, the old river bed and all branches
were filled in, and the land thus reclaimed was for the most part
brought under cultivation. 3

The above mentioned regulation of the Rhine may be con-
sidered one of the most extensive and interesting undertakings
of the kind ever attempted in Europe. It is proved that the
following advantages have been secured:

a) The river has undeviatingly followed the new course pro-
vided for it; has deepened its bed to the extent of two metres in
some places, and lowered the mean water-level proportionately.
Flood-water also has been passed more quickly.

b) The general water-level being thus reduced in hight, ex-
tensive tracts of swampy ground have been laid dry and con-
verted into fertile arable land. Further, more than 20,000 hec-
tares of old river bed, water-holes and sandbanks have been
reclaimed, and brought in a great measure under cultivation;
and lastly, the low-lying tracts are now no longer exposed to
inundations.

c) The sanitary condition of the Rhine valley has visibly im-
proved, and the general prosperity of the inhabitants materially
increased.

d) According to the concurrent reports of experts, govern-
ment officials and local authorities, the benefits derived from the
regulation of the Rhine are so considerable that the capital laid

432 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

out has been amply repaid. Wherefore, in grateful recognition
of the eminent services rendered by Colonel Tulla, the original
promoter of the scheme, a statue has been erected in his honor
at Maxau on the banks of the river.

In one respect only has the regulation of the river not ful-
filled the expectations of its promoters, viz. the extensive sand-
banks formed at the confluence of its tributaries have rendered
inter-communication with them both difficult and dangerous,
because these feeders to the main stream enter it across bars
little more than 0.60 or 1.50 metre below low-water level.

Had the hydraulic engineers in 1817 correctly determined
the minimum discharge of the Rhine, and at the same time
anticipated a probable decrease of the same, they would have
diminished the waterway, and thereby considerably reduced the
deposit formation of such sandbanks so that the channels of
communication between the Rhine and its tributaries would
have remained more open to navigation. :

In addition to the foregoing general principles, applying more
particularly to the non-tidal portion of rivers, rivers emptying into
the sea, or into an arm of the sea, may require special treatment,
and while, aside from the Hudson river, there are few such in
this State, and although the improvement of this stream has been
assumed by the Federal government, nevertheless it is proper to
briefly consider the general principles governing such an im-
provement.

Generally speaking, the regulation of rivers flowing into the
sea is more costly than that hitherto treated of, because the vol-
ume of water is greater and the yielding nature of the silt forming
the beds and banks, together with the violence of the stream and
force of the waves, render it necessary that whatever the form of
protection, it shall have solid foundations and be executed in the
most substantial manner.

The works necessary for the perfect regulation of such a river
consist of :

1) Rendering the course as nearly straight as possible in order
to increase the fall.

2) Inclosing the river at or near its outfall by means of dykes
or jetties, and continuing the same beyond the bar and far enough
out to sea to enable the current to carry the sand and mud away,
thus preventing the formation of a bar at the mouth.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 433

a

3) In order to protect the adjoining country from tidal inunda-
tion, it will be necessary to construct on either bank, dykes at
such distances that at ebb tide the force of the river will be
sufficient to carry out to sea the silt, etc., deposited during the
inflowing of the tide.

The foregoing principles of river regulation are general in their
character, and apply in some degree to every river in the United
States.t

In regard to the definition of river conservancy as given on a
preceding page, it may be mentioned that the third head—the
culture and preservation of fish—has already been fully cared
for by the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of this State, and
in regard to the second head—the maintenance and regulation of
streams for navigation—this phase of the subject has been under-
taken by the Federal government and is therefore not specially
considered here. The first head—the preservation and improve-
ment of a stream for domestic, sanitary and industrial purposes
—the fourth head—the effectual drainage of the district through
which the stream runs—and the fifth head—the abatement of
injury to lands by floods—are specially considered. The three
heads are interrelated and the discussion may proceed without
further special subdivision.

Flood overflows not necessarily injurious. Flood flows, when
occurring either late in the fall or early in the spring, are not
only not necessarily injurious, but may be a source of consider-
able benefit to agriculture. Streams carry, when in flood flow,
a large amount of silt which is valuable for manure, which
enriches land, and when the inundation is annual, it may be a
source of unending fertility. To cite one case, the river Nile
has maintained the fertility of its valley from time immemorial!
from this source. The same thing is true on the Mohawk and Gen-
esee rivers, and many other streams of this State.

It is also true that floods in the late spring or early summer,
after crops have been planted, may be a source of very serious
damage. During the summer of 1902 very serious floods occurred
in the month of July. Probably the damage from such floods in

_ *The Regulation of Rivers and Waterways, With a View to the Prevention ~
of Floods, by Gustav Ritter von Wex, Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. LXIX, p. 323.

434 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

New York State exceeded, in 1902, $3,000,000. If damages of
every kind could be reckoned they would amount to at least
$1,000,000 in any year.

Irrigating streams. There is a class of streams which, through
the tendency to elevate their beds and widen their channels, noted
in a previous section, have actually raised themselves several feet,
and in some cases twenty to thirty feet, above the surrounding
country, so that whenever there is an overflow from the main chan-
nel, the water runs away from the streams, considerably compli-
cating the construction of permanent regulation works. But there
are, fortunately, only a few such streams in this State and none
of those very important. The Missouri, Mississippi, Red and
other rivers may be cited as streams of this character. The writer
also remembers the case of the Clear fork of the Brazos river,
in Texas, where a railway bridge crossing the stream was set
level, with a down grade to the east for one half mile of 20 feet, or
the country one-half mile east of the stream was about 20 feet
lower than at the stream. There was also a down grade to the
west of from 20 to 30 feet per mile, for one and one half miles.
The writer’s recollection is that two miles west the country was
about 30 feet lower than at the stream.

Insufficient waterway of bridges. One main reason why bridges
are so frequently carried away in floods is because of insufficiency
of the waterways. | Every student of hydrology understands that
the catchment above a bridge should be ascertained, and a water-
way, large enough to allow for all contingencies, provided. Never-
theless, under the system of building bridges by road commission-
ers, this is hardly ever done. Economy seems to be the sole
consideration. The result is that bridges are carried away, and
the writer ventures the opinion that enough money has been spent
in the State of New York on renewal of highway bridges alone in
the last ten to twenty years to make permanent bridges over every
stream in the State. So long as the fact remains as it is, the
writer can not but think that the carrying away of such bridges
is due rather to the lack of definite knowledge on the part of the
road commissioners than to severity of floods.

Before designing a permanent bridge, the catchment area above
the proposed location should be ascertained, together with the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 435

heaviest rainfall. In case there happens to be gagings of the
stream, the maximum runoff may be obtained from the gagings,
but thus far there are gagings of comparatively few of the New
York streams, and probably the flood-flow will require to be com-
puted. As to just how this is accomplished is foreign to the
purpose of this report, but it may be simply stated that there is
no special difficulty, provided that the data of catchment and
rainfall, together with the steepness of slope, length of catchment,
etc. are known, in computing a flood-flow from which a bridge
opening may be ascertained that will be large enough to carry
the maximum flood.

Lack of data a source of difficulty. One difficulty in design-
ing regulation works arises from lack of data and in order to
render data of this character accurate within 2 or 3 per cent
there should be a record about thirty years long. Such a record
should include rainfall, maximum, or flood-fiows, and minimum,
or low-water flows. In this way only can accurate knowledge of
the regimen of streams be gained.

River conservancy in England, Germany and France. In
England, largely due to the prevalence of the common law rule
that every riparian proprietor owns to the thread of the channel,
river conservancy has not made the progress which it should. The
taxpayers have generally insisted that all who are to be taxed
have a voice in determining the kind of regulation to be carried
out. The result is that many important works have not been
undertaken, and on many streams the work has been carried
out piecemeal, thus greatly increasing the expense, with ineffectual
results,

In Germany the system is quite different. Here the State
assumes control of the main and navigable rivers, defraying the
expenses of their management out of tolls collected from those
using the streams for navigation, mill power and other purposes.
The State claims absolute ownership in the waters and prevents
any interference, even with tributary streams. In. some cases
the riparian owners may combine for purposes of draining lands
and flood protection. On application to the government they are
constituted a conservancy authority, armed with powers to compel
those who fail in their duty to construct the necessary protection

436 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

works, or to maintain them. They may also tax all those who
are benefited, but have no power to tax those occupying lands
outside of the reach of floods. The State contributes a portion of
the cost of protection works where such works have the effect
of improving land and increasing its taxable value, on the prin-
ciple that such increase is a source of profit to the State. The
State also grants aid to townships, and if it becomes evident that
nothing will cure the evil of flooding but a diversion of a part
of the water, the State, by virtue of its property in the water,
executes the work gratuitously.

The system of river conservancy in France is somewhat different
from the German. In this country the general government has
always undertaken the conservancy of navigable streams, and has
recouped itself from navigation dues and other charges, but lat-
terly taxation of this kind has been mostly abolished, and the
government is now chargeable with nearly all the expenses con-
nected with the conservancy of rivers, though in certain cases the
owners are also taxed in proportion to their interests. In May,
1858, it was enacted that the State should undertake works for
the protection of towns from inundation, providing also that the
departments, communes and owners should contribute to the cost
of the works in proportion to their respective interests. There is
an inland navigation system on nearly every river of any import-
ance in France, which has, perhaps, to some extent, influenced the
action of the State.!

The storage dam on the Furens river, at Saint-Etienne, was
built to protect the city of Saint-Etienne from floods. About
64 per cent of the total cost was paid by the city of Saint-Etienne,
and the balance was paid by the department. The cost of con-
struction of the Terney dam, also in France, was borne by the
State, town and manufacturing interests. A number of other
storage dams have been built in France in recent years by a com-
bination of the general government, department government, local
or municipal government and private interests benefited.

The cause of floods. While, broadly, the cause of floods has
been stated as irregularity in the rainfall, we may now go some-

a Ore eee a
“The Conservancy of Rivers, Wheeler and Jacob, Proc. Inst. C. E.,
Vol. XLVII, pp. 246 and 311.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 437

what further into the detail than this statement implies. The
clearing up of lands and drainage of towns, together with farm
drainage, are all efficient causes for floods. In a general way, the
water falling in the form of rain or snow runs off by these various
means quicker than formerly. In the meantime the channels of
rivers have not been correspondingly enlarged to meet the in-
creased demands upon them, with the result that overflows fre-
quently ensue. An examination of rainfall statistics shows that
as a whole the rainfall is no greater now than formerly, and the
increased frequency of floods must therefore be ascribed to not
only irregularity in the rainfall, but to the greater rapidity with
which water runs off. Broadly, we may say that the higher the
degree of civilization, the more quickly will surface water be
discharged, and hence, without there is a corresponding increase
in the discharging capacity of streams, floods will become more
frequent, with their attendant evils.

Frequency of floods. This matter has been referred to in a
preceding chapter, discussing floods on the Tiber and Seine.
Very serious floods have occurred on these streams as often as
about once in thirty to fifty years. In the United States there
are no records long enough to show certainly how often floods may
be expected, but probably their periods will not be materially
different from these streams—in some cases, heavy floods have
occurred on the Tiber only a few years apart and it is intended to
indicate here only very general averages.

Are storage reservoirs effectual in preventing floods? Phos
is considerable doubt about storage reservoirs being a universal
remedy for floods. On some streams excessive cost would pre-
clude their use—that is to say, the benefits received would not
be commensurate with the expense. On other streams their use
may be of the greatest value. On the Genesee river, 41 per cent of
the total catchment area can be controlled by a reservoir; on
Salmon river, 55 per cent ; on Black river, 90 per cent, and on the
upper Hudson river, 50 per cent. On all these streams the percent-
age of control is large enough to prevent destructive overflows.

Views of French engineers. The utility of storage reservoirs
in diminishing damage from floods was taken under considera-
tion in France in 1856. Investigations made in the valleys of

438 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the Seine, the Rhone, the Loire, the Garonne and other import-
ant rivers resulted in a decision not to carry out the numerous
reservoirs which had been proposed, owing to the uncertainty
and doubtful efficacy of their action in floods.

Further investigations were made after the inundations of
1875. These latter observations show that in the case of the
Garonne, a reservoir capacity of about 20,000,000,000 cubic feet
would be required to protect Toulouse, and one of 50,000,000,000
to 60,000,000,000 cubic feet to protect Agen and the rest of the
basin. Unfortunately, the capacity of the reservoirs which could
be constructed in the upper valley of the Garonne would amount
to only about one-sixth of that required for protecting Toulouse.
The investigations led to similar conclusions in the case of the
lower Garonne, and the other principal river basins in France.

In one particular the French engineers seem to have been far
from right in their investigation of the utility of storage reser-
voirs. Thus the statement is made that such reservoirs, to be
useful against floods, must be kept empty throughout the whole
season when floods may occur. This, perhaps, may be true in
France, but it is not true, under the different conditions of rain-
fall, in a number of cases in the State of New York. Possibly,
the French engineers overlooked the moderating effect of a reser-
voir, with large water surface, upon a flood even when the
reservoir is filled to the flow-line. The writer has discussed this
question extensively in his several reports to the State Engineer
and Surveyor, and also in his report to the Board of Engineers
on Deep Waterways, and a computation is given in connection
with floods on Genesee river which shows that even under the
adverse condition of water at the crest, the temporary storage
on the water surface is in most cases great enough to practically
double the time of a flood and hence to greatly decrease its de-
structive effect. The conclusion on this head, therefore, is that
an extreme flood, which would not be effectually mitigated, even
though a reservoir were full, would occur not oftener than once
in a century.

Flood warnings. Since the flood wave in a river is progres-
sive, some idea can be formed in advance as to the stages of

1 Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, sixth series, Vol. II, 1881, p. d, trans:
Jation in Proc. Inst. C. EB.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 439

water that will occur along the lower reaches of a river when
the stages at points higher up are known. Judgment as to such
cases is based upon the observed hight in previous years.
Hence, the value of a record of water stages in determining the
relation between the wave crest at various points along a river;
but the relation between these will not be identically the same
in all cases—it will depend upon the distribution of the rain-
fall and other causes over the catchment basin of a river. The
average of a great many cases gives a result which, though some-
times in error, is in most cases nearly right.

Predictions as to the hight of floods based on the preceding
general method have been kept in France since 1854, and in the
United States on the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and other tribu-
taries of the Mississippi for the last fifteen to twenty years.
Generally the rivers of New York State are not long enough
to make such predictions specially reliable, although on some
of the longer rivers they may be successfully applied. At Cin-
cinnati, Louisville and Cairo predictions may be made from two
to six days in advance of a destructive flood.

This matter is merely mentioned here as one of the practical
outcomes of the study of floods in large streams. It is exten-
sively discussed in Russell’s Meteorology! to which the reader
is referred for more extended information.”

Maximum Flow of Streams in New York

We will now take up a brief description of floods on the various
rivers of the State, following the same order as previously used
in discussing the classification of streams. Since there is no
information as to floods on many streams, only those will be men-
tioned where information is available.

Floods in Buffalo river. This stream is formed by the junction
of Cayuga creek, Buffalo creek and Cazenovia creek, which unite
near Buffalo. The catchment areas of these various streams are
given on page 205. The slope of Cazenovia creek is steeper in its

*See chap. 10, River Stage Predictions, in Meteorology, Weather and
Methods of Forecasting and River Flood Predictions in the United States,
by Thomas Russell. A general résumé of the cause of floods is also given
in chap. 9 of the same work.

“Abstract from Report of the Water Storage Commission.

~~ 440 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

lower reaches than either Buffalo or Cayuga creek. It results,
therefore, that floods in Cazenovia creek reach Buffalo several
hours earlier than those in Buffalo and Cayuga creeks. The chan-
nel in the lower portions of all these streams is irregular and
sinuous, which, together with the flattening of slopes, produces
the usual flood congestion in the lower reaches. The annual oc-
currence of floods in these streams has long been a source of dam-
age and has been a bar to the development of the city of Buffalo
towards the southeast. The Buffalo engineers have been for sev-
eral years making studies of floods in these streams in order to
devise plans for their prevention. Serious floods have occurred at
the following dates:

January 5, 1890. December 22, 1898.
December 16, 1893. January 13, 1900.
January 14, 1894. February 9, 1900.
May 20, 1894. April 22, 1901.
March 30, 1896. December 14, 1901.
January 13, 1898. March 1, 1902.
February 16, 1898. July 7, 1902.

December 5, 1898.

It is stated in the report of the Buffalo Flood Committee, made
to the Water. Storage Commission, that in the flood of March 1,
1902, the maximum discharge of the Buffalo river was about 28,000
cubie feet per second (catchment, 420 square miles), or at the
rate of 55 cubic feet per second per square mile. This, however,
was an unusual flood; the ordinary flood-flows are estimated at
about 18,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 43 cubic feet
per second per square mile, although from the conclusions of the
committee, given on page 442 of the Report of the Water Storage
Commission, it is inferred that exceptional floods may exceed
25,000 to 28,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of about 66
cubic feet per second per square mile.*

Floods in Tonawanda creek. High floods have occurred in this
stream in 1865, 1889, 1896 and 1902. The flood of March, 1865, is
considered to be the extreme maximum, although the flood of

1A large amount of information in regard to Buffalo river is given in the
Report of the Water Storage Commission, at pp. 71-76 and pp. 422-443,
inclusive.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 44]

March, 1896, was nearly as high. At this time water flowed over
the State dam at Tonawanda, with a head of 4.82 feet, indicating
a discharge of 9600 cubic feet per second. At the same time there
was 3 feet of water flowing over a waste-weir directly into Niagara
river and representing a discharge of about 1000 cubic feet per
second, making the total discharge on March 30, 1896, of Tona-
wanda creek at Tonawanda 10,600 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 610 square miles), or at the rate of about 18 cubic feet per
second per square mile. This value of the flood discharge is prob-
ably due to the natural storage in the flat and swampy portions
of the creek valley west of Oak Orchard dam, as well as to the
diversion of some of its waters through the Oak Orchard cutoff
during this flood—probably, the entire flood-flow on March 30,
1896, was from 20 to 22 cubic feet per second per square mile. In
the upper reaches of this stream the flood-flows may be expected
to approximate anywhere from 60 to 80 cubic feet per second per
Square mile.

Floods in Niagara river. As shown by table No. 45, the natural
regulation of this river is so perfect that floods are unknown.
During the entire year 1895 the flow of Niagara river varied from
195,578 cubic feet per second to 177,852 cubic feet per second, the
extreme variation for the year being only 17,726 cubic feet per
second.

Floods in Genesee river. The following account of early floods
in this stream is mostly taken from the report on Genesee river
storage surveys, dated January 1, 1897.

Great floods have occurred in this river in 1815, 1835, 1857,
1865 and 1896. Ata number of times between 1865 and 1896 the
river has also been very high, but at no time since 1865 as severe
as in 1896.

Beyond the mere fact that a very severe flood occurred in 1815,
which overflowed the flats in the valley between Avon and Mount
Morris and the black ash swamp which then covered the area now
included in the first and third wards of the city of Rochester,
little is known as to the flood of that year.

The next great flood of which we have record occurred in 1835.1

1See report of F. C. Mills, relative to the Genesee valley canal, Assembly
Document No. 73, 1837, p. 69.

442 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Considerable damage was done to the farms in the flats. Accord-
ing to statements made by Hervey Ely, a former citizen of Roch-
ester, the flow of the river in the flood of 1835 amounted to about
36,000 cubic feet per second.

In February, 1857, a serious flood occurred in the Genesee river
which carried away not only a number of buildings on the north
side of the Main street bridge at Rochester, but also undermined
the piers of that bridge and even finally swept away the greater
‘part of the old structure. A new bridge was in process of con-
struction at the time.

The great flood of 1865. March, 1865, was a period of general
high water throughout western New York. Long continued cold
weather and a heavy snowfall were followed by a sudden thaw,
accompanied by rain, about the middJe of March. On the six-
teenth a freshet in the upper Genesee valley was reported, and
on the seventeenth the water was very high at Rochester, but
aside from the usual alarm manifested on such occasions, the sit-
uation was not considered specially serious. The river, however,
continued to rise during the night of March 17th, until the banks
of the Genesee valley and the Erie canals were overflowed, with
the water pouring direct from the river into the canals. The
river further rose above its banks until finally nearly the entire
central portion of Rochester was under water. During the whole
of the 18th and part of March 19th the only means of transporta-
tion throughout the entire business portion of Rochester was by
boat. The gas supply was cut off early in the disaster, leaving the
city in darkness. The New York Central & Hudson River Rail-
road bridge over the river was carried away, and traffic sus-
pended on that railway for several days. The damage to property
is stated to have exceeded $1,000,0001

Rochester newspapers of March, 1865, give detailed accounts of
the Genesee flood, from which it is gleaned that the damage must
have been very severe, and may have even considerably exceeded
$1,000,000.

1The foregoing details of floods in the Genesee river up to and including
1865, have been mostly gleaned from Peck’s History of Rochester. The
newspapers of the day have also been referred to for particulars of the
great flood of 1865.

‘sa01d oy} JSUIVSe poespo, dn JAoqANy sprvk Wody JoqunyT ‘spurys
XWMOYM IIT Jo91IS [NVI IS WNOG WoAZ JonponhV ot] Ssodovw SuLyoo'yT

‘OT 93°

MOU OSHOFT OULOGSO MON oq
“IOSOTPPOY IV COST JO pooy jai

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 443

The flood commission of 1865.- Following the great flood the
Legislature passed an act appointing commissioners to inquire
into and ascertain the cause or causes of the inundation of the
city of Rochester by the waters of the Genesee river in the month
of March, 1865, and also to ascertain whether any, and, if any,
what obstructions had been placed in said river which tended to
cause or increase the extent of such inundation, and the nature
and extent of such obstructions, and what measures, proceedings
and remedies were necessary or proper for the purpose of guard-
ing against or preventing a recurrence of such an inundation.
The commissioners were Addison Gardner, Amos Bronson, Levi
A. Ward, George J. Whitney and George E. Mumford. General
I, F. Quinby was engineer to the commission.

The commission begins its report by stating that there is no
record in the previous history of Rochester of any serious damage
from overflows of the river, no former flood having to any im-
portant extent spread beyond the banks of the river. In view of
this state of things the citizens of Rochester had felt it to be of
the highest importance to ascertain the cause of the unprecedented
extent of the 1865 flood, and, as far as possible, to guard against
its recurrence.

As to the first cause, it is stated that by reason of a sudden
change of temperature from winter to almost summer heat an
immense body of snow, which had accumulated during the pre-
vious winter weather, was suddenly melted and thrown at once
into the river channel within the space of three or four days
instead of occupying a week or more, as in ordinary floods. Sec-
ondly, the effect of the flood was increased in consequence of the
obstruction to free fiow caused by the bridge and embankment of
what is now the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railway at
Avon. The openings in the embankment across the river valley,
while adequate for ordinary floods, were entirely too small for
the quantity of water flowing in March, 1865. The consequence
was that at the time of greatest flow the water stood at least
three feet higher on the upper side of the embankment than on
the lower side. The embankment finally gave way, thus allowing
a large quantity of ponded water to flow suddenly down the river,
filling the channel at Rochester beyond its carrying capacity. As

444 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

a third cause, the commissioners found that the channel of the
river was obstructed through the city of Rochester in such man-
ner as to cause overflows into the Erie and Genesee valley canals
at that place. The remedy suggested was that the waterway
through the city be considerably increased.

As regards the Erie canal aqueduct, the commissioners pointed
out that the piers supporting the structure, instead of being built
parallel with the stream, run partially across it, thereby mater-
ially increasing the amount of the obstruction by so changing
the current that at least one half the river as it passes the aque-
duct flows in the direction of the east bank above Main street
bridge. The commissioners also pointed out that during the flood |
trunks of trees, logs and timber lodged against the aqueduct and
closed a considerable portion of the waterway through the arches.
Under these circumstances the fiood rose to the copings, standing
more than three feet higher on the south side than on the north.
The commissioners also considered that Main street bridge pre-
sented considerable obstruction. In 1865, and for some years
previous to that time more than two thirds of the eastern arch
of the bridge had been closed by the wall of the building on the
north side. This obstruction, however, was removed by the action
of the flood, the building in question having been carried away.
Since then the east opening has been left entirely free, but there
is still in 1904 considerable obstruction to the west arch by 2
building erected since 1865.

The areas of the several openings of the arches of the Erie canal
aqueduct at Rochester are as follows:

First opening, east side, 516.6 square feet; second opening,
681.4 square feet; third opening, 625.7 square feet; fourth opening,
641.8 square feet; fifth opening, 615.3 square feet; sixth opening,
625.7 square feet; seventh opening, 552.4 square feet; total, 4308.3
square feet.

The following are the total openings of the several river bridges:
Court street, 5081 square feet;! Main street, 3367 square feet;
Andrews street, 4511 square feet; Central avenue, about 4450
square feet.

1This is the opening of the river arches below the level of the flood of
1865; in addition the arches over the Johnson and Seymour raceway have
an opening of 790 square feet and the Erie canal arches of 498 square feet.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 445

It will be noticed that the area at Main street, the first bridge
below the aqueduct, is 941 square feet less than that of the Erie
canal aqueduct.

The commissioners also gave some attention to the causes which
made the flood of 1865 greater than that of any previous year, and
expressed the opinion that the same causes might produce a still
greater flood in the future if

As a chief cause, the commissioners considered that cutting off
the forests and clearing up lands were likely to lead to heavier
floods from year to year. In view, therefore, of what seemed to
the commissioners a constant source of danger, they arrived at
the conclusion that a much larger waterway was imperatively
necessary through the city of Rochester. 3

A severe flood also occurred in the upper Genesee at Mount
Morris in March, 1893, at which time large quantities of ice were
left in the streets of the lower portion of that village.

Flood in Genesee river of May, 1894. It is very common for the
flats in-the vicinity of Mount Morris to be inundated, with great
destruction of farms and growing crops. The flats between Mount
Morris and Rochester were inundated May 20-23, 1894, the damage
to growing crops at that time amounting to many thousand dol-
lars. As interesting data we may discuss that flood, at which
time the approximate discharge of the stream at Mount Morris
(catchment, 1070 square miles), was as follows:

ote
Pee bet) a OS eb oe « ERO @. 5 a 600
MME A METBN unis HINER a 9% 2 pW esa ws ec bia we 4 3,090
BOISE Ss UU 6 og SoS ee oe 5,530
eee, Oa TNs ic x pce So cad GN er SO NO 5,090
ae Be ht yn ok of Wie eip oe be b's 16,580
ree hd Fr, Sh ash oy icra yo # a nes AGE,» 22,210
hss. one ee a in gichtil, as yo psetescverd » al « . 28,000
2 SES DR Se ae = an 42,000
OPE CS en ae ee a 33,000

*The report of the commissioners appointed to investigate the causes of
the inundation of the city of Rochester in March, 1865, may be found in
Assembly Document No. 117 of the Session of 1866.

*The waterway is still substantially the same as in 1865. If anything,
it has been somewhat contracted by various constructions since that day.

446 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cubic fet

May 21, Tamec: cat eeel Toor ae ae ee 30,730
May 21,6 p.m... OT ee 26,500
May 22, Tasmo; <.). cc ina SU oe a ee - 15,650
May. 22,12... fi. ous tS a SE iar er te See: 13,650
May 22,6 pim. .2.0: er ertie Ga ae 10,720
“May 23,7 a. mi. Soe YO SSDS SRR ee 7,300
May 23, 12 mo... 2 ities eR aks RS ee 6,700
May 23, 6ipi mi oi 218), Sood SIR ee a eee 5,690
May 24,7 dame. 2) ocdieokl. wor ee Soe ere ee 5,990

The total runoff from 7 a. m. of May 18 to 7 a. m. of May 24 was
over 7,000,000,000 cubic feet.

On the morning of May 21 the flats in the broad, level valley of
the Genesee river and Canaseraga creek, between Dansville, Mount
Morris, and Rochester, which have an area of frem 60 to 80

6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6PM 6AM NOON 6 PM
MAY 20 MAY 21 MAY 22 MAY 23 MAY 24

Fig. 85 Flood flow of Genesee river May 18-23, 1894.

square miles, were nearly flooded, in some localities to a depth of
from 4 to 6 feet. On account of the large pondage by these flats,
although the maximum runoff at Mount Morris was 42,000 cubic
feet per second at 3.30 a. m. on the morning of May 21, at
Rochester the maximum flow did not at any time exceed about
20,000 cubic feet per second. We have, then, a case where a large
pondage has, by prolonging the time of runoff, modified a flood-
flow over 50 per cent. As further illustrating the effect of a large
reservoir, or, what is the same thing, the effect of a large pond

‘MOY POO JO oI} IV JaJSoTPOOY 1V [[VJ aeddn ony,

treat ;

‘TT 94¥%Id

HLYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 447

area in modifying the effect of an extreme flood, reference may be
made to fig. 35, in which, with time as abscissas and runoff as
ordinates, the runoff record of Genesee river for May 18-25, 1894,
has been plotted. The lower curve of that figure may be taken as
representing approximately the law of the runoff of any generally
distributed heavy rainfall on the catchment area of this stream.
In making this statement it is not overlooked that fiood-flows at
other seasons of the year may differ somewhat in their movement
from that of May, 1894. Inasmuch as the rapidity and intensity
of the runoff of any given stream depend largely upon the topog-
raphy, the statement may be made that the general law of move-
ment of floods in the Genesee river is indicated by the lower curve
of fig. 35. With this understanding we may assume any other run-
off and construct the approximate curve by drawing it generally
parallel to the curve of the actually observed case. In this way
the upper curve of fig. 35, representing the curve of a flood one
and one-half times greater than that of May, 1894, has been pro-
duced, slight irregularities of the lower curve having been neg-
lected in projecting the upper one.

A flood-flow one and one-half times as great as that of May, 1894,
which culminated in a maximum of about 42,000 cubic feet per
second at 3.50 a. m. of May 21, gives a maximum of 63,000 cubic
feet per second, the movement of which would be, under the
assuinptions, substantially as in the upper curve of fig. 35. As
to the probability of a maximum flood-flow of 63,000 cubic feet
per second on the upper Genesee catchment area, the case of the
neighboring Chemung river may be cited, where a flood-flow of
67.1 cubic feet per second per square mile occurred in June, 1898.
This figure applied to the upper Genesee would give a possible
maximum runoff of 71,126 cubic feet per second.

Flood of 1896. The flood of April, 1896, came very near reach-
ing the danger limit—so near, indeed, that it is now the opinion
of many thinking citizens of Rochester that the regulation
afforded by the proposed storage dam at Portage may not be
sufficient to fully protect the city from a repetition of the disaster
of 1865. If the river were to again rise to the hight attained in
that year, the damage would inevitably be several times greater
than oecurred then.

44§ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Flood of March, 1902. On March 3 to 5, 1902, a flood
occulred which, at Rochester, lacked but little if any of reach-
ing the hight of the great flood of 1865. At Avon, twenty miles
above, the high-water mark reached was eight inches below that
of 1865. Owing to a fortunate combination of circumstances
the damage resulting from this flood within the city of Rochester
was much less than that in 1805, but only prompt and energetic
measures on the part of city and canal officials and the rarest
good fortune prevented the damage from exceeding that of 1865.
This flood was due to the more common cause of floods on this
catchment, namely, the general melting of the snows by warm
rains. This flood reached its maximum hight at Rochester on
the afternoon of March 3.

Flood of July, 1902. On July 6 to 13, there occurred a flood
on the Genesee which, from the time of the year, the high stage
of water in certain parts of the river, and the extent and severity
of the damage arising from it on a certain portion of the catch-
ment, is without precedent in the history of Genesee floods.

The rains over the catchment generally had been unusually
heavy during the latter part of June and the early part of July,
and the ground was thoroughly saturated with water. On July 6
the rainfall reached a climax which culminated in a so-called
“ cloudburst”” in the region covering the northern central por-
tion of Allegany county. At Angelica, within this district, the
rainfall on July 6 amounted to 4.5 inches. Heavier rainfalls
than this have occurred occasionally on the catchment area with-
out producing severe floods. This fact, coupled with the fact
that a number of private observers unofficially claimed much
heavier precipitation than the Angelica office reports, raises some
doubt as to whether the Angelica station itself may not have
escaped the severe downpour, or whether the marked difference
in the results may be due wholly to the difference of satura-
tion of the ground. The former alternative is rather dis-
counted by the fact that the catchment at Angelica creek
itself, of which the station is not far from the center, suffered
the most severe flood in its history. This remark in fact is true
of the entire catchment of the Genesee in the aggregate down
as far as Portage falls. It is well established by repeated evi-
dence that the hight which the flood attained at Portage was

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 449

several feet—variously estimated at from three to five feet—
higher than the highest known preceding flood, and similar evi-
dence exists for points on the Genesee up as far as Wellsville.
This is not true, however, for the lower portion of the valley.
At Mount Morris the flood hight attained was about that of pre-
vious floods, but at Rochester the river showed a discharge of
only about 20,000 cubic feet per second against 36,000 to 40,000
or 42,000 cubic feet per second for the 1865 fiood and the March,
1902, flood. The excessive precipitation, therefore, must have
been confined to the headwaters of the river.

It must not be inferred that the maximum flood discharge at
Portage was less than 20,000 cubic feet per second, the discharge
at Rochester. On the contrary, there is good reason to believe
that the discharge at Portage with only 40 per cent of the catch-
ment area was very much in excess of that at Rochester, and the
reasons for this are: (1) the flood hight at Portage was from
three to five feet higher than during former extreme floods which
gave fiood discharges of 40,000 cubic feet per second at Mount
Morris, which has only 7 per cent more catchment area; these
former fioods must therefore have discharged not much less than
40,000 cubic feet per second at Portage; five feet, or even three
feet, added to the crest of these former floods indicate still greater
discharges and leave little doubt that the discharge at Portage
was nearly if not fully double that at Rochester; (2) an examina-
tion of the July flood at Rochester shows that the maximum stage
of water was reached at Rochester during the afternoon of July
8, while the maximum stage at Portage occurred during the
forenoon of July 6, indicating that the flood crest occupied
more than two days in passing from Portage to Rochester. When
we consider the topography of the valley between Mount Morris
and Rochester, this time consumed in transit must have been
accompanied by an elongation of the flood with a corresponding
diminution of the discharge per second.

A careful study of the circumstances attending this flood of
July, 1902, in conjunction with the other maximum floods in the
Genesee, leads to the conclusion that the maximum flood at Roch-
ester has not yet occurred, and that by a combination of circum-
stances which do not seem at all improbable a maximum flood in
excess of 40,000 cubic feet per second may reasonably be expected.

450 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Had the same precipitation which occurred in Allegany county oc-
curred on the northern portion of the catchment area with reason-
ably high water from the southern district, the flood wave would
not have been elongated as it was by its flow through the alluvial
valley north of Mount Morris, and as a result the wave would
have been shorter but with a higher maximum discharge.

This flood of July is unique in the matter of the date of its
occurrence. The other great floods have occurred in March or
April, with minor severe floods occurring later. Occurring, as
this did, in July, with the crops well advanced toward maturity,
the resulting damage was greatly in excess of what would have
occurred under similar conditions in the early spring. The
destruction of crops was in itself serious. But it was a greater
disaster to agricultural interests that the season was then too far
advanced to permit of replanting.

The effect on floods of Genesee river flats. Considering Genesee
river as a whole, the following conditions govern: Between Roch-
ester and Mount Morris and between Mount Morris and Dans-
ville, in the broad valley of the Canaseraga creek, there are ex-
tensive flats, amounting for the whole to from 60 to 80 square
miles. The effective catchment area at Rochester is 2365 square
miles, as against 1070 square miles at Mount Morris. The por-
tion of the catchment area below Mount Morris also contains
Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock and Conesus lakes, which altogether
provide a large volume of surface storage, while above Mount
Morris there are few flats and only one small lake (Silver lake).

There are extensive flat areas in the catchment of Black and
Oatka creeks, which are tributary below Mount Morris.

The preceding discussion shows that the upper section of the Gen-
esee river has a rapid runoff and is subject to sudden and excessive
flood-flows. These fiood-flows are received in the extensive flats
below Mount Morris, where they are partially retained and grad-
ually delivered to the extreme lower river, The flood-flows at
Mount Morris are greater than at Rochester, although the dry-
weather flow at Rochester is, proportionately to catchment area,
usually greater than at Mount Morris. The flats then act to de-
crease the flood-flow at Rochester and to increase the dry-weather
flow there. At Mount Morris we may expect flood-flows of from

Abstract from the Report of the Water Storage Commission.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ADL

25,000 to 30,000 cubic feet per second nearly every year, while at
Rochester 30,000 cubic feet per second is quite rare, even the great
flood of 1865 probably did not materially exceed 45,000 to 54,000
cubic feet per second. About 30,000 to 35,000 cubic feet per sec-
ond at Rochester gives a full river, and anything much beyond
that figure will produce a disastrous flood. The flats then act to
decrease in a very marked degree the violence of the spring freshet
at Rochester. With the river in its natural state, and with the
same character of catchment area throughout its whole course
that we find to exist above Mount Morris, what is now the chief
business portion of the city of Rochester would probably be sub-
merged nearly every year.

This immunity of the city of Rochester is, however, purchased
at the expense of the flats which act as an immense storage reser-
voir for the spring floods of the upper river.

From an economic point of view one marked effect of the
annual inundation is largely to prevent the use of these flats for
any agricultural purpose other than grazing. If they can be cer-
tainly relieved of the burden of that portion of the annual overflow
which occurs in May, they will immediately become the most fer-
tile agricultural lands in the State, and their value will be doubled.
It is in line with the policy of all civilized governments to estab-
lish works for river conservancy wherever results are to be gained
such as these, and the precedent of similar works by other goy-
ernments is in view of the benefits to be derived by the Common-
wealth in the way of increased valuation of property, the strongest
possible argument that can be urged in favor of the Genesee river
storage.

The question may be asked whether the annual inundation is
not really a benefit rather than an injury, by reason of carrying a
large amount of valuable silt fertilizing material over the entire
submerged area, as in the case of the river Nile and other irri-
gating streams. The answer is that, by reason of a heavy May
rainfall, occurring at a time when the ground water is high and
before vegetation has become active, there is likely to be an over-
flow just at the planting season, which effectually prevents the
putting in of crops. _ Frequently, too, the May overflow extends
over into the early days of June. In May, 1893, the discharge at
Rochester was at the rate of over 14,500 cubic feet per second,

452 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and on May 20th the mean discharge at Rochester was 12,900
cubic feet per second. Flood discharges of these amounts are
sufficient to render farming operations impossible on a consider-
able portion of the flat area. On June 2, 1889, the discharge at
Rochester was about 20,000 cubic feet per second, and from per-
sonal observations on that day it is known that nearly the whole
flat area of the valley was flooded. The answer to the question as
to the value of the annual overflow is, therefore, that in the case
of the Genesee valley, the May overflow comes at such a time as to
do only injury, without any opportunity to realize what would be,
if the inundation came only in March or April, a great benefit.

The cash value then of so regulating the flow of the river as to
do away with the May overflow can be estimated as an average of
80 square miles, at say $40 per acre, or the increased valuation of
the whole area would be about $2,050,000.

Moreover, the flats above Rochester are a further benefit to the
lower river by reason of an immense storage of ground water
therein, which, as the flood level subsides, gradually runs out with
the result of greatly decreasing the period of extreme low water.

Again, in case of excessively heavy rains, in the middle of the
summer, from the effect of which the river channel is temporarily,
partially or wholly filled, such an amount of water is stored in
these flats as to keep the river comparatively well up during the
fall. ;

This actually happened in the season of 1893, when on August
29, 1893, there occurred a rainfall of nearly three inches over the
whole catchment area in a period of about 12 hours, which pro-
duced a flood-flow of 5800 cubic feet per second at Mount Morris
and 3800 cubic feet at Rochester, an amount of water sufficient
to partly fill the channel between these two places, but without
any overflow of the adjoining flats. Previous to this heavy rain-
fall the mean flow at Rochester had been for a month about 300
cubic feet per second. ‘At Mount Morris it had not averaged, for
the same period, more than 125 cubic feet per second. The effect
of this rain on the ground water of the flats is strikingly shown by
comparing the flows at Mount Morris and Rochester, when it will
be found that on September 8 the flow at Mount Morris was again
down to 200 cubic feet per second, and remained below that figure,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 453

except for slight rises due to rainfall on September 7 and 8, and
September 15 and 18, until October 15, when the flow rose to a
little over 2000 cubic feet per second: At Rochester, on the other
hand, the effect of the heavy rainfall of August 29, was to so far
replenish the depleted ground water of the flats as, with the excep-
tion of a few days in the early part of October, when the flow
dropped to about 600 cubic feet per second, to keep the flow up to
about 800 cubic feet per second, for the balance of the year. :

The storage value of the Genesee river flats. In order to
further illustrate the great storage value of the flats, we may note
that the catchment area at Rochester is 2.3 times that at Mount
Morris; hence, for proportionate yields the flow at Rochester
should be 2.3 times that at Mount Morris. During August, 1893,
at a time of extreme dry weather, the flow at Rochester was 3.7
times that at Mount Morris, and after the extreme storm of
August 29, which replenished the ground water of the flats, the
flow at Rochester, during the entire replenishing period (Septem-
ber, October and November) was four times that at Mount Morris.

A knowledge of this constant accession of large quantities of
water from the flats leads to another conclusion of great practical
importance, namely, that we may expect to realize at Rochester
the full value of all the water added from the storage at Mount
Morris; that is, an addition of, say, 700 cubic feet per second at
Mount Morris, in time of low water, will be likely to increase the
flow at Rochester 700 cubic feet per second more than it would
have been without such addition.

In order to show more strikingly the value of the flats for such
storage, we will now compute the amount stored and held back
therein.

Referring to Rafter and Baker’s Sewage Disposal in the United
States, page 165, we find a tabulated statement of the per cent
of empty space in a number of soils, as follows:

Per cent
In Illinois prairie soil, the voids are................-- 55.2
In East Windsor, Connecticut, clay soil, the voids are... 48.3
In coarse river sand, the voids are from......... 38.4 to 41.0
In subsoils, the voids are from ................ 04.6 to 42.6

In blowing sands, the voids are......... td Ma sds DOS 44.7

———_—— in

454 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

From these figures we learn that an estimate of 33 per cent of
void space in the soils of.the flats would be very conservative.
The mean low-water surface of the river channel is mostly from
15 to 20 feet below the surface of the flats. We will also assume
that the water runs out of the upper 5 or 6 feet quickly, but that
it is retained and delivered slowly from the balance. We have
then 33 per cent of say 12.0 feet or 4.0 feet in depth over 80 square
miles as the probable available ground-water storage of the flats.
For 80 “square miles this amounts to (80x 640 x 43,560 x 4)—=
8,921,088,000 cubic feet. If there were any way to control this
ground-water storage of the flats it would by itself furnish an
outflow of 800 cubic feet per second for four months, or 130 days.

During June and July, 1893, the rainfall was used up by the
demands of growing vegetation, and the flow of the stream was
that due to stored ground water only, except possibly a very
slight effect from the rainfall on June 6. By July 24, what may
be termed the high level rapid runoff ground water of the flats
was entirely exhausted, and from that time on the flow was
inerely due to the deeper seated ground water of the whole area,
assisted, however, by the relatively more rapid delivery of the
flats. It may be remarked that the surface storage of the lakes
of the lower-river system is usually about exhausted by July 24.

However, it should not be overlooked that in a long continued
drought the storage of these flats becomes exhausted, and when
this occurs there will be very low water at Rochester until this
storage is renewed by copious rainfall.

As to the propriety of including in this discussion the area of
the Canaseraga flats it may be mentioned that high water is
stated by the inhabitants to only occur there when the Genesee
is full to overflowing and is therefore mostly the result of back-
water from the Genesee. The catchment area of the Canaseraga
creek is 259 square miles, and although the creek channel has
for several miles only slight declivity, it probably has capacity
enough to discharge the ordinary flood-flows, provided the Genesee
were kept within its banks.

The value of a reservoir on Genesee river in mitigating floods.
The question will arise in storage projects as to the value of a
reservoir in mitigating flood-flows. As this matter has been

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456 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

worked out for Genesee river, the following is herewith included
to illustrate the subject:

The most unfavorable case that can be assumed is that of the
occurrence of an extreme runoff when the reservoir is full to the
flow line. Even under such circumstances the reservoir will still
act as a great mitigator of an extreme flood-flow, as may be seen
by inspecting table No. 80, which has been prepared specially to
illustrate the point in question. The following discussion will
indicate the principle embodied in this table.

The efficiency of a storage reservoir as a flood moderator will
depend upon the storage capacity in relation to the quantity of
water flowing in from the catchment area. This capacity in-
cludes all storage space, whether above or below the crest of
’ the overflow weir, which may be available at any time of heavy
storm. Water is stored in the space above the crest only tem-
porarily, but this space may still play an important part in
reducing the maximum discharge below the reservoir, by extend-
ing the time within which the total surplus has to be passed down.

Inasmuch as extreme flood-flows are of short duration, we may
neglect the effect of evaporation, absorption and leakage, whence
it becomes evident that the discharge by the overflow weir or
sluices will be equal to the quantity received, less the quantity ©
retained, whether temporarily or otherwise.

We will assume that the water stands at the level of the crest at
the instant when the inflow becomes equal to 30,000 cubic feet per
second, and that the inflow remains constant at that figure for 24
hours, after which it gradually decreases. We desire to deter-
mine the length of time which will elapse before the outflow
reaches 30,000 cubic feet per second, and the approximate time
it will remain at about that figure. With the following notation :

h=— any given hight above the crest in linear feet and h,, h,,
h,, etc., successive equal hights.

C = storage capacity corresponding to h, and C,, C,, Cz, etc.,
successive capacities.

Q = discharging capacity of the os weir in cubic feet per
second, as determined by the formula Q = 3.33 4 h?x L
for the given values of h, h,, h,, hy, ete.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 457

Qp — the mean discharge in cubic feet per second for any given

Qn + Qn.
period, as for instance, Q =—————— and
2

Qn. « Qn;
Qy, =——— ete
2
S=— inflow from catchment area, taken in the present case at
30,000 cubic feet per second; and
t = the time in seconds in which the water will rise to any given
value of h above crest.
Whence we have the formula,
C

te=

(41)
S—Qp
by which table No. 80 has been computed.

On referring to table No. 80 we learn:

1) That, with water surface in reservoir at level of crest of
overflow weir and a constant inflow of 30,000 cubic feet per second,
it will be about 6.5 hours before the outflow will reach 15,000 cubic
feet per second.

2) That under the same conditions it will be about 24 hours
before the outflow will reach approximately 30,000 cubic feet per
second.

3) Inasmuch as the original assumption was that the inflow
should only be at the rate of 30,000 cubic feet per second for 24
hours and then gradually decrease, we may therefore say that the
fiow at rate of about 30,000 cubic feet per second would only be
for say two or three hours, instead of at least 24, as it would have
been without the assistance of the surface storage of the reservoir.

4) The total inflow in 22.5 hours would be 2,481,782,000 cubic
feet, of which 34 per cent of the whole would be stored during
that time temporarily in the reservoir.

Other deductions can be made, but the foregoing are enough to
show the value of such a reservoir as a moderator of floods even
when entirely filled at the beginning of the maximum flow.

In the same way if we assume the reservoir full and an inflow
at the rate of 40,000 cubic feet per second, we learn on making
the numerical computation that about 19 hours would elapse

458 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

before the outflow would reach approximately that amount, in
which time a depth of ten feet would be reached on the crest.
The total inflow in 19 hours would be 2,904,735,000 cubic feet, of
which 1,865,942,000 cubic feet would flow out and 1,038,793,000
cubic feet, or nearly 36 per cent of the whole would be stored tem-
porarily on the surface of the reservoir.

Floods in Oswego river. The highest water reported in Oswego
river is a depth of 4 feet on the crest of the dam at Fulton, the
flow being 19,500 cubic feet per second, the ordinary spring flood
amounting to 17,700 cubic feet per second. This figure is verified
by the statement of the late Charles Rhodes, Esq. of the Oswego
Canal Cempany, who studied Oswego river extensively and who,
according to the Report on Water Power of the United States in
the Tenth Census, considered that the ordinary flood discharge at
Oswego was from 16,000 to 17,000 cubic feet per second, and that
an excessive flood might be as large as 41,000 to 42,000 cubic feet
per second, these latter figures probably being the discharge of the
Oswego river in the great flood of March, 1865. Thus far exact
figures have not been obtained of any flood exceeding about 21,000
cubic feet per second. This flow when computed in cubic feet per
second per square mile does not much exceed 4 cubic feet, which is
very small.

The catchment area of Oswego river at Oswego is 5002 square
miles, and a very interesting question arises as to why a stream
with so large an area as this, issuing from a region with a mean
annual rainfall of from about 30 to 40 inches and with heayy snow-
fall, frequently melting suddenly at the end of winter, should
not show greater flood-flows than a maximum of about 4 to 8 cubic
feet per second per square mile. The answer to this may be
found in considering the large temporary storage on the surfaces
of the lakes, marshes and flat valleys of Oswego basin, as shown
by the tabulation on page 111.

Floods in Neneca river. According to statements made by
people at Baldwinsville, mill owners and others, ordinary high
water in Seneca river is about 38 feet on the crest of the dam
there and occurs nearly every spring. This gives a discharge

‘Abstract from Second Report on Genesee River Storage Project, dated
April 1, 1894. Vor further account of Genesee river floods, see Report of
Flood Cominittee appointed by Mayor of Rochester in 1904.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 459

over the present dam and through the water wheels of 13,968 cubic
feet per second. In 1865, which was a year of unusually high
floods in central and western New York, it is stated that the water
went higher than this, but no person has been found thus far who
is able to give the exact hight. The flood of 1865 is estimated at
the rate of 6.4 cubic feet per second per square mile.

All statements agree that floods seldom occur in the fall of the
year in the Seneca river.

Floods in Chittenango creek. This stream is tributary to
Oneida lake and, like many of the Oneida lake tributaries, has °
considerable flat area. The extreme measured flood is taken at
4105 cubic feet per second (catchment, 307 square miles), or at
the rate of 13 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Oneida creek. Wenwood, where the records are kept
on this stream, is pretty well up from Oneida lake, of which
Oneida creek is a tributary. This stream has a rapid descent
from the hills above the point of gaging, and shows a maximum
flood of about 3930 cubic feet per second (catchment, 59 square
miles), or at the rate of 41 cubic feet per second per square mile,
while ordinary spring floods are at the rate of about 15 cubic feet
per second per square mile.

Tecember 15, 1901, there was a flood in this stream with a dis-

charge of 2075 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 35 cubic
feet per second per square ‘mile.
_ Floods in Wood creck. The catchment area of this stream
above the point of gaging is mostly flat, level country. The
highest flood reported was in the spring of 1895, when the dis-
charge was about 2630 cubic feet per second (catchment, 126.5
square miles), or at the rate of about 21 cubic feet per second per
Square mile.

Floods in west branch of Fish creek. The swamp and marsh
area of this stream is large enough to distribute the flood-flows,
thus keeping the maximum, which is reported as having occurred
in 1884, as measured at McConnellsville, down to 6170 cubic feet
per second (catchment, 187 square miles), or about 33 cubic feet
per second per square mile. The ordinary flood-flows, as taken
from high-water marks on McConnellsville dam, indicate 18.4
cubic feet per second per square mile.

460 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The following data relative to flood-flows in this stream were

obtained for the United States Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways:

ESTIMATED MAXIMUM

|
| DISCHARGE
|

Catchment
Location area, sar Date lo gio t lt.
sae ‘Cubic feet per/~U2*° 99
| second | square mile
—

(1) (2) (3) | (4) (9)
Williamstown .....) Se oA Lashes 500 30.9
Williamstown ...... 16.5 ee OE, 561 34.0
West Camden....... 47.5 Spring 1884....| 1,620 34.1
Camden ‘e.ic.2e5: 4. -* 61.4 June, 1889..... 1,475 24.1
Camden ....i9.253 ih | GLH * th. LL fee 1,417 23.0
Camden it one | Sto. ie see ee 1, 456 23.5
eat he ince an ae o | 1 ice Mam oe I se 1, 335 | 21.9
McConnellsville..... 187.0 $64 |v vk ber ky Gltec ein ars
Taberg station ...... | 9887.0 | March 14, 1898.} 5,875 | 15.2
Fish Creek.......... | 583.0 March 15,1898.| 7,597 | 14.2
Pong Bock... 4....4 | 104.3 Kalk 198¢,.5. 43 | 8,400 80.5

10n east branch of Fish creek.

Floods in Mad river. This stream is tributary to the west branch
of Fish creek at Camden. Maximum flood-flows from well-defined
high-water marks, as measured at this place, are 922 cubic feet
per second (catchment, 47 square miles), or at the rate of 20 cubic
feet per second per square mile. As measured at the gristmill
dam, just below the preceding, with one mile additional catchment:
area, they are 1030 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of about
22 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in east branch of Fish creek. The catchment area of
this stream above Point Rock, where the gaging station is estab-
lished, is quite different from that of the west branch of Fish creek
above McConnellsville. The stream rises very rapidly and the
surface soil is such as to give large runoffs. The maximum flood
is reported as having occurred in the fall of 1897, with a total
runoff of 8400 cubic feet per second (catchment, 104 square miles),
or 80.5 cubic feet per second per square mile. Ordinary floods,
as determined from high-water marks, are about 37 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 461

Floods in Beaver Dam creek. This stream is reported as having
given (date uncertain) a flood-flow as measured near Altmar of
2300 cubic feet per second (catchment, 21 square miles), or at the
rate of 111 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Salmon river, west. This stream has a catchment
area of 190.5 square miles above Henderson’s mill, of which 10 to
20 square miles are flats, the balance of the area having rather
sharp slopes. The soil is sandy. The maximum flood is reported
as occurring in the summer of 1888 and was due to heavy summer
rains. The figures are 5670 cubic feet per second, or at the rate
of 30 cubic feet per second per square mile. The ordinary floods
do not exceed about 20 cubic feet per second per square mile. The
upper part of the catchment is mostly primeval forest.

Data from flood hights were also obtained at Altmar, three
miles below Henderson’s mill, as follows: Maximum, 6100 cubic
feet per second (catchment 221 square miles), or at the rate of
28 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Trout brook. This stream is reported as having
given a flood-flow at Centerville (date uncertain), of 1166 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 23 square miles), or at the rate of 51
cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Skinner creek. This stream is reported as having
given in the summer of 1891 a flood-flow at Mansville of 790 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 6 square miles), or at the rate of from
125 to 130 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods iv south branch of Sandy creek. In December, 1898,
this stream gave a flood-flow at Adams of 3840 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 110 square miles), or at the rate of 35 cubic
feet per second per square mile. At Allandale a flood-flow is
reported in 1890 or 1891 of 6000 cubic feet per second (catchment,
68 square miles), or at the rate of 88 cubic feet per second per
Square mile. Ordinary flood-flows in this stream average perhaps
385 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in north branch of Sandy creek. <A flood-flow was meas-
ured in this stream at Adams in the winter of 1897 of 7410 cubic
feet per second. The catchment area is the same as that of the,
south branch at this place, or 110 square miles. Hence, the flow
was at the rate of 67 cubic feet per second per square mile. Ordi-

462 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

nary flood-flows are at the rate of about 30 to 35 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

Floods in Black river. Heavy floods have occurred in Black
river in 1807, 1838, 1850, 1857, 1862, 1866, 1869 and 1896. The
flood of April 20-24, 1869, was specially heavy, there being a
heavy snowfall over nearly the entire catchment area, which
melted rapidly that year. In addition to the ground being heavily
covered with snow, about 2.2 inches of rain fell in some parts of
Black river catchment basin from April 17-23, though this quan-
tity of rain, which was only over a portion of the catchment area,
hardly explains the severity of the flood. The greater portion of
the water evidently came from rapid melting of snow.

Flood in Black river in April, 1869. On April 21, 1869, the
banks of North lake reservoir, a structure maintained by the State
for the purpose of storing water for the Black river and Erie
canals, gave way, precipitating into the heavily swollen stream
about 350,000,000 cubic feet of water. This accident was made
the basis of large claims for damages against the State, which
were tried before the Canal Appraisers in the summer and fall of
1869. The testimony in this case, which included two large octavo
volumes of over twelve hundred pages, is the source of the follow-
ing information as to flood-fiows of Black river and its tributaries
in the spring of 1869:

The Black river flood of April, 1869, was studied by David M.
Green, Samuel McElroy, William J. McAlpine, L. L. Nichols and
other hydraulic engineers of that day. The testimony may, there-
fore, be referred to as furnishing unusually good flood data.

Mr Nichols stated that he not only measured the lengths of
the crests of the dams on the several streams for which flood-
flows were given, but that he also instrumentally determined
the hight of flood marks above the crests. This work was done
within a few months after the flood while the matter was fresh
in the minds of everybody. He further stated that the tabulated
flood-flows were obtained by computing with Francis’s formula
for discharge over sharp-crested weirs with clear overfall. The
dams, however, on which the flood-flows were measured were of
such a form as to indicate the use of Cornell experiments Nos.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 463

1 or 2 as giving more nearly the actual flows, and accordingly
the flows have been computed by the use of the said coefficients.
By way of showing the relation between the flows as per Francis’s
formula and by Cornell experiments Nos. 1 and 2, the following
tabulation is submitted, the last column giving the difference
between Francis’s formula and the mean of experiments Nos. 1
and 2 as a per cent of the flow by Fraticis’s formula :

CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
PER FOOT OF CREST Difference
Difference as a per cent
HEAD ON CREST of columns of flow by
Feet Cornell Heancis’s (2) and (3) Francis’s
Gaeraments fartinala formula
(1) (2) (3) | (4) (9)
Serie, Fal ee as SLs. che wisi 2 Fi) 87, PbS J, 0.01 0.8
pe eaeet hy ter 8 8s SER. lass *3 44 3.338 | =O ad 3.3
emit sel OA, Als. SA *6 59 G2), 0.47 tan
76 GE Re SO Se 10.50 9.42 | 1.08 10.4
ee Be es oe oaks 14.59 Te.0G: "34 1.43 10.8
See ee 19.12 17.30 cs | 1.82 10.5
ene Masta Pe Pk ste, Ste | 24.20 21.90 2.30 10.5
eae ean ee a Cra he | 29.66 26.64 3.02 11.3
cao ate tee a eae «ea ee 35.40 31.78 3.62 1124
Ag | Soar a ae a - 41.46 37.20 4.26 2

In passing, it may be remarked that the flood-flows of Black
river have been computed by either Bazin’s coefficients or by the
coefficients deduced from the Cornell University experiments.

In its course from the headwaters in Hamilton county to Lake
Ontario at Dexter, Black river has topographically three distinct
subdivisions: (1) The upper valley above Lyon Falls; (2) the mid-
dle valley stretch from Lyon Falls to Carthage, and (3) the lower
valley with rapid fall from Carthage to Black river bay. The
second division, from Lyon Falls to Carthage, is a broad, flat
valley.

The catchment area of the whole river above Dexter is 1930
square miles; above Carthage, 1812 square miles, and above the
mouth of Moose river, 463 square miles. The following are the
areas of the principal tributaries: Deer river at mouth, 102
square miles; Beaver river at mouth, 337.5 square miles; Moose

-~

464 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

river at mouth, 415.5 square miles; Woodhull creek at mouth,
108 square miles; Otter creek, above Casler’s dam, 63 square
miles; Independence creek, 99 square miles.t

The descent of the river above Lyon Falls, as well as below
Carthage, is very rapid. At North lake reseryoir the elevation is
1821 feet above tidewater ; at Forestport, 1126 feet; at Lyon Falls,
above the dam, 799 feet, And at Carthage, 723 feet. At Dexter,
at Lake Ontario level, the elevation is 247 feet.

Throughout the flat portion of the stream, between Lyon Falls

and Carthage, the river at ordinary stages ranges from 250 to
300 feet wide, increasing to about 500 feet above the Carthage
dam, which is 966 feet long. In a powerful freshet like that of
1869 the flats on each side are overfiowed to a great width and
considerable depth, the quantity of water accumulated in large
floods being computed at from 4,000,000,000 to 6,000,000,000 cubic
feet. If we take into account the water held in the interstices
of the soil, the temporary storage is considerably higher than
indicated by these figures. In this reach of the river, which is
alluvial in its formation, there are now two dams of 4 feet each,
with locks for facilitating navigation.
_ The river has no affluents of any magnitude below Carthage,
but a few miles above that place, on the west side, Deer river.
comes in. There are also a number of secondary creeks between
Deer river and Lyon Falls. On the east side the chief affluents
are Beaver river, Independence creek, Otter creek and other sec-
ondary creeks below Lyon Falls, with Moose river flowing in just
above Lyon Falls. All of these streams between Carthage and
Lyon Falls have rapid descents, with consequent large flood-
flows.

The following tabulation gives the catchment area of Otter and
Independence creeks, as well as of Beaver and Deer rivers and
Black river, including Moose river above Lyon Falls, together with

1For statement in more detail of the Black river catchment area and
elevations, see pages 221-222,

*The fall in Black river from the foot of Lyon Falls to Carthage is 9 feet
in a distance of about 30 miles in a straight line. The distance by the
meander of the river is considerably greater than this. This intermediate
flat stretch of river is due to a rocky barrier at Carthage.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 465

the flood-flows for April, 1869, the flows having been corrected by
the use of the Cornell coefficients in the manner already described :

Catchment Flood flow,

Name of stream square miles nee pened
Tag ts ea ee 63.0 1,944
SS oo ag a ee ae 93.2 6,200
TL eh ei a ae 322.3 5,382
ho a? de eee ? 101.0 7,881
eee ee AS TRS 878.5 40,400
iyfarr ah Pelewel ie oh: 1458.0 61,807

From the preceding tabulation it appears that a catchment
area of 1458 square miles yielded a maximum flood-flow about
April 22, 1869, of 61,807 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of
42.3 cubic feet per second per square mile. The total area above
Carthage, however, is 1812.2 square miles. Assuming the same
average flow from the balance of the catchment area as from the
1458 square miles included in the streams tabulated, it follows
that the total inflow to the pond area between Carthage and
Lyon Falls was at the rate of 75,830 cubic feet per second. The
greatest flow at Carthage, which occurred April 25, 1869, was only
09,529 cubic feet per second, the effect of the temporary pondage
above that place having been to reduce the flood from about
76,000 cubic feet per second to about 40,000 cubic feet per second.

Inasmuch as there are no afiluents to the stream below
Carthage, there is no special reason why the flood-flow below that
place should have any higher rate than at Carthage. The reported
flow at Watertown in April, 1869, of 39,696 cubic feet per second
is, therefore, considered as fairly justifying the Carthage figure.
A comparison of the two shows at any rate that the error is not
likely to be more than a few per cent.

On April 21, 1900, the calculated discharge over the Hunting-
tonville dam was 30,150 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1889
square miles), or at the rate of about 16 cubic feet per second
per square mile. December 15, 1901, there was a flood with a cal-
culated discharge of 37,000 cubic feet per second, or 19.2 cubic
feet per second per square mile. 7 .

466 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Floods in Woodhull creek. The flood-flow of this stream at Hill
tannery in April, 1869, was 4040 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 108 square miles), or at the rate of 37 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

Floods in Moose river. The flow of this stream at Ager’s paper
mill in April, 1869, was 12,644 cubic feet per second (catchment,
407 square miles), or at the rate of 31 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

Floods in Otter creek. The flow of this stream at Casler’s
paper mill in April, 1869, was 1944 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 63 square miles), or at the rate of 31 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

Floods in Independence creek. The flow of this stream at
Crandall’s paper mill in April, 1869, was 6200 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 93 square miles), or at the rate of 67 cubic
feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Beaver river. The flow of this stream at Beaver Falls
in April, 1869, was 5382 cubic feet per second (catchment, 322
square miles), or at the rate of 17 cubic feet per second per square
mile.

Floods in Deer river. The flow of this stream at Deer River
in April, 1869, was 7881 cubic feet per second (catchment, 101
square miles), or at the rate of 78 cubic feet per second per square
mile. ,

Floods in Osivegatchie river. The highest flood reported in the
Oswegatchie river at Ogdensburg (date unknown) gave a depth of
5.5 feet on the crest of the dam. This depth corresponds to a dis-
charge of 15,500 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1609 Square
miles), or to 10 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Above the Black lake inlet the flood discharge estimated from
highwater marks is 9000 cubic feet per second (catchment, 900
square miles), or at the rate of 10 cubic feet per second per square
mile. At Town Line bridge the flood discharge of Indian river
on September 28, 1900, was 29 cubic feet per second.

iThe RES in reg ei ae ATF flood-flows in 1869 in Woodhull creek,
Moose river, Otter creek, Independence creek, Beaver river and Deer river
is taken from the evidence relating to the Black river claims.

A considerable number of the foregoing flood-flows are from table No. 124,
in the report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, to which
reference may be made for detail not given here.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 467

Floods in Raquette river. The estimated flood discharge of
Raquette river at Piercefield about May 1, 1900, was 7900 cubic
feet per second (catchment, T00 square miles), or at the rate of
about 10 cubic feet per second per square mile. Owing to a large
amount of lake storage, probably the fiood-flows of Raquette river
do not often exceed this, although they may occasionally rise
somewhat higher.

Floods in Hudson river. The maximum flood of this stream
is stated to have occurred in the spring of 1869, and at Mechanic-
ville amounted to about 70,000 cubic feet per second (catchmeni,
4500 square miles), or was at the rate of 15.5 cubic feet per second
per square mile. Gagings have been made at Mechanicville for
sixteen vears, the highest flood during the period having been
59,400 cubic feet per second on April 9, 1896. The large pondage
on natural lakes and ponds on the headwaters of the Hudson
tends to reduce the severity of the floods. On April 18, 1896,
the water stood on the crest of the Fort Edward dam at the hight
of 8.16 feet, giving a computed flow of 41,675 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 2800 square miles), or 14.7 cubic feet per second per
square mile. :

The ordinary floods at Fort Edward, as determined from the
last seven years’ record, may be taken at about 25,000 cubie feet
per second, or 9.2 cubic feet per second per square mile. The fol-
lowing tabulation shows the flood-flows at Fort Edward since the
establishment of the station in the fall of 1895. As stated on a
preceding page these flows may be 25 per cent in error.

--MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

Cubic
Cubic feet | feet per

Date per second second per

square mile
a RR te Sabai a Zi dis's ps am, ox me woe = 42,620 15.
4 ie Cee yg cs | lols tag EA Oa a 24,550 8.
Meets) POOF 790) FRIED 6.) . oy) ee y- 23,732 8,
meee nite ene CSE) il) oP. rdesriens aids x 28,242 8
eS OL OE Lt a i ae ee a a 27,920 10.
a iat were Label se Lats 29,856 10.
1S ep > - | Sea i ara ena 32,159 ji
uN eI NN ie oe wa se csck eats ue co? batv,ack 43,900 - 15.

WAIOUANAOW OAL

Apritezss, Pout! <. ; BESUOS NE: WEth: vort ee LY «, 42,820 15
Hudson river has a catchment area of about 12,200 square miles

% = 3 = = = °

in New York, 200 square miles in New Jersey, 320 square miles in

468 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Massachusetts and 300 square miles in Vermont, or over 13,000
Square miles in all. It drains about one-fourth of the land area
of the State. Above Troy it is a normal stream of varying inclina-
tion, gradually increasing as we go toward the source. The
crest of Saratoga dam, 180 miles from the mouth of the river, is
at an elevation of 102 feet, giving a grade for 30 miles of 3.2 feet
per mile. At the Fort Edward railway bridge, 190 miles from the
mouth, the hight above the sea is 118 feet, giving a grade for 10
miles of 1.6 feet per mile. At the crest of the Glens Falls feeder
dam, a distance of 197 miles from the mouth, the hight of the river
above the level of the sea is 284 feet, giving a grade for 7 miles
of 23.7 feet per mile. At the mouth of Sacandaga river, 216 miles
from the mouth, the hight above sea level is 536 feet, giving a
grade for 19 miles of 13.5 feet per mile; and so on, until finally,
at the extreme head, in Lake Tear of the Clouds, 300 miles from
the mouth of the river, the hight above sea level is 4322 feet, and
the average grade for the preceding 34 miles is 84.4 feet per mile.
This condition of steep grades in the upper reaches, with flat
grades in the lower reaches, while true of all streams, is markedly
true in the case of New York State streams.

The main tributaries of the tidal portion of the Hudson are we,
Croton, with a catchment of 365 square miles; Fishkill, draining
204 square miles; Rondout creek, including the Wallkill, draining
1148 square miles; Esopus creek, draining 417 square miles; the
Catskill, draining 594 square miles, and the Kinderhook, draining
304 square miles. The Croton is regulated by storage reservoirs
for the water supply of New York city, and most of the other
tributaries mentioned have been studied with reference to their
availability for municipal water supplies.

Broadly, such studies indicate that while these streams are con-
trollable by storage reservoirs, their topography is such as to
make development very costly. Generally they would be too ex-
pensive for flood prevention merely. Above the tidal portion, which
terminates at the Troy dam, the conditions are different. The
Mohawk river, with a catchment area of 3500 square miles, joins
the Hudson at Cohoes. Higher up the Hoosic, the Battenkill and
Fish creek enter. At Hadley the Sacandaga, with a catchment
area of 1057 square miles, enters, and at Thurman the Schroon
river, with a catchment of 570 square miles. Farther north the
Indian and Cedar rivers join. .

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 469

Serious flood conditions exist in the upper part of the tidal por-
tion of the Hudson from Troy to Coxsackie, a distance of about
30 miles. The channel is shallow, crooked and narrow and the
full effect of floods in the Mohawk and upper Hudson, which come
together near the head of the tidal section, are concentrated here.
At the ordinary low stage the current is intermittently reversed
by the tide, but upon the occurrence of a flood in the Mohawk and
upper Hudson the water rushes into this upper portion of the
tidal section until a cross-section, slope, and velocity are acquired
sufficient to carry the flood-flow, whatever it may be.

The flood conditions are greatly intensified in winter and early
spring by ice, which forms more solidly in the tidal section than
in the steeper tributaries. Whenever a winter flood occurs the
breaking up of ice in the upper part of the tidal section, retarded
by the field below, continually increases in volume along the
crumbling upper edge of the latter, and finally grounds in some
Shallow or narrow part of this section, creating an ice dam, to
which the most disastrous floods of this part of the river are
attributable. ‘These dams form at various points in the shallow
section—sometimes between Troy and Albany, but usually between
Albany and Coxsackie. It is the floods accompanied by these ice
dams that have inflicted the most serious damage upon this sec-
tion of the river.

Hudson river floods at Albany. The following from the report
of a Committee of the Albany Chamber of Commerce on Freshets
in the Hudson River will serve to show the extent of Hudson river
floods for twenty-five years:

»FRESHETS AND ICE GORGES IN THE HUDSON RIVER

| Eleva-
) tion
Year | Month above Remarks
M. L. W.
| 1876
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1876 [Feb. 16........... 14.0 |e
i OS a are No bad dam formed so far as known.
dopo umeemomto lt? Ls Sa. No bad dam formed so far as known.
1879 |\Mareh 27... 2....: Die ttt 2 No bad dam formed so far as known.
1880 |Feb. 14, Jan. 28.../........ Trains on Susquehanna R. R. could not
start from depot on account of high °
| water. Heavy-rainfall; river rose 11 feet
in 36 hours.
SS61,.|Feb. 199M A 1Bts oe... Gorge formed between Stuyvesant and

lower Kinderhook light.
me: ‘Bebwtase.'-nast. 45 aes ee Slr River 12 feet above mean tide.

A70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

FRESHETS AND ICE GORGES IN THE HUDSON RIVER (coucluded)

Eleva-
tion

Year | Month above Remarks

| MLW.
1876
(1) (2) (3) (4)

feo aroha 0. sel, ware ee Ice gorge formed at Douw’s point.

ieee Manch; 26 ni). G0: Hee ee No dam formed so far as known.

1884 |Feb. 8, 14, 15, 18,|

22, 24 and 26....; 15.45 |Ice dam at Van Wie’s point; dam at Four-
| Mile point.

1885 |April 1-4......... ae ye oe Ice gorge at Van Wie’s point and Quay

| street submerged.

1385, Jannarpet. of.) fe pete oe Ice lodged on the ‘‘Overslaugh.”

1886 |March 14-26...... 17.89 |Ice dam at Pleasure island, Troy inundated.

1886 |Jan. 4-8, Feb. 18..|........ Ice dam between Castleton and Coeymans.

£987. | Apes i May Ok ol. eek ‘Docks and R. R. tracks submerged. People’s
Line boats could not land at their docks
until after May 5.. Ice gorge at Nutten-

| hook.

4888" (Dec... 18, Appr. 1-7)> acess ‘Docks submerged. State and Dean streets
covered.

TSO As, PRET EN hae Va ARORA eames No dam formed so far as known.

OO ES RCE ak Ae ee ea ae No dam formed so far as known.

i801 |February 27 °-.. .. ee Ice dam formed south of Albany and re-
mained until March 14.

USL PAP RER Ms Fees uc emer ere tees ae Water in cellars on Broadway. No bad
dam formed so far as known.

1893), |Marehi 1425.0 4.%°. 19.00 |Ice piled to a depth of from 20 to 30 feet.

| Some of the ice nearly 3 feet thick.

1694 MaEch Y DO | 16.12 |Ice dam from Cedar Hill to N. Coeymans.

1895 |April 10..........| 16.54 |Melting snow and rain.

1800: March ie aa | 17.78 |Much damage done to railroad by water
and ice which flooded the tracks as far
as Stockport. Ice finally stopped at Four-
Mile point and remained until some time

| in April.

MSE + Nisin clvss cea Ronan: acco Re eS Ice moved out easily.

1606 i MMearchols.).5. 187 18.80 |No bad dam so far as known.

1609" March 6.0. x2xner 12.45 |Gorge at Van Wie’s point opposite Castle-

| ton and below North Coeymans.

£0007 | Pei i 102 2 | 19.96 |Gorge below Kinderhook Upper light, be-

| tween Coeymans—north end of Castleton
U. 8S. Government dike to Cow Island
light.

1901 |December 12..... 13.56 |Gorge below Stone House bar.

1902" Marcel’ o! 2.7. va 18.26 |Gorge below Stone House bar.

It seems doubtful whether with the present irregularity of flow
in the Hudson there is either any practicable means of preventing
the formation of ice dams in this part of the river, or of removing
them by artificial means when once formed. In order to prevent
their formation it would be necessary to have a channel through
the ice broken before the flood arrived. The fact that (1) floods
are to be apprehended at any time during the four months from
December to April; (2) that tidal action at low stages of the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK A771

river would prevent the broken ice from passing rapidly away,
and (3) that floods frequently come with little warning, means
that to certainly prevent ice dams the ice must be continually
broken during these months, a condition involving heavy cost for
furnishing and operating powerful ice-breaking steamers. More-
over, when we consider that ice dams sometimes obstruct the river
for several miles in extent, the impracticability of removing them
by mechanical means seems sufficiently obvious.

While it is doubtless possible to mitigate floods in this section
of the river by isolating the flooded districts by dykes or levees,
which would necessitate intercepting sewers, as well as the pump-
ing of the surface and sewer drainage whenever there is a slight
freshet in the river, nevertheless the most rational treatment is
believed to be by storage of the flood-flow in the upper tributaries
of the stream. |

The opinion has been expressed that storage should be devel-
oped proportionate to the catchment area on the several tributaries
of the Hudson above Troy, and while this is theoretically true,
the writer imagines that the question of cost will finally come in,
very greatly modifying any purely theoretical deductions based
on this view. To show how material an element in the problem
cost may become, it may be mentioned that reservoirs have been
at various times considered costing from about $20 per million
cubic feet stored, to as high as $200 or $300 per million cubic feet.
The cost of such reseryoirs as compared with the cost of reservoirs
for municipal purposes, even at these prices, is very low, the cost
per million gallons frequently rising higher than the cost per
million cubie feet here proposed. But nobody is likely to expend
a large amount of money in order to meet the theoretical require-
ment of equal storage in all parts of a catchment area when con-
siderably less money will build a storage reservoir of equal
capacity elsewhere. Practically, therefore, it is impossible to reg-
ulate as large a catchment as that of the Hudson river to anything
like a uniform flow throughout all of its tributaries. The mere
matter of cost alone will militate against such a conclusion. In
a few words the conditions are that in the upper Hudson, above
Glens Falls, very extensive storage reservoirs may be constructed,
either on the main river or its chief tributaries, Sacandaga,
Schroon and Cedar rivers, which were estimated in 1895, for the
whole system, to cost something like $60 per million cubic feet

£72. - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of water stored. Probably at the present time they will cost some-
what more, but for water storage merely they will not exceed $75
or $80 per million cubic feet. On the Mohawk and its tributaries
conditions are much less favorable. Reservoirs there are likely
to cost from $200 to $300 per million cubic feet. Hence, as a
financial proposition, the Hudson river above Mechanicville is
likely to be more thoroughly regulated than the Mohawk river and
its tributaries, the more specially since water storage has not
only value here for preventing floods, but is also of considerable
value for water power. The same is true on the Mohawk river,
but the limit of cost of water power in comparison with steam
power will be much sooner reached on this stream than on the
upper Hudson. Since this phase of the subject is extensively dis-
cussed in the first report on the upper Hudson storage, it is merely
referred to here.

Floods in Croton river. The catchment of the Croton river consists
of a broken, hilly country with its surface soil composed princi-
pally of sand and gravel. Clay, hardpan and peat, while found
in a few localities, are for the whole area only present to a limited
extent. ‘The rock formation consists generally of gneiss, although
strata of limestone, some micaceous and talcose slates, with veins
of granite, serpentine and iron ore, occur in a few places. The
catchment area is about 339 square miles, above the old Croton
dam, at which point daily gagings of the stream have been taken
since 1867. According to J. J. R. Croes there is a well-attested
case of a maximum flood of 25,376 cubic feet per second, or 74.9
cubic feer per second per square mile. In reference to these figures
it may be remarked that probably they have been obtained by
the use of Francis’s formula. The profile of the old Croton dam,
however, shows a rounded crest which, according to Bazin’s co-
efficient, series No. 193, would give, with about 5 feet depth on the
crest, a discharge from 37 to 38 per cent higher than Francis’s
formula. The maximum flood of the Croton may, therefore, be
~ from 30,000 to 35,000 cubic feet per second, or possibly as high as
103 cubic feet per second per square mile.

January 7-8, 1841, a severe flood occurred which washed away
the earthen bank of Croton dam. At that time the ground was
covered with eighteen inches of snow, and rain falling continu-
ously for forty-eight hours, with high temperature, produced a
serious flood. The overflow weir was insufficient to discharge the

SS)

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 4738

large volume, although part of the water was discharged through
the aqueduct to the waste-weir at Mill river, fifteen miles below
Croton dam. The water rose in Croton lake at the rate of four-
teen inches per hour. The earthen bank remained intact until the
water nearly reached its top, when it flowed between the frozen
and unfrozen earth, twenty inches below its crest, forming a
breach. ‘The large amount of ice in the river demolished the pro-
tection wall and the whole embankment was washed away. At
the time of the accident, on January 8, the water flowed over the
weir to a depth of 15 feet.

Another severe flood occurred in November, 1853, while in
April, 1854, after unprecedented rains, the worst freshet was
experienced which has yet been recorded. The depth on the crest
of the Croton dam was 8.25 feet.

Floods in Fishkill creek. This stream is subject to severe floods,
although there is not a great deal known about them. The follow-
ing tabulation, calculated from high-water marks observed for a
number of years at the Groveville dam, embodies practically all
the information. The dam is of masonry faced with plank, with a
straight horizontal crest, 4 feet wide and 134 feet long. The dis-
charge has been calculated by coefficients derived from Cornell
University experiment No. 11.

DISCHARGE

Year Month | Depth on Cubic feet
crest, feet! Gubicfeet | per second

per second per square

mile

rie.
ew)
~~
“—™~
oe
~—
A,
or
—

(1) (2) .

|

1882 September 24. ............. biral Yi 7, 700 38.5
1888 (cs Ji 9 y= bel la A Saale 5.0 5,200 | 26.0
1888 | December 18............... 4.5 4,400 .} 22.0
1891 SC ES at © ae aa 6.3 7, 700 38.5
1891 waatary 16.c 2100026 2. At 4.0 3, 650 18.3
1891 CONSE! ee 4.0 3, 650 18.3
1891 0) Sia a aes een 6.9 8, 800 44 .()
1893 | US Sees ee ee 5.0 5, 200 26.0
1898 oS 4.3 4,000 20.0
1893 eee ee Be OY 5.9 6, 100 30.5
1893 os SE a 5.0 5, 200 26.0
1893 AE Is 2 Re aaa oa 4.0 3, 650 18.3
1896 oy le a Se a 6.7 8, 300 41.5
1896 fe Sp SR oes BOE ah ee | 4.5 4,400 | 22.0
1896 Maree Ps P00. ede A 6% 8,300 | 41.5
1902 as cine specie yack 4 Sebuls oe | 9.5 13, 700 | 68.5

—————
—
ee .

474 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Floods in Wallkill river. Very little information is available
as to the flood-flows of this stream any further than that on August
7. 1901, the discharge at New Paltz was 7365 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 736 square miles), or at the rate of 10 cubic feet per
second per square mile. The extreme fiood must be much higher
than this. Mr Vermeule states that high-water marks on Clove
river, one of the tributaries of the Walllcill river, indicate a maxi-
mum discharge of 67 cubic feet per second (catchment, 0.7 square
mile), or at the rate of 96 cubic feet per second per square mile+
This catchment is perhaps rather small for final conclusions.

Floods in Esopus creek. According to the statement of M. E.
Evans in a report to the Saugerties Manufacturing Company, the
maximum flood in Esopus creek at Saugerties occurred on Decem-
ber 10, 1878. This flood resulted from a snowfall of six inches,
followed by excessive and continuous rain for three days. ~The
extreme depth om the crest of a dam 330 feet in length was 14
to 14.5, feet, indicating a flood discharge of from 50,000 to 60,000
cubic feet per second (catchment, 417 square miles), or at the
rate of from 120 to 145 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Rondout creek. The most severe flood in this stream
was that of March 1, 1902, when there was a discharge as meas-
ured at Rosendale of about 14,000 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 365 square miles), or the flow was at the rate of 38 cubic
feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Catskill creek. This stream is of rapid descent and
subject to wide variation in fiow. From high-water marks at
Woodstock dam the flood-flow in the spring of 1901 has been com-
puted at 21,000 cubic feet per second (catchment, 210 square
miles), or at the rate of 100 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in the Normans kill. So far as can be learned, the only
information in regard to flood-flows of this stream is given in a re-
port of the Water Commissioners of Albany to the Common Coun-
cil in 1891 as to the advisability of utilizing this stream for a water
supply for the city of Albany. In this report the catchment area
above French Mills is stated at 111 square miles. From
measurements taken in February, 1891, the flow was (240 cubic

>Report on Water Supply. Water Power, the Flow of Streams and Attend-
ant Phenomena, by Cornelius C. Vermeule, Vol. IIT of the Final Report of
the State Geologist of New Jersey. p. 149.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 475

feet per second, or at the rate of 11 cubic feet per second per
square mile. The maximum flood hight on the Harden dam
at Normanskill is stated at 4 feet. This would indicate a flood
discharge of 16 cubic feet per second per square mile. The maxi-
mum flood hight on the dam just above the highway at Kenwood
is stated at 8 feet, indicating a discharge of 22.0 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

Floods in Schroon river. Owing to the regulating effect of
Schroon lake, serious floods are unknown in this stream. The
usual extreme flows are about 8000 cubic feet per second at War-
rensburg (catchment, 563 square miles), or at the rate of 14 to
15 cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Mohawk river. Flood-fiows of the Mohawk river have
been measured at Dunsbach Ferry, with a catchment area of 5440

square miles, as follows:
7--ESTIMATED DISCHARGE-—

Cubic feet
Cubic feet per

Date per second second per

square mile

Oe Re a 47,000 13.8
Woevem Berg lds ROS gies ocd tedes cece ee ere es 47,000 13.8
Dewormers 27 (NOOO. oo. pe diaeeic a - 24,700 (Oe
TE IY ee pe ee a 36,200 10.5
BL PS Pe ee on 34,200 9.9
eS SE ee eee 46,100 13.4
eS eS 52,400 15.3

In 1892 the Mohawk at Rexford Flats flowed at the rate of
78.350 cubic feet per second (catchment, 3385 square miles), or 23
cubic feet per second per square mile. On February 14, 1900, the
flow here was 45,000 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 14
cubic feet per second per square mile. Ordinary floods at this
place are from 30,000 to 35,000 cubic feet per second.

The maximum discharge of the river at Rocky Rift dam was in
March, 1901, and is estimated to have been 23,150 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 1337 square miles). or at the rate of 17 cubic
feet per second per square mile. The flow has been calculated
from Cornell University experiments.

In 1890 the flow at Little Falls is stated to have been about
22.000 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1306 square miles). or

476 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

at the rate of 17 cubic feet per second per square mile. In Febru-
ary, 1891, there was a flood estimated at 26,260 cubic feet per
second, or 20 cubic feet per second per square mile. On March 14,
1898, the flow was at the rate of 23,749 cubic feet per second, or
18.2 cubic feet per second per square mile. Since the gaging
record has been kept at Little Falls the following freshets have

occurred : |
—————_DISCHARGE———_.,

Cubie
Cubic feet feet per

Date per second second per

square mile

April Wh pasos. was ial. cite. 13,000 10.0
April’ 20, 190001 12-955 J ae 15,240 As
November 27, 1900.0. ../. Gitar sause _-:15,669 12.0
March2%; 190i i ie ro al. 19,538 14.9
December 16, DOOM 5.01 es aie 26,280 - 20.1

AADC. Ti TSW es cw Ce re ee eens 27,000 20 JF

Ordinary floods at Little Falls are from 12,000 to 15,000 cubice
feet per ‘second.
The following information in regard to floods at Utica is mostly

from a veport made in 1900 by Stephen E. Babcock to the Mo- .

hawk Niver Straightening Commission of Utica. <A few flood
hights determined in 1901 and 1902 have also been added. The
topographical elevations are plus tidewater :

ESTIMATED DISCHARGE
Date Elevation aeite nis | Cubic feet per
per second | Second per
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Maan low: wader, 22th Os. cabin ae 394.64 355 0.7
Freshet, November 22, 1900......... Tae ore 398 .49 1, 470 2.1
Freshet, November 27, 1900............... 405 .44 8.000 | 16.0
High Water.Or 10. ec. aera eo 405.68 8,800 | 17.4
High water, February 26, 1891............ 407 .22 17, 800 34.6
igh water, 1800¢: 7.7 .25.. «raass 25 275 ae 406.44 12, 500 25.0
Bese lt WRLC, UOOG. os cus sec eas Bene 406.37 12, 100 24.2
High ‘water,’ 18040. 530). 10. oh Rae 405.62 8, 600 17.2
Bach wwaper, 1895... ck «vente wa cls cs ee 406.82 | 11,900 23.8
EE WHEL, LOUO LS ort os les eee TER ae 405 .52 9, 300 18.6
High water, March 27, 1901......... eter. 406.19 11,100 22.2
High water, December 15, 1901........... 406.75 14, 800 28.6
High water, March 1, 1902................ | 407.14 17, 200 34.4

—

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK AT7

The foregoing fiood elevations have been deduced from current:
meter measurements and, as there is no very satisfactory place
for making such measurements at Utica, are subject to consider-
able error. The catchment area at Utica is 500 square miles.

In the spring of 1888, the Mohawk at Ridge Mills gave a flow
of 7030 cubic feet per second (catchment, 153 square miles), or at
_ the rate of 46 cubic feet per second per square mile. On March
12, 1898, the flow at the same point was 5266 cubic feet per second,
or at the rate of 35 cubic feet per second per square mile.

In the foregoing at Ridge Mills and Little Falls the data have
been computed in accordance with the Cornell University coeffi-
cients. The ratio of the catchment area at Little Falls to that of
Ridge Mills is 8.56. If we assume the flow of the several tributary
streams above Little Falls to have been the same as that of the
main Mohawk river above Ridge Mills, the maximum discharge of
the entire catchment area is found by multiplying 5266, the flow
in cubic feet per second at Ridge Mills on March 12, 1898, by 8.56,
the ratio of the catchment areas. This gives a maximum inflow
into the Mohawk river above Little Falls of about 45,000 cubic
feet per second. Probably, however, this assumption is too large
for the special case under consideration, as the flow of Oriskany
-ereek at Oriskany on March 12, 1898, was only 600 cubic feet per
second, or 4.1 cubic feet per second per square mile.

If, however, we assume that at some time the total flow from
the tributary streams above Little Falls will approximate about
35 cubic feet per second per square mile, it follows that we may
expect an inflow into the valley above Little Falls of certainly
45,000 cubic feet per second, although probably in March, 1898, it
did not reach that figure. As to why such a flow is possible, we
may consider (1) that tributary streams all have a rapid descent
from the adjacent high ground, and (2) the large temporary stor-
age of the flats above Little Falls.

By way of showing the character of the inflowing streams the
following data relative to the descent of a number of the more
important ones are cited. In the following tabulation we have
the name of the tributary, distance from headwaters to mouth,
and elevation of the headwaters, the elevation being taken not at

ATS NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the extreme, but usually at some point where the stream branches,
within a short distance of the extreme headwaters :

Distance Elevation
from head- of head-
waters to waters
Name of stream mouth, miles above tide
Mohawk river, above Ridge Mills.... 23 1,066
Nine Mile creeks ve i200. eens 10 760
SOTISEANS \CTCCK, «accesses ace Fete 19 1,000-1,240
Sanqueit creek: oc. .co25 ae 15 1,200
PLETE HC EOOE oan. a's eet tee ee 6 1,000
Mayer Creek... Us. oho poet gL ae T 1,260
West Canada creek................. 64 2,300
Hast Canady creeks. o<aih o0+ dike a 1,600
Candjoharie, creek oi.) ose oe scl 15 1,350
Oavyailutta creek. i4aa/05. nck sae 12 800
Schoharie creek..... apg ce ate — (6) 1,860
Cobleskill (tributary to Schoharie
Cteeky act counties: ald. Mie eet: 20) i be
Batavia kill (tributary to Schoharie
FP Da 2k of ahead: psn een eager ee 17 2 000
Chuctentnda creek.........--..: 8 soo
South Chuctenunda creek........... 11 1,100
Aiptagstkae spite Rete ae 12 600

et =

As further showing that the upper Mohawk—the portion above
Little Falls—must be, so far as delivery in the broad level valley’
is concerned, a relatively rapid stream, we may consider that this

division of the catchment area is quite narrow, being at the
extreme western end about 45 miles and at Utica about 25 miles.
On the north side of the valley Black river canal, following the
general course of the river and its chief tributary above Rome, the
Lansing kill, rises to an elevation of 1200 feet on the Boonville
summit in a distance of 25 miles. To the south of Utica the aban-
doned Chenango canal, following a circuitous route, reaches an
elevation of 1126 feet on the Bouckville summit in a distance of
about 24 miles.

The mean elevation of the Mohawk valley proper, from a short
distance above Little Falls to Rome, may be taken from about 380
to 420 or 430. At Rome, above the feeder dam, the elevation of the
water surface above mean sea level is 430.5 feet; at the New York

iThis is the present corrupted spelling of the stream originally called
Aalplaatz—a good place for eels.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK A479

Central & Hudson River railroad crossing, four miles east of
Rome, it is 418.4 feet; at the crossing three miles east of Utica the
water surface is 393.3 feet; at the mouth of Schoharie creek it is
about 270 feet, and at the New York Central & Hudson River rail-
road crossing at Schenectady it is 214 feet. The foregoing tabula-
tion, which includes streams below Little Falls as well as above,
indicates that rapid flood delivery is the marked characteristic of
all the tributary Mohawk streams.

The area of the flats between Little Falls and Rome as computed
from the United States Geological Survey topographic sheets is
about 21 square miles, this area including in effect the flats
between the 400 and 420 contours. Adding thereto somewhat for
nearly level area above the 420 contour, we may take the total area
on which temporary pondage may exist during flood-flows at some-
thing like 30 square miles. The effect of this pondage, so long
as the present natural conditions are maintained, will be to con-
siderably lengthen the period of flood runoff at Little Falls, thus
decreasing the maximum at that place.

The Mohawk river flood of August 24-26, 1898, may be men-
tioned. On August 23 and 24 very heavy thunderstorms occurred
throughout the central and eastern portions of the State. They
were specially severe about Utica, with the result, so far as can
be learned, of yielding a nearly unprecedented summer flood in tle
Mohawk. The Mohawk flats between Herkimer and Rome were
so far covered with water as to do great damage to standing crops.
The water was still standing on the flats on the afternoon of
August 27, but was down into the channel again on the afternoon
of the 28th.

On August 25 Nine Mile creek, at Stittsville, flowed approxi-
mately 7820 cubic feet per second (catchment, 63 square miles),
or at the rate of 124.9 cubic feet per second per square mile.

On the same date West Canada creek, at Middleville, gave a flow
of about 12,950 cubic feet per second (catchment, 519 square
miles), or about 24.9 cubic feet per second per square mile, while
East Canada creek, at Dolgeville, flowed 6330 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 256 square miles), or at the rate of 24.7 cubic
feet per second per square mile. »

Probably these flows were for very short periods—perhaps two
or three hours—because the highest flow over the middle dam at

480 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Little Falls where the gagings were made was about 4 feet to 4.5
feet in depth, equivalent to a flow of from 12,000 to 14,000 cubic
feet per second, the temporary storage of the flats reducing the
quantity at Little Falls very greatly.

By way of showing the quantity of rainfall causing the flood
of August 24-26, 1898, the following precipitations at a number of
points in the central and eastern portions of the State are cited
from the monthly report of the New York State Weather Bureau:

RAINFALL IN INCHES
A

Name of Place August 23. August 24 Total
Gooperstowit ik. oe kos Sine aoe 1.96 1.40 3.30
Omeon tai! $.405ek) 9 os saan a ee 1.10 2.18 3.28
Gloversville T2755 65 34Se sane BAe 1.24 1.30 2.54
Little Falls "(near city) ©. tenes sate 9 etre 0.56 1.20
Little Falls reservoir (8 miles north). 1.68 2.78 4.46
Number "POur. <i. ste neti a Maa | 0.88 2.59
Kings Station......... tah aus tae esens 0.35 2.36 2.71
de 1 aerate Marty Rie Na ake, ir 9 Pe Pig, | Fo, 1.86 2.36
Greenwiell 2 63825 5:.354 eae 1.16 1.58 2.74
OMG ed vee vibe tee nee ee £20 1.40 2.60
Saratoga ‘Springs. 7472). (a7 Cees 0.23 119 2.02
Watertown 7.02) AO FE Tee aes 1.45 0.43 1.88

Taking all] the facts inte consideration, there seems to be no
reasonable doubt but that the streams tributary to the Mohawk
river above Little Falls for a short time on August 24 or 25 deliv-
ered water into the flat area at the rate of perhaps 40,000 cubic feet
per second. By way of illustrating further why this large inflow
did not produce a greater flow at Little Falls, we may consider
that for from thirty to fifty days previous to August 23 the rain-
fall on and in the vicinity of the Mohawk catchment area had been
rather low. The total for the Mohawk valley in July, 1898, as de-
duced from Weather Bureau stations at Little Falls, Canajoharie,
St Johnsville and Rome was 3.93 inches, 2.53 inches of this having
fallen on July 18 and 19. The concentration of the rainfall of
the month into these two days had the effect of sending a very
large portion of it into the streams, only a small portion going
to replenish ground water. On August 1 the Mohawk valley
tecord shows 1.18 inches precipitation, the total for that month
being 7.12 inches. We may assume, therefore, that ground water

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 481

was rather low August 28. Hence, Mohawk flats were in shape
to absorb a considerable portion of the water delivered upon them
into the interstices below the surface. Assuming, as already
stated, 30 square miles to be more or less effected by such an in-
flow, and further assuming the interstices of the soil of this 30
square miles to be for the first 8 or 10 feet of depth about 30 per
cent to 40 per cent of the whole volume, we reach the conclusion
that the temporary storage of the flats may have been as much
as 3,000,000,000 to 4,000,000,000 cubic feet, which sufficiently ex-
plains why the outgo at Little Falls did not exceed 12,000 to
14,000 cubic feet per second.

The foregoing figures do not take into account the extreme maxi-
mums which may be expected on this stream. So far as can be
now seen, from. 40,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per second delivery
into the flats above Little Falls is rather common. The extreme
maximum must be considerably greater than this. Without
being able to cite specific floods proving the statement, the
writer is nevertheless disposed to say, taking into account the
known maximum floods of other streams of the State—Chemung,
Genesee and Croton rivers—that at some time the Mohawk river
above Little Falls may yield something like 60,000 to 70,000 cubic
feet per second, or at the rate of perhaps 46 to 54 cubic feet per
second per square mile. |

A study of the flood-flows of the Mohawk river would be incom-
plete without some reference to the surface geology of the catch-
ment area. The main trough of the valley lies entirely within the
horizon of the Hudson river and Utica shales, where the soils, aside
from immediately in the flat, level valley, are heavy and compact.
On the north side, beyond the horizon of the shales, Trenton lime-
stone and calciferous and sand-rock appear. At Little Falls, St
Johnsville and Amsterdam these formations extend down into the
valley to the thread of the stream. To the north of the Trenton
limestone and calciferous sand-rock the Laurentian granite ap-
pears, the headwaters of West and East Canada creeks lying in this
formation, while the less extended streams on the north side ter-
minate either in the shale or limestone and sand-rock horizons.
In the vicinity of Fonda, Johnstown, Gloversville and Mayfield
the shale formations extend for some distance to the north of the

trough of the valley, as also they do farther east, to the north of
Schenectady.

=

482 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

To the south of the trough of the Mohawk valley we have first

the shales, followed in ascending series by the Medina and Oneida
sandstones, the shales and limestones of the Clinton formation,
the Niagara limestones, the rocks of the salt group, the Helder-
berg limestone, the Oriskany sandstone, the Onondaga limestone,
and finally the extended area covered by the Catskill and Che-
“mung sandstones. The headwaters of Schoharie creek issue
mostly from the Catskill formation, although the extreme head-
waters flow from off the Oneonta sandstone, which, however, is
closely allied to the Catskill. The shorter streams on the south
side issue from the horizon of the Hudson and Utica shales, the
same as short streams to the north+

The soils of a considerable portion of the- Mohawk river catch-
ment area are consequently heavy and impermeable, and further
tend to give heavy runoffs at time of flood-flow.

As regards flood-flows in the lower Mohawk river, the stream
divides naturally at Little Falls. Below that point the flat area
is relatively more restricted, and the flood-flows probably larger
in yolume than at Little Falls. We have already given particu-
Jars of the highest flood at Rexford Flats, where the catchment is
3385 square miles. According to the Report on Water Power in
the Tenth Census, in an extreme flood which occurred about 1860
to 1865 there is stated to have been a depth of 12 feet of water on
the Cohoes dam, which is 1400 feet in length. If such a depth
actually occurred, the discharge may have been over 200,000 cubic
feet per second or at the rate of over 59 cubic feet per second per
square mile. The information at hand does not indicate a flow
over about 78,350 cubic feet per second or 25 cubic feet per second
per square mile at the Rexford Flats dam. The maximum, how-
ever, in view of the foregoing, may be placed at a considerably
higher figure than this.

Floods in Cayadutta creek. The maximum flood of this stream
near Johnstown is stated to have occurred in the spring of 1896,
at which time the flow was 2895 cubic feet per second (catchment,
40 square miles), or at the rate of 72 cubie feet per second per
square mile.

‘Also see statements regarding geology of Mohawk valley on p. 411.

a

ey. ew 2. =

»
HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 483

Floods in Schoharie creek. The flow of this stream at Fort,
Hunter in 1892 was 41,715 cubic feet per second (catchment 947
square miles), or at the rate of 44 cubic feet per second per square
mile.

afes

gs iYfyhye

Ocean
Ge
ae
es y, & \)

le: GG:

% Le
a7 So ote bibeegs ANNO SX TOE
RRRRMMMARWE"

Fig. 36 Cross-section of dam of Empire State Power Company at Scho-
harie falls.

In 1899 and 1900 the Empire State Power Company erected a dam
and power plant on Schoharie creek at Schoharie falls, seven miles
from the city of Amsterdam. The crest of this dam was originally
380 feet in length. During a flood on March 21, 1901, the water
attained a depth on the crest of 11.2 feet. The calculated dis-
charge was 49,600 cubic feet per second (catchment, 930 square
miles), or at the rate of 53 cubic feet per second per square mile.

484 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

. This flood is stated to have been due to an ice gorge farther up-
stream.

On April 22, 1901, there was a flood of 38,400 cubic feet per
second, or at the rate of 41 cubic feet per second per square mile.
This flood is stated to have resulted from heavy rainfall.

The flood-flows of this stream are very heavy, and probably the
extreme maximum may be taken at from 60 to 65 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

The headwaters of Schoharie creek issue from. the horizon of
the Catskill group, which is closely allied to the Chemung, from
whence it is probable that like the Genesee river, in the western
part of the State, floods are not only frequent, but very heavy.
Exceedingly heavy floods are ascribed to Schoharie creek by
tradition.

Floods in Garoga creek. <A flood of 16 cubic feet per second per
Square mile is, so far as can be learned, the highest flood in this
stream. ‘The stream rises in the Garoga lakes and Peck pond.

Floods in East Canada creek. The maximum flood in this
stream at Dolgeville is reported as having occurred on August 25,
1898, at which time the flow was 6330 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 256 square miles), or at the rate of 25 cubic feet per second
per square mile. The flow at Dolgeville on April 18, 1900, was
5385 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 21 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

In reference to the moderate flow of August 25, 1898, it may be
remarked that probably the heavy rainfall of August 23 and 24
did not extend over the greater part of this catchment. At North
lake the rainfall of these two days was only 0.89 inch.

On December 15, 1901, there was a flow at Dolgeville of 12,150
cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 47.4 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

Floods in West Canada creck. The maximum flood in this
stream as measured at Trenton Falls dam occurred on December
15, 1901. It is estimated at 36,300 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 875 square miles), or at the rate of 97 cubic feet per second
per square mile. It is probable that this flood was considerably
increased by the failure of the Hinckley dam, a short distance
upstream. The flood was caused by heavy rains falling on frozen
ground.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 485

A high-water mark at the Newport dam indicates a flood dis-
charge on August 25, 1898, of 22,000 cubic feet per second (catch- .
ment, 472 square miles), or at the rate of 47 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

At Middleville the flood of August 25, 1898, is estimated to have
discharged 12,950 cubic feet per second (catchment, 519 square
miles), or the flow was at the rate of 25 cubic feet per second per
square mile.

In August, 1874, a flood at Hinckley is estimated at 21,100
cubic feet per second (catchment, 360 square miles), or at the
rate of 59 cubic feet per second per square mile. It is probable
that flood flows as high as from 60 to 70 cubic feet per second per
square mile are rather common in West Canada creek. ,

Floods in Sauquoit creek. The figures for this stream are not
very definite, but so far as they go they indicate that floods of 50
cubic feet per second per square mile are not uncommon.

Floods in Oriskany creek. In the spring of 1888 a flood is re-
ported in this stream as measured at Coleman of 7830 cubic feet
per second (catchment, 141 square miles), or at the rate of 56
cubic feet per second per square mile.

In the spring of 1896 a flood is also reported in this stream, as
measured at Oriskany, of 7510 cubic feet per second (catchment,
144 square miles), or at the rate of 52 cubic feet per second per
square mile. Ordinary floods in this stream range from 18 to 25
cubic feet per second per square mile.

Floods in Nine Mile creek. On August 25, 1898, there was a
flood-flow at Stittsville for a short time of 7820 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 68 square miles), or the stream flowed at the
rate of 125 cubic feet per second per square mile.

On March 12, 1898, the flow at Stittsville was 1800 cubic feet
per second, or at the rate of 29 cubic feet per second per square
mile.

Floods in Allegheny river. Nothing is known in regard to the
flood-flows of Allegheny river and its tributaries any further than
that the tributaries in their upper portions have heavy flows. As
an estimate, purely, many of them may be placed at from 60 to 70
cubic feet per second per square mile, but like streams in other
parts of the State, they need to be studied on their merits.

486 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Floods in Susquehanna river. By common consent the highest
flood experienced in this stream within the historical period was
in March, 1865, but aside from the fact that considerable damage
ensued, little is known in regard thereto. The entire region
drained by the Susquehanna river in New York State, as well as in
Pennsylvania, is not only mountainous, but largely denuded of
timber. The flood-flows of the stream are, therefore, large. The
catchment area above Chenango river is 2400 square miles. There
is a State dam, formerly used in connection with Chenango canal,
across this river at Binghamton, and 8. E. Monroe, City Engineer

El. §23.2

Fig. 37 Outline section of State dam at Binghamton.

of Binghamton, has compiled a map on which he has placed high-
water elevations during the flood of March, 1902, together with a
plan elevation and cross-section of dam. The figures show that
the depth on the crest of this dam was 13.1 feet, with a difference
of elevation above and below the dam of two feet. Computing the
flow over this dam as a submerged weir, and making various cor-
rections, including one for the water flowing through the lock at
the south side of the river, it is found that the flood-flow in March,
1902, was about 70,000 to 80.000 cubic feet per second, or possibly
at the rate of something over 383 cubic feet per second per
square mile. A flow at this rate is less than might reasonably
be expected; accordingly it may be assumed that the flood of
March, 1902, was not the largest flood likely to occur on the Sus-
quehanna river. Comparing it with other similar streams, there
seems reason for supposing that at some time there may be a flood
here of at least 50 cubic feet per second per square mile. Such
extreme floods, however, do not occur more than once or twice in
acentury. The flood of March, 1865, which is the largest known,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK AST

probably approximated these figures. Probably the headwaters
of this stream will give flood-flows of 60 to 70 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

Chenango river. The serious flood which qa at Bingham-
ton on March 1-3, 1902, was mostly due to the overflow of Che-
nango river. <A flood committee appointed by the Mayor of Bing-
hamton has reported the total damage resulting from this flood at
$16,720.

The committee also submitted a detailed statement, with names
of individuals, showing a total] decrease in valuation of property
of $44,800.

The flood-flow of Chenango river is estimated at from 40,000
to 45,000 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1582 square miles),
or at the rate of possibly 30 cubic feet per second per square mile.
It is probable that the smaller tributaries towards the head-
waters have flood-flows of 50 to 60 cubic feet per second per
square mile.

Floods in Chemung river. The Chemung river, as well as its
tributaries, the Cohocton and the Canisteo, is a gently flowing or
alluvial river. The third tributary, the Tioga, is torrential for
the greater portion of its length.

The city of Corning is situated on the Chemung river, about
two miles below the junction of the Tioga and the Cohocton. A
large portion of the city is built directly in the valley below flood
level, from whence it results that Corning has suffered seriously
from floods, but the city has recently carried out a system of
improvements which thus far has prevented these inundations.
The river flows near the south side of the valley, with the greater
portion of Corning lying on the alluvial strip to the north—the
balance of the city extends up the abrupt hill, flanking the valley
on the south. The greater part of the fioods occur on the north-
ern side of the river, though there have been some which were
more severe on the south side, owing to the denser population. In
1892 an act was passed by the legislature creating a Board of
River Commissioners with authority to carry out the needed im-
provements and to issue bonds to pay for them. This act was
amended in 1895, extending the authority to issue bonds to
$150,000. The improvement was begun in 1896 and completed in
1897. The general plan was to enlarge the river channel through
and below the city and to raise the banks by artificial dykes.

488 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The minimum cross-section allowed through the bridges is
10,500 square feet. The dykes have a total length of 4.9 miles
and vary in hight from 4 to 19 feet. These dykes not only extend
along the river front opposite the city and for a considerable dis-
tance downstream, but also extend for nearly two miles along
the westerly bank of Post creek, a torrential tributary reaching
the river from the north. Several streams and a number of sur-
face-water drains are provided for in different ways—some were
carried in closed conduits which extend above high-water mark
on the land side; others were carried through the dyke by cast-
iron pipes, with gate valves and automatic flap valves at the river
end.

The foregoing river improvement, although inaugurated and
carried out as a city measure, did not include a reach of the south
bank of the river, which was protected by an embankment and
slope wall built a number of years before by the State of New
York. In the course of time this embankment has deteriorated so
that the portion of the river front protected by it is now in an
unsatisfactory condition. During the floods of 1902 the high
water was only kept from going over this old embankment by
temporary work. Formerly, the State appropriated funds to
maintain this embankment, with the result that the local authori-
ties consider that the burden of maintaining it now rests with the
State.

The city of Elmira lies on the Chemung river, about twenty-five
miles above where it joins the Susquehanna. Floods are common
here the same as at Corning, fifteen miles above. Within the
historical period the most severe flood is that of June1, 1889. At
this time, according to a report made by Francis Collingwood, the
stream flowed at the rate of 138,000 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 2,055 square miles), or 67 cubic feet per second per square
mile.

Mr Collingwood submitted a report of his investigations, to-
gether with a map of the river with flood profile for June 1, 1889.
This profile shows obstructions to flood-flow are caused by a dam
extending across the river near the west city line and by several
bridges spanning the river below this dam. In addition to these
specific obstructions the general condition of the channel through
the city is wnfavorable to a free discharge of floods. The river

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 489

channel is characterized by breadth and shallowness, with abrupt
changes of width and. depth. This condition has been brought
about by the fact that the river approaches Elmira with a high
velocity, due to rapid descent for some miles above. It therefore
reaches the city loaded with sediment and moving large amounts
of detritus along its bed, but on reaching the flatter grades the
velocity is checked and the stream is no longer able to move this
material, which is left in the channel, gradually accumulating
with each successive flood. The shoaling of the channel, due to
such accumulation of material, encourages the erosion of banks,
with the result that the channel increases in width and becomes
shallower. During the flood of 1889 the river rose to a hight of
14 feet above low water mark, and a number of floods since that
time have approached this in severity. In March, 1902, about
thirteen hundred acres within the business and residence portions
of the city were inundated and the flood damage in that year has
been estimated at $155,000.

Mr Collingwood prepared five alternative plans for flood pre-
vention, differing in the extent of protection to be secured and
the permanence and character of the improvement. The first of
these is estimated to cost $700,000; the second, $640,000; the
third, $376,000; the fourth, $336,000, while in the fifth scheme
an immediate expenditure of $133,000 is suggested, with moder-
ate annual expenditure until the desired result is finally reached.

In this connection, Mr Collingwood suggests that the city
should buy its own dredging plant. The total cost of a suitable
plant would be about $25,000. In order to prevent the gradual
filling up of streams, raising them more and more with each
flood, Mr Collingwood suggests that the material should be taken
from the bed of the streams.

Without knowing the condition fully, the writer doubts
whether any scheme of partial dyking on Chemung river can be
permanently effective. The whole river should be considered be-
fore any actual work of construction is undertaken+

*The facts in regard to floods at Elmira have been obtained from the
Report on the Protection of the City of Elmira, N. Y., against Floods, by
Francis Collingwood, dated February 12, 1890. The balance of the infor-
mation in regard to floods on Chemung river is from the Report of the
Water Storage Commission.

490) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Floods in Canisteo river. This stream is subject to severe
floods from which the city of Hornellsville has suffered greatly
in the past. The fall of Canisteo river for two miles above the
mouth of Canacadea creek is 2 feet per mile, while below the
mouth of that creek it is 8 feet per mile. Above the mouths of
Bennett and Stephens creeks the fall igs 34 feet per mile and 10
feet per mile below their mouths. These facts illustrate the effect
of torrential tributaries of a stream in flattening slopes above
their confluence and increasing them below.

Flood in Cohocton river. Conditions similar to those stated
for the Canisteo river apply on the Cohocton river.

Floods in Delaware river. Very little is known about flood-
flows in this stream, although they are undoubtedly high, in many
cases no doubt approximating from 70 to 80 cubic feet per second
per square mile. The valleys are narrow and do not, generally
speaking, offer any great opportunity for water storage.

Summary of information as to maximum flows in New York.
Concluding the subject of flood-flows in New York, on Oswego
river and tributaries, where there is extremely large lake pond-
age, the flood-flows do not exceed 6 to 8 cubic feet per second
per square mile. |

On the Hudson river, with considerable lake pondage, the
extreme floods are 15 to 16 cubic feet per second per square mile.

On the Black river, below Carthage, flood-flows of 16 to 20 cubic
feet per second per square mile are about the maximum; above
Lyon Falls, 25 to 40 cubic feet per second per square mile, and
in the tributaries, generally from 30 to 60 cubic feet per second
per square mile.

On the Mohawk river, with steep torrential tributaries, floods
are from 20 to 50 cubic feet per second per square mile, and in the
upper sections they may be as high as about 60 cubic feet per
second per square mile.

On the Genesee river the extreme maximum thus far observed
at Rochester, above which place there is an extensive pondage area,
is 18 to 24 cubic feet per second per square mile, while at Mount
Morris and Portage floods rise to over 40 cubic feet per second
per square mile. On this latter portion of the stream a possible
maximum may be éxpected of 60 to 70 cubic feet per second per
square mile.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 491

On the Allegheny, Susquehanna and Delaware rivers and their
tributaries floods may rise to 50 to 60 cubic feet per second per
square mile, and on torrential streams generally, throughout the
State, they may at times be from 80 to 100 cubic feet per second
per square mile. In a few cases on streams of small catchment
areas they may rise to 125 cubic feet per second per square mile.
The latter flows, however, are not very common.

Minimum Flow of Streams in New York

Whatever the purpose for which an inland stream is to be
utilized, the first question asked is with regard to the minimum
flow. If for power development, the minimum flow will determine
the amount of power which can be insured on a given head; if for
the water supply of a town, the minimum flow will indicate at
once the number of people which may be supplied without storage.
From every point of view, therefore, a knowledge of minimum flow
is a matter of the first importance. Below are given the minimum
flows of the inland streams of the State of New York, so far as
information is at hand.

Minimum flow of Niagara river. According to table No. 45, the
minimum discharge of Niagara river was in November, 1895, when
the flow for the entire month averaged only 177,852 cubic feet per
second (catchment above Niagara Falls, 265,100 square miles), or
the flow was at the rate of 0.67 cubic foot per second per square
mile.

Minimum flow of west branch of Canadaway creek. In the
summer of 1885 measurements were made of the west branch: of
Canadaway creek in Chautauqua county from July 18 to Sep-
tember 2 of that year. This stream, which is the source of the
water supply of the village of Fredonia, has a catchment area
above the point of measurement of 4.5 square miles. The valley
is deep cut for a distance of 3 miles from the measuring point to
its extreme headwaters. Small springs issue frequently through-
out the valley. On July 18, 1883, the stream was flowing at the
rate of 541,620 gallons in 24 hours, or 50.2 cubic feet per minute,
and very gradually decreased to 270,000 gallons, or 25 cubic feet
per minute, on July 22. Rains between July 22 and July 29
brought the stream up to a discharge of 1,319,000 gallons per day,
or 122.1 cubic feet per minute, on the latter date. The flow then —

492 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

gradually decreased during the month of August until, on August
26, it was only 216,000 gallons per day, or 26 cubic feet per minute,
which was the lowest point reached during the summer of 1883.
This stream can not be considered a good water yielder. A
mean discharge of 216,000 gallons in twenty-four hours from a
catchment area of 4.3 square miles represents a yield of 0.834 cubic
foot per second, or, what is the same thing, 0.078 cubic foot per
second per square mile. It is apparent, therefore, that even a
spring-fed stream with a deep valley in Chautauqua county may
at times furnish a very small outflow, though it should not be
overlooked that the flow of 0.078 cubic foot per second per square
mile was the extreme minimum for one day only. The relations

4

9 i /4% Ss
7, / AIS S <<
Uf, Y ASB s
Af, RSS
Y S SES
/ Af 7 SS
// J fy SS t.
Y / Us ppp pr ~ ry
/ / | XS
/ y SSVAS
/ Y SS
MEME,
U/ A AA
7 Sf fi
4 / [fy
4 SS
Pol, tA ff >

CES Pr ges
| TH Rogers Del Mor 26275.

Fig. 88 Cross-section of dam near Fredonia on west branch of Canadaway
creek.

of this extreme minimum to the daily flows during the period coy-
ered by the measurements may be easily gathered from an inspec-
tion of table No. 81. The gradual falling in water yield from
August 1 to 26 is the most interesting fact revealed by these
measurements.

The following was the rainfall at the point of measurement
during the month of August, 1883:

Inches
arent | Be SS eG a PEA rei et 0.04
AdpHBE 13) Srl AR oat Cie ee ee 0.10
August! 202i fh PASCAL Pe ee en eater oe ene 0.05
Avioust 23) 0005 Sei ae Bes a ae eee ce, Oe 0.05

Praerast (28) 2.0: oes Sad Aa cee ee ame 1.98

17
18

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

TABLE No. 81

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE IN CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE OF WEST BRANCH
OF CANADAWAY CREEK, NEAR FREDONIA.

[Catchment area=—4.3 square miles.]

en ae ae eh ee & eNews Ss 6 8 2 ee fe

a) ei ane) hee SR a eee) 2. 2 2.916, ae) ww) ©

ined « awh wee es ewan <r es af eles 9. a%e 6) m6 “e)\e 0

Seer ee eee = al Ch amr Se «6 oad 2a ee Fe fe

a Se ie ee Oe) ewe ele So ie ChE ee Ree £ eS

ee ee a ee Oe oe a yt or a

i os 2a ieee ee he a lea ee ia es) eee! 2. Sh ere

i ie ain Seaweed (a6 wae) @ eee © Se eee € ¥ eee

Se ea A pe ee ee ee i a a a

ieee ne we ow elie! é Sets a a ale Ved et ete © 16 « 5; l=

S Sse bets ee 8h ew ley a fe le ee) ew ewe ee 6 wee 3) ©

NE ee we a a ee ee

ow ts ee 6 oe oes 6 te Ke w bi «d, ‘el Be) aye e@:0 =» a. @ «

Pin Sis ea, « hoe = © atnle tes = © Seis ie «a » alee! ©

iJ Tae se ae ee ne £ae « wie) SPetu, fe Tu « © © e > «

- S20 86 6 ewes Ce Cle i pee Se ee eS Ele fs. 6 = wo ia ce 6 @

So (© ion 2 ene eS we 6 el Bete Ye) a ¢te «2 6 =U" &

Sars = Oe ie! ee oe) es a) eee ys) So ere le te “Ss § 54 8B Bye @

Se St a aoe ele © le,e » eS) Sid (ts we as « a © (00

2 <r” Peat ie Sim iala eis = is e-% oe. 6 © eu ie

July.

. S » = ee

August.
56.
50.
46.

W Os
me WO ee)

WY
coms)

493

September.
47.6

wi) a et te eee wy
as 2s) e ee
< tie owas
os =») ae om, >
oo (aie l! bt ay etm
ath cent nye icin « an; i
oe a wie. wile eis
oY af weno) < el <a
SN a Vert ee ae
a ee ee
ee eee
a ee ee
me) ea Joe ee
é"a\e. 84.55 42) 8
a sy eget @ BD Oo
oa ee a) Se ae
& 6 «@ at os Jee >
a2? e) « eh ee
i 6 Sate. wee e
eo eer ete a ee
py bi ehw ees OF a’ oo
as = =. s Tete Geo
eo 8 a if a) Se
eS mr el ew: pny oe

494 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Minimum flow of Genesee river. The following tabulation gives
the mean monthly flows of the Genesee river at Mount Morris and
Rochester for several low months of the year 1895, the catchment
area above Mount Morris being 1070 square miles and that above
Rochester, 2365 square miles:

Mount Morris ROCHESTER

Cubic feet Cubic feet Inches en. Cubic feet Cubic feet
per sec- per second the catch- per sec- per second

Month ond Doe BaEEe ment ond pera
PAT Re oe ee ne 174 = 0.168 O19 085 0.380
Ha ED ae aie le Se as al Arn 12S USES 0.13. 283 0.226
NOY rs ee ee oe 105 0.099 OLE 232 0.165
Wapustl’ er Sricqoe 115 05108 °° 0.12 254 0.169
oc] 211101 2) ae aoe 100 0.093 0.10 221 0.106
PRETNET, oon ee 104 0.097 le 230 0.093

SSS es

Comparing the foregoing figures for Mount Morris with those
for Rochester for the month of October, 1895, it is seen that the
proportion of runoff at Rochester was somewhat less for that
month than at Mount Morris, although for the previous months it
appears to have been larger. The explanation of this is that there
are between Rochester, Mount Morris and Dansville extensive
flats aggregating from 60 to 80 square miles. The temporary
ground-water storage of these flats acts to sustain a somewhat
more equable flow at Rochester than at Mount Morris, above which
point there are proportionately smaller areas of flats. There are
nevertheless some exceptions to this general proposition, as when,
in a long-continued dry time, the flats become exhausted of
moisture, and to some extent act like a sponge, taking up water
from the river, thereby decreasing, in a measure, the outflow at
Rochester.

In the summer of 1846 Daniel Marsh made a series of measure-
ments in order to determine the low-water flow of that year. As
the result of nine measurements made at various times in July and
August he placed the minimum flow at Rochester in 1846 at 412
cubic feet per second.

At Middlebury Academy, Wyoming county, in the catchment

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 495

the storage period, 12.59 inches; growing period, 4.82 inches; re-
plenishing period, 8.60 inches; total for the year, 26.01 inches.
The record for the year 1846 at Middlebury is not given. It is
clear, therefore, so far as we have any definite meterological
record, that the measurements made by Mr Marsh in 1846 were at
a time of very low water.

A number of years ago gagings of the minimum flow of the
- Genesee were kept at the raceway of the Genesee Paper Company,
in the north part of the city of Rochester, where it is possible to
turn the entire flow of the river through the raceway. These
gagings showed that for several months the minimum flow did not
exceed about 160: cubic feet per second, and as this included per-
haps 10 cubic feet per second flow of sewage, we may: conclude
that the minimum fiow of this stream at Rochester is as low as
150 cubic feet per second (catchment, 2365 square miles), or at
the rate of 0.064 cubic foot per second per square mile. These
measurements were verified during the summer of 1903, when at
Elmwood avenue bridge in the south part of the city the flow was
even somewhat less than this, as determined by current-meter
measurement.

These statements apparently indicate that the minimum sum-
mer flow of the Genesee river has decreased from 412 cubic feet per
second in 1846 to about 150 cubic feet per second in 1908. As to
the reason for this decrease, it is believed that the extensive de-
forestation of the catchment area which has taken place since
1846 offers full explanation. In 1846 the upper Genesee catch-
ment was still very largely in forest. Probably of the entire area
above Rochester the virgin forest was from 65 per cent to 70 per
cent of the whole. We have therefore apparently a marked case
where the deforestation of a large area has materially reduced the
minimum runoff.

The foregoing minimum flows of Genesee river show conclusively
that in its present condition it is not a good mill stream. The
great variation in runoff is conclusive on this point. The figures
show that the runoff of the stream may be exceedingly slack for
several months during the summer and fall.

Minimum flow of Oatka creek. The catchment area of this
stream above the point of measurement is 27.5 square miles. The _
mean flow for the month of August, 1891, was 6 cubic feet per

496 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

second; for September, 5.83 cubic feet per second; for October,
5.8 cubic feet per second. Jixpressed in cubic feet per second per
square mile, the foregoing results are 0.218 cubic foot for August,
0.212 cubic foot for September, and 0.211 cubic foot for October.
Expressed in inches onthe catchment, the runoff of this stream
for August to October, 1891, was from 0.24 to 0.25 inch per month.
For several days during the months of August to October, 1891,
the flow of Oatka creek was down to about 4.2 cubic feet per sec-
ond, or to about 0.151 cubic foot per second per square mile. On
September 26, 1891, the recorded mean flow for the day was 3.77
cubic feet per second, or 0.137 cubic foot per second per square
mile.

As a general proposition, statements of minimum flows of
streams ought not to be based on the records of single days,
specially on streams where there are mill ponds above the point
of measurement, because such accidental circumstances as the
holding back of the water may vitiate the result; from this point
of view an average extending over as long a period as possible
should be taken.

The measurements of Oatka creek from August to October, 1891,
illustrate well the nearly universal tendency of streams to run
either at approximately a fixed rate or to decrease only very
slowly after the tributary ground water has become well drawn
down. For several days at a time the records show only slight
variation.

Minimum flow of Morris run. The result of a measurement of
Morris run, a tributary of Oatka creek, the source of a part of the
water supply of the village of Warsaw, Wyoming county, made
from July 4 to December 26, 1894, is shown by table No. 82. The
measured catchment area is 156 acres, but it may, by reason of the
peculiar topography be somewhat greater than this. The water
issues along the thread of the short valley in the form of springs!
The measurement was made by a thin-edged notched weir at a
point just below the lowest spring. As may be observed, the flow
varied greatly at different times, the minimum being 77,630 gal-
lons per day or 7.2 cubic feet per minute, in October. On July &
the discharge was 238,580 gallons, or 22.1 cubic feet per minute
for twenty-four hours. There is a popular impression that
. springs do not vary their flow at different seasons. The measure-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

497

ments of Morris run are valuable, therefore, as illustrating that
even a spring-fed stream will gradually decrease during a dry

season.

TABLE No. 82—Dai1Lty MEAN DISCHARGE IN CuBIC FEET PER MINUTE
oF Morris RuN NEAR WARSAW, IN 1894.

[Catchment area = 0.24 square mile. ]

am «ee ee ee eee

ee awe Se a ee Ce

July.
16.0
TTS

is a
pak ee
4 6 0, 4
“ee eee
iy ae yee
am ee leh e
a ok el eet
ow. 6, 1 Rie
Nahe) et ae
kt oe

eee eee
SS & a\t @
ae
eee eee
Ce ae a et
“ee ag
ft wre 6he ¢
a

August. September.

10.4

ieee em
“Ci ee
e.6 6 aime
ons as =e
ee
Som eae 1S
w «2 @. oe
oS 1 S)5L<
a oe

he ae Tere

ee

October. November. December.

ee 2 en ae

owe ee

oe « © #100

eee
eS
i Cs OE

10.9

ee) ee Ore
wie ace” 'e
as: a' Oa 2

i eae
we. ete. oe
i ieee Ce
®. a vaie, aa
Cia) we. mae
Sse) Oe. e) @
CO). (& ae
Se, Wire ee me

Web iat)

eo ec Sera

Fw

6.8 ere. em
So = «ee
oe on
a OC ae
ae Cw we

S) 6).¢ mete

ie ee ae

See oe ee

eo 6 Ge & ©

2.8) Ces Oe

ar AO

a oh ee Pe

ee. 8 oe

498 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Minimum flow of Hemlock lake. According to a report made
by Henry Tracy, the minimum flow of Hemlock lake is 5 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 43 Square miles), or 0.116 cubic foot
per second per square mile.

Table No. 49 gives the quantity of water passing out of Hem-
lock lake for the period covered and without reference to the
natural flow. In order to obtain the approximate natural flow
for the year we must take into account the mean elevations of lake
surface. Thus, for the water year 1880 the mean elevation of
the first month, December, was —1.67, while for the last month,
November, it was —1.24. The difference (0.48 foot) represents
the gain in depth of storage for the year. Computing for the
value of this storage in inches on the catchment area, we have
0.28 inch, which, added to the quantity of water passing out of
the lake (3.07 inches), gives as the approximate total runoff for
the year 3.35 inches. Since 1880 was a very dry year, we may
compute the flow for the entire water year to be 10.3 cubic feet
per second, which again amounts to 0.24 cubic foot per second
per square mile.

For the five-year period included in this tabulation the total
rainfall and runoff are as follows: ,

tineues * iene

1680 ACTS. BE FSU See, Pa eee 21.99 apt
TESL 2. SSE OR A Oe Oe eee 24 27 8.38
ESP cos sro ac, sR Oe ee eee 25.46 148
Tes ite ott OF BLURS. Ci ae ae ae 32.24 9.29
Ps O48. SA PUR e Ae Ca ee ee 26.74 12.57
Add for rise‘in levele ice. pls ¥. @OS ey Veet oe 0.40
THON 5 4, ciate ctiie 2e Oe pet ee 130.70 48 .22

For the five-year period the total runoff was therefore only 36.9
per cent of the rainfall. In 1880 the runoff was only 15.2 per cent
of the rainfall. The corrections for rise in lake level are included
in these statements.

Minimum flow of Oswego river. Previous to 1897 there were
no records of any long-continued measurements of the flow of

‘Report on the Cost and Policy of Constructing Reservoirs on Conesus,
Hemlock, Honeoye and Canadice lakes. Senate document, No. 40, 1850.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 499

Oswego river, of which the catchment area at the mouth is 5002
square miles. The minimum flow of this stream has been the
subject of judicial inquiry. In August, 1875, in the case of
Michael J. Cummings against owners and lessees of the water of
the Varick canal at Oswego, it was decreed: _

(1) That the average flow of water from the Oswego river into

he Varick canal in low water in the summer months is about
45,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per minute; (2) that in extreme low
water in the summer, and which usually occurs in the month of
July or August, it is about 35,000 cubic feet per minute; and (3)
that the average fiow of the whole three summer months is about
75,000 cubic feet per minute.

Varick canal is entitled to receive one-half the total flow of the
river, less the amount of water required for navigation purposes.
Hence the average summer flow, according to the decree, is from
90,000 to 100,000 cubic feet per minute (1500 to 1670 cubic feet
per second). The extreme low-water flow is placed at 70,000 cubic
feet per minute for the whole flow of the river, or at 1170 cubic
feet per second, while the average flow of the whole three summer
months is given at about 150,000 cubic feet per minute, or 2500
cubic feet per second. From the foregoing figures we deduce an
extreme minimum of perhaps 0.23 of a cubic foot per second per
square mile, with an average of low water in the summer months
of about 0.30 to 0.33 of a cubic foot per second per square mile.

The following measurements may, however, serve to show that
the minimum figures just stated may be modified somewhat.

Beginning in April, 1897, a record of the flow of Oswego river
has been kept at High dam, two miles above the city of Oswego.
This record is, however, somewhat uncertain as to the low water,
but it is given for what it is worth in table No. 50. This record
does not include diversion for the use of the Oswego canal.

For seven days in September, 1897, the flow was at the rate of
about 900 cubic feet per second and during the entire month of
September, 1898, the mean flow was 925 cubic feet per second.
For twenty-five days in September, 1898, the mean flow was only
795 cubic feet per second (catchment, 5000 square miles), or at

the rate of a little less than 0.16 cubic foot per second per square
“mile,

500 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In July, 1899, the flow for the month was 748 cubic feet per
second; for August of that year, it was 612 cubic feet per second;
for September, 615 cubic feet per second, and for October, 585
cubic feet per second.

In August, 1900, the mean flow was 669 cubic feet per second;
September, 670 cubic feet per second, and in October, 853 cubic feet
per second.

It may be again remarked that these flows do not include diver-
sion for the Oswego canal, which, however, probably did not ex-
ceed 100 to 150 cubic feet per second.

The following tabulation gives the minimum flows of Oswego
river at Fulton during 1900, as determined by a measurement
through openings in the sides of the bulkhead, the discharge being _
calculated by the formula for orifices, using a coefficient of 0.62.
These figures only apply to the year 1900, which, on reference to
the rainfall tables, is shown to have been a wet year.

MINIMUM DAILY FLOW
ae Eee

Cubie feet Cubic foot °

OT bagapeiaae Oa
Oeteber, 29} 6: 67 we pre Leg} hide BOLLE 1,225 0.25
October 30 4:3. esasads wtiosoaetigds: ee 1,111 0.23
October, 31s ssp): ta9% ahdigae-to Seees 1,201 0.24
Nevembetod: cris. off nb sateen get to ee 1,132 0.23
November 2 ....... A dia yciee Sees coe eiekay: 1,760 0.36
Novembero3,+ «402: 2oeaent -i Ree Stas 1,540 0.31
November, 44.00. haftiies: mt eiues bela tant eee aie
Nommber,h(: An. <s6it--adh D-H teger ze 1,201 0.24
Novemben.6 sije.4dh eawhe antins aera. se 1,309 0.27
November, ff 4 ii3 ah on. gikbmocey tockesar 1,857 0.28
November'$: ...02..0v..ofdh -p& deceive ce 1,539 0.31
November ;9, ;.» 9eavat} adit. oa adkt 10% . 1,193 0.24
0.26

November! 10. «tse spckhgcht) SER tare 1,293

Minimum flow of Seneca river. In July, 1899, the mean dis-
charge for the month, of Seneca river at Baldwinsville was 776
cubic feet per second; in August, it was 455 cubic feet per second ;
in September, 481 cubic feet per second, and in October, 637 cubic
feet per second.

1Sunday.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK pul

In July, 1900, the mean flow was 720 cubic feet per second;
in August, 551 cubic feet per second, and in September, 471 cubic
feet per second.

Since the catchment area at Baldwinsville is 3103 square miles,
the flow for the entire month of August, 1899, of 455 cubic feet
per second was at the rate of less than 0.15 cubic foot per second
per square mile. For several days in August and September, 1899,
the flow was very much smaller than the average, but it does not
seem proper to consider the flow of single days in estimating the
minimum flow of a stream like Seneca river. The small summer
flows in this stream are largely due to heavy evaporation from
the marsh areas above Baldwinsville. .

Minimum flow of west branch of Fish creek. In July, 1900,
the mean flow of this stream for the entire month at McConnells-
ville was 60 cubic feet per second, and in August it was 57 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 187 square miles), or the flow for
these two months was at the rate of about 0.3 cubic foot per
second per square mile. Undoubtedly the extreme minimum flows
of this stream are less than 0.2 cubic foot per second per square
mile, since for six days in December, 1900, the mean flow was only
36 cubic feet per second or at the rate of 0.19 cubic foot per second
per square mile. It is possible that the extreme minimum may
perhaps be placed as low as 0.12 cubic foot per second per square
mile for a week at a time.

Minimum flow of Salmon river west. The lowest recorded flow
of this stream is 75 cubic feet per second for five days in Sep-
tember, 1900. Since the catchment area at Pulaski, where the
measurements are made, is 264 square miles, this flow would be
at the rate of 0.28 cubic foot per second per square mile. Prob-
ably the extreme minimum flow of this stream will go as low as
().22 cubic foot per second per square mile.

There are a number of streams to the north of Salmon river, be-
tween there and Black river, as for instance the north branch of
Sandy creek, of which the minimum flows are exceedingly small.
As observed by the writer in the fall of 1898 these streams were
substantially dry, the flow of several of them not exceeding 20
cubic feet per second. Their minimum flows are as low as 0.05
cubic foot per second per square mile. Their headwaters lie in a
deforested country in the horizon of the Hudson river shales and
Trenton limestone. |

502 ” NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Minimum flow of Black river. The catchment area of this
stream at Huntingtonville dam, where the measurements are
made, is 1889 square miles. Previous to 1897, aside from measure-
ments made by engineers in the employ of the State at the time
of construction of the Black river canal and a few made by Frank
A. Hines in 1875, there had been no measurements taken of the
fiow. In February, 1897, the Board of Water Commissioners of
Watertown began a record of the daily flow of the river, from
which the following statements of minimum flows are taken.

In July, 1897, the mean flow for the entire month was 940 cubic
feet per second; for two days it was about 582 cubic feet per
second; one day, 630 cubic feet per second, and one Sunday is
given at 480 cubic feet per second. In August, 1897, the mean
flow for August 6 was 782 cubic feet per second; for August 7,
630 cubic feet per second; August 8 (Sunday), 362 cubic feet per
second; August 9, 536 cubic feet per second; August 10, 630
cubic feet per second; August 25, 522 cubic feet per second;
August 26, 566 cubic feet per second; August 27, 582 cubic feet
per second, and August 28, 322 cubic feet per second.

In 1898 the minimum month was July, in which the mean flow
was 1128 cubic feet per second, although for five days in August
the flow was about 900 cubic feet per second.

The mean flow for the month of August, 1899, was 897 cubic
feet per second and for September, 990 cubic feet per second.
For a short period in August the flow fell to about 700 cubic feet
per second, and on one day it was 522 cubic feet per second. In
considering these statements of minimum flow in Black river, the
fact that there is a leakage estimated at 250 cubic feet per second
should be taken into account; 520 cubic feet per second, which
with one exception is the lowest, is at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot
per second per square mile. The daily record of this stream
shows that it is a good water yielder, as indeed might be expected.
There are a large number of reservoirs at the headwaters and it
flows from an area largely in primeval forest. It is doubtful,
therefore, if Black river will, while present forestry conditions
are maintained, go below about 0.8 cubic foot per second per
square mile for more than a few days at a time, although it is
claimed to have been less than this for some time in 1849.

Minimem flow of Oswegatchie river. From a current meter
measurement of the low-water flow of this stream made a few

\
OOOO EE EEE EE —_—_--

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 503

miles above Ogdensburg September 25, 1900, the discharge was
-estimated at 614 cubic feet per second (catchment, 1535 square
miles), or at the rate of 0.4 cubic foot per second per square mile.
There is not enough information about this river to determine
whether or not this is the extreme minimum flow, but taking into
account the rainfall of 1900, it is probable that the minimum flow
is somewhat lower than this.

Minimum flow of Raquette river. Only two measurements of
the flow of this stream have been made. The first of these was a
current meter measurement made at Potsdam, where the catch-
ment area has not been determined, by W. C. Johnson, on
August 28, 1898, on which day the flow of the stream was 755
cubic feet per second.

A current meter measurement was also made near Massena,
October 2-3, 1900, showing the low-water flow of Raquette river to
be 934 cubie feet per second (catchment, about 1200 square miles),
or at the rate of 0.78 cubic foot per second per square mile.

There is very large pondage area on the various lakes at the
headwaters of this stream, but probably the low-water flow will
go lower than the preceding figures—how much, there is no way
of stating at the present time.

Mintmun flow of Hudson river. Measurements of the flow of
the Hudson river have been kept at Mechanicville since October,
1887, the record of which to November, 1902, inclusive, is presented
in tables Nos. 60, 61 and 62. The natural flow of this stream is
somewhat obscured by a considerable number of lumbermen’s
reservoirs on its headwaters, the total storage of which aggregates
4.000,000,000 cubic feet, as well as by two reservoirs on Hoosic
river in Massachusetts. In 1898-9 Indian lake reservoir was
constructed with a storage capacity of about 5,000,000,000 cubic
feet. The water stored in Indian lake is usually let out in the
months of August, September and October, assisting the low-water
flow materially, while the water from the lumbermen’s dams is let
out in the spring, and tends to increase floods somewhat.

The month of minimum runoff for the whole period covered by
the measurements was August, 1899, the mean for the month being
1393 cubic feet per second (catchment, 4500 square miles), or at
the rate of 0.31 cubic foot per second per square mile. The flow
for one day during this month was 993 cubic feet per second, and

504 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

for one day 979 cubic feet per second. In September, 1899, the
flow for one day was 711 cubic feet per second. For short periods
the flow has been less than for August, 1899. Thus, August 14-19,
1890, the mean flow was 1080 cubic feet per second, and October
2-6, inclusive, 1891, the mean flow is also given at 1080 cubic feet
per second, or at the rate of 0.24 cubic foot per second per square
mile. Taking the diversion for the supply of the Champlain canal
into account, we have about 0.29 cubic foot per second per square
mile as the actually observed flow.

The figures show, however, that the flow of 0.29 cubie foot per
second per square mile has occurred for only two periods—one
of six days and the other of five days—a total of eleven days for
the whole period covered by the measurements. For July, 1888,
ihe mean flow, including the diversion which was then occurring for
the supply of the Champlain canal, may be taken at 0.37 cubic foot
per second per square mile. For October, 1891, the mean flow
for the whole month was 1472 cubic feet per second, or, including
the diversion to the Champlain canal, 0.36 of a cubic foot per
second per square mile. In July, 1890, the mean flow for the
month was 1950 cubic feet per second, and in several other months,
as July, 1893, July, 1895, and September and October, 1895, the
mean monthly flow varied from about 2600 to 2700 cubic feet per
second. Hence we may say that for any business where it is not
absolutely indispensable to have permanent power, water power -
on Hudson river may be developed up to the limit of about 0.4
of a cubic foot per second per square mile, with a prospect of not
being interrupted on account of low water more than a few days
in each year. For electric power, however, or any application of
water power requiring a permanent power every day in the year,
the development ought not to be based, under present conditions,
on more than about 0.24 to 0.25 of a cubie foot per second per
square mile, these latter figures relating specially to that portion
of the river from which water is diverted for the supply of the
Champlain canal. As is shown in the section on the water power
of the Hudson river, nearly all of the plants on that stream are
developed far beyond these figures.

Above the mouth of the Hoosie and Battenkill rivers somewhat
different conditions obtain from those occurring at Mechanic-
ville. The Hoosie and Battenkill rivers flow from eastern Ver-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 505

mont and Massachusetts, and frequently there are rainfalls in this
region when there are none on the Hudson river above Fort
Edward. This fact renders it impossible to predicate what will
happen on this part of the stream from the record at Mechanic-
ville.

A record of the flow of the river has been kept at Fort Edward
from December, 1895, to the present time, which is given to
November, 1902, inclusive, in table No. 63. In August, 1899, the
mean flow for the month at Fort Edward was 714 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 2800 square miles), or at the rate of 0.26
cubic foot per second per square mile. For fourteen days in Sep-
tember, 1899, the mean flow was at the rate of 661 cubic feet per
second or 0.24 cubie foot per second per square mile. Probably,
in some extreme dry time, the flow at Fort Edward will not
exceed 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile, as the evidence
is clear that 1899, while exceedingly dry, was not the minimum
dry year. The statements in regard to the reliability of the gag-
ings, made on a preceding page, may, however, be taken into
account in considering the minimum fiows at this place.

Minimum flow of Croton river. The daily record of this stream
is not available, the flows being given for an entire month. The
following are the monthly means for the lowest flows:

In August, 1869, the fiow for the entire month was 90 cubic feet
per second; in September of that year, it was 54 cubic feet per
second. The mean flow, therefore, for two months was 72 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 339 square miles), or at the rate of

().21 cubic foot per second per square mile.
In September, 1870, the mean flow was 97 cubie feet per second
and in October, 111 cubic feet per second.

The following are the flows for the growing period of 1877:

Cubic feet
per second

ee nc A gl cra ca! Bon ek any bw w ace ue w 159
a SS TR Ne sega ager haere teleaetiae i naan ean 130

The flow for September, 1877, was 93 cubic feet per second.

506 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the water year, 1880, the flow for the growing and replenish-
ing periods was as follows:

wes

JURE i toes dt ne epee Beet Jen eres cee 138
daly Siw. aes le ae, See ee ee 138
Mmmase isi ita hee aut waidtoe im add Toes ee 132
September: .jvi..0. Taunt dadeaugeed eye. Aes be ee 132
Wetober: . ea. yds Cal... he es ee ee ee 1306
Novemberusss ii 5. ecubawwebibdewt,. te.diterm ati .ceb ered 152
MBAD 5 oo san usnutees uses atid haceveaceanieah alee ae ae dod

The flow for the following month of December was 1388 cubic
feet per second. The entire flow for the water year 1880 was 365
cubic feet per second.

In the year 1881 the mean flow for the replenishing period was
129 cubic feet per second.

In the year 1883 the mean flow for the entire year was 363.
cubic feet per second. Attention may be directed to the fact
that the flow of the storage period will chiefly determine
whether the mean flow for the whole year is large or small. Thus,
in 1880, the mean flow for the storage period was 592 cubic feet
per second and in 1883, 572 cubic feet per second. The maximum
flow of the storage period from 1868-1899, inclusive, occurred in
1888 and was 11387 cubic feet per second. In 1888 the mean flow
for the entire year was 8388 cubic feet per second, which is the
maximum mean yearly flow for the entire period covered by the
gagings.

The lowest mean monthly flow for the entire period was in Sep-
tember, 1869, and was 54 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of
0.16 cubic foot per second per square mile. Probably the flow of
the Croton river for several days during these periods did not
exceed 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile.

According to J. J. R. Croes, the minimum flow of the west
branch of the Croton river, with a catchment area of 20.4 square
miles, is 0.02 cubic foot per second per square mile.

Minimum flow of Fishkill creck. The lowest flow of this stream
thus far observed was on August 26, 1902, and was at the rate of

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK DOT

0.24 cubie foot per second per square mile. There seems little
reason to doubt but that this stream will go as low as from 0.10
to 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile.

A measurement of Clove creek, the largest tributary of Fishkill
creek, was made September 24, 1902, when the discharge was 3.5
cubic feet per second (catchment, 20 square miles), or at the rate
of 0.18 cubic foot per second per square mile. .

Minimum flow of Rondout creek. The low-water flow of this
stream is estimated at from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per
square mile.

Minimum flow of Wallkill river. The lowest flow thus far ob-
served on this stream at New Paltz is 124 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 736 square miles), or at the rate of 0.17 cubic foot per
second per square mile. This flow is from a single current meter
measurement on July 17,1902. The minimum flow of this stream
will go as low as from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square
mile.

Minimum flow of Esopus creek. The flow of this stream at
Kingston on August 5, 1901, was 40 cubic feet per second (catch-
ment, 312 square miles), or at the rate of 0.13 cubic foot per sec-
ond per square mile. This stream will at times go as low as 0.05
cubic foot per second per square mile. In June, 1899, the mean
fiow for the entire month was only 0.24 cubic foot per second per
‘square mile.

Minimum flow of Catskill creek. The available data show that
this stream will in dry time run down to 0.05 cubic foot per second
per square mile.

Minimum flow of the Normanskill. The lowest recorded flow of
this stream occurred in September, 1891, and was 4.6 cubic feet
per second (catchment, 111 square miles), or at the rate of 0.04
cubic foot per second per square mile. The mean flow for the
entire month of September, 1891, was 8.9 cubic feet per second,
or at the rate of 0.07 cubic foot per second per square mile. In
October, 1891, the lowest flow was 4.9 cubic feet per second; in
August, it was 5.9 cubic feet per second, and in November of the
‘same year, it was 6.9 cubic feet per second. These figures show at
once that this stream is a poor water yielder, and that probably
the extreme minimum flow for several days will not exceed 0.02 to
).03 cubic foot per second per square mile.

508 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Jlinimun flow of Kinderhook creek. The mean flow of this
stream at East Nassau for November, 1892, was 80 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 120 square miles), or at the rate of 0.25 cubie
foot per second per square mile.

In 1894 the minimum flow at Wilson’s dam was 4 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 68 square miles), or at the rate of 0.06 cubic
foot per second per square mile. The minimum flow for August,
1894, at the same place was 5.2 cubic feet per second, or at the
rate of 0.08 cubic foot per second per square mile.

Minimum fiow of Schroon river. Gagings of this stream are
kept at Warrensburg, but the natural flow is considerably ob-
scured by the storage of Schroon lake, which is controlled by the
Starbuckville dam. During the month of August, 1899, the mean
flow at Warrensburg was taken at 150 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 563 square miles), or at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot per
second per square mile, but this is not very precise.

Minimum flow of Mohawk river. For four days in September,
1900, the flow of the Mohawk river at Dunsbach Ferry was 373 cubic
feet per second (catchment, 3440 square miles), or at the rate of
0.11 cubic foot per second per square mile. Probably the extreme
minimum would not exceed 0.07 or 0.08 cubic foot per second per
square mile. In October, 1900, the flow at the same place was 373.
cubic feet per second for two days; 457 cubic feet per second for
three days; 625 cubic feet per second for seven days, and 541 cubic
feet per second for one day.

The minimum flow of the Mohawk river as measured at Rexford
Flats during September, 1899, was 228 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 3385 square miles), or 0.06 cubic foot per second per
square nile for fifteen days, followed by a flow of 278 cubic feet
per second for ten days. The mean flow for the entire month of
August, 1899, was 294 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.09
cubic foot per second per square mile, while for the last three
days of the month it was only 208 cubic feet per second. These
figures include the amount of water diverted to supply Erie canal,
or they are the total flow of Mohawk river at the point of gaging.

The minimum flow of Mohawk river at Schenectady as meas-
ured in September, 1899, was 420 cubie feet per second (catch-
ment, 5321 square miles), or at the rate of 0.13 cubie foot per
second per square mile, for twelve days. The entire flow of the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 509

stream is included in this measurement. The flow for the month
of August, 1899, was at the mean rate of 524 cubic feet per second.
In September, 1900, the mean flow for the entire month was 609
cubic feet per second.

The mean flow at Little Falls for the month of August, 1899,
was 223 cubic feet per second, but this does not include diversion
to the Erie canal, which may amount to about 150 cubic feet per
second, or to a total flow of about 375 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 1306 square miles), which is at the rate of about 0.28
cubic foot per second per square mile. In comparison with the
flow for the month of August, 1899, at Rexford Flats, these figures
show that the upper Mohawk river is relatively a better water
yielder than the lower—the low flows from Schoharie creek and
contiguous catchment areas, probably making the difference. The
lowest water observed since gagings have been kept at Little Falls
was in August, 1899, when the mean flow for nine days was but
120 cubic feet per second, or 0.07 cubic foot per second per square
mile. This, however, does not represent the total flow of the
stream, as nearly the entire river was being taken for the supply
of Erie canal. |

In September, 1901, the minimum flow of Mohawk river at
Utica for two days was 70 cubic feet per second (catchment, 500
square miles), or at the rate of 0.14 cubic foot per second per
square mile. These figures are somewhat indefinite.

The minimum flow of Mohawk river at Ridge Mills for Septem-
ber, 1899, was at the mean rate of 81 cubic feet per second for
twenty-two days; for three days, the mean flow was 56 cubic feet
per second, and for two days, 53 cubic feet per second (catchment,
153 square miles), or at the rate of 0.34 cubie foot per second
per square mile.

Mimmum flow of Cayadutta creek. In August, 1899, the mean
flow of this stream at Johnstown for the entire month was 18
cubic feet per second; in September, 20 cubic feet per second, and
in Oetober, 21 cubic feet per second. For several days during
these months it was from 14 to 16 cubic feet per second. In July,
1900, the mean flow was 17 cubic feet per second, and for several
days it was from 12 to 14 cubic feet per second, which, for a catch-
ment area of 40 square miles, is at the rate of about 0.3 to 0.35
cubic foot per second per square mile.

510 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Minimum flow of Schoharie creek. The mean flow of this
stream at Fort Hunter for the month of August, 1899, was 142
cubie feet per second (catchment, 947 square miles), or at the rate
of 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile. In July, 1900, the
mean flow was 115 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.12
cubic foot per second per square mile. For three days during this
month the flow was 76 cubic feet per second and for one day 72
cubic feet per second.

Gagings of Schoharie creek were also made at Schoharie falls
over a sharp-crested weir, 25 feet in length, during a portion of
1900 and 1901. According to these gagings the mean flow of the
stream for August, 1900, was 89 cubic feet per second; for Sep-
tember, 32 cubic feet per second, and for October, 40 cubic feet
per second. In February, 1901, the flow was 166 cubic feet per
second. The catchment area at this point is 930 square miles.
Hence, 32 cubic feet per second was at the rate of 0.04 cubic foot
per second per square mile.

In May, 1900, the writer reported at length relative to the low-
water flow of Schoharie creek. At that time, the Empire State
Power Company was contemplating extensive developments on
this creek and had procured reports from several engineers. These
reports agreed that the minimum flow of this stream would not
be less than about 400 cubic feet per second. In regard to this
matter, it was stated that the minimum flow of Schoharie creek
had been taken too high, as might be sufficiently appreciated by
considering the figures derived from all the rivers of the State
which had then been studied. Figures were given for Oatka creek,
Genesee river, Hemlock lake, west branch of Canadaway creek,
Oswego river, Black river, Mohawk river, Hudson river, Croton
river and Niagara river, and the conclusion was arrived at from
such comparison, based on general considerations purely, that the
flow of Schoharie creek might go down to as low as 0.2 cubic foot
per second per square mile, or to about 190 cubic feet per second.
The following was the conclusion of this part of the report:

If, therefore, we were to accept the idea that there is at least
0.4 cubic foot per second per square mile minimum flow in Scho-
harie creek, we should have about the best flowing stream in the
State—better even than the Hudson and Mohawk. A stream,

Sie Fy A:

= ewe F*

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK dll

too, without any lake pondage, with steep sharp slopes, and with
everything against high flows. Obviously, then, the conclusion
that Schoharie creek flows as high as 0.4 cubic foot per second per
square mile is absurd. At present the writer does not feel justi-
fied in assigning to it, on the evidence, more than from 0.2 to 0.25
cubic foot per second per square mile. Such flows, however, prob-
ably do not continue very long, because the stream responds
quickly to relatively small rains, which is certainly an advantage,
the more especially because the rainfall is possibly slightly greater
in the elevated highlands from which this stream issues than it is
in less elevated regions.

It was also stated:

In the absence of gagings of Schoharie creek the determination
of the minimum flow is a matter of judgment, but taking into ac-
count all the evidence, the writer believes he has given Schoharie
creek a liberal place.

Since that time definite gagings have been kept, showing that
the low-water flow of this stream is lower even than estimated
from general considerations in 1900; it is, in fact, shown to be an
exceedingly poor water yielder, and it is clear that the writer’s
report of 1900 did not place the low water flow as low as it
really is.

Minimum flow of East Canada creek. The mean low-water flow
of this stream at Dolgeville for September, 1899, was 92 cubic feet
per second. For eleven days it was 67 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 256 square miles), or at the rate of 0.26 cubic foot per
second per square mile. For August, 1899, the mean flow for the
month was 97 cubic feet per second. For September, 1900, it was
133 cubic feet per second.

Minimum flow of West Canada creek. The mean flow of this
stream at Middleville for September, 1899, was 221 cubic feet per
second (catchment, 518 square miles), or at the rate of 0.42 cubic
foot per second per square mile. For several days the flow was
only 145 cubic feet per second, and for eleven days, September
2-12, inclusive, the mean fiow was 183 cubic feet per second, or at
the rate of 0.35 cubic foot per second per square mile. In the pre-
ceding month of August the mean flow for the month was 235 cubic
feet per second. These figures show the superiority of both East
and West Canada creeks over Schoharie creek as water yielders.

512 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Minimum flow of Sauquoit creek. The mean flow of this stream
at New York Mills for September, 1899, was 14 cubic feet per sec-
ond (catchment, 52 square miles), or at the rate of 0.27 cubic foot
per second per square mile; for August, 1899, it was 16 cubic feet
per second, and for October, 1899, 17 cubic feet per second. For
September, 1900, the mean flow was 15 cubic feet per second.

Minimum flow of Oriskany creck. The low-water flow of this
stream is likely to occur during the months when canal navigation
is closed, at which time the water flowing is only the natural con-
tribution from the catchment area. For ten days in December,
1899, the mean flow at Oriskany was 53.5 cubic feet per second
(catchment, 144 square miles), or at the rate of 0.387 cubic foot per
second per square mile. For four days during this month the
mean flow was 31 cubic feet per second, or at the rate of 0.22 cubic
foot per second per square mile. -

Minimum flow of Allegheny river and tributaries. So far as
known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for the
Allegheny river and its tributaries. They are, however, small
and may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per
square mile.

Minimum flow of Susquehanna river and tributaries. So far as
known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for
Susquehanna river and tributaries. They are, however, small
and may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per
square mile.

Minimum flow of Delaware river and tributaries. So far as
known, minimum flows have not thus far been determined for
Delaware river and tributaries. They are, however, small and
may be placed at 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile.

The preceding discussion of minimum flow is of considerable
ralue in that it includes comparison of a number of New York
streams for the year 1899, which, as shown by the rainfall statis-
tics, was rather a dry year, although there is no reason for sup-
posing it was the minimum dry year.

Summary of information regarding minimum flows. Summar-
izing the present knowledge of minimum flow of streams in New
York State, we may say that in western New York for streams
like Genesee river issuing from regions of heavy, compact soil,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 513

mostly deforested, the minimum flows will run as low as from 0.05
to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile. In extreme cases
they may be even less than this. In the chapter on the classifica-
tion of streams we have shown that Croton river properly classi-
fies with the Genesee. It is also shown that this stream has
low minimum flows. Spring-fed streams in western New York
and those with considerable lake surface pondage may be expected
to have somewhat greater minimum flows than the preceding.

In the central part of the State streams flowing from the south
side of the Mohawk north into that stream have generally low
minimum flows; they do not differ greatly from the Genesee river
and tributaries. To the north of the Mohawk river the conditions
are different and the flow of the streams is larger.

The Mohawk river and upper Hudson may be placed, while their
present condition of forestation is maintained, at a minimum of
about 0.2 to 0.25 cubic foot per second per square mile. Reser-
voirs on the Hoosic river in Massachusetts tend to increase the
minimum flow of the Hudson at Mechanicville somewhat.

Streams issuing from the Catskill mountains, where conditions
similar to those on the Genesee river obtain, have minimum flows
of from 0.05 to 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile

The streams of Long Island, issuing from sand plains, will give
larger yields, the available measurements showing minimum run-
offs as high as 0.5 cubic foot per second per square mile, but
whether these runoffs would be maintained in a minimum dry
year is uncertain; at present, it appears somewhat improbable.
Moreover, it is proper to say that these measurements were made
about fifty years ago and there is some doubt whether they are
entirely reliable; probably an extended series would show per-
haps 0.85 cubic foot per second per square mile as the minimum.

The streams of the northern part of the State, issuing from
denser forests and with large lake storage, may be expected to
give minimum yields somewhat in excess of 0.3 cubic foot per
second per square mile, although until definite measurements are
made this must be considered an inference merely.

*Streams issuing from the Catskill region have not been gaged long enough
to entirely settle the question of minimum flows. The difference in forest-
ation may be taken into account in estimating these flows.

D14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Nothing is known as to the minimum yields of streams tribu-
tary to the Allegheny, Susquehanna and Delaware rivers, aside
from the measurements of Eaton and Madison brooks made in
i835. So far as can be learned, aside from those recently
inaugurated by'the United States Geological Survey, no measure-
ments of any other of these streams have been made. It is prob-
able that they will mostly be found substantially the same as
Genesee river and streams issuing from the Catskill region.

Quantity of water which may be stored on the several plateaus.
The foregoing treats of the yield of streams in a general way,
but the practical summation of the preceding discussion is as
to the quantity of water that can be safely stored on different
catchment areas of New York in the year of minimum runoff.
The tables of precipitation on the several plateaus show that the
quantity which can be stored varies in different parts of the State
and in some degree in proportion to the rainfall. It is also shown
that when the rainfall is above a certain minimum amount, the
excess quantity of runoff is roughly in proportion to the rainfall.
In order to emphasize the preceding propositions, we have the
following as the mean rainfalls of the ten plateaus into which the
area of New York is divided for the twelve water years 1891-1902,
inclusive, together with the low rainfalls of 1895 and 1899.

Mean of 1895, _ 1899,

wai inches inches.
Western plateau. ..5- 6. 02-4 0buk Sak Bete 34.03 29.76: . Zia
TABS CRT, DAT OR as a in hen he oa ee a 40.30 32.87 35.26
WOT RETD DIAC CB Ta ae id cleat peek 44.03 OG. OT . Sete
Atlante: COASL «: .0.5¢ i n6ts needless * eee 46.71 40.77 44.54
Hinideon Watley oo ou ceeds oie ed eee 42.59 35.74 37.98
Mohawk. galley «.. - 5:05: ..0 nicest andes 42.13 . 31.30_. 35.31
Chain lain, valley ci. ish & seis nin coemnee 37.06 32.95 33.85
Si Lawrence, valley ,. saa bcheictetnee et 36.18 33.75, 28.51
(read AA ed «4s 2): Moc neces ae 35.65, 29.18 . 28.67
Central Lakes qs... 0:44.43 nbee asa eeceae 34.46 27.31 27.83

The difference in the average precipitation of: the Atlantic
coast and the Central Lakes regions is 12.25 inches. We may
expect, therefore, about 10 to 11 inches more average runoff in

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 515

the Atlantic coast region than in the region of the Central
Lakes.

The preceding mean rainfalls are for a period of 12 years only,
which is not long enough for perfectly safe averages. Moreover,
while these 12 years have included the minimums of 1895 and
1899, these minimums were not as well defined on some of the
plateaus as on others.

Since the precipitation of the storage period largely determines
the runoff of that period, let us for a moment consider the relation
between precipitation in the storage period of the Atlantic coast
and Central Lakes regions. The minimum precipitation in the
storage period of the Atlantic coast region for the 12-year period
included in the tables was for the year 1896, and amounted to
19.70 inches. The minimum precipitation of the Central Lakes
region for the same period was in 1895 and amounted to 11.26
inches, a difference of 8.44 inches in the storage period alone.

The yearly minimum precipitation of the Atlantic coast region
for the period considered was in 1895 and amounted to 40.77
inches. The yearly minimum precipitation of the Central Lakes
region was also in 1895 and amounted to 27.31 inches, a difference
of 18.46 inches. The proposition that there was over 10 inches
more runoff in the Atlantic coast region in 1895 than in the
Central Lakes region is therefore abundantly established. In the
same way a comparison of the balance of the regions will show
in a general way the runoff that may be expected in any given year.

Taking into account in a broad way these several precipitation
areas, we may say that in the minimum year the following quan-
tities of water can be stored, the statement being made without
reference to the economic conditions involved in considering the
area of catchment, topography, cost, etc. The statement also
involves conclusions based on consideration of all the circum-
stances, which are much too extensive to again give in detail but
which are given in different parts of this report:

1) On the western plateau, from 6 to 7 inches may be stored in
the minimum year.

2) On the eastern plateau, 7 to 10 inches.

3) On the northern plateau, 10 to 12 inches.

4) In the Atlantic coast region, 13 to 15 inches.

516 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

5) In the Hudson valley, 10 to 11 inches.

6) In the Mohawk valley, 10 to 11 inches.

7) In the Champlain valley, 7 to 8 inches.

8) In the St Lawrence valley, 5 to 6 inches.

9) In the Great Lakes region, 5 to 6 inches.

10) Im the Central Lakes region, 4 to 5 inches.
11) And finally, for particular localities, not more than 2 to 4
inches can be stored.

In the Atlantic coast region, by storage is meant the total quan-
tity of water which may be practically utilized, either from sur-
face flows or underflows.

Moreover, the foregoing statements are made for a single year
and without reference to the water yield that may be supplied by
considering a period of three years. Usually, taking into
account a 3-year low-water period, more storage can be provided
than when only a single year is considered, and the question as
to just what the water stored is to be used for will largely deter-
mine which period to take. If for water power, where exceedingly
large quantities of water are required, it is not generally desirable
to take more than the single dry year, while for water supplies a
period of three dry years may be taken.

Many persons consider that 11 inches of water collected in a
dry year is a conservative assumption, but the preceding dis-
cussion will serve to show that anybody assuming such quantity
in the State of New York would, in some parts, be wide of the
mark.

STATE OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC UTILITIES

When a country becomes thickly populated there are some
things which can be better done by the State than by either an
individual or by a single community. We will briefly discuss a
case of this character here.

State water supply. New York State is specially suited for a
State water supply because, due to fortuitous conditions, it is
possible to deliver water by gravity without excessively long con-
duits, to nearly every city and town in the State. Such supplies
would answer the requirements of purity and would settle the
question of water supplies in this State for all time to come. The
writer therefore considers that there should be a State commis-
sion specially authorized to define the limits of these reservations

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 517

and that forestation should be carried on within the limits fixed
by such a commission.

Examining the hypsometric map accompanying this report, we
observe that there are six high points which may be denominated
water centers, which are referred to on page 40.

The largest and most important of these is the elevated region
known as the Adirondack mountains, or for present purposes, the
Adirondack center, the highest peaks of which rise to an altitude
of over 5000 feet, and there are about 4000 square miles at an ele-
vation of 2000 feet and over. This region has a population of
from 8 to 10 to the square mile. The population of the balance of
the water centers is somewhat greater than this, but in none of
them is it beyond the limit of a pure water supply, with proper
precaution. The principal lakes lie at an elevation of from 1500
to 2000 feet.

The second, or Catskill center, includes the Catskill mountains
in the southeastern part of the State, where the highest points
rise to an altitude of over 4000 feet and there is an area of about
1000 square miles at an elevation of 2000 feet and over.

The third, which may be called the Allegheny center, is the ele-
vated region in the southwestern part of the State in Cattaraugus,
Allegany and Steuben counties, where the highest points are at an

elevation of over 2000 feet and there is an area of from 500 to 800

Square miles at an elevation of over 1500 feet.

The fourth, or Rensselaer center, lies east of Troy, Albany and
Poughkeepsie, and its highest altitudes are over 2000 feet, while
there are from 1000 to 1200 square miles at an elevation of over
600 feet. Since the distance from the Hudson river is short, this
elevation is enough to supply the ‘cities and towns naturally
tributary.

The fifth, or Chenango center, is west of the Catskill mountains,
with an extreme elevation of over 1800 feet, and there are from
1200 to 2000 square miles at an elevation exceeding 1200 feet.

The sixth, or Lowville center, is to the north of Oneida lake,
with an extreme elevation of from 1800 to 2000 feet, and there are
from 400 to 600 square miles at an elevation of over 1200 feet. The
issuing Streams are lower than the foregoing, but still high enough
to insure gravity supplies. .

*For elevation of lakes of Adirondack region, see pages 221 and 241.

518 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The preceding statements of area above certain elevations are
rather general—time has not been taken for detailed estimates.
There are, however, from 8000 to 10,000 square miles available.
From all these centers, uncontaminated streams of great natural
purity issue. There are also several minor points throughout the
State for which the same statement is true.

The Adirondack water center is separated from the Catskill by
the valley of the Mohawk river, which receives drainage from
both—the East and West Canada creeks and other tributaries of
the Mohawk on the north side of the valley rising in the Adiron-
dack center, while the Schoharie creek on the south side is an
important tributary from the Catskill center.

In addition to the Mohawk river, other important streams of
the State issuing from the Adirondack center are the Black, Oswe-
gatchie, Grasse, Raquette, St Regis, Chateaugay, Great Chazy,
Saranac, Ausable, Bouquet and Hudson rivers.

From Catskill center, in addition to Schoharie creek, we find
issuing the headwaters of the Susquehanna, Delaware and Wall-
kill rivers and Esopus creek.

The Allegheny center supplies the headwaters of Cattaraugus
creek, Genesee, Chemung, Canisteo, Tioga, west branch of the Sus-
quehanna and Allegheny rivers.

From Rensselaer center issue Hoosic river, Kinderhook creek,
Claverack creek, the Jansen kill and Croton river. .
From Chenango center issue the Chenango and Tioughnioga
rivers and Oriskany, Oneida and other small creeks, flowing north.

From Lowville center Salmon river issues, together with Sandy
creek, Fish creek anid other small streams.

Generally speaking the main river valleys of New York are at
comparatively low elevations, as may be sufficiently appreciated
by considering the elevation of a few of the principal streams.
The main Black river valley is less than 800 feet above tide water ;
Oswego river, with its principal tributaries, the Oneida and
Seneca, is less than 500 feet; main Mohawk river is less than 500
feet; Genesee river, between Rochester, Mount Morris and Dans-
ville, is about 500 to 600 feet; main Hudson river, below Glens
Falls, is less than 200 feet; main Susquehanna river is less than
1,000 feet, as is also the main Delaware; main Allegheny river in
the State of New York is about 1,000 feet; Lake Erie is 573 feet;

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 519

Lake Ontario 247 feet; and the St Lawrence river, from 247 to
about 100 feet above tide water. The cities and towns are mostly
situated in these several valleys along the streams.

The quantity of pure upland water that can be furnished from
the six water centers is sufficient for 45,000,000 to 50,000,000
people, as may be shown by considering that the available areas
are more than 9000 square miles in extent. If we assume an
average collection of only 400,000 gallons per day from 9000
square miles and an average daily use throughout the State of 100
gallons per capita, we have water enough for 36,000,000 people,
and which could easily be increased by additional storage to a
supply sufficient for 45,000,000 to 50,000,000 people.

On the accompanying map, the reserved elevated areas are con-
siderably in excess of 9000 square miles, but this is merely to
insure that no town or group of towns be required to go further
than necessary for an upland water supply. These areas can
be reduced when definite information is at hand as to just where
the supply for each town or group of towns can be obtained.

In order to emphasize the proposition that the main river val-
leys of the State should be kept clear for manufacturing, they
are generally excepted from the pure water reservations, shown
on the accompanying map. This map is subject to modification
in this particular on detailed study.

The Adirondack center is a rugged region, consisting of primeval
crystalline rocks, covered locally with sand areas. Here appeared
some of the first dry land on the western continent, and thus
was laid, in early geologic time, the basis of those fine river sys-
tems which, issuing from this water center, have created water
resources of vast value to the citizens of New York. From this
center water may be supplied to Plattsburg, Malone, Canton, Pots-
dam, Ogdensburg, Utica, Herkimer, Johnstown, Saratoga Springs,
Schenectady, Lake George, Albany, Troy and many other large
towns of the region, all within practical distance of the purest
water, flowing from granitic catchments. This region is also
extensive enough to furnish abundant supplies to the cities of the
Hudson valley, including the City of New York. |

The geologic history of Catskill and Allegheny water centers is
quite different from that of the Adirondack éenter. In both these
regions the sedimentary sandstone rocks of the Chemung and Cats-

520 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

kill groups have attained their greatest development. In the
Catskill mountains these rocks are still practically horizontal, as
originally deposited, and in places several thousand feet in thick-
ness. Limestones and other hard rocks, underlaid by shales and
soft formations, are found beneath the sandstones in a lower
stratigraphic horizon.

From Catskill and Rensselaer water centers, water may be taken
to Albany, Troy, Hudson, Catskill, Kingston, Schenectady, New-
burg, Goshen, Monticello, Delhi, Cooperstown and other large
towns of the surrounding region. The City of New York is now
chiefly supplied from Croton river, which issues from the south
end of the Rensselaer center.

From Chenango center, water may be taken to Norwich, Cort-
land, Binghamton, Oswego, Syracuse, Utica, Auburn, Waterloo,
Geneva and other places nearby.

From Lowville center, Lowville, Watertown, Carthage and
Oswego may be reached.

From Allegheny center, Buffalo, Lockport, Albion, Batavia,
Warsaw, Rochester, Geneseo, Angelica, Bath, Corning, Elmira,
Canandaigua and Lyons may be reached.

In view of the vast increase of population in New York State
for the past one hundred years the writer considers that the time
has arrived when the State should make provision for retaining
a portion of the headwaters of the streams issuing from these
several elevated regions as a future water supply for the inhab-
itants.

The population of New York in 1800 was 589,051. In 1900—
one hundred years later—it was 7,268,894. In the year 2000—
another one hundred years—it is perhaps difficult to predict what
it will be, but if with the data from 1790 to 1900, inclusive, we
plot a population curve, a reasonable estimate of the population
in the year 2000 is found to be 20,000,000—it may be one or two
million more than this, or one or two million less, but for a
period nearly one hundred years in advance, 20,000,000 is a con-
servative estimate.

Of the present population of 7,268,894, in 1900 6,206,657 were
on an area of approximately 23,440 square miles, or a trifle less
than one-half the laid area of the State, which is, according to
the twelfth census, 47,620 square miles. However, this statement

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 521

does not quite represent the conditions in New York State as
regards the relation between population and area. If we con-
sider that there are thirty-seven cities included in the preceding
area of 23,440 square miles, in which there is a population of
4,302,000 on about 1000 square miles, or at the average rate of
something like 4300 per Square mile, we learn that on the 23,440
square miles the purely rural population may be taken in 1900 at
1,904,000, which rural population is again situated on about
22,400 square miles, or at the average rate of about 84 per square
mile.

The foregoing review of the statistics of population in New
York indicates the present tendency to concentrate in cities. Un-
doubtedly, such tendency will be considerably accentuated in the
future. The clear tend of perhaps one-half of New York State
to become a great manufacturing district will lead to this result.

In the year 2000 it is probable that a relatively larger propor-
tion of the population will be located in the river valleys than
at present. Time will not be taken to discuss the conditions in
each valley, but the Mohawk valley will be briefly referred to as
illustrating conditions in several of the more important river
valleys.

The catchment area of Mohawk river is 3468 square miles and
_ the population of nineteen principal towns situated therein was
in 1900, 215,539. These towns are all large enough to have sewer-
age works at the present time. They are manufacturing towns
and are growing rapidly. If they were to increase in the same
proportion as the whole State, the population in the year 2000
would be something like 600,000, but undoubtedly they will in-
crease much more rapidly than the whole State and we will not
be far from right if we take the population in the year 2000 at
1,000,000. Moreover, this urban population will not be scattered
over the whole 5468 square miles, but will be concentrated on
perhaps 1200 square miles. The average population will, there-
fore, be, aside from the denser population of the cities, over 800
per square mile. Approximately the same average conditions will
obtain on about 20,000 square miles of the State.

With an average population of over 800 per square mile on
20,000 square miles, the 20,000 square miles will have become
urban and sub-urban area, with water supply and sewerage in

522 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

every street, and a vastly important question is raised not only
as to the source of the water supply, but as to the sewage dis-
posal.

With an ample upland water supply for the entire State
assured, we may consider a little further the most practicable
form of sewage disposal to be applied in New York. The ma-
jority of the streams are already so far contaminated as to make
their use for water supplies undesirable, the more especially as
it is entirely practicable to obtain uncontaminated upland
sources of water supply without prohibitive expense. In many
cases, several towns will join together for the construction of a
conduit and in order to harmonize the various interests, a State
commission should take charge of the construction.

The writer fancies that in many cases purification of sewage by
dilution will be sufficiently effective even when the population
of the State shall have reached 20,000,000, and in other cases, some
different form of purification may be used. For satisfactory
results by dilution, there should be in the stream about 4 cubic
feet per second for every 1000 of the population. For Mohawk
river, when the population of the valley reaches 1,000,000, this
would mean a flow in the stream of 4000 cubic feet per second.

The minimum flow at the present time is for short periods
occasionally as low as 0.1 cubic foot per second per square mile,
although such flows continue for only a few days and would
hardly apply in discussing sewage disposal For present pur-
poses, we may take the low water flow at from 0.25 to 0.5 cubic
foot per second per square mile, or at about 1000 cubic feet per
second for the flow of Mohawk river at its mouth. The balance
of the 4000 cubic feet per second must be furnished by storage,
which will again provide the water power for driving a consider-
able proportion of the manufacturing establishments of the valley.
3000 cubic feet per second furnished from storage is as much as
can be practically developed. Hence, when the population of
Mohawk valley reaches about 1,000,000 some other plan must be
adopted, but up to that point, the writer considers that the pref-
erable plan is to go to the neighboring highlands for uncontam-

1For minimum flows of Mohawk river in detail, see tables on pages 406-10,
together with statements on pages 508-9.

Le a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 523

inated water supplies, discontinuing the use of Hudson and
Mohawk rivers therefor, and reserving them instead for sewage
disposal. This proposition is equally true as regards the other
principal rivers of the State. :

The foregoing indicates that pure water supply and sewage dis-
posal must go together—that they are of equal importance and
neither can be neglected. To accomplish these objects, a per-
manent State water supply and sewage disposal commission
should be created at some time in the future. This commission
would work substantially on the lines laid down by the several
English commissions, who have considered questions of water
supply and sewage disposal for the last 40 to 50 years.

Before the work of such a commission can be effective, it is
necessary that a new topographical map of the State be made
at a scale not smaller than 5499. The work of the English com-
missions has been specially effective because of having the Ordi-
nance Map of Great Britain at a considerably larger scale than
rso00- The area included in the several water centers should be
undertaken first and will occuy from 10 to 15 years. After this
map is well advanced, such a commission could be properly
appointed. ;

In reference to the present topographical map of the State, it is
at too small.a scale (g409 ) to be of use other than as a general
guide. The definition of the several water areas will require more
precision than is possible on a map of the scale of the present
topographical map.

The writer will indicate some of the duties which may be likely
to fall upon such a commission as is here suggested, drawing some-
what upon an act proposed a few years ago in New Jersey, largely
the work of the late Lebbeus B. Ward, of Jersey City.

In the first place, with the topographical map at a scale of

rsooo in hand, the commissioners would precisely define the area

“Some of these commissions are. (1),Sewage of Towns Commission,
1858-65; (2) First Rivers’ Pollution Commission, 1868; (3) Second Rivers’
Pollution Commission, 1870-74; (4) Royal Sanitary Commission, 1871; (5)
Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge, 1884-85; (6) Royal
Commission on Metropolitan Water Supply, 1893; (7) Royal Commission
on Metropolitan Water Supply within the limits of the Metropolitan Water
Companies, 1898-99; (8) Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, 1898—
date.

524 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

from which a given water supply was to be drawn, such a defini-
tion to be made with due reference to the several interests, what-
ever they may be. Especially, in making their determinations,
the interests of manufacturing by water power should be duly
conserved.

After these preliminaries had been attended to, the commission
should investigate the possible sources of the supply of water as
they now exist, and should tabulate and report in detail upon
each supply. There are a number of places where the water sup-
ply is not only ample, but of which the purity cannot be improved,
but due consideration should be had as to the sufficiency of the
present supply for future growth. The possibility of sewage in
the future going into any present water supply should be taken
into account. |

These commissioners would be empowered to construct and
maintain works to supply, from the specially reserved State catch-
ments, any city or town in the State which would comply with
certain conditions. It would be made the duty of such a com-
mission to defend the rights of the State, as regarded the use of
reserved waters, and as to the policing and other lawful control
of the same. Where necessary,. proper sewage disposal works
would be included, although generally, with the rivers left free
to take sewage, this would be unnecessary
present.

at any rate, for the

Any town or group of towns wishing to receive a water supply .
from a State catchment would be authorized to make application
to the State board therefor, and thereupon the commissioners
should consider such application, make examination, and submit
plans and estimates, together with recommendations as to the
best source and method of furnishing a supply, either singly or
jointly with other municipalities, as in the judgment of the board
was most expedient. Preferably, such recommendations would be
made with reference to the supply of each municipality being an
integral part of a comprehensive system of State water supply.

The plan proposed could be submitted to a vote of the electors
of the town or towns at such time and place as might be decided
upon. If resulting favorably, the commission would proceed to
construct the works and furnish the municipalities so accepting

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 525

the plans and provisions of the act, with a permanent water sup-
ply from the State catchment. The amount to be paid per unit of
water for such supply should be included in the report.

No street distribution mains, or other apparatus constituting
or directly pertaining to the internal distribution system of any
municipality should be constructed by the State, -but main con-
duits only, terminating at the boundaries of towns. The main
supply system would be under the control of the State water sup-
_ ply and sewage disposal board.

In case the electors of any municipality should decline to ac-
cept the plan proposed at the election, the municipality should
be at liberty to renew its application at any time after a year,
requesting the State board to present a different or modified
plan, but it should be optional with the board whether to present
such modified plan or present the one previously propesed.

The State board should be empowered to issue bonds which
may be denominated water and sewage disposal revenue bonds.
The body of the bond should contain a declaration that the
security therefor was the annual payment collectable from the
municipality, together with the stipulation that a sinking fund of
one per cent per annum should be invested and held in trust for
the final redemption of the bonds. The bonds could have fifty
years to run and should not bear more than 314 per cent interest.
The annual payments of the several municipalities, to meet the
interest on the bonds and provide the sinking fund, should be
assessed by the State water supply and sewage disposal board
each year in proportion to the quantity of water used by each
municipality and the special expenditure incurred on account of
such municipality. The moneys collected would be returned to
the State Treasurer and by him deposited in the treasury as a
pledge for the security of .the ponds. Provision should also
be included for the collection in case of a default by any
municipality.

The act should provide for furnishing water to private com-
panies which already hold franchises for supplying any city or
town, but it should not be furnished to any such private company
at a less price than to a public water supply. The tendency of
such an act would be to uniformity in price of water to all mu-
nicipalities accepting its provisions.

526 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In order that such a board might properly transact its business,
provision should be included for the Comptroller to make ad-
vances out of any money in the treasury not otherwise appro-
priated, the total amount of such advancement to be limited to a
certain sum, which should be repaid to the State treasury when
properly assessed and collected from the municipalities. In this
way, and also by virtue of the preceding suggestion as to bonds,
the State may temporarily loan its credit to any municipality
requiring an upland water supply, but the cost of such must in
the end be returned to the State.

Finally, it is suggested that a commission of three is amply

large, two of whom could be appointed by the Governor, and the

third—who should be an hydraulic engineer—be elected by the
two. These commissioners should devote their whole time to the
work.t °

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER IN NEW YORK

Power employed in manufacturing. The Twelfth Census Report
gives the steam power employed in manufacturing in 1900 in
the State of New York as 677,219 horsepower, while the water
power employed in manufacturing was 368,456 horsepower ;
in 1890, the steam power aggregated 537,447 horsepower;
and the water power 233,795 horsepower; in 1880, the steam
power amounted to 284,795 horsepower and the water power to
219,348 horsepower; in 1870, steam power was 126,107 horse-
power and water power, 208,256 horsepower. These statistics
show that in 1880 the two kinds of power were substantially
equal—-steam power exceeded water power by only 15,447 horse-
power; in 1870, water power exceeded steam power by 82,149
horsepower.

According to the statemént? of Dr Chas. E. Emery, the yearly
cost of steam power, with coal at $3 per ton, will, for 365 days
of 20 hours each vary, depending upon the kind of engine used,
from $76.54 to $48.79. At the present time, with everything

1Partly abstracted from paper, State Water Supply in New York, in
Proc. Ninth An. Convention of Am. Soc. of Municipal Improvements,
held at Rochester, ctober 7-9, 1902.

7Cost of Steam Power, by Chas. E. Emery, Ph. D., in Trans. Am. Inst.
Elec, Engrs., March, 1898.

—

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 527

somewhat more expensive than when this table was made, these
figures may be taken at $85 and $53, although such costs imply
small developments in units of not exceeding about 500 horse-
power. In large units of from 3000 to 5000 horsepower,
steam power may be developed considerably cheaper than this.
Nevertheless it is still true that steam power will cost more than
water power. We may profitably inquire then why, with so much
undeveloped water power in the State, the more expensive steam
power has developed to a greater extent relatively than water
power.

Steam power. Let us consider the following tabulation of steam
power in the census years from 1900-1870, inclusive, in the States
of Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New York:

1900 1890 1880 1870
NWo-of He P.* “Nolof Ps “No‘of HYP? “No.of H.-P.

Gommecticut: ev. o.e.s:. 178,708 98,038 57,027 25,979
Massachusetts ........ 579,110 355,226 171,397 78,502
Rhode Island.......... 115,876 85,327 41,3835 23,546

New York............. 677,219 537,447 234,795 126,107

———— el

Water power. The following tabulation shows the development
of water power in the census years 1900-1870, inclusive, in the four
States :

1900 1890 1880 1870
No.of 1. PP. No ef. b B. No.of H.P.. : Ne. of.H.. P.

BPS PCLIGH ig oon, os 71,414 64,655 61,205 54,395
Massachusetts ........ 187,848 159,787 1388362 105,854
Rhode; island... . +. 29,035 27,258 22,240 18,481
2 a ae 368,456 283,795 219,348 208,256

Percentage wmerease of steam power. The following tabula-
tion shows the percentage of increase of steam power in the four
States for the same period:

PEE moos 05 NE
CUBRECHIERU GEARS COU RET Jet 82.3 71.9 119.5
MassaeCHesetts FY 8 ee) Pe 63 HOF 23 118.3
Hhode Geawd S00 Lah Pleven. 35.8 106.4 75.6

Wew VOPR. RP PRI a8 26 128.9 86.1

528 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Percentage increase of water power. The following tabulation
shows the percentage of increase of water power:

aa
Gonneceticut". ss. et. en eet. oe 10.5 DO 12.5
Mass#ewusetts .... 3. ecs es te ee te TP26 Ya.o ri bal
RHOOE ISIANG.. >. Cris eee ee ee eee 6.5 22.6 203
NEW YOCK ow ee ee ee 57.6 6.6 5.d

The foregoing tabulations show that in all the States enumerated
there has been great development of steam power in the last thirty
years, but that in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island
there has been relatively less development of water power than
of steam power. In New York State the development of water
power in the last ten years is relatively double the development
of steam power.

In considering statistics, it is important to draw the right con-
clusions—an error perpetuated, may falsify history and lead to
the adoption of erroneous policies. Let us examine, therefore, as
to the real significance of these statistics. In the first place, they
indicate that twenty to thirty years ago, in Connecticut, Massa-
chusetts and Rhode Island, the most of the available water power
had been developed, but that manufacturing as a whole had not
by any means reached a maximum. When we consider the his-
tory of these States we find that every stream has a reservoir upon
it and that the water power has been developed to its full capacity.
The developments in these States in the last ten to twenty years
have mostly been those that were not developed earlier because
of greater cost. Probably some developments were overlooked,
but still the general proposition is true, that in any manufacturing
community expensive developments will not be entered upon until
after the cheaper ones are fully utilized,

Comparison of the development of water power in New Yor
with the development in New England. It has been the custom to
consider New York State as first in rank of population, manufac-
tures, development of water power, etc. The writer, however, con-
siders that Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island all out-
rank New York State in these particulars. It ought to be well
understood that a comparison without regard to area is not legiti-

‘ot mt) as « =

Peete.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 529

mate—that the only way in which these states can be compared
with New York is on equivalent areas. If, in comparing the
States of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island with New
York on this basis, we find that the aggregate wealth per unit of
area is greater, we may be very sure not only that there is a good
reason for it, but, as will be shown further on, that the real
reason is largely due to mistaken views in New York as to the
State’s attitude towards the developing of manufacturing. The
main reasons why the development of water power versus steam
power has been so different in the leading New England States
from what it has been in New York are as follows: ;

Water power reservoirs in New England. In the New England
States, as well as in most of the southern and in several
western States, there are a series of statutory enactments which
are designed to encourage the erection of mills. Under their pro-
visions parties desiring to. flow the lands of others for the pur-
pose of creating water power to propel mills may do so under
condemnation proceedings analogous to those for acquiring lands
and property for canals, railways and other public purposes. This
peculiar extension of the principle of eminent domain has grown
out of the original conditions of interdependence of the early
colonists to whom mills for grinding grain were among the neces-
sities of life. The first mill acts originated in Massachusetts and
Virginia, from whence they have been adopted into the statutes
of many of the other States.

In order to show what may be accomplished in a comparatively
small State by properly encouraging manufacturing, we will refer
to conditions as existing in the State of Massachusetts. This
State has always been mindful of the interest of manufacturing,
and accordingly at the beginning of the eighteenth century a mill
act was enacted, and while the original act was merely intended
to encourage the erection of grain and flour mills, it has been
gradually extended to include all kinds of manufacturing operated
by water power on the ground that the Commonwealth was di-
rectly concerned in the development of all such. The writer has
no intention of discussing the mill acts of Massachusetts in detail,
and wishes merely to point out that such acts have also been
enacted in Maine, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Con-

530 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

necticut, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Ken-
tucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois,
Michigan, Nebraska, Minnesota, Kansas, North Carolina, Ten-
nessee, Georgia, Delaware, Arkansas, Florida and Oregon, or in

twenty-eight States in all. In New York State we have been so

wedded to the single idea of canals that we have never enacted a
mill act. That this failure has been to the material disadvantage
of the State may be easily shown.

Special mill acts in New York. While no general mill act has
ever been enacted in New York, nevertheless the legislature has
in a number of cases, in effect, recognized the principle which they
embody. As for instance in chapter 235, laws of 1854, an act for
the improvement of the Saranac river and lakes; chapter 505,
laws of 1865, an act for the improvement of the navigation of the
Oswegatchie river, and of the hydraulic power thereon, and to
check freshets therein; and in chapter 289, laws of 1868, an act to
provide for the improvement of the hydraulic power of the Great
Chazy river and to check freshets therein.

None of these acts has ever been subjected to the tests of the
courts. By their terms commissioners are appointed who may

erect dams, and, if possible to agree on terms with the owners, —

purchase the necessary lands, taking a conveyance thereof to
themselves, their heirs and assigns forever. If they can not agree
: cS Af 8

on the terms of purchase, then title may be acquired under the.

general condemnation laws of the State. Under the provisions
of the act applying to the Raquette river, a dam was constructed
a couple of miles below Raquette pond about 1872. This dam
stored water over Raquette pond, Tupper lake and a number of
smaller ponds in that vicinity. It was destroyed by the people
of the vicinity, as the writer recollects, about 1875. Under the
provisions of the act applying to the Oswegatchie river, a dam

1There are a considerable number of similar acts, of which, so far as
known, the following is a complete list: Salmon river, chap. 268, laws of
1872; Raquette river, chap. 90, laws of 1869; Raquette river, chap. 482,
laws of 1872; Raquette river, chap. 425, laws of 1873; Raquette river, chap.
269, laws of 1874; Raquette river, chap. 148, laws of 1877; Oswegatchie
river, chap. 505, laws of 1865; Grasse river, chap. 83, laws of 1869; Saranac
river, chap. 684, laws of 1871; Saranac river, chap. 685, laws of 1871;
Moose river, chap. 94, laws of 1872; Great Chazy river, chap. 289, laws of
1868; and Chateaugay river, chap. 652, laws of 1874.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 531

was also built on the outlet of Cranberry lake, which is still stand-
ing. This lake has a water area of 12.8 square miles.

While it is true that these acts recognize the principle of the
mill acts, still, if called upon to defend them, their originators
would probably hold the improvement of navigation and the check-
ing of freshets as the real matter of public utility.

Although we have no general mill act in New York State, we
nevertheless reap the benefit on the Hudson river of the mill act
in the neighboring State of Massachusetts. Thanks to State lines.
we receive this benefit without cost to anybody in the State of
New York.t

The greatest development of these waterpower reservoirs is
probably in Rhode Island and Connecticut, although they are
common in Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts.

The absence of such legislation in this State is to be traced
largely to the growth of the idea here that the navigation interests
are paramount to those of manufacturing, whence it has resulted
that the important streams of this State have been mostly re-
served for the benefit of the internal navigation system, although
the showing herein made, as to the value of the water of the
Hudson river for waterpower in comparison with its value for
the use of navigation, may well lead us to consider whether after
all the manufacturing interests of this State are not quite as
worthy of consideration as those of the neighboring New England
States. We ought not to forget that, aside from carrying grain
for producers outside of this State, the chief business of the
canals must come from fostering manufacturing interests within
the State itself.

State ownership of the Hudson river and its effect in restricting
the development of waterpower. Titles to lands bordering on
and lying under the beds of large rivers like the Hudson have
been somewhat complicated in this State by the peculiar circum-
stances of its early settlement and history. Thus, all original
titles in the lower and middle Hudson valley, as well as in the
most of the Mohawk valley, are derived from the laws of Holland
as they existed early in the seventeenth century. Under the Dutch
law the riparian proprietors owned neither the beds nor banks

*For account of reservoirs in Massachusetts see page 265.

532 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of streams, but both remained the property of the State. Wher
the colony of New Netherlands passed into the hands of the En-
glish government, the colonists were assured the peaceful enjoy-
ment of all the rights they then possessed. The beds of large
streams, never having been conveyed, became then vested in the
English government as ungranted lands, to which as a conse-
quence of the Revolution, the State of New York succeeded in due
course.

Throughout the Colonial as well as the early State period this
right seems never to have been questioned; it was only after the
beginning of the era of internal improvement that questions aris-
ing under this head became leading ones in the jurisprudence of
this State.

~The English common law, which became in force in the colony
of New York after the English occupancy, differs from the civil
law of Holland in affirming the right of the riparian proprietors,
not only to the banks of non-navigable large streams, but also to
the beds thereof and hence to a right to the flow of the water
paramount to that of the State, which could only acquire rights
therein by the exercise of eminent domain and the granting of
just compensation.

The principle of State ownership of the Hudson and Mohawk
rivers was strongly asserted over one hundred years ago, in 1792,
when on March 30 of that year an act passed the legislature in-
corporating the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, havy-
ing for its object the improvement of navigation of the Mohawk
river from the navigable portion of the Hudson to Rome, and
thence to Lake Ontario and Seneca lake, and the Northern Inland
Lock Navigation Company, having for its object to open a like
communication from the navigable part of the Hudson river to
Lake Champlain. In an amendment to this act, passed Decem- |
ber 22, 1792, it is provided that all the land under the Mohawk
and Hudson rivers which may be occupied by those corporations
is vested in them during the continuance of the franchise “as a
free gift from the people of this State,” saving and reserving to
the people the right to all the Jands under the water not so
occupied as aforesaid, to be appropriated as the legislature might
from time to time direct.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 533

Again, later on, in 1823, the State acquired by purchase all the
rights in the Hudson and Mohawk rivers which these two com-
panies were possessed of, which purchase has been taken as recon-
firming the State’s absolute title to the beds and waters of these
two streams.

The following are some of the more important cases bearing
upon the ownership of the Hudson river which have been passed
upon by the courts of last resort in this State.

The first important case is that of the Canal Appraisers vs. The
People on the relation of George Tibbetts, determined in the
Court of Errors in 1836. In this case it was held that if in the
improvement of a navigable river the waters of a tributary stream -
are so much raised as to destroy a valuable mill site situate
thereon, and if the tributary stream on which said mill site is
situate be generally navigable, although not so at the particular
locality of the-mill site, the owner is not entitled to damages
within the provisions of the canal laws, directing compensation to
be made for private property taken for public use.

In this case Tibbetts claimed damage for the destruction of a
waterpower situate in the middle sprout of the Mohawk river by
the erection of the Troy dam. The case was first tried in the
Supreme Court in 1826, when the relator obtained a rule that the
Canal Appraisers should show cause why a mandamus should not
be issued commanding them to assess the damage. The Canal
Appraisers had refused to allow damages, assigning as a reason
that Tibbetts had no legal claim to the land under the water of
the middle sprout because it belonged to the people of the State.
After various proceedings, which need not be specially referred
to here, the Court of Errors held as in the foregoing, thereby con-
firming the position of the Canal Appraisers.!

In the case of The People vs. Tibbetts, decided by the Court of
Appeals in 1859, it was held that the State in its sovereign char-
acter owns the beds of navigable streams to high-water mark,
and that the right of a riparian owner is subservient to the power
in the State to abridge or destroy it at pleasure, although the
riparian Owner may undoubtedly use the water passing his land
so long as he does not impede the navigation, in the absence of

1The Canal Appraisers vs. The People, 17 Wendell, 576.

534 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

any counterclaim by the State as absolute proprietor. The court
said: “It is beyond dispute that the State is the absolute owner
of the navigable rivers within its borders, and that as such owner
it can dispose of them to the exclusion of the riparian owners.”

In the case of The People vs. The Canal Appraisers, decided in
1865, the following points are passed upon affirmatively :

1) The Mohawk river is a navigable stream and the title to
the bed of the river is in the people of the State.

2) Riparian owners along the stream are not entitled to dam-
ages for any diversion or use of the waters of the Mohawk river by
the State.

3) It seems the common law rules, determining what streams
are navigable, are not applicable in this country.

This was a proceeding by mandamus, decided by the Supreme
Court and carried to the Court of Appeals, to compel the Canal
Appraisers to assess and appraise the damages which one A.
Loomis had sustained by the diversion of the Mohawk river at
Little Falls for the purposes of the Erie canal. After a learned
discussion of the several questions involved, the court held as in
the foregoing 1), 2) and 3); the judgment of the Supreme Court
was affirmed and the mandamus denied.?

Without discussing the question more elaborately, we may con-
clude it is a well settled doctrine that the banks to high-water mark
and the beds and waters of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers are
the property of the State and may be disposed of as the legislature
may see fit, and absolutely without reference to the rights of
abutting proprietors. Acting on this view, the Erie and Cham-
plain canals have taken water supplies from these two rivers and
payments of damages have never been made to anybody. AS re-
gards the Hudson river, the principle, so far as can be learned,
has never been questioned since the legislature first saliently af-
firmed it by the enactment of 1792. For one hundred and twelve
years, the State’s right to absolute control of the Hudson river
has been a fixed fact, alike recognized by the courts, canal officials
and the owners of abutting lands.

*The People vs. Tibbetts, 19 N. Y. 5238.
*The People vs. The Canal Appraisers, 338 N. Y. 461.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 535

Although not specially germane to the subject, it may be re-
marked in passing that this condition of absolute State ownership
only applies to the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. The titles to
lands bordering on the balance of the large rivers of the State
have mostly originated since the English occupancy and the com-
mon law rule governs. Lack of appreciation of this distinction
on the part of the Canal Appraisers has led to a number of ex-
tensive litigations. One of these is Kempshall vs. The Commis-
‘sioners of the Canal Fund, decided in 1842, wherein it is expressly
held that the banks and bed of the Genesee river belong to the
riparian owners, and that even though the stream had been legis-
latively declared a public highway, still such declaration only
gave rights of navigation on the stream itself, and did not in any
degree confer upon the State the right to divert its waters into
another channel, as the Erie canal, without first obtaining such
right by an exercise of eminent domain and the granting of just
compensation under due process of law.

If, then, the State’s title to the water of the Hudson river is
complete, there is still responsibility attached to such ownership.
The conditions leading to this ownership were peculiar and excep-
tional and at variance with the rules governing not only in the
balance of the State of New York, but in most of the other states
as well. When the legislature first affirmed this principle one
hundred and twelve years ago, manufacturing, as any considerable
element of our State and National wealth, was an unknown quan-
tity. Its phenomenal development since then has created condi-
tions and needs so entirely different that if we attempt to decide
the questions of today by the old standard we shall paralyze the
industries of a locality.

As regards the paramount right of the State to the waters of
these streams, it may be assumed that the only direction in which
the State is likely to exercise this right is in the interests of navi-
gation, and inasmuch as its exercise for this purpose on the tidal
section can only be of benefit to the other interests on the stream,
there is every reason why such an exercise of the right should
be made. |

*Kempshall vs. Commissioners of the Canal Fund, 26 Wendell, 404.

536 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In any case the day has passed when the State in its sovereign
eapacity can, without loss of dignity, simply say: This stream is
State property, to be held and even disposed of absolutely without
reference to the wants or wishes of the riparian proprietors.t

The Seneca river controversy. By way of further illustrating
the relations of the State to many of the important water powers,
we will refer to the conditions existing on Seneca river.?

In December, 1807, the State of New York by letters patent,
conveyed to John McKinstry 640 acres of land situated in the
township of Junius, Seneca county, and bounded on the south by
Seneca river. The northerly portion of the village of Waterloo
now stands on this lot. Subsequently, McKinstry conveyed this
lot to Elisha Williams who, some time between 1808 and 1814,
erected a mill and constructed a raceway leading from the Seneca
river to the same from a point near where the present Waterloo
dam stands.

Chapter 144 of the laws of 18183 incorporated the Seneca
Lock & Navigation Company, giving to said company the
authority to construct a canal between Cayuga and Seneca lakes.
This act provided that any owner or occupant of any land adjoin-
ing Seneca river or outlet may use the water for mills or other
hydraulic works, but such use shall at no time impede the passage
of boats or other water craft. That it shall be lawful for the
owner or occupant of lands adjoining the said outlet or canal to
make from the canal all necessary cuts, at his own expense, to
conduct the water to his mills or other hydraulic works so, how-
ever, as not to impede the navigation or prevent the company
from the use of so much water as at all times shall be necessary
for the purposes of navigation,

About 1813 hydraulic privileges on Seneca river became valu-
able. Elisha Williams, who owned the waterpower on the north
side of the Seneca river at Waterloo, was also a stockholder in
the Seneca Lock & Navigation Company, and drew the act incor-
porating the same.

‘The two preceding chapters are partly abstracted from the Report on
Upper Hudson Storage Surveys, dated December 31, 1895.
Report of Superintendent of Public Works, 1896.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Det

Pursuant to chapter 271 of the laws of 1825, the State of New
York purchased all the right, title and interest of the Seneca Lock
& Navigation Company.

Ilisha Williams died in 1833, at which time all the hydraulic
privileges owned by him, estimated to be thirty rights, each equal
to one run of stone, were sold.

On the south side of the river the conditions were somewhat
different. In the year 1799 Samuel Bear settled on the south
shore of Seneca river, on land which is now included in that part
of the village of Waterloo which lies south of said river. In 1804
the State of New York conveyed to Bear one hundred acres of
land lying along and south of the river, together with the water-
power and privileges connected therewith. Bear then excavated
a raceway and erected a mill on this land.

The present Cayuga and Seneca canal was completed by the
State in 1829, by which year water power on the Seneca river
had become very valuable.

The foregoing historical matter shows that the State only owns
rights of navigation on Seneca river, and that the water power
belongs to the riparian owners, as was fairly recognized in the
original enactments. The Superintendent of Public Works states,
however, that from 1829 to the present time the Seneca canal has
been depleted of water for the use of the mills, frequently to such
an extent that it has been extremely difficult to maintain naviga-
tion continuously during the whole season. The canal has indeed
been looked upon and treated by the mill owners as an hydraulic
canal to conduct water to their mills, rather than as a canal to be
maintained for navigation. Following this line, the Superin-
tendent of Public Works expresses the opinion that so long as the
State holds out inducements to boatmen to expend their energy
and capital in the business of carrying freight on the canals, and
to merchants and traders to embark their goods thereon, the water
supply provided for the purposes of navigation should be used
therefor to the last drop, if necessary, before any other interest
is subserved; hence, the Superintendent is of the opinion that a
series of piers and tide bulkheads should be constructed, by which
the water of Seneca river may be controlled for the purposes of
navigation, and without reference to the rights of the riparian

538 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

owners—although such rights have been guaranteed by legisla- |
tive enactment—except as there may be surplus water over and
above the necessities of the canal.

Referring to the tabulations of tonnage of the canals for the
year 1896, as given in the same report of the Superintendent of
Public Works, it appears that the total tonnage of Seneca canal
for that year was 54,739 tons, of which 45,493 tons were anthra-
cite and bituminous coal, carried for Pennsylvania coal producers,
and only 8,295 tons of domestic produce carried for shippers
living within and doing business in the State of New York. At
the best, the cost of transportation on these 54,739 tons could not
have been over $25,000 less than it would have been if transported
by rail.

The manufacturing establishments on the Seneca river at the
present time include the following firms:

The Gould Manufacturing Company
American Globe & School Supply Company
Seneca Falls Manufacturing Company
Shoemaker & Daniels

National Advertising Company

Seneca Woolen Mills

Seneca Klectric Company

Gleason & Bailey

Gleason Knitting Mills

American Fire Engine Company

Yawger Milling Company

Harrison & Chamberlain

Davis & Stevens Manufacturing Company
Rumsey & Company, Limited

W. J. Littlejohn

H. C. Silsby

Roberts & Briggs

The amount of capital employed and the annual product of
these firms is unknown, but as several of them are very strong
firms, employing large amounts of capital and a great number of
hands, the total capital employed may be safely placed at not less
than $2,500,000, and the total number of employees at probably
exceeding 1500. In effect therefore, the proposition of the Super-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK — 539

intendent of Public Works amounts to this: That if necessary
he would stop all these great manufacturing industries which are
now owned and operated by citizens of the State of New York in
order, chiefly, to transport 45,493 tons of coal for Pennsylvania
mine owners.

In justification of this position of the Superintendent of Public
Works it may be pointed out that as the Executive Officer of the
Canal Department he is charged with the maintenance of the
canals and the execution of the canal laws generally. Officially,
he can therefore take no other position than the one herein dis-
cussed. The criticisms are therefore directed towards the policy
and not towards the official who is doing his duty under existing
law.

Compensation in kind on Black river. Chapter 157 of the laws
of 1836 provided for the construction of the Black river canal.
One of the provisions of this law was that the feeder and canal
shall be so constructed as to pass as large a quantity of water
to the Erie canal as can reasonably be spared from Black river,
and from the northern portion of the Black river canal. The
Black river canal proper extends from Rome to the Black river
at Lyon Falls, from whence to Carthage navigation is maintained
on that river by means of jetties, locks and dams. In 1848 a dam
was built at Forestport, diverting the waters of Black river
through a feeder ten miles in length, leading from Forestport to
Boonville, where it enters the summit level of Black river canal;
thence its waters flow both southerly to Erie canal at Rome. and
northerly through Black river canal to where that canal enters
the river at Lyon Falls, at which place such portion of the water
as flows northerly is restored to Black river.

The feeder is estimated to carry 16,000 cubic feet per minute
between Forestport and Boonville. Of this amount 5000 cubic
feet per minute is returned to Black river at Lyon Falls, whence
the diversion to Erie canal becomes, less the evaporation and per-
colation losses, 11,000 cubic feet per minute.

_ The Forestport feeder was opened regularly for use in July,
1849, and shortly thereafter claims were made by the owners of
water power upon Black river for damages, but for several years
the Canal Commissioners took the ground that the appropriation

540 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

was only temporary, and allowed damages on that basis between
Forestport and Lyon Falls. In 1854, however, the auditor refused
to pay one of the drafts presented in payment of such a claim,
maintaining that the appropriation was permanent and that the
commissioners had no authority to settle on the basis of tem-
porary diversion. After litigation the Court of Appeals sustained
the auditor.

Following this decision, sixty-two claims for permanent dam-
age, aggregating $600,000, were presented to the Canal Appraisers.
Hearings on these claims continued from July to December, 1858.
The evidence showed that a large number of persons had made
claims who were not users of the water power in 1849, and on this
basis the Canal Appraisers rejected forty of the claims, finally
awarding on twenty-two of them the sum of $91,108.

The claimants, however, appealed from these awards on the
ground that the Appraisers in making their award of damages had
not taken into account the full amount and flow of water to be
supplied to the Black river by the construction and maintenance
of the reservoirs designed to limit the use of water of said river
by the State, as contemplated by the act of 1836, and which reser-
voirs were in process of construction and would soon be completed
so as to supply a quantity of water nearly adequate to the wants
of the State, as now completed, and thus return to the claimants
the water of which they would otherwise have been deprived.

In explanation of the foregoing statement of the Canal Commis-
sioners, it may be remarked that in 1850 Daniel C. Jenne, at that
time Resident Engineer of the Eastern Division, acting under in-
structions of the Canal Board, made a report on the Black river
diversion, in which he said that unless an amount of water be re-
turned to Black river equal to the quantity diverted heavy damages
to water power would ensue, the amount of which would be almost
incalculable. Based upon this report the legislature, by chapter
181 of the laws of 1851, provided for the construction of reser-
voirs on Black river of sufficient capacity to supply the Black
river canal feeder with such quantity of water during the summer
months as shall be necessary for the supply of the Black river and
Erie canals, and shall give to Black river, as nearly as may be,
as much water as ordinarily flows therein during the summer

alii i i sea ian

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 54l

months. The act further provides that the waters from said reser-
voirs shall be discharged so that the waters so reserved shall be let
into Black river during the summer months in such manner and
in such quantity as to give, as far as practicable, to the inhabi-
tants residing on said river the benefit of said reserve waters when
the same shall be required for use, and such supply shall not be
less than the quantity which ordinarily flows in said river during
the summer, provided the supply from said reservoirs will furnish
such quantity after supplying the Black river and Erie canals
with water.

We have here a case, therefore, in which the legislature, by
chapter 181 of the laws of 1851, provided for compensation in
kind. So far as can be learned, this is the only case in New York
where the principle of compensation in kind has been adopted on
a large scale on account of hydraulic diversion. Usually when
such questions have been litigated the courts have held that there
must be money compensation.

The construction of the reservoirs began in 1852, and proceeded,
as legislative appropriations were made, from year to year, al-
though in 1858, when the appraisers were considering the Black
river claims, only the North branch reservoir had been completed.
Work had been begun on the South branch, Woodhull and Chub
lake reservoirs, but stopped in 1857 for lack of funds.

As already stated, the Canal Commissioners appealed from the
awards of the Appraisers on the ground that the said Appraisers
had not taken into account the full amount and flow of water to
be obtained from the reservoir system. The Canal Board rendered
its decision on this appeal in February, 1860. The position of the
Canal Commissioners was sustained and the Canal Appraisers’
awards reduced pro rata 35 per cent—that is to say, the Canal
Board took the ground that the construction of the reservoirs was
to a considerable degree compensation for the diversion.

Since 1860 a number of reservoirs have been built until the
actual storage capacity on the headwaters of the Black river is
considerably in excess of the full amount diverted to the Erie
canal during the dry season, but for various reasons the construc-
tion of these reservoirs has not supplied the water needed—or at
any rate it is so claimed by the owners of mills on the Black river.

542 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The chief reasons why the large storage capacity of the various
reservoirs has not been sufficient to provide a proper dry-weather
flow are stated as:

1) The inaccessibility of several of these reservoirs.

2) The constant surreptitious use of the water by lumbermen
for the purpose of floating logs down the streams, from which it
results that the storage is drawn off in the spring, thus leaving
the reservoirs empty when actually needed later in the season.

The question may be very properly asked: Why, if the State
had inaugurated by chapter 181 of the laws of 1851 a reservoir
system on Black river, with a view of compensation for the
diverted water in kind, there should have been any payment of
damages at all? The answer to this question is as follows:
While the reservoirs were actually authorized in 1851, still in
1858-59, when these claims were under consideration, only one
reservoir—that on the North branch—had been completed, work
having been stopped on the South branch, Woodhull and Chub
lake reservoirs in 1857 for lack of funds. The mill owners had
therefore waited ten years without having received either money
compensation for the damage or compensation in kind. Com-
menting on this situation the Canal Appraisers in their discussion
of difficulties in the way of estimating damages state in effect
that owing to the uncertainties of legislative action no one can
say when the reservoir system will actually be completed, but if
the reservoirs were completed, and they had accomplished wholly
or in any ascertained part the desired object of producing a larger
summer flow in Black river, such fact would have an important
bearing in reducing the amount of permanent injury to the water
power. In view of the foregoing, the appraisers say:

These claims can not receive as satisfactory decision as we
should desire until the successful or unsuccessful working of the
reservoirs, if completed, can be known, or the policy determined
whether or not they are to be completed; and the appraisers have
almost as little faith in the correctness of the conclusions which
they may reach as in the belief that those conclusions will satisfy
either the claimants or the State. For the nearly four years that
the present Board of Appraisers have held office, they have kept
these claims in abeyance in the hope that the time would come
when they could dispose of the claims in a manner which would,

Te oO

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 543

at least, be satisfactory to themselves; but the claimants have
waited patiently nine years, trusting to the good faith of the
State to make good their losses, and it is unreasonable to ask
them to wait for an indefinite number of years more. The State
has permanently appropriated this water and will use it, and has,
by the act of appropriation, in the exercise of its sovereignty,
the right to use and control it through all future time, and enough
is known from the experience of the last nine years to show that
considerable damage has already accrued, which no mere restora-
tion of the water can atone for.

Under the head of leading principles that would be recognized
and followed in deciding these cases, the Canal Appraisers remark
that in order to save the necessity of presenting general views in
each case they will state certain leading principles to be recog-
nized and followed in passing upon all these claims:

1) The State will be held liable for the damage sustained by
the riparian owners in consequence of the diversion, on the prin-
ciple that fresh rivers to the middle of the stream belong to the
owners of the adjacent banks; that they are entitled to the
usufruct of the waters as pertinent to the fee, and for an inter-
ruption in the enjoyment of their privileges in that respect in con-
sequence of public improvements made by the State, are entitled
to compensation for damages sustained.

2) There can be allowance made only to those who owned in
1849, or to the assignees of their claims.

3) Nor can any allowance be made, even to the owners of 1849,
for any special damages from year to year since, except by way
of interest on the sum that shall be determined as the real loss
when the injury occurred.

4) The State can not be held to pay for mills or other struc-
tures erected, or investments made, since that year, when every-
body knew that the waters had been diverted; these erections or
investments were at the risk of those who made them.

5) Nor can the appraisers take into consideration remote or
contingent damages to property, separate and distinct from water
power, and the property upon it alleged to have been depreciated
in value by the diversion.

6) In estimating damages to a particular water power, addi-
tional expenses incurred in putting in new machinery, etc.
adapted to the new order of things will be considered, but only as
bearing upon the extent of the damages of 1849, which required
such expenditures to restore the power.

544 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

7) While we can not wholly ignore the fact that the State has
had in contemplation the erection of the reservoirs and may yet
complete them and the water be restored, we can only take these
things into account in a qualified and limited sense.

With the foregoing principles in view, the Board of Appraisers
handed down their decisions on each individual claim, the aggre-
gate being, as already stated, $91,108.

Later on the State made additional appropriations, finally
carrying out an extensive reservoir system on Black river. The
reservoirs constructed to date, with their available capacities, are
as follows:

Available

Name of reservoir Res es ~ chee
Waite Take. Sou 2 oe oe e 296 5.0 64,000,000
hip aKe.. 22:.c 42 «canta: 200 es 35,000,000
Ite AG wd oats cee 4 epee 306 15.0 200,000,000
Woodhull Jake. oc. scot Se <us 1,118 18.0 438,000,000
Bisby lakes4y) as . sags vagid tay tasks 3.5 40,000,000
Canachagala lake. ....0....0.; 320 4.0 56,000,000
Nort lakess. + ces es cee 277 28 .0 676,000,000
ROUGH TAKS. os .a, «tears te cotter 372 26.0 350,000,000
Will TAOS ion oo hee ee 175 8.0 60,000,000
Fulton chain lakes... .. >. aazkelo-seuttolo sseanee 800,000,000
Stillwatertasad 23/61 nies. P 3,200 6.0 850,000,000
Borestport "2.7 . 226 eer T00 7.0 213,000,000

Total’... 32S: PA eee 3,782,000,000 -

The foregoing total of 3,782,000,000 cubic feet storage is suffi-
cient to furnish a mean flow from the storage alone of about 220
cubic feet per second for 200 days.

Notwithstanding the liberal reservoir capacity on Black river,
the mill owners have complained from year to year that they
suffer from shortage of water on account of the diversion for
Black river and Erie canals, and an investigation in 1888 having
shown that the mill owners’ claim that the water was improperly
used by lumbermen was well founded, the legislature, by chapter

1This reservoir has been abandoned.
2This reservoir is rebuilding in 1902-3-4.

—— Ee

CON OE eS eee, a ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ) 545

188 of the laws of 1894, authorized the Governor to appoint three
citizens of Jefferson county and one of Lewis county, interested
in the use of and owners of water power on Black river, Beaver
river or Moose river in such counties, to be Commissioners of
Water Power for Black river. These commissioners are authorized
to appoint a gatekeeper for the State dam at Stillwater on the
Beaver river, and also for the dams constructed by the State on
the Fulton chain and on Moose river. The act also authorizes
the commissioners to make rules and regulations for the man-
agement of the gates in said dams, subject to the approval of the
Superintendent of Public Works, and the gatekeepers are directed
to observe and obey all rules and regulations so made and ap-
proved, under penalty of removal, at any time, either by the
commissioners or by the Superintendent of Public Works.

The commissioners are further authorized to regulate the dis-
charge of water through such gates, at such times and in such
quantities as they may deem proper, but not in such manner
as to injuriously interfere with canal navigation or the navigation
of that portion of the river used for canal purposes. This act
was reenacted by chapter 795 of the laws of 1896, with the addition
thereto of an increase of salary of the gatekeepers, the act of
1894 only permitting an expenditure of $500 a year for this pur-
pose, while that of 1896 permits an expenditure of $1,100.41

The case of Skaneateles lake. Chapter 728 of the laws of 1889
provided that under certain conditions the city of Syracuse might
draw a water supply to the extent of 15,000,000 gallons daily
from Skaneateles lake, which had been permanently appropriated
as a State reservoir for the supply of the Jordan level of the
Erie canal in 1844. Since this case presents many interesting
points in illustration of the peculiar relations between the State
and the riparian owners in New York, it will be briefly discussed,
beginning with the early history.

About 1824 the owner of land at the foot of Skaneateles lake
constructed a dam across the outlet, whereby the waters of the
Jake were raised from 4 to 6 feet above their natural level, thus
creating a reservoir and waterpower sufficient to propel mills

*Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the year ended September

30, 1888,

546 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and machinery at that point. The outlet of Skaneateles lake is
a very rapid stream, descending in a distance of nine miles nearly
500 feet, and furnishing frequent waterfalls, many of which
have been improved by the erection of large manufacturing estab-
lishments, dependent for their propelling power upon the water
of the outlet. .

The water of Skaneateles creek was appropriated to feed Erie
canal in its first construction, and a dam across the creek and a
raceway or feeder were constructed at or near the village of
Jordan. It will be understood that the original Stateconstruction
of a dam and feeder at the village of Jordan did not in any way
interfere with the reservoir dam constructed as stated in 1824 at
the foot of the lake itself. The canal authorities, however, claimed
that the effect of the dam at the outlet, and other dams on the
stream where power development had been made, was at times
such as nearly to prevent the flow of any water into the canal;
hence, it was found necessary during the dry period of nearly
every year to resort to Skaneateles lake itself to procure a tem-
porary supply of water for the canal. For the use of this water
as taken from year to year the State for many years paid dam-
ages to the owners of the hydraulic privileges at the outlet of
the lake. Thus payments were made in December 1833, Decem-
ber 1855, June 1837, and in 1840, this latter payment being on
appraisement made pursuant to chapter 150 of the laws of 1839
for the use of water from 1824-30, inclusive. Payments were also
made in 1840 and 1841, the whole amount paid for temporary use
of water from the lake up to 1841 being $13,154.

In 1844 the Canal Commissioners, in a report submitted to the
senate in response to a resolution asking for information as to
how much had been awarded to the mill owners and others on
Skaneateles creek for water drawn from that stream and lake
for the use of the canal, etc. reported that in their opinion
measures should be taken without delay to secure independent
control of the waters of Skaneateles lake, thus severing the injur-
ious connection between the interests of the State and those of
private individuals. The commissioners also say in this report
that the Canal Board had, in 1841, passed a resolution permanently
appropriating the waters of Skaneateles lake as a reservoir and

lO a

2 Feb’ Bee eee

ke a Le

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK DLT

feeder to the canal, but that the resolution authorizing this appro-
priation also contained the provision that the State should draw
all the water furnished by Nine Mile creek and Carpenter’s brook ~
for supplying the Erie canal during the dry portions of the navi-
gation season This order, the commissioners state, was re-
scinded, because of containing conditions that might have ren-
dered the reservoir unavailable at a time when most required.

In September, 1843, the Canal Board made another order, appro-
priating the waters of the lake as a reservoir and feeder, omitting
what from the State officials’ point of view were the objectionable
features of the previous order—that is to say, the order of Septem-
ber 1843, appropriated the water of the Skaneateles lake and
outlet, without reference to the rights of the riparian owners, any
further than that they were to be paid for actual damages in-
curred.

Following this order the Canal Appraisers awarded damages to
the owners of water rights on Skaneateles outlet to the amount
of $28,450. Later on the State reconstructed the dam at the foot
of Skaneateles lake, at the same time cutting down the bottom
of the outlet enough to permit of drawing 7 feet depth of water,
measuring from the surface of highwater as indicated by a certain
stone monument.

Previous to 1888 the water supply of the city of Syracuse was
furnished by a private company. ‘The water furnished was, how-
ever, of inferior quality and the distribution system inadequate
to the wants of a growing city like Syracuse. Under these con-
ditions the citizens of Syracuse procured the passage of an act,
chapter 582 of the laws of 1888, constituting a board of special
commissioners to inquire into and investigate the several sources
of water supply which could be made available for the public,
mechanical and domestic uses of said city. It was also provided
that said investigation should take into account the abundance
of the proposed supply of water, its quality and character.

a a ee ee eee ee eee

*Presumably what was meant was that all the water these streams could
furnish should be drawn before any was taken from Skaneateles lake.

*For an extended abstract of early history of Skaneateles feeder, see the
Supreme court case of the city of Syracuse against Richard M. Stacey and
others, Syracuse, 1894. f

548 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The special commissioners employed as their engineer J. J. R.
Croes to take charge of the investigation to be made by the
board. Under Mr Croes’s direction investigations were made as
to possible municipal water supplies for Syracuse from eleven
sources: Salmon river, Skaneateles lake, Lake Ontario, Seneca
river, Onondaga creek, Gang wells, Cazenovia lake, Oneida lake,
Otisco lake, Tully lakes and the supply of the Syracuse Water
Company. After an exhaustive study of these possible sources of
supply, Mr Croes submitted a report under date of January 26,
1889, in which he recommended that Skaneateles lake be adopted
as the source of the municipal water supply, on the ground chiefly
that the water of this lake was superior to any of the others from
a Sanitary point of view; that it could be supplied by gravity,
and that the cost would be less than a proper supply from any
other of the available sources.

In the report of the special commissioners it is pointed out
that section 6 of article 7 of the Constitution of New York would
render it impossible for the city of Syracuse to obtain Skaneateles
lake as a source of water supply, because that lake constitutes
part of Erie canal, and is therefore the property of the State and
can not be disposed of by it. The constitution, however, does not
define what the Erie canal consists of, but by article 1, title 9,
chapter 9, part 1 of the revised statutes, the legislature has enacted
that the navigable connections joining the waters of Lake Erie
with those of Hudson river, and all the side cuts, feeders and other
works belonging to the State, connected therewith, shall be known
by the name of the Erie canal.

The special commissioners held that the constitution did not
make Skaneateles lake a part of the Erie canal, but that what
the constitution means is that Erie canal—the channel across the
State and the waters necessary for its use—shall not be sold, and
not that any feeders originally designated by the State as forming
a part of it may not be disposed of and others substituted in
their places. Further, inasmuch as the constitution has not
defined what shall be considered as the Erie canal, but that such
definition has been made by the legislature, it therefore follows
that if the legislature were competent to enact that all feeders of
the Erie canal should become and be a part thereof, it was equally

ee ee Erte) ew At, GEE SRE a 0 Wt gg e em 1° ae a’

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 549

competent to declare that certain feeders shall cease to be a part
of the canal, especially when such feeders cease to be necessary
or useful for this purpose.

The commissioners also pointed out that by the revised statutes
the legislature has enacted that whenever any water may be spared
from any canal or works connected therewith without injury to
the navigation or safety of such canal, a sale of such surplus
water may be made. The commissioners recognized, however,
that this act provides that the State shall have the right wholly
to resume the waters so conveyed and the privileges thereby
granted whenever it shall become necessary for the use or safety
of the canal, but on this point they suggested that if the State
by an act of the legislature has the power to make a revocable
grant of waters of a feeder of the canal, but not necessary for
its use and safety, it also has the power to make an irrevocable
grant of such waters. The plan proposed by Mr Croes included
the construction by the city of Syracuse of a compensation reser-
voir on Carpenter’s brook, whereby the water taken from
Skaneateles lake for the public water supply of the city of Syra-
cuse may be returned to the State in kind. Such an exchange, the
commissioners said, could in no way impair the usefulness or
safety of the Erie canal, nor in any manner injure the interests
of the State. The commissioners also said that it did not seem
to them that such forced or technical interpretation of the con-
stitution should be resorted to as would preclude the possibility
of a municipality of nearly 100,000 people securing a proper and
suitable source of water supply. They believed indeed that the
necessities of the city in this regard were so urgent, and its wel-
fare and prosperity so largely dependent upon securing water
from Skaneateles lake, that the authorities of the State should
feel constrained to accede to the demand of the city for this water
as the source of its municipal supply.

Following the special report of the commissioners, chapter 728
of the laws of 1889—An Act to establish and maintain a water
department in and for the city of Syracuse—was enacted. This
act was strongly opposed by those interested in the Erie canal,
the opposition being chiefly on the ground that the taking of the
waters of Skaneateles lake for the supply of the city of Syracuse

5D0 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

would work great injury to the navigation interests. While this
act was under consideration by the legislature, the Senate requested
the State Engineer and Surveyor to furnish whatever information
he might possess as to sources of water supply which could be
made available for the Jordan level, together with his opinion
as to the mode by which such water supply could be stored, and
the probable cost of the work for such purpose. Pursuant to this
resolution, the State Engineer and Surveyor reported, under date
of March 12, 1889.1 In this report the State Engineer stated that
it did not seem practicable to make provision at Skaneateles
lake for a greater amount of storage than that given by the ex-
isting dam, nor did there seem to be any point for additional
storage reservoirs between the lake and Erie canal on the line of
the Skaneateles creek. It was, however, pointed out that about
two miles east of Jordan, Carpenter’s brook enters Erie canal.
On the line of this brook, about a mile southerly from the canal,
the topography is such as to afford a location for a large reservoir
and dam 55 feet in hight. At this place there could be created
a reservoir flowing 650 acres and impounding 807,000,000 cubic
feet of water. The catchment area of Carpenter’s brook above the
préposed dam is stated at 14.5 square miles, which, according to
the estimate of the State Engineer and Surveyor, may furnish
429,500,000 cubic feet yearly. ‘Carpenter’s brook, however, now
supplies to the Erie canal during the navigation season about 200
cubic feet per minute which, for the whole season, may be taken
at 70,500,000 cubic feet. Therefore there would remain available
for storage in the reservoir, beyond present demands, the annual
quantity of 359,000,000 cubic feet.

It will be noticed that the stated capacity of Carpenter’s brook
reservoir of 807,000,000 cubic feet is in excess of the yield of the
catchment area of 429,500,000 cubic feet. This excess capacity
of the reservoir the State Engineer proposed to utilize by divert-
ing water, either through a feeder, or by pipe lines leading to the
Skaneateles outlet, whereby it would be made possible to direct,
when necessary, the flood-flows of Skaneateles outlet into the Car-
penter’s brook reservoir.

1Senate document No. 54 (1889).

delta tender

a1

Ol

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

After discussing these several questions, the State Engineer ex-
pressed the opinion that the creation of a storage reservoir, as
outlined in the foregoing, would be the only safe method by which
a portion of Skaneateles lake water could be used.

The act authorizing the city of Syracuse to take its water sup-
ply from Skaneateles lake, as finally passed by the legislature,
provided as follows:

The Syracuse Water Board, by and with the consent of the
Canal Board, is hereby authorized and empowered to appropriate
so much of the waters of Skaneateles lake as may be necessary to
supply the city of Syracuse and its inhabitants with water, upon
the express condition, however, that the city of Syracuse shall,
when so required by the Canal Board, furnish from such other
source or sources, and in such manner as the Canal Board may
designate, as much water for the use of the Erie canal as shall be
taken by the city from Skaneateles lake, and the power granted
in this act shall be deemed to include authority and power to
provide such compensating water supply for the Erie canal, and

to do and perform all those acts and things which shall be need-

ful to acquire for said city and its inhabitants the waters of
Skaneateles lake.

This act was sharply contested on the ground that it did not
properly provide for. the rights of the riparian owners, the mis-
conception of former days, that the State by an act of appro-
priation for purposes of navigation absolutely extinguished all
rights of the riparian owners, again coming up. As regards
water powers on Skaneateles outlet, this principle was finally
decided in the case of Waller vs. The State of New York, in 1893,
in which the question as to the State’s absolute control of the

’ waters of Skaneateles outlet was decided adversely, the theory

of the State being that the purchase of a piece of land through
which Skaneateles outlet fiowed, at or near the foot of Skaneateles
lake, and the erection of a dam thereon, had given to the State
the full right of control of the waters of the outlet. The decision
was that State control was for the purpose of navigation and no
further, and that any interference with the natural flow beyond
that required for the benefit of the canal navigation, was a damage

to the riparian owners, to be compensated for like any other

1144 N. Y., 579.

552 NEW YORK* STATE MUSEUM

damage. The case presented, however, by the Syracuse water act
was claimed by the opponents of the scheme to be very different
in that it provided in effect—if the consent of the Canal Board be
obtained—that the entire flow of the catchment area be held at
the will of the city of Syracuse and without reference to the
rights of the riparian owners. Without stopping to discuss this
point at length, it may be pointed out in passing that the city of
Syracuse has taken measures to become possessed of all the water
rights on the stream, either by purchase or by condemnation, the
condemnation cases being in process at the present time.

As a further technical objection, it was contended by the
opponents that the Syracuse water act did not provide for money
compensation, but for the construction of a storage reservoir to
furnish compensation in kind. The proposition advanced under
this head was that money, which is the only measure of damage
or value known in the commerce of the civilized world, was the
only proper compensation to make, the principle of water com-
pensation, as extensively developed abroad, apparently being un-
known to those opposing the Syracuse water act.

After exhaustive hearings before the Canal Board, in which
arguments of the opposition were strongly presented, the Canal
Board finally granted the permission authorized by the law passed
in 1889.

Waterpower development discouraged in New York. We have,
therefore, the following contradictory conditions, tending to dis-
courage the development of waterpower existing in the State
of New York. Special mill acts applying to the northern part of
the State have been enacted, but there is no general mill act
applying to the entire State. [Since writing the foregoing, Senate
bill No. 679 of session of 1904, An Act to establish a permanent
commission for the regulation of the flow of watercourses in this
State in aid of public health and safety, to be known as the River
Improvement Commission, has received Executive approval]. On
Hudson and Mohawk rivers the State claims the right to the
waters, while on the Genesee river and other streams of the west-
ern part of the State the English common law rule prevails. On
Seneca river there has been a controversy as to the water rights
extending from 1830 to the present time. Due to restrictive laws,

|

rr. =. -—h hl

ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 553

the position of the canal department in this controversy has been
that if necessary the department could stop industries in favor
of navigation, although the money interest is much greater in
favor of manufacturing than in favor of navigation. On Black
river the principle of compensation in kind has been adopted in
the most explicit manner, while in the case of Skaneateles lake it
is assumed that the wants of a great municipality are superior
to the demands of navigation.

There are many other cases throughout the State equally em-
phasizing the contradictory nature of the laws governing the
ownership of water. It is inevitable that such laws should
paralyze industry, with the result that only about 25 per cent of
the total waterpower of the State is developed. Had these laws
not existed, or had they been either removed, modified or made
consistent forty or fifty years ago, it is believed that from 60
to 75 per cent of the total waterpower would now be developed
and the population and wealth of the State would be far greater
than it is under present conditions.1

These interesting problems are presented for consideration in
the hope that the people in their wisdom will arrive at a solution
which, while protecting whatever rights the State may justly
retain, will still in no way interfere with the full development of
manufacturing enterprise on any stream.

During the last ten to fifteen years the electrical trans-
mission of power has rendered it possible to utilize power from
large central stations distributed to relatively remote points.
It is now possible to use mountain powers for the operation of
single plants often many miles distant. Electrical transmis-
sions of from forty to sixty miles are no longer very difficult,
and such transmissions have been made in the west for from one
hundred to two hundred miles. But it should not be overlooked
that in the case of some of the lines there, used for mining, etc.,
it has been a question purely of electrical transmission or no
power—the question’ of expense has not entered specially into
the account. The more advantageous use of large streams, but
under conditions which present many difficulties without the

*See discussion of future power development in the Adirondack region
on page 555.

-_——

oo4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

agency of the electrical current, may also be mentioned as a reason
for the increased use of waterpower recently in New York State.
The development of electric power transmission at Niagara Falls
has been the largest and most conspicuous work of its kind done
anywhere. }

The significant increase in the use of waterpower in New
York State is also accounted for by the growth of the paper
and pulp business. The increase here is directly traceable to the
great expansion in the development of the manufacture of wood-
pulp. This business depends entirely upon waterpower—so far
as known, wood-pulp is not made by steam power anywhere.
About 65 horsepower per ton per twenty-four hours is required,
and if steampower were utilized, it would immediately make pulp
cost at least double its present price. In New York State water-
power was used in paper and pulpmills in 1890 to the extent of
65,052 horsepower, while in 1900, 191,117 horsepower was utilized.
This industry, therefore, accounts for 126,065 horsepower of the
increase of 134,661 horsepower in New York from 1890 to 1900.

In Massachusetts the increase of 28,061 horsepower in the use of
waterpower from 1890 to 1900 was due to the additional use
of waterpower in the paper and cotton industries. In 1890
29,148 water horsepower was reported in papermills and 44,935
water horsepower in 1900, an increase of 15,787 water horse-
power. In cotton mills in Massachusetts waterpower to the
extent of 55,944 horsepower was in use in 1890, and 64,158 water
horsepower was in use in 1900, an increase of 8214 water horse-
power. These two industries account for 24,000 of the total
increase of 28,061 water horsepower.

The census statistics are not complete as to the water-
power in either Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island or
New York. The power furnished from electric motors is reported
separately and it is impossible to determine what proportion of
it is made by steam and what by water—for the whole United
States it is 811,016 horsepower. Probably for the State of New
York it is from 80,000 to 160,000 horsepower, making the total
water horsepower in this State in 1904 in reality something like
450,000. In either Connecticut, Massachusetts or Rhode Island,
on the contrary, electrical development has been relatively much

Ol
Ol
Ot

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

smaller than in New York—probably for these three States it
does not exceed 25,000 water horsepower in all.

Although once stated in a general way, it may be again
repeated that nearly all the available waterpower was developed
relatively earlier in the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Rhode Island than in New York.

It will be shown in detail further on that the Adirondack
region, when fully utilized, is capable of developing at least
800,000 water horsepower, although the present use on the
streams issuing from this region is not more than about one-
quarter of this.

Future power development of the Adirondack region. A num-
ber of years ago the State enttered into a policy of conserv-
ing this region for a State park, and a notion that the interests
of people who go to the park is inimical to that of manu-
facturing has become prevalent. Here are located the _ best
streams of the State of New York, with unparallelled oppor-
tunities for storage. Aside from a few developments, the
region is as yet untouched. This extraordinary fact becomes
specially pertinent when we consider that not only is the area
of the Adirondack region larger than that of the State of Massa-
chusetts, but that the quality of the soil and the climate is not
very different therefrom. Massachusetts is a rugged region,
largely underlaid with granitic rocks—the same thing is true of
the Adirondack region. Had the State not entered into a mis-
taken commercial policy this region would have been developed
somewhat the same as Massachusetts is, and the population
instead of being from 90,000 to 100,000 would have been perhaps
1,500,000, its river valleys would be dotted with thriving manu-
facturing villages and its assessed valuation instead of being per-
haps $100,000,000 would have been, in 1900, from $1,000,000,000
to $2,000,000,000.

The proviso is made that this region would have been devel-
oped somewhat the same as Massachusetts, because it is realized
that Massachusetts possesses some advantages which the Adiron-
dack region does not possess, as for instance, proximity to the
ocean, ete. This region is, however, near to the main lines of
transportation from the east to the west, and can therefore receive

556 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

raw material at low cost. This fact, in conjunction with its
abundant and cheap waterpower, must inevitably make it one of
the ultimate chief manufacturing districts of New York.

The real value of the Adirondack region. In regard to the
Adirondack region as a whole we may consider that the climate
is mostly too severe for the ordinary agriculture of the lowlands
of the State of New York. During several years, in which the
writer was more or less in the northern forests, frosts occurred
there each season, at an elevation of about 1800 feet, in both of
the months of June and August, July being the only month
entirely free from frost. Under these circumstances it is impos-
sible to raise corn, wheat or barley. Oats, potatoes and meadow
grass are the ordinary agricultural crops raised, and even these
only with difficulty because of the vast areas of. boulders with
which the region is largely covered. As an economic proposition,
therefore, the Adirondack region is useful for but three purposes;
1) for cultivating timber, which can be easily done under rational
forestry administration without prejudice to the other interests;
2) for water storage, which, because of the numerous natural
reservoir sites, may be more cheaply carried out here than in any
other locality in the eastern states; and 3) for a great State
park, which ultimately, by the construction of good wagon roads,
may be made an easily accessible pleasure resort for the people
of the State of New York.

Rather singularly the great mass of the people who go into the
woods for pleasure regard forestry and water storage as inimical
to their interests. They assume, indeed, that the Great Northern
Forest should be preserved as a pleasure resort alone; and many
with whom the writer has conversed are apparently unable to
see that the State owes any duty to its manufacturing interests.
This position of the woods-going pleasure seekers, fishermen,
hunters, etc. while extremely unsatisfactory, has still a certain
rational basis underlying it all. It is due very largely to the
indifference of the lumbermen in former years, when many acts
of vandalism were laid at their door, though to some extent
unjustly. At the present time a number of the leading lumber-
men of the State are members of the American Forestry Asso-

Bulletin 85

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UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
STATE MUSEUM

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ' DDT

ciation and of the Society for the Protection of the Adirondacks,
and are actually interested in the work of these associations.

People owning cottages on the margins of natural lakes likely
to be made into reservoirs object very strongly on the ground
that the raising of the water will be prejudicial to health. On
this point the writer can not but think that the popular opinion
is based on misinformation, although it is freely admitted that
the Adirondack region is now extremely healthful and the State
ought not to either do anything itself, nor permit anything to be
done which would deteriorate it. The popular view, however,
that the construction of reservoirs must necessarily produce
unhealthful conditions is thus far not sustained by any consider-
able amount of well-attested facts. The writer is disposed to look
upon such view as largely a fad. Indeed, he has taken special
pains to study the question both in this country and abroad, and
has thus far to learn of a case where well-attested facts show that
any considerable amount of ill health has been caused by properly
constructed reservoirs.

In the Adirondack region, where at the heads of nearly all the
lakes there are now extensive marsh areas, the conditions will be
materially improved by cutting the timber and covering the marsh
areas with water, the more especially when the new water surface
is high enough to cover the entire marsh area, a condition which in
the majority of cases may be easily attained. Moreover, the Adiron-
dack lakes and ponds have at their sides mostly sand, gravel,
boulder or natural rock beaches, on which the annual fluctuation
can have absolutely no effect. The marsh areas are usually in the
continuation of the valleys at the heads of the lakes. As just
stated, as soon as we attain an elevation of about 1800 feet, July
is practically the only month without frost; but the reservoirs
will ordinarily be full or nearly full of water during July. It is
mostly only in the cooler months of September and October that
the conditions of runoff are such as to require their being greatly
drawn down. There seems little reason to doubt, therefore, but
that the effect of constructing the reservoirs will be, on the whole,
to increase the healthfulness of the region by doing away with
numerous marsh areas which are now, during the warm weather,
possibly the source of malarial influences.

dos é NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

A striking illustration of how unreasonable public prejudice in
the North Woods may be was afforded by the writer’s experience
at Indian lake in the fall of 1897. At that time investigations
as to the foundation of the new Indian lake dam were in process,
and in order to expedite the study it was proposed to draw the
water out of the lake. This fact becoming known, violent pro-
tests were made by people living several miles away, who
urged that if the lake were drawn down there was certain to be
serious sickness, diphtheria among other diseases being men-
tioned as likely to occur. Time was an element of importance,
and inasmuch as it would require at least ten days to draw the
water to a level low enough to be of any special assistance in the
study in hand, it was finally left undrawn, the water surface of
the lake remaining during the whole summer and fall of 1897
at about the crest of the original timber dam, or at about twelve
feet above extreme low water. In spite, however, of the water
not being drawn there was a great deal of sickness in the vicinity
of Indian lake in the fall of 1897, diphtheria especially attacking
a large number of children. Certainly had the water actually
been drawn, as originally proposed, no amount of argument would
have availed to show that the drawing of the water was not
responsible for the disease.

Power development at Glens Falls and vicinity. The truth of
the general proposition may be sufficiently appreciated by con-
sidering the development on the upper Hudson river and in the
immediate vicinity thereof.

At Glens Falls there are extensive sawmills turning out twenty
million feet of sawed lumber annually; one of the largest paper-
mills in the country, including a pulpmill, with other industries
is located here. There are also lime-kilns, producing 500,000
barrels of lime annually. The Glens Falls Portland Cement
Works produce 1000 barrels of cement a day. In addition, there
ave in the town, shirt and collar factories, employing about 2000
people.

At Sandy Hill there are large bag and paper establishments,
wall-paper works, iron and brass works, friction-pulley works,
works for the manufacture of machinery of many kinds, lumber

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 559

mills and yards, producing 10,000,000 feet of sawed lumber
annually. The sulphite mills of the Union Bag and Paper Com-
pany are also located here.

At Fort Edward there is a papermill larger than that at Glens
Falls, with pulpmill, sulphite mill and chemical works.

At Fort Miller there are pulp and papermills, and at Schuyler-
ville there are wallpaper, pulp and papermills, and also cotton-
mills.

At Mechanicville the great papermill of the Duncan Company
is located. The Hudson River Power Transmission Company is
also located two or three miles below this place.

At Waterford there is a large knitting industry, and at Cohoes
there are six large cotton mills and about forty knitting mills,
one of which is stated to be the largest of its kind anywhere.
There are also large rolling mills, tube works, axe factories,
foundries, machine shops and various other establishments.

Fifteen miles west, on the south bank of the Mohawk, is the
city of Schenectady, with a population of about 40,000. Its
manufacturing establishments include shawls, knit goods, loco-
motives and many other articles. The works of the General
Electric Company are located here, covering an area of about 90
acres. This is the largest factory for electric works in the world.
These works manufacture electric motors and machinery of every
variety. There are about ten thousand people employed, with
a weekly payroll of $175,000.

North of Schenectady there is Ballston Springs, where are
located a large tannery, bag, pulp and paper works, axe and scythe
factories, ete.

Five miles further north is Saratoga Springs, which, although
nominally a watering place, still has considerable manufacturing.

One of the large papermills of the International Paper Com-
pany is located at Palmers Falls, while one of the George West _
papermills is at Hadley, a few miles above.

At Warrensburg ect is a papermill, woolen rantony and many
other industries.

Troy, Watervliet, Lansingburg, Waterford, Cohoes and Schenec-
tady constitute perhaps the largest manufacturing center in the

560 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

State of New York. In 1900 there were eight hundred and forty
industrial establishments in Troy, with a capital of over
$24,000,000. The chief industries of Troy are men’s furnishing
goods, iron and steel, foundry and machine products, liquors,
hosiery and knit goods, paper and wood pulp, printing and pub-
lishing newspapers and periodicals, flouring and _ gristmill
products, ete.
Statistical comparisons

Relation of population to capital invested in manufacturing.
Let us see what is the relation, based on unit area, of population
to capital invested in manufacturing in Connecticut, Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island and New York.

Percentage increase of population. The following tabulation
shows land area as per the Twelfth Census; population in 1900 and
1890; percentage increase from 1890 to 1900, and population per
square mile in 1900, for the aforesaid states:

ae Percent ti a

Ni f Stat area in | Population | Population | *°YCenNh | Won per

wack salen square | in 1900 in 1800] ee mile in

(1) (2) (3) | (4) (9) (6)

Commarbigibectayos edn 4,845 | 908,420 | 746,258 | 21.7% | 188
Massachusebis ...... ea. : 8,040 | 2,805,346 | 2,238,948 | 25.3% 349
Rhode Island ::3>. v7 + 1, 053 428, 556 345,506 | 24.0% 407
New York... ............ 47,620 | 7,268,894 | 5,997,858 | 21.1% | 158

The following tabulation as taken from the Twelfth Census
shows the population in 1900, the capital invested in manufactur-
ing, the value of the annual manufactured product, the assessed
value of real estate, value of lands and buildings used in manu-
factures, the percentage which the value of the lands and build-
ings used in manufacture is of the total assessed value of real
estate, the manufactured product per capita, and the real estate
per capita, for the states of Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island and New York:

DOL

YORK

NEW

HYDROLOGY OF

L9G CRG %hL'h | OBI OP V9B | OPS TL SOF 'S | TL9 LUG TTL “T | SGT TOT OST TE | 898 L669 |” OX AON
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(6 (8) (2) (9) (¢) (F) (¢) (3) (1)

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562 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ‘s

The preceding tabulations show that in New York the total
capital invested in manufacturing in 1900 was $1,651,210,220,
and the value of the annual manufactured product was $2,175,-
726,900. :

In Connecticut the total capital invested in manufacturing in
1900 was $314,696,736, and the value of the annual manufactured
product was $352,824,106. If Connecticut had the same area as
New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the value of the
annual manufactured product in Connecticut would be over
$3,500,000,000, or about one and one half times as great as that
of New York.

In Massachusetts the total capital invested in manufacturing
in 1900 was $823,264,287, and the value of the annual manufac-
tured product was $1,035,198,989. If Massachusetts had the
Same area as New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the
value of the annual manufactured product in Massachusetts
would be over $6,000,000,000, or roundly, three times as great as
that of New York.

In Rhode Island the total capital invested in manufacturing in
1900 was $185,784,587, and the value of the annual manufactured
product was $184,074,578. If Rhode Island had the same area as
New York, with proportionate manufacturing, the value of the
annual manufactured product would be $7,362,975,120, or about
three and one half times as great as that of New York.

As to why this is so, as regards the State of Massachusetts
the census report furnishes a decisive answer in the following
language:

The principal advantage which the State of Massachusetts
possesses is its water power. * * * The power of the Con-
necticut river at Holyoke and at Turners Falls, in the town of
Montague, utilized by means of immense dams of the most per-
‘manent construction, and by a-system of canals, affords in each
place a succession of mill sites along the entire water frontage.
The Deerfield, Millers, Chicopee and Westfield rivers, tributaries
of the Connecticut, are all noteworthy power-producing streams.
At Lowell and Lawrence, upon the Merrimac, the possession of
similar advantages led to the selection of these places for the
installation of the factory system in the manufacture of textiles.
At Fall River the power furnished from Watuppa pond has been

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 563

an essential element in the development of that cotton manufac-
turing center; while upon the Blackstone river, and many lesser
streams throughout the State, the existence of sites naturally
adapted to the erection of mills was influential in the expansion
of the woolen and cotton industries in the early part of the cen-
tury, thus laying the foundation of numerous thriving communi-
ties.

In Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island a liberal
policy towards manufacturing has always been exercised. There
is a system of reservoirs practically utilizing the water power of
every stream, and even comparatively small brooks are in many
cases fully developed and are the source of wealth to the citizens.

-There is another significant fact to be mentioned in regard to
the foregoing tabulations. In Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Rhode Island not only was the annual manufactured product per
capita greater than it was in New York in both 1900 and 1890, but
the real estate per capita was also greater, although the difference
was less in 1900 than in 1890.

Relation of area to population. A further test of such statis-
tics is as to the effect upon population. If we find population
proportionately increased in Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Rhode Island, we may assume that a chief incentive has been
the rational encouragement of manufacturing through the opera-
tion of well-devised mill acts. |

According to the tabulations the population of New York in
1900 was 7,268,894; of Connecticut, 908,420; of Massachusetts,
2,805,546, and of Rhode Island, 428,556. Assuming that Con-
necticut had the same area as New York, with a population propor-
tionate to its present population, we would find a total population
for Connecticut of 9,084,200; in Massachusetts, the actual popu-
lation in 1900 was 2,805,346, but with the area of New York, the
proportionate population would be 16,856,000; the population of
Rhode Island is for an area of a little over 1053 square miles,
428,556; with an area forty-five times as great—the equivalent of
the area of New York—the population of Rhode Island would be
19,285,000. We reach, therefore, the conclusion that in Con-
necticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, on an actual area of
a little less than 14,000 square miles, with a present population

564 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of about 5,150,000, if we take the area proportionate to that of
New York, with the population proportionate to that of the States
themselves, there would have been in these States in 1900 over
40,000,000 persons. Undoubtedly these figures would be modi-
fied on as large an area as New York, but we should neverthe-
less expect a considerably larger population in New York than
actually exists.

Relation of values of agricultural products to waterpower
values. We may now consider the relation of values of agricul-
tural products to waterpower values. The following tabulation
from the Twelfth Census may be taken to show that in Massachu-
setts and Rhode Island the value of farms has increased in some
proportion to the development of waterpower. The reason for this
inay be found in considering that in a manufacturing community
the demand is for the products of gardens rather than for grain,
hay, ete.

YORK

NEW

HYDROLOGY OF

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566 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

We also note that the average value of farms in Massachu-
setts is $4848 and in Rhode Island, $4909, while in New York it
is $4718. ;

Again, the total acreage of the State vf Connecticut is 3,100,-
800, while the acreage of improved farms in that State is 1,064,-
525. The improved farms are therefore about 34 per cent of the
total area of the State.

In Massachusetts the total acreage is 5,145,600, while the acre-
age of improved farms is 1,292,152, or the acreage of improved
farms is only about 25 per cent of the total area of the State.

In Rhode Island the total acreage of the State is 673,920, while
the acreage of improved farms is 187,354, or the acreage of im-
proved farms is about 28 per cent of the total area of the State.

In New York the total acreage based on area of the State is
20,476,800, while the acreage of improved farms is 15,599,986, or
the acreage of improved farms is about 51 per cent of the total
area of the State. These statistics show that in Connecticut,
Massachusetts and Rhode Island there is very much more waste
land than there is in New York. They also show that the aver-
age farm in Massachusetts and Rhode Island is more valuable
than it is in New York.

There is another interesting fact brought out by the foregoing
tabulation. The total value of farm products in Massachusetts
in the census year of 1900 was $42,298,274, and in New York
$245,270,600. Since the area of New York is about six times as
ereat as that of Massachusetts, it follows that on 25 per cent of
the total area of Massachusetts relatively as much agricultural
value is produced as on 50 per cent of the area of New York. If,
therefore, about 50 per cent of the area of Massachusetts was
improved farms, the value of the agricultural products, computed
on actual area, would be twice as much as in New York. |

The total value of farm products in New York in 1900 was
$245,270,600, of which we may assume 7 per cent as profit;
whence the total annual profit becomes $17,160,000.

In the report on a water supply from the Adirondacks, made
to the Merchants’ Association of New York city, in 1900, it is
shown that on Hudson river the net annual profit on each net
horsepower is $16.20. There is a possibility of a total of 1,500,000

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 567

gross horsepower being developed in this State, on which the
net annual profit per gross horsepower would be, roundly, $12. The
establishments on the Hudson river are mostly papermills, and
without doubt in miscellaneous manufacturing the profit would
be from three to five times as great as this, but we will assume it
all over the State, for the purpose of the argument, at $12 per
horsepower. At this rate 1,500,000 horsepower would pay an
annual profit of $18,000,000, and represent at 4 per cent a capi-
talized investment of $450,000,000. Waterpower therefore may
be easily made equal to agriculture, the net annual profits of these
two industries being very nearly the same.

The proper remedy. There are a number of remedies which
may be applied, but first of all we need a comprehensive act in
this State which shall permit of developing water storage to its
full capacity without any further grant of powers from the legis-
lature than those granted in the general act. As to the form of
such an act the writer is not specially insistent, although he may
point out that the mill act of Massachusetts, by reason of long
and successful application, is an excellent model. A copy of this
act may be found in Angell on Watercourses. It is possible, how-
ever, that a mill act on the Massachusetts lines may not be in
accord with the trend of legislation in this State.

There should be a permanent State commission specially
charged with the control of the rivers. To this commission
should be submitted everything relating to the rivers of the State.
It should be given broad powers as regards the carrying out of
projects for improvement, for preventing fioods or for other pur-
poses. Water-storage projects should be submitted to it for de-
cision. The commission should have funds enough at its command
to enable all necessary investigations to be made.

The act authorizing this commission may be considered as
applying to large water-storage projects where the interests of
extended communities are to be unified. For smaller manufactur-
ing projects there should also be a mill act permitting lands to
be flowed after due process of law and just compensation with-
out any further appeal to the legislature. The encouragement of
manufacturing would then become the commercial policy of the
State instead of as at present, by restrictive and contradictory
laws tending to discourage it.

568 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

As to the drainage of swamps and lowlands where an improve-
ment in the public health may be reasonably expected, the State
should pay a portion of the cost. On rivers like the Hudson and
Mohawk, where the State assumes to absolutely control the waters
without regard to the rights or wishes of the riparian proprie-
tors, the State should in consideration of such contro] make all
necessary improvements at its own expense. On the rivers of the
balance of the State, where a different rule prevails, the State may
in consideration of the abatement of floods and improvement of
the public health pay a portion of the cost.

Constitutional amendment. One difficulty in New York is such
defects in the constitution as prevent thorough development of
the natura] resources of the State by means of works serving to
control water. This fact is the more extraordinary because a
number of western States have embodied in their constitutions
articles empowering the legislatures to apply a taking by right
of eminent domain upon payment of just compensation for the
necessary purposes of retaining, excluding or conveying water.
The contradictory laws of New York may be sufficiently illus-
trated by stating that it was discovered a few years ago that
under the amended charter of New York city the city had no right
to secure an adequate water supply. The result of this was to
throw the furnishing of water into the hands of a private company.

Constitutional precedents for an act of the kind here proposed
have been enacted in Missouri, Colorado, Illinois, California,
Idaho, Montana, Washington and Wyoming. In Wyoming the
provision reads as follows:

Private property shall not be taken for private use unless by
consent of the owner, except for private ways of necessity, and
for reservoirs, drains, flumes or ditches on or across the lands of
another for agricultural, mining, milling, domestic or sanitary
purposes, nor in any case without due compensation.

In New York the law on the subject of mill and flowage acts is,
as already shown, in an unsettled state, and a constitutional
amendment enabling proper legislation to be enacted is needed
in order to develop hydraulic works as well as other natural re-
sources of the State. :

It has been said that it is no more justifiable to take property
for mills on the ground that their businéss is beneficial to the

ee ee ee

o ee ee "

Bern.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 569

public than to take it for groceries or hotels, but the capacity to
have groceries or hotels in many communities would have to be
dependent on the exercise of the power of condemnation to-make
the cases parallel.t ?

In 1894 Clemens Herschel proposed the following amendment
to the constitution of the State of New York. With the amend-
ment made, section 7 would read as follows:

Compensation for property taken. When private property
shall be taken for any public use, the compensation to be made
therefor, when such compensation is not made by the State, shall
be ascertained by a jury, or by not less than three commissioners
appointed by a court of record, as shall be prescribed- by law.
The necessary use of lands for the construction and operation of
works serving to retain, exclude or convey water for agricultural,
mining, milling, domestic or sanitary purposes is hereby declared
to be a public use. Private roads may be opened in a manner to
be prescribed by law; but in every case the necessity of the road,
and the amount of all damage to be sustained by the opening
thereof, shall be first determined by a jury of freeholders, and
such amount, together with the expenses of the proceedings, shall
be paid by the person to be benefited.

Unfortunately, owing to the prevalence of a too conservative
spirit, as well as a lack of appreciation of the benefits to follow,
this amendment did not pass, although the eight States previously
cited have similar provisions, as well as most of the countries on
the continent of Europe.

The same year the writer was a member of a committee of the
Rochester Chamber of Commerce appointed to consider some of
the phases of this amendment as introduced by Nathaniel Foote,
delegate to the Constitutional Convention from Rochester. The
writer set forth the value of such an amendment, but the commit-
tee considered that the Rochester Chamber of Commerce ought not
to advocate the amendment because it was at that time endeavor-
ing to secure the passage of an act whereby Genesee river storage
would be constructed by the State. To this it was said that there
was no probability of the State ever building Genesee river
storage, but a too conservative spirit prevailed, and the sense of
the committee was that such amendment ought not to pass.

1From circular letter addressed by Clemens Herschel to the delegates
to the Constitutional Convention of 1894.

570 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Waterpower by industries in 1900.

The following tabulation,

from the Twelfth Census, shows the number of water wheels and

the power developed in New York in 1900:

Number

wheels
Aericorcural in premewes: eek. ee ee ee od
Boots and Shoes. 2a se oe ne ee ere 8
IBOKES fa. vtaa css ee ee ee O38
Brick and tie; rae? qaitiie: saree -GVeRMEEE oe 1
Carriages andcwaronsi). 287.080. QUE Fee. ol
Cheese et re Tralee ee oe ee ee es 30
OREGHEAIS 9 cre acs 6 og Sapien ee 24
GWOUTON EC SOQOGB baa. so cha rece kgs aoe ae oe 45
Dyeing, .6te o. «ai ovduar aanseey 46-2 b eeeee ee 6
Electrica lappar aus asic sd Wt SUN 2G ai cee 2
Floaring inflls‘eteg ony. 2) Ae BROS (See es 2,181
BOUROTY oo nos tgs po 24 hue ey ee eee eee 136

LAST LGR ER ee ae ween en hey Sone re SR at Ce BRT 56
HOSED Fo erie ga-o corse, geht: Fe aaa ek ede -A eeee 95
TOG: ig ol. a's oink Bast Ree oe ee eee 1
Tron and -§t6@l Ge ooo ss ce ee ee neht 8
Leather «23 hiatetig se ioe oe i sien oe a 42
Lime and: C@mem >: ee. oe OR ac eee eee 38
Malt MQ uwO0s oe oo agreed oe Sas eee ee 5
Pam Der 4S ct Ae As Bie Net es eee 1,201
Paaning mills, ete 2. sicta.ide weed Me eee 86
Marble and, St0N@s xsi). 222 0 nt apc ee 2
Paper; and. pul Das. coi ¢ 225 on on ee eee 1,021
PRptuug = ok cascieetae eee ee ee 61
16 | Pee ae Poe crt meer ny oh Sah ey oh 15
Woolen. 4. a2 ngleraie dh Cees tied tee ees rat
Worsteds..< .:/inc 32 ch ae Be 2h. Co eee ee 14
5,200
Other uses 0. oy Pe, ae ee hie i Oe nen Oe ee
Estimated electric motors from water power..........

TOtaT Tin STATO. oo: ches «asec cin Le ee ee

Net
horse-
power

1,691
590
920

50

1,002
709
114

8524
440

6,273
1,834
7,069
25
1,150
1,258
827
95
44,324
2.803
75
191,117
406
852
4101
3.310

337,991

30,465

368,456

81,544

450,000

es oe a ee eee ES Oe a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 571

In the preceding statement we see that there is 337,991 horse-
power developed on 5200 wheels, whence the average power per
wheel is 65 horsepower. There are also other uses to the
amount of 30,465 horsepower which, however, are not specifically
enumerated, The total quantity for the State, including electri-
eal power, of which water power is the primary source, is taken
at 450,000 horsepower. ‘The census figures, however, only show
a total of 368,456 horsepower, and the electrical power actually
in use in 1900 is estimated at 81,544 horsepower. The state-
ments of the several companies furnishing electrical horsepower
would aggregate more than this, but probably 81,544 horse-
power is a conservative estimate. Statements as to the sub-
division of this power among the various industries can not be

made.

WATER STORAGE PROJECTS.

In the last ten years a number of large projects for storing
water for power and other purposes have been proposed in the
State of New York. There are several of these of special im-
portance with which the writer has been concerned, as on Gen-
esee river, Salmon river, Black river, Hudson. river, Schroon
river, etc. There are also a number of projects of considerable
importance which have been developed by others, and of which a
brief description will be given here.

On Genesee river an extensive development of water power has
led to a demand for storage reservoirs on that stream. The
State surveys indicated that a reservoir of 15,000,000,000 cubic
feet capacity could have been constructed in 1896 at a cost of
$2,600,000, or at the rate of about $173 per million cubic feet
of water stored. In 1904, due to change in labor conditions and
the considerable advance in prices generally, this reservoir would
cost about 25 per cent more, or $3,250,000.

Chapter 605 of the laws of 1898 authorized a private company
to construct this reservoir. The project has not thus far been
earried out.

The developed waterpower on the Genesee river has increased
from a little over 6000 net horsepower in 1882 to about 20,000
net horsepower in 1904.

In 1898 and 1899 there was worked up for the Board of Engi-
neers on Deep Waterways a reservoir project on Salmon river,

.

572 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

where it is feasible to develop a reservoir with capacity of
7,000,000,000 cubic feet. The object of this reservoir was to
provide storage within reasonable distance of the main deep
waterway, so that in case of temporary stoppage of the main
feeder to the north, water could still be supplied to the canal.
The hight of the main dam on Salmon river was about 56 feet.
In addition to this there were three dykes, cutting off lateral
valleys at different points of the reservoir. ;

On Black river also a reservoir was surveyed for the Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways for a main water supply for the
proposed canal. When constructed this reservoir will be the
largest in the State. The water surface at Carthage will be
raised 48.5 feet and an area flooded at extreme high water of
nearly 78 square miles, or roundly 50,000 acres. The cubic con-
tent of the reservoir at high water will be nearly 70,000,000,000
cubic feet, and at spillway crest over 57,000,000,000 cubic feet.
The area flooded at spillway crest will be 73.2 square miles and
13.6 inches stored on the tributary catchment of 1812 square
miles.

Extended studies were also made in 1895-96 of the possibility
of water storage on the Hudson river, where the waterpower has
increased from less than 13,000 horsepower in 1882 to something
like 50,000 horsepower at the beginning of 1898 and to about
80,000 horsepower in 1904. The Legislature failed to make an
appropriation in 1897 and these studies have never been com-
pleted, although considerable addition to the information has
been made since that time. The studies so far as carried show
that it is possible to create on the Hudson river a continuous per-
inanent power of about 175,000 horsepower, and undoubtedly
when the studies are completed it will appear that considerably
more than this can be developed at a cost which will be com-
mercially feasible. Probably at least 210,000 horsepower can
be commercially developed.

In 1900, in a report to the Merchants’ Association of New
York, a large reservoir on Schroon river, with capacity of 21,662,-
000,000 cubic feet, was proposed. This reservoir had been form-
erly proposed as the Tumblehead reservoir of the Hudson sys-
tem, but the original proposition was to make it of a storage
capacity of 16,246,000,000 cubic feet.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 573

A large reservoir on the Wallkill river was also proposed in
1900 for the water supply of New York city. The detail of this
reservoir may be found in the Report to the Merchants’ Associa-
tion on the Water Supply of the City of New York, by Jas. H.
Fuertes. The Wallkill reservoir is also described in a report by
John R. Freeman, made in 1900. The available capacity of the
Wallkill reservoir was about 22,000,000,000 cubic feet.

The considerable storage projects in the Croton valley for the
water supply of New York city will also be briefly considered.

Reservoirs have also been proposed on Esopus, Schoharie,
Catskill, Fishkill, Wappingers creek, Roeliff Jansen kill, ete. for
the water supply of the City of New York, which will be discussed
somewhat in detail, not only because of their great size, but
because they embody interesting features in reservoir construc-
tion.

The power developments on Niagara river at Niagara Falls, on
St Lawrence river at Massena, on West Canada creek at Trenton
Falls, on Raquette river at Hannawa Falls, and at several other
places in New York are among the most significant industrial
movements now taking place in the United States. The future
power of these several streams may be placed at nearly 1,000,000
horsepower.

There are a number of other interesting developments through-
out the State, but the foregoing are the more important.

Storage Reservoir on Genesee River

The following statements in regard to the Genesee river storage
reservoir are partially condensed from the detailed reports in
the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor. The
portions not taken therefrom are from original manuscript thus
far unpublished. ;

A general description of this river has been given on page 210;
its discharge measurements have been discussed on page 331;
its flood-flows on page 441; and reference has been made on
page 494 to the low-water flow, indicating that during the sum-
mer the available supply is small. Notwithstanding this, develop-
ment of water power has proceeded rapidly. As shown by the
reports on Water Power of the United States in the Tenth Census
(1880), the total water power on Genesee river from Rochester

574 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to Portage in 1882 was 6882 net horsepower. An examination of
the amount in use on the same reach of river in 1896 showed that
the total based on manufacturers’ rating of wheels, was 19,178
net horsepower, or based on the manufacturers’ statements of the
quantity of water required to operate the wheels, and allowing
75 per cent efficiency of the water, the total power developed by
the wheels in place in 1896 is found to have been 17,248 net
horsepower, or about three times that in 1882. In 1904 this has
increased to about 20,000 net horsepower, and at the same time
the steam power in use at Rochester has increased several thou-
sand horsepower. In comparison with these statements it should
be noted that for several months during the summer and fall of
1895 the total power did not exceed 4000 to 5000 horsepower. The
same condition has existed during the dry period of a number
of years previous, but not so seriously as in the fall of 1895. In
1899 the river was lower than in 18953

Preliminary investigations. The increased demand for power,
as well as the serious summer droughts, led to the formulation
of a project for constructing a storage reservoir at some point
on the headwaters of Genesee river for assisting the summer flow.
The first project included the development of the basin of Honeoye
lake to its full capacity, surveys having been made for that pur-
pose in 1887 and 1888. It appeared, however, that the yield of
this catchment area, which is only about 43.5 square miles, was
hardly adequate for the results desired, the estimate showing that
even when developed to its full capacity it could not be depended
on to furnish, in a dry year, more than 75 cubic feet per second,
while the exigencies of the case demanded at least several hun-
dred cubic feet per second. This project of building a large stor-
age reservoir on the upper Genesee river was then formulated by
the Rochester Chamber of Commerce.

In the meantime a number of breaks on the long level of the
Irie canal, which extends from the foot of the locks at Lockport
io the eastern part of the city of Rochester, a distance of about
62.5 miles, had emphasized the importance of the State’s providing
additional water for feeding the canal east of Rochester. For
this purpose the construction of a large storage reservoir was

‘The statements of low waterpower are however kept on the original
statement of 6727 gross horsepower. With 75 per cent efficiency, this is
DO46 net horsepower.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK DID

advocated by the Rochester Chamber of Commerce as a State
work, with the result that under a resolution of the Senate dated
March 21, 1889, the State Engineer and Surveyor was directed
to make a general investigation in regard to the possibility of
storing water on the upper Genesee. The report made, under the
authority of this resolution appears in the Annual Report of the
State Engineer and Surveyor for the year 1890. In 1892, under
authority of a concurrent resolution dated March 15 of that year,
Governor Flower appointed a commission consisting of yan
Thomas, Judge Charles McLouth, and John Bogart to investigate
and report on the whole question of storage on the upper Genesee.
This commission examined the site of the proposed reservoir and
reported that it was entirely feasible to construct a large reser-
voir on the upper Genesee river, the site especially considered by
the commission being in the Genesee canyon or gorge, a short
distance above Mount Morris.

As the result of the recommendations of this commission, the
sum of $10,000 was appropriated at the legislative session of 1893
for the purpose of studying in detail the several proposed sites
for dams in the canyon of Genesee river, above Mount Morris. At
that time the work was placed in charge of the writer.

At the legislative session of 1894 a bill to construct a dam
in the canyon a short distance above Mount Morris passed the
Senate, but failed in the Assembly. At the session of 1895 a sim-
ilar bill passed the Senate and Assembly, but was vetoed by
Governor Morton, largely on the ground that the bill as passed
made no provision for the owners of the water power and other
interested parties bearing any portion of the expense. In his
veto Governor Morton expressed the belief that if the State should
determine to build a dam on Genesee river some provision should
be made by which the city of Rochester—and possibly other locali-
ties interested in the work—might contribute to the expense of
construction. Governor Morton also pointed out that if the pro- ~
posed canal enlargement be approved by the people public senti-
ment might justify the construction of a storage dam on Genesee
river for canal purposes. On the other hand, if the proposition
to deepen the canal should not be approved the question would

*The result of the studies in 1893 may be found in the Annual Reports of
the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal years ending September 30,
1893 and 1894.

576 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

still remain whether such a dam might not be desirable for the
purpose of regulating the river and increasing the water power
thereon.

In order to complete the preliminary investigations relative to
the proposed Genesee storage, Governor Morton, in 1896, approved
an additional appropriation, which was expended during the
summer of that year in completing further surveys. To the
present time the State has expended on preliminary investiga-
tion of the Genesee storage project the following amounts: In
1890, $3000; in 1892, $7000; in 1893, $10,000; in 1896, $10,000;
in all, $30,000. As a result of this expenditure complete plans
and specifications have been prepared as shown in the Annual
Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for 1896.1

Interests to be served. The following are the interests to be
served by the construction of these extensive storage works on
Genesee river :

1) The flow of the river would be regulated, thus effectually
preventing in the future the devastating floods which occurred in
1815, 1835, 1857, 1865, 1889, 1893, 1894, 1896 and 1902. The floods

1By way of presenting a full list of the work on the Genesee storage,
reference may be made to the special report of John Bogart, State Engineer
and Surveyor in Appendix F of the Annual Report of the State Engineer
and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1890. The reports
of Messrs Bailey and Kibbie, assistant engineers to Mr Bogart, are covered
by the same reference. The report of Martin Schenck, State Engineer and
Surveyor, may be found at page 44 of the Annual Report of the State
Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The
report of E. Sweet, ex-State Engineer and Surveyor, as consulting engineer,
may be found in Appendix H of the Annual Report of the State Engineer
and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1893. The report
of the commissioners appointed in 1892 by Governor Flower may be found
in Senate Doc. No. 23, 1898. The first report of the writer may be found
in Appendix G of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor
for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1898. The second report may be
found in Appendix E of the Annual Report of the State Engineer and
Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1894. The work done in
1896 is described at length in the Annual Report of the State Engineer
and Surveyor for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1896. See also a
paper by the writer, Genesee River Storage and its Relations to the
Erie Canal and the Manufacturing Interests of Western New York, pre-
pared for the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. This paper contains a
large amount of historical information not given in the official reports.
Governor Morton’s veto may be found in the Governor’s State Papers for
1895.

~l

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK eee FF

in the years just enumerated were specially severe, but floods not
so severe, yet doing considerable damage, have occurred in several
of the intervening years.

2) Water would be supplied for the enlarged Erie canal.
According to Mr Bogart’s report of 1890, there should have been
provided a storage on Genesee river of 1,500,000,000 cubic feet
for the purpose of supplying Erie canal as it existed at that date.

3) The agricultural production of the broad level area - in-
cluded in the Genesee valley between Rochester, Mount Morris and
Dansville, estimated at from 60 to 80 square miles, might be
greatly increased by moderate irrigation if the flood contingency
was removed and the proper irrigation channels were constructed.

4) Considerable sanitary benefit would result from the increased
flow during the low-water period through the proposed regu-
lation. The entire sewage at Rochester, a city of 175,000
inhabitants, now passes into Genesee river. The channel of this
stream, beween the foot of the lower falls at Rochester and
Lake Ontario, is so broad and deep that during the time of ex-
treme low water in the summer and fall the current is scarcely
perceptible. The sewage of the city therefore lodges in this sec-
tion, producing a serious nuisance. The regulation of the river,
by preventing floods, would also improve the sanitary condition
of the broad upper valley, where the annual overflow has been
shown to cause more or less sickness.

5) The waterpower would be increased. Wheels are now set
on the Genesee river capable of producing, at the manufacturers’
rating, about 20,000 net horsepower, while the low-water flow of
the stream does not exceed about 5000 net horsepower.

In summation of the preceding points it may be urged, in gen-
eral, that in constructing the proposed Genesee storage dam, in
addition to the private interests to be conserved, public service of
an extended character would be performed.

Mount Morris site. Referring to Mr Bogart’s report of 1890,
it is learned that the investigations of that year were general in
their character. The work was carried on more particularly with
reference to a location in the Genesee river gorge, between Mount
Morris and the foot of the Portage falls. No detailed surveys
were made further than necessary to make a general estimate of
the cost of a dam 58 feet in hight, which would store 1,500,000,000

d78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

cubic feet, the amount considered necessary for canal purposes:
alone. Such a dam, Mr Bogart estimates, could be erected for
about $1,000,000.

The work performed under the direction of the writer in 1893
was of an entirely different character. The report of 1890 having
indicated the Mount Morris canyon as a desirable location, with
a number of sites pointed out, of which general investigations
had been made, it became desirable to investigate those sites in
detail and to prepare close estimates of the cost of constructing
dams at each. Detailed investigations were accordingly made
of the three sites favorably reported upon in 1890, the results of

Fig. 39 Dam, 58 feet high, proposed for Genesee river near Mount Morris.

which may be found in the Annual Reports of the State Engineer
and Surveyor for 1893 and 1894, where estimates of the cost of
the several dams are also given in detail. Referring to the esti-
mates, it appears that at site No. 1, in Mount Morris canyon, a
dam raising the water surface 130 feet would cost, if built of
concrete alone, $2,450,000, but if built with sandstone faces
throughout, except for the spillway, where granite is provided,
the estimated cost would become $2,590,000. A dam of the same
hight at site No. 2, if built throughout of concrete, would cost
$2,600,000, but with sandstone faces and independent spillway the
cost would be $2,720,500.

In regard to the total storage to be obtained in Mount Morris
canyon the following are the figures at sites Nos. 1 and 2, the two
sites chiefly considered: At site No. 1 a dam of 180 feet in hight

ILYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 579

will store 7,700,000,000 cubic feet, and at site No. 2 a dam of the
same hight will store 7,040,000,000 cubic feet. Since no con-
clusion has been reached as to which of these sites to adopt, for
the purposes of comparison a mean of 7,370,000,000 cubic feet has
been taken as the approximate available storage, and the mean
of $2,785,000 as the approximate total cost. On this basis the
estimated cost of the storage becomes $377.88 per million cubic
feet of water stored. These figures should be increased by 25 per
cent in order to conform to conditions in 1904.

Portage site. Investigations of the Genesee river storage
project were finally completed in 1896. In that year detailed
surveys were made of a new site known as Portage site, the pro-
posed dam to be located at Portageville, about 1400 feet above
the Erie railway bridge, at a point where the gorge presents
extremely favorable conditions for the erection of a high dam.
At this place solid rock exists immediately in the bed of the
river, with only a couple of feet of water flowing over it, and also
extends high up on the bluffs at either side, whereas at all of the
sites in the gorge near Mount Morris the rock was only found at
from 15 to 20 feet below the water surface and of such an open
texture as to require cut-off trenches about 30 feet deep, or to a
total depth of. nearly 50 feet below the water. The proposed
Portage dam is also 500-feet vertically above the previously men-
tioned sites, thus rendering that additional number of feet avail-
able for power purposes—a fact which places a materially differ-
ent aspect on the commercial side of the Genesee river storage
project.

A short distance above the proposed Portage site the upper
Genesee, valley broadens out to a width in places of from one to
two miles, although the general width of the valley does not ex-
ceed, for several miles in extent longitudinally, about one mile.
It narrows in two or three places to a less width than this. The
valley is now a good agricultural region, in a fair state of culti-
vation, and presents, on the whole, as favorable conditions for
farming as any Similar valley in the State. The Pennsylvania
railway passes through the middle of the valley on the line of the
abandoned Genesee Valley canal. Along the line of this railway
the villages of Portageville, Rossburg, Wiscoy and Fillmore are
situated. The reservoir project includes the relaying of the rail-

580 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

way above the flow line on the west side of the valley, as well as
the removal of the villages named. The total area below the flow
line is 12.4 square miles, and the entire area proposed to be taken
for reservoir purposes, including a strip 10 feet vertically above
the flow line, is 13.7 square miles. The project also includes the
removal of several cemeteries, the building of highway bridges
across the reservoir, and the construction of a roadway entirely
around the same.

Without having made a detailed canvass, it is estimated that
the present population of the proposed Portage reservoir site, in
the villages and on the farms, is about 1200. In reference to dis-
possessing this number of people of their homes for the purpose
of creating a large storage reservoir, it may be said that such a
proceeding is not only not uncommon in this State, but that the
population to be removed in the case of the new Croton reservoir
is far greater than at the Portage reservoir. According to maps
furnished by the Croton Water Department, it appears that the
new Croton reservoir includes the taking of either the whole or
parts of something like three large villages and nine or ten ham-
lets. The total population to be removed from the submerged area
of the new Croton reservoir is not given, but actual inspection of
maps of the proposed sites indicates that it must*be several times
larger than the number to be dispossessed at Portage. The vil-
lages of Katonah, Purdy Station, and Croton Falls are much
larger than any of the villages in the Portage reservoir site. The
main line of the New York and Northern railroad passes for sev-
eral miles through the valley and requires relocating above the
flow line, the same as is proposed for the Pennsylvania railway
along the Portage reservoir. It appears, therefore, that the City
of New York has recently done under State laws everything in
the way of so-called radical change which it is proposed to do at
Portage. In both cases the sufficient reason for these changes
may be found in the better meeting of public necessities.

The original estimated cost of the proposed Portage reservoir,
including land damages, dam, reconstruction of railway, removal
of cemeteries, the cutting of all timber within the catchment
areas, the construction of highway bridges, etc. is $2,600,000, the
storage to be provided by this expenditure amounting to 15,000,-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK : 581

000,000 cubic feet; at this rate the cost per million cubic feet
stored would be $173.33, but with 25 per cent added to the esti-
mate to conform to conditions in 1904, the cost per million cubic
feet stored is $216.67.

The main characteristics of the proposed reservoir are shown
by table No. 83, condensed from pages 708-9 of the Report of the
State Engineer and Surveyor for 1896:

TABLE No. 883—CAPACITY OF PROPOSED PORTAGE RESERVOIR

of ier sone Area of water oe eee: :
es res i, faite Yet. | Gatgnmant
1,100.0 0.2320 101,400,000 0.044
1,105.0 0.5330 217,623,000 0.094
1,110.0 ~ 0.8340 333,900,000 0.148
1,115.0 1.1350 450,100,000 0.194
7120.0 1.4357 566,300,000 0.244
1,125.0 2.0659 942,100,000 0.406
1,130.0 2.6692 1,318,000,000 0.567
1,135.0 3.0264 1,694,000,000 0.729
1,140.0 3.9566 - 2,070,000,000 0.891
1,145.0 4.5255 —-.2,780,000,000 1.196
1,150.0 5.0944 — 3,490,000,000 1.502
1,155.0 5.6633 4 200,000,000 1.808
1,160.0 6.2322 — 4,910,000,000 9.113
1,165.0 6.8293 5,945,000,000 2.559
1,170.0 7.4264 — 6,980,000,000 3.004
1,172.0 7.6652 — 7,395,000,000 3.182
1,173.0 7.7846 —_7,602,000,000 3.271
1,175.0 8.0235 8,016,000,000 3.451
1,180.0 8.6206 9,051,000,000 3.896
1,185.0 9.4862 10,366,000,000 4.462
1,190.0 10.2518 11,681,500 ,000 5.016
1,195.0 11.3007 13,257,000 ,000 5.710
1,200.0 12 6.458

3495 — 15,000,000,000

Comparing the foregoing statements of cost with those made
on the preceding page with reference to the cost of the proposed
reservoir in Mount Morris canyon, it appears that at Portage a

582 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

storage of 15,000,000,000 cubie feet can be made for somewhat
less than the cost of 7,300,000,000 cubic feet at Mount Morris;
or, as a general statement, we may say that a given expenditure
at Portage produces double the storage that it will produce at
Mount Morris. The Portage reservoir develops the full capacity
of the catchment area for such a dry year as 1895. It is con-
sidered that this full development is necessary in order to obtain
the most satisfactory results in river regulation.

As reasons in detail for preferring the Portage site to that at
Mount Morris, the following may be mentioned:

1) The Portage site affords more water for a given expendi-
ture.

2) The Portage site is considered safer than the Mount Mor-
ris site. As shown in the Genesee Storage Reports of 1893-94,
the shales at Mount Morris are open; and while it is, without
doubt, possible to make a safe dam there, it would be at much
ereater cost than at Portage.

3) The material for the dam is nearly all on the ground at
Portage, while at Mount Morris it needs to be brought from a
distance. |

4) The Portage site affords greater waterpower development.
With the Genesee storage dam located at Mount Morris the
total head on which the storage can be applied is 282 feet, while
with’a dam at Portage the total head on which the stored water
may be applied is 782 feet.

5) On account of the great depth of the foundation at Mount
Morris, it would be necessary to expend over $1,000,000 before the
dam could be brought to the level of the present water surface.

The proposed regulation of Genesee river at Portage has been
computed on the basis of a minimum discharge of 300 cubic feet
per second, in the case of a reservoir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic
feet, and on a basis of a minimum of 457 cubic feet per second
in the case of a reservoir storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet. As
to the reason for fixing upon these minimums, in river regula-
tion the outflow from the storage reservoir should be so arranged
as to make the benefit to all parts of the stream equal. Es-
pecially is this proposition true when, as in the present case,
there is waterpower distributed throughout the whole extent

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 583

of the stream below the storage point. Obviously the way to
do this is to plan for an outflow proportional to the catchment
area. In the present case we have a catchment area at Roches-
ter of 2565 square miles, and one of 1000 square miles above
Portage, or the area above Rochester is about 24 times the area
above Portage. The minimum regulated flow at Rochester may
be made 2.365 times the assumed minimum flow at Portage.

In the foregoing, the statement is made that the outflow
should be proportional to the catchment area. This is the theo-
retical view purely, and provided reservoirs can be constructed
at equally low cost in all parts of a catchment, it is the prefer-
able principle to follow. But this can seldom be done because
reservoirs will vary greatly in cost in different parts of a catch-
ment—they may run all the way from $15 to $20 per million
cubic feet stored to from $600 to $1000 per million cubic feet.
This practical consideration will modify the theoretical con-
clusion.

Assuming 680 cubic feet per second as the flow below which
the stream will never be allowed to fall at Rochester, we have
for a reservoir storing 7,500,000,000 cubic feet a corresponding
minimum outflow from the reservoir of 300 cubic feet per second,
or for a storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet an outflow of 457
cubic feet per second, the latter figure being arrived at by assum-
ing the maintenance of a minimum flow at Rochester of at least
1000 cubic feet per second. The computations of tables Nos.
84 and 85 are carried out on this basis. The regulated flows
for the month of May are greater than for the other months.
They are also greatest during the months of canal navigation,
the addition being made in order to provide for the quantity of
water to be taken for the enlarged Erie canal, which quantity
has been fixed at 80 cubic feet per second for every month of
the navigation season except May, and at 177 cubic feet per
second for that month, the excess quantity for the.month of
May being required in order to provide for filling the canal at
the beginning of the month.

Table No. 84 shows the effect on the flow of Genesee river from
June, 1894, to November, 1896, inclusive, as influenced by the
storage at Portage of 15,000,000,000 cubic feet of water, provided

584 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

at least 457 cubic feet per second is allowed to flow continually
at Portage and at least 1000 cubic feet per second is always flow-
ing at Rochester in addition to the amount required for canal
purposes. The figures given in column (2) show the proposed
minimum flow at Rochester, this being the 1000 cubic feet per
second noted above, together with 80 cubic feet per second for
the canal for the months from June to November, inclusive, and
177 cubic feet per second for the month of May. Columns (3)
and (4) give the discharges at Rochester and Portage under
natural conditions. Column (5) gives the difference between
these, or the quantity of water entering the river below Portage.
Column (6) gives the amount which goes to the canal while
column (7) gives the ratio of amount to canal to actual flow.
Column (8) gives the minimum amount to be added at Portage in
order to maintain the proposed minimum flow at Rochester of
1000 cubic feet per second, not including the amount taken by the
canal. The quantity available at Rochester for power purposes
is shown in column (9). The actual outflow from the Portage
reservoir is given in column (10) in cubic feet per second, while
column (12) gives the same thing in inches on the catchment area.
Column (11) gives the surplus flowing over the spillway at the
Portage reservoir.

Table No. 85 exhibits the condition of the reservoir from month
to month under the above conditions. The figures are given not
in cubic content but in equivalent depth in inches on the total
tributary catchment of 1000 square miles. The reservoir is as-
sumed to be full at the beginning of June 1894, the total storage
of the reservoir being equivalent to 6.46 inches in depth on the
catchment area. The total waste from June 1, 1894, to December
1, 1896, equals, under the conditions of this table, 2.11 inches on
the catchment.

Similar tables have been computed showing the regulation of
the river as affected by the storage at Portage of 7,500,000,000
cubic feet of water for the same period, with at least 500 cubic
feet per second always flowing at Portage, and at least 600 cubic
feet per second at Rochester, in addition to the amount required
for the canal. The chief difference between these two tables is in
the amount of water utilized. In the case of a reservoir of
15,000,000,000 cubic feet capacity, during only three months of

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK DST

the period from June, 1894, to November, 1896, inclusive, would
there be any water wasted from the reservoir, the total for this
period being 2.11 inches. In June, 1894, 521 cubic feet per second ;
in April, 1895, 1058 cubic feet per second, and in April, 1896, 350
cubic feet per second. In no case would there be at Rochester less
than 1000 cubic feet per second.

In the case of a reservoir of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet capacity,
there would have been wasted a total of 9.36 inches on the catch-
ment during the same period. In June, 1894, 645 cubic feet per
second; in November, 1894, 287 cubic feet per second; in
December, 1894, 216 cubic feet per second; in January, 1895, 260
cubic feet per second; in March, 1895, 1266 cubic feet per second ;
in April, 1895, 1440 eubic feet per second; in March, 1896, 1145
cubic feet per second; in April, 1896, 2716 cubic feet per second,
and in November, 1896, 269 cubic feet per second. The amount
flowing at Rochester would not have been less than 600 cubic feet
per second.

Moreover had the enlarged canal been in operation in July,
1894, and taking the estimated quantity of 80 cubic feet of water
per second from Genesee river, the amount of water going to the
canal would have been 27.4 per cent of the total flow of the river
for that month; in August, 18.1 per cent; in May, 1895, 46 per
cent; in June, 28.3 per cent; in July, 34.5 per cent; in August,
31.5 per cent; in September, 36.2 per cent, and in October,
34.8 per cent. In May, 1896, the canal would have taken 51.3
per cent of the total flow of the river for that month; in June,
12.2 per cent; in July, 15.9 per cent; in August, 19.2 per cent,
and in September, 24.5 per cent. It appears, therefore, that the
taking of 80 cubic feet per second from the Genesee river for canal
purposes is a very serious matter to the waterpower of the stream
and is unjustifiable, unless it be clearly shown that the addition
to the wealth of the State is greater than if the water were used
for supplying power. The actual damage resulting from taking
at times 50 per cent of the unregulated flow of the stream is about
as follows: As shown on a previous page, the minimum flow of
the river is capable of producing 6727 gross horsepower, or, what
is the same thing, assuming 75 per cent efficiency, 5046 net horse-

power. One half of the low-water power may therefore be taken
at 2523 net horsepower.

588 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

So long as the possibility exists of a draft upon the river equal
to one-half of its minimum flow, this 2523 net horsepower is prac-
tically rendered useless to its owners by reason of the uncertainty
as to the exact time of the draft, or if not rendered useless, is far
less valuable than if it were absolutely permanent power. In
enforcing this view it may be pointed out that Rochester is a
manufacturing town, made up chiefly of establishments using com-
paratively small quantities of power at each place, but that the
power must still be continuous every day; that is to say, it must
be permanent power. So long, therefore, as one-half the total
minimum power of the stream is subject to stoppage during any
month, the manufacturers will preferably use steam power, on
account of its permanency, even at considerably greater expense.
Bearing on this view it may be pointed out that the use of soft
coal in Rochester for steam purposes is fully 500,000 tons a year,
which, at an average price of $2.40 per ton, amounts to the sum
of $1,200,000 annually. It may be considered settled, therefore,
that waterpower is valuable at Rochester, and that anything
which tends to reduce the permanent power 50 per cent is a
Serious matter to the manufacturers of the city.1

Comparison of Mount Morris and Portage sites. As a further
point in the discussion of Genesee river storage, comparison will
be made between the Mount Morris project, storing 7,370,000,000
cubic feet at a cost in 1904 of about $3,500,000, and the Portage
project storing 15,000,000,000 cubic feet, at an estimated cost in
1904, of $3,250,000, for the purpose of determining the relative
commercial advantages.

With the reservoir at Mount Morris storing 7,570,000,000 cubic
feet there is 282 feet fall, on which 7,370,000,000 cubic feet, less
the quantity required for the canal, may be applied for power
purposes. As already explained, the constant outflow from the
reservoir would never be less than 300 cubic feet a second. Con-
tinuous power development under this plan would, therefore, be
based on 300 cubic feet a second at Mount Morris, something more
than this at Geneseo and York, and on 600 cubic feet a second at
Rochester. On this basis of computation it appears that the total

1The new project for a barge canal does not contemplate taking water
from the Genesee river. This part of the argument is however allowed to
stand as an illustration of conditions existing in the State of New York.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 589

permanent, continuous power to be realized from a reservoir stor-
ing 7,370,000,000 cubic feet and located in the Mount Morris gorge
would be 18,327 gross horsepower.

In regard to the increase in waterpower, the effective value of
the storage will be the amount of permanent power above the low-
water power of the stream. As already stated, the total per-
manent power for the unregulated stream is 6737 gross horse-

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Fig. 40 Section of dam and gate-house as proposed for Genesee river at
Portage.

power. The gain due to the storage is, therefore, 11,600 gross
horsepower. Assuming a price of $10 per gross horsepower, we
reach an annua! return from the increased power of $116,000; but
the Mount Morris reservoir is estimated in 1904 to cost $3,500,000,
although ten years ago it was estimated at $2,785,000. Using the
figure of the estimate of ten years ago, and assuming the project
carried out by a private company with money at 5 per cent, the
annual interest on the investment is $139,250—a sum $23,250 in
excess of the probable annual income when all the power created —
shall have been brought into use; but there shduld be a sinking,

590 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ~

maintenance and repair fund of at least $25,000 a year in order
to repay the principal investment, which if taken into account -
increases the probable deficiency to $48,250 a year. It must be
concluded, therefore, that with the present understanding as to
the minimum runoff of the Genesee river the project of a storage
reservoir in Mount Morris canyon, storing approximately 7,370,-
000,000 cubic feet of water at a cost of $2,785,000, is commercially
impracticable, while at the estimated cost in 1904 of $8,500,000 it
is even more impracticable.

If we consider the Portage project in its financial aspects,
where it is proposed to construct a reservoir storing 15,000,000,000
cubic feet of water at a cost in 1904 of $3,250,000, we reach the
following results:

The total fall from just above the upper fall at Portage to the
mean level of Lake Ontario is 833 feet, of which the greater por-
tion is available for the development of waterpower. Without
going into detail, we may place the permanent, continuous gross
horsepower of the river, with a storage of 15,000,000,000 cubic

feet at Portage, at the following figures:
Gross

horsepower

'. Portage to Mount Mortis cca te eee ee eee 25,924
Mount Morris: ». 2 o¢<ce ei es Se ee ee ee 835
Geneseo. and: Yorks Ge. Se Fae eee ee et eee 624
Rochester oe BMS Ae ae ee os ee eae 29,840
OPAL | 5c PRR MES oo ole ocak PR aia Wee eee te ee 57 223

Deducting from 57,223 gross horsepower the present permanent
power of 6727 gross horsepower, we have 50,496 gross horsepower
as the net increase in the permanent waterpower of the stream
due to the construction of the Portage reservoir. At $10 per
gross horsepower, as before, the annual income when the power
is utilized amounts to $504,960. The estimated cost of producing
this vast increase in power is $3,250,000 in 1904. Assuming an
interest rate of five per cent, the annual interest is $172,500; add-
ing to that amount $25,000 for sinking fund, maintenance and
repairs, the total annual expense becomes $197,500. The differ-
ence of $307,460 is the net annual income.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 591

As already shown, when interest is taken into account, the
Mount Morris project becomes commercially impracticable. The
Portage project, on the other hand, shows an annual income, above
interest account, sinking fund, maintenance and repairs, of $307,-
460, which, capitalized at 5 per cent, represents $6,149,200. If
we assume 4 per cent, the capitalization of the annual income may
be expected ultimately to represent $7,686,500.

Summary of Genesee river storage. 'The following summation
of the Genesee river storage projects is presented as embodying
the main points involved.

1) Of the several available sites for reservoirs on Genesee river
that at Portage is preferable to others, because it affords the
largest storage at the smallest cost per unit volume.

2) Serious floods have occurred a number of times in the Gene-
see river at Rochester, the most serious being that of March 1865.
The floods in April 1896 and March 1902 were nearly as severe
as the flood of March 1865, although, as the river channel was
clear, very little damage ensued.

3) As the result of,three years’ measurements of Genesee river,
it is determined that the minimum flow of the stream may for the
entire year be as low as 6.67 inches on the catchment area. Since
1896 the record of the flow of the stream has been extended with-
out altering the conclusions of this paragraph.

4) A study of existing conditions shows that the Genesee
river catchment area has been nearly denuded of forests, and
hence that severe spring floods are likely to be frequent. For
the same reason the summer flow of the stream is less than
formerly.

5) As a tentative conclusion, based on the data at hand, it may
be said that the deforestation of a catchment area may tend
not only to increase floods somewhat, but to decrease materially
the amount of the annual runoff.

6) A comparison of the conditions existing on the catchment
area of the Genesee river with those of the upper Hudson, which
is still largely in forest, shows less runoff under given conditions
from the Genesee than from the Hudson, thus indicating the
probable effect of the forest in increasing the runoff. The com-
parative diagram shown in fig. 11 is pertinent as illustrating this
point.

592 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

7) As regards the upper Genesee catchment area, the forest
has been removed by landowners who have commercially profited
by such removal; the effect, however, has been to injure per-
manently every riparian owner on the stream; hence it is proper
that the State should spend money either in partially reforest-
ing the area or in constructing river regulation works. The
latter is preferable, because the benefits can be realized in a
few years. If the State does not desire to construct such works,
there should be no obstacles interposed to their construction
by a private company.

8) The proposed Portage reservoir will impound 15,000,000,000
cubic feet of water at an estimated cost in 1904 of $3,250,000, or
at a cost of $216.67 per million cubic feet stored. It will afford
a permanent, continuous power above the present low-water
flow of the stream of 50,496 gross horsepower, while the reser-
voir at Mount Morris will afford only 11,600 horsepower above
the present low-water power of the stream.

9) Based on manufacturers’ ratings, the present total devel-
oped water power of Genesee river from Portage to Rochester,
inclusive, is 19,178 net horsepower; or, basing the amount of
water power on the manufacturers’ ratings of water required,
and assuming 75 per cent efficiency on the wheels, the total
power is 17,248 net horsepower, of which about 16,650 net horse-
power is within the limits of the city of Rochester. These
figures apply to conditions as existing in 1897.

Early History

Erie canal in its relations to Genesee river. In order to show
why the State was originally asked to build a storage reservoir
on Genesee river for the benefit of private parties, the following
from the early history of the Erie canal in its relations to the
Genesee river is given:

The first mention of the Genesee river as a source of water
supply for Erie canal is in the report of James Geddes, who
was employed by Simeon DeWitt, the then Surveyor General
of this State, to make the first examinations for the Erie canal.
His report, which was submitted on January 20, 1809, may be
found in the official history of the New York State canals (1825)
page 18 and following.

‘ISVIOT 1V ABALL VISOUVY) OY} JO S[[BJ 9[ppIu puv reddy

‘OT 94¥Id

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 593

Further mention of the Genesee river as a possible source of
water supply of the Erie canal is given in a letter written by
Mr Geddes to William Darby, under date of February 22, 1822,
which may also be found in the official history of the State
canals. Without giving these interesting historical documents
in detail, it may be stated that Mr Geddes considered the
Genesee river as an exceedingly important feeder of the Erie
canal. We shall see, however, as we proceed how very
materially this view was modified as more information was
gained as to the dry weather flow, not only in the Genesee river,
but in the other streams in western New York, until finally
it became the settled policy of the canal authorities to derive
water supplies from the lakes rather than from rivers. The
effect of this settled policy upon the present project for storage
of the water of the Genesee river will also appear as we proceed.

In order to exhibit the history of the Genesee feeder clearly,
it will be necessary also to consider to some extent the general
history of the New York State canals, and accordingly certain
facts which are not set forth on a later page are given here.

In 1810 a concurrent resolution was adopted, appointing
Gouverneur Morris, Stephen Van Rensselaer, DeWitt Clinton,
Simeon DeWitt, William North, Thomas Eddy and Peter B.
Porter commissioners for exploring the whole route of the Erie
canal, etc. Chapter 193, section 43, laws of 1810, appropriated
$3000 for the use of this commission. The commissioners
reported under date of March 2, 1811.

They discussed questions relating to the Erie canal broadly
and specially at considerable length the future water supply.
The following extract from their report will show the conclu-
sions to which their studies had brought them, and indicates
they did not favor placing any special dependence upon a per-
manent supply to the canal from the rivers.

We shall see as we proceed that the principles announced in
their report of 1811 were so far as possible followed in designing
the permanent water supply of the Erie canal.

The following is from the commissioners’ report:

In the construction of canals, when recourse is had (as must
generally be the case) to rivers for a supply of water, it is found

594 | NEW YORK STATD MUSEUM

necessary to guard with scrupulous care, and, not unfrequently,
at enormous expense, against those floods, which, pouring a tor-
rent into a canal, and tearing down its banks, might at once
destroy the navigation and inundate the country.

Moreover, it is found that canals depending on rivers, fre-
quently, like the rivers themselves, want water in the season when
it is necessary. Indeed, to suppose the water in a river, when
turned into a canal, will remain the same, would lead to serious
disappointment.

Much must be allowed for evaporation, and, notwithstanding
the utmost care, more will filter through the sides and bottom of
a canal than those of a river, which are generally saturated.

Thus, then, two prominent evils present themselves in feeding
from rivers, viz., in spring, they pour in too much water, and can
afford none in autumn, when it is most needed. There is still
another evil, which though not so imminent, becomes eventually
of serious moment.

When the country shall be cultivated, streams swollen by
showers will bring down mixed with their waters a proportion of
mud, and that, in the stillness of a level canal, will subside, and
choke it up. It is also to be noted by those who shall construct
canals in this country, that the true character of a river cannot
now be known. Large tracts (for instance, west of the Genesee),
which appear as swamps, and through which causeways of logs
are laid for roads, will become dry fields, when no longer shaded
(as at present) by forests impervious to the sun.

In the progress of industry, swamps (the present reservoirs of
permanent springs that burst out on a lower surface) will be
drained, whereby many of those springs will be dried. Of such
as remain, a part will be used to irrigate inclined planes.

Moreover in every place tolerably convenient ponds will be
collected for mills and other machinery, from whose surface, as
well as from that of the soil, the sun will exhale an ample tribute
of vapor.

Thus the summer supply of rivers will be in part destroyed,
and in part consumed, whereby their present autumnal penury
must be further enhanced. But in the spring, the careful hus-
bandman and miller will open every ditch and sluice to get rid of
that water, which though at other times a kind friend and faith-
ful servant, is then a dangerous enemy and imperious master.

Of course, much of what is now withheld for many days, will
then be suddenly poured out. The torrents must therefore rage
with greater fury hereafter than they do in the present day.

Considerations like these, while they cast a shade over many
contemplated enterprises, give by contrast a glowing hue to that

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 595

which we now have to consider. The canal, from Lake Erie to
the Hudson, may be fed by pure water from lakes, provided
mounds and aqueducts be made over intervening valleys, or the
canal be carried around them. In every case the attending cir-
cumstances must decide.

In June 1812, an act was passed authorizing the Canal Com-
missioners to borrow five million dollars in order to provide for
the improvement of the internal navigation of the State.

The war of 1812 led to the suspension of the work, but in 1816
the project was revived; the act of 1812 was repealed and a new
act passed appropriating twenty thousand dollars for additional
Surveys. 3

In the report of the Commissioners, 1817, under the last act
referred to, in speaking of the proposed route across the Genesee
river, they say: ;

Pursuing this route the canal never rises above the Lake Erie
level. It would, therefore, derive its waters, till it descends to the

Genesee level, and as much farther as may be necessary, from
that never failing reservoir (Lake Erie).

Finally, on April 15, 1817, an act was passed which actually
led to the construction of the canal and which provides in detail
the method of procedure.

In 1819, the canal having been partially constructed in the
eastern part of the State, active operations were begun in the
western part. During that year the Genesee river feeder was
surveyed by Thomas Hutchinson, an engineer in the employ of
the State. In 1820, in a communication from the Canal Com-
missioners to the Canal Committee of the Assembly, it is stated
that:

Whenever in its progress from Seneca river west, the canal
reaches the Genesee river, that stream will afford an additional
navigation connected with it, for a distance of nearly forty miles;
that is, by making sixty-three miles of canal at about half the
expense per mile at which the eastern section is estimated, the
State will have the benefit of one hundred miles of interior naviga-
tion through a country, at least as populous and productive as
any other of equal extent in the State. The surplus productions
of Ontario county alone have been reckoned as high in some sea-
‘Sons as six hundred thousand dollars.

596 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The preceding quotation is exceedingly important as indicating
why the Genesee feeder was maintained after the canal had been
completed to Lake Erie, and a permanent supply of water ob-
tained from that source.

During the year 1820 contracts for the construction of the canal
immediately east and west of Rochester were let.

In their report to the Legislature, under date of March 12, 1821,
the Canal Commissioners discussed the practicability of two pro-
posed routes for the canal from Rochester west, the northern of
which would be below the level of Lake Erie, while the southern
would rise above that level. The conclusion arrived at was that
if the southern location were adopted there would probably be at
times a serious shortage of water, in view of which, and other
considerations, the Commissioners decided to adopt the present
route from Lake Erie east, which does not at any point rise above
the level of that lake, and which therefore admits of feeding the
entire canal from that source. The Commissionet's say:

Having adopted that route for the canal, which, at every
departure from the level of Lake Erie, in its progress eastward,
will descend, till it reaches the Seneca river, we entertain no
doubt of an abundant and permanent supply of water for every
part of the canal. But, in order to provide against any possibility
of danger on this subject, it is intended to construct the canal
through the dry region between the locks at the mountain ridge
and the Genesee river, with a descent towards the east of one or
two inches in every mile; the necessary effect of which will be to
save the expense of at least one lock, and to induce a current of
so much water from Lake Erie towards the east as will leave but
little to be required from the Genesee river; and this little may
be still reduced, and if it shall ever become expedient, by a feeder
from the Irondequoit creek, a copious and equable stream, which
it was formerly supposed could not be drawn upon for the canal,.
but which, by the enterprising zeal of David S. Bates, Esq., one
of our resident engineers, has been found capable of being taken
into it at Pittsford, near the west end of the level, about thirteen
miles in length. From this level eastward, there might be ob-
tained a sufficient supply of water from the Canandaigua lake,
Mud creek and several other sources, for all the demands of the
canal if the Genesee river were annihilated.

From the Commissioners’ report, submitted February 27, 1822,
it is learned that contracts were signed for opening a feeder from

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 597

the Genesee river into Erie canal, June 6, 1821. The Commis-
sioners complete their report by stating that after this feeder is
completed, which will probably be in May, 1822, it is expected
that with a little additional expense, a good navigation forty
miles up the river will be available, in connection with the Erie
canal.. |

The canal was opened to Rochester in July, 1822, and the
problem then was to obtain a sufficient supply of water from the
Genesee river west until Lake Erie could be reached and its waters
drawn upon.

On the 26th day of October, 1825, water having been turned
into the canal from the harbor at Black Rock the first boat
ascended the locks at Lockport and passed through the deep cut
at the mountain ridge and on to Lake Erie. In their report, sub-
mitted to the Legislature, on March 25, 1826, the Canal Commis-
sioners say:

The first admission of a full head of water upon the dam and
pier at Black Rock, and into the canal from Buffalo to Lockport,
put to the test of actual experiment the strength and solidity of
the works, the accuracy of the levels, and the practicability of
carrying through the mountain ridge a supply of water, which
would be adequate to the wants of the canal, during the dry
season. ‘he result of this experiment was entirely satisfactory.

On the removal of-the temporary dam which had been thrown
across the narrowest part of the Black Rock basin, the water rose
within a few inches of the level of the lake, and flowing into the
canal below, gave a depth throughout its whole extent to Lock-
port, of from five and a half to six feet above the bottom line of
the canal as originally located by David Thomas.

This volume of water drawn eastward by the declivity in the
canal, of one inch in a mile, will be sufficient to supply the
Rochester level, and probably the canal as far eastward as the
Cayuga marshes, without any aid from the Genesee river.

‘The event marked the completion of the original Erie canal,
and further marked, in the opinion of the Canal Commissioners,
the end of the use of the Genesee river as a source of water supply
for the canal.

We are now able to discern the real reasons for constructing
the Genesee river feeder. As the result of long and exhaustive
examinations the Canal Commissioners adopted the settled policy

598 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of not depending upon the waters of the intersecting streams
in the western part of the State, but on the contrary considered
(and the judgment of the present day justifies them in their
conclusions) that it was far safer to depend upon the unfailing
supply which could be derived from Lake Erie without, as stated
in their reports, “ any injury to anybody.”

It is clear, that the Genesee river was an ee MERE tem-
porary source of supply during the period from 1822 to 1825,
before Lake Erie was reached. Although it is evident, when
one examines the documentary evidence in detail, that even
during those years the canal could have been fully supplied with-
out resort to the Genesee river. The question arises then, why,
if the Canal Commissioners considered the use of the river as a _
feeder at an end in 1825, they did not close the channel which
had been constructed from the canal to the Genesee river in
order to take its waters. A decided answer to this question is
found in the documents already cited, from which it appears
that the one main object of constructing a canal feeder at
Rochester was to open up a communication between the river
and the canal, thereby extending, as we have seen the benefits
of the State’s system of internal navigation to a large and
fertile region. The reasons, therefore, why the Genesee feeder

was originally constructed were

1) In order to furnish a temporary ccna to the canal during
the years 1823-24 and 1825, while the canal was being con-
structed from Rochester west to Lake Erie; and

2) In order to connect the canal system with navigation on
the upper Genesee river.

On an examination of the legislative journals for the years
1823 to 1828 we find a number of petitions from citizens of the
Genesee valley praying the legislature to improve the naviga-
tion of the Genesee river to the south of Rochester.

It has been generally assumed that the Genesee river was
declared a public highway in order that the State might more
thoroughly control its waters for canal purposes. The real
object was merely to make the Genesee river a part of the in-
ternal navigation system of the State. Such declaration did not
in any degree give to the State the right to divert the water of
the stream into an independent channel like the Erie canal.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 599

In the foregoing discussion it has been shown why the Genesee
feeder was originally constructed and why after the completion
of the canal it was still maintained as a part of the canal system
for the purpose of assisting internal navigation purely. We
will now proceed to show how this state of fact has been in
later years made the basis of what amounts to a claim of the
right to take the entire flow of the Genesee river for canal pur-
poses without compensation to the riparian owners as well as
without due process of law.

In the years 1824-26 it appears from the records in the Canal
Appraisers’ office that a large number of awards were made to
different parties at the then village of Rochester and vicinity
for damages sustained in consequence of the construction and
opening of the Erie canal.

The memorial of Jonathan Childs, George Ketchum and
Richard Gorsline, which was presented to the Appraisers with
their bills for damages, sets forth that their claim is specifically
for damages during the years 1828, 1824 and 1825.

They say:

If we thought the evil of which we complain would be per-
petual we should ask to be amply remunerated for the cost or
value of our whole sawmill establishments, but we hope for a
better state of things in relation to the extensive hydraulic works
upon the Genesee river at Rochester, and we therefore, at present,
only ask that these certain, specific and reasonable profits of our
business of which we have been deprived by the act of the State,
and which are set forth in our accounts, be paid to us.

The accounts rendered to the Board of. Appraisers by these gen-
tlemen give in detail the damages which they sustained during
the years indicated. Richard Gorsline, in his bill states that he
has been damaged in 1824, by reason of no business done for
want of water, 42 days; in 1825, 92 days.

Childs & Ketchum also furnish a statement in detail, of the
damage to their mill by reason of standing still for lack of water
at the same time.

From a study of the documents in detail it appears clear that
Richard Gorsline and Childs & Ketchum had good reason to
believe that the diversion of the waters of the Genesce river

600 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

for the use of the Erie canal was at an end in 1825. In con-
sequence of that belief they only made out a bill for specific
temporary damages sustained during the years while the
Genesee river water was used as the sole or nearly sole source
of supply, which was during 1822 to 1825 before Lake Erie was
reached.

On bills rendered as stated in the foregoing, and on the under-
standing that the awards were for temporary diversion only,
the Canal Appraisers, in 1826, awarded damages to the owners
of water rights at Rochester, as follows:

Childs -& Ketcliim =: +o. ee oct ae $140 00
Richard Gorshne’ sa oe ee oe ee ee 247 90
Hervey “SHlytn io. 20s ee See ae eee 700 00
Hervey, 2ily, 5,4\s.0biit See PR eee et See (1584 79
Witiam Atkinson tracks hitson. gett eect 1000 00
William: Atkinson 4 eos o.0 Rooks es ee ek 1241 65
Pe COCK a oss ine ak ooo pices sie RS 382 00
Oe SS. Carpenter. vascces oo at ee eee BELONG T17 84
Be NG AL B.-CUrtis ee ae ae a ea 1318 62
Williams & Whitheyolo. extends, at eee 275 00
Eos. Beaeh. 0c .aoeb one <eoesteenn ee ae eee 1332-16
E.. Johnson and heirs of O. Seymour... : .: 4. --e. 300 00
FE, SORNSOR «os Gs. oy o.c's 6 cease Ee 500 00
Thos, “Hi Vhochester (G6... 2. 42 nee) net ee eee 1106 08
Buck & Lockwood ee eee oe ck ae Pe ee 309 45
Beye pert eon ak. Beal « 2 ctevths g Beant ee ote tee cee 140 00

AMOUNE -... 6 Aca kee, bane peek. Sele eee oe $12,049 66

So far as can be learned from the available records the fore--
going sum of $12,049.66 includes all that has ever been paid to
the owners of the hydraulic privileges at Rochester on account
of diversion of the waters of the Genesee river for the use of
the Erie canal.

The foregoing list includes a list of the original proprietors of
the Rochester water power and in use at the time of the original
construction.

The matter of payment for temporary damage at Rochester was
a source of controversy from 1826 to 1852, in which year Jacob
Graves and others, occupants of water power on the Genesee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 601

river at Rochester, filed a memorial with the Legislature settfng
forth their grievance. March 23, 1852, a select committee of the
Assembly reported in favor of a relief act, and accordingly chapter
644 of the laws of 1853 authorized the Canal Appraisers to exam-
ine and report upon the claims of Jacob Graves and others on
account of diversion of water from Genesee river. In February,
1854, the Canal Appraisers presented to the Legislature their
report upon the claims of Jacob Graves and others, as authorized
by chapter 644 of the laws of 1855. A majority report was pre-
sented by Messrs. D. A. Ogden and A. H. Calhoun and a minority
report by William J. Cornwell, these gentlemen constituting the
Board of Canal Appraisers of that day. The majority report
denies the petition for the following reasons:

1) The State in 1822 took possession of and acquired the right
and title to so much of the waters of Genesee river as was then
and will in all time to come be necessary to keep the Erie canal
_in navigable condition, reference being always had to the supply
from Lake Erie and other permanent sources, and by no subse-
quent act has the State abandoned or parted with the title thus
acquired.

2) The owners and occupants of water rights having failed to
prosecute their claims for permanent injury under the act of 1817,
or other acts subsequently passed, have no remedy but through
the Legislature.

3) There are equable considerations which commend most of
the claimants to your favorable consideration.

Mr Cornwell differed in his minority report from some of the
conclusions of his associates.

The Genesee River Company

The Legislature authorized the construction of a reservoir at
Portageville in 1898. The following facts are given in regard to
the company authorized, which was to be known as the Genesee
River Company. It was organized to develop the water power of
Genesee river to its fullest extent.

For the purpose of developing the water power, it was proposed
to construct a large storage reservoir at Portageville, fifty-seven
miles south of Rochester, with a capacity of 15,000,000,000 cubic
feet. Such a reservoir will make a lake fifteen miles long, from

602 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

half a mile to one mile wide and with an average depth of sixty
feet. As shown by tables Nos. 84 and 85, it would control the
entire flow of the river above Portageville, where the catchment
area is 1000 square miles. Detailed statements as to the rainfall
and water yield of Genesee river catchment may be found in the
writer’s report on Genesee river storage in the Report of the
State Engineer and Surveyor for 1896, as well as in the preced-
ing pages.

Genesee river waterpower. The waterpower of Genesee river
is nearly all concentrated in six heavy falls. Three of these are
_ within the limits of the city of Rochester and three are at Portage.
The total descent from the head of the falls at Portage to the
level of Lake Ontario is 833 feet, of which 262 feet are at
Rochester and 290 feet at Portage. At Mount Morris the fall is
18 feet; between Mount Morris and the foot of the lower falls
at Portage, 210 feet; the balance is in a reach of meandering river
between Rochester and Mount Morris where, aside from small
powers at Geneseo and York, there are no opportunities for
developing power.

The present developed power on the stream is at Rochester,
Geneseo, York and Mount Morris; the Genesee canyon and Port-
age falls are virgin territory, with no power now developed on
this reach of the stream. With this storage project carried out,
nearly 26,000 gross horsepower may be developed here.

The figures on page 590 show a total of 57,223 gross horse-
power on Genesee river from Portage to Rochester. It is believed,
however, that the computations for storage have been so con-
servatively made that it will yield fully 60,000 gross horsepower
in the year of lowest flow. The tabulation on page 590 also shows
a total at Rochester of 29,840 gross horsepower to be derived from
1000 cubic feet per second flow. This total is based on a utiliza-
tion of the entire fall of 262 feet. Probably this is impracticable
and 28,620 gross horsepower may be taken as the safe figure for
a flow of 1000 cubic feet per second. However, the computations.
of tables Nos. 84 and 85 have been made on the basis of 80 cubic
feet per second to the Erie canal, but under the new conditions
existing in 1904, with the barge canal authorized and the entire
water supply to be taken from Lake Erie, we may consider the

Plate 13.

A. Measuring weir constructed on Genesee river above Mount Morris
in 1896.

ae

a
—

x)

7
ii

B. Former timber dam on Genesee river at Mount Morris.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 603

additional 80 cubic feet per second as available for producing
power at Rochester. With this understanding there will be pro-
duced at Rochester somewhat over 31,000 gross horsepower in the
year of minimum flow. For ordinary years there will be pro-
duced several thousand horsepower more than this.

Rochester is a manufacturing city of 175,000 inhabitants. The
demands for power are large, and notwithstanding full develop-
ment of the stream in its present state, the use of the stream is
increasing from year to year.

Chapter 605 of the laws of 1898 incorporated the Genesee River
Company and conferred the necessary powers for carrying out the
project in detail.

Plan for acquiring water rights. During the several years of
general discussion of this project at Rochester various plans for
acquiring the water rights have been formulated. The water
rights, as they now stand, are attached to real estate, but it
is proposed that the owners deed to the company all interest
in water rights, each owner retaining his real estate. The deeds
would transfer to the company all power dams and head races
which the company on its part would undertake to maintain,
delivering water to the several properties at the race-wall, pay-
ment for water so delivered to be made to the company at the
rate of $10 per year per gross horsepower. - It is also proposed
to limit the sale of water to present owners at a price of $10 per
year per gross horsepower to present necessities—that is to
say, to about 18,000 to 20,000 gross horsepower. This will leave
about 10,000 to 12,000 gross horsepower to be developed at
power stations.

Things to be done in order to place the project on its feet. The
first thing to be done is to make a test case as to condemnation
of flowage grounds. The act authorizing the Genesee River Com-
pany begins with a preamble, wherein it is stated:

Whereas, It is necessary for the improvement and preserva-
tion of the public health, for the checking of floods, for the
furnishing of water for the enlarged Erie canal, and for the sup-
plying of pure and wholesome water for municipal purposes, that
the land and real property comprised within the flowage limits
hereinafter described of the main dam or reservoir to be erected

on the Genesee river near the village of Portageville, as herein-
after in this act set forth and provided for, should be taken for

604 NEW YORK STATED MUSEUM

the public uses aforesaid, just compensation being ascertained
and made for all private and public property so taken as in this
act authorized.

It is also stated that in the judgment of the Legislature, the
compensation for lands condemned should not be paid by the
State, but should be paid by and through the corporation created
by the act.

There is some doubt about the constitutionality of this provi-
sion, and the first thing to be done, therefore, is to test its con-
stitutionality. For this purpose a friendly test case should be
brought and carried to the court of last resort.

The next thing is to take options on the water rights from Lake

Ontario to above the upper falls at Portage. There are about one
hundred owners in all, of which about forty are at Rochester.
The largest owners are the Rochester Gas & Electric Company at
Rochester and William P. Letchworth at Portage.
. The act of incorporation provides for condemnation of fiowage
eround of reservoir, if satisfactory arrangements can not be
made with the owners. Before such proceedings can be insti-
tuted it will be necessary to have a map of the flowage ground,
showing what area is to be taken from each owner. Such a map
_ should be made at once, because many of the owners—probably
from one-half to two-thirds of them—can be settled with without
litigation. In order to accomplish this the flow line needs to be
determined and the area of that portion of all farms extending
up the side of the valley above the flow line and which is to be
taken into the reservoir carefully computed. This survey will be
the basis of the maps required by law to be filed with the county
clerk.

The Pennsylvania railway now passes through the middle of the
proposed reservoir for a distance of 15 miles. The storage plans
include a relocation of this railway, on the west side hill well
above the flow line. The increase in manufacturing and growth
of population at Rochester and other points in the Genesee val-
ley, which are certain to follow the construction of the Genesee
river storage, will naturally incline the railway officials to be
favorable to the project, but nevertheless since the negotiation
with them is likely to consume considerable time, it should be
gotten underway as soon as possible. Indeed, it is necessary

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 605

that not only should the railway negotiation be closed and the
new line placed under construction, but all rights in the flow-
age ground should be secured before beginning construction of
the dam. This is because the plan of construction proposed in-
volves the possible flooding of work while the dam is in process.
It is obvious that should such flooding occur before the company
had Secured the area to be flooded, very heavy damages might
accrue. The valley to be flooded is broad and deep, and there
might even be loss of life. There is no other way, therefore,
than to fully -acquire the flowage ground and construct a new
line of railway before beginning work on the dam.

With the foregoing several steps taken, the next thing will
be to finance the project. Possibly this can be accomplished
before acquiring flowage ground of reservoir and right to remove
railway, although it is considered that with these several things
fully accomplished the financing of the project will take care
of itself.

Assuming that the necessary rights have been acquired and
the finances arranged, the next step will be to construct the
dam and the power stations at Rochester, together with any
other special constructions that may be decided on.

Provided the matter be taken up actively and driven along
in a businesslike manner, the work can be completed and the
company ready to deliver power in from four to six years.

The foregoing statement of things necessary to be done before
the Genesee River Company can be placed on its feet indicates
that a considerable amount of money must be invested without
being absolutely certain that the project will finally be carried
out, and on presenting this phase of the matter to capitalists.
no one has thus far been willing to invest perhaps $300,000 to
$400,000 on the chance, although the project is safe enough
if one has a full realization of all the benefits to be derived.

Description of the Rochester Water Power
The following gives a brief description of the Rochester water
power as it existed in 1900.
The power is developed at four dams. The first, or upper,
one of these is known as the Johnson and Seymour dam. It
is located in the heart of the city, just above Court street bridge.

606 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

There are two head raceways leading therefrom—one on each
side of the river—which are entitled to equally draw one-half
of the entire flow of the stream. Equal division of the water
is accomplished by providing openings of the same size on both
sides, with sills set at same elevation. The east raceway is
known as the Johnson. and Seymour, and that on the west side
as the Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceway. The fall at
these two raceways is usually stated at 19 feet, although in
extreme low water the fall from water surface in headrace to
tail-water in river is about 19.8 feet.

At the brink of the upper falls there is a second dam, which
diverts water into Brown’s race, on the west side, and into
the raceway of the Rochester Power Company (now owned by
Rochester Gas & Electric Company) on the east side. Brown’s
race is entitled to $2 of the entire flow of the river and the
Rochester Power Company’s race to s&. The fall is 90 to 92
feet.

The third dam is at the middle falls, where the head is 28 feet.

The Genesee Paper Company own 35 of the entire flow of

the river, and the estate of Charles J. Hayden +. The Gen-
esee Paper Company’s holdings cover one-half of the entire flow
to be applied on the east side of the river, and z% to be applied
on west side, or 3% in all, as just stated. The 33; owned by
the estate of Charles J. Hayden is to be applied on the west side.

The fourth dam is at the lower falls, where the total head
is 96 feet. The Brush Electric Light Company (Rochester Gas
& Electric Company) owns the entire flow of the river at this
point.

There is also a fifth waterpower between the upper and
middle falls, which, however, has never been developed, but
which should be acquired as a guarantee against future develop-
ment by parties other than the Genesee River Company. A
power of a few feet head could also be developed below what
is known as the feeder dam in the south part of the city.

As developed in 1900 the waterpower of Rochester was divided

as follows:
Feet Per cent

_ Fall No. 1—Johnson and Seymour dam.. 19.8 8.39
Fall No. 2—Upper fall of Genesee river. . 92.2 39.07

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 607

Feet Per cent
Fall No. 3—Middle fall of Genesee river. 28.0 11.86
Fall No. 4—Lower fall of Genesee river.. 96.0 40.68
2 Lp gelphes oie ob ga RE petal ak teen 236.0 100.00

The foregoing total of 286.0 feet head does not include the
undeveloped power referred to above.
The Rochester waterpower is subdivided among the raceways

as follows:

Pericent

Johnson and Seymour, 1% flow or river.............. 4.195
Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh, 14 flow of river.... 4.195
Brown’s race, ¢2 flow of river...... Meili tbe Grieg) tee te eo
Rochester Power Company, s& flow of river.......... 2.758
Genesee Paper Company, 2% flow of river............ 10.081
Estate of C. J. Hayden, +45 flow of river............. 4.79
Brush Electric Light Company, entire flow of river... 40.680
MI ey fee 2 te ee TEE wie Se 100.000

Owing to litigations and unsettled rights, there is a slight
uncertainty as to exact proportion of flow some of the race-
ways are entitled to. This, however, is not material so far as
present conditions are concerned. Obviously, if the property
should all come into the possession of one owner, all questions
as to quantity of water due to any particular raceway are elimi-
nated. The Genesee River Company will naturally arrange its
business on such a basis as best to supply its clients with water
and power.

The selling price of the water rights at the various raceways in
1900 was as follows:

Johnson and Seymour raceway. As stated in the foregoing, the
Johnson and Seymour raceway is entitled to 14 the flow of the
river. The water rights are divided into 19 first rights and 3214
second, third and fourth rights.

First rights are based upon a flow of 9500 cubic feet per minute
in the raceway. All share equally until the flow is reduced to this
figure, when the 19 first rights take it, all sharing equally.

The value of the water rights on this raceway have been fixed
in effect by a court decree, whereby first rights are valued at

608 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

$3000, second rights at $1800, third rights at $1100 and fourth
rights at $1000. The total value of the water rights on this race-
way becomes, therefore, $103,350.

Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceway. This raceway is also
entitled to 14 of the entire flow of the river. The water rights
are divided into 76 first rights, which have been valued at about
$1000. The last sale was in 1876, when the city of Rochester paid
$1500 apiece for two rights which it owns on this raceway. As-
suming the same average value for this raceway as the decreed
value on the Johnson and Seymour raceway and the price per
water right becomes $1360, or $103,560 for the whole.

Brown’s raceway. This raceway is on the west side of the Gene-
see river, receiving its water supply from the dam just above the
upper falls. Under the terms of certain partition deeds and court
decisions Brown’s race is entitled to receive {2 of the entire
flow of the river. The water rights are divided into 79 first rights.
A water right on this raceway is therefore 3s of the flow of the
river. There have been a number of transfers of water rights on
this raceway, the selling price ranging from $3000 to $4000 per
right. In 1873 the city of Rochester paid $16,500 for three water
rights and a mill lot on this raceway. The lot is 50 feet front, and
may be valued at that time at $4500, leaving $4000 as the value
per water right. Since 1878 one or two water rights on this race-
way are Stated to have been sold at from $3000 to $3500, but at
the present time, so far as known, they are all held at $4000 per
right, or more. Even at this price they are proportionately much
cheaper than water rights on the Johnson and Seymour or Roches-
ter, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceways. To prove this we will consider
that 1081 gross horsepower on Johnson and Seymour raceway is
valued, according to a court decision, at $108,350, or at $95.60 per
gross horsepower. (This price assumes 1000 cubic feet per second
in the river.) On Brown’s race, where a water right may be taken
at +;%o0f 1000 cubic feet per second on 92 feet fall, the power of
a water right amounts to 121.6 gross horsepower. At the price of
$4000 per water right, the price per gross horsepower—on the
basis of 1000 cubic feet per second in the river—becomes there-
fore $32.89... If we compute the price per gross horsepower on
14; of 1,000 cubic feet per second equals 11.765 cubic feet per second,
which is the amount of water each right is entitled to when there are 1,000
cubic feet per second in the river.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 609

the basis of $3000 per water right, and further assume that the
extreme low-water flow is 200 cubic feet per second, the value for
permanent power becomes $120.35, while at $4000 per water right
it becomes $164.45 per gross horsepower.

At the present time water rights on Brown’s race are about as
valuable for business purposes as those on the Johnson and Sey-
mour and Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceways. Hence, at
$4000 per water right, Brown’s race is cheap waterpower even
under present adverse conditions of low summer flow of at times
only about 200 cubic feet per second or even less.

Rochester Power Compeny’s raceway. This raceway is on east
side of Genesee river, at upper falls. It is entitled to «% of the
entire flow of the river, being the balance of the flow not taken into
Brown’s race. This power is now owned by the Rochester Gas
& Electric Company, having been purchased by that company
a few years ago. The purchase price is not known. On the
Same basis aS on Brown’s race, the waterpower would be worth
$18,000. Asa matter of fact, however, it is probably now valued
much higher than this.

The Genesee Paper Company and estate of Chas. J. Hayden.
This waterpower comprises the entire flow of the Genesee river at
the middle falls, where the head is 28 feet. The Genesee Paper
Company owns 23 of the entire flow of river and the estate of
Charles J. Hayden, +5. With 1000 cubic feet per second flow,
the gross horsepower at the middle falls is 3180. Of this, 2703
gross horsepower pertain to the Genesee Paper Company’s power
and 477 to the Hayden estate. The Genesee Paper Company offers
its water rights at $125,000, or $200,000 for the whole property,
which includes a number of not very valuable buildings and
several acres of land. At $125,000 for the Genesee Paper Com-
pany’s water rights, the price per gross horsepower, on a basis
of 1000 cubic feet per second flow, becomes $46.24. At this
price the total value of the water rights at the middle falls is
$147,043. It is considered that the balance of property of the
Genesee Paper Company is worth the price asked, namely, $75,000.

The property of the Genesee Paper Company was sold to the
Rochester Gas & Electric Company in February, 1900.

Brush Electric Light Company’s power at lower falls. This
company, which was absorbed a few years ago by the Rochester

610 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Gas & Electric Company, owns the entire flow of the Genesee river
at the lower falls, where the head is 96 feet. With 1000 cubic
feet per second flow there may be developed at this place 10,903
gross horsepower. At the same rate as computed above for the
Genesee Paper Company’s water rights—on the basis of that
company’s actual offer of $125,000—the total value of the Brush
Electric Light Company’s water rights is found to be $504,155.

Undeveloped power between upper and middle falls. So far as
known, no price has ever been placed upon the undeveloped
waterpower between the upper and middle falls. A low water-
power with 10 feet head can be developed here capable of fur-
nishing, with 1000 cubic feet per second flow, about 1136 gross
horsepower. There is also a possibility of developing seven
feet head between the feeder dam, in the south part of the City of
Rochester, and Johnson and Seymour dam, of which the power
may be taken at 795 gross horsepower.

The foregoing values, it must be remembered, are based upon
water rights merely—they do not include lands and buildings.
The proposition is to purchase water rights and lease back—
as one main consideration for selling—water in the raceways.

Estimated cost of water rights at Rochester. We will now make
an estimate embodying the preceding information as to the value
of the Rochester water rights.

Johnson and Seymour raceway... .-.-..2--+- «a $103,550 00
Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceway...... 103,360 00
IDWS PACE. goat bia eed ee o Sunbelt ate omen eae 316,000 00
Rochester Power Company’s. race... --.-.0:¢° <> 24,000 00
Middle falls (Genesee Paper Co., etc.)........... 147,043 00
Lower falls (Brush Electric Light Co.).......... 504,155 00
Undeveloped Power ous. ives seen oy eee 20,000 00

Bimm ee PF POI a Ae ar ee $1,217,908 00
Add ‘for con tin den cies "100s See ae ee | ee 282,092 00

Total. saw. Gade opie Adedias bb wetitel b $1,500,000 00

The foregoing is the basis of the statement that a fair value
for the Rochester water rights is $1,500,000.

a

ae SS Oe ee

és HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 611

The following are the approximate quantities of permanent
power in gross horsepower which may be realized at Rochester

from a flow of 1000 cubic feet per second: Gious
horsepower
Johnson and Seymour raceway...........--+6-- 1,081
Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh raceway........ 1,081
ME ee Se Palit ahe oie says 6 ve wees oe ys 10,448
5 Toe yeee pef eihega llega cad eta iaempatiny ees aerees 3,180
ee ees me hdenw hpeisin obs ja) © 10,903.
ale Spee lle i Re ice ama it re a 1,981

Wim Medd pierce 62 24 odiee et. Ba 28,624

The total theoretical power is,.as stated on a previous page,
28,840 gross horsepower, which under the conditions of 1904,
may be taken at over 31,000 gross horsepower.

Why the gross horsepower has been adopted as tie unit of power.
The unit of power adopted is the gross horsepower—that is, the
theoretical power produced by a given quantity of water falling
through a given space. The reasons for adopting this unit are as
follows: Water is easy to measure, while the actual power pro-
duced by water wheels—that is, the net power—is difficult to
measure. Again, the efficiency of water wheels varies greatly, the
best modern wheels yielding from about 70 per cent to 75 per
cent of the theoretical power of the water. On the other hand,
many of the cheaper wheels do not yield more than 40 per cent
to 50 per cent. With the gross horsepower adopted as the unit,
the onus of getting the largest possible net power out of the given
quantity of water is thrown where it belongs, namely, on the user.
On any other basis there would be an uncertainty as to the quan-
tity of water contracted for, with its attendant disputes.

Quantity of water per gross horsepower. The following are the
quantities of water per gross horsepower on the several developed

powers at Rochester: Quantity
of water in

cubic feet

per second

Head per gross
Name of dam in feet horsepower
Johnson and Seymour.................06- 19 0.4630
Moparts et. fh os oes evel ieee. 92 0.0957
Mp Bee Cake eS... 28 0.3140

BROW Tet Ae Sack aes 96 0.0917

“G42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Storage Reservoir on Salmon River West

In 1898 the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways extensively
considered a reservoir on Salmon river, just above High Falls, as
one of the feeders of the proposed deep waterway. The object of
the reservoir was to provide storage within reasonable distance
of the main deep waterway so that in case of temporary stoppage
of the main feeder to the north, water could still be supplied to
the canal. The feeder crosses Salmon river a short distance below
the proposed reservoir. The ordinary elevation of the water sur-
face of Salmon river just above the proposed dam near High
Falls is approximately 897 feet, the flats at the side being a little
above 900 feet. The water surface elevation, as proposed for the
reservoir, was 953 feet. The total rise of water surface at or near
the dam was therefore, roundly, 56 feet. In addition to the main
barrage there were three dikes, the first, cutting off a narrow,
lateral valley near the lower end of the reservoir, while the second
and third, to the south of the village of Redfield, were in a broad,
nearly level, somewhat swampy plain, where a comparatively
small rise would throw Salmon river water over into the catch-
ment of Mad river, a tributary to the west branch of Fish creek.

The volume and area, as determined by the surveys, are as
follows:

Area, Volume,
Elevation in square miles in cubic feet
DRG FIR, Ra, EA Nene Ot as ne ee 1.619 0
980 S94: Yo ean} eons Heel ton gh. ete 4.481 1,700,582,400
Spor ad: Adie lioin holtaGenl aoe 7.356 5,000,688,000
O68 feed 2 te Gone dew i ae Ie 8.458 - 7,205,447,400

Elevation 910 was taken as the base of the sections, the volume
below that level being neglected except that, in order to obtain
a rounded quantity of 7,500,000,000 cubic feet for the volume at
elevation 960, we may take the volume below 910 as 294,523,000
cubic feet, a quantity well within the volume shown by the sur-
veys and maps. On this basis we have the following tabulation:

Area, Volume,
Hlevation, in feet in square miles in cubic feet
SR mae. PO a ice a ets ae ee eee ee 0.486 0)
NN ete ers tek: 439 Fs-casy ue dod £2 eeee ee eee 1.619 294,523,000
GRO P72. Ba. thease ee 4.481 1,995,105,000
OOS. Urs welts... ut ier oe 7.3856 5,295,211,000
FBI Os cs Re ay oo ee 8.458 7,500,000,000

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 613

The small hamlet of Redfield is the only village within the area
to be flooded. The lands to be taken include a considerable pro-
portion of swamp and timber area, from which the valuable
timber has been mostly cut. The balance of the area is not
valuable, and this reservoir, as a whole, is considered to present
favorable conditions for taking such an area. There is one ceme-
tery to be removed at Redfield.

In the Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for 1895 it
is shown in the report of the upper Hudson storage surveys that
reservoirs for storing water in the Adirondack region may be
developed up to a storage of 13.5 inches on the tributary catch-
ment area for a runoff like that of Hudson river. Since meteoro-
logical conditions on the Salmon river are substantially the same
as on the Hudson, there is no reason why the argument made in
the Hudson storage report may not apply here. Taking, then, the
Hudson report as a part of this discussion, so far as necessary
to cover the argument for reservoirs developing a storage of 13.5
inches on a catchment area subject to a runofi like that .of the
northern plateau of New York, we may state the general problem
in this way: Having a reservoir of a given area and volume,
with a tributary catchment area of 190.5 square miles, it is re-
quired to find how much water can be reasonably expected to be
collected from the catchment, stored in the reservoir, and drawn
from it during a dry year, or during a series of such years.

The water collected and stored in the Salmon river reservoir
during the entire year may be drawn from it in three ways, as
follows: |

1) By evaporation from the surface of the reservoir.

2) By supplying a certain fixed quantity to Salmon river below
the dam during the entire year.

3) By feeding the canal during the months of May, June, July,
August, September, October and November.

There will also be a slight outgo by percolation, leakage, etc.
which may be neglected here.

The catchment areas of the Salmon river and the upper Hudson
being of the same general character as regards proportion of for-
ests and annual rainfall, it is reasonable to estimate that the run-
offs from the two streams will be substantially equal; hence, the

614 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Hudson river data are, in the absence of extended gagings of
Salmon river, taken as applying to this stream.

In the following tabulation we have the evaporation for the
months of a water year as computed in inches on the Salmon
river Catchment area for the actual reservoir area:

December . ...'. 2.5 ..2. 2: .+.00: > = eee eee 0.043
SUNUATY wal. chzareP. fie naanigett afeeeade Se hee 0.020
Kebruary) 1s. osc: «oeaivskh qeneie ods -be Seegee Seer 0.021
Marebia. goies: .dasheowisté- add. ab ota sue pees ee 0.053
Aral). +93 4lick ockt. do eadag? 2.82. 16 -cusenie a eben 0.104
Magy) vce Gicic.. ..auit. goabele Sey fad os) atone oe 0.182
Fame: oii).5 i uliaeixtus ain. si @penieee all eee 0.221
SMA Yai. Saociiwas oth oe qeRey's cae Ba cee ee 0.192
AUSUSE\2. ai sls) «ako wlepe se hots Soe Free eee 0.212
Sepiember 4): sa). 62. kKrinny sold, i At 309 Peace ae ae Oe 0.160
Octotier sacici2. 2 -sisolags)- etlors see eek eee 0.115
Nevember::) .40 i. Haceus «0 och feptdans Rotestenebeae 0.057

In designing a storage reservoir the stream is entitled to some
water at all seasons of the year, and computations of effective
storage should be made with reference to allowing a definite
quantity of water to go constantly to the stream. From this
point of view it is necessary to decide on some mean flow below
which the stream shall never be allowed to fall. This is done
in the interests of water-power plants already located on the
stream, fisheries, etc. In the Hudson report the quantity fixed
upon for storage in the upper Hudson catchment area is 0.5
inch per month. In cubic feet this amounts to 0.45 cubic foot
per second per square mile for a month of thirty days. This
quantity may be used in the case of the Salmon river reservoir.
With 0.45 eubie foot per second per square mile always flowing
away from the regulated catchment area, we would have in the
stream just below the Salmon river dam about 87 to 88 cubic feet
per second, which was approximately the observed low-water flow
in the summer of 1898.

Also see a statement on a following page in regard to uniform supply
allowed to flow from the Hudson reservoirs.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 615

The following tabulation shows the state of the reservoir at
the beginning and end of each navigation season, from Decem-
ber 1, 1891, to November 30, 1898, inclusive:

Date in veleeselr
December 1, 1891....... STE Sete e ofa pith oh ap Empty
Wig eee he nied Paws iy he sng asee ow esa vo *13 .50
EE SS 2 ee ee nT ar eet oe Be ea 11.07
Peierls . tristd «1 jd stay Syoos prstet seeyay~ Beige 24S Fee *13.50
Were Soper OES. Sra 8. tee dd ee day sey os 5.62
enema thes omen Papa oi oy Fe Spl vO Ghe Gio es lees ey *13.50
Ee oe ame 0 2 SE ee er reer ere 6.61
Ieee RRs eciepoy gisele erably mig h ys Be Rete hye She) opie e *13.50
Oe EO OS eg eer a ee Pe 5.19
NCL CTE ee ee es ae ae ee ee *13.50
PAL Mae rb: 8 dein AAA: (Soy ce Tynes =jecesb |Spefeve 8.12
aa ee re a 28th be) ine 6 -fe}s de aaarne SAE 5° *13.50
Ce ae Ee Re ee ee ee ee 11.94
Pte reer, Ue ean (isk b ae Seite *13.50
reenter tad ete ora ers oa at ot? Sal 10.86

The quantity wasted from the Salmon river reservoir in the
water years 1892-1898, inclusive, is as follows: In 1892, 9.93
inches; in 1893, 9.36 inches; in 1894, 2.93 inches; in 1895, 0.30
inches; in 1896, 4.30 inches; in 1897, 11.51 inches; in 1898, 13.64
inches. .

Tables are given in the Report of the Board of Engineers on
Deep Waterways similar to those for the Genesee storage, show-
ing the quantity of water which may be furnished from this
reservoir during a series of years. In the absence of definite
information derived from gagings, the inflow to this reservoir is
taken the same as the runoff of the Hudson river, although there
is some reason for believing that the runoff of the Salmon river is
somewhat larger than that of the Hudson river. On the head-
waters of Salmon river and Fish creek, there is a body stated
at about 150,000 acres (234 square miles) of unbroken forest,
and while aside from some irregular gagings, nothing is known
as to the flow of these streams, the indications are that it is

*P ull.

616 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

large. Gagings were begun on Salmon river in November, 1898.
The record shows that in April, 1899,-12.8 inches ran off, and
that the total runoff of the storage period, December, 1898, to
May, 1899, inclusive, was 25.2 inches. The writer had some
doubt about this record at the time it was taken, although later
observations seem to indicate that it may have been correct.

The runoff of the east branch of Fish creek at Point Rock begun
in September, 1898, and continued until May, 1899, is also very
large. The record shows that in April, 1899, 8.0 inches ran off.
The writer’s recollection is that the flow was larger than appears
in the record both on Fish creek and Salmon river, but was
cut down somewhat because of the unwillingness to assume that
these large runoffs were right. Further consideration seems to
indicate that they may perhaps have been true, and it is unfor-
tunate that gagings have not been kept up continuously from
that time to the present in order to settle this question of large
runoff. The catchment of the east branch of Fish creek joins that
of Salmon river on the east.

The figures given in the Deep Waterways report show that the
proposed Salmon river reservoir will have a flood area of water
surface of 8.46 square miles, storing with this water surface about
7,500,000,000 cubic feet, or storing temporarily on the catchment
area 16.95 inches. The tables also show that 300 cubic feet per
second may be delivered to the canal during the navigation season
and still leave some surplus in the reservoir. These computations
are on the basis of the Hudson river gagings; in case it turns out
later on that the flows of the Salmon river are larger than those of
the Hudson, more than 300 cubic feet per second can be furnished.

In designing the reservoirs for the supply of the proposed deep
waterways it was deemed desirable that there be considerable con-
tingency ; thus, in the Salmon river reservoir, the quantity still in
the reservoir at the end of 1895 is 5.19 inches on the catchment
area, or about 2,250,000,000 cubic feet.

An estimate of the cost of this reservoir and of the other works
on the deep waterways was made in detail. The total cost of the
Salmon river reservoir was estimated in 1899 at $1,350,000. Prob-
ably, in 1904, it would cost about 25 per cent more, or perhaps
$1,678,500. At the latter rate, the cost per 1,000,000 cubic feet of
storage becomes $233.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 617

Storage Reservoir on Black River

This project has been mentioned in the general statements on
page 572. It includes the construction of a main barrage across
Black river at the village of Carthage. From this point, for
nearly thirty miles south, Black river meanders through a broad,
nearly level valley, in one place about-five miles in width, but
gradually narrowing to a width of about one-half mile in the
upper portion.

In the estimates the total quantity of land is taken at 50,000
acres, of which 49,200 acres are agricultural, timber and wild
lands, and 800 acres are villages. The area flooded at elevation
of spillway crest is 73.2 square miles and at 10 feet above it is
nearly 78 square miles.

The catchment area of Black river at Carthage is 1812 square
miles. In addition to the main barrage across the channel of
Black river there are seven dykes to be constructed in the vicinity
of Carthage across lateral valleys. The project also includes the
relocation of nearly twenty miles of the New York Central &
Hudson river railway (Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg division),
together with the raising of several miles of the same with-
out change of the present location; the construction of three
highways across the reservoir to take the place of existing high-
ways; the reconstruction of highways along the margins; the
partial or complete removal of the villages of Beaver Falls,
Bushee’s Landing, Carthage, Castorland, Dadville, Deer River,
East Martinsburg, Glenfield, Lowville, Naumburg, New Bremen
and Watsons. At Carthage and Lowville the submerged areas
are relatively unimportant parts of the town. Several of the
smaller villages are entirely submerged, while others are only
partially submerged.

There are eight cemeteries within the limits of the flow line,
including 26.2 acres area. Three of these are small family bury-
ing places, while the others are used by the communities living in
the vicinity. .

There are 807 dwellings, 14 common schoolhouses and 9
churches within the flow line. The work also includes 17.2 miles
of new common roads in addition to the three highway crossings
over the reservoir previously mentioned.

618 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

At present there are five bridges over Black river between
Carthage and Lyon Falls, namely: Castorland, 1; Lowyille, 2;
Glenfield, 1, and Greig, 1. These three new crossings will fdirly
accommodate the traffic of the region.

According to the Black river canal levels, the crest of the State
dam at Carthage is at an elevation of 723.53 feet above tidewater,
while the water surface at Lyon Falls, 42.5 miles distant by the
meander of the river, is 735.65. At present the slack-water navi-
gation from Lyon Falls to Carthage is made by two dams with
locks, one at Otter creek with a lift of about 4 feet and one at
Bushee’s Landing with a lift of about 4.5 feet. From Lyon Falls
the Black river canal rises to the Boonville summit, where the
elevation of the summit level is 1126.96 feet above tide in a dis-
tance of ten miles. From Boonville, Black river canal drops
down to Erie canal level at Rome, a distance of 25 miles.

That portion of Black river valley within the flow line of the
proposed reservoir presents a considerable diversity of soil. In
the lower portion the soils to the east of the river are, in a large
degree, sandy and of very little value for agriculture, while on
the west side there are considerable areas of valuable bottom
meadows. ‘To the east and southeast of Carthage there are also
extensive areas almost entirely covered with rock and of very
nominal yalue. The following notes are cited as showing the value
of these lands. All these statements are as per the assessors’
books for 1899.

In the town of Denmark the assessors state that hill farms
are valued at $20 per acre, flats at from $60 to $70. These the
assessors consider to be nearly full values.

In the town of Croghan the assessors value the best farms in
the flats at $37 per acre, and other lands at from $6 to $25 per
acre; the rock and sand areas at from $2 to $5 per acre.

In the town of. New Bremen the equalized assessed value per
acre for the whole township is $8.25. The assessors state that
this is about 60 per cent of value. On this basis the average
value of lands in that township becomes $13.75 per acre.

In Greig township the assessors state that good river flats
are assessed at $25 per acre; sandy flats at from $6 to $7 per
acre; the best stony land at $12 per acre; poor stony land at
$7 per acre, and swamps at $.50 per acre.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 619

In Martinsburg township the best flat lands are assessed at
from $30 to $35 per acre; swamps at $1 per acre. The equalized
yalue per acre in this township, as per supervisors’ equalization
table for 1898, is $22.65.

In Lowville township river flats and all lands between the New
York Central & Hudson river railway and the river are assessed
at $50 per acre. The equalized value in this township is $66.50.

In the town of Turin flats are assessed at $40 per acre, and
lands on the first bench above the flats at $30 per acre.

Referring to the supervisors’ equalization table in the Proceed-
ings of the Board of Supervisors of Lewis county it is learned
that the total assessed area in Lewis county is 754,488 acres, on
which the assessors place a total value of $8,834,204. At this
rate the average price per acre for the whole county becomes
$11.71.

The total value of the 50,000 acres of land to be taken for
the Black river reservoir is estimated at $1,876,000. By way of
showing that this is an ample estimate we may consider that
while 50,000 acres is only about one-fifteenth of the total area
of Lewis county, the estimated value of $1,876,000 is about one-
fifth of the total valuation of the county; that is to say, the
estimated value of the lands to be taken is nearly three times
the average value of the lands of the whole county. The lands
to be taken include, however, some of the best in the county, as
well as a large proportion of the poorest lands.

Probably as serious a consequence as any to result from the
construction of the Black river reservoir is the considerable inter-
ference with the waterpower at Beaver Falls, Lyon Falls, New
Bremen, Lowville, Fenton’s Mill and Deer River village. At
Beaver Falls on Beaver river there are now four establishments
ordinarily using 3071 horsepower and with a total valuation of
$425,000, the total value of the annual product being $448,600.
There are forty-two hands employed.

At Lyon Falls there is a custom feedmill as well as a small
electric plant for lighting the village of Lyon Falls. These estab-
lishments are situated on the Black river canal, just above where
said canal enters Black river, and will be entirely submerged.
The value, however, is small, not exceeding $5000. The principal
establishment at Lyon Falls is the newspaper mill of the Gould

620 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Paper Company, where the water wheels ordinarily work under
from 67 to 68 feet head, yielding a power of something like 7731
horsepower. The crest of the power dam above the falls is at
an elevation of 801 feet above tidewater, while the crest of the
barrage at Carthage will be placed at 772 feet above tidewater.
There will remain, then, when the reservoir is just full, 29 feet
head instead of about 68 feet, as at present. During such flood-
flows as occur, with the water surface of the reservoir above
crest of barrage at Carthage, the head will be less, although this
condition will only rarely occur. Usually, with the reservoir
drawn somewhat down, the head at Lyon Falls will be, on an
average, from 30 to 35 feet. In any case the mill will largely re-
quire reconstructing in order to conform to the new conditions,
and from this point of view the damages have been liberally
estimated. The Gould Paper Company was expending about
$200,000 on improvements to their mill during the summer of
1899.

At Deer River village the backwater of the reservoir just
about reaches the crest of the lower dam, practically eliminating
waterpower at that dam. |

At Lowville there is an old mill, the waterpower of which will
be destroyed. |

At New Bremen there are three small establishments entirely
submerged. :

At Fenton’s Mill, on the east side of the reservoir, a small
feedmill will be submerged.

The chief damage will occur at Beaver Falls and Lyon Falls,
the mills at the other places being relatively unimportant.

Tabulations are given in the Report of the Board of Engineers -
on Deep Waterways similar to those given in discussing the
yenesee river storage project, from which it is learned that a
reservoir of the size and capacity indicated would furnish 2200
cubic feet per second to Black river every day in the year and
at the same time be adequate to meet all possible contingencies
of water supply for the proposed deep waterways. The total
capacity of the reservoir would be about 2600 cubic feet per
second.

The estimated cost of this reservoir was, in 1899, $5,712,200.
In 1904 the cost may be expected to be approximately 25 per

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 621

cent greater, or $7,140,000. The relations of cost to the water
power to be developed may be obtained by considering the de-
tailed tables of developed power on Black river as given in the
Deep Waterways report. The storage of Black river reservoir at
level of crest of dam is 57,260,000,000 cubic feet. Hence the cost
per million cubic feet of storage becomes, on the basis of the esti-
mate of 1904, about $125.

Storage Reservoirs on Hudson River

Hudson river is divided at the Troy dam into the upper or
water-power section and the lower or tidal portion. The pro-
posed reservoirs are in the upper section above Troy. _

Early surveys. The project for constructing storage reservoirs
on the upper Hudson has been agitated for many years, the first
surveys for this purpose having been made in 1874. In that year
Prof. F. N. Benedict conducted surveys, and in his report pro-
posed an extensive system of reservoirs. The chief interest
attaching to this report is the proposition on the part of Mr
Benedict to build storage reservoirs at Blue Mountain, Raquette,
Forked, Beach and Long lakes, and divert the water stored on
these several lakes from their natural drainage into Raquette
river, to the south, thus making them artificially tributary to the
Hudson river. In proposing this diversion, Mr Benedict appar-
ently assumed that the State, in its sovereign capacity, could
divert waters from one catchment area to another without re-
gard to the rights or wishes of the riparian owners.

In addition to the lakes already enumerated, which are
naturally tributary to Raquette river, Mr Benedict proposed to
make reservoirs of the following lakes and ponds in the upper
Hudson catchment area: Round pond, Catlin lake, Rich lake, Har-
ris lake, Lake Henderson, Newcomb lake, Lower works reservoir,
Chain lakes, Goodenow pond, Goodenow river reservoir, South
pond, Clear pond, Slim pond, Ackerman pond, Perch pond, Trout’
pond, Lake Harkness, Shedd lake, First Sergeant pond, Third
Sergeant pond, Plumley pond, Moose pond, and Cary pond. The
total storage to be furnished by the entire system of reservoirs
is placed at 18,419,781,600 cubic feet. The total cost of the pro-
posed reservoirs was placed by Mr Benedict at about $265,000,
or, including the diversion canal and improvements at Long lake,
at a total of about $460,000. The dams proposed were to be

622 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

constructed of timber, very much after the plan of the timber
dams still constructed by the lumbermen in this region.

In 1874, when Mr Benedict prepared his report, the demands for
water upon the Hudson river were far less extensive than at
present, and even in 1882 the total waterpower of the stream was,
according to the statistics of the Report on the Water Power of
the United States, Tenth Census, only 12,894 horsepower, while
in 1895 the total horsepower was 438,481. Taking into account
additional wheels set in the last few years, as well as the extensive
development of the Hudson River Power Transmission Company,
3 miles below Mechanicville, it is probable that in 1898 there were
wheels set on the Hudson river capable of furnishing, at full
capacity, not far from 55,000 horsepower. This great develop-
ment has led to a very strong demand in the last few years for
increased flow during the low-water period. The extensive
plant of the Hudson River Water Power Company at Spier Falls
is now approaching completion. In 1904 there are wheels set
capable of producing about 80,000 horsepower.

Recent investigations. In 1895 a survey of the upper Hudson
valley was authorized with the view of determining what lakes
and streams may be improved, and the water stored and diverted,
in order to provide for the enlargement of Champlain canal; for
restoring to the water of Hudson river at or below Glens
Falls the water diverted therefrom for canal purposes; and for
improving the navigation of the lower Hudson river. The
proposed reservoirs are all in the upper section, above Troy.

When one considers the scope of the investigation it may be
readily seen that the studies must necessarily be of rather wide
range. Special consideration should be given the following topics:

1) The area of the several subdivisions of the catchment area,
together with the locations and extent of the reservoir sites, and
the total area from which the runoff can be controlled.

2) The rainfall and mean temperature of the tributary region,
as well as ‘its physical characteristics, the relative amounts of
timber and cleared area, ete.

‘For further particulars of Mr Benedict’s reservoir system, see Report on
a Survey of the Waters of the Upper Hudson and Raquette Rivers in the
Summer of 1874, with Reference to Increasing the Supply of Water for the
Champlain Canal and Improving the Navigation of the Hudson River, by F.
N. Benedict, Ass. Doe. (1875), Vol. I, No. 6, p. 85.

‘SIOVPUOAIPY OT} UL OFIS ATOATOSOI [ROTTA] BV foyRyT uRIpuy ave ‘Mopvott JoARog

‘VI 94%Id

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 623

3) The actual runoff of the stream from the known area for a
series of years, and a deduction therefrom by comparison with
the rainfall and temperature records of the amount which may
be stored in the year of minimum rainfall; also the relation which
the runoff in the year of minimum precipitation bears to what
may be expected in the average year, and a deduction therefrom
of the proper hight of flow lines for full-capacity development.

4) The areas of the reservoirs and the losses therefrom by
evaporation which may be reasonably expected, with the amount
of effective storage which may be gained by the reservoir system
when developed to full capacity.

5) The amount of water now diverted for the use of Cham-
plain canal, and the amount to be diverted for such use when the
enlargement is completed; also the proper method of managing
the system of reservoirs in order to secure the best results to the
canal, the navigable section, and the waterpower.

6) The amount of waterpower now in use on the stream and
the effect of the present and future diversion.

7) The regimen of the tidal section, and the effect of the
unregulated fresh-water flow and of the construction of the system
of impounding reservoirs.

8) The cost of the reservoirs and the relation which the
actual cost bears to the amount of storage gained. This latter
element determines the commercial feasibility of the project.

Reservoir sites. The surveys, so far as carried, indicate that
economical reservoirs controlling the entire catchment area to
full capacity in the year of minimum rainfall may be constructed
in the Sacandaga, main Hudson and Schroon valleys, as shown
by the following paragraphs:

The Sacandaga river has a total catchment area above its
mouth of 1040 square miles. The catchment areas of reservoir
sites on the Sacandaga river, in square miles, are as follows:

, Square
Lakes Pleasant and Sacandaga....................-040- avr:
Sa ks ohn wip oo ukatele 55
ee lab eceeccnoth A)
i EA Seay Sen i i cr 50

624 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The main Hudson or North river has a total catchment area
above Hadley, not including Schroon river, of 1092 square miles.
Of this area the portions shown below may be developed to full
capacity in the year of minimum rainfall:

Square

miles

PiMPreenth “Pond. oye... sae be Cees Oe ce eee ee ee 14
Chain’ Takes... O0 ee Pa ee ee 58
(Satin take). 2ST So ere ee eee cee 25
Lakes Rich, Harris, and Newcomb, and the Goodenow flow. 83
Loke-Hetiderson.. 70). so. su. 08 oe ee ee ee eee 18
Lake Sanford and the Tahawus flow’. 02.7. 22. 6. 022 dee ees 67
Boreas river and “Boreas pond: !. 2.4.2: 5 eee ee 45
SSOOAT TUVOE ol sn soe soc cee 6 Vale Oe ee ee ee 58
Put Take ts es cae ete on a ne ae 146
TOUAL. 5.05 ie ec sa Pn pecs Be ee ee 514

Schroon river has a total catchment area above its mouth of
570 square miles. The topography of the Schroon area is such
as to admit of two distinct lines of treatment—either to construct
one large dam at Tumblehead falls, about a mile below South
Horicon, or to construct a series of 16 to 18 small dams at various
points in the area. In either case it is possible to control sub-
stantially the full flow above Tumblehead falls, and the decision
of which is better will turn chiefly on the question of relative
cost, the estimate taking into account the fact that it will cost
much more to operate a large number of reservoirs than to operate
one. The following are the catchment areas of the system of

small reservoirs as proposed for Schroon river:
Square

miles
Minerva brook at Olmsteadvilless ..\..:..¢7 aslo. 43.4
Hewett poud.. . os... va'sas as ss ena» By ore 2.5
Ton lake... 0.640365 cis sees cn ua's 1 Oe hae Taga 11.6
Priend lake. .. 245 cate vt 4 sso 5 \ nt eee Se Ac 4.9
WO FORO ci a 8 i A es eee 15.9
Clear, pond... ... Ga... ces Savy epee N AW ® OW eh ae eee eee 2.3

it

Néw pond. .. «os cad. OF digs Sa Sale Cee eieean ay ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 625

sales.

Deadwater pond............e eee eee wetpdiht < atesits bag >> ent. 18.9
Memon PONG... .. co ee ee eee ees 41.4
Dudley pond........ patie-ad) 20: daGg.24b}: Io depintbee heel 2.9
Overshot (powd Laie! nn sah. &- dibs sads- eeote werlbher cs -o
Parndom ee) cul oi. iesleak acres <b «his eye oom ayh oobi iyt 31.6
Paeaeons lake: (ssa). y si setcl. ooate Mase es Brit mete 903 5.6
G@raneapond. G60 000,22 jayos -cohorini-serrne satel wt 7.2
Pharoade sa G@syi)- ld. tepid elise cle Ss eimai eine: 8.3
Braat jlakesi5.0).:008 9. © aah yh wigs): os johcowpel PRA woe 38.7
Vediewiane opemtles i clasps 2 5-96 <i sje Hise oF 8m: be eh
Schroon lake at Starbuckville...........- 02s e eee eee eens 209...
Rar Metra ansasdl Ss very Says <a) oad mo) © Slept: ee ies syeyie gg ors A478 .7

The area between Starbuckville and Tumblehead falls not
available with the system of small reservoirs is 23.3 square miles,

The total controllable area of the upper Hudson, with the
system of small reservoirs in the Schroon valley, is as follows:

Square

miles

Sacandaga valley OFS I PO a Bs 190
Pater nove “rad ley LEA h Oe BIN, Sle eles 514
Pinata, aerate ETI. OAR SOLS OO eb 479
eepeee meeeener: Persie, aie TG ate Pe Os OU ete 1,183

With one large reservoir in Schroon valley, the total catch-
ment area is increased to 1206 square miles.

The system of small reservoirs outlined in the foregoing is
estimated to store 15,330,000,000 cubic feet, at a cost of $1,172,-
500; hence, the cost per million cubic feet stored becomes $76.48.
These figures, however, do not take into account the actual cost
of maintenance and operation, which may be placed at $30,000
per year and capitalized at 5 per cent, is equivalent to a perma-
nent investment of $600,000. Adding $600,000 to $1,172,500
gives a total permanent investment of $1,772,500.

626 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The foregoing estimates were made early in 1896 and due to
change in conditions, they would be considerably increased in

A general estimate of the cost of the single large reservoir in
Schroon valley shows that with a dam at Tumblehead falls 59
feet in hight there would be impounded 15,925,000,000 cubic
feet. The preliminary estimate indicates a total cost of $840,-
000, and a later survey indicates about $1,000,000. The final
revision of the estimate on completion of the investigation may
show a somewhat larger figure than this. Even if the cost were
to be $1,100,000, it would still be exceedingly cheap storage, the
cost for 15,925,000,000 cubic feet being on this basis only $69.14
per million cubic feet stored.

In order to appreciate fully the low cost of these reservoirs, it
may be mentioned that reservoirs for municipal water supplies
frequently cost from $5000 to $10,000 per million cubic feet
stored. In specially unfavorable cases the cost is even higher
than this—it may be as high as $12,000 to $15,000 per million
cubic feet stored. Small reservoirs sometimes cost from $6000
to $8000 per 1,000,000 gallons stored.

The dam at Tumblehead falls would be located just below the
- outlet of Brant lake, the elevation of the water surface of which
is 801 feet. The flow line of the proposed reservoir has been
placed at an elevation of 840 feet, thus giving a depth of 39 feet
over the surface of Brant lake, a depth of 33 feet over the sur-
face of Schroon lake, and a depth of 20 feet over Paradox lake.
With the reservoir full or nearly full, there would be continuous
navigation from the head of Brant lake to the head of Paradox
lake of about 35 miles. The villages of South Horicon, Barton-
ville, Starbuckville, and parts of Pottersville and Chester are
within the flow line of this reservoir.

Indian lake is another large reservoir on the headwaters of
Hudson river, that has been described on a preceding page.

Piseco lake is another large reservoir which may be con-
structed on the upper Hudson at low cost. It is estimated that
a storage of 1,725,000,000 cubic feet may be made at an expendi-
ture of $70,000, or at an average cost per million cubic feet

stored of $40. eg ‘i Neti d 3

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 627

Without going further into detail, the following may be given
as the approximate storage of the upper Hudson system, worked
out to 1904.1

p Cubic feet

Storage of Sacandaga and main Hudson river

catchment areas, not including Boreas river

reservoir, Boreas pond, Indian lake, and Piseco
HEN So 2 ie tn RPS a Sie 14,364,000,000
Boreas river reservoir and Boreas pond.......... 1,111,000,000
NRE in Soe oigs s wifo ss ohh 90 gyal WA 4,468,000,000
ee a ee 5 boas vo Soa ce ners 1,725,000,000
ee MRO WAS cates a cn nis Aes « Sin ita a wise ee 15,925,000 ,000
PRM ee Se a ens er v8 UES aS. one renee 4,000,000,000
ee ee CS ss a wtasn odes» vse oe 8 10,000,000,.000
nn pe TS ino ace a 51,593,000,000

This storage is considered sufficient, in conjunction with the
natural flow of the unregulated portion of the river, to maintain
at Mechanicville a flow of at least 4,500 cubic feet per second
during the entire year.

The general investigations indicate that there is an oppor-
tunity to make a large reservoir on Sacandaga river by the erec-
tion of a dam at Conklinville. The available storage of such a
reservoir is from 8,000,000,000 to 10,000,000,000 cubic feet. It is
taken in the preceding tabulation at 10,000,000,000 cubic feet.

There is also an opportunity to construct on the main Hudson
at Hadley, just above the mouth of the Sacandaga, another
reservoir of about 4,000,000,000 cubic feet capacity at a point
where the natural conditions for constructing such a reservoir
are good. At the site of the proposed dam the river shows a
granitic rock bottom, with precipitous banks nearly forty feet
in hight and about one hundred feet apart. The material for a

*For full details, the reader is referred to the original Reports on the
Upper Hudsvn Storage Surveys, in Annual Reports of State Engineer and
Surveyor for the Years 4895 and 1896. Also, refer to Report to Merchants’
Ass. of New York, 1900.

*The storage of this reservoir with the flashboards in place is taken at
-5,000,000,000 cubic feet.

628 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

permanent stone dam exists in the vicinity, with an opportunity
to construct a wasteway over natural rock at one side.
Inasmuch as all the storage except that of the Sacandaga area
would pass through the Hadley reservoir, its construction would
simplify the management of the system very greatly. In the
Summer season, as long as there is any storage above to be
drawn upon, this reservoir could be kept nearly full and just the
right quantity drawn out from day to day to keep the river at
the assumed flow of 4500 cubic feet a second at Mechanicville.
The Water Storage Commission made surveys for several
reservoirs on the Hudson river, but as there is nothing of inter-
est about any of these, no special mention is made of them here.
Effect of proposed storage on river flow. The foregoing quan-
tities of storage have been fixed upon on the basis that the water
yield of the year of minimum stream flow will furnish a storage
of at least 12 inches, the flow line of the reservoirs themselves
being located with reference to holding back 13.5 inches. If,
however, one examines the tables of runoff of the Hudson at
Mechanicville, and of precipitation in the catchment, it is seen
that much greater yields can be expected in an average year.
From this point of view, it may be asked, Why not make the
reservoirs somewhat larger than merely sufficient for the wants
of the vear of minimum flow and carry some water over from one
year to another, thus more nearly attaining an absolute regula-
tion of the river—not for a single year, but for a series of years?
The chief objection to this method of procedure is that experi-
ence with other large reservoir systems is against other than a
moderate development on this line, it having been repeatedly
found that however high the flow line, reservoirs are likely to be
nearly empty at the beginning of the storage period of the mini-
mum year. Experience indicates that the rainfall and stream
flow move in cycles, there being in each cycle several successive
years of flow above the average. The demands for water tend to
increase during the years of plenty, until those in charge appar-
ently forget there will ever be a deficiency. The best practice,
therefore, is to locate the flow line with reference to about the
minimum yield, thus forcing an economy in the use of water
from the beginning. By proceeding in this way provision may

Plate 15.

A. The dam at Mechanicville with flash boards in place.

B. The present dam at Fort Edward.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 625

be made for carrying over moderate quantities of water from the
latter end of the year more effectually than in any other way.
An exception has been made to this general proposition in the
ease of Schroon valley reservoir, discussed in detail on another

page.

TABLE No. 86—MEAN PRECIPITATION ON THE UPPER HUDSON CATCHMENT AREA
(In inches)

] a 1 1! ; | ' ' '
ane CESE Rae Be ee ae
ate) 2 gS 3) 3) 3) 3)
| & (2458) 815 | alec ba
MONTH a | 2 2b 8| & | 2|Ef/S8| 2] S8| =
PETE > | = | & [Sae/ 82) § | Se) 95/30/80) Fo] gs
Ss aie, R5| wo | fa 7. D 5 ke = o
~ ra A |8Do| re = > z
So) ey ad A an Nik Sk cle GN eR
aie My hey Le Pas Spo bao
(1) (2) _|_@) | (4) |_G) | ©) |__| (8) | @) | GO) | Gd | G2) | 3)
December......... 2.71 | 3.19 | 2.75 | 3.01 | 4.31 | 3.57 | 2.14 | 2.91 | 2.36 | 2.78 | 2.48 | 2.92
January .......... 275 | 2.16 | 3.60 | 3.03 | 3.36 | 3.88 | 2.35 | 3.30 | 3.36 | 2.69 | 2.08 | 2.99
February ......... 2.49 | 3.03 | 2.22 | 2.64 | 2.83 | 3.60 | 2.43 | 2.86 | 2.61} 2.06] 1.42 | 2.56
a Aaa a 2°72 | 2.72 | 2.24 | 2.50 | 2.94 | 2.52 | 1.78 | 3.63 | 2.12 | 2.36 | 1.74 | 2.48
April) ..vlic i. 2°80 | 2.15 | 2.09 | 2.14 | 2.02 | 2:39 | 1.91 | 2:93 | 3.36 | 2.53 | 2.13 | 2.48
Mant. 5 2: 3.62 | 3.10 | 3.05 | 3.14 | 3.17 | 4.46 | 2.79 | 3.45 | 3.65 | 3.04 | 3.47 | 3.38
Storage period .|17.09 |17.35 15.85 |16.47 [18.63 20.42 {13.40 {19.08 |17.46 lis 46 |13.32 | 16.76
Fh eiiodese 4.07 | 2.83 | 2.89 | 2.99 | 3.24 | 3.88 | 3.42 | 4.20 | 4.66 | 4.29 | 3.21 | 3.67
Tuily $2 Uc 4 3.25 | 3.61 | 3.53 | 3.44 | 3.83 | 3.67 | 4.01 | 3.91 | 4.21 | 3.63] 3.78
Gg A ep alee 3.96 | 4-17 | 4-21 | 4.20 | 3.91 | 5.07 | 2.85 | 3.14 | 3.98 | 3.66 | 2.97 | 3.79
Growing period|12.32 |10.25 (10.71 |10.75 /10.59 /12.78 | 9.94 [11.35 |12.55 |12.16 | 9.81 | 11.25
September........ 3.43 | 2.96 | 3.00 | 3.13 | 3.51 | 3.57 | 2.84 | 2.87 | 3.27 | 3.08 | 2.67 | 3.12
October........... 3.58 | 2.36 | 2.49 | 2.60 | 3.41 | 3.06 | 3.29 | 3.20 | 3.60 | 3.56 | 2.90] 3.15
November ........ 3.08 | 3.24 | 3.56 | 3.26 | 2.84 | 3146 | 2.94 | 3.33 | 3.29 | 2.46 | 2.88 | 3.11
Replenishing |. | |
period|i0.09 | 8.56 9.05 | 8.99 | 9.76 |10.09 | 9.07 | 9.49 10.16 | 9.11 | 8.45 | 9.38
Yearly total. ./39.50 (36.16 35.11 36.22 {38.98 43.29 [32.41 [39.92 |40.17 (36.73 31.58 | 37.39
. }

The figures in the above table are obtained by averaging the results obtained at
Albany from 1825 to 1895; at Glens Falls, from 1879 to 1895; at Keene Valley, from 1879
to 1895 ; in western Massachusetts, from 1887 to 1895; in northern plateau, from 1889 to
1895; at Lowville academy, from 1827 to 1848; at Johnstown academy, from 1828 to
1845; at Cambridge academy, from 1827 to 1839; at Fairfield academy, from 1828 to
1849; at Granville academy, from 1835 to 1849; the mean of Albany, Glens Falls and
Keene Valley, from 1879 to 1895. Although the foregoing figures are here given in
detail, later studies indicate that the mean rainfall of the northern plateau as defined
LM Ee State Meteorological Bureau is the best rainfall record to apply to the upper

udson area.

The proposed regulation of the Hudson river has been provi-
sionally arranged on the basis of maintaining a flow of at least
4500 cubic feet per second at Mechanicville, where, as has been
Seen, the catchment area is 4500 square miles, such a regulation
being equivalent to producing at Mechanicville a constant flow of 1
cubic foot per second per square mile.

As regards the change in the regimen of the stream due to
storage, it may be remarked that the reservoirs have been

630 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

designed on the basis of giving to the stream at least 0.5 inch
on the catchment area per month. With 0.45 cubic foot per
second per square mile always flowing away from the controlled
catchment area, the natural flow of the unregulated portion will
usually furnish an additional amount sufficient to keep the river,
during the storage period, up to nearly the assumed 4500 cubic
feet per second at Mechanicville; or in case of extreme low water
in winter other reservoirs may be relied upon to wast es in the
manner already pointed out.

On the basis of 12 to 14 inches available storage, there may be,
with 0.5 inch per month always going to the stream, a possible
total requirement for the year of from 15 to 18 inches.

Table No. 61 shows that the total flow for the year 1895 was
only 17.46 inches, or in that year there might have been a shortage,
if the reservoir system had been in operation, of perhaps 0.5 inch.
Any such shortage would necessarily have been carried over
from the year 1894, when, in November, there was a runoff of
1.58 inches. Allowing 0.5 inch to the stream from the November
rainfall alone there would have been 1.08 inches remaining in
the reservoirs to be carried over to 1895.

Summary of Hudson river reservoirs. In conclusion, it may be
said that it is entirely feasible to construct a system of reser-
voirs in the upper Hudson valley, and such system may be
designed with reference to the full capacity storage of at least
1300 square miles of area, or 47 per cent of the total area above
Glens Falls. Such contro] would result in the material reduc-
tion of floods at Glens Falls and other points.

The proposed total storage of 45,593,000,000 cubic feet would
maintain 4500 cubic feet per second flow, as well as supply the
other necessary demands, in the driest season of the gaging
period. The discharge measurements show that whereas the
minimum unregulated flow at Glens Falls is as low as 700 cubic
feet per second for a monthly mean, with the storage carried out,
the probable monthly mean flow at Glens Falls will be at least
3000 to 3600 cubic feet per second. The minimum regulated flow
of 4500 cubic feet per second at Mechanicville will increase the
low-water depth in the Hudson river at Albany about 1.5 feet.

‘This is the same basis as discussed on a preceding page for Salmon river
reservoir. 0.5 inch per month is 0.45 cubic foot per second per square mile.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK | 631

The diversion of water for the use of Champlain canal is an
injury to the waterpower at Glens Falls and lower points on the
river. Since waterpower is much cheaper than steampower,
the taking of the water of the river away from the manufac-
turers is a serious matter. In the fourteen years from 1882 to
1895 the use of waterpower on Hudson river increased 257 per
cent.

The upper Hudson storage system is estimated to cost in 1904
from $80 to $100 per million cubic feet stored, a sum consider-
ably less than the cost of many other systems.

Storage Reservoirs on Schroon River

In 1900 the writer reported to the Merchants’ Association of
New York in regard to a reservoir for a water supply to that
city to be located on Schroon river. The scope of this report
was as follows:

1) The discussion of a project for supplying five hundred
million (500,000,000) gallons daily (775 cubic feet per second)
of pure water from a single large reservoir to be located on
Schroon river.

2) The supplying of the same quantity from Lake George and
Schroon river.

3) In addition to the storage reservoirs, from which the city
supply of pure water would be drawn, these two projects further
included compensating regervoirs large enough to compensate
for amount of water abstracted for supply of Greater New York.

4) The discussion of a project for supplying a large quantity
of stored water to Hudson river, in order to hold the point of

upward flow of salt water through tidal action as far down
stream as practicable.

The following are the main points embodied in the report to
the Merchants’ Association:

Schroon river flows into Hudson river just above Thurman
bridge and about fifteen miles north of Hadley. The catchment
area at its mouth is 570 square miles. It issues from a region
with a permanent population of from 12 to 14 per square mile.
The prevailing rocks are granitic, with large areas of fine sand;
there are only limited swamp areas.

§32 NEW YORK STATED MUSEUM

In order to show the approximate relative proportions of
virgin forest, culled area, from which merchantable softwood
timber has been removed, together with the cleared and water
areas of Schroon river catchment, the following data have been
compiled from several of the United States Geological Survey’s
topographical sheets, including territory either wholly or partly
within Schroon river catchment:

Virgin Culled Cleared Water . Total

forest, area, area, area, area,

square square square square square

Topographic sheet miles miles miles miles miles
BOlEGH. fs SEDAN rk ee eee 153.00 . 43.55 19.85 216.4
Paradox-2akes we; wees sk 174 255 38.60 5.35 215.5
Seirroon Jake. 22..720c. << 1.10 182.10 35.80 6.50 215.5
EW ook eee 1340 506.65 117.95 31.70 647.4

The large water area of the Bolton sheet is due to the fact that
this sheet includes a considerable portion of Lake George.
Aside from this, the Bolton, Paradox lake and Schroon lake
sheets, covering a total area of 647.4 square miles, are considered
to be—as regards forestation—fairly illustrative of Schroon
river catchment area. The figures show that the cleared area
is only about 18 per cent of the whole. The northern part of
Schroon river catchment area, which is included in Mount Marcy
and Elizabethtown sheets, is substantially all in timber, and for
the entire catchment area probably the cleared surface does not
exceed about 15 per cent. ‘ .

The topography of Schroon river catchment area is rugged.
The low-water surface elevation of Schroon lake is 807+ T. W.,
and the extreme northern tributaries issue from the base of the
highest mountains of the State.

The foregoing brief statements in regard to physical character-
istics of Schroon river catchment area show that it is an ideal
region from whence to draw a municipal water supply. The
forest covered granitic rocks and interspersed sand areas insure
a water of extreme purity, and when we further take into ac-
count the economy of reservoir construction which can here be
attained we have a combination of favorable conditions only
rarely excelled.

An approximate estimate made in 1895, before all the condi-
tions were known, placed the cost of Schroon valley reservoir—

Plate 16.

Leek | LT ee a

Cs ss

Se
ee re,

Fer er vewe: Teer
ox a0 -
xde Ed

B. Dam where gagings are made at Little Falls.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK . 633

when developed up to a storage of 18.5 inches on the catchment
area—at $840,000. This was for a water storage reservoir
purely, and did not include clearing and stripping of margins
any further than that cutting and burning of standing timber
was provided for. Investigations made in 1896 indicated more
expense for foundation of dam at Tumblehead falls than
assumed in 1895. Moreover, for a storage reservoir for regula-
tion of stream flow purely, nothing was allowed for sanitary
protection of catchment or for removal of buildings along or
near new margins.

The estimates herewith submitted ‘afte into account:all these
several items, as well as an allowance for present labor condi-
tions and price of materials in the State of New York.

In the first report on upper Hudson surveys (1895) the writer
discussed extensively the question of proper hight of flow line
for upper Hudson reservoir system, reaching the conclusion that
for streanr regulation 13.5 inches in depth on the catchment area
was the approxinate figure. This is about as large a storage
as can be ponded at the several upper Hudson sites. At Tumble-
head falls, however, there is apparently no reason why the
development may not be carried higher, and the present study
for a pure-water reservoir has accordingly been based upon a
development of storage up to 18 inches in depth on the tributary

catchment area of 518 square miles. Such development gives a
total storage of 21,662,000,000 cubic feet (162,248,380,000 gallons)
and will utilize, during a series of years, substantially the entire
flow of the stream.

To accomplish this result the uniform outflow from the reser-
voir has been taken at 500,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours
or, for even figures, at 775 cubic feet per second. It is easy to
furnish this quantity from a single reservoir, although it is
necessary to fix the flow line higher than 13.5 inches.

In order to show the effect of drawing 775 cubic feet per
Second continuously from such a reservoir in Schroon valley,
table No. 87 has been prepared. The data are (1) the runoffs of
Hudson river for the twelve years 1888-1899, inclusive; and (2)
evaporation at Rochester. The computation has been made by
years, beginning with an assumed depth of 4 inches on the catch-
ment area in reservoir at the end of November 1887, and is

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

634

er

aa ttt een cen Mv Bs i ee aes teeth cee ogee |*'*** "78909 pue uE8yT
000 ‘000 ‘OL8 ‘ST | TL'TE |'*‘toqumeaon | *°"° Ts | STREP) SOCST =| 88° POTS fo POO |e 7" a eee
000 ‘000 ‘PES ‘LT | LGPL |’ toquaeoeq | 9¢°¢ oe AO Pes 19ST CLS P8' 1S St eae See
000 ‘000 ‘8%¢ ‘8 G69 =f Acenaqey, | Ge’ Pp or 19°31 @8°8 00°0 P81 CLO6.). jc Se ee ee
000 ‘000 ‘0% ‘8 g0°L f Arenaqeg | PL] Ei 688 ga'9 00°0 68° 1% GGted> 1S “ee aa "9681
000 ‘000 “608 ‘Lk Me'O2 J: A aeQOROG.|) 2°: 88° 8g'9 96°01 00°0 F812 SF ss Sk A Scere
000 ‘000 ‘681 ‘@T | 96°01 | ‘aequieaoN | °°" LES 96°01 SPST 00°0 #81 Le OT Me See eee
000 ‘000 ‘SOT ‘OT | SP St | *toquteaon | °°" 88'S eh St TLaT GB's P8' 1% 16: 1G |°"" eo ee ee
000 ‘000 ‘106 ‘SI | GL OL |’ ''aequaeoeg | @6P'g ay Tacat 8‘ OL OLS 68° 1% 80°89. Ro sen eee
000 ‘000 “66% ‘SI | Se OL |'*tequteaon | 7" 09's CS OL CL ST | F812 99°08.) |< Sa See eee
000 ‘000 ‘814 ‘8 Poh | atoqumeoed | OTL = CL ST B'S 00°0 P81 We Og [Ste ee eee
000 ‘000 ‘86P ‘9 OPS a4." %2 “teqotoga| =" ' < g1'0 @9'9 GL'g 00°0 P81 Wie (Vite? eee
000 ‘000 ‘890 “P eo°G. 3 |. '** Ome] 02 3 an Qu'g 00°F 00°0 68° 1 eh el ee ae ee
(11) (Ol) (6) (9) (2) (9) (q) (p) (g) (&) (1)
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Guetet ps hee B || Bo © op Foo 5 i mo
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BOR Say Bag, Bap | Bae qi “— is K Pe
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(so[}ur OLvNndS Brg JO JUOMIYOJvO ArePNGLA) UO soyouy uy)

MUOX MAN WLVAIY) AO ATAINS UALVA WO
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‘AATSQVIONT “G68T-B88T SUVIX UAV AML YO AOAVASAA AWTTIVA NOOUHOG NI ADVAOLS WALVA JO TLVLS PNIMOHY—"2g ‘ON ATVI,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 635

carried along through each water year, to the end of November
1899.

This computation shows that for a storage of 18 inches on
the catchment area and a uniform outflow of 775 cubic feet per
second the total waste in the twelve-year period would have
been only 13.81 inches. A similar computation has been made
for a storage of 138.5 inches and uniform outflow of 650 cubic
feet per second, in which the waste would have been 55.36 inches
amounting to a mean waste per year of 4.61 inches.

The distance from Hadley to proposed site of Schroon valley
barrage at Tumblehead falls—measured along the thread of
Hudson and Schroon valleys—is about 29 miles. Of this about
14 miles is in Schroon valley. The village of Warrensburg,
with a population of about 1000 in 1900, lies on Schroon
river, three miles above its mouth. At and in the vicinity of
this place waterpower to the extent of 1627 net horsepower
42167 gross horsepower) has been developed on Schroon river.
The largest block of power at a single point is at the dam of
the Schroon River Pulp Company, one and one half miles below
Warrensburg, where 1086 net horsepower are in use. Owing to
the equalizing effect of Schroon lake, these powers are all fairly
permanent except at the pulp mill, which is sometimes short of
water in late summer and fall months. .

The water-surface elevation of Schroon river at its mouth,
near Thurman, is approximately 620+T.W. At Tumblehead
falls the elevation is about 780+T. W. There is, therefore, a
total fall of 160 feet between Tumblehead falls and mouth of
stream. Of this 39 feet is included in the dams at Warrensburg
village and the Schroon River Pulp Company’s power, leaving
121 feet still undeveloped. It seems very desirable, in case
Schroon valley reservoir is constructed, that the waterpower
possibilities of the stream be preserved. A uniform outflow of
775 cubic feet per second would yield, on 121 feet fall, 10,639
gross horsepower.

In order to preserve present waterpowers and ultimately
utilize the undeveloped fall, it would be necessary to let the
water discharged from the reservoir at Tumblehead falls flow
down the present channel of Schroon river to a diversion weir, to

-

636 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

be located just above the mouth, at which point a conduit of
775 cubic feet per second capacity would begin. This diversion
weir would be sixteen miles above Hadley, but it is considered
that the additional cost of extending the conduit this distance
would be compensated for by the keeping of pure Schroon river
water entirely separate from balance of Hudson river water.

In proposing such separation it is not intended to imply that
Hudson river water at Hadley is not suited for a public supply.
In any case upper Hudson water is very pure, but due to relatively
somewhat more extensive swamp areas to north of mouth of
Schroon river, Hudson river water at Hadley, as a whole, is not
equal to that of Schroon river. The purifying effect of wind and
sunlight on the extended water areas of Schroon, Brant and Para-
dox lakes is taken into account in reaching this conclusion.

Another important reason for extending conduit to diversion
weir just above mouth of Schroon river may be found in consider-
ing that much the cheapest way to reimburse waterpower owners
on Hudson river for diversion of 775 cubic feet per second will be
by constructing compensation reservoirs. Some of these would
be located on Sacandaga river, which flows into Hudson river at
Hadley, but nevertheless several would be on main North river
above Thurman. If proposed additional water supply of Greater
New York were taken at Hadley, then all compensating reservoirs
should be thoroughly cleared and stripped, the same as is pro-
posed for Schroon valley reservoir. Even after completion of
such extensive work, the conditions at several reservoir sites to
north of Thurman are not such as to yield an ideal water without
filtration. There are extensive muck areas which now discolor the
water and taint it with an offensive odor. Filtration would, of
course, make any of these waters ideal, and probably for a thor-
ough study of the project in all of its phases estimates should be
worked out showing approximate cost of taking 775 cubic feet
per second at Hadley, with all stripping of reservoirs omitted,
but including the cost of a filtration plant capable of handling 775
cubic feet per second. As regards quality of the municipal
supply, such treatment would place this project essentially on a
par with the Vyrnwy supply for Liverpool, where the water of a
sparsely populated mountainous area is filtered, largely to remove
vegetable discoloration.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 637

If Schroon river water is taken into conduit just above mouth
of stream, the sewage of Warrensburg village and the manufac-
turing establishments would be properly carried in a close conduit
or pipe to a point below the diversion weir. The estimates for
sanitary protection include the cost of the necessary special
constructions for this purpose.

There is considerable summer population about Schroon, Brant,
Paradox and other lakes of Schroon area, and the estimates for
sanitary protection further include cost of properly caring for
waste products at hotels, cottages, etc.

The following presents the main points of comparison for dams
at Tumblehead falls, storing 13.5 and 18.0 inches on the catchment
area, respectively :

Area of water surfaces

Storage, El : :
iss Suede St , Hlevation Hight of of full reservoir
im inches on) Staree.., | offowline | dam.in
area ;
Acres Sq. miles
(1) (2) (3) (4) (9) (6)
13.5 16, 246, 000, 000 840.6 60.0 14, 800 23.1

18.0 21, 662, 000, 000 850.5 70.0 16,900 | 26.4

By reference to the United States Geological Survey’s topo-
graphic sheets, the significance of these figures may be easily
appreciated.

In order to insure thorough control of the margins, it is sug-
gested that an area of 50 square miles should be taken. The
estimate includes such taking.

The following is the estimated cost of constructing Schroon
valley pure water reservoir and diversion weir, with necessary
gate houses, sanitary protection and other special constructions:

ee Cae OeG iad. 6ri3 ed. Yo sw. Mask ols «wos $1,000,000
Wietring anc istrippings::})siieuod ch ois eiahadwniners 500,000
Rote oe Pomplenedd falls... i... kh a eis wer’. Sas 600,000
RPP CRROITMIONES ii us a, 2 estate ste Wee wi Lia leh erksede ded ald eared 250,000
OMIA RAMONE OUIOD. (histones. wly s Livtaied dele see ww’ © 300,000

Miscel Reais oO Aiitiis ded Syaan wien How h-di ei. > 350,000

PINOM ee Seen ARES ay eee $3,000,000

638 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The data for the preceding estimate are not very complete, but
it is believed that the sum of $3,000,000 is large enough to meet
somewhat adverse conditions.

The construction of Schroon valley reservoir as here proposed
would submerge several villages, of which the cost is included in
land damages. :

With a total storage of 21,662,000,000 cubic feet and total cost
of $3,000,000, the cost per million cubic feet stored becomes
roundly $138.50. In the same way the cost per million gallons
stored becomes about $18.50. -

Schroon valley reservoir no injury to waterpower on Hudson
river. ‘The foregoing discussion of Schroon valley reservoir pro-
ject shows that not only may all injury to existing waterpower
in Schroon valley be obviated, but that 10,639 gross horsepower
may be permanently created there. With Hadley dam ulti-
mately constructed, as proposed in the upper Hudson report of
1895, there would be stillwater in Hudson river from mouth of
Schroon river to Hadley. Inasmuch as Hadley dam is intended
as a regulator of upper Hudson reservoir system, without any
special waterpower development connected therewith, no injury
to waterpower above Hadley on account of diversion of 1775
cubic feet per second would occur. But from the regulating dam
down the Hudson river waterpowers would suffer, but not to
the extent of the value of 775 cubic feet per second for the whole
year. Broadly, the proposition takes this form: On account of
large temporary storage on Schroon, Brant and Paradox lakes,
the mean summer flow of Schroon river is higher than it would
otherwise be for the given catchment area. Taking into account
this natural advantage, what injury can be done to Hudson river
waterpowers from Hadley to Troy by the continuous diversion
of 775 cubic feet per second, the quantity so diverted to be
drawn, not from the natural flow of the river, but from a large
storage reservoir substantially regulating the entire flow for a
series of years?

In answering this question we must take into account the
character of the waterpower development on Hudson river.
The most of it is 24-hour power used for pulp-grinding and paper-
making. Pulp may be ground in high-water flow and stored for
use in months of minimum flow. This circumstance has led to

Plate: 17.

J \'s. 5 7
~\ ¢ : @
: c= j
My pro TUMBLEW EAD a
l Ereend ’
an Y ap.G ?
\
¢

tw”
1
?
vj
cy
A
‘
j
-_
ov “¢
eo 4
Scale of Miles ‘ «
’ ° 1 a ; 8 = d Le
=f f
ANSI 2 ,
>) a
af

J

Catchment area of Schroon river.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 639
development of Hudson river waterpowers to far beyond the
low-water flow of the stream.

Without going into an elaborate discussion at this time, it
is considered that under existing conditions to substantially
divert the entire flow of Schroon river would be fairly equivalent
to taking from 500 to 600 cubic feet per second from all water-
powers on the Hudson river from the George West paper mill at
Hadley to Troy. This does not mean that 600 cubic feet per sec-
ond would be taken away in the low-water months, but that for
an average of all years the runoff of Schroon catchment area is
equivalent to about 500 to 600 cubic feet continuously when
applied to Hudson river waterpowers. As a provisional figure,
accurate enough for present purposes, we may use 550 cubic feet
per second. The following tabulation shows in column (4) the
net power at 75 per cent efficiency of 550 cubic feet per second
of water on the stated heads:

> SB metwe- 2
[=

Net power at

. & A t f race

Designation of Dam ian oe net, horsepower aueees on SO ectituoes

wheels ee ore, oe et per | (8) and (4)

Dib. 0 ute 8s eae nic. Sin! | Jeo iee ee

(1) (2) Oe (5) 184

messes ie ee Sl er eee Caen ween
George West, Hadley.... 18 1, 350 845 505
Palmer’s Falis. 0.0.02... 83 14, 500 3, 897 10, 603
Canal feeder dam....... 10 to 12 1, 450 515 935
Gierme Watlse. 22... ee. 16 to 38 7,931 1, 784 6, 147
Santine Hiles) lice. 2. 12 1,293 564 729
Bakers alles... ovs.ss «- 58 3, 500 2,724 a7

Port: Me ward oo 00S... 18 6, 393 845 5,548
Bopt MG Wer sis. 3 dah oud 10 1, 485 469 1,016
SEAGOLA GAM... cc sie’. « =15 3, 130 845 2, 285
Stillwater.) 0A os. LG 6 514 282 232
Mechanicyille . ... 22:3 43+. 16 3, 355 751 2, 604
Hudson River Power Co. 18 3, 000 845 2,155
NIIP ee ose 7 1,345 329 1,016
a an SS 314 49, 246 14, 695 34, 551

Mien acl Die ceenill Ue Ieteomn 2 ty Meo | Te Poets at tbe
The foregoing tabulation shows that on the assumed basis
of 550 cubic feet per second the total decrease in waterpower
would be 14,695 net horsepower, amounting to nearly 30 per
cent of the whole. ,
Let us now examine rapidly as to the approximate value of
Hudson river waterpower.

640 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the fall of 1898 the writer gathered the statistics of water-
power on Black river, where a total of 55,360 net horsepower
is in use in 93 manufacturing establishments of various sorts
and kinds. Of these 36 are papermills using 46,587 net horse-
power. The approximate total value of the annual product of
the 36 paper mills was found to be $5,242,620, whence the aver-
age value of the annual product per net horsepower becomes
$112.50. Similar statistics have not been gathered for Hudson
river, where the mills are fewer in number, but so much larger
than on Black river that the annual product approximates
$8,000,000 in value. Undoubtedly the cost of manufacturing in
large, thoroughly equipped modern mills is less than in small
mills, and the writer provisionally places the value of the annual
product of Hudson river paper mills, per net horsepower actually
used, at $185. On both Black and Hudson rivers the mills them-
selves grind a large proportion of the pulp used, and when this
is done the net profits of the paper business, over and above
interest on invested capital and all other fixed charges, may be
assumed to range from 10 to 15 per cent. We will take
12 per cent as an average. On this basis the net annual profit
on each net horsepower in use at Hudson river papermills
becomes $16.20, which at 5 per cent represents a capitalized value
of 4324. In the absence of more exact data, and for the pur-
poses of this discussion, we will use this figure as representing
the approximate value of a net horsepower on Hudson river.*
At this rate, the value of 14,695 horsepower becomes $4,761,180,
which is the approximate damage to the Hudson river water-
powers from Hadley to Troy to result from taking the mean
quantity of 775 cubic feet per second from Schroon valley catch-
ment area.

Compensating reservoirs on Hudson river. However, reservoirs
capable of supplying 500 to 600 cubic feet per second compensa-
tion could be constructed on headwaters of main North river and
Sacandaga river for less than $4,761,180.

1At Troy there is a small amount of miscellaneous manufacturing to
which a larger figure could be properly applied.

On Black river, in eight machine shops, the average value of the annual
product per net horsepower is $1728; in nine flour and feed mills, $627.20,
ete.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 641

Thus far the trend of legal decisions in the State of New York
and in the United States generally has been against compensa-
tion in kind in water diversion cases Our courts have usually
held that money compensation may be exacted in such cases.
But on the Hudson river, where water rights are not only appreci-
ating in value rapidly, but are furthermore mostly held by strong
manufacturing corporations, it is possible that the principle of
compensation in kind could be applied by simple agreement with
the present owners. At any rate, we may assume for present
purposes that this is true, and accordingly briefly discuss a sys-
tem of compensating reservoirs large enough to supply 500 to
600 cubic feet per second, either continuously or so far as might
appear necessary after a more thorough study of the regimen of
the stream.

With Hudson river runoff, the capacity of a reservoir capable
of certainly furnishing 650 cubic feet per second continuously
should be, roundly, 16,000,000,000 cubic feet. To furnish 550
cubic feet per second continuously about 12,000,000,000 cubic feet
would answer. The location and approximate cost of a series
of reservoirs for this purpose would be as follows:

. Tribut
Name of Location, eee in catchment Estimated
Reservoir | on what stream | cubic feet a bee se css cost
/
Sle ciaetistinl _ ——— ——
Conklinville..... Sacandaga river.| 10,000, 000, 000 900 | $1, 400, 000
Lake Pleasant... | Sacandaga river.| 1,400,000, 000 45 110, 000
Piseco lake..... Sacandaga river.; 1,725,000, 000 55 100, 000
Arietta flow....| Sacandaga river.| 1, 400,000, 000 AQ 80, 000
Wakely flow...| Cedar river...... 1, 819, 000, 000 58 150, 000
Boreas and Che-
ney ponds....| Boreas river..... 1,411, 000, 000 45 160, 000
DGGE seb Ps. PLS. ies. ek 17, 755, 000,000 | ......... | $2, 000, 0, 000

ys Neel Se ee

Taking into account the large catchment area tributary to the
proposed Conklinville reservoir, it is considered that the fore-
going total storage of 17,755,000,000 cubic feet would considerably
more than compensate—on the basis already outlined—for the
permanent diversion of 775 cubic feet per second.?

See case of Black river cited on page 539.

*The stated tributary catchment area of 900 square miles above Conklin-

ville is exclusive of Lake Pleasant, Piseco lake and Arietta flow catch-
ments. The total, with these included, is 1040 square miles.

642 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The total estimated cost, as per the preceding, of $2,000,000 is
based on present labor conditions, etc. in the State of New York.
So far as the writer can determine with the data at hand,
$2,000,000 will construct the compensating reservoirs proposed in
the foregoing.

Inasmuch as four of these reservoirs are located in Sacandaga
river catchment, which stream is tributary to the Hudson river
below proposed Hadley regulating reservoir, that reservoir is not
included in present series.

The following shows the difference in cost between paying
waterpower damages and providing a system of compensating

reservoirs :

Waterpower daimages .-\2¢- ace se ee ee $4,761,180

Cost of compensating reservoirs... 05». sa 3 eens 2,000,000
2 DIM CFEHCE na. ~ acike + vaste 5 nds mente eee ee ee ee $2,761,180

With the system of compensating reservoirs the total estimated
cost of reservoir system for supply of 775 cubic feet per second
becomes $4,000,000. But if waterpower damages were to be paid
in money, as per the foregoing, the approximate figure becomes
$7,761,180. For even figures, we may take the latter at $8,000,000.

Tf, however, we assume that, owing to legal difficulties, not only
the principle of compensation in kind can not be applied, but that
a partial taking of the properties is impracticable, it follows
that the amount to be paid on account of the proposed diversion
of 775 cubic feet per second—supplied from a single large reser-
voir substantially controlling the entire flow of Schroon river—
becomes considerably greater. The data are not at hand for
accurately estimating the full value of the several properties
affected, but from casual examination the provisional figure of
from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000 may be assumed. In any case,
if the entire properties were acquired by the City of New York,
apparently the rational procedure would be to make such reserva-
tions as might seem necessary in order to secure the city’s right
to 775 cubic feet per second, or any other quantity fixed upon,
and to then sell the properties subject to such reservation. By
proceeding on this line the City of New York ought to be able to

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 643.

acquire the right to draw 775 cubic feet of water per second at a
cost not exceeding the sum of $4,761,180, previously found. As
an alternative proposition, the city might build the compensation
storage and realize the full value of the property when sold.

Water supply for New York city from Lake George. About
1880 the New York and Hudson Valley Aqueduct Company was
incorporated to construct a water supply from Lake George and
upper Hudson for New York and other cities of lower Hudson
valley. Reports on this project were made by Col. J. T. Fanning,
chief engineer, under dates of December 1881, and November
1884. Colonel Fanning proposed to divert Hudson river above
Glens Falls, utilizing the extended area of Lake George for storing
flood-flows. In this way it was considered that a supply of
1,500,000,000 gallons per .day could, if necessary, be obtained
(2515 cubic feet per second). Since Colonel Fanning’s reports
are readily obtainable, space will not be taken to give his con-
clusions in detail. The following are the main elements of the _
Lake George project, as deduced from the topographic sheets of
the United States Geological Survey:

Elevation of lake surface above tidewater... 328.0. feet

Catchment area, including water surface... 229.0 square miles
ieee ET SUPEACE.. 2... 8 ee 43.4 square miles
See) COMET fe os i ae 49.2 square miles
Storage between 323+ T. W. and 340..... 21,043,308,540 cubic feet

Lake George is surrounded by mountains rising to an altitude
of from 1500 to 2700 feet above tidewater. There is little special
knowledge of the rainfall, but it can not be materially different
from that of the Hudson river catchment area. The outlet is at
the northern end of the lake, and has a fall in a distance of about
a mile of 222 feet, which is largely utilized in paper making, infor--
mation at hand indicating a total development of from 4000 to
5000 net horsepower. Taking the value of waterpower as pre-
viously used the damage to Lake George outlet waterpowers may
be computed at $1,458,000. But since the entire properties would
be taken we may, in this case, estimate that the final damage
would not be less than $2,000,000.

There are many large hotels and summer resorts about Lake
George which would be mostly destroyed by raising the lake sur-.

644 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM -

face from 17 to 20 feet. The taking of an additional strip, for
sanitary protection, as in Schroon valley, would include nearly all
of these, as well as the village of Caldwell.

Basing the Lake George project on 775 cubic feet per second
supply, the same as for Schroon valley, it is found that from 300
to 350 cubic feet per second would come from the Lake George
catchment area. The balance can be obtained from Schroon
valley by a tunnel through the intervening ridge at a point above
Warrensburg, where the distance across is only 3.25 miles (17,160
linear feet). A diversion weir with proper regulating head-
works would be required on Schroon river. The elevation of
Schroon river at the point of diversion is about 670 feet. With
Lake George taken at 323 feet, the difference becomes 347 feet.

For several months of each year the runoff of Schroon river
exceeds 550 cubic feet per second, the mean runoff for four years
being 1112 cubic feet per second. Hence, a mean of 550 cubic
feet per second could be diverted into Lake George and still leave
Hudson river waterpowers substantially unimpaired. The con-
necting tunnel should therefore have a capacity of about 2600
to 2800 cubic feet per second in order to divert the full flood-flows.

The following is an approximate estimate of cost of Lake George
storage with diversion tunnel from Schroon valley, etc.:

Land damages, Lake George........... 0... 60. $1,500,000
Dam at foot of Lake George..............-.00005: 200,000
Water rights on Lake George outlet............... 2,000,000
Sanitary protection: 2.0.0. .000..00 22 Ue 202 ae 400,000
Clearing and strippimg ........... 06.5.0 e eee eeee 300,000
Diversion weir and headworks on Schroon river.... ~ 100,000
Diversion’ tumnel. 3728: 2M e U8 Ge SRN Ge oe 1,500,000
Compensation PeSe€rvoOirs. .... 6.6... eee eee eee 200,000
Miscellaneows’. 20, SLO Dee Se BO ee ee 500,000

Total) “oS TEE I CS, eee $6,700,000

A comparison of this estimate with the foregoing for Schroon
valley project fairly leads to the conclusion that independent of
lack of elevation at Lake George, the Schroon valley project is

(ee eee AN > Ot le RN EM ARAN NS GI tN Be ti lh By

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 645

preferable. The quality of Lake George water—the same as
Schroon river—is unexceptionable.
Reservoir system for river regulation only. This project pro-

_ poses the development of storage on headwaters of the Hudson

river in order to hold low-water flow at as high a point as possible,
thereby driving salt water further downstream and consequently
permitting of taking a supply from the lower Hudson by pumping
lower down than would otherwise be possible.

In the first report on the upper Hudson surveys it is shown that
a reservoir system may be developed capable of maintaining a flow
at Mechanicville of 4500 cubic feet per second. The following
tabulaition gives the main elements of such a system of reservoirs
so far as worked out, together with the approximate cost of the
same, all based on 13.5 inches on the catchment except Schroon
valley, which is taken at 18 inches:

es tifa ct
* stimate catcehnmen
Name of Reservoir ae caves seen ed capacity An = reat
miles
ook tf dele
eaeae!) as ete as CORGR ee Co.

Conklinville....... ‘Sacandaga river. | 10, 000, 000, 000° 900 $1, 400, 000
Lake Pleasant..... Sacandaga river. | zs 400, 000, 000 | 45 110, 000
Piseco lake....... Sacandaga river. 1, 725, 000, 000 | 55 100, 000
Arietta flow....... Sacandaga river..| 1, 400, 000, 000 40 80, 000
ae ae Main North river. 4,000, 000,000 |.......... 750, 000
Thirteenth pond ...|Main North river. 439, 000, 000 | 14 160, 000
Chain lakes ....... Main North river.} 1, 819, 000, 000 58 45, 000
Catlin lake........ Main North river. 784, 000, 000 25 50, 000
Lakes Rich, Harris,

Newcomb, etc...|Main North river.| 2,603,000, 000 83 250, 000
Lake Henderson. ../Main North river. 565, 000, 000 18 40, 000
Tahawus flow..... Main North river.| 2, 101, 000, 000 67 240, 000
Boreas river, etc...|Boreas river 54 ae 1, 411, 000, 000 45 160, 000
Wakely flow...... Cedar river........ 1,819, 000, 000 58 150, 000
Tumblehead falls. ./Schroon river ....| 21, 662, 000, 000 | 518 1, 700, 000

aR een ae 51, 728, 000, 000 | iat, Dane $5, 235, 000

The capacity of Indian lake reservoir of about 5,000,000,000
cubic feet should be added to the foregoing total of 51,728,000,000
cubic feet, giving a finial total of 56,728,000,000 cubic feet. Fur-
ther examination will probably show that a somewhat greater
storage can be obtained, but thus far the data for final con-
clusions have not been gathered. A moderate amount of storage
may also be constructed on headwaters of Mohawk river, but

646 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

only general statements can be made for lack of definite data.
Probably enough storage can be made here to give a final storage
on Hudson and Mohawk rivers of about 75,000,000,000 cubic feet.

The foregoing estimates of cost also take into account present
labor conditions, etc. in New York State. The approximate cost
per million cubic feet of storage is found to be $101.

The advantages of such a system of reservoirs to Hudson river
waterpowers have been so fully set forth in the preceding pages
as to render further discussion under that head unnecessary in
this place.

Leaving for the present the possible storage of the upper Mohawk
river out of account, and basing conclusions on 56,728,000,000
cubic feet storage on the upper Hudson, we may say, taking into
account low-water flow of the Mohawk river and other tributaries
of the Hudson river below Mechanicville, that the fresh water
inflow of the lower Hudson river may be kept up to over 6000 cubic
feet per second. At present it is occasionally somewhat less than
2000 cubic feet per second. The effect of flows of 5000 to 6000
cubic feet per second on the depth of water at Albany may be
obtained from a series of diagrams of tidal fluctuations at Albany
for the summer seasons of 1895-1898, inclusive. The first of
these diagrams is plate VI of the first Upper Hudson Storage
Report (1895), and the second, plate VII of the Report on
Water Supply of Summit Levels to United States Board of

Icngineers on Deep Waterways (1899).

DEVELOPMENT OF WATERPOWERS

Power Development at Niagara Falls
The possibility of waterpower development at Niagara Falls
has attracted attention for many years, the first utilization there
having been made in 1725, when the French erected a sawmill
near the point where the Pittsburgh Reduction Company’s upper
works now stand for the purpose of supplying lumber for Fort
Niagara. Between 1725 and the early years of the present cen-
tury little is known of the use made of Niagara Falls power
further than that sawmills were in operation there during the
whole period. In 1805, however, Augustus Porter built a sawmill
on the rapids, and in 1807 Porter & Barton erected a gristmill.
In 1817 John Witmer built another sawmill at Gill creek, and

“Auvduro,) Surinjor 2 TAT }
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ena

"ST 94¥Id

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 647

in 1822 Augustus Porter built a gristmill along the rapids above
the falls. From that year to 1885, when the lands along the river
were taken for a State park, a considerable amount of power was
developed by a canal which took water out of the river near the
head of the rapids and followed along the shore nearly parallel
with the bank of the river. Mills were built between this canal
and the river, and a part of the 50-foot fall between the head of
the rapids and the brink of the American Falls was thus utilized.
A papermill was built on Bath island at an early date.

In 1842 Augustus Porter, one of the principal mill owners at
Niagara Falls, proposed a considerable extension of the then
existing system of canals and races, and in January, 1847, in
connection with Peter Emslie, he published a formal plan which
became the subject of negotiations with Walter Bryant and Caleb
S. Woodhull. An agreement was finally reached by which they
were to construct a canal and receive a plot of land at the head
of the canal, having a frontage of 425 feet on Niagara river,
together with a right of way 100 feet wide for the canal along its
entire length of 4400 feet, and about 75 acres of land near the
terminus, having a frontage on the river below the falls of nearly
a mile. The canal constructed under this agreement passes
through what is now the most thickly settled part of the city of
Niagara Falls.

Ground was broken by Messrs Bryant & Woodhull in 1853 and
the work carried on for about sixteen months, when it was sus-
pended for lack of funds. Nothing further was done until 1858,
when Stephen Allen carried the work forward for a time; later,
in 1561, Horace H. Day took up the matter and completed a canal
36 feet wide, 8 feet deep, and 4400 feet long, by which the water of
the upper river was brought to a basin near the brink of the high
bluff of the lower river and at an elevation of 214 feet above the
lower river. Upon the margin of this basin various mills have been
constructed, to the wheels of which water is conducted from the
canal and discharged through the bluff into the river below. The
first mill built on this hydraulic canal was a small gristmill,
erected by Charles B. Gaskill in 1870 on the site of the present
large flouring mill of the Cataract Milling Company.

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.
In 1877 the hydraulic canal and all its appurtenances were pur-

648 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

chased, by Jacob F, Schoellkopf and A. Chesbrough, of Buffalo,
who organized the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac-
turing Company. The following is a list of companies either sup-
plied or to be supplied with power by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic
Power and Manufacturing Company:

POWER FURNISHED BY NIAGARA FALLS HYDRAULIC POWER AND MANUFAC-
TURING COMPANY IN 1897

Company Business Horse-

(a) Hydraulic power

Central. Milling @o 71141 22. . cic Rtaee | Flouring mill......... | 1,000
N. Woed, Paper Cos. jo75 yen eae eee Paper and pulp....... | 500
Schoellkopf & Mathews................... Flouring mill......... | 900
Pettebone Cataract Manufacturing Co.....| Paper and pulp....... | 2,000
Cataract Milling €6.0 2... cst ee skeet Pioar.. | 2... eee | 400
Niagara Falls Waterworks................ | JG2E I ee ee / 200
Thomas HE, MeGavipie . 05 4): anaes nae | Machine shop......... ' 25
Ghil Paper ol. sat. os ot os San cee eee Paper and pulp....... | 2,500

Total. 30. 03Gee ees eh eee | Set ero ap Nene poe | 7 ee

(b) Electric power

Pittsburg Reduction Co....: 52. .ce teed Alnemminaas «4 4251 sencecs 3, 500
Niagara Falls and Lewiston KR. E. Co. .... jiimessssen aes che ase ces 400
Cha Paper Co.t 20) .wioied. sake Be. ao Paper and pulp....... 300
Lewiston and Youngstown R. BE. Co... ... ye esse: ee eee 200
Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light ieee and power...... 600
and Power Co.
Niagara Falls Brewing Go. 5 2.5.0 is 5205s [oie xen ee ee 150
Rodwell Manufacturing Co................ Silver plating, etc.... vi
Sundry small customers in Niagara Falls. .|.................02-000- 100
Francis Hook and Eye Co................. Hooks and eyes....... 15
Kelly and McBean Aluminum Co.......... ATi ons apenigias ols 15
The National Electrolytic ©o, 2... 2. 2.04 cal os eee Dea ee eee 1, 000
TOGAL So oo tte she gd eee oad wie at a eee ee | . 6,355

(c) Mechanical power furnished on shaft

Oneida Community, Limited.............. | Silver-plated ware nae 300
chains !

Catter-CrutA COA 220 Jie cik, BASAL be ee Check books.......... 60

Total. « . okéia vs du cam nee we Dea e ie ltes eee ee ee 360

Grand total, «<3 6 Wie <i dee oh es ae eee 14, 240

The contract made in 1852 between Augustus Porter, Walter
Bryant, and Caleb S. Woodhull only conveyed lands to the edge
of the high bank of Niagara river, but did not include the talus
or slope between the edge of the high bank and the river, and only

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‘6T 94¥Id

———————— — — 2 — — a ae — - DN EEeEeEeEOOeyeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEEEEEE

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 649

granted the right to excavate 100 feet down the face of the bank.
In 1852, when this contract was made, the use of waterpower
under higher heads than 100 feet was, so far as the United States
was concerned, entirely unknown. Until recently the mills at
Niagara Falls have not attempted to use more than 50 or 60 feet

NS
SS

S

i what
VARVANAN Sas

|

i0 O 10 50 {00
———E———————EE——EE—— SS |
SCALE OF FEET

V3 Sine ee ee 2 NIAGARA
Y SSS eee
a EN RIVER

Fig. 41. General plan of development of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic
Power and Manufacturing Company.

head; hence it resulted that although the capacity of the Niagara
Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company’s canal, as
at first constructed, was sufficient, by development of the whole
head, to produce about 15,000 horsepower, under the original
agreements its capacity was exhausted when about 7000 horse-
power was produced. "
In 1892 the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac-
turing Company began an enlargement and improvement of its

650 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

canal. The plan adopted was to widen the original channel at
one side to 70 feet, and make the new part 14 feet deep. This
work is cut entirely through rock, below the water line. The
enlargement of one side was completed in 1896. The canal as
enlarged to date has a capacity of about 3000 cubic feet per
second, giving under present conditions a total of from 40,000 to
50,000 horsepower, the cross-section being about 400 square feet.

In a letter from John Harper, engineer of the company, written
under date of May 24, 1904, it is stated that the total present
development of this company is 43,000 horsepower, and that work
is now in progress on an additional 100,000-horsepower plant to
be entirely located below the cliff. Of this quantity 10,000
horsepower is by water from the company’s waterway.

This company has a grant from the State of the right to draw
from Niagara river as much water as can be taken through a
canal 100 feet wide and 14 feet deep.

To July 1, 1897, about 100,000 cubic yards of material had been
taken out at a cost of $250,000, the average cuttings in the original
canal from the surface of the ground to the surface of the water
being about 8 feet. :

The development by this company is very interesting. <A bulk-
head is located at the top of the high bank with a forebay back
of it connected with the main hydraulic canal by a shortbranch
canal. From the forebay a large penstock leads vertically down
the cliff to a powerhouse located directly on the shore of the
lower river. In this power-house horizontal turbine water wheels
are placed, with dynamos directly connected, the power therefrom
being transmitted either to the mills on the bluff above or to
establishments at a distance. Without taking into account the
cost of water in the canal, the cost of the development of power
in the way in which it is now being developed by this company
may be placed at $35 per horsepower.

‘For further details of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manu-
facturing Company, see (1) Power Development of Niagara Falls, other than
that of the Niagara Falls Power Company, by W. C. Johnson: Trans. Engi-
neeys’ Society of Western New York, Vol. I, No. 6 (Feb. 3, 1896); (2)
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company’s New Work,
by Orrin E. Dunlap: Electrical Engineer, Vol. XX (Dec. 4, 1895); (38) Old
Hydraulic Power Plant at Niagara Falls Transformed for Electrical Trans-

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‘0G 9481

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 651

Niagara Falls Power Company. The Niagara Falls Power Com-
pany has developed an extensive plant on quite different lines
from that of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufac-
turing Company. In 1883 to 1885 Thomas Evershed, who was at
that time division engineer of the western division of the New York
State canals, was called on to survey Niagara Falls Park Reserva-
tion, as provided for by act of the Legislature. This led Mr Ever-

Goat Island

_

NIAGARA Ferd UE Ft

1000 S00 ° 1000 2000

SCALE QF FEET

Fig. 42 Niagara Falls and vicinity, showing location of the great tunnel.

shed to spend considerable time at Niagara Falls, during which
he conceived the project of constructing a tunnel to begin at the
level of the lower river and extend under the city of Niagara Falls
for a distance of about 24 miles. This tunnel was to be generally
parallel to the Niagara river, but at some little distance from
it. At its head and at various points along the river from above
Port Day it was proposed to construct branch canals connecting

mission, by Orrin E. Dunlap: Western Electrician, Vol. XIX (Dec. 5, 1896) ;
(4) Pulp Mill of the Cliff Paper Company of Niagara Falls, New York,
by W. C. Johnson: Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXII (Aug., 1894).

652, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

with the river and through which water could be taken, to be
discharged upon turbine wheels placed in vertical wheel pits and
connected with the tunnel at various points.

The Niagara River Hydraulic Tunnel, Power and Sewer Com-
pany of Niagara Falls was incorporated in 1886 for the purpose
of constructing and operating, in connection with Niagara river,
a hydraulic tunnel or subterranean sewer for public use in the
disposal of sewage and drainage and for furnishing hydraulic
power for manufacturing purposes in the town of Niagara Falls.
In consideration of the public service of sewerage and drainage,
this company was authorized to acquire land by condemnation.

The general plan of development is described by Mr Evershed
in a report made July 1, 1886gan which he states that the main
tunnel would begin at a point on the lower river immediately
north of the State reservation, with its mouth as low as high
water below the falls would permit. From this point to half a
mile above Port Day it should have a rise of 1 foot in 100, or 52.8
feet per mile, and a section above Port Day equivalent to a circle
24 feet in diameter, the tunnel gradually diminishing in size in
accordance with the number of mills emptying tail-water into it,
until at the upper end it would have the same area of cross section
as the connecting cross tunnels.t

The matter remained in abeyance until 1889, when the Niagara
Falls Power Company was organized to carry out, in effect, Mr
E\vershed’s plan. The actual work of construction was under-
taken by the Cataract Construction Company, composed of
William B. Rankine, Francis Lynde Stetson, Pierpont Morgan,
Hamilton McK. Twombly, Edward A. Wickes, Morris K. Jesup,
Darius Ogden Mills, Charles F. Clarke, Edward D. Adams,
Charles Lanier, A. J. Forbes-Leith, Walter Howe, John Crosby
Brown, Frederick W. Whirtridge, William K. Vanderbilt, George
S. Bowdoin, Joseph Larocque, John Jacob Astor and Charles A.
Sweet. This company has modified the original plans in some
particulars, although the general scheme has been carried out.

The plan finally determined on comprised a surface canal 250
feet in width at its mouth on the river, 114 miles above the falls,

‘See pamphlet, Water Power at Niagara Falls, prospectus of the Niagara
River Hydraulic Tunnel, Power and Sewer Company (1886).

“CUVAUMOD ADMOG S[[V] VARSVIN oI] JO osnor-toMod

TS 948d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 653

extending inwardly 1700 feet, with an average depth of 12 feet,
and computed to furnish water sufficient for the development of
about 120,000 horsepower. The masonry walls of this canal are
pierced at intervals with inlets, guarded by gates. Some of these
are used to deliver water to tenants who construct their own
wheel pits and set their own wheels, while 10 of them are ar-
ranged on one side of the canal for the purpose of delivering
water to the wheel pit of the Niagara Falls Power Company’s
power station, where dynamos, placed at the top of turbine ver-
tical shafts, generate electricity for transmission. The wheel pit
at the power station is 178 feet in depth and connected with the
main tunnel by a short cross tunnel. The main tunnel as carried
out has a maximum hight of 21 feet and a width of 18.82 feet,
making a net section of 386 square feet. The slope of this tunnel
is 6 feet to 1000.

The most careful consideration was given to the subject of the
turbines to be used, as well as to the question of power trans-
mission. In 1890 Edward ID. Adams, who was then president of
“the company, established an International Niagara Commission,
with power to offer $20,000 in prizes. This commission consisted
of Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), Dr Coleman Sellers,
Lieut. Col. Theodore Turretini, Prof. E. Mascart, and Prof. W. C.
Unwin. Inquiries concerning the best-known methods of develop-
ment and transmission of power in England, France, Switzerland
and Italy were made, and competitive plans were received from
twenty carefully selected engineers and manufacturers of power
plants in England, Europe and America. These plans were sub-
mitted to the commission, which awarded prizes to those con-
sidered worthy. The most important result was the selection of
the designs of Faesch and Piccard, of Geneva, for turbines com-
puted to yield 5000 horsepower each. Three wheels have been
built from these designs and are now in place and regularly
operated.

Without going into details of the electrical work, it may be
stated that the Niagara Falls Power Company adopted the two-
phase alternating current system as best adapted to its work. In
the dynamos employed the field magnet revolves instead of the

654 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

armature. As advised by the company’s electrical engineer, Prof.
George Forbes, of London, three such dynamos, of 5000 horse-
power each, constructed by the Westinghouse Company, of Pitts-
burg, have been installed. During the summer of 1896 a trans-
mission line was constructed from Niagara Falls to Buffalo, and
since November of that year some of the street railways in Buffalo
have been operated electrically by power from Niagara Falls.

According to a statement of William B. Rankine, secretary of
the Cataract Construction Company, the power furnished or con-
tracted for by the Niagara Falls Power Company July 1, 1897,
was as follows:

POWER FURNISHED BY THE NIAGARA FALLS POWER COMPANY IN 1897

|

Company / Business | ee
J i
(a) Hydraulic power
Niagara Falls Paper Company.............. | Paper 40, RAL | 7,200
(b) Electric power

Pittsburg Reduction Company.. .......... , Aluminum .......... | 3,050
The Carborundum Company............... Abrasives . .>..222:0- 1,000
Acetylene Light, Heat and Power Company.| Calcium carbide..... | 1,075

Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light :
and Power Company |. 22.2. 2-2-5965, eae Local lighting.. .... ) 500
Walton | Ferguson . =); 4200 of. Bere ee ' Chlorate of potash. .| 500
Niagara Electro-Chemical Company........ | Peroxide of sodium. . 400
. Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Railway.| Local railway....... 300

Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge Rail-
way Comipatty *2<0 2 vccaecp cose ne eee Local railway....... 250
Buffalo Street Railway Company........... | 22-mile transmission.! 1,000
Acetylene Light, Heatand Power Company ?.! Calcium carbide..... - 4,000
Mathieson Alkali Works?..............-<.. Some Me. We ccc wea | 4,000
Baffalo Street: Railway Company... -j. <1 .4S63t5 4... ieee sees ee / 1,000
Buffalo General Electric Company #......... | Lightime .-s....c0erns 8, 000
The Carborundum Company ®............... Abrasives ........... 1,000
Niagara Falls Water Works. Company . .....<-) «+ =< te. -+sebhen ee 45
Power City Foundry and Machine Company.| .................--++ 25
Albright: and ‘W ison 622120.) 2 TS | Electro-chemicals ... 400
Total hydraulic power sold at Niagara Falls.| ....................-. 7, 200
Total electric power sold at Niagara Falls..| ....... ...........+.- 16, 545
Total electric power sold at. Buffalo... ... 22] .o.q.iss<+ssneureens 5, 000

Total . <ip sen: dainste.oy cable @ hoBce'ew ps <del 28, 7

*All from October 1, 1896.

?From delivery, say, November 1, 1897.
*k'rom June 1, 1897.

*From November 15, 1897.

‘From June 1, 1897.

“LUVAUIOD AMO ST[V RVAVSLIN: off} JO osnoy-19MOd JO AOLIOJUL JO AMOL|

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‘OS 948d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 655

Recapitulation of the total power in use or furnished from
Niagara Falls January 1, 1898, shows the following amounts:

Hydraulic power : Horsepower

Niagara Falls Power Company...:...........006. 7,200
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing
IM oo orrsh a apoyo hs aay «ie fei mie + Mies Shee 7,525
Electric power: : |
Niagara,P alls Power Company... ...c005 0. 0sseee. 21,545
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing
NN 056520 one nice RRR SE go aid a uae. « «aw alse 6,355

Mechanical power:
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing
Company ........ BOA, © 8 aes ley cee ee ee 360

The officers of the Niagara Falls Power Company in 1904 are
D. O. Mills, president; Edward A. Wickes, first vice-president ;
William B. Rankine, second vice-president and treasurer; KE. L.
Lovelace, secretary, and W. Paxton Little, assistant secretary
and assistant treasurer.

This company has largely extended its power-house within the
last two or three years. In a letter from William B. Rankine,
under date of March 21, 1904, it is stated that eleven dynamos
in the new power-house are now in place so that the units in-
stalled in both power-houses have a rated capacity of 110,500
horsepower, and that the company is delivering to its consumers
at Niagara Falls, Buffalo and intermediate points a maximum
of 75,000 horsepower.

The 110,500 horsepower now developed represenits the full
capacity of the present tunnel. This company has secured the
right of way for a second discharge tunnel, so that when the
demand for power renders it necessary, the present plant may
be duplicated, thus furnishing 200,000 horsepower. In addition
to this large development on the American side, originally the
Canadian Niagara Power Company, an allied corporation, held
from the Canadian government an exclusive franchise granting

656 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to it the right to develop on the Canadian side at least 250,000
horsepower, but this has been modified and in 1904 additional
developments are in process on the Canadian side by the Ontario
Power Company and the7Electrical Development Company of
Ontario. The Canadian Niagara Power Company proposes to
limit its development to 110,000 horsepower while the Ontario
Power Company will develop 180,000 horsepower. The Develop-
ment Company of Ontario has a capacity of 125,000 horsepower.
The total possible power which may be developed in the future

at Niagara Falls is about as follows:'
Horsepower

Niagara Falls Power Company’s present tunnel........ 100,000
Niagara Falls Power Company’s second tunnel......... 100,000
Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power & Manufacturing Com-
pany’s canal. 302.0 Sos eee Ce 150,000
Canadian Niagara Power Company’s tunnels.......... 110,000
Ontario Power Company . 2.0). 0c a eee ee 180,000
Development Company of Qutarios >... .252 =... sree 125,000
Total ).55i¢. souk. ,weis RE CAL Eee te eee es 765,000

The developments in progress at Niagara Falls are being car-
ried out on very broad lines and probably furnish the best exam-
ples of modern hydraulic work. They certainly lead so far as the
United States and Canada are concerned. A complete account
of the works, giving details of all the engineering features,
would make a large-sized monograph?

For an interesting discussion as to the effect of diverting large quantities
ot water from Niagara river for power purposes, see report of Clemens
Herschel, made December 12, 1895, on the Diversion of Water from the
Niagara River for Power Purposes by the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
and Manufacturing Company and by the Niagara Falls Power Company,
and the Unimportant Effect of such Diversion upon the River. Mr. Her-
schel bases his discussion on the data of the lake survey of an ordinary and
usual flow of 265,000 cubic feet per second. Reasoning from this premise
he concludes that even when 300,000 or 400,000 horsepower are in use the
effect upon the depth of the river will be insignificant. It seems clear
enough that this proposition is open to discussion.

“The main facts in regard to the plant of Niagara Falls Power Company
have been furnished by L. H. Groat, former secretary of the company. Tor
more extended information the reader is referred to 1) Cassier’s Magazine,

‘uvdu0g JAMO WUIIMVT IS Iq} JO osnoy-1aMoOg

SG 948Id

‘AUBAMOD JAMOT WUIIMVY JS Iq] JO vsnoy-taMod Jo AoL1e]UT

‘VG 948d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 657

Power Development on St Lawrence River

The St Lawrence Power Company. Among the large power
developments under construction in the State of New York is that
of the St Lawrence Power Company at Massena, on St Law-
rence and Grasse rivers. The plant includes the excavation of
a canal leading from the St Lawrence river to Grasse river, a dis-
tance of three miles, the building of a power-house, together
with the installation of electric generators and the necessary
equipment of turbine water wheels. The furnishing of the elec-
tric apparatus. was awarded to the Westinghouse Electrical &
Manufacturing Company.

The plan of development is to divert a portion of the water of
St Lawrence river from its natural channel by means of a canal,
carrying it 3 miles across to Grasse river, where, after operating
turbines, it will pass by way of Grasse river to the St Lawrence
at a point lower down stream. Just below where the canal takes
water from St Lawrence river are Long Sault rapids, which have
‘a fall of about 50 feet. Grasse river runs nearly parallel to the
St Lawrence for several miles, flowing into it a short distance
below the foot of Long Sault rapids. To the south of the
St Lawrence river, and between it and the valley of Grasse river,
there is a comparatively level plateau.

The average width of Grasse river from its mouth to above where
the power canal will intersect it is from 250 to 300 feet, and its
water surface, for that portion, is substantially on a level with
St Lawrence below the rapids; hence the surface of Grasse river
at the point where the power canal strikes the stream is from
45 to 50 feet below the surface of the St Lawrence at the head
of the canal. The power station will be located on the north
bank of Grasse river, the tail-water dropping into that stream,
which thus becomes, in effect, a tailrace for this power develop-

Vol. VIII (July, 1895), where may be found an account of nearly every
phase of the Niagara Falls Power Company’s development; 2) The Elec-
trical World, Vol. XXX (Oct. 28, 1897), which may be consulted for a
description of the extension of the wheel pit; 3) Niagara Falls publication
of the Niagara Falls Chamber of Commerce, issued in 1897; 4) the
various numbers for 1897 of Greater Buffalo, a monthly publication de-
voted to promoting the prosperity of Buffalo and Niagara Falls. Engineer-
ing News and other technical journals may also be consulted.

658 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ment. Making some allowance for increased depth of water in
Grasse river between the power stattion and its mouth, when
receiving the tail-water, and also some allowance for inclination
of the water surface of the head canal, it is considered that a per-
manent power of about 40 feet will be obtained. ;

The work of constructing the canal and preliminary work on
the foundations of the power-house was started in 1897, at which
time it was expected that the work would be completed in 1899.
The St Lawrence Power Company, by whom the work has been
done, was organized under the laws of New York with a capital
stock of $6,000,000.

For the present, work upon the canal was completed in 1903.
It has an average depth of 18 feet and a surface width of 200
feet. It is constructed throughout its entire length in excava-
tion and is approximately straight throughout. At the head of
the canal there is a slight promontory, which protects it from ice
and drift in the St Lawrence river. 5

At the Massena end, with the foundations carried to rock, a
power-house designed by John Bogart of New York and Messrs
Kincaid, Waller and Manville of London, has been constructed.
It will be nearly 700 feet long when completed, with a width of
150 feet. Victor turbines to the extent of 42,000 horsepower have
been installed. The wheels are controlled by an electric governor —
in the power-house. The exciter wheels are 27 inches in diameter,
two to each exciter, discharging through one draft-tube and
operating at 275 revolutions per minute.

The dynamos are of 6000 horsepower, 2200 volts, 3000 alter-
nations, 3-phase revolving field type, with external armature.
The speed is 150 revolutions per minute. The efficiency at full
load 96 per cent. The heating at full load, continuous, 35 degrees
rise. Weight of revolving element, 80,000 pounds, and total
weight of the dynamos, 350,000 pounds. |

The switchboards for the alternating current machines and
for the feeders are operated electro-pneumatically, and for the
exciters a standard, direct current switchboard has been installed,
with hand-operated switches.

In a letter from Mr Bogart, consulting engineer to the com-
pany, under date of March 23, 1904, it is stated that the Pitts-

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an int sn, oe ee

GG 94¥Td

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 659

burg Reduction Company have built on the banks of the power
canal a large establishment for the manufacture of aluminum and
have arranged to take from the St Lawrence Power Company
10,000 horsepower. This power was sold upon the shaft of the
turbines, the Pittsburg Reduction Company putting in their own
generators, which are direct current and not alternating.

At present there are seven sets or units of turbines installed,
each of three pairs of Victor wheels, with an output of 6000
horsepower per unit. Two of these units are those referred to
as equipped with direct-current generators for the Pittsburg
Reduction Company; three other units have 5000-horsepower
alternating current Westinghouse generators, fully installed,
with all connections, bus-bars, switchboards and other appur-
tenances; the two remaining turbines are not yet equipped with
electric generators.

The village of Massena is lighted by the Power Company and
St Lawrence water is supplied from the canal under pressure.

Aside from the Pittsburg Reduction Company, no other indus-
tries are yet established.

Power Development on Hudson River

The Hudson River Power Transinission Company. Among the
important developments on the Hudson river mention may be
made of the plant of the Hudson River Power Transmission
Company, two miles below Mechanicville. This plant is eleven
miles from Troy, eighteen miles from Albany, and seventeen
miles from Schenectady.

The Hudson river is here divided by an island into two channels
with a total width of about 1200 feet. The dam and power-house
were constructed in 1897 and 1898. The western channel of the
river is used for power head and tailrace. The dam is 15 feet
high above the river, 8 feet thick a short distance below the crest
and 16 feet through the face. The original length of the spillway,
which was situated on the east side of the island, was 707 feet,
but since the original construction an additional spillway, 143
feet long, has been added by removing the earth and rock from
the river bank, one foot lower than the crest of the main dam.
The power-house of concrete is at the west end of the dam and
may be considered as a continuation thereof. The length of the

660 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

power-house is 257 feet and width 56 feet. The headworks are
protected by piers, so placed in the river as to force ice and logs
to follow the course of the main river over the dam. The elec-
tricity generated is transmitted to Schenectady for use in the
General Electric Company’s works.

This plant is developed for 5000 horsepower, although in ex-
treme low water it is not capable of supplying as much as this.
There are auxiliary engines to supplement the lowwater power.

123500 WATER +----¥%
PRESSURE
/2 FT OVER CREST

ABs

Fig. 43. Section of overfall of Hudson River Water Power Company |

The Hudson River Water Power Company. This company be-
gan an extensive development at Spier Falls in 1900, which has
involved the excavation of 270,000 cubie yards of rock and the
building of 130,000 cubic yards of concrete and rubble masonry.
The masonry has been laid at the rate of 8000 cubie yards per
month.

The location of this power is on the Hudson river, nine miles
southwest of Glens Falls. The reservoir created by the dam is
5 miles long, 1-3 mile wide and with 80 feet head. Ten turbines,
capable of developing 5000 horsepower each, drive dynamos
whereby electricity can be supplied to Saratoga Springs, Sche-

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L6 9481d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 661

nectady, Glens Falls, Troy and Albany. The company states
that at times of low water the minimum power development will
be 20,000 horsepower.

It is understood the company has in contemplation the con-
struction of a large storage reservoir at Conklinville and at
other points on Hudson river.

The power-house is divided into three sections—the wheel
room, generator room.and transformer and switchboard room.
In the wheel room there are ten pairs of turbines, each with
capacity of 5000 horsepower under 80 feet head. These wheels
are set 12 feet above the level of tail-water, each pair outletting
to one draft-tube. The generator room contains ten 3350-horse-
power 3-phase 2000-volt, 40 cycle, direct connected General
Electric Company’s generators, running at 240 revolutions per
minute. ‘There will also be three 265-horsepower exciters, each
direct connected to its own water wheel. In the transformer
room there will be thirty 1000-horsepower high potential trans-
formers, besides motors and blowers, and high and low potential
switchboards.

On the pole line five feeder circuits have a capacity of 50,000
horsepower, the longest one being 42 miles.

The following statement of the financial resources of the
Hudson River Water Power Company is taken from the com-
pany’s prospectus:

Contracts with General Electric Co.:

No. 1 (5000 horsepower)......... $112,500 00
No. 2 (5000 horsepower) ........ ~ 134,375 00

$246,875 00
Coutract with Glens Falls Portland Cement Co.:
1000 horsepower guaranteed................. 22,500 00
Contract with United Traction Co.,
Albany (through the Hudson
River Electric Co. and _ the
Hudson River Power Trans-
mission Co.) minimum estimate:
No. 1 (4000 horsepower) ......... $72,500 00
No. 2 (2000 horsepower) ........ 90,000 00
162,500 00

662 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Contract with the Municipal Gas Co.
of Albany, to be supplied imme-
diately that gas company may
secure necessary apparatus:
Light, 4000 horsepower, at $60 net $240,000 00
Power, 2000 horsepower, at $63.40
Het SU... ase nes es 126,800 00

Contract with the Troy Lighting Co.,
to be supplied immediately that
lighting company may secure
necessary apparatus:
Light, 3000 horsepower, at $60 net $180,000 00
Power, 3000 horsepower, at $63.40
TEL... « «...s 0c ee ee 190,200 00

Net earnings of the Saratoga Gas, Electric Light
and Power C6 3.2220). 4. e a eee
Net earnings of the Ballston Spa Light and
Power OO Viens kes oe he ee

Gross receipts of Hudson River Water

Power C0-. jscieceae cee eee eee eee

Annual operating expenses........ $100,000 00
Annual interest charge on $2,000,000
Hudson River Water Power Com-

_pany’s 5 per cent bonds......... 100,000 00
Annual interest charge on $2,000,000
Hudson River Electric Company’s

5 per cent bonds outstanding.... 100,000 00
Annual interest charge on Hudson
River Power Transmission Com-
pany’s bonds and operating ex-

penses of company .............- 56,000 00

WEE-MGrDlUe . 25... 6s... « «in ere

$366,800 00

370,200 00
42.506 00
4,968 00

25,000 00

$1,241,349 00

356,000 00

———$$<——

$885,349 00

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"8G 948[d

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‘66 948%1d

ILYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 663

Annual receipts from sales of 6297
additional horsepower actually
applied for in the following

cities:
DUMMY gooct rte gs unl a a sate $58,250 00
VETS Lo 1 5 Reavis eae aaa cana rine 45,717 00
Ballston Springs ...............- 20,000 00
PRM EeREIR nk xo ciaie ms ae yc se « 25,000 00
RoW MO AE else sy sc nse'n = 2 4 15,000 00
. —_—___—_—— $163,967 00
Net surplus earnings after meeting operating
expenses and interest charges............ $1,049,316 00

This statement shows a net surplus of over $1,000,000 for
annual dividends on the stock and for further operations of the
company. On the foregoing showing this is a good project and
worthy of consideration by anybody desiring to invest in water
power.

In addition to the Hudson River Water Power Company, asso-
ciated companies are the Hudson River Electric Company, the
Hudson River Power Transmission Company, the Saratoga Gas,
Electric Light and Power Company, and the Ballston Springs
Light and Power Company.

Power Development on Schoharie Creek

The Empire State Power Company. In 1899 the Empire State
Power Company began the development of an extensive plant
on Schoharie creek. The original project included the develop-
‘ment of power plants at 1) Burtonville; 2) two miles below
Burtonville; 3) Schoharie falls; 4) Mill Point, and 5) a short
distance above Fort Hunter.

Site No. 1. The plant at Burtonville, as originally proposed,
was to have 85 feet fall. In order to create this power a
masonry dam 47 feet high was to be constructed, with a power
canal on the east side leading 6000 feet down the stream. As
an alternative proposition, it has been proposed to make this
development with only a short canal, placing the power station

664 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

_just below the dam. It has also been proposed to construct a
masonry dam at Burtonville village, which will be of sufficient
hight to make up for the fall in the river of about 16 feet. In
this case the canal would be located on the west side of the
river.

Site No. 2. At the time of examining this matter in 1900 bor-
ings had not been made at site No. 2, and in the absence of
definite information as to the depth of rock it was idle to specu-
late. This plant included a short canal which could be easily
constructed.

Site No. 5. The Empire State Power Company constructed a
plant at Schoharie falls in 1899 and 1900. This plant includes
a masonry dam and head canal 4000 feet in length, with the
power station situated at the foot of said canal. In the origi-
nal project, owing to erroneous conceptions as to the flow of
Schoharie creek, the canal was designed for a maximum flow
of 1500 cubic feet per second, although in carrying this amount,
friction would consume about two feet of head. Later on it
was concluded that 800 cubic feet per second would be perhaps
asafer maximum. A cross-section of the dam is shown in figure
No. 36. This dam is 12 feet in hight, and by carrying the canal
4000 feet down the stream 40 feet head is secured.

Site No. 4. This plant is at Mill Point, 114 miles below Scho-
harie falls. The site is now occupied by a gristmill and sawmill
which are owned by the Empire State Power Company. The
dam is to be of timber and 8 feet in hight.

Site No. 5. At this plant the dam is to be of timber and pre-
sents no difficulties in development. It is situated about one mile
above Fort Hunter and will realize practically the entire catch-
ment area of ‘Schoharie creek.

The object in developing these plants on Schoharie creek was_
to transmit the power electrically to Amsterdam, seven miles
distant, where, on account of a large amount of manufacturing
by steam power, there was an excellent market for electricity. It
was also proposed to transmit 1000 horsepower to the Helder-
berg Cement Company at Howe’s Cave, and pole lines were con-
structed with reference to these transmissions.

Assuming that storage enough is made to insure a permanent
flow of 650 cubic feet per second, it is possible to develop on.

Plate 30.

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General view of Trenton Falls in time of high water. (West Canada creek.)

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‘TE 24¥%1d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK - ° . 665

Schoharie creek about 9000 horsepower. As to whether the power
is to be 10 hour, 12 hour or 24 hour power will also be taken
into account. There is, however, some doubt as to whether it is
possible to make a storage large enough to secure a flow of 650)
cubic feet per second, and until thorough surveys are made this
must be considered merely a possibility. In view of this uncer-
tainty and doubt, it is considered safer to assume that not more
than 5000 to 6000 permanent power can be developed within
commercial limits.

The dam at Schoharie falls is of masonry, backed with
timber. It was originally constructed with crest 380 feet long,
but in the spring of 1901, in a heavy flood, a portion of the
dam and canal was carried away. Damage to the canal was
due to inadequate wasteway arrangements—the wasteway origi-
nally constructed being only 50 feet in length. Owing to
financial difficulties this dam was not repaired until 1902, at
which time the cost of repairing it and the raceway and the
making of the necessary repairs to power station was estimated
at $80,000—the actual cost was somewhat more than this.
In the repairs, the dam was made 620 feet in length and the waste-
way 100 feet in length. It is understood that in the fall of 1903
the dam was again carried away by floods and that it has not
yet been rebuilt. Owing to these unexpected expenditures the
company is in financial difficulties and it is uncertain whether
the dam is likely to be repaired.

Power Development on West Canada Creek

The Utica Gas & Electric Company. In 1901-2 a power plant
was constructed at Trenton Falls by the Utica Gas & Electric
Company. The following are some of the particulars of this plant,
as derived from a letter from C. A. Greenidge, superintendent of
the electrical department of that company, dated April 6, 1904:

This plant includes a concrete dam, with hight above the bed
of the stream of 60 feet and 55 feet thick at the base; 288 feet
long and arched upstream on a radius of 800 feet. It is con-
structed of concrete, partly faced with stone. In its center there
is a spillway 100 feet wide and on the right, cut in the rock face
of the gorge, another spillway 112 feet wide. At a depth of 40
feet below the surface of the pond there are four 60-inch supply

666 NEW YORK ‘STATE MUSEUM

pipes, only two of which are in use at present. These pipes are
joined, by means of a cast iron Y, into a 7-foot penstock. The
penstock is 5700 feet long, and for 2700 feet is constructed of
pine staves banded with 3°4-inch round steel bands. These bands
are about 6 inches apart. The balance of the penstock of about
1000 feet is constructed of steel varying in thickness 34 inch to
Xe inch; 250 feet from the end of the penstock there is a stand-
pipe 180 feet high. When there is no load on the plant the water
rises 150 feet high in this pipe, but falls from 10 to 15 feet as
the load varies. The penstock leads into a receiver from which are
taken four 48-inch and two 12-inch pipes. Each of the 48-inch
pipes supplies an 1800-horsepower outward flow reaction turbine,
with vertical shaft. A 1000 kilowatt alternating current genera-
tor, running at 360 revolutions per minute, is connected to this
shaft. Each of the 12-inch pipes supplies a 110-horsepower
turbine, with vertical shaft direct connected to the armature of a
75-kilowatt direct current generator, running at 750 revolutions.
per minute. The total head is 265 feet, and the.maximum load
carried during the winter of 1904 was 7600 horsepower. The cur-
rent is transmitted at 22,000 volts to Utica, 1214 miles distant.
The usual step-up and step-down transformers are included. This.
plant was designed by Wm. A. Brackenridge.

Power Development on Raquette River

Hannawa Falls Water Power Company. There is an im-
portant power development at Hannawa Falls on Raquette river,
where the catchment area is 967 square miles. This stream has a
fall of nearly 300 feet in three miles of its course below the vil-
lage of Colton, and a further fall of 85 feet in the next two miles.
of its course.

The land and water rights along this part of the river have been
acquired by the Hannawa Falls Water Power Company, who have
developed the lower 85-foot fall. A masonry dam has been built
at the village of Hannawa Falls, forming a pond 214% miles long
and covering 200 acres. From this pond the water is conducted
by a canal 2700 feet long as a forebay, thence by penstocks to the
wheels. The tailrace extends 2000 feet from the power-house,
being separated from the Raquette river by an embankment of
earth and stone. At the point selected for the dam the bed of

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 667

the river is Potsdam sandstone, the strata dipping at an angle
of about 30 degrees downstream. The banks are of sandstone,

nearly perpendicular, and about 375 feet apart up to a level of

10 feet below the crest of the dam. —

The material for the construction of the masonry work was
obtained from quarries near-by, It is Potsdam sandstone which
comes out from the quarry with nearly level beds, and no cutting

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was done except to level the crest of the dam after the stone was

in place. For the downstream face of the dam stones from 12 to
18 inches in thickness, 2 to 4 feet wide and 3 to 4 feet long, were
For the upstream

used, the beds being laid normal] to the surface.
face a rubble wall about 3 feet thick was laid of smaller stone.
The space between was filled with large bowlders and irregular
Shaped quarry stones, with concrete rammed in around and be-

This dam was completed in the fall of 1899 and has had

: tween.
The dam

414 feet of water over its crest in two different seasons.
is perfectly water-tight. .

668 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The canal is about 2700 feet long and 20 feet deep from the top
of the banks, the bottom being 14 feet below the crest of the dam.
The bottom width of the canal is 30 feet and the top width 110
feet.

The Hannawa Falls Water Power Company, in cooperation
with other waterpower owners on the Raquette river, expect to:

_ construct reservoirs which will maintain a constant flow of 2500:
cubic feet per second in the river.

The power station is constructed of Potsdam sandstone and
steel. ‘he penstock pipes are of steel, +-inch and 32-inch in
thickness. At present (1904) there is only one water-wheel set
for the electrical equipment. This wheel is a 1250-horsepower
horizontal water-wheel, built by James Leffel & Company. At
each end of the horizontal shaft there is a direct connected 350-
kilowatt three-phase 4400-volt generator. There is also an oppor-
tunity to set three other similar wheels.

The two 350-kilowatt generators are connected to the wheel
shaft by plate couplings, having a movable plate between the faces.
They are of the revolving field type, having 24 poles and deliver-
ing three-phase current at a frequency of 60 periods per second
and a pressure of 4400 volts: They run at 300 revolutions per
minute and are excited by two belted exciters, each of sufficient
capacity to supply both generators.

The switchboard of Vermont marble consists of two generator
panels with indicating instruments, one exciter panel with
switches and instruments for both exciters, two 4400-volt feeder
panels, with relay, circuit breakers, oil break switches, and watt-
meters, one 220-volt panel with seven distributing switches, one
transformer panel, and one 20,000-volt panel with three quick-
break switches having marble barriers.

The Hannawa Falls Water Power Company owns the electric
lighting plant in the village of Potsdam, 44 miles from the sta-
tion, with which village it is connected by a double line, which
consists of three cables-of seven strands each, of aluminum wire.
This line was computed to transmit 375 kilowatts with a drop of
400 volts, delivering 4000 volts at Potsdam, where it would be
stepped down for transmission to consumers. The 20,000-volt line

‘IOALL a}jondey uo AuLdWO) TOMO TO}VA STR] VAvuUB]T of} Jo tavp JoMOd

4

amin.

Me eS ee LP ETN EEE —

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 669

is intended to run to the village of Canton, 1014 miles from Han-
nawa Falls, and'finally to the city of Ogdensburg, 19 miles
farther. .

It is also intended to utilize a portion of the power to be de-
veloped here for grinding wood-pulp, and accordingly a ground
wood-pulp plant of 100 tons capacity per day is included.

In the grinder room two pairs of 4000-horsepower water-wheels,
built by the S. Morgan Smith Company, are placed on horizontal
shafts and supplied with water from two independent 10-foot pen-
stocks, discharging into a common tailrace.t From the foregoing

it appears that in 1904 about 9000 horsepower is developed at this

station, although the writer is unable to state whether or not the
full capacity of the pulp-grinding machinery is utilized. These
works were designed by W. C. Johnson.

Waterpower of Erie canal

When the Erie canal was first constructed the policy was
adopted of leasing the so-called surplus water for power pur-
poses. Under the terms of the act of 1825 leases were made
during 1826 and subsequent years to a number of persons at
Black Rock, Lockport and other localities.

Power at Black Rock. The granting of these leases and the
resultant development of large manufacturing interests at several
points have raised certain economic questions which will now be
briefly discussed. The waterpower at Black Rock, for which
several leases were granted, will be first mentioned.. This power
is created by the difference in level between the water in the Erie
canal and the Black Rock harbor and that in the Niagara river
outside the harbor wall, this difference of water-level amounting
to from 4 feet to 4.5 feet. As measured in the spring of 1896, at
a point near the ship lock, it was about 4 feet. According to
the report of the Assembly Committee of 1870, there were
formerly ten mills in operation at Black Rock, using 2744 second-
feet of water. The power developed by these mills, and all
operating at full capacity, is estimated at not exceeding 520
horsepower. Owing to the decline of the milling business in

1Abstract from paper, Water Power Development at Hannawa Falls, by
W. C. Johnson. Trans. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., Vol. XXIII.

670 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

New York State a number of these mills have passed out of
existence.

The four mills still in existence require about 1200 cubic feet of
water per second to operate them at the full capacity of the wheels
now in place.

The use of water by the Black Rock mills has always been a det-
riment to navigation. When all were running the amount of water
actually drawn through the canal and harbor for their supply, and
for the supply of the canal to the east of Buffalo, was fully 3300
cubic feet per second.

When all the Black Rock mills were in operation the great draft
of water so obstructed the navigation that the Legislature finally
authorized the construction of a division wall in Black Rock har-
bor, by which it was expected that the water supply for the mills
would be entirely taken from the harbor, leaving the channel of
the canal pretty nearly free for the purposes of navigation; but
after the greater part of the wall was completed it was ascer-
tained that because of the silting of the upper harbor with sewage
mud, as well as drifting sand from the lake, there would be diffi-
culty in obtaining the full suppiy for the mills through the harbor,
without extensive dredging. The division wall was, therefore,
never completed, two gaps, amounting, in the aggregate, to several
hundred feet, having been left below Terry street. There was thus
an expenditure of about $350,000 for the benefit of the milling
interests which is entirely without effect for lack of completion.
Under the present conditions, however, of entire decline of the
Black Rock milling interests, there is, of course, no reason why
the wall should be completed, and the matter is discussed here
merely for the purpose of bringing out clearly the struggle be-
tween the navigation interests and the manufacturing interests,
which has been in progress in New York State for the last seventy-
five years.

Power at Lockport. At Lockport the construction of the Erie
canal through the mountain ridge created a fall of 58 feet at a
single point, and since the use of water for lockage purposes is

“The Assembly Tian fitcn oe 1870 give fin following Hetibas as bam
applicable: Lower Black Rock mills, 1887 second-feet; upper Black Rock
mills, 858 second-feet; for supply of canal, 583 second-feet; total, 352

second-feet.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK O71

only a small part of the whole flow, the balance required to feed
the canal to the east of Lockport is necessarily discharged
around the locks into the lower canal by means of sluiceways.
Under the laws of 1825 a public auction was held in the village
of Lockport, in the fall of that year, and the right to use this sur-
plus water sold to Messrs Richard Kennedy and James H. Hatch,
whose successors at the present day constitute the Lockport
Hydraulic Power Company.

Lockport has usually been considered more purely a result of
the canal development than any other point in western New York,
for the reason that while nearly all other towns in the region had
some growth before the Erie canal was located, it was only in
1821, after the present location for the canal had been definitely
decided on, that the nucleus of a village was formed here by the
contractors and their workmen employed on the canal. In 1820
there was no frame house or barn within 5 miles of Lockport,
and there were less than 600 acres of cleared land in the 4 square
miles, of which the city of Lockport is now the center. More-
over, there are no natural advantages which would have naturally
led to the growth of an important town at this point.

When once started, however, under the impulse of the canal
development, Lockport grew rapidly until, in 1829, with a popu-
lation of 3000, it was incorporated as a village, and in 1865 as
acity. The population in 1890 was 16,038; in 1904 it is estimated
at over 17,000.

The total investment in manufacturing plants at Lockport
dependent on the Erie canal water supply amounts to $2,531,000.
The total number of establishments is 33, employing 1880 opera-
tives. The total power now in use on the Erie canal proper is
2625 net horsepower.

A short distance to the east of the foot of the locks a small
stream known as the west branch of Eighteenmile creek crosses
under the canal. This stream, although having a catchment area
of only 1 or 2 square miles to the south of the canal, has cut a
deep valley with rapid fall for a considerable distance to the
north of the canal. In order to provide for discharging the sur-
plus waters from the canal, an overflow into Eighteenmile creek
was constructed at an early day. A mill was also permitted to

672 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

take water from the lower level and discharge its tail-water into
the creek. Finally the Jackson Lumber Company was permitted
to construct a sluiceway on the tow-path side, through which it
drew for many years about 600 cubic feet per second, and which
was all discharged into Highteenmile creek. Complaints having
frequently been made that boats were drawn against this sluice
on the tow-path side, the Superintendent of Public Works, in 1892,
granted a formal permit to the Jackson Lumber Company to
construct a sluice and subway under the canal bottom, by which
this water is now drawn from the berme side. Under this permit
a substantial masonry sluice was constructed in 1893. In the
meantime the Jackson Lumber Company has gone out of exist-
ence and this waterpower has passed into the hands of the
Traders’ Paper Company, which now occupies the site with its
pulp-mill No. 1.

The west branch of Eighteenmile creek descends about 175
feet within the limits of the city of Lockport, of which 148 feet
have been utilized for power during recent years.

The following are the companies now using power on this creek
and the horsepower used by each:

Horsepower

Traders’ Paper Company.) .4 csi. Pe PT See 1,060
Lockport Paper Comipaniy 2.0...) 0070, 00901 sit O, 2 ee 230
Niagara Paper Company..... be Gall oh igen a 115
Westerman & Company... <i, 57). Sep ae 320
Cascade Pulp Company:: (0 i6 Mic GH% ete te ee eee 925
Cowles Smelting Companyius 10x, 2002.9. ti ae 1,185
Potal bane. .1t-2. 36) eet wi, RUG seF Os Rie aie 3,835

The output of the establishments on the west branch of Highteen-
mile creek is about $2,000,000 a year; but this sum includes the ~
output of the Indurated Fibre Company, which, while operating
by steampower, depends largely for a supply of pulp on the
Cascade Pulp Company. In any case the figures show the magni-
{ude of the manufacturing interests which have been fostered in
the valley of the west branch of Eighteenmile creek by discharging
into that stream about 300 second-feet of water from the Erie
canal.

ts
4

Ta, se

> en te

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 673

With 2625 net horsepower in use on the canal proper, and

3835 on the west branch of Mighteenmile creek, the total actually in

use at Lockport, and dependent on Erie canal for its water supply,
is 6460 net horsepower.

No statements as to the or of the annual product of the
manufacturing establishments on the raceways of the Lockport
Hydraulic Power Company have been given. It is therefore im-
possible to state accurately the value of the total annual product
at Lockport. As several of the establishments there are very
extensive, including the Holly Manufacturing Company, it- may
be assumed that the annual output of this portion of the Lockport
manufactories has a value, at least, of $1,000,000; hence we reach
a total value of the annual product for the whole city of about
$3,000,000.

The annual rental paid to the State, under the terms of the
original lease, is only $200. At first sight it appears that there
is here a most marked case of what could only be termed blunder-
ing on the part of State officials, although on analyzing the matter
it is found that this extreme view is hardly correct. In the first
place it must be remembered that this lease was granted not only
by authority of an act of Legislature, but was only granted after
a public auction had been held, at which Messrs Kennedy and
Hatch were the highest bidders. As already shown, had not the
special conditions created by the Erie canal existed at Lockport,
there would, in all probability, have been no thriving city at that
point, but the area on which Lockport now stands would have
been farming land, with no more value than now attaches to
farming lands in the adjoining township of Lockport.

In order to show the results of this lease, at $200 a year, a
study has been made of the growth of Lockport from the year
1865, when Lockport became a city, to 1896. From such study
it appears that the valuation of the city has increased from less
than $3,000,000 to over $6,700,000, and that the total State tax
collected up to and including the year 1896 has amounted to over
half a million dollars. If this had remained a farming community
the State tax would probably not have been more than 3 per
cent of this amount. Using this tax return as a basis, it has
been computed that there has been an actual increase of wealth

674 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to the people of the State by the existence of Lockport of over
one and a half million dollars, not including in this the actual -
increased value of the city itself. The conclusion is drawn that
the benefit to the State at large has been very great on account of
this expenditure for internal improvement, irrespective of ques-
tions of navigation. This question is also discussed on page 259.

Power at Medina. The Oak Orchard feeder and the waterpower
at Medina present somewhat different points for consideration
from those at Lockport. |

About 1820 the Canal Commissioners caused a cut-off channel to
be constructed through Tonawanda swamp between Tonawanda
and Oak Orchard creeks, whereby the early summer flow of Tona-
wanda creek is diverted into Oak Orchard creek. Oak Orchard
creek passes under the [Erie canal at Medina, and the original
feeder channel at that place was an artificial channel leading from
a dam thrown across the creek and entering the canal near the
west branch of Oak Orchard creek at Medina. At some period sub-
sequent to 1823 a raceway was constructed by private parties lead-
ing from a second dam higher than the feeder dam and conducting
water into the central part of the village, where, after it is used, it
is finally allowed to pass into the canal. During the enlargement
of 1836 to 1862 the water-surface level of the canal at Medina was
raised, and inasmuch as this change necessitated raising the
feeder dam somewhat, it was finally concluded to discontinue the
feeder and depend entirely on the raceway for such supply as the
canal might receive at this point.

Oak Orchard feeder has been considered as furnishing about 27
cubic feet of water per second to the canal, although measure-
ments made in 1850 show about 87 cubic feet per second. Since
then the clearing up of forests and the drainage of Oak’ Orchard
and Tonawanda swamps have tended to reduce materially the low-
water flow until it is probably less than 27 cubic feet per second.
Moreover, for the future, the dry-weather yield from this catch-
ment area may be expected to be somewhat less than in the past,
because of the deepening of the channel of Oak Orchard creek and
of the crosscut authorized by the laws of 1898. ‘The act provided
for deepening the channel of Oak Orchard creek from a point 24
miles below where the Tonawanda creek enters the Oak Orchard

CO Pe rae er ee ee ee a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 675

and for the cleaning, improving, widening, and deepening of the
channel of the east branch of Oak Orchard creek. This work has
been done as a sanitary measure, and its effect will probably be to
run the water out of the swamps more rapidly in the spring, thus
materially decreasing the dry-weather flow."

According to a statement furnished by Mr A. L. Swet, Presi-
dent of the Business Men’s Association of Medina, the number of
operatives employed in 1896 in manufacturing enterprises depen-
dent on water power at Medina was 515; the amount of capital
invested in establishments actually in operation was $371,000,
while the value of the annual product of the same establishments
was $575,000. These figures do not include the Medina Falls
flouring mill, which was idle at the time these statements were
made. }

The total developed waterpower at Medina, on the raceway and
on the Oak Orchard creek, is estimated at 827 horsepower, which
includes the wheels at the Medina Falls flouring mill. Deducting
these wheels, amounting to 338 horsepower, the total actually in
use in 1896 was 489 horsepower. The use of water at the establish-
ments on the creek varies from 110 cubic feet per second to 49
cubic feet per second, the former quantity being due to the
Medina Falls flouring mill, where the head is 35 feet. Relative to
the fine power at Medina Falls, it may be stated that it is im-
probable, considering the amount of power available at this loca-
tion, that it will remain unutilized for any great length of time.
The trouble at the Medina Falls flouring mill is the same as that
affecting the large flour mills at Black Rock and other places in
New York—the competition of cheap grain and transportation
from western mills.

Without going into the historical part of the subject, it may be
said that the mill owners at Medina claim that by reason of the
granting of a right of way for the cut-off between Tonawanda and
Oak Orchard creeks, and the gift of 100,000 acres of land to the
canal fund by their original grantor, the Holland Land Com-
pany—a part of the consideration for which was an improvement
of the water power of Oak Orchard creek—they have an equitable

iFor extended account of Oak Orchard creek and its relations to the
feeder, see Report of the Drainage of the Oak Orchard and Vicinity Streams,
in the Fourth An. Rept of the State Board of Health (1883), p. 45-116.

676 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

right to the use of the water of the feeder. If, therefore, the
effect of the drainage authorized by the laws of 1893 has been to
decrease the low-water flow of Oak Orchard creek, it is main-
tained that the mill owners are entitled to enough water from the
canal to make good the deficiency.

There are a number of other points on the Erie canal where
waterpowers have been fostered under the provisions of the laws
of 1825, but lack of space precludes discussion of that phase of
the subject.! |

HISTORY OF NEW YORK WATER SUPPLY

The first waterworks of the City of New York were constructed
in 1774, when the population of the city was 22,000. In order to
pay the expenses of the works the city issued paper money amount-
ing to £2500, calling it “ waterworks money.” Bonds were also
executed for lands and materials to the amount of £8850 more.

A reservoir was constructed on the east line of Broadway
between what is now Pearl and White streets and a well sunk in
the vicinity of the pond called the Collect. The Revolutionary war
began in 1775, and the occupation of New York by British troops
caused the abandonment of the work.

In 1799 the Manhattan Company was incorporated to supply
the city with pure and wholesome water. This company sank a
number of wells within the city limits. They constructed a well
25 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep in Centre street, between
Reade and Duane streets, pumping the water to a tank on
Chambers street, from which it was distributed through bored
logs. In 1823 the population was 150,000 and the daily pumpage
was 691,000 gallons.

In 1830 the city constructed a well at Thirteenth street, near
Broadway, 16 feet in diameter and 112 feet deep, 97 feet being
through rock. At 100 feet below the surface two lateral galleries
were tunneled out from the main well, each 75 feet long. This
well furnished only 10,400 gallons per day of hard water. The
Manhattan Company also sank a well at Broadway and Bleecker

‘Waterpower on the Erie canal is treated at considerable length in a
Report on the Water Supply of the Western Division of the Erie Canal.
An, Rept of State Engineer for 1896.

Plate 34.

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Map illustrating additional water supply for Greater New York as
proposed by the Commission of 1908.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 677

street 442 feet deep, which yielded 44,000 gallons per day. In
1834 the city increased the depth of the Thirteenth street well 100
feet, thereby increasing the supply from this source to 21,000 gal-
lons per day. Nevertheless, the supply from these various sources
was so very limited that considerable water was brought in daily
from wells in the country, selling at an average price of $1.25 per
hogshead ; 415 hogsheads of water were also daily imported from
wells in Brooklyn to supply shipping.

The inadequacy of the supply led to examinations for the intro-
duction of water from other sources, and in 1835 a plan for pro-
curing water from the Croton river was adopted by the Common
Council and later ratified by a popular vote of 17,530 in favor of,
to 5963 against. The work of construction was immediately begun
and water was introduced into the city through the Croton
aqueduct in June, 1842. The population at that time was 375,000.
The aqueduct then constructed is still available for use, with a
carrying capacity, after sixty-two years of service, of 90,000,000
gallons per day.

For twenty years after the introduction of the Croton water the
natural flow of the Croton river assisted by the storage of Croton
lake of 2,000,000,000 gallons (266,666,000 cubic feet) supplied
the needs of the city, although it became evident at an early date
that ultimately provision would have to be made for storing
flood-flows. In 1857 the Croton Aqueduct Board caused a topo-
graphical survey of the entire Croton catchment area to be made,
and the number of sites for storage reservoirs were selected at
that time. The first reservoir constructed was at Boyds Corners,
in Putnam county, finished in 1872. Since that time five other
storage reservoirs have been built, and another is now building.
The storage capacity of these several reservoirs is given on
page 380. The safe capacity of the Croton catchment area is esti-
mated at 280,000,000 gallons per day.

Pending the decisions relative to the construction of the new
aqueduct on Croton river, the Department of Public Works intro-
duced in 1884 a supply from the Bronx and Byram rivers. This
Supply is conveyed by a pipe-line fifteen miles long and received
into a reservoir at Williams Bridge, in the Borough of Bronx,
at an elevation of 190 feet above tide. The catchment area from

678 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

which this supply is drawn may be safely estimated to yield an
average of 17,000,000 gallons per day.

In the Borough of Brooklyn there was no public water supply
until after the population had reached 200,000. In 1856 a plan
was matured for procuring water from ponds and streams on
the south side of Long Island and a company formed to construct
the works, but the city took them in hand and constructed them,
and water was introduced in 1859. The original supply of surface
water has been supplemented by pumping the ground water from
driven wells along the line of the conduit which conveys the
water of the ponds to the city.

The Flatbush Water Company furnishes water to the former
town of Flatbush, as well as to some adjacent property. The
Long Island Water Company has for years supplied an area of
1224 acres in Kast New York and the Blythebourne Water Com-
pany an area of 660 acres in the section near Fort Hamilton. The
district still unsupphed with water in Brooklyn borough measures
about 21,500 acres, or 55 per cent of the total area of the
borough.

The Borough of Queens has only a fragmentary supply obtained
from wells, which is pumped directly into the mains. Works
supplying 2770 acres are owned by the city, and others supplying
5900 acres are owned by private corporations. The area of the
borough is 79,547 acres.

The Borough of Richmond, with an area of 56,600 acres, has
but a small supply of water for 3150 acres, which is derived from
wells.t

Aside from gravity conduits from the Croton and Bronx catch-
ments, the water supply of New York is pumped. This condition
is made necessary not only by the low elevation of the sources
of the Brooklyn water supply, all of which are near sea-level,
but further because of the existence of a high service area in the
central and northern portions of Manhattan which contain a large
and increasing population and which are above the leyel to which
Croton water can be distributed by eravity. There are also areas

‘Abstracted from report on The History, Condition and Needs of the
New York Water Supply and Restriction of Waste of Water, made to the
Merchants’ Association, by J. J. R. Croes.

‘(SU[ALBISUS P[O UB WO1]) ‘AMATI WolIVyeT 1B Jonpenbv uojorp

GE 97°Id

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 679

in the northern and western portions of Bronx borough which are
above any distribution of water by gravity from either the
Croton or Bronx supplies. ‘The Boroughs of Queens and Rich-
mond are wholly dependent upon water pumped from wells and
springs for their public water supply. To a considerable ‘extent
the Borough of Brooklyn and to a slight extent, the Borough of
Bronx depend upon ground water from driven wells. Of the
total water supply of the City of Greater New York, 45 per cent is
delivered by thirty-two municipal and nineteen private pumping
plants. The total water supply of the citv may be taken at the
present time at 372,000,000 gallons per day, of which 205,000,000
gallons are distributed by gravity and 167,000,000 gallons dis-
tributed by pumping. The relative proportions of surface water
and ground water distributed are as follows:

Gallons
oe SS IOS ie Ee 311,000,000
II Wire UOT Sod ral ee cn ih. he ake ois ee as SEN 61,000,000
Br i... cs ye Oe RR le Ses Seer 372,000,000

———

The following is a statement of the private companies,
together with the borough in which they operate: In Manhattan
borough, none. In Bronx borough, New York & Westchester
Water Company, daily distribution, 1,000,000 gallons; in Brook-
lyn borough, Long Island Water Supply Company, daily distribu-
tion, 4,530,600 gallons; Flatbush Waterworks Company, daily dis-
tribution, 2,155,400 gallons; Blythebourne Water Company, daily
distribution, 200,000 gallons, and German-American Improvement
Company, daily distribution, 70,000 gallons; total amount dis-
tributed in Brooklyn borough by private companies, 6,756,000
gallons per day. In Queens borough, Citizens’ Water Company,
daily distribution, 4,185,700 gallons; Jamaica Water Supply Com-
pany, daily distribution, 1,500,000 gallons; Woodhaven Water
Supply Company, daily distribution, 548,000 gallons; Montauk
Water Company, daily distribution, 1,800,000 gallons; Queens
County Water Company, daily distribution, 1,000,000 gallons;
total daily distribution in Queens borough by private companies,
9,033,700 gallons. In Richmond borough, Staten Island Water
Supply Company, daily distribution, 3,810,000 gallons; Crystal

680 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Water Company, daily distribution, 1,200,000 gallons; South
Shore Water Company, daily distribution, 100,000 gallons; total
daily distribution in Richmond borough by private companies,
5,110,000 gallons. The total daily distribution by private com-
panies for the entire City of Greater New York is roundly
22,000,000 gallons.

An aggregate of 348,500,000 gallons of water is delivered daily
in Greater New York by the Municipal Waterworks. There is
distributed by gravity alone 204,500,000 gallons, and the balance
of 144,000,000 gallons is pumped for the supply of the different
boroughs as follows: .

Gallons
Manhattan ‘borough | <.,, 2.2. 2-542 2 ae ee eee 43,952,400
Bronx ‘DOriweh 25 sos tees aa 130,000
Brooklyn. borough «...°. <<. 7. ee ae oe ee 95,907,000
Queens: borough. .3...0c205 5 cee eee eee 3,891,300
Richiiond borough... :..5; 57.5, eee ee 80,000

Storage on Croton River

On a previous page the discharge measurements of Croton
river have been given, together with brief references to a consider-
able storage on that stream. When the new Croton dam, now
building, is completed, practical utilization of a catchment area
of 360 square miles will be made. In order to accomplish this
several masonry dams have been constructed, which are not ex-
ceeded for solidity and strength by those constructed anywhere.
The new Croton dam, from its great hight, is a specially inter-
esting example.

In 1883 an Aqueduct Commission was authorized, consisting of
the Mayor, Comptroller, and Commissioner of Public Works, as
ex officio members, together with three citizens. This commis-
sion was to construct new works only, and entered upon its duties
of constructing a new aqueduct and storage reservoirs at once.

The construction of a new aqueduct was begun in January,
1885. This aqueduct was divided from Croton lake to Central
park into seventeen sections, each being awarded as a separate

1The preceding statistics are of the year 1900, as collected by the late
Lebbeus B. Ward, and given in his report on the Pumping Stations Con-
nected with the Water Supply of New York, made to the Merchants’
Association.

(CEPSL JO SULARASUO PLO UR THOT)

‘9S 97¥1d

‘URpP UOJOL) 9} JO MOTA

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 681

contract. The work was practically completed in 1891, when the
aqueduct and its appurtenances were turned over to the Depart-
ment of Public Works and put into service,

The new aqueduct consists of three parts, as follows:

1) A masonry conduit, not under pressure, from the inlet gate
at Croton lake to a point near Jerome park.

2) A masonry conduit under pressure from the previous point
to the gate-house at 125th street and Convent avenue. This por-
tion of the aqueduct forms a long, inverted syphon.

3) A pipe-line from 125th street gate-house to the gate-house
at Central Park receiving reservoir. Eight lines of 48-inch cast-
iron main are laid from 135th street to 125th street. Four lines
are continued to the Central Park reservoir, while the other four
are connected to the distribution system at various points in
the city. |

In the meantime a number of reservoirs, some of which had
been started by the Department of Public Works, were constructed
by the Aqueduct Commission. Among these are East Branch,
Titicus, Carmel and Amawalk reservoirs, all on the Croton river.

Information in regard to storage on the Croton river is very ex-
tensive, and the foregoing is a skeleton merely.

Brooklyn Borough Water Supply

Under date of January 24, 1896, I. M. De Varona, Engineer of
the water supply of Brooklyn, transmitted to the Commissioner
of Public Works an extensive report, including a detailed state-
ment of the works from which Brooklyn derives its water supply. .
The text of this report comprises the following heads: Intro-
ductory, Descriptive, Historical, Financial, Laws, Biographical,
Regulations, Bibliography, Tables and Plates.

The Descriptive section includes an account of the five different
systems in use for the supply of Brooklyn. The most important
of these is the Ridgewood system, originally intended to provide
for the entire city. The four other plants are the Long Island,
the Flatbush, the New Utrecht and Gravesend systems. These
four plants were originally installed to supply the territory they
serve before it became a part of Brooklyn. They also derive their
supply from open and driven wells, and for convenience are re-
ferred to first.

682 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The plant of the Long Island Water Company was built in
1881, under a 25-year franchise, to supply the town of New Lots,
which was annexed to Brooklyn in 1886.

The Flatbush Water Company was built in 1882 and incorpo-
rated for 50 years. The works are located near the intersection
of New York avenue and Avenue E. They were intended to supply
the whole town of Flatbush, which is now the twenty-ninth ward
of Brooklyn.

The New Utrecht Water Works were formerly controlled by the
Coney Jsland Water Works Company, changed later to the Kings
County Water Company, and still later to the New Utrecht Water
Company. The plant is located on the corner of East Fourteenth
street and Avenue V, and was built in 1880.

The town of Gravesend constructed a driven-well plant in order
to provide water for flushing sewers and for furnishing a public
water supply in 1891 and 1892. The plant is located on Seven-
teenth street, between Avenues R and 8.

The town of Gravesend was annexed to the city of Brooklyn
in June, 1895, and in July the mayor appointed commissioners
to appraise the value of the Gravesend Water Works. This com-
mission reported in November, recommending a payment of
$425,000, although the plant, by the testimony, was shown to be
worth not more than $125,000.

The West Brooklyn Water Company was organized with a
capital stock of $50,000. It supplies that section of Brooklyn
bounded by Forty-first street, New Utrecht and Hamilton avenues,
Tifty-seventh street and Fifteenth avenue.

In 1893 the supply was found to be insufficient, and an 8-foot
circular brick well was sunk to a depth of 65 feet, the water
rising in it to a depth of five feet. It is understood that this
plant is still in use as a private company.

In 1890 the Blythebourne Water Company was incorporated
to furnish water in Blythebourne and vicinity. The original
plant was situated at Fifty-sixth street and Thirteenth avenue,
the supply being derived from two 7-inch wells, driven to a
depth of 60 feet. Later a new plant was established at Seventy-
fourth street, near Eleventh avenue. This company supplies
Blythebourne, Bath Beach Junction, Bay Ridge Park and Lef-
fert’s Park. Several of the foregoing plants are not now con-
sidered a part of Brooklyn borough water supply.

“LE 948d

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 683

The Ridgewood system comprises the works originally built
to supply Brooklyn, and their tributary catchment embraces that
portion of Queens county bounded on the north by the ridge
forming the backbone of Long Island; on the east, approxi-
mately by Suffolk county; on the south by the salt meadows
bordering on Hempstead and Jamaica bays, and on the west
by Kings county. The original catchment area is 66 square
miles, while the new catchment is 89 square miles.

The sources of supply on the old catchment, named in order
from the Ridgewood engine house eastward, are as follows:

Spring creek temporary driven-well station, Spring creek
driven-well station, Baiseley’s driven-well station, Baiseley’s
pond, Jameco driven-well station, Springfield pond, Forest
Stream driven-well station, Simonson’s pond, Clear Stream pond,
Clear Stream driven-well station, Watt’s pond and driven-well
station, Valley Stream pond, Smith’s pond, Pine’s pond, Hemp-
stead pond, Schodack brook and Hempstead storage reservoir.

On the new catchment the sources of supply from the Mill-
burn engine house eastward are:

Miliburn pond, Agawam driven-well station, East Meadow
pond, Merrick driven-well station, Newbridge pond, Wantagh
pond and Massapekua pond.

The supply from the original catchment is collected by a brick
eonduit, extending from Hempstead pond westerly to the old
Ridgewood station, and having a grade of about six inches to

the mile. ,

On the new catchment the supply is collected and carried
by gravity to the Millburn station through a brick conduit, seven
and one-quarter miles long, and having a grade of one in ten
thousand. The two driven-well stations on this catchment are
located south of the conduit and discharge into it through cast-
iron pipes. New stations will be similarly connected.

In order to show the possibilities of a supply from the sand
areas of Long Island, the following may be considered:

Water yield of the Long Island sand areas. Long Island is
about 120 miles in length, with a varying width of from 10 to
20 miles. Its watershed line consists of a ridge of low hills
running from New York bay to the eastern extremity of the

684 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

island. The highest points of this ridge are about 850 to 390
feet above sea level. This ridge, which is believed to be a part
of the terminal moraine of the great glacier, consists mainly
of compact drift and bowlders, running at times into clay and
coarse gravel. The considerable number of small ponds along
the ridge evidence the compactness of its surface material. The
slopes and spurs of the central ridge run into Long Island
sound on the north, making an irregular shore line, broken
into bays and low headlands. On the south side, the slopes
lose themselves in a grassy plain sloping gently toward the
coast. In its widest part it is called the Hempstead plains, and
stretches for a distance of from 5 to 15 miles between the foot
of the central ridge and the Atlantic shore, which is very regu-
lar in its outer beach line; but an inner and more irregular
beach exists, formed by the shallow waters of Jamaica and
Hempstead bays. The Atlantic shore does not anywhere touch
the slope of the central ridge, but is separated from it by the
wide gravelly plain.

In 1900 Prof. W. O. Crosby reported in relation to the geology
of Long Island and its relations to public water supplies, the
main purpose of this study being to determine what light the
present knowledge of the geologic structure of Long Island
throws upon these problems. The main questions considered
were:

1) Is it possible to obtain a copious supply of water from
deep wells on Long Island, 200 feet or more in depth, passing
through the blue clay into the gray gravel and the still deeper
water-bearing strata of the cretaceous? A supply of quality
suitable for domestic purposes and in quantity sufficient for a
substantial addition to Brooklyn’s water supply, say 10,000,000
gallons, 25,000,000 gallons, 50,000,000 gallons, or more per day,
or the equivalent of the yield of a catchment area of 10, 25, 50
or more square miles?

2) What certainty or probability is there that wells 40 to
80 feet deep, sunk in the yellow gravel but not penetrating the
blue clay, in the region east of Massapequa, can be made to
yield water of suitable quality for domestic supply and in quan-
tity equal to the total average catch of rainfall on a catch-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK OS5

ment of the area shown by the surface topography to be tribu-
tary to the proposed point of taking?

3) Is there any geologic reason to expect that the yield
of ground water available per square mile will be materially
different in quality or in quantity from that in the region already
developed west of Massapequa? °

4) Is there any apparent advantage in one location over an-
other for tapping the subterranean waters of the yellow gravel?

The geologic structure of Long Island consists of the follow-
ing formations, beginning with the lowest: (1) the primitive or
crystalline rocks; (2) the cretaceous formation; (3) the tertiary
formation ; and (4) the terminal moraine of the continental glacier
of northeastern North America. |

The water-bearing horizons are limited to yellow gravel above
the blue clay, gray gravel below it and certain layers of sand in
the cretaceous formation. The vellow gravel, which receives and
holds nearly the entire rainfall of the island, ranks first in im-
portance, while the gray gravels and cretaceous gravels are second
in importance. The supply from the gray and cretaceous gravels,
if heavily drawn upon, is likely to become brackish, and is also
likely to become stale or mineralized.

In regard to deep wells, it is stated in Professor Crosby’s report
that while here and there a deep well may tap a supply of good,
potable water, sufficient for the supply of a small village or
factory, the geologic formation gives no hope of finding any
large, permanent deep-well supply sufficient in volume to form a
substantial increase to the water resources of Brooklyn or add
materially to the volume that can be obtained from shallow wells.

Before the real facts in regard to the geologic formation of
Long Island were understood it was considered that probably a
large volume of the fresh water found its way over to Long Island
from the mainland by percolating through the deep, porous strata,
but in the light of more extended information Professor Crosby
considers that whatever vield of fresh water comes from the deep
wells must have its origin from rain falling upon Long Island
alone—there is no water*coming to Long Island from the
mainland.

686 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In,regard to Long Island water supplies, they may therefore be
considered in two lights: (1) There are numerous small brooks,
originating on the south slopes of the central ridge, which deliver
their waters to the Atlantic ocean; and (2) from the shallow
wells extending into the yellow gravel, already discussed. As to
the proper place for locating these wells, Professor Crosby con-
siders that they should be on a line along the south shore far
enough back from the sea to avoid the indraft of brackish sea-
water. The inclination of the water-bearing yellow gravel, with
its impervious floor of blue clay, is from the north towards the
south. The surface supplies from the brooks are none of them
very large. On the largest of them gristmills were established at
an early date, with ponds of from 8 to 40 acres of water surface
and from 5 to 9 feet depth of water. These ponds were the
original water supply of Brooklyn.

The fall at the dams rarely exceeds 8 feet. The original munic-
ipal water supply of the city of Brooklyn, as constructed about
1856 to 1859, had its source in the Hempstead plains, several of
the large brooks, flowing from the central ridge to the Atlantic
being appropriated for this purpose. A distributing reservoir was
established on the central ridge at an elevation of 170 feet above
tide, with the water of the brooks forced thereto by pumping.
These brooks were all mainly fed by springs delivering directly
into their ponds and channels. The length of these watercourses
from where the water was taken to the summer sources rarely
exceeds 4 miles. In the original construction the waters of these
ponds were conveyed by small branch conduits to a large main
conduit extending from the most easterly pond or reservoir to the
pump well at the engine house, which was located at the foot of
the ridge on which the Ridgewood distributing reservoir was
situated, not far from the east line of the city of Brooklyn. The
main conduit was so located that the water flowed to the engine
house by gravity. The following are the statistics of the six ponds
originally taken for the Brooklyn city supply, the minimum
deliveries here given being as ascertained by measurements dur-
ing the months of September and October, 1856 and 1857. The
figures represent the natural delivery of each stream at its lowest
stage'of water, and do not include any encroachment upon the
stored water which each pond retained, when full.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 687

Minimum Elevation

Area of flow (cubic of overflow

surface feet in 24 above tide

Pond (acres) hours) (feet)

amigsdearereacowes 2 los eiawe. Dan 40.00 419,315 7.90
poo ONG Reel Oe Ey ean . ites SR. TH QEB,008 15.40
Clear =sireminiei vat.) aedt iss nad. 1.07 100,448 11.50
Pe adipeitenml ini i ica diel ben 17.78 325,291 12.80
OGIO Mahi east. beak Sept: 8.00 353,388 12.60

Peuipsteahidw. jbauosd) J nits. 9. 82.52 1,054,713 10.60

The same streams were measured in October and November,
1851, and the aggregate result then was 3,137,500 cubic feet. With
the exception of Clear stream, they were again measured in
October, 1852, the result then being 2,606,300 cubic feet in 24
hours.

According to a survey made by Theodore Weston in the fall
and winter of 1859, the catchment area of the streams originally
taken for the municipal supply of Brooklyn was found to measure
46.8 square miles, but subsequent measurements have placed it at
49.9, which is the figure now used.t

Thre drainage grounds lie mainly on the Hempstead plains,
although a small portion may be considered as lying on the
southern slope of the central ridge. The ridge slopes are com-
posed of clay and alluvial earth, with little power of retaining
water. Hempstead plain, on the other hand, consists of a very
uniform deposit of sand and gravel with occasional thin veins
of clay; hence Hempstead plain is largely receptive and retentive
of water. The sand and gravel on this plain serves two purposes
as regards the rainfall sinking into it: (1) It retains the water,
only gradually delivering it to the surface in the valleys of the
brooks or on or near the seashore in the form of springs; (2) it
filters and purifies it, the gravel and sand performing the func-
tion of a natural filter bed. It is considered that but a small
portion of the ground water of this gravel plain has been derived
from the rainfall of any single year. The greater portion of it
is considered to have collected during a series of years. Borings
and open wells show that this ground water has a nearly uniform
inclination toward the south shore of about 12 feet per mile.

one of these streams actually is, see De Varona’s History and Description
of the Brooklyn Water Works, 1896.

68

94)

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Upon the low ridges lying between the several streams cross-
ing Hempstead plain the inclination of the ground water varies
with the width of the ridge, and is steeper in these parts than on
the main slope toward the sea, the resistance of the retaining
material there being proportionately less. So long as the slope
of the ground water is left undisturbed by pumping, as from a
series of wells, the permanent slope of the ground water is deter-
mined by the resistance of the material through which it flows.
As regards the minimum flow of the streams receiving these under-
ground waters, the longer the time occupied by that portion of
the rainfall which sinks into the ground in reaching the outlets
the greater will be the minimum flow of the stream as compared
with its total flow; on the other hand, the shorter the time the
smaller the minimum flow. In the case of Long Island streams
the maximum flows are not very large, a fact which indicates
that the permanent regimen of these streams is probably main-
tained by the accession of the absorbed rainfalls of several years.
It follows that so long as the basins are not drawn upon yery
greatly in excess of their flowage capacity the permanency of
Long Island ground-water supplies is only moderately affected
by variations in the yearly rainfall+

In his Report on the Future Extension of the Water Supply of
Brooklyn, Mr De Varona gives the total monthly and average
daily quantities of water pumped into the Ridgewood reservoir
for the years 1860 to 1896, inclusive.

Table No. 88 has been condensed from this report, giving in
calendar years the total rainfall upon the catchment and the per
cent of this utilized by pumping at Ridgewood. The average
yield utilized is also expressed in cubic feet per second per square
mile of catchment. This was originally 49.9 square miles, but
was increased in 1872, being in subsequent years 52.3 square miles
until 1883, when it was increased to 64.6 square miles, and in
1885 to 65.4 square miles. Considerable additions were made in
1891, and from that time on the area is given as 154.1 square
miles. In 1860 the rainfall was 37.65 inches, and the total amount

‘The foregoing statements relating to the water-yielding properties of the
Long Island sands are mostly derived from Kirkwood’s History of the
srooklyn Water Works and Sewers, published in 1867. For a more recent,
as well as more extended, discussion of the same subject see De Varona’s
History and Description of the Brooklyn Waterworks.

‘ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 689

of water pumped was equivalent to a depth of 1.44 inches on the

catchment, or 3.82 per cent of the total rainfall. In 1896 the

total rainfall was 38.82 inches. The amount of water pumped

during that year would cover the catchment to a depth of 11

inches, this being over 28 per cent of the total rainfall. The

average yield as obtained by pumping was 0.81 cubic foot per
second per square mile of catchment.

TABLE No. SS—ToraL ANNUAL RAINFALL, PER CENT UTILIZED, AND AVERAGE
YIELD PER SQUARE MILE OF CATCHMENT OF BROOKLYN WATERWORKS

| li |
| estates } | Pere
ai Semel Rainfall) Per Fesecoedl ame
saint Ee tat ) eran | YEAR | | pei
inches | utilized | aerate | | ietioe utilized | square
| mile || | | | mile
ees ote) | ne a) a) | @) |
carers | Paar at oa tpi
ee | 37-65 | 3.82} 0.11 || 1879...... | 39.61-| 33.40} 0.97
aoe | 45.65 | 8.92) 0.18 || 1880...... | 40.76! 30.237 0.90
162i. 2 i | 38.02} 5.73) 0.16 || 1881...... 39.53 | 29.42 0.86
FM en ) 32-761 8.39] 0.20 || 1882..:... | 39.83 | 30.73 | 0.90
EPA das | 32.00 | 10.53 | 0.25 || 1888...... | 37.22 | 33.05 0.91
ee 46.14] 8.39 | 0.28 || 1884...... 45.39 | 27.89 | 0.98
1866 ....... | 51.68] 8.88| 0.34 |] 1885...... | 36.85 | 37.94! 1.08
ry | 54.61 | 9.39] 0.38 || 1886....... | 51.38 | 28.32 | 1.07
MER so oy 38.58 | 17.29 | 0.49 || 1887...... i 45.66 | 32.59 1.10
1869 ....... | 43.13 | 17.20] 0.55 | 1888...... | 48.45 | 38.19; 1.18
ee | .39.25.1 19.82 | 0.57 {| 1889...... | 56.54 | 29.54 | 1.23
ol pA | 51.26'| 15.781 0.60 || 1890...... 52.15 | 33.90} 1.30
IDFA ds fait |) 39.75 | 28.47 | 0.67 || 1891...... 39.18 | 44.82) 1.29
eae 47.99 | -20.88 | 0.74 || 1892......1 37.75 | 24.53] 0.68
1874 ....... 45.83 21.49 | 0.73 || 1803...... 39.62 | 26 27 | 0.77
Wie wis 40.90 | 26.89] 0.81 | 1894...... 36.88 | 26.33 | 0.72
in0G =... 41.77 | 27.08 | 0.83 || 1895...... 35.64 | 28.98 | 0.76
FOE 222: 40.18 30.29 | 0.90 |) 1896...... 38.82 | 28.31 | 0.81
16 48.66 25.15) 0.90 | |

Generally the Brooklyn Water Works have not been so designed
as to furnish records of the quantity drawn from these several
different sources. There are also no records of the hights of the
ground water at different points in the catchment area. If such
were to be kept for a series of years, the records of the Brooklyn
Water Works would possess a value not easily estimated. They
would give a far more positive indication of the amount of water
that can be drawn from such sandy areas than can now be gained

from them. A few tests, however, of some of the driven-well
plants have been made in the last few years. The Greater New
York Water Supply Commission of 1903 has measured the hight

690 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of ground water in about fifteen hundred wells included in 1000
Square miles of territory.

At a test of the old driven-well plant at Spring creek, made from
October 22 to November 20, 1894, water was pumped at an average
rate of 4,091,551 gallons in 24 hours. The elevation of the under-
side of the discharge valve of the pump was 12.3 feet above datum.
On October 22, at the beginning of the tests, the average elevation
of the water in the wells was 4 feet below datum. The quantity |
pumped in 24 hours, on October 22, was 4,488,275 gallons. On
November 20, the date of the conclusion of the test, the elevation
of water in wells was 7.7 feet below datum, and the quantity
pumped on that day in 24 hours was 4,112,663 gallons. The total
quantity pumped during the entire period from October 22 to
November 20 was 122,746,525 gallons. The taking of this quantity
of water from the wells resulted, therefore, in lowering the ground
water a total of 3.7 feet.

A new driven-well plant at Watts pond was subjected to a test
of capacity extending continuously from January 3 to February 2,
inclusive. In 1895 a rather extended series of tests were made
of a number of the wells of the Brooklyn water supply in order
to determine the yield as well as the extent of the underground
supply. The following particulars of these tests have been derived
from Mr De Varona’s report, aS contained in the annual report
of the commissioner of city works for the year 1895.

The flowing wells at Jameco were tested from January 3 to 14,
inclusive. During this period the wells were operated singly and
in groups of 2, 3, and 4, in all possible combinations, and observya-
tions were taken to determine the elevation of the ground water.
Upon completion of the tests a series of observations was taken,
extending to January 30, to determine the normal water level.
It was shown that the average yield from one well alone was
only 1,000,000 gallons daily, decreasing pro rata up to a total
yield of 3,500,000 gallons daily when four wells were in
operation. The lowering of the ground water was approxi-
mately 5 feet when pumping 1,000,000 gallons, increasing up to
approximately 10 feet when pumping at the full capacity developed
of 3,500,000 gallons. In this connection it is stated that the water,
in these test wells is found to rise and fall directly with the tide,
thus rendering it difficult to state with accuracy the full effect of

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 691

the pumping on the lowering of the water. To determine this
point fully, Mr De Varona states, would require a more prolonged
series of observations than it was possible to make in 1895.

Another test was made at Jameco from December 9 to 20, 1895,
inclusive. Between this date and the end of the previous tests an
additional well had been sunk at Jameco to the depth of 160 feet.
The average daily yield shown during the second test was, approxi-
mately, 1,000,000 gallons for a single well, with a proportionate
increase for each well connected, the yield for five wells being,
approximately, 5,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. The lowering of
the water during those tests amounted to slightly over 14 feet at
Jameco while pumping the 5,000,000 gallons daily from the five
wells. The total amount of water pumped during the test was
61,239,555 gallons. The greatest lowering of the underground
water level occurred at test well No. 8, where it amounted to
15.23 feet. At that time, when the water at Jameco was at its
lowest level, the fall between test well No. 8 and test well No. 11
was 9.9 feet. The normal water level was not restored until
‘twelve days after the tests had ceased.

The results obtained early in 1895 from the test made at Jameco
of supplies from deep wells seemed to warrant further investiga-
tions as to the possibility of water from deep wells, and the report
states that they have been carried on during the year. A series
of test wells were driven, extending from the foot of the hill at
Ridgewood reservoir to Forest stream pumping station, each well
being carried to a depth sufficient to determine the possibility of
obtaining a deep supply from that point. The number of those
wells sunk during that year was twelve, and the records of the
strata passed. through are given in Bulletin No. 138, referred to
in the footnote.

_ Returning to table No. 88, it may be stated that the tributary
catchment area in 1875 was 52.3 square miles. The catchment
area remained at this figure until January, 1881, in which month,
by the bringing of the Springfield pumping station into use, it was
increased to 59.4 square miles. In the water year of 1875, with
a total rainfall of 41.6 inches, the water utilized amounted to

*For the particulars of the geology of several of the Brooklyn Water
Works wells, of which tests were made in 1895, see Artesian-Well Prospects

in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region, by N. H. Darton: Bull. U. S. eal
Survey No. 138, 1896, p. 23-37

692 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

10.78 inches, or to an average of 513,165 gallons per square mile
per day, or to 0.79 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. In
the water year of 1880, with a total rainfall of 40.04 inches, the
water utilized amounted to 12.37 inches on the catchment, or to
587,568 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.91 of a cubic foot
per second per square mile. In 1881, with a rainfall of 41.52
inches, the total utilization of water amounted to 11.64 inches on
the catchment, or to 554,473 gallons per square mile per day, or
to 0.86 of a cubic foot per second per square mile. This drop in
the unit of utilization merely shows the effect of the increase in
the area of the catchment.

The tributary catchments remained at 59.4 square miles until
August, 1883, in which month the Spring creek and Baisley’s
driven-well stations were started. From this date the tributary
catchment area is taken at 64.6 square miles. Spring creek and
Baisley’s stations marked the beginning of the Brooklyn driven-
well system. In the water year of 1884, with a total rainfall
of 45.44 inches, the utilization was 12.53 inches, amounting to
594,992 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.92 of a cubic
foot per second per square mile.

In May, 1885, the Forest stream and Clear stream driven-well
stations were started, thereby increasing the tributary catch-
ment area to 65.4 square miles. In the water year of 1886, with
a total rainfall of 50.48 inches, the water utilized amounted to
14.40 inches, equivalent to 685,521 gallons per square mile per
day, or to 1.06 cubic feet per second per square mile.

The catchment area remained 65.4 square miles until June,
1890, when it was increased to 65.6 square miles by the addition
of the Jameco park driven-well station. In the water year 1891,
with a total rainfall of 40.34 inches, the water utilized amounted
to 18.48 inches on the catchment, equivalent to 879,811 gallons
per square mile per day, or to 1.35 cubic feet per second per
square mile.

Large extensions of the works were made in 1890 and 1891,
so that with the beginning of pumping at Millburn on December
17, 1891, the tributary catchment area may be considered as
increased from 65.6 to 154.1 square miles, an increase of 88.5
square miles. In the calendar year 1892, with a rainfall of 37.75
inches, the water drawn from the original catchment of 65.6

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 693

square miles amounted to 16.81 inches on the catchment, equiva-
lent to 800,191 gallons per square mile, or to 1.24 cubic feet per
second per square mile. The water drawn from the new catch-
ment of 88.5 square miles that year amounted to 3.67 inches
equivalent to 174,776 gallons per square mile per day, or to 0.27
of a cubie foot per second per square mile. In 1895, with a
total rainfall of 35.64 inches, the original catchment of 65.6
square miles yielded 12.62 inches, equivalent to 600,725 gallons
per square mile per day, or to 0.93 of a cubie foot per second
per square mile. The new catchment of 88.5 square miles fur-
nished in that year 8.64 inches, equivalent to 411,558 gallons
per square mile per day, or to 0.64 of a cubic foot per second
per square mile.

Summarizing the information in regard to the water yield of
the sand plains of Long Island, it may be stated that the avail-
able data indicate a large yield. The streams of eastern New
York can not be relied upon-in their natural condition to yield
more than about 0.15 to 0.25 of a cubic foot per second per
square mile, while with an ordinary development of storage,
the limit may be usually placed at from 0.7 to 0.8 of a cubic
foot per second per square mile, or at any rate at not much
exceeding one cubic foot per second per square mile. The sand
deposits of Long Island may therefore be considered as great
natural reservoirs from which, with proper development, large
water supplies may be drawn, the same as from reservoirs
artificially created on the earth’s surface, these natural under-
ground reservoirs possessing the advantage of furnishing a
filtered water of high purity. This fact was recognized by the
New York Water Supply Commission of 1903, who have recom-
mended the further development of this supply. This commis-
sion made extensive observations as to the hight of ground
water, ete.

Recent Projects for Water Supply of Greater New York

The rapid growth of Greater New York has compelled a gen-
eral extension of the water supply, and a number of able reports
have been made, which will be briefly referred to.

The first of these is in relation to the Ramapo Water Com-
pany, which was organized in 1887 under an act which per-
mitted companies organized under it to supply with water any

694 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

municipality in the State of New York. In 1890 the act was
repealed and a general law enacted which surrounded with new
safeguards contracts made with the companies organized under
it, except that these safeguards did not apply to the already
organized Ramapo company. A few years later, under chapter
985 of the laws of 1895, an act to limit and define the powers
of the Ramapo Water Company, the. Legislature considerably
extended the privileges granted to this company. This act
gives the Ramapo company power to contract for supplying to
any municipality, or to any corporation, public or private. The
act also gives to the company powers of condemnation, and
they may select such route as they choose..

At the same time the Legislature considerably restricted the
power of New York to acquire an additional supply of water,
as indicated by the following: In 1896 the Suffolk county act,
preventing Brooklyn from using the underground waters of
Suffolk county, was passed. This act was continued in force
by the New York charter, which went into effect January 1,
1898. A clause was also inserted in the Greater New York
charter preventing the city from taking water from a supply
devoted in whole or in part to the supply of any other muni-
cipality. In 1898-99 the Ramapo company proposed to supply
New York with 200,000,000 gallons of water daily, for which
the City of New York was to pay $70 per million gallons. The
delivery of water was to begin in 1902.

Very earnest discussion occurred in New York when the
Ramapo proposition was understood. An extensive report was
made by the Merchants’ Association and also by John R. Free-
man to the Comptroller, showing that water could be furnished
for very much less than the price proposed to be paid. to the
Ramapo company. An appeal was made to the Legislature and
the legislation was modified, allowing the city to construct its own
works.

There are a number of available sources from which Greater
New York may be supplied without any great engineering diffi-
culties. These sources may be enumerated as:

1) On the east side of the Hudson river, where there are the
following: the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers, which are, how-
ever. interstate streams; Fishkill creek, Wappingers creek and
the Roeliff Jansen kill.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 695

On the west side of the Hudson river there are:

2) Wallkill river, which is also an interstate stream.

- 3) The -catchment of the Catskill mountains, including
Esopus, Catskill, Schoharie and Rondout creeks.

4) Hudson river itself, either at a point near Poughkeepsie
or by an aqueduct from the upper catchment area.

The Housatonic river, ‘Ten Mile river and Wallkill river catch-
ment areas are, however, eliminated from consideration by reason
of certain legal difficulties due to the first two streams being
partly in New York and partly in Connecticut and the Wallkill
being partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. ‘There
seems to be no doubt that a lower riparian owner in either Con-
necticut or New Jersey could by an injunction prevent the use
of either of these catchment areas to supply the City of New York,
and even though Connecticut and New Jersey should, by their
legislatures, grant either to the City of New York or to a corpora-
tion acting under its authority the right of condemnation, such
acts would be unconstitutional. Moreover, it is doubtful in the
case of New Jersey whether that State would even attempt to
assist the City of New York, because recent legislation in New
Jersey has indicated a policy to preserve for its own citizens the
waters coming from the catchments in the northern part of the
State.

It is also considered that legal complications would arise even
if a private corporation should attempt to furnish water from
New Jersey. As regards the use of the Wallkill river as a water
supply for the City of New York, such use involves the building
of a reservoir, the surface of which would be 422 feet above sea
level. The Wallkill river, at the location of the proposed reser-
voir, is about 380 feet above tidewater. The dam would flood an
area of 60 square miles, of which one-fifth is in New Jersey. If
New York can purchase the lands in New Jersey, it can of course
flood them for the purpose of a reservoir intended to supply New
York, but there is no way by which New York city can acquire
title to these lands by condemnation. Subject, therefore, to this
difficulty of purchase, there is no objection to the Wallkill river
as a supply for New York.t |

*Abstracted from Report of Committee on Legislation,- in Report of
Merchants’ Association of New York.

696 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In the Merchants’ Association report it is stated that an
additional water supply for New York city, adequate until its
population shall increase to 18,000,000, can be obtained from,
the Hudson river above Poughkeepsie, at which point it is pro-
posed to build pumping stations and filter beds on the east side of
the river, together with an aqueduct to the northern limits of the
city, where a reservoir would be constructed. This plant should
be capable of supplying 250,000,000 gallons daily, although it 1s
not proposed to build a plant capable of delivering at first more
than 100,000,000 gallons daily.

In order to prevent the water above Poughkeepsie from becom-
ing brackish, by reason of taking so large an amount of water
from the river at this point, it is proposed to build in the Adiron-
dacks a number of the reservoirs discussed on a preceding page,
in which may be stored fiood-flows during the spring months.
This water is to be delivered into the river during the dry season,
thus keeping the flow uniform throughout the year.

As incidental benefits, the navigation of the Hudson from Troy
down will be considerably improved, together with a prevention
of floods at Albany and places in the vicinity, as well as pro-
vision for a uniform flow for mill owners at various points
higher up.

It is also suggested that water be taken from the Hudson. at
Hadley, as indicated in the discussion of the Schroon valley
reservoir. |

The annual cost of taking water at Poughkeepsie, including
operation and maintenance, will be $28.33 per million gallons
for 250,000,000 gallons daily. The annual cost for the same
amount from the Adirondacks, including interest, operation and
maintenance, will be $30 per million gallons, while to furnish
500,000,000 gallons from the Adirondacks, the yearly cost after
construction will become $29.25 per million gallons.

The Committee on Water Supply of the Merchants’ Association,
however, considered that there are certain advantages in the
Poughkeepsie plan over either the Catskill or Adirondack in
thet: -..

1) The ultimate first cost of the Poughkeepsie plan would
be less.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 697

2) A larger proportion of the ultimate first cost may be de-
ferred by the Poughkeepsie plan than by either the Catskill or
Adirondack plan. |

3) The time necessary for construction is also less. Water
from the Hudson at Poughkeepsie can be delivered in six years;
from the Catskills, in seven years, and from the Adirondacks,
in seven and one-half years.

4) The Adirondacks and the Hudson together would furnish
1,500,000,000 gallons per day, while the Catskill catchment can
not furnish more than 260,000,000 gallons, or, with Schoharie
creek, 460,000,000 gallons per day.

5) The length of the aqueduct would be less from Pough-
keepsie than from either the Adirondacks or the Catskills.
From Poughkeepsie a high level aqueduct would be 60 miles in
length; from the Adirondacks, 203 miles, and from the Catskills,
100 miles.

The lesser length of the Poughkeepsie aqueduct is not only
an important element in construction, but is quite as important
in maintenance and protection.

Water taken at Poughkeepsie would require “Misetnts and
in the modern view it would also require filtration from the
Adirondacks, although it may be very appropriately questioned
whether a water supply from a seriously sewage-polluted stream
is desirable so long as unpolluted sources are available without
increasing the cost per unit.

Reservoir on Wallkill river. Among other interesting reser-
voirs which have been recently proposed for the supply of Greater
New York, that on the Wallkill river may be described in detail.
This reservoir was reported upon by James H. Fuertes, whose
report appears in the Report of the Merchants’ Association of
New York, made in 1900.

Wallkill river rises in northern New Jersey, a few miles south
of Sparta. It flows in a northeasterly direction, entering the
State of New York about half way between Liberty Corner and
Unionville. It then flows through Orange and Ulster counties,
joining Rondout creek, which empties into the Hudson river at
Kingston.

*Report of Committee on Water Supply of Merchants’ Association of New
York.

698 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Just before entering New York State the stream enters a broad,
flat valley, extending to Phillipsburg, and varying from one to
five miles in width. The floor of this valley is flat, both longi-
tudinally and transversely, with its slope in the direction of the
river so slight that the valley is usually flooded during the spring,
although later in the season the water drains from the flats
through the river channel, as well as through several artificial
drainage ditches.

The valley consists of high hills with steep sides. The hills
on the west are slaty, slightly covered with soil, while the hills
on the east are of granite, marble and limestone. The bottom of
the valley is underlaid with calciferous sandstone, generally
covered with a few feet of black soil on top of the detritus with
which the valley is filled. The geologic structure indicates that
there is very little underground flow above Phillipsburg, although
Mr Freeman in his report to the Comptroller, also made in 1900,
expresses a different opinion. In his view there is a good deal
of doubt whether the Wallkill reservoir can be made safe, because
of the large leakage from the sides. The writer does not share
Mr Freeman’s apprehensions, although in the absence of
thorough examinations the question is an open one. About 25
per cent of the valley is wooded. |

The water of the reservoir on the Wallkill would be as soft and
colorless as the Croton water. This conclusion is based on experi-
ments and analyses and on a study of the ground and surface flow
of the streams.

It is proposed to erect a dam at Phillipsburg which will im-
pound the waters of the river and flood the valley from twenty to
thirty feet in depth. The general elevation is about 390 feet above
sea level. If the water level be raised to 410, sufficient storage will
be provided for a daily draft of 250,000,000 gallons by drawing the
water in the reservoir down 5 feet. The area of the catchment
above Phillipsburg is 465 square miles. The area submerged at
elevation 405 is 49 square miles, and at elevation 410 it is 51
square miles. Hence, only about 5 per cent of the area would be
exposed on drawing the reservoir, enough to give a yield of 250,-
000,000 gallons daily. The amount of water impounded would be
approximately 200,000,000,000 gallons (26,700,000,000 cubic feet)
of which 53,000,000,000 gallons (7,100,000,000 cubic feet) would

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 699

be available, equivalent to a daily yield of over 600,900 gallons of
water per square mile of land surface, or 254,000,000 gallons per
day. The writer, however, considers this allowance larger than
is likely to be realized in the region—-probably 500,000 gallons
per square mile per day would be a safer figure.

There are two serious objections to a water supply reservoir
at this point. The first is the shallowness of the reservoir,
which will certainly lead to extensive growths of algae around
the edges, and the second is the objectionable bottom. The
second objection can be overcome by covering the bottom with
gravel which, however, would add very greatly to the expense.'

The submerged land is sparsely populated, and with the excep-
tion of Florida, Hamburg and Deckertown, there are no villages
of any importance near the valley. The sewage of Goshen and
Middletown, however, enter streams flowing into the Wallkill
above the point where the dam would be located and would have
to be taken below the dam by sewers. The sewage of Florida,
Hamburg and Deckertown would require purification before dis-
charging into streams tributary to the reservoir. A few other
small hamlets of from three to a dozen houses could be taken
care of by purchase.

It is proposed to filter the water from this reservoir. The esti-
mates provide for the purchasing of 70 square miles of area, which
includes a strip around the edge wide enough to afford protection
from contamination. About 20 per cent of the land which it is
proposed to submerge is either now or has been under cultivation.
The balance is covered with water and rank growths of coarse
grass, reeds and underbrush.

The surrounding hills are dotted with dairy farms, and the
Lehigh and New England railway and the Pine Island branch of
the Erie railroad collect the milk, conveying it to market. These
railroads would be relocated along the edges of the reservoir, with
crossings, embankments and bridges as required. It would also
be necessary to build crossroads over the lake, with bridges and
roads along the margins. The expense has been included in the
estimates.

*In reference to growths of algae, see paper On the Fresh Water Algae

and their Relation to the Purity of Public Water Supplies. Trans. Am.
soc..C..E.,. Vol. XXI (1889).

TOO ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

There are several dams below Phillipsburg at which power
is used for operating mills and factories, although the total
power does not much exceed 1000 horsepower. In some in-
stances the plants have a capacity in excess of that needed for
the minimum flow of the stream. The principal developed
power is at Walden. The population here is from 2500 to 3000
people, and its prosperity depends upon the waterpower which
has been developed by two dams, amounting to 500 horsepower
at minimum low water flow. To cripple this power would seri-
ously affect the community depending upon it. In the estimates
therefore very liberal figures have been used, which are con-
sidered sufficiently high to cover any method of compensation
which might be adopted. .

By increasing the hight of the dam at Phillipsburg to 422
feet above sea level, the flooded area would become 58 square
miles and the available storage capacity of the reservoir, when
drawn down to elevation 402, would be 219,000,000,000 gallons
(29,300,000,000 cubic feet). With such a storage a minimum
yield would be 417,000,000 gallons daily. The total amount of
water impounded with full reservoir would be 387,000,000,000
gallons (51,700,000,000 cubic feet). It is stated in the report
that this reservoir would be the largest artificial lake in the
world, but a comparison with Black river reservoir will show
that the latter is somewhat larger. Neither, however, is yet
built, and New York State can only claim, by reason of its
exceptionally favorable topography, to be the site of two of
the Jargest reservoirs thus far proposed anywhere.

Some of the legal objections to the Wallkill river reservoir
have already been discussed.

The estimated cost of construction of the Wallkill reservoir
for a supply of 250,000,000 gallons daily, the water to be filtered
and delivered into a new covered reservoir at New York 310
feet above sea level, is $42,421,000. The annual cost for opera-
tion and maintenance is figured at $1,819,770, or at a cost per
million gallons for the water filtered and delivered into a reser-
voir at New York of $19.64. In these estimates labor is taken
at $2 per day.

For 460,000,000 gallons daily from the Wallkill river the esti-
mate of cost on the basis of $2 per day for labor is $80,864,000,
with an annual cost for operation and maintenance of $3,328,078,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ! TOL

or at the rate of $19.82 per million gallons filtered and delivered
into covered reservoir at New York, 310 feet above sea level.

The Wallkill river was also reported upon by Mr Freeman.
In his report he states that these Drowned Lands appear to
be the only adequate reservoir site on the Wallkill—that they
were once the bottom of an ancient lake and are described by
Dr Heinrich Ries, in his Report on the Geology of Orange
County, as follows:

These swamps occur not only in the limestone region, but
also in many parts of the slate area and form perhaps the most
important agricultural feature of the county. The rich black soil
of the swampy tracts is enormously productive, and some of it is
worth $300 an acre. The soil is generally planted with onions,
and 700 bushels per acre is not an uncommon yield. Potatoes or
corn are generally planted in alternative years to relieve the soil.
There are about 40,000 acres of swamp land in Orange county.
The largest of these areas is the Drowned Lands in Warwick,
Greenville, Minnisink, Wawayanda and Goshen townships, and
covers 17,000 acres. Until about sixty years ago the area was cov-
ered by several feet of water held in by a dam of glacial drift
at the north end. A canal cut through this dam has redeemed
the land. From the drowned lands there arise islands of lime-
stone or drift, which are named Pine, Great, Pellets, Gardner’s,
Merritts, Cranberry, Black Walnut, Fox and Seward’s islands.
*“ * * Black soil underlies the surface to a depth of from five
to fifty feet, and this, according to Mather, is in turn underlaid
by marl. The Wallkill river follows a winding course along the
western side of this area, and submerges it entirely during the
spring floods

Mr Freeman states that the population of the catchment area
is almost exclusively a farming one, with about thirty villages,
ranging in population from 100 to 300, by the census of 1900.
together with many more centers of population with less than
100. The cities and towns which had more than 500 inhabi-
tants in 1900, are as follows: ;

Name of town Population
BPP reryin eect Bi) eI) arto punto. | teas il, 14,522
Creelman Boliss ey Thy Joy Ley CREA OL LAA 2,806
Pere Ai ial A er bo olen tet ic ul 1,735
Pear aL. ita mune oi lin lee pails ng 600

*Report on Geology of Orange Couuty, 1895, by Dr. Heinrich Ries, Asst.
Geologist.

T02 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The following figures for towns in New Jersey are as given by
Mr Freeman:

Name of town

Population
PRranklmn | Fummace. dco os th eS Be iis ein se SOs eae 913
Deckertown.-({/ iio. /. 4.8 wx 23 pees poe eee » »f993
Hamiburg.@ :') 01:2 in: 3 lslsieenthie aeO e 519
Ogdensburg 20.5.0 1. 000. . mere aha ee eee 565
Sparta. ive vcce ck 4 cs Qethceed Rien ie Sen gn DOL

The outside population ou farms is estimated at about twenty
to the square mile.

Mr Freeman made some observations as to the quality of
reservoir bottom. Samples of soils were collected in clean glass
jars and sent to the analyst of the Metropolitan Water Board
for examination by the ignition method. A sample from one
foot depth showed 69 per cent organic matter; from 3 feet down, ©
85 per cent, and from 5 feet down, 89 per cent. Another sample
from 6 inches in depth showed 49 per cent organic matter, with
little or no irom present. Several other samples from 6 inches
to 314 feet down showed from 78 per cent to 90 per cent organic
matter. These observations show at once the necessity, in case
a reservoir for water supply purposes should be constructed at
this point, for covering the bottom with gravel, as already
suggested.

Reservoirs on EHsopus, Catskill and Schoharie creeks. Reser-
voirs were considered by Mr Fuertes on Esopus, Catskill and
Schoharie creeks. The lowest elevations considered in seeking
reservoirs on these streams were for Catskill and Esopus creeks,
500 feet and on Schoharie creek, 1100 feet above sea level. These
elevations were decided upon because lower elevations will not
economically permit of the delivery of water at New York 300
feet above sea level. )

Catskill and Esopus creeks flow in a southeasterly direction,
nearly paralle] and about twenty-five miles apart. Catskill creek
is on the northern side of the Catskill mountains and Esopus
ereek on the south side. Both streams empty into the Hudson
river—Catskill creek at the village of Catskill and Esopus creek
at Saugerties. Schoharie creek lies between Catskill and
Esopus creeks and flows in the opposite direction, bending

_ HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 703

towards the north after leaving the mountains, and emptying
into the Mohawk river near Amsterdam. The sources of Scho-
harie creek are over 2000 feet above sea level and not more
than ten miles from the Hudson river.

The waters of Catskill and Esopus creeks can be delivered to
New York through conduit lines from the reservoirs, but the
waters of Schoharie creek can only be brought to the city by the
construction of a tunnel from the lowest reservoir on the Scho-
harie to the nearest point in the Esopus valley.

Topographically, Catskill and Esopus creeks are similar in
general characteristics. The tributary streams have steep slopes,
offering no sites for storage reservoirs. The main streams, on
the contrary, are flatter and afford opportunities for construct-
ing dams. .

The conditions on Schoharie creek are different. At its head-
waters there are three tributaries, Batavia kill, West kill and
East kill, on all of which considerable storage may be secured.
As stated in the discussion on the flow of streams, all of these
are more or less flashy, rising quickly with heavy rains, with
high flood-flows, and subsiding rapidly after rainfalls, with very
low minimum fiows.

The lowest dam site on Esopus creek is a short distance above
the falls at the village of Olive. The creek here flows through a
narrow gorge, affording an opportunity for the construction of
a masonry dam, 60 feet high and 600 feet long. The area of the
catchment above this dam is 245 square miles. The proposed
reservoirs on Esopus creek have an available storage capacity
of about 27,000,000,000 gallons (38,600,000,000 cubic feet), and
are estimated to yield in minimum years about 150,000,000 gallons
daily. This corresponds to an average yield of 625,000 gallons
of water per square mile per day. The writer, however, considers
the same as in the case of the Wallkill river, that this estimate
is too large, and on Esopus creek it certainly should not be
taken to exceed about 500,000 gallons per square mile per day.

The proposed dams on Esopus creek are: At Olive; Cold Brook
station; Lake Hill; one mile above Mount Pleasant station; one-
half mile above Phoenicia; one and one-half miles above Phoe-
nicia; one mile above Shandaken; and. one-half mile below Big
Indian. These dams wonld all be of earth, with spillways cut in
the rock sides of the valley.

TO04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Ulster & Delaware railroad passes through the Esopus
valley from one-half mile above the Olive dam to above Big In-
dian reservoir site. The building of these reservoirs would require
relocation of this railroad for its entire length. The construction
of the reservoirs would also require the relocation of five villages”
in the valley. There are also twelve villages which are not inter-
fered with, but as they lie above the various reservoirs, the cost
of providing them with sewerage and sewage purification works is
included in the estimates. There are a few water powers on the
main stream at Olive, Boiceville, Allaben and Big Indian. None
of these powers is very important, but the estimates have been
made ample to cover the cost.

Table No. 89 gives the particulars of the storage reservoirs on
Esopus creek.

TABLE No. 89—PROPOSED STORAGE RESERVOIRS ON ESOPUS CREEK

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i=F- Gif 1 @ 7 ioe ES £S

So |SSksiegsse| Ss | B® < Shee
Name of Reservoir Be ee | el age cae | ee mo 382
os Ee. S Ee. 3! 3 ee Oe oS'5
SF ASee nage — o_-5 mm sss

= a feb) i = =
ge |SEES|SEES| £2 |g28| 38 858
q_ |< |< ss | < = es

(1) 2 | @|/@M)7O}]@; @M |
Olive 3 scna dna eee 49.0| 510} 485} 60 | 0.78 | 20,000,000 | $240
Cold Brook........... 31.0} 690} 655] 85 | 1.03 | 22,100,000 | 255
Lake ‘Hill, *:. srs ee 18.6 | 1,080 | 1,055 | 70 | 0.72 | 12,700,000 | 235
Mt. Pleasant......... 34.9! 790! 755 | 80 | 0.89 | 23,500,000 | 245
Lower Phoenicia..... 22.38 910; 885] 90 | 0.25] 8,300,000 | 460
Upper Phoenicia..... 40.8| 985| 940! 95 | 1.01 | 29,400,000 | 250
Shandaken/ 3)... 12. SAE 1,180 | 1,150 | 80 | 0.87 | 27,900,000 | 360
Big Indian; . “2a 48.9 | 1,240 | 1,210 | 70 | 0.51] .......... 295

Total :iv), (id wee 245.5 | we Veteat te | 5.56 |143, 900, 000 Ee

| |

The main valley of Catskill creek is narrower than that of
Esopus creek, affording favorable opportunity for reservoir sites.
The lowest dam has been located near the village of East Durham.
The area of the catchment above this dam is about 192 square
miles. It is proposed to construct reservoirs on Catskill creek
at the following points: East Durham; two miles above East
Durham; half a mile below Oak Hill; just above the village of
Preston Hollow, and on Basic creek, near Greenville. These reser-
voirs will provide an available storage capacity of nearly 19,000,-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T05

000,000 gallons (2,600,000,000 cubic feet). As in the case of
Esopus creek, the safe yield is estimated by the writer at 500,000
gallons per square mile per day.

The East Durham dam would be of masonry, with a spillway
over its crest—the balance of the dams on Catskill creek would
be of earth, with masonry cores, with spillways cut in the rock
sides of the valley.

In constructing the system of reservoirs on Catskill creek the
village of Oak Hill would be entirely removed. Aside from Green-
ville, consisting of eight or ten houses, no other towns are inter-
fered with in this valley, but sewage purification works have been
provided for East Durham, Durham, Potter Hollow, Cooksburg,
Preston Hollow, Livingstonville and Franklinton. The water
powers on Catskill creek above East Durham are of little im-
portance, and on the lower creek the most important power is
at Leeds, where there is head sufficient to develop 500 horsepower
with low-water flow.

Table No. 90 gives the particulars of the storage reservoirs on
Catskill creek.

TABLE No. 90—PROPOSED STORAGE RESERVOIRS ON CATSKILL CREEK

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Se |Seee|feae/*_ 12" | se (88s

Name of Reservoir | Sa 8.2/8. 2! 38 lane 38 ives

So | kKSoS|kKoSos| “16.3 >F ree

> sO wo OBHKoloSeolts. ff ae | a Ess
sa He@@s|/H#sSsS/ 4 ar] =i |eS5e
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| < = < Sane = ig

: Lee 2s Bo ee 2S eee 2 eee eee eee ae

(1) rQ@ | Oi OitoOro! cm | ®
Greenville .........| 30.4 | 680 650 85 | 0.45 | 13, 500, 000 | $240
Lower EastDurham, 21.8 540 500 69 | 0.33 | 11,700,000 | 255
Upper East Durham 43.3 | 620 | 580 100 | 0.89 | 27, 100, 000 245
as le eee | 52.4] 720 | 680 | 90/| 0.97 | 32,000,000 | 250
Preston Hollow.. 44.1} 960 900 100| 0.44 24,000,000) 245

108,300,000 | .....

The area of the Schoharie catchment above Gilboa is about
305 square miles. This is as much of the area as could be eco-
nomically developed for the supply of New York.

The dams of the proposed Schoharie creek reservoirs vary from
50 feet to 110 feet in hight and from 700 feet to 1840 feet in
length. They are located at the following points: At Gilboa;

T06 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

one mile north of Prattsville; one mile north of Lexington, and
at Kaaterskill Junction. On the Batavia kill, they are located
at the following: Just north of Ashland and Windham and south
of Big Hollow; and on the East kill, below East Jewett. These
reservoirs would afford about 40,000,000,000 gallons (5,400,000,000
cubic feet) of available storage, and would yield in minimum
years, according to the writer’s estimate, about 500,000 gallons
of water per square mile per day. The dam at Gilboa would be of
masonry—the others of earth, with spillways cut in the rock
sides of the valley.

Waterpowers on Schoharie creek above Prattsville are unim-
portant, consisting of but two or three small sawmills. There
are several powers at and-below Gilboa, but none of them is very
important, although the abstraction of the water from Scho-
harie creek would affect all the powers on the Mohawk river below
the mouth of. the Schoharie. ;

Basing a calculation on the power developed at Cohoes in rela-
tion to the low-water flow of the stream, the effect of the abstrac-
tion of the proposed amount of Schoharie creek water would be
about 1800 horsepower.

Table No. 91 gives the particulars of storage reservoirs on
Schoharie creek.

TABLE No. 91—-PROPOSED STORAGE RESERVOIRS ON SCHOHARIE CREEK

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So | BES | Bons 5 S ae 5 My

Name of Reservoir eH q n| ee OR en) =o wae

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a | ROO Boob o_o | > aon
a2 |Ree3(/zeeS| 3 | eSe| gS (ESée
of |S>F3)/2>E | ‘w On & | s |r ot ey

aA | Q am - | oO | 2
| <q <q — <q oI =
—|———-; ——~|— | = |

(1) (2) | (3) (4) + (9d) (6) | (7) | (8)
Kaaterskill Junction} 33.4 | 1,740 | 1,700 90 | 0.47 | 17,800,000 | $805
East Jewett......... 20.6 | 1,880 | 1,800 95 | 0.74 | 14, 700. 000 265
Big -Hollow <2: <.245 13.6 | 1,720 | 1,675 90 | 0.29 | 9,400,000 | 320
WIBGUAM. 0. ice 15.5 | 1,560 | 1,540 | 65 | 0.28 | 6,300,000 365
Lexington... 2% «seis 42.2} 1,480 | 1,880 ; 100 | 0.83 | 29,100,000 | 255
PT: eee ee ter cae 22.9 | 1,480 | 1,455 50 | 0.49 | 12,100,000 | 250
Pracevaue Uo. ee se 76.9 | 1,280 | 1,225 | 105 | 1.64 | 57,900,000 | 240
Gilboa'. .& i oes safe BOB SLO sheds 050 | 110 | 1.01 | 47,800, 000 | 220
Total....:..:.. 4:60 aioe | es | 5 75 (195,100,000 | .....

The foregoing estimates included in tables No. 89, 90 and 91
do not cover damage to mill property and waterpower.

a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T07

In addition to the projects herein discussed at length, at various
times during the last few years projects have been considered for
reservoirs on the following streams:

_ Mahwah river, diverting the water at Suffern, where there is a
catchment area of 20 square miles; Popolepen creek, diverting the
water at Fort Montgomery, where there is a catchment area of
28 square miles; Big Moodna creek, diverting the water at Salis-
bury Mills, where there is a catchment area of 123 square miles;
Little Moodna creek, diverting the water at Woodbury Falls,
where there is a catchment area of 11 square miles; Shawangunk
creek, diverting the water at Bloomingsburg, where there is a
catchment-area of 47 square miles; Rondout creek, diverting the
water at Ellenville, where there is a catchment area of 184 square
miles; the Basher kill, diverting the water at Port Orange; Never-
sink creek, diverting the water at Quarryville, where there is a
catchment area of 200 square miles; the Delaware, diverting the

water above Port Jervis, where there is a catchment of 3600 square

miles. None of these projects has passed more than the prelim-
inary stage.

The New York Water Supply Commission of 1903. In the fall of
1902 the Mayor of New York appointed William H. Burr, Rudolph
Hering and John R. Freeman as a commission to consider the best
sources of an additional water supply for New York city. The
final report of this commission was submitted in December, 1903.
The outline for the plan of a new gravity supply is given in the
following abstract of the report, as taken from Engineering News
for December 24, 1908:

The commission favors taking a first installment of 60,000,000
gallons from the Fishkill watershed, but developing concurrently
the supply from Esopus creek. These two sources would give
nearly 320,000,000 gallons per day. Another 100,000,000 gallons
per day may be secured from Rondout creek without great addi-
tional expense, making a total supply of nearly 420,000,000. The -
final 80,000,000 gallons or more may be obtained from Wappinger
creek by means of a large reservoir at Hibernia, within the catch-
ment area of that creek, thus completing the amount of 500,000,000
gallons per day. If it should be desired, a further large supply
can be obtained from the upper watershed of the Jansen kill, on
the easterly side of the Hudson, and from the upper waters of
Schoharie creek, diverted into the watershed of the Esopus creek,
and from Catskill creek.

708 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The waters of the three creeks on the easterly side of the river
are much harder than the Croton water, but the waters of Rondout
and Esopus creeks are remarkably soft and desirable for city sup-
ply. It has been the commission’s plan to deliver to the city the
soft water of the Catskill mountain streams, so as to reduce the
hardness of the combination with the waters on the easterly side
of the Hudson, thus securing a supply equally soft as the Croton
water.

The commission is strongly of the opinion that after the waters
of the streams now recommended for use are taken, Hudson
river water should be secured by pumping it out of the river
near Hyde Park up to suitable reservoirs and filters, on the high
land easterly of the river, so as to deliver it to the city at the
required elevation. This, however, is in the remote future, and
is set forth as a resource in reserve at that time. In such a
development it will be necessary to build large storage reservoirs
in the Adirondacks, from which flood waters of the Adirondack
streams may be released during the summer flow of the Hudson,
so as to prevent any salt water from reaching the point where the
pumps would take the river water. It is explicitly stated in the
report that the filtration of Hudson river water would render it
entirely satisfactory for all purposes.

The following is a summary of the cost of these reservoirs:

The works recommended to be constructed first comprise a
section of the Hill View reservoir, of 600,000,000 gallons capac-
ity; the main aqueduct, of 500,000,000 gallons daily capacity,
from that reservoir to Stormville reservoir; a section of the
Stormville filters, of 50,000,000 gallons daily capacity; the twin
aqueduct, one channel of 400,000,000 gallons and the other of
250,000,000 gallons daily capacity, from the Stormville reser-
voir to the Billings reservoir and these two reservoirs. This
construction will afford an additional supply of 60,000,000 gal-
lons per day. Concurrently with the preceding construction,
the aqueduct of 400,000,000 gallons daily capacity should be
built from the Billings reservoir to the Ashokan reservoir, and
at the same time the latter reservoir should also be under con-
struction.

It is estimated that the first part of this work, i. e., extend-
ing from Hill View reservoir to Billings reservoir, may be built,
under efficient management, within five vears, and that the
second part of the construction, extending from Billings reser-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK TO9

voir to the Ashokan reservoir, may be completed within the
same period, if the labor market affords sufficient force and the
money is provided.

The summary of costs of this construction is as follows:

Reservoirs Total cost tart catiolts
Hill View covered reservoir first sec-
tion of 600,000,000 gallons capacity. $9,059,000 $15,098 00
Stormville filter plant first installation
of 50,000,000 gallons daily capacity. 3,081,000
Stormville reservoir, 10,000,000,000

pulbome capacity (2. 0)! 050 PR. ei. 2,503,000 250 00
Billings reservoir 6,800,000,000 gallons
LAS Go NS EAS A Oia 0 Sa i 1,806,000 266 00
Ashokan reservoir, 66,500,000,000 gal-
Re ed Pee Thy I ec Be ee 11,734,000 176 00
SS a ee Eee SS eso $28,683,000

High Level Aqueduct
From Hill View to Stormville filters... $18,755,000
From Stormville to Billings, twin
mumeacl -.... s - rae ene elias 3,584,000
From Billings to Ashokan, including
Pdson Tiven crossing .....-.....- 9,076,000

stale Nee Jc. cdahese ae $31,415,000

Total cost of construction... $60,098,000

These estimated costs include actual contract and all other
expenditures, except those for damages to water rights. These
works will afford an additional supply of nearly 320,000,000 gal-
lons daily.

It is estimated that the complete construction of reservoirs,
filters and aqueducts for the full additional supply of 500,000,000
gallons per day may be required by 1925. The costs of the
remaining construction in excess of that already provided for
will be as follows:

710 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

<. Cost per
Reservoirs Total cost 1,000,000 gallons
Hill View reservoir completed to

2,030,000,000 gallons capacity in 1925 $4,110,000
Stormville filters completed to 500,-

000,000 gallons daily capacity in 1925 11,065,000
Hibernia reservoir, 30,500,000,000 gal-

lons Capacity <. 2. <6. see % 9,308,000 $305 00
Silvernails reservoir, 17,200,000,000
gallons capacity. .. +S) sige ee 5,530,000 321 00
Total. . 3.5 3 123 See $30,013,000
Aqueducts

Additional cost for completed aque-

duct between Hill View and Storm-

Ville... 5 0005 Sct eee $1,510,000
Additional cost for completed aque-

duct between Billings and Ashokan 4,369,000
Aqueduct from Billings reservoir to

Hibernia reservoir, 300,000,000 daily

CADBCILY oss. cies ee ee 1,573,000
Aqueduct from Hibernia to Silver-

nails, 220,000,000 to 330,000,000 gal-

lons daily capacity: .2.. cose 1,276,000

Total .. SUR ee $8,728,000

Total cost of additional con-
struction Wasa! a ene $38,741,000
These additional costs, like those covering the first portions
of the work to be constructed, include all expenditures such
as those for land, clearing reservoir sites and other similar
costs except water damages along the streams from which the
additional supply is taken. ;
The total cost of the entire works required to deliver the
additional high service supply of 500,000,000 gallons per day
will be the sum of the two preceding totals: total cost of entire
work, $98,839,000. ,
If instead of developing the Jansen kill it should be considered
preferable to take the soft waters of Rondout creek, the pre:

Ce eg ee ee ee ee

+ Mie

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK Ti!

ceding estimates of cost would be modified to the extent of sub-
stituting the expenditures necessary to secure the Rondout
water for those required to secure the Jansen kill water. The
commission believes that this procedure will be found to be
preferable; but the impossibility of completing the Rondout sur-
veys does not permit accurate estimates to be made for securing
the Rondout water.

In regard to a supply for the Boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens
and Richmond, the abstract of the final report of the commis-
sion states as follows: .

For Brooklyn and Queens, an immediate development of the
ground-water sources of Queens and Nassau counties is recom-
mended, and that all surface supplies be filtered; also that ulti-
mately these Long Island sources be supplemented by a branch
conduit from the proposed 500,000,000-gallon aqueduct from the
north of Manhattan.

For Richmond, the commission has approved of a ten-year
contract with a private company for the immediate introduction
of filtered water from New Jersey.

Queens, the commission says, already urgently needs more
water and the Borough of Brooklyn has also reached that point
where it must have additional water of good quality. Ht has
already begun to filter its present surface supplies, which are
more or less polluted by the increasing population of the south-
ern portion of Nassau county.

The following are the catchment areas of the several reservoirs
proposed for construction by the commission in their report

of 1903:
; Square miles
Fishkill creek: Above Stormville dam............ 49
pve eri thins, Gam Te he. As OST: ee. a2
81
Wappinger creek: Above Hibernia dam........... 90
Above Clinton. Hollow dam. ........ 2%...» 26
: 116
Roeliff Jansen kill: Above Silvernails dam............. 149
Esopus creek: Above Ashokan dam.................... 255
RN ESO PIMA GEST. os, ee cc es ce wc ke oe 131

Reese Gee eS Tye oe pa ea Set aed. 732

12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

This commission is in favor of using well chosen underground
waters, and points out the high character and large amount of
underground waters naturally stored on Long Island. Exten-
sive studies have been made of these underground sources, cover-
ing 1000 square miles of territory and including observations
of the water levels in nearly 1500 wells. The commission states
that at the present time no municipality can be considered as
satisfactorily supplied with water unless the supply is either
filtered artificially or naturally filtered, as in the case of ground
water. It also urges that works for the filtration of the Croton
supply be demanded at once, and advises that the reservoirs in
Central park be cleaned and that they be roofed over as soon as
the Croton supply is filtered.

As shown by Plate XXXIV, this commission recommended
that Fishkill creek, Wappinger creek and the Roeliff Jansen
kill on the east side of the Hudson be taken, together with
Esopus and Rondout catchment areas on the west side.

On Fishkill and Wappinger creeks there are situated manufac-
tories employing 7000 people who are greatly alarmed at the
prospect of their industries being destroyed. They accordingly
went to the legislature of 1904 and secured the passage of an
act prohibiting the taking of any of the waters of Dutchess county
for the supply of New York city. This act was signed, and it
is uncertain whether the work of the New York Water Supply
Commission of 1903 may not be considerably modified in
consequence.

Water supply of Staten Island. The area of Staten Island
is 49 square miles, including the salt marsh at its borders. It
contained a population in 1900 of 67,021. A considerable pro-
portion of this population is collected in small villages, which
as yet have no public water supplies. There are several villages
of considerable size, as Pleasant Plains and Prince Bay, which
obtain their water from wells. There are also a number of large
manufacturing establishments which are without public water
for fire protection or general purposes. The village of Tottenhill,
at the extreme south of the island, is supplied from a small plant
owned by the municipality.

The present supplies throughout Staten Island are from driven
wells. Eighty per cent of the area of Staten Island is stated to

gh

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 713

be covered by the terminal moraine of the continental glacier,
with surface formation very impervious. The conditions, there-
fore, are quite different here from Long Island, where extensive
areas of coarse sand permit a large proportion of the rainfall
to sink into the earth. Moreover, the geologic siructure is
such as to render it improbable that any such large amount of
ground water can be obtained as in the adjacent area of New
Jersey.

The geology of Staten Island has been reported upon by Pro-
_ fessor W. O. Crosby of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In this report it is stated that borings in the vicinity of Wood-
bridge and Perth Amboy show that the traprock and the ridge
of crystalline rocks are continued only at moderate depths below
the surface, and that in consequence the cretaceous strata under-
lying the entire lowlands south of the serpentine ridge, and which
in New Jersey embrace several good water horizons, are cut off
from the catchment areas either on the mainland or on the
northern part of Staten Island. Moreover, the fact that the wells
penetrating the cretaceous strata are practical failures indicates
that the water-bearing strata outcrop on this island only to a
very limited extent or not at all.

The gray gravel and blue gray formations of Long Island are,
so far as can be observed, wholly wanting on Staten Island, and
the yellow gravel, which is an important reservoir of ground
water om Long Island, has only a limited development on Staten
Island, being practically confined to the cretaceous lowlands,
which are the source of such wells as are not failures.

Moreover, the greater portion of the area of Staten Island
is covered by bowlder clay, which is of an exceptionally imper-
vious character, as proved by numerous ponds more or less
effectually sealing the catchment areas of strata which might
otherwise be water-bearing. The bowlder clay is in many places
from 50 feet to 200 feet thick.

To summarize, the geologic conditions affecting the storage
and flow of ground water are generally unfavorable, because all
the formations, excepting the yellow gravel, are naturally of little
value as sources of ground water. Unfortunately, the yellow
gravel has not only a limited catchment area, but the small areas

714
i NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of it are mainly near the southeastern margin of the island, which
still further limits the probability of water in that portion under
the terminal moraine. Generally, therefore, the conditions on
Staten Island are not comparable with those on Long Island.

AS TO THE POSSIBILITY OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES FROM WELLS
IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Aside from Long Island, there is little probability of satis-
factory well supplies in the State of New York. This fact is of
importance because frequently town authorities who are not -
familiar with water supply engineering, imagine that a satis-
factory supply can be obtained from wells at small expense. This
matter was reported upon by the writer in considering a ground
water supply for Lockport in November, 1903. The following from
that report is herewith given:

At the time of the issue of the last edition of the Manual of
American Waterworks, in 1897, there were in the State of New
York a total of 420 waterworks of which 60 were well supplies.
The writer is more or less familiar with the most of these well
supplies, and aside from those on Long Island, the statement may
be made that they are unsatisfactory in quantity—they nearly all
fail in dry time. They are also unsatisfactory in quality. There
are a few exceptions to this, but the broad proposition is abun-
dantly true that well supplies in the State of New York, aside
from those on Long Island, are not satisfactory. It has been
necessary to reinforce the most of them either by taking streams,
canals, or by other means, with the result that their quality has
been so far deteriorated as to constitute in many cases a distinct
menace to the health of the communities using them.

Again, about two-thirds of the well supplies in the State have
been constructed by private companies, and almost without excep-
tion the works are constructed as cheaply as possible, to their
permanent detriment. They have naturally, therefore, adopted a
well supply wherever possible as being cheaper than surface sup-
plies. But in making these remarks, it is not to be overlooked
that on Long Island, where different conditions prevail, satisfac-
tory well supplies may be obtained at less expense than surface
supplies.

The peculiarity of wells penetrating the rock in New York State
is that nearly all of them are either salty or contain sulphureted
hydrogen or some other objectionable gas. This peculiarity is
specially marked in the limestones of the Niagara and Clinton
formations. While sulphureted hydrogen, by itself, in very small

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 715

quantities, although disagreeable, is not specially unhealthful,
nevertheless excessive hardness taken in conjunction with sul-
phureted hydrogen produces unsatisfactory water and the writer
would hesitate to recommend a water supply containing large
amounts of sulphureted hydrogen, with a high degree of hardness,
if it were possible to obtain anything else. Such a water, in short,
should only be used as a last resort.

On the other hand, in Illinois and a number of other western
States, a very large proportion of the water supplies is derived
from wells. We conclude, therefore, that broadly, the question as
to whether a well supply is either desirable or possible, is deter-
mined largely by locality.

In regard to special conditions at Lockport a large number of
wells have been drilled, not only within the city limits but in
the surrounding country. A considerable number of these wells
are reviewed in detail and none of them yields more than a few
thousand gallons of water per day—usually, from a few hundred
to two thousand or three thousand gallons is the limit. One of
the wells is reported to have flowed when originally bored in 1888.
At the present time the water stands permanently from ten to
twelve feet below the surface. This fact indicates a permanent
reduction of ground water of that amount in fifteen years.

Moreover, the source of all the water, either upon the surface
or within the ground, is the rainfall. The average rainfall of the
western plateau, which includes western New York west of the
valley of Seneca lake, is for the twelve years from 1891 to 1902,
inclusive, 37.03 inches, but the rainfall at Rochester for the year
1888 was only 27.34 inches, while in the preceding year of 1887 it
was only 20.61 inches. We had, therefore, two years of low rain-
fall, the rainfall of 1887 being the lowest for the period of thirty-
two years during which observations have been kept by the United
States Weather Bureau at Rochester. If, therefore, this well
actually flowed in 1888, it is certain that the large number of
wells put down since that time have materially lowered the
ground water and it is extremely doubtful if now more than
100,000 gallons per day are being taken from the ground from
wells at or near Lockport. It follows, therefore, from the known
facts of wells at and about Lockport, that there is no possibility
of obtaining an adequate supply for the city—at any rate, on
the basis of present use, which as per a statement made by the
superintendent of waterworks under date of January 1, 1903,
is at the average daily rate of 4,500,000 gallons.

The problem reduced to its simplest terms is this. If the tak-
ing of perhaps 100,000 gallons per day has lowered the ground
' water 10 to 12 feet in fifteen years, during which time the rainfall
has been mostly several inches above the average, how much

716 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

would the ground water be lowered if either 3,000,000 to 4,000,000
gallons per day were taken, or even as small a quantity as 700,000
gallons per day? It is obvious that the answer must be that it
would only be a short time before water would be exhausted from
the ground, and any waterworks constructed with a ground
water supply, a failure.

As to why it is improbable that this quantity of water can be
obtained, there are three reasons:

1) The rocks of the Niagara and Clinton groups as existing
at and about Lockport are, above the Medina sandstone, close-
textured—there is not much water in them.

2) The overlying surface soil is strong, compact clay, making
it impossible that any considerable quantity of rainfall penetrate
the soil and to and into the rocks.

3) The inclination of the strata is from northeast to south-
west, rendering it impossible that water in or between the strata
run towards Lockport. Its natural course is away from the city.

The material for demonstrating these three propositions exists
in considerable detail, but as the writer’s object is not at present
to write a treatise on well supplies but merely to point out
saliently a few reasons why such supplies are mostly impossible
in New York the matter is not pursued, aside from the paragraphs
following, any further at this time.

As bearing on the subject just discussed, in Water Sup-
ply and Irrigation paper of the United States Geological
Survey, No. 61—Preliminary List of Deep Borings in the
United States—by N. H. Darton, there is an extensive list of
deep borings scattered over New York. Mr Darton states that
in Allegany county there are over 6500 borings, some of them 5000
feet deep. Aside from two or three wells, which yield from 50
to 70 gallons per minute of good water, the balance of the deep
wells of the State contain either gas, salt or mineral water. Deep
wells, almost without exception, are failures as regards furnishing
potable water. There are so many experiments upon this point
as to render the boring of a deep well for a water supply in New
York State useless, although it should not be overlooked that a
few of the wells furnish potable water, but the chance of finding
such is so small as to put such wells out of the list for public
water supplies. At any rate, it should be understood that the
finding of potable water in a deep well is a matter of chance.

It appears, therefore, that aside from occasional limited sup-
plies of spring water and the lakes throughout the eastern portion

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK : TU

of this region, there are no natural water supplies to be found,
except in the elevated regions of the Allegheny water center, where
adequate supplies may be made by storage. Many of the lakes are
not available, because they receive so much sewage as to render
the water unsafe without filtration. This remark applies to Lakes
Erie and Ontario and to the Niagara river.

The preceding remark also applies in some degree to the region
east of Seneca lake and south of the Mohawk river.

As to why this is so, it may be remarked in a few words that
the geology of the region is not favorable either to subterranean
water-supplies, or to large streams flowing on the surface. The
formations in an ascending order from Lake Ontario to the south
line of the State are Medina sandstone, Clinton sandstone and
limestone, Niagara shales and limestone, Salina shales and lime-
stone, the lower and upper Helderberg limestones, Hamilton
shales and sandstone, and Portage shales and sandstone. There
is also a small area of cretaceous clays and sands in Cattaraugus
and Allegany counties, near the south line of the State. None of
these formations is favorable for well supplies—the preferable
future water supplies of the entire region must be surface water,
and made by storage.

INLAND WATERWAYS

Trade and commerce of Hudson river. The importance of the
Hudson river as a great waterway of commerce is shown by Charles
G. Weir in a report made in 1890. Aside from its own local trade
the river absorbs all the traffic of the Erie, Champlain and Dela-
ware & Hudson canals,! besides the great coal trade of the Penn-
sylvania Coal Company at Newburg and the Erie coal trade at
Piermont. The average season of navigation of the river is two
hundred and forty days. The two principal industries on the Hud-
son river, which add materially to the total tonnage, are ice and
brick. The capacity of the ice houses on and near the river
exceeds 4,000,000 tons, and the amount annually harvested is
about 3,500,000 tons. The bricks manufactured on the river
exceed 850,000,000.

"The Delaware and Hudson canal has been abandoned since the above
sentence was written.

a
718 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In regard to the foregoing statement of the capacity of ice
houses on and near the river, as made by Mr Weir, it may be
remarked that Charles C. Brown, in a report on the Hudson river,
which appears in the Eleventh Annual Report of the State Board
of Health, gives a list of ice houses on the Hudson river, with their
capacity in 1889. According to Mr Brown, the total capacity in
that year was 2,908,000 tons, while the crop harvested frequently
exceeds this quantity by 500,000 tons, which is stacked up outside
and disposed of before the warm season begins. Mr Weit’s
statistics, as stated, include the capacity of ice houses on and near
the Hudson river, while Mr Brown’s include only those actually on |
the river, which probably explains the apparent discrepancy in
the statistics.

The following statistics include the tonnage received at all
points above Spuyten Duyvil creek, and of the local shipment
between points on the river. That shipped is credited only to the
points from which it was shipped, no entry being made to the
total tonnage of the amount received at local points from other
local points. The total tonnage also includes all through freights
shipped from points up the river that passed the mouth of Spuyten
Duyvil creek going south.

Total tonnage of all shipping points on Hudson
river during 1889, not including the tonnage

coming through State canals (tons)........... 15,033,309
Value of same. 2s. thes ovk.con o> Ue eee eee $378,196,094
Total tonnage coming to and leaving tidewater

through State canals, 1889 (tons)............. ; 3,592,437
Value of sameé.. ioc ot oc 6 css ee ee $108,000,000
Increase of same over tonnage, 1888 (tons)...... 326,466
Grand total tonnage of Hudson river, including

tonnage through State canals (tons).......... 18,582,596
Value of same. : '\\)./o0st. aR a ae $485,733,094

Number of transportation companies for passen-

gers or freight, not including steamboats or

pleasure boats. :<i:636 sins alee eed 30
Total number of passengers carried, 1889........ 5,000,000

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ; 719

State Canals
The Erie canal. Erie canal was the first development of the
internal water resources of New York State, and grew out of the
demand for transportation facilities between the Atlantic sea-
board and the Great Lakes. The impulse which it gave to the

- development of New York State, and of the entire territory

tributary to the Great Lakes, can hardly be estimated. Taking
into account its far-reaching consequences, it may be considered
the greatest public work thus far carried out in the United States.
Nevertheless, Erie canal has not only passed its day of usefulness,
but, to some extent, stands in the way of future development, the
chief cause for this being a too pronounced regard for the canal’s
former greatness. The historical matter may serve to indicate

se Capacity 80ToNS.

Fig. 45. Original lock used on Erie canal.

how strongly the feeling that Erie canal should be maintained
in perpetuity has been impressed upon the people of the State of
New York. (This paragraph was written in 1897.)

By way of illustrating the rise and decline of Erie canal, it
may be cited that in 1887 the total freight carried was 1,171,296 .

_ tons, valued at $55,809,288; in 1880 the total freight carried was

6,457,656 tons, valued at $247,844,790; in 1895 the total freight
carried was 3,500,314 tons, valued at $97,453,021. Statistics
Show that the great bulk of all the freight now carried on Erie
canal is through freight carried for western producers, local busi-
ness being only a small per cent of the whole. Statistics show
that freights are now carried by railways as. cheaply as they
can be carried by the canal, and this, too, at a profit, while the
canal, in order to obtain any freight at all, has been obliged to
do away with all tolls, thus making the cost of shipment by canal
the bare cost of transportation proper.

720 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In 1895 an improvement of Erie canal was authorized at a cost
of $9,000,000. Later, it was found that the cost would be
$16,000,000 instead of $9,000,000, as originally expected. On this
basis, and throwing out of the account former expenditures, we
may say that Erie canal will cost the people of the State of New
York annually at least $1,230,000. Assuming a traffic for the
canal of 5,000,000 tons per annum, carried an average of 200
miles, we have a total of 1,000,000,000 ton-miles per annum, on
which the people of the State of New York must pay in the way
of interest and cost of maintenance and operation about 1.25
mills per ton-mile, while canal freights now average about 1.2
mills per ton-mile; hence the people of the State of New York
will be obliged to pay under the new conditions over 50 per cent
of the total cost of the transportation. At present the local
canal freights are only 15 per cent of the total.

Early history of canals in New York. The idea of a water com-
munication between the Hudson river and the west via the valley
of the Mohawk had been a favored one with the statesmen of
New York for many years previous to the beginning of the present
century; the early projects, however, were with reference to im-
provement of the natural water channels and did not include
the construction of artificial channels further than such channels
might be necessary as connecting links.

So far as can be learned, the earliest mention of the route
between Albany and Lake Ontario was in a report made in 1724
by the Surveyor General to Governor Burnet, the Colonial Goy-
-ernor of the Province of New York. The Surveyor General
describes the watercourses and carrying places between Albany
end Lake Ontario with about as much accuracy as they can be
described today. The carry between the Mohawk river and Wood
creek he describes as “a portage only three miles long, except
in very dry weather, when the goods must be carried two miles
further.” He also describes the passage down the Oswego river
to Lake Ontario, showing that freight could be carried from
Albany to that lake by way of the Mohawk, Oneida and Oswego
rivers, cheaper and much more conveniently tham they were then
transporting it by way of the Hudson, Lake Champlain and the
River St Lawrence.

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 2

Moreover, the supposed near approach of the western waters
of New York and of Lake Erie is also referred to in this report
of 1724, as follows:

Besides the passage by the lakes, there is a river which comes
from the country of the Senecas and falls into the Oswego river,
by which we have an easy carriage into the country without going
near Lake Ontario. The head of this river goes near Lake Erie
and probably may give a very near passage into that lake and
much more advantageous than the way the French are obliged to
take by the great falls of Niagara.

In 1768 Sir Henry Moore, the Colonial Governor, in a message
to the Assembly, stated that:

The obstruction of navigation in the Mohawk river, between
Schenectady and Fort Stanwix, occasioned by the falls of Cana-
joharie, had been constantly complained of, and that it was obvi-
ous to all who were conversant in matters of this kind that the
difficulty could be easily remedied by sluices, by the plan of those
in the great canal of Languedoc in France, which was made to
open a communication between the Atlantic ocean and_ the

Mediterranean.

In 1788 Elkanah Watson proposed to establish a water com-
munication from the Hudson river and Lake Ontario by way of
Oneida lake, Oneida river, and Oswego river, his plan being to
connect Wood creek with the Mohawk river by a canal and to
improve the Mohawk with locks.

The foregoing quotations show that the possibilities of water
transportation had received attention at a very early day. Colden
states that Governor Burnet erected a fort and trading houses
at the mouth of Oswego river about 1726 “ because of its water
communication with the country of the Iroquois and for facility
of transportation between the lakes and Schenectady, there being
but three portages in the whole route and two of them very short.”
These, no doubt, were the carriages at Little Falls, Wood creek
and at Oswego rapids.

A Swedish traveler in this country in the year 1748 speaks of
the near approach of the waters of the Hudson and the St Law-
rence. Apparently he supposed there was a perfect communica-
tion from the former to the latter.

As soon as the Revolutionary war was concluded, Washington
Saw, in the improvement of the internal communications of this

Ze NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

country, that which, after independence, most concerned the pros-
perity and happiness of the people. Undoubtedly the subject had
occupied his mind before the Revolution, although there is no
record by which any date can be fixed, but he was without doubt
among those who first thought of the advantages and practica-
bility of a navigation between the lakes and the Atlantic. Imme-
diately after the war ended he devoted himself to this subject,
and in 1784 personally explored not only what is now the route
of the Champlain canal, but the route which later on the Western
Inland Lock Navigation Company adopted for their improvement.

The following extract from a letter to the Marquis of Chas-
tellux, in which Washington refers to these travels, is taken from
Marshall’s Life of Washington:

I have lately made a tour through the Lakes George and Cham-
plain, as far as Crown Point; then returning to Schenectady, I
proceeded up the Mohawk river to Fort Stanwix, and crossed
over to Wood creek, which empties into Oneida lake and affords
the water communication with Ontario; I then traversed the
country to the head of the eastern banks of-the Susquehanna, and
viewed the Lake Otsego, and the portage between that lake and
the Mohawk river at Canajoharie. Prompted by these actual ob-
servations, I could not help taking a more contemplative and
extensive view of the vast inland navigation of these United
States, and could not but be struck with the immense importance
of it. . . . I shall not rest content until I have explored the
western country and traversed those lines . . . which have
given bounds to a new empire.

In 1772 Christopher Colles lectured in Philadelphia on the
subject of lock navigation, and in 1784 proposed to the New
York Legislature to improve the navigation of the Mohawk river.
In 1785, on the reiterated application of Mr Colles, the Legisla-
ture granted him $125 to enable him to make an attempt towards
the execution of his plan. In the same year he published pro-
posals to establish a company to improve the inland navigation
at Oswego and Albany. In this publication he anticipated the
advantages which a water communication with the lakes would
afford. He states:

The Allegheny mountains seem to die away as they approach the

Mohawk river. The ground between the upper part of this river
and Wood creek is perfectly level.

|

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK ; ~ GES

In January, 1791, Governor George Clinton, in an address to
the Legislature, urged the necessity of improving the natural
water channels in order to facilitate communication with the
frontier settlements. Following this address, in February of the
Same year, a joint committee was appointed to inquire what
obstructions in the Hudson and Mohawk rivers it would be proper
to remove. As the result of this inquiry, an act was passed
March 24, 1791, authorizing the Commissioners of the Land Office
to explore and survey the ground from the Mohawk river at Fort
Stanwix (now Rome) to Wood creek with reference to construct-
ing an artificial channel, and also to survey the Mohawk and
Hudson rivers for improvement by locks and to estimate the
cost of the same. A sum not exceeding $500 was appropriated
to pay the expense of such survey.

At that time the channel of commerce was by the Mohawk from
Albany to Fort Stanwix in boats of about five tons burden. Going
west these boats carried from 1} to 2 tons and on the easterly
trip 5 tons. From Fort Stanwix there was a portage of 2 miles
across the flats to Wood creek, whence the course lay intu
Oneida lake and river, and from thence into Seneca and Oswego
rivers to Lake Ontario; or, from points farther west, up Seneca
river to Lakes Cayuga and Seneca. At that time it cost from
$75 to $100 per ton for transportation from Seneca lake to
Albany. The time occupied in going from Albany to Seneca
lake was twenty-one days, and in returning eight days.

The commissioners appointed under the act of March, 1791,
were Elkanah Watson, Gen. Phillip Schuyler, and Goldsborrow
Bayner. On the 3d of January, 1792, the commissioners reported
the cost of improving the route from Albany to Seneca lake by
locks and canals at $200,000, whereupon the Legislature passed
an act March 30, 1792, incorporating the Western Inland Lock
Navigation Company, for the purpose of opening navigation by
locks from the Hudson river to Lakes Ontario and Seneca, and the
Northern Inland Lock Navigation Company, charged with per-
forming a like service from the Hudson river to Lake Champlain.
The capital stock of each company consisted of 1000 shares of
$25 each, but the companies were afterwards allowed a capital
stock of $300,000 and an increase of the same from time to time.

_

[2A NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Gen. Phillip Schuyler was the first president of the Western
Inland Lock Navigation Company.!

In March, 1795, an act was passed directing the State Treasurer
to subscribe 200 shares to these companies, of $50 each. State
aid was again granted by an act passed in April, 1796, by which
the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company was loaned
$37,500, and a mortgage taken by the State on the company’s
property at Little Falls. In that year a route was opened from
Schenectady to Seneca Falls for boats carrying 16 tons. The
locks at Little Falls were first built of wood, then of brick, and
finally of stone. The tariff levied for a barrel of flour carried
100 miles was 52 cents, and for a ton of goods, $5.75.

In the report of the directors of the Western Inland Lock
Navigation Company to the Legislature of 1796 many interesting
particulars are given in regard to this navigation. The follow-
ing from that report about the canal around Little Falls is of
interest:

The canal is drawn through the northern shore of the Mohawk
river, about fifty-six miles beyond Schenectady. Its track is
nearly parallel to the direction of the waters of the fall, and at
a mnean about forty yards therefrom. Its supply of water is from
the river, and the canal commences above the falls, in a neat,
well-covered basin of considerable depth of water, and reenters
the river in a spacious bay at the foot of the falls; its length is
4752 feet, in which distance the aggregate fall is 44 feet 7 inches.
Five locks, having each nearly 9 feet lift, are placed towards the
lower end of the canal, and the pits, in which they are placed,
have been excavated out of solid rock, of the hardest kind; the
chamber of each lock is an area of 74 feet by 12 feet in the cleave,
and boats drawing three feet and a half of water may enter at
all times; the depth of water in all the extent of the canal beyond
the locks is various, but not less than 3 feet in any place; near
the upper end of the canal a guard lock is placed without lift, to
prevent a redundancy of water; when the water in the river rises
beyond the lowest state, sluices are constructed, to discharge the
surplus water entering the canal, from the two small rivulets
which intersect its course; about 2550 feet of the canal is cut
through solid rock, and where the level struck above the natural
surface of the earth, or rather rock, strong and well constructed

erroneously stated that George Washington was the first president of the
Western Inland Lock Navigation Company.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK , T25

confine the water and to keep the level, hence there is no other
current in the canal than an almost imperceptible one, when the
summit lock is drawn; three handsome and substantial bridges
are thrown over the canal, as so many roads which have been
intersected by the canal.

The report to the Legislature of 1796 is accompanied by the
report of William Weston, the engineer, in which estimates are
given of the expense of improving the navigation from tidewater
in the Hudson river to Cayuga lake, by means of canals and
locks, and removing the obstructions in the rivers so as to
render them competent for the transportation of produce in
boats of upwards of 20 tons burden.

In the report of the directors of the Western Inland Lock
Navigation Company, made by the president, under date of Feb-
ruary 16, 1798, it is stated that early in the spring of 1796 the
directors commenced operations at Fort Stanwix (Rome) with
reference to a junction of the waters of the Mohawk river and
Wood creek. The length of the canal at this point was a little
over three miles.

With respect to the improvement to the westward of Fort.
Stanwix, the directors state that from the outlet of Oneida
lake to the south end of Cayuga lake, nature has done so much
that little is left for art to accomplish. The few obstructions
necessary to be removed can all be affected in the course of one
Summer and at a very moderate expense.

This company did not realize anything like their expectations.
After completing the canal around Little Falls and at Fort Stan-
wix, they were confronted by the difficulty that on account of the
excessive tolls charged, these short stretches of canal were not
as much used as they had expected. While the commerce from
Oneida lake and westward was considerable, the boatmen still
continued to carry their cargoes around these obstructions in-
stead of passing through the canals. Undoubtedly the scarcity
of ready money had a good deal to do with this, although the
tolls for passing through the canals seem rather high. As we
have seen, the entire bed of the Mohawk river had been conveyed
to this company by the act of 1792, but there was no practical
way of preventing navigation on the river.

The company, however, continued in existence until the State
entered upon its era of inland water improvement under the

726 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

auspicies of the State itself-in 1817,’ in which year a commission
was appointed to purchase the rights of the Western Inland
Lock Navigation Company for the State. This commission re-
ported June 24, 1820, awarding to the company the sum of $151,-
000, which was to be appropriated among the stockholders of
said company, as follows:

To the individual stockholders, proprietors of stock amounting
to $140,000, the sum of $91,616; and for the use of the people of

this State, proprietors of stock amounting to $92,000, the sum of
$60,204.80.

This report of the commissioners was confirmed by the
Supreme Court August 11, 1820. The Western Inland Lock
Navigation Company then became the property of the State, and
in 1821 the State collected the sum of $450.56 for tolls charged
from Rome to the lower lock at Little Falls on account of trans-
portation over the route formerly controlled by the Western
Inland Lock Navigation Company.

Chapter 144 of the laws of 1818 incorporated the Seneca Lock
Navigation Company for the purpose of constructing a canal
from Cayuga lake to Seneca lake. The rights of this company
were purchased by the State, pursuant to chapter 271 of the
laws of 1825. The two companies, the Western Inland Lock Navi-
gation Company and the Seneca Lock Navigation Company, may
be considered the forerunners of the Erie canal.

About $100,000 was expended by the Northern Inland Lock
Navigation Company on locks around the falls at Cohoes and
for their improvement, all of which proved a total loss, the rights
of the company being finally transferred to the State before
navigation from the Hudson river to Lake Champlain was actually
opened.

The amount expended by the Western Inland Lock Navigation
Company up to December, 1804, was $367,743, which was in-
creased to $480,000 in 1813, and to a total of $560,000 before the
works were finally transferred to the State. The mistake of first

1The full authority for the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals
may be found in two acts, the first being chapter 237 of the laws of 1816,
passed April 17, 1816; the second being chapter 262 of the laws of 1817,

passed April 15, 1817. There is more or less confusion of these two dates
in early canal literature.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 727

constructing wooden locks proved a severe loss to the company,
as all the original locks at Little Falls, German Flats, and Rome
rotted away in about six years. The facilities afforded by these
companies were undoubtedly inadequate to the demands of the
rapidly growing western section, and accordingly an active agi-
tation finally began for some more extended means of com-
munication.

The early work was, as we have seen, entirely in the direction
of the improvement of natural channels, the extent of artificial
channels for the whole route from the Hudson river to Seneca lake

_ CAPACITY 240 TONS.

WUUTMMAG

Fig. 46 Enlarged lock used on Erie canal.

being only 15 miles. About 1803, however, the project for an
artificial canal connecting Lake Erie with tidewater in the Hud-
son was broached by Gouverneur Morris, whose name should not
be overlooked in an account of early canal history. In 1803
Morris and Simeon DeWitt passed an evening in Schenectady
and in the course of the conversation, as detailed by DeWitt,
Morris mentioned the project of “tapping Lake Erie” and lead-
ing its waters in an artificial river directly across the country
to the Hudson river.

DeWitt considered that the intermediate hills and valleys
would be insurmountable objects, but Morris’s answer was that
the object would justify labor and expense.

DeWitt had then long been Surveyor-General of the State and
was well acquainted with its topography to the west bounds of
the military tract, but had no special knowledge of the country
west of the military lands, and he naturally supposed that the
rivers ran in deep valleys to Lake Ontario and between them
were ranges of hills. In a paper on The Origin and History
of the Measures that Led to the Construction of the Erie Canal,

(28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

George Geddes states that DeWitt was a man of caution, dealing
in facts, and had little or nothing of the extraordinary in his
nature. Gouverneur Morris was a man of entirely different
stamp. He had traveled in Europe and knew the utility of canals,
and had long maintained the opinion that ships would ultimately
sail from London up the Hudson and across country to Lake Erie.
Mr Morris had expressed as early as 1777 his views in regard to
internal improvements. At that time he said: “At no distant
day, the waters of the great western inland seas will, by the aid
of man, break through their barriers and mingle with those of
the Hudson.”

In 1800 Mr Morris stated: “ One-tenth of the expense borne
by Britain in the last campaign would enable ships to sail from
London, through the Hudson river, to Lake Erie.”

In 1807 Jesse Hawley wrote a series of articles on the subject,
claiming that the idea of an artificial channel first originated
with him, and in 1820 Elkanah Watson published a book for
the same purpose. In 1808 the Legislature directed the Surveyor-
General, Simeon DeWitt, to make a survey of an artificial channel
from the Great Lakes to the Hudson. This survey was made by
James Geddes, who reported on January 20, 1809. In 1810 the
Legislature appointed commissioners to prosecute further exam-
inations. This commission made its first report in March, 1811.
After discussing the route as proposed, from the Hudson river to
Lake Ontario, it recommended the inland route to Lake Erie
with a direct descent from Lake Erie to the Hudson river. Follow-
ing this report a bill was passed by the Legislature reappointing
the commissioners of the previous year, with the addition of
Robert R. Livingston and Robert Fulton, and extending the
powers of the commissioners and adding to the appropriation for
its work. The war of 1812 came on and the canal project was
temporarily dropped until 1816, when De Witt Clinton presented
a memorial to the legislature from the City of New York urging
action toward the construction of the canal. Finally the act of
April 15, 1817, was passed creating a permanent Board of Canal
Commissioners,! which entered at once upon its duties, and pro-

‘The permanent Board of Canal Commissioners of 1817 included the fol-
lowing men: De Witt Clinton, president; Stephen Van Rensselaer, Samuel
Young, Joseph Ellicott, and Myron Holley, their appointment having been
first authorized by the act of April 17, 1816.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 729

viding for the construction of artificial navigation from Lake Erie
to tidewater on the Hudson river, and also from Lake Champlain
to tidewater on the Hudson. The dimensions of the proposed
canals were fixed by the commissioners as follows: For Erie
canal a bottom width of 28 feet, surface width 40 feet, and depth
4 feet, with locks 90 feet long and 15 feet wide; for Champlain
canal a bottom width of 20 feet, surface width 30 feet, and ae
3 feet, with locks 75 feet long and 10 feet wide.

Ground was broken for the Erie canal at Rome, July 4, 1817, and
the section from Utica to Seneca river completed October 22,

Capacity 640TOHs.

4--- 29°49" -—-14.4"

Fig. 47 Proposed lengthened lock for enlarged canal.

1819, a boat passing from Rome to Utica on that day. Champlain
canal was opened in part for navigation November 24, 1819. The
route for Erie canal from Seneca river west was also explored
in 1819, and the final location, from Seneca river to Rochester,
made in 1821. The principal engineers were James Geddes,
Benjamin Wright, and Canvass White.

The annual report of the Canal Commissioners, dated January
31, 1818, gives details of the system adopted for the construction
of the canal. They state that they had decided to complete the
middle section first, 58 miles of which were put under contract
during the year 1817, this portion being wholly on the summit
level. The whole labor performed in 1817 was equal to the com-
pletion of 15 miles. In indication of the easy character of the
work, the commissioners state that three Irishmen finished 3 rods
of canal in 4 feet cutting in five and one-half days, and that on
the 58 miles under contract only half a mile required puddling.

The engineer’s original estimate of the cost of the middle sec-
tion, completed in 1819, was $1,021,851. The actual cost was

730 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

$1,125,983. This increase, as stated by the commissioners, was
due to change of prism and structures.

While the State canals were in progress the Seneca Lock
Navigation Company, authorized by chapter 144 of the laws of
1815, had been engaged in constructing a canal between Seneca
and Cayuga lakes, including a series of locks at Seneca Falls.
On June 14, 1818, a loaded boat from Schenectady, 16 tons burden,
passed the newly constructed locks at Seneca Falls. Along the Mo-
hawk river the passage of boats of this size was effected through
the locks of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, Erie
canal not being open for navigation at that date. The locks at
Seneca Falls cost $60,000. The toll charged during 1818 was
equivalent to 9 cents per ton per mile.

Champlain canal was opened for navigation November 24, 1819,
from the Hudson at Fort Edward to Lake Champlain. The esti-
mated cost of this section was $250,000, but on account of chang-
ing its dimensions to the same size as the Erie canal the revised
estimate amounted to $333,000. The canal was finally completed
from Lake Champlain to Albany on September 10, 1823.

Work on the Erie canal proceeded during the years from 1820 to
1825, in the former year 94 miles being in operation and in the
latter 368. It was finally completed from Albany to Black Rock
on October 26, 1825, on which day the first boat ascended the
Lockport locks and passed through the mountain ridge into Lake
Erie. Uninterrupted navigation was thus obtained from that
lake to the Atlantic ocean for boats of an average of about 40
tons burden. The event was made a gala day the whole length
of the canal.

The construction of the Erie canal was due to the unbounded
perseverance and genius of one man—Governor De Witt Clinton—
who, when one studies the early history of the Erie canal, stands
forth as the colossal figure of the enterprise. Nevertheless Clin-
ton does not appear to have been actively interested until about
1810, but his interest once aroused he was easily the leading
figure of the enterprise until its completion in 1825,

The total expenditure on the Erie and Champlain canals to Jan-
uary 1, 1826, was $9,474,373.14, from which should be deducted
for pay of engineers and commissioners, the acquisition of water
rights, land damages, the construction of feeders, repairs, Black

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 731
Rock harbor, lowering Onondaga outlet, Salina and Onondaga
side cut, Waterford and Troy side cuts, Troy dam, and Glens
Falls feeder, the sum of $1,621,274. Hence the actual cost of
construction of the canal proper was $7,853,099, which, on the
ageregate length of 433 miles, equals $18,136 per mile, or taking
into account the various extensions enumerated and the engineer-
ing as necessary items of expenditure, the original cost per mile
of the Erie and Champlain canals may be placed at $21,881 per
mile.

Between 1825 and 1833 work was begun on a number of lateral
canals—as, for instance, the Oswego canal, begun in 1826 and
completed in 1828; the Cayuga and Seneca canal, begun. in 1827
and completed in 1829; the Chemung canal, begun in 1851 and
- completed in 1832, and the Crooked Lake canal, begun in 18351 and
completed in 1833. The total cost of ail the canals, including
interest on loans up to March 23, 1833, was $11,460,066.77.

Chenango canal was begun in 1833. The total amount expended
on all the canals, including original construction, extensions,
maintenance, repairs, and interest on loans, to the end of 1834
was $13,798,438, and the total amount of tolls received from 1820
to 1834, inclusive, was $10,000,730.97—that is to say, at the end
of ten years from the original completion of the Erie canal the
amount returned to the State was nearly 78 per cent of the total
cost to that date. This fact is of the greatest interest because it
indicates that from the very beginning the New York State canal
system was operated as a purely business enterprise. It is clear,
then, that in reality the State of New York, in constructing its
internal navigation system, went into the transportation business ;
by that statement it is meant that the State managed the affairs of
the canals precisely as a private company would have managed
them—that is, the State built its canal system and levied as
heavy tolls as the articles transported would stand.

By way of illustrating how thoroughly the State was in ‘the
transportation business and on exactly the same basis as trans-
portation companies, it may be cited that in 1830 the Legislature
sent a communication to the Commissioners of the Canal Fund
asking if it were not possible to increase the rate of toll on many
of the articles transported, and stating that it seemed necessary,
in order to meet all the interests involved, that the canals yield

732 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

somewhat greater revenue. The commissioners replied to this
communication at length, giving in detail the amount of toll levied
on different articles transported, and finally concluded with the
statement that it would be impossible to increase the toll
materially, because the articles transported were at that time
taxed all they would stand. If the rate of toll were made
materially greater, many articles would not be transported on the
canals, but would go by other channels, as by the St Lawrence
river and by the Great Lakes. The State would thus lose the
benefit derived from carrying them.

About 1883 to 1835 railroads began to attract attention as
means of transportation, and in 1835 John B. Jervis, Holmes
Hutchinson, and Frederick C. Mills, the principal canal engineers
of that day, were instructed to report on the relative cost of
transportation on canals and railroads. In an introduction to
their report by William C. Bouck and Michael Hoffman, Canal
Commissioners, it is stated that it will not be difficult to show
that the expense of ‘transportation on railroads is materially
greater than on canals. But in addition to this there were other
important considerations in favor of canals:

1) A canal may be compared to a common highway on which
every man can be the carrier of his own property, therefore
creating the most active competition, and thus reducing the
expense of transportation to the lowest rates. The farmer, mer-
chant, and manufacturer can avail themselves of the advantages
of carrying their own product to market in a manner best com-
porting with the interest of each individual.

2) Much of the property carried on the canals is carried by
transportation companies, although the largest portion is carried
by individuals and small associations. The individual who be-
comes the carrier of his own product has the advantage of paying
nearly one-half of all the expense of transportation in the regular
course of his business, and the cash disbursements do not often
much exceed the payment of the tolls. To the farmer the profits
on return freight, in many instances, give a full indemnity for
the expense of taking his cargo to market. On railroads, on the
other hand, the proprietors must necessarily be the carriers.

A fixed popular belief in the two principles laid down by
Messrs. Bouck and Hoffman in their introduction to the trans-

-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 733

portation report of 1835 has been the cause of a great deal of
mistaken policy in the State of New York. Nearly every year
since the beginning of the railway era the newspapers of the
State have teemed with the statement that the State must neces-
sarily maintain the canal system in order to check the exorbitant
tariff demands of competing railways. As we have seen, in 1830,
just before the beginning of the railway era, the State was taxing
every article transported upon the canals all that it would stand,
and the system of excessive State tariffs was continued until a few
years later, when the competition of the railways forced a reduc.
tion in the tariff for transportation on the canal.

Growth and decline of canal transportation. A number of re-
ports bearing on transportation questions were submitted in 1835,
and finally the fixed policy was adopted of enlarging the Erie canal,
the act authorizing what is known as the Erie canal enlargement
being passed in that year. The law authorizing the enlargement
directed the construction of double locks and a prism with a
width at water surface of 70 feet, and a depth of 7 feet, the locks
to be 110 feet long and 18 feet wide. It was estimated that an
enlargement to this extent would save 50 per cent in cost of
transportation, exclusive of tolls. The enlargement to this
standard width and depth was begun in 18386 and continued to
1842, when the Legislature directed the suspension of expenditures.
In 1847 the work of enlargement was resumed, and substantially
completed in 1862. Since that time to the work done under
authority of chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 there had been
no change in the standard of width at water line of 70 feet
and depth of 7 feet. As an interesting fact it may be pointed
out that while the enlargement authorized in 1835 led to a vast
increase in the transportation business on the State canals, the
cost of transportation gradually decreased, one chief cause of
such decrease being the competition of railways, until in 1883 the
competition from this source became too sharp to maintain
longer transportation on the canals if any toll at all were charged.
The canals were then made free by legislative enactment.

The popular notion, formerly prevalent in New York, that it
has been necessary to maintain the State canals in order to regu-
late the railways, is seen to be far from true. The railways have

734 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

regulated the canals quite as much or more than the canals have
regulated the railways. Indeed, the railways must be considered
as having the better of it, because the State has been obliged
absolutely to do away with all tolls on the canals in order to
insure their obtaining business at all.

In illustration of the value of the water resources afforded by
the Great Lakes in conjunction. with the New York State internal
navigation system, the following statement of receipts of flour,
wheat, corn, oats, barley, and rye at Buffalo for certain years,
from 1836 to 1903, inclusive, is given.

TABLE NO. 92—-NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF GRAIN CARRIED BY PRIE CANAL FROM

1836 To 1903

YEAR Flour Wheat Corn Oats Barley Rye
(1) (2) (3) (4) (9) (6) (7)
Barrels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels

I886F2 & 139,178 304,990 204,855 28,640 4,876 ;
te ee 597,142 | 1,004,561 6 GR ie WOR eR Pee are
1845... 746,750 | 1,770;740 54,200 BS, SOOT nt he oto ee
1850....| 1,103,089 | 8,681,347 | 2,593,378 357,580 OOS Hn tsa ane
LeGpe a. 937,761 8,022,126 | 9,711,480 | 2,698,222 62,3804 299,591
1860....| 1,122,835 | 18,502,615 886,217 | 1,209,594 262,158 80,822
1865....| 1,788,893 | 18,487,888 | 19,840,901 | 8,494,799 820,563 877,676
1870....| 1,470,391 | 20,556,722 ; 9,410,128 | 6,846,983 ; 1,821,154 626,154
1875....| 1,810,402 | 82,987,656 | 22,598,891 | 8,494,124 916,889 222,126
1880....| 1,817,911 | 40,510,229 | 62,214,417 649,351 335,925 743,451
1885....| 2,993,280 | 27,180,400 | 21,025,230 767,580 577,230 309,370
1890....| 6,245,580 | 14,868,680 | 44,136,660 | 18,860,780 | 5,165,700 | 1,281,030
1895....| 8,971,740 | 46,848,510 | 38,244,960 | 21,943,680 | 10,253,440 787,340
1896... .] 10,884,184 | 54,411,207 | 47,811,010 | 40,107,499 | 16,697,744 | 4,404,354
1897....| 12,440,617 | 56,565,610 | 56,932,625 | 64,140,618 | 14,548,100 | 7,213,650
1898... .| 10,871,653 | 83,872,887 | 67,950,073 | 45,501,233 | 11,391,382 | 6,821,694
1899....| 9,088,873 | 48,008,014 | 58,843,327 | 26,469,401 | 15,110,672 | 2,260,865
1900... .| 11,463,079 | 47,826,458 | 63,192,660 | 28,422,256 | 9,868,196 | 1,814,743
1901... .| 11,058,489 | 61,294,248 | 30,589,848 | 21,488,545 | '7,687,239 | 1,256,284
1902... .| 12,026,616 | 62,452,696 | 22,487,454 | 15,891,387 | 8,969,865 | 3,716,628
1908... .| 11,248,027 | 40,455,328 | 48,364,579 | 30,976,088 | 10,681,655 | 3,216,983

A comparison of the statistics of railroad and canal traffic

shows at once the vast preponderance of freight carried by the
several railways centering at New York in comparison with that
carried by Erie canal. In spite of the fact that the canal was
made free in 1883, figures indicate that since that time there has
been a continual decrease in the amount of freight carried on the
canals. Probably no feature of this change is more significant

than that of the internal movement in New York State.

HYDROLOGY

OF NEW

YORK

In 1889

the total movement within the State was 1,488,759 tons, while in

1896 it was only 565,482 tons.

These statistics show at once the

decreasing estimation in which the Erie canal as a means of trans-
portation is held by the great body of shippers in the State of
New York.

The following tabulation from the Report of the Buffalo
Chamber of Commerce shows the receipts of grain, in bushels,
at New York by canal, rail, river and coast routes during the
season of navigation of 1903, compared with ten previous years:

RECEIPTS BY ROUTES, May 1 TO DECEMBER 1, 1903

a

we eye s «
wet at te
i a et
roe x th

1903, total
Per cent

*1902, total
Per cent

1901, total
Per cent

1900, total
Per cent

1899, total
Per cent

1898, total
Per cent

1897,-total
Per cent

1896, total
Per cent

1895, total
Per cent

1894, total
Per cent

Ie a i OEY kg ae
i OC en Oe ae et Ue
Mm nreie wp ate M6 a ¢ allele =
Sa che) @ 0 0 UC 'e's cs @» 0 2
Oe ee oO Oe ae a
wee 6 wie Bw hy Oe © Eee ie

a @ a= ais =e, 6 eo) e She 20) 8

grain

oo ere ere eee eevee nese

“eee ee ewean

etre ks ote, Se cee ed

bp Sard Meveale @ es. sia ace &

ec. 8 6 eee d's Se ore <

9 aes) Oe) € eis Stale edie a =

P2®. 6105915 6 ate Wf ay © (Be. .

See te ae wee 6 a &

2 6 6 6 a Bwiers oN Bem * 6

River and
B Ve B 1 Total
Dushels bushels Se bushels

(2) (3) (4) (5)
2,602,400 | 10,597,300 |......... | 13,199, 700
5,910,400 | 11,845, 050 2,300 | 17, 757, 750
3, 490,900 | 13,857,000 |......... 17,347,900
349,600 | 1,132,875 |......... | 12482. 475
368, 800 er 986, 950
147,500 | 1,840,500 |]......... 1,988, 000
nes Sanaa 202,228 | 43. 976 246, 204
12,869,600 | 40,093,103 | 46,276 | 53,008,979
24.28 75.68 0.09 100
11,509,050 | 43,093,569 | 13,804 | 54,616, 428
21.07 78.90 0.03 | 100
14,350,600 | 52,577,750 | 602,300 | 67,530, 650
21.25 77 85 0.89 100
11,351,100 | 72,033,225 |2, 454,115 | 85,888, 440
13.22 | 83.92 2.86 100
16, 299, 400 | 89,688,623 | 7,630 | 105,995, 655
15.38 84.61 0.01 100
18, 686,000 | 88,809,259 | 18,243 | 107,514,393
17.38 82.60 0.04 | 100
20, 934,400 | 97,078,000 | 41,456 | 118, 053, 856
17.73 8223 0.04 100
31,404,650 | 62,314,800 | 224,172 | 93, 948, 622
33.43 | 66.33 0.24 | 100
14, 612,700 | 54,289,835 | 63,831 | 68, 966, 366
21.13 81.33 0.92 | 100
42,608,700 | 19,772,420 | 166,320 | 62,547,440
68.12 31.61 0.27 100

|

736 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

By way of illustrating the growth and decline of the business
of the New York State canals from about 1835-36 to the present
time, the following statement of the total tonnage of all freight
on the canals, ascending and descending, and the value of the
same for certain years from 1857 to 1902, inclusive, is presented:

TABLE NO. 93—TOTAL TONNAGE AND VALUE OF CANAL FREIGHT, 1857
ro 1902

Tons Value
DBC ccs aah PS een WaT Re er 1,171,296 $55,809,288
sic ganna Daruictestare Se irate page hs 1,416,046 66,303,892
Wo 3: ates caer eon eee eee 1,977,565 100,629,859
1850: ca ecw owl ores 2 eee 3,076,617 156,397,929
ASS6i42. oS. OS. ee ee 4,022,617 204,390,147
LB60%, 5 2. oe. Pie. eh eee re series 4,650,214 170,849,198
TS68e,... A an tee 4,729,654 256,237,104
IO cc rriveie al cae ee 6,173,769 231,836,176
RYE ee. sas a. Pet ie et 4,859,958 145,008,575
Lie Veep ee vals ape agath 9 os. PN tA tS: joa HT il 6,457,656 247,844,790
(SG. Cees, DL, Re 4,731,784 119,536,189
BOOG.G". . « chin tie pa eee ene 5,246,102 145,761,086
BEDE <7 7 1-7 DUO SE ES ee ee es 3,500,314 97,453,021
BOG gs PRU Re RRO. ee ee 3,114,894 100,039,578
LBOTI DS. Lilac G ae | HOR tee a 3,617,804 96,068,338
1508. 32) Ee oe eee 3,360,063 88,122,354
Bee oy dak 3h od ee ee oe ee 3,686,051 92,786,712
MO is sian 5s -gittecn sit tea paneaa tends capri aaaeteanea 3,345,941 84,123,772
AOOT .. Se, . OGRA Breer 3,420,618 83,478,880
POOG diel: 1. RR ee Me RR, 3,274,610 81,708,455

Without analyzing the figures in detail, it is sufficient to point
out that if it is true, as popularly supposed, that the Erie canal
ought to be maintained as a medium of competition with the
railways, the figures derived from the annual statements of the
chief competitor of the Erie canal must be taken as conclusive that
the competition has, on the whole, been a failure. The railway,
developed as a private enterprise, has not only been able to carry
freight as cheaply as the canal, but has been able to charge for

=|
CS
=

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

the same and do the work at a profit. In the year ending June
30, 1897, the New York Central & Hudson River Railway Com-
pany paid a dividend on its stock of $4,000,000, besides carrying
$51,866.80 to the surplus account, whereas the canal, although all
tolls were removed in 1883, has still been unable to compete.
Among the chief reasons for this result, lack of organization of
canal transportation must be placed first. The perpetuation of
the idea that one advantage of the canals was that they were
common highways on which each man could carry his own
products to market has tended largely to produce this unsatis-
factory result. Thus far there has never been any systematic
organization for obtaining business for the canal. The boats are
owned by small proprietors, each operating from one to three or
four boats. When cargoes in hand are discharged at either
terminus, each owner solicits another cargo. The results are
delays, half cargoes, and consequent loss. , During the last few
years it has been only by the most rigid economy that the Erie
canal boatmen could live. On the other hand, the business of
soliciting freight for the railways is compactly organized and
every possible advantage taken of the situation.

However unsatisfactory it may seem to the individual boat-
man, the future of effective transportation on the Erie canal de-
pends on the organization of large transportation companies
which conduct the business of carrying freight by canal on the
Same business basis as adopted by railways. As to the equity of
the State furnishing and maintaining a waterway on which
transportation may be conducted by such corporations at a profit
the writer expresses no opinion further than to point out that
the official discussion of such a proposition by the State Engineer
and Surveyor in his annual report for the year ending September
30, 1896, may be taken to indicate that the day of the Erie canal as
a State waterway has passed. °

Cost and revenues of the New York State canal system. Table
no. 94 exhibits the total cost of construction, maintenance and
operation, and the total revenues from all sources of the several
canals of New York from their original inception to September
30, 1892:

738 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

TALPLE NO, 94—FIRST COST AND REVENUES FROM THE NEW YORK STATE CANALS

Cost of
Cost of : Revenue
CANALS construc- ears hel, ae from all Loss Gain
tion operation sources
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Erie and Champlain....... [$57, 688, 676 ee 582, 759/999, 24), 43519128, 191, 068) icnniccese cc $28, 919, 633
OBWEEOZ..= scbasaencimencee 4, 643, 921| 3 736, 675| 8, 380, 507). .O5d'1D,001) St, G00 USO): i oaacae
Cayuga and Seneca........ 1. 886, 662) i. 157, 754 3 044, 416; 1,055, O16)" “1, 989,400) ...........
Blgck -Tiverwsneeee ee eee 4,077, 882; 2,082,251) 6, 160, 133 305, 663) 5, PEs eer se cts ne
Oneidariver improvement 233, 962 41, 236 275, 198 214, 428 » LONG Peed hones
Oneida lake. 22.) c.% cae 513, 489 144, 060 657, 499 65, 180 a} des he Neamt ee
Baldwinsville (so called).. 31, 000 18, 039 49, 039 if 261| ay, (TEts cee eek
Seneca river towing path. 1, 602 20 1, 622 De MOS Live cai 6, 160
Cayuga inlet............... 2) 020 948 2, 968 PA sneaclh ead 4, 566
Crooked lake (ePaston 395, 092 424, 658 819, 750 45, 490. TUsp ZOU ers cau ee
Chenango (abandoned)...| 4,807,952} 2,105,217; 6,913, 169 744,027; 6,169, 142]...........
Chemung (abandoned)....| 1,512,041} 2,022,259) 3,534,300 526, 565)! °3: 006, TOI). 4: aches
Genesee val. (abandoned).| 6, 741,88 839} 2, 814, 809 9. 556, 648 860,165 8, 8,696, 4$BS late Jo. Sees
Totaly ioseucer secs $82, 53 538, 5, 088 $56, 130, 686 $138,6 38,666,774 8135, 738, 746 $31, 85 858, 387/$28, 930, 359

The total cost of Crooked lake, Chenango, Chemung and Gene-
see Valley canals, which were abandoned under the provisions of
the law of 1877, was $20,823,867, and the total revenue from all
sources $2,175,247. The total loss on the abandoned canals was
therefore $18,648,620. The following is the complete financial
exhibit of all canals from their inception to September 30, 1892:
Total loss on abandoned canals, $18,648,620; net gain on canals
now in operation, $15,720,592; loss on the whole system,
$2,928,028.

Improvement of Erie canal. The canal improvement of 1895
was formulated by State Engineer and Surveyor Horatio Seymour
jr., in 1878. In his annual report for that year Mr Seymour dis-
cusses extensively transportation questions as related to the Erie
canal, pointing out that transportation can be cheapened in two
ways—by increasing the tonnage of boats or by increasing their
speed. As to increasing the tonnage of boats, he states that two
methods may be used—the locks may be lengthened or the depth
of water may be increased. The width of the canal, Mr Seymour
states, is substantially what it should be, but it lacks the neces-
sary depth in order to conform to the law of relation of cross
section of water to immerged section of boat, as determined by
Mr Sweet. Reports were submitted showing that an additional
depth of one foot could be obtained for about $1,100,000.

“= - FT”.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 739

The matter of making the improvement, however, remained in
abeyance until the passage of an act in 1895, which provided for
submitting to the people at the State election in November of
that year the question as to whether an improvement by deepen-
ing two feet should be undertaken at an expense of $9,000,000.
Section 3 of chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 reads as follows:

Within three months after issuing of the said bonds the Super-
intendent of Public Works is hereby directed to proceed to en-
large and improve the Erie canal, the Champlain canal, and the
Oswego canal; the said improvement to the Erie and Oswego
canals shall consist of deepening the same to a depth of not less
than 9 feet of water, except over and across aqueducts, miter sills,

Capacity 2000 TONS.

“eee — oe oe

Fig. 48 Lock recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal.

- culverts, and other permanent structures, where the depth of
water shall be at least 8 feet, but the deepening may be performed
by raising the banks wherever the same may be practicable; also
the lengthening or improving of the locks which now remain to
be lengthened, and providing the necessary machinery for drawing
boats into the improved locks, and for building vertical stone
walls, where, in the opinion of the State Engineer and Surveyor
and Superintendent of Public Works, it may be necessary. The im-
provement upon the Champlain canal shall consist in deepening
the said canal to 7 feet of water, and the building of such vertical
stone walls as, in the opinion of the State Engineer and Surveyor
and Superintendent of Public Works, may be necessary.

The necessary preliminary work was so far completed that bids
for constructing the improvement were called for in October,
1896, and shortly thereafter contracts for work amounting to
about $4,000,000 were awarded. The canal was closed December

_
740 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

1, 1896, and soon after work was begun and continued until
May 5, 1897, when navigation was opened for the season of 1897,
and all contractors not working with dredges discontinued
operations until the winter of 1897-98. The act authorizing the
1895 improvement provided that the deepening of the canal prism
might be accomplished either by excavation or by raising the side
walls. Sometimes one method and sometimes the other has been
followed, depending upon the conditions of each level. Usually
a part of the increased depth has been obtained by raising the
side walls, with the balance secured by excavation.

As is indicated in the extract from the act authorizing the
improvement, the work included the lengthening of such locks as
had not been previously lengthened. The original locks of the
enlargement of 1836 to 1862 were 110 feet long by 18 feet wide.
In 1885 work was begun lengthening these locks to 220 feet, or
about 210 feet in the clear, thus permitting two boats to pass
through at one lockage. Up to 1895, 42 of the 72 original locks
had been lengthened. The 30 locks remaining to be dealt with
were mostly bunched in groups or flights, as, for instance, at
Cohoes, where 16 locks effect a change of level of 140 feet, and
at Lockport, where 5 locks effect a change of 58 feet. In order
to lengthen locks built in flights it would be necessary to entirely
reconstruct them, and as the restricted space, specially at Lock-
port, would render this a very difficult thing to do in one winter
season, it was therefore proposed to construct at Cohoes and
Lockport, and possibly at Newark, vertical lift locks to take the
place of the ordinary locks in use at these places. The State
Engineer and Surveyor completed the plans for the proposed
lift lock at Lockport, which was so located as not to interfere
with the use of the locks now in place there during its construc-
tion.

[It was announced late in 1897 that the $9,000,000 appro-
priated would fall about $7,000,000 short of completing the work
of deepening and lengthening on the lines thus far carried out+

‘For engineering and other details of the canal improvement of 1895 see
Ing. News, Vol. XXXVIII (Sept. 2. 16, and 23, 1897). See also Effect of
Depth upon Artificial Waterways, by Thomas Cc. Clark: Trans. Am. Soe.

Civil Eng., Vol. XXXV, pp. 1-40. Also Eng. News, January 6, 1898, for
discussion of the question, What Shall New York Do with Its Canals?

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 741

4

This announcement was followed by great excitement through-
out New York State. Investigation showed that aside from the
estimates made by commercial bodies, no estimate had ever been
made as to the cost of the improvement, and that the commercial
bodies making these estimates had not taken into account very
many important items. Charges of criminal fraud were made
against the State Engineer, Campbell W. Adams, as well as
against George W. Aldridge, Superintendent of Public Works.
The popular clamor was so great that the Legislature authorized
the appointment of a commission to investigate and report in
relation to the work done in enlarging and improving Erie, Cham-
plain and Oswego canals, pursuant to chapter 79 of the laws of
1895 and the referendum.

The Canal Investigating Commission of 1898. The commis-
sioners appointed under this act were George Clinton, Franklin
Edson, Smith M. Weed, Darwin R. James, Frank Brainard, A. F.
Higgins and William McEchron, who reported to the Governor
under date of July 30, 1898. Edward P. North was consulting
engineer to this commission and Lyman E. Cooley advisory
engineer.

The commissioners considered there had been abuses, but that
' there was nothing criminal on the part of anybody. Governor
Black referred the evidence taken before this commission and
its conclusions to E. Countryman for an opinion as to whether
there was an opportunity for criminal prosecution against either
the State Engineer or the Superintendent of Public Works, or
the employees of their departments. Mr Countryman reported
to the Governor and Attorney-General under date of November
28, 1898, to the effect that several criminal prosecutions could
be brought.

September 12, 1898, Campbell W. Adams, in his annual report,
submitted a protest addressed to Governor Black in which he
showed that at any rate there were two sides to the question of
negligence, and under date of August 13, 1898, George W.
Aldridge submitted a similar statement, likewise addressed to
the Governor. In this statement there are some valuable figures

742 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

as to the actual cost of improvements of a nature similar to that
authorized by chapter 79 of the laws of 1895. They are as follows:

Erie canal, original estimate.................. .. $4,926,738 00
Petes Coe. PET i I, sie 7,143,789 00
Erie canal, enlargement estimate ............... 23,402,863 00
Aetual ‘cost. 55. OES SD Eee ee 32,008,851 00
Oswego canal, estimates . [Uh Ns tt. ger, 227,000 00
Aetual ‘cost uit Ju. 122 (SBR ree. te 565,437 00
Oswego canal, enlargement estimate............ 1,926,339 00
Actual, cost): «.:. oieviteigiid. OF. Ome eee ER OE ee 2,511,992 00
Champlain canal, engineers’ estimates........... 871,000 00
Actual, coat, 4.,..12.0tsage~ee 44 eee eae 1,746,062 00
Black river, engineers’ estimates. .......... 0... 1,068,437 00
Actual costii:.. . c¢.c6-5.5> meteeeteannt > scab eee 3,157,296 00
Hoosic tunnel, engineers’ estimates.............. 1,948,557 00
Actual COSE .).. ge<-cecsis ees ce a atecteee eines eee 20,241,842 31
Manchester ship canal, engineers’ estimates...... 26,000,000 00
Actnal ‘Cost. . usc = vei tape in oes ae ee 67,351,105 00
Chicago drainage canal, engineers’ estimates..... 12,000,000 00
Already expended (1898). 2 <3... «. a5 terme eee 27,303,216 00
Estimate to .complete: .*. 2. 7... ss. abe oe 10,358,436 94
Hudson river improvement, original estimate,

United States army engineers................ 2,000,000 00
Estimate to complete after $2,000,000 had been

expended oe ae ck ere eee ee 2,600,000 00
State capitol, Albany, estimate................. 4,000,000 00
State capital, Afbany, cOsthJSoEret ys es: ees 24,000,000 00

Theodore Roosevelt succeeded Frank S. Black as Governor
January 1, 1899, and on January 25th of that year he appointed
Austin G. Fox and Wallace McFarlane as special counsel to
assist the Attorney-General in the prosecution and trial of any
criminal proceedings which should be instituted against Camp-
bell W. Adams or George W. Aldridge, or against any other
person concerned, as a result of the Canal Investigating Commis-
sion, appointed under chapter 15 of the laws of 1898. The
documents furnished to Messrs Fox and McFarlane were copies

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 743

of the testimony taken before the commission in 1898, together
with their report and with the report of E. Countryman to
Governor Black, as well as the statements of Messrs Adams and
Aldridge. Also the report of the consulting and advisory engi-
neers and the large number of documents relating to the matters
which had been made the subject of the inquiry.

The instructions were to examine this testimony, reports and
documents and to make such further examinations as might be
deemed advisable in order to determine whether or not the evi-
dence warranted the institution of criminal proceedings, and in
case it was decided to institute such proceedings, to take charge
of the preparation and prosecution of them under the general
direction of the Attorney-General.

In their report Messrs Fox and McFarlane say they have
decided not to institute criminal proceedings, the evidence on
the whole not justifying such action, an opinion directly opposed
to that of Mr Countryman submitted a few months before.

On receipt of this report the whole matter was dropped and
most of the people of the State hardly remember in 1904 that
such an investigation was held.t

The New York Commerce Commission. It has been shown in
the preceding pages that the commerce of New York has been
relatively declining for a number of years. This decline is largely
from natural causes which it would be very difficult to prevent,
although the view is quite general throughout New York that
the State’s failure to keep the canals in a state of efficiency has

*The following reports are referred to in the preceding: (1) Report of
the Canal Investigating Commission, appointed by the Governor pursuant
to chapter 15 of the laws of 1898 and amended by chapter 327 of the laws
of 1898, transmitted to the legislature February 28, 1899; (2) Report of
the special counsel, E. Countryman, designated to examine the report and
testimony transmitted to the Governor by the Canal Investigating Commis-
sion; (3) Protest and Defense of Campbell W. Adams, State Engineer and
Surveyor, to Frank S. Black, Governor, in Ap. No. 1, in An. Rept of State
Engr. for the year 1898, p. 277-364, inclusive; (4) Statement made in
reply to criticisms passed by the Canal Investigating Commission upon the
Department of Public Works in connection with the improvement of the
eanals under the $9,000,000 improvement fund, by the Superintendent of
Public Works, George W. Aldridge; (5) Report of counsel, Austin G. Fox
and Wallace McFarlane, appointed by the Governor to prosecute certain
State officials for alleged criminal practices in carrying out the canal im-
provement under chapter 79 of the laws of 1895 and 794, laws of 1896.

744 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

been the chief cause of the decline. Indeed, in summing up the
whole matter, the Canal Improvement Committee of 1903 states
that year after year the port of New York has been steadily
losing its proper share of the export and import traffic of the
country, and this committee further states that New York’s
growth in manufacturing and industrial enterprises has not
kept pace with sister states in proportion to natural advantages.

In regard to this latter proposition, the statistics cited on the
preceding pages of this report show that irrational and non-pro-
gressive laws are the chief causes of the failure of New York State
to increase in manufacturing and industrial enterprises in the
same ratio as sister states. Moreover, the proposition that the
foreign commerce of New York is falling away may also be open
to question, and the following from the Report of the Bureau of
Statistics for 1903 may serve to show the contrary. In the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1903, exports from New York amounted to
$505,000,000, an increase of $158,000,000 over 1893. A compari-
son of seven Atlantic and Gulf seaports stands as follows:

Exports in 1893 Exports in 1303 Increase
New York........ $347,000,000 $505,000,000 $158,000,000
Boston“). £200. 274 85,000,000 88,000,000 3,000,000
Philadelphia ...... 49,000,000 73,000,000 24,000,000.
Baltimore? 727) .2: 71,000,000 81,000,000 10,000,000
Savannah ........ 2(),000,000 54,000,000 34,000,000
New Orleans ..... 77,000,000 149,000,000 72,000,000
Galveston 5: 54.5 * 37,000,000 104,000,000 67,000,000

In regard to the increase of the two southern ports, New
Orleans and Galveston, it is very largely due to the high price of
cotton in 1903. It is evident that this staple, which is exten-
sively grown in Texas and Louisiana, will naturally go to nearby
ports and will not in any case come to New York.

Moreover, New York is ahead in imports. In 1903 her trade
amounted to $618,000,000, while the imports at all the other
Atlantic ports combined was only $205,000,000, an excess at -
New York of $415,000,000 over all the other ports.

This matter of the decline of New York’s commerce having
become the subject of considerable discussion, the Legislature
passed an act, chapter 644 of the laws of 1898, authorizing the

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK (45

appointment of a commission to consider the whole question.
The report of this commission, which is known as the New York
Commerce Commission, was transmitted to the Legislature Jan-
uary 25, 1900, by Governor Roosevelt. In his letter accompany-
ing the report he states that the thanks of the State are due to
the commission for the marked ability and untiring industry
shown throughout their labors.

The New York Commerce Commission was appointed to con-
sider the whole problem of New York’s loss of commerce, in-
quiring into the causes and seeking to discover remedies. In
their report they state that the main cause of the damage to
New York’s commerce is the way in which the railroads of New
York discriminate against her in the interests of competing
ports.

The report submitted by the commission shows that this rail-
road discrimination, imposed by what is known as the differential
agreement between the trunk line railroads to the Atlantic
seaports, results in overcoming the advantage which New York
would have under natural conditions as the cheapest route to
foreign markets for the products of the west. It is claimed
that this differential agreement gives preference in railroad
rates not only to the cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk
and Newport News, but Montreal and the Gulf ports are bene-
fited by it to the injury of New York to as full an extent as if
they were parties to the agreement. The differential agreement
also provides the same rate for Boston as for New York, and
permits the Boston roads to allow free insurance and free stor-
age to such an extent as amounts to a substantial discrimination
against New York.

The differential agreement was signed on April 5, 1877, by
William H. Vanderbilt, H. J. Jewett, Thomas A. Scott and John
W. Garrett, representing the New York Central, the Erie, the
Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio railroad companies.
It established a system of freight rates governing all traffic,
both eastbound and westbound, bounded on the south by the
Ohio river, on the west by the Mississippi river and on the east
by an imaginary line, drawn through Toronto, Buffalo, Pittsburg
and Parkersburg. Traffic destined to, or originating in, territory

746 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM :

west of the Mississippi, was also subject to this agreement, and
it has since been extended to other trunk lines and to seaports
like Newport News and Norfolk, which have since become im-
portant. It has continued, with some modifications, substan-
tially unchanged, until today. It governs the rate on all classes
of freight and commodities, and regulates the movement of all
grain and grain products in the United States, except those
moving to the Gulf ports or the Pacific coast.t

In order to partially control the situation, the New York
Commerce Commission considered that the canal question was
really the central point around which hinged all other questions
concerned with benefiting the commercial development of New
York. Their report is very extensive, including 2200 octavo
pages. It is accompanied by evidence taken by the commission
at its several hearings. The following summary of the con-
clusions of this commission is taken from the report:

1) The decline in New York’s commerce has been steady and
continuous for many years; it has been more pronounced during
recent years, and has now reached serious proportions in an actual
loss of exports. This loss has been largely in exports of grain and
flour. While New York has been steadily losing, Montreal, Boston,
Baltimore, Newport News and the Gulf ports of New Orleans and
Galveston have made substantial gains.

2) The loss to New York is due in great measure to a discrimi-
nation against New York in railroad rates imposed by an agree-
ment, known as the differential agreement, between the trunk line
railroads of the American Atlantic seaports, including the New
York railroads.

3) While this differential agreement, by its terms, gives pref-
erence in railroad rates only to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk
and Newport News, the port of Montreal and the Gulf ports are
benefited to the injury of New York to as full an extent as if they
were parties to the agreement, in view of the fact that in the
competition with the Gulf ports and with Montreal the differen-
tial agreement alone prevents the New York roads from ceiving
New York as low a rate as is recorded by the agreement to Balti-
more and to Newport News; and the same differential agreement,
while providing the same rate for Boston as for New York, per-
mits the Boston road to allow free insurance and free storage to
an extent that amounts to as substantial a discrimination against

a a OO EEE SE 0
1From paper, Railway Discrimination Against New York and the Remedy,
by Abel E. Blackmar. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVI, p. 182-250.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 747

New York as is imposed by the discrimination in the rail rate in
favor of Philadelphia, Baltimore and Newport News.

4) As a result of this situation, in which New York is pre-
vented from receiving the benefit of her natural advantages in
competition with these other ports, each of the ports named has
made gains while New York has continued to lose.

5) While there are port charges in New York that can and
should be reduced, it will be impracticable to assure to New York
any benefit from such reductions so long as the railroads are per-
mitted to offset the saving in expense thus secured by correspond-
ingly increasing the differential against New York. That such is
the principle of the differential agreement and the policy of the
New York roads, as well as the roads to the southern Atlantic
ports, was conceded by the officials of the New York roads when
they appeared before the commission.

6) The theory of such discrimination is that, under natural
competitive conditions, New York would maintain its preeminent
position in the export as well as in the import trade of the coun-
try—New York under such natural conditions being the cheapest
route to the foreign markets for the products of the west. To
the extent that this differential agreement requires the New York
roads to charge a higher rate than otherwise would be imposed
upon the export products of the west it is, in effect, an export
tax upon such products.

7) To abolish the differential, therefore, would not only result
in New York regaining the commerce now diverted to other ports,
but it would also benefit the producers and exporters of the west
when competing in the foreign markets. This is explanatory of
the fact that the western exporters express themselves as equally
concerned with New York regarding this railroad discrimination
against New York.

8) The principle of the differential agreement is inequitable
and unjust in theory and in practice. New York has suffered
much therefrom, and should use every means within her power
not only to have it abolished, but also to render it impracticable
of restoration. The differential rate applies not only on products
destined for export, but also destined for local consumption by
the people of New York city.

9) The fact that the New York Central & Hudson River
Railway Company has received exceptional benefits from the State
of New York makes that corporation exceptionally culpable for
participating in the discrimination to the serious injury of New
York.

10) This railroad discrimination against New York would be
impossible without the participation of the New York Central and

748 ) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Hudson River Railroad Company, and the demand that it with-
draw irrevocably from the differential agreement is now made
understandingly.

11) The State has it within its power, through an adequate
improvement of the Erie canal, not only to apply the remedy that
will secure it against further loss of its commerce, but that will
secure to it as well the restoration of that which has already been
diverted.

12) This result may be achieved through the completion of
the improvement of the State canals contemplated by chapter 79
of the laws of 1895 at an expenditure not exceeding $15,000,000.
To receive full benefit from the completion of such improvement
canal terminals should be provided by the State, both at Buffalo
and at New York, for the receipt, safeguarding and delivery of
package freight transported or destined for transportation over
the Erie canal.

13) While thus providing for competition with rail rates suf-
ficient to render difficult if not impossible a discrimination
against New York, certain high charges at the port of New York
Should be reduced, including the charge for elevating grain, and
also including the excessive rentals imposed for the use of public
docks.

* . % * % * % * *
As stated in the eleventh conclusion, this commission was
strongly of the opinion that the State has it within its power,
by an adequate improvement of Erie canal, to remedy the
deficiencies at present existing, and they accordingly recom-
mended that an act should be passed providing for the earliest
possible completion of the improvement of canals contemplated
by chapter 79 of the laws of 1895, and providing for issuing
bonds to the sum of $15,000,000 to pay for such improvement.

The commission also considered that there should be an
amendment of chapter 494 of the laws of 1899 authorizing the
designation for canal terminals of public piers in the City of
New York, together with suitable locations upon the Erie canal
lands at Buffalo, and providing that certain piers should be set
apart exclusively for canal terminals.

The commission also considered that chapter 585 of the laws
of 1888, entitled, An act to regulate the fees and charges for
elevating, trimming, receiving and discharging grain by means
of floating and stationary elevators and warehouses within this
State, should be so amended as to make it more difficult of

d a nee? See 749
HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

evasion and to provide for a maximum rate of one-half cent per
bushel for such service.

They also considered that the Transportation Corporation
Law should be amended in such manner as to allow companies to
be organized with a capital stock exceeding $50,000.

The commission considered that the provision of the charter
of New York city relating to the canal piers i that city should

(8IP~ 1830 ‘pS 6/ x7 x SA OFr

\ CAPACITY /207 BUSHELS OF WHEAT |i |

30 TONS

oo

Fig. 49 Original boat used on Erie canal.

be so amended as to limit the use of canal piers to barges on the
Hudson river north of Castleton.

They also considered that an act should be passed prohibiting
the conveyance in perpetuity of any land under water in New
York now owned by the State or city and providing that leases of
such land may be made.

They considered that the legislature should confer annually
such authorization to the City of New York as would enable it

pn
“Cit ee
\ CAPACITY 2500 BUSHELS OF WHEAT |
75 TONS

as om

Fig. 50 Boat used at beginning of enlargement.

ee te ee

1830 ~/850

to carry out plans for the construction of piers and the improve-
ment of dock facilities whenever required.

They finally considered that such additional authority should
be conferred upon the City of New York within the constitutional
limits as would enable the Dock Board to enter promptly into the
possession of lands necessary to be acquired for the improvement
between Gansevoort and Twenty-third streets.

The reasons for these several recommendations are included in
the commission’s personal report, pages 7-141, of volume I of
their report. |

750 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The New York Commerce Commission consisted of Chas. A.

Schieren, Andrew H. Green, C. C. Shayne, Hugh Kelly and Alex-
ander R. Smith.

Description of the Canals Now in Operation and Their Water Supply

Following are some of the main facts in regard to the principal
canals—Erie, Champlain, Oswego, and Black river—now in opera-
tion in the State of New York. Similar facts for Oneida lake
canal, Oneida river improvement, the Cayuga and Seneca canal
and others, may be obtained by reference to the annual reports of
the Superintendent of Public Works. In order to save space, in
a few cases, immaterial facts have been omitted.

LENGTH, CAPACITY, AND COST OF NEW YORK STATE CANALS

Erie canal

Original canal Enlarged canal

Hength,in miles: :.. hcladisgs She eee 363.00 ooLl.78
HOCK, IR Peet PL ae ot oe hee 675.50 645.80
Average burden of boats, in tons.... 70.00 210.00
Maximum burden of boats, in tons... 76.00 240 . 00
Construction authorized............ Apr. 15,1817 May 11, 1835
Construction completed............ Oct., 1836 Sept., 1862
Actual cost of construction......... $7,143,789 $44,465,414
—SS aS ———_

Champlain canal

Leneth of canal, in miles... fo ccs «2 cs ae he oie eee 66
Length -of feeder, in Mvi6s nesses ces eee ca
Length of pond, in miles. >. up to pa ee ee D

Total,.anj MEA sic wie crod koe slat elt tol emeie 78
Average burden of boats, in Tons, .\. yi. Sotsi a8 85
Construction; apthorized s/s . tis 4+.feehh. Uejebiaee Apr. 15, 1817
Glens Falls feeder authorized..............0.0e00- Apr., 1822
Estimated cost of canmal.:; is scists. dsceil. ade eines be $871,000
Total cost of canal and feeder to 1868.............. 2,378,910

Total cost, including improvements and enlarge-
ments, tO LETB 5.6 cies wand tea ed Re ee Oe bo 4,044,000

ee

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK G51

Oswego canal

Original canal Enlarged canal
Renee AN) WHICS 6 5s Hb are «oi od aps 38.00 38.00
EGCUAPE, UT TCE 56, iia 0: 0ce5d cee eies oi we _ 154.85 154.85
Average burden of boats, in tons..... 62.00 . 210.00
Construction authorized ........... Apr., 1825 Apr., 1854
Construction completed ............ Dec., 1828 Sept., 1862

Actual cost of construction......... $565,473 $4,427,589

Black River canal

Length of canal, Rome to Lyon Falls, in miles....... 35.00
Length of improved river to Carthage, in miles...... 42.00
Length of navigable feeder, in miles............... 10.50
0 TED ieee ee ere eer eae 1,082.25
Average burden of boats, in toms.................. 70.00
NPTEPTROLIONE QULMOTIZCU. ons os «6 om =, oc «2159 myo 0.2.0.7! seat Apr., 1836
Ome UCLION -COMPDICLCO «2. 2 locas cele 0 8.6.0 45 9-92 eye nS 1849
mie! COBL.GF CONSEPUCLION. . Po ass «se sy renee a $3,581,954

SSS ae Ss SS

Eastern division of Erie canal. Erie canal is divided into three
divisions, known as the eastern, the middle, and the western.
The eastern division embraces the portion of the canal, with its
feeders and side cuts, extending from the Hudson river at Albany
to the dividing line between the counties of Herkimer and Oneida,
and the whole of the Champlain canal, with its feeders, ponds,
and side cuts. The entire mileage of canals, feeders, and river
improvements on the eastern division is as follows:

Miles
Erie canal, Albany to east line of Oneida county........ 106.24
Fort Schuyler and West Troy side cuts................ 0.35 |
eM EI aR i assle hy. 5 cats buriclhn se saty 15 21 syssahtay ble 27s -lnra’s be ge 5 le 0.77
Champlain canal, including Waterford side cut......... 66.00
avisaule river above Troy dam. ..... 2.20.06. seesaes 3.00
Silenn dh a0 TORIeR 4, cis fa se acini igs hous « ade sa wieis 7.00
Navigable river above Glens Falls feeder dam........... 5.00

152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

MILEAGE OF UNNAVIGABLE FEEDERS OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF
ERIE CANAL

| Miles
Mohawk rivér at Rexford Flats? 2 2)032 } ee ee 0.39
Mohawk river at Hotky. Tift. 2 i903.. 6 ae eee 2.92
Mohawk river at Uitile Watle.- . css. see eee 0.19
scholiarie ‘creek. 27:7... een ae oe ee 0.63

TOCA oe See as som acai ook ke Re ne ec Slee

To the west of Little Falls lies 19.2 miles of the eastern division,
supplied from the reservoirs and streams of the middle division.
East of Little Falls the supply is from Mohawk river, through
Little Falls, Rocky rift, and Rexford Flats feeders, and from
Schoharie creek through Schoharie creek feeder. As to the quan-
tity of water used on that portion of Erie canal included in the
eastern division very little is known. With the exception of a few
thousand cubic feet per minute received from the middle division,
the supply is, as just indicated, all derived from the Mohawk river
and its tributary, Schoharie creek. Thus far no measurements of
the actual quantity used have been made. Probably the total
diversion amounts in dry weather to from 400 to 500 cubic feet
per second. Some of this is returned to the Mohawk river by leak-
age and wastage, but just what proportion is returned, and what
finally delivered either into the Hudson river at Albany or by the
Troy and Fort Schuyler side cuts, is not known. In view of the
magnitude of the power development on the Mohawk river at
Cohoes it appears very desirable that such a determination be
made. :

The water supply of the Champlain canal is derived from Wood
creek and several small streams to the north of Fort Edward,
Glens Falls feeder, Hudson river feeder, from the Hudson river
itself at Saratoga dam, and from the Mohawk river at the Cohoes
dam.

As already stated, the Champlain canal is fed from the Hudson
river by the Glens Falls feeder, which connects with the river
about 2 miles above Glens Falls and from the Saratoga dam at

Northumberland.

=|

Oo

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

The length of the Glens Falls feeder, from the guard lock at its
head to where it enters the Champlain canal, about 2 miles above
Fort Edward, is 6.92 miles. From this point the water in the
canal flows both north and south, the total length of the canal fed
by the Glens Falls feeder being 31.81 miles. Fort Edward level,
into which the Glens Falls feeder delivers water, is a Summit level,
and hence the water delivered into it, less the losses by percola-
tion, evaporation, ete., is partly discharged into Lake Champlain
and partly into the Hudson river at the Saratoga dam. The Cham-
plain canal crosses through the pond formed by the Saratoga dam
from the east side to the west of the Hudson and again passes out ¢
of the river, taking a full supply therefrom at the village of North-
umberland, from which point to the Mohawk river at Cohoes the

1850-1862 jroo IOKI5 x3 fa OFT

em?
LAPALITY 3355S BUSHELES OF WHEAT og
/OOTONS

ae

Fig. 51 Boat used during process of enlargement,

Bs

distance is 27.06 miles. The water from this section by passing
into the Mohawk finally reaches the Hudson above the Troy dam.
The canal crosses the Mohawk river at Cohoes, taking water there-
from to supply the section from Cohoes to near West Troy, a
distance of 2.36 miles. A small amount of water also passes
from the Champlain canal to the Hudson through the Waterford
side cut.

Since the construction of the Glens Falls feeder there have
existed serious leaks through the seamy limestone rock in which
the feeder is excavated at and below the village of Glens Falls.
It is claimed that the losses through these seams have generally
increased, until for several years past they have amounted to
about 50 per cent of the total flow into the feeder at the guard
lock.

This leakage has been repeatedly complained of by the owners
of waterpower at Glens Falls and several attempts to check it
have been made, but without much avail. The river falls 38 feet
at Glens Falls, and the owners of the waterpower there claim

754 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

that this leakage, which is practically all below the falls, is a
detriment to their waterpower which ought not to exist. In
order to determine the amount of this leakage, as well as the
relation which it bears to the question of a material increase in
the flow of the Hudson river by storage, a series of measurements
of the flow of the feeder was undertaken early in October, 1895.

Arrangements having been made with the division superin- —
tendent to maintain a uniform feed for several days before the
measurements began, as well as during the days when they were
actually being made, and points established for verifying the
uniformity of the flow during the time of the measurements, a
series of accurate sections was then made at points both above
and below the leakage, and a large number of current-meter
readings taken from a footbridge thrown temporarily across the
feeder at each section. The results so obtained are as follows:

1) On October 8, 1895, the flow in the feeder just below the
guard lock at the feeder dam, above all serious leaks, was 383
cubic feet per second.

2) On the same day the flow at change bridge No. 13, about
one-half mile from the feeder dam, above all serious leaks, was
364 cubic feet per second.

3) On October 9 and 10 the flow a short distance below all
serious leaks was 213 cubic feet per second.

4) On October 10 the flow about half a mile farther down was
191 cubic feet per second.

5) On October 11 the flow just above the locks at Sandy Hill
was 182 cubic feet per second. |

6) A section, also taken October 11, in the Champlain canal, a
short distance north of where the feeder enters, shows that the
amount of water passing to the north at that time was 74 cubic
feet per second.

These measurements show that the loss between sections 1
and 5, which may be taken as including about all the losses from
the feeder, is 201 cubic feet per second. The water delivered
into the Champlain canal is therefore only about 47 per cent of the
quantity entering the feeder at the guard lock. The measure-
ments also show that of the 182 cubic feet per second actually
delivered to the Champlain canal 74 cubic feet per second is

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 755

diverted to the north, and 108 cubic feet per second, less the loss
from evaporation, etc., is returned to the river at the Saratoga
dam.

Taking into account the losses from evaporation and absorp-
tion by vegetation during the summer months, we may place the
demands for the Champlain canal during the months of canal
navigation at the following approximate monthly means. These
figures are roughly proportional to evaporation from a water
surface:

| Cuble feat
CMI! eS eee kk iia awit AA Ke eee IAD TO 553
Ea a i nbs Kec ana dona ac bODAael, of 600
ee ce apis giana wun gens aa ALS. 600
ERE ee GSE ce wae OTOL SRE. Le. Cue, 600
ME ea ar fie Sw Snare) mp bk pk noni pi a'en * 553
NII te ee ess eb slats he ee er ke bees 510

NOME ERIE eo) ac Sc cc eg eh Kno bid baw nem eae 495

With the leakage of the Glens Falls feeder done away with, the
foregoing figures may be reduced about 200 cubic feet per second
for each month. For the section of the Champlain canal from

98x 1742 x6 OFT

240 TONS

Et

Fig. 52 Boat used after enlargement was completed in 1862,

Northumberland to Cohoes we may assume the water supply of
the enlarged canal at about 255 cubic feet per second in May,
October, and November, and at about 280 to 290 cubic feet per
second in June, July, August and September.

Middle division of Erie canal. This division comprises that
portion of the Erie canal lying between the east line of Oneida
county and the east line of Wayne county, as well as the Oswego
canal from Syracuse to Oswego, the Baldwinsville side cut, the
Cayuga and Seneca canal, the Black River canal, and other short

756 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

stretches as indicated in detail below. The following are the
lengths in miles of the several sections:

Erie canal from east line of Oneida county to east line ee
of Wayne, coUnLY, 6:2 .4< canta nae ae 97.02
Oswece canal .. no. :f4-wntenh bance ain ae rear t:’
Side cuts and slips.at Salina.;......-.ao «welenltas anes 2.02
Slips at, Liverpool... circ Sack eee 0.25
Baldwinsville side cut.y..:< 15. 2s a, So ee 0.59
Cayuse.and Seneca. canal... s2s5c..255 nt eee 22.99
Black Rivér canal... 2:0... ccnae eis + oe eee 35.52
@i@ Oneida lake canal. ooo. ot on oe ee ee Cee ee 1.05
Chenango slip ....... PE ee eee ee So te 0.05
Ohemung canal, original Jake level. 2... . eee eee =e 2.53.
Total 90a. ht 0a... Fae Pee ae eh ee ee 199.80

MILEAGE OF RIVER IMPROVEMENTS PERTAINING TO THE MIDDLE
DIVISION OF ERIE CANAL

Miles

Black, :river }.9% aiden. 40G daocle haoniue. 46 eee Bere 42.50
Onondaga ouslet«: sac}. ad) oe 0408 BAL ee ee 0.75
Oneida. riger-..o°. <-> eee SOC ERE 20.00
Seneca river towimg-path 2:25 anc mie 5.83
Seneca TWP. -... sa cnab a ou & Gagaeas bee ee a ee Not used
Ithaca. inlet... 0. sears es) ee eee ee eee 2.05
peneca, outlet ... 2. ig wre pede ee O:17
Total: 55): B48 SESS RS Bee ee ee 11230

MILEAGE OF NAVIGABLE FEEDERS OF THE MIDDLE DIVISION OF ERIE
CANAL

Miles

bnmestone. creek... ».+.+4-s-cniuteen oes a eee 0.83
Butternut creek. ...:.,.. és jo1c.4 bee dee eee 1 Gr
EVs a Serene TE bye TO ee 1.04
Lb? ae nee re were ME Ee el 1.40
PEER PEROT 5 «nq pre okcinis. oc: shu; 0 «sith pi ete ee Re 11.29
bs REA Ae ae A Ae A i iM NE ob i LI re nS de 16.28

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK THT

The total length of canal, river improvement, and navigable
feeders on the middle division is thus found to be 287.33 miles.
The following feeders of the middle division are not navigable:

Miles

Chenango canal, summit level ........-..............: 5.3L
a pany) a cele ta ASI A el akan a ate here 0.31
ER TP er ee ee nen = aus a eous <0 nim: 2.99
aM en Aa as Ss im wo Sd Sy hss 5.83
NMI ee Sm on Se a oo dan So goede ae 0.67
I a cds eee IE Sons mois aw aj ihn oes 0.23
_ | Si ee eee 1.87
0 ee a ee er ee ee 0.55
NE UNCER RENIN oe sn nid Se gilt isn * 0.05
ee carn 3 wis cea ne = Poaie ye |
NN a ie am na chins ay «Rhee quis 0.40
oe SE Se ae eg ee Sean ere 0.28
TE a a ee ee eee 0.51
ENERO tr if ed aie tt Ss 1.00
Bereurener Fererviner ONTIlt. fos © rene ce ee es ee 0.12
i] | oe Opa Ae he EE a er ree 0.55
Pamtios (annavigable portion)... 0... ....-..2.5.......%. 0.65
Carpenter brook ....... fe es as Fs A eS ak saw 0.18
0 EUS aD Sieg re a ee Se 0.09
eR NS sc. ee ke edb eye wa es ().20
Cemterport <<. 22 es: vuoi Be Ry oc nase ato ke CIDE ee 0.18
Sa ee a eee 2.10
8 A Seige iain Aetna tare ae tah 2g ree 1.80
EES GS ea ee SNe eee 0.14
SSIS Oa a 0.16
2 Shoat echo se elle Iie otal aia i eee 29.04

Rome level, which is a summit level, extends from lock No. 46
to lock No. 47, a distance of 55.96 miles. The following is the
estimated water supply of this level before the beginning of the

enlargement of 1895.

is
758 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cubic feet

Leland pond, Madison Brook reservoir, Eaton Brook Belts
reservoir, Bradley Brook reservoir, Hatch lake, Kings-
ley Brook reservoir, and Oriskany creek feed through
the Chenango canal, Oriskany creek, and Oriskany
creek feeder into the Rome level, 6 miles west of

lock NO. 46.50.5052 58 Sires ccs Sia ae ee 100
Mohawk river, Black river, Forestport pond, Forestport
reservoir, White Lake reservoir, Chub lake, Sand lake,
First, Second and Third Bisby lakes, Woodhull reser-
voir, Twin lakes, South Branch reservoir, North
Branch reservoir and Canachagala lake feed through
the Rome feeder and Black River canal into the Rome

level at Rome, 14 miles west of lock No. 46........... 217
Oneida creek enters the canal through feeder 30 miles

west of lock No. 46.0 02050. se os eee ee ee i
Cowaselon creek enters the canal through feeder 31.5 =

miles west of lock IN@{46z xe. .ce)ss 2. ee o

Cazenovia Lake reservoir, Erieville reservoir and Chit-

tenango creek enter the canal through Chittenango

creek feeder, 41.5 miles west of lock No. 46; average

for navigalion season about... 55. ox» snow ee eee 47
De Ruyter reservoir enters the canal through Limestone

creek (Fayetteville) feeder, 50 miles west of lock No.

46; average for the navigation season about.......... 32
Limestone creek (natural flow) also enters the canal

through Limestone creek (Fayetteville) feeder, 50

miles west of lock No, 46...-3.).5.0i4¢5 2cce bees eae 8
Jamesville reservoir enters the canal through the Orr-

ville feeder, 52 miles west of lock No. 46; average for

MAVAPATION REASON ... «2 \« ov divs Hi nee 11
Butternut creek (natural flow) enters the canal through
the Orrville feeder, 52 miles west of lock No. 46....... 8

Tota ee oO oer as Oe ee 443

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 759

The following detail in regard to the preceding feeders and
reservoirs is condensed from the Barge Canal Report.

Oriskany feeder. This feeder has a catchment area above the
diversion dam at Oriskany of 234 square miles, which includes 87
square miles of the catchment of Chenango river, therefore leay-
ing 147 square miles tributary to Oriskany creek. On the Che-
nango river catchment there are a number of reservoirs, a list
of which has been given on page 417.

Mohawk feeder. A short distance east of the Black River
canal a portion of the Mohawk river is diverted by the Mohawk
feeder into the Erie canal. The catchment area of the river above
the point of diversion is 156 square miles. It is thus without
water storage. The minimum flow of the Mohawk river at Ridge
Mills, as shown on a preceding page, is rather large, although it
should not be overlooked that it receives the waste and leakage
of twenty-five miles of the Black River canal. For the present it
may be taken at 0.2 cubic foot per second per square mile.

I2SRIPIEXB OFT. se
ee ee

CAPACITY 15.000 BUSHELS OF WHEAT

$5SOTONS

Fig. 53 Boat suggested by Canal Committee for Erie canal improvement.

Black river canal feeder. The Erie canal is supplied with 183
cubie feet per second of water from the Black river canal, which
unites therewith at Rome. The summit level of the Black river
canal is supplied from Black river at Forestport by means of a
navigable feeder about 10.5 miles in length. The distance from
Boonville to Rome is about twenty-five miles.

The pond at the head of the Forestport feeder is formed by a
diversion dam across Black river, a short distance below Wood-
hull creek. The catchment area at the diversion dam is 267
square miles. The Forestport reservoir is on Black river about
1.5 miles above the diversion dam. This reservoir has an area of

760 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

793 acres and an average depth of 7 feet. Its storage capacity
is 212,444,000 cubic feet. The catchment area is 147 square
miles. There are also a number of lakes, ponds and reservoirs
in the upper portion of the catchment area of Black river which
are utilized but which are not specifically mentioned here because
they are tabulated on page 544.

Wood creek feeder. This stream flows into Erie canal in the
western part of Rome. Its catchment area is 7 square miles, and —
since the amount of water furnished by this catchment is so small
as to be inappreciable, it is not taken into account in the pre-
ceding tabulation. The minimum flow amounts to about 0.3 cubie
foot per second.

Oneida feeder. Oneida feeder enters Erie canal at Durham-
ville. A portion of the water of Oneida creek is diverted into
Oneida feeder at Oneida. The catchment area of the creek above
the diversion dam is 73 square miles. There are no storage reser-
voirs upon Oneida creek.

Cowaselon feeder. This feeder empties into the Erie canal 2.5
miles west of Durhamville. The catchment area above the feeder
is 28 square miles. There are no storage reservoirs upon this
stream.

Chittenango feeder. The Chittenango creek unites with the
outlet of Cazenovia lake at Cazenovia and is diverted into the Chit-
tenango feeder at Chittenango.

The Erieville reservoir is situated in the extreme south-

astern portion of the catchment on one of the smaller branches

of Chittenango creek. The tributary catchment is 5.4 square
miles and its storage capacity 318,424,000 cubic feet. The water
surface is 340 acres and the average depth is 21.5 feet.

The outlet of Cazenovia lake unites with Chittenango creek 9.4
miles above the feeder. The catchment area of the lake is 8.7
square miles, and according to recent determinations the water
surface is 1.7 square miles, although in the reports of the Canal
Department it is stated at 2.8 square miles. The outlet is also
stated to be so controlled as to afford a storage of 348,523,000
cubic feet by drawing off a depth of 4.5 feet. This depth on an
area of 1.7 square miles gives a storage of only 206,997,000
cubic feet. The area of the catchment above the diversion dam

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 761

is 77.1 square miles. That of Erieville reseryoir and Cazenovia
lake combined is 14.1 square miles. .

Fayetteville feeder. A portion of the water of Limestone creek
is diverted into the Fayetteville feeder at Fayetteville. This feeder
is 1.2 miles long and is navigable for 0.83 of a mile. Near Delphi,
Limestone creek divides into two branches. De Ruyter reser-
voir is located at the head of the branch from the south. This
reservoir is formed by an earth dam 70 feet high, and has a
storage capacity of 504,468,000 cubic feet, with an average area
of 626 acres and depth of 18.5 feet. It impounds water from

15Ox25x/0 DFT

CAPACITY G33I3 DOSIVELS Of WITEAT

/000 TONS

Fig. 54 Boat recommended by Canal Committee for Barge canal.

18.2, square miles of the catchment of Tioughnioga river. Its
location is 15 miles southeasterly from the head of the diver-
sion dam at Fayetteville, and the intermediate catchment is
77.1 square miles. The total catchment above Fayetteville is
95.2 square miles; below this village the feeder intercepts
Bishops brook, with a catchment of 8.3 square miles. The total
catchment area tributary to the Fayetteville feeder is therefore
105.5 square miles.

The storage capacity of De Ruyter reservoir is at the rate
of 27,800,000 cubic feet per square mile of tributary catchment,
as figured on the basis of 18.2 square miles of catchment area.

Orrville feeder. At a point 2.2 miles south of the canal at
De Witt the water of Butternut creek is diverted through the
Orrville feeder into the canal. Jamesville reservoir, 2.4 miles
above the head of the feeder, is formed by a dam across the
creek. The area of the reservoir formed is 252 acres; average

a
762 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

depth, 16.5 feet, and storage capacity, 170,000,000 cubic feet.
The catchment area of the creek above the head of the feeder
is 52 square miles, and the catchment area above the reservoir
is 46.2 square miles.

The storage of the Jamesville reservoir is at the rate of 3,680,000:
cubic feet per square mile of catchment tributary to the reser-
voir. In order to make the entire yield of the area available, a
much larger storage capacity than this is required.

Jordan level, which is also a summit level, extends from lock
No. 50 to lock No. 51 and is 14,903 miles in length. The follow-
ing feeders are tributary to this level:

fe per
second
Otisco lake reservoir fed through Camillus feeder into the
canal, 4 miles west of lock No. 50............. a eee 86.
Ninemile creek (natural flow) also fed into canal through
Camillus feeder. 5.064605 setuatiaee e 13
Carpenter brook feeder... 1 pedis aes ee ee ee 3
Skaneateles feedert .. ....0:c.5: ¢ Sedh ocos tla o wcpelatanie eee 146
ROCA] iawn saris Scare ie Fig ee as ae ee 248

——— ee

The following feeders deliver water into the Port Byron level,
which extends from lock No. 51 to No. 52, a distance of 7.79 miles:

Cubie.
ft. per
second

Putnam brook feeder at Weedsport. ..o.2...002..6. ee. 3
Owasco feeders. oo... 04 In. deel ees eae eae ee 69

Total .......03;- odes. Vile col ee See 72

Oswego canal receives about 167 cubic feet per second from
the Erie canal at Syracuse. The balance of its water supply is
derived from the Seneca and Oneida rivers. The total amounts to
about 1233 cubic feet per second. Seneca and Cayuga canal
receives about 67 cubic feet per second from Erie canal at Mon-

1See statement in regard to Skaneateles feeder on page 168. 5

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 763

tezuma, and 300 cubic feet per second from Seneca lake, mak-
ing a total of 367 cubic feet per second. }

The approximate water supply of the middle division of the
Erie canal may therefore be summarized as follows:

Cubic

ft. per

second

Dirt 0? TOME NOVEL 2, > Sk a Pe ch eee eee ee 443

I he BE kg 8 oS Ties De oe Pe Pn ea ee 249

CCAM Gt Pn Pee, Fo OU oi ta ain oP Ee ee oe 70

pegs ey) SUELO. ISIE SY. ONT UD. SERIA) Ute 762
Oswego canal:

Supply froui Meneca river. jiso. dis od let ectebeh. 900

im Pen MEVer OU)... N87i7 Seis} it 202.1 BD0

a ee Ee otal hace WEY 1,233

MERIT ARNE A AMABOED, CAINS. oie 60S ore w ww ols efaie on tw # nen a'e Ses 300

rare nee Pe NRIs DIEU E 2s Ooo 2,295

The total water supply of the middle division may thus be
placed. approximately, at 2,295 cubic feet per second.

The details of reservoirs on the Black river, as well as those of
the other reservoirs for the water supply of the Erie canal, may be
obtained from table No. 95.

Western division of Erie canal. The western division of-the
Erie canal includes the following:

| Miles
Erie canal from the east line of Wayne county to Ham-
burg street, in the city of Buffalo...............0... 148.92
Five slips in the city of Buffalo, aggregate length...... 1.60
Genesee river feeder in the city of Rochester.......... 2.25
I a ay aes ee ree ne 152.77

*This is a very general statement from the reports of the State Engineer
and Surveyor, and to be taken in connection with a large amount of detailed
information in the reports not specifically cited here.

764 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The unnavigable feeders of this division are:

Miles
Tonawanda and Oak Orchard creek............... <c 2 e
Prism of old Genesee Valley canal, Cuba reservoir to
Riek etne ces eee rere 20s Oe ne 5 ee ee ee 7.65
Prism of old Genesee Valley canal, Scottsville to
Rochester feeder dam... ..... .... .da¢at -eReee Geren 11.00
Total... 02.02) ARO See eee 30.20

The only reservoirs on the western division are the Oil creek
and Rockville reservoirs, originally constructed to feed the sum-
mit level of the Genesee Valley canal, and still retained as sub- |
sidiary feeders to the Erie canal, their waters being finally dis-
charged into the Genesee river and thence taken into the canal
through the Genesee river at Rochester. The main characteris-
tics of Oil creek and Rockville reservoirs may be obtained from
table No. 95.

The sources of water supply for the western division are:
Lake Erie, at Buffalo; Tonawanda creek, at Pendleton; Tona-
wanda and Oak Orchard creeks, at Medina; Allens creek,
through the prism of the old Genesee Valley canal, from Scotts-
ville to Rochester; the Genesee river at Rochester.t

Ship Canal Projects and their Water Supply
By virtue of the geographic position of New York, with the
Great Lakes on its western boundary and the Atlantic ocean
Gn its eastern, and with the commercial capital of the western
continent as its chief city, all discussions of deep waterway
projects from the upper Great Lakes to the seaboard are neces-
sarily chiefly discussions of the water resources of New York.
It is proper, therefore, that the several deep waterway projects

should be briefly noticed in a report of this character.

‘The foregoing statements as to length, water supply, and reservoirs of the
Erie canal, while covering only a small amount of the total data, are still
as much as can be given at this time. Full information may be obtained
by reference either to the annual reports of the State Engineer and Sur-
veyor from 1850 to 1903, inclusive, or to those of the Superintendent of
Public Works from 1878 to 1903, inclusive. Previous to 1878 reports of
the Canal Commissioners may also be consulted for a large amount of
information.

1O
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NEW YORK

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766 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Deep Waterways Commission of 1895. In February,
1895, Congress by a joint resolution authorized a preliminary
inquiry concerning deep waterways between the Great Lakes
and the ocean, and provided that the President should appoint
three commissioners to make such inquiry. The President,
under this resolution, appointed Prof. James B. Angell, of Ann
Arbor, Michigan; John E. Russell, of Leicester, Massachusetts,
and Lyman E. Cooley, of Chicago, Illinois. The report of the
commission, published in 1897, includes a large amount of valu-
able information in regard to a deep waterway from the upper
Great Lakes to the Atlantic seaboard. In regard to the State
of New York, it has been pointed out by Mr Cooley that nature
has indicated two feasible routes for such a canal. The first
of these is the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route, extending from
Oswego through the valley of the Oswego and Oneida rivers, and
thence across the divide to the Mohawk, thence through the
Mohawk valley to a point on the Hudson in the vicinity of Troy,
and so on through the Hudson river to tidewater at New York.
One objection to this route is the lockage over the summit be-
tween Lake Ontario and the Mohawk valley. Another objection
is the absorption of a large quantity of water in central New
York for the supply of the summit level of the canal, and which
probably can be more effectively used in manufacturing; that
is to say, the State of New York, by developing its manufactur-
ing resources to their fullest extent, can realize more return
from manufacturing than from the use of its inland waters
for purposes of internal navigation of any kind what-
ever. The Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route would utilize the
great natural highway which has been an easy passage to com-
merce from the early days of settlement on the Atlantic coast.

The second natural route through the State of New York
is by way of St Lawrence river to the head of Coteau rapids,
where the low-water level of Lake St Francis is 153.5 feet above
tide, or 68.5 feet above the low-water level of Lake Champlain.
On this plan a canal would be constructed from Coteau Land-
ing to the head of Lake Champlain, near Rouses Point, this
section requiring cutting through a summit about 50 feet in
hight. Lake Champlain would then be utilized to Whitehall,
from which point a canal would be cut through the valley lead-

a

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK , TOT

ing from Whitehall to the Hudson river at Fort Edward, the
elevation of the water surface of the Hudson a few miles below
Fort Edward being somewhat less than the low-water elevation
of Lake Champlain. After reaching the Hudson the work would
include the deepening of that stream to deep water, a few miles
below Albany. Either of the foregoing projects would further
include the construction of a ship canal connecting Lakes Erie
and Ontario.

The advantage of the St Lawrence-Champlain-Hudson over the
Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route is that the lockage would be all in
one direction; that is, eastward-bound vessels would lock down all
the way from Lake Erie to New York. Its disadvantages are
increased length and the location of the canal connecting the
St Lawrence river with Lake Champlain in Canadian territory. *
In regard to increased length, it is claimed that not much more

Zz he ae = eS
Se
va a Area $497 59. Fr. 2
y Bottom _width 215 feet :

Fig. 55 Earth section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.

time would be required in traversing it than would be consumed
in locking over the Oswego-Mohawk summit.

As to the capacity of the proposed canal, the Deep Waterways
Commission points out in its report that such a canal, if built,
should be so carried out as to be adequate for vessels of the most
economical type, not only for coasting or domestic trade but also
for the foreign movement, so that commerce may be carried on
directly between lake ports and other domestic and foreign ports
without transshipment. Taking into account various other con-
ditions, the commission believes that the requirements of the pres-
ent demand a limiting draft in the proposed canal of 27 or 28 feet ;
hence, the commission recommends the securing of a channel of a
navigable depth of not less than 28 feet.

The commission also says that, starting from the heads of Lakes
Michigan and Superior, the most eligible route for a deep waterway
is through the several Great Lakes and their intermediate chan-
nels and the proposed Niagara ship canal to Lake Ontario, and
that the Canadian seaboard may then be reached from Lake On-

768 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

tario by the way of the St Lawrence river, and the American
seaboard reached from Lake Ontario by way of either the
Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route or the St Lawrence-Champlain-
Hudson route. The Deep Waterways Commission was not au-
thorized to make any considerable expenditure for surveys, and
hence the conclusions announced are to some degree tentative.
In view of the uncertainty as to final cost, it is recommended that
the alternative routes from Lake Ontario to the Hudson be sub-
ject to complete survey in order to obtain a full development of
the governing economic considerations, as well as to determine
their relative availability. |

The commission also recommends a moderate control of the
level of Lake Erie and of Niagara river above Tonawanda by dam,
~ but leaves the practical details undetermined in the absence of a
full understanding of the physical conditions.

The credit for systematizing the information belongs almost
entirely to Lyman E. Cooley. In his special report on the
technical work of the Deep Waterways Commission he has de-
fined clearly the main elements of the problem and produced a
report which will be an important reference so long as deep
waterways are a live topic in the United States.

The report of Major Thomas W. Symons. The river and harbor
act of June 3, 1896, directs the Secretary of War to cause to be
made accurate examinations and estimates of the cost of con-
structing a ship canal by the most practicable route, wholly within
the United States, from the Great Lakes to the navigable waters
of the Hudson river, of sufficient capacity to transport the ton-
nage of the lakes to the sea. Under the provisions of this act
a report was submitted by Major Thomas W. Symons, of the
Corps of I:ngineers, dated June 23, 18974

Major Symons states that there are three possible routes for
the ship canal, entirely within the territory of the United States,
from the Great Lakes to the navigable waters of the Hudson,
as follows:

1) From Lake Erie via the upper Niagara river to the vicinity
of Tonawanda or La Salle; thence by canal, with locks, either to
the lower Niagara at or near Lewiston, or to some point on Lake

*Report Chief of Engineers for the year ending June 30, 1897.

EE

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 769

Ontario; thence through Lake Ontario to Oswego; thence up
Oswego and Oneida rivers to Oneida lake, and through Oneida
lake; thence across the divide to Mohawk river, and down that
river to the Hudson at Troy; thence down the Hudson. This he
designates as the Oswego route. From Oswego to Hudson river
it is, in effect, the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route, already de-
scribed.

2) To follow either the line of Erie canal from Lake Erie to
the Hudson, or this line so modified as to provide for a con-
tinuously descending canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson. This
he designates as the Erie canal route.

3) This route coincides with the first from Lake Erie to Lake
Ontario, but runs thence through Lake Ontario to St Lawrence
river and down said river to some point near Ogdensburg; it then
crosses the State of New York to Lake Champlain and up that
lake to Whitehall; and thence follows in general the route of the
Champlain canal to Hudson river at Troy.

There is also discussed a fourth route—the St Lawrence-Cham-
plain—all of which, except a small portion, is within the United
States. This route would be via Niagara Falls, Lake Ontario, the
St Lawrence, Caughnawaga, and Richelieu rivers, Lake Cham-
plain, and the Hudson.

The opinion is expressed that the best route for the contem-
plated ship canal is that via Niagara river, Lake Ontario, Oswego
and Oneida rivers, Oneida lake, and Mohawk and Hudson rivers,
and that to build such a canal by any of the possible routes men-
tioned would, at a rough estimate, cost $200,000,000, the exact
figure depending very largely upon the action of the State of
New York in regard to the State canals, feeders, reservoirs, etc. ;
and that to maintain the canal and to keep it in repair, including
the maintenance of river channels, reservoirs, and feeders, would
cost, at a rough estimate, $2,000,000 a year. The statement is
made that a ship canal would be of no special military value,
and that its construction is not worthy of being undertaken by
the general government because the probable bénefits to be derived
from it would not be commensurate with the cost.

Major Symons further expresses the opinion that Erie canal,
when enlarged under the present plans of the State of New York,
may give, if State restrictions are removed, commercial advan-
tages practically equal to those to be derived from the proposed

770 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ship canal, and that if Erie canal be further improved by en-
largement to a size sufficient for 1500-ton barges, making such
alterations in alignment as to give a continuously descending
canal all the way from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and canalizing
Mohawk river, the improved canal, navigated by barges, would
render practicable the transportation of freight between the east
and the west at a lower rate than by a ship canal navigated by
large lake or ocean vessels. The difficulty of navigating large
vessels through long, shallow canals is the loss of time and the
consequent great increase in the pro rata expense account, as
compared with the actual amount transported between termi-
nals. Major Symons is also of the opinion that the enlargement
of the Erie canal on these lines is a project worthy of being

-L

hia. : =
Fe’ /

: =Jio' pe 10. Vets

fe Wie = ——= Se SS . = OS

WAS: Ye Stas. b) eee eek =e Maree, 504059./74r ~ : Ws
WWYla= F = veraee mule guotect WN?
Cae y y K aw, NN?
L455 wre HKG INS lINVie: K.-S

Fig. 56 Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 21-foot channel.

undertaken by the general government, because the benefits to
be derived would be commensurate with the cost, which he esti-
mates at approximately one fourth that of a ship canal, or $50,-
000,000. The following is a summary of Major Symons’s report:

1) A ship canal which would permit lake vessels to reach
tidewater and ocean vessels to reach lake ports, would be valuable
in reducing and regulating lake freights, transfer charges, etc. on
such freight as might be tributary thereto.

2) To justify construction the benefits to be derived from such
a canal should be clearly shown to be suitably commensurate
with its cost and the cost of maintenance and necessary improve-
ments.

3) The present and prospective conditions of lake and inter-
lake channels and harbors limit the reasonable depth of a ship
canal to that required for vessels of 20-foot draft.

4) Any ship canal built should be entirely within the territory
of the United States, and should terminate at a first-class Ameri-
can seaport and commercial and manufacturing center in order
that western products for domestic consumption, as well as those

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T71

designed for exportation, may be transported at minimum cost,
and that return freight of the greatest possible magnitude may
be secured and the canal benefit alike the people of the west and
of the east.

5) Any ship canal built should not only subserve the interests
of foreign-bound commerce, but as well the domestic commerce
between the centers of population in the east and the producing
regions of the west.

6) The domestic commerce is of more importance to consider
than the commerce destined to or from foreign countries.

7) A ship canal by the St Lawrence route to Montreal, or by
the St Lawrence-Champlain route to New York, does not fulfill
these conditions, and should not be considered by the United
States.

8) The route considered best for a ship canal is by the Niagara
river, Lake Ontario, Oswego, Oneida lake and the Mohawk and
Hudson rivers.

9) For the highest economy in transportation special types
of vessels are needed for use on the ocean, on the lakes and on
the canals, and neither can replace the other in its proper waters
without suffering loss of efficiency. Ocean vessels could not, as a
general rule, engage in the business of passing through a ship
canal and the lakes to upper lake ports, and lake vessels are not
fitted for use upon the ocean, and if they made use of a canal
they would have to transfer their cargoes at the seaboard. For
economical transportation through a canal from the Great Lakes
to the sea, special vessels, differing from and far less costly than
ocean or lake vessels, are required.

10) Important and serviceable canals already exist between
the Great Lakes and the Hudson, the Erie canal connecting Lake
Erie with the Hudson, and the Oswego-Erie canal connecting
Lake Ontario with the Hudson. By these canals low rates of
freight are attained.

11) These canals are being improved by the State of New York
to the extent that when completed the capacity of the boats
navigating them will be increased about 70 per cent, the time of
transit will be materially reduced, and it will be possible and
practicable to move freight between Lake Erie and New York
for about 60 per cent of the present cost.

12) Under existing conditions and methods these canals re-
quire, and will when improved require, the transference of freight
from Jake vessels to canal boats, and vice versa, at lower lake
ports.

13) This transference is an important and expensive item in
the cost of through freight, and its avoidance or material reduc-
tion is very desirable.

T72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

14) Transference at lower lake ports is necessary for economi-
cal distribution of a very large part of the freight shipped in lake
vessels, and this would be the case regardless of any canal.

15) The present cost of transference at lower lake ports can
be materially reduced and business still be done at a profit.

16) Any canal which will enable this transference to be
avoided will cause its reduction to a minimum.

17) The amount of tonnage which it is estimated may be
possibly tributary to a ship canal is 24,000,000 annually,
18,000,000 tons transported eastward and 6,000,000 tons trans-
ported westward.

18) The cost of a ship canal suitable for use by the largest
vessels of the lakes from Lake Erie to New York, and necessary
work in connection therewith, would be approximately $200,-
000,000, and the cost of operation and maintenance would be

——= I ee
9 . Wea 7500 sg. te. z
= Average width 250 feet SY =

yyy) rm} CIMT EES
= =A PSMA fF

J ery
SSSI (Ze =

Fig. 57 Cross-section of deep waterways, partly in rock and partly in
earth, for 30-foot channel. :

approximately $2,000,000 per year. The cost would depend
largely upon the arrangement which could be made with New
York ‘State for the possession of its canals, feeders, reservoirs,
etc. which would necessarily be absorbed in the greater canal.

19) The Erie canal, as it is being enlarged by the State of
New York, will, if all restrictions upon its use be removed, give
commercial advantages practically equal to the commercial ad-
vantages which would be given by a ship canal.

20) If the Erie canal be further improved by enlarging it to
a size sufficient for 1500-ton barges, making necessary alterations
in its alignment so as to give.a continuously descending canal all
the way from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and canalizing the Mo-
hawk river, such improved canal, navigated by barges, will enable
freight to be transported between the east and west at a lower
rate than could a ship canal navigated by the large lake or ocean
vessels. The cost of such enlargement would be approximately
one quarter the cost of a ship canal.

21) If a ship canal were built, the business thereon would not
be done in large lake or ocean vessels, but in barges and boats
which could be equally well accommodated in a canal of much
less size.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 773

22) A ship canal between the Great Lakes ‘and the ocean would
have no military value.

23) The construction of a ship canal fim the Great Lakes
to the sea is not a project worthy of being undertaken by the
general government, as the benefits to be derived therefrom would
not be properly commensurate with the cost.

24) The enlargement of the Erie canal, as suggested, with
everything adapted to transport the tonnage of the lakes, is a
project worthy of being undertaken by the general government,
as the benefits to be derived therefrom would be properly commen-
surate with the cost.

25) The cost of the necessary surveys fora ship canal by the
Niagara-Oswego route is estimated at $190,000.

26) The cost of an entirely independent survey for the en-
largement of the Erie canal and canalization of the Mohawk river
is estimated at $125,000.

27) The cost of a combined survey of the Niagara-Oswego
ship canal and for the enlargement of the Erie canal is estimated
at $250,000.

28) A thorough understanding with the State of New York
with reference to its canals should, if possible, precede action of
any kind.

Report on the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route. The Oswego-Mo-
hawk-Hudson route is discussed in a report by Albert J. Himes
appearing in the Report of the State Engineer and Surveyor for
1895.1

In this report Mr Himes expresses the opinion that a sufficient
water supply could not be obtained for a high summit level across
the divide, and hence the canal must be cut from the level of
Oneida lake through to the corresponding level in the Mohawk
valley. In this way he proposes to use Oneida lake as a storage
reservoir from which to discharge water both ways to the
Oswego and Mohawk rivers. By this plan the surface of Oneida
lake would be raised 10 feet, furnishing 1100 cubic feet per
second continuously for seven months. If such a canal is con-
structed, the experience gained in the last seventy-five years
teaches the danger of small economies in water supply. Experi-

*Report on the Enlarged Canal via the Oswego Route, by Albert J.
Himes. Report State Engineer and Surveyor for the year ending Septem-
ber 30, 1895.

TT4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ence shows that canal water supplies must be made ample, as
otherwise a shortage will result sooner or later.

In a paper on Rail Ienlarged Waterway Between the Great
Lakes and the Atlantic Seaboard, by William Pierson Judson,
the water supply of the summit level of the Oswego-Mohawk-
Hudson route is discussed at length. Mr Judson considers that
it would be entirely proper to take ‘whatever deficiency there
might be from the headwaters of the Black river, reservoirs in
addition to those now existing being constructed on the Beaver
and Moose rivers, tributary to the Black, for the purpose of fur-
nishing this water. He recognizes that the item of adequate
water supply for such a canal is vital, and states that if surveys
and thorough investigations were to show that the demand for

‘ o Are? 799059. ¢¢
2 * <2
; Bottom width 203 feet

}

Fig. 58 Earth section of deep waterways for 80-foot channel.

water for such a canal is beyond the capacity of the sources of
supply, then the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route would be shown
to be impracticable, although as an alternative proposition he
states that it would be entirely practicable to supply the summit
level of such a canal from Lake Erie. This, it is pointed out,
can be accomplished by a feeder branch taken from the present
Erie canal near Macedon, 12 miles west of Newark, where the
Erie canal is now 35 feet above the Rome level. The proposed
feeder, instead of stepping down, as does the Erie canal, can be
swung off to the south on higher ground at the necessary eleva-
{ion, passing along the south side of the Clyde river and cross-
ing the Seneca river near the Cayuga Lake outlet. Seneca river
is narrowest here, and the feeder could be carried across it m an
open trunk on a 40 to 50 foot trestle about 2 miles long.

A canal on the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson route 28 to 30 feet in
depth, with corresponding surface and bottom dimensions, will
probably absorb all available water of central New York, as well
as a considerable portion of Black river. The waterpowers on

“I

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORIX

Mohawk river at Cohoes will necessarily be made subservient to
the exigencies of such a canal, although Mr Judson, in the paper
already referred to, has pointed out how valuable these water
powers would be for seven or eight months of the year to the
manufacturing cities of the Mohawk valley. Under this head
we may, however, inquire as to how the waterpower for only
seven months of the year would be of any special value to the city
of Cohoes, where, owing to the kind of manufacturing, continu-
ous power three hundred and ten days in the year is required.
This development is a result of wise management of the water-
power, without which there is no reason to suppose that the area
on which the city stands would have any greater value than that
of the surrounding farming region. A proposition to interfere
seriously with the waterpower at Cohoes can only be looked on
by the writer as most extraordinary. Indeed, not the least extra-
ordinary feature of the present agitation for ship canals across
the State of New York is the entire lack of appreciation—so far
as the discussion indicates—of the value to the State of New York
of its inland waters.

Aside from the report of Major Symons, the discussion has thus
far apparently proceeded on the supposition that the taking of
inland waters for navigation purposes was a matter on a par with
the taking of agricultural lands for right of way, the economic
value of the water for power purposes and the resulting effect on
the internal development of the State having thus far been almost
entirely ignored.

What the people of the State of New York need to consider first
of all is whether the inland waters are not now worth more for
manufacturing than they can possibly be worth for navigation
purposes. If after investigation it is shown that the water will
produce greater income to the people of the State in manufactur-
ing than it will in operating such a canal, then from mere com-
mercial considerations the people ought not to consent to the
construction of such a canal. The State of New York can not
afford to forego the possibility of developing its manufacturing
interest in order to furnish water for the summit level of the
proposed Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson deep-water canal. At any rate
we should know just what results may be expected before em-

776 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

barking in the enterprise. If, however, after full investigation
it appears that the canal water supply can be obtained and the
manufacturing interests protected, no reasonable objection can
be urged.

The foregoing was written in 1897. In 1898-99 the writer
investigated this question for the United States Board of En-
gineers on Deep Waterways, arriving at the conclusion that
water enough to supply the deep waterways could be obtained
without interfering with the development of manufacturing.
How this may be accomplished is detailed in the present report.

in order to justify the construction of the ship canal as a com-
mercial proposition, the saving on the transportation of an esti-
mated annual tonnage of 24,000,000 tons over the cost of its trans-
portation by existing means and methods must at least, equal the
interest on the cost of the canal plus the annual cost of mainte-
nance and operation. The first cost is taken at $200,000,000, with
the maintenance at $2,000,000 per year. Assuming an interest
charge of 3 per cent, the annual interest plus the maintenance
becomes $8,000,000, which sum represents the annual expense
of the proposed ship canal connecting the Great Lakes with the
Atlantic seaboard. As regards the State of New York, there
should be added to this amount a sum representing the decrease
in wealth in central New York due to the absorption of the
inland waters of the State away from manufacturing interests
in favor of navigation interests. Asa rough estimate the writer
places such decrease at not less than $5,000,000 per year, al-
though the decrease would probably be much greater than this,
but in the absence of data for full discussion he places it at a
conservative figure, which can not well be gainsaid. On the
other hand, if the International St Lawrence-Champlain-Hudson
route were to be constructed, not only would this source of
loss be entirely eliminated, but since that plan proposes to
deliver water from the St Lawrence river into Lake Champlain,
and thence by a through cut from Lake Champlain to the Hud-
son river, there would be delivered into the Hudson river a con-
siderable quantity of water which would be available for power
at Saratoga dam, Mechanicville and Troy. This ship-canal pro-
ject thus increases rather than decreases the productive capacity
of the State.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK TT7

Without wishing to present the foregoing as in any degree
a final conclusion, it is the broad view to take of the question.

Report of the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. Under
the provisions of the Sundry Civil Act, passed June 4, 1897, the
President appointed Major Chas. W. Raymond of the Corps of
Army Engineers, Alfred Noble and George Y. Wisner to make
Surveys and examinations of déep waterways between the Great
Lakes and the Atlantic tidewaters, as recommended by the
Report of the Deep Waterways Commission. The sundry civil
act of July 1, 1898, provided that this board should submit in
their report the probable and relative cost of canals 21 and 30
feet in depth, with a statement of the relative advantages.

This board examined the project for,a ship canal in all its
phases, making the most elaborate report thus far made on an
engineering project anywhere; $485,000 was spent and the
report includes over 1000 pages, illustrated by maps and dia-
grams, showing every possible phase of the subject. Its length
precludes anything like a complete review of it here, and the
writer will confine himself to such references as are necessary
to understand its relation to water supply in the State of New
York.

Attention may be again called to the fact that the Board
of Engineers was limited in its investigations to the recom-
mendations made by the Deep Waterways Commission. These

‘recommendations inctuded the following:

1) That complete surveys and examinations be made and all
needful data to mature projects be procured for—

a) Controlling the level of Lake Erie and projecting the
Niagara ship-canal.

b) Developing the Oswego-Oneida-Mohawk route.

c) Developing the St Lawrence-Champlain route.

d) Improving the tidal Hudson river.

e) Improving intermediate channels of the lakes.

2) That the collecting and reducing of existing information,
Supplemented by reconnaissance and special investigations, be
continued until the general questions have been fully covered.

3) That a systematic measurement of the outflow of the sev-
eral lakes and a final determination of their levels shall be
undertaken.

TTS NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Since the principal canal to be constructed in connecting the
Great Lakes with the Atlantic tidewaters passes through the
State of New York, the following outline of the work of the
Board of Engineers is herewith given:

Dimensions of prism. This board made a study of the dimensions
of St Clair, Suez, Manchester, Amsterdam and Kiel canals, to-
gether with the speed which steamships can maintain in these
waterways, arriving at the conclusion that the cross-section of
the canal prism should be made such as to permit a speed of
8 miles per hour on tangents without danger to either passing
ships or damage to the banks. On this basis the cross-section

—— ae Area 7500 s¢. te.

Se : : Average width'250 feet

= ayy CEN MINT yy HTT c SK Sas

ES TREIEEC{_FF EOS’
So SE SSNS ee et DSS Sa ee Ve SSeS

Fig. 59 Rock cross-section of deep waterways for 30-foot channel.

best adapted for economic transportation of the lake traffic and
permitting a speed of 8 miles per hour is about 5500 square
feet for a 21-foot waterway and 8000 square feet for a 30-foot
waterway.

On open rivers a bottom width of 600 feet was adopted as
necessary for’ safe navigation. On the Hudson and Mohawk
rivers the cross-section of the waterway was designed with
reference to carrying flood discharges with current velocities not
exceeding 4 linear feet per second. On the Mohawk river the
economic cross-section for carrying the flood discharge at not
exceeding 4 linear feet per second required a depth of consider-
ably over 21 feet.

Dimensions of structures. The dimensions of lock structures
were designed with reference to the type carrier likely to use the
waterway and to the importance of the amount of time required
to pass a ship through the waterway relative to the number of
ships which can be passed through a lock in a given time, and in

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 779

view of the fact that the increase of detention at high locks only
increases the detention for additional. time required to fill the lock
chamber, it was concluded that the advantages to be derived from:
quick time and from developing shipbuilding industries was of
more importance than a small decrease in traffic capacity.

The dimensions of lock structures which will best subserve the
foregoing conditions were investigated with the following results:

Single locks for a 30-foot waterway are to be 740 feet long and
80 feet wide and to have lifts conforming to the present develop-
ment of waterpower on the routes. That is, the hight of lift
will be whatever the present power dams are.

For a 21-foot waterway the locks are to be 600 feet long, 60 feet
wide and with the same hight of lift as in the foregoing. At
Lewiston, Long Sault rapids on the St Lawrence river and at
Champlain, the natural conditions require lifts of from 40 to 50
feet. |

Dams and sluices. Dams on the Mohawk and Hudson rivers
were designed with as great a length as the natural conditions
would permit in order to keep the range between stages of high
and low water as little as possible. This range can be further
reduced by making the crests movable. Sluice gates of the Stoney
type are provided where long dams are not desirable. With four
exceptions the dams can be constructed on rock foundations, and
at the locations where rock is not available the heads on the dams
will be small.

Breakwaters. At Olcott and Oswego, terminals of the Niagara
ship canal and of the Oswego-Mohawk route, artificial harbors
protected by breakwaters will be necessary. A study was made
of the type best adapted to the conditions at these harbors and
the results are given.

Cornell experiments. Uncertainty as to the value of the coeffi-
cients in the ordinary weir formula rendered it desirable that
additional investigations should be made before estimates could
be made either of the value of waterpower rights or of the
amount of slope wall and bank protection to be used between the
limits of high water and low water stages of the proposed water-
way. Previous to the Cornell investigations there was very
little certain information as to the flow over weirs when the depth

780 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

was greater than 2 feet. A series of experiments was accord-
ingly made at Cornell University, extending the results up to 6
feet.

Bridges. The railway and highway bridges were designed for
250 feet clear span on the 30-foot channel and 240 feet on the 21-
foot. In a few cases of highway crossings steam ferries were
provided for instead of bridges.

Unit prices. In establishing unit prices for the estimates the
prices paid on large works throughout the country, involving
Similar constructions, were considered and the advice and opinion
of most of the experienced contracting engineers was secured.

Control of Lake Erie. Under the influence of varying supply,
evaporation and discharge, the monthly mean level of Lake Erie
has varied 4.6 feet during the past seventy years. The low level

» 77) lie ix O71. URS SS ~ Ys = a =F
Nace, ag HL Yl Ane es % Ye" = Ys oe
ONE N= ES LEZ pon (LTE AGE, ties =

Fig. 60 Rock cross-section of proposed Barge soldi,

occurs from September to November, when navigation is the most
active. In order to maintain the level the discharge must be so
controlled that it will always be approximately equal to the dif-
ference between the water supply and the evaporation of Lake
Erie. This can be accomplished by establishing regulating works
at Buffalo. They must be so arranged that they will not only
maintain the level of the lake at or near the fixed stage adopted,
but will also produce no injurious effect upon the lakes and water-
ways from which the supply is derived, or upon those receiving
the discharge. This problem was investigated by the Board of
Engineers, and they concluded that the best location for the regu-
lating works would be at the foot of the lake, just below Buffalo
harbor. The board also concluded that the level of the lake could
be maintained during the season of navigation within about 0.6
foot below the level adopted for regulation, under all the condi-
tions of supply. Variations of level, due to violent winds, will

aia ll

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 781

occasionally happen, but it was not considered that they would
seriously interfere with the regulation of the lake level.

The effect on the Niagara river, Lake Ontario and the St Law-
rence river will not be objectionable, while the depth of water
will be increased about 3 feet in Lake Erie, 2 feet in Lake St

Clair and 1 foot in Lake Huron. :

Niagara ship canal. The project for a waterway from the Great
Lakes to the Atlantic tidewaters suitable for transporting the
commerce of the upper lakes has attracted public attention for

-nearly a century, during which time the people of New York have

maintained that such a canal must be built directly across the
State in order to aid in building up the financial and commercial
supremacy of New York city, while the people of the western
states have considered that the canal should be constructed on
the route best adapted for transporting the commerce of the
country tributary to the Great Lakes; that is to say, everybody
except the people of New York have considered that the prefer-
able route was by a Niagara ship canal into Lake Ontario at the
most convenient point, and from thence through Lake Ontario to
Oswego. Even in 1812, before the construction of the Erie canal,
the authorities of the territory of Michigan resolved unanimously
that in their opinion the canal contemplated by the Commission-
ers of Internal Navigation of the State of New York would not be
so desirable as a canal around Niagara. To this the New York
Commissioners replied that they had too much respect for the
authorities of Michigan to suppose they had given such opinion
without information and consideration, and therefore the New
York Commissioners inferred that the information received was
either not founded in fact, or that not having turned their atten-
tion to the subject of canals, the authorities of Michigan were not
well qualified to judge

It is certain that the St Lawrence river is the natural outlet
and the line of least resistance for a waterway from the Great
Lakes to tidewater. |

A waterway large enough to transport the tonnage of the lakes
can be constructed by way of Lake Ontario for less cost than -by
any other route. Moreover, a steamer will traverse it in about

eae ee a 0) Soh ori) bey slows

*New York Canals, Vol. 1, p. 74.

782 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

three quarters of the time required on a direct waterway from
Lake Erie to the Mohawk. The matter therefore takes this form:
If it is desired to develop a waterway best subserving the inter-
ests of the lake commerce, the route should be through Lake
Ontario and a ship canal from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario would
be an essential part of it.

Five surveys have been made for a canal on the American side
from Lake Erie to Ontario, in. most of which only two routes
have been considered—one from Niagara river above the falls at
Lasalle to below the falls at Lewiston, thence by the Niagara
river to Lake Ontario; and the other from Tonawanda to Lake
Ontario at Olcott. These surveys contemplated the use of the
Niagara river from Lake Erie to the entrance of the canal as
part of the route.

The Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways studied two routes
for the Niagara ship canal. Both of these begin at deep water
in Lake Erie and, running through Black Rock harbor to near the
head of Squaw island, lock down to the river level and then
follow the general course of the river to Tonawanda and Cayuga
island, just off the village of Lasalle, at which points the two

waterways leave the river.

Lasalle-Lewiston route. The Lasalle-Lewiston route continues
from Lasalle to within half a mile of the foot of lock No. 2,
above Lewiston. The route then passes down the bluff to the
Niagara below the falls half a mile below Lewiston, with six
double locks, each of 40 feet lift and two locks each of 39.4
feet lift. The estimated cost of the 30-foot channel, with Lake
Erie regulated, is $73,435,000. Estimating with reference to
standard low water, the estimated cost for a 30-foot channel
is $75,084,000. The estimate for a 21-foot channel with Lake
Erie regulated is $42,393,000 and for a 21-foot channel with
standard low water the estimated cost is $43,214,000.

Tonawanda-Olcott route. This route leaves the Niagara river
at Tonawanda and continues at the Jevel of the river to just
west of Lockport, from which point it descends to Eighteenmile
creek, one mile from Lake Ontario, following the valley of that:
creek to Lake Ontario. The descent is accomplished by two
single and three double locks of 40 feet lift each; one single

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

lock of 30.5 feet lift, and three double locks, of 30 feet lift, each.
The proposed harbor at Olcott is a widening of Eighteenmile
creek to the width of 400 feet from the last lock to the lake,
the entrance being protected by breakwaters. The estimated
cost of the Tonawanda-Olcott route for a 30-foot channel, with
Lake Erie regulated, is $75,572,000, and with standard low
water the estimated cost of a 50-foot channel is $77,221,000.
The estimate for a 21-foot channel, with Lake Erie regulated,
is $48,454,000, and with standard low water the estimated cost
for a 21-foot channel is $49,275,000.

As to the relative value of these two routes, it is stated that
a steamship of 19 feet draft in the 21-foot channel would con-
sume one hour and nine minutes more time between Buffalo
and a point common to the two routes in Lake Ontario in trayv-

\
AA)
SERN SE

~

Fig. 61 Earth section of proposed 1500-ton Barge canal.

ersing the Tonawanda-Olcott route than in Lasalle-Lewiston
route, and that in a 30-foot channel a steamship of 27 feet draft
would be one hour and forty-three minutes longer by the Tona-
wanda-Olcott route. The cost of maintenance of the Lasalle-
Lewiston route would be less than for the Tonawanda-Olcott
route. It is therefore evident that economy in original con-
struction, transportation and time of passage for ships deter-
mine the Lasalle-Lewiston route as preferable.

Oswego-Mohawk route. From Lewiston vessels pass through
the deep lower Niagara river to the mouth at Queenstown, from
whence the route is by open water of Lake Ontario to Oswego,
112 miles, at which place the line leaves Lake Ontario from an
artificial harbor to be constructed about one mile west of Oswe-
go river. It then passes through the westerly limits of the
city of Oswego to a dam above Minetto, where the deep water-
Way joins the river, 85.6 feet above Lake Ontario. This differ-

784 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ence in level will be overcome by four locks of 21.4 feet lift
each. From Minetto the line follows the river to the northern
edge of the village of Fulton, where it enters the valley of a
small creek, and continues across swamp and sand reaches to
Oneida lake.

Two different projects for connecting waterways from Oswego
river to the Mohawk have been examined—the first of these
with the summit level 416 feet above tide, with a water supply
to be furnished through a feeder from reservoirs on the Black
and Salmon rivers, and the second, with a summit level the
same as that of Oneida lake, 379 feet above tide. For a water-
way having a high summit level across the divide between
Oneida lake and the Mohawk river, it is proposed to establish the

|

Fig. 62 Earth section of Barge canal recommended by Canal Committee.
Width of bottom of canal 75 feet.

low-water level of the lake at 376+ T. W., while for the project
having the lake for the summit level, low water will be estab-
lished at 379 feet+T.W. For the project having a high summit
level it is proposed to overcome the 45-foot rise from the Oswego
river at Fulton to Oneida lake by two locks with 22.5 feet lift
each, while for the latter project there will be two locks of 18
feet lift each, and one with varying lift from 12 to 19 feet,
~ according to the stage of Oneida lake.

In regard to the high-level project, the summit of the divide
near Rome is about 430 feet+T. W. The deep waterway would
cross this summit with a water surface elevation of 416 feet.
The summit level would be nearly 14 miles long and receive
a water supply from the Black river feeder at or near its western
end, three miles west of Rome, from which point the line would
follow in.a direct course to Oneida lake, at the mouth of Fish
creek. The eastern end of the summit level is about one mile
east of the mouth of Oriskany creek.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 785

In the low level project it is proposed to convert Oneida lake
into a storage reservoir,and by cutting a channel through the Rome
divide, navigation at lake level could be extended to the Mohawk
river at Frankfort, a distance of seventy-two miles from the lock
at the western end of the level, 2.5 miles east of Fulton. From
Frankfort to the Hudson the route is practically a rectification
of the Mohawk river to Rotterdam Junction, thence for three miles
along the south side of the Mohawk valley and across the divide
to the head of the Normans kill, which stream enters the Hudson
a short distance below Albany.

The water supply of the high level project, including evapora-
tion, leakage, waterpower, waste, etc. is taken at 1600 cubic feet
per second for a 30-foot channel and at 1400 cubic feet per second
for a 21-foot channel. In order to provide this quantity, a reser-
voir was located in the valley of Black river, with surface area,
when full, of 73 square miles and an impounding capacity of
57,000,000,000 cubic feet, and one in Salmon river valley of 8.5
Square miles area and a storage capacity of over 7,000,000,000
cubic feet. The storage of the Black river reservoir would be suffi-
cient to maintain a supply except in periods of low precipitation,
when additional supply might be needed from the Salmon river
reservoir. The Black river reservoir also provided for maintain-
ing the waterpower on Black river below the reservoir.

A study was also made of an alternative tunnel project as a
substitute for the feeder line, which has sufficient merit to warrant
further investigation. This tunnel would leave the south end of
the Black river reservoir at Lyon Falls and open into the upper
Mohawk at the village of North Western, a distance of 20.5 miles
from the reservoir, and thence discharge from the channel of the
’ Mohawk into the waterway near Rome. It is considered that the
tunnel plan would be preferable because the amount of waste and
cost of maintenance would be much less than for the open feeder.
The danger of accident would be reduced to a minimum. The
costs of the two systems, as estimated, are approximately the
same. ;

The estimated cost for a 30-foot channel on the high level pro-
ject is $195,870,000.

For the low level project, the estimated cost of a 30-foot channel
is $199,926,000. |

786 4
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

For the high level project, the estimated cost of a 21-foot chan-
nel is $151,165,000. *

For the low level project, the estimated cost for a 21-foot chan-
nel is $152,843,000.

St Lawrence-Champlain route. This route extends from the
foot of Lake Ontario to the lower end of the Oswego-Mohawk
route, at the mouth of the Normans kill, following the St Law-
rence river from Lake Ontario to Lake St Francis; from Lake St
Francis to Lake Champlain; from Lake Champlain across the
divide between that lake and the Hudson river, and along the Hud-

_-—-—_—- — —_—_ —

ZEW Le Z AAAS
a —————/) Ua MY Sef, MSS GH yy ZS RGM, MEY =
a TS, WW be NYS nce ZZ! EME Sue FAN \tt-=

Rock section.

a

kn
8

wy
+7 ae,
Ay

EE

Harth seetion.

Fig. 68 Major Symons’s proposed Ship canal, Lake Erie to Hudson river.

son river to the junction with the Oswego-Mohawk route below
Albany.

The estimated cost for a 30-foot channel is $208,448,000, while
for a 21-foot channel the estimated cost is $142,075,000.

The tidal portion of the Hudson river from the mouth of the
Normans kill to tidewater at New York would require some work
to be done, although for a 21-foot channel the river is mostly deep
enough. The work on this section below the Normans kill, for
a 30-foot channel, is estimated at $10,383,000 and for a 21-foot
channel at $4,160,000. :

The Board of Engineers also considered the intermediate chan-
nels of the lakes, as at the head of Lake Erie, at Lake St Clair
and the St Clair flats, between Lakes Huron and Michigan, etc.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK TST

These several improvements, while necessary for a complete sys-
tem of navigation of the Great lakes do not otherwise specially
apply to the State of New York, and are therefore not given here.
They may be found in detail in the report of the board.

The utilization of natural waterways. Probably the particular
_ feature which most deserves attention in the deep waterways sur-
veys is that they are a utilization of natural waterways and not
in any sense artificial channels. Of the total distance from Buf-
falo to New York (477 miles) only 102 miles are in standard
canal section, and 98 miles are in canalized rivers from 250 to
1000 feet in width. The remaining 277 miles are in open lakes
and rivers, where a vessel can make nearly or quite as good time
as she can on the open waters of Lake Erie or Lake Huron. On
the Barge canal about 200 miles, or nearly double the distance, is
in artificial channel.

This, taken in connection with the liberal size adopted for the
canal section, will enable vessels to make a very high speed on this
route. The estimates have been worked out with care, from the
known time occupied by vessels in passing the Sault lock and the
St Clair canal, checking them by the most thorough investigation
of all available data of the speed of vessels in existing ship
canals. The result shows that a vessel of 11,700 tons displace-
ment and 8600 tons of cargo capacity would take 64 hours to
make the passage from Buffalo to New York city, 477 miles.
About 7 hours are required for the passage from Buffalo through
the Niagara river and down the flight of locks to Lake Ontario;
11 hours more through the open waters of Lake Ontario bring the
vessel to Oswego. About 17 hours are then required for the pas-
sage up the Oswego valley and through the long canal section to
the pools of the Mohawk river (of which about two hours are
spent in traversing the open waters of Lake Oneida). Then 91%
hours are required for the passage down the Mohawk valley; 8
hours for the passage from there to the Hudson, and 12 hours for
the run down the Hudson to New York-!

The preferable route. The following in regard to comparison
of the waterways is taken from the Report of the Board of
Engineers: |

1 Abstract from editorial in Engineering News.

788 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM .

The investigation of the routes for a waterway between Lake
Erie and Lake Ontario indicates that the Lasalle-Lewiston line
can be constructed at less cost than the others, and can be tra-
versed by a type carrier between points common to all the routes
in less time than by the other routes.

The natural harbor at the mouth of the Niagara river and the
comparatively small amount of restricted channel on the Lewiston —
line make it a better location on which to construct a waterway
than the route from Tonawanda to Olcott.

The route from Lake Ontario to New York is 208 miles farther
by the St Lawrence, Lake Champlain and the Hudson river than
by the Oswego, Mohawk and Hudson rivers, but has 292 feet less
lockage than the Mohawk low level and 366 feet less lockage than
the Mohawk high level routes.

The length of standard canal prism is practically the same by
each route, the difference in distance being almost entirely in the
open lake and river portions of the waterway.

The sailing time for a type carrier is twelve hours longer by the
Champlain route than by the Mohawk route, which difference is -
due to the greater time required to sail 208 miles farther by the
former than to make eighteen more lockages on the latter.

The comparative values of the two routes depend largely upon
the cost to construct and maintain the respective channels, the
annual traffic capacity of each, and the time required for type
carriers to make round trips.

The estimated cost of the 21-foot waterway and the sailing
times between terminals are based on locks 600 feet long and 60
feet wide. If the locks should be made 80 feet wide for the pur-
pose of passing large ships from the lake shipyards to the Atlantic,
the estimated cost of the Mohawk route would be increased
$4,221,000 and the Champlain route $2,560,000, the annual ca-
pacity of the routes slightly diminished, and the time required
for making round trips increased.

Sunvinit level water supply. The following in regard to svininit
level water supply for a 30-foot channel is from the report to the
Board of Engineers:

The proposed summit level of the Oswego-Mohawk route, with
water-surface elevation of 416 feet above tide, extends a distance

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 7&9

of 71,900 feet (13.62 miles). The water surface for a 30-foot
channel in earth is 334 feet wide, and for a 21-foot channel 310
feet. The area of cross-section of a 30-foot channel is 8000 square
feet and for a 21-foot channel 5500 square feet.

The tributary streams may be relied upon to keep the main
channel full during the winter season, even under the most ad-
verse conditions of winter drought. Filling in the spring may
be therefore left out of the account, and the problem is accord-
ingly simplified to a determination of the quantity required to
supply lockages, evaporation, percolation, gate-and-sluice-leakage
losses and wastage. The locks at the ends of the summit level are
to be 740 feet in length by 80 feet wide, with lifts of 20 feet. Also,
at Little Falls, 129,460 feet (24.52 miles) east of the east end of
the summit level, there are to be duplicate sets of tandem locks,
with total lift of 43 feet, the lock chambers being 740 feet long by
60 feet in width.

West Canada creek, which has a catchment area above its
mouth of 569 square miles, flows into the Mohawk river at Her-
kimer. The several small streams-known as Crane creek, Reels
creek, Knapp brook, Budlong creek, Sterling creek, Bridenbacker
creek and adjacent territory lying on the north side of the Mohawk
river and between Herkimer and the east boundary of Ninemile
creek area have a catchment area of 86 square miles. To the
east of Herkimer, on the north side of the Mohawk river, Beaver
‘brook and adjacent territory have 15 square miles, while on
the south side, between Utica and Little Falls, Ballou creek,
Factory creek, Ferguson creek, Meyer creek, Steele creek, Fulmer
creek and adjacent territory have a catchment area of 139 square
miles. The total catchment area tributary to the main deep
waterway between Little Falls and the east end of the summit
level is therefore (569 + 86 +15 +139) 809 square miles. This
area may be expected to yield from 150 to 200 cubic feet of
water per second in a dry time, which will, it is believed, be
ample for the various losses and small additional lockage re-
quirement on the reach of canal between the east end of the
summit level and the double locks at Little Falls.

According to data furnished by the Board of Engineers, the ~
annual traffic is assumed at 25,000,000 tons, with an assumed
tonnage per lockage for a 30-foot channel of 3000 tons and for a
21-foot.channel a tonnage per lockage of 2500 tons.

The question of water supply of canals has been so fully dis-
cussed elsewhere as to make it impossible to add very much

s

TIO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

thereto at this time. So far as the United States is concerned,
experience on the Erie canal in New York State is the most ex-
tensive of any.t

From the foregoing data of annual traffic and tonnage per lock-
age we have a total lockage per year of 8333, and adding the usual
50 per cent for two ends of summit level, 4167, we have a total
number of lockfuls of water of 12,500.

Assuming 222 days of navigation, we have the following:
Volume of one lockful —=(740 x 80 x 20) 1,184,000 cubic feet.

For mean water supply per second, we have:

12,500 x 1,184,000

292 x 24 x. 3,600 —= 772 cubic feet,

or, for even figures, we may place the lockage requirement at
800 cubic feet per second. The foregoing quantity of 800 cubic
feet per second expenditure of water for lockage is based upon
absolutely uniform distribution of vessels, both as to direction
and season. As a modifying*factor we should take into account
these elements:

1) Since the feeder has no storage in the vicinity of the main
canal a draft in excess of the mean quantity must be drawn from
the main channel itself.

2) There will be a tendency to more lockage in daylight than
at night.

3) In the spring of the year, on account of the preponderance
of the grain trade, the larger proportion of movement will prob-
ably be, for a time, from west to east. At other seasons there
are likely to be times when the traffic will be in excess in one
direction. The estimate of one and one half lockfuls of water
for each vessel passing the summit is based on uniform distri-
bution of the traffic, otherwise two lockfuls per vessel passing
is required. The proper addition to the lockage requirement on
account of such irregularity can not be definitely determined
until one has statistics of the actual movement covering a Series
of years. In the absence of such the foregoing may be pointed
out as a reason why the lockage requirement should be properly
placed somewhat larger than the theoretical figure.

‘For these data reference may be made to the section on Loss of Water
from Artificial Channels in this report. There are a number of other refer-
ences, as Water Supply of Western Division of Erie Canal, ete. The Barge
Oanal Report contains a resumé of the preceding, together with the Euro-
pean data, oe

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 791

The table of evaporation from a water surface, as observed at
the Mount Hope reservoir of the Rochester Waterworks, shows
that for the navigation months, April to November inclusive,
evaporation ranges from 1.33 inches in November 1897, to 6.85
inches in July 1898. ‘The water surface of the proposed summit
level is so small as to make evaporation, even in the maximum
month, hardly worth taking into account. At 6.85 inches for the
month the evaporation on the summit level becomes, roundly, 5
cubic feet per second. In order to give evaporation some value in
the estimate of total water supply we will take it at from 5 to 10
cubic feet per second.

There is no rational method of estimating percolation loss for a
canal under the conditions which exist in the Mohawk valley. The
drainage is all towards the valley, and at first thought it might
appear that percolation was a negligible quantity. However, if
we consider that the total water supply, as estimated for the
Summit level, takes into account the entire yield of the catchment
area tributary to the main channel, and further consider that the
channel, as located, has its water surface for a considerable dis-
tance several feet above the ordinary water plane of the Mohawk
river and Wood creek in their natural condition, we may conclude
that percolation ought not to be entirely neglected, more specially
because the soils in the Mohawk bottom are open and porous, and
without some method of consolidation of the natural soils, which
does not now occur to the writer, can be devised, there is likely
to be considerable loss from percolation. By way of showing the
relation of water surface of the summit level to ordinary water
levels in the Mohawk river and Wood creek the following data are
cited :

At a distance of 17,000 feet east of Rome the ordinary water
surface of the Mohawk river is at an elevation of 415, or the same
as water surface of the summit level; 24,000 feet east of Rome it is
413; 32,000 feet east it is 408; 41,000 feet east, 404, and 47,000 feet
east, 401. .

At 17,500 feet west of Rome the ordinary water surface of Wood
creek is at 414, or one foot lower than the summit level; at 21,500
feet west of Rome it is 408, and at 25,500 feet west, 398.

The writer has no way of demonstrating the proposition,
although it seems clear enough to him that with an open, porous
soil the percolation from the canal at points where the summit
level is raised somewhat above the ordinary water level of the
Mohawk river and Wood creek will be considerable. The porous
soils of these valleys will take up water like a sponge, making

792 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

considerable areas from which, due to a luxuriant vegetation, the
summer evaporation may be as much as 60 inches over the actual
ground area affected. The land-damage on these areas will be
considerable and should be taken into account in the estimate.
In dry years, with a total rainfall from June to November inclu-
sive of from 8 to 12 inches, the amount required to keep up this
great evaporation must come by percolation from a deep water-
way channel. If we assume an area of 10 square miles as affected,
the amount of water required to keep up constant evaporation on
the basis of 60 inches for the navigation season would be nearly
80 cubic feet per second, or, even if we consider the area affected
as not exceeding 5 square miles and take into account the loss into
the old-water channels, it seems rational to allow percolation from
summit level of 75 to 100 cubic feet per second.

Leakage at gates and structures is a very uncertain element.
Under ordinary conditions the gates ought to be worked without
very much leakage. The data furnished indicate a probable loss
from this source of perhaps 60 to 80 cubic feet per second.

A considerable amount of power will be required at each lock
for operating gates and for electric light at night. A conserva-
tive allowance for this purpose seems to be from 20 to 25 cubic
feet per second at each end of summit level, or a total of 40 to 50
cubic feet per second.

On the Erie canal considerable time is saved by flushing boats
out of the locks on to the lower levels by letting water through the
gates from above. The writer does not understand, however, that
this practice is specially applicable to locks passing boats carry-
ing their own power. In order to accommodate local traffic it is
probable, even though deep waterways should be constructed on
substantially the line under consideration, that the Erie canal
would be maintained on its present line from near Rome to Buf-
falo. Independent of other considerations, this would lead to con-
siderable traffic on deep waterways in the way of barges, timber
rafts and fleets of canal boats, the handling of which will probably
be more or less expedited by a reasonable use of water for flushing
out on to the lower levels. As a matter of judgment purely, this
item has been placed at from 50 to 60 cubic feet per second, al-
though by the use of mechanical arrangements for doing this work
the quantity of water could be materially reduced, flushing being
in any case an uneconomical method of applying power.

In order to pass the large flood flows of the upper Mohawk with-
out great fluctuation of the water surface, it will be necessary to
provide from 2000 to 2500 linear feet of spillway at each end of
the summit level, and over which, whenever there is any interrup-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 793

tion of uniform distribution of lockages, there must necessarily be
considerable waste. Taking into account the actual water-surface
area of the summit level of (71,900 x 334) — 24,014,600 square feet,
and assuming an inflow of 1300 cubic feet per second, without any
outflow, the increase in depth per hour becomes 0.19 foot, or in
three hours the increase in depth would become 0.58 foot. How-
ever, if there were no lockages for three hours, the depth would
- not increase as rapidly as this because of the leakage at gates and
sluices and wastage on the spillways. In order to illustrate this
matter we may consider the following tabulation, in which the
heads are given in inches and feet. The coefficient used for the
computation, as derived from Bazin’s experiments, is applicable
to a flat-crested, or nearly flat-crested, weir from 6 to 7 feet wide.
The quantity of discharge, Q, in cubic feet per second, is given per
linear foot of crest and also for 2500 feet of crest.

Q per linear foot Q for 2500 feet

of crest, in of crest, in
HEAD eubic feet per cubic feet
Inches Feet Coefficient second per second
j TAS Pats Ry 0.083 2.20 0.053 433
Rg eA ies. th gh 0.167 2.20 0.150 375
miaaen Lins xen dys 0.250 2.39 0.294 735
LD inane Pie eee Bee 0.330 2,42 0.459 1,148
ee ee 0.417 2

AT 0. 665 1,663

It appears from the foregoing that when the water rises to a
depth of only one inch on such a crest, the discharge over 2500
linear feet would become 133 cubic feet per second, while for
two inches depth it becomes 375 cubic feet per second, and for
three inches depth, 735 cubic feet per second, and so on up to
1665 cubic feet per second for a depth of five inches. However,
the wastage would be less than these figures indicate, because
of the outflow from leakage and the wastage over the crest.
Under the existing conditions of the proposed deep waterways
Summit level, whenever there is an interval of two or three
hours without lockages the wastage over the long spillways at
the ends of the level will amount to several hundred cubic feet
per second. This quantity may probably be reduced somewhat by
the use of flashboards, to be set in place and taken off as neces-
sary, although, in view of the sudden flood rises of the Mohawk
river and consequent necessity for removing the flashboards fre-
quently, the writer considers that such remedy would be some-
what unsatisfactory. The safer way, without doubt, is to provide
a liberal wastage requirement. On this basis, from 150 to 250

T9A4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

cubic feet per second has been assumed. Bringing these several
items of summit water supply together we have the following:

Cubic feet per second

Ly) HGCRAPOR Er et oe ett en ee ee ae 800 800
Zh VaPOraie oes one ee et oe ee eee WG ee
ap CCTCOIALION . Oo eee coe re ee 75 to 100
4)"Deakave at sates, Cts... -- 2s te One a eee 60 to 80
5) Power and eleciri ents. cee eee 40 to 50
6) Flushing out canal boats, barges and timber
Tarig oars ee ee a ee eee ee 50 to 60
()' Wastage’at’ spiliways! >.) 272). Us See 150 to 250
Ota hy ene ee 1,180 to 1,350
S) "PeGder losses 0. SY es ee ee eee 300 to 600
Pinal Dotakit wae TO. Soe oe eee ee eee 1,480 to 1,950

Proceeding on similar lines of discussion for water supply of
summit level for a 21-foot channel, it is concluded that from 1215
to 1600 cubic feet per second would be required—or as a mean,
the quantity may be fixed upon as 1400 cubic feet per second,
including feeder losses.

The water supply for a low-level ship canal may be fixed at
from 1000 to 1100 cubic feet per second, which could be furnished
from storage of Oneida lake.

The deep waterways surveys were executed in 1898-99.

The Canadian canals. In discussing canal projects as applying
to the State of New York it ought not to be overlooked that
there is now a waterway 14 feet in depth through Canada, by
way of the Welland canal, connecting Lake Erie with Lake Ontario
and the several canals around the rapids of the St Lawrence
river, to tidewater at Quebec. These canals have been in exist-
ence a number of years, but they have never been in any sense
competitors of the New York canals, largely because the river
and Gulf of St Lawrence are a region of fogs, which necessarily
will always make the St Lawrence route an objectionable one.
The river St Lawrence must be thoroughly marked by light-
houses and buoys, and even after this is done there will remain
a thousand miles of difficult navigation from Montreal to the
open ocean.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T95

The present Canadian canals are, as stated, only 14 feet in
depth, although two projects for 21-foot canals are considerably
talked of at the present time.

The first of these is the Georgian bay canal through Lake
Simcoe to Lake Ontario near Toronto. This proposed canal is
only about one hundred miles in length, from Georgian bay to
Lake Ontario, of which fifteen miles are in Lake Simcoe, leaving
about eighty-five miles of actual canal construction. The eleva-
tion of Lake Simcoe is 714 feet above tide, or 134 feet above
Georgian bay. The mean elevation of Lake Ontario may be
taken at 247 feet, or it is 467 feet below Lake Simcoe. The total
lockage on this canal, therefore, is roundly 600 feet. There is
a very heavy cut through ridges both at the west and east of
Lake Simcoe. The cut to the west is ninety feet in depth and
seven miles long. The cut to the east is 200 feet in depth, and
about eleven miles long. The quantities in these two cuts are
about double those of the Culebra cut on the Panama canal.
The difficulties of taking out this cut are known to everybody,
although it is conceded that difficulties due to climate would not
tend to delay the work in Canada, as they have on the Isthmus
of Panama. The flight of locks from Lake Simcoe to Lake
Ontario would be perhaps twelve in number, with a lift at each
lock of a little less than forty feet, while from Lake Simcoe to —
Georgian bay there would be four locks, or sixteen in all. So
far as known, no estimate of the cost of this canal has been
made, but it can not fail to be exceedingly expensive.

The second Canadian project to which attention is directed is
that known as the Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian bay canal,
by way of French river, Lake Nipissing, Matawan and Ottawa
rivers, connecting Georgian bay with the St Lawrence, near
Montreal. It is proposed to canalize these streams. The dis-
tance from Georgian bay to the St Lawrence, at Montreal, is
425 miles, and there would be twenty-nine locks, as proposed.
Lake Nipissing, the summit level, is forty-six feet above Georgian
bay and 640 feet above the St Lawrence river, at Montreal. The
estimated cost of this canal is $80,000,000. A company has been
formed to construct it, and it is stated that they have been
merely waiting to see what turn the barge canal project would

796 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

take in the State of New York. It is understood now that they
are preparing to build this canal.

When the Welland canal was opened it would accommodate
most of the lake vessels of that day, but since then the size of
lake vessels has greatly increased—the cost of running larger
-yessels being less in proportion—gso that there is now a con-
siderable fleet shut in between Buffalo and Port Colborne. The
barge canal having carried in New York, the Canadians are now
contemplating a radical improvement to the Welland canal, and
preliminary thereto are spending $2,000,000 at Port Colborne,
the Lake Erie end of Welland canal, in harbor improvements,
the intention being to deepen the harbor to accommodate boats
drawing 20 feet of water.

The project is also being actively agitated to reconstruct
Welland canal, making it deep enough to take boats of 20 feet
draft. The fall from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario is 326 feet,
which is now made by twenty-five locks. It is proposed to re-
construct these, making seven or eight locks instead, each lock
to be 650 feet by 65 feet and 22 feet on the sills. It is estimated
that such an enlargement can be completed in four aHaae ata
cost not exceeding about $25,000,000.

This project is advocated by the Dominion Marine Association
and by the St Catherine and Thorold Boards of Trade. In case
the Welland canal is enlarged as proposed, the deepening of the
St Lawrence route to 20 feet would then be a comparatively
small matter.

Recent Canal Projects in New York.

Report of the Committee on Canals of New York. On March 8,
1899, Governor Roosevelt appointed Francis V. Greene, George E.
Green, John W. Scatcherd, Thomas W. Symons, Frank S. With- »
erbee, Edward A. Bond and John N. Partridge a committee on
canals to consider the whole question and to advise the State of
New York as to what policy should be followed with reference to
the canals. In the letter of appointment it is stated that the
opinion of a body of experts was required who should include not
merely high-class engineers, but men of business, who knew the
relative advantages and disadvantages of ship canals, barge canals

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 797

and ordinary shallow canals and who were acquainted with the
history of canal transportation as affected by the competition of
railways and who had the knowledge that would enable us to
profit by the experience of other countries in these matters.

This committee, which was known as the Canal Committee,
reported, under date of January 15, 1900, in favor of enlarging the
canal enough to take a barge of 1000 tons capacity. In order to

Fig. 64 Earth section of original Erie canal. Width of bottom of
canal 26 feet.

accomplish this, a canal 12 feet deep is required, 75 feet wide at
the bottom and 123 feet wide at water surface.

Seymour plan for enlargement of Erie canal. The canal im-
provement of 1895 was formulated by State Engineer and Sur-
veyor, Horatio Seymour, Jr., in 1878.

The Canal Committee considered the Seymour plan and re-
ported that the cost of completing it would be $12,923,639. This
estimate includes the work required to deepen the prism of the
canal to 9 feet and to give not less than 8 feet across aqueducts,

a 70° y—

Fig. 65 Earth section of enlargement of Erie canal of 1862. Width
of bottom of canal 52 feet.

mitre sills, culverts and other permanent structures, and for
lengthening and improving locks remaining to be lengthened.
The estimates are considered large enough to cover the increased
cost due to the eight-hour law and the increase in cost of labor
and materials and for engineering and inspection.

The Seymour—Adams plan. In his report for 1896 State Engi-.
neer Adams proposed an extension or modification of the original
project authorized for the Erie canal under the “ $9,000,000 act.”
His proposition was to obtain a depth of 9 feet throughout the

TOS NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

canal, over aqueducts, structures, etc., as well as in the canal
reaches, and to lengthen the locks by changing the gates so as
to allow their use by boats 115 feet long, of the present width,
and drawing & feet of water. This follows the present route
of the canal.

This would enable ordinary boats to carry 400 tons of freight,
and a four-boat steam fleet would carry 1500 tons of freight, or
about 50,000 bushels of wheat. So far as known no definite
estimate was made by Mr Adams of the cost of the additional
work proposed. The estimated cost, however, of this plan, as
made by the Canal Committee, was $15,068,048. This includes
new quadrant buffer steel gates, with the necessary masonry at
each lengthened lock, and the unlengthened locks to be improved
to correspond, and all structures_to be given such depth as will
admit their use by boats drawing 8 feet of water.

According to an estimate given in the Report of the Canal
Committee the cost per ton for carrying freight on this canal
from Buffalo to New York would be 504 cents; the cost per
bushel would be 1.51 cents, and the cost per ton mile would be
1 mill.

New Erie canal proposed by Canal Committee. In considering
the enlargement of ithe Erie canal to 9 feet, the Canal Committee
proposed that the principal features of the Erie canal should be as
follows :

1) The prism of the canal to be left at its present width
generally, but to be deepened to 9 feet throughout, at aqueducts
and structures as well as in the canal levels, and to be put into
condition for use by boats of the present width and drawing
8 feet.

2) Three important changes in the route of the canal to be
adopted. The first and greatest change is to deflect the canal
from a point just east of Clyde into the Seneca river, follow down
the river to its junction with the Oneida river, thence follow up
the Oneida river to Oneida lake, through Oneida lake, and thence
by canal up the valley of Wood creek and to the present Erie
canal near New London, making several river cut-offs to shorten
distance and give better alignment.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK T99

The second change is to do away with the two aqueducts across
the Mohawk river and the portion of the canal in Saratoga county.
This is to be done by throwing the canal into the Mohawk at
Rexford Flats, and following down the river to the vicinity of
the great falls of the Mohawk at Cohoes.

The third change is at the West Troy side-cut where, instead.
of the awkward right angle turn requiring even small boats to
uncouple, a diagonal deflection is made which will enable fleets
to pass directly and conveniently into the Hudson without
breaking up.

3) Pneumatic or other mechanical locks or appliances for
the passage of boats to be provided at Cohoes and Lockport, and
possibly at Newark. All other locks (one of each pair) to be
lengthened and enlarged to take in two boats of 125 feet length,

lig. 66 Earth section of improvement of Erie canal suggested by Canal
Committee. Width of bottom of canal 49 feet.

8 feet draft, and of the present width. The locks to be provided
with water-power generating apparatus wherever necessary, with
steel quick-acting quadrant gates, equipped with spring buffers,
or other gates equally good, with power capstans at each end of
the lock for pulling the boats in and out, and generally with every-
thing of the most modern and up-to-date character. The other
small lock of each pair of locks to be lengthened to take in one
boat 125 feet long.

On a canal by this plan the cost per ton for carrying freight
from Buffalo to New York would be 44 cents; the cost per bushel,
1.32 cents, and the cost per ton mile, 0.88 mill.

The enlarged canal. After giving due consideration to the vari-
ous features of the problem, the Canal Committee decided that if
the canal were to be materially enlarged its new dimensions
should be such as would fit it for use by barges of 150 feet length,
25 feet width, and 10 feet draft of water, with all locks arranged
to take in two boats coupled together tandem.

S00 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The route deemed most desirable for such a canal from Lake
Erie to the Hudson river is to follow the present line of the Erie
canal with minor diversions from Buffalo to just east of Clyde,
then to deflect into the Seneca river, and follow down this river
and up Oneida river through Oneida lake, and by the valley of
Wood creek to the line of the Erie canal near New London. The
two aqueducts across the Mohawk would also be done away with
and the canal thrown into the river, and at West Troy side-cut
the location would be changed to better the debouchment into the
Hudson. This canal would require the rebuilding of all the locks
on the portion of the Erie canal retained, substituting at Cohoes,
Lockport and possibly at Newark, pneumatic or other mechanical
locks for those now existing, building new locks on the Seneca-

0 ————— a
Son Niagara River
SSS Se
9,

65

Fig. 67 Earth section of Erie canal from Black Rock to Tonawanda.

Oneida and lower Mohawk portions of the route, and deepening
and widening the prism of the canal to give a waterway of not
less than 1000 square feet cross-section.

By such a canal the cost per ton of carrying freight from
Buffalo to New York would be 26 cents; the cost per bushel,
().8 cent, and the cost per ton mile, 0.52 mill.

The number of trips which can be made annually is estimated
at nine for the Seymour-Adams plan, and at ten for the new Erie
canal as well as for the enlarged canal.

The Canal Committee also reported that the work on the Oswego
canal at Phenix and Oswego, undertaken in 1896, should be com-
pleted. The cost of completing the Oswego canal was estimated
at $818,000.

The Canal Committee recommended that the Champlain canal
should be improved to the full extent authorized by chapter 79
of the laws of 1895, at an estimated expense of $1,824,000.

The estimated cost of enlarging the Erie canal to a barge canal
was $58,895,000, or making a total for the Erie, Oswego and Cham-
plain canals of $61,537,000. ,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S01

Study of continuously descending canal from Lake Erie to the
Hudson river. ‘Ever since the publication of the paper by the
late Elnathan Sweet in 1884 in regard to a radical enlargement
of the artificial waterway between the lakes and the Hudson
river, the opinion has extensively prevailed that it was preferable
to relocate the Erie canal in such manner as to eliminate the
depression between Newark and Syracuse, thus making a canal
with a continuous fall all the way from Lake Erie to the Hudson.

In his report for 1888 State Engineer and Surveyor Silas Sey-
mour remarks that an examination of the Erie canal profile will
show that by raising Montezuma level 36.4 feet and the intervening
‘portions of the canal to the same elevation, Rome level would be
extended to a corresponding level west of the valley of the Seneca
river, and the lockage discharges of the entire Erie canal would all
be to the eastward, thus making Lake Erie the principal source of
water supply for the whole canal. He concludes his discussion by
suggesting that if a ship canal should ever be seriously contem-
plated, the practicability of this improvement should be carefully
considered.! ;

So far as known, the foregoing is the first reference in canal
literature of this State to a continuously descending high level
canal from Newark to the west end of Rome level.

In the early days of inland navigation in the State of New
York effort was entirely directed towards the improvement of the
natural watercourses, artificial channels being only considered
when necessary to connect such. There were no engineers in
the State at that time, and the difficulties of meeting flood con-
ditions seemed to our ancestors insuperable. The result was
that when the Erie canal was finally projected from about 1808 to
1817, as a waterway independent of the streams, it was made an
artificial channel, although for the greater portion of its dis-
tance it paralleled waterways which could easily have been
canalized, producing much greater depth of water than was con-
templated in the canal. There is little doubt but that the mis-
take of making the artificial channel has retarded the develop-
ment of New York State in many ways; and it is accordingly in-

*Report State Engineer and Surveyor for 1883, p. 16-17.
*Refer to description of works of Western Inland Lock Navigation Com-
pany on page 724.

= aoe ad

S02 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

teresting to note that the recent projects have returned to the
canalization of streams.

Among the changes proposed by Mr Sweet, in his paper in
1884, were the following:

One essential change in profile consists in extending the Rome
level westward to lock 57, between Newark and Lyons, in Wayne
county, throwing out the locks 47 to 56, inclusive. This change
in profile can be effected by swinging the route to the southward,
near Newark, crossing the Canandaigua outlet and occupying
ground of the proper elevation along the south side of the Clyde
river, and crossing the Seneca river at the narrowest part of its
valley, which is near its junction with the outlet of Cayuga lake,
from whence it should gradually approach the present route of
the canal and connect with or cross it just east of the city of
Syracuse.

14

Z

Vig. 68 Cross-section of Erie canal below Lockport.

Mr Sweet states that the only serious difficulty encountered
on this route is the crossing of the Seneca river, where the water
surface of the canal must be nearly 50 feet above that of the
river, and for nearly two miles over 40 feet above the surface
upon which its embankment must be built.

This change of route, to secure a continuously descending pro-
file from the lake to the Hudson river, is the only deviation from
the route of the old canal that is absolutely necessary, but it is
believed that the construction would be simplified and cheapened,
and the best possible waterway secured by the adoption of an
entirely new route from Syracuse eastward.

Lower ground can be obtained for the Rome level, except at
the summit itself, by moving the line northward; thus by lower-
ing the elevation of this level throughout, lessening the difficul-
ties of the Seneca river crossing, and from a point a little west
of Utica eastward to the Hudson, the Mohawk river should be
canalized by the erection of locks and movable dams at suitable
points in its course, and the deepening and rectification of its
channel.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 803

From the mouth of the Mohawk, at Troy, to the deep water of the
Hudson river, below Coxsackie, the latter river must be improved
by narrowing and deepening its channel, or a canal must be con-
structed along its shore. The former method of construction
affords the simplest and most useful means of securing the de-
sired result.

The plan may therefore be summarized as the widening,
deepening and necessary rectification of the worst curvatures of
the present canal, from Buffalo to Newark (about 130 miles);
the construction of a new canal from Newark to Utica (about
115 miles); the canalization of the Mohawk river from Utica to
Troy (about 100 miles), and the improvement of the Hudson
river from Troy to Four Mile Point, in Coxsackie (a distance of
about 30 miles).

The elevation of the western level of the canal being governed
by the surface of Lake Erie, it must secure the required depth
wholly by deepening, while the profiles of the levels from Lock-
port east can be adjusted to meet the economical requirements
that will be disclosed by detailed surveys.

The first level from Buffalo to Lockport will be 32 miles long.
Descending from this level at Lockport, by two locks, each of
about 25 feet lift, the second level of the canal will be reached.
This level, 64 miles in length, will extend to Brighton, where,
descending by two locks of about 24 feet lift, we reach the third
level of the canal, extending from Brighton to Macedon, 20 miles,
there descending by a lock of about 20 feet lift we reach the
fourth level, extending from Macedon to Newark, 12 miles;
where, by a lock of about 20 feet lift, is reached the level of the
proposed new canal, to extend from Newark to Utica, about 115
miles, which will be the fifth and longest level of the new canal.
From that point the Mohawk river (except at Little Falls and
Cohoes, where combined locks will be required) can best be
canalized through locks of 10 or 12 feet lift, making pools hav-
ing an average length of about 5 miles each.

The change in profile between Newark and the west end of the
Rome level, in the eastern suburbs of Syracuse, was considered
a very important one by the Canal Committee, and they accord-

S04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ingly early arranged to have this matter thoroughly examined.
The writer examined the several routes in detail.

The following are the elevations and distances on the levels
from Rome level westward to the upper level at Newark:

Elevation

above
Designation of level ered sues Pee. pet
. Remie level, :i:-: 2% . eating. sek eal ee 429 .7
Short level, from lock 47 to lock 48.......... 0.19 419.5
Level, lock: 48:to, lock 49.4.4 4 ete bit 0.71 409.0
Syracuse level, lock 49 to lock 50............ 5.01 402.0
Jordan level, lock 50 to lock 51.............. 14.90 409.9
Port Byron level, lock 51 to lock 52.......... hada 404.3
Montezuma level, lock 52 to lock 58......... 17. GS. 392.9
Level, leck 53 to lock 54-2 -22 3 eee 3.15 397 .6
Level, lock 54. te nek Bin ae ee 3.35 405.0
Level, lock 55 90-10€k OG 22s Sree et ae ae ee Sy t. 411.2
Level, lock 56 30: lack Stecsises tte. cae es 3.22 421.1
Level, Wek S419 INCE pe. cence oe eee 0.18 429.1
Level, lock 5840 teckeSa. . o>. a eee 0.16 437.1

Total distante!! 02 Via tee or, ees 58.06

Level above lock 59 (Newark-Palmyra level).......... 445.6*

The southern route. In view of the persistency with which the
proposed high level continuously descending rectification from
Newark to the west end of the Rome level has gotten into the Erie
canal improvement literature, it seems proper, by way of clarify-
ing the matter, to discuss it at length, even though the studies
made in 1899 have shown that this proposed high-level rectification
is not applicable to present conditions.

The objections to the southern route are three in number:
(1) Seneca river crossing; (2) right of way in Syracuse; and (3)
difficult construction of canal on sand and gravel areas. The
Seneca river crossing would be about 1.9 miles in length, with the

*The foregoing elevations refer to mean tide at New York and differ
somewhat from the Erie canal datum which is mean tide at Albany. The

difference is about 1.3 feet.

—— = Cl
~

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 805

water level 48 feet above the level of Montezuma marsh. Hard bot-
tom is found at a depth of 20 to 60 feet below the marsh level—
probably 30 feet is a fair average for the whole distance across.
For the first twenty feet in depth the marsh is in many places
composed of nearly pure marl, below which is found either firm
soil, gravel or hardpan. No rock indications have ever been
determined in this portion of Montezuma marsh.

The next objectionable feature of the southern high-level route
is found in the city of Syracuse, where the effect of changing the
present location would be merely to take the canal out of the
business part of the town, where dockage and business arrange-
ments are now established, placing it instead in a residence dis-
trict, where new -arrangements for transacting canal business

Fig. 69 Cross-section of Erie canal, 242 miles above Lockport.

would have to be made. Aside from an expensive right of way,
this change would be exceedingly undesirable.

As to the third difficulty, the region through which the southern
line would be laid is largely sand and gravel, requiring expensive
puddling in order to insure water-tightness. The location is
largely on a side hill, where the conditions for water-tight work
are unfavorable. The estimated cost of right of way on this route
was $4,666,000 and the total cost $29,000,000, or for 57.8 miles,
the average cost per mile was $501,730.

The northern route. The southern high-level route having
turned out to be so expensive, a route on the north side of the
Seneca river was then examined between Newark and the west end
of the Rome level. The chief difficulties of this route are: (1)
Seneca river crossing, and (2) difficult construction on account of
lack of water on surface, as well as extensive sand and gravel
areas.

©) .
S06 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

As to the crossing of the Seneca river, while the river is only
about 400 feet in width, the depth is 30 feet with soft bottom.
A few hundred feet north soundings indicate a depth of water
of 46 feet. Probably foundations of the aqueduct would have
to be carried considerably deeper than this.

The most serious objection to the northern high-level route
was found in the considerable areas of sand and gravel which,
on the north side of the Seneca river, are even more extensive than
on the south side. For the whole distance there is very little
water upon the surface, and during the fall of 1899 the farmers
of the region were hauling water for domestic use several miles.
Not only this region, but that along the proposed southern route,
is entirely destitute of stone—for miles only an occasional
bowlder is seen. |

10 /4.
a 100° ie
a

Tig. 70 Earth section of Erie canal from Pendleton to 214 miles above
Lockport.

The length of the canal by this route is the same as by the
southern route. The estimated cost was $22,400,000, which for
a total length of 57.8 miles is $387,540 per mile.

Extension of Syracuse level. It has also been proposed that a
rectification could be made more cheaply and safely by extend-
ing the Syracuse level westward near the present canal location
and eastward through the flat country south of Oneida lake,
cutting down the Rome summit to correspond. In order to under-
stand this possible change, it may be mentioned that the Syracuse
level locks up at both ends. To the east it rises by three locks
to the Rome level, and to the west by one lock to the Jordan
level. The elevation of the Svracuse level is 402+ T. W.; of the
Rome level, 450+ T. W., and of the Jordan level, 410+ T. W.
There are also long stretches of marl near Jordan. This rectifica-
tion was examined into with the result that it is shown to present
great difficulties. The estimated cost for 113 miles amounts to
$32,500,000.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK SOT

The Seneca-Oneida route. The southern and northern routes
from Newark to the west line of Syracuse having turned out so
unsatisfactory, the writer then proposed to the Canal Committee
to entirely modify their plan. Instead of building the continu-
ously descending canal, it was suggested that a canal dropping
down to the level of the Seneca river be constructed, thence
through that river to Three Rivers Point, thence through the
Oneida river to and through Oneida lake, with an artificial chan-
nel from Oneida lake, finally joining the Rome level of the Erie
canal at a point about halfway between Stacey Basin and New
London, a few miles west of Rome.

One main object of the proposed high level continuously de-
scending canal is to deliver Lake Erie water to the Rome level and
thence into the Mohawk river, thereby obviating difficulties of

18
or 70 e a fe

Fig. 71 Earth section of Erie canal east of Rochester.

water supplies from reservoirs along the line of the canal. Another
point to be gained by the high-level route was to eliminate lock-
ages, thereby saving time. If, however, as much time can be
gained by a broad, deep river and lake navigation as by eliminat-
ing lockages, then lockage objection is not very important.
Taking everything into account, the writer reported to the Canal
Committee that under the existing conditions a route by Seneca-
Oneida rivers would, due to breadth and depth of channel, permit
of navigation in less time than by a proposed high-level canal.
The argument is therefore in favor of the Seneca-Oneida route,
specially since it can be built at much less cost.

It seems to the writer an extraordinary fact that the possibil-
ities of the Seneca-Oneida route, extending as it does for over
ninety miles through the center of the State, have not long since
been thoroughly exploited. Considering the relatively small cost
of making effective navigation on this line, and looking at the
question from the point of view of today, one would suppose

808 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

that this route would have long ago received careful attention.
Probably there are two reasons for this neglect:

1) The early reclamation projects, through which it was
expected to reclaim Seneca river marshes.

2) Difficulty of constructing a towpath along a marshy river.

The estimated cost of the Seneca-Oneida route was $6,000,000,
which, for a total length, by way of certain cutoffs on Oneida
river which reduce the length somewliat, of 81.6 miles, gives an
average cost per mile of, roundly, $73,530.

The following correspondence explains in detail why this change
was made. In his letter of August 3, 1899, to the writer, Gen.
FI. V. Greene says:

Gerorce W. Rarter, Esq., Rochester, N. Y.:

Dear ‘Sir.—In accordance with a resolution of this committee
authorizing the chairman to employ an engineer for the purpose
of giving technical advice upon certain points connected with our
investigation and report on the canal question, I desire to obtain
your services to such an extent as may be necessary during the
next four months for the purpose of reporting to us on the follow-
ing questions: ;

First. What will be the approximate cost of constructing a new
canal from the vicinity of Newark to the Rome level, joining the
latter at a point just east of the city of Syracuse, the said canal
to have a continuous descent to the eastward and to have a prism
sufficient to carry a boat 25 feet in width and 10 feet draft, with a
waterway not less than four times the immersed section of the
boat?

* * * * * ro * *
Very respectfully, for the Committee,
(Signed) FE. V. GREENE,
Chairman.

The foregoing instructions apparently limit the investigation
to a canal continuously descending, but after making an exami-
nation the writer, under date of September 16, 1899, wrote to
John A. Fairley, Secretary of the Commission, as follows:

Mr Joun A. Fatrtny, Secretary, New York, N. Y.:

Dear Sir.— |

* * *% *% * * * *
In regard to the proposed rectification between Newark and

Syracuse, two lines have been examined—one to south of present
canal and one to north. The line to north appears to be the bet-

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 809

ter, although both are very expensive and violate the modern view
that canals should be located in the thread of valleys rather than
along side hills and on high ground. One result of my study of
this matter so far as it has proceeded is to indicate another solu-
tion, which, however, is apparently barred out by the committee’s
instructions to investigate a canal with a continuous descent from
Newark to west end of Rome level.

The solution referred to will take about the following form:
Leave the present canal where it crosses under the New York
Central and Hudson River railway a few miles east of Clyde and
continue to Seneca river just north of where New York Central
railway crosses that stream. Thence along Seneca and Oneida
rivers and through Oneida lake, building a new stretch of canal
from east end of Oneida lake to Rome. This does not avoid the
lockage but gives the advantage of a broad, deep navigation for
about sixty-five to seventy miles. My studies on deep waterways
project indicate that an ample water supply for the Rome summit
can be obtained from the two Fish creeks and Salmon river.

As regards carrying a water supply from Lake Erie east of
Seneca river, I may state that the high level, with continuous
descent from Newark to Rome level, will necessarily be laid on
open. porous soils from which the percolation losses will be large;
and while I am not prepared to give a final opinion at this time,
the indications are that Seneca river is about the eastern limit.
of effective feeding from Lake Erie. If this view is right, then
the alternative line for an enlarged canal via Seneca and Oneida
rivers and Oneida lake is the only solution. In making this latter
statement I take into account that there are extensive mar] de-
posits along line of present canal between Ninemile creek and
Seneca river, which make a radical enlargement along the present
canal a very serious proposition. I mention these various points
in order that you may appreciate the broad scope of the study on
which I am engaged.

In view of the possible outcome of the study of a continuously
descending high-level canal from Newark to Rome level, I would
be glad to know whether the committee’s instructions were in-
tended to exclude study of such an alternative line as I have here
outlined. If so, then I will not devote any time to it. Otherwise,
I should feel impelled to give it attention. There are one or two
other alternative propositions which should be looked into, but
explanations of which I can not well go into in a letter for lack of
space.

In regard to lines other than a continuously descending high-
level canal from Newark to Rome level, I may point ont that the
advantages to be gained are not necessarily to eliminate lockages

810 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

per se, but to gain time. If, then, the time can be gained and
lockages retained, there could apparently be no objection to the
Seneca-Oneida-rivers-Oneida-lake-line, where by reason of broad,
deep channel greater speed can be obtained. [Especially would
this be true if the river line can be built at less cost.

* * * * + % * *
Very truly yours,

= (Signed) Gro. W. RAFTER.

In the meantime the proposed change of plan was suggested
in a conversation with. Major Symons on September 18, 1899.
September 22 General Greene answered the letter of September
16, in the following terms:

Grorce W. Rarer, Esq., Consulting Engineer, Rochester, N. Y.:
Dear Sir.—Yours of September 16 arrived a few days since, but
owing to my absence in Philadelphia I have not until now had
an opportunity to answer it. I am also in receipt of a letter from
Major Symons telling me of his conversation with you, and that
he said the committee would undoubtedly like to have you make
the study of the northern route through the Oneida river and lake,
and I write to confirm Major Symons’ statement.
% x * x * * * *
Yours very truly,
(Signed ) F.. V. GREENE.

Conclusions of Canal Committee. The Canal Conitmittee, as the
result of its examination, states:

The committee is unanimously of the opinion that there are
only three projects for consideration. The first of these is the
completion of the project authorized by the law of 1895, with the
following modifications :

The deepening of the prism to 9 feet throughout, and the
lengthening of the locks on one tier, so as to pass two boats, each
125 feet in length, 1714 feet in width and 8 feet draft, with a cargo
capacity of 450 tons; and the lengthening of the locks on the other
tier so as to pass a single boat of the same size.

The use of pneumatic locks, or other mechanical lifts, at Cohoes,
Lockport, and possibly Newark and Little Falls.

The construction of a new canal from near Clyde to near New
London, about 81 miles in length, giving a wide waterway through
the Seneca and Oneida rivers and Oneida lake, and avoiding Mon-
tezuma marshes.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 811

The abolition of the two aqueducts across the Mohawk river,
and the substitution of the river for the canal from Rexford Flats
to. Cohoes.

The construction of a new canal from the foot of the falls of
the Mohawk, near Cohoes, to the Hudson river, near the West
Troy side-cut.

The second project is for a canal to accommodate boats of the
same dimensions as above given, but which shall follow the route
of the present Erie canal, except from Albany to lock 18, in place
of which the diversion by a mechanical lift over the Cohoes falls
and a canal from the foot of the falls to the Hudson river at
West Troy side-cut shall be substituted.

The third project is for a canal following the same route as
the first project, but of sufficient size to carry boats 150 feet in
length, 25 feet in width and 10 feet draft, with a cargo capacity
of approximately 1000 tons each, with locks capable of passing
two boats at one time.

The estimated cost of the barge canal, including the improving
of Oswego and Champlain canals, was, in round figures, $62,000,-
000. In regard to this estimate of the Canal Committee, it may
be stated that they made no surveys, although the writer in esti-
mating upon the southern and northern routes between Newark
and just east of Syracuse, as well as on the estimate for the Syra-
cuse level extended, and on the Seneca-Oneida route, availed him-
self of the field sheets of the United States Geological Survey at
a scale of ssto0- With these sheets in hand the several routes were
traversed, a distance of about 320 miles in all. Subsequently,
profiles were platted from the locations decided upon in this way,
quantities taken out and an estimate made. These estimates,
therefore, may be considered as in the nature of preliminary—
they could hardly be classified as final estimates. On other
portions of the canal the maps prepared in connection with the
improvement of 1895 were used.

Attention may be called to the maps which were prepared of
these surveys in 1899. They present the topography for a con-
siderable distance each side of the proposed lines and enable
anybody with the requisite training to determine whether or
not the best lines have been selected. They accompany the
Report of the State Engineer for 1900.

812 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Barge canal survey. The report of the Canal Committee
was presented to Governor Roosevelt under date of January 15,
1900, and chapter 411 of the laws of 1900 directed the State
Kngineer and Surveyor to cause surveys, plans and estimates to
be made for improving the Erie canal, the Champlain canal and
the Oswego canal, appropriating $200,000 therefor. The route
to be surveyed is defined in this act, and follows the recom-
mendations of the Canal Committee already given. It is also
provided in section 3 of this act that the surveys, plans and
estimates for the construction and improvement of the Erie canal
shall be of such dimensions as will allow said canal to carry
and lock through boats 150 feet in length, 25 feet in width and
of 10 feet draft, with a cargo capacity of 1000 tons each. The
prism of Erie canal was to have a depth of water of not less
than 12 feet, with 11 feet in the locks and over structures. The
locks were to be 310 feet long and 28 feet wide and 11 feet deep.
The State Engineer was required by the act to complete the
survey and hand his report to the Governor on or before January
1, 1901. The Governor was to submit the same, with his own ~
recommendations relating thereto, to the Legislature on or be-
fore January 15, 1901. Chapter 411, became a law April 12,
1900.

This act required the completion of the survey in about eight
months, and while there was a large amount of data available,
which had been gathered two years previously by the Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways, nevertheless it is difficult to
suppose that very complete surveys could have been made in so
short a time as this. The State Engineer conducted the sur-
vey ably, and it is intended to merely point out that from limita-
tion of time alone the survey was necessarily somewhat approxi-
mative.

The estimates are, generally speaking, as reliable as could be
expected for the amount of time put upon them. The total cost
of the improvement on the present line of the Erie canal through-
out the whole extent, and including the Oswego and Champlain
canals, is estimated at about $87,000,000, while the total cost on
the most desirable route, via Mohawk and Seneca rivers, is _
about $77,000,000. There are certain additions to this which

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 813

will increase it to about $82,000,000. This estimate provides for
a canal 12 feet deep via the Mohawk and Seneca rivers, as well
as by the interior route, through Syracuse, Clyde, Lyons, Newark,
Palmyra, Rochester and Lockport to Buffalo.

During the legislative session of 1903, some question having
arisen as to the adequacy of the estimates made, they were
again gone over and finally revised. In a communication to the
Legislature under date of March 2, 1903, the State Engineer says:

I have no hesitation, therefore, in asserting that the estimates
of cost given in the barge canal report were as complete and
accurate as any estimates ever prepared within the time allotted
for a work of such magnitude, and that they were reliable esti-
mates of the cost at that time for the improvement covered by the
report, with the one possible exception of the allowance for un-
foreseen contingencies and expenses.

It is an undisputed fact that during the past few years. the
prosperity of our country has resulted in an increase in the con-
struction of public works of all descriptions, and in the develop-
ment of native resources by private capital, creating such a de-
mand for labor and materials that both have advanced in price
within the past two years; furthermore, the fact of the State
enlisting in an enterprise of this magnitude would have a tendency
to increase the price of labor and materials entering into its
construction.

The State Engineer then answers several questions in detail,
finally ending with the conclusion that in 1903 the barge canal
would cost roundly $101,000,000. He states that water supply
is based on a business of 10,000,000 tons of freight per canal
season, and that if the business of the enlarged canals should
increase to double this quantity, or to 20,000,000 tons per canal
season, there should be added to the estimate $1,330,000.

The original water supply included a feeder from Fish creek
to near Fort Bull, together with the construction of the Salmon
river reservoir, already described. The water from this reser-
voir may be turned into Mad river, a tributary of Fish creek,
without serious expense. On this plan the total cost of the water
supply for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per year would not exceed
$3,000,000. Aside from the supply to the present Erie canal
from Butternut, Limestone, Chittenango, Cowaselon creeks, ete.
the additional supply was to be obtained from a single large

814 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

reservoir, advantage being taken of the fact that a large reser-
voir can be constructed for less cost per unit of volume than a
number of small reservoirs. In the barge canal report it was
assumed that it was important to construct a number of small
reservoirs along the line of the canal with the result that the
cost of a water supply for the canal route, with traffic of 10,-
000,000 tons per year, is estimated at $5,555,000. For the river
route, with traffic of 10,000,000 tons per year, the estimated cost
is $4,469,000.

Origin of barge canal. The question has arisen in the State of
New York as to who originated the barge canal idea. The fol-
lowing statement is given as bearing on this point:

We have already seen that Silas Seymour, in his report for
1885, referred to a continuously descending high-level canal
from Newark to the west end of the Rome level.t

The next detailed reference appears in the report of Martin
Schenck, State Engineer and Surveyor, for the year 1893. Mr
Schenck says:

In my report of last year I briefly outlined a proposed enlarged
canal capable of bearing barges 250 feet in length by 25 feet
breadth of beam, with 10 feet draft of water and of the lowest
possible hight above water so that the greater part of the bridges
crossing it could be fixed structures instead of movable ones.

This canal would have a general width of 100 feet at the water
line, a depth of 12 feet (except at such points as over aqueducts
or other expensive structures where economy would suggest the
reduction of a foot in depth) and have vertical or battered side
walls except in localities of existing wide waters where economy
of width would be a minor consideration. The general width
proposed might be materially reduced for short distances through
the cities and towns along its route, over aqueducts, through ex-
pensive rock cuts, etc., and since no towing-path would be re-
quired, there are many miles of cuttings where the removal of
that alone would give nearly the entire width required. The
route proposed for this canal would generally follow the present
alignment of Erie canal except for short distances, where it would
be wise to make detours in order to obtain economy of construc-
tion and better alignment. The vessels designed for use might
be built, for convenience in handling, in two sections and be towed
in fleets by means of similar boats fitted with twin screws and

‘Refer to page S801,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 815

propelled by steam or electric power. Vessels of such Size as
those described could navigate the proposed canal with the great-
est degree of economy, would have a carrying capacity of at least
50,000 bushels, and could carry wheat at a profit from Buffalo to
New York for two cents per bushel. When grain can be carried
through our canals at a profit from Lake Erie to the metropolis
at the foregoing rate, all questions relative to the commercial
supremacy of the Empire State will be set at rest. Without a
careful survey it is impossible to determine the exact route of
the proposed canal, but it may be approximately stated to be as
follows: Beginning at the port of Buffalo, the alignment would
follow very closely the present line of the canal, the depth to be
secured to Lockport by excavating from the bottom of the canal.
Through the deep rock cut near Lockport the only widening re-
quired for the present would be that obtained by cutting out the
present towing-path. At Lockport a pair of hydraulic lifts or
two pairs of high-lift locks would be substituted for the five com-
bined locks now there. From Lockport eastward to Rochester the
present alignment would be quite closely followed except that
considerable detours would probably be made to avoid those
rather bold but unnecessary bits of engineering known as the
high banks at several points west of this last-named place and
that east of it at Irondequoit. Continuing eastward from Roch-
ester, making a slight change of alignment near Newark, sub-
stituting two locks for the three now there, no special engineering
difficulties would be encountered until the Montezuma aqueduct
over the Seneca river is reached, where one of two plans must be
adopted, viz, either to construct at a very large expense an en-
larged aqueduct or drop down by means of a single lock to the
level of the Seneca river, crossing at the river level and locking
up to the proper elevation on the opposite side, meanwhile retain-
ing the present aqueduct as a feeder to carry water to the remain-
der of the level eastward.

As the present aqueduct was constructed over a bed of peat
~ upon sunken cribs of only sufficient bearing capacity to sustain
with safety its present weight, it is exceedingly doubtful if any
great increase of weight such as would be necessary in making
the required enlargement could be had without endangering the
stability of the whole structure. The waste of water caused by
locking boats down to the river level and up again while con-
siderable, would not be a serious matter since this is the last
level fed from the westward. The cost of the two locks required
would be a trifle compared to that of a new aqueduct, but it goes
without saying that the building of a new aqueduct is by far the
better plan and the one that would eventually be adopted.

816 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

From Port Byron to Jordan the present line of the canal would
be followed quite closely, but it is probable that it would be better
to make a detour at the Jordan level so as to drop it down to the
elevation of that at Port Byron. The rather limited water supply
on the Jordan level makes it extremely desirable that the pro-
posed change be made so that the reliable water supply of the
western slopes of the Adirondacks can pass unimpeded to meet
the waters of Lake Erie on the Montezuma level. From Syracuse
eastward to Rotterdam the present alignment would be quite
closely adhered to, with the probable substitution of a hydraulic
lift or one lock for the three upper locks at Little Falls. From
Rotterdam eastward we have presented to us the choice of two
routes, the one following the present line of canal, the other cross-
ing the Mohawk on a new aqueduct to be built at that place and
making a short cut across country, striking the present canal line
at the eastern terminus of the upper Mohawk aqueduct.

SAA cot bay pap ages 105 a at a

UA pA CE RG PU WA

iS YAWIEE CAMEL 2A (tt! (Ye LUE STi lp enc
teas 22 Az jeg ee

Fig. 72 Earth section of Welland and Soulanges canals.

This report was followed by that of Major Symons, dated June
23, 1897, who proposed a boat of a capacity of 1500 tons burden,
the same as proposed by Mr Schenck. Neither made any estimate,
although Mr Schenck considered that his canal could be built
for $25,000,000, while Major Symons considered that $50,000,000
would be sufficient. The Committee on Canals considered that
$63,000,000 was sufficient to build the canal; the barge canal
survey of 1900 placed the cost at from $77,000,000 to $87,000,000,
depending upon the route, while in 1903 the State Engineer
placed it at $101,000,000.

Increase in size of boat in comparison with cross-section of
canal. In order to show the progressive changes which have taken
place in our ideas of canals, the cross-section of the original rie
canal and of the various enlargements, together with the cross-
section of the recent proposed canals, will be cited in comparison
with the size of boat for navigating each section.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 817

The original Erie canal, completed in 1825, carried 4 feet in -
depth of water and was 26 feet wide on the bottom and 40 feet
at the surface. The sectional area was 132 square feet. The
boats navigating the original Erie canal were 61 feet long, 7 feet
wide by 31% feet draft,and with a capacity of 30 tons. An enlarge-
ment of the Erie canal was authorized in 1835, which, however,
was not fully completed until 1862. The size of boats in the mean-
time had increased during this enlargement to 75 and 100 tons.

The enlargement completed in 1862 made the canal 7 feet deep,
52 feet wide on the bottom, 70 feet water surface, and gave a
sectional area of 427 square feet. After the completion of this
enlargement the boats were 98 feet long, 1714 feet wide and
with 6 feet draft. Their capacity was 240 tons, which size boat
is still used on the Erie canal.

The improvement suggested by State Engineer Adams and
seconded by the Canal Committee is 9 feet deep, 49 feet wide on
the bottom, with 73 feet width of water surface. The sectional
area is 549 square feet. For this improvement, the boats would
be 125 feet long, 1714 feet wide, with 8 feet draft. Their capacity
would be 450 tons.

The barge canal recommended by the Canal Committee has
12 feet in depth of water, is 75 feet wide on the bottom and 122
feet water surface. The sectional area is 1182 square feet. For
the barge canal recommended by the Canal Committee boats are
proposed 150 feet long, 25 feet wide and 10 feet draft. Their
capacity is to be 1000 tons.

The canal suggested by Mr Schenck in his report as State
Engineer for 1893 was to have 12 feet in depth of water, carry-
ing a boat 25 feet wide and 250 feet long, with capacity of 1500
tons. Major Symons proposed a canal carrying boats with width
of 30 feet, length of about 190 feet and a draft of 10 feet, the
capacity to be 1500 tons. Major Symons also proposed a ship
canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson on the line of the present Erie
canal, 24 feet in depth, bottom width of 138 feet and water sur-
face of 210 feet. The sectional area of such a canal would be
4176 square feet. The boat was to be 50 feet in width and with
draft of 20 feet. As we have seen, the Committee on Canals

818 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

adopted a boat 25 feet wide, 150 feet long and drawing 10 feet
of water.

The 21-foot channel proposed by the Board of engineers on
Deep Waterways would have a bottom width of 215 feet and a
sectional area of 5497 square feet. The section proposed for a
30-foot canal would have a bottom width of 203 feet and a sec-
tional area of 7990 square feet. The foregoing widths are for
channels in earth cutting—in rock sections, widths are somewhat
different. The Board of Engineers proposed for a 21-foot canal
a boat 52 feet wide, 480 feet long, with 19 feet draft and a net
carrying capacity of 8600 tons.

We see, therefore, that from 1825 to 1904—seventy-nine years—
the capacity of boats has increased from 30 tons to a proposed

FLLLUWYUY LN Yo g Te CTL mE Te Wi INA
SIMS fa lickeie
Vig. 73 Earth pai of Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal.

capacity of over 8000 tons. This fact is cited as showing that
inasmuch as there is actually still in use a boat carrying 240
tons, canal development is not yet commensurate with the devel-
opments of commerce.

Chapter 147 of the laws of 1903. Chapter 147 of the laws of
1903, an act making provision for issuing bonds to the amount
of $101,000,000 for the improvement of Erie canal, Oswego canal
and Champlain canal, and providing for submitting the same
to the approval of the people, became a law April 7, 1903, with
the approval of the Governor. This act was voted upon at the
general election held November 3, 1903, and was approved by a
majority of over 245,000. New York county gave 253,000 for and
29,000 against; Kings county gave 62,000 for and 21,000 against ;
Erie county, 39,000 for and 8000 against. The balance of the
State, with few exceptions, was against. It appears, therefore,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 819

that the support which this project received was from the two
terminals of the canal. |

This act provides that the route of the Erie, Oswego and Cham-
plain canals, as improved, shall be as follows:

Beginning at Congress street, Troy, and passing up the Hudson
river to Waterford; thence to the westward through the branch
north of Peoble’s island and ‘by a new canal and locks reach the
Mohawk river above Cohoes falls; thence in the Mohawk river
canalized to Little Falls; thence generally by the existing line
of the Erie canal to Herkimer; thence in the valley of Mohawk
river, following the thread of the stream as much as practicable
to a point about six miles east of Rome; thence over to and down
the valley of Wood creek to Oneida lake; thence through Oneida
lake to Oneida river; thence down Oneida river, cutting out the
bends thereof, where desirable, to Three Rivers Point; thence up

——————————————

vpt tA ULE ZIT 7 TOS RE SOU, STISSSQ SIN Le,
i x & ; Sse ——y/ == w xe = arn \ YS BAG
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i — ENS
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’

Fig. 74 Earth section of 22-foot canal carrying vessel of 8,000 tons capacity.

to Seneca river, to the outlet of Onondaga lake; thence still up
Seneca river to and through the State ditch at Jack’s Reefs;
thence westerly generally following said river to the mouth of
Crusoe creek; thence substantially paralleling the New York Cen-
tral railroad and to the north of it to a junction with the present
Erie canal about 1.8 miles east of Clyde; thence following
substantially the present route of the canal with necessary
changes near Lyons and Newark to Fairport; thence curving to
the south and west on a new location, joining the present canal
about one-half mile west of the crossing of Irondequoit; thence
following the old canal to a point about one and one-fourth miles
west of Pittsford; thence following the existing line of the canal
for nearly a mile; thence running across the country south of
Rochester to the Genesee river near South park, here crossing
the river'in a pool formed by a dam; thence running to the west
of the outskirts of Rochester and joining the present canal about
one mile east of South Greece; thence following substantially the
route of the present Erie canal, with the necessary change in

820 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

alignment near Medina to a junction with Niagara river at Tona-
wanda; thence by Niagara river and Black Rock harbor to Buffalo
and Lake Erie. The existing Erie canal from Tonawanda creek
to Main street, Buffalo, shall be retained for feeder and harbor
purposes. The route of the Oswego canal as improved shall be
as follows: Beginning at the junction of the Oswego, Seneca and
Oneida rivers, it shall run northward to a junction with Lake
Ontario at Oswego, following Oswego river, canalized, and present
Oswego canal. The route of the Champlain canal as improved
shall be as follows: Beginning in the Hudson river at Water-
ford; thence up Hudson river canalized to near Fort Edward;
thence via the present route of Champlain canal to Lake Cham-
plain near Whitehall.

This act also provides for the appointment of an advisory board
of five engineers, whose duties shall be to advise the State Engi-
neer and Superintendent of Public Works, to follow the progress
of the work, and from time to time to report to the Governor,
State Engineer and Superintendent as they may require, or as the
board may deem proper and advisable. A special deputy and
special resident engineers are also provided for by the act. The
following have been appointed members of the advisory board:
Edward A. Bond, Thomas W. Symons, Elmer L. Corthell, Wm. A.
Brackenridge and Alfred B. Frye.

Power canal along line of Erie canal. In a discussion before
the American Society of Civil Engineers several years ago,
Edward P. North of New York City proposed a power canal
along the line of the Erie canal, and J. Y. McClintock of
Rochester has also extensively advocated such a canal.

Mr McClintock proposes that deep waterways be constructed
along this line of sufficient dimensions to carry water enough to
develop 800,000 horsepower. This water would be taken from
Niagara river and the power developed at Lockport, Gasport,
Middleport, Medina, Albion, Holley, Brockport, Spencerport,
Rochester, Pittsford, Macedon, Palmyra, Newark, Lyons and at
points on the Seneca river, as well as at other points where inter-
secting streams furnish convenient points for developing power.
There is no objection to such a project and possibly it may be
ultimately carried out, although at present there is no probability
because the streams of New York will furnish several hundred

7

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 821

thousand horsepower at less cost per unit than can be furnished
by this power canal.

Mr John Patten, in a paper read before the National Irrigation
Congress held at Ogden, Utah, in 1902 proposed a canal along this
line which very much exceeds in size that proposed by either Mr
North or Mr McClintock. The name of the canal proposed by Mr
Patten is to be “The Great Eastern Canal.” The water supply will
be taken from Niagara river at Tonawanda and conveyed through
a canal to Rochester, where a dam 54 feet high across the Genesee
river will continue it to the hills south of Rochester, effecting a
natural embankment. The Great Eastern canal will continue in
an easterly direction near the line of the Erie canal and the
Seneca river to Syracuse, passing through the edge of Syracuse
and continuing on to the Mohawk valley near Utica. After en-
tering the Mohawk valley, the canal continues along the river
as far as Schenectady, at which point there will be a dam across
the Mohawk diverting the waters southeast along the slope of
the Catskill mountains to the valleys of Esopus and Rondout
creeks, where there is to be a large dam intercepting the flow of
these creeks. This dam is high enough to flood the Wallkill val-
ley, so that the course of the canal is up the Wallkill river into
New Jersey, where it empties into Walnut valley and from
thence into the Delaware as far as EKaston, forming a natural
waterway from Kingston to Easton over a hundred miles in
length.

After damming the Delaware at Easton the course of the canal
will continue up the Lehigh river, and southerly to within about
five miles of Reading, where a dam across the Schuylkill river
continues the water in the depression of the valley southerly. The
canal is to be continued south from this point, embracing the
Susquehanna, Potomac and James rivers. The plan calls for
submerging Ellentown, Bethlehem and a few other towns, which
Mr Patten states will make it a very expensive project.

There will be waterways from New York, Washington, Balti-
more, Richmond, Philadelphia, Trenton and other cities extending
to the canal. New York has exceptional advantages, inasmuch
as fully 500 feet fall is obtained, with a natural outlet to the

822, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Hudson. Power-houses along the banks of the Hudson will fur-
nish New York, Brooklyn, Hoboken, Jersey City, Passaic, Pat-
erson, Newark, Elizabethtown, the Oranges and other cities within
a radius of fifty to one hundred miles with electricity, heat, power
for manufacturing, etc.

The construction of the Great Eastern waterpower canal is
estimated to develop 15,000,000 twenty-four-hour horsepower or
30,000,000 twelve-hour horsepower, the value of which, the
author states, would be when fully utilized $750,000,000 per year.
If only one-half the power is utilized, the saving to the country
in one hundred years would amount, according to the author, to
more than the value of all the property in the United States.
The construction involves such items as embankments 1000 feet
high and from ten to twenty miles in length. The estimated
cost is not given, but can hardly be less than $15,000,000,000 or
$20,000,000,000, or about as much as the present total value of
property in the United States. The writer concludes, therefore,
that this scheme, while involving magnificent possibilities, is not
likely to be carried out at once.

PRIVATE COMPANIES ORGANIZED TO BUILD CANALS

In order to show how far the people of the State of New York
became possessed with the idea that canal navigation was
essential to their commercial prosperity, the following list of
private companies which had been organized before 1860, for
constructing canals and extending navigation in the State, is
herewith included. The last of these was the Allegheny River
Slack Water Navigation Company, organized in April, 1857, to
improve Allegheny river below Olean.*

1Gazetteer of the State of New York, by J. H. French.

823

NEW YORK

HYDROLOGY OF

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 825

LOSS OF WATER FROM ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS

In order to provide ample water supplies, the large amount
of canal construction in New York State has necessitated the
collection of considerable information as to the various sources
of loss of water to which artificial channels are subject.

The original Erie canal was constructed with the water sur-
face 40 feet wide, the bottom width 28 feet, and the depth 4 feet.
In 1824 measurements of the loss from filtration and evaporation
were made by John B. Jervis on the eastern division and by
David S. Bates on the western division. Mr Jervis states that
his measurements were made in the original Erie canal, between
the first locks below the village of Amsterdam and the aqueduct
below Schenectady, a distance of 18 miles. This section was con-
structed mainly through an alluvial soil, containing a large por-
tion of vegetable matter. In some places this soil was very
* leaky, owing probably to the decay of roots, although the greater
portion retained water very well. There was a considerable
quantity of gravel and slaty soils. He states that the quantity
of water lost in this 18-mile section was very uniform, and
averaged 2.10 cubic feet per second per mile.’ .

Mr Bates states that his measurements in 1824 showed that a
mile of new canal, such as the Erie canal then was between
Brockport and Ninemile creek, would require 1.7 cubic feet of
water per second per mile in order to supply the losses from
filtration, leakage and evaporation.” The following are some of
the details of Mr Bates’s measurements in 1824:

On 79 miles of the canal and feeder, comprising 20 miles of
canal from Rochester to Brockport, 57 miles from Rochester to
Cayuga, and 2 miles of feeder, the supply was 133 cubic feet per
second, or 1.69 cubic feet per second per mile. The months
are not stated, although it may be inferred that these observa-
tions are averages of the navigation season.

Mr Bates further states that in August, 1824, he found a total
use for the 20 miles from Rochester to Brockport of 35 cubic

*Report of John B. Jervis to the Canal Commissioners, on the Chenango
canal. An. Rept Canal Com. (1834). Ass. Doc. No. 55, p. 54.

*Report of David S. Bates to the Canal Commissioners, on the Chenango
canal (18380). Ass. Doc. No. 47, p. 31.

826 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

feet per second, equal to 1.75 cubic feet per second per mile.
This section of the original Erie canal was considered to be en-
tirely free from leakage at the structures, and the measured
losses are therefore taken as those due only to percolation, ab-
sorption and evaporation.! |

In August, 1859, Henry Tracy and 8. Talcott, acting under in-
structions from W. H. Talcott, Resident Engineer of the Fourth
Division of the Genesee valley canal, made a series of observa-
tions along the line of Chenango canal, with a view of determin-
ing the evaporation, filtration and leakage at the mechanical
structures, and whatever else might be useful in the designing
of the water supply of the summit level of the Genesee valley
canal. 7 :

For the purposes of the measurements they selected a portion
of the canal extending from the north end of the summit level
to Erie canal, 22 miles in length, on which the total supply on
August 31 was found to be 39 cubic feet per second. The leak-
age and waste at aqueducts, waste-weirs, and at lock No. 1 at the
northern end were found to be 15 cubic feet per second, thus
leaving ‘the evaporation and filtration on 22 miles at 24 cubic
feet per second, equivalent to 1.09 cubic feet per second per mile.
It may be observed, however, that a measurement made at the
end of August would probably not show a maximum of either
evaporation or absorption by vegetation. Estimating these ele-
ments at the maximum, we may assume from 1.33 to 1.67 cubic
feet per second per mile as a more reliable quantity than the
1.09 cubic feet per second per mile here actually observed.

Messrs Tracy and Talcott also measured the leakage and
waste at the various mechanical structures, etc. which were as
follows: Leakage at structures, 3.67 cubic feet per second; waste
at waste-weirs, 3.40 cubic feet per second; leakage at lock No. 1,
at the north end of the section, 7.98 cubic feet per second. This
amount, Mr Talcott remarks, was so much greater than at any

‘See report of F. C. Mills in relation to the Genesee Valley canal (1840).
Ass. Doc. No. 26, p. 26. See also report of W. H. Talcott in the same docu-
ment. These two reports contain a summary of all that had been done
in the way of measurements of the various losses now under discussion up
to that time, as well as a number of references to foreign data.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 827

other lock on the canal as to induce the belief that the gates were
not properly closed at the time of measurement. At lock No. 69
on the same canal, the leakage was 6.37 cubic feet per second
from an 8-foot lift.

Mr Talcott’s report is very able, and presents forcibly all the
data at hand at that time. It may be said that the data which
he gave fixed the following quantities as fairly covering the
various losses to which artificial waterways of the dimensions of
the original canals of this State are subject.

1) Loss by filtration, absorption and evaporation, 1.67 cubic
feet per second per mile. With retentive soils this could be re-
duced to from 1.00 to 1.20 cubic feet per second per mile. Mr Tal-
cott fixed on 1.10 cubic feet per second per mile for the Genesee
valley canal, which was largely built through heavy soils, but
this was subsequently found too small.

2) Leakage at mechanical structures; for locks of 11 feet lift,
8.33 cubic feet per second; for leakage and waste at each waste-
weir, 0.50 cubic foot per second; for a wooden-trunk aqueduct,
an amount depending on the length of the structure, but as an
average, 0.058 of a cubic foot per second for each linear foot of
trunk may be taken.

In response to a resolution of the Canal Commissioners of
April 12, 1841, O. W. Childs, then Chief Engineer of the Erie
canal, prepared a report on the water supply of the western
division with reference to the enlargement then in progress.”
In this paper Mr Childs gives the results of measurements made
by himself in 1841 of losses from filtration, absorption, evapora-
tion, and leakage on the original Erie canal between Wayneport,
in Wayne county, and Pit lock, which corresponded to lock 53.
near Clyde, of the present canal. He also gave the result of
measurements made by Alfred Barrett between Pittsford and
Lockport.

-*The quantities here given apply to canals 40 feet by 28 and 4 feet deep,
and with locks 90 feet in length and 15 feet in width and 8 to 10 feet lift.

*See Supply of Water Required for the Canal Between Lockport and the

Seneca River, by O. W. Childs: An. Rept Canal Com. (1848). Ass. Doe.
No. 16, p. 141-175.

QD

28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Mr Child’s measurements were for a section of the canal
36.02 miles in length. On the Palmyra level, for a distance of
8.34 miles, where the soil is open and porous, the measurements
showed a loss of 1.81 cubic feet per second per mile. On the
Clyde level with a more retentive soil the losses from filtration,
absorption, and evaporation were, for a distance of 27.68 miles,
Gnly 0.59 cubic foot per second per mile. The entire loss, includ-
ing leakage, was, for the whole distance, 1.40 cubic feet per
second per mile. These measurements were made for a term of
thirty-three days, from July 30 to August 31, inclusive. Meas-
urements were also made in June, early in July, and in the fol-
lowing October, from which the conclusion was derived that
demands were greater and the supply less for the time during
which the foregoing observations were taken than during any
other portion of the season. |

Mr Barrett’s measurements were made at various points on the
original canal between Pittsford and Lockport, and repeated each
day from July 17 to September 30, inclusive. They showed an
average loss for the whole period of 1.22 cubic feet per second
per mile. Assuming the same ratio of loss between Pittsford
and Wayneport, there resulted, for the entire distance of 122
miles from Lockport to Pit lock, an average loss of 1.12 cubic
feet per second per mile. Mr Childs states that an addition to
the foregoing quantity should be made as an allowance for
springs and several smal] streams entering the canal which
could not be measured. Making such additions he concludes
that 1.42 cubic feet per second per mile should be taken as the
total quantity consumed on the 122 miles of canal under con-
sideration, which is equivalent to a total of 178 cubic feet per
second. It is stated in the original reports that the supply of
water was ample for all the purposes of navigation during these
measurements.

Comparing Mr Childs’s measurements of 1841 with those made
by Messrs Jervis and Bates in 1824, one point of great practical
utility is strongly brought out, namely, as to the excess of loss
of water in new canals over those some time in use; thus Mr Bates

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 829

found in 1824, on the same reach of canal as was measured by
Mr Childs in 1841, a total loss of from 1.68 to 1.75 cubic feet per
second per mile. It may be assumed that the springs and
streams allowed for by Mr Childs were delivering into the canal
in 1824 the same as in 1841, at least 0.17 to 0.25 cubic foot per
second per mile. We have, then, as the total supply in 1824
from 1.92 to 2.00 cubic feet per second per mile. Adopting the
latter figure as a maximum to compare with Mr Childs’s figure
of 1.42 cubic feet per second per mile, as found in 1841, the con-
clusion is reached that the decrease in the loss by filtration—due
presumably to the gradual silting up of the bottom—is some-
thing like 0.58 cubic foot per second per mile.

This conclusion could be applied to the conditions of the Erie
canal improvement of 1895 in which it was proposed to excavate
one foot from the bottom of many of the levels. The effect of this
would be to remove the silt accumulations of many years, thus
placing the bottom of the canal, as regards porousness and conse-
quent percolation and filtration loss, in the same condition as
when first constructed. This consideration alone indicated the
necessity of making the water supply of the enlarged canal
liberal in order to answer the demands of the first few years
while the bottom was again attaining a fixed condition.

The experience of over eighty years in the operation of the
New York State canals has thoroughly shown the futility of any
attempt at excessive economy in water supply. In the absence
of systematic information as to yield of streams, the general
tendency has been to overrate the summer flow, with the result of
shortage frequently at points where the supply was believed to be
ample. The chief sources of such shortage may be enumerated
as follows:

1) The great variation in the yield of catchment areas from
year to year, by reason of differences in the rainfall, humidity,
and temperature. |

2) The cutting off of forests, which has increased somewhat
the spring-flood flows and decreased the summer flow.

3) The systematic drainage of large areas, which has also
tended to increase the flood flows and decrease the summer flows.

S30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

4) The growth of aquatic plants on long levels and the forma-
tion of sand bars in the canal, which have tended to decrease the
amount passing.

Among minor sources of loss, evaporation and absorption by
growing plants may be mentioned, both of which vary somewhat
in different years, although neither can be considered a serious
source of loss. ;

A study of all the measurements in detail shows that in an
artificial channel of the dimensions of the original Erie canal,
there should be provided at least 1.83 to 1.67 cubic feet per
second per mile, exclusive of water for filling and for lockages.

Using the data of the measurements of 1841, Mr Childs arrived
at the water supply of the enlarged canal of that day in the fol-
lowing manner: It was assumed that the loss by filtration
through the bottom and sides of the canal would be as the square
root of the pressure or depth of the water, and as the area of the
surface pressed. Proceeding on this assumption, he computed
the quantity required to supply the losses from filtration, leakage,
and evaporation (in the enlarged canal, 1840 to 1860), at 3.17
cubie feet per second per mile. This figure was subsequently
substantially adopted for the entire enlarged canal, and, with the
exception of a few special cases is still in use.

Adding the amount required for lockages at lock 53, Mr Childs
placed the entire supply for the western division, from Lockport
to the east end, at 3.48 cubic feet per second per mile, or at a
total of 424 cubic feet per second for 122 miles of canal.

The canal enlargement of 1895 contemplated an increase in
depth from 7 to 9 feet. Taking into account the results of the
measurements on the original Krie canal, as well as those made
by Mr Childs on the enlarged canal of 1840 to 1860, it has been
concluded that the proper figure for water supply on the western
division, to which the studies thus far specially refer, should be

taken at from 4.17 to 4.50 cubic feet per second per mile.t
et ee Rae ae Se et eee eee PT ee
1The foregoing statements in regard to measurements of water supply of

rie canal are abstracted from Report on the Water Supply of the Western
Division of the Erie Canal, by the writer, and are to be found in Appenidx I
to the An. Rept of the State Engineer and Surveyor for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1896.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S31

The consumption of water from a navigable canal may be taken
to include the following items:

1) For filling the prism, in case it is emptied for any reason.

2) Quantity required for lockages.

3) The supply for replacing water lost by evaporation. This
head may be also taken to include the loss by percolation and
absorption by subsoil and aquatic plants.

4) Loss by leakage as at aqueducts, culverts, lock gates,
valves, ete.

5) Loss by wastage at spillways.

6) Water required for power to operate lock gates and for
flushing out boats, barges and timber rafts, as well as for power
to operate electric lights at the locks during the nights.

7) Quantity required for industrial and agricultural use.

8) Losses by evaporation, percolation, etc. along the feeder.
This latter quantity, if the feeder is of considerable length, may
be large and can not be safely neglected in an estimate as to
water supply.

There is no specific rule for determining water supplies for
canals. One chief source of loss is percolation, the determination
of which, in any particular case, is a matter of judgment, based
on experience. In any case we may assume much less loss with
good construction than with poor. The safest way to proceed is to
apply information derived from well attested experiments.

Table No. 96 gives measurements and estimates of loss of
water from canals in New York State by evaporation, percola-
tion, waste, etc. Many of these measurements have been re-
ferred to in the preceding.

In connection with the barge canal work, a number of gagings
were made at various points along the Erie canal, as at Lock-
port, Boonville, Glens Falls and Rochester. Current meter and
rod observations were also made at Cornell University. It is
stated in the barge canal report:

Much time was spent in attempting to find a number of fair
comparisons in the results of the canal gagings made last sum-
mer (1900), but unfortunately the geological and topographical

conditions of the levels, or sections, were not sufficiently similar
to justify the acceptance of any expressions deduced therefrom.

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834 : NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

SELLING PRICE OF WATERPOWER

The original places in New York State at which hydraulic
developments have been made for the purpose of selling power
are Oswego, Cohoes, Lockport and Niagara Falls. At Oswego
the power on the east side of the river is owned by the Oswego
Canal Company, the development being by a canal 4000 feet long,
with an average surface width of 60 feet and a depth of 6 feet.
The water from this canal is dropped into the Oswego river at
the level of Lake Ontario. The working head is from 18 to 20
feet, although with high water in the canal and low water in
Lake Ontario, the working head becomes somewhat greater.

The State controls the first right to the flow of the Oswego
river in order to maintain slack-water navigation in the pool
above the dam at the head of the Oswego Canal Company’s race-
way; all water not needed for canal purposes being equally
divided between the Oswego Canal Company’s race on the east
side and the Varick canal on the west side. The Oswego Canal
Company gives a 999-year lease of water, but without land for
location of buildings. A water right on this canal is called a
run, meaning, probably, the amount of water required to drive
a run of stone, a run of water being taken at 11.75 cubic feet
per second which, under the ordinary working head of 20 feet,
will, at 75 per cent efficiency, produce 20 horsepower. There are
assumed to be 32 first-class runs, the rental for which is $350
a year for each run. At this price the cost of a_horse-
power a year, with 75 per cent efficiency, becomes $17.48,
or the cost of a gross horsepower a year becomes $13.11.
There are also 32 second-class runs, of which the rental
varies from $250 to $300 a year for each run. Further, there are
surplus runs which are rented at a little over one-half of the
rental charged for first-class runs. Jn case of a shortage of
water the surplus runs are shut down successively, beginning
with the most recent leases; after this the second-class runs
share equally with one another in reduction; and finally, in case
of extreme shortage, the first-class runs are similarly cut down.

The Varick canal on the west side of the river controls one-
half of all the water not needed for navigation purposes, the
same as the Oswego Canal Company’s canal on the east side. In

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 835

order that the water may be divided equally between these two
canals both have the same aggregate waterway at the head
gates, and by gages on both sides, which are examined whenever
necessary, it can be seen whether one canal is drawn below the
other, and the gates changed accordingly. On this canal there
are recognized 50 first-class runs, 17 second-class, and an un-
limited number of third-class. For first-class runs the rental is
from $250 to $300 per annum; for second and third class it ranges
from $125 to $150. By a decree of the Supreme Court, dated
August 21, 1875, a run of water on the Varick canal ranges
between 28 cubic feet per second, under a head of 12 feet, and
25 cubic feet per second, under a head of 13 feet. The actual
working head is, however, ordinarily only about 10 feet, so that
on the foregoing basis a run of water may be taken as 33.3 cubic .
feet per second. At the price of first-class runs of from $250 to
$300, and with 75 per cent efficiency, the cost per horsepower per
annum varies from $8.80 to $10.56, a run on the Varick canal
being equal to 33.3 cubic feet per second on 10 feet head, an
amount of water which yields 37.9 horsepower under that head.

As to the difference in cost of water on these two canals at
Oswego, it may be pointed out that the Oswego Canal Company’s
race has a substantial advantage over the Varick race, in that it
extends to the harbor, enabling vessels to come directly along-
side of the mills. Moreover, the division of water rights is such
that a first-class run of water can always be depended on along
the Oswego Canal Company’s race, but can not on Varick canal.!

At Cohoes we have the great power development built up by
the Cohoes Company, which has, by careful management of the
waterpower, built up at this place a fine manufacturing city of
24,000 inhabitants.

The Cohoes Company not only owns all of the hydraulic canals,
but also the land adjoining the canals. It gives to manufac-
turers a perpetual lease of land and water, the entire property
leased remaining subject to a rental of $200 per year per mil]
power. On this basis the land is regarded as donated and the
rental applies only to the waterpower. Formerly, the standard

For additional detail of the water power at Oswego, see Report of Water
Power of the United States, Tenth Census, Vol. I, p. 24-27.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

8 1G
Co
on)

‘“e

for measuring water was 100 square inches, to be measured
. through an aperture in thin plate 50 inches wide, 2 inches deep,
and under a head of 3 feet from the surface of the water to the
center of the aperture; but in 1859 a Series of measurements
were carefully made under the direction of the late James B.
Francis, using an old canal lock asa measuring chamber. These
measurements showed that the old standard corresponded to
about 5.9 cubic feet of water per second. Asa result 6.0 cubic
feet of water per second, under 20 feet head, was taken as a new
standard constituting a mill power. On this basis a mill power
is equivalent to 13.63 gross horsepower, which, at $200 per mill
power per annum, costs $14.67 per gross horsepower per annum.
At 75 per cent efficiency the annual rental for water per net
horsepower becomes $19.57. In regard to just what is paid for
by the annual rental, both at Oswego and Cohoes, it may be
remarked that the foregoing prices are for water in the raceway,
the company maintaining the dams, headworks, and main race-
ways, the lessee taking the water at the face of the raceway and
maintaining his own head gates, flumes, bulkheads, wheels, and
any other appliances necessary for utilizing the water in the
production of power.

The waterpower at Lockport. owned by the Lockport Hy-
draulic Company, is formed by the drop of the surplus water of
the Erie canal through a distance of 58 feet. A run of water at
Lockport does not appear to be very well defined, but the rental
charge ranges from $12.50 to $16.67 per effective horsepower.
So far as known to the writer, just what constitutes an effective
horsepower has not been defined.

At Niagara Falls the rental price of undeveloped hydraulic
power has been fixed at from $8 to $10 per gross horsepower per
annum, the party renting the power taking the water at the face
of the head race and making its own connection with the dis-
charge tunnel. Electric power by a two-phase alternating cur-
rent as it comes from the generator is sold in blocks of 2000 or
3000 horsepower, at $20 per net horsepower per annum, the pur-
chasers furnishing transformers, motors and all other electric
appliances. In small blocks the price has been fixed somewhat
higher.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 837

A small amount of power has also been sold at different times
at Rochester, but since the power at this place is nearly all held
by manufacturers who use it at first hand, nothing like a uniform
price has been made at Rochester. Generally, power rented has
been in small quantities and in connection with floor space, the
rental price being really for floor space with small power fur-
nished. Reckoning on this basis, small powers have frequently
been rented at Rochester at as high a price as $100 per horse-
power per year, this being for power on the shaft, all expenses
of maintaining wheels, transmission shafts, etc., being borne by
the owner.

The electric companies at Rochester furnish electric power in
small blocks at 3 cents per electric horsepower per hour, which,
on the basis of ten hours a day and three hundred and ten days
a year, becomes $93 per electric horsepower per annum.

FUTURE USE OF WATERPOWER IN NEW YORK

In the foregoing pages we have seen that the Erie canal was a
development from the necessities of commerce, not only for the
State of New York, but, as a means of connecting the Atlantic
ocean with the waters of the Great Lakes, for accelerating the
industrial development of the northwestern States. However,
in the nineteenth century events move rapidly, and what was true
of the Erie canal thirty to fifty years ago is not necessarily true
today. Railway systems have now developed to such complete-
ness as to compete successfully with water transportation by a
channel of the size of the Erie canal.

During the period covered by the rise and decline of the Erie
-canal as the important factor in through transportation between
the east and a large portion of the west the economic conditions
of the interior portion of New York have entirely changed. Cheap
transportation, by way of the Erie canal and the Great Lakes,
has led to a phenomenal development of agriculture on the broad
plains of Minnesota and the Dakotas, where, by the use of mod-
ern agricultural machinery, grain can be raised at a profit at such
prices as to drive the New York grain grower from the market.
The cheap transportation afforded by the Erie canal has, there-
fore, to a considerable degree, led to the passing of supremacy

.

S38 i ae
» NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

from the hands of the eastern farmer, a loss which can only be
' regained by the development to the fullest extent of the manufac-
turing industries of New York, thus making a home market for
farm products that can not be transported a long distance, such
as garden truck and small fruits. The people of the State of New
York can purchase the western breadstuffs as cheaply as they
can be produced at home, and this condition is likely to continue
indefinitely.

The long supremacy of the navigation interests has led to the
incorporation in the law, jurisprudence, and public policy of this
State of certain rules of action as to the right to use the water
of inland streams, which have tended to discourage the full devel-
opment of manufacturing interests which now appears desirable,
although the writer views with satisfaction the rapid change of
public sentiment now taking place on these questions. That
manufacturing industries by waterpower are rapidly increasing
in the State is made sufficiently clear by the following statistics:

According to the United States censuses of 1870 and 1880 the
total developed waterpower of the State of New York was, in
1870, 208,256 horsepower; in 1880, 219,348. horsepower; increase
in the ten years, 11,092 horsepower. The increase in ten years of
11,092 horsepower is equivalent to an increase of 5.4 per cent.
The United States census of 1890 did not include any statistics of
waterpower, and it is impossible therefore to state definitely the
horsepower in that year; according to the returns of the Twelfth
Census (1900) there was over 368,000 horsepower in the State
of New York. The manufacture of mechanical wood pulp alone
consumes nearly 125,000 gross horsepower. These figures, while
very suggestive as to the future, are nevertheless rendered more
pertinent by considering that with full development of the water-
storage possibilities of the State, as well as the possibilities of
power development on the Niagara and St Lawrence rivers, we
may hope ultimately to reach a waterpower development in
New York something like the following:

Gross horse

power
Streams tributary to Lake Erie. ns. 6.620. ae decks = 3,000
Niagara river (in New York State).......+.......... 350,000
Genesee river and tributaries. 22. 6. sa. ole escent sees 65,000

1See statements on p. 570.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 839

Gross horse-
power

Oswego river and tributaries.............---ee+ee eee 40,000
Ree ETVEr, ANG LEIDOUITICS 2.0 cok ec ieee Soccer ees 120,000
Other tributaries of Lake Ontario...................- 10,000
Le i (ey DS Aas aS ea eee 400,000

Oswegatchie, Grasse, Raquette, St Regis, Salmon,
Chateaugay, and other streams tributary to the

Pee werte fre 6 Ph). to. PLO. Sshs Quel. Sok Oe 150,000
Saranac, Ausable, Lake George outlet, and other
streams tributary to Lake Champlain.............. 40) ,000
Hudson river and tributaries, not including Mohawk
Oe Peceek ee fare oes esti oid gm bi 01s)5)0% 9 b= © op al site a Ble o> 210,000
Mohawk river and tributarieS...............2.s-e00% 60,060
Streams tributary to Allegheny river................ 5,000
Streams tributary to Susquehanna river............. 25,000
Streams tributary to Delaware river................- 30,000
ater newer ey Tirie: Canal i555. skis ie oe ele oe ewe ee sc 10,000
Mh ial ad Cal alle secaye wim. fa np i* 1,518,000

OBSTRUCTIVE EFFECT OF FRAZIL OR ANCHOR ICE

A very serious difficulty in operating waterpowers on many of
the more rapid streams of this State is that caused by the forma-
tion and agglomeration of frazil and anchor ice, and probably
there is no subject in connection with waterpower development
which presents so many difficulties as this. So far as can be
learned, nothing has been done in the State in the way of studying
these phenomena, although the waterpowers on many New York
streams are reported as subject to interruption nearly every year
on account of the formation of frazil and anchor ice. The way
to find a remedy is first to ascertain all that can be learned in
regard to the difficulty to be overcome. From this point of view
it is deemed proper to include herein a short account of studies
of frazil and anchor ice made in the neighboring Dominion of
Canada.

Under the direction of John Kennedy, Chief Engineer of the
Harbor Commissioners’ works at Montreal, very extensive studies
of the formation of frazil and anchor ice have been made. The

840 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

terms “ frazil” and “anchor ice” have been used Synonymously,
and are apparently often understood as the French and English
words for the same thing, but the following from the report of
the Montreal Flood Commission of 1890 will serve to define the
difference. According to this report, frazil is formed over the
whole unfrozen surface wherever there is sufficient current or
wind agitation to prevent the formation of border ice; whereas
the term anchor ice includes only such ice as is found attached
to the bottom. Frazil is frequently misused by being made to
include ice formed on the bottom, as well as throughout the mass
and on the surface of a river, although properly it should be only
applied to floating ice. The common theory has been that anchor
ice first forms on the bottom, subsequently rising. The Montreal
studies, however, show that this is hardly true. At times the
whole mass of water from surface to bottom is filled with fine
needles which actually form throughout the water mass itself.
As to the remedy, the studies are hardly complete enough to
indicate the best course to pursue. As practical hints, it may be
stated that in locating dams on streams specially subject to this
difficulty they should be placed with reference to as long a
stretch of backwater and as great depth as possible, all the
studies thus far made tending to show that the formation is most
extensive in shallow, rapid-flowing water. Usually, trouble from
frazil and anchor ice extends through a period of a day or two;
and at very important plants, where even a short interruption
would be a serious matter, arrangements may be made for using
steam at the headworks for keeping the racks open. This plan
has been successfully pursued at the waterworks intakes of several
of the Great Lake cities. In the case of power plants, where much
larger quantities of water are required and the stream flows with
greater velocity, the amount of steam required may be very large."

1Wor literature of frazil and anchor ice see (1) Report of the Montreal
Flood Commissioners of 1886; (2) Reports of the Harbor Commissioners of
Montreal for the years 1885, 1887, and 1895; (8) Paper on Frazil Ice and
Its Nature, and the Prevention of Its Actions in Causing Floods, by George
H. Henshaw, Trans. Can. Soc. C. E. Vol. I, Part I, p. 1-23; and (4) Paper
on the Formation and Agglomeration of Frazil and Anchor Ice, by Howard
T. Barnes, in Canadian Engineer, Vol. V (May, 1897).

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S41

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN WESTERN NEW YORK?

In 1894, in a paper read before the Buffalo Academy of Medi-
cine on The Application of Intermittent Filtration to Domestic
Filters, the writer stated that a number of years before he had
had oceasion to examine somewhat in detail every possible source
from which either a temporary or permanent supply of potable
water could be drawn for the city of Rochester. In the course
of the study something like eighteen distinct sources were ex-
amined, with the result of showing that, taking into account every-
thing, the choice was really narrowed to Hemlock lake, the source
formerly selected, but which, while admittedly of unexceptionable
quality, was still, in the opinion of many citizens, hardly avail-
able as an additional supply by reason of the great distance
(thirty miles) which the water must be transported.

The result of a fairly exhaustive examination was to show,
however, that taking into account quality as well as cost of ob-
taining a given quantity, it followed that Hemlock lake, even
though thirty miles distant, was by far the preferable source of
supply for the city of Rochester. %

Western New York, looked at casually, would be considered a
well-watered region, and since making the examination in ques-
tion it has always seemed an exceedingly interesting fact that
the repeated selection of Hemlock lake as a natural source of a
potable water supply for the city of Rochester, by all the engi-
neers who have examined the matter in detail since about 1860,
when it was first proposed, down to the present, should show
clearly that potable water of high quality and in large quantity
is in reality rather a scarce commodity in western New York.

Since that time employment upon water supplies in different
parts of western New York has still further shown how exceed-
ingly scarce potable water is in this part of the State. Pure
water is a-scarce commodity here, and the study must be very
broad in order to select the most available and least expensive
Supply of proper quality for a town.

*Partly condensed from Report of Executive Board of Rochester for 1890.

842 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

On account of similarity of conditions the facts gained in the
Rochester study are of general interest to the towns of western
New York, and accordingly a brief account of the studies made
in 1890 is herewith given.

Domestic Water Supply of Rochester

The object of the investigation was to determine the cheapest
source from which a proper temporary supply of water for the
city of Rochester could be obtained. A number of sources within
short distances were examined, but it was found that in every
instance where the quality was satisfactory the quantity was not.
On the other hand, where the requisite quantity was available,
the contamination was such as to necessitate filtration. The
deficiency in the supply was estimated at 1,500,000 gallons per
day, and since Rochester was growing rapidly, the shortage was
likely to amount to 2,000,000 gallons per day before a new con-
duit could be constructed. We will first refer to Hemlock lake,
the main source of supply for Rochester.

Hemlock lake. In 1872 Hemlock lake was decided upon as the
water supply of the city of Rochester. This lake lies at an ele-
vation of 886 feet above the Erie canal aqueduct at Rochester,
and a gravity conduit was therefore constructed capable of carry-
ing 7,000,000 gallons per day, although in 1876, immediately after
its completion, this conduit was reported as carrying 9,300,000
gallons per day. No systematic tests had been made until 1890,
when it was found to be carrying only 6,700,000 gallons per day.
In the meantime, the city had developed from a population of
89,000 in 1880 to 134,000 in 1890, and the natural increase in the
use of water had exhausted the available supply. At least two
years was required to construct a new conduit and accordingly
it became necessary that a temporary supply of some sort be pro-
vided to tide over the emergency. The investigation considered
every possible source from which a supply could be obtained.
Mount Hope reservoir is about two miles south of the center of
the city and Rush reservoir ten miles south. Just south of Mount
Hope reservoir there is a deep, broad valley several miles wide,
while south of Rush reservoir is the valley of Honeoye creek.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 843

Table No. 97 comprises the averages of the regular weekly sani-
tary analyses, as made for the Health Department of Rochester by
Fred R. Hilinger:

TABLE No. 97.—ANALYSES OF HEMLOCK LAKE WATER FOR 1902
(Parts per 100,000)

|

ae 8 B | 3 g 8 g
ae oe al ge 3 | g e = :
on 2a Se = | & ° ~ =
aes Soa | 2S ale isa gal Sa | oA
Month =x | OF 5 # | ge ae | a HN oe
Sage tee} 2 + 3 Bf | & | &
S29 oe 3. es. doch aaes 5 2 g
a | |
Scum] Kea tele! One ea Gale = = a
H = > en me ee 'S) Zz
Pas
(1) (2) (3) | #4 (9) (6) (7) (8) | (9)
A 9 gee 9.875} 6.375) 3.500) 0.0010} 0.0092) 0.2200) Trace} None
February ......... 9.500| 5.875) 3.625} 0.0010) 0.0081) 0.2200; « c
Warne). 9.500} 6.000 3.500) 0.0010] 0.0087 0.2175) « «
Weel pict) tees. f: 9.125) 5.750) 3.375! 0.0010] 0.0087] 0.2200, « cs
i aa | 9.125) 6.000, 3.125] 0.0010] 0.0091) 0.2225] « cs
Same ae ues ok. | 9.875] 5.875, 4.000] 0.0010) 0.0091, 0.2275] <
July ..............) 10.666) 6.666, 4.000] 0.0010} 0.0091, 0.2200) «
CS Se ae 10,125, 6.437| 3.687] 0.0011) 0.0090, 0.2200, « ce
September ........ 9.750 6.250, 8.500} 0.0010] 0.0090! 0.2150) « “
oo _ 9.125) 5.875) 8.750) 0.0011] 0.0086) 0.2150, - ce
November.........| 9.125, 6.125) 8.000) 0.0010] 0.0086) 0.2175, « «
December ........ 9.250) 5.875) 3.375) 0.0020] 0.0088, 0.2175! brads

i t | ; cc
0 ead ad eg Ro eae lee De ewe
Average ....1902) 9.586) 6.050 |
ae os 0.0089) 0.0221) «

Hardness is not ordinarily determined because it does not vary
much, being nearly constant from year to year. The following by
Mr EHilinger shows the small variation:

Total hardness, parts per 100,000

ESE 3 Bn SS SP Se ee ee ee ee 6.70
et IR hs Soar thes 3 Fetaiepn casi dy <1e70 a + sei ais’ ears 0 60's 6.70
CO aL FS | i ee ee Os ARTS ST nC SE PED 6.20
NT IE ae Gi WR ci! in ws lun arm cece nea eos acts eae wrens 6.80
NEB ca ahs Dia a wb ole Sacie me's ee cas oes acae oe 6.20
ccna ianeniy 2k sion nin sie & Ss 48 as AS 6.80
Se a ho i tea Dicgins Zine W'RGe eis = © aqeis «He 7.30
NR ee IB ow can in gn en) 4, 4 Wigs E Sonim op aiS o> she, - 6.80

Am eee Ue Seo neh al Wiaglivu, Swigyland lo. dureles's 6.70

844 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The following shows the more important results of the weekly
biological examinations of Hemlock lake water which have taken
place from 1896-1902, inclusive. These determinations have been
made by Prof. Charles Wright Dodge, of the University of Roch-
ester, using for the plant and animal organisms, exclusive of bac-
teria, amount of amorphous matter, average number of moulds,
etc. the Sedgwick-Rafter method. The determinations of bac-
teria have been made by standard bacteriological methods.

| 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902

|

— |

() |®!}®@®)o®|]o)]@] a | ®

ee SS

Average number of plant and animal! | |
organisms (exclusive of bacteria) per|

cubic centimeter of unfiltered water, | |
i. €., water as it comes from the tap...) 135.95 | 83.26 | 62.82 | 74.94 | 56.88 | 88.07 | 141.69
Average amount of amorphous matter, |
i. é.,1ron rust from the pipes, earthy)
matter, etc., in standard units per} | ‘|
cubic centimeter of unfiltered water..| 74.41 | 48.84 | 43.0 | 41.37 | 37.71 | 38.59 | 41.87
Average number of bacteria per cubic

centimeter of unfiltered water........ | 334.0 | 101.0} 94.0 | 51.0 | 52.2 | 103.75_| 102-70
Average number of moulds per cubic

centimeter of unfiltered water........ 625) 1 510.64 14-45) W854 8.9 16.0 | 16.45
Average number of genera of organisms

per examinations, .<. .cs0ngemurne eps aes li pe 8.2 6.6 7.5 5.6/ 6.1 5.14

{

The following eighteen sources were considered: Gates bored
well; driven or bored wells in the bottom lands south of Mount
Hope reservoir; Irondequoit creek and its tributaries; Red creek ;
Little Black creek; springs and well at Coldwater; Snow
springs; Hubbard springs; Black creek; Oatka creek; Caledonia
springs; Mendon ponds; pond near Bushnell Basin; Ironde-
quoit bay; Lake Ontario; Erie canal; Honeoye creek at East
Rush, and Genesee river. The following is a brief description
of these several sources as mostly taken from the reports of the
Executive Board of Rochester.

The Gates well. This well is situated about one mile west of
the Rochester city line. The surface of the ground at the well is
27.5 feet above the Erie canal aqueduct, or 96.5 feet below the nor-
mal water surface in Mount Hope reservoir. <A test of the quantity
of water to be obtained from this well was made by the writer in
the latter part of May, 1890, and a full report of the results of

*This method of biological analysis is described in The Microscopical
Examination of Potable Water, by Geo. W. Rafter. See also The Microscopy
of Drinking Water, by Geo. C. Whipple.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 845

such test, together with analyses of the water, was submitted to
the Executive Board on June 1, 1890. From a sanitary point of
view the water was considered good, although having a hardness
of 21° and containing a slight amount of sulphureted hydrogen.
The well was drilled about forty years ago for testing the exist-
ence of oil in the locality, but on obtaining a large flow of water
it was partially plugged up and abandoned, and only a small
quantity of water had been allowed to escape from it for the
whole time prior to May, 1890. Soundings indicated that the
6.5-inch casing extended twenty feet below the surface of the
ground, at which depth limestone rock was encountered, and at
a depth of fifty-five feet stones or other obstructions were found.
The actual depth of the boring is not definitely known, but ac-
cording to the memory of persons interested in the venture, it
was continued to a depth of from 140 to 160 feet. |
From the 25th to the 31st of May, 1890, 6,630,000 gallons were
pumped from the well at an average rate of about 947,140 gal-
lons in 24 hours, while the natural flow from the unplugged hole
before beginning the pumping was about 300,000, gallons in the
same length of time. After the pumping test was ended the
natural flow continued as before. These results gave promise
of obtaining a sufficiently large supply for temporary purposes
at a comparatively small cost, specially if another well of equal
capacity could be drilled in the same locality. With this object
in view the well was leased for three years, and a pumping en-
gine of a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons per day was purchased.
Some doubt, however, was entertained with respect to the perma-
nency of the flow from the well, chiefly because the month of May
was very wet, 6 inches of rainfall having fallen in that month at
Rochester. On the contrary, June, July and August, 1890, were
very dry, only 6.59 inches falling in the three months. Accord-
ingly, before the arrival of the new engine, a second and longer
test was made. :
This second test was commenced August 18, 1890, and continued
with few intermissions until September 10, 1890. At the begin-
ning it was found that the natural flow had greatly diminished,
and that only a small quantity of water ran over. After pump-
ing for one week at the average rate of 818,750 gallons in 24 hours,

846 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the machinery was stopped, whereupon the water fell to a level
of 6 feet below the top of the casing, and rose only 1.6 feet during
the following seventeen hours, at the end of which time pumping
was resumed. From August 26 to August 29 an average of
714,780 gallons per 24 hours was pumped, with the result of re-
ducing the water in the well to a level of 8.8 feet below the top
of the casing. During the interval between 2.52 p. m. of August
29 and 3.30 p. m. of September 2, the water-level gradually rose
to a point 0.46 foot below the top of said casing. At the last
named time the pump was again started and continued in full
operation until 7 p. m. of September 10, discharging on the aver-
age 653,000 gallons per 24 hours, and finally lowering the water
level to 9.58 feet below the top of the casing.

The result of the foregoing test was discouraging; and as the
geologic characteristics of the region were unfavorable to the
presumption that a sufficiently large and permanent supply of
good water could be obtained from the underlying strata, even
though a number of other experimental wells were sunk in the
vicinity, and also because the owner of the premises refused to
permit another well to be drilled on his land without much addi-
tional compensation, it was deemed more prudent to examine
other available sources before incurring the further large expense
- involved by the construction of the proposed pumping station
and force main to the city.

The following are the analyses of water from this well, as made
by Prof. S. A. Lattimore. (1) was taken on May 9, 1890, before
beginning any test; (2) was taken on May 27, 1890, after three
days continuous pumping, and (3) was taken on May 31, 1890,
after seven days continuous pumping.

(Parts per 100,000)

(1) (2) (3)
PO BOLLOG, 2. «4.4 pc a ta A ies 35.00 35.50 35.50
Pee ON. ACTILION . pv we eek ae 10.50 10.50 10.50
MRE, VERUIUC oo 5 chk wchosd bP Bee Baste 24.50 25.00 25.00
Somme chloride. ..):25s%4:000) Oh. trace trace trace

Pe, JTC, » «> p90 aie ean ans none none none

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 847

(1) (2) (3)

Ammonia, albuminoid............ none none none
1 aol as eee AM a none none none
WMATA ee elo Gt pr alu jail ofe 6 Fa aawye 6 none none none

Metical oe Bab ars est 21.00 21.00

The preceding analyses show that the quality of the water is,
from a Sanitary point of view, quite beyond reproach. Chemical,
microscopical and bacteriological examinations have been made
and all point to the same conclusion—that this water is safe for
domestic use, although its hardness is higher than that of the Hem-
lock lake water and it contains a small amount of sulphureted
hydrogen, but too small to be detected when the samples arrived
at the laboratory.

Wells in low district south of Mount Hope reservoir. An exami-
nation of the shallow wells in the valley to the south of the Mount
Hope range of hills showed that the water was not only very
hard, but in many. cases also tainted with sulphur. None of these
wells has ever overflowed, nor has their yielding capacity been
tested by pumping. From the geologic and topographic char-
acteristics of the valley there was no hope that the required
quantity of suitable water from a series of driven or bored wells
therein could be secured.

As a matter of interest it may be mentioned that after the
eighteen sources had been thoroughly investigated, a private
company known as the Rochester Water Supply Company under-
took to furnish an additional supply of 2,000,000 gallons per day
from the wells situated in this low district southof the Mount Hope
reservoir. They put down a considerable number of driven wells,
but were unable to pump more than about 500,000 gallons per
day. Efforts were made to increase this quantity by boring more
wells and providing pumps of larger capacity, but without avail—
the subterranean supply was found to be limited to the amount
aamed. The prediction, therefore, in the original report that
there was no hope for a water supply from this point was abun-
dantly verified.

Irondequoit creek. This source may be reached at its nearest
point to Mount Hope reservoir in a distance of five miles. The

848 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

point in question is near the mouth of the tributary, Allen’s
creek, and the catchment area above the same is large enough to
justify the assumption of a minimum flow of 2,000,000 gallons per
day. The lift to Mount Hope reservoir, including friction head
in a 16-inch force main, would be at least 300 feet. Filtration of
the water would be required, and the total cost of the works on
this plan may be placed at $100,000.

Allen’s creek was the only available tributary to Irondequoit
creek, and may be reached at a distance of two miles from Mount
Hope reservoir. At this point, however, the minimum flow was
probably much less than the desired quantity, so that storage
works would have become necessary. The water was, moreover,
liable to contamination from the sewage of the county buildings.

Red creek. This stream rises in the southeastern part of Hen-
rietta, and after flowing northwesterly, enters Genesee river a
little over one and one-half miles southerly from Mount Hope
reservoir. Its catchment area was too small to insure the re-
quired daily volume in periods of drought, and its waters were
often highly discolored’ by swamp drainage—in consequence of
which it is named Red creek.

little Black creek. This stream rises near the middle of the
town of Ogden, and after a short southerly course flows through
the southern parts of Ogden and Gates to Coldwater station and
thence to Genesee river. Its mouth is about three and one-half
miles southwest from Mount Hope reservoir, and the water in
the river is here about 127 feet below said reservoir. All of the -
springs in the vicinity of Coldwater, as well as Snow springs
farther west, discharge into this creek after flowing through ex-
tensive swamps. Casual examination of the stream near Cold-
water showed not only that the water could not safely be used
for drinking purposes without filtration, but also that its flow
was not more than 1,500,000 or 2,000,000 gallons per day. Under
these circumstances this source could not be recommended, as it
was certain that the flow would diminish greatly during a dry
season.

Wells at Coldwater. It was rumored that a large supply of
excellent water could easily be obtained from wells at Coldwater,

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 849

and that the New York Central & Hudson River Railway Com-
pany was pumping regularly about 300,000 gallons per day from
a single deep well at this point. In order to obtain authentic
information, application was made to the railroad officials, from
whom it was learned that said well was adjacent to the creek and
had a depth of not more than ten feet; also that the bottom of
the well did not reach the rocky strata below, and that the entire
pumpage did not exceed 100,000 gallons per day; and during the
summer months they had difficulty in obtaining a sufficient supply
for their engines, and that their well affected another well in the
vicinity, which would indicate that the supply was limited. It
was also stated that both the railroad officials and several brew-
ing companies in Rochester had made a thorough study of the
availability of this point as a source for obtaining a large supply
of water, and the adverse reports of a number of experts led to
the abandonment of the enterprise. It was obvious, therefore,
that little confidence could be placed in well or springs in this
locality for municipal purposes.

This view is likewise shared by an experienced well-driller who
has sunk more than one hundred deep wells in the vicinity of
Rochester, and who asserts that the yield of the Gates well is
without precedent in this county. No guarantee can be given
that a sufficient quantity of water will be found at any depth,
or from any number of wells within such distance of each other
as would admit of their being coupled together and controlled
by a single pumping engine. It may be remarked that Coldwater
is about 25 feet above the level of the Erie canal aqueduct in
Rochester and about six miles west of the City Hall.

The Snow springs. These springs are situated on the farm of
John Snow, on both sides of the Buffalo road, and about seven
miles west of the center of the city of Rochester. The surface
of the ground in the locality is stated at 60 feet above the level
of the canal aqueduct. It was thought that by properly developing
all of these springs a combined flow of from 100,000 to 200,000
gallons per day could be obtained during the dry season. The
water was said to be of excellent quality and entirely free from
sulphur, but the quantity available was altogether too small to

850 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

justify the expense of its collection and delivery separately to the
city. The following are analyses of the water from Snow springs
as made by Professor Lattimore:

(Parts per 100,000)

(1) (2)
Rotal solids. :3'72..°¢ a Fie ee ee ee 26.5 26.0
LOSS. on. 3emTbiOn-5 CS 2 eee eee 10.0 10.0
Bixed, residue: .s.2-.0' 5. 28 ch. Bee eae eee 16.5 16.0
Bodiam: chleride. ©, .50 0. Pen” 2 oo Oe ae ee trace trace
Atamonta, free... whois alee cee CE eee none none
Ammonis, albuminoid 3... oe eee none none
Neiratese ii i: AES S J Sr Se, BOC a none none
Nitrites 1025 ae ee oe eee none none
Hardness (o, -+4 kee oie ee ee 18.0 17.5

The Hubbard springs. These springs are also situated on both
sides of the Buffalo road in the village of North Chili, about 9.5
miles distant from the center of Rochester. On July 8, 1890, their
combined discharge was about 375,000 gallons per day, as de
termined by weir measurement. A portion of this flow, however,
came from a spring which was slightly tainted with sulphur, be-
ing similar in this respect to the water of Gates well. Whether
the flow could be materially and permanently increased by exca-
vating, boring or pumping operations, could not be foretold, but
it was considered improbable that it could be increased sufficiently
to yield 1,500,000 gallons per day. The elevation of these springs
is estimated at about 61 feet above the canal aqueduct, or about
the same level as Snow springs, two and one half miles east. The
discharge is into Black creek.

It was suggested that the flow from the Hubbard and Snow
springs should be united in a single conduit which would convey
the water by gravity to a pumping station located at or near
Coldwater, whence it would be forced into the city mains. The
two series of springs are on different catchment areas, and it was
probable that the expense of cutting through the intervening
ridge would have been too great to render such a project feasible,
even if there was a possibility of securing the requisite quantity.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 851

Black creek. This stream flows into the Genesee river on the
west side at a point about four miles southwest of the Mount Hope
reservoir. Its catchment area is so large that there could be no
question as to the sufficiency of the stream to furnish the desired
amount of water. The quality of the water is, however, very ob-
jectionable, since it contains 75.4 grains of solid matter per gal-
lon. The stream also flows through extensive swampy districts
so that filtering would be indispensable in order to fit the water
for domestic use. The cost of the necessary filtering and pumping
plant, with force-main to the reservoir, would amount to at least
$80,000.

Oatka creek. The confluence of this stream with the Genesee
river is about one mile east of Scottsville and a little more than
nine miles in a direct line southwest of the Mount Hope reservoir.
At Scottsville the entire dry weather flow is diverted into the old
Genesee valley canal, through which it flows to the southern por-
tion of Rochester, where it is carried in a pipe under the river into
the Erie canal feeder. During the season of navigation on Erie
canal the State has the first claim upon the water, and it was con-
sidered doubtful whether permission to use any portion thereof
couid be obtained. Assuming, however, that such consent was ob-
tained, it would not be advisable to use the water for drinking pur-
poses without filtration, as the creek receives considerable sewage
from the villages of Warsaw and Leroy, besides the waste water of
the salt works in the Wyoming valley and the surface drainage
from Scottsville and a number of other small villages.

The suggestion was also made to obtain the needed temporary
supply from the old Genesee valley canal within the city limits,
it being taken for granted that permission to do so could be se
cured from the canal authorities. If this had been carried out,
the same objection to the use of the water without filtration would
likewise be valid, and might even become stronger when it is re-
_ membered that in many places between Scottsville and Rochester
the old canal prism contains dense growths of aquatic vegeta-
tion, the emanations from which have been the cause of much
complaint from persons residing in the vicinity. This vegetation,
furthermore, greatly retards the flow of the water; hence, if an
adequate supply for both the Erie canal and the city were to be

852 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

furnished by the old canal, the channel would have to be thoroughly
cleared out for a distance of several miles and maintained in this
condition. The cost of such an undertaking, in addition to the
necessary expense of filtering the water, rendered this source
undesirable.

Caledonia springs. These springs are nineteen miles southwest
of Rochester and have a flow of from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons
per day. A considerable length of the outlet is now used by the
State Fish Commissioners for hatching purposes, so that if the
water had been taken by the city, the intake would doubtless
have had to be located below the hatching station. Such a loca-
tion would have been undesirable unless the water were filtered.
In regard to elevation, Mr Marsh stated that this water could be
conveyed to the city in pipes, but, on account of the distance, not
at a hight sufficient for distribution by gravity. A pumping sta-
tion would therefore have been required in this case also and the
expense of constructing the works was estimated at more than
$200,000, exclusive of the filters. The permanent hardness of the
Caledonia springs is stated at about 70 parts per 100,000. Their
source is in the horizon of the gypsum.

Mendon ponds. These four ponds are situated in the north-
western part of Mendon, and are the sources of the main branch
_ of Irondequoit creek. The one which was considered best adapted
as a source for a temporary supply for Rochester is called Deep
pond, and is about three and one half miles east of the Rush reser-
voir and seven miles south of the Mount Hope reservoir, both dis-
tances being measured in direct lines. Its surface is from 100 feet
to 110 feet below the level of the former reservoir,as determined by
a barometric observation. The outflow is about 500,000 gallons
per day. Under these circumstances they could not be regarded
as available for the needs of the city of Rochester.

Pond near Bushnell Basin. This pond is located in the south-
western part of Perinton, and is somewhat more than eight miles
southeast of the Mount Hope reservoir in a direct line, while its ©
surface is about 208 feet below the level of said reservoir. Consid-
ered by itself, the pond could not be regarded as capable of fur-
nishing a daily supply of 2,000,000 gallons for a long period, since
it has a very small catchment area, no visible outlet, and does

g

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 853

not appear to be fed copiously by springs. It was proposed by a
private corporation in Rochester to supply this pond from Iron-
dequoit creek and certain springs in the vicinity, thus treating it
as a storage basin from which a large quantity of water could be
pumped daily into the Mount Hope reservoir. It was, however, cer-
tain that the expense of obtaining a temporary supply from this
source would be large, a preliminary estimate of the cost of
works capable of delivering 2,000,000 gallons per day, being about
$180,000. This plan was therefore not adopted.

Trondequoit bay. This body of water is 390 feet below the Mount
Hope reservoir and the distance from said reservoir to the nearest
point where an intake could be located in deep water, free from
extensive growths of flags, etc. is about 6.25 miles. The unsani-
tary condition of the water, resulting from the presence of a vast
quantity of aquatic vegetation as well as the discharge of sewage
from populous districts on the east side of the city, rendered this
source undesirable.

Lake Ontario. By constructing a pumping station on the lake
shore at a point about one mile west of the mouth of the Genesee
river and a force main about eight miles long, water from Lake
Ontario could have been temporarily delivered into the 16-inch
distribution main at the intersection of Jay and Child streets,
and thence throughout the northwestern portion of Rochester.
The water would of course have had to be delivered at a pressure
somewhat greater than that which is due to the elevation of the
Mount Hope reservoir, so that the total lift, including friction,
would have amounted to about 440 feet, the lake being 390 feet
below said reservoir. Owing to the prevalence of westerly winds
the intake would necessarily have been west of the river in order
to avoid pumping the polluted water of the latter. During an
easterly wind the operation of the pumps would be suspended
and the whole supply taken from the reservoirs, since the influ-
ence of the river, under such conditions, has been traced as far
west as Manitou Beach, about eight miles from the mouth of the
river. The proposed nearest site for the intake of a temporary
supply was therefore entirely unsuitable for permanent use, and
would have to have been abandoned after a permanent additional
supply had been obtained from some other locality. The cost of

~~

854 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the temporary works for a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons per day
was estimated at $150,000, which is somewhat less than the esti-
mate made for the Bushnell’s basin project. For delivering an
average of 2,000,000 gallons per day, the operating expenses
would have amounted to $18,000 per year.

The following analyses of Lake Ontario water were made in
1902-03. (1) was taken about one and one-half miles out from
Manitou Beach and the analysis made by Fred R. Hilinger;
(2) was taken a few feet below the surface of water, about one
mile west of the mouth of the Genesee river and about 2000 feet
out; (8) was taken at the mouth of the Genesee river, 2000 feet
out from the end of the pier. The chemist making the two latter
analyses is unknown—they were furnished by the courtesy of J.W.
Ledoux, of the Lake Ontario Water Company.

(Parts per 100,000)

(1) (2) (3)
Total solid residue dried at 100° C. 12.93 14.15 15.10
Fixed residue at low red heat..... 85a 2) . ys tate ry ocean
Volatile at low red heat.......... r | | rr ee eS.
Sodje -chloride: ose ey. oe bere 0.74 1.32 1.57
Ammonia, p32, Ree eT eal atta OL none none
Ammonia, albuminoid........... 0.008 trace 0.006
NGPA TCS, os «5m pie oeeeetine aine eee none trace trace
DISCO 1. 0». sp inca loige, Aapuanait ambhe amen none none none
Temporary hardness............- 949 oa a
Permanent hardness. .i. ...s< 0+. i beer
Total Rardness ... »\i5ae-eeiiemie Makiee LO... Gh...» 5) sun ee ee
Pulphate of, lime. .«.s:..tsneaonk sant hae 2.16 2.41
Carbonate of, lime: i250 siensens neers 6.21 6.30
Carbonate of magnesia... 0! .tehe lm csi 2.58 2.32

The Erie canal. It was also suggested that a temporary sup-
ply be taken from the Erie canal at either the eastern or the
western wide waters. The possibility of a failure of the canal
banks and the fact that the water is entirely withdrawn from
the prism every winter or spring for some weeks for the purpose
of making repairs interfered greatly with the usefulness of this

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 855

source; and the further fact that the water is badly polluted
with sewage from Buffalo, Lockport and a number of villages
along the route to Rochester made it unfit for domestic use
without filtration. It was also doubtful whether the canal
authorities would permit any such abstraction of the water, but
if the necessary consent were obtained the water could have been
filtered and pumped directly into the large distributing main at
Smith street at less expense than was entailed by any other
plan for securing a temporary additional supply, which has yet
been mentioned. The risk of failing to get water at times was
considerable, although when this occurred a temporary draught
could have been made upon the storage of the Rush reservoir.

Honeoye creek. Atthe village of East Rush, this creek is about
1.53 miles south of the Rush reservoir and 215 feet below the
level of the same. Water therefrom would require filtration
before being fit for domestic use. The estimated cost of the
necessary works, including $24,000 for the purchase of a filtering
plant, was about $58,000, the water to be delivered into the Rush
reservoir through a 12-inch main with a pumping engine of a
capacity of 2,000,000 gallons per day. The principal objection
to this plan was that the water was not delivered directly into
the Mount Hope reservoir, where it was most needed.

The following are analyses of water of Honeoye creek as made
by Professor Lattimore. (1) was taken from the creek at a point
south of North Bloomfield; (2) just below Honeoye Falls, and
(3) at East Rush:

(Parts per 100,000)

(1) (S922. B)
Meats OTIS aw olka crane ans 13.50 12.50 19.00
Pimedi resid de, 202 oi, cit end ae 8.50 7.00 12.50
Loss ofl ignition ..c 0. een. ea on 5.00 ° 5.50 6.50
Sodium chloride................. 0.31 0.30 0.33
PRTIBNOMRU ESE, ATOR. oe 5.2 ales sse ae 'dusescossiniess 0.002 0.002 0.003
Ammonia, albuminoid............ 0.006 0.006 0.006
SE NERS Ned Sadie od he ew nes gece none none none
WUE I Lem Nw ce Stic cuccecce none none none

LET eh oa I A 8.10 8.60 9.70

856 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Genesee river. In considering the Genesee river as a source for
a temporary supply for Rochester, the intake might be located
either in the vicinity of the south end of the Erie railway bridge
or at Elmwood avenue. The former location is nearer to Mount
Hope reservoir, but the proximity of the oil works and a storm
outlet for a new sewer on the west side makes the Elmwood
avenue site somewhat more desirable. The latter is about 1.63
miles from the reservoir, and the usual low-water surface of the
river is about 128 feet below the same. To render the water fit
for domestic use it would need to be filtered, and in this respect
it stands on practically the same scale as the water of all the
other streams previously mentioned and that of the Erie canal. The
principal advantage of this site was that the pumping station
would become available for supplying water to South Park as
soon as its use for supplementing the flow from Hemlock lake
ceased; also the force main would serve as a future distributing
pipe for the southern districts of the city on both sides of the
river. All of the plant except the filters would thus have had a
permanent value for two city departments. ‘The estimated cost
of the works with a 12-inch force main and including filters was
about $51,000, but if the force main were increased to 16 inches
in diameter, the cost was. estimated at $60,000. With the filter
plant rented for a few years the costs would be about $15,000 less
than the amounts named.

The following is -an analysis of Genesee river water as made
by Professor Lattimore in 1890:

(Parts per 100,000)

Total! Bolids.20 25.1... 2 SAMUEL, co wen, & oto ee 37.50
ised residue@!i. x... ....0.8e.48 canned Once eee eee 23.50
Loss-on ignitionis.i% .09 0 .<a.c «asm we eee he 14.00
Sédium chloride: ....:.48.0..i..¢eeweew Cee suis 4a
Ammonia, free.::..... SU0.G.... eveetevcecpene eee none
Ammonia, albuminoids}(}).0) . oo 1s «sss wee wea eee 0.002
INGIIRCS - ow sae» « «GE a2 oe pale eee oe ee none
URRTIRE ES ae ook. 0 0 0 0 SAUD sce ee ee ee none

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

857

The following series of analyses of Genesee river water was
made by Fred R. Eilinger, of the Rochester Health Department, in

1902.

in cubic feet per second on the date of each analysis:

The first column of table No. 98 gives the flow of the river

TABLE No. 98—ANALYSES OF GENESEE RIVER WATER, TOGETHER WITH THE FLOW,

DATE

Flow of the river
in cubic feet per

ee ee
ee oe
car gn, tee
ete ee ee
es ee eee
=< 26070) «0
ty Se es
ee Sie) ete we
-# ee eese
eee eee
eee eee
a, S5e, sie =e
= @ 0) 6 6 oe
aye efvia « =
a ee
eee eee
eee ewer
sete ene

ae eT

* Not determined.

Total residue

(3

22.

)

00

volatile

Organic and

(4)

|
|

~

(Ju)
SWUSWROSSOSHPKUNYWWWw

Suspended matter

FOR CERTAIN DAYS IN 1902
(Parts per 100,000)

Sodium chloride |

(6)

CO BD Sd HW W CO CD OH 0

hardness

Temporary

Poms
~3
—

hardness

Permanent

—
CO
wm

Total hardness

(9)

A few other temporary sources were proposed, but their dis-

tance rendered them practically out of consideration.

Of the

whole series in which the requisite quantity of water was in

858 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sight, Erie canal was doubtless the most economical, and follow-
ing that, Genesee river. Moreover, both these plans could have
been carried out in a short time. Serious objections to their
adoption, however, were raised, not only on the ground that fil-
tration is inadequate to render the water safe for drinking, but
also that the owners of waterpower on the various races would
prevent any abstraction of water from the Genesee river.

The objection to the use of the river water by the mill owners
rested principally on the ground that their waterpower would
be damaged by the abstraction of the proposed quantity. On
March 20, 1891, a committee of owners of the Johnson and Sey-
mour race, the Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh race, the Hy-
draulic Power Company’s race and the Rochester and Brush
Electric Light Companies, reported that the majority of such
owners would permit the city to take 2,000,000 gallons per day
from the river on the payment of an annual rental of $14,600;
and on the same day the mill owners on Brown’s race resolved
that they would oppose with all reasonable persistency any prop-
osition to draw any further supply from the Genesee river or its
tributaries.

Lake Erie

In May, 1895, the writer examined Lake Erie somewhat care-
_fully as a source of water supply for the manufacturing town of
Lorain on the south shore, twenty miles west of Cleveland. The
results of that study are given in a paper, Lake Erie as a Source
of Water Supply for the Towns of its Borders, and little addi-
tional reference will be made to the matter in this place, except
to state that there are a considerable number of chemical analyses
given in said paper.

Table No. 99 gives monthly chemical, microscopical and bac-
teriological analyses of Lake Erie water at Buffalo from April,
1902, to March, 1903, inclusive. Only one chemical analysis was
made per month, but there were several determinations of bac-
teria. The chemical analyses are by Prof. Herbert M. Hill, while
the bacteriological determinations are by Dr. Wm. G. Bissell. In
order to fully understand the indications of these latter, one needs
to study them in detail as given in the monthly bulletins of the
Health Department.

859

YORK

NEW

OF

HYDROLOGY

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 861

As further illustrating the quality as well as the quantity of
water obtainable for municipal water supplies in western New
York, the villages of Brockport and Holley have for a number
of years had insufficient supplies from dug wells—the same thing
is true of the village of Albion. The village of Medina is stated
to be supplied from the Erie canal, although some pretence is made
of taking the supply from a well, and the city of Lockport has
never had any supply except from the Erie canal. At all these
places the supply of pure, potable water is scanty and of high
value—the same thing is true generally throughout western New
York. The study at Rochester can be duplicated almost anywhere
in the region from Seneca lake to the western limits of the State.

Quality of Water in the Vicinity of Medina

In order to show some facts in regard to the quality of water
near Medina, the following analyses are herewith included. (1)
is from a disused shallow well, one mile south of Shelby Center;
(2) is from a bored well not far from the preceding, taken after
a few days pumping. These two analyses were made by Prof.
Herbert M. Hill, of Buffalo; (8) is also from a bored well, in the
same locality, and (4) is from the Oak Orchard creek, a mile
south of Shelby Center. The two latter were made by Fred R.
Kilinger, chemist of the Rochester Health Department:

(Parts per 100,000)

ee 2) (A)
Residue after ignition........ a0.50 . 28.82 21.00 36.00
Organic and volatile residue.. 18.86 AT, v1 Z 00. 42.58
Total residue dried at 100°C.. 49.39 33.52 .38.00.. 48.50
PUTIN: eto c0 a 55) a." ane Keele 1.73 0.83 0.90 1.50
mmingmia, 1766... LSE trace 0.00 0.002 0.001
Ammonia, albuminoid ....... 0.0038 0.008 0.006 0.019
mies “Dh TS. . Du gas c fue: trace none none none
Witter 00-40 oc Tui seas ok trace 0.10 0.10 0.04
Temporary hardness ......... 3.50 5.40 18.00 18.00
Permanent hardness ......... 6.35 9.00 4.00 17.00
Petal handness sis 2a 9:85 714.40). 22:00. : 35700

ee

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862 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The well from which (3) was taken is about 1500 feet from
Oak Orchard creek, with the ground surface only a few feet above
the water level in the creek. The elevation of water in Oak
Orchard creek directly opposite is substantially the same as in
the well, and when pumping from the well the water is drawn to
about 5 feet below the level of the water in the creek. Neverthe-
less, analyses (8) and (4) show that the quality of water in the
well is quite different from that in the creek. In the case of the
water from the well, permanent hardness is only 4°, while the
water from the creek shows 17°, although it is difficult to under-
stand, under the conditions, how the source of water in the well
can be other than that from the creek—the more specially since
the underlying rock is open. In regard to the permanent hard-
ness of the creek water, as shown by analysis (4), it is probably
due to Oak Orchard creek flowing over a bed of gypsum near
Oakfield.

Quality of Water in the Vicinity of Batavia

In order to still further illustrate water supplies in western
New York, the following analyses from the vicinity of Batavia,
as made by Mr Wilinger, are of interest; (1) is from Devil’s lake,
a small body of water ten or twelve miles west of Batavia; (2) is
from Mill springs, five miles north of Batavia; (8) is from Ham-
ilton springs, two miles south of Batavia; and (4) is from Horse-
shoe lake, two and one-half miles east of Batavia. Mill springs,
the analysis of which contains the most total hardness, are at the
foot of a ridge from 100 to 150 feet in hight and probably is not
far from the gypsum belt, as the permanent hardness in this water
is difficult to account for on any other basis. Both Hamilton
springs and Horseshoe lake are above that belt, and accordingly
permanent hardness is not very serious in either of them.

(Parts per 100,000)
(1)... - @parinin(@) ciao
Total residue dried at 100°C... 24.00 116.00 31.00 28.00
Fixed residue at low red heat. 11.00 88.00 18.00 16.50

Volatile at low red heat...... 13.00. . 28.00::)13.00 “aikeae
AYamonia; free .. 2)... Pes 0.06 0.003 0.001 0.002
Ammonia, albuminoid ....... 0.044 0.003 0.003 0.002

Chlorine in chlorides......... 0.16 0). 24 0.30 0.80

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK $63

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Equivalent to sodium chloride 0.26 0.40 0.50 1.32

LS I, Sa alae none none none none
reer. ae etn ws ie ss Be none (0.01 0.20 0.20
Temporary hardness ......... . 22.00 17.50 20.00
Permanent hardness ......... * 50.00 2.50 4.50

Total hardness’). 1s... et 4 72.00 20.00 24.50

There are a number of other springs in the vicinity of Batavia,
although none of them has a very large flow. The following is a
list of the various springs, with an estimate as to their probable
minimum yield:

: Gallons

Rea Es ei: Seer ER EES hat bs eee 1,000,000
LS Cie Le. ae OT ae ee 450,000
Ln Sa gg oy FT SRB SA ig Eee Aa ea ee 200,000
OE oS i Me aS CM Pe 500,000
att oe Dasnon springs 5.4.5. Gee. Sse eet + >t 150,000
Bites erases =... . 72.2 is PS Beet ee 200,000
Semen Sprines: | Sos a Oe ee ee ees 100,000
At A cr ee eee ee eS ee oe 100,000
OT rR 7 ie a a 01 i Ra oa ae at Re iam pode 500,000

NRE rE access PO) iy as hate | Sa Ser tla. Werte s 3,300,000

Probably all of these springs may be taken for a safe minimum
yield at 3,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, although this is
an estimate merely, based on experience, no weir measurements
having been made.

At Williamsville, near Buffalo, there is a spring flowing at the
rate of 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 gallons per day, which probably
issues from the horizon of the gypsum. At a number of other
places in western New York springs appear, specially along the
ridge at the foot of which is the gypsum belt, but the waters
issuing are so hard as to render it undesirable to use them. A
marked case of this character is near Akron, where an excavation
developed a flow of 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 gallons per day, but
of which the permanent hardness was equal to one part in a
thousand.

*Not determined.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 865

to $4 per acre. If such lands were effectually drained, so that
- they could be cultivated every year, they would be the most val-
uable in the State, and worth at least $60 per acre. But in order
to make them of this value, even after the drainage is accom-
plished, they must be cleared and put in shape for cultivation,
which will require a large amount of labor in addition to the
drainage. Assuming them to cost, with some of the adjacent low
flatlands, an average of $5 per acre, the net gain would be $55 per
acre, amounting for 380 square miles to $13,370,500. It is difficult
to say what the cost of the drainage would be, although it is
doubtful if it would cost, including fitting them for cultivation,
more than $30 per acre, or for the entire area, the total cost may
possibly be $7,295,000, leaving a net profit on the transaction of
$6,077,500. This expense should be borne partly by the land
owners and partly by the State, the proportion to be fixed on
further consideration. There is no good reason why the State
should not inaugurate an improvement like this.

THE PAPER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK

In view of the fact that the paper industry in this State is
almost entirely dependent upon waterpower for its profitable
operation, the following chapter is included.

According to the Twelfth Census (1900) out of a total capital
invested in the paper industry in the United States of $167,507,-
713, there was invested in the State of New York $37,349,390, or
about 224 per cent of the total capital invested in the whole
country.

The total cost of materials used in this industry in New York
in 1900 was $14,563,222, of which there were 225,327 cords of
domestic spruce used for ground pulp, which cost $1,260,593, or
at the average rate of $5.60 per cord. Domestic spruce for sul-
phite and soda fiber was used to the extent of 138,098 cords,
costing $724,822. Canadian spruce was used for ground pulp to
the extent of 54,923 cords, while for sulphite and soda fiber
there were 86,606 cords of Canadian spruce used.

In addition to the preceding, 51,208 cords of Canadian poplar
wood and other woods were used. The total use of wood, there-
fore, was 556,162 cords.

S66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Rags were used to the extent of 17,899 tons, which cost $420,-
870, or at the rate of $23.51 per ton; 37,244 tons of old waste
paper were used, costing $428,531, and 138,947 tons of Manila
stock, including jute, bagging, rope, waste, thread, etc. which
cost $646,776; 17,644 tons of straw were used. In addition, 93,-
749 tons of ground wood pulp were purchased at a cost of
$1,485,176, or at the rate of $15.81 per ton; 20,447 tons of soda
wood fiber were purchased and 66,769 tons of sulphite wood
fiber. In addition, other chemical fiber was purchased to the
extent of 8,554 tons.

The total value at the point of manufacture of the paper prod-
uct in New York in 1900 was $26,715,628, of which newspaper
amounted to 162,153 tons, valued at $5,405,452, or at the rate of
$33.33 per ton. There were 27,611 tons of bookpaper made,
worth $1,706,565, or at the rate of $61.81 per ton. In addition,
a considerable quantity of lithographic plate paper, cardboard,
bristolboard, fine writing paper, etc. was made.

The number of establishments making paper in New York in
1900 was 179, of which 39 were owned by individuals, 44 by firms
and limited partnerships and 96 by incorporated companies.

In 1890 the total value of the exports of paper from the
United States amounted to $1,226,686, while in 1900 this had in-
creased to $6,215,833. These figures do not include the value
of 82,441 tons of wood pulp.

In order to show relative figures, we will briefly compare New
York with Massachusetts. The total number of paper estab-
lishments in Massachusetts in 1900 was 93, of which 18 were
owned by individuals, 13 by firms and limited partnerships and
67 by incorporated companies. The total capital invested in
Massachusetts was $26,692,922. The total cost of materials
used was $11,918,802, while in New York it was $14,563,222. We
learn, therefore, that in New York the total cost of materials
used was $2,644,420 more than in Massachusetts, and that the
total value of the product in Massachusetts was $22,141,461 as
against $26,715,628 in New York, or the value of the product in
New York was $4,574,167 more than in Massachusetts.

A reason for these differences is found in the fact -that
there are more mills in Massachusetts than in New York which

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK S67

make fine paper. The use of rags, including cotton, flax, waste
and sweepings in that State amounts to 86,715 tons, while in
New York there are only 17,899 tons used. Book papers are
made in Massachusetts to the value of $3,120,867 as against
$1,706,565 in New York. Lithographic papers, cardboard, bris-
tolboard, etc. amounts in Massachusetts to $2,013,920 as against
$200,315 in New York. There is an annual product in Massachu-
setts of fine writing paper of $8,751,566 as against $70,115 in New
York, while other fine papers are valued in Massachusetts at

_ $2,547,072 as against $66,844 in New York.

If Massachusetts had the same area as New York, with the
paper industry proportionately developed over the whole State,
the total capital invested in Massachusetts would amount to,
roundly, $160,000,000. Since paper making is the one great in-
dustry depending upon waterpower, the reason for this may be
again placed very largely in rational State laws and thorough
development of waterpower.

In order to illustrate the foregoing proposition, it may be
mentioned that the total power derived from steam, water and
other kinds of power used in paper making in New York in 1900
was 228,478 horsepower, while in Massachusetts it was 82,893
horsepower. Of this 191.117 horsepower was from water in New
York and 44,935 was from water in Massachusetts, leaving
37,361 horsepower derived from steam and other motive power
in New York and 37,958 horsepower derived from the same
sources in Massachusetts.

The yearly capacity in tons of paper in New York is given at
611,179 and of pulp 495,668. In Massachusetts the yearly capacity

' of the mills is 283,576 tons of paper, and of pulp 31,920 tons.

These figures show the great difference in the quality of the
business in the two States. In New York a large amount of pulp
is ground, whereas in Massachusetts there is only about one-
sixteenth as much. The mills there are producing high-grade
papers, for which steam power is less objectionable than for a
lower grade. It is common to run the paper machines proper
by steam, as steam power is preferable for this purpose, because
of yielding more uniform power, but for making ground pulp

y hese figures are as given in the Census Report, Vol. TX, p. 1035,

»

S68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

waterpower is indispensable. At least 65 horsepower per twenty-
four hours is required to produce a ton of mechanical pulp.

In 1900 New York ranked first not only in the number of
establishments and in the amount of capital invested, but also
in the number of wage-earners and the wages paid, as well as in
the cost of materials and in the value of the product. Massachu-
setts was second and Maine third, although as we have seen if we
make the comparison on unit areas, Massachusetts was first. As
to the different classes of products, New York was first in
wood pulp, newspaper, wrapping paper andi other products not
specially designated, while Massachusetts was first in the pro-
duction of bookpaper and fine writing paper. !

The principal wood from which paper is made is spruce. It
forms 76 per cent of all the wood used in the United States for
both mechanical pulp and chemical fiber. Gray pine, white pine,
white fir, balsam, hemlock and larch are also used for the pro-
duction of mechanical pulp and occasionally for chemical pulp.
The wood chiefly used for the soda process is poplar, although
aspin, cottonwood and sweet-gum are sometimes used. Cypress
and several of the preceding timbers are also used for sulphite
pulp. Beech, silver maple, basswood, white birch and paper birch
are sometimes used. |

The chief processes of reduction to pulp are three in number—
the mechanical, the soda process and the sulphite process. The
mechanical process consists in grinding the wood on a grind-
stone after removing the bark. All the sound wood of the tree
is used, provided it is free from knots. A cord of spruce wood
will produce about one ton of pulp.

The soda process is based on the solvent action of alkali at
high temperature. Poplar is the wood chiefly used in the soda
process, although considerable quantities of pine, spruce and
hemlock are consumed, while maple, cottonwood, white birch
and basswood frequently replace poplar. About two cords of
wood are required to produce one ton of soda pulp.

The sulphite process consists in treating vegetable substances
with a solution of sulphurous acid, heated in a closed vessel,
under a sufficient pressure to retain the acid gas until the inter-
cellular matter is dissolved. Any coniferous wood, which is not

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 869

too resinous, may be used, although the woods chiefly used are
spruce, hemlock and balsam. About two cords of wood are
required for one ton of the sulphite pulp.

Newspaper and common wrapping papers consist chiefly of
mechanical pulp, with from 10 per cent to 25 per cent of sulphite
pulp added to hold the stock together. One class of strong wrap-
ping paper is made entirely of sulphite pulp.

Soda fibre is used as soft stock in book and writing papers.
It came into use earlier than sulphite fiber, but owing to the
greater cheapness of the sulphite process, and the superior
strength of the fiber, the use of the latter has increased more
rapidly than the soda.

In order to show the comparatively recent development of the
paper.industry, it may be mentioned that mechanical pulp was
invented in Germany in 1844, but was not made in this country
until 1867. It, however, reached no commercial importance any-
where until considerably later than 1867. There were in the
United States, in 1900, 168 mills in operation, of which 81 were
in New York.

The soda process was introduced into this country from
Europe in 1854. The number of mills in the United States in
1900 was 36, of which 2 were in New York.

The sulphite process is an American invention, used at Prov-
idence in 1884. The number of mills in operation in the United
States in 1900 was 69, of which 17 were in New York.

Modern paper making began with the introduction early in
the nineteenth century of the Fourdrinier machine, which was a
development of an invention made by Louis Roberts, of Essonne,
France, about 1798. Paper was made mostly from rags, which
continued to be the materials used until past the middle of the
nineteenth century, when wood fibre was introduced. The use
of rags for making newspaper has been largely superseded by
wood.

Paper making, however, is an ancient art, probably originat-
ing in China as early as 150 A. D. Several centuries later, the
Arabs learned the art of paper making from the Chinese, who
in turn introduced the art into western Europe. Paper was

S70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

made in France in 1189 A. D., and in England about tv’o hundred
years later.

Until one hundred years ago the method of paper making had
been the same as originally practiced by the Chinese—fibrous
materials being beaten into a pulp, mixed with water and molded
into sheets by manual labor.

Among the interesting industrial developments of the present
day, the International Paper Company, incorporated under the
laws of New York State in January, 1898, may be mentioned.
This company acquired at the time of its incorporation nearly
all the larger mills manufacturing newspaper in the eastern
States and later on has acquired several additional paper and
pulp mills, timber lands, waterpowers and other properties. Its
manufacturing plants, waterpowers and timber lands are
located in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
New York, Michigan and Canada. In New York the Inter-
national Paper Company owns the following mills: Glens Falls,
Fort Edward, Palmers Falls, Niagara Falls, Lake George,
Ontario (near Watertown), Piercefield, Herkimer, Lyon Falls,
Cadyville, Watertown (at Watertown), Woods Falls (near Water-
town) Underwood and Harrisville.

The capital stock of this company is $25,000,000 preferred, of
which $22,406,700 had been issued June 30, 1903, and $20,000,000
common, of which $17,442,800 had been issued at the same date;
$10,000,000 of first consolidated mortgage gold bonds have been
authorized, bearing interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum,
payable semiannually, February 1 and August 1. The plants of
the company were valued in 1903 at $41,925,446. The gross
income for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, was $20,142,771.
The cost of raw materials and manufacturing, including ex-
penses of administration, sales, and cost of selling, was for the
same year $16,529,310.

The International Paper Company has been of considerable
value not only in this State, but in the other states where it
operates, in that it has modified the conditions prevailing before
it came into existence. Competition was so severe as to have
blinded many manufacturers to the fact that there was any
future to be considered. As soon as the company was formed

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HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 871

its officers realized that the investment in the plants was so
large that one of the first steps was to guarantee their perma-
nency by providing for a future supply of raw materials. This
led to an extensive acquisition of timber lands by this company,
as well as by a number of independent companies. At the
present time, in 1904, the most of the large companies operating
in this State own their timber lands, from which by a rational
system of forestry they produce their own timber.

The company has given attention to forest fires and has made
considerable outlays for preventing and extinguishing the same.
It has also supported such legislation in this State as will provide
for a patrol system, and has in various ways tried to interest
the public in this subject in Maine and other states. Thus far
its work in this connection has been largely missionary, but prac-
tical good will undoubtedly follow.

The first great benefit, therefore, which hag resulted from the
formation of the International Paper Company is its effect upon
forestry.

This company has also advocated a rational system of water
storage in New York and other states where water storage is
applicable. Indeed, the whole subject has been quickened by
this company, as has forestry. The powerful influence of the
International Paper Company has made water storage a live
subject in New York, and the attention of the paper industry
generally has been specially directed to this consideration. One
value of such an aggregation of capital is the amount of in-
fluence it may bring to bear upon subjects like this, where indi-
viduals acting independently could accomplish little or nothing
because of their inability to act together. The second work
accomplished by this company, therefore, is of very material
assistance in the inauguration of water storage.

The company has also spent large sums of money improving
its plants, balancing its pulp and paper producing capacity, and
bringing its mills to a higher state of efficiency, the fundamental
idea being to give stability and permanency to the industry.
Not only have foreign markets been sought, but it has intro-
duced improvements in organization and administration of its
mills and affairs. It has also introduced scientific methods, as

\

872 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

shown by the establishment of a bureau of tests for making
experiments, both physical and chemical.

Before the establishment of the International Paper Com-
pany very great and wasteful abuses had grown up in the use of
paper by the various newspapers. It has very largely succeeded in
reforming these.

In the general account, therefore, there may be placed to the
credit of the International Paper Company the introduction of
rational forestry, and material assistance to water storage, the
introduction of scientific methods of manufacture, and finally a
reformation of abuses in the paper trade. These improvements
have already been of benefit to the paper trade as a whole and
done much to enhance the value of the industry to this State.

We will now discuss another phase of the subject. There is
great exaggeration in the public mind as to the effect of the pulp
industry upon the streams of the State. There is a popular im-
pression that the wood-pulp industry is responsible for the
denuding of forest areas, although anybody who visits the
forested portions of the State understands that this cannot be
true. At the present time nine-tenths of all the timber cut in
New York for pulp is spruce, and very rarely is the spruce more
than one quarter of the total stand of timber. Usually the
spruce is not cut to below eight to ten inches in diameter. The
effect of taking out the spruce from a timber area has been
discussed on a previous page and will not be referred to here any
further than to say that, while the effect is slightly apparent, it
can be held responsible in only a slight degree for fluctuation
in stream flow.

Moreover, the paper and pulp industry is not responsible for
all the timber cut in this State, as may be shown by considering
the following figures for the year 1900, from the Seventh Report
of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York. From
these figures it appears that the total cut of lumber and pulp
wood from the Adirondack and Catskill forests amounted to
651,135,308 feet B. M. Adding to this 349,000,000 feet B. M. cut
for firewood, we have a total cut of, roundly, 1,000,000,000
feet B. M. The cut of spruce for pulp mills was 230,649,292 feet

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 875
B. M. The cut of spruce, therefore, amounted to only about 23
per cent of the whole.

It seems to the writer that many people in New York have taken
unsound ground on this question of the relation of the State to
great manufacturing enterprises. Paper has been justly stated
to be the index of a people’s civilization, but if popular clamor
were considered, one might suppose it was an index of exacily
the opposite. The manufacturers are not to blame for a continual
increased use of this product, and so long as paper can be pro-
duced from wood pulp at considerably less cost than from other
raw material, it is idle to expect that anything else will be used.

THE PROPER FUTURE COMMERCIAL POLICY OF NEW YORK

In the foregoing pages we have seen that by virtue of its position,
New York is naturally so situated as to be the principal manufac-
turing area of the United States, but that because of developing
on narrow lines it has realized oniy a portion of the manufac-
turing naturally its due. After the Revolutionary war, the
United States was an agricultural region purely—aside from
agricultural products, substantially everything used was manu-
factured abroad.

About ninety years ago Erie canal was inaugurated for the
purpose largely of carrying agricultural productions—erain,
lumber, etc,—to market. It was not realized that the natural
destiny of the State of New York was for manufacturing rather
than for internal commerce. The result of this was that the natural
flow of streams throughout the central part of the State was
mostly appropriated for the use of the Erie canal, and restrictive
laws enacted which have discouraged the development of manu-
facturing. Hence the New England States, where an opposite
policy prevailed, have developed far more manufacturing per unit
area than New York, although farther away from the centers of
trade and commerce.

Now that we realize the great mistake made, the first thing to
be done is to remove restrictions as to the use of water of every
sort and kind. We need to enact a constitutional amendment
substantially on the lines laid down by Mr Herschel in 1894, and
also we need such further legislation as will permit of develop-

S74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ment of the water storage capacity of New York streams to its
fullest degree.

Another mistake in New York has been in largely confining the
agriculture to the production of grain and dairy products. Had
manufacturing been the general policy of the State for the last
hundred years, the population would easily be anywhere from
2,000,000 to 4,000,600 greater than it is under present conditions
and a much larger proportion of the agriculture would be garden
truck, fruits and berries than it now is. These products yield
very much better profit to the producer than grain, cattle, dairy
products, etc. The result of this policy would have been that
the aggregate wealth of New York farmers would be much higher
than it is, and the same thing is true of all other classes.

The construction of the 1000-ton barge canal is expected to
greatly increase the manufacturing possihilities of the State by
bringing into it the raw material for the manufacture of iron and
steel. These industries have clustered around Lake Erie, at
Lorain, Cleveland, Ashtabula, etc. but the industry at these points
is burdened by the necessity of bringing coal and limestone for
flux by railway transportation from a considerable distance.
The barge canal will permit of the development of iron and steel
manufacturing at points very near the coal and flux. This manu-
facturing ought to develop extensively along the line of the canal
between Rochester and Utica.

Another difficulty has been, until within a year or two, the
great cost of incorporating companies in this State. Previous
to 1902 the State tax required from corporations was one-eighth
of one per cent. ‘The result was that nearly all large corpora-
tions were incorporated in New Jersey, but in 1902 this was so far
modified that the fee now is merely nominal.

At the legislative session of 1904, an act was passed authorizing
the appointment of a permanent River Improvement Commission,
and while this act is hardly all that can be desired, nevertheless
it makes a beginning towards the rational improvement of the
streams of the State to their fullest extent. We still need a mill
act which will permit of constructing dams on the smaller streams
without any further grant of powers from the Legislature than
those granted in the general act. We also need to repeal all acts

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 875

in any way inconsistent with the provisions of either the river
improvement act or the proposed mill act. With these and other
improvements in legislation we may hope to inaugurate a com-
mercial policy which will make New York in a larger degree the
Empire State.

In a word, therefore, the proper future commercial policy of
New York should be such as to permit of bringing into the State
the largest possible amount of raw material to be manufactured
there, together with the removal of restrictions of every sort and
kind which in any way tend to hamper the free development of
internal commerce. .

LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO IN PREPARING REPORT ON THE
HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK

In the following list the works which have been referred to in
the preparation of this report are arranged alphabetically:

Adirondack and Catskill Parks—A Plea for. An argument for the re-
sumption by the State of New York of the policy of acquiring lands for
public benefit within the limits of the Forest Preserve. 8vo. 1903.

Adirondacks and Forest Preservation—Report of Special Committee of
the Senate on the Future Policy of the State in Relation thereto. S8vo.,
1904.

Adirondack Committee—Report of, to the Assembly of 1902. 8vo. 1903.

Adirondack Park, The—A sketch of the origin, the romantic charms and
the practical uses of the Adirondack Park and some of the reasons for the
acquisition of lands and reforestation by the State of New York. 8vo.
1903.

Albany—Reports of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Common
Council for 1889, 1891, 1892, 1893 and 1899. 8vo.

Albany—Reports of the Bureau of Water. First, Second and Third.
Reports, 1900-1902, inclusive. S8vo.

Albany Special Water Supply Commission—Report of, presented to the
Common Council of the city of Albany, March 10, 1891. 8vo.

Aldridge, George W.—Statement made in reply to criticisms passed by
the.Canal Investigating Commission upon the Department of Public Works
in connection with the improvement of canals under the $9,000,000 improve-
ment fund. S8vo. 1898.

Babcock, Stephen E.—Municipal pp leacelee of Private Water Company’s
Plant by the City of Syracuse. Proc. Am. Water Works Assn. 18983.

Babcock, Stephen E.—Report on the Taking of the Waters of Skaneateles
Lake by the City of Syracuse for a Water Supply. S8vo. 1889.

Babeock, Stephen E.—Skaneateles Lake Water Supply for the City of
Syracuse. S8vo. 1889.

Barge Canal of New York—Report on, from Hudson River to the Great
Lakes, In two parts. 8vo, 1901,

.~

S76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Bartlett, John R.—Outline of the Plan for Furnishing an Abundant
Supply of Water for the City of New York from a Source Independent
of the Croton Watershed. 4to. 1888.

Bien, Julius—Atlas of the State of New York. 1895.

Blackmar, Abel E.—Railroad Discrimination Against New York and the
temedy. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVI, pp. 182-250. (Dec., 1901.)

Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways—Report of, between the Great
Lakes and the Atlantic Tide Waters. In two parts, with Atlas. 56th Con-
gress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Document No. 149. (1900).

Board of Health of New York State—Annual Reports of, 1st to 22nd.
These reports contain various papers relating to The Hydrology of the
State of New York. §8vo.

Brooklyn—Annual Reports of the Department of Public Works for 1895,
1896 and 1897. S8vo.

Brooklyn, Department of City Works—Investigations to Determine the
Causes Affecting the Quality of the Water Supply During the Summer of
1896. Svo. 1897.

Brooklyn—History and Description of the Water Supply. Prepared and
printed by order of the Commissioner of City Works. 4to. 1896.

Brooklyn—Report on Future Extension of the Water Supply. 4to. 1896.

Brooklyn Water Works and Sewers—A Descriptive Memoir prepared by
order of the Board of Water Commissioners. 4to. 1867.

Buffalo Chamber of Commerce—Reports of, 1895-1903, inclusive. S8vo.

Canadian Canals—Memorandum on the Growth of Traffic of the Great
Lakes and the Proposed Ottawa Ship Navigation. 4to. 1901.

Canadian Canals—Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal. Twenty-
foot navigation from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic. S8vo. 1902.

Canal Committee of New York State—Report of, appointed by the
Governor pursuant to Chapter 15 of the Laws of 1898. S8vo. 1899.

Canal Improvement Text-Book—New York’s Canal System and Proposed
1,000-ton Barge Enlargement. Issued by Canal Improvement State Com-
mittee. S8vo. 1908. .

Canal System of New York State—Published by the Canal Improvement
State Committee. S8vo. 1903.

Census of the United States—Twelfth. In ten volumes. 4to. 1902.

Chandler, Charles F.—Report on the Waters of the Hudson River, to-
gether with an Analysis of the Same. Made to the Water Commissioners
of the City of Albany, January, 1885. 8vo.

Chief of Engineers, United States Army—Annual Reports of. 8vo.

Chittenden, Hiram M.—Reservoir System of the Great Lakes of the St.
Lawrence Basin; Its Relations to the Problems of Improving the Naviga-
tion of these Bodies of Water and their Connecting Channels. Trans. Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pp. 355-448. (Dec., 1898.)

Church, B. S.—Report of, in Regard to Quaker Bridge Dam. Also, con-
tains reports of Board of Experts, ete. 4to. 1889.

Clarke, John M. and Charles Schuchert—The Nomenclature of the New
York Series of Geological Formations. Reprinted from Science, for Dec. 15,
1899.

Clarke, Thomas C.—Effect of Depth Upon Artificial Waterways. Trans.
Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXXYV, pp. 1-40 (July, 1896).

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 877

Colden, Cadwallader D.—Memoir prepared at the request of a Com-
mittee of the Common Council of the City of New York and presented to
the Mayor of the City at the Celebration of the Completion of the New
York Canals. S8vo. 1825.

Colles, Christopher—Proposals for the Speedy Settlement of the Waste
and Unappropriated Lands on the Western Frontier of the State of New
York and for the Improvement of the Inland Navigation between Albany
and Oswego. S8vo. 1785.

Collingwood, Francis—Report on the Protection of the City of Elmira
Against Floods. 8vo. 1890.

Colvin, Verplanck—Reports on the Topographic Survey of the Adirondack
Region. Six reports, from 1873 to 1896. S8vo.

Commerce Commission of New York—Report of. In two volumes. 8vo.
1900.

Committee on Canals of New York State—Circular letter of May 1,
1899, answers thereto, etc. S8vo. 1899.

Committee on Canals of New York State—Report of. S8vo. 1900.

Comstock, Geo. F.—Argument by, in the matter of the application of the
City of Syracuse for permission to divert the waters of Skaneateles Lake.
8vo. 1889.

Countryman, E.—Report of Special Counsel Designated to Examine the
Report and Testimony transmitted to the Governor by the Canal Investigat-
ing Commission. S8vo. 1899.

Croes, J. J. R.—Report on the Extension of the First Works to be Con-
structed for Supplying Water to Syracuse from Skaneateles Lake. 8vo.
1889.

Croes, J. J. R.—Report on the Skaneateles Lake Water Supply. 8vo.
1889. .

Croton Aqueduct—A Memoir on the Cost, Construction and Capacity, by
Chas. King. 4to. 1843.

Croton Aqueduct—lIllustrations of. 4to. 1843.

Darton, N. H.—Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain
Region. Bulletin No. 138 of the United States Geological Survey. S8vo.
1896.

Darton, N. H.—Preliminary Test of Deep Borings in the U. S. 8vo. 1902.

Deeper Waterways from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic—Reports of the
Canadian Members of the International Commission. S8vo. 1897.

Deep Waterways Commission of the United States—Report of. Pre-
pared by Commissioners Jas. B. Angell, John E. Russell and Lyman E.
Cooley. 54th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Document
No. 192. S8vo. 1897.

Engineering News—Volumes I to L, inclusive.

Engineering Record—Volumes 1 to 48, inclusive.

Erie Canal—Facts and Observations in Relation to the Origin and Com-
pletion of. S8vo. 1825.

Erie Canal Jeopardized—Report of a Citizens’ Committee of Skaneateles,
N. Y., in regard to the taking of Skaneateles Lake by the City of Syracuse.
Svo. 1889.

Executive Board of the City of Rochester—Annual Reports of. 1876 to
1902. S8vo.

878 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Experiment Station—Annual Reports of New York Agricultural. 1882
to 1900. S8vo.

Fanning, J. T.—Report on a Water Supply for New York and Other
Cities of the Hudson Valley. First Report, Dec., 1881. Report No. 2,
Nov., 1884.

Forest Commission of New York—Annual Reports of, 1885-1895. S8vo.

Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York—Annual Reports of,
First to Seventh, inclusive. 4to.

Forest Preserve Board of New York—FTirst to Fourth Reports of. S8vo.

Forest Quarterly, The—Vol. I and II.

Fox, Austin G. and Wallace Macfarlane—Report of Counsel appointed
by the Governor to Prosecute Certain State Officials, ete. Svo. 1899.

Fox, William F.—A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of
New York. Bulletin No. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture. S8vo. 1902.

Freeman, John R.—Digest of the Report on New York’s Water Supply.
8vo. 1900.

Freeman, John R.—Report Upon New York’s Water Supply, with par-
ticular reference to the needs of procuring additional sources and their
probable cost with works constructed under municipal ownership. 8vo.
1900.

French, J. H.—Gazetteer of the State of New York. S8vo. 1860.

Gannett, Henry—Dictionary of Altitudes. 8vo. 1899.

Geddes, George—Origin and History of the Measures that Led to the .
Construction of the Erie Canal. Svo. 1866.

Geological Department of the State of New York—Reports, Bulletins and
maps of.

Hawley, Merwin S.—Origin of the Erie Canal, embracing a Synopsis of
the Essays of Hon. Jesse Hawley, published in 1807. A paper read before
the Buffalo Historical Club in February, 1866.

Hawley, Merwin S.—The Erie Canal. Its Origin, its Success and its
Necessity. A paper read before the Buffalo Historical Club, February 3,
1868. ;

Henshaw, Geo. H.—Frazil Ice: On its Nature and Prevention of its
Action in Causing Floods.. Trans. Can. Soc. C. E., Vol. I, Part I, (June,
1887).

Henry, Alfred J.—Wind Velocity and Fluctuations of Water Level on
Lake Erie. Bulletin J, Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1902.

Herschel, Clemens—Memorandum of Constitutional Amendment sent to
delegates to Constitutional Convention of 1894.

Herschel, Clemens—Report Concerning the Diversion of Water from
Niagara River for Power Purposes and the Effect of Such Diversion upon
the River. 8vo. 1895.

Hill, William R.—Modifications of the Plan of New Croton Dam. Paper
read before the American Water Works Association, at St. Louis, Mo., June
8, 1904.

Hough, F. B.—Gazetteer of the State of New York. 8vo. 1871.

Hudson River Water Power Company—Its Works at Spier Falls, with
associated works at Gays Falls, Ashley Falls, Mechanicville, Saratoga
Springs and Ballston. 8vo. 1903.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 879

International Deep Waterways Association—Proc. of the First Annual
Convention. S8vo. 1895.

International Paper Company—A Descriptive and Historical Account of.
1901.

Johnson, W. C.—Water Power Development at Hannawa Falls. Trans.
Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., Vol. XXIII, (Dec., 1901).

King, Charles—A Memoir on the Cost, Construction and Capacity of the
Croton Aqueduct. 4to. 1848.

Landreth, William B.—The Improvement of a Portion of the Jordan
Level of Erie Canal. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIII, pp. 566-602,
June, 1900).

Landreth, William B.—Recent Stadia Topographic Surveys; Notes Relat-
ing to Methods and Costs. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLIV, pp. 92-118,
(Dec., 1900). .

Lake Erie, Regulation of the Level of—By the United States Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways. 56th Congress, ist Session, House of Rep-
resentatives, Document No. 200. 8vo. 1900.

Lakes and Atlantic Waterway—A Memorandum in regard to certain
Profiles designed to exhibit the Ruling Points. Compiled by the Publica-
tion Committee of the Western Society of Engineers from records of the
Sanitary District of Chicago. Jour. West. Soc. of Engrs., Vol. I, No. 1,
(Jan., 1896).

Lyman, Chester W.—The Paper Industry and Forests. The Forester,
Vol. VI, No. 6 (June, 1900).

Marshall, John—The Life of George Washington. - In two volumes. 8vo.
1850.

Mayer, Joseph—Canals between the Lakes and New York. Trans. Am.
Soe. C. E., Vol. XLV, pp. 207-228, inclusive. (June, 1901.)

Mayer, Joseph—Economie Depth for Canals of Large Traffic. Trans.
Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XX XIX, pp. 278-322. (June, 1898.)

Merrill, F. J. H.—Geologic map of New York. 1901.

Montreal Flood Commission—Reports of, with special reference to the
formation of frazil or anchor ice. S8vo. 1890.

Montreal Harbor Commissioners—Annual Reports of, 1885-1887. An in-
quiry into the formation of ice, etc. S8vo.

New York Chamber of Commerce—Annual Reports of, 1896-1902. 8vo.

New York City—Report to the Aqueduct Commissioners. A review of the
work of the Aqueduct Commission to January 1, 1887. 4to. 1887.

New York City—Report to the Aqueduct Commissioners for the period,
1887-1895. 4to. 1895.

New York Water Supply.—An Inquiry into the Conditions Relating to,
by the Merchants’ Association. S8vo. 1900.

New York Produce Exchange—Reports of, for 1896-1900. S8vo.

New York—Water Supply of. A statement of facts from the Department
of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity of the City of New York. 1908.

Niagara Falls Chamber of Commerce—Annual report of, for 1897. Svo.

O’Reilly, Henry—Sketches of Rochester, with incidental notices of West-
ern New York. 12mo. 18388.

880 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Patten, John—A Plan for Increasing the Humidity of the Arid Region
and Utilization of some of the Great Rivers of the United States for Power
and other Purposes. Pamphlet, 1903.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Three reports on Genesee River Storage Surveys, Ap-
pendices to Ann. Repts. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York for
1893, 1894 and 1896.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Iwo Reports on Upper Hudson Storage Surveys. Ap-
pendices to Ann. Repts. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York for
1895 and 1896.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Water Supply of the Western Division of the Erie
Canal. Ann. Rept. of State Engineer and Surveyor of New York for 1896.

Rafter, Geo. W.—The Economics of the Hudson River. Lecture before
engineering classes of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Feb. 24, 1897.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Stream Flow in Relation to Forests. Proc. Am. For-
estry Assn., Vol. XII, 1897. Also, reprint in Ann. Rept. Fisheries, Game
and Forest Commission for 1896.

Rafter, Geo. W.—wNatural and Artificial Forest Reservoirs of the State
of New York. Third Ann. Rept. of Fisheries, Game and Forest Commission
of New York, for 1897.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Water Resources of the State of New York, Parts I
and II: Water Supply and Irrigation papers of the U. S. Geol. Survey,
Nos. 24 and 25, 1899.

Rafter, Geo. W.—On the Application of the Principles of Forestry and
Water Storage to the Mill Streams of the State of New York. Proc.
Twenty-second Ann. Meeting of Pulp and Paper Assn. 1899.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Data of Stream Flow in Relation to Forests. Lecture
before engineering classes of Cornell University, April 14, 1899. Trans.
Assn. of Civil Engrs. of Correll University, Vol. VII, 1899.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report on a Water Supply from the Adirondack Moun-
tains for the City of New York. Appendix H, of An Inquiry into the
Conditions Relating to the Water Supply of the City of New York by the
Merchants Association. 1900.

Rafter, Geo. W.-—Report to the Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways
on the Water Supply of Enlarged Canals through the State of New York.
Appendix 16, pp. 571-950. 1901.

Rafter, Geo. W.—On the Hydraulics of the Hemlock Lake Conduit of the
Rochester, N. Y., Water Works. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXVI, p. 18.

Rafter, Geo. W.—On the Measures for Restricting the Use and Waste of
Water in Force in the City of Rochester, N. Y. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.,
Vol. XXVI, p. 23.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report o1 Measurements of Flow of the Hemlock Lake
Conduit of the Rochester Water Works. Proce. of Executive Board of the
City of Rochester, 1890-91, p. 58.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report on Present Condition of the Hemlock Lake
Conduit. Proc. of Executive Board of the City of Rochester, 1890-91, p. 86.

Rafter, Geo. W.—First Report to the Canal Committee. Manuscript in
State Engineer’s office. Second Report in conjunction with D. J. Howell
and F.. M. Sylvester in Report of Canal Committee. Svo. 1900.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Lake Erie as a Water Supply for Towns on its Borders.
Buffalo Medical Journal, 1896. '

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 881

Rafter, Geo. \W.—The Eccnomic Relation of the Proposed Deep Water-
ways to the State of New York. Technology Quarterly, Vol. XII, 1899.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report to the Rochester Chamber of Commerce on the
Location of the Barge Canal at Rochester. In Rept. on Barge Canal, 1901.

Rafter, Geo. W.—State Water Supply in New York. Proc. of Ninth
Ann. Convention of Am. Soc. of Muni. Improvem’ts. 1902.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Remarks on the Construction of Rainfall Maps.
Monthly Weather Review. Vol. XXX, April, 1902.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report to the U. S. Geol. Survey on The Relation of
Rainfall to Runoff. Water Supply and Irrigation papers, No. 80. 1903.

Rafter, Geo. W.—The Future Water Supply of the Adirondack Mountain
Region and its Relation to Enlarged Canals in the State of New York,
Seventh Ann. Rept. of Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York.
1903.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Report on a System of Domestic Water Supply from
the Ground in the Vicinity of the City of Lockport. 1908.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Preseat and Proposed Waterways in the State of New
York. 1903.

Rafter, Geo. W.—The Summation of the Barge Canal Question. 1903.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Deep Waterways Rather than Barge Canal. Paper
read at New York State Conimerce Convention, October, 1901.

Rafter, Geo. W.—Genesee River Storage and its Relations to the Erie
Canal and the Manufacturing Cities of Western New York. Prepared for
the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. 1895.

Rafter, Geo. W., Wallace Greenalch and Robert E. Horton—The Indian
River Dam. Engineering News, May 18, 1899.

Railroad Commissioners of New York—Reports of. 18th to 21st Annuals.
2ist Annual, 1904.

Renwick, James—Report on the Mode of Supplying the Erie Canal with
Water from Lockport to the Cayuga Marshes. S8vo. 1846.

Rochester Executive Board—Annual Reports, 1876-1902, inclusive. S8vo.

Rochester—Proceedings to Acquire Water Rights by the City of. In
two volumes. 8vo. 1885.

Saint Lawrence Power Company of Massena, N. Y.—Prospectus of the
Company. S8vyo.

Saint Lawrence Power Company—Prospectus and a View of the Indus-
tries. 8vo. 1903.

Seddon, James A.—Mathematical Analyses of the Influence of Reservoirs
upon Stream Flow. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, (Dec, 1898). This
paper is included in the reference to Chittenden’s paper on the Reservoir
System of the Great Lakes.

Ship Canal Between Lake Erie and Ohio River.—Report of a Committee
of the Chamber of Commerce of Pittsburg. S8vo. 1897.

Skaneateles Lake—A communication from the State Engineer and Sur-
veyor in reply to a resolution of the Senate relative to the waters of
Skaneateles Lake now being used by the State for Hrie Canal. Svo. 1889.

Soule, Howard—Reply to Stephen E. Babcock on demand and supply for
Jordan level of Erie Canal. S8vo. 1889.

882 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Soule, Howard—Report made to the Syracuse Water Board on Skaneate-
les Lake and Water Supply to the Jordan Level of Erie Canal. Svo. 1889.
State Engineer and Surveyor of New York—Annual Reports of, 185

1908. 8vo. \ ;

State Engineer and Surveyor of New York—Reply of, to the several
questions contained in the resolution adopted by the Assembly February 10,
1903. Svo. 1908.

Statement of claim and brief abstract of evidence in the matter of the
purchase of lands of William Seward Webb to quiet claims for damages
effected by the Black River reservoir, before the Forest Commission and
the Commissioners of Lands office. 1895.

Stebbins, John—The Relinquishing of the Control of the Water of
Skaneateles Lake. No more partnership in canal waters. Svo. 1889.

Stewart, Clinton B.—Discharge Measurements of Niagara River at
Buffalo. Jour. of West. Soc. of Engrs., Vol. IV, No. 6, (Dec., 1899).

Superintendent of Public Works of New York—Annual Reports of, 1883-
190z, inclusive. 8vo.

Symons, Thomas W.—Preliminary Examination for a Ship Canal from
the Great Lakes to the Navigable Waters of the Hudson River. 55th Con-
gress, lst Session, House of Representatives, Document No. 86. S8vo. 1898.

Syracuse—In the matter of the application of the City of Syracuse to
acquire recent rights respecting the waters of Skaneateles Lake and Outlet.
Proceedings and Evidence before the Commissioners of Appraisal. Ten
volumes. 8vo.

Syracuse—Report of the Commissioners on Sources of Water Supply for
the City of Syracuse, including the Report of J. J. R. Croes. 8vo. 1889.

Syracuse Water Board—Reports of, Seventh, Highth, and Ninth Annuals.
SVO.

Tarr, Ralph S.—The Physical Geography of New York State. Svo. 1902.

Topographical maps of the State of New York, made by the U. 8S. Geo-
logical Survey.

Troup, Robert—A letter to the Honorable Brockholst Livingston, Esq., on
the Lake Canal Policy of the State of New York. S8vo. 1822.

Veeder, M. A.—Geology of Erie Canal. 8vo. 1899.

Water Power of the United States—Reports on, in the Tenth Census.
4to. 1885.

Water Storage Commission Bill a Menace to the People—A protest by
the Committee on Forests of the New York Board of Trade and Transporta-
tion. S8vo. 1908.

Water Storage Commission of New York State—Report of, with appendix.
Svo. 1908.

Water Supply and Irrigation papers of the United States Geological
Survey—Various papers relating to the hydrography of New York. 8vo.

Watson, Elkanah—History of the Rise, Progress and Existing Condition
of the Western Canals of the State of New York from September, 1788, to
the completion of the Middle Section of the Grand Canal in 1819. 8vo.
1820. :

Weather Bureau of New York State—Annual Reports of, First to Tenth,
inclusive. 8vo.

HYDROLOGY OF NEW YORK 883

Weather Bureau of New York State—Bulletins of, June, 1889 to March,
1899. Also, Reports of the New York Section of the Climate and Crop
Service of the Weather Bureau, of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, from April, 1899, to March, 1904.

Wegmann, Edward, Jr.—The Design and Construction of Masonry Dams.
4to. 1889.

Wegmann, Edward, Jr.—The Water Supply of the City of New York.
4to. 1896.

Western Inland Lock Navigation Company—Report of a Committee ap-
pointed by the Directors of, to explore the Western Waters in the State of
New York, the Mohawk River from Schenectady to Fort Schuyler for the
Purpose of Prosecuting Inland Lock Navigation. S8vo. 1792.

Western and Northern Inland Lock Navigation Companies—Report of the
Directors of, together with the report of William Weston, engineer. 8vo.
1796.

Western Inland Lock Navigation Company—Report of the Directors of.
8vo. 1798.

Wisner, Geo. Y.—The Economic Dimensions for a Waterway from the
Great Lakes to the Atlantic. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLY, pp. 224-833,
(June, 1901).

The foregoing reports and papers are mostly in the writer’s
collection and have been referred to in preparing this report. The
reports and papers not there are either in the library of the
Rochester Historical Society or in the State Library at Albany.
A few references not here given have been made, but such are
described in the foot notes. A considerable number of additional
references, bearing on floods, may be obtained from the Report
of the Water Storage Commission of New York, Bibliography of
Flood Literature, p. 567-656.

INDEX

Abbe, Cleveland, 84, 135, 172.
Adams, Campbell W., 741, 742.
Adams, Edward D., 652, 653.
Adirondack region, advantages com-
pared with Massachusetts, 555;
agricultural productions, 556;
area compared with Massachu-
setts, 555; frosts, 556; reservoirs
increase healthfulness, 557; use-
ful for three purposes, 556; valu-

able for State park, 555; chief |

value, 46; views of visitors, 556.
Aldridge, George W., 741, 742.
Allen, Stephen, 647.

Anchor ice, development in New

York streams, 839; remedy for, |

840.
Angell, James B., 294, 766.

Area, proportionate in Connecticut,

Massachusetts,

population, 563;
New York, 864.
Adirondack park, 175.
Black lake, 242.
Black river reservoir, 617.
Catskill park, 177.
Cazenovia lake, 760.
Cazenovia reservoir, 351.
Central New York lakes, 216.
Connecticut, 560.
Cranberry lake, 242, 531.
Croton river water surface, 400.
De Ruyter reservoir, 351.
Erieville reservoir, 351.
Great lakes, 293.
Hemlock lake, 337.
Jamesville reservoir, 352.
Lake Champlain, 247.
Lake George, 250, 643.
Long Island, 292.
Massachusetts, 560.
Mohawk river flats, 479.

swamps

Rhode Island |
and New York, 562; relation to |
in |

Area (continued)
New York, 520, 560.
Niagara river, 294.
Raquette river, tributary lakes,
244.
Rhode Island, 560.
Schroon river reservoir, 637.
Staten Island, 712.
Wallkill reservoir, 695.
Astor, John Jacob, 652.
Auchincloss, W. S., 121.

Babcock, S. E., 274, 476.

Bache, Alexander D., 84.

Ballston Springs Light and Power
Co., 668.

Barge canal, advisory board, 820;
description as embodied in act au-
thorizing, 819; estimated cost,
811; estimated cost of Seneca-
Oneida route, 808; estimates by
different persons, 816; estimates
by State Engineer, 812, 813, 814;
original estimated cost, 801;
referendum, 818; relations to
Seneca river marsh, 808; as pro-
posed by Schenck, 814; element of
time, 807; Seneca-Oneida route
overlooked, 807; survey by State
Engineer, 812; why continuously
descending was abandoned, 808-
10. ,

Barnes, Howard T., 840.

Barrett, Alfred, 827.

Bates, David S., 825.

Bayner, Goldsborrow, 723.

Bazin, Henry, 329.

Bear, Samuel, 537.

Benedict, F. N., 621.

Binnie, Alexander R., 95, 139.

Bissell, William G., 858.

Black, Gov. Frank S., 741.

886

Black River canal, appraiser’s
statement, 542; area, depth and
capacity of storage reservoirs,
544; claims for damages, 540;
compensation in kind, 540, 542;
Forestport feeder, 539; historical
matter, 589; principal facts, ‘751;

principles governing award in
damage- claims, 548; reservoirs,
541-48.

Black Rock, decline in milling busi-
ness, 670; expenditures without
benefit, 670.

Blackmar, Abel E., 745-46.

Blackwell, E. R., 315.

Bloss, R. P., 365.

Blythebourne Water Co., 678, 679.

Board of Engineers on deep water-
ways, 311, 317, 357, 612.

Bogart, John, 575, 658.

Bond, Edward A., 796, 820.

Bouck, W. C., 732.

Bowdoin, George S., 652.

Brainard, Frank, 741.

Breckenridge, William A., 666, 820.

Bronson, Amos, 448.

Brown, Charles C., 718.

Brown, John C., 652.

Bryant, Walter, 647, 648.

Buffalo Chamber of Commerce, 735.

Burnet, Colonial Governor, 720.

Burr, William H., 707.

Calhoun, A. H., 601.

Canadian canals, depth, 795;
Georgian bay, 795; Montreal,
Ottawa and Georgian bay, 795;
Welland, 796.

Canadian Niagara Power Co., 655.

Canal committee, changes in new
Erie canal, 798; cost of freight by
new Erie canal, 799; cost of
carrying freight, enlarged canal,
800; cost of earrying freight,
Seymour-—Adams plan, 798; cost
of Seymour plan, 797; cost of
Seymour-Adams plan, 798; de-
scription of proposed enlarged
canal, 800; dimensions of en-

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

larged canal, 799; dimensions of
new Erie canal, 798; maps of
canal, 811; proposed enlarged
canal, 799; preferable projects,
810; report, 797; Seymour plan as
modified by Adams, 797; size of
boat, 817.
Canal Improvement
744.
Canal Investigating Commission of
1898, 741.
Canals, see Canadian canals; New
York canals.
Cascade Pulp Co., 672.
Cataract Construction Co., 652.
Cataract Milling Co., 647.
Catchment, every area must have
its own formula, 169; relation
to area of Hemlock lake, 340;
Ridgewood system for water
supply of Brooklyn, 683; reser-
voirs on Fishkill, Rondout,
Esopus and Catskill creeks and
Wallkill river, 263; water sup-
ply of Brooklyn Borough, 688,
692, 693.
Allegheny river, 282.
Ashokam reservoir, 711.
Ausable river, 249.
Battenkill, 171, 266.
Beaver river, 223.
Big Chazy river, 248.
Big Moodna creek, 707.
Big Sister creek, 205.
Billings reservoir, 711.
Black river and tributaries, 221,
463, 502, 617, 759.
Buffalo, 205.
Butternut creek, 762.
Canada creek, east, 274, 479, 511.
Canada creek, west, 278, 479, 511,
789.
Canadaway creek, 205, 491.
Canaseraga creek, 454.
Catskill creek, 263, 468.
Cattaraugus creek, 205.
Cayadutta creek, 273, 482, 509.
Cayuga creek, 205.
Cayuga lake and tributaries, 217.

Committee,

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK S87

Catchment (continued)

Cazenovia lake, 205, 351, 760.

Central New York lakes, 216.

Chateaugay river, 247.

Chautauqua creek, 205, 283.

Chemung river, 488.

Chenango river, 487.

Chittenango creek, 760.

Claverack creek, 264.

Clinton Hollow reservoir, 711.

Clove creek, 507.

Clyde river and tributaries, 217.

Conewango creek, 283.

Cowaselon creek, 760.

Croton river, 256, 378, 468, 505.

Deer river, 224.

Delaware river, 707; and tribu-
taries, 290.

De Ruyter reservoir, 351.

Desplaines river (Illinois), 300.

Eaton brook, 420.

Eighteenmile creek, 209.

Erieville reservoir, 351.

Esopus creek, 262, 468, 507, 711.

Fish creek, 253; west branch, 501.

Fishkill creek, 257, 468, 711.

Garoga creek, 274.

Genesee river, 212, 494, 495;
Rochester, 183; tributaries, 211.

Great lakes, 293.

Great Valley creek, 284.

Hemlock lake, 337, 498.

Hibernia reservoir, 711.

Honeoye lake, 574.

Hoosie river, 171, 265.

Hudson river, 365, 467, 505; above
Hadley and tributaries, 624.

Independence creek, 224.

Indian river, 271.

Irondequoit river, 209.

Jamesville reservoir, 352.

Johnson creek, 209.

Kinderhook creek, 264, 468, 508.

Lake Champlain, 247, 354.

Lake George, 250, 648.

Little Moodna creek, 707.

Little Valley creek, 283.

Loup river, Neb., 109.

Madison brook, 420.

Catchment (continued )

Mohawk river, 272, 468, 508, TOT,
759.

Moose river, 228.

Morris run, 496.

Muddy creek, 205.

Muskingum river, O., 304.

Neversink creek, TOT.

Niagara river, 208, 491.

Nine Mile creek, 479, 485.

Normanskill, 264, 474, 507.

Oak Orchard creek, 209.

Oak Orchard swamp, 209.

Oatka creek, 337, 495.

Oneida creek, 760.

Oneida river and tributaries, 218.

Oriskany creek, 281, 417, 485, 512,
759.

Oswegatchie river, 503; tribu-
taries, 241.

Oswego river, 214, 499; tribu-
taries, 216, 217.

Otter creek, 224.

Owasco outlet and lake, 218.

Popolepen creek, 707.

Raquette river, 503, 666; tribu-
taries, 244; tributary lakes,
244,

Republican river, Neb., 109.

Roeliff Jansen kill, 264, 711.

Rondout creek, 258, 468, 707, 711.

Sacandaga river, 71, 267, 468;
tributaries, 628.

St Lawrence river, 321.

St Regis river, tributaries, 246.

Salmon river east, 249.

Salmon river north, 247.

Salmon river west, 220, 501.

Sandy creek, 209.

Saranac river, 249.

Sauquoit creek, 281, 512.

Schoharie creek, 2738, 483, 510,
705.

Schroon river, 171, 268, 468, 508,
631; tributaries, 624.

Seneca river, 214, 505.

Shawangunk creek, 707.

Silvernails reservoir, 711.

888

Catchment (continued)
Skaneateles lake outlet, 347.
Smoke creek, 205.

South Platte, Col., 109.

Stormville reservoir, 711.

Susquehanna river, 486;
taries, 287.

Tonawanda creek, 205, 441.

Trent river, 247.

tribu- |

Wallkill river, 468, New Paltz, |

507; tributaries, 260.
Walnut creek, 205.
Wappinger creek, 257, 711.
West and Salmon creeks, 209.
Wood creek, 760.

Cayuga and Seneca canal, begun
and completed, 731; historical
matter, 537; tonnage, 538; when
completed, 537.

Champlain canal, cost, 729; Glens |

Falls feeder, 753, 754; principal
facts, 750; water supply, 752.
Cheesbrough, A., 648.

Chicago Drainage Commission, 300. |

Chief of engineers, 313, 315.

Childs, O. W., 827.

Chittenden, Hiram M., 304, 317.

Citizens Water Co., 679.

Clarke, Charles F., 652.

Clarke, Thomas C., 740.

Cliff Paper Co., 651.

Climate, definition, 46; divisions,
50; enumeration of data, 46;
number of stations in each divis-
ion, 51.

Clinton, De Witt, 593, 728, 730.

Clinton, George, 723, 741.

Coffin, James, 140.

Cohoes Co., 835.

‘Colles, Christopher, 722.

Collingwood, Francis, 488, 489.

Cooley, Lyman E., 294, 311, 313, 317, |

741, 766, 768.
Cornwell, William J., 601.
Corps of engineers, 357.
Corthell, Elmer L., 820.
Countryman, E., 741, 743.
Cowles Smelting Co., 672.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Creeks
Canada, East, place of power de
velopment, 276; tributaries, 275.
Canada, West, cost of reservoir

near Hinckley, 280; electrical
development, 665; lakes at
source, 278; principal falls,

278; storage, 279; water yield,
279.

Canadaway, spring fed, 492; west
branch, description and water
yield, 491.

Cazenovia, slope, 439. -

Chittenango, fall, 352.

Conewango, fall, 283.

Highteenmile, fall, 672.

Esopus, direction of flow, 262.

Madison and Eaton brooks, dif-
ference in soils, 421.

Oriskany, two gaging stations
established, 281.

Rondout, fall, 258; relation to

Delaware and Hudson canal, —

258.

Sauquoit, description, 280.
Schoharie, commercial develop-
ment, 665; fall, 273; tributaries,
278.

Tonawanda, diverted to Oak
Orchard creek, 207; part of

Erie canal, 207.
Croes, J. J. R., 141, 220, 472, 506,
5AS.
Crosby, W. O., 684, 713.
Crystal Water Co., 679.

Dams
Baldwinsville, 345.

Croton river, 472.
Mechanicville, flow over, 366.
Mt Morris, 334, 335.
Rochester, 605.

Darby, William, 593.

Darton, N. H., 691, 716.

Day, Horace H., 647.

Deep waterways, alternative tunnel,
785; board of engineers, 777 ; com-
mercial considerations, 776; detail
of water supply, 794; cross-
section and size of boat, 818; esti-

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

mates, 782, 783, 785, 786, 788, 789 ;
estimate for water supply, 790;
feeder from Black river, 785;
high level vs. low level, 784; in-
jury to waterpowers, 774; leak-
age at gates and structures, 792;

length of locks, 789; length of
- standard canal and _ canalized
rivers, 787; length of time for

transit, 787; lockage requirement,
790; may decrease wealth, 776;
Oleott harbor, 783; power for
electric lights, 792; preferable
route, 781; relative cost of dif-
ferent routes, 783; routes for,
766; scope of work, 778; speed,

785; spillway, Mohawk river,
793; summary of Symons’s re-
port, 770; surveys made, 782;

. traffic, 789; tributary catchment
to summit level, 789; views of
Michigan commissioners, 781;
water for flushing boats out of
locks, 792; water supply, 785, 788 ;
water yield to summit level, 789.

Deep waterways commission, 29,
311, 357. ,

De Varona, I. M., 681.

De Witt, Simeon, 592, 727, 728.

Differential agreement, date, 745;
effect, 745; explanation, 745.

Dodge, Charles Wright, 844.

Dolgeville Electric Light and Power
Co., 411.

Dominion Marine Association, 796.

Drain gages, how constructed, 144,
157; runoff, Geneva, 149; surface
of for different soils, 147.

Duncan Co., 365, 559.

Dunlap, Orrin E., 650, 651.

Early canals, see New York canals.

Early transportation, see Transpor-
tation.

Eddy, Thomas, 598.

Edson, Franklin, 741.

Hilinger, Fred R., 843, 854, 857, 861,
862.

889

Electrical development, extent, 553.
Canada creek, East, 277.
Canada creek, West, 279, 665.
Hudson river, 660.
Niagara Falls, 648, 655.
Raquette river, 668.
Rochester, 837.
St Lawrence river, 657.
Schoharie creek, 663.

Electrical Development Co. of On-
tario, 656.

Elevation, climatic divisions, 51;
deep waterways, summit level,
791; river valleys, 518.

Ausable river, 249.

Battenkill river, 266.

Big Chazy river, 248.

Black river, 221.

Boonville, 618.

Canada creek, East, 274.

Canada creek, West, 279.

Canisteo river, 285.

Carthage dam, 618.

Cassadaga creek, 283.

Cayuta creek, 285.

Cedar river, 271.

Central New York lakes, 216.

Charlotte river, 287.

Chautauqua lake, mouth of out-
let, 283.

Chemung river, 285.

Chenango river, 286.

Cohocton river, 285.

Conewango creek,
283.

Delaware river, 289.

Genesee river, 212.

Great Valley creek, 283.

Hemlock lake, 337, 842.

Hoosic river, 265.

Hudson river, 251, 253, 468.

Lake Champlain, 248.

Lake Erie, 283, 518.

Lake George, 250, 648.

Lake Ontario, 519, 795.

Lake Simcoe, Can., 795.

Little Valley creek, 283.

Long Island, 292.

Longs Peak, 91.

Lyon Falls, 618.

head waters,

890

Elevation (continued)

Mohawk river and _ tributaries,
271, 478; at Rome, 478.

Normanskill, 264.

Oak creek, 287.

Olean creek, 284.

Oneida river, 215.

Otselic river, 286.

Owego creek, 286.

Sacandaga river, 268.

St Lawrence river,
lakes, 322.

Salmon river west, 219; reser-
voir, 612.

Saranac lake, 248.

Sauquoit creek headwaters, 280.

Schoharie creek, 273.

Schroon river, 269, 635; reservoir,
637.

Seneca river, 215.

Skaneateles lake, 347.

Susquehanna river, 284.

Tioga river, 285.

Tioughnioga river, 286.

Unadilla river, 286.

Wallkill river, 695.

Wappinger creek, 258.

Ellicott, Joseph, 728.

Ely, Harvey, 442.

tributary

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

732; eastern division, 751; eastern
division water supply, 752; eleva-
tion and distances, Rome level,
804; enlargement of 1835, 733;
enlargement completed in 1862,
733; evaporation, loss of water,
825, 826, 827, 828, 829; filtration,
loss of water, 825, 826, 827, 828,
829; first mention, 727; value of
freight carried, 719; Genesee
feeder, relations, 579; Genesee
river temporary source of supply,
598; grain carried, 735; ground
broken, 729; growth and decline,
736; historical, 592; improvement
1895, 719, 738; leakage at struc-
tures, 826, 827; middle division,
description, 755; middle division,
water supply, 759; Nine Mile
creek feeder, 762; organization of
transportation companies, 737;
original dimensions, 729, 825;
original locks, 740; Owasco feeder,
762; proposed power canal along
line, 820; principal facts, 750;
Putnam brook feeder, 762; quan-
tity of water to supply losses,
830; radical enlargement, 801;

Emery, Charles E., 526. regulator of railways, 734; rela-
Empire State Power Co., 274, 483, tions of Highteenmile creek, 671;

663. size of boat, 817; Skaneateles
Emslie, Peter, 647. feeder, 762; tolls, 720; tonnage,
Engineers, chief of, 313, 315. early boats, 723; waterpower,
Engineers on Deep Waterways, 669; western division, descrip-

Board of, 311, 317, 357, 612. tion, 768; water supply, 764.
Engineers Society of Western New | Evans, M. E., 474.

York, 650. Evaporation, Champlain canal, T3505

Erie canal, act authorizing construc-
tion, 595; adequate if restrictions
are removed, 769; Carpenter
brook feeder, 762; completed, 730;
continuously descending, 801; de-
scription of continuously descend-
ing, 803; cost of extending Syra-
cuse level, 806; cost per mile, 731;
original cost, 730; divided into
three divisions, 751; early com-
mission for exploring, 593; early
views as to transportation, 731,

Desplaines river, 3804; exposed
tub on land at Rochester, 144;
floating tub at Rochester, 144;
Great lakes, 311, 315, 316; hard-
wood and softwood forests, 179;
how it varies, 187; mean annual
of several rivers, 124; Muskin-
gum river, 128; New York city,
141; Oswego river, 113; Oxford,
Inng., 341; same on Croton, Mus-
kingum and Genesee rivers, 169;
same on Genesee and Oswego

HYDROLOGY OF THE

rivers, 172; summit level of deep
waterways, 791;

negative: conclusions of George
J. Symons as to Significance on
River Thames, 139; Croton river,
138; Genesee river, 138; Hudson
river, 138; Muskingum river, 138;
significance of, 138.

Evershed, Thomas, 651.

Faesch and Piccard, 653.

Fairley, John A., 808.

Fanning, J. T., 6438.

Farms, Connecticut, 565; Massa-
chusetts, 565; New York,
Rhode Island, 565.

Fernow, B. E., 185.

Fitz Gerald, Desmond, 84, 134.

Flatbush Water Co., 678, 697.

Floods, cause, 426; impracticable to

565.5

STATE OF NEW YORK

remove ice dams, 470; lack of |

data,
porary pondage, 446; percent-
age of catchment controlled,
437; prediction of hights, 489;
relations to hight of ground
water, 426; reservoir control,
4388; silt carried by, 488; sum-
mary, 490.

Black river, 462; computed by
Francis’s formula in compari-
son with Cornell experiments,
463; measurement, 463; pon-
dage, 464; water yield, 463.

Buffalo creek, 440.

Canisteo river, 490.

Chemung river, cause, 488.

Cohocton river, 490.

Cohoes 1865, 482.

‘Coleman, 485.

Corning, 487;
bridges, 488.

Croton river, 473.

Elmira, 488.

Fishkill creek, 473.

Genesee river, 441, 576; 1865, 442;
cause, 448; value of regulation,
452.

Hinckley, 485.

cross-section of

435; modified by tem- |

891

Floods (continued)
Iludson river, conditions required

for production, 469; freshets
and ice gorges, 469.

Middleville, 485.

Mohawk river, 481; of August
1898, 479.

Newport, 485.

Niagara river, unknown, 441.

Oswego river, effect of pondage in
reducing, 458.

Rochester 1865, 442; bridge open-
ings, 444.

Seine river, France, hights, 425.

Stittsville, 485.

Susquehanna river, 1865, 486.

Tiber river, Italy, 428, 424.

Floods, cubic feet per second per

square mile

Allegheny river, 485.

Beaver Dam creek, 461.

Beaver river, 466.

Black river, 465.

Buffalo creek, 440.

Canada creek, East, 479, 484.

Canada creek, West, 479, 484.

Catskill creek, 474.

Cayadutta creek, 482.

Chemung river, 488.

Chenango river, 487.

Chittenango creek, 459.

Croton river, 472. -

Deer river, 466.

Delaware river, 490. -

Esopus creek, 474.

Tish creek, east branch, 460.

Fish creek, west branch, 459.

Fishkill creek, 473.

Garoga creek, 483.

Hudson river, 467.

Independence creek, 466.

Mad river, 460.

Mohawk river, 475, 477.

Moose river, 466.

Nine Mile creek, 479, 485.

Normanskill, 475.

Oneida creek, 459.

Oriskany creek, 485.

Oswegatchie river, 466.

Oswego river, 458.

892 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Floods, cubic feet per second per Fox, Austin G., 742, 743.

square mile (continued) | Fox, William F., 291.

Otter creek, 466. Frazil ice, development in New

Raquettie river, 467. York streams, 840; remedy for,

Rondout creek, 474. 840.

Salmon river, west, 461. Freeman, John N., 190, 378, 411,

Sandy creek, north branch, 461; 694, 701, 702, 707.

south branch, 461. Frye, Alfred B., 820.

Sauquoit creek, 485. Fuertes, James H., 697, 702.

Schoharie creek, 483, 484. Fulton, Robert, 728.

Schroon river, 475.

Seneca river, 459. Gardner, Addison, 443.

Skinner creek, 461. Garrett, John W., 745.

Susquehanna river, 486. Gaskill, Charles B., 647.

Tonawanda creek, 441. Geddes, George, 728.

Trout brook, 461. Geddes, James, 592, 729.

Wallkill river, 474. General Hlectric Co., 559.

Wood creek, 459. Genesee Paper Co., 495.

Woodhull creek, 466. Genesee River Co., description, 601;
Flower, Governor, 575. method of procedure, 604; pre-
Foote, Nathaniel, 569. amble to act, 603; price for
Forbes, George, 654. : water, 603; relocation of Pennsyl-
Forbes-Leith, A. J., 652. vania railway, 604.

Forests, area of Adirondack park, Geology, relation to stream flow,
175; area of Catskill park, 177; 163; streams north of Salmon
classification of lands in Adiron- river west, 501; water centers,
dack park, 175; conserve stream 519; western New York, 717.
flow, 174; decrease in productive Battenkill river, 170.
capacity of State if reforested, Black river, 354.

184; dense, increase runoff, 173; Canada creek, East, 414.

duties of Forest Preserve Board, Canada creek, West, 416.

45; effect of, in conserving Catskill creek, 263.

stream flow, 232; equivalent in Chittenango creek, 352.

protective effect, 180; evaporation Croton river, 169, 256, 472.

from hardwood and_ softwood, Eaton and Madison brooks, 422,

179; extent of forest preserve, Esopus creek, 261.

184; headwaters of Salmon river Genesee river, 165.

west and Fish creek, 615; how Hemlock lake, 341.

they affect stream flow, 186; long Hempstead plains, 687.

time element of forestry, 185; Hoosie river, 170.

policy of State in regard to, 174; Hudson river, 170, 375.

proportion of virgin forest, culled Lake Champlain, 365.

and cleared area, 233; relation to Long Island, 684, 685.

climate, 172; relative consump- Mohawk river, 166, 481.

tion of water by hardwood and Muskingum river, 167.

softwood, 179; relative propor- Oriskany creek, 417.

tions in Schroon river reservoir, Oswego river, 165.

632; several State parks should be Raquette river, 667.

created, 182; should entire State Sauquoit creek, 416.

be reforested, 184. Schoharie creek, 484.

HYDROLOGY OF THE

Geology (continued)

Schroon river, 403, 631.
Seneca river, 345.
Skaneateles lake, 347.
Staten Island, 713.

Wallkill river, 260, 698, 701.

German-American Improvement Co.,
679.

Gilbert, J. H., 137.

Glens Falls Portland Cement Works,
558.

Great Eastern Canal, description
and estimated cost, 821, 822.

Great lakes, discharge, 311, 319;
effect of obstructing water, 317;
loss of water, 316, 322; water
levels, 311.

Green, Andrew H., 750.

Green, George E., 716.

Greene, David M., 462.

Greene, Francis V., 796, 808, 810.

Greenidge, C. A., 665.

Groat, L. H., 656.

Ground water, relation of low
water to, 202; relation of voids
in soils, 453; storage of Genesee
river, 453, 454.

Guyot, Arnold, 43.

Gzowski, Sir Casimir S., 315.

Hannawa Falls Water Power Co.,
666; canal, 668; dam, 667; de-

velopment, 668; power. developed,

669.
Harper, John, 650.
Harrington, Mark W., 87.
Hatch, James H., 671.
Hawley, Jesse, 728.
Heberden, 84.
Hellriegel, 36.
Henry, Alfred J., 83, 96.
Heary, 1o-F:, 315:
Henry, Joseph, 84.
Henshaw, George H., 840.
Hering, Rudolph, 707.
Herschel, Clemens, 106, 569.
Higgins, A. F., 741.
Hill, Herbert M., 858, 861.
Hill, W. N., 219.
Himes, Albert J., 773.

STATE OF NEW

YORK 893

Hoffman, Michael, 732.

Holland Land Co., 675.

Holley, Myron, 728.

Holly Manufacturing Co., 678.

Hough, Franklin B., 172, 224.

Howe, Walter, 652.

Howell, D. J., 408.

Hudson River Electric Co., 663.

Hudson River Power Transmission
Co., 559, 622, 659; development,
660; location, 659.

Hudson River Water
622

——,

Power Co.,

660; capacity, 660; develop-
ment, 660; electrical development,
661; location, 660; reservoir, 660;
resources, 661.

Hutchinson, Holmes, 732.

Hydraulic Power Co.’s race, 858.

Improvements, cost of several,
742; Oak Orchard creek, 675.

Indian River Co., 270.

Indurated Fibre Co., 672.

International Deep Waterways As-
sociation, 317.

International Paper Co., 378, 559,
S70.

Jackson Lumber Co., 672.
Jacob, Arthur, 427.
Jamaica Water Supply Co., 679.

‘James, Darwin R., 741.

Jenne, Daniel C., 540.

Jervis, John B., 323, 732, 825.

Jesup, Morris K., 652.

Jewett, H. J., T45

Johnson, W. C., 278, 503, 650, 651,
669.

Johnson and Seymour race, 858.

Johnston, Thomas T., 125, 301.

Judson, William: Pierson, 774.

Kelly, Hugh, 750.

Kennedy, John, 8389.

Kennedy, Richard, 671.

Kineaid, Waller and Manville, 658.

Lake Champlain, high and low
water, 357; length and breadth,
248 ; tributaries, 248.

S94 NEW

Lake Erie, water level, 811; water

supply of Buffalo, 858; wind
action, 3138.
Lake Ontario and Seneca Lake

Navigation Co., 582.

Lake Ontario Water Co., 854.

Lakes of central New York, how
they tend to reduce floods, 113;
fluctuations, 112; list, 216.

Lanier, Charles, 652.

Larocque, Joseph, 652.

Lattimore, S. A., 846, 850, 854, 855.

Lawes, Sir J. B., 137.

Ledoux, J. W., 854.

Litigations, Canal Appraisers vs the
People, 533; Kempshall vs Com-
missioners of Canal Fund, 5385;
People vs Canal Appraisers, 534;
People vs Tibbetts, 533; Stacey,
Richard M. vs City of Syracuse,
047; Waller vs State of New
York, 551.

Little, W. P., 656.

Livingston, Robert R., 728.

Lockport, economic statistics, 673;
rental for waterpower, 673; re-
sult of building canal, 671; water
supply, 714; water yield in
vicinity, 715; wells, 715.

Lockport Hydraulic Power Co., 671,
836.

Lockport Paper Co., 672.

Long Island, legal principles apply
to the taking of water from sands,
291; length and width, 683;
natural reservoirs, 693; relation
of geology to water supplies, 684;
streams, 292; watershed, 683;
water yield of sands, 291, 693.

Long Island Water Supply Co., 678,
679.

Lovelace, E. L., 655.

Lyell, Sir Charles, 315.

McAlpine, William J., 462.
McClintock, J. Y., 820.
McEchron, William, 741.
McElroy, Samuel, 462.
MeFarlane, Wallace, 742, 743.

YORK STATE

MUSEUM

MeclKinstry, John, 536.

McLouth, Charles, 575.

Manhattan Water Supply Co., 676.

Manufacturing, encouragement, 567;

discouraged, 873; value of
water in New York, 775.
Ballston Springs, 559.
Cohoes, 559.
Connecticut, 561.
Eighteenmile creek, 672.
Fishkill creek, 712.
Fort Edward, 559.
Fort Miller, 559.
Glens Falls, 558.
Hadley, 559.
Lansingburg, 559.
Lockport, 671.
Massachusetts, 561.
Mechanicyville, 559.
New York, 561.
Palmers Falls, 559. ‘
Rhode Island, 561. ~
Sandy Hill, 558.
Saratoga Springs, 559. —
Schenectady, 559.
Schuylerville, 559.
Seneca river, 538.
Troy, 559. .
Wappinger creek, 712.
Waterford, 559.
Watervliet, 559.

Marichal, Arthur, 330.

Marsh, Daniel, 182, 494, 852.

Mascart, E., 6538.

Medina Business Men’s Association,
675.

Meteorological bureau, when organ-
ized, 46; work, 47.

Mill acts, effect on population, 563;
states in which laws have been
enacted, 529; New England, 529.

Mills, Darius O., 652, 655.

Mills, F. C., 441, 732, 826.

Minimum flow, Genesee river, de-
crease, 495; importance of, 491;
Long Island streams, 688; Morris
river, 496; Oswego, Mohawk and
Hudson rivers, 89; tendency to
fixed rate, 496.

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Minimum flow per cubic foot per
second per square mile

Allegheny river, 512.

Black river, 502.

Canada creek, East, 511.

Canada creek, West, 511.

Canadaway creek, west branch,

491.

Catskill creek, 507.

Cayadutta creek, 509.

Clove creek, 507.

Croton river, 505.

Delaware river, 512.

Esopus creek, 507.

Fish creek, west branch, 501.

Fishkill creek, 506.

Genesee river, 494.

Hemlock lake, 498.

Hudson river, 504.

Kinderhook creek, 508.

Mohawk river, 508.

Niagara river, 491.

Normanskill, 507.

Oatka creek, 496.

Oriskany creek, 512.

Oswegatchie river, 508.

Oswego river, 499.

Raquette river, 503.

Rondout creek, 507.

Salmon river west, 501.

Sauquoit creek, 512.

Schoharie creek, 510.

Schroon river, 508.

Seneca river, 501.

Susquehanna river, 512.

Wallkill river, 507.
Mississippi River Commission, 314.
Monroe, S. E., 486.
Montauk Water Co., 679.
Montreal Flood Commission, 840.
Montreal Harbor Commissioners, 840.
Moore, Henry, 721.
Morgan, Pierpont, 652.
Morgan-Smith Co., 669.
Morris, Gouverneur, 593, 727.
Mountains, eastern New York, 42:

main mass of State, 48; western

New York, 40.
Mullins, Lieutenant General J., 116.
Mumford, George E., 443.

895

Nelson Knitting Co., 414.

New York, change in economic con-
ditions, 837; cities, 521; decline
of commerce, 743; future com-
mercial policy, 875; comparison
by equivalent areas, 529; con-
tradictory laws paralyze industry,
553; contradictory laws relating
to water, 552; owns beds of Hud-
son and Mohawk rivers, 534, 535 ;
State’s responsibility for owner-
ship of Hudson and Mohawk

rivers, 535; laws discourage
manufacturing by waterpower,
838; no general mill act, 530;

special mill acts vs general mill
acts, 552; why no mill act has been
enacted, 531; preeminent position,
30; relation of State to power de-
velopment on rivers, 31; rank,
528; River Improvement Commis-
Sion, 552.3 sewage disposal, 522;
steampower in 1900, 526; titles
to lands derived from the laws of
Holland, 581; topographical map,
523; waterpower in 1900, 526;
relative development of water-
power in Connecticut, Massachu-
setts and Rhode Island, 555; pre-
ferable plan for water supply,
522; Water Supply Commission,
526; duties of Water Supply and
Sewage Disposal Commission,
523.

New York and Hudson Valley Aque-
duct Co., 648.

New York and Westchester Water
Co., 679.

New York canals, early history,
720-33 ; first mention, 720, 726;
continuously descending, north-
ern and southern routes, 805,
806; ship canal, 766; cost of
surveys for ship canal, 777; es-
sential to commercial pros-
perity, 822; list, 823-24; im-
provement of rivers, 720, 727.

Barge, 801-20.
Black river, 589, 544, 751.
Cayuga and Seneca, 537, 731.

896

New York canals (continued)

Champlain, 729, 750.

Chemung, 731.

Chenango, 731.

Crooked Lake, 731.

Erie, 592, 671, 719, 751, 801, 825.
See also Erie canal.

Genesee Valley, 738, 764.

Oneida Lake, 738, 750.

Oswego, 731, 751, 762.

New York Central and Hudson
River Railway, 737, 849.

New York Commerce Commission,
conclusions, 745.

Niagara Falls, future development,
656; power tunnel, 651, 653.

Niagara Falls Chamber of Com-
merce, 657.

Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and
Manufacturing Co., 648, 649;
method of development, 649;
power furnished, 648, 650; supply
canal, 650.

Niagara Falls Park Reservation,
651.
Niagara Falls Power Co., 651; de-
velopment, 653; historical, 651—
5h); method of development, 652;

power furnished, 654—55.

Niagara Paper Co., 672.

Niagara River Hydraulic Tunnel,
Power and Sewer Co., 652.

Nichols, L. L., 462.

Noble, Alfred, 777.

North, Edward P., 741, 820.

North, William, 598.

Northern Inland Lock
Co., 582, 123, T26.

Navigation

Ogden, D. A., 601.

Ontario Power Co., 656.

Oswego canal, begun and completed,
731; principal facts, 751; water
supply, 762.

Oswego Canal Co., 834.

Paper industry, abuses, 872; capital
invested in New York, 865; cost
of domestic spruce per cord, 865;
effect of International Paper Co.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

on forestry, 870; effect of Inter-
national Paper Co. on water
storage, 872; exports, 866; growth
of paper and pulp business, 554;
mechanical pulp first used, 869;
New York compared with Massa-
chusetts, 866-67; number of es-
tablishments in New York, 866;
number of sulphite mills in New
York, 869; origin, 869; principal
woods used, 868; processes. of re-
duction to pulp, 868; quantity of
Canadian spruce, 865; quantity of
domestic spruce, 865; quantity
of timber cut, 872; relative rank
of New York, 868; soda process
first used, 869; sulphite process
first used, 869; total cost of ma-
terials, 865; total use of wood,
865; total value of product, 866;
use of rags, 866; use of steam-
power, 867; use of waterpower,
S67.

Partridge, John N., 796.

Patten, John, 821.

Peck’s History of Rochester, 442.

Percolation, summit level of deep
waterways, 791; through strata,
168.

Philadelphia Water Department, 80.

Pittsburg Reduction Co., 646, 659.

Ponzi, Prof., 424.

Population, density of in New York,

521: ruraly-bee.

Connecticut, 560.
Lockport, 671.
Massachusetts, 560.
Mohawk valley, 521.
New York city 1842, 667.
New York State, 520, 560.
Portage reservoir, 580.
Rhode Island, 560.
Rochester, 6038.
Staten Island, 712.
Wallkill river catchment, 701.
Warrensburg, 635.
Watertown, 225.

Porter, Augustus, 646, 648.

Porter, Peter B., 598.

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Queens County Water Co., 679.
Quinby, I. F., 4438.
Quintus, 315.

Rainfall, accuracy of records, 91;
air cooled by rain, 88; formula
for hight of gage, 85; low at
Hemlock Lake, Avon, Penn Yan,
Lyons and Geneva, 149; me-
teorological divisions, 514;
meteorological tables, list, 26;
minimum at various places in
New York, 97-104; relation of
May to runoff, 120; relation of
minimum to runoff, 105; rela-
tion to air circulation, 47; rela-
tion to hight of water in wells,
161.

Avon, 89.

Canadaway creek, 491.

Croton river, 189.

Eaton brook, 420, 421.

Genesee river, 108, 189, 308.

Great lakes, 294, 298, 311, 315,
316.

Hemlock lake, 89, 340, 498.

Hudson river, 107, 189, 629.

Jacksonville, 90.

Lake Champlain, 357.

Lake George, 648.

Long Island, 689.

Longs Peak, 91.

Loup river, Neb., 109.

Madison brook, 420, 421.

Massachusetts, western, 171.

Mississippi reservoirs, 299.

Mississippi valley, 90.

Mohawk catchment 1898, 479, 480.

' Mount Morris, 89.

Mount Washington, 91.
Muskingum river, 108, 189, 304.
New York State, 53-79.
Oatka creek, 494.
Pacific coast, 90.
Republican river, Neb., 109.
Rocky Mountain region, 90.
South Platte, Col., 109.
Western plateau, 715.
Wyoming county, 38.
Ramapo Water Co., 693.

897

Rankine, William B., 652, 654, 655.

Raymond, Charles W., 777.

Real estate

Connecticut, 561.
Massachusetts, 561.
New York, 561.
Rhode Island, 561.

Reservoirs, amount of water to
streams, 614; effect in moderat-
ing floods, 456; limit of stor-
age, 628; quantity of storage
on the several plateaus, 515;
relation on Mississippi to Great
lakes, 300; storage proportional
to catchment area, 582; water
supply of Greater New York,
681.

Adirondack region, 613.

Ashokam, 709.

Basher kill, 707.

Big Moodna creek, 707.

Billings, 709.

Black river, 572, 617, 621.

Black river canal, 541, 543.

Carpenters brook, 550.

Catskill creek, 573, 702, 705.

Cazenovia lake, 351; capacity,
760; loss of water, 169.

Cedar river, 271.

Croton river, 380, 578.

Delaware river, TOT.

De Ruyter, 351, 761.

Erieville, 351, 760; loss of water,
169.

Esopus creek, 261, 573, 704.

Fishkill creek, 578.

Forestport, 760.

Genesee river, 572, 574, 576, 581,
587.

Hadley, 627.

Hill View, 708, 709.

Hudson river, 621, 622, 627, 6380,
631, 645.

Indian lake, 269, 504.

Jamesville, 352, 761, 762.

Lake George, 644.

Little Moodna creek, 707.

Mahwah river, 707.

Neversink creek, 707.

Oneida lake, 773.

898

teservoirs (continued)
Oriskany creek, 417.
Otisco lake, 762.
Popolepen creek, 707.
Raquette river, 668.
Roeliff Jansen kill, 573.
Rondout creek, 707.
Salmon river,

632.
Schoharie creek,.5738, 702, 706.
Schroon river, 572, 625, 631, 633,
635, 636, 637.

' Shawangunk creek, 707.
Storniville, 708, 709.
Wallkill river, 573, 698.
Wappinger creek, 573.

Reynolds, 315.

Ries, Heinrich, 701.

Risler’s experiments, consumption
of water, 35; depth of water per

day, 36.

River Improvement Commission,
874.

Rivers, permanent commission to

571, 612, 615, 616, |

control, 567; relation in Maine |

of runoff to catchment, 126.

Allegheny, description, 282; scope, |

284; tributaries, 282.
Ausable, length, 249; undeveloped
waterpowers, 250.

Battenkill, fall, 266; water yield, |

267.

Beaver, storage at Stillwater, 223.

Black, chief waterpower points,
226; commissioners authorized,
545; complete regulation, 425;
early history, 224; lakes at
headwaters, 222; length, 222;
topographical subdivisions, 463 ;
water yield, 502.

Buffalo, what streams join to
form, 489.

Canisteo, slope, 490.

Croton, aqueduct, 680; area of
water surface, 400; cost of
catchment, 186; cost of reforest-

ing catchment, 187; direction of |

flow, 256; early flow, 667;
storage, 380; tributaries, 256,
578; water surface exposed to

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

evaporation, 191; water yield,
380. ;

Delaware, description, 289; pos-
sibility of power development,
291; slope, 289.

Desplaines, hight of
water, 301.

East, value, 292.

Genesee, annual flood a_ benefit,
451; deforested, 131; descrip-
tion, 210; early claimants for
damages at Rochester, 600; fall,
582; gagings of low water flow,
182; law of runoff, 446; low
water periods, 129; memorial
for damages on account of
canal, 599; precipitation highest
at source, 88, 89; proportion of
catchment in forest in 1846,
183; public highway, 598;
rapid runoff of upper section,
450; regulation, 583; relation
of floods at Mt Morris and
Rochester, 449, 450; relation of
flows at Mt Morris and Roches-
ter, 452; relative catchment at
Mt Morris and Rochester, 453;
summer floods, 450; total. horse-
power, 592; tributaries, 211;
weir measurements, 333, 334.

Hoosiec, fall, 265; reservoirs in
Massachusetts, 265.

Hudson, cost and capacity of com-
pensating reservoirs, 641; cost
of drawing logs, 40; direction of
flow, 251; effect of fresh water
inflow, 646; forestation, 131;
ice crop, 717; inland estuary,
251; length, 251; limit of de-
velopment, 504; logs marketed,
40; manufacture of bricks, 717;
navigable estuary, 31; power
development below Mechanic-
ville, 660; precipitation at
mouth higher than at source,
87; slope, 468; storage of
lumbermen’s dams, 504; titles
to lands derived from laws of
Holland, 581; tonnage, 718;

ground

HYDROLOGY OF THE

tributaries, 252; tributaries of
tidal portion, 468.

Indian, cost of storage, 271;
dam, 270.
Mohawk, cavities in limestone,

166; distance to headwaters of
tributaries, 478; division at
Little Falls, 482; _ principal
falls, 272; titles to lands de-
rived from laws of Holland,
581; effect of temporary pon-
dage, 479; tributaries, 252, 271.

Muskingum, low water periods,
Ss eed tn

Niagara, developments affecting,
292; discharge measurements,
aia:

Oswego, computed runoff for cer-
tain years, 153.

Raquette, complete regulation
possible, 425; fall, 666; power
development, 666.

Sacandaga, direction of flow, 267;
fall at Conklinville, 268.

St Lawrence, electrical develop-
ment, 658; high water, 322;
Long Sault rapids, 248; low
water, 322; difficult navigation,
794; power development, 657;
present development, 659.

Salmon river west, proportion of:

catchment in forest, 219; pro-
posed water supply for Syra-
cuse, 219.

Saranac, fall and length, 248.

Schroon, direction of flow, 269;
water yield, 400.

Seneca, canal along, 344; manu-
facturing on, 5388.

Susquehanna, deforested area,
486 ; slope, 284; water yield, 287.

Tiber, Italy, canal at mouth, 424;
not suited for water storage,
424; river conservancy commis-
sion, 423.

Wallkill, capacity of reservoir,
698; cost of reservoir, 700; de-
scription, 697; objections to
reservoir, 699; soil of reservoir
bottom, 702; water yield, 688.

STATE OF NEW YORK

899

Roberts, Louis, 869.

Rochester, dams, 605; discharge
through conduit of waterworks,
338 ; falls, 606; permanent power,
611; raceways, 607; subdivision
of water power among raceways,
607 ; steam power in use, 214; use
of soft coal, 588.

Rochester and Brush Electric Light
Co., 858.

Rochester, Carroll and Fitzhugh
race, 858.

Rochester Chamber of Commerce,
569, 574.

Rochester Water Supply Co., 847.
Roosevelt, Theodore, 742, 796.
Royal Electric Co., 357.

Runoff, amount, 202; constant rela-
tion to rainfall, 164; Dickens’s
formula, 116; erroneously esti-
mated, 324; effect of forests,
178 ; exponential formulas, 197;
formula, how derived, 110; no
general formula, 82; Ryves’s
formula, 116; gradually de-
creasing, 33; influence of lakes,
110; method of estimating ac-
curacy, 197; universally over-
estimated, 118; proportionate
part of rainfall, 119; rainfall to
produce any at all, 164; rela-
tion in Maine to catchment,
126; relations to ground water,
203; summer months in New
Jersey, 164; summer months in
New York, 164; variation for
different soils, 162; variation in
proportion to size of catchment,
126.

Canadaway creek, 493.

Croton river, 189, 378.

Eaton brook, 420, 421.

Fish creek, east branch, 616.

Genesee river, 39, 108, 189, 308.

Great lakes, 311, 315, 316, 321.

tTemlock lak, 238, 498 ; compared
with Thames river, 3490.

Hudson river, 107, 189; com-
pared with Genesee river, 591.

Loup river, Neb., 109.

900 NEW YORK

Runoff (continued)
Madison brook, 420, 421.
Mississippi reservoirs, 299.
Muskingum river, 108, 189.
Niagara river, 38, 315, 317, 319.
Oak Orchard creek, 674.
Oatka creek, 337; relations to
Genesee river, 333.
Oriskany creek, effect of reser-
voirs, 417.
Pequannock river, N. J., 127.
Republican river, Neb., 109.
St Lawrence river, 39, 322.
Schroon river, how modified, 400.
South Platte, Col., 109. >.
Thames river, 341.
Russell, John E., 294, 766.
Russell, Thomas, 90, 125, 489.

St Catharine, Board of Trade, 796.

St Lawrence Power Co., 658.

Saratoga Gas, Electric Light and
Power Co., 663.

Scatcherd, John W., 796.

Schenck, Martin, 576, 814.

Schieren, Charles A., 750.

Schoellkopf, Jacob F., 648.

Schroon River Pulp Co., 635.

Schuyler, Phillip, 723.

Scott, Thomas A., 745.

Seddon, James A., 317.

Sellers, Coleman, 658.

Seneca Lock & Navigation Co., 5386.
bat, 126, 729.

Seymour, Silas, 801, 814.

Shayne, C. C., 750.

Shelford, W., 424.

Skaneateles lake, damages awarded.
547; not part of Erie canal, 548:
fall, 546; first appropriated, 546;
historical, 545; loss of water from
outlet, 168.

Smith, Alexander R., 750.

Smith, S. A., 424.

Snow, John, 849.

Snowfall, data, 49; depth, 49.

South Shore Water Co., 679.

Springs, in ocean, 168; Morris run,
496; yield of at Akron, 863; yield

STATE MUSEUM

of near Batavia, 863; yield of at
Williamsville, 863.

Staten Island Water Supply Co.,
679.

Statistics, agriculture in relation to
waterpower, 565; importance of
right conclusions, 528; population
in relation to manufacturing, 560.

Stetson, Francis L., 652.

Streams, backward state of weir
measurements, 330; characteris-
tics, 427; concave profile, 422;
divided into three .parts, 422;
formula, 125; division into classes,
127; how gaged, 124; Howes
cave, 166; Lausanne, Switzerland,
167; Luray cave, 167; Mammoth
cave, 167; methods of gaging,
328; relation of flow to ground
water, 120; relation of geology to
runoff, 165; safe yield, 114; weir
formula, 331; weir measurements,
133.

Swamps, drainage, 568; value, 865.
Cicero, 864.

Conewango, 864.

Flint creek, 864.
Montezuma marsh, 864.
Oak Orchard, 864.
Tonawanda, 864.
Wallkill valley, 864.
Weedsport, 864.

Sweet, Charles A., 652.

Sweet, Elnathan, 576, 801.

Sweet, S. H., 422.

Swet, A. L., 675.

Symons, George J., 139.

Symons, Thomas W., 768, 796, 810,
820.

Talcott, S., 826.

Talcott, W. H., 826.

Tate, Thomas, 135.

Temperature, decreases with alti-
tude, 47; winter effect, 47.

Thomas, Evan, 575.

Thomson, Sir William, 658.

Thorold Board of Trade, 796.

Tracy, Henry, 498, 826.

HYDROLOGY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Topography

Black river, 463.

Croton river, 188.

Genesee river, 188.

Hudson river, 188.

Muskingum river, 188.
Traders Paper Co., 672.
Transportation, early, cost, 723; ex-

plorations for, 720, 770; time, 7238.
Trautwine, John C., jr, 330.
Trenton Falls Power Co., 278.
Turner, E. T., 88.
Turretini, Theodore, 653.
Twombly, Hamilton McK., 652.

Union Bag and Paper Co., 559.
Jnwin, W. C., 653.
Utica Gas and Electric Co., 665.

Vanderbilt, William H., 745.

Vanderbilt, William K., 652.

Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 593, 728.

Velschow, Franz A., 83.

Vermeule, C. C., 105, 121, 134, 164,
170, 186, 474.

Vernon-Harcourt, L. F., 425.

von Wex, Gustav Ritter, 427.

Ward, Lebbeus B., 680.
Ward, Lewi A., 443.
- Warrington, Robert, 137.
Vashington, George, 721.
Water analysis
Devil’s lake, 862.
Gates well, 846.
Genesee river, 856-57.
Hamilton Springs, 862.
Hemlock lake, 848.
Honeoye creek, 855.
Horseshoe lake, 862.
Lake Erie, 859-60.
Lake Ontario, 854.
Mill Springs, 862.
Oak Orchard creek, 861.
Snow springs, 850.
wells near Shelby Center, 861.
Water centers, area, 517; descrip-
tion of, 517; quantity of water
from, 519; streams issuing from,
518; towns supplied, 520.

901
Water periods, growing” 81; per-
centage of total runoff in storage
period, 119; replenishing, 81;
storage, 80.

. Waterpower, compared with agri-

culture,
ment,

567; future develop-
838; greatest develop-
e ment of reservoirs, 531; value,

of horsepower, 566; total in

New York, 571; use in paper

and pulp business, 554; average

of wheels, 571; wheels used for

gaging, 329; wheels ‘at~ Fort
Edward, 3873; wheels at Me

chanicville, 373.

Adirondack region, 555.

Ausable river, undeveloped power
i ee 1 ae

Battenkill river, 266.

Beaver river, 223.

Black river, chief points, 226.

Black Rock, obstruction. to naviga-
tion at, 670.

Canada creek, west, 665.

Cohoes, basis of original develop-
ment at, 235; interference with
at, 775;..price at, 835;~> mill-
power at, 836.

Erie Canal, 669.

Genesee river, 571, 574, 602.

Glens Falls, basis of original de
velopment at, 235. «

Hoosie river, 265.

Hudson river, 689; value on, 640.

Lake George, 643.

Little Falls, basis of original de-
velopment at, 235.

Lockport, basis of original de-
velopment. at, 235; price at, 836.

Massachusetts, use in, 554; ad-
vantage of, 562; reservoirs in
benefit to Hudson river, 531.

Massena, 248.

Medina, 674, 675.

Mohawk river, 272.

Moose river, 223.

Niagara Falls, historical, 646;

_ price at, 836. :

902 é NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
; ,' 7 %
Waterpower (continued) °
Oswego; basis of original develop-
ment at, 235; mill power at,
834; price at, 834.
Oswego river, waterpower, 218.
Rochester, basis of original de-
velopment at, 235; price at, 837°;
dams, 605.

New Jersey, 695; number of
municipal and _ private plants,
679; private companies, quantity
furnished, 679; quantity by
gravity, by municipal works, 680;
quantity, 679; quantity pumped
by municipal works, 680; relative

:
ee ey
*¥ ~»

92 ata vier Sooke . quantity of surface and ground ;
. Schoharie creek, 663. water, 679; report of commis- -
Schroon river, 635. sion, TOT; sources, 400; sources

Seneca river, 345.: enumerated, 694.
Watertown, basis of development | Water yield, Honeoye lake, 574;
at, 235. Lake George, 250; relation to
Water supply, based on gagings, changes in agriculture, 34, 37;
114; economy not desirable in Schoharie creek in comparison
canals, 829; estimates for with Canada creeks, Hast and
canals, 831; no specific rule for West, 511.
estimating, 831; necessity for | Watertown, erected a city, 225;
filtration, 712; municipal sup- origin of name, 225.
plies should be drawn from | Watson, Elkanah, 721, 723, 728.
forested areas, 187. Weed, Smith M., 741.
Buffalo, 858. 3 Weir, Charles G., 717.
Champlain canal, 752. West Troy Motor Co., 403..
Oswego canal, 762. Westerman and Co., 672.
Rochester, 841, 842, 858. Western Inland Lock Navigation
Staten Island, 712. > Co., 582, 722, 728, 124, 725, 726,
Syracuse, 547, 551. = 729, ' |
western New York, 841. Westinghouse Electrical and Manu-
Water supply of Brooklyn borough, facturing Co., 654, 657.

area, minimum flow and eleva- | Weston, Theodore, 687.
tion of original ponds, 687; how ‘Weston, William, 725.
collected, 683; driven wells, 690; Wheeler, W. H., 427.
historical, 681 ; private companies, Whipple, George C., 844.
682; Ridgewood system, 681; White, Canvass, 729. —
sources, 683; statistics of original, Whitridge, F. W., 652.

686; theory, 685-86. y Whitney, George J., 443.
Water supply of Greater New York, Wickes, Edward A., 652, 655.
advantages of, from Hudson river, Williams, Elisha, 586, 537.

696; Borough of Brooklyn, 678; Wisner, George Y., 777.
3orough of Queens, 678; Borough |! Witherbee, Frank S., 796.
of Richmond, 678; Bronx and | Witmer, John, 646.
Byram rivers, 677; cost from Woodhaven Water Supply Co., 679.
Hudson river, 696; daily con-.| Woodhull, Caleb S., 647, 648.
sumption, 875; gravity and pump- | Wright, Benjamin, 729. ‘
ing, 678; historical, 676; Hudson
_viver, 696; not available from | Young, Samuel, 728.

New York State Education Department
Science Division, April 25, 1905
Hon. Andrew S. Draper
Commissioner of Education

My DEAR sIR: I beg to transmit herewith for publication as a
bulletin of the State Museum a report entitled, The Mining and
Quarry Industry of New York State: Report of Operations and
Production during 1904, by David H. Newland, Assistant State

Geologist.
Very respectfully yours

Joun M. CLARKE

Director and State Geologist
State of New York

Education Department
COMMISSIONER’S ROOM
Approved for publication April 26, 1905

MS Breed

Commissioner of Education

New York State Education Department

New York State Museum

Joun M. CrarKe Director
Bulletin 93
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 13
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY

OF

NEW YORK STATE

REPORT OF OPERATIONS AND PRODUCTION DURING
1904

PREFACE

This bulletin is intended to present a summary of the mineral
resources of New York and their economic development. It covers
the principal facts regarding the character, occurrence and pro-
duction of the useful minerals, with brief discussion of existing
conditions in the related industries.

In many departments of the mineral industry a notably increased
activity has been manifest during the last few years, and to meet
the requests for information that are constantly received it has
seemed advisable to undertake a more elaborate investigation than
has been attempted hitherto. For that purpose a statistical
canvass has been made of the mines and quarries throughout the
State. The data incorporated in the following pages are based
mainly on information thus obtained.

Acknowledgment for assistance is due to those engaged in mining
and quarry enterprises; the requests for statistics and other details
of operations have met uniformly a considerate response that has
greatly facilitated the investigation.

In communicating with the various producers use has been made
of the list of mineral producers compiled in 1904 by Dr F. J. H.
Merrill, formerly State Geologist.

gio NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

INTRODUCTION

The mineral wealth of New York is overshadowed by that of
some states, but it is nevertheless a great natural endowment.
According to the reports of the Census office at Washington, New
York ranked 13th in 1902 in value of mineral production. The
total as compiled in the reports, however, does not take into
account the clay products (classed as mineral manufactures), the
value of which is more than one half that of all other materials
combined. In manufactures based on substances taken from
mines and quarries, the State was second with an aggregate of
approximately $500,000,000, which represented 23 per cent of all
its manufactures for the year.

The useful minerals that are produced, numbering over 20 in all,
are derived from a great number of localities distributed throughout
different sections. Nearly every county of the State is represented
by one or more branches of the industry. Building stones and
clays are naturally the most abundant and the most extensively
exploited. Of the former all the principal commercial varieties
occur, including many stones that are prized for monumental and
decorative work. Black, red and green roofing slates are quarried
in Washington county. Cement materials of high excellence occur
in inexhaustible quantities. In the manufacture of natural hy-
draulic cement the State has long held the leading position, while
the Portland cement industry, which has had a more recent origin,
is rapidly assuming prominence. The Adirondack region supplies
most of the crystalline graphite obtained in this country; its garnet
has a wide reputation for abrasive purposes. The talc deposits of
St Lawrence county are unique for size and quality of the material
yielded; they furnish great quantities to paper manufacturers in
the United States, besides supporting an important export trade.
Ulster county is the principal source of millstones of American make.
The salines and rock salt found in the western counties furnish
about one third of the domestic salt production. The establish-
ment of the soda industry within recent years has been due to the
abundance of these deposits and the economy with which they can
be exploited. Gypsum has been quarried in the central and western
parts of the State for many years, but until lately the material was
utilized almost solely for agricultural purposes. . With the recog-
nition of its adaptability to calcining, a new impetus has been given
to quarrying activity and an increased output has ensued. All
varieties of iron ore that are used in smelting occur in New York.
The Adirondacks and the Hudson Highlands contain numerous

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY git

deposits of magnetite; the Clinton formation extending across the
central and western counties carries hematite, which is also found
in the crystalline strata of St Lawrence county; and the Hudson
river region furnishes limonite and carbonate ores. Pyrite, a
sulfid of iron employed for making sulfuric acid, is mined in St
Lawrence county. The mineral springs of the State deserve
mention for their varied character and economic importance. In
addition to the revenue obtained from tourists and health seekers,
the waters are shipped in large quantities to every part of the
country. The absence of workable coal seams from the New York
geologic series is noteworthy, inasmuch as the great coal fields of
Pennsylvania begin but a few miles south of the state line. The
other mineral fuels, gas and petroleum, are represented, the former
being found over a wide area. Among the remaining mineral
substances that are produced to a greater or less extent are feldspar,
vein quartz, glass sand, infusorial earth, metallic paint, slate
pigment, sienna, lead and zinc ore and carbon dioxid.

The accompanying table gives the mineral production of New
York for the year 1904. The aggregate value of the products was
$27,766,905. There were approximately 10,000 workings (mines,
quarries and wells) which contributed to the output. Although
the conditions in some branches of the industry were not such as to
encourage unusual activity on the part of the producers, the results
exhibited by the returns indicate that on the whole substantial
progress was made.

Among the notable features of the year’s record was an increase
of about 80,000 tons in iron ore production which was the largest
since 1892. The outlook for continued growth of this industry
seems encouraging. For the last few years the resources of the
State have been exploited on a comparatively small scale owing to
the fact that the ores of other districts were more favorably situated
with regard to the principal markets and at the same time could be
more cheaply mined. The consumption of iron, however, is
increasing so rapidly in this country that the time can not be far
distant when additional sources of ore supply must be drawn upon
to a large extent. The Adirondack magnetite deposits undoubtedly
have great potential value. By a simple concentration process, as
now practised by the mining companies in this region, the ores can
be brought to a standard above the average obtained in most
districts; shipments ranging above 65 per cent in iron content are
being made to Pennsylvania furnaces. Some of the mines yield
low phosphorus ores that are much sought for by Bessemer steel
manufacturers.

gi2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The clay-working industry has steadily gained in importance.
The output during 1904 was valued at $11,504,704, showing a large
increase over the total for any previous year. Building materials
(brick, tile, terra cotta and fireproofing) constituted the principal
part of the production. The Hudson river district alone reported
an output of brick valued at $5,846,097. The manufacture of the
finer grades of pottery, to which, hitherto, little attention has been
given in this State, is becoming prominent. The porcelain wares
(electric supplies and tableware) made in 1904 represented a value
of nearly $1,000,000.

The hydraulic cement industry was influenced adversely by the
depressed state of the trade. Throughout the year the market for
both Portland and natural rock cement ruled so low that there was
little profit in their manufacture, and some companies preferred to
close down their plants than to sell at the prevailing prices. The
output of 3,258,932 barrels represented a reduction of about 25
per cent from the total for 1903.

The quarrying of building stone was also less active, due to the
smaller demand for the material in the larger cities. The value of
the stone products, exclusive of slate and limestone used in making
cement, aggregated $5,124,251. While the quarrying industry is
extensive there is still room for expansion, particularly for the
granites and marbles, the output of which represents a small pro-
portion of the quantity used annually in the State.

In salt manufacture the high rate of production that has been
maintained for the last few years was continued during 1904. The
total of 8,724,768 barrels or 1,221,467 short tons, was rather above
the average yield, although it was curtailed to some extent by the
small output of the plants making solar salt which experienced an
unusually poor season. A considerable proportion of the salt
production was converted into soda.

The combined value of the petroleum and natural gas produced
during the year was $2,261,967. There were no unusual develop-
ments in the oil fields, and the output which amounted to 1,036,179
barrels was about the same as in 1903. The production of natural
gas showed a moderate increase contributed mostly by wells in
Erie county. At the average value reported of 23 cents per 1000
cubic feet the total quantity of natural gas produced was 2,399,-
987,000 cubic feet, approximately equivalent for heating purposes
to 120,000 tons of coal.

Mineral waters with an output valued at $1,600,000, ranked well
up in the list of products. An important branch of the industry
that has been developed in New York is the recovery of carbon

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 913

dioxid for use in carbonating artificial waters. The gas occurs
abundantly at Saratoga Springs where several companies are
engaged in its production. It is liquefied under pressure and stored
in steel cylinders for transport to the consumers. The shipments in
1904: amounted approximately to 4,000,000 pounds valued at
$300,000.

Mineral production of New York in 1904

| UNIT OF |
PRODUCT petri Dua gsl ts QUANTITY | VALUE
|

Pogiand Cement... . s.< Gaia. . REE Tero (a £377. 302 $r 245 778
Natural rock cement.........| Barrels........ 1 881 630 I 207 883
Biting teriGle os je St . 2255) Thousands..... I 293 538 7 473 122
LO STE SS ehh pee oes rsa eee ees |e ee I 438 634
Other clay gS sje Stet, topes pes. DOR OAGL TEAL AES et TT 2 592 948
Crude clay.. Deere Print) DOLE tOomSe, 2c) . 8 959 17 164
DS Sas eee Short tons..;. 2 .). I 148 I7 220
Feldspar and quartz......... Long tons...... 8 703 28 463
IE Or ee ae Siort- Lns.. . «> 3 045 104 325
ee eeele 0019 vs), . 5s sats) OL’ tens. o5.. II 080 8 484
Reroqave. ©. PI SEL 87 | Poundsiep 201.3, aga%o27 IIg 509
Lo ee eee ee ere |, ERIOTE, BONS... zi... I5I 455 424 975
Tn So eee | Lee TONS. 5... 619 103 I 328 894
entero ae oe dee. te ee TI SES PSII QS POL OPERA 2I 476
Metatite maint, . suscwcv> ts. sJashert.tons. .. ... 4 740 55 768
RIE MIT Gy aeicis'c 5 <6 1s, 4 ss of “OOO CONS. . ... - 3 132 23 876
Mineral waters! '. . O20 20.0915 Gallons) flick. 8 000 000 I 600 000
Napatal Sasser. 6. - dennfa yest |, F000 cubic feet.|..12 309: 987 552 197
PEEIOICMAD Coca :s os cos sec Mats [cee ee as I 036 179 E Joo. 770
Pyrite.. es wire tee OMe OHS ES OF. 5 275 20 820
Salt.. Yet PAS BC 2) (a 8 724 768 2 102 748
Roofing slate. . ee hiss din MeL ATIES oa. ofaid 2s 18 ogo 86 159
Slate manufactures. SOS: OFS; Res ie BO, BJO ee eo Ye Aa 7 Ay
eA ees Ace AP ors tn Gite ot ots em ee nce 221 882
MRS le ee SAG cee gs ocak 'e S 5 syn Pivsimale 2 Hele aie 2 058 405
ne eee nee a VE te Yo avy 478 771
sasmesbonei >. gbidois dues. uvmetant toatl Woawdios. Fa t 896 697
ee ana a a ea iage | se ame. sFaime 468 496
EE. STC oe ee Short tons: >. 65 000 455 000

US <5 Tide apie wet 36 aes Se aera ea inane ean $27 766 go5

CEMENT

Hydraulic cement has been manufactured in New York for
many years. Natural rock cement was made in Ulster county
as early as 1826, the product having been used in the construction
of the Delaware and Hudson canal. The waterlimes of central
New York are said to have been discovered before 1820, but the
industry was not firmly established here till later. In 1828
the first plant was erected at Rosendale, a locality that soon

gi4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

gained wide prominence for the quality of its cement. By 1840
the production of Rosendale and vicinity amounted to 600,000
barrels annually, and for a long time the district has been the
largest center of natural cement manufacture in this country.
According to F. H. Lewis,’ the output in 1897 was approximately
3,500,000 barrels or 42% of the total reported for the United
States in that year. The natural rock of Erie county was first
used in 1839 when a mill was built at Akron. In 1870 a plant
was erected at Howes Cave, and in 1874 at Buffalo.

The manufacture of Portland cement has been a development
of the last 25 years. Its growth at first was retarded, no doubt,
by the natural cement industry which commanded an extensive
market, but recently it has made rapid progress. Portland cement
was manufactured in 1881 by the Wallkill Portland Cement Co.
near South Rondout, the first plant (other than experimental) to
be erected in the State. The Empire Portland Cement Co. began
operations at Warner in 1886 and has been active almost con-
tinuously since that time. Among other localities which were
early identified with.the industry are Wayland, Glens Falls and
Montezuma.

Crude materials adapted for cement manufacture are quite widely
distributed in New York, and are found at various geologic hor-
izons. In the Rosendale district the natural cement rock occurs in
the Cayugan series. Its thickness at Rondout is over 30 feet.
The rock is an impure magnesian limestone, containing 20%
or more of silica and alumina and 15 to 25% of magnesia. In
the central and western parts of the State, the cement beds are
mostly of Salina age. At Buffalo and Akron they measure seven

or eight feet thick.
-' For Portland cement the materials used include limestones,

marls, clays and shale. At one or two localities, limestone has
been found that can be ground and burned directly, yielding
a “‘natural Portland’ cement, but generally a mixture of two
materials is necessary to secure the proper chemical composition.
The greater number of plants in the State employ a mixture of
limestone and clay. The limestones are from the Trenton, Helder-
berg and Tully formations, while the clays belong to the Quaternary.
A single plant owned by the Cayuga Cement Co. of Ithaca, employs
shale from the Hamilton series in place of clay. A mixture of
Quaternary marls and clays is used by four companies.

_ The production of cement is carried on at present in 10 counties
of the State: Columbia, Erie, Greene, Livingston, Onondaga,

;, } The Mineral Industry. 1808. v. 6.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY O15

Schoharie, Steuben, Tompkins, Ulster and Warren. Of these
Onondaga county contains the largest number of plants, having
seven in operation last year, besides two that were idle. Four
companies produced cement in Erie county, three in Ulster county,
two in Greene and Steuben, and one each in the remaining counties
of the list. Erie and Onondaga counties make both Portland
and natural cements, but most of their product is of the latter
variety. In Ulster county only natural cement is made.

Production and trade in 1904

The total output of cement last year was 3,258,932 barrels,
valued at $2,453,661. Separated as to variety the total repre-
sents 1,377,302 barrels of Portland valued at $1,245,778, and
1,881,630 barrels of natural rock cement valued at $1,207,883.
There were 23 companies in operation during the year. The follow-
ing table shows the output distributed according to the localities
in which it was made. Where the number of producers was less
than three, the output has been combined with that of other
localities so as not to reveal the figures of individual companies.

Production of cement in 1904

aopeelixortawees, NATURAL HYDRAULIC
| 7 CEMENT
LOCALITY
Barrels Value Barrels Value
|
Erie G2, Oe ne Rae) ea ee 332 781| $149 112
PPAR winch in eats 0% a a 96 333 47 O10
Ulster ENT ACES ees a a | 6452516) orxr 761
Greene Romane PS es Tek ornare eam POeh ea ef ee eee ®
Gthes localities 24/32 0. .4..-06. 159 729 Gog goo AL eo ey aes
OT ee tees oh E379 sical 245 778| 1 881 630|$1 207 883

a Included in other localities; bincludes Columbia county; ¢c includes Schoharie county.

The output of Portland cement which was reported by 10 com-
panies (one company produced both Portland and natural rock
cement) was somewhat smaller than in 1903. The decrease may
be traced to the unfavorable state of the market, as there was
no falling off in the capacity of the works. Throughout the entire
year the prices for both Portland and natural rock cements ruled
so low that there was little profit for manufacturers. In fact,
some of the companies preferred to close down their plants rather
than to sell their product at the current quotations, and others

g16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

operated on a reduced scale. The depressed condition of the trade
was due to the largely increased output of the previous year in
nearly every section of the country. Owing to a temporary
decline in the demand, which recently has grown very rapidly,
many of the companies entered on the year with large stocks.
causing an oversupply that could not be disposed of except at
reduced prices. With the removal of this surplus from the market,
it is expected that the prices will reach a more normal level when
the manufacture can be profitably continued.

The quantity of natural rock cement reported represents a
decline of nearly one third from that of the previous year. The
decrease was most noticeable in the Rosendale district, but it
was also distributed among the other works. There were 14

companies engaged in this branch of the industry.
The list of cement producers in 1904 is as follows:

Portland cement
NAME
Alsen’s American Portland Cement Works
Catskill Cement Co.
Cayuga Lake Cement Co.

LOCATION OF OFFICE

Alsen
Smith’s Landing
Ithaca

Empire Portland Cement Co. Warner
Glens Falls Portland Cement Co. Glens Falls
Helderberg Portland Cement Co. Albany
Hudson Portland Cement Co. Hudson
Iroquois Portland Cement Co. Caledonia
Thomas Millen Co. Wayland
Wayland Portland Cement Co. Wayland

Natural rock cement

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Akron Cement Works Buffalo
EB. B. Alvord Co. Jamesville
Bangs & Gaynor Fayetteville
James Behan Cement Works Manlius
Consolidated Rosendale Cement Co. Rondout
Cummings Cement Co. Akron
Buffalo Cement Co. Buffalo
Helderberg Portland Cement Co. Albany
H. L. & W. C. Newman Akron
Newark Lime & Cement Manufacturing Co. New York city
New York Cement Co. Rosendale
Potter-Brown Cement Works Manlius
Thomas W. Sheedy Fayetteville
Spencer & McCarthy Jamesville

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY O17

The Cummings Cement Co., which is listed among the manufac-
turers of natural rock cement, has beena producer also of Portland
cement though it made no output of that material last year.
The Helderberg Portland Cement Co. produces both kinds. The
firm of Spencer & McCarthy was succeeded on April 1, 1904, by
the Jamesville Milling Co. The Empire, Hudson and Glens Falls
Portland cement plants were operated for a part of the year only.

CLAY

The manufacture of brick and other clay products is the most
important branch of the mineral industry in New York. Clay
deposits suitable for making the common wares are distributed
throughout every section in practically inexhaustible quantities
The rapidly growing market for these products has led to the
establishment of numerous manufacturing plants in recent years,
so that now there is scarcely an industrial center of any size in
which they are not produced. This is particularly true with
regard to the manufacture of building materials, which are being
employed more and more widely as an element in permanent
construction. Owing to their cheapness, durability and the
convenience with which they can be adapted to meet the varied
architectural requirements, the use of these materials will doubtless
continue to expand for a long time to come.

The manufacture of the finer grades of clay wares has not de-
veloped so rapidly as the other lines. In contrast with most
of the states along the Atlantic seaboard, New York possesses
almost no deposits of kaolin in quantity to be of economic value.
This fact has retarded, hitherto, the establishment of industries
in which kaolin is employed, but, with improved facilities of
transport, the deficiency has become less formidable to local
manufacturers. There are now several plants in the State making
tableware, electrical supplies and other porcelain and semipor-
celain wares.

The distribution of clays in New York as well as their character,
uses and industrial development has been exhaustively described
in a report by Heinrich Ries’, to which the reader is referred for
fuller details. The most valuable deposits now under exploi-
tation are those situated along the Hudson valley. They are
particularly adapted for the manufacture of brick, of which great
numbers are consumed in New York city. According to Dr Ries,
the deposits belong to two types: (1) estuary deposits of strati-

IN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 35. 1900.

918 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

fied sand, blue and yellow clay, and (2) cross-bedded delta deposits
composed of much coarser materials than those of the first class.
The clays are normally blue, but commonly show weathering
on the surface when they change to yellow. With the alternating
layers of sand, they form terraces that extend along either shore
of the river at altitudes ranging up to over 300 feet. The work-
able beds attain a thickness of 100 feet or more. Some of the more
prominent localities where these clays are utilized for brickmaking
are Haverstraw, Croton, Stony Point, Verplanck, Peekskill, Corn-
wall, New Windsor, Dutchess Junction, Fishkill, Roseton, Pough-
keepsie, Kingston, Saugerties, Catskill, Hudson and Albany.
The product of this region is confined to the common grades of
building brick.

The northern and central portions of Long Island contain
Cretaceous clays, some of which are adapted for stoneware and
coarser pottery. Brick clays occur abundantly, and are worked
at Garden City, East Williston, Farmingdale, Port Jefferson,
Southold and Greenport. The manufacture of pottery is carried
on by several firms in Brooklyn, but most of the materials used
in the better wares are derived from without the State.

The clays of Staten Island are important and of varied quality,
Some of the purer grades approach kaolin in composition and have
a white color. They have been employed largely in making terra
cotta. A plant for the manufacture of this material is located
at Tottenville. Fire brick and pressed brick are produced at
Kreischerville and common brick at Green Ridge.

In the interior of the State clay deposits are quite uniformly
distributed, but their economic utilization is confined mostly
to the vicinity of the larger towns. ‘They are nearly all of glacial
origin, though more or less modified by sedimentary processes.
They occur in basin-shaped beds that range up to 50 feet or more
in thickness. In the western counties the principal centers of clay
working are Rochester and Buffalo, both cities drawing their
supplies of building brick from local plants. The manufacture
of pottery, building tile, fire brick, sewer pipe and draintile is
also carried on here. Roofing tile of excellent quality is made at
Alfred, Allegany Co. The largest potteries in the State are located
at Syracuse; their products include earthenware, china and
electrical supplies. Besides common brick, for which an extensive
local market exists, the city is an important producer of paving

brick.

—_—9

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY gig

Along the Mohawk valley the clay deposits are exploited for
building brick, while at Troy considerable quantities of fire brick
and stove lining are also made.

Throughout the central and southern counties of the State,
the Devonian strata covering this section include frequent beds
of shale, much of which is quite argillaceous and can be used for
the same purposes as clay. Up to the present time they have been
little developed, though their value has been satisfactorily de-
monstrated by the results obtained in their practical application.
Among the products that have been made from this material
are building and paving brick, terra cotta, roofing tile, fireproof-
ing and 'sewer pipe. l

Production of clay materials

The statistics set forth in the following pages have been com-
piled from returns made by the various producers of clay materials
for the year 1904. It is believed that they are complete and accu-
rate, as reports have been received from nearly every manufacturer
in the State.

The total value of the various clay materials manufactured in
New York last year amounted to $11,504,704. This total is
undoubtedly a record one, largely exceeding that of any previous
year. It represents the combined output of 245 plants scattered
over 43 counties of the State. More than one‘half of the product
in value consisted of common building brick, which aggregated
$7,234,876. Front brick and fancy building brick accounted
for only $238,246 of the total, and vitrified paving brick for $210,707;
both being exceeded by the output of fire brick and stovelining,
which was valued at $506,800. The manufacture of draintile
reached a total of $149,864, and sewer pipe a total of $460,000.
The product of terra cotta was valued at $798,028; fireproofing
at $157,119, and building tile at $206,503. In addition there were
produced miscellaneous products, including flue lining, fire tile
and shapes, conduit pipes, sidewalk brick and acid-proof brick,
the collected value of which was $103,927. The potteries of the
State reported an output valued at $1,438,634.

920 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Production of clay materials in 1904

Material Number Value

COMMOR’ DICE! tao. sons win ts api eee te ee $7 234 876
Frone tricks « 3520). s(e/s 0 Se eae Oe ee 17 679 000 238 246
Vitrified paving! brick: .cscquip ade a -at 16 35I 000 210 707
ise Weick BRO SLOVe Gite. c 2... on a cor on 1 pia) ere 506 800
Draintile teh SA A AO SE BY. ae 149 864
WOME! HIPs. faoyvide ace sachs. cure fepeepentcl esheRewee a aee 460 000
Serta COLEA. cece es Stee ee ee ogre Nemeth eee en 798 028
Pireproorng 120.52. (2b Siac ey Das eee eee 157 119
Brilding, files!) 006 deja: - sttas~n<84¥sehhere: seeeeae bee 206 503
PEiseeChaneaus: f.'1. 02... ce eee ote Nake Bs eon [lve Re gochateye ee 103 927
Patieryecsic’ . cP ist OSes. Se ee | eee e ence eee, I 438 634

‘Total... \ix.-elaiaasace. etn. 4c - | $11 504 704

The distribution of the products according to counties shows
that Rockland county has the most extensive clay-working in-
dustry. The value of its output last year was $1,422,436, re-
ported by 34 plants. Its importance is due to the extensive
manufacture of common building brick, which are supplied to
the New York city market. This statement may be applied also
to Ulster county, which ranks second with a total of $1,274,284,
and to Dutchess county, which is third with a total of $932,907.
On the other hand, Onondaga county standing fourth in the list,
with an output valued at $916,954, is chiefly represented by pot-
tery, while brickmaking is very subordinate. The other counties
that reported a production of over $500,000 in value are Orange
($690,064), Monroe ($658,058), Albany ($648,973), Erie ($647,334)
and Kings county ($539,288). The following table shows the
value of all kinds of clay products made in the different counties of

the State.
Production of clay materials by counties

County Total value County Total value

|

|
SRE a 32,0 ok $643" 973° | Palton 547-4: oe 4 000
MAING 6 6a u. 5 stint w «is ra7..552° | oTeene octet ct 232 924
PP asian acne = u's 22 000 | Jefferson ......-... 30 467
AVIS fo iP ois Sta 24 520°) Kangs, do. soo. Pe 539 288
SBeULAMCUS. «0.605 << 83.405, 4. Mamsoin.é.6 woelens 16 400
OS sre 96.300, 1 Monte ects 658 058
cs Oe ae § -o00*| ‘NSSHRtA Weer cit os 52 644
NIRS MES, os us a vase un 420 500 | Ni@@ArA cht acces 16 892
oo OS err 932 967 (| Dmesda...., cone 145 880

1 ra eee 647 334 | Onondaga......... 916 954

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY g21

Production of clay materials by counties (concluded)

County | Total value County | Total value

|

| |
OS ee $245 743 | Steuben......)..:. | $176 613
EB 83 a 690 064 | Suffolk...........| 86 112
Rensselaer ....... Noes 257. SSE -§ Lempins o o00+ 1x: | I7 715
Cee i 488 873 4 Ulstero2.<.....>-- I 274 284
re I 422 436 | Washington.......| 15 755
ore he 331 360 | Westchester....... 354 705
na ee ee rae Ig 175 | Other counties a...| 502 120

| Bataba, 2..1.4ef $1x 504 704

a Includes the following: Genesee, Lewis, Montgomery, New York, Queens, St Lawrence
Schenectady,,Warren, Wayne and Wyoming.

The manufacture of building brick

The total number of common and front brick used for build-
ing purposes made in 1904, amounted to 1,293,538,000 valued
at $7,473,122. Of this quantity, 1,275,859,000 valued at
$7,234,876 were common brick, and 17,679,000 valued at $238,246
were front brick. The manufacture of these materials was carried
on in 37 counties, with a total of 187 plants. The average price
received for common brick throughout the State was $5.67 a
thousand, and for front brick $13.48 a thousand. For common
brick the prices ranged from $8 a thousand, the average reported
by plants in Steuben county, to $4, the average for Montgomery
county.

Production of building brick in 1904

| COMMON BRICK | FRONT BRICK
| |
COUNTY |

Number | Value | Number | Value

| | | |

| Peers. Wid Per aoe eg |= cS.
Albany). .25 P's: 78 500 000 CT ye Bergh a me | ret ae b tee fl
Allegany. .......- I 516 000 HOGS ~ sis. sane. 2 it mereys - eels:
io a 4 000 000 | Se eS Oe ae Spree
Cayuga .| 3 320 000 Me iGO” TAY Ls Roe TS SOs |
Chautauqua....... | 6 619 000 $9099 <c!i2- 94554 rE ee
CHO. os. a - | 15 500 900 | SS el Ee oa cael Eee nd ee
Clintons $3.2 2) I 000 000 Se ooo jlo. 2¥. iS DSi iaey:
Columbia .5 si: 2sre4 73 280 000 42065007) 1.43 Bo. Sartre HAR.
Rittceiee ss 505 5% | 167 299 000 932 707 | 20 000 | $200
atiet Hairy reas | 62 286 000 292 448 | 3 750 000 | 32 250
Greene... 3.3). +«%| 71 J8:,05F: 000 Sed adaile . nt . dacty: ee arr!
jeherstw... =. -. 4 4 577 000 WO GT) Sata ce Seri: | nye ee oe
Madison (10, 26.5 7\\ 400 000 MS US Soe tee oe SP OS IEE,

Q22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Production of building brick in 1904 (concluded)

COMMON BRICK FRONT BRICK
COUNTY
Number Value Number Value

Monroe: o.588 $207 22 394 000 $229 ‘030) Si F0oc2 | eee
Nassans foo 24324 7 600 000 | ° 47044 1) opera 6) eee
PR ACALD. 6 wis 3 sie s4 2 852 000 16 'B2: 4 Hos to eee
@Gaeida ry. weed e3s 18 880 000 §5. 8So: | .. be cwcetss | ee,
Onondaga..:...... 20 750 000 I20 O17 500 000 $5 o00
OntaTio ree oh ws 2 618 000 15 738 7 I00 000 77 goo
Orahise FF iotew es 12I 803 000 690 064: |<. Sniveow +) |) epee
Rensselaer........ 17 232° 000 85: (904) [i ve2s 2 0. | Se ee
Michaioad iss osi il ps ae Och eae eaters 2 809 000 86 146
Rockiatia.. +... o. 239 813 000 toe wee eet ee aol. dip ence
St Lawrence....:.; 600 000 J OOO 6 sac 5 oe ee eee
Saracora Gwe ks aps 58 070 000 964 2 SO7 uo en oes bl ee ee
SeNeCH.. oer eee 2 025 000 LOOT eee. eed
SEEM DER oo eid ce tone 4 485 ooo 25 (S560 oc ck ge ek 1 re
GNSS. roe ce I5 050 000 Ee 9 pea We Neder edie ag thy Gee Ragewte ¥ 5
Pompkinss s/h 2 26 2 720 000 T6340 af) SAD EMSS See See
AOIGET cid 5.3 cee 21g I06 000 ee he ee ee ROR Mei Sar
Wieartetit!”.. osces 2 5 724 000 26 O25 | ore cae te Tee eee
Washington....... I 275 000 7 OOOrh hiay cove. eee.
Westchester....... Bi 234 Go 287 295 3 500 000 36 750
Other counties a.. 5 280 000 24OTG Vs witaen se tO ee

folie Steg ee eee Iz 275 859 000 | $7 234 876 | 17 679 0c00 $238 246

————— — —_

a Includes Fulton, Lewis, Montgomery and Wayne counties.

Hudson river region. The counties along the Hudson river
are the largest producers of building brick in the State. Owing
to the extensive market afforded by New York city and the low
costs of transport by river, the industry in this section is excep-
tionally situated so far as commercial conditions are concerned.
There is probably no other region in the world where the manufac-
ture of brick has attained to similar proportions. The counties
included in this region are Rensselaer, Albany, Columbia, Greene,
Ulster, Dutchess, Orange, Rockland and Westchester. With the
exception of Albany and Rensselaer, which probably consume
the greater part of the local product, their output is marketed
almost entirely in New York city.

During 1904 the number of brick made was 1,009,838,000,
valued at $5,846,097. This total represents about 78% of the
whole product of the State. There were 110 companies reporting
as active, of which Rockland county was represented by the
largest number, 34, while Ulster was second on the list, with 21,
and Dutchess third, with 17. The average number of brick made

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 923

in each plant was 9,180,000. The price reported for the whole
district averaged $5.79 per thousand. Two companies, Ryan
& McFarren of New Windsor, and Coyne & Tanney of Haverstraw,
reported an output for the first time in 1904.

Output of brick in the Hudson river region

Number Average
County of Output Value price
plants per M
PMUAMAYT a4 fot Este 9)k «lo 2 ooh 8 78 500 000 $462 973 | $5 go
Outi. os tates es ss 6 ack > 4 73 280 000 420 500 5774
BI GCHESS as breed) ses Ee 167 319 000 932 907 5 58
PGCNG. is wine ss vn ROE 4 38 O51 000 232 924 6 12
ES a 9 12I 803 000 690 064 5 67
IRGOSSOISCTS£ Giese. bei eee ss 6 £7 232;.000 85 964 4 98
BGG wage) oo... «Ayer ce aro 34 220 813 Oce. fi 422° 430 Bi O38
isvetisse ss of ewe stones aT 2Ig 106 000 I 274 284 5 82
WVEStEM SSE OR lai cechetere os 7 54 734 000 324 045 5 92
Mr Oiaita ect. Be. css II0 |r 009 838 000 | $5 846 097 | $5 79

Other clay materials

The manufacture of paving brick was carried on in Chautauqua,
Onondaga, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Steuben and Tompkins counties.
There were eight companies engaged in the business, and the number
of brick made was 16,351,000, valued at $210,707.

Fire brick and stove lining were manufactured in Albany,
Chautauqua, Erie, Kings, Monroe, Oneida, Rensselaer, Richmond,
Steuben and Westchester counties. The value of the output
amounted to $506,800, reported by 14 companies.

Draintile and sewer pipe were manufactured by 27 companies
located in Allegany, Cayuga, Chautauqua, Chemung, Erie, Genesee |
Kings, Madison, Monroe, Onondaga, Ontario, Saratoga, Seneca,
Steuben and Tompkins counties. The draintile output was
valued at $149,864, and that of sewer pipe at $460,000.

Terra cotta, fireproofing and building tile were produced in
Albany, Allegany, Erie, Genesee, Kings, Monroe, New York,
Onondaga, Queens, Rensselaer, Richmond and Steuben counties,
by a total of 16 companies. The value of the production was:
terra cotta, $798,028; fireproofing, $157,119; building tile, $206,503.

Pottery

/
The grades of pottery made in New York range from common
earthenware to porcelain. Formerly there was little of the finer

924 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

wares produced in the State, due undoubtedly to the lack of suit-
able raw materials This disadvantage is offset, to some extent
at least, by better market facilities than can be had in most
sections of the country, and with low transport rates local manufac-
turers are not seriously handicapped in the competition for trade.
The industry is still a small one, but it seems to be placed on a
permanent basis.

The following table shows the production of the various articles
of pottery for 1904. In case the output of any particular ware
was reported by only one or two producers, it has been grouped
with that of other wares, so as not to reveal the individual figure.

Production of pottery in 1904

Ware | Number of Value of

producers product
Stoneware 15). CP be. LEG Ssh Ce RO Sh ae ee 5 $77 726
Red éarthenware-cc....} oh Po Se s sr hoes ee eee 7 44 990
Porcelain ‘and ‘semi porcelains. 08". 5. 22 2 eee é 740 000
Electric and sanitary stpplies: .c6u./>... 28%. ae 6 490 095
Miscelianeousens2. <..././7 BE priOsatee « PRao. Sees 9 85 823
Fobal.2.2 WO, ee. Rae: Ge eee 30 $1 438 634

a Includes china tableware.

The miscellaneous products not separately enumerated include
yellow and rockingham wares, clay tobacco pipes, fire clay cru-
cibles and artistic pottery.

Altogether 12 counties participated in the production which
was reported by 22 companies. Onondaga county was the largest
manufacturer of pottery, its output for the year being valued
at $673,590. Kings county ranked second with an output valued
at $279,009, and Erie third with $200,300. The remaining counties
reporting a production were Albany, Madison, Ontario, Monroe,
Nassau, Oneida, Schenectady, Suffolk and Washington. The list
of manufacturers includes the following:

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE PRODUCT
Albany City Pottery Albany Red earthenware
Henry Betz & Bros. Buffalo Red earthenware
Buffalo Pottery Co. Buffalo Semiporcelain
Charles Kurth Ridgewood L.I. Tobacco pipes

Empire China Works Brooklyn Electric supplies

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY g25

Charles Graham Chemical

Pottery Works Brooklyn Stoneware and san-
itary ware
Greenpoint Pottery Brooklyn Stoneware
Gottlieb Umbach Brooklyn Cooking ware
Union Porcelain Works Brooklyn Stoneware and red
earthenware
Central New York Pottery
Co. Chittenango Yellow ware
John Schmidt Rochester Stoneware and red
earthenware
John B. Benkert Corona Stoneware and red
earthenware
White’s Pottery Inc. Utica Flemish stoneware
Onondaga Pottery Co. Syracuse China ware
Pass & Seymour Inc. Syracuse Electric supplies
Edward Reagan Syracuse Tobacco pipes
Syracuse Pottery Co. Syracuse Red earthenware
George Zimmerman Belle Isle Red earthenware
Locke Insulator Mfg. Co. Victor Electric supplies
Bellevue Porcelain Works Schenectady Electric supplies and
crucibles
T. A. Brouwer jr Westhampton Art pottery
Hilfinger Bros. Fort Edward Stoneware and red
earthenware
Crude clay

In the foregoing tables relating to clay products, no account has
been taken of the quantity of clay entering into their manufacture.
There are a few producers in the State, however, who do not utilize
the crude clay themselves, but ship it to plants in other localities.
Some of the material, like the Albany slip clay, is even forwarded
to points without the State. For 1904 returns have been received
from eight firms engaged in this industry whose total shipments
amounted to 8959 tons, valued at $17,164. Of this quantity 3228
tons valued at $9630 consisted of slip clay and the remainder of
common clay, fire clay and kaolin.

EMERY

Deposits of emery are found in Westchester county, southeast of
Peekskill. The mines, which were first opened for iron ore, occur
along the contact of basic igneous intrusions belonging to the gabbro
series. They are mostly shallow, and ordinary quarrying methods
are employed in extracting the material.

926 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The emery is composed of corundum, magnetite, spinel and garnet
in varying proportions. The product is ground and made into
wheels, for which purpose it is said to give good satisfaction, though
inferior to imported emery.

The production of emery in 1904 amounted to 1148 short tons,
valued at $17,220, which was less than in the previous year. There

were four concerns engaged in active mining: the Blue Corundum
Co. of Boston Mass., the Tanite Co. of Stroudsburg Pa., H. M. Quinn
of;Philadelphia Pa., and J. R. Lancaster of Peekskill. The Hamp-
den Corundum Wheel Co. of Springfield Mass., made no output

last year.
FELDSPAR AND QUARTZ

Feldspar suitable for pottery purposes is obtained near Bedford,
Westchester co. It occurs in the pegmatite dikes intersecting the
crystalline rocks of that region and is associated with quartz, mica
and tourmalin. In some of the dikes the feldspar forms large
masses or crystals, quite free from impurities, while in others it is
intergrown with quartz; only the former occurrences, however,
have commercial value. The feldspar belongs to the variety known
as orthoclase, which is characterized by a high potash content. It
varies from dark red to white in color. The chemical composition
is shown by the following analysis: Si0,, 65.85%; Al,O;, 19.32%;
Fe,O;, .24%; KO and Na,O, 14.1%; CaO, .56%; MgO, .08%.
The Bedford quarries have been worked since 1878. At present
the only producer is P. H. Kinkel & Son. The output is shipped
mostly to pottery manufacturers at Trenton N. J. A feldspar
quarry opened near Ticonderoga in 1900 was active for a time.
The deposit is said to range from ro to 4o feet in width and to carry
75% feldspar, 20% quartz and 5 % mica.

Vein quartz is produced near Bedford for pottery use and the
manufacture of wood filler and silicate paint. Its occurrence is
similar to that of the feldspar already described. The largest
producer is the Bridgeport Wood Finishing Co. of New Milford Ct.

GARNET

The production of garnet for abrasive uses is a well established
industry in the Adirondack region. The excellence of the product
from a commercial standpoint and the relatively large yield ob-
tained from the rocks of this section combine to give the quarries a
material advantage over other localities where garnet has been

worked.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 927

The Adirondack garnet belongs to the common or almandin
variety. It is found associated with hornblende-feldspar rocks as
crystals that range from small size up to masses measuring sev-
eral feet across. The rocks show great variation in the quantity
of garnet present, but only the best or richest portions are exploited.
The general procedure consists in breaking down the rock, crushing
sufficiently fine to release the garnet, and washing. In many cases
the crystals have been so shattered by dynamic forces that they
readily part from the accompanying rock after blasting. Some
difficulty is experienced in the separation of the garnet mechanically
owing to the fact that its specific gravity is but little greater than
that of the accompanying hornblende. A special form of concen-
trator introduced by the North Creek Garnet Co. has solved this
difficulty very successfully. A product is made which carries less
than 5% impurities.

The Adirondack quarries are situated in the Hudson river valley
near the Essex-Warren county boundary. North Creek is the
principal point of shipment. The largest operators in recent years
have been the North River Garnet Co., owning quarries a short
distance west of North River, and H. H. Barton & Son, with proper-
ties on Gore mountain, a prominent peak southwest of North Creek.
Other concerns have been active at various times, but their output
has been small and intermittent.

The production of New York garnet in 1904 amounted to 3045
short tons valued at $104,325, about the same quantity as in the
previous year. The average value of the product was $34.25 a
short ton. The chief demand for garnet is in the wood-working and
leather industries.

The North River Garnet Co. has a mill under course of erection
on Thirteenth lake, a few miles southwest of the present plant.
The latter will be dismantled and operations confined to the new
locality as soon as the equipment can be installed.

GLASS SAND AND MOLDING SAND

Deposits of sand suitable for building and constructive purposes
occur in almost every section of the State. No attempt has been
made to canvass the industry owing to the difficulties which would
attend such an investigation. The value of the material, as a rule,
is little more than the cost of excavation and transport to market.

Glass sand is found in great abundance on the shores of Oneida
lake and contiguous territory. The principal workings have been
in the towns of Rome, Verona, Vienna, Oneida co. and Constantia,

928 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Oswego co. The deposits vary from 6 inches to 3 feet in thickness
and are covered by a few inches of soil. After sieving and washing
the sand is ready for market. It is consumed in the manufacture
of window glass, and common glassware, and nearly all of the
product goes to points within the State, principally to Rochester,
Ithaca, Lockport, Black Rock, Syracuse and Clyde. An analysis
of the sand from West Vienna furnished by B. Delahunt, manager
of the Oneida Lake Sand Mine, shows its composition to be as
follows: SiOz, 98.6%; Fe,O3, .23%; AlOs, .17%; MgO, trace.

There were only three producers that reported an output in 1904:
F. L. Marsden & Co., Bernhard’s Bay; J. L. Bentley, Fish Creek;
and the Oneida Lake Sand Mine, Cleveland. The total shown by
their reports was 11,080 short tons, valued at $8484. According
to statistics collected by Prof. C. H. Smyth jr, the output in 1902
was approximately 8700 tons.

Molding sand of excellent quality is supplied from the Hudson
river valley. In Albany county, at Delmar and Selkirk, there
are large deposits which yield the finest grade of sand for the manu-
facture of stove and other castings that require a smooth finish.
In a recent paper by F. J. H. Merrill’, it is stated that Albany sand
is considered so superior for fine work that shipments are made to
distant points at an expense of nearly $3 a ton for freight. De-
posits are also worked near Coxsackie station in Columbia county and
near Camelot and New Hamburg in Dutchess county. The molding
sand forms a stratum from 1o inches to 3 feet thick underlying the
surface soil. The owner of the land receives on the average about
$2.50 an acre as royalty for removing the deposit. It is said that
after an interval of years a second stratum of molding sand may be
taken from land that has previously been worked.

A refractory sand known as fire sand is used in foundries for
making cores. This material is supplied to some extent from the
Oneida lake deposits. The output reported in 1904 was 4000 tons,
valued at $1200.

GRAPHITE

Graphite is widely distributed through the metamorphic rocks
of the Adirondacks, but so far active mining operations have been
confined to a few localities. The most productive region is in the
vicinity of Lake George, in Warren and Washington counties.
Deposits of crystalline graphite have been exploited here for a long
time and they continue to yield the greater part of the high grade
material produced in this country.

1Eng. & Min. Jour., Sep. 1, 1904. Pp. 341.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 929

© The graphite occurs in small veins and dikes intersecting the
metamorphic strata and in the form of thin crystals or scales dis-
seminated through quartzites, schists and limestones. The veins
are perhaps the richest of all the deposits, though they rarely, if
ever, occur in sufficient size to be valuable. The graphite is found
in leaves and larger masses, more or less admixed with quartz but
otherwise free from impurities. These deposits bear some re-
semblance to the dikes, which also yield a coarsely crystalline
product associated with feldspar, quartz and other minerals com-
mon to pegmatite. The only successful attempt at working a dike
has been at Chilson hill near Ticonderoga, where operations were
carried on for several years by the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Asa
rule there is little regularity in the occurrence of pegmatite deposits,
and this fact detracts from their value as mining propositions.

The graphitic quartzites, schists and limestones, while not so
rich as the veins and dikes, are more persistent and can be worked
on a larger scale. At present they are the basis of all active opera-
tions in the State. The graphite occurs in finely divided particles
disseminated throughout the rock mass; its recovery is a matter of
some difficulty, since the rock must be broken down to such a size
that the graphite is released and then subjected to concentration the
reverse of the process usually followed in separating ores from
gangue. ‘The difficulty is greatly increased if the graphite is accom-
panied by other scaly minerals like those of the mica group.

The most successful graphite mine in the Adirondacks is that
worked by the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., in the town of Hague,
five miles west of Lake George. The deposit consists of a bedded
quartzite associated with the schists and gneisses of that region.
It is of great extent and for several years has supplied almost the
entire product of the State. The company operates two mills for
the separation and refining of the graphite, one situated at the mine
and the other at Hague. A feature of the concentration process
at the latter place is the use of the Hooper air jig which has been
found to be well adapted for treating graphitic rocks of this char-
acter.

Aside from the operations of this company there was little graph-
ite produced in New York during 1904. The mine and works of the
Adirondack Mining & Milling Co. on South bay near Dresden, were
inoperative for most of the year, as were those owned by the Ticon-
deroga Graphite Co. The latter concern has been taken over by
the Columbia Graphite Co. of Pittsburg Pa. The mines are situated
near Rock pond between Ticonderoga and Schroon where there is a

930 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM — -

mill equipped with stamps and buddles. In character the deposit
resembles the graphitic quartzite of Hague, but it is of larger size
and somewhat lower in grade.

A new undertaking is the Champlain Graphite Co., which was
organized late in the year to develop a deposit of graphitic schist
near Whitehall. A mill is now under course of construction. The
Silver Leaf Graphite Co. of the same place did not engage in pro-
ductive operations during the year.

Some attempts to mine graphite have been made on the opposite
side of the Adirondacks in St Lawrence county. Both veins and
disseminated deposits occur in association with crystalline schists.
Some development work was done last year on a prospect near
Pope Mills, town of Macomb. The graphite occurs as fine scales
in schist and the deposit is said to be extensive. About 500 tons
of rock have been taken out and a mill has recently been completed.

The production of crystalline graphite from New York mines in
1904 Was 3,132,927 pounds, valued at $119,509. There was little
change in the output compared with previous years.

The International Acheson Graphite Co. of Niagara Falls re-
ported a production of 3,248,000 pounds of artificial graphite,
valued at $217,790.

GYPSUM

The gypsum quarried in New York is the rock or massive variety.
It occurs as interbedded deposits in the shales and limestones of the
Salina stage. Seams of selenite, the crystallized variety, some-
times accompany the deposits, but they are so limited as to have
little economic value. The rock gypsum usually contains clay,
carbonates, silica and other impurities, the presence of which
in appreciable quantities is injurious to its use for some purposes.
Till recently most of the gypsum obtained in the State was ground
and sold as land plaster. It has been found, however, that the
better quality of rock can be utilized in manufacturing wall plaster,
and several companies have engaged in this industry which now
consumes the greater part of the quarry output.

The main gypsum beds outcrop near the southern edge of the
area occupied by the Salina strata. The latter have a quite uniform
dip to the south. Smaller deposits occurring in the lower horizons
of the Salina are not worked. The number of beds in any given
locality varies, but usually two at least have been found. In
order to facilitate operations, the workings are located near the
outcrop of the deposits, where there is the least overburden. No

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 931

effort has been made to carry on exploitation at any considerable
depth, and in most cases ordinary quarrying methods are employed
for extracting the rock. The edges of low hills are considered
favorable points for opening new deposits. After the beds have
been followed back into the hill for some distance, if the overlying
strata are heavy, the work may be continued. under cover as in
mining.

The gypsum when first extracted is gray or drab in color, becom-
ing lighter on exposure. Organic matter seems to be the principal
coloring agent. The presence of iron oxids gives a brownish tint to
the rock which can not be removed by calcination.

Quarries have been opened at frequent intervals along the out-
crop of the Salina formation. The most easterly points where
gypsum is produced are in Madison county, near Cotton and Hoboken-
ville. The output inthis region is small and is used locally for land
plaster. In Onondaga county there are quarries at Fayetteville,
Manlius Centre, Marcellus and Half Way, those at Fayetteville
being most important. At the latter locality the gypsum attains
a maximum thickness of 60 feet, made up of several beds ranging
from 18 inches to 30 feet each. The output is used in part for land
plaster; the greater quantity, however, is calcined either by the
local cement plants or by the wall plaster manufacturers that have
works in Syracuse. At Union Springs, Cayuga co., a large quarry
has been operated for a number of years, the first opening having
been made in 1828. The deposits in Ontario county near Port
Gibson and Victor are not worked at present. They have pro-
duced mostly land plaster. In Monroe county the town of Wheat-
land is an important center of the industry. The product goes to
mills located at Garbuttsville and Wheatland which make land
plaster, plaster of paris and wall plaster. Still farther west in
Genesee county, gypsum is quarried extensively at Oakfield where
large plaster works have been built. The deposit is not so thick
here as in the eastern localities, but owing to its lighter color it is
better adapted for calcination. In Erie county, the quarries at
Akron have been intermittently active, supplying agricultural
plaster to the local markets.

The development of the gypsum industry in New York, both
present and future, depends altogether on the demand for the
different products, since the crude rock exists in almost unlimited
quantities. Its.progress recently has been promoted by the estab-
lishment of plants for making stucco and wall plaster. The latter
is perhaps the most important application, and the one that has

932 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

greatest possibilities for continual expansion. The consumption
of land plaster has remained comparatively steady from year to
year, with slight tendency to growth. The gypsum quarries are
well situated for marketing the product, as most of them are on
or near the Erie canal and the main railway lines.

Production in 1904. The output of gypsum last year amounted
to 151,455 short tons. There were 16 companies engaged in quarry-
ing the material, of which number seven were in Onondaga county,
three each in Madison and Monroe counties, two in Genesee county
and one in Cayuga county. ‘The value of the output was $424,975.
The reports from the different companies show that the greater
part of the gypsum produced was converted into wall plaster and
plaster of paris, the total product of which was 88,255 tons, valued
at $347,885. Of the remainder 33,712 tons, valued at $62,438, was
ground for land plaster, and 9,768 tons, valued at $14,652, was sold
in the crude state. The production was made by the following
companies.

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Cayuga Plaster Co. Union Springs
Oakfield Plaster Manufacturing Co. Buffalo
United States Gypsum Co. | Chicago Il.

J. Mason jr Clockville
F. A. Miller Clockville
W. H. Osborn & Co. Valley Mills
Consolidated Wheatland Plaster Co. Caledonia
Garbutt Gypsum Co. Garbutt
Lycoming Calcining Co. Williamsport Pa.
James Behan Estate Manlius
H. Lansing Fayetteville
Spencer & McCarthy Jamesville
National Wall Plaster Co.’of America Syracuse
F. M. Severance Fayetteville
T. W. Sheedy Fayetteville
William Valentine jr Jamesville
IRON ORE

While there were no developments of unusual moment in iron
mining last year, the record made by the various companies has
been one of substantial progress. The total production of all
classes of ore in the State amounted to 619,103 long tons, valued
at $1,328,894. In 1903 the output was 540,460 long tons, valued at
$1,209,899, showing an increase for the year of 78,643 tons, or
approximately 15%.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 933

Throughout the greater part of 1904 a general depression pre-
vailed in the iron trade, which was naturally reflected in a decreased
demand for ore. That the mining companies were able to maintain
operations on a larger scale than in the previous year, despite
the unfavorable conditions, must be regarded as creditable to the
stability of the industry in this State. Consideration should be
given also to the fact that most of the ore has to be sold on the open
market, whereas in many districts of the country the mines are
operated in connection with blast furnaces which furnish a steady
outlet for their product.

The prospects for the future of iron mining in New York seem
encouraging. The high grade magnetic ore produced by the Lake
Champlain mines will doubtless continue to be in demand by fur-
naces so situated that the transport charges are not excessive.
At the largest mines in this section, owned by Witherbee, Sherman
& Co., a new magnetic separating plant has been installed which
has materially augmented the scope of operations. It is probable
that improvements of similar character will be undertaken else-
where in the Adirondacks. Plans have been considered for the
reopening of the mines near Fort Montgomery, Orange co. The
mines are controlled by the Hudson Iron Co. of New York city,
which has recently acquired properties in the vicinity of Gouverneur,
St Lawrence co., with a view of commencing operations there during
the present season.

The returns for 1904 show that the ore was distributed according
to the usual classification as follows: magnetite 559,575 tons,
valued at $1,215,415; hematite 54,128 tons, valued at $98,479;
and limonite 5000 tons, at nominal valuation. Nearly all of the
magnetite came from the Lake Champlain district, and was con-
tributed by the mines at Mineville, Essex co., and at Arnold Hill
and Lyon Mountain, Clinton co. Outside of this district the only
magnetite produced was at Salisbury, Herkimerco. The magnetite
was shipped for the most part in the form of concentrates. The
hematite was contributed by three mines located at Furnaceville,
Wayne co.; Spragueville, St Lawrence co.; and at Clinton, Oneida
co. The limonite came from one mine at Amenia, Dutchess co.
In all there were nine companies reporting as active.

The following table gives the production of the various kinds
of iron ore in New York State during the last 10 years. The figures
for 1903 and preceding years have been taken from the reports of
John Birkinbine published in the annual volumes of the Mineral
Resources.

934 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Production of iron ore in New York State

MAGNETITE HEMATITE! LIMONITE CARBONATE TOTAL

Value
YEAR |__| ——___ |__| —_—__ |__| Total value | per ton
Long tons | Long tons | Long tons} Long tons | Long tons
1895 260 139 6 769 26 462 13 886 307 256 $508 313 $r 905
1806 346 O15 Io 789 I2 288 16 385 385 477 780 932 2 03
1807 206 722 7 664 20 050 Ir 280 335 725 642 838 I or
1898 I55 551 6 400 14 000 4 000 179 951 35° 909 I 05
1890 344 150 45 503 $1,045 22 153-| 443 790 I 241r 985 2 80
1900 345 714 44 467 44 801 6 413 441 485 | 1 103 817 2 50
IQOI 320 467 66 380 23 362 I 000 420 218 I 006 231 2230
1902 45I 570 QI 075 I2 676 Nil [Giese I 362 987 2 45
1903 451 481 83 820 as 50 Nil 540 460 I 209 890 2 24
1904 550 575 54 128 5 000 Nil 619 103 I 328 8094 2 15

The statistics indicate a gradual though not a constant increase
for the period given. As might be expected, the increase has not
been manifest in the low grade limonite and carbonate ores, but
has been due almost entirely to the growth of magnetite mining.
No carbonate ore has been worked during the last three years,
and the production of limonite is not important.

Developments at Mineville. The Mineville ore bodies have been
exploited actively by the two companies operating in that locality
Witherbee, Sherman & Co. and the Port Henry Iron Ore Co. The
total shipments for 1904 amounted to over 400,000 tons, all high
grade magnetite. The deposits worked by the former company
are known as the Old Bed, New Bed and Harmony. The first is
very phosphatic, while the New Bed runs quite low in phosphorus
and the Harmony averages between the two extremes. The prin-
cipal openings are the Joker, Bonanza and A and B shafts, of
which the last two were recently sunk on the Harmony. The
Cook shaft lies some distance from the others, and the relations of
this ore body have not been definitely established. The operations
of the Port Henry Iron Ore Co. were confined, as heretofore, to Mine
21 on the Old Bed.

The progressive policy of improvement in both underground and
surface installations adopted by Witherbee, Sherman & Co. has
had a very beneficial effect on the mining industry which will con-
tinue to be felt for a long time in the future. During the past
year attention has been directed specially to increasing the efficiency
of the various plants, rather than to adding further equipment.
The most extensive changes have been undertaken in the old mill,
and when completed it is hoped that the milling capacity will be
sufficient to handle the full quota of ore. The new mill has worked
very successfully. An improved Ball-Norton separator of the

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 935

endless ‘belt type, perfected at Mineville, has been installed in
place of the machines formerly used, and has been found to be well
adapted for treating the highly phosphoric ore from the Old Bed.
The arrangement of the magnets in series of alternating polarities,
which characterizes this separator, imparts a constant vibratory
motion to the particles of ore as they pass from one magnet to
another and gives the entangled gangue matter opportunity to free
itself. With its use the Old Bed ore, which carries about 60%
iron and often 1.5 or 2% phosphorus, is concentrated to a product
assaying over 65% iron and from .5 to .7% phosphorus. The
tailings made in the process are re-treated in Wetherill separators,
which recover a further portion of the magnetite that goes into
the first concentrates. They also take out the hornblende as a
middlings product. The other components of the original ore
consist mostly of apatite and quartz and constitute the tailings
from the Wetherill machines. The tailings analyze about 12%
phosphorus, or 60% tricalcium phosphate; they form a valuable
by-product which is sold to fertilizer manufacturers. The horn-
blende tailings also contain phosphorus to the extent of 7 or 8%,
but they are mostly held in reserve at present.

A feature of interest in connection with these mines is the exten-
sive use of electric power for driving the various plants, as well as
for lighting, pumping and hoisting in the mines. A large central
power house erected in 1903 furnishes most of the electric current
that is required. The generator is of alternating type, 750 kw
capacity, and is directly connected with a 1000 h.p. Nordberg-Corliss
engine. A second power house containing a 200 h.p. engine and
150 kw generator supplies current to the old mill. The company
has also an electric generating station at Wadhams Mills on the
Bouquet river, the power from which is transmitted to the mines
and used to supplement the regular supply.

The Mineville ore, though mostly of non-Bessemer character,
finds a ready market in the Eastern States. The blast furnaces in
this section use it as a basis for mixture with the hematite ores
from Lake Superior or local mines in making foundry irons. The
concentrates shipped from Mineville are unusually high in content
of iron and can be utilized to advantage with leaner ores. The
more phosphoric magnetite from the Old Bed workings is in de-
mand by makers of basic Bessemer iron; a large quantity of this
ore was exported last year to Germany.

The Northern Iron Co. blew in its furnace at Port Henry late in
1904, after making extensive repairs. The output is about 200

936 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

tons of pig iron daily. Most of the ore is furnished by the Port
Henry Iron Ore Co. from Mine 21.

Arnold Hill mines. The Arnold Hill magnetite mines, situated
on the Ausable branch of the Delaware & Hudson Railroad, have
been active during the past year. The deposits were among the
first to be exploited in the region, but till 1850 the output was made
by opening pits along the outcrop. The ore is found in several
parallel veins of lenticular shape which overlap and are separated
by various thicknesses of wall rock. Sometimes two or more
veins can be attacked from a single stope. The ore belongs to two
types, ‘‘blue vein’’ which is a rich martite and “black band”’ or
magnetite. At present the mines are worked by the Arnold Mining
Co. of Harkness. The two shafts, known as the north and south
shafts, are located about a mile from the railroad. A concentrating
plant has been erected at Arnold Station, to which the ore is con-
veyed from the mine by a gravity plane. The ore as mined is first
crushed to coarse size and concentrated on Ball-Norton machines.
It is then passed through rolls and reconcentrated. Y

Lyon Mountain. The Lyon Mountain deposits lie on the Lake
Placid branch of the Delaware & Hudson Railroad and are operated
by the Chateaugay Ore & Iron Department of this company.
They comprise a series of large veins or impregnations in the coun-
try, the whole forming an ore zone that extends fully five miles on
the strike. In all there are about 25 openings, but only 8 are now
worked. The inclined shafts or slopes have been sunk to a maxi-
mum of 1600 feet on the dip or about 800 feet vertically. As a
rule the ore carries about 40% magnetite. It is concentrated to an
average of 66% iron, with the remarkably low phosphorus content
of .co7%. <A part of the ore is smelted by the company, and the
remainder is shipped to Pennsylvania furnaces. It yields high
grade Bessemer iron. |

In the vicinity of Lyon Mountain, no. 81 mine at Standish has
been idle for the last two years. Its ore is similar to that described
above, and the deposit may belong to the same zone. The Park-
hurst mine near Bradley pond and the Williams mine between
the latter and Lyon Mountain yield a richer ore, but it contains
more phosphorus. At Clayburg, Redford and other localities in
the Saranac valley, there are a number of ore beds that were once
worked for making iron by the bloomery process, and some interest
is being shown in their re-opening, which will depend largely on the
extension of railroad facilities.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 937

Salisbury. The magnetite mine near Salisbury Centre, Herkimer
county, was a small producer of ore in 1904. The deposits had
been worked previously, but never on a large scale. They are
lens-shaped bodies in syenite country, with basic hornblende gneiss
as the immediate wall rock. The nearest point of shipment is
Dolgeville, the terminus of a short railroad running north from
Little Falls.

The Hematite mines. The production of hematite last year was
confined to a single locality in St Lawrence county and to two
localities in the Clinton deposits.

The Rossie Iron Ore Co. has opened three mines in the vicinity
of Spragueville between Gouverneur and Antwerp. The ore occurs
in the form of lenticular masses associated with crystalline lime-
stone! and serpentine. It carries from 4o to 45% iron and as
shipped runs about 50%. A portion of the product is ground for
paint and mortar colors.

The properties near Caledonia, St Lawrence co., formerly owned
by the Carney Ore Mining Co., have been taken over by the Hudson
Iron Co. and will be reopened during the coming year. They yield
specular ore assaying 48 to 50% iron.

The mines and furnaces of the Franklin Iron Manufacturing Co.
at Clinton, Oneida co., were closed down throughout the year.
The only ore produced at this locality came from the property of
C. A. Borst and was used in the manufacture of paint, largely by
the Clinton Metallic Paint Co.

At Furnaceville, Wayne co., the Furnaceville Iron Co. continues
to work its mines in the Clinton formation.

Limonite and carbonate mines. Though at one time of great
importance, the limonite mines in Columbia and Dutchess counties
have gradually succumbed to competition with richer and more
favorably situated districts. The Salisbury region of which they
form a part long enjoyed a high reputation for the quality of its
iron, which was used in gun forgings, car wheels and other materials
requiring great strength and tenacity. Even so late as 1883 there
were not less than 20 charcoal furnaces employing these ores. In
all some 25 mines have been opened and worked within the limits
of the two counties. The output of the ore for the census year 1880
was reported at 144,878 long tons. In 1904 there was only one
mine working which produced about 5000 tons. .

The Burden carbonate mines have been idle for the past three
years. From 1882 to 1901 they were operated by the Hudson
River Ore & Iron Co., which equipped them with a very complete

938 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

mining plant. The ore varied from phosphoric to Bessemer
in quality, but special attention was given to the latter. A rail-
Way 33% miles long conveyed the ore to the Hudson river near
Catskill Station, where it was roasted and shipped to furnaces in
New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

MILLSTONES

The quarries of Ulster county continue to furnish the chief
supply of millstones made in the United States. At one time the
output from this section amounted to over $100,000 annually, but
recently it has averaged much less. The introduction of rollers,
ball mills and other improved types of grinding machinery has
been responsible for the decreased use of millstones.

The Ulster county or Esopus millstones are quarried from the
Shawangunk grit, a light gray quartz conglomerate found along
the Shawangunk mountains from near High Falls southwest
towards the Pennsylvania border. In thickness and texture
the rock varies greatly from place to place. The inclosed pebbles
range from pea size up to an inch and more in diameter. The
matrix is silicious paste of gritty character. Though of wide
extent, only a small portion of the conglomerate is so situated
that it can be utilized economically. Most of the stone is pro-
duced along the northern edge of the mountain where it lies close
to the surface. The greater number of quarries are located in
the vicinity of Kyserike, St Josen, Granite and Kerhonkson,
while the distributing points for the finished product include
New Paltz and Kingston in addition to those named. The in-
dustry is carried on intermittently, many of the producers en-
gaging in other occupations during a part of the year.

The blocks obtained by quarrying are first roughly shaped by
wedges and then dressed: to size. ‘The diameter of the millstones
as marketed ranges from 15 to 90 inches. The greater demand is
for the small and medium sizes with diameters of 24, 30, 36, 42
and 48 inches. A pair of 30 inch stones commonly sells for $15,
while $50 may be paid for a single stone 60 inches in diameter.
Besides the ordinary millstones a portion of the product is worked
up into disks, which are used in a roll type of crusher known as
a chaser. The pavement of such crushers is also supplied from
the quarries in the form of blocks measuring 12 x 12 x 10 inches.
The chasers are employed in grinding quartz, feldspar and barytes.

Though the demand for millstones has shown a decided falling
off since the introduction of the roller mill process for grinding

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 939

cereals, their use in other industries has been slowly increasing
during the last 10 years. The small corn mills distributed through-
out the Southern States still furnish an important market.

In the year 1904 the output of millstones in Ulster county
was valued at $21,476. The production was smaller than in the
previous year, owing principally to the dullness in the cement
trade. There were 18 firms actively engaged in the business.

MINERAL PAINT

The varieties of mineral paint that are made from materials
mined in New York State include metallic paint, mortar colors,
slate pigment and sienna.

For metallic paint and mortar colors some form of iron ore,
generally hematite or limonite, is commonly employed, but only
a few localities are known where the ore possesses the requisite
qualities of color and durability. The fossil hematite from the
Clinton formation has been found to be well adapted for the purpose
and is the material most widely used in this country. The ore is
derived from mines at Clinton, Oneida co., and Ontario, Wayne co.
Shales and slates containing large amounts of iron oxid are also
ground and sold for metallic paint. The principal supplies come
from near Randolph, Cattaraugus co., and Eagle Bridge, Rens-
selaer co.

The product known as mineral black is made by grinding dark
colored slate found in the Hudson river region; and the red slate of
Washington county is used to some extent as a pigment.

Sienna, a variety of ocher, occurs near Whitehall. The deposit
is a thin bed in glacial drift and has been worked on a small scale.

The production of mineral paint in 1904 was as follows: metallic
paint and mortar color, 4740 short tons, valued at $55,768; slate
pigment, 3132 short tons, valued at $23,876. These totals include
only the output made within the State from local materials and do
not represent the full importance of the industry, since some of
the raw product is shipped elsewhere for manufacture. An output
of 6970 tons was reported by three firms, who sell the crude ore
and slate to paint grinders.

The following companies were engaged in the mining or manu-
facture of mineral paints during 1904.

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Algonquin Red Slate Co. Worcester Mass.
Charles A. Borst Clinton

Clinton Metallic Paint Co. Clinton

940 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
The William Connors Paint Mfg. Co. Troy

Elko Paint Co. Randolph

Ay J, usd Eagle Bridge
Rossie Iron Ore Paint Co. Ogdensburg
Andrew Ruff Troy

Samuel Ruffell Ontario

MINERAL WATERS

The mineral springs of New York afford a variety of waters
suited for medicinal or domestic purposes. Over 200 different
springs have been listed and classified according to their mineral
composition, although many have no commercial value except as
sources of local water supply. Some of the springs are places of
resort for tourists and health seekers.

Among the various waters found in this State those containing
salts of the alkalis and alkaline earths are the most important.
The celebrated Saratoga springs fall in this class and are further
characterized by the presence of carbon dioxid. They supply
great quantities of table and medicinal waters which are shipped to
almost every part of the country. The Sharon and Massena springs
are also saline, but differ from the former in containing sulfureted
hydrogen. Richfield Springs is a noted locality for chalybeate
sulfureted waters which are employed in medicinal baths as well as
for drinking purposes. At Oak Orchard is found a rare type of
spring containing free sulfuric acid. Thermal springs are repre-
sented by the Lebanon spring which is chalybeate and has a tem-
perature of about 75°. Besides the foregoing there are a number
of other localities where mineral springs occur and are utilized to a
greater or less extent. Quite a large industry exists also in the sale
of spring waters which contain very little mineral salts, their value
depending upon their freedom from obnoxious impurities. The
Great Bear Spring at Fulton may be mentioned as an example of
this class. ; |

‘In the following list are included the names of the leading mineral
springs in the State and their location. Nearly all are employed in
the commercial production of mineral waters or have recently been
so employed. ais) i

NAME LOCATION

Baldwin Mineral Spring Cayuga, Cayuga co.
Chemung Spring Chemung, Chemung co.
Rockdale Mineral Spring Rockdale, Chenango co. |

Lebanon Mineral Spring Lebanon Springs, Columbia co.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY g4I

NAME LOCATION
Mount View Spring Poughkeepsie, Dutchess co.
Ayers Amherst Mineral Spring | Williamsville, Erie co.

Avon Spring Avon, Livingston co.
Jackson’s Sanitarium | Dansville, Livingston co.
Clinton Lithia Spring’ Franklin Springs, Oneida co.
Franklin Lithia Spring . Franklin Springs, Oneida co.
Glacier Spring Franklin Springs, Oneida co.
Lithia Polaris Spring Boonville, Oneida co.
Split Rock Spring Franklin Springs, Oneida co.
Verona Mineral Springs Verona, Oneida co.
Warner’s Natural Mineral Spring Franklin Springs, Oneida co.
Clifton Springs | Clifton Springs, Ontario co.
Geneva Lithia Mineral .Water |

Spring Geneva, Ontario co.
Geneva Red Cross Lithia Spring Geneva, Ontario co.
Fitzsimmons Spring Port Jervis, Orange co.
Deep Rock Spring Oswego, Oswego co.
Great Bear Spring Fulton, Oswego co.
Oswego Mineral Spring Oswego, Oswego co.
White Sulphur Springs Richfield Springs, Otsego co.
Massena Springs Massena Springs, St Law. co.
Arondack Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Artesian Lithia Spring Ballston Spa, Saratoga co.
Congress Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Empire Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Eureka White Sulphur & Mineral

Spring ' Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Excelsior Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Geyser Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Hathorn Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Hides Franklin Spring Ballston Spa, Saratoga co.
High Rock Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Lincoln Spring - Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Old Putnam Mineral Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Patterson Mineral Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Quevic Spring - Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Remeho Spring | | - Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Royal Vichy Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Star pring.) -/2°ts Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Saratoga Seltzer Spring — Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co. »

Saratoga Vichy Spring sis ' Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.

942 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME LOCATION
Saratoga Victoria Spring Saratoga Springs, Saratoga co.
Chalybeate Spring Sharon Springs, Schoharie co.
Magnesia Spring Sharon Springs, Schoharie co.
White Sulphur Spring Sharon Springs, Schoharie co.
Red Jacket Mineral Spring Seneca Falls, Seneca co.
Mountain Mist Spring West Hills, Suffolk co.
Dryden Springs Dryden, Tompkins co.

Big Indian Spring Ellenville, Ulster co.

Elixir Spring Clintondale, Ulster co.

Vita Spring Fort Edward, Washington co.
Clyde Mineral Spring Clyde, Wayne co.

The commercial production of mineral waters constitutes a large
and growing industry. For the year 1904 the revenue derived
from their sales amounted approximately to $1,600,000, represent-
ing a total of 8,000,000 gallons. The springs in Saratoga county
alone reported sales of 1,695,936 gallons valued at $419,364. In
regard to the totals given, it may be stated that they include esti-
mates for certain springs in lieu of more definite information. The
canvass of the industry is attended with a good deal of difficulty
owing to the fact that many springs are exploited intermittently or
on a small scale and no accurate account is kept as to the sales. A
number of springs, also, are used locally to supply hotels and
sanatoriums, so that only a nominal value can be placed on their

output.
Carbonic acid gas

Carbon dioxid, or carbonic acid gas as it is commonly known, is
produced in commercial quantities at Saratoga Springs. The gas
accompanies the mineral waters, sometimes in such quantity as to
force the latter to the surface, but frequently the flow is assisted by
pumping. In all about 30 wells have been drilled for gas, their
depths ranging from 150 to 600 feet.

The water is removed to the mouth of the well and the gas con-
veyed to a holder from which it is drawn off for charging into
cylinders. The carbon dioxid contains a small quantity of air and
frequently a trace of hydrogen sulfid, but it is said to be, on the
whole, much purer than that produced by artificial means.

According to information furnished by J. C. Minor jr, the total
supply of carbon dioxid from the wells in the vicinity of Saratoga
Springs is about 20,000 pounds per day of which only about one
half is at present recovered. The product is employed principally
in the manufacture of soda waters. The following companies, all of

THE’ MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 943

Saratoga Springs, have been engaged in the production of carbon
dioxid during the past year: New York Carbonic Acid Gas Co.;
Natural Carbonic Gas Co.; Lincoln Spring Co.; Geysers Natural
Carbonic Acid Gas Co.; and Champion Natural Carbonic Acid
Gas Co.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas has been found in New York over a wide area and
at various geologic horizons. The most productive field is in
the southwestern part, including Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chau-
tauqua and Erie counties. Many of the adjoining counties to the
east contain deposits, though of smaller extent, and there are a
great number of wells within the belt bordering Lake Ontario
from Jefferson to Niagara county. The first successful attempt
to use natural gas for light and heat was made at Fredonia, Chau-
tauqua co., where shallow wells were drilled as early as 1821.

The oil field of Allegany and Cattaraugus counties has produced
large quantities of natural gas from Devonic strata. The gas
occurs in the Bradford sand and the underlying Kane and Elk
sands. Some of the supply is consumed in pumping the oil, while
the remainder is used for light and fuel in the local towns and
villages. The industry is controlled by a few companies who
own the pipe lines. Olean, Wellsville, Andover, Gowanda, Friend-
ship, Hornellsville and Geneseo are some of the leading towns
supplied from this field.

In Chautauqua county the region bordering Lake Erie contains
numerous deposits in the Portage and Chemung formations. The
wells are mostly shallow, and the individual yield is only sufficient
to supply a few families with gas. Attempts have been made to
find larger deposits by drilling into the underlying strata. At
Fredonia a well has been sunk below 2500 feet, encountering gas
in the Medina sandstone, but the ventures have generally proved
unremunerative.

The discovery of gas territory east of Buffalo has lately brought
Erie county into prominence as a producer. One of the largest
fields extends from Lancaster to Alden near the Genesee county
line. Some of the wells have yielded as high as 1,000,000 cubic
feet daily. The gas is supplied to Akron, Batavia, Lancaster,
Depew, East Aurora, Honeoye Fallsand other towns in the vicinity,
as well as to Buffalo. The deposits are found in the Medina
strata.

In Wyoming county a small output is made around Attica.
Livingston county produces considerable quantities from wells at

944 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Lima, Avon and Caledonia. Rushville, Yates co. and Gorham,
Ontario co., have a few wells. Farther east in Onondaga county
deposits have been found at Baldwinsville, Phoenix and Warner,
and in Oswego county at Fulton, Pulaski and Sandy Creek. The
latter occur in the Trenton limestone, the lowest horizon at
which gas has been found in the State.

The returns received from the various producers of natural
gas show that the total value of the output in 1904 amounted
to $552,197. Owing to the fact that some of the larger companies
operate at several localities, it has been difficult to distribute
the output according to the districts in which it was made. The
following statistics are, however, close approximations: Alle-
gany-Cattaraugus field, $183,830; Erie county, $254,899;
Chautauqua county, $31,822; Niagara, Wyoming and Genesee
counties, $18,855; Livingston, Seneca, Ontario and Yates counties
$32,451; Onondaga county, $15,350; Oswego county, $14,990.

One of the notable developments during the year has been
the opening of large wells at Silver Creek, Chautauqua co., by
the Home and the South Shore gas companies. The wells are
connected by pipe lines with Dunkirk and Forestville. At West-
field a deep well is being drilled with the view of exploring for
gas in the formations below the Devonic. The Brocton Gas &
Fuel Co. of Brocton drilled two wells during the year. In the
first well, which reached a depth of 2263 feet, the Medina sandstone
was encountered at 2225 feet, and gave a flow of about 10,000
cubic feet daily. A pocket of sulfurous gas was found between
the depths of 400 and 600 feet. The second well was sunk to
2261 feet below the surface, but yielded only sulfurous gas from
the Devonian strata. In Erie county the Springville Gas Co.
put down several wells near Springville and Collins. The property
of the Genesee Natural Gas Co. of Geneseo has been taken over
by the Empire Gas & Fuel Co.

PETROLEUM

The oil-bearing territory of New York embraces the north-
eastern extension of the Appalachian field. The Bradford dis-
trict, which reaches its widest development in Pennsylvania includes
a small area in Cattaraugus county, and there are several pools
in Allegany county forming the Allegany field, though they are
sometimes grouped with the Bradford. The productive strata
are fine grained sandstones of dark brown color, locally called
“black sands.” They belong to the Chemung formation of the

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 945

Upper Devonic. The petroleum varies from amber to black
in color, and usually contains a large proportion of lubricating
oils.

The first well in New York was drilled at Limestone, Cattaraugus
co. in 1865. The Allegany field was opened some 15 years later.
In 1902 there was a total of 8443 producing wells in the territory,’
while the number drilled since the beginning largely exceeds that
figure. Compared with other oil fields of the country, the records
indicate that the wells have a very long life, but their average
yield is small, being less than one half barrel per day. The in-
dustry is favored, however, by the superior grade of oil produced,
which commands a high price at the refineries, and by the occurrence
of gas in quantities that generally suffice to furnish the power nec-
essary for pumping. During the last few years the market con-
ditions have been unusually satisfactory and have stimulated
activity in working the wells and in the exploration for new ter-
ritory.

The output of petroleum in 1904 as indicated by the shipments
of companies operating pipe lines in the State amounted to
1,036,179 barrels of 42 gallons. At an average of $1.65 per barrel,
the value of the production was $1,709,770. Since 1890 the
output has fluctuated within narrow limits, the totals varying
little from that of last year. The following companies have
pipe lines in New York territory: The Allegany Pipe Line Co.,
Columbia Pipe Line Co., Union Pipe Line Co. and the Vacuum
Oil Co., of Wellsville N. Y., and the Tide-Water Pipe Co. Limited,

of Bradford Pa.
PYRILE

The mining of pyrite has been carried on intermittently in
New York State for several years, but the production has never
attained much importance. The only deposits that have been
worked recently are in the vicinity of Canton and Gouverneur,
St Lawrence co. The ore is low grade, running from 30 to 35%,
but by concentration the sulfur can be brought up to 45 or 50%.
It is free from objectionable impurities and well adapted for acid
burning. Considering the fact that the deposits are favorably
situated with regard to market, it would seem that they are worthy
of greater attention than has been given them. The sulfite paper
mills in this section of the State consume large quantities of sulfur
in the form of sulfurous acid, and there is no apparent reason why
it should not be supplied by the local mines.

'Bureau of the Census. Mines and Quarries. 1902.

946 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Stella mine which has produced most of the ore mined
in this section during recent years was inactive in 1904. A new
company has acquired the property with a view to restarting
operations. The mine formerly owned by the High Falls Pyrite
Co. has been taken over by the National Pyrite Co. of Canton.
-The Adirondack Pyrite Co. worked its mine near Gouverneur
during a part of the past season. A new deposit has been opened
at Richville by B. R. Hutchings. The total production of pyrite
in 1904 was 5275 long tons valued at $20,820.

SALT

Salt has long been one of the chief mineral products of the
State. In point of value the annual output is exceeded only by that
of clay materials, stone and cement. The New York industry
is favorably situated with regard to the large markets and has been
able to maintain its commercial prominence, notwithstanding
the more recent developments in other sections of the country.

The salt deposits, which are associated with the Salina beds
of the Upper Siluric, occur over a wide area. Their northern
extent, as shown by the outcropping Salina strata, is defined
approximately by a line drawn from a point somewhat south
of Oneida lake westward to Buffalo. To the south the deposits
are encountered at progressively increasing depths in accordance
with the dip of the strata, which ranges from 25 to 4o feet to the
mile. The most easterly point where wells have been sunk is at
Morrisville, Madison co. Between this point and Lake Erie, salt
has been found in almost all of the central tier of counties. The
wells around Syracuse produce a natural brine that is stored in
glacial gravels, but elsewhere the deposits are rock salt.

In Onondaga county, Syracuse continues to be an important
center of the industry. The manufacture of salt began there
in 1789 and in 1797 it came under State control. For a
long time the wells yielded nearly all of the salt made in the State,
but in late years there has been an increasing output from other
localities. A noteworthy feature, also, has been the falling off
in the production of the finer grades of salt. Almost the entire
yield at present is of the solar or coarse variety. The largest
operator in Onondaga county is the Solvay Process Co. The
company derives its supply of brine from wells in the town of
Tully, 20 miles south of Syracuse. The deposits are rock salt,
and the brine is obtained by bringing fresh water into the wells.
Formerly the brine was allowed to flow out under its own pressure,

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 047

but owing to the loss from percolation with this method, the
wells are now pumped. The brine is conveyed by pipe line to
the works at Solvay, where it is used for the manufacture of soda
products.

In Tompkins county, wells were sunk at Ludlowville in 1891
and 1892 and at Ithaca in 1895. At the latter locality the salt
deposits had an aggregate thickness of over 250 feet and were
found at depths below 2240 feet. In 1899 the wells came under
the control of the National Salt Co. by whom they have since been
operated. More recently the Remington Salt Co. has erected a
plant near Ithaca and has engaged in’ the manufacture of salt.
The company has drilled three wells, finding the deposits at about
2100 feet below the surface.

Salt is obtained in Schuyler county around Watkins. The
Glen Salt Co. sank the first well in 1893 and encountered a deposit
at a depth of 1840 feet. The company was later merged into
the National Salt Co. The Watkins Salt Co. also operates at this
locality.

The discovery of salt near Wyoming, Wyoming co. in 1878
furnished an incentive for the exploration of this region. The
first well penetrated 70 feet of rock salt at 1270 feet from the
surface. It was followed by discoveries at Warsaw, Leroy,
Rock Glen, Batavia and at numerous places in Livingston, Wyom-
ing and Genesee counties. Practically the whole valley of Oatka
creek, from Leroy to Bliss and the Genesee valley south of Monroe
county have been found to be salt bearing. The region is now one
of the most productive in the State. The National Salt Co. has
operated three plants at Warsaw. The other active companies in
this field are the Empire State Salt Co. of Leroy; the Worcester
Salt Co. of Silver Springs; the Retsof Mining Co. of Retsof and
the Oatka Mining Co. of Wyoming. The last named company
began development work in 1903 and will produce rock salt.
A large number of plants have been erected by other companies that
are now inoperative.

In Erie county salt has been found at Eden Valley, Springville
and Gowanda, but these localities are no longer productive. At
Perry, the Iroquois Salt Co. has a plant which has been operated
during the last few years.

Among other discoveries of salt in New York may be mentioned
those at Vincent and Naples, Ontario co.; Dundee, Yates co.;
Seneca Falls, Seneca co.; and Aurora, Cayuga co. The deposits
are not worked.

948 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

All of the principal grades of salt are made in New York, in-
cluding coarse solar, common coarse, common fine, table and
dairy, packers and rock salt. The coarse solar is produced en-
tirely at Syracuse where great areas of land are given up to its
manufacture. Rock salt is mined in quantity at Retsof and
Livonia. Most of the remaining product is marketed as common
fine, common coarse and table and dairy salt.

Production and trade in 1904. During the year 1904 there were
30 companies engaged in manufacturing salt in the State. Of this
number Onondaga county was represei!ted by 23, Wyoming and
Tompkins county by two. each, and Genesee, Livingston and
Schuyler by one each. The National Salt Coe. is included under
Tompkins county, but it has operated also in Scituyler and Wyom-
ing counties. No new companies entered the list of producers
during the year. 3

The total output of salt in 1904 amounted to 8,724,708 barrels
of 280 pounds. In the total, account is taken of the amount of
salt utilized in the form of brine for the manufacture ‘ef soda
products, which is a very important item. The value of the out-
put was $2,102,748 or 24 cents a barrel. The following table
shows the production distributed among the various grades :aS
marketed.

Production of salt by grades in 1904 ©
; Value
Barrels Value per
barrel
¥
L
SOGATION SIC! Fcc ts a otic nig) Sicaea St) ee Oe ae $409 498 $. 31
Common coarse: Sewer Be 423 686 142 357 - 33
Tabletand catty...) ot. miudon bie Ae ibe I 160 423 518 742 .45
A ASALSC SOLAL coc ccie st sla tgs erate ieaiva eta a es 459 156 I75.035 . 38
Packers \.is.. Saeare . Cee ES.) RG 46 178 14 180 2 3¥
APTN et CORO ni he ree i 5 325 794 842 o40 ab
OAL S26 SOS RR Re, CR 8 724 768 | $2 102 748 $.24

a The common fine salt includes some coarse salt, so that the division for these grades is
not quite exact.

The total for ‘‘other grades’’ is made up principally of rock
salt and salt used for soda manufacture, but includes other kinds.
It will be noted that the value of this salt is much lower than
the general average.

Of the total output, Onondaga county contributed 3,456,337
barrels valued at $233,477, while the remainder, consisting of

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY | | 949

5,268,431 barrels valued at $1,869,271, came from Livingston,
Wyoming, Schuyler, Tompkins, and Genesee counties in the order of
their rank.

The production last year compares well with previous records,
and, when considered in connection with the expansion which
the industry has recently undergone, it shows that the manufacture
of salt in New York is carried on under very stable conditions.
The season on the whole was rather unfavorable to producers.
The demand in the larger markets was not equal to the supply,
and there was a good deal of competition among the companies.
The output of solar salt at Syracuse was adversely affected by
the weather, which was unusually cloudy and wet throughout
the summer. The report of the State Superintendent of the
Onondaga Salt Springs, states that the production showed a
decline of about 200,000 bushels from the total of the previous
year. The quantity of salt inspected was 1,743,388 bushels
of 56 pounds each, of which 1,608,298 bushels were made by the
solar process, and 135,090 bushels by artificial evaporation. In
1903 the quantity inspected was 1,933,224 bushels. There were
22 producers in Syracuse and vicinity. The output is all handled
by the Onondaga Coarse Salt Association of that city.

The most noteworthy change in the trade during the year was the
merging of the works owned by the National Salt Co. into the
International Salt Co. The former company had been in the hands
of receivers since 1902. The International Salt Co. which also
operates the Retsof rock salt mine, assumed control of the prop-
erties on Aug. 1, 1904. The offices of the company are in New
York city. During the year the following plants of this company
were active: Glen works, Watkins; Ithaca works, Ithaca; Cayuga
works, Myers; Hawley, Warsaw and Yorkshire works, Warsaw.

SLATE

Quarries of roofing slate are worked in Washington county
near the Vermont state line. The productive district includes
a narrow belt running nearly due north from Salem through the
towns of Hebron, Granville, Hampton and Whitehall. Efforts
have been made to work slate in other parts of the State, par-
ticularly in the Hudson river metamorphic region, but for reasons
no longer apparent they have not led to the establishment of a
permanent industry. Hoosick, Rensselaer co., New Lebanon,
Columbia co., and New Hamburg, Dutchess co., are among the
places that have furnished slate in the past At the locality

95° NeW YORK STATE MUSEUM

last named, beds were found which yielded large blocks resembling
the Welsh slate in color and quality and adapted for structural
material, billiard tables, blackboards and other purposes. They
were operated as late as 1808.

The slate from Washington county exhibits a variety of colors.
Red is the most valuable and is the characteristic product of
the region. Owing to its rarity elsewhere, it has a wide sale and
is in constant demand for export. This variety is found near
Granville and in the Hatch Hill and North Granville districts
between North Granville and Whitehall. Its occurrence is confined
to areas of Lower Siluric age. Purple, variegated and different
shades of green slate are produced from Cambric areas, prin-
cipally around Middle Granville, Salem and Shushan. The un-
fading green, which also commands a good price for roofing pur-
poses, is quarried to some extent in Washington county, but the
greater quantity comes from across the border in Vermont.

Up to the present time the production of slate for other than
roofing purposes such as mantels, billiard tables, floor tiling, black
boards, etc., has not been developed to any extent in this section.
It is an important branch of the slate trade of Pennsylvania
and Vermont, and there is no ‘doubt that increased attention
to this branch would greatly assist the advancement of the in-
dustry.

The reports received for 1904 show that 1o firms were engaged
in quarrying slate during the year. The total output was 18,090
squares of roofing slate, valued at $86,159, and $7441 of mill
stock. Compared with the previous year the statistics indicate
a decline of about 15% in the combined value of both products, due
almost entirely to the smaller quantity of mill stock made. The
roofing slate averaged $4.76 a square, which is higher than the
general run of prices received in other slate-producing regions.
Of the quantity given, about 6000 squares were red slate.

Among the leading producers in ,1904 were the following:

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Mathews Consolidated Slate Co. Poultney Vt.
Algonquin Red Slate Co. Worcester Mass.
Granville Slate Co. ; Granville N. Y.
Montauk Slate Co. j Middle Granville N. Y.
John W. O’Brien Middle Granville N. Y.

Allen & Williams Middle Granville N. Y.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY Q5I

The McCormick Red Slate Co., the Bonanza Slate Co., and the
Beck Slate Co., of Granville and Charles I. Baker of Truthville
have opened quarries and will work them during the present year.
The Welsh Red Slate Co. of Poultney, Vt., which formerly operated
quarries at Hampton, has retired from business.

STONE

All of the principal building and ornamental stones are quarried
in New York and most of them on a large scale. In the following
pages a brief description is given of their occurrence throughout
the State, together with information relating to production and ©
developments during the past year. The slate and millstone
industries which might properly be included here have been treated
under separate headings owing to their somewhat special character.

Production of stone

The value of the quarry products for 1904 amounted to $5,124,251.
This sum covers the output of all varieties of stone excepting
slate and millstones and that portion of the limestone which was
used for the manufacture of hydraulic cement. It represents the
ageregate product of over 600 quarries.

The value of the limestone production was $2,058,405. The
sandstone quarried amounted in value to $1,896,697, of which the
greater part was reported by companies engaged in the bluestone
trade. The output of trap rock, mostly from the Hudson river
Palisades, was valued at $468,496; marble at $478,771; and
grafite at $221,882. Classified as to uses, crushed stone was the
most important item in the production. The value of this material
amounted to $1,557,974, representing approximately 2,224,000
cubic yards. Building stone accounted for $1,254,548, while
curb and flagstone were produced to the value of $908,280. The
monumental stone quarried was valued at $165,935. The value of
the stone quarried for purposes other than those given was
$1,237,5 T4.

As noted in the accompanying table, the totals for building
stone, crushed stone and curbstone do not include certain items
which should be classified under these heads, but the results are
not appreciably affected thereby.

952 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

; Building Curbing Crushed Total
Variety stone Monumental and stone All other value
flagging
Granite..... $80 300 $rzr 262 a $83 205 $38 025 $221 882
Limestone... DAS NOT S| Merve erating. i: $6 253 004 475 809 030 | 2 058 405
Marble...... 278 904 154 673 a a 45 104 478 771
Sandstone... Os 711007 14\ eave rare 902 027 27 583 329 480 | 1 806 607
AL TAD « «(attic oh a 4 eB avavstateee Ul Caen eene 452 621 15 875 468 406

Total...) $1 254 548 $165 935 | $908 280 | $1 557 974 | $1 237 504 |$5 004 251

Granite

The term granite, as here used, includes the crystalline rocks
generally, with the exception of trap or diabase which is treated
by itself.

There are two principal areas where these rocks occur in New
York, the one being the Adirondack region and the other the
lower Hudson valley. Massive granites are much less important in
both areas than the banded or schistose types designated as gneisses
and schists; they are sufficiently developed, however, to afford
frequent sites for quarries. At present most of the granite em-
ployed for building, monumental and decorative purposes is
brought in from other states, as the local production is far from
meeting the requirements.

In southeastern New York, the Highlands of the Hudson consist
almost entirely of granite and gneiss. Quarries have been opened
at numerous localities, particularly along the river where con-
venient transport facilities can be had. In Putnam county,
Breakneck mountain, just north of Cold Spring, supplies a medium
grained gneissoid granite which has been used extensively for
building material and crushed stone. At Garrisons a true granite
of massive character outcrops and has furnished building stone
to New York city. Farther south around Peekskill, there are
several quarries producing gneissoid granite. In Westchester
county granitic rocks are abundant and of varied character. One
of the principal formations is the Fordham gneiss, a well foliated
grayish biotite gneiss that has supplied much material for founda-
tions and rough masonry. The quarry localities include Hast-
ings, Lowerre, Bryn Mawr and Uniontown. The Yonkers gneiss,
more massive than the former and containing. hornblende, affords
a durable building stone which is obtained at Dunwoodie and
Scarsdale, while a similar rock occurs at Hartsdale, Hastings,

‘JSma'l, included under ‘all other.”

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 953

Tarrytown and White Plains. Dikes and bosses of massive granite
are quite common and have been worked at New Rochelle, Mount
Vernon, Lake Mohegan, Westchester co.; Round Island, Rock-
land co.; and at Pine Island, Orange co. The Cortland series of
gabbros and diorites outcropping south of Peekskill may be men-
tioned among the quarry resources of this region.

The crystalline rocks of the Adirondacks extend over a great
area, but their inaccessibility has prevented the opening of quarries,
except on the borders. The varieties found here include massive
granites, syenites, gabbros and anorthosites, as well as gneissoid
phases of each.

Building and monumental stone is quarried quite largely
in Jefferson county. Grindstone island, in the St Lawrence
river, is noteworthy as a locality for red granite of very attractive
appearance. The latter has a coarsely crystalline texture, takes
a lustrous polish, and on account of its deep red color has been
employed as a substitute for the Scotch granite. It is used for
building and decorative purposes in many of the western cities and

in Canada.
Production of granite in 1904

County Building | Monumental | Crushed |} Rubble, | Paving,

stone stone riprap | curbing

ME EISONL. cee we css or 750 BOULGO 2 Te katte cl ca te SB Rte ere Rete
Wreaniger. i OST 62 500 200 |$13 095 $460 $7 265
Westchester........ 24 550 AGG» It - FQ “POO SO. OOO. |. 6 heen
Elsewhere.......... 500 BOO ete et 300. Lee ee
Obl siuoles iin) $89,300 $11 262 |$30 295 |$83 760 $7 265

At Little Falls, Herkimer co., there is an outlier of the Adiron-
dack syenite which is worked to some extent. In Fulton county
quarries have been opened at Mayfield and Northville, in Lewis
county near Port Leyden and in Franklin county at St Regis
Falls. Z

Anorthosite was quarried at one time near Keeseville, Essex
co. The stone has a handsome chatoyant appearance when
polished, and is adapted for monumental and decorative work.

The total value of the products from the granite quarries of
the State amounted in 1904 to $221,882. Of this sum building
stone accounted for $89,300; crushed stone for $83,295; rubble
and riprap for $30,760 and monumental stone for $11,262. The
remainder amounting to $7265, represented the value of paving

1Includes Rockland county.

954 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

blocks and curbstone. Westchester county was th¢ argest
producer with am output valued at $125,150. The value of the
production in the other counties was as follows: Orange and
Rockland $83,520; Jefferson $8412; Clinton and Fulton $4800,

Limestone

The limestone quarries are the most important in New York
State. Compared with sandstone, which ranks second in value
of output, limestone is not especially prominent as a building
material, but it is more generally used as road metal and concrete.
Its wide occurrence, in connection with its natural fitness for the
purpose, has favored the development of an extensive crushed
stone trade that covers nearly every section of the State. The
manufacture of lime also calls for a large part of the product.

Distribution. Among the geologic formations of the New
York series, limestone appears frequently’. In the Precambrian
strata of the Adirondacks and in southeastern New York it has
been metamorphosed and has the crystalline character of marble.
The noncrystalline limestones, to which the present discussion
is limited, are associated with the Lower Siluric, Upper Siluric
and Devonic systems. Those chiefly exploited will be briefly
described.

The Beekmantown limestone or calciferous sandrock, as it
has been commonly called, occurs in isolated areas along the
Mohawk and Champlain valleys. There are quarries in Warren,
Montgomery, Fulton and Herkimer counties. It is a fine grained,
massive stone of grayish color and normally contains more or less
magnesia. This constituent sometimes occurs in sufficient amount
to characterize the rock as dolomite. Owing to its prevailing
silicious nature, the limestone can seldom be used for other than
building purposes.

The Chazy limestone is of local importance. It is found along
a narrow belt bordering the Adirondacks from Saratoga county
north to Clinton county. In composition it is a typical lime-
stone, containing little magnesia or impurities. For this reason
it is adapted to the manufacture of lime. The stone has a finely
crystalline texture, and at Chazy and Plattsburg has been quarried
for marble. It supplies also some building stone and furnace
flux.

In the Mohawkian or Trenton group are included the Lowville
(Birdseye), Black river and Trenton limestones, which occupy

iFor fuller details as to the distribution and character of the limestones of New York refer-
ence is made to State Museum Bulletin 44, Lime and Cement Industries of New York, by Hein-

rich Ries. i i

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 955

a large area and possess considerable economic value. They occur
in the Champlain valley, but mostly on the Vermont side, and on
the southern and western borders of the Adirondacks. From
the Mohawk valley at Little Falls they form a belt that extends
northwesterly with gradually increasing width to the St Lawrence
river. The area on the eastern side of Lake Champlain is continued
southward into Washington county. The limestone varies some-
what in character according to locality and geologic position.
It is often highly fossiliferous. The lower part of the group or
Lowville formation is a heavy bedded limestone, but the upper
beds commonly contain more or less shale. The color ranges
from light gray to almost black. It sometimes shows incipient
metamorphism and has a crystalline texture. The Trenton
limestones are quarried in Clinton, Washington, Montgomery,
Fulton, Herkimer, Oneida, Lewis and Jefferson counties. The
product is used for building and road material and common masonry.
A part is also burned into lime. At Glens Falls, Trenton limestone
is employed for the manufacture of Portland cement.

The next group of limestones in ascending order is the N iagaran,
which comprises the Lockport and Guelph formations. The latter
is a typical dolomite, fine grained and of grayish color. It occupies
a limited area in Monroe and Orleans counties, and is quarried
near Rochester. It has been used for lime. The lower member
of the group, the Lockport dolomite, outcrops in a continuous
belt several miles wide from Niagara Falls east to Onondaga county |
and then with diminishing width across Madison county. Like
the Guelph it contains magnesia, and this component may be
present in sufficient quantity to make it a dolomite. The lower
part is usually silicious, grading into shale. The upper portion
which is heavy bedded is adapted for building material, road metal,
lime, etc. There are quarries around Niagara Falls and Lockport.
It is also worked at Rochester and to some extent in Wayne,
Onondaga and Madison counties.

The Cayugan group with its several members is noteworthy
economically, as it contains the valuable gypsum and salt deposits
besides the hydraulic limestones that are utilized for cement.
The basal strata, comprising the Salina stage, are mostly shales,
though they are interbedded with thin layers of dolomitic lime-
stones. In the Cobleskill, Rondout and Manlius stages, lime-
stones prevail. In the Rosendale district of Ulster county they
have furnished large quantities of material for the manufacture
of natural rock cement, and they are the source of the cement

956 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

rock in Onondaga and Schoharie counties. The purer limestones
of the group are employed in Onondaga county for lime making.

At the base of the Devonic system, the Helderbergian group
is prominent for its limestones. The latter are strongly developed
along the Hudson river in Albany, Columbia, Greene and Ulster
counties. The Coeymans or Lower Pentamerus formation affords
rock suitable for lime, building stone and road material, while the
Becraft or Upper Pentamerus is employed as an ingredient of
Portland cement and for furnace flux. There are quarries at
Hudson, Rondout, South Bethlehem and Catskill.

Of the remaining formations represented in New York, the
Onondaga is the only one that is of much importance for lime-
stone quarries. It outcrops in Orange, Ulster, Greene and Albany
counties, and is exposed quite continuously through the middle
and western part of the State. Building stone and lime are the
principal products. Quarries have been opened at Kingston, Split-
rock (near Syracuse), Auburn, Waterloo, Seneca Falls, Leroy and
Buffalo, and many other places.

Production of limestone
The value of the limestone quarried in New York during 1904
amounted to $2,058,405. This is exclusive of the limestone used
in making Portland and natural cement, for which no statistics
have been collected. There were 35 counties that reported an
output with 157 quarries in all.

Production of limestone in 1904

|
Material Quantity | Value

Crushed stone (cabic yards) « .i0:. cae cpscsser ease I 471 305 | $9094 475
ime Had (emer bONS). so as ss oa coe ae ee 494 883 | 678 225
Furnace fiux (leony: tonsiies<G2s tie. |. eee 140 198 | 75 419
Paiding StOhe. . o.6.6 Ales ein oi acs eg eet era Ae | 248 647
maple, tipraps. 0 Cte te. ee eee ee ee j OE MAE 22 230
Fingging curbing ocos.ese at. 1222 oto Rh ei nie ee | 6 253
BRISCELLATICOUS 4 0: tga saree ae suede op aa ceed aed a an | 33 156

Totah.. . bawntette. 2 wild Bele eR ORRORL Cope ees | $2 058 405

Crushed stone, for road metal, concrete and other purposes,
represented the largest item in the production, the value of this
material being $994,475, or 48% of the total. The manufacture
of lime was second in importance with a yield valued at $678,225.
Building stone was quarried to the extent of $248,647. The re-
maining uses reported for the product were furnace flux, which

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 957

amounted in value to $75,419; rubble and riprap, amounting to
$22,230, and flagging and curbing amounting to $6253. In ad-
dition there were quarried miscellaneous materials, not classified
in the returns, with a combined value of $33,156.

Of the crushed stone a total of 443,037 cubic yards valued at
$318,383 was reported as used for road material. These figures,
however, do not represent the whole amount employed for that pur-
pose, as many of the producers were unable to classify their output.

The returns received show that Onondaga county has the largest
quarrying industry. The total product in 1904 amounted in value
to $344,817, and was reported by 15 companies. The manufacture
of lime is particularly important in the county, due mainly to
the operations of the Solvay Process Co. Erie county with 13
active quarries made an output valued at $295,722, consisting
principally of building and crushed stone. The value of the
production in Westchester county which ranked third in the list,
was $255,972, made by three companies. The other counties
that reported a value exceeding $100,000 were Genesee ($222,702),
Rockland ($194,154) and Ulster ($150,055).

Production of limestone by counties

Crushed| Lime | Furnace Building| Other Total

County stone made flux stone uses

Uo a | Set Soa). Se seek) ir st. as $700 $500 $50 197
Cayuga 13 864 80| $1 000) 12 432) 16 500 43 876
Gimgen 25%). 02, 10 666] 55 175) 4 019 I 950| 2 750 74 560
Dutchess........ nay Na ee Pa eae eae 3. ee I2 570
Pee ace. | ZO. 560 400. 609} 108 4r1r| 15 793 295 722
PRA ORE ESS 6 840 SOG RI PISA SOL rote 340
Genesee......... I50 210 4 500} 64 299 3 500 193 222 702
Prerarmer..... . | 150 hate | (eaten ROOTS one Q 232
coon ieee 7 S¥ere Gangsaly . Ysig! 20 096} 6 106 94 352
SS ee eee ie | Tee hea s te eet ® A aed here 125| 3 000! IO 720
Maorme. . S n\s, ORD Reso a Renee 6 050} 2 000 35 085
Montgomery..... Bay. 8 sil. DSW. . 7 022} I ooo} 8 103
Fiatars on s>,< s | 15 727 4 SADR at d- i oke 6 300; 3 875) 30 402
JE Cet aime -| ee AR ce cil 5 ay. 55 Be SOG ae: 17 887
Onondaga....... | 412 481) 275 923 2 525} 22 333| 2 555 344 817
BRecktand.s: ¢ cy: Pe cE ERA eros i - ee (Dep pore ed mr aoe ena | 194 154
St Lawrence..... 2 600 ie ae 2-24. 3) 4501 16 974
erated eee. | 44 15T|.......- DSS aa a dl | eee Ta) | 34 651
eiake | 13 181 312 24; 24 495| 2 780 40 792
jg 2 2 nm nie PRET EN, TE RR ee AP RE [eve ese | II 937
Warren 05. 92.0: 442) 33° 806} J. 200. | 87 813, ane ne | 150 055
Washington..... eG 2OO00 4. cf... owen Seman ce 46 II0
Westchester.....|:182 372| 72 800 8a eR A GRRE 9. ety 255 972
Other Siem 20 778| 14 228 2 143) 10 809° I 237) 49 195
ihe ae $994 475\$678 225) $75 419 $248 647/$61 639 $2 058 405

a Includes Allegany, Columbia, Essex, Greene, Lewis, Ontario, Orange, Orleans, Rensselaer,
Seneca, Wayne and Yates.

958 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM >

Lime. There were 4o firms that reported an output of lime-
stone (including marble) for lime burning, either as a main product
or in connection with the quarrying of other materials. The
greater portion of the limestone was converted by the companies
operating the quarries. In all 21 counties participated in the
production. The total quantity burned to lime amounted to
494,883 short tons, of which 381,974 short tons, or 77% was reported
by four companies in Onondaga county. Warren county made
32,000 tons; Westchester 28,000; Jefferson 17,403; Clinton
15,873; and Washington county, gooo tons. The remaining
counties were small producers.

The value given for lime in the foregoing table is considerably
less than the ruling commercial price for the year. This is due to
the fact that the Solvay Process Co., the chief producer in the State,
has placed a nominal valuation on its output, all of which is used
as a reagent in the manufacture of soda products. Disregarding
the quantity thus consumed, the average value of the lime made
during the year was $3.54 a short ton. :

Crushed stone. The use of limestone for crushing has grown
to enormous proportions. The total output in 1904 amounted to
no less than 1,471,305 cubic yards. There were 28 counties repre-
sented in the returns received. The principal producing counties
with the quantity made by each, in yards, were as follows: West-
chester, 302,045; Erie, 286,658; Rockland, 258,873; Genesee,
252,224; Albany, 80,503 and Onondaga, 61,552. The price re-
ceived for the material used in road making averaged 72 cents a
cubic yard.

Building stone. The quarrying of building stone was less active
during 1904 than in the previous year. The demand showed a
marked decline, due principally to the labor troubles prevailing
in the building trades. Very few of the quarries ship any quantity
of stone to points without the State, so that the industry must
depend for its support on the local markets. An improvement in
the latter has already been manifested, and if continued it will
doubtless exert a favorable influence on quarrying operations
during the current year.

Erie county is the largest producer of limestone for building
purposes. Its output in 1904 was valued at $108,411 and was
reported, for the most part, by quarries in the vicinity of Buffalo.
Jefferson, Onondaga and Schoharie counties each made an output
valued at over $20,000.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 959

Marble

Building and ornamental marbles occur extensively on the
borders of the Adirondacks and in the metamorphic region of
southeastern New York. Along Lake Champlain there are several
localities where quarries have been opened and operated in the past,
but the production from this section is not now of much impor-
tance. The dove-colored “‘Lepanto’’ and the “French Gray’’
marbles found near Plattsburg and the verd-antique marbles of
Port Henry and Thurman are the varieties best known. At
Glens Falls a black marble which takes a brilliant polish and is in
demand for decorative purposes has been quarried for a number of
years. On the western side of the Adirondacks a large quarrying
industry has been developed around Gouverneur; the product vary-
ing from white to dark blue is used principally for monumental
work. The white dolomitic marble from South Dover and Tucka-
hoe in southeastern New York is widely employed as building stone,

The total production of marble for the year 1904 was valued
at $478,771. The output was divided as follows: building marble,
rough and dressed, $278,994; monumental, rough and dressed,
$154,673; other purposes, $45,104. Most of the marble used as
building material came from Tuckahoe and South Dover, and
the remainder was supplied from Plattsburg and Gouverneur.
The last named locality was the largest producer of monumental
marble, its production for the year being valued at $144,934.
In addition it produced building and other grades of marble valued
at $37,279. The output classified under ‘‘other purposes’’ in-
cludes crushed stone, rubble, riprap, curbing and marble dust.
The amount burnt into lime is reported under limestone.

The following firms were active during 1904:

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Burlington Marble Co. ‘ Burlington, Vt.
Extra:Dark Marble Co. Gouverneur

Finch, Pruyn & Co. Inc. Glens Falls
Gouverneur Marble Co. Gouverneur

F. W. Jones & Co. Hudson

Peter, Leyotte Plattsburg

Northern New York Marble Co. Gouverneur
O’Connell Lime & Marble Dust Co. 129 3d av. New York
Rylstone Marble Co. Gouverneur

St Lawrence Marble Quarries Gouverneur

South Dover Marble Co. South Dover

960 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

NAME } LOCATION OF OFFICE
Watertown Marble Co. Watertown
Waverly Marble Co. 1 Madison av. New York
White Crystal Marble Co. Gouverneur
D. J. Whitney Marble Co. 7 Gouverneur

At Gouverneur there has been unusual interest shown in the
development and extension of the quarrying industry and the
outlook for the future is most encouraging. There were eight
companies that reported an output during the year. With one
or two exceptions the quarries of this section make a specialty
of monumental marble, for which there is a steady market, while
building marble is largely a side product that is supplied according
to the current demand.

The prevailing type of marble is light gray to dark blue in color.
When polished it resembles some of the gray granites and has a
very beautiful appearance.

The Gouverneur Marble Co. has erected a new mill to replace
the old plant which was destroyed by fire in July 1904. A portion
of the equipment has already been installed and it will be increased
till 11 gangs are working.

The property formerly owned by the St Lawrence Marble Co.
was transferred to the St Lawrence Marble Quarries in November. -
The company owns two quarries and has one of the largest mills
in the district.

The D. J. Whitney Marble Co. started its mill in April 1904,
maintaining four gangs in operation. Its property is situated
near the quarries of the Northern New York Marble Co., and both
produce high grade dark monumental marble. The mill owned
by the latter company is equipped with 10 gangs and includes a
polishing department. The waste material is largely used by the
Northern Crushed Stone Co., which operates a crushing plant
near the quarry.

The Watertown Marble Co. has taken over the quarry of Davidson
Brothers near Gouverneur and the E. E. Stevens quarry at Canton.
Its mill located at Watertown is equipped with 15 gangs and will be
enlarged during the current year. The company makes a specialty
of monumental and decorative work.

A new mill of 10 gangs has been erected at the quarry recently
opened by the Rylstone Marble Co. near Gouverneur. Productive
operations were begun late in the year. The company will give
its attention chiefly to building material,

The Clarkson quarry near De Kalb Junction which has been
worked under lease by W. D. Chamberlain has been transferred

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 961

to the Clarkson Marble Co. It is intended to add new equipment
and to commence operations during the present season.

In the Lake Champlain region the only producers have been Peter
Leyotte of Plattsburg and the Burlington Marble Co.

The Glens Falls Co. of Glens Falls was succeeded by Finch,
Pruyn & Co.

In southeastern New York, the South Dover Marble Co., the
Waverly Marble Co., F. W. Jones & Co., and the O’Connell Lime
and Marble Dust Co., were active. The last named company uses
its output for manufacturing lime and marble dust.

Sandstone

Under this heading are included all sedimentary rocks that are
made up of granular quartz. Among the principal varieties dis-
tinguished by textural characters are sandstones proper, con-
glomerates, grits and quartzites.

The wide distribution of sandstones in the geologic series of
New York State has given them great importance as economic
sources of structural materials, and in point of annual output they
rank second only to limestones. Nearly all of the main formations
above the Archean contain sandstones at one or more horizons.
The general properties and occurrence of the most important of
these rocks are here briefly reviewed.

Potsdam sandstone. The Potsdam or Upper Cambric is the
oldest formation in which quarries have been opened in the State.
It is developed most extensively on the borders of the Adirondacks.
In the Champlain valley it outcrops at frequent intervals from
Fort Ann northward to the Canadian boundary. On the southern
side it is not so well represented, though there are few exposures,
best shown in Fulton and Saratoga counties. Along the northern
edge of the Adirondacks from Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence
river, a broad band of Potsdam crosses Clinton, Franklin and St
Lawrence counties and reaches well into Jefferson. It is in this
section, chiefly around Potsdam, that the largest quarries have
been opened.

The Potsdam, typically, is an even grained sandstone of reddish
color, hard and compact. Owing to the cementation of the com-
ponent grains by secondary deposition of quartz, it combines great
strength with low absorptive powers, making it one of the most
durable building stones known. The comparative isolation of the
quarries from the large cities and the slightly increased cost of
dressing the stone due to its abnormal hardness have operated,

962 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

however, to restrict the market for Potsdam sandstone notwith-
standing its excellent qualities.

Hudson river sandstone. The Hudson river series which was
once assigned a definite position in the geologic scale is now recog-
nized to be a complex of beds ranging from middle Trenton to
Lorraine age. Inasmuch as the various horizons have not been
delimited yet on the map, the name may be conveniently retained
in its former areal significance.

The rocks: belonging to this group are found in the Hudson river
valley from the Highlands northward to Glens Falls and along
the Mohawk to Oneida county whence they extend around the
western Adirondacks through Lewis into Jefferson and Oswego
counties. Shales, slates, sandstones and conglomerates are repre-
sented. The sandstones are usually thinly bedded, argillaceous
and of grayish color. They have little importance except for local
markets and their use is mostly limited to rubble and common
masonry work. No large quarries supplying this stone are in
steady operation at present.

Medina sandstone. The Medina formation comprises a great
thickness of sandstones extending in a wide belt from the central part
of Oneida county westward along the border of Lake Ontario to
Niagara river. A smaller area outcrops in Orange and Ulster
counties. The stone is usually gray, red or mottled in color with
medium to coarse texture. It shows fair crushing strength and is
an attractive building stone. The quartz grains are partially
replaced at times by decomposed feldspar but seldom in such an
amount as to injure the quality of the stone.

The flat, even bedding and the regular jointing which usually
characterize the Medina, facilitate its working, while its occurrence
in a populous district has promoted the growth of a large quarrying
industry. The most productive field of operations lies on the
southern edge of the belt and extends from Brockport, Monroe co.,
through Holley, Hulberton, Hindsburg, Albion, Eagle Harbor,
Medina and Shelby Basin, Orleans co., to Lockport and Lewiston,
Niagara co. Albion, Hulberton and Medina are the chief quarrying
centers at present. The quarries are well equipped and their
combined capacity largely exceeds the output. There is a wide
demand for the stone as building material, though the market has
been curtailed to some extent in recent years by active competition
with the Berea sandstone of Ohio. It finds employment also
for curbing and flagging and specially for paving blocks for which
purpose it takes the place of granite and trap.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 963

Devonic sandstones. The Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and:
Catskill formations of the Upper Devonic, comprise alternating
beds of sandstones and shales that are developed in great strength
throughout the central and southern parts of the State." Their
northern limit is approximately defined by a line beginning near
the Hudson river, a few miles below Albany, and extending north
of west in a broad curve to a short distance south of Syracuse and
thence almost directly westward to Lake Erie. On the east they
follow the Hudson valley from Albany county to near Kingston,
in Ulster county, where they bend to the southwest and continue
in this direction till they enter Pennsylvania. The sandstone
from these formations is popularly known as bluestone, a name
first applied to the Ulster county stone on account of its color.
Though the original significance can no longer be claimed for the
name as used commercially, the more or less persistent characters
of Devonic sandstones and their employment for common pur-
_ poses warrant the adoption of some such collective term.

Quarries have been opened at various localities within the above
defined area. The region which has undergone most active opera-
tions, however, is that on the southeast which is more favorably
situated in relation to markets and convenience of transport. The
greater number of quarries have been opened on the eastern slopes
of the Catskills, in the outlying ridges between the latter and the
Hudson river and in the hills bordering the Delaware river. This
district includes parts of Albany, Greene, Ulster, Sullivan, Delaware
and Broome counties. As arule the industry is carried on by small
operators who sell their product to dealers located in the neighbor-
ing towns along the Hudson river and the Erie and Ontario &
Western railroads. Among the chief shipping points are Catskill,
Greene co.; Saugerties and Kingston, Ulster co.; Walton, Hancock,
Lordville, Hale Eddy and Fishs Eddy, Delaware co.; Rockland,
Livingston Manor and Long Eddy, Sullivan co.; and Deposit,
Broome co.

In addition to this region there are many localities in the central
and western counties of the State which produce bluestone. A
large output is made around Oxford and Norwich, Chenango co.
and Rock Glen, Wyoming co. Among other places, quarries have
been opened at Ithaca, Trumansburg, Kings Ferry, Portageville,
Amity and Scio.

In its prevailing type, bluestone is even bedded, compact, fine
grained and dark blue or bluish gray in color. It splits easily along

1The sandstones of this region have been treated very fully in Museum Bulletin 61, by Harold
T. Dickinson.

964 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the bedding planes and is particularly adapted for flagstones,
curbing and house trimmings and other purposes for» which a
smooth surface is desirable. It lends itself readily to mill treat-
ment. More than one half of the annual output is sold in the
form of flag and curbstone and most of the remainder as building
material, including both rough and dressed.

The bluestone from this region finds its largest market in the
cities along the Atlantic seaboard. The product from the Hudson
river district is transported by barges to New York, Philadelphia,
Boston and intervening points. The output of Delaware, Sullivan
and Broome counties goes in part to New York, Philadelphia and
vicinity and in part to the interior cities of the State. It is handled
mainly by the Erie and the Ontario & Western railroads. The
other quarries depend mostly on local markets for the sale of their

output.
Production and trade in 1904

The total value of the sandstone quarried in New York last year
was $1,896,697. This output was distributed among 31 counties
with an aggregate of over 4oo producers. Classified as to uses the
total was distributed as follows: building stone, rough and dressed,
$637,607; curbing and flagging, $902,027; paving blocks, $293,252;
crushed stone, $27,583; rubble, $14,736; all other purposes, $21,492.
The crushed stone amounted approximately to 34,948 cubic yards
of which 13,400 yards, valued at $10,665, was for road material
and 20,548 yards, valued at $16,918, for concrete, railroad ballast,
etc. It has not been possible to separate the building stone accord-
ing to the amount sold rough and dressed or to report the flagging
and curbing separately, owing to the fact that many of the quareys
men keep no detailed account of their operations.

The following table shows the value of the production of sand-
stone in 1904 distributed among the leading districts of the State.
It also indicates the relative proportion of bluestone to the other
sandstones that were quarried.

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 965

Production of sandstone in 1904

Building| ““f>im8 | paving | Crushed| Rubble,| All

District stone aoe blocks stone riprap other
Bluestone
Hudson river..... SOG TEAS 52 246 S1s"304\>-. eke alee eS $44
STAWale A1VeR is 21458 7-)SO6h STO. O13) ssh fers are | «slays late $3 218 5 043
IP COUMGY pi B57 EO! (24 TOO! oe a ahe «2 wie 0 aye las ohe: oe oy eye I 000
Wyoming county.| 175 072 5 (eee oecle ae AC e aeote 500 I 502
Other districts.... MHBOGIt LO255} : yan inlets $1 390 100 163

Total bluestone.|$482 092/$703 817) $13 394| $1 390) $3 818) $7 752

Sandstone
Orleans county...|$115 oo00/$185 526\$274 846]........ $1 goo| $11 500
Other districts....| 40 515| 12 684 5 o12| $26 193 9 o18 2 240

Total sandstone/$155 515|$198 210/$279 858) $26 193) $10 918} $13 740

Combined total |$637 607\$902 027/$293 252) $27 583| $14 736| $21 492

The value of bluestone quarried for all purposes in 1904 was
$1,212,263 or approximately 64% of the total sandstone; the value
of other sandstones quarried was $684,434 or 36% of the total.

The production of bluestone by districts was as follows: Hudson
river, $464,801; Delaware river, $436,980; Wyoming county,
$177,374; Chenango county, $110,810; elsewhere, $22,298. Of
the sandstone quarried Orleans county reported an output valued
at $588,772 and other counties an output valued at $95,662.

A more detailed classification of the product that would cover
each county separately has been found impracticable, since many
of the large companies who operate quarries at several localities
are unable to divide their output according to the different sources.
The relative rank of the principal counties of the State, was, how-
ever, as follows in the order of their importance: Orleans, Ulster,
Delaware, Wyoming, Sullivan, Chenango and St Lawrence.

The foregoing table shows that of the bluestone quarried along
the Hudson river, in Albany, Greene and Ulster counties, about
75% in value was sold as curbstone and flagstone and about 22%
as building stone. In the Delaware river districts, including Sulli-
van, Delaware and Broome counties, the value of the flagstone and
curbstone sold amounted to 70% and building stone to 27% of the ©
total. In Chenango and Wyoming counties, on the other hand,
almost the entire output was marketed as building stone, the value
of flagstone and curbstone being less than 6% of the total sales.
The output of Medina sandstone in Orleans county was used chiefly

966 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

for the following purposes: building stone, 20%; flagging and |
curbing, 32% and paving blocks, 47%.

Trade notes. The Medina Quarry Co., the largest operator in
the Medina district, was succeeded during 1904 by the Orleans
County Quarry Co. with offices at Albion. The former company
was organized in 1902 and took over a number of quarries with a
view of combining their operations. The quarries are located at
Albion, Medina, Eagle Harbor, Holley and Hulberton. Among
the products sold are building stone, flagstone, curbstone and
paving blocks.

There have been few changes of note in the bluestone trade.
With some exceptions the quarrying is done by small concerns
employing but few men and their operations are more or less of
transitory character. Nearly all of the product from the Hudson
river and the Delaware river regions is handled by dealers who also
own or lease much of the land on which the quarries are located.

The principal dealers along the Hudson river who market most
of the product from Ulster and Greene counties are the following:

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Hudson River Bluestone Co. Rondout
John Maxwell’s Sons Saugerties
Smith & Yeager Catskill
Ulster and Delaware Bluestone Co. Kingston

In Delaware, Sullivan and Broome counties, comprising the
Delaware river region, the leading dealers and quarriers are:

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
E. J. Cotter Hancock
Deposit Stone Co. Deposit
George W. Kazenstein Hancock
Kirkpatrick Bros. Hancock
Sutton & Connor Walton
P. J. Maden | Deposit
James Nevins’ Sons Fishs Eddy
Cyrus Peak Long Eddy
Randall Bros. Hancock
John Rhodes East Branch ~
Standard Bluestone Co. Jersey City N. J.
Travis & Kingsbury Hale Eddy

The producers in other districts of the State include the following
important firms:

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 967

NAME LOCATION OF OFFICE
Cusack & Murray Kings Ferry
Dunn & Mead Oxford
F. G. Clarke Bluestone :Co. Oxford
American Bluestone Co. Warsaw
Warsaw Bluestone Co. Warsaw
Theodore Woods Norwich
Genesee Valley Bluestone Co. Bluestone
Driscoll Brothers & Co. Ithaca
Peter O’Hara Trumansburg

The general condition of the quarrying industry during 1904 has
been fairly satisfactory. The demand for structural stone was
somewhat below normal, as in the previous year, for which the
depression prevailing in the building trade in the larger cities was
responsible. An improvement in the demand will probably mani-
fest itself during the present year. The bluestone market, on the
other hand, was active and absorbed an unusually large output.

Trap

The basic dike rocks, commonly called trap, are found at numer-
ous places throughout ;the Adirondacks and adjacent territory.
The largest area in the State, however, is that which outcrops
along the lower Hudson southward from Haverstraw, constituting
the remarkable scenic feature known as the Palisades. This ridge
crosses the Rockland county line into New Jersey, but appears
again on the north shore of Staten Island. The trap is a dark,
fine grained, crystalline aggregate of plagioclase, augite and mag-
netite. It properly belongs to the diabase rock group. It is
exceedingly hard and tough, and, unlike most granitic rocks,
shows little tendency to rifting or parting along planes of weak-
ness, so that it is admirably adapted for paving blocks and road
metal, of which the ability to withstand constant wear is an es-
sential feature. Though the rock has been used to some extent
in buildings, it is too unyielding in the quarry to be extensively
employed for that purpose.

The principal quarries of trap are those at Rockland Lake,
operated by the Clinton Point Stone Co. and the Rockland Lake
Trap Rock Co., those at Upper Nyack and Haverstraw worked
by the Manhattan Trap Rock Co., and the Long Clove Trap Rock
Co., respectively, and the quarries at Port Richmond, Staten
Island, worked by the Quinroy Contracting Co. Each company
operates crushing plants in connection with the quarries. The

968 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

crushed stone is used for road metal, concrete, railroad ballast,
etc. A test of the trap from Rockland Lake made in the laboratory
for road material at Washington D. C. gave the following re-
sults: Coefficient of wear, 13.2; per cent of wear, 3; weight
in pounds a cubic foot, 192.5; pounds of water absorbed a cubic
foot, .3; cementing value... 80.

The production of trap rock in New York last year was valued
at $468,496. Of this total, $452,621 represented the value of
crushed stone, and $15,875 the value of paving blocks and building
stone. The total quantity of crushed stone made was 610,285
cubic yards, of which 280,516 cubic yards was reported as sold
for road metal, while the remainder was unclassified. The paving
blocks were quarried on Staten Island.

TALC

No important developments in the talc industry of St Lawrence
county were recorded during 1904. The mines and mills have been
working at a normal rate, in accordance with the market demand
for the product, which was of average character as compared
with previous years. With existing facilities the output could
‘be increased to much larger than present proportions so that there
is little incentive to start new enterprises in this field.

The market for fibrous talc is limited almost entirely to the re-
quirements of paper manufacturing, and since it scarcely seems
probable that the other uses can be augmented to any great ex-
tent, the demand, doubtless, will continue to be governed by the
conditions prevailing in that industry. So far as the American
paper trade is concerned, St Lawrence talc has become a staple
article, but there is still some room for extending the foreign
consumption, particularly in Great Britain where manufacturers
have been slow to recognize its advantages over other fillers.
Germany is the best of foreign markets and large quantities of the
product are exported annually to that country. That it can
compete successfully with the high grade German clays sold at
lower prices lends encouragement to the view that the exports
may be further increased.

The superior qualities of talc. from this region are primarily
due to its fibrous, pliable character. Thus in paper making it
not only serves as a filler, but the fibers felt together and strengthen
the paper stock. A ‘much larger proportion of fibrous tale can be
incorporated in the pulp than is possible with clay or other ma-
terials composed of scaly or rounded particles. Among the chief

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 969

consumers are manufacturers of book, writing and wall papers.
The mills making newspaper use relatively smaller quantities
than is generally supposed. It is stated that some prejudice exists
on their part against talc from this region owing to the grit which
is usually present. This impurity is objectionable for the reason
that it increases the wear of the machines, particularly when
run at high speed, as in newspaper mills.

The production of talc in 1904 amounted to 65,000 short tons.
The average selling price at Gouverneur on the basis of car load
lots was $7 a ton, at which figure the total output was worth
$455,000. There were four companies in the field, the same as
in the previous year. The International Pulp Co. had three mines
and the same number of mills in steady operation, with an ad-
ditional mill running part of the time. The United States Talc
Co. and the Ontario Talc Co. each operated one mine and mill,
while the Union Talc Co. ran two mines and three mills.

On the basis of present prices, the margin of profit in the talc
industry is by no means excessive. Owing to the character of the
material and the nature of its occurrence, the mining cost is com-
paratively high. The fact that in most deposits there is a great
deal of waste in the form of foliated and gritty tale adds materially
to the cost of production. Machine drills are used to some extent
for breaking down the rock, but they have little, if any, advantage
as regards economy over hand drilling. With the former, work
must be frequently suspended to clean the holes as the drills bind
quickly in the soft but tough rock. After sorting at the mines the
tale is transported to the mills, most of which are run by water
power.

Milling is a tedious and expensive operation. The final grinding
is done in a tube mill consisting of a horizontal steel cylinder 6
feet in diameter and 8 to 1o feet long, lined with enamelled brick.
Three tons or more of flint pebbles are used in the cylinders, and
the grinding continues for four or five hours. The rock is pre-
viously prepared for the cylinders by Blake crushers and Griffin
mills. The latter have superseded buhr stones, which were formerly

used almost exclusively.
ZINC

The zinc-lead mine at Ellenville, Ulster co., has been under
development during the past year. The production of ore was
limited to that obtained during the course of exploratory work and
no commercial shipments were made. The operations have been
under the direction of the Backus Lumber Co. of Newark N. J.,
who took over the property in rgor.

970 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The Ellenville mine was first opened about 50 years ago since
which time it has been operated intermittently by different com-
panies. It is a noted locality for beautiful quartz crystals. The
deposit consists of a fissure vein intersecting the Shawangunk grit.
The width of the vein averages about 6 feet. Quartz is the princi-
pal gangue mineral, while the ore consists of sphalerite, galena and
chalcopyrite in varying proportions. Silver accompanies the
galena to the extent of a few ounces a ton.

The workings comprise an inclined shaft that has been carried
down to about 200 feet on the vein and a series of levels 30 feet apart.
A mill for treating the ore has been erected near the mine. Before
smelting the concentrates must be subjected to a separation, which
the company plans to effect by magnetic methods.

INDEX

The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 918°
means page 918, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one

third of the way down.

Adirondack Mining and Milling Co.,

929°.
Adirondack Pyrite Co., 946”.

Akron, cement, 9147; gypsum, 931°. |

Akron Cement Works, 916’.
Albany, clays, 918’.
Albany City Pottery, 924°.

Albany county, building brick, 921°, |
922°, 923°; clays, g20°; fire brick

and stove lining, 923°; limestone,
0505950 5.057, 0 958°; molding
sand, 9284; pottery, 924°; sand-
stone, 963°, 965%; terra cotta, fire-
proofing and building tile, 923°.
Albion, sandstone, 962°, 9667.
Alfred, roofing tile manufacture,
918°.
Algonquin Red Slate Co., 939°, 950°.
Allegany county, building brick,

921°; clays, 920°; draintile and |

sewer pipe, 923’; natural gas, 943%,
944°; petroleum, 944°; roofing tile
manufacture, 918°; terra cotta,
fireproofing and building tile, 923°.

Allegany Pipe Line Co., 945°.

Allen & Williams, 950°.

Alsen’s American Portland Cement
Works, 916°.

mivordy EB. .Co,. 916".

Amenia; limonite, 933°.

American Bluestone Co., 9677.

Amity, sandstone, 963°.

Anorthosite, 9538.

Arnold Hill, magnetite, 9337, 936'.

Arnold Mining Co., 936°.

Attica, natural gas, 943°.

Auburn, limestone, 956‘.

Aurora, salt, 947°.

Avon, natural gas, 944}.

Backus Lumber Co., 960°.
Baker, Charles I., 9511.

|

Baldwinsville, natural gas, 944!.
Bangs & Gaynor, 916’.

Barton; HH: H.,-& Son; 9295.
Batavia, salt, 947°.

Beck Slate Co., 95z'.

Becraft limestone, 9567.

| Bedford, feldspar, 926°; quartz, 926’.

Beekmantown limestone, 954°.

Behan, James, estate, 932’; Cement
Works, 916°.

Bellevue Porcelain Works, 925°.

Benkert, John B., 925°.

. Bentley, J. L.;.928°.

Betz, Henry, & Bros., 924°,

Birkinbine, John, cited, 933’.

Black river limestone, 954°.

Blue Corundum Co., 9267.

Bluestone, 963%; value of production,
gsi’.

Bonanza Slate Co., 951°.

Borst, Charles A;.: 93 7°,..0308.

Brick, see Building brick; Fire brick;
Front brick; Vitrified paving brick.

Brick clays, 918*.

Bridgeport Wood Finishing Co., 926°.

Brocton Gas & Fuel Co., 944°.

Brooklyn, manufacture of pottery,
918°.

Broome county, building brick, 921;
clays, 920°; sandstone, 963°, 965°,
966°.

Brouwer, Ty A. jry.9255.

Bryn Mawr, granite, 952°.

Buffalo, cement, 914°; clays, 918';
limestone, 956%.

Buffalo Cement Co., 916°.

Buffalo Pottery Co., 924°.

Building brick, 9191; value of pro-
duction, 913%, 9207; manufacture,
919°, 921*~-23*; production in 1904,
g217—22°; production in Hudson
river region, 922°—234.

972

Building stone, 9517, 958’; quarrying,
g125; value of production, 9568,
956°.

Building tile, manufacture, 91838,
923°; value of production, 920%.

Burden carbonate mines, 937°.

Burlington Marble Co., 959’, 961”.

Caledonia, hematite, 937‘; natural
gas, 944".

Canton, pyrite, 945°.

Carbonate mines, 9377.

Carbonic acid gas, 942%-43?.

Carney Ore Mining Co., 937°.

Catskill, clays, 918%; limestone, 956”.

Catskill beds, 963}.

Catskill Cement Co., 9165.

Cattaraugus county, mineral paint,
939°; natural gas, 943°, 944%; pet-
roleum, 944°, 9457.

Cayuga Cement Co., 914°.

Cayuga county, building brick, 9218;
clays, 920°; draintile and sewer
pipe, 9237; gypsum, 931°, 932°;
limestone, 957°; salt, 947°.

Cayuga Lake Cement Co., 916°.

Caytuga “Plaster Co.) 932°.

Cement, 912°, 913%-17?; value of pro-
duction, 913%; counties producing,
914°; production and trade in rgo4,
915°-177; list of producers, 916+.

Central New York Pottery Co., 9257.

Champion Natural Carbonic Acid
Gas Co.,"9437:

Champlain Graphite Co., 930”.

Chautauqua county, building brick,
921°; clays, 920°; draintile and
sewer pipe, 9237; fire brick and
stove lining, 923°; natural gas, 9433,
944°, 944°; paving brick, 923°.

Chazy limestone, 954’.

Chemung beds, 963'.

Chemung county, building brick,
921°; clays, 920°; draintile and
sewer pipe, 9237.

Chenango county, bluestone, 965°;
sandstone, 963°, 965°, 965°.

Clarke, F. G., Bluestone Co., 967?.

Clarkson Marble Co., 961'.

Clay materials, production of, g19‘—

NEW YORK STAT-—

MUSEUM

21°; production by counties, 9208
21*; value of production, g1o?, 913%.

Clayburg, iron ore, 936%.

Clays, gt2', 917-258; color, 918};
cretaceous 9184; crude, 925°; dis-
tribution in New York, 9178;
thickness, 9187.

Clinton, hematite, 933°, 9375; mineral
paint, 939°.

Clinton county, building brick, 921°;
clays, 920°; granite, 954?; lime,
958°; limestone, 955%, 957°; mag-
netite, 9337; sandstone, 961°.

Clinton Metallic Paint Co., 939°.

Clinton Point Stone Co., 967°.

Cobleskill limestone, 955°.

Coeymans limestone, 956?.

Columbia county, building brick,
o21°, ‘g22°,~ 923°; “cement, ona
clays, 920°; limestone, 956!; limo-
nite, 9377; molding sand, 928°;
roofing slate, 949°.

Columbia Graphite Co., 920°.

Columbia Pipe Line Co., 945°.

Connors, William, Paint Manufactur-
ing Co., 940}. ;

Consolidated Rosendale Cement Co.,
9168.

Consolidated Wheatland Plaster Co.,
932°.

Constantia, glass sand, 927°.

Cornwall, clays, 918°.

Cotter, °H."7.; oao’.

Croton, clays, 918%.

Crushed stone, 958°; value of produc-
tion, 956°, 9568; used for road
material, 957’.

Cummings Cement Co., 916°, 917!.

Cusack & Murray, 9671.

Davidson Brothers, 960°.

Delaware county, sandstone, 963°,
965%, 965°, 966°.

Delmar, molding sand, 928.

Deposit Stone Co., 9667.

Dickinson, Harold T., cited, 963°.

Dixon, Joseph, Crucible Co., 929%.

Draintile, manufacture, 918%, 9237;
value of production, 920°.

Driscoll Brothers & Co., 967°.

INDEX TO THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY

Dundee, salt, 947°.

Dunn & Mead, 967'.

Dunwoodie, granite, 952°.

Dutchess county, building bricls,
921°, 922°, 923°; clays, 920°; lime-
stone, 957°; limonite, 933°, 9377;
molding sand, 928°; roofing slate,
949°.

Dutchess Junction, clays, 918°.

Eagle Bridge, mineral paint, 939°.
Eagle Harbor, sandstone, 9667.
Earthenware, 918%.

East Williston, brick clays, 918.

Eden Valley, salt, 947°.

Electrical supplies, 918%.

Eko Paint Co., 940'.

Ellenville, zinc, 969°.

Emery, 925°-26°; value of production,
913°.

Empire China Works, 924°.

Empire Gas & Fuel Co., 944’.

Empire Portland Cement Co., 9144,
916°.

Empire State Salt Co., 947’.

Erie county, building brick, 921°;
Gemient, Gi4?. gra’; clays, 920°;
draintile and sewer pipe, 923’; fire
brick and stove lining, 923°; gyp-
‘sum, 931°; limestone, 957°, 957°,

958°, 958°; natural gas, 943°, 943°,
944%, 944’; pottery, 924"; salt, 947°;
terra cotta, fireproofing and build-
ing tile, 923°.

Esopus millstones, 938%.

Essex county, granite, 953°; magnet-
ate, 633".

Extra Dark Marble Co., 959°.

Farmingdale, brick clays, 9184.

Fayetteville, gypsum, 9317.

Feldspar, 926°; value of production,
913%.

Finch, Pruyn & Co., 9598, 961”.
Fire brick, manufacture, 9188, 919},
923°; value of production, 920”.

Fire sand, 928’.

Fireproofing, manufacture, 919°, 923°;
value of production, 920%.

Fishkill, clays, 918%.

.

973

Flagstone, value of production, 956°,
O57:

Fordham gneiss, 952°.

Fort Montgomery, iron ore, 933°.

Franklin county, granite, 953°; sand-
stone, 961°.

Franklin Iron Manufacturing Co.,
937°.

Front brick, value of production,
9207; manutacture, g21*.

Fulton, natural gas, 944”.

Fulton county, clays, 920°; granite,
953’, 9547; limestone, 954°, 955%,
957°; sandstone, 961’.

Furnace flux, value of production,
956°, 950%.

Furnaceville, hematite, 933°, 937°.

Furnaceville Iron Co., 937°.

Garbutt Gypsum Co., 932°.

Garden City, brick clays, 918'.

Garnet, 9268=27'; value of produc-
Lalas Maelo gs

Garrisons, granite, 952’.

Genesee county, draintile and sewer
pipe, 923’; gypsum, 931’, 932°;
limestone, 957%, 957’, 958°; natural
gas, 9441; salt, 947°, 949'; terra
cotta, fireproofing and building
tile,//g238.

Genesee Natural Gas Co., 9447.

Genesee Valley Bluestone Co., 9677.

Geysers Natural Carbonic Acid Gas
Co:, 943°:

Glass sand, 927°-287; value of pro-
duction, 913°.

Glen Salt Co., 947%.

Glens Falls, cement, 914°; limestone,
955*; marble, 959°.

Glens Falls Co., 9617.

Glens Falls Portland Cement Co.,
9165,

Gorham, natural gas, 944).

Gouverneur, iron ore, 933°; marble,
959%, 9607; pyrite, 945°; talc, 969°.

Gouverneur Marble Co., 959, 960%.

Gowanda, salt, 947°.

Graham, Charles, Chemical Pottery
Works, 925}.

Granite (town), millstones, 938°.

O74. NEW YORK STTAE MUSEUM

Granite, 952°-54?; value of produc-
1100, O13", O51 39052:

Granville, roofing slate, 949°.

Granville Slate Co., 950’.

Graphite, 928°-30°; value of produc-
tion, G13".

Green Ridge, brick manufacture,
918°,

Greene county, building brick, 921°,
g22")9237) cement;o14* ;clays.o20°;
limestone, 9561, 956°; sandstone,
963°, 965°.

Greenpoint Pottery, 925).

Greenport, brick clays, 918°.

Guelph dolomite, 955°.

Gypsum, 930°-32°; value of produc-
tien, 913°.

Hague, graphite, 929°.

Half Way, gypsum, 931%.

Hamilton beds, 963}.

Hampden Corundum Wheel Co.,
926%:

Hampton, roofing slate, 949°.

Hartsdale, granite, 952°.

Hastings, granite, 952°.

Haverstraw, clays, 918; trap, 967°.

Hebron, roofing slate, 949°.

Helderberg Portland Cement Co.,
9r6',[on6*,cor7%

Helderbergian group, 956!.

Hematite, 933°, 937°.

Herkimer county, granite, 9537; lime-
stone, 954°, 955+, 9577; magnetite,
933". 937°.

High Falls Pyrite Co., 9467.

Hilfinger Bros., 925°.

Holley, sandstone, 966’.

Home Gas Co., 9445.

Hoosick, roofing slate, 949°.

Howes Cave, cement, 914°.

Hudson, clays, 918°; limestone, 956’.

Hudson Iron Co., 933°, 937°.

Hudson Portland Cement Co., 916%.

Hudson River Bluestone Co., 966°.

Hudson River Ore and Iron Co., 937°.

Hudson river sandstone, 962'.

Hudson valley, clays, 917°; building
brick, 922°-23'.

Hulberton, sandstone, 962°, 966’.

Hurd, A J.; 940”.

Hutchings, B. R., mentioned, 9467.
Hydraulic cement, see Cement.

International Acheson Graphite Co.,
930°.

International Pulp Co., 960%.

International Salt Co., 949°.

Iron ore, 932°-387; production, 911°,
934'!; value of production, 9135;
developments at Mineville, 9345-
20%.

Iroquois Portland Cement Co., 916°.

Iroquois Salt Co., 947°.

Ithaca, salt, 9477, 9497; sandstone,
963”.

Jamesville Milling Co., 917’.

Jefferson county, building brick,
g21°; clays, 920°; gtantte, sass.
953°, 9542; lime, 958%; limestone,
9554, 9577, 9589; sandstone, 961°,
962"

Jones, F. W. & Co., 959%, 961”.

Kaolin, no deposits of economic value
in New York, 917°.

Kazenstein, George W., 966’.

Keeseville, granite, 953°.

Kerhonkson, millstones, 938°.

Kings county, clays, 920°; draintile
and sewer pipe, 923’; fire brick
and ‘stove, lining,’ 923°; potcery,
924’; terra cotta, fireproofing and
building tile, 923°.

Kings Ferry, sandstone, 963°.

Kingston, clays, 918°; limestone,
956%.

Kinkel, P. H. & Son, 926°.

Kirkpatrick Bros., 9667.

Kreischerville, brick manufacture
918°.

Kurth, Charles, 924°.

Kyserike, millstones, 938°.

Lake Mohegan, granite, 953}.

Lancaster, J. R., 926°.

Lansing, H:, oe"

Leroy, limestone, 956%; salt, 947°.

Lewis, F. H., cited, 914’.

Lewis county, granite, 953’; lime-
stone, 955+; sandstone, 962°.

Leyotte, Peter, 959°, 961".

INDEX TO THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY

Lima, natural gas, 944.

Lime, 958'; value of production, 956°,
956°.

Limestone (town), petroleum, 9457.

Limestone, 954*-58°; value of pro-
duction, 913’, 951°, 9527; produc-

RS tion in 1904, 956%.

Limonite, 933’, 937’.

Lincoln Spring Co., 943}.

Little Falls, granite, 9537.

Livingston county, cement, 914°;
natural gas, 943°, 944%; salt, 947%,
949°.

Livonia, salt, 9487.

Locke Insulator Mfg. Co., 925°.

Lockport dolomite, 955°.

Long Clove Trap Rock Co., 967°.

Long Island, clays, 9184.

Lower Pentamerus limestone, 956?.

Lowerre, granite, 952°.

Lowville limestone, 954°.

Ludlowville, salt, 9477.

Lycoming Calcining Co., 932°.

Lyon Mountain, iron ore, 9365; mag-
netite, 933’.

McCarthy, Spencer, 9327.
McCormick Red Slate Co., 9511.
Maden, P. J., 966%.

Madison county, building brick, 921°; |

- clays, 920°; draintile and sewer
Pipe, 923’; gypsum, 931%, 9323;
limestone, 955°, 9577; pottery, 924%.

Magnetite, 933°, 9344-377.
Manhattan Trap Rock Co., 967°.

Manlius Centre, gypsum, 931%.

Manlius limestone, 955°.

Marble, 959'-61°; value of produc-
tion, 9137, 9517, 9527. .

Marcellus, gypsum, 931%.

Marsden, F. L. & Co., 928°.

Mason, J. jr, 932°.

Mathews Consolidated Slate
950°.

Maxwell, John, Sons, 966°.

Mayfield, granite, 9537.

Medina, sandstone, 9628, 966?.

Medina Quarry Co., 9661.

Medina sandstone, 962°.

Merrill, F. J. H. cited, 928°,

Co., |

975

Metallic paint, value of production,
913°.

Millen, Thomas, Co., 916°.

Miller, F. A., 932°.

Millstones, 9387-397; value of pro-
duction, 913°.

Mineral paint, 939°—40?.

Mineral waters, 912°-137, 9407-428;
value of production, 913°.

Minerals, New York’s rank, gto!;
mineral production of New York
fof QLG04) gut", 613":

Mineville, magnetite, 933’; develop-
ments at, 934°—-36!.

Minor, J.C. jr, mentioned, 942°.

Molding sand, 927°~-28’.

Monroe county, building brick, 9227;
clays, 920°; draintile and sewer
Pipe, 923’; fire brick and stove
lining, 923°; gypsum, 931°, 932°;
limestone, 955°, 957’; pottery,
924°; terra cotta, fireproofing and
building tile, 923°.

Montauk Slate Co., 950°.

Montezuma, cement, 914°.

Montgomery county, limestone, 954°,
955*, 957’.

Mount Vernon, granite, 953'.

Myers, salt, 949’.

Naples, salt, 947°.
Nassau county, building brick, 922?;
clays, 920°; pottery,:924°.

| National Pyrite Co., 946’.

National Salt Co., 9473, 947%, 947°,
948%, 940°.

National Wall Plaster Co. of America,
932".

Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 943}.

Natural cement rock, geologic hori-
zon, 914°; thickness, 914°.

Natural gas, 9437-44’; value of pro-
duction, 912’, 913°.

| Natural rock cement, value of pro-

duction, 913°; first plant erected at
Rosendale, 913°; production and
trade in 1904, 915%; list of pro-
ducers, 916’.

Nevins, James, Sons, 966°.

New Hamburg, roofing slate, 949°.

976

New Lebanon, roofing slate, 949°.

New Rochelle, granite, 953}.

New Windsor, clays, 918?.

New York Carbonic Acid Gas Co.,
943°.

New York Cement Co., 916°.

New York county, terra cotta, fire-
proofing and building tile, 923°.
Newark Lime and Cement Manu-

facturing Co., 916°.
Newman, H. L. & W. C., Co., 916%.
Niagara county, building brick, 9227;
clays, 920°; limestone, 9577; natural
gas, 944°. .
Niagara Falls, limestone, 955’.
North Creek Garnet Co., 927%.
North River Garnet Co., 927°.
Northern Crushed Stone Co., 960’.
Northern Iron Co., 935°.
Northern New York Marble Co.,
959°, 9607.
Northville, granite, 953’.
Norwich, sandstone, 963°.
Nyack, trap, 967°.

Oakfield, gypsum, 931’.

Oakfield Plaster Manufacturing Co.,
932°.

Oatka Mining Co., 947’.

O’Brien, John W., 950°.

O’Connell Lime & Marble Dust Co.,
959°, 9617.

O’Hara, Peter,* 967°:

Oneida county, building brick, 922°;
clays, 920°; fire brick and stove
lining, 9238; glass sand, 927%;
hematite, 933°, 937°; limestone,
955‘, 957°; mineral paint, 939°;
pottery, 9248; sandstones, 962°.

Oneida Lake Sand Mine, 928°.

Onondaga Coarse Salt Association,
949°.

Onondaga county, building brick,

922°; cement, 914°; clays 920°;
draintile and sewer pipe, 9237;
gypsum, 9314, 9327; lime, 958?;
limestone, 955°, 955°, 956', 957%,

958°, 958°; natural gas, 944', 944%;
paving brick, 9235; pottery, 924’;
quarrying industry, 957%: salt,

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

946’, 948°; terra cotta, fireproofing
and building tile, 923°.

Onondaga limestone, 9567.

Onondaga Pottery Co., 925%.

Ontario, mineral paint, 939°.

Ontario county, building brick, 9223;
clays, 921”; draintile and sewer
pipe, 9237; gypsum, 931°; natural
gas, 944°, 944*; pottery, 924°;
salt; ‘o47*:

Ontario Tale Co., 960%.

Orange county, building brick, 922°
922°, 923%: clays, 9217; etamite,
953°, 953°, 954'; iron ore, 933°;
limestone, 956°.

Orleans county, bluestone, 965%;
limestone, 955°; sandstone, 9657,
965°.

Orleans county Quarry Co., 9667.

Osborn, W. H. & Co., 932°.

Oswego county, glass sand, 928};
natural gas, 944’, 944*; sandstone,
962°.

Oxford, sandstone, 963°.

Pass and Seymour Inc., 925%.

Paving brick, 918°; manufacture
919°, 923°.

Peak, Cyrus, 966°.

Peekskill, clays, 918°; granite, 952°.

Perry, salt, 947°.

Petroleum, 944%-45°; value, 912’,
913°. |

Phoenix, natural gas, 9441.

Pine Island, granite, 9537.

Plattsburg, marble, 959°.

Pope Mills, graphite, 930%.

Porcelain, 918°.

Port Henry Iron Ore Co., 934°.

Port Jefferson, brick clays, 918*.

Port Leyden, granite, 953°.

Port Richmond, trap, 967°.

Portage formation, 963}.

Portageville, sandstone, 963°.

Portland cement, value of produc-
tion, 913°; manufacture, 914°;
localities identified with industry,
914°; materials used, 914’; produc-
tion and trade in 1904, 915°; list of

producers, 916‘.

INDEX TO THE MINING

Potsdam sandstone, 961°62?.

Potter-Brown Cement Works, 916%.

Pottery, value of production, 913%,
920°; manufacture, 918°, 918%,
923°—25°.

Poughkeepsie, clays, 918°.

Pulaski, natural gas, 944’.

Putnam county, granite, 9527.

Pyrite, 9457-463; value of produc-
ion, 913°.

Quarrying of building stone, g12°.

Quartz, 926°; value of production,
913%.

Queens county, terra cotta, fire-
proofing and building tile, 923°.

Quinn, H. M., 9267. '

Quinroy Contracting Co., 967°.

Randall Bros., 96 °.

Randolph, mineral paint, 939°.

Reagan, Edward, 925%.

Redford, iron ore, 936°.

Remington Salt Co., 947%.

Rensselaer county, building brick,
922°)022°,. 923%: .clays,,9217; fire
brick and stove lining, 923°;
mineral paint, 9395; paving brick
923°; roofing slate, 949°; terra
cotta, fireproofing and building
tile, 923°.

Retsof, salt, 9487; rock salt mine,
949°.

Retsof Mining Co., 9477.

Rhodes, John, 966°.

Richmond county, building brick,
922°; clays, 9217; fire brick and
stove lining, 923°; terra cotta,
fireproofing and building tile, 923°.

Richville, pyrite, 9467.

Ries, Heinrich, cited, 917%.

Riprap, value of production, 956°,
956°. f

Rochester, clays, 918%; limestone,
955’.

Rock Glen, salt, 947°; sandstone,
963°.

Rock salt, 9487.

Rockland county, building brick,
9224, 922°, 9234; clays, g204, g21?;

AND QUARRY INDUSTRY

977

granite, 953', 953°, 9547; limestone,
957*, 957°, 958°.

Rockland Lake, trap, 967%.

Rockland Lake Trap Rock Co., 967°.

Rome, glass sand, 927°.

Rondout, limestone, 956’.

Rondout limestone, 955°.

Roofing slate, 949°; value of produc-
tion, 913°.

Roofing tile, manufacture, 918°, 919%.

Rosendale, cement, 913°.

Roseton, clays, 918%.

Rossie Iron Ore Co., 937°.

Rossie Iron Ore Paint Co., 940.

Round Island, granite, 953°.

Rubble, value of production, 956°,
956°.

Ruff, Andrew, 940”.

Ruffell, Samuel, 9407.

Rushville, natural gas, 944".

Rylstone Marble Co., 959°, 960

St Josen, millstones, 938°.

St Lawrence county, building brick,
9224; graphite, 930°; hematite,
933°, 937°; iron ore, 933°; limestone,
9578; pyrite, 945%; sandstone, 961°,
9658; talc, 968%.

St Lawrence Marble Quarries, 959°
960°.

St Regis Falls, granite, 953°.

Salem, roofing slate, 950%.

Salisbury, magnetite, 933’, 937°.

Salt, 9463-497; manufacture, 912°;
value of production, 913°; pro-
duction in 1904, 948°.

Sandstone, 9613-67; value of pro-
duction, 9137, 951°, 9527; produc-
tion and trade in rg04, 964‘, 965}.

Sandy Creek, natural gas, 944’.

Saratoga county, building brick,
9224; clays, 9217; draintile and
sewer pipe, 9237; limestone, 957%;
paving brick, 9235; sandstone, 9617.

Saugerties, clays, 918?.

Scarsdale, granite, 952°.

Schenectady county, pottery, 924°.

Schmidt, John, 925%.

Schoharie county, cement,
limestone, 955°, 957°, 958°.

ors";

978 NEW

Schuyler county, salt, 947*, 949'.

Scio, sandstone, 963°.

Selkirk, molding sand, 928+.

Seneca county, building brick, 922‘;
clays, 9217; draintile and sewer

pipe, 923’; natural gas, 944%; salt, |

947°.

Seneca Falls, limestone, 956‘; salt, |

947°.
Severance, F. M., 9327.
Sewer pipe, manufacture, 918°, 919%,
923’; value of production, 920%.
Sheedy, Thomas W., 916°, 932°.
Shushan, roofing slate, 950%.
Sienna, 939°.
Silver Creek, natural gas, 944°.
Silver Leaf Graphite Co., 930”.
Slate, 949’—517; value of production,
913°.
Slate pigment, value of production,
913°.
Smith & Yeager, 966°.
Solvay Process Co., 946°, 957°, 9584.
South Bethlehem, limestone, 956’.
South Dover, marble, 950+.
South Dover Marble Co., 959°, 9617.
South Rondout, cement, 914'.
South Shore Gas Co., 944°.
Southold, brick clays, 918°.
Spencer & McCarthy, 916°, 917?.
Split Rock, limestone, 956%.
Spragueville, hematite, 9338, 937°.
Springville, salt, 947°.
Springville Gas Co., 9447.
Standard Bluestone Co., 966°.

YORK STATE MUSEUM

Sullivan county, sandstone, 963,,
965°, 965°, 966°.

Sutton & Connor, 966%.

Syracuse, potteries, 918°.

Syracuse Pottery Co., 925%.

Talc, 968*-69°; value of production,
913".

Tanite Co., 9267.

Tarrytown, granite, 953}.

Terra cotta, 918°; manufacture, 9193,
923°; value of production, 920°.

Ticonderoga, feldspar, 926°.

Ticonderoga Graphite Co., 929°.

| Tide-Water Pipe Co. Limited, 945°.

_ Tompkins county, building brick,

922*; cement, 9151; clays, 9217;
draintile and sewer pipe, 9237; pav-
ing brick, 923°; salt, 9477, 949}.

Tottenville, terra cotta manufacture,
918°,

Trap, 967°-68*; value of production,
913", 952"), 952°.

Travis & Kingsbury, 966°.

Trenton limestone, 954°.

Troy, fire brick and stove lining
manufacture, 919}.

Trumansburg, sandstone, 963°.

Tuckahoe, marble, 950%.

| Ulster and Delaware Bluestone Co.,

Staten Island, clays, 918°; trap, 967°. |

Steuben county, building brick, 922¢;
cement, 9151; clays, 9217; draintile
and sewer pipe, 9237; fire brick
and stove lining, 923’; paving
brick, 923°; terra cotta, fireproof-
ing and building tile, 923%.

Stevens, E. E., 960%.

Stone, 951”.

Stony Point, clays, 918°.

Stove lining, manufacture, g19', 923°;
value of production, 920”,

Suffolk county, building brick, 9224; |

clays, 9217; pottery, 924°.

966°.
Ulster county, building brick, 9224,
922°, g23*; cement, 913°, 915};

clays, 9217; limestone, 955°, 956!,
956°, 957%, 957°; millstones, 9387;
sandstone, 963°, 965’, 965%; zinc,
969°.

Umbach, Gottlieb, 9257.

Union Pipe Line Co., 945°.

Union Porcelain Works, 9257.

| Union Springs, gypsum, q31°®.

Union Tale Co., 969%.

Uniontown, granite, 952°.

United States Gypsum Co., 932°.
United States Talc Co., 969%.
Upper Pentamerus limestone, 956’.

Vacuum Oil Co., 945°.
Valentine, William, jr, 932%

INDEX TO THE- MINING

Verona, glass sand, 927°.

Verplanck, clays, 918°.

Vienna, glass sand, 927°.

Vincent, salt, 947°.

Vitrified paving brick, value of pro-
duction, 920.

Wallkill Portland Cement Co., 914}.

Warner, cement, 914*; natural gas,
944".

Warren county, building brick, 9225;
cement, 915!; graphite, 928°; lime,
9587; limestone, 954°, 957%.

Warsaw, salt, 947°, 9497.

Warsaw Bluestone Co., 9677.

Washington county, building brick,
922°; clays, 9217; graphite, 928°;
lime, 958°; limestone, 955*, 957°;
pottery, 9248; roofing slate, 949%.

Waterloo, limestone, 9567.

Watertown Marble Co., 960!, 9608.

Watkins, salt, 947*, 9497.

Watkins Salt Co., 947%.

Waverly Marble Co., 960!, 9617.

Wayland, cement, 9145.

Wayland Portland Cement Co., 916°. |

Wayne county, hematite, 933°, 937°;
limestone, 955’; mineral paint,
939°.

Welsh Red Slate Co., 9517.

|

AND QUARRY INDUSTRY

979

Westchester county, building brick,
9225, 9228, 9234; clays, 9213; feld-
spar, 926°; fire brick and stove
lining, 923’; granite, 952°, 953},
953°, 954!; lime, 958; limestone,
957%, 957°, 958°.

Westfield, natural gas, 9445.

Wheatland, gypsum, 931°.

White Crystal Marble Co., 960”.

White Plains, granite, 953}.

Whitehall, roofing slate, 949°; sienna,
939°.

Whites Pottery Inc., 9253.

| Whitney, D. J., Marble Co., 960?,

960%.

| Witherbee, Sherman & Co., 933,

934°, 934°.
Woods, Theodore, 967?.

Worcester Salt Co., 9477.

Wyoming, salt, 947°.

Wyoming county, bluestone, 965%;
natural gas, 943°, 944%; salt, 947°,
947°, 9491; sandstone, 963°, 965%,
965°.

Yates county, natural gas, 944', 944*;
salt, 947°.
Yonkers gneiss, 952°.

Zimmerman, George, 925%.

| Zine, 9698703,

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Economic and geologic map of the State of New York.
Map of the State of New York showing configurations and catchments with
reservations of State Water Supply.

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ducation Department

ECONOMIC sso GEOLOGIC MAI
ow TUR

STATE or NEW YORK

LOCATION ov rrs MINERAL DEPOSITS
FREDERICK J 1MERRILL

Direttoy New\irk State Muses

) Racha at the
WORLD'S COLT N EXPOSITION
hy» vot

Ther Binur ff Ge veral Managers
THE REGENTS THE UNIERITY
195
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ECOND EDITION

Neyrlites mpany trullatio wr the
of Oe Mate of New York, b

LEGEND

Quaternary THE Gravel ete
Tertiary sand and Clay
Grtaceous
Trrasaic Phutoniy
Triassic
Canis Cony
, Geel
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E ) Rortagetineonts = sareton ant Shale
© | ttaniton
Upperiietiertery
Lower llelderterg

| GB stant iment
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amet ataene
srabewan

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The crokegy of thin map is baned om Ube Agricultural and Geo
Legioa! map of UME with atitrsoen and corrections from the felhew

‘Eeve comnsy
10h (eed DAE On Mohan valley

Benton and titoon River in New York Westchester, Putnam anid

V MGS metemerphued und crystalline Himastonas and sehasts
(0 Rewenented ty Tomastone

LEGEND

ECONOMIC MINERALS
O Salt well mines and brine Lgatck >
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© Gas wells
@ (as folds
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Olay depemite and factories
=== Clay deposits only
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EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

MAP OF THE

STATE OF NEW YORK

SHOWING THE
SURFACE CONFIGURATION AND CATCHMENTS

By FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL,

TA SS NY

were RI SERVATIONS FOR STATE WATER SUPPLY
As Proposed by GEO. W. RAFTER |

1905
SCALE, 1% MILES! INCH
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the earth's surface. All points through whieh any given line pases E 7 New Haven i < i | i fd
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shown by samples below nf oS pS °
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